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 THE 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 MERCHANDISE. 
 
 ( 
 
 I 
 
DICTIONA 
 
 iilercibattlitse, 
 
 AND 
 
 NOMENCLATURE 
 
 IN ALL LANGUAGES i 
 
 FOR 
 
 THE USE OF COUNTING-HOUSES: 
 
 CONTAINING, 
 
 THE HISTORY, PLACES OF GROWTH, CULTURE, USE, AND 
 MARKS OF EXCELLENCY, 
 
 OF SUCH NATURAL PRODUCTIONS, AS FORM 
 
 ARTICLES OF COMMERCE; 
 
 WITH 
 
 THEIR NAMES IN ALL EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 PRINTED AND SOLD BY JAMES HUMPHREYS, 
 
 At the Corner of Second and Walnut- streets. 
 
 1805. 
 

 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE objedl of this Didtionaiy is, to give 
 an account of the origin, places of growth, 
 culture, use, and the marks by which the ex- 
 cellency may be ascertained, of those principal 
 productions of nature, which form materials for 
 commerce; some of these in their original raw 
 state, as spices, seeds, corn, woods, fruit, &c. 
 others after having received a new form from 
 human art, as metals, oils, spirits, ashes, salts, 
 flax, &c. But such articles of trade, as have 
 undergone a still further change, to make them 
 fit for use, and which are comprehended under 
 the general denomination of manufaftures, as 
 cloths, callicoes, muslins, hardware, earthen- 
 ware, glass, &c. are excluded from the present 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 work, as being objedls not so universally inte- 
 resting, and requiring by themselves a Didion- 
 ary of much larger volume than this. 
 
 The extent of this undertaking, is such, that 
 no man has opportunity or ability, to get tho- 
 roughly acquainted with every material of traf- 
 fic, so as to describe it from his own experience. 
 But the author having been in . business for a 
 number of years, and during his travels in most 
 parts of Europe, made it his study, to inquire 
 into the nature of merchandise, flatters himself, 
 to have given from his own observations, a more 
 true and full account of many articles, than, 
 there was ever published before. 
 
 This publication, the author presumes, will 
 be one of the most useful and necessary works 
 of a counting house library, and though princi- 
 pally written for the merchant he conceives, it 
 will be of service to every man of business or 
 curiosity. 
 
 Every man in some degree is a merchant, in 
 so far, as he has something to buy or to sell; 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Vll 
 
 / 
 
 and it may be interesting for him to acquire a 
 knowledge of the nature of his commodity. 
 
 To render this book the more useful for the 
 foreign merchant the names in the twelve most 
 current languages, have been prefixed to every 
 article of importance, viz. 
 
 The letter F. stands for French 
 
 G German 
 
 D Dutch 
 
 I Italian 
 
 S.... Spanish 
 
 P Portuguese 
 
 DA .'Danish 
 
 SW Swedish 
 
 POL Polish 
 
 R Russian 
 
 L Latin. 
 
THE 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 iSlercijantifee. 
 
 ACACIA. 
 
 S. Acacia ajerdadera^ 6 de 
 L 8^ ante, 
 
 P. Acacia, 
 
 L. Acaciae succus, 
 
 A n inspissated juice, obtained by pressure, from the 
 kernels of the pods of the Acacia vera, a thorn-shrub 
 growing in Egypt and Arabia. It is of a tan colour, smooth, 
 shining, and of a disagreeable taste; and comes to us from 
 the Levant, made up in round balls, covered with fine blad- 
 ders. 
 
 The German Acacia, being nothing more, than the juice 
 of unripe sloes, boiled to a solid consistence, and put up in 
 bladders, is frequently sold for the true Acacia. This im- 
 B 
 
 F. Sue d"* Acacia, 
 
 G. Acaciensaft, 
 
 I. Acacia. 
 
10 
 
 position may easily be distinguished, by the colour of the 
 German Acacia, which is as black as Spanish liquorice. 
 
 ACAJOU NUTS. 
 
 F. Noix d' Acajou. 
 
 G. Akajunuue. 
 
 Come from Jamaica, and other islands in tlie West Indies 
 about the same latitude. 
 
 The Acajou tree, anacardium, in a good soil, spreads to 
 the size of an English walnut tree, which it much resembles, 
 in the shape and smell of the leaves. It produces a large 
 fruit like a pear, but the great end towards the stalk. At 
 the small end of the fruit, it brings forth a nut, resembling 
 a kidney, about the bigness of a walnut. The outer shell 
 of this nut is of an ash colour, and very smooth ; under, this 
 is another, which covers the kernel ; between these lays a 
 viscid, inflammable oil, of a reddish colour, extremely acrid, 
 bitter, and caustic, which has been used with great success, 
 in eating off cancerous ulcers, &c. The kernel when fresh 
 gathered, has a most delicious 'taste, and abounds with a 
 sweet milky juice. It is likewise an ingredient in puddings, 
 and other agreeable preparations. When somewhat older, 
 it is generally roasted. Ground with cocoa, it makes an ex- 
 cellent chocolate. When kept too long, the kernel becomes 
 shrivelled, and loses its flavour and best qualities. 
 
 The Acajou tree' annually transudes, from five, often to 
 ten or twelve pounds, of a fine semi-transparent gum, simi- 
 lar to gum Arabic, and little inferior to it in virtue. From 
 this tree is also procured, by incision, a milky juice, which 
 stains linen of a lasting deep black. 
 
 AGARIC.' 
 
 F. Agaric. 
 
 G. Ldrchensch-JO'afnm. 
 
 L. Agaric us. 
 
 This is a kind of fungous excrescence, growing on the 
 trunks and large branches of several trees, particularly the 
 
11 
 
 larch tree, in Muscovy and Tartary ; though an inferior sort 
 also grows on the Alps, the mountains of Dauphine, ai)d the 
 Trentine. 
 
 The best Agaric ought to be large, white and loose ; of 
 taste, first sweet and then bitterish. This article was for- 
 merly much esteemed in pharmacy and physic. 
 
 There is also a rough, yellowish, and woody kind of Aga- 
 ric, used in dying. 
 
 AGATE. 
 
 DA. Agat. 
 SW. Agat. 
 POL. Agat* 
 R. Agat. 
 
 L. Agates, 
 
 F. Agate. 
 
 G. Achat. 
 D. Achaat, 
 I. Agat a, 
 S. A gat a. 
 
 P. Aagata, 
 
 This is a precious stone, differently denominated, accord- 
 ing to its different colours ; some being transparent, some 
 opaque ; and some partly transparent, and partly opaque. 
 
 The Sardian Agates are red, and the most valuable of that 
 kind are the flesh coloured, mixed with brown ; the less 
 valuable are those, whose red borders upon a yellow. 
 
 The onyx is entirely opaque, and of a whitish and black 
 colour. 
 
 The sardonyx participates of the nature of the onyx and 
 Sardian, and is the most precious of all kinds of Agates. 
 
 The Egyptian Agate is very hard *, red, and intermixed 
 with white and blue. That which resembles a rainbow, is 
 the^most valuable kind. 
 
 The Chalcedonic Agates are half transparent, of a rose 
 colour, and clouded. There are some also white, but these 
 are scarce. 
 
 The Roman Agate is of various colours. In Germany, 
 Agates are to be found ; in Saxony, Bohemia, and the 
 county of Leuchtenberg. 
 
 The Agate is used for making beads, rings, seals, handles 
 for knives and forks, hilts for swords, snuff-boxes, and abun- 
 dance of toys. 
 
12 
 
 AGNUS-CASTUS SEED. 
 
 F, Petit poicre, 
 
 G. Keuschlammsamen i Schafmul- 
 
 len. 
 
 .D. Kuischboomzaad, 
 
 I. Semenza agnocasto* 
 
 S. Pimiento loco, Snuzgatillo. 
 P. Samente de agnocasto, 
 
 DA. jlgniis-castus fr'oe^ 
 
 SW. Agnus-castus fro, 
 
 L. Agni-casti semen » 
 
 Agnus castus seed, is the fruit of a shrub of that name, 
 growing sometimes to the size of a middling tree, a native 
 of most warm climates. It delights in the banks of rivers, 
 and other marshy soils. Its leaves resemble those of the olive 
 tree, but are much softer and longer. Its blossoms are odo- 
 riferous, of a purple colour, and sometimes white ; these are 
 succeeded by seeds, which are first of a white, and at last of 
 a dark red colour, something similar to coriander seed. 
 They are of a sharp aromatic taste, and the best ought to be 
 new, large, and plump. 
 
 This seed is chiefly used in venereal complaints. 
 
 ALABASTER. 
 
 F. Allaire. 
 
 G. Alabaster, 
 D. Alabaster, 
 1. Alahastre. 
 S. Alab astro, 
 P. Alab astro. 
 
 DA. Alabaster. 
 SW. Alabaster. 
 POL. Alabaster. 
 R. A lab as tr. 
 
 L. Alabastrites. 
 
 Alabaster is a kind of stone, softer than marble, and more 
 easily worked. Its colours are yarious, but the white is the 
 most beautiful. Some sorts are extremely white and shi- 
 ning ; some red, like coral ; some of a dark horny colour, re- 
 sembling onyx \ and aitother sort of a yellowish colour, like 
 honey, variegated with specks and little veins. 
 
 This stone is found in the greatest quantities in Saxony 
 at Nordhausen, in some p^ts of Lorrain, at Clugny in 
 France, about Rome in Italy, in various places of Sicily and 
 Egypt, &c. for which see the article Marble. But the most 
 valuable sort is produced at Montaia, in the Papal territories, 
 where the Alabaster is in the highest esteem, for its beautiful 
 whiteness, and admirable magnitude. 
 
13 
 
 Alabaster is principally used by statuaries, also for making 
 various toys and utensils. 
 
 ALE 
 
 Is a fermented liquor, obtained from an infusion of malt, 
 and differing only from beer, by having a smaller proportion 
 of hops. 
 
 Ale is thought the same kind of liquor with the cerevisia, 
 zythum, and curmi of the ancients. 
 
 There are several sorts of ale, prepared in different ways. 
 Pale ale is brewed of malt, slightly dried, and is esteemed 
 more viscid, than brown ale, which is made of malt more 
 highly dried or roasted. 
 
 \ ALMONDS. 
 
 F. Amandes, 
 
 G. Mandeln, 
 
 D. Amandelen, 
 
 I. Mandohy Mandorle, 
 S. Almendras. 
 
 P. Amendoas, 
 
 DA. Mandler. 
 SW. Mandlar, 
 POL. Migdal. 
 R. Mi tidal. 
 
 L. Amygdala. 
 
 Almonds are the fruit of the Amygdalus communis, a tree 
 or shrub growing to the height of near twenty feet. It much 
 resembles a peach tree, is a native of Africa, but very com- 
 mon now in all the southern parts of France, Spain, and 
 Italy. 
 
 There are two kinds of Almonds, sweet and bitter. The 
 greatest quantity of both sorts, is collected in Syria, Barbary, 
 Turkey, Spain, Italy, the island of Cyprus, and France. 
 In the kingdom of Naples, Almonds abound in the territories 
 of Bari, Lecce, and the Abruzzo ; but the best come from 
 Bari. In Sicily, the principal loading places for Almonds 
 are, Palma, Girgenti, Mascari, Catanea, &c. They give 
 the preference to those of Mascari. The Almonds are ga- 
 thered about the end of August, and in September ; but 
 they cannot be shipped until the middle of 0(Stober, as it re- 
 quires time to take off the shells and to dry them. 
 
 In the trade of this country, three sorts of Almonds are 
 distinguished ; small Barbary ; long Jordan ; and short, 
 
14 . 
 
 broad, Spanish or Valencia Almonds. This fruit, to be good, 
 ought to be of a fresh yellow colour, large, of a line flavour, 
 and as little broken as possible. 
 
 Almonds make a very considerable part of the French trade, 
 as well on account of the oils extracted from them, as on ac- 
 count of the prodigious consumption of this fruit in lent. 
 
 In medicine, Almonds are chiefly used for making emul- 
 sions. 
 
 ALOE; 
 
 DA. Aloe, 
 SW. Alee, 
 R. Sabir, 
 
 POL. Aloes i Aloa. 
 L. Alu, 
 
 S. Aloe, Aabar, 
 
 P. Aloes, Axe'vre. 
 
 Of this genus of plants there are ten species, whereof the 
 most current are : 
 
 The Aloe perfoliata or Aloe succotrina, or socotorina, 
 brought from the island Socotora in the Indian ocean, wrapt 
 in skins. It is the inspissated juice of the Asiatic Aloe, pre- 
 pared in the following manner. From the leaves fresh pull- 
 ed, is pressed a juice, the thinner and purer part of which 
 is poured oflf, and set in the sun, to evaporate to a hard yel- 
 lowish substance. This sort is the purest of those, which we 
 shall enumerate. It is of a glossy surface, clear, and in some 
 degree pellucid ; in the lump, of a yellowish red colour with 
 a purple cast ; when reduced to powder of a bright golden 
 colour. It is hard and friable in the winter, somewhat plia- 
 able in summer, and grows soft betwixt the fingers. Its 
 taste is bitter, accompanied with an aromatic flavour, but in- 
 sufficient to prevent its being disagreeable. The smell is 
 not very unpleasant, and somewhat resembles that of myrrh. 
 
 The Succotrine Aloe plant has long narrow succulent 
 leaves, which come out without any order, and form large 
 heads. The stalks grow to the height of three or four feet, 
 and have two, three, and sometimes four of these heads 
 branching out. The lower leaves spread on every side, but 
 the upper leaves turn Inward towards the center. The flow- 
 ers grow in long spikes, upon stalks about two feet high, 
 
15 
 
 each standing upon a pretty long foot stalk ; they are of a 
 bright red colour, tipt with green. 
 
 The Aloe hepatica, Barbadoes, or common Aloe, called 
 hepatic, on account of its liver colour, is not so clear and 
 bright as the foregoing sort ; it is also of a more compadl 
 texture and generally drier. Its smell is much stronger and 
 more disagreeable, the taste intensely bitter, with little or 
 nothing of the fine, aromatic flavour of the Socotorine. The 
 best hepatic Aloes come from Turkey. This species also 
 grow in Barbadoes and Jamaica, from whence the better 
 quality is imported in large gourd shells ; and an inferior 
 sort of it, generally soft and clammy, in casks. This sort 
 of Aloe is said to be common also in the other West India 
 islands. 
 
 Aloe cahallina, ‘fetid, caballine, or horse Aloe, is supposed 
 to be obtained from the same species with the foregoing ; 
 but being the thicker part prepared in a different manner. 
 It is chiefly distinguished by its strong rank smell, and used 
 as a purge for horses. 
 
 The followdng is the method of preparing Aloes in Ja- 
 maica. When they are grown into a perfect state, the la- 
 bourers go into the field with tubs and knives, and cut off* the 
 largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk ; these are 
 immediately placed in the tubs, and ranged one by the side 
 of another, in an upright position, v/ith the cut-part down- 
 wards, that all the loose liquor may dribble out at the wound. 
 Some make also a longitudinal incision from top to bottom, 
 to facilitate the discharge. When the juice has been by this 
 means sufficiently extracted, it is put into shallow flat-bot- 
 tomed receivers, and gradually exhaled in the sun, till it has 
 acquired a due consistence, and thus prepared, it is packed 
 in large dry gourds for exportation. 
 
 The method of preparing the common or horse Aloes, is 
 not so tedious -, for in manufadluring these, all the leaves 
 are cut oft, severed into junks, and thrown into the tubs, 
 there to lie, till the juice is pretty well drained out ; they 
 are then hand-squeezed, and the liquor mixed with water, 
 in the proportion of about one quart to ten quarts of juice ; 
 after which it is put into convenient boilers, and evaporated 
 to a due consistence, when it is emptied into large shallow 
 coolers, and afterwards into small barrels. 
 
 As the drossy resinous part of the Aloes is not soluble in 
 water, it has been found, v/hen combined with other mix- 
 
 \ 
 
16 
 
 tures, an excellent preservative to ships bottoms against the 
 worm, on account of its bitter nauseous acrimony. Fi^m 
 the American Aloe a vegetable soap is prepared in Jamaica, 
 which will serve for use in washing linen as well as Castile 
 soap ; but it has the superior quality of mixing and forming 
 a lather with salt water, as well as fresh. 
 
 All the different kinds of Aloes are gum-resins, with more 
 gummous than resinous parts j they are used in medieine as 
 a stimulating stomachic purge, 
 
 ALOE-WOOD. 
 
 F. Bois d' Aloes, 
 
 G. Aloeholz, 
 
 D. Alcehout, 
 
 I. Legno dt Aloe. 
 S. Aloe Chino, 
 
 P. Pdo de Aloes, 
 
 DA. Aloetrcee. 
 
 SW. Aloetr'dd, 
 
 POL. Aloe drze^wko, 
 R. Aloe derenjoo 
 L. Lignum Aloes. 
 
 The Aloe wood is the produft of the Exccecaria agalloca, 
 a tree growing in China, and some of the Indian islands. 
 There are three sorts j the calambac or tambac, the common 
 Aloe wood, and the calambour. 
 
 The calambac, or finest Aloe wood, called by authors lig- 
 num Aloes praestantissimum ; is of a light spongy texture, 
 very porous, and its pores so filled up with a soft and fragrant 
 resin, that the whole may be pressed and dented by the fin- 
 gers like wax, or moulded about by chewing in the mouth, 
 in the manner of mastich. Its scent is very fragrant and 
 agreeable, and its taste acrid and bitterish, but very aroma- 
 tic and pleasant. It is very variable in its colour ; some va- 
 riegated with black and purple; some with black and yellow, 
 and some yellow alone, like the yolk of an egg. 
 
 The common Aloe wood, or lignum Aloes vulgare, is thq 
 second in value. This is of a more dense and compact tex- 
 ture, and consequently less resinous than the other. We 
 meet with it in small fragments, of a dusky brown colour, 
 variegated with resinous black veins. Its smell is very agree- 
 able, but not so strongly perfumed as the former sort. Its 
 taste is somewhat bitter and acrid, but very aromatic. 
 
 ‘ The calambour, called also agallochum sylvestre, and lig- 
 num Aloes Mexicanum, is light and friabl^, of a dusky and 
 
17 
 
 often mottled colour, between a dusky green black, and a 
 deep brown. Its smell is fragrant and agreeable, but much 
 less sweet, than either of the two other sorts ; and its taste 
 bitterish, but not so much acrid or aromatic as the fine 
 or common Aloe wood. It is said to be met with very 
 frequently, and in large logs. This is the Aioe-wood 
 used by the cabinet makers and in-layers. 
 
 The two first sorts of these Aloes are used in medicine, 
 as a cordial. A very fragrant oil may be procured from 
 them, by distillation, recommended in paralytic cases. 
 
 It is the opinion of most, that these three sorts of Aloe- 
 wood, are produced by one tree, the calambac or tambac 
 being the heart of the trunk. 
 
 )(^UlFOU, POTTER’S ORE. 
 
 F. Jirquifou, 
 
 G. Bleyglanz, 
 D. Locciglans. 
 I, ArcBfoglio. 
 
 S. Jl'qiiifol. 
 
 P, Arquifolhol 
 R. Kiib{kc<vjataia, 
 L. GuUna, 
 
 This is a sort of lead ore, which, when broken, looks 
 like Antimony. It is used by the potters, to give a green 
 varnish to their works, and thence it is called Potter’s ore. 
 It is met with in Cornwall, &c. 
 
 ALUM. 
 
 F. Aluriy Alum* 
 
 G. Alaun, 
 
 D. A lain. 
 
 I. A Hume. 
 
 S. Alu?nkre. 
 
 P. Pedra hume. 
 
 DA. Alurii Aluun, Allun, 
 SW. Alun. 
 
 1^0 L. Hulun, 
 
 R. K--wu\.%u. 
 
 L, Aiurnsn. 
 
 Alum is an astringent salt, the copaponent principles of 
 which are, argillaceous earth, supersaturated with vitriolic 
 acid ; it also contains a considerable quantity of water. 
 The proportions of these constituent principles may be 
 ascertained as follows : first, the water and superfluous 
 vitriolic acid may be dissipated by evaporation, or rather 
 C 
 
18 
 
 distillation ; and the loss of weight sustained by the 
 salt, as v/ell as the quantity of liquid which comes over 
 into the receiver, shows the quantity of aqueous phlegm 
 and unsaturated acid j then, by combining this with as 
 niucii caustic fixed alkali, as is sufficient to saturate the 
 acid, which comes over, we know its proportion to the 
 water ; and by redistilling this new compound, we have 
 the w’ater by itself. Lastly, the earth may be obtained, 
 by precipitation with an alkali in its caustic state, either 
 fixed or volatile. Alum analysed in this manner, was 
 found to contain thirty-eight parts of vitriolic acid, eigh- 
 teen of c4ay, and forty-four of water. 
 
 Our Alum v/as certainly not known to the Greeks or 
 Romans, and what the latter called alumen, was an im- 
 pure vitriol. The Alum used at present, was first disco- 
 vered in the oriental parts of the world. Though the pe- 
 riod of the invention cannot be exadlly fixed, it seems 
 certain, that it was later than the twelfth century. One 
 of the most ancient Alum-wmrks, of which we have any 
 account, was that of the Roccha, now Eclessa, a city of 
 Syria ; and from this city was derived the appellation of 
 Roch-alum ; ‘an expression so little understood by the ge- 
 nerality, that it has been supposed to signify Rock-alum. 
 At present every fine kind of Alum, and particularly the 
 purest Roman Alum goes under the denomination of Roch 
 Alum. From this, and from works in the neighbourhood 
 of Constantinople, as well as at Phocaea Nova, now Foya 
 Nova, near Smyrna, the Italians were supplied till the 
 middle of the fifteenth century, when they began to set 
 up works of a similar kind in their own country. The 
 first Italian Alum- work is said to have been established in 
 the island of Ischia about 1482, by Bartholomew Per- 
 dix, or Pernix, a Genoese merchant, who had discovered 
 the proper matrix, or ore of Alum. But some affirm, 
 that as early as the year 1458, the Alum-work at Vol- 
 terra, in the distri(h: of Pisa, had been eredfed by a Ge- 
 noese, named Antonius. Soon after, viz. about the year 
 1460 or 1465, Alum ore was discovered at Tolfa, in the 
 territories of the church, by John de Castro, who had 
 visited the Alum manufaftories at Constantinople. Having 
 observed the Ilex aquifolium to grow in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Turkish manufactories, and finding the same 
 near Tolfa, he concluded that the materials for Alum, 
 
V 
 
 19 
 
 were to be found there also ; and was quickly confirmed 
 in his suspicion, by the taste of the stones in the neigh- 
 bourhood. These Ahim-works prospered exceedingly, 
 and their success was augmented by an edi^d; of Pope Pius 
 II. prohibiting the use of foreign Alum. — In the sixteenth 
 century, an Alum manufactory was erected at Aiainaron, 
 in the neighbourhood of Carthagena, where it still con- 
 tinues. Several others were erected in Germany. The 
 preparation of this salt, was not known in Sweden, till 
 the seventeenth century. 
 
 The first Alum-work in England, was erected at Glsbo- 
 rough in Yorkshire, in the reign of Oueen Elizabeth. Sir 
 Thomas Chaloner observing the trees tinged with an un- 
 usual colour, made him suspicious of its being owing to 
 some mineral in the neighbourhood. Pie found out, that 
 the strata abounded with an aluminous salt. Upon this, 
 he privately engaged workmen belonging to the Pope’s 
 Alum-works, and in a little time the undertaking suc- 
 ceeded so well, that several more were establislied ; and 
 in later times the proprietors of the British J\lmn-works 
 went so far, as even to farm those of the Apostolic cham- 
 ber. 
 
 The ores^from which Alum is prepared for sale, are of 
 two kinds; one containing the Alum already formed, the 
 other only its principles, which then are united by roast- 
 ing. The former is only to be met with in volcanic coun- 
 tries, and of this kind are the principal Italian ores of 
 Alum, particularly that employed at Tolfa near Cincelles, 
 for boiling the Roman Alum. The Aluminous ore at Sol- 
 fatara in Italy, consists of old lava, whitened by the phlo- 
 gisticated vitriolic acid. A variety of aluminous ores are 
 to be met with in different other parts of the world. In 
 Hessia and Bohemia, this salt is obtained from wood im- 
 pregnated with bitumen. At Plelsingborg in Scania, a 
 turf is found, consisting of the roots of vegetables, mixed 
 with nuts, straw, and leaves, often covered with a thin 
 pyritous cuticle, which v/ben elixated, yields Alum. Even 
 the sulphureous pyrites, is generally mixed with an argil- 
 laceous matter, which may be separated by menstrua. In 
 some places, sulphur, vitriol, and Alum, are extra<5l;ed 
 from the same material. The sulphur rises by distillation; 
 the residuum is exposed to the air till it efiloresces, upon 
 which a green vitriol is obtained by lixiviation; and Alum 
 
'20 
 
 \ 
 
 from the same liquor, after no more vitriol will crystallize. 
 The Aiam slate, from which this salt is made near York 
 in Engiand, contains a considerable quantity of Sulphur ; 
 and there.ore produces Alum on the principles already 
 mentioned. 
 
 'Ene process which the Alum ores must undergo, to ex- 
 tract thill sL’lt, are: roasting, elixating, and boiling the 
 le f:>r crys..!'iizailon. 
 
 Tne R.ynsti’}g is aoso'.utely necessary, in order to destroy 
 the pyrites, or metallized sulphur ; for on this the forma- 
 tion of the Alum entirely depends; as the splphur of the 
 pvrites will net part with its phlogiston, without a burn- 
 i.'g heat in the open air. The roasting is performed in 
 Sweden, in tlie following manner. Small pieces of the 
 ore are strewed upon a layer of burning sticks, to the 
 t hickness of half a foot. VvTen the sticks are consumed, 
 the c a:e covered nearly to the same thickness, with pieces 
 burnt before, and four times lixiviated. Thus, strata are 
 alrernately laid, of such a thickness, and at such intervals 
 of time, that the fire may continue, and the whole mass 
 grow hot and smoke, but not break out into flame. When 
 the ore is once roasted, it still contains so much phlogis- 
 ton, that water acts but little upon it, but after the ope- 
 ration is two or three times repeated, the ore yields its 
 principles more freely, the roascing may even be repeated 
 to advantage, till the whole be reduced to powder. The 
 bitumen keeps up the fire ; for which reason alternate 
 layers of the crude ere are used, and in rainy weather, 
 these layers of unburnt ore should be thicker. 
 
 The Elixation is performed, in some places w'itli hot, 
 and at others with cold w’ater. In some places the w'ater 
 passes over the schist, which has been washed three times, 
 ior six hours; then that which has been twice washed, 
 next what has been once washed, and lastly the ore which 
 has been newly roasted. 
 
 ^ The lixivium befoie boiling, ought to be as richly im- 
 pregnated with Alum as possible, i:i order to save fuel, 
 in some pieces the taste is used, as the only criterion ; 
 but in others the weight of water which fills a small glass 
 bottle, is divided into sixty-four equal parts, each of which 
 is called in Sweden a panning; and the quantity by w'hicli 
 the same bottle, full of lixivium, exceeds it when filled 
 wuth water, indicates the quantity of salt dissolved. It is 
 
21 
 
 thoueht, that the weight of the lixivium, ought not to 
 exceed the weight of the water, more than four and a 
 half pannings. 
 
 EOILIN'3 THE LEY FOR CRYSTALLIZATION. 
 
 The ley is brought from the pits, and put into a leaden 
 boiler, at the back of which is a reservoir, cut of which 
 the loss sustained by evaporation is constantly supplied. 
 The boiling is supposed to be finished, if the increase of 
 weight be equal to twenty pannings. The ley then flows 
 through proper ehannels into coolers, where it is allowed 
 to rest for about an hour, to free itself from the grosser 
 sediment ; after which it is put into wooden or stone re- 
 ceptacles to crystallize. In eight or ten days, the remain- 
 ing liquor, commonly called mother ley, or magistral 
 water, is let off into another vessel. A great number of 
 crystals, generally small and impure, adhere to the bottom 
 and sides of the vessel, which are afterwards collecled and 
 washed in cold water. 
 
 When a sufficient quantity of the small crystals is col- 
 ledfed, they must then be put into the boiler, for depura- 
 tion. They are now dissolved in as small a quantity of 
 water as possible ; after which the lixivium is poured into 
 a great tub, containing as much as the boiler itself. In 
 sixteen or eighteen days the hoops of the tub ?re loosed, 
 and the aluminous mass bound with an iron ring; and in 
 twenty-eight days more, the residuum of the solution is let 
 out through a hole, and collefled in a trench*, after which 
 the saline mass is dried, and sold as depurated Alum.— 
 The boiler, emptied for the first crystallization, is next 
 filled two thirds full, with the magistral lixivium ; and as 
 soon as the liquor arrives at the boiling point, the other, 
 third is filled with crude lixivium, with which the evapo- 
 ration is also constantly supplied. A certain, quantity of the 
 aluminous impurities, left by washing the salts of the first 
 crystallization in water, is then added, and the above de- 
 scribed process repeated. Only the first boiling in the 
 spring, is performed with the crude lixivium alone, the 
 ‘ rest are all done, as just now related. 
 
 It is remarkable, that pure Alum cannot be obtained in 
 very considerable quantity, by merely evaporating and 
 cooling the ley ; and the lixivium sometimes aeg^uires such 
 
22 
 
 a consistence, that it both crystallizes with difficulty and 
 produces impure crystals. This proceeds from an ex- 
 cess of vitriolic acid, which impedes the crystallization. 
 This excess can be removed, by the addition of vegetable 
 and volatile alkalis, but experiments have proved, that 
 the addition of clay is preferable. 
 
 Alum, as commonly made, though depurated by a 
 second crystallization, yet is almost always found conta- 
 minated by dephlogisticated vitriol ; whence it grows yel- 
 low, and deposits an ochre in solution, when old. This is 
 equally useful in some arts, with the purest kind, and is 
 even so in dying, where dark colours are wanted ; but 
 where the more lively colours are required, every thing 
 vitriolic must be avoided. This is done by the addition of 
 pure clay, which precipitates the iron, and produces an 
 Alum entirely void of any noxious or heterogeneous mat- 
 ter. 
 
 By M. Chaptal, formerly of the Royal Society of Mont- 
 pelier, weare furnishedwith a method of preparingAlum,by 
 the direct combination of its constituent principles. Alum, 
 says he, being produced by the combination of the vitriolic 
 acidwith pure clay, all the known processes of the Alum ma- 
 nufactories, consist, in facilitating the combination of the 
 mixture, by exposing it to a moderate heat. Vitriolic acid is 
 only a mixture of water with the vapour produced by the 
 combustion of saltpetre and sulphur, let us therefore expose 
 the clay to the aftion of this vapour : the effecls of the 
 acids in a state of vapour, must be infinitely greater, than 
 when in a liquid state. Upon this principle, he esta- 
 blished a large inanufaclory. Rooms lined with lead, are 
 very proper for the purpose of burning the mixture of sul- 
 phur and saltpetre, the vapours of vitriolic acid having 
 very little action upon lead. But lead is heavy and ex- 
 pensive. He therefore substituted a cement, consisting of 
 equal parts of resin, turpentine, and wax. A white and 
 pure clay is then to he chosen, which in order to ‘dispose 
 it to combine with the vitriolic acid, must first be calcined, 
 then reduced to powder, and in that state exposed to the 
 vapour of sulphur and saltpetre, by placing a layer of it 
 upon the fioor. At the end of some days, like incrusta- 
 tions, and sometimes even crystals of pure Alum are per- 
 ceived upon it, and wlien an efflorescence is formed, all 
 over the clay, it Is taken out of the room, and then lixH 
 yiated in the usual way. 
 
By forming proper partitions at the bottom of similar 
 rooms, iron, clay, copper, and water, may be exposed to 
 the vapour, and consequently vitriol of iron, of copper, 
 and of alumine, and vitriolic acid, made at the same time. 
 
 The different kinds of Alum differ from one another, 
 merely by being mixed with some heterogeneous salts. 
 
 The Roman Alum is generally considered preferable to 
 any other, and is usually met with in small crystals of a 
 reddish colour. Large quantities of Alum from Whitby 
 are annually exported from Great Britain. The best 
 British Alum produced in the hills of Yorkshire and Lan- 
 cashire, is extremely white, clear, and transparent, and 
 of an acid taste, leaving in the mouth a sense of sweet- 
 ness, accompanied with a considerable degree of astrin- 
 gency. Roman Alum is also of an acid, but disagreeable 
 taste. Alum of Liege and Meziers is much of the same 
 quality as that of Yorkshire, only flatter, and conse- 
 quently less proper for dyers. 
 
 This salt is of important use, as a dying material, as by 
 means of it, a great number of colours are fixed and ren- 
 dered permanent upon cloth. It also constitutes the basis 
 of crayons. Mixed with tallow, it gives it a hardness and 
 consistence, and is therefore of use in the making of can- 
 dles. In tanning, it assists to close the pores, and to re- 
 store the cohesion of skins, almost entirely destroyed by 
 the lime. It also, though to the great detriment of the 
 health of mankind, Is used by vintners to fine down and 
 to sweeten their sour wines. Fishermen use Alum, for 
 the drying of their codfish, and bakers mix it with the 
 flour, to make their bread compa(ft and white. In medi- 
 ©ine it is used externally. 
 
 AMADOW. 
 
 F. j^madcu. 
 
 G. Zunderschvja?nm. 
 
 A kind of tinder or touchwood, coming from Germany. 
 It is made of a kind of mushrooms, or spongy excres- 
 cences, ‘which commonly grow on old trees. This sub- 
 stance is boiled in common water, and afterwards dried, 
 and well beaten, then put in a strong lye, prepared with 
 saltpetre ; after which it is again put to dry in an oven. 
 
AMBER. 
 
 F. J^mhre jaune, Succin. 
 
 G. Bernstein. 
 
 D. Barn teen. 
 
 ] . Ambra gialla, o ghiacciata. 
 S. Atnbar. 
 
 P. AtnbaTf Amhre, Ahunbre. 
 
 D.4. Bernsfeen, Bav. 
 SW. Bernstefiy Raf. 
 POL. Bur.ztjn. 
 
 R. 'Jantar. 
 
 L. Succinunti Ele5lrum. 
 
 This is a pellucid and very hard inflammable substance, 
 of one uniform strudlure, a bituminous taste, very fra- 
 grant smell, and highly electric. 
 
 The generality of authors contend for this substance 
 being a bitumen, which trickling into the sea from some 
 subterraneous sources, and then mixing with the vitriolic 
 salts, that abound in those parts, becomes congealed 
 and fixed. However, as good Amber is found by dig- 
 ging a great distance from the sea, it is probable that it is 
 a bitumen of the naphta or petroleum kind, hardened 
 into its present state by a vitriolic acid, or oil of vitriol. 
 
 The natural colour of Amber is a fine pale yellow, but 
 it is often made white, and sometimes black ; in both 
 cases, it is rendered opaque, by the admixture of extra- 
 neous bodies. The most frequent variation, however, 
 from the yellow, is into a dusky brown. Sometimes it is 
 tinged with metalline particles, and remains pellucid. 
 
 The salt, oil, and tincture of Amber, have been va- 
 riously applied in medicine ; but its mechanical use for 
 toys, beads, cabinets, and utensils, and the better sorts 
 of varnishes, are of more importance. 
 
 This substance is principally to be met with on the sea 
 coasts of Prussia. The river Giaretta in Sicily, formerly 
 called Simetus, v/hich takes its rise on the north side of 
 Mount Etna, throws up near its mouth, great quantities 
 of fine Amber, some of which is more ele(51:ric, and emits 
 a stronger smeli, than vvhat is coming from the Baltic. 
 
 Some pieces of this Amber contain flies and other in- 
 sects, curiously preserved. It is generally supposed to is- 
 sue from the earth in a liquid state, at whicii time the 
 insedls that alight upon it, are caught, and by their strug- 
 gle to get loose, soon work themselves into its substance; 
 which hardening round them, they are for ever preserved 
 in the greatest perfeflion. Large fine pieces arc con- 
 
25 
 
 stantly found at the mouth of the Simetus, supposed to 
 have been brought down by the river but it is singular, 
 that none of it is ever found any where, but on the sea 
 shore. This Amber, at Catanea, is manufactured into 
 beads, saints, crosses, &c. 
 
 AMBER-GREASE, ‘AMBER-GRISE, or GREY 
 AMBER •, 
 
 F. Amhregris, 
 
 G. Amber. 
 
 Db Amber t Amhergrys* 
 I. Ambra-grigia, 
 
 S. Ambar~gris. 
 
 P. Ambar-gris% 
 
 DA. Amhra. 
 
 SW. Ambreit gra A?nbra. 
 R. Ambra. 
 
 POL. A}7ihra, 
 
 L. Ambrdy Amlra grisea. 
 
 Ambergrease is a solid, opake, generally ash coloured, 
 fatty, inflammable substance, variegated like marble, re^ 
 markably light, rugged and uneven in its surface, and 
 has a fragrant odour when heated. It does not effervesce 
 with acids, melts freely over the fire into a kind of yellow 
 rosin, and is hardly soluble in spirits of wine. 
 
 It is found on the sea coasts, or swimming on the sea, 
 or In the abdomen of whales, in various shapes and sizes, 
 weighing from half an ounce to upwards of one hundred 
 pounds. 
 
 By Dr. Swediar’s account of this substance, in the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions, it appears, that the persons em- 
 ployed in the whale fishery observe, that whenever they 
 hook a spermaceti whale, it constantly not only vomits 
 whatever it has in its stomach, but also generally dis- 
 charges its ftcces at the same time : and if this latter cir- 
 cumstance happens, they are generally disappointed in 
 finding Ambergrease In its belly. But whenever they dis- 
 cover a spermaceti whale, torpid and sickly, they are 
 always pretty sure to find Ambergrease, as the whale in 
 this state seldom voids Its faeces upon being hooked. They 
 likewise, generally meet with it in the dead spermaceti 
 whales, which they sometimes find floating on the sea. 
 
 The Ambergrease found In the abdomen of the whale, 
 is not so hard as that, which is found on the sea coast, 
 but soon grows hard in the air. When first taken out, it has 
 D 
 
23 
 
 nearly the same colour and the same disagreeable smelf, 
 though not so strong, as the more liquid dung of the 
 whale has : but on exposing it to the air, it by degrees 
 not only grows greyish, but also loses its disagreeable 
 smell, and when kept for a certain time, acquires that 
 particular odour, so agreeable to most people. It is known, 
 that the cuttle fish is the constant food of the spermaceti 
 -whale ; hence it is easy to aceount for the many beaks, or 
 pieces of beaks, found in all Ambergrease. Dr. Swediar 
 therefore defines Ambergrease, to be the preternaturally 
 hardened dung or faeces of the spermaceti whale, mixed 
 with some indigestible relics of its food. 
 
 'khe colours of Ambergrease vary ; there is, first, the 
 white Ambergrease, which is scarce and of little value ; 
 as it seems, either not to be ripe, or mixed with some 
 heterogeneous matter ; then, the ash coloured or true Am- 
 bergrease j afterwards the black Ambergrease, which is 
 inferior to the preceding sort, and frequently adulterated j 
 lastly, the brown Ambergrease, which has a particular, 
 unpleasant smell. It looks mostly sleek or ^ooth, as if 
 covered -wuth a skin. 
 
 Ambergrease ought to be chosen in large pieces, of an 
 agreeable odour, entirly grey on the outside, and grey 
 with little black spots within. The purchaser should be 
 extremely cautious, as this article is easily counterfeited- 
 with gums and other drugs. 
 
 Ambergrease is chiefly found in the Atlantic Ocean, 
 on the sea coast of Brasil, of the East Indies, China, Japan, 
 and the Molucca Islands. But most of the Ambergrease 
 brought to England, comes from the Bahama Islands and 
 Providence. 
 
 The use of Ambergrease is now nearly confined to per- 
 fumery; it was formerly recommended in medicine by 
 eminent physicians. In Asia and part of Africa it is alsa 
 used as a spice in cookery. 
 
 AMETHYST. 
 
 F. A^nethy.te, 
 
 ir. Ametky^r. 
 i) , A?Kcitbi si Steen-. 
 1. A natista. 
 
 S. A/neiiJo, 
 
 P. Ametisfat Ainetistc. 
 
 DA. A /net! St. 
 
 SW. A metis!. 
 
 L. Amethystus. 
 
 A gem of a purple colour, which seems composed of a 
 s'.rong blue and a deep red, and according as either of 
 
2 ? 
 
 tliose prevails, affording different tinges of purple, some- 
 times approaching to violet, and sometimes even fading to 
 a pale rose colour. 
 
 Though the Amethyst be generally of a purple colour, 
 it is nevertheless found sometimes naturally colourless, and 
 may at any time be easily made so, by putting it into the 
 fire.; in which pellucid or colourless state, it so well imi- 
 tates the diamond, that its want of hardness seems the 
 only way of distinguishing it. 
 
 The Amethyst is scarcely inferior to any of the gems 
 in the beauty of its colour ; and in its purest state is of 
 the same hardness, and at least of equal value with the 
 ruby and sapphire. It is found of various sizes, from the 
 bigness of a small vetch, to an inch and a half in diame- 
 ter, and often to much more than that, in length. 
 
 This precious stone is found in the East and West In- 
 dies, and in several parts of Europe j some of the finest 
 specimens of the oriental ones being so hard and bright, 
 as to equal any of the coloured gems in value. However, 
 by far the greater number of Amethysts fall infinitely 
 short of these, as all the European ones, and not a few of 
 those brought from the East and West Indies, are very 
 little harder fhan common crystal. 
 
 Counterfeit Amethysts come from France and Germany. 
 They are spars and crystals, and even tinged glass. 
 
 AMIANTHUS, or EARTH FLAX. 
 
 A fibrous flexile, elastic, mineral substance, consisting 
 of short, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It is found 
 in Germany, in the strata of iron ore, sometimes forming 
 veins of an inch in diameter ; also in Crete and Cyprus, 
 in Tartary, Namur in the low countries, in the old Nori- 
 cum, in Egypt, in the mountains of Arcadia, at Puteoli 
 in Corsica, Anglesey in Wales, Aberdeenshire in Scot- 
 land, at Montauban in France, and in Siberia. 
 
 The Amianthus may be split into threads and filaments, 
 from one to ten inches in length, very fine, brittle yet 
 somewhat traftable, silky, and of a greyish colour. The 
 industry of mankind has found the paethod of employing 
 
28 
 
 this untoward metal for the manufacture of a kind of linen, 
 called Asbestos, It has the wonderful quality of being un- 
 consumable in fire, which only serves to whiten it. The 
 shorter filaments of the Amianthus, that separate in the 
 washing of the stone, are used for making paper. 
 
 The method of making Asbestos, is now entirely un- 
 known : but Bapt. Porta assures us, that in his time, the 
 spinning of Asbestos was a thing known to every one at 
 Venice. This kind of linen was chiefly esteemed among 
 the ancients, bping held equally precious with the richest 
 pearls. 
 
 AMMEOS SEED, TRUE AMOMUM. 
 
 F. Sejnence d^amfni. 
 
 G. Aminysainsn, Ammey. 
 
 D. Amyz,aad, 
 
 I . Am cos , Amm i • 
 
 S. Ameos, Ammi, 
 
 This seed comes from a round fruit, about the size of 
 a middling grape ; containing under a membranous cover, 
 a number of small rough angular seeds, of a blackish 
 brown colour on the outside, and whitish within. Ten or 
 twelve of these fruits grow together in a cluster. The 
 husks, leaves, and stems of the plant, have a slight grate- 
 ful smell, and a moderately warm, aromatic taste. The 
 seeds freed from the husks, are in both respects much 
 stronger ; their smell is quick and penetrating, their taste 
 pungent, approaching to that of camphor. Notwithstand- 
 ing Amomum is an elegant aromatic, it has long been un- 
 known to the shops. 
 
 P. Ameesy Ammio. 
 DA. Ammyfro, 
 
 SW. Ammtfro. 
 
 L. Amomum njerum. 
 
 AMOMI SEED. 
 
 F. AmD77ies, 
 
 G. Amomchen, 
 D. AtTiomiscaad . 
 I. Amo7no. 
 
 tj. A /nemo. 
 
 P. Amc/no. 
 
 DA. Amomfro. 
 
 SW. A/zicmf/'o. 
 
 L. ATUomum ^oulgare. 
 
 These are brown grains, brought from the East Indies, 
 of a hot aromatic smell and taste, somewhat resembling 
 
29 
 
 that of cinnamon, cloves and pepper. They are of the 
 size of a chick-pea, and grow on a tree, which has a red 
 coloured odoriferous wood, and bears a kind of berries or 
 pods in the shape of grapes. These berries contain the 
 seeds; which ought to be light coloured, heavy, and well 
 filled. If the berries are light, with black seeds and shri- 
 velled, they are of no value. 
 
 These seeds are only used in medicine. 
 
 AhlPELITES, CANNEL or candle coal. 
 
 A hard, opaque, fossil, inflammable substance, of a 
 black colour. Though much inferior to jet, it is a very 
 beautiful fossile, and for a body of so compact a structure, 
 remarkably light. There is a large quarry of it near 
 Alencon in France; it is also dug in many parts of Eng- 
 land, and the finest in Lancashire and Cheshire. It makes 
 a very brisk fire, flaming violently for a short time, and 
 after that continuing red and glowing hot for a long 
 while. It is capable of a very high and elegant polish, 
 and in the countries where it is produced, it is turned into 
 a vast number of toys. It is likewise used for dying the 
 hair black. 
 
 ANCHOVIES 
 
 F. Anchois. 
 
 G. Anschovis. 
 D. Ansjo'vis, 
 J. Acciughe. 
 
 S. Anchc‘vas. 
 
 P. Anchc<vas, 
 DA. Ansios. 
 
 SW. Ansjoojis. 
 R. Antshojischi. 
 L. Encrasicoli. 
 
 The Anchovy is a species of clupea, with the upper jaw 
 longest. It is so much like the common sprat, that this 
 fish is often sold under its name. 
 
 Anchovies are fished on the southern coast of France, 
 on the coasts of Italy, and other parts of the Mediterra- 
 nean; but those coming from Gorgona, an island in the 
 sea of Tuscany, are esteemed the best. Anchovies should 
 be chosen small, fresh pickled, white on the outside, and 
 red within. They must have a round back, for those 
 
30 
 
 which are flat or large, are often nothing but Sardines. The 
 pickle also, on opening the pots or barrels, must be of a 
 good taste, and not have lost its flavour. 
 
 The common way of eating Anchovies, is with oil, vi- 
 negar, See .or they are made into a sauce, by mincing them 
 with pepper, &c. 
 
 ANCHUSA; alkanet, or buglqss. 
 
 F. VOrcanette, 
 
 G. Rot he Ochsenzunge, Or- 
 
 kanet, 
 
 D. Ossetong, Orkanette* 
 
 I. Ancusa. 
 
 S. Arcanetai Palomilla de 
 Tinte. 
 
 P. Alcanna has tar da t Orca- 
 neta, 
 
 DA. OxetungCy Orkanette, 
 SW. Rod Oxtungerot. 
 
 POL. Czernjoieniec, 
 
 R. Wolo^oi jasiik* 
 
 L. Alcanna. 
 
 Of the eight species of this plant, we only enumerate 
 two, viz. the ofiicinalis or greater garden bugloss, and the 
 tinctoria, or true alkanet. The former grows naturally in 
 France, and all the warmer parts of Europe; it will even 
 thrive well enough in Great Britain. The flowers of this 
 species have obtained the name of cordial flowers, as they 
 moderately cool and soften, and are used for that purpose 
 in medicine. The tinctoria is a native of the Levant, but 
 equally hardy with the former species; its roots are used, 
 on account of their red colour, as a colouring ingredient 
 for ointments, plasters, &c. The colour being confined to 
 the cortical part, the small roots are preferable. 
 
 ANGELICA ROOT. 
 
 F. Racine d*Angelipie. 
 
 G. Angelic anuurzely Engel- 
 
 nji'urz. 
 
 D. Angelica. 
 
 I. Angelica. 
 S. Anjelica. 
 P. Angelica. 
 L. Angelica. 
 
 All the parts of the Angelica plant, but particularly the 
 root, have a fragrant aromatic smell, and a pleasant bit- 
 terish warm taste, glowing upon the lips and palate, for a 
 long time after they have been chewed. 
 
SI 
 
 For medicinal use, the Angelica coming from Bohemia 
 and Spain is reckoned the best. The roots are chiefly 
 used in the aromatic tincture, and the stalks make an 
 agreeable sweetmeat. 
 
 Angelica roots are apt to grow mouldy, and be preyed 
 upon by insects, unless thoroughly dried, kept in a dry 
 place, and frequently aired. 
 
 ANISEED. 
 
 F. J^nis. 
 
 G. Ants, 
 
 D. Anys* 
 
 I. Anice, Anese. 
 S. Anis. 
 
 P. Anisy Anise, 
 
 DA. Anis, 
 SW. Anis, 
 POL. Anyz. 
 R. Anis, 
 
 L. Anisum, 
 
 Aniseed is a roundish striated seed, flatted on one side, 
 and pointed at one end; of a pale colour inclining to green; 
 it has an aromatic smell, and a pleasant warm taste, ac- 
 companied with a degree of Sweetness. It is the seed of 
 the pimpinella anisum or common Anise, ai^ annual plant, 
 which grows naturally in Egypt, but is cultivated in the 
 southern parts of Europe, particularly Malta "and Spain, 
 from whence the seed is imported in Great Britain. The 
 smaller kind, brought from Spain is preferred. 
 
 Aniseed is used in medicine and for confectionary. It 
 gives out all its virtue to rectified spirit, which becomes of 
 a bright lemon color, and tastes very agreeably. In dis- 
 tillation it gives over the whole of its flavour. An essential 
 oil arises with the water, in a considerable quantity; above 
 an ounce having been extracted from three pounds of the 
 seed. 
 
 ANNATTO, anotta, roucou. 
 
 F. Roucou y Bichet. 
 
 G. Or lean. 
 
 D. Orleaany Rokce. 
 
 T. OrianUy Uriannay XJrucu. 
 S. AchiotCy Aehotey Cochehue, 
 Orellana. 
 
 P. XJrucu y Oriana, 
 
 DA. Orlean, 
 
 SW. Orleana. 
 
 POL. Orlean, Roku, 
 
 R. Orle^,:. 
 
 L. Terra Orleana, Orellana, 
 Bixa, 
 
 Annatto is a red colour, formed from the pellicles or pulp 
 of the seeds of the Bixa, a tree common in South America- 
 
The Annatto tree has a reddish bark, and large, strong, 
 and hard leaves, of a dark green colour. It is as high as a 
 plumb tree, and more bushy. The flowers that grow in 
 bunches, not unlike wild roses, are succeeded twice a year 
 by pods, as prickly a^ the shell of a chesnut, but smaller. 
 They contain some small seeds of a pale red colour, and 
 from these the Annatto is prepared. As soon as one of 
 the eight or ten pods that grow in a bunch, opens of it- 
 self, ail the rest may be gathered. 
 
 The seeds cleared from the pods, are then steeped in 
 water, for seven or eight days, or longer. When they 
 begin to ferment, the seeds ought to be strongly stirred 
 and bruised, with wooden pestles, to promote the separa- 
 tion of the red skins. This process is repeated several 
 times, till the seeds are left white. The liquor passed 
 through close cane sieves, pretty thick, of a deep red colour, 
 and a very bad smell, is received into coppers. In boiling, 
 it throws up its colouring matter to the surface, in form of 
 scum, which is taken offi saved in large pans, and after- 
 wards boiled down by itself to a due consistence, and made 
 up while soft, into balls or cakes of two or three pounds 
 weight. 
 
 According to others, Annatto Is nothing else, but the 
 red farina, with which the seeds of the plant are covered, 
 when coming out of the pods; and the process for pre- 
 paring the dye, simply as follows: when a sufficient quan- 
 tity of the seed is colledled, they are thrown into a vessel, 
 and as much hot water poured upon them, as is necessary 
 to suspend the red farina, which is gradually washed off 
 the seeds with the hand or a spoon. When the seeds 
 appear quite naked, they are taken out, and the wash is 
 left to settle; after which the water is gently poured away, 
 and the sediment put into shallow vessels, to be dried by 
 degrees in the shade; and after acquiring by this means, 
 a due consistence, it is made Into balls or cakes, and set to 
 dry thoroughly in an airy place, until perfectly firm. 
 
 The Annatto commonly met with among us, is mode- 
 rately hard and dry, of a brown colour on the outside, and 
 a dull red withiiv 
 
 It is used as an ingredient in varnishes, and for dying 
 v/ocl and silk. It is also esteemed in medicine. 
 
33 
 
 F Antimoine. 
 
 G. Antimoniunit Spiessglass, 
 D. Spiesglas. 
 r. Antimonio. 
 
 S, Antimonio. 
 
 P, Antimonio. 
 
 DA. Spidseglas. 
 SW. Spitsglas. 
 POL. Spiszgias. 
 R. Antimonia. 
 L. Antimonium. 
 
 This semimetal, when pure and well fused, is of a white 
 shining colour, and consists of laminae applied to each 
 other. When it has been well melted, and not too hastily 
 cooled, and its surface is not touched by any hard body 
 during the cooling, it exhibits the perfect figure of a star, 
 consisting of many radii issuing from a centre. This pro- 
 ceeds from a disposition that the parts of this metal have 
 to arrange themselves in a regular manner, and is similar 
 to the crystallization of salts. 
 
 Regulus of Antimony, is moderately hard; but like 
 other semimetals, it has no ductility, and breaks in small 
 pieces under a hammer. It loses one seventh of its weight 
 in water. The action of air and water destroys its lustre, 
 but does not rust it so effectually as iron or copper. It is 
 fusible with a heat sufficient to make it red hot; but when 
 heated to a certain degree, it fumes continually, and is 
 dissipated in vapours. 
 
 There are different methods of preparing from Anti- 
 mony, the Regulus of Antimony; but all of them consist 
 merely, in separating the sulphur which this mineral con- 
 tains, and which is united with the Regulus. It is plain, 
 therefore, that Regulus of Antimony may be made, by 
 the addition of any substance to crude Antimony in fu- 
 sion, which has a greater attraction for sulphur, than the 
 Regulus itself has. 
 
 Regulus of Antimony enters into the compositions for 
 metallic speculums for telescopes, and for printing types. 
 It is also the basis of a number of medicinal preparations ; 
 but many of these, which were formerly much esteemed, 
 are found to be either inert, uncertain, or dangerous in 
 their operation, so that the only two preparations now 
 retained, by the most skilful practitioners, are the infusion 
 of glass of Antimony in wine, and emetic tartar. 
 
34 - 
 
 AQUA FORTIS. 
 
 F. Eau forte, 
 
 G. Scheid<vjasser, 
 D. Slerk^ater, 
 
 I. Acqua forte. 
 
 S. Agua fuerte. 
 
 DA. Skede^uandy Ske^and, 
 SW. Sked^vatten. 
 
 POL. Ser^asevy Stychnjoaier* 
 R. Wodka-krebkaja, 
 
 L. Aqua fort is. 
 
 / 
 
 P. Agua forte. 
 
 Aqua fortis is a nitrous acid of a certain strength; when 
 concentrated and smoaking, it is called spirit of nitre. The 
 Aqua fortis used by dyers, brass-founders, &c. is not only 
 weaker than spirit of nitre, but contains a portion of vi- 
 triolic acid. It may be made, by distilling crude nitre with 
 calcined vitriol, equal parts; or with somewhat more than 
 half its weight, of oil of vitriol; or by mixing one part of 
 oil of vitriol, with nine parts of pure spirit of nitre. Aqua 
 fortis therefore is a mixture of the vitriolic and nitrous 
 acids. 
 
 AQUA REGIA. 
 
 P. Agua regia yOu regal. 
 DA. Konger and. 
 
 SW. Kungsojatten. 
 
 L. Aqua regia. 
 
 T* Eau regale. 
 
 G. Konigs^asser. 
 
 D. Konings^aier. 
 
 I. Ac qua rtgia. 
 
 Agua rejia, 6 real. 
 
 Aqua regia Is a compound of nitrous and marine acid, 
 in different proportions, according to the purport for 
 which it is intended. It is particularly used as a menstruum 
 for gold; it likewise dissolves all other metals, except silver. 
 
 / 
 
 AQUA VIT-<E; SEE BRANDY. 
 
 ARCHILLA; SEE orchella. 
 
35 
 
 ARGOL, TARTAR. 
 
 D. Wyn Steen 
 I. Tartaro. 
 S. Tar taro. 
 
 F. Tartre. 
 
 G. Weinstein. 
 
 DA. Fins teen. 
 SW. Finsten. 
 POL. Waystin, 
 
 R. Winn 'ui katmn, 
 L. Tartarus. 
 
 P. Tartaro. 
 
 Argol or Tartar is a substance thrown off from wine, 
 after it is put into casks to depurate. The more Tartar 
 is separated, the more smooth and palatable is the wine. 
 This substance forms a thick hard crust on the sides of the 
 casks: and as part of the fine dregs of the wine adhere td 
 it, the Tartar of the white wines is of a greyish white 
 colour, called white Argol; and that of red wine has a red 
 colour, and is called red Argol. 
 
 When separated from the cask in which it is formed, 
 Argol is mixed with much heterogeneous matter; from 
 which, for the purposes of medicine and chemistry, it re.- 
 quires to be purified. This purification consists in first 
 boiling the Argol in water, filtrating the solution, and 
 allowing the salt to crystalli2e, which it very soon does, 
 as it requires nearly twenty times its weight of watet;. to 
 dissolve it. The crystals of Tartar obtained by this ope- 
 ration, are far from being perfectly pure; and therefore 
 they are again boiled in water, with an addition of clay, 
 which absorbs the colouring matter; and thus on a second 
 crystallization, a very pure and white salt is' obtained. 
 These crystals are called Cream cf Tartar, and are com- 
 monly sold under that name. 
 
 Cream of Tartar may be recomposed in the following 
 manner ; upon fixed vegetable alkali pour a solution of 
 the acid of Tartar; and continue this, till the effervescence 
 is over. The fluid will then be transparent; but if more 
 of the acid is added, it will become turbid and white, and 
 small crystals like white sand will be formed in it. These 
 crystals are a perfect Cream of Tartar. Argols therefore 
 consist of fixed vegetable alkali, over saturated with the 
 pure acid of Tartar, and joined by a great deal of earthly 
 impurities and colouring matter. 
 
 The white Argol is preferable to the red, as containing 
 less of the drossy or earthy matter. The marks of good 
 
36 
 
 Argol of either kind, are its being thick, brittle, hard, 
 brilliant, and little earthy. That brought from Germany 
 is the best, on account of being taken out of those great 
 tuns, wherein the salt has time to come to its consistence. 
 
 Argol is of considerable use among dyers, as serving to 
 dispose the stuffs to take their colours the better. 
 
 ARMENIAN BOLE. 
 
 G. Armenischer Bolus, Rothstein, 
 
 < . 
 
 Is a soft bole of red colour, used in medicine. An in- 
 durated kind of this affords the material for the red pencils. 
 
 Bolus’s or Boles, are martial clays, containing a fine and 
 dense clay of various colours, with a large quantity of iron. 
 
 The Armenian Bole was formerly brought from Ar- 
 menia, but is now found also in several parts of France 
 and Germany. 
 
 ARMENIAN STONE. 
 
 G. Blauer Bolus. 
 
 This substance is improperly called a stone, being no-s 
 thing else than an ocherous earth, and properly called, 
 Blue Ochre. It is a very valuable substance, in painting 
 being a bright and lively blue. It easily breaks between 
 the fingers, and does not stain the hands. It is of a 
 brackish disagreeable taste, and ferments with acids. It is 
 a very scarce fossile, and was in so high esteem as a paint 
 amongst the Ancients, that counterfeits 'were continually 
 attempted to serve in its place. 
 
 Though in but small quantities, it is found very pure in 
 the mines of Gosslar in Saxpny. 
 
 ARRACK OR RACK. 
 
 F. Arac. 
 
 G. Arrack, Rack. 
 .D. Arak, Rak. 
 
 I. Aracco. 
 
 S. A rak. 
 
 P. Araca, Orracas. 
 DA. Arrak. 
 
 SW. Arrack. 
 
 POL. Arak. 
 
 R. Arak. 
 
 Arrack seems to be a general name amongst the In- 
 diansj for spirituous liquors of all kinds. According to 
 
37 
 
 Lockyer, what we understand by Arrack, is a spirit pro- 
 cured by distillation from a vegetable juice called toddy, 
 which flows by incision out of the cocoa nut tree. Others 
 are of opinion, that Arrack is a spirit obtained by distilla- 
 tion from rice or sugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa 
 nuts. 
 
 This seems to be the most established opinion, and that 
 rice is the principal ingredient from which this spirit is 
 distilled, of three different degrees of strength, in large 
 pans, after a previous fermentation with water, treacle 
 from the sugar houses, and the juice of the cocoa trees. 
 The weaker sort of Arrack is drank by the Chinese, at 
 their merry meetings. The white Arrack, which is im- 
 mediately bottled off, is stronger, and used chiefly in India. 
 Arrack, after it is put into wooden vessels to be sent to 
 other places, acquires a colour from the wood, and is the 
 brown Arrack commonly sold in Europe. 
 
 Goa and Batavia are the chief places for Arrack. 
 
 Arrack is also the name of a spirituous liquor, made by 
 the Tartars, of mare’s-milk left to sour, and then twice or 
 thrice distilled. 
 
 ARROW-ROOT ; see hidian Arrow-root, 
 
 ARSENIC. 
 
 F. Arsenic, Poudre aux rats. 
 
 G. Arsenik. 
 
 D. Arsenik, Rottekruid. 
 
 I. Arsenico. 
 
 S. Arsenico. 
 
 P. Arsenico, 
 
 DA. Arsenik, Rottekrnd, 
 SW. Arsenik, Rotpul<ver, 
 POL. Arsenik, 
 
 R. M'uschjak. 
 
 L. Arsenicum. 
 
 Late experinients have made it evident, that white Ar- 
 senic consists of an acid united to phlogiston; and that, by 
 diminishing the 'atter, the acid becomes more and more 
 apparent; while on the contrary, by augmenting the quan- 
 tity of phlogistic matter, the Arsenic assumes the metallic 
 form, and is called Regulus of Arsenic. In our systems 
 of chemistry, it is reckoned amongst the semimetals. 
 
 Arsenic in its pure state, is a most destructive and deadly 
 poison, for w ich the art of medicine has scarcely as yet 
 
38 
 
 afforded a .cure. The extreme danger attending this sub- 
 stance, when taken into the human body, arises from its 
 insolubility, and the difficulty of decompounding it. 
 
 Notwithstanding the dreadful effects of Arsenic whpn 
 taken unprepared in large quantities, it has been intro- 
 duced in medicine both internally and externally. 
 
 Besides the medicinal use of Arsenic, it is, but too fre- 
 quently, used for edulcorating sour wines. ; 
 
 Regulus of Arsenic enters into the composition of 
 Meuder’s Phosphorus. The powder of the calx is fre- 
 quently employed in glass houses, either for facilitating 
 fusion, for acquiring a certain degree of opacity, or for 
 carrying off phlogiston. In painting too, the artists some- 
 times employ Arsenic 5 it is used for the preparation of a 
 most beautiful green pigment. In dying it is likewise of 
 great service, and in cloth printing for dissolving indigo. 
 
 Arsenic is found in a metallic shape in Bohemia, Hun- 
 gary, Saxony, Hercynia, and other parts; particularly at 
 St. Marieux in Alsatia. 
 
 ASBESTOS; see Amianthus, * 
 
 ASHES 
 
 Are the earthy partieles of combustible substances, after 
 they have been burnt. If the Ashes are produced from 
 vegetable bodies, they contain a considerable quantity of 
 fixed salt, blended with the terrene particles; and from 
 these Ashes, the fixed alkaline salts, called potashes, pearl- 
 ashes, weedashes, barilla, &c. are extracted; for which, see 
 under the respective heads. 
 
 ASPHALTUM; see Bitumen Judaicum. 
 
 ASSA DULCIS. 
 
 A name sometimes given to benzoin; see Qum Benjamin, 
 
39 
 
 ASSA-FOETIDA. 
 
 j . Asafetiduy Asse, Merde 
 
 de diable. 
 
 P. Assa fetida, 
 DA. Dy^velsdrcek. 
 
 I r, Teufelsdreck. 
 
 \ DuiveUdreck* 
 
 \ . Assa fetiday Zaffetica. 
 \ . Asa fetida. 
 
 SW. Dyf^vehtra^k. 
 
 POL. SmrodzienieCy Czarzie 
 
 laino. 
 
 L. Asafoettda. 
 
 Assa foetida is a kind of gum, of very offensive smell, 
 procured from the root of a plant common in some parts of 
 Persia, and called there hingesch. The leaves are of a 
 horribly offensive smell, and no animal will touch them. 
 It seldom flowers, sometimes not till its twentieth, thir- 
 tieth, o? fortieth year; during all this time the root is in- 
 creasing, and consequently, sometimes grows to an enor- 
 mous bulk. Roots of it have been seen, of the thickness 
 of a man’s thigh, and of a yard and a half in length; those 
 of the thickness of an arm are common. , When it sends 
 forth a stalk, and has ripened its seed, it? perishes. The 
 root, within, is perfectly white, and full of a white, milky, 
 and stinking juice, which when collected and dried, is our 
 Assa foetida. They never make incisions in roots of less 
 than four or five years standing, and the older and larger 
 the root, the more plentifully the juice flows. 
 
 The most strongly scented Assa foetida is always the 
 best ; and Kaempfer observes, that it is so much stronger 
 when fresh, than when kept and imported into Europe, 
 that a drachm of it has more scent, than an hundred 
 weight of what pur druggists keep. 
 
 It is by much the strongest of the deobstruent w^rm 
 gums, acting frequently as an antispasmodic and an ano- 
 dyne. 
 
 AVIGNON BERRIES; see Yellow berries. 
 
 AZURE; see Smalts. 
 
 AZURE OF COPPER; see Copper. 
 
 AZURE STONE; see Lapis lazuli. 
 
■ V, 
 
 & ^ ; 
 
 W'' - ■ ^ ^ " 
 
 V.?. - v ■ 
 
 •^- •*■■' ' f-'j 
 
 , ‘ -'.i;-,:- A, 
 
 ^ V 
 
 .v^ ; 
 
 :v: ,*;■, 
 
 , ; ■' I '■ ■ : .M.' ,f' V ^ 
 
 '■■''^■' I- /;V ■” 
 
 " ' ^ " - .'V AV , 
 
 ■r 'c .. 
 
 : . i- '• . 
 
 ’■\J. 
 
 A; 
 
 
 
 '■■'”< .> Ai/i-.-v’; >“rv? 
 
 Av-A ■■'. Aiv ..- ''A ; .‘-Klf 7.'AAn Wv.. aaa'A 
 Alf.AkV.’^ a'.'.v i' :..’ ;;r.I 
 
 -‘A 
 
 :■ 
 
 t /i'.'l..oA. •,. -’;■ 
 
 ; .V.. y.f; Aj 
 
 iA':’ v: n.i 
 
 Ir 
 
 >u> 
 
 
 ...y 
 
 :■ '.^'s /•' . . ,.,, ^ 
 
 bru ill‘y -.' .' .' 
 
 •;; . ■ \ : .‘ 
 
 7? AV'" ' A3^’ 'A ■A4.J^rA--:l hi. ; ,;■ ■■; -A'.- 
 
 I ’> ■''■'A..;':. ■ ■,0;i.h’. ’.,U: jh-jV; ?,I ,> ^h'iA' 
 
 ArAh-^/ I :■: 
 
 ' ■ T i ^'''''’' ' ■' '''■■' ' ■ " ‘ ' ' -''- • ' 
 
 ih: 
 
 ■^‘ '■' •• ■ :-.f : •ih’-'^' r' :'■ 
 
 .A A A-; 
 
 - " ' S'. 
 
 YA^AG.t: 
 
 r • 
 
 - J 
 
 
 •A^ -/A',A ’AA*':;..: f/ .A, Y'\- 
 A'.AA.a^- A:AAAa 
 
 :i -■ A'A:'-; ,^.^ 
 
 • ^ --’ if .J •.'i'^ .!'.,A-'f 
 
 •■; •' •AA’' ■■'. ' "v . ^>'3"^ .'.aiA?' *■' v;-,r., ;j. .s'-. ,r’'t 
 
 ■ '- ■ I':'-' 
 
 A-^ .;,r A! 
 
 :'A,‘: AA' 
 
 A“. ■"'r .''. ; •-. " -’: ■ ■ A ■ . .' 
 
 A ■:''': ■;■ ' ■'■■ ’•■■ ' ' ' ■■- " 
 
 . ;• ', <• AA-A ' •■ '■ ■ A' 'A -■ ■ 
 
 ■■.■• /. 
 
 '■ v;.-;A •, 
 
 :; V ' 
 
 ^ ■ 7 - 
 
 
 
 
 -fM 
 
 -::m •■•!'- A ^ 
 
41 
 
 BALSAM. 
 
 F. Baiime. 
 
 G. Balsam. 
 D. Balsem. 
 I. Balsamo. 
 S. Bahama. 
 
 DA. Balsam. 
 SW. Balsam, 
 POL. Balsam. 
 R. Balsam. 
 
 L. Balsamum, 
 
 P. Balsamo. 
 
 Balsam implies an oily, resinous, liquid substance, flow- 
 ing either spontaneously, or by means of incision, from 
 certain plants. There are a great variety of Balsams, ge- 
 nerally denominated from the substances from which they 
 are obtained, whereof the principal ones deserve to be 
 enumerated. 
 
 BALSAM CAPIVI, or copaiba 
 
 Which comes from Brasil and Guinea, in earthen bot- 
 tles, is of two sorts; the one bright and thin, the other 
 thick; the first being white, of a thinner consistence than 
 the common turpentine, but much more fragrant and de- 
 tersive; the other inclining to yellow. 
 
 Both sorts pass away quickly by urine, and have there- 
 fore chiefly been prescribed in complaints of the urinary 
 passage; though now they are not so much in use. 
 
 BALSAM OF GILEAD, 
 
 Called also Balsamum Judaicum^ Syriacumy Mecca and 
 Opohalsamum. 
 
 It is admitted, even by the Turks, that on account of the 
 great price of Balsam of Gilead, it is very difficult to hnd 
 this commodity genuine; it being adulterated immediately 
 on its filtration from the tree, and scarcely to be found 
 pure any where, but in the possession of the Turkish Em- 
 peror and the Grandees of the Empire, Who get it as a 
 valuable present from some traveller. 
 
 F 
 
 f 
 
42 
 
 The marks of its supposed purity are; a very yellow 
 colour, perfectly transparent; a strong fragrant smell, with 
 something of the lemon or citron flavour; and a bitter, 
 sharp, and astringent taste. It is also very tenacious and 
 glutinous, sticking to the Angers, and may be drawn into 
 long threads. The way of trying Balsam of Gilead, at 
 Cairo and Mecca, is as follows: they let fall a drop of the 
 Balsam into a cupful of clear cold water, if this drop re- 
 mains in one place on the surface of the water, the Balsam 
 is of little value; but if it instantly extends itself, like a 
 skin or pellicle, over the whole surface, and this skin is 
 even and clear, and may be taken off the "water with a 
 hair, silk, or thread, leaving it as clear, as it was before, 
 then it is a sign, that the Balsam is of the best kind, and 
 not adulterated. 
 
 The Balsam of Gilead principally comes from Arabia 
 Petrea, and the Arabians carry it to Mecca, and sell it 
 there, during the time of the stay of the caravans from 
 Egypt and Turkey. It also grows in Palest ina, but re- 
 quires the greatest care there, to prevent it from degene- 
 rating, whereas in Arabia it grows without cultivation. It 
 is the produce of a species of amyris, rising to the height 
 of the promegranate tree, to which it has a great resem- 
 blance, both in its long branches and flowers. The wood 
 is red and gummy, and its fruit is a small nut, covered 
 with a dry and brown pellicle, which contains a kernel. In 
 the months of June, July, and August, the Arabs make a 
 slight incision in it, from which there distils a kind of 
 viscous juice, called Opobalsarnum. The juice extracted 
 from its fruit is called Carpobalsamum, and that from the 
 wood Xilobalsamum. The Opobalsarnum is the most per- 
 fect part; it is wdiite when it comes from the tree, then 
 turns green, and afterwards to a gold colour; but as it 
 grows old, it becomes a little tarnished, and in the end 
 assumes the appearance of honey. Its smell, though strong, 
 is agreeable; and it thickens like the turpentine of Cyprus. 
 The Opobalsarnum coming to us from Arabia, is frequently 
 mixed with this turpentine. 
 
 There is likewise a sort of Balsam of Mecca^ a white 
 balsam, or dry white gum, resembling copperas, especially 
 when old; which has all the virtues of the Balm of Gilead 
 or Judea; from whence it is conjectured to be the same, 
 only hardened and altered in colour. 
 
43 
 
 Balsam of Gilead is used in medicine, to open obstruc- 
 tions of the lungs, as a stomachic, and also externally for 
 curing wounds, &c. The Turkish women employ it as a 
 cosmetic. 
 
 BALSAM OF MECCA; see Balsam of Gilead. 
 
 BALSAM OF PERU. 
 
 This Balsam is extracted from a shrub called myroxylon 
 peruiferum, a native of Peru, and the wanner parts of 
 America; and the way of extracting it, is said to be, by 
 decoction in water. This Balsam, as brought to us, is 
 nearly of the consistence of thin honey, of a reddish brown 
 colour, inclining to black, an agreeable aromatic smell, and 
 a very hot biting taste. There is another sort of Balsam 
 of Peru, of a white colour, and considerably more fragrant 
 than the former. This is very rarely brought to us. It is 
 said to be the produce of the same plant, which yields the 
 common or black Balsam, and to exude from incisions 
 made in the trunk, while the former is obtained by boil- 
 ing. There is also a third kind, commonly called the red 
 or dry. This is supposed to obtain a different state from 
 the white, merely in consequence of the treatment to 
 which it is subjected, after it is got from the tree. It is 
 almost as fragrant as the Balsam of Gilead. It is very sel- 
 dom to be met with in Great Britain. 
 
 Balsam of Peru is a very warm aromatic medicine, con- 
 siderably hotter and more acrid than copaiva. 
 
 BALSAM OF TOLU 
 
 Is obtained from the Toluifera balsamum, or Balsam of 
 Tolu tree, which grows in Spanish America, in the pro- 
 vince of Tolu, behind Carthagena, whence we are supplied 
 with it, made up in little gourd-shells. It is procured by 
 making incisions in the bark of the tree, and is collected 
 into spoons made of black wax, from which it is poured 
 into proper vessels. 
 
44 
 
 This Balsam is of a reddish yellow colour and transpa- 
 rent, in consistence thick and tenacious; by age it grows 
 so hard and brittle, that it may be rubbed into a powder 
 between the finger and thumb. Its smell is extremely 
 fragrant, somewhat resembling that of lemons; its taste is 
 warm and sweetish, and on being chewed, it adheres to 
 the teeth. Thrown into the fire, it immediately liquifies, 
 takes flame, and disperses its agreeable odour. Though it 
 does not dissolve in water, yet if boiled in it for two or 
 three hours in a covered vessel, the water receives its 
 odoriferous smell. Water also suffers a similar impreg- 
 nation from the Balsam by distillation. With the assist- 
 ance of mucilage, it unites with water, so as to form a 
 milky solution. It dissolves entirely in spirit of wine, and 
 easily mixes with distilled oils, but less easily with those 
 of the expressed kind. 
 
 This Balsam possesses the same general virtues with the 
 Balsam of Gilead, and that of Peru; it is however less 
 heating and stimulating. 
 
 BAMBOE, Bamhou or Bamboos, 
 
 F. BamhouSf Bamboucs ^ 
 
 Bamboihes, 
 
 G. B ambus. \ * 
 
 D. Bamboesrieten. 
 
 I. Bambu. 
 
 S, Bambu. 
 
 P. Bamhu 
 DA. Bambusror. 
 
 SW. Baf?ibos, Bamboror. 
 L. Arundo Bambos. 
 
 This is a plant growing in the East Indies, which mul- 
 tiplies very much by its root, from which springs a branchy 
 tuft, after the manner of the European reeds. It is of the 
 largest kind of cane, and decreases gradually to the top, 
 where it bears a blossom like our reeds, being the only 
 kind of grass that grov/s to the size of a tree. 
 
 This is one of the most useful plants to the Indians, as 
 they make almost every thing of it, they want. With it 
 they build houses; they make chairs, tables, bedsteads, 
 ladders, also vessels and household utensils of it: which 
 are light, strong, and neat. 
 
 Large quantities are annually brought to Europe, 
 
45 
 
 BARILLA. 
 
 F. Soude, BariUe. 
 
 G. Soda, Barilla. 
 
 D. Souda. 
 
 L Soda, Barriglia. 
 
 S. Sosa, Soda, Barrilla. 
 
 P. Solda, Barnlhd, 
 DA. Soda. 
 
 SW. Souda, Soda. 
 R. Solianka, 
 
 Barilla is produced, by the incineration of different sea 
 plants, chiefly in Spain and Italy, where whole fields are 
 sowed with them by the farmers, to good advantage. 
 From this impure and mixed mass of cinders, is obtained 
 the marine alkali. 
 
 They prepare Barilla in Spain and Italy from the plants 
 called, salicornia herbacea, and salicornia fruticosa; and in 
 Spain sometimes also from the chenopodium maritimum, 
 and the batis maritima. In France and other parts, this 
 article is obtained from the fucus vesiculosus and from the 
 salsola soda. The Saracens in Spain, called the plant 
 which they used for the preparation of their Barilla, 
 kali 5 which with the addition of the Arabian article, has 
 given rise to the name alkali. 
 
 The discovery of the use of these plants, seems to be a 
 present of the Saracens to the Europeans, for no mention 
 is made of it, before the Mahometan jera. The Ancients 
 seem to be silent on that head. 
 
 The manner of preparing these ashes, usually is thus : 
 when the plant has attained its full height, they cut it 
 down and let it dry, afterwards they burn and calcine it 
 in certain pits, like lime kilns, dug in the ground for that 
 purpose, which are covered up with earth, so that no air 
 may come at the hre. The matter by this means is not 
 only reduced into ashes, but by means of the salt juices 
 united into a hard substance, which they break out of the 
 pits with hammers. 
 
 Our market is supplied with Barilla, chiefly from Ali- 
 cant and Carthagena in Spain, from the island of Tene- 
 riffe, and from Sicily. The Spanish Barilla is reckoned 
 the best ; and among the Sicily Barilla, the preference is 
 given to the produce of Utica, then comes that of Tra- 
 pani, then Catanea, Marsala, &c. 
 
 In Sicily, the first crop of these herbs is cut in Septem- 
 ber and October; and they make a second crop about the 
 
46 
 
 end of November; but this second crop produces an infe- 
 rior kind of Barilla. 
 
 In shipping Barilla, particular attention should be paid, 
 to have as little small or dust as possible ; as in the latter 
 state it is most exposed to the access of air, which de- 
 stroys its virtue. The marine alkali however, is less sub- 
 ject to attract humidity, than the vegetable alkali, like pot 
 and pearl ashes, which can only be preserved when closely 
 packed in casks. The usual assortment, in which Barilla 
 is sold in Sicily, consists of two thirds large lumps, one 
 sixth small lumps, and one sixth dust. It answers best, 
 not to ship any dust, but to resell it at half price. 
 
 Prime quality in Barilla is to be distinguished, by its 
 strong smell, when wetted with the spittle, and by its 
 whitish color. If the lumps are hard, it shews they are 
 fresh. 
 
 Barilla is used by glassmakers, soapboilers, bleachers, 
 and other manufacturers. 
 
 BARK 
 
 Is the exterior part of trees, serving them for a skin or 
 covering; of which there are a great many kinds in use in 
 the several arts; some in medicine, as Jesuits bark; others 
 in dying, as the bark of the Alder and Quercitron bark; 
 others in grocery, as cinnamon and cassia lignea ; the bark 
 of oak, in tanning; the bark of the cork tree, for corks ; 
 that of the linden tree, for a kind of cordage; and the 
 bark of a sort of birch tree, is used by the Indians for 
 canoes, capable of holding twenty-four persons. In the 
 East Indies, they also manufacture the bark of a particular 
 tree, into a kind of stuff or cloth. It is spun and dressed 
 much after the manner of hemp, and the manufacture 
 called pinasses and biambonnes. 
 
 Oak bark, independent of its use in tanning leather, for 
 which also oak sawdust has of late been substituted, is 
 employed by the Highlanders, to dye their yarn of a 
 brown, or mixed with copperas, of a black colour. 
 
47 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 1. Orzo, 
 
 S. Cebada. 
 
 F. Orge. 
 
 G. Gerste. 
 
 D. Gerst, Gar St, 
 
 DA. Byg, 
 
 SW. Biuggi Korn, 
 FOL yecymien. 
 R. Jatschmen, 
 
 L. Hordeusn. 
 
 p. Cevada, Seisada, 
 
 The principal use of Barley among us, is for making 
 beer. In Scotland, Barley is a common ingredient for 
 broths. In Spain they feed the horses with Barley. Pearl 
 Barley^ and French Barley y are Barley freed of the husk by 
 a mill; the distinction between the two being, that pearl 
 barley is reduced to the size of a small shot, all but the 
 very heart of the grain being ground away. 
 
 BASALTES, 
 
 Is a heavy hard stone, chiefly black or green, consisting 
 of prismatic, the number of whose sides is uncertain. 
 
 The most remarkable property of this substance, is its 
 figure : being never found in strata, like other marbles, but 
 always standing up in the form of regular pillars. 
 
 Basaltes is frequently met with, in Spain, Russia, Po- 
 land, near Dresden, and In Slesia; but the most noble 
 store in the world, seems to be that of the Giant^s Cause- 
 way in Ireland, and StafFa, one of the Western Islands of 
 Scotland. Great quantities are likewise found, in the 
 neighbourhood of mount Etna in Sicily, of Hecla in Ice- 
 land, and of the volcano in the island of Bourbon. 
 
 Much has been disputed about the nature of Basaltes. 
 Sir William Hamilton contends in support of its volcanic 
 origin; Mr. Bergman is of opinion, that both fire and 
 water contributed to produce it. 
 
 Some of the Ancients call this stone lapis Lydius, from 
 Lydia, where probably it was found in abundance. 
 
 The Moderns denominate it the touch stone, being used 
 for the trial of gold and silver. The Romans, Grecians, 
 and chiefly the Egyptians, made most of their statues of 
 Basaltes. See also Marble, 
 
BATH STONE, 
 
 Has its name from the city of Bath, most of the beau- 
 tiful buildings of that place being erected with it. It is 
 not so white and hard as Portland stone, but as it is' easy 
 to be wrought with edged tools, and fashioned for all the 
 ornamental parts of architecture, statuary, &c. it is sent to 
 all parts of England. 
 
 This stone is dug out of the quarries upon Charlton- 
 down, and brought from thence down a steep hill, by a 
 four-wheeled carriage, of a particular structure. The 
 wheels are of cast iron, broad and low, with a grove in the 
 perimeter, to keep them on the pieces of wood, on which 
 the carriage moves down hill, with four or five tons weight 
 of stone, very easily, and without the help of horses. The 
 motion is moderated by means of a friction lever, bearing 
 more or less on the hinder wheel, as occasion requires. 
 
 Great quantities of the stone dug out of , those quarries, 
 are sent by the Avon to Bristol, and from thence to Lon- 
 don. 
 
 BEADS; GLASS BEADS. 
 
 F. Verroterie, Rassade^ Ro~ 
 
 caille. 
 
 G. Glasperleny Glaskor alien. 
 
 D. Fenetianse paarlen, 
 
 I. ContariayMargheritine. 
 
 S. Ahalorios, Rocalla, Vi- 
 
 ' drieria. 
 
 Beads are small globules or balls, chiefly used for neck- 
 laces; and made of 'p^arl, steel, garnet, coral, diamond, 
 amber, crystal, paste, glass, &c. There is a considerable 
 trade, chiefly of coral, amber, and glass beads, carried on 
 with the savages of the coast of Africa, and the East India 
 Islands. The Roman Catholics make great use of beads, 
 in rehearsing their Ave Marias; and the like usage is also 
 found among the dervishes and other religions of the East. 
 
 P. Missanga, Veloriosy Aljo- 
 far Rocalha. 
 
 DA. Glaskor allery Glasperler, 
 SW. Glasp'drlor, 
 
 POL. Koralki sklane. 
 
 R. Bisser i dekui. 
 
 BEAR SKINS; see Furs. 
 
49 
 
 BEAVER SKINS i see Furs. 
 BEER. 
 
 E. Bier€. 
 
 G. Bier. 
 
 D. Bier. 
 
 I. Birr a, Cercogia. 
 S. Cer^veza. 
 
 P. Cer‘veja. 
 
 BA. OeL Oell. 
 SW. Oel. 
 
 POL. Pirco. 
 
 R. Pirco. 
 
 L. Cere'visia, 
 
 Beer is a spirituous liquor, made with the addition of 
 hops, from farinaceous grains, by decoction and fermen- 
 tation. 
 
 Barley is generally used for making Beer, sometimes 
 also wheat, and even oats and rye. In North America 
 they brew Beer from maize. 
 
 The invention of brewing Beer is very old, but not so 
 old as that of preparing wine. According to Diodor, 
 Osiris^s Beer was so good, that it was little inferior to 
 wine, with respect to taste as well as strength. The An- 
 cients were strangers to the use of hops. 
 
 The chief sorts of Beer in Great Britain, of which con- 
 siderable quantities are annually exported, are Ale and 
 ' Porter. 
 
 Among the different sorts* of Beer brewed abroad, the 
 most famous are : the Broihan made at Hanover and Got- 
 tingen; the Bruns'wic Mumme; the Bremer Acht-groteu; 
 the Dantzig spruce heer, &c. 
 
 BEES-WAX; see Wax. 
 BELL-METAL; see Copper. 
 
 BERLIN BLUE; see Prussian Blue. 
 
 BERYL. 
 
 F. Peril . 
 
 G. Beryll. 
 
 B. Berylsteer.. 
 
 \. Btrillo. 
 
 S. Berilo. 
 
 Beryl is a pellucid gem of a bluish green colour, found 
 m the East Indies, and about the gold mines in Peru. 
 
 P. Berillo 
 DA. Beryl. 
 
 SW. Beryl 
 L. Aqua marina. 
 
50 
 
 There are also some coming from Silesia, but they are 
 oftener coloured ^crystals, than real Beryls-, and always 
 much inferior to the East Indian and Peruvian kind. 
 
 The Beryl in its perfect state, approaches to the hard- 
 ness of the garnet; and its size is from that of a small tare 
 to that ot a pea, a horse bean, or even a wallnut. 
 
 BEZOAR, BEZOARD. 
 
 i'. Be^aoard. 
 
 G. Be%oar. 
 
 D. Bezoarsieen, 
 
 I. Beizuar, Bezzuarro. 
 
 S. Bezm\ Bez2ar. 
 
 P. Bazar » 
 
 Bezoar is a general name, in natural history and medi- 
 cine, for antidotes, or substances to prevent the effects of 
 poison. 
 
 The Bezoar is a calculous concretion, found in the sto- 
 mach of certain animals of the goat kind. It is composed 
 of concentrical coats surrounding one another, with a 
 small cavity in the middle, containing a bit of wool, straw, 
 hair, or a similar substance.* 
 
 The Oriental Bezoar, brought from Persia and the East 
 Indies, is the best sort; it has a shining, dark, green, or 
 olive colour, and an even smooth surface. On removing 
 the outward coat, that which lies underneath appears 
 likew’ise smooth and shining. 
 
 The Occidental Bezoar, brought from the Spanish West 
 Indies, has a rough surface and less of a green colour than 
 the Oriental. It is likewise mucli heavier, more brittle, 
 and of a looser texture. The Occidental is generally less 
 than a wallnut; the Oriental most part larger, and some- 
 times as big as a goose egg. 
 
 A great many of the stones sold under the name of 
 Bezoar, are artificial compositions. The common mark 
 of the goodness of this stone, is its striking a deep green 
 colour on white paper, that has been rubbed with chalk. 
 
 Bezoar in medicine, can only be considered as an ab- 
 sorbent. 
 
 DA Bezoar, 
 
 SW. Bezoar. 
 
 POL Bezoar kamien* 
 R. Besoar, 
 
 L. Bezoar. 
 
51 
 
 German Bezoar, is said to be found in the stomach of 
 the chamois, a sort of wild goat, and supposed only to be 
 the hair of that animal, licked off by the tongue, and by 
 its impregnation with the saliva, condensed into balls, 
 which are used sometimes in medicine, but chiefly to 
 make a yellow colour for painters in miniature* 
 
 BICE; see Copper, 
 
 BISMUTH, TIN GLASS. 
 
 F. Bismuth. 
 
 G. Wissmuth. 
 
 D. Bismuth i Bergs teen. 
 
 I. Bismutte. 
 
 S. Bisfnuthy Piedrainga. 
 P. Bi smut ho. 
 
 DA. Vi smut. 
 
 SW. Vi smut. 
 
 POL. M arkaz) t cy non.K'y 
 R. Wistnut. 
 
 L. Bi smut hum. 
 
 Bismuth is a semimetal, of a reddish or yellowish white 
 colour, a lamellated texture, moderately hard, and brittle. 
 It is the heaviest of all semimetals, its speficic gravity 
 being nearly as that of silver, viz. ten times heavier than 
 water. It has no degree of malleability, breaking under 
 the hammer, and being reducible by trituration to a fine 
 powder. It melts a little later than tin, and is about as 
 fusible as lead. It seems to flow the thinnest of all me- 
 tallic substances. 
 
 This semimetal is chiefly found in Germany and in 
 Norway. It is employed by pewterers, to communicate 
 hardness to tin, and may be used instead of lead in the 
 cupellation of metals. It resembles lead in many respects, 
 and is thought to be dangerous when taken internally. 
 Most metallic substances unite with Bismuth, and are 
 thereby rendered more fusible; hence it is used in the 
 making of solder, printers types, &c. as well as pewter. 
 
 The calx of Bismuth is said to promote the vitrification 
 of earths, and of the refractory metallic calces, more pow- 
 erfully than lead; and likewise to act as a more violent 
 corrosive on crucibles, than the glass of lead itself. Hence 
 it is preferable to lead in the purification of gold and sil- 
 ver, destroying more effectually the baser metals with 
 which they have been adulterated. 
 
52 
 
 This semimetal is most commonly lodged in cobalt ores; 
 which, when of a high red, or peach bloom colour, are 
 called bismuth bloomy or Jlowers of bismuth. A tincture 
 drawn from the ore with aquafortis, and this afterwards 
 mixed with a saturated solution of sea salt, and inspissated, 
 yields a reddish salt; the watery solution of which is the 
 green sympathetic ink. The characters written with this ink, 
 disappear as soon as dry, but on holding the paper to the 
 hre, they become green and legible. 
 
 BISTRE. 
 
 F. BidauSly Bistre. 
 
 G. Bister y Russ-sihavdrze. 
 
 Is, the burnt oil extra<n:ed from the soot of wood. It is 
 of a brown transparent colour, having much the same ef- 
 fe£l: in water painting, where alone it is used, as brown 
 pink in oil. Though this color is much valued, yet it is 
 not in general use in this country, perhaps on account of 
 its not being easily procured of a perfefl kind. The best 
 is that procured from France. Dry beech wood affords 
 the best soot for making it. 
 
 The goodness of Bistre may be perceived, by its warm 
 deep brown colour and transparency, when moistened with 
 water. 
 
 BITUMEN JUDAICUM, jews pitch. 
 
 F. AsphaltBy Bitume dejudee, 
 
 G. Judenpech. 
 
 D. Jodenly m. 
 
 I. AsfaltOy Bitume giudaico. 
 S. AsfaltOy Betun judaico. 
 
 P. AsphaltOy Betume judaico. 
 
 DA. Jodebeegy ’Jedelum. 
 SW. Judebeck. 
 
 POL. Kletj ziemsky 
 ^.Asfalt, 'Jido’voskaia smola. 
 L. Asphaltuniy Bitumen Ju- 
 daic urn. 
 
 This is a kind of pitch, which may be found floating on 
 the waters of the Dead Sea, or lake Asphaltites, like large 
 lumps of earth; and which, being driven by the winds to 
 the eastern and western shores, adheres to them. It is .then 
 collected by the Arabs, and divided between them, and 
 the Bashaw of Damascus, who purchases their share of it> 
 
58 
 
 for some pieces of money, or such stuffs as they use for 
 clothing. 
 
 This Bitumen is a sulphureous substance, mixed with 
 salt, which is gradually condensed by the heat of the sun. 
 It is as brittle and shining as the black Stockholm pitch, 
 to which it so much resembles, that nothing but the bad 
 smell of the latter, and the hardness of Asphaltum, can 
 shew the difference. It is combustible; and exhales, while 
 burning, a strong and penetrating smell. 
 
 The Jews formerly used it to embalm their dead; the 
 Arabs gather it for pitching their ships; but Europeans use 
 it in several medicinal compositions, as also for a fine black 
 varnish, in imitation of that of China. 
 
 BLACK LEAD. 
 
 F. Mine de plomh noir^Flomh 
 
 de minei Potelot. 
 
 G. Pott loth. 
 
 D. Pot loot. 
 
 I. Miniera di piomho^ Piom 
 baggine. 
 
 S . Piedra mineral de plomo. 
 
 P. Pedra mineral de chumbo. 
 Dx'^. Blyant. 
 
 SW. Blyey'ts. 
 
 POL. Olonvek. 
 
 R. 'T sc hernoi krandasch, 
 Bleierx. 
 
 L. Plumbago. 
 
 Black lead is an inflammable substance, which when 
 fresh cut, appears of a bluish white, and shining, like lead ; 
 but when pure, becomes extremely black. It is micaceous, 
 and minutely scaly; easily broken, and when broken, of a 
 granulary, dull appearance. Black lead is too soft to strike 
 fire with steel : it is insoluble in acids; but in a very strong 
 fire, when exposed to the air at the same time, it is en- 
 tirely volatile, leaving only a little iron and a small quan- 
 tity of silicious earth. The substance evaporating is phlo- 
 giston and serial acid. 
 
 Black lead is found in difl^erent countries; as Germany, 
 France, Spain, the Cape of Good Hope, and America; but 
 Malaga in Spain excepted, generally in small quantities, 
 and of very different quality. The best sort, however, 
 and the fittest of all for making pencils, is that met with 
 at Borrowdale in Cumberland. It is found there in such 
 plenty, that not only the whole island of Britain, but the 
 whole continent of Europe, may be said to be supplied 
 from thence. 
 
54 
 
 The principal use of Black lead, is for making pencils 
 for drawing. One part of Black lead, with three of clay 
 and some cows hair, makes an excellent coating for re- 
 torts, as it keeps its form, even after the retorts have 
 melted. The powder of Black , lead also serves to cover 
 the straps for razors; and it is with that, the cast iron 
 work, such as stoves, &c. receive a gloss on their surface. 
 
 BLACK PEPPER; see Pepper, 
 
 BLUBBER 
 
 Is the fat of whales and other large sea animals, whereof 
 is made train-oil, by boiling it down. The whole quan- 
 tity of Blubber yielded by a whale, ordinarily amounts to 
 forty or fifty, sometimes to eighty and more hundred 
 weight. See Train Oil, 
 
 BLUE VITRIOL, 
 
 VITRIOL OF COPPER, OR ROMAN VITRIOL. 
 
 F. Vitriol bleu, Couperose 
 hleue. Vitriol Remain, 
 Vitriol de Chypre. 
 
 G. Blauer Vitriol, Kupfer 
 
 Vitriol, Romischer Vi- 
 triol, 
 
 D. Blaaun» Vitriool, Keper- 
 <vitriool, Roomsch Vi- 
 triool . 
 
 I. Vitriuolo turchino, di rame, 
 ciprio, 
 
 S. Vitriolo azul, de cohre, Ro- 
 mano, de Chipre. 
 
 P. Vitriolo de cobre. 
 
 DA. Blaa Vitriol, Kobber 
 Vitriol, Blaat Kobber- 
 •vand, 
 
 SW. Ela Vitriol, Koppar 
 Vitriol. 
 
 POL. Kopernuas cypryyski, 
 modry . 
 
 R. Sinei Kuperos, 
 
 L. Vitriolum coeruleum, Cy- 
 prinum, Romanum, nje- 
 neris. 
 
 if pure oil of vitriol is boiled on copper filings, or small 
 pieces of the metal, it dissolves them into a liquor of a 
 deep blue colour, which easily crystallizes. The crystals 
 are of a beautiful blue colour, and are sold under the njime 
 of Blue or Roman Vitriol. 
 
55 
 
 Where sulphur is found in great plenty, Blue Vitriol is 
 made by stratifying thin plates of copper with sulphur; and 
 upon slowly burning the sulphur, its acid corrodes the 
 copper. The metal is then to be boiled in water, that 
 the saline part may be dissolved. The operation is to be 
 repeated, till all the copper is dissolved, and all the saline 
 liquors are to be evaporated together, to the crystallizing 
 point. By this method however, a great part of the acid 
 is lost; and in Britain, the pure acid must be preferabla 
 for those who prepare Blue Vitriol. 
 
 Vitriol of copper is chiefly employed in medicine as a 
 caustic. 
 
 BOARDS. 
 
 F. Planches y Ais, 
 
 G. Breter. 
 
 D. Borden, Berden. 
 I. Asst. 
 
 S. Tablas, 
 
 P. Tahoas. 
 DA. Breeder, 
 SW. Brdder, 
 POL. Deski, 
 R. Dos ki. 
 
 Boards are long pieces of timber sawed thin. 
 
 Deal Boards are generally imported into England ready 
 sawed, because this can be done cheaper abroad. Clap 
 boards are imported from Sweden and Dantzic ready 
 formed for coopers. Oak boards chiefly come from Swe- 
 den and Holland, some from Dantzic. We also import 
 White boards for shoemakers; Mill and Scale boards, &c. 
 for divers artificers. Scale boards are a thin sort of 
 Board, used for the covers of primers, thin boxes, &c. 
 They are made with large planes, but might probably be 
 sawed with mills to advantage. 
 
 BOLE. 
 
 F. Boly Bol d’^ArmeniCy Bol 
 
 fin du Levant. 
 
 G. Bolus, Bissen, Fetthon, 
 D. Bolus, 
 
 I. Bolo, 
 
 S. Bol, 
 
 P. Bolo, 
 
 DA. Bolus, Fit leer. 
 
 SW. Bolus, Armenisk Bolus, 
 L. Bolus Armena rubra, Bo- 
 
 hemicuy iAc, 
 
 Boles are viscid earths, less coherent and more friable 
 than clay, more readily uniting with water and more freely 
 
56 
 
 subsiding from it. They are soft and unctuous to the 
 touch, and melt in the mouth, impressing a slight sense of 
 astringency. Amongst the various sorts of these earths, 
 the principal ones are the following: 
 
 The Armenian Bole, of a bright red colour, with a tinge 
 of yellow. 
 
 The French Bole is of a pale red colour, variegated with 
 irregular specks of white and yellow. 
 
 The Bole of Blots is yellow, and remarkably lighter than 
 most of the other yellow earths. 
 
 The Bohemian Bole is of a yellow colour, with a cast of 
 red, and generally of a flakey texture. 
 
 The Lemnian Earth, is of a pale brownish red colour. 
 
 The Silesian Bole, is of a pale yellow colour. 
 
 These and other earths made into little masses, and 
 stamped with certain impressions, are called terra sigillata. 
 They are recommended as astringent, sudorific and alexi- 
 pharmic. 
 
 BORAX. 
 
 F. Borax. 
 
 G. Borax, 
 D. Boras, 
 I. Borrace. 
 S. Borrax, 
 
 DA. Borax. 
 
 SW. Borax. 
 
 POL. Bcraks, 
 
 R. Bur ay Borakss. 
 L. Borax. 
 
 P. Borax. 
 
 Borax is a saline salt, chiefly found in the province of 
 Patna, in the East-Indies. Hitherto the chemists in Eu- 
 rope have in vain attempted to counterfeit it. Some of 
 them consider it as an alkaline salt, which is found, com- 
 pletely formed, in the country of Indostan; others will 
 have it to be the produce of volcanoes, or subterraneous 
 fires. 
 
 Borax is of great use in the working of metals, by fa- 
 cilitating their fusion and purification. This substance 
 being quickly vitrified by the adlion of fire, attracts the 
 heterogeneous particles that are intermixed with these 
 metals, and reduces them to dross. The Borax is likewise 
 absolutely necessary in the essaying of ores, and the sol- 
 dering of metals. The Dutch alone formerly had the 
 
57 
 
 lecrct of refining it, but it is now likewii-e refined in Bri 
 tain. 
 
 BOXWOOD. 
 
 F. Bois de Buis, 
 
 G. Buxbaumholz' 
 
 D. Palmhout. 
 
 I. BussOy Bos so, Bos solo. 
 S. Box. 
 
 P. Bucho, Buxo. 
 
 DA. Buxlorn. 
 
 SW, Buxbom. 
 
 POL. Bukspan. 
 
 R. Jams chit, Sekniza. 
 L. Buxus. 
 
 Boxwood is extremely hard and smooth, therefore well 
 adapted to the use of the turner; combs, mathematical and 
 musical instrumerits, works of sculpture, knife handles, 
 and button moulds, are made of it. It may also, properly 
 enough, serve as a substitute in default of ebony. 
 
 The boxtree formerly grew in great plenty upon Box- 
 hill, near Dorking in Surry, but now only a few large trees 
 are left. 
 
 Boxwood is chiefly imported from the Levant, some- 
 times also from Spain. The best quality ought to be in 
 pieces of a good size, straight, and void of knots. 
 
 BRANDY. 
 
 F. Eau de <vie, Brande^in. 
 
 G. Brannie^wein. 
 
 D. Brandenxyn 
 
 I. Acqua <vita, Acquarzente. 
 S. Aguardiente. 
 
 P. Aguardente. 
 
 DA. Brcende'vin. 
 
 S W. Brdnn^in. 
 
 POL. Gorzalka, Wodka. 
 R. Wino, 
 
 Brandy is a spirituous and inflammable liquor, extracted 
 from wine and other substances by distillation. 
 
 Wine Brandy made in France, is esteemed the best in 
 Europe. They make it wherever they make wine, and 
 those accounted best, are the Brandies of Cogniac, Bour- 
 deaux, Rochelle, &c. 
 
 The general method of distilling Brandies in France, 
 diflfers in nothing from that practised here, in working 
 from malt-wash or mellasses; they only observe more par- 
 H 
 
58 
 
 ticularly, to throw in a little of the natural ley into the 
 still, along with the wine, and this seems to give their 
 spirit the superior flavour for which it is admired. Some 
 wines are much more proper for distillation than others. 
 The wines of Languedoc and Provence afford a great deal 
 of Brandy by distillation, when the operation is performed 
 on them in their full strength. The Orleans wines, and 
 those of Blois afford yet more: but the best are those of 
 the territories of Cogniac and Andaye; which are however 
 in the number of those the least drank in France. Those 
 of Burgundy and Champagne, though of a very fine fla- 
 vour, are improper, as yielding but very little in distilla- 
 tion. 
 
 The wines of Spain, the Canaries, of Cyprus, of Grave, 
 of Hungary, and others of the same kjpd, yield very little 
 Brandy by distillation, and consequently will not answer. 
 
 A large quantity of Brandy is distilled in France du- 
 ring the time of the vintage 5 for all those poor grapes that 
 prove unfit for wine, are usually first gathered, pressed, 
 their juice fermented, and directly distilled. It is also a 
 general rule with them, not to distil wine, that will fetch 
 any price as wine; for in that state, the profits on them 
 are vastly greater, than when reduced to Brandies. The 
 large stock of small wines, with which they are almost 
 overrun in France, sufficiently accounts for their making 
 such vast quantities of Brandies in that country, more 
 than in others which lie in warmer climates, and are bet- 
 ter adapted for the production of grapes. All the wine 
 which turns sour, is also condemned to the still. 
 
 Our distillers imitate foreign Brandies to a tolerable 
 degree, by mixing dulcified spirit of nitre with British 
 spirits. But the only method of imitating French Bran- 
 dies to perfection, is by an essential oil of wine; this being 
 the very thing that gives them their flavour; the spirit 
 however should be perfectly pure and tasteless : for it is in 
 vain to expeCt, that this essential oil should correCt the 
 fulsome flavour of our malt spirits. To imitate Cogniac 
 Brandy, it is necessary that the essential oil should be dis- 
 tilled from Cogniac lees, and the .same for any other kind 
 of Brandy. 
 
 French Brandy, that has acquired by age a great degree 
 of softness and ripeness, is observed at the same time to 
 have acquired a yellowish brown colour, which seems to 
 
59 
 
 proceed from some of the resinous matter of the oak cask, 
 dissolved in the spirit. Also this colour our distillers have 
 endeavoured to imitate, by digesting extract of oak, or 
 oak shavings in spirit of wine. Treacle and burnt sugar 
 are also used for colouring Brandies. 
 
 The spirit distilled from mellasses or treacle is very 
 clean or pure. But though much cleaner tasted than 
 malt spirit, it will not prove so vinous, unless good fresh 
 wine lees are added to and fermented with the mellasses. 
 By this addition, and if not sufficient, that of some good 
 dulcified spirit of nitre, when brought to common proof 
 strength, spirit of mellasses may be made to pass on ordi- 
 nary judges for French Brandy. Great quantities of this 
 spirit are used in adulterating foreign Brandies, Rum, and 
 Arrack. 
 
 Brandy distilled a second time, is called Spirit of wine; 
 and this, after another rectification, is called Spirit of wine 
 rectified. 
 
 BRASILWOOD. 
 
 F. Bois de Bresit. 
 
 G. Brasilienholz, 
 D. Brasilienhout. 
 
 DA. Brasilientrae. 
 
 SW. Brasilia. 
 
 POL. Brezylia. 
 
 R. Brasilskoe derewo. 
 
 L- Lignum Brasiiia7ium, 
 
 I. Legno del Brasilct Verzino. 
 S. Brasili Madera del Bresil. 
 
 P. Pao Brasil. 
 
 Brazilwood is a very heavy hard, red wood, first brought 
 from Fernambucco, a town of Brasil in South America; 
 but the same sort of wood is also found in Japan and St. 
 Martha; that of Fernambacco however is esteemed the 
 best, and should be chosen in thick pieces, close, sound, 
 and without any bark. 
 
 The true Brasilian is a large tree, with a reddish and 
 thorny bark; the leaves small, obtuse, and of a fine shi- 
 ning green; the flowers a little sweet, and of a beautiful 
 red hue; the pods flat and priekly, containing two com- 
 pressed seeds, like those of the gourd. 
 
 The Brasilwood brought to us, difiers little otherwise, 
 than as different parts of one log; some pieces being richer 
 
60 
 
 in colour than others. Many hav€ confounded this wood 
 with red saunders, but the two woods chemically consi- 
 dered, are very obviously different j Brasil wood very rea- 
 dily communicating its red colour to water, whilst saun- 
 ders gives no red tinge to any aqueous liquor. The watery 
 tincture of Brasil wood however, is not quite so deep, as 
 that made in rectified spirit of wine, or in volatile alkaline 
 spirits. 
 
 Brasil wood dyes woollen of a red colour, which does 
 not want beauty, but has little durability. It is also used 
 by turners. 
 
 BRASILETTO WOOD. 
 
 S. Brasilete. 
 
 P. Brasileto. 
 
 DA. Brasiletholt . 
 SW. Brasiletta. 
 
 F Bresillot, 
 
 G. Brasilettholz. 
 D. Brasilethout, 
 I. Brasileto, 
 
 The caesalpinia brasiletto, Brasiletto or Jamaica wood, \ 
 grows naturally in the warmest parts of America, from 
 whence it is imported for the dyers, who use it much. It 
 is thought a very excellent timber, though in general of 
 small diameter. The wood is elastic, tough, and durable; 
 takes a fine polish, is of a beautiful deep orange colour in- 
 clining to red, full of resin, and yielding an excellent 
 tindlure by infusion. 
 
 The demand for this wood has been so great, that none 
 of the large trees are left in any of the- British plantations. 
 The largest remaining, are not above two inches in thick- 
 ness^ and eight or nine feet in height. The branches are 
 slender, and full of small prickles; the leaves pinnated; 
 the flowers white; and the pods inclose several small 
 round seeds. The red colour produced from this wood, 
 is greatly improved, by solution of tin in aqua regia. 
 
 BRASS; see Copper. 
 
61 
 
 BRIMSTONE. 
 
 F. Soufre. 
 
 G. Bch’wefel. 
 
 D. Znxjavel, Zolfer. 
 I. Zolfo, Solfo. 
 
 S. A^ufre. 
 
 DA. Svovel. 
 SW. Zvaf^veL 
 POL. Siarka, 
 R Sjera. 
 
 L. Sulphur, 
 
 P, Enxofre, 
 
 Brimstone is a yellow, tasteless, hard, brittle, mineral 
 substance; which when rubbed, becomes electric. It burns 
 with a blue flame, and a disagreeable suffocating smell. 
 
 The name of Sulphur seems to be applied to Brimstone, 
 after it has undergone a refinement in this country; in the 
 state in which the substance is imported, it is termed 
 Brimstone. 
 
 Brimstone is found, sometimes pure, but generally com- 
 bined with other substances. If united with metals, it is 
 called pyrites. Dr. Watson has shewn, in a paper on 
 lead ore, in the Philosophical Transa(Slions, that no less 
 than seven hundred tons are annually dissipated in the 
 various lead mines of England, for want of a different 
 mode of purifying the ores. It has lately been discovered, 
 that sulphur is formed, by a natural process, in animals 
 and vegetables beginning to putrify. It is found on stable 
 walls and in privies. It is also extracted from vegetables, 
 as the dock-root, coehlearia, &c. M. Deyeux obtained it 
 from the white of eggs. It has likewise been procured 
 from horse-dung. 
 
 The Brimstone used in Great Britain is generally brought 
 from volcanic countries. It abounds in inexhaustible quan- 
 tities in Italy, and particularly in the island of Sicily. The 
 very first quality of Sicily Brimstone is that of the Prince 
 of Trabia, loaded at Lycata: it is constantly two tar ins 
 higher than the common sorts. The second sort is that 
 of the Prince of Pantelaria, shipped at Palma, about one 
 tarin dearer than common Brimstone. The third sort in 
 quality is that of the Prince of Butera, shipped from Fal- 
 conara or Lycata. Then comes the fabric of the Due of 
 Monteleone, loaded at Fiume di Nero, followed by that of 
 the Prince of Catholica, shipped from Syculiana, These 
 are all the best sorts of Brimstone. 
 
62 
 
 In Sicily, the Brimstone is dug up by means of groves, 
 drove into the heart of the mountains; the mineral is 
 brought up in small green lumps, and laid in large troughs 
 lined with plaster. When the fire has heated them to 
 the proper degree, the Brimstone exudes through holes in 
 the bottom, into wooden bowls placed under them. 
 
 A more refined sort of Brimstone, than any of the Si- 
 cilian fabrics, is brought in rolls from Leghorn. The 
 goodness and purity of Brimstone is to be distinguished 
 by an uniform palish yellow colour, close texture, and 
 small grain. Red or dark stripes are signs of inferior 
 quality. When melted sulphur is gently heated, it flies 
 off in a yellow powder, which is called flowers of sulphur ^ 
 mush used in medicine. A composition of nitre mixed 
 with Sulphur, is the ingredient for making oil of vitriol. 
 Gunpowder is a mixture of sulphur, nitre, and charcoal. 
 But a still more violent composition of which sulphur 
 constitutes an ingredient, is fulminating powder, con- 
 sisting of three parts of nitre, two of carbonate of potash, 
 and one of sulphur. Sulphur is employed in medicine, 
 both internally and externally. It is also used in several 
 arts. By means of it, fine impressions of engraved stones 
 are taken. It is used for whitening wool, silk, and many 
 other matters, by exposing them to its vapour during its 
 combustion. 
 
 BRISTLES. 
 
 F. Soies. 
 
 G, Borsten. 
 
 D. Bor St els, 
 
 .7. Set ole. 
 
 S. Cerdas j Set as. 
 
 DA. Borster, 
 SW. Bor St. 
 
 POL. Szezechy, 
 R. Schtschetina. 
 L. Setae, 
 
 P. Sedas y Cerdas. 
 
 Bristles are a rigid glossy kind of hair, growing upon 
 the backs of swine, and much used by brushmakers, 
 shoemakers, sadlers, and others. They are chiefly im- 
 ported from Russia and Poland. The latter pass under 
 the name of Konigsberg Bristles, and amongst the former 
 the Ukraine Bristles are ‘most esteemed. 
 
 BRONZE; see Copper. 
 
63 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. 
 
 F. Ble Sarrasin, Blenoir. 
 
 G. Buch'-weizeny Heidekorn. 
 U. Boek^joeit. 
 
 I. Grano- SaracenOj Faggina, 
 
 P. Frigo Saraceno. 
 
 DA. Bogh<vede. 
 
 SW. Boh^ete. 
 
 POL. Tat area, Gryka, Bo- 
 
 Frainar 
 
 S. Trtgo Saraceno, Trigone 
 
 hanca. 
 
 gro. 
 
 R. Gretscha» 
 L. Fagopyrum. 
 
 Buckwheat is produced by the polygonum sagopyrum, 
 which rises with an upright smooth branchy stem, from 
 about a foot and a half to a yard high. The branches are 
 terminated by clusters of whitish flowers, succeeded by 
 large angular seeds. 
 
 Buckwheat is frequently cultivated, both by way of 
 fodder, cutting its stalks while young and green, to feed 
 cattle; and for its grain, to feed pigeons, poultry, hogs, 
 &c. for which it affords excellent nourishment. 
 
 Several writers who lived in the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century, consider Buckwheat to be a plant first 
 introduced into Europe in their time, from Greece and 
 the northern parts of Asia. After the middle of the said 
 century, it had become the common food of the poor in 
 France. 
 
 That Buckwheat was cultivated in England about the 
 year 1597 is proved by Gerard’s Herbal. 
 
 A new species of this grain has been made known of 
 late years, under the name of Siberian Buckwheat, which 
 appears by experience, to have considerable advantages 
 over the former. It was brought from Tartary to Peters- 
 burg, in the beginning of the last century, and has thence 
 been dispersed all over Europe. 
 
 BUENOS AYRES HIDES. 
 
 F. Cuirs de Buenos Ayres. 
 
 G. Buenos Ayres Hoeute. 
 
 These are the hides of bull-oxen, dried in the hair, and 
 imported from Buenos Ayres, a large country in South 
 America, abounding in horned cattle. In such abundance 
 
64 
 
 are these animals there, that the hide alone is esteemed of 
 any value. 
 
 BUFF-SKINS j BUFFS. 
 
 F. Bufflle, Peaux de Buffles, 
 
 G. B’uffelh'dute . 
 
 D. Bujffelsleert Buffelshuiden. 
 I. Bufalo, Cuojo di Bufalo, 
 
 S. Ante. 
 
 P. Couro de Bufalo. 
 
 DA. Bdffelldder , Boffeihuder . 
 SW. Buffelhuder. 
 
 Buff, is a sort of leather, prepared from the skin of the 
 buffalo; which, dressed with oil, after the manner of the 
 shamoy, makes what we call Buff skins. The principal 
 manufa£lories of this article, are in France and Germany; 
 and it makes a very considerable article in the Levant 
 tradci The skins of elks, oxen and other like animals, 
 when prepared in the buffalo manner, are likewise called 
 Buffs. 
 
 Buff-leather is used for sword belts, and for other pur- 
 poses where its exceeding thickness and firmness is re- 
 quired. 
 
 BURGUNDY PITCH; Pitch. 
 
 BUTTER. 
 
 F. Beurre. 
 
 G, Butter. 
 
 D. Boter. 
 
 {. Burro t Butlro. 
 S. Manteca. 
 
 P. Mantel ga. 
 
 DA. Smdr. 
 
 SW. Smdr, 
 
 POL. Maslo. 
 
 R. Masslo Korowe. 
 L. Butyrum. 
 
 Butter is the fat, oily, and inflammable part of the milk. 
 Fresh Butter, which has undergone no change, has scarcely 
 any smell; its taste is mild and agreeable, it melts with a 
 weak heat, and none of its principles are disengaged by 
 the heat of boiling water. 
 
 The trade in Butter is very considerable; some com- 
 pute 50,000 tons annually consumed in London. The 
 quantity of Butter generally imported annually in the port 
 
65 
 
 of London, from York, Hull, Scarborough, and Stockton, 
 is about 115,000 firkins; from Newcastle upon Tyne 
 15,700 firkins; and from the county of Suffolk 56,700 
 firkins. There are also annually brought to London, by 
 land carriage, about 75,000 firkins of/ Cambridge Butter; 
 and about 30,000 firkins from all other parts of the 
 kingdom. Large quantities of Butter, likewise, are con- 
 stantly imported from Scotland, Ireland, and Holland. 
 
 No Butter is esteemed equal to that, made in the county 
 of Essex: well known by the name of Epping Butter, in 
 which at no time they mix much salt, though a little is 
 absolutely necessary. 
 
 In many parts of this kingdom, they colour their But- 
 ter in winter, to make it appear like May Butter. Divers 
 abuses are committed, in the packing' and salting of But,- 
 ter, against which we have a statute express. 
 
CALAMINE. 
 
 F. Calafninej Pierre calami - 
 
 naire. 
 
 G. Galmey, 
 
 D. Kalmei, Kalamintsteen. 
 
 I. Gialla mina, Zellaminay 
 Pietra calaminaris, 
 
 S. Calaminay Piedra calami^ 
 nar. 
 
 P. Calaminay Pedra calami- 
 naria. 
 
 DA. Galmey. 
 
 SW. Gallmeja, 
 
 POL. Galmaitty Galman., 
 
 R. Katnen kalaminar, Gal- 
 meja, 
 
 L. Lapis calaminarisy Gala- 
 mina, Cadmia. 
 
 Calamine is the general ore of zinc, of a spungy sub- 
 stance, yet considerably heavy. It is when most pure and 
 perfect of a pale brownish grey, and found in Saxony, 
 Bohemia and England. About the west end of Mendip 
 hills, in Somersetshire, Lapis Calaminaris is to be met with 
 in great plenty, lying near the surface of the earth. It is 
 of several colours, some white, some inclining to red, some 
 grey, and some blackish. 
 
 Mixed with copper. Lapis Calaminaris in virtue of the 
 zinc it contains, makes brass. It is much used in medicine 
 externally; and should be chosen for that use, as heavy, 
 soft, and friable, as it can be got, and least debased by other 
 substances. 
 
 F. Camphre, 
 
 G. K amp her. 
 
 D. Kamfer. 
 
 I. Canfora, 
 
 S. Alcanfory Canfor. 
 P. Alcanfor. 
 
 DA. K amp her . , 
 
 SW. Kamfer. 
 
 POL. Kamfer a. 
 
 R. Kamforay Kanfora, 
 L. Camphor a. 
 
 Camphire is a volatile concrete, belonging to the class 
 of essential oils; though Camphire is always in a solid 
 state. 
 
68 
 
 It is the produce of the laurus camphora, a tree which 
 grows naturally in the woods of the western parts of Japan, 
 and the adjacent isles; but is now cultivated also in the 
 isles of Sumatra and Borneo, and in China. We are in- 
 formed, that in China some of these trees are found above 
 one hundred cubits in height, and so thick, that twenty 
 persons cannot inclose them. The China and Japan 
 Camphire is almost the only kind brought to Europe, and 
 is inferior to that of Borneo and Sumatra. 
 
 All parts of the Camphire tree are impregnated with 
 the essential oil, though the roots contain most. It is ex- 
 tracted, by chopping the wood of the tree very small, 
 laying it to steep in water, and distilling it. 
 
 Pure Camphire is very white, pellucid, somewhat 
 unfluous to the touch, of a bitterish aromatic taste, and 
 fragrant smell. It possesses considerable antiseptic virtues, 
 and is a good diaphoretic, for which purposes it is used in 
 medicine. It is likewise employed in fireworks, and se- 
 veral other arts, particularly in making varnishes. 
 
 CANTHARIDES. 
 
 DA. Spanske fMer. 
 
 S W . Spajiska Jlugcr, 
 POL. Kantarjdy f Hisz- 
 panskie muchy. 
 
 R. Hischpanskie tnuchi. 
 
 L. Cantharides. 
 
 Cantharides differ from each other, in their size, shape, 
 and colour. The largest are about an inch long, but 
 others are not above three quarters of an inch. Some are 
 of a pure azure colour, others of that of pure gold, and 
 others again have a mixture of gold and azure colours; all 
 very brilliant, and extremely beautiful. 
 
 These insefls are more common in hot countries, such 
 as Spain, Italy, and the South of France; though they are 
 to be met with in all parts of Europe at some seasons of 
 the year; particularly among wheat and in meadows, upon 
 the leaves of the ash, the poplar, the willow, the rose’tree, 
 honey suckle, lilac, wild cherry, &c. Such numbers of 
 these insedfs are sometimes together in the air, that they 
 
 F. Cantharides i Mouches 
 Espagne. 
 
 G S pant sc he Fliegen. 
 
 D Spaansche <vliegen, 
 
 I. Cantarelle. 
 
 S. Cantaridas . 
 
 P. Cantaridas. 
 
69 
 
 / 
 
 appear like swarms of bees, and they have so disagreeable 
 a smell, that it may be perceived a great way olF, espe- 
 cially about sun set, though they are not seen at that time, 
 This bad smell is a guide for those who make it their bu- 
 siness to catch them. 
 
 Those that gather them tie them in a bag or piece of 
 linen cloth, that has been well worn; upon which they 
 are killed with the vapours of hot vinegar, and then dried 
 in the sun, and kept in boxes. 
 
 When dried, they are so light, that fifty of them will 
 hardly weigh a drachm. Those that are dry, fresh, and 
 whole, are the best. The Sicilian Cantharides, and parti- 
 cularly those of Mount Etna, are reckoned preferable to 
 those of Spain. They are found there particularly on the 
 pine and fig tree, whose juice is supposed to impart to 
 them a corrosive and abstersive quality. 
 
 Cantharides taken inwardly as medicine, a£l as a stimu- 
 lus upon the urinary passages, and should be carefully 
 made use of. Outwardly they are the basis of blistering 
 plaisters, by mixing their powder with some proper oint- 
 ment. 
 
 CAPERS. 
 
 F. Capres, 
 
 G. Kapperri. 
 D. Kappers. 
 
 I. Cappari. 
 
 S. Alcaparras^ 
 P. Alcapparas. 
 
 DA. Kapers, Kappers. 
 SW. Kapris, Capris. 
 POL. Kaparj. 
 
 R. Kaperszu. 
 
 L. Capparis. 
 
 Capers are the pickled buds of the Capparis spinosa, a 
 low shrub, generally growing out of the joints of old walls 
 and the fissures of rocks, in most of the warm parts of 
 Europe. 
 
 Capers are imported into Great Britain, from different 
 parts of the Mediterranean; the best from Toulon in 
 France. Some small salt Capers come from Majorca, and 
 a few flat ones from about Lyons. 
 
 Capers are chiefly used as a pickle in sauces, and arc 
 supposed to excite appetite and to assist digestion. In 
 medicine, they are considered particularly useful as deter- 
 gents and aperients in obstructions of the liver and spleen. 
 
70 
 
 CARAWAY SEED. 
 
 F. Car'uiy Cumin des pres. 
 
 G. Kucmmel. 
 
 D. Kar^vey, Ve'idkomyn, 
 
 I. Car‘ui. 
 
 S. Alcara^vsa. 
 
 P. Alcarwviay AUhirlnjia, 
 ChirH'ia. 
 
 DA. Kummeny Dansk Kum^ 
 me?iy Kar^e. 
 
 SW. Kummitiy Brodhuviitty 
 Karf. 
 
 POL. Karuji Kmin polny. 
 R. Dikii Timon. 
 
 L. Car^'i. 
 
 The Carum Carvi plant, grows spontaneously in many 
 parts of Great Britain; but its seed is mostly imported for 
 use, from Provence and Languedoc in France. 
 
 Caraway is a small, narrow, longish seed, furrowed on 
 the back; of an aromatic smell, and warm pungent taste. 
 It is used in biscuits, seed cakes, and confections; incrusted 
 with sugar as a sweetmeat, and distilled with spirituous 
 liquors, for the sake of its flavour. 
 
 CARBUNCLE. 
 
 F. Escarhcucle. 
 
 G. Kurfunkel. 
 D. Karfonkel, 
 I. Carbonchio. 
 S. Carbunculo. 
 P. Carfunculo. 
 
 DA. Karbunkel. 
 SW. Karbunkel. 
 POL. KarbunkuL 
 R. Karbunkel. 
 
 L. Carbunculus. 
 
 Carbuncle is a very elegant gem, of a deep red colour, 
 with a mixture of scarlet. 
 
 Its usual size is near a quarter of an inch in length, and 
 two thirds of that in diameter in its thickest parts. When 
 held up against the sun, it loses its deep tinge, and becomes 
 exactly of the colour of a burning charcoal; whence the 
 propriety of the Ancients calling it anthrax. It bears the 
 fire unaltered. It is very rare, and only found in the 
 East Indies. 
 
71 
 
 CARDAMOM. 
 
 D. Kardamomen'. 
 I. Cardamomi, 
 
 S. Cardamomos. 
 
 F. Cardamomes, 
 
 G. Kardamumen. 
 
 » DA. Cardamomer. 
 
 SW. Kardcmummor, 
 POL. Kardamom. ~ 
 
 R. Kardarnon. 
 
 L. Amomufn cardamomum. 
 
 P. Cardamomos. 
 
 This plant is a species of the same genus as the grains 
 of paradise and ginger. It is little known in this country 
 except by its seeds, which are used as medicine and in the 
 kitchen. It is a native of India, and divided into two 
 sorts, Cardamomum majus and minus. The first when it 
 comes to us, is a dried fruit or pod, about an inch long, 
 containing under a thick skin, two rows of small triangu- 
 lar seeds of a warm aromatic flavour. The Cardamomum 
 minus is a fruit, scarcely half the length of the foregoing, 
 but considerably stronger both in smell and taste. 
 
 CARMINE. 
 
 F. Carmin. 
 
 G. Karmin. 
 D. Karmyn. 
 I. Carminio. 
 S. Carmin. 
 
 DA. Carmin. 
 SW. Carmin. 
 POL. Karmin. 
 R. Karmin. 
 
 L. Carminium. 
 
 P. Carmim. 
 
 A very beautiful red colour, bordering upon purple. 
 The manner of preparing it is kept a secret by the colour 
 makers, though there is no doubt that it is a preparation 
 of Cochineal. 
 
 Carmine is used by woollen drapers, to colour and hide 
 those places in scarlet cloth, which are defective : it is also 
 used by painters in miniature, and sometimes by painters 
 in oil; though rarely^by the latter; on account of its very 
 high price. 
 
72 
 
 CASSIA BUDS. 
 
 F. Fleurs de Casse. 
 
 G. Kassia-bVttihey Kassia^- 
 b lumen. 
 
 D. Kassieblcemen. 
 
 I. Fiori di Cassia. 
 
 S, Flor de arbol de Canela* 
 P. Flores de Cassia, 
 
 DA. Cassieblomstre. 
 
 SW. Cassiablomster. 
 
 L, Flores Cussice. 
 
 Cassia Buds are the buds of the flowers of the laurus 
 cassia, or cassia lignea tree. They are used by distillers, 
 in conjunction with cassia lignea, for preparing cinnamon 
 water; and imported from different parts of the East In- 
 dies and China. 
 
 CASSIA FISTULA, cassia in the cane. 
 
 F. Casse solutive, Casse en 
 batons ou en canons y Cane- 
 jiccy Cassefstule. 
 
 G. Kassia, Roehrenkassiay 
 Purgier Kassia. 
 
 D. Kassiey Pypkassicy Riet- 
 kasshy Purgeerende Kassie. 
 
 I. Cassia Jistola. 
 
 S. Canajistola, Casia pur- 
 gantey Casia fistcla. 
 
 P. Cassia piirgantCy C ana- 
 fistula 
 
 DA. Cass lay Roer cassia. 
 SW. Cassia, Rcer cassia, 
 POL. Fistula, 
 
 R. Kassia. 
 
 L. Cassia fistula. 
 
 This is the purgative fruit or pods of the Cassia fistula, 
 black or purging Cassia, a tree originating from Egypt and 
 both Indies, where it rises to the height of forty or fifty 
 feet. The flowers are produced in long spikes at the end 
 of the branches, and are succeeded by cylindrical pods, 
 from one to two feet and upwards long, with a dark brown 
 woody shell, divided into many cells by transverse parti- 
 tions, each containing one or two oval, smooth, compres- 
 sed, yellowish seeds, lodged in a blackish, soft, sweetish 
 pulp, which is used in medicine. Those pods are best that 
 are fresh, full and will not rattle when shaken. 
 
 There are two sorts of this drug in the shops; one brought 
 from the East the other from the West Indies; the canes 
 or pods of the latter, are generally large, rough, thick 
 rinded, and the pulp nauseous; those of the former are 
 less, smoother, the pulp blacker and of a sweeter taste. 
 
73 
 
 This is probably owing to a difference in soil and culture. 
 In Jamaica, the finest fruit is produced from trees growing 
 in a rich deep mould in spme warm and well sheltered vale. 
 
 For using this fruit, the pulp is taken out of the pods 
 and sifted; though apothecaries use little of this kind but 
 what is old and boiled up with sugar to make it keep. 
 
 CASSA LIGNEA. 
 
 F. Cassia lignea, Casse en 
 bcis, Cane lie de la Chine. 
 
 G. Cassia lignea, Kasiitn^ 
 sdnde 
 
 D. Houtkassie, Moederkaneel 
 1 . Cassilignea, 
 
 S Cassia levosay Casalignea. 
 P. Cas ia lenhcsa. 
 
 D Modei kaneel. 
 
 SW. Modercanel. 
 
 L. Cassia lignea* 
 
 The bark of laurus cassia, Cassia lignea, or base cin- 
 namon, is imported from different parts of the Fast Indies 
 and from China; particularly from Timor, Java, Mindanao, 
 and the Malabar coast. It has a very near resemblance 
 to cinnamon, though distinguishable from it, by being of 
 a more thick, red, and coarse appearance, and by its 
 breaking short and smooth, while the cinnamon breaks 
 fibrous and shivery. It resembles cinnamon still more 
 exactly, in its -aromatic flavour than in its external ap- 
 pearance; and seems only to differ from it in being some- 
 what weaker, in abounding more with a viscous mucila- 
 ginous matter, and in being less astringent. 
 
 It frequently serves as a substitute for the more expen- 
 sive article of cinnamon, particularly in medicine: as al- 
 most the whole of what is at present sold under the title 
 of either simple or spirituous cinnamon water, is entirely 
 prepared from Cassia; and not even entirely from the 
 bark, but from a mixture of the bark and buds. 
 
 F. Castoreum. 
 
 G. Bihergeil. 
 D . Beensergeil. 
 1. Castcrio* 
 
 S. Castoreo. 
 
 P. Castoreo. 
 
 CASTOREUM. 
 
 I) A . Bce vergel. 
 
 S VV . Bdjverg d’l, 
 FOL. Stroybolonx'ry. 
 R. Bobroivaja struja. 
 L. CaUoreu.ni, 
 
 Castoreum was formerly believed to be the produce of 
 
 K 
 
74 
 
 tii^ testicles, but later discoveries have shewn that it is con- 
 tained in four bags situated in the lower belly, of the bea- 
 ver. 'fwo of these, that are called the superior, from 
 being more elevated than the others, are filled with a 
 soft resinous adhesive matter, mixed with small fibres, grey- 
 ish without and yellowish within, of a strong, disagreeable 
 and penetrating scent, an acrid bitterish and nauseous taste, 
 and very imflammable. This is the true Castoreum: it 
 hardens in the air, and comes to 'Us in round, brown, 
 brittle, and friable balls, of a red liver colour within. 
 The inferior bags contain an unctuous liquor like honey, 
 which in time becomes about the consistence of tallow, 
 but its odor is rather weaker and more disagreeable than 
 that of the true Castoreum. 
 
 The best sort of Castoreum is what comes from Russia; 
 an inferior sort, brought from Dantzic, is generally fat 
 and moist; and the 'American Castoreum, which is the 
 worst of all, is in longish thin balls. 
 
 Castoreum is looked upon as one of the capital nervine 
 and antihysteric medicines. 
 
 -CASTOR OIL. 
 
 F. Huile de Ricin. 
 
 G. Un^echies Falmoelf Rici- 
 
 nus (jcI. 
 
 I. Oho di Rid no. 
 
 S. Aceite de RicinOy 6 PalmA 
 Chrisii. • 
 
 P. Oleo de Ricino. 
 
 L Oleum palma Christi, 
 Oleum Ricini. 
 
 Castor oil Is extracted from the kernel of the fruit, pro- 
 duced by the ricinus Americanus, or oil-nut tree, which 
 grows in many parts of America, and is now much culti- 
 , vated In Jamaica. It is raised from the nut or seed, 
 grows with a suprising rapidity to the height of fifteen or 
 sixteen feet, and seems to flourish most in gullies, or near 
 running water, in cool shady spots. The seeds being freed 
 from the husks or pods, which are gathered upon their 
 turning brown, and when beginning to burst open; are 
 first bruised in a mortar, afterwards tied up In a linen bag, 
 and then thrown into a large pot, with a sufficient quantity 
 of water (about eight gallons to one gallon of the seeds), 
 and boiled till their oil is risen to the surface; this is care- 
 
75 
 
 fully skimmed, strained, and kept for use. One gallon of 
 nuts, will yield about one quart of oil. Thus prepared, it 
 is entirely free from all acrimony, and will freely stay upon 
 the stomach, when it rejects most other medicines. 
 
 But when intended for medicinal use, the oil is more 
 frequently cold drawn, or extracted from the bruised seeds, 
 by means of a hand-press j though this is thought more acri- 
 monious than what is prepared by coction. The cold 
 drawn oil, at first is perfectly limpid i but after being kept 
 for some time, acquires a pale tincture, resembling Lisbon 
 wine, probably caused by the membrane, which covers 
 the kernels. 
 
 This oil is most usually obtained in Great Britain from 
 the seeds imported in barrels. It is not subject to contract 
 rancidity, unless it is made from parched or roasted seeds, 
 which are impregnated with an empyreuma. Castor oil is 
 used internally in medicine, as a gentle purgative, and ex- 
 ternally for removing cramps, &c. 
 
 CAVIARE. 
 
 F. Ca^viart Camial. 
 
 G. Kauiar, 
 
 D. Kanjpjaar, * 
 
 I. Ca^iarioy Caviale. 
 S. Ca^iario. 
 
 DA. Caviar. 
 
 SW. Cauiar, Ka<viar. 
 POL Ikra. 
 
 R. Ikra. 
 
 L. Ca^iarium, 
 
 P. Ca^icirio. 
 
 Caviare is the spawn or roes of sturgeon ; it is either salt- 
 ed, dried, and made into small cakes, or sometimes in its 
 natural state packed up in kegs. 
 
 This sort of food is in great repute in Russia, on ac- 
 count of their three lents. 
 
 The sturgeon is found at the mouth of most of the ri- 
 vers in Russia, particularly those which fall into the Cas- 
 pian sea. The sturgeon caught at the mouth of the 
 Wolga, near Astrachan, is of a prodigious size; and it is 
 confidently affirmed, that one of their roes will weigh 
 three hundred pounds. 
 
 There is a pretty large quantity of this commodity con- 
 sumed in Italy, and they are well acquainted with it also, 
 in France and England, 
 
76 
 
 CAYANi OR Cayenne pepper; see Guinea Pepper, 
 
 CEDAR WOOD. 
 
 F Cedre. 
 
 G Cederhclz,, 
 
 ' D. C«w. 
 
 I Cedro, 
 
 S Cedro. 
 
 P Cedro, 
 
 The Finns cedra, commonly called by us Cedar of Le- 
 banon, and sometimes the^ Phoenician or Syrian Cedar, is 
 of a coniferous evergreen of the bigger sort, bearing large 
 roundish cones of smooth scales, standing erect, tlie leaves 
 being small, narrow, and thick set. 
 
 Cedar-wood is reputed almok immortal, and incorrup- 
 tible ; a prerogative which it owes chiefly to its bitter taste, 
 which the worms cannot endure. 
 
 If this tree abounded with us, it might have a principal 
 share in our most superb edifices. Ihe aromatic effluvia, 
 constantly emitted from its waod, is said to purify the air 
 and make rooms wholesome. Chapels and places set apart 
 for religious duties, being wainscotted with Cedar wood, 
 inspire the worshippers with a more solemn awe. On ac- 
 count of the great durability of Cedar wmod it W’as, that 
 the Ancients used Cedar tablets to write upon, especially 
 for things of importance. A juice was also drawn from 
 Cedar, with which they smeared their books and WTitings, 
 or other matters, to preserve them from rotting. In the 
 temple of Apollo at CTtica, there were Cedar trees near 
 two thousand years old; which yet were nothing to that 
 beam of an oratory of Diana at Seguntum in Spain, said 
 to have been brought thither two hundred years before 
 the destruction of Troy. 
 
 From the account of the latest travellers to mount Le- 
 banon, it appears, there are but very few Cedar trees re- 
 maining there. 
 
 They sometimes counterfeit Cedar, by dying wood of 
 a rcvddish hue; but the smell discovers the fraud: that of 
 true Cedar being very aromatic. In some places the wood 
 
 DA. Cedertra. 
 hW. Cedertraed- 
 POL Cedr, 
 
 R. Kerlr. 
 
 L. Cedrus. 
 
77 
 
 of the cajou-tree, passes under the name of Cedar, on ac* 
 count of its reddish colour and aromatic smell. 
 
 CERUSE j see White Lead. 
 
 CHEESE. 
 
 F. Fromage. 
 
 G Kaese. 
 
 D Kaas, 
 
 I. Fromaggict Cacio. 
 S. ^eso. 
 
 P. ^ 
 
 DA Ost, 
 SW. Ost. 
 POL 6V?'. 
 R Sicr. 
 
 L. Caseus, 
 
 Cheese, is a kind of food, prepared of curdled milk, 
 purged from the whey, and afterwards dried for use. 
 
 Cheese differs in quality, according as it is made from 
 new or skimmed milk: from the curd which separates 
 spontaneously upon standing, or that which is more spee- 
 dily produced, by the addition of rennet. Cream also, 
 affords a kind of Cheese, but quite fat and butyraceous, 
 and which does not keep long. 
 
 Every country has places noted for this commodity: 
 thus Chester, Gloucester, and Stilton cheese are famous 
 in England. In Switzerland, there is a kind of medicated, 
 herb or green cheese, made by intimately mixing the 
 juice of certain herbs with the curd, before it is fashioned 
 into a cheese; of this kind is the Schabzieger Cheese, 
 made in the Canton of Claris in Switzerland. An Italian 
 kind of Cheese, called Parmesan Cheese, is particularly 
 famous all over Europe. It is known in Italy, iindei' the 
 name of Lodi, a territory adjacent to the Parmesan, and 
 abounding in excellent pasture. The good qualities of this 
 Cheese are, to be new, of a yellow taste, close, and with- 
 out eyes. Holland furnishes several countries with a pro- 
 digious quantity of Cheese. The Gouda and Edam Cheeses 
 have a great repute. 
 
 The method of making Gloucester-Cheese in England 
 is as follows. The best Gloucester-Cheese is made from 
 new milk, and for every Cheese, only one meal’s milk 
 ought to be used. This must be changed or turned with 
 
78 
 
 the rennet. When the milk is turned, the whey should 
 be carefully strained from the curd, and the latter put in 
 the vat equally broken, taking care to put first a Cheese 
 cloth under it. The vat is then taken to the press for two 
 hours, when it should be turned to have a clean cloth put 
 under it, and then turned back. It must then be pressed 
 again, for six or eight hours, when it should again' be 
 turned and rubbed with salt. After this it must be pressed 
 a third time, for the space of twelve or fourteen hours 
 more, when, if any of the edges proje£l:, they should be 
 pared oflf. It may then be put on a dry board, where it 
 should be regularly turned every day. 
 
 The quantity of Cheese annually imported in London, 
 is about 5,760 tons of Cheshire Cheese; thin Cheese, from 
 Hull and Gainsborough, 1,400 tons; from Suffolk, 980; 
 and from Newbury, Abingdon, and other places, by bar- 
 ges, 2,400 tons. 
 
 Cheese, when analyzed chemically, appears to partake 
 much more of an animal nature than butter, or the milk 
 from which it is made. Shaved thin, and properly treated 
 with hot water, it forms a very strong cement if mixed 
 with quicklime. As a food, physicians condemn the too 
 free use of it. When new, it is extremely difficult of di- 
 gestion; when old, it becomes acrid and hot, and is of a 
 septic nature. Cheese made from the milk of sheep, di- 
 gests sooner than that from the milk of cows, but is less 
 nourishing; that from the milk of goats digests sooner 
 than either, but is also the least nourishing. 
 
 CHESNUTS, 
 
 DA. Kastanier. 
 SW, Kastanier, 
 POL. Kasztany. 
 R Kaschtanu, 
 L. Castama, 
 
 F, Chatignes. 
 
 G. Kastanien. 
 
 D. Kastanien y Karst engen 
 1. Cast ague. 
 
 S. Castanas. 
 
 P. Castanhas* 
 
 The Fagus Castanea, or Chesnut tree, has a large up- 
 right trunk, growing commonly forty or fifty feet high, 
 branching regularly round into a fine spreading head, 
 garnisiied with large spear shaped acutely serrated leaves. 
 
79 
 
 naked on the upper side, having flowers In long amen- 
 turns, succeeded by round prickly fruit, containing two or 
 more nuts. 
 
 Chesnuts grow wild in this country, but never equal 
 those in size and perfedion, which are imported from 
 Spain and Italy. Foreign Chesnuts are frequently kiln 
 dried, to prevent their sprouting in the passage, and in 
 that case are unfit for seed. 
 
 The Chesniit trees sometimes grow to an immense size, 
 and the largest of the known world, are those grov/ing 
 upon Mount Etna in Sicily. The most bulky of them is 
 known by the name of, The Chesnut Tree for a hundred horses \ 
 and is one hundred and sixty feet in circumference, but 
 quite hollow within. The people have built a house in 
 the cavity of this enormous mass. At Tortworth in 
 Gloucestershire, is a Chesnut tree, fifty-two feet in cir- 
 cumference, which is probably near one thousand years 
 
 old. 
 
 CHINA ROOT. 
 
 F. Squine, Esquine. 
 
 G. Chinanjjur-zel. 
 
 D. Chinanjjortel. 
 
 1. Radice China. 
 
 S. Raiz China ^ Cocolmzca. 
 P. Esquinciy Euhineza, Raiz 
 
 DA. Chinardo, 
 
 SW. Chinarot. 
 
 POL Chyna^ korzen, 
 
 R. Keren tschuputinsku. 
 L, Radix china f Stmlax. 
 
 da China. 
 
 This root comes from the West and East Indies, and b 
 composed of many thick fleshy fibres, which spread wide 
 on every side, and strike deep into the ground; from 
 which come out several stalks; taper, very strong, and 
 armed with short stiff pines. They fasten themselves by 
 their claspers to the neighbouring trees, and rise twenty 
 feet high and upwards. The root is without either taste 
 or smell, heavy, woody, hard, and beset with unequal tu- 
 bercles. The colour of that coming from the West In- 
 dies is on the outside of a dusky red, but within of a red- 
 dish white; the Oriental root, is of a blackish cast, and 
 more valuable. 
 
 This article enters into the materia medica, but its vir- 
 tues in venereal cases are not now in such repute as for- 
 merly. 
 
80 
 
 CINNABAR. 
 
 F. Cinnahre,. 
 
 G. Zinnober. 
 
 D. Cinabery ('"ermilioen. 
 I. Cinabro. 
 
 S. Cinahrio. 
 
 P. Cinabrio, 
 
 DA. Zinober. 
 SW. Cinnober. 
 POL. Cynobr, 
 R . Kino^ar, 
 
 L Cinnabrium. 
 
 Cinnabar is a mineral stone, red, heavy, and brilliant. 
 It is either native or artificial. Native Cinnabar, in which 
 quicksilver is mineralised by sulphur, is of different shades, 
 from a yellowish to a deep red. A hundred parts of Cin- 
 nabar contain about eighty of quicksilver, and twenty of 
 sulphur*, but artificial Cinnabar contains a little more sul- 
 phur, and hence its colour is darker. It is obtained by 
 sublimation, and thus reduced into a fine red glebe. The 
 best is of a high red colour, and full of fibres, like needles. 
 
 The chief use of Cinnabar is for pviinting. Lumps of 
 it are of a deep brown red, without brilliancy; but when 
 the too great intensity of its colour is diminished by 
 bruising and dividing it into small parts, the red of the 
 Cinnabar becomes more and more exalted, flame coloured, 
 and exceedingly vivid and brilliant: in this state it is 
 called VermilUuny cr Cinnabar in flowers. 
 
 Native Cinnabar is found in ihe Duchy of Deux Fonts, 
 in the Palatinate, in Hungary, Friuli, at Almaden in 
 Spain, &c. 
 
 The finer coloured ores of quicksilver are never worked 
 for extrafling the nnetal, but used entirely as pigments; 
 they have been ve^ injudiciously preferred for medicinal 
 uses, to the more pure faCdtious Cinnabars. 
 
 CINNAhlON. 
 
 F. Canelle c’e Ceylan, 
 
 G. Ztmmety KanehL 
 D . Caned. 
 
 I. C and la. 
 
 S Candc. 
 
 P. Candla. 
 
 DA. Cane el. 
 
 SW. C.neL 
 POL. Cynamom. 
 
 R Koriza. 
 
 L. Ci7inumo7ni(tny CaTtella, 
 
 Cinnamon is the bark of the laurus clntiamomum. 
 There is a base kind of Cinnamon, obtained from the 
 laurus cassia, for which see Cassia Ligiiea. 
 
81 
 
 The cinnamon tree is a native of Ceylon, It has a large 
 root, and divides into several branches, covered with a 
 bark, which on the outer side is of a greyish brown, and on 
 the inside of a reddish cast. The body of the tree, which 
 grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet, is covered, as 
 well as its numerous branches, with a bark, which at first 
 is green, and afterwards red. The leaf is three-nerved; 
 when first unfolded, it is of a flame colour, but afterwards 
 changes to a green. The flowers are small and white. The 
 fruit is shaped something like an acorn, but is not so 
 large. 
 
 Cinnamon is the under bark of the Cinnamon tree. 
 The best season for separating it from the outer bark, 
 which is grey and rugged, is the spring, when the sap 
 flows in the greatest abundance. It is cut into thin slices, 
 and exposed to the sun, and curls up in drying. The old 
 trees produce a coarse kind of Cinnamon, and the spice is 
 in perfe(Sl:ion only, when the trees are not older than three 
 or four years. When .the trunk has been stripped of its 
 bark, it receives no further nourishment, but the root is 
 still alive, and continues to throw out fresh shoots. The 
 Cinnamon is not reckoned excellent, unless it be fine, 
 smooth, brittle, thin, of a yellow colour inclining to red, 
 fragrant, aromatic, and of a poignant, yet agreeable taste. 
 The connoisseurs give the preference to that, the pieces 
 of which are long and slender. It comes to us generally 
 mixed with cassia lignea, though the latter is easily dis- 
 tinguished. Cinnamon splinters in breaking, and has a 
 roughness along with its aromatic flavour; w^hile the cassia 
 breaks over smooth, and has a mucilaginous taste. Cin- 
 namon is a very useful and elegant aromatic, more grate- 
 ful, both to the palate and stomach, than most other sub- 
 stances of this class. By its astringent quality, it likewise 
 corroborates the viscera. 
 
 It is supposed that Ceylon yields a million of pounds of 
 Cinnamon annually; and as only 600 , 000 lb. thereof were 
 sold, during the time the island belonged to the Dutch, 
 the rest was destroyed, in order to keep up the price. 
 
 The cinnamon tree is now likewise cultivated in Ja- 
 maica, and the Cinnamon produced, is said to be by no 
 means inferior to that coming from the East Indies. 
 
 L 
 
82 
 
 CIVET. 
 
 F Ci^vette. 
 G. Tjibeth., 
 D Clouet. 
 
 I. Ztbetto. 
 S . A gaii a, 
 P, Algalia. 
 
 DA. Zibet. 
 SW. Zibet. 
 POL. Zybet. 
 R. Zibet. 
 
 L. Zibethiim 
 
 Civet IS a kind of perfume, which bears its name from 
 the Civet Cat, the animal it is taken from. 
 
 Good Civet is of a clear, yellowish or brownish colour; 
 not fluid nor hard, but about the eonsistence of butter or 
 honey, and uniform throughout; of a very strong smell, 
 quite offensive when undiluted, but agreeable, when only 
 a small portion of Qivet is mixed with a large one of other 
 substances. It unites easily with oils, both expressed and 
 distilled, but not at all with water or spirit of wine. It 
 communicates however some share of its smell, both to 
 watery^ and spirituous liquors, by being suspended in the 
 still head during distillation. The Italians make it an in- 
 gredient in perfumed oils, and thus obtain the whole of 
 its scent: for oils wholly dissolve the substance of it. 
 
 It is very rare, to meet with Civet unadulterated. The 
 substances usually mixed with it, are lard and butter; and 
 it is impossible to distinguish the adulteration. 
 
 A great trade of Civet is carried on at Callicut, Bassora, 
 and other parts of the East Indies, and in Africa, where 
 the animal that produces the perfume is found. It is 
 mostly used by confectioners and perfumers. 
 
 CLOVER SEED. 
 
 F. Graine de trejle. 
 
 G. Kleeiaat. 
 
 D. Klanjer %aad. 
 
 1. Semetiza di irifoglio. 
 S. Scniilla de trebol. 
 
 P. Semente de tre^vo. 
 
 DA. Kiev er fro. 
 
 S W . VdpLingJi 6 . 
 POL. Koniez, Konik. 
 R. Trilistnik. 
 
 L. Trifolium. 
 
 There are forty-six species of Clover, of which two 
 principally deserve our notice, on account of the seed. 
 
83 
 
 First, the white creeping trefoil, trifolium pratense or 
 Dutch Clover. It grows in England, Holland, and Ger- 
 many; and its white seed is brought to us in considerably 
 quantities from the two latter countries. 
 
 Then, the purple or red Clover, trifolium pratense. 
 This is the species, most cultivated as food for cattle. 
 The finest seed grows in this country, but large quantities 
 are brought to us . from Germany, Holland, Brabant, 
 Flanders, and the northern coast of France, as far as 
 Bourdeaux. Amongst the foreign red seed, that coming 
 from Brabant and Flanders, seems to deserve the prefer- 
 ence, on account of its bright red colour, shaded with blue 
 and yellow. 
 
 White, is generally dearer, than red Clover seed. 
 
 In purchasing Clover seed, particular attention should be 
 paid to its being new, of a bright, lively colour; the 
 grains large, full, and heavy; and the mass perfedtly free 
 from all seeds of weeds, and other extraneous bodies. 
 
 CLOVES. 
 
 F. Cloux de Girojie. 
 
 G. Ge-vourznelken. 
 
 D. Kruidnagefen, Geroff.es, 
 
 L Chio'vi di GarofanOy Ga^ 
 rofaniy Garoffoli. 
 
 S. Cla-uos de Especiuy Cla- 
 ^illos. 
 
 P. Cra‘vos da India y Cra<vos 
 gircfes, 
 
 DA. Nsllikery Krydenelliker. 
 SW, KryddenegUkor, 
 
 POL. Goscdziki kramne, 
 
 R. Guuosdika, " 
 
 L. Caryophylli. 
 
 The caryophyllus aromaticus, or Clove tree. Is a native 
 of the Molucca islands, particularly of Amboyna, where it 
 is principally cultivated. It resembles the birch tree in 
 appearance, and its bark Is thin and smooth, like that of 
 the beech. No verdure is even seen under it. Its trunk, 
 which is composed of an exceedingly hard wood, does not 
 rise to any height, but divides itself into several principal 
 branches, the boughs of which are covered with leaves 
 and flowers in the month of March. The leaves are al- 
 ways placed opposite to each other, dotted, smooth, and 
 not serated, almost resembling in form and consistence 
 those of the laurel. At the extremities of the branches, 
 vast quantities of flowers are produced, which are first 
 
84 
 
 white, then green, and at last pretty red and hard When 
 they arrive at this degree of maturity, they are, properly 
 speaking, Cloves. As they dry, they assume a dark yel- 
 lowish cast; and when gathered, become of a deep brown. 
 
 The season for gathering them, is from October to Fe- 
 bruary. The boughs of the trees are then strongly shaken, 
 or the Cloves beat down, with long reeds. Large cloths 
 are spread to receive them, and they are afterwards ex- 
 posed for a few days, upon hurdles, to the smoke of the 
 bamboo cane. This fumigation, to which the heat of a 
 stove might perhaps be substituted to advantage, is fol- 
 lowed by drying the cloves in the sun. Those cloves, 
 which are purposely left upon the tree, or which escape 
 the notice of those who gather them, continue to grow, 
 till they are about an inch in thickness; and falling off, 
 produce new plants, which do not bear in less than eight 
 or nine years. 
 
 The clove, to-be in perfe^fion, must be full sized, heavy, 
 oily, and easily broken; of a fine smell, and hot aromatic 
 taste; so as almost to burn the throat. In the East Indies, 
 and also in some parts of Europe, cloves are so much ad- 
 mired, as to be thought an indispensable ingredient in 
 nearly every dish. They are put into food, liquors, wine, 
 and enter likewise the composition of perfumes. 
 
 In medicine, cloves possess in an eminent degree, the . 
 general virtues of hot, stimulating aromatics. 
 
 No part of any plant contains so much oil as cloves do. 
 Cloves acquire weight by imbibing water; which they will 
 do at some considerable distance. For this reason the y 
 Dutch, after they have sold their cloves, hang them, be- 
 fore the weighing, over water, at about two feet distance 
 from it. 
 
 In Amboyna, the Dutch East India Company had 
 500,000 cloves trees, which produced more than a million 
 pounds of cloves annually. 
 
 COALS; see Fit~coals. 
 
8S 
 
 COBALT. 
 
 F Cohalt. 
 G. Kobolt. 
 D Kobuld. 
 I. Cobalio. 
 S. Cobaho. 
 
 D A . Kohold. 
 SW. Cobolt. 
 POL. Kobolt. 
 R. Kobolc. 
 
 L. Cobaltum. 
 
 P. Cobaho, 
 
 What we have commonly under the name of Cobalt is 
 only a calx. Regulus of Cobalt, or more properly, pure 
 Cobalt itself in a metallic form, is a semimetal of a red- 
 dish white colour, close grained, so as to be easily redu- 
 cible to powder, about 7. 7 of specific gravity, and forming 
 itself into masses of a needle-like texture, placed upon one 
 another. 
 
 The calx of Cobalt has the property, that it can be 
 melted into a blue glass, called smalts^ for which see under 
 that head. 
 
 When Cobalt is first roasted and freed from the foreign 
 mineral bodies, particularly bismuth and arsenic, with 
 which it is united, it is then well calcined, and sold either 
 mixed or unmixed with fine sand, under the name of 
 zaffer. It is of a grey colour, and zafFer therefore is an 
 impure calx of Cobalt. .4 * 
 
 The solution of Cobalt in aqua regia has been long 
 known as a sympathetic ink. * 
 
 Cobalt is found in Saxony, Sweden, Norway, and Eng- 
 land; particularly in Somersetshire and Cornwall; but Sax- 
 oiny seems to be the only country where the working of 
 the Cobalt mines is much attended to. It is principally 
 exported from thence, reduced into zafFer, to Holland; 
 where it is prepared into smalts. 
 
 COCCULUS INDICUS, 
 
 Is the berry of an oriental plant, a species of solanum, 
 producing the fruit in clusters like grapes. These 
 berries, are partly about the size of bay-berries, and 
 partly about that of chick-peas; roundish but hollowed 
 in a little towards the stalk, and approaching to a kid- 
 ney shape; rough on the outside, and of a grey brown- 
 
86 
 
 ish or blackish colour. The fresher they are, the heavier*, 
 the older, the drier and lighter. This berry is principally 
 Cinployed in ointments for destroying cutaneous insects, 
 and in fishing. It is brought to us from Alexandria and 
 other paru of the Levant, also from the coast of Malabar. 
 
 COCHINEAL, 
 
 F. Cochenille, 
 
 G. Koschenil, 
 
 D. Conchenilje. 
 
 I Cocciniglia. 
 
 S. Cochinilluy Grana. 
 P, Cochenilha. 
 
 DA. Cochenille ^ 
 bW. Cochenille. 
 
 POL Cochenilha^ 
 
 R. Konssenel. 
 
 L. Cochinella, Cocci-cacti, 
 
 The Cochineal insecTt, to which we owe our beautiful 
 scarlet and purple colours, has not yet been found any 
 where but in Mexico. 
 
 It is asserted, from the testimony of the best writers, 
 that the nature of this colour was not known till the year 
 1692, when father Plumier Pomet gave an account of its 
 being an animal; and that before this period, the world 
 knew nothing more of it, than that it was gathered from 
 certain plants in Mexico; on which account it was naturally 
 supposed to be a seed.* iJpon searching into the originals 
 however, we find, that Acosta in 1560, and Herrera in 
 1601, had described it, as well as our modern naturalists. 
 
 The Cochineal is an inse£t much of the size and shape 
 of a bug. It is bred upon the nopal, cadfus, or Indian fig, 
 a shrub common all over New Spain, about five feet high. 
 Its stem is fleshy, large, flattened, downy, and covered with 
 clusters of thorns. It branches out very much, and grows 
 narrow, as well as its branches, at every point of ramifica- 
 tion; this gives to each portion of the plant thus made nar- 
 row, the form of an oval, thick, and thorny leaf. It has 
 no other leaves but these. Its flowers scattered o^er the 
 young stems, are succeeded by a fruit that is fit for eating, 
 and resembles a fig. 
 
 The Cochineal inseff, like all others, is of two sexes, 
 but which are exceedingly dissimilar in their appearance. 
 The female, which alone is valuable for its colour, has the 
 eyes, mouth and antennse fixed so deep, and so concealed 
 
87 
 
 in the folds of the skin, that it is impossible to distinguish 
 them without a microscope. From the first instant of its 
 birth almost, it remains attached to one point of the plant, 
 by a kind of trunk, and presents to the eye only an he- 
 mispherical crust. This covering is changed twice in 
 twenty five days, and is sprinkled over with a while and 
 thick dust, which is immiscible with water. At this pe- 
 .riod, which is that of puberty, the male, which is much 
 smaller, adlive, and more slightly made, issues out of a fa- 
 rinaceous tube, by means of wings with which he is pro- 
 vided. He flutters over the immoveable females, fixes 
 upon each of them, and soon perishes after foecundation. 
 The male is very scarce, and one is said to be sufficient for 
 three hundred females or more. The bulk of the female, 
 now visibly enlarges, till a drop of liquid, which escapes 
 from under her, shews that the eggs, wdiich are in great 
 number, will soon make their appearance. The little in- 
 se(Sls burst their covering at the time of their birth, and 
 soon spread themselves over the plant, to choose a favour- 
 able spot to fix upon. They particularly endeavour to 
 shelter themselves from the east wind. Accordingly, the 
 nopal, when viewed on that side, appears quite green, 
 while upon the opposite side, it is full of the inse(^s and 
 white. 
 
 The best method of keeping the nopal plantations in 
 order, is to replant them every six years, by putting several 
 pieces of the stems, into cavities of some depth. They 
 must be weeded frequently, but with precaution, in order 
 not to disturb the inseiSt. The cultivator must also take 
 care, to get rid of the animals that would destroy the 
 plant, the most formidable of which is a caterpillar, which 
 makes its way even through the Inside of the plant, and 
 attacks the insert from underneath. 
 
 Eighteen months after the planting, small nests of 
 twelve or fifteen females, ready to lay their eggs, are fixed 
 upon the nopal, at certain distances. The little ones which 
 come out, attain their full growth In two m.onths, which 
 is the limited duration of their life. They are then ga- 
 thered, and this operation is renewed every two months 
 from Odlober to May. This crop is to be gathered some 
 days before the laying of the eggs, either to prevent the 
 loss of the eggs, which are rich in colour, or to hinder the 
 little ones from fixing upon a plant, which is already ex- 
 hausted, and must bejcft to itself for a few months. 
 
.88 
 
 Immediately before the rainy season comes on, in order 
 to prevent the total destrudbon of the Cochineals, which 
 might be occasioned by the unwholesomeness of the air, 
 the branches of the nopal, loaded with infant insedls, are 
 cut ofF. These branches are laid up in the houses, where 
 they maintain their freshness, as all mucilaginous plants 
 do. Here the Cochineals thrive during the bad season. 
 As soon as that is passed, they are placed on the trees, 
 where the vivifying freshness of the air, soon makes them 
 propagate. 
 
 The Cochineal insedl may in some circumstances be 
 compared to the silkworm, particularly in the way of de- 
 positing its eggs. The insedts destined for this purpose, 
 are taken at a proper time of their growth, and put into a 
 box well closed, and lined with a coarse cloth; and in this 
 confinement they lay their eggs and die. The box is kept 
 close shut, till the time of placing the eggs on the nopal; 
 when, if any motion is perceived, it is a sufficient indica- 
 tion, that the animalcule has life, though the egg is so 
 minute, as hardly to be perceived. 
 
 When the Cochineal is gathered from the nopal, it is 
 put into pots of earthen ware, where it is killed, and then 
 packed in serrons. The Mexicans have three different 
 ways of killing them: one by hot water, another by fire, 
 and the third by the rays of the sun; whereof the latter 
 seems to deserve the preference: and great precaution is 
 requisite in either method, to preserve the good colour. 
 To the different ways of killing this insedt, are owing the 
 several gradations of the colour. 
 
 The wild Cochineal, a different species from the fine or 
 mestique Cochineal, we have been speaking of, but culti- 
 vated in the same places, and on the same plant, does not 
 require as much care and precaution. It is a more hardy 
 insedl, and bears the injuries of the air better. The crop 
 of it is consequently less variable in the produce, and may 
 be gathered all the year. This insedt is less abounding in 
 colour than the other, but as its produce is more certain, 
 and its price equivalent to two thirds of that of the fine 
 sort, it may be cultivated to advantage. This species is 
 also found in Peru. 
 
 Though the Cochineal belongs to the animal kingdom, 
 of all others the most likely to corrupt, yet it never spoils, 
 if kept dry. 
 
89 
 
 This valuable prodiuStion would probably succeed in ^ 
 different parts of Mexico; but hitherto scarce any, besides 
 the province of Oaxaca, has seriously attended to it. 
 Each acre of nopal plants, produces as much as two quin- 
 tals of fine Cochineal, with the attendance of one man. 
 Exclusive of what is consumed by America and the Phi- 
 lippines, Europe receives annually four thousand quintals 
 of fine Cochineal, two hundred quintals of granilla, a hun- 
 dred quintals of cochineal dust, and three hundred quin- 
 tals of the wild cochineal. 
 
 The principal countries where the cochineal insecls are 
 bred, are Oaxaca, Tlascala, Chulula, Nueva Gallicia, and 
 Chiapa, all in Mexico; and Kambato, Loja, andTucuman, 
 in Peru: but it is only in Oaxaca that they are gathered 
 in large quantities, and form a branch of commerce. 
 Their cultivation has been successfully attempted in the 
 French part of St. Domingo. 
 
 The cochineal in the state in which It is brought to us, 
 is in small bodies of an irregular figure, usually convex, 
 ridged, and furrowed on one side, and concave on the 
 other. The colour of the best is a purplish grey, pow- 
 dered over with a sort of white dust. This is called silver 
 cochineal. 
 
 Cochineal is highly valued, in every part of the world, 
 for the incomparable beauty of its red colour, which it 
 readily communicates to wool and silk, but with more dif- 
 ficulty to linen and cotton. It is principally used by dyers 
 for preparing crimsons and scarlets. The red colour 
 called carmine is also made from cochineal. In medicine, 
 cocliineal is used as a cordiac, sudorific, alex'ipharmic, and 
 febrifuge. 
 
 It is well known, that the cadfus or nopal plant, bears a 
 succulent fruit or berry at the extremity of its leaves, 
 filled with a juice of a delicate red colour, and agreeable 
 taste. This juice is the natural food of the cochineal in- 
 secSt, which owes to it, the value and property it possesses, 
 'as a red dye. Whence it follows, that the juice itself, if 
 brought to a consistence, must yield a true and pcrfe61: 
 colour, lively and brilliant as we find it in its natural state. 
 Upon this hypothesis Mr. David Riz, of Kingston, in Ja- 
 maica, made experiments, to obtain from the plant artifi- 
 cially, what nature accomplished in the insert, and at 
 length haDoilv succeeded bv inspissating the iuice. After 
 ‘‘ ‘ M 
 
 
a number of experiments, he found one process which 
 communicated a crimson colour to silk and wool, superior 
 to that given by cochineal. He came to England, and 
 trials of the same were made, before a number of the 
 principal dyers in and about London, at the museum of 
 the Royal Society. He also found two other processes, 
 which promised, with very little alteration in their manu- 
 fadtory, to afford the colourmaking dyes of scarlet and 
 purple. Upon a moderate calculation it was found, that 
 this colour would go further, than three times the quan- 
 tity of cochinc-al, which he accounted for by remarking, 
 that there is a great part of the insect, as its skin, &c. 
 which affords no dye; but that the whole of his process, 
 was genuine colour, with little or no impurity. 
 
 Notwithstanding the advantages that might be derived 
 to the nation, from this gentleman’s discovery, he met 
 upon the whole with very little encouragement to prose- 
 cute his manufacfure; though the sums annually expended 
 in the purchase of cochineal from the Spaniards are very 
 large, and thousands of acres, now waste in Jamaica, 
 might be cultivated with this plant, with little trouble and 
 expense, and a quantity obtained, answerable to the home 
 demand. 
 
 COCOA, CACAO. 
 
 F. Carao, 
 
 G. Kakao% 
 
 D. Kakau. 
 
 1. Cacao t Caccao. 
 S. Cacao, 
 
 P. Cacao, 
 
 DA. Kakao. 
 
 SW. Kakao, 
 
 POL. Kakao^jjy or zed 
 R. Kakao, 
 
 L. Cacao. 
 
 Cocoa is the seed of the fruit of the theobroma cacao, 
 or Cocoa tree, growing particularly at Caraccas, Marignan, 
 the Frepch islands, Surinam, &c. 
 
 The most proper soil for the Cocoa tree, is a moist, 
 rich, and deep earth. For the propagation of the plant, 
 some of the largest, finest pods are selected, the nuts taken 
 out, and thrown in water till they appear just ready to 
 sprout; they are then put in the ground, and in about 
 eight or ten days time, the plants will appear above the. 
 
91 
 
 tnould. The young plants are so susceptible of injuries 
 from strong winds, a too hot sun, or great droughts, that 
 they cannot be too well secured against such accidents. 
 For this reason, the most sheltered situation must be cho- 
 sen for them. In two years time, the plants having grov/n 
 to the height of about five feet, will begin to flower; these 
 first blossoms are always plucked off, that they may not 
 impair the vigour of the trees. Their fruit is not allowed 
 to remain for maturity, till the third year, and then only 
 so much as seems proportionate to the strength of each 
 tree. In the fourth year they are permitted to bear a 
 moderate crop. When planted in a good soil and pro- 
 perly managed, they will continue vigorous and fruitful for 
 thirty years. They bear two crops a year; the greatest in 
 December or January, the other in May; and from the 
 time the flowers drop off, to the maturity of the fruit, is 
 about four months. The time of maturity is known, by 
 the yellowness of the pods, and the rattling of the nuts or 
 kernels, when the pods are shaken. The latter are then 
 plucked, and after laying them in heaps for three or four 
 days to sweat, the nuts are picked out, and leaving the 
 pulp, if any remains upon them, they are- exposed to the 
 sun every day, for a month. It is best not to wash off the 
 pulp, as it makes them keep the longer. The pods con- 
 tain from ten to twenty, and even thirty nuts. The pro- 
 duce of one tree in good soil, is estimated at about twenty 
 pounds weight of nuts, but the produce of a tree in poor 
 soil and under bad management, rarely exceeds eight 
 pounds. 
 
 Cocoa to be good, ought to have a very brown and 
 pretty even skin or peel, which when taken off, the ker- 
 nel ought to appear full, plump, and shining, of a hazle 
 nut colour, very dark on the outside, and a little more red- 
 dish within, of a bitterish and astringent taste, without any 
 greenish or musty savour, and not worm-eaten. It is one 
 of the most oily fruits which nature produces, and has the 
 advantage, that how old soever it be, it never grows rank, 
 as all other fruits do, which have any analogy with this; 
 such as almonds, the kernels of pine apples, pistachio nuts, 
 &c. The Cocoa tree once grew so plentifully in Jamaica, 
 that the inhabitants flattered themselves, it would become 
 the source of inexhaustible wealth to them. In 1671 
 there were sixty fine walks in bearing, and many new 
 
92 
 
 ones in cultivation; but some years afterwards, they were 
 all destroyed at once, as it is said, by a blast, which per- 
 vaded the whole island; so that they were never afterwards 
 recovered; and at present, there are but very few; the 
 greatest discouragement in going upon this article, being 
 the extreme tenderness of the young plants, and the 
 length of time they require, to come to maturity. 
 
 The best Cocoa comes from Caraccas; but it is very 
 seldom to be met with in this country. 
 
 Cocoa is the chief ingredient for making chocolate, and 
 is also of itself a wholesome nourishing food. 
 
 COCO NUTS, cocos nuts. 
 
 F. Cocos 
 Ct. Ko/iosn'usse 
 D. Kokosnooterii Kalappus- 
 nooten, 
 
 I. Coe chi. 
 
 S. Cocos, 
 
 P. Cocos. 
 
 DA. Kokosnoedder\ 
 SW Kokosnoeiter, 
 POL Kokos. 
 
 R. Kokos. 
 
 L. Nuces Indie as. 
 
 Coco nuts are the fruit of the cocos nucifera, a tree, 
 supposed to be a native of the Maidive and some desert 
 islands in the East Indies; and from thence to have been 
 transported to all the warm parts of America. This tree 
 frequently rises sixty feet high. The body of the trunk, 
 which generally leans to one side occasioned, as is sup- 
 posed, by the great weight of nuts it sustains when young, 
 is the exadt shape of an apothecary’s large iron pestle, 
 being of an equal thickness at top and at bottom, but 
 somewhat smaller in the middle; its colour is a pale brown 
 throughout, and the bark smooth. The leaves or branches, 
 are often fourreen or fifteen feet long, about twenty-eight 
 in number, winged, of a yellow colour, straight and taper- 
 ing. The pinnae or partial leaves are green, often three 
 feet long next the trunk, but diminishing towards the ex- 
 tremity of the branches. The nuts of the size and shape 
 of a small melon, hang at the top of the trunk, in clusters 
 of a dozen in each. The pulp which lines the Inside of 
 these nuts, supplies a wholesome kind of food, from which 
 is expressed an oil, very sweet when fresh, and much used 
 
 
93 
 
 in India; but it contrails a bitter taste when kept long, 
 and is then only fit for burning. 
 
 The centre of the nut is filled with a clear, refreshing, 
 sweetish kind of liquid; the quantity of it in a full grown 
 nut, being frequently a pint and upwards. This is a most 
 cooling, wholesome beverage in sukry climates. In old 
 nuts, this fluid disappears, and changes into a hard kernel, 
 which at last fills the whole inside, being as white as 
 snow, and of the flavour of an almond; this kernel serves 
 for the propagation of the plant, and the Europeans grate 
 it, to make a kind of almond emulsion, from which they 
 prepare currie soup and other palatable dishes. 
 
 The shells of these nuts, being tipped with silver, are 
 frequently used for drinking bowls, sugar cans, &c. The 
 bark of the tree, may be wrought into cordage; and the 
 leaves into baskets, brooms, hammocks in form of nets, 
 mats, sacks, and other useful utensils. 
 
 If the buds of the flowers be cut off, before they are 
 perfeddy unfolded, a white liquor runs from them, which 
 is of a sweet taste while it continues fresh. It afterwards 
 turns sour, and makes good vinegar. When distilled in 
 its highest perfedlion, it produces a strong brandy; and 
 boiled with quicklime, yields a middling kind of sugar. 
 
 D-FlftH. 
 
 F. Moruet Cahillaud. 
 
 G. Kahliauj Bakalau. 
 
 D. Kaheljaawwy Bakkel- 
 jauunju, 
 
 I. Baccala, Baccalare. 
 
 S. Bacalao, 
 
 P. Bacalhao* 
 
 DA. KabliaUy Skreitorsk^ 
 Bakelau, 
 
 SW. KabeljOy Bakelau, 
 
 L. Gadus rnorhiia. 
 
 The common Cod is cinerous on the back and sides, 
 and commonly spotted with yellow; its length does not 
 exceed three feet, and is often less; the belly is white: 
 but they vary much, not only in the colour, but in shape, 
 particularly that of the head. The side line is white, 
 broad, and straight, till it reaches opposite the vent, when 
 it bends towards the tail. The jaws are of an equal length, 
 and at the end of the lower, is a small beard; the teeth 
 are disposed in the palate, as well as in the jaws. Leewen- 
 
94 
 
 hoek counted 9,38 f, 000 eggs in a Cod-fish of a middling 
 size; a number that will baffle all the efforts of man to 
 exterminate. In our seas they begin to spawn in January, 
 and deposite their eggs in rough ground, among rocks. 
 Some continue in roe till the beginning of April. 
 
 The Cod is only <bund in the northern parts of the 
 world; it is an ocean fish, and never met with in the Me- 
 diterranean sea. The great rendezvous of the Cod-fish is 
 on the banks of Newfoundland, and the other sand banks 
 that lie off the coasts of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and 
 New England. They prefer those situations, by reason of 
 the quantity of worms produced in these sandy bottoms, 
 w'hich tempt them to resort there for food. But another 
 cause of the particular attachment the fish have to these 
 spots, is their vicinity to the polar seas, where they return 
 to spawn: there they deposite their roes in full security,, 
 but w^ant of food forces them, as soon as the first more 
 southern seas are open, to repair thither for subsistence. 
 Some considerable quantity of Cod-fish is taken at Green- 
 land; a few also to the north of Iceland, but to the south 
 and w^est they abound. They are also found to swarm on 
 the coasts of Norw^ay, in the Baltic, and off the Orkney 
 and Western Isles; after which their numbers decrease, in 
 proportion as they advance towards the south, when they 
 seem quite to cease before they reach the mouth of the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. 
 
 Before the discovery of Newfoundland, the greater 
 fisheries of Cod were on the seas of Iceland, and off our 
 Western Isles, which were the grand resort of ships from 
 all the commercial nations; but it seems that the greatest 
 plenty was met with near Iceland. The English resorted 
 thither before the year 1415: for we find that Henry V. 
 was disposed to give satisfaction to the king of Denmark, 
 for certain irregularities committed by his subjects on 
 those seas. In the reign of Edward IV. the English were 
 excluded from the fishery, by treaty. In later times, we 
 find Queen Elizabeth condescending to ask permission to 
 fish in those seas, from Christian IV. of Denmark. In the 
 reign of her successor however, we find no fewer than one 
 hundred and fifty English ships employed in the Iceland 
 fishery; which indulgence might arise from the marriage 
 of James, with a Princess of Denmark. 
 
95 
 
 Newfoundland was discovered in 1497, by John Cabot, 
 a Venetian*, but it was not till 1536, that the English dis- 
 covered the great quantity of Cod, that might be caught 
 on the coasts of this island •, and the spring following some 
 small vessels were fitted out, which came home with full 
 cargoes. This fishery then gradually increased, so that 
 in 1615 we find two huiidretl and fifty English vessels 
 employed in the Cod fishery on these coasts, the lading of 
 which amounted to 15,000 tons. All these vessels had 
 sailed from Europe, and it was several years after only, 
 that fixed habitations were formed in Newfoundland. 
 The Spanish, French, and Bretons, formerly had much 
 the advantage of the English, in all fisheries-, as appears by 
 the state of that in the seas of Newfoundland in the year 
 1578. 
 
 Spaniards, 120 to 130 ships, being 5 to 
 Portuguese 50 
 
 French and Bretons 150 
 English from 30 to 50 
 
 The French pretend to have frequented the coasts of 
 Newfoundland since the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. This period may be too remote, but it is certain, 
 that they frequented them before the year 1634. All 
 other nations besides the English and French are now ex- 
 cluded from this trade. The latter formerly shared the 
 dominion of Newfoundland with the English, but by the 
 peace of Utrecht, the property of this island was confirmed 
 to Great Britain, and the French only preserved the right 
 of fishing in certain latitudes. The latter however, by the 
 advantage of Cape Breton, used to carry on such a bene- 
 ficial fishery, as employed at least 1,000 sails from 200 to 
 400 tons burthen, and 20,000 seamen; the produce of 
 their labour being so great, that in the year 1730, there 
 was a computation made, of 220,000 quintals of Cod-fish 
 at Marseilles only, for a market; and it has been affirmed, 
 that one year with another, they cured above five millions 
 of quintals. 
 
 All this immense fishery is carried on by the hook and 
 line only, yet some of the more experienced fishers will 
 take 350 to 400 cods a day. We have been informed, 
 that they fish from the depth of sixteen to sixty fathoms, 
 laccording to the inequality of the bank, which is vepre- 
 
 6000 tons. 
 3000 ditto. 
 7000 ditto. 
 
96 
 
 sented as a vast mountain, under water, above 600 miles 
 long, and near 300 broad. Near 15,000 British seamen 
 are employed in this fishery, and it affords subsistence to 
 a much more numerous body of people at home. 
 
 The best season for the Cod-fishery is from the begin- 
 ning of February to the end of April; the fish, which in 
 winter retire to the deepest water, coming then on the 
 banks, and fattening extremely. What is caught from 
 March to June keeps well; but those taken in July, Au- 
 gust, and September, when it is warm on the banks, are 
 apt to spoil soon. About July therefore, the vessels make 
 the best of their way to the Carribbee islands, or the Ro- 
 man Catholic states in Europe, every one using his efforts 
 to be of the first at market. 
 
 This branch of trade is carried on in two different wavs; 
 that which is called the wandering fishery, belongs" to 
 vessels which sail every year from Europe to Newfound- 
 land: stationary fishery is that carried on by Europeans 
 who have settlements on these coasts, and is infinitely 
 more profitable than the wandering fishery. 
 
 There are two kinds of salt Cod, the one called green 
 or white, and the other dried or cured; though it is all 
 the same fish, only differently prepared. The most es- 
 sential thing in the green Cod-fishery, is to have three 
 persons, who perfectly understand to open the fish, to cut 
 off the heads, and to salt them. These operations are per- 
 formed on board; the head being cut off, the belly opened, 
 and the guts taken out, the salter ranges the fish in the 
 bottom of the vessel, head to tail, and having thus made 
 a layer thereof, a fathom or two square, covers it with 
 salt; over this he lays another layer, which he covers as 
 before; taking care never to mix the fish of different days 
 together. When the Cod has lain thus, to drain three or 
 four days, they are moved into another part of the vessel, 
 and salted afresh: after which they are no more touched. 
 Sometimes they are put in barrels for the conveniency of 
 carriage. Green Cod is chiefly caught in the Bay of Ca- 
 nada, on the great bank of Newfoundland, on the Isle of 
 St. Peter, &c. In the fishing for dry Cod, such vessels are 
 generally chosen, as have large holds, because this sort of 
 fish incumbers more 'than it burthens. As fast as the fish 
 is taken, it is sent on shore, opened and salted there. 
 When they have taken salt, they are washed, and to drain 
 
^7 
 
 them again, laid in piles on a scaffold, and then on hur- 
 dles, turning them four tinaes every twenty-four hours. 
 When they begin to dry, they are laid in heaps, to retain 
 their warmth. At last they salt them over again, and lay 
 them in huge piles, in which manner they remain, till they 
 are carried on board, where they are laid on branches of 
 trees, disposed for that purpose in the bottom of the ves- 
 sel, with mats all round, to prevent tlieir contracting any 
 moisture. The principal fishery for dried Lod, is from 
 Cape Rose to the Bay des Experts, along the coast of 
 Placentia. These, though of the same kind with the green 
 Cod, are much smaller, and therefore fitter to keep; as 
 the salt penetrates more easily into them. This fishery, 
 though scarce half so much salt is spent, comes more ex- ^ 
 penstve than the other, as taking up more time, and em- 
 ploying more hands. 
 
 It is a well attested phenomenon, that the Codhshery 
 is scarcely begun, before the sea becomes oily, grows calm, 
 and the barks are seen floating upon the water, as upon a 
 poiibhed mirror. The same effeCl is produced by the oil 
 which runs from a whale, when it is cut to pieces. Dr. 
 Franklin, who made a series of expeiimer.ts hereon, has 
 ascertained, that a few drops of oil, the wliole of which 
 united together, would scarcely have filled a spoon, quieted 
 the waves at more than a hundred toises distance, with a 
 celerity of expansion, as marvellous as its division. There 
 are four kinds of co.mmodities drawn from Cod, viz. the 
 tripes, the tongues, the rocs, and the oil extraCled from the 
 liver. The tripes, tongues, and roes, are salted at the 
 fishery, together with the fish, and made up in barrels. 
 The oil is used in dressing leather. 
 
 The Newfoundland Cod-fish is more delicate, though 
 not so white, as that found in the northern seas of Eu- 
 rope. The Greenland fish is particularly small and ema- 
 ciated. 
 
 The Scotch catch a small kind of Cod on the coast of 
 Buchan, which is highly prized, though very much like 
 ling. They salt it, and dry it in the sun upon rocks, and 
 sometimes in the chimney, but the greatest part of it is 
 spent at home. Cods are also taken, in large quantities, 
 along the British and Irish coasts*, and they are caught in 
 abundance on the Dogger’s bank off Holland, from wdiencc 
 most of the fish come, that supply the market at Billings, 
 gate with fresh Cod. 
 
 N 
 
98 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 I) A. KnJJe, 
 
 SW. Kcffe. 
 
 POL. Kanva, 
 
 R. Kcfe. 
 
 L. Coffeat Caffea. 
 
 P. Caffe, 
 
 There is but one species of the Coffee Tree, supposed to 
 be a native of Upper Ethiopia, where it has been known 
 time immemorial, and is still cultivated with success. It 
 is larger, rather longer, not so green, and almost as fra- 
 grant, as that coming from Arabia, where it was first ga- 
 thered, towards the close of the fifteenth century. The 
 Arabians say, that it is a native of Abyssinia; and several 
 travellers affirm, that they have seen it in great plenty in 
 that country, where it produces berries not inferior in 
 goodness to the Coffee of Yemen. What renders this re- 
 lation the more probable is, that the fruit of the wild cof- 
 fee tree is in Arabia so bad, as to be unfit for use. 
 
 The Coffee tree, if left to itself, would rise to the height 
 of sixteen or eighteen feet, but is generally stinted to five, 
 for the conveniency of gathering the fruit. The main 
 stem grows upright, and is covered with a light brown 
 bark; the branches are produced horizontally and oppo- 
 site, crossing each other at every joint; so that every side 
 of the tree is usually garnished with them, and they form 
 a sort of pyramid. The leaves also stand opposite, and 
 when fully grown, are about four or five inches long, and 
 two broad in the middle. The flowers are produced in 
 clusters at the root of the leaves, being tubulous and 
 spreading open at the top; they are of a pure white, and 
 have a grateful odour. The fruit, which is the only useful 
 part, resembles a cherry. It ripens from August to Odto- 
 ber, darkens in November, and is fit to gather in Decem- 
 ber; but it ought never to be gathered, until the pulp is 
 exhaled, and the coat suffered to become thoroughly dry 
 and shrivelled; so that it appears ready to drop off, and 
 adlually falls off upon a slight touch. The best flavoured 
 Coffee is experienced to be colledfed from under the trees, 
 where it has recently fallen, quite dry, black, and shri- 
 
99 
 
 veiled. After being completely dried, it is taken to the 
 mill, where it is stripped of its first skin, and divided into 
 two parts, being flat on one side, and convex on the 
 other. From this machine it falls into a brass sieve, where 
 the skin drops between the wires, after which it is put 
 into another machine, called the peeling mill, which takes 
 off the parchment or the thin skin, that detaches itself 
 from the berry in proportion as it dries. The parchment 
 being removed, it is put into the winnowing mill, which 
 clears the coffee of all the pellicles that are mixed with it. 
 It is afterwards put upon a table, where the broken ber- 
 ries and any filth that may remain, are picked out by ne- 
 groes, upon which it is fit for sale. 
 
 The Coffee Tree particularly delights in hills and moun- 
 tains, where its root is almost always dry, and its head fre- 
 quently watered with gentle showers. In Arabia, the inha- 
 bitants of the highlands, plant other trees among their cof- 
 fee plants, in order to shade them; and in the time of the 
 intense heats, water them. In the West India islands, the 
 soil and climate are so very different from that of Arabia, 
 that the spot for the Coffee plantations cannot be chosen 
 too dry, nor is the heat too great. This tree begins to 
 yield fruit about the third year, but is not in full bearing 
 till the fifth. In a gravelly ground it mo^t delights, and 
 its roots, which seldom fail to strike between stones, ob- 
 tain nourishment, and keep the tree alive and fruitful for 
 thirty years. It flourishes only in those climates where 
 the winters are exceedingly mild; and then its blossoms 
 appear in the months of December, January, and Febru- 
 ary; and it bears in OtStober or November. 
 
 The Co.ffee Shrub is principally cultivated in Arabia ; 
 the isles of Java and Bourbon; most of the West India 
 islands; and in the Dutch settlements of Surinam, Ber- 
 bice, Demerara, &c. on the continent of South America. 
 
 The Coffee of the East is more esteemed than that 
 coming from the West Indies and America. Among the 
 former, the Arabian or Mocha Coffee, stands first, then 
 comes the Java, Cheribon, See. and last the Bourbon cof- 
 fee. Among the West Indian and American growth, that 
 of the French colonies is preferred to the British; and the 
 Dutch is the most inferior of any. Of the French coffee 
 that of Martinico deserves the preference. Good West- 
 India coffee should be of a greenish colour, fresh, void of 
 
100 
 
 mouldy and other unpleasant smells, and in small berries, 
 neither mixed with black nor broken. East-India coffee 
 is of a pale, and partly of a deep yellow colour, the Mo- 
 cha coiiee having small beans; and the Java in particular 
 being of a large, lightish yellow berry. 
 
 The qu;ility of the British coffee is greatly deteriorated, 
 by sufficient care not being taken to keep it distant from 
 sugar, rum, &c. as well in the West-Indies, as on board 
 the ships which bring it to Europe. The berries, there- 
 fore, should never be laid to dry in houses, where sugars 
 are caring, or rum, is kept; nor sent to Europe in ships 
 freighted with rum, sugar, pimento, ginger, salt-fish, See. 
 as they are very subjeff: to imbibe the flavour of these 
 commodities. The French, and most other foreigners, 
 exceed us vastly in this respect as well as in their method 
 of cultivating and curing coffee; and the greater price 
 which the coffee of their produce gains, is owing, in a 
 great degree, to their superior care and management. 
 
 'The growing in too moist a soil, is another cause, which, 
 though it always increases the size of fruit and vegetables, 
 greatly depreciates the quality of coffee in general, and is 
 particularly the reason t;f the inferiority of the growth of 
 Jamaica: the soil of wliich island is too luxuriant, rich, 
 and wet for this produ<5lion, particularly the north side 
 and midland parts. The berries there are large, and have 
 a full pulp, which requires a long time to dry, and the 
 weather and atmosphere are too moist for the purpose ;50 
 that the coffee brought from thence, is frequently covered 
 with a degree of mouldiness, and contradfs a musty, disa- 
 greeable smell and taste. The drier the soil, and warmer 
 the situation Is, the better will be the berries; they will be 
 smaffer, have less pulp, and a superior flavour. It is true, 
 that the trees planted in rich soils, yield commonly from 
 twelve to sixteen ounces of coffee per plant, and sometimes 
 as much as two pounds; and that, in dry soils, they scarcely 
 furnisli more than from six to eight ounces, which makes 
 an Immediate difference of one half in the weight. Now 
 in our markets, the greatest difference in the price, be- 
 tween small best grown coffee, and that which is larger 
 and of the worse kind, is from twenty to twenty-five per 
 cent, the planters, tlierefore find it their advantage, to 
 plant their trees in the richest soil. 
 
101 
 
 The origin of the drink made of Coffee, is not well 
 known. Some ascribe it to the Persians, from whom the 
 use was learned about the fifteenth century, by Gemaled- 
 din, Mufti of Aden, a city near the mouth of the Red 
 sea, who first recommended it to his Dervises, with whom 
 he spent the night in prayers. Their example brought 
 coffee into vogue at Aden. Hence it passed to Mecca, 
 where first the devotees, and then the rest of the people 
 took it. From Arabia Felix it passed to Cairo. In 1511, 
 Kahie Beg prohibited it, from a persuasion that it inebri- 
 ated and inclined to things forbidden. But Sultan Cau- 
 sou immediately after took off’ the prohibition, and coffee 
 advanced from Egypt to Syria and Constantinople. The 
 Dervises declaimed against it from the Alcoran, which de- 
 clares, that coal is not of the number of things created by 
 God for food. Accordingly, the Mufti ordered the coffee 
 houses to be shut; but his successor declaring coffee not to 
 be coal, they were again opened. During the war in Can- 
 dia, the assemblies of newsmongers making too free with 
 state affairs, the Grand Visir Cuproli suppressed the coffFe 
 houses at Constantinople; which suppression, though still 
 on foot does not prevent the public use of the liquor there. 
 Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into 
 France; and a Greek servant, named Pasqua, brought to 
 England in 1652, by Daniel Edwards, a Turkey merchant, 
 to make his coffee, first set up the profession of coffee- 
 man, and introduced the drink into this island. 
 
 The Arabian coff'ee is produced in the territory of Be- 
 telfagni, in a district: of fifty leagues long, and fifteen or 
 twenty broad. The fruit is not every where in equal per- 
 fe<ffion. That which grows upon the higher grounds, is 
 smaller, greener, weighs heavier, and is generally pre- 
 ferred. 
 
 It is computed that Arabia contains twelve milions of 
 inhabitants, among the greatest number of whom coffee is 
 a highly favourite liquor. None but the rich citizens have 
 the pleasure of tasting the berry itself. The common 
 people are obliged to content themselves with the shell 
 and the husk of this valuable produ£fion. These remains 
 so much despised, make a liquor of a pretty clear colour, 
 which has the taste of coffee, without its bitterness and 
 strength. These articles may be had at a low price at Be- 
 telfagui, which is the general market for them. Here 
 
102 
 
 likewise is sold, all the coffee, which comes out of the 
 country by land. 'Fhe rest is carried to Mocha, or to Jod- 
 da. 'Fhe Egyptians fetch it from the latter place, and all 
 other nations from the former. The quantity of coffee 
 exported from Arabia, may be estimated from twelve to 
 thirteen millions weight. The European companies take 
 off a million and a halfj the Persians three and a half; the 
 fleet from Suez six and a half millions; Indostan, the Mal- 
 dives, and the Arabian colonies on the coast of Africa, fifty 
 thousand pounds; and the land caravans a million. The 
 superiority of the Asiatic coffee, must arise chiefly from 
 its being cultivated in soils, best appropriated to it; from 
 its not being packed on board ship, with goods whose 
 steams might impregnate and vitiate its flavour; from the 
 length of its voyage to the European markets, and the 
 greater age it acquires by this means, before it comes into 
 the consumer’s hands. Perhaps, one part of the excellence 
 of the Mocha coffee arises from this circumstance. The 
 East Iridia Company send a ship to Mocha once in two 
 years; it is most probable, a part of the loading has been 
 kept in that hot country, above a year; it is six months be- 
 fore it arrives in England; it may be six or twelve months 
 more, before it comes into the consumer’s hands. Thus 
 between two and three years must intervene between its 
 growth and consumption. 
 
 For coffee-berries, some substitute peas, beans, rye, bar- 
 ley, oats, carrots, &c. which when roasted, yield an oily 
 matter, resembling coffee in flavour, but less agreeable. 
 
 COLE-SEED; see Rape-seed. 
 COLOCYNTH, coloquintida, bitter gourds. 
 
 F Co^oqiiintes. 
 
 G. Ko'oquinten. 
 
 D. B liter appeleuy ^ifitappe- 
 len 
 
 I. Coloquintida. 
 
 S. CoioquintidaSf I'ueras, 
 Caiabacillas. 
 
 P. Coloquintidasy Cahacin- 
 has. 
 
 DA. Coloquinter. 
 
 SW. Coloquinter, 
 
 POL. Kolok'-wintyda. 
 
 R. Kolo%intn. 
 
 L. Colocyntidum poma. 
 
 Colocynth is the dried medullary part of a wild species 
 of gourd or cucurnber, the cucumis colocynthis; brought 
 from Aleppo, and other parts of the East. . 
 
103 
 
 It is a very strong irritating cathartic, commended also 
 as an efficacious purgative and an alterative in chronical 
 disorders. 
 
 COLOPHONY. 
 
 F. Colo phone. 
 
 G, Geigenharz. 
 D. Vioolhurs, 
 I. Colofonio. 
 
 S. Colcfcnia. 
 P. Colopbonta. 
 
 DA. Fiolinharpixy Cclophd^ 
 
 niurn. 
 
 SW. Fiolkaday Hurts. 
 
 P O L . KaloJ'oni a . 
 
 R. Kan fol. 
 
 L. Colop honium. 
 
 Colophony is black rosin or turpentine, boiled in water, 
 and afterwards dried; or which is still better, the caput 
 inortuum remaining after the distillation of the etherial 
 oil, being further urged by a more intense and long con- 
 tinued fire. To be good, it must be shining, and odorife- 
 rous; and when thrown on the fire, should render asmoke 
 like that of frankincense. 
 
 It receives its name, from Colophon, a city of Ionia, be- 
 cause the best was formerly brought from thence. This 
 substance is found to warm, dry, soften, and agglutinate; 
 it usually enters the composition of plasters and unguents; 
 though it is also used by musicians, to rub the hairs of the 
 ,, bow for their violins. 
 
 * 
 
 COLUMBO ROOT. 
 
 F. Racine de Colo mho. 
 
 G. Co' umbo nvurzel. 
 D. Columho njuortel. 
 
 \. Radice di Colu?nho, 
 S. Razz de Coliimbo. 
 
 P. Razz de Columba, 
 
 DA. C olum bored. 
 
 SW. Columlorot , 
 
 L. Columbo Columba radix. 
 
 This is an article newly introduced in medicine, the na- 
 tural history of which is not yet well known. It derives 
 its name from Columbo, a town in Ceylon, which supplies 
 all India with it. The inhabitants of these countries have 
 for a long time used it, in disorders of the stomach and 
 bowels. They carry it about with them, and take it sliced 
 and scraped in Madeira wine. 
 
104 . 
 
 This root comes to us in circular pieces, which are from 
 half an inch or an inch, to three inches in diameter; and 
 divided into frusta, which measure from two inches to one 
 quarter of an inch. The sides are covered with a thick 
 corrugated bark, of a dark brown hue on its external sur- 
 face, but internally of a light yellow colour. On separa- 
 ting the surfaces of the transverse sections, the root is ob- 
 served to consist of three laminx; the cortical, the lig- 
 neous, and the medullary. All the thicker pieces have 
 holes drilled through them, for the conveniency of drying. 
 Colombo root has an aromatic smell, but is disagreeably 
 bitter, and slightly pungent to the taste, somewhat resem- 
 bling mustard seed, when it has lost by long keeping, part 
 of its essential oil. Yet, though ungrateful to the taste, 
 when received into the stomach, it appears to be corrobo- 
 rant, antiseptic, sedative, and powerfully antiemetic. 
 
 F. Cui^re. 
 
 G. Kupfer. 
 D. Coper. 
 
 I. Rame. 
 
 S. Cchre. 
 P. Co Ire, 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 DA. Kobher, 
 
 SW. Koppar. 
 
 POL. Mied^c. 
 
 R Mjedy Krasnoi mjed. 
 L. Cupru7n. 
 
 This is one of those metals, which from their destruc- 
 tibility by fire, and contracting rust in the air, are called 
 imperfect; of these however, it is one of the least imper- 
 fect and destructible. Its colour when clean, is very 
 brilliant; but it is extremely liable to tarnish, and the 
 goodness is judged by its being of a bright red. It has a 
 disagreeable smell, very perceptible on friction, or on 
 being heated. Its taste is styptic and nauseous, but less 
 perceptible than that of iron. Its tenacity, ductilitv, and 
 hardness, are very considerable and its elasticity superior 
 to any other metal except steel. 
 
 Copper is found in the bowels of the earth, chiefly in 
 the following state. First, native Copper; then, mine- 
 ralized by fixed air; coupreous stones; mineralized by 
 sulphur; dissolved by vitriolic acid; and in various other 
 forms. 
 
105 
 
 Native Copper, having the red colour, the malleability, 
 and all the other properties of the metal, is found in many 
 places of llurope particularly at St. Bell near Lyons, at 
 Norberg in Sweden, and Newfol in Hungary ; also in se- 
 veral parts of America. In very considerable quantities 
 it is found at Cape Lizard, and at Huel Virgin, in the 
 county of Cornwall. Some lumps of native Copper have 
 been found in the latter spot, that weighed from twenty 
 to thirty pounds; and in the month of March, 1785, there 
 were no less than twenty-eight millions of pounds of rich 
 Copper ore eJttradted from this mine. 
 
 Among the ores of Copper mineralized by fixed air, be- 
 long Copper ochre, mountain green, mountain blue, ma- 
 lachite, and azure of Copper. Mountain green is generally 
 found in a loose and friable state, often mixed with calca- 
 reous earth, iron, and some arsenic. One hundred parts 
 of the purest sort, contain seventy-two of copper, twenty- 
 two of aerial acid, and six of water. The mountain blue, 
 is of a deep blue colour, sometimes formed in rhomboidal 
 prismatic crystals of a fine blue, in which case it is called 
 azure of Copper. The malachite is sufficiently hard to take 
 a fine polish, and is therefore formed into toys of different 
 kinds; but as it is frequently porous and full of unequal 
 cavities, the solid pieces of a certain size are reckoned va- 
 luable. 'fhe malachite looks like green jasper, but is less 
 hard, and does not strike fire with steel. 
 
 Among the cupreous stones deserve to be enumerated; 
 the turquoise, improperly called a stone, being the tooth of 
 an animal, penetrated by the blue calx of Copper, of a 
 deeper or lighter blue, and susceptible of a fine polish; also 
 the lapis Arrnenus, which has calcareous earth or gypsum 
 for its basis: it is used in painting, when ground to a fine 
 powder, under the name of Bice. 
 
 Copper mineralized by sulphur, is the richest of all the 
 Copper ores, affording, from eighty to ninety per cent, of 
 Copper, ten or twelve of sulphur, and a small proportion 
 of iron. 
 
 Copper dissolved by the vitriolic acid. At Herngrundt 
 near Newsol in Upper Hungary, there are two springs, call- 
 ed the Old and New Ziment, so richly impregnated with 
 
 O 
 
106 
 
 Copper dissolved by the vitriolic acid, that iron thown into 
 them is dissolved by the latter, and the Copper precipitated 
 in its metallic form, in the place of the iron. Some pits 
 made purposely for this operation, are filled with the v^a- 
 ter of the springs, and old iron is thrown in, which in twelve 
 or twenty days is taken out, and the Copper scraped off. 
 The metal thus procured, differs little from native Cop- 
 per. One hundred tons of iron by this metliod yield 
 eighty-four to ninety tons of Copper. By the like process, 
 such quantities of Copper have of late years been ob- 
 tained, from some spring issuing from the celebrated 
 Copper mines at Asklow, in the county of Wicklow, in 
 Ireland, that these springs are now of as much consequence 
 as the mines themselves. One ton of iron there, produces 
 sixteen cwt. of fine Copper, selling for ten pounds sterling 
 a ton more, than the Copper fluxed from the ore. 
 
 There is in the isle of Anglesey a mountain called Parys, 
 which abounds in Copper ore. This is one of the rich- 
 est Copper mines in the world. According to Pennant, it 
 is certain, that the Romans were the first undertakers of 
 these mines. But they were not properly wmrked till the 
 year 1768, when they discovered at the depth of seven feet 
 from the surface, the solid mineral, which proved to be 
 that vast body, which has since been worked to such ad- 
 vantage, and is of unknown extent. Its thickness has been 
 ascertained in some places to be tv/enty-four yards. The 
 works of the Parys mountain consist of , two quarries, the 
 first called Monamine, the sole property of Lord Uxbridge; 
 the other called Parys, mine, shared between Lord Ux- 
 bridge and the Rev. Mr. Hughes. The Parys mine has 
 furnished from five to ten thousand tons of Copper per 
 quarter, exclusive of what is procured from the springs con- 
 taining Copper dissolved in vitriolic acid, which also here 
 is the richest ore the mine contains. As the two mines 
 employ nearly equal numbers of workmen, they probably 
 afford about the same quantity of ore. The produce of 
 these mines is exported from the port of Amlcoch. 
 
 Besides these there are other considerable Copper mines 
 in Wales, as the Llandidno mines near Conway; the mines 
 in Llanwrst vale, in North Wales; the hill of Llyany- 
 myneeh, consisting of a range of from twenty to thirty 
 
107 
 
 shallow pits; the mines near Pont Aberglaslyn, at the en- 
 trance by the South into Carnarvonshire; and the mine 
 on Snowden, near the village of Llanberris. 
 
 The Ecton mine, on the estate of the Duke of Devon- 
 shire, in Staffordshire, produces at least three hundred, 
 and the mines in Cornwall no Less than four thousand 
 tons of Copper per annum. 
 
 Sweden is reckoned the richest of any country in Copper 
 mines; but the Swedish Copper is inferior to the British. 
 Copper is also brought from Norway and Japan. The 
 Spaniards are plentifully suplied with this metal from New 
 Spain, the island of Cul3a, Porto Rico, and the kingdom of 
 Chili, whence it comes over without further improvement 
 than that of the first fusion, being formed by a mould into 
 round cakes. This the Spaniards affirm to excel the Bar- 
 bary Copper, and insist that it equals that of Sweden and 
 Hungary. 
 
 Copper when taken in the human body acts as a vio- 
 lent emetic, and has been generally accounted poisonous. 
 In order to prevent the pernicious effects of this metal, the 
 vessels made of it, are generally covered with tin in the 
 inside. Twenty*two to twenty-three pounds of fine tin, 
 melted together with one hundredweight of Copper, makes 
 hell-metal; with a smaller proportion of tin, it forms bronze. 
 Copper mixed with zinc, produces hrass^ princes metal^ 
 pinchbeck or similor, Manheimgoldy and other compositions, 
 according to the proportion. 
 
 COPPERAS, GREEN VITRIOL, 
 
 P, Caparrc^a <verde. 
 
 DA. Gtent kobler--wand. 
 SW. Gy'on Victriol^ Jcrnvi- 
 tricl. 
 
 POL Koper-was z zslaza. 
 
 R. Selenui kuparos. 
 
 L, Fitriolum martis. 
 
 Copperas, is a name given to the factitious green vitriol. 
 The usual method of manufadluring it in this country from 
 pyrites, is as follows. Pyrites are found in large quantity 
 in the coal mines of England, where most of the Cop- 
 peras is made. They are sulphur united with any metal; 
 very heavy and hard substances, having a kind of brassy 
 
 F. Couperose njerie. 
 
 G. Kupfer^asser, Eisenn}i- 
 
 trial. 
 
 D. Groene ^itriooly Tzervi- 
 triool. 
 
 I. Copparosa <verde. 
 
 S- Vitriolo de Marte. 
 
108 
 
 appearance, and hence they are called brasses by the work- 
 men. A very large quantity of these is collected, and 
 spread out upon a bed of stiff clay, to the depth of three 
 feet. After being some time exposed to the air, the up- 
 permost ones lose their metallic appearance, split, and fall 
 to pov/der. The heaps are then turned the under part 
 uppermost, so as to expose fresh pyrites to the air. When 
 they are all reduced to powder, which generally requires 
 three years; the liquor, which is formed by the rain water 
 running from such a large mass, becomes very acid, and 
 has likewise a styptic vitriolic taste. It is now conveyed 
 into large cisterns lined with clay, whence it is pumped into 
 a very large flat vessel made of lead. This vessel which 
 contains about fifteen or twenty tons of liquor, is sup- 
 ported by cast iron plates, about an inch thick, between 
 v/hich and the lead a bed of clay is interposed. The whole 
 rests upon narrow arches of brick, under which the fire is 
 placed. Along with the liquor, about half a ton or more 
 of old iron is put into the evaporating vessel. The liquor, 
 which is very far from being saturated with acid, adls up- 
 on the iron, and by repeated filling up as it evaporates, 
 dissolves the whole quantity. By the time this quantity is 
 dissolved, a pellicle is formed on the surface. The fire 
 is then put out; and as such a large quantity of liquor does 
 not admit of filtration, it is left to settle for a whole day, 
 and then is let off by a cock, placed a little above the bot- 
 tom of the evaporating vessel, so as to allow the impurities 
 to remain behind. It is conveyed by wooden spouts to a 
 large leaden cistern, five or six feet deep, sunk in the 
 ground, and which is capable of containing the whole 
 quantity of liquor. Here the Copperas crystallizes on the 
 sides, and on sticks put into the liquor. The crystalliza- 
 tion usually takes up three weeks. The liquor is then 
 pumped back into the evaporating vessel, more iron and 
 fresh liquor from the pyrites are added, and a new solution 
 takes place. 
 
 There is Copperas of England, Germany, Cyprus, Hun- 
 gary, and Italy; which only differ from each other in co- 
 lour, richness and perfection, being all the same minerill. 
 
 White Copperas is that of Germany; which, before 
 whitening, is of a bluish green, clear and transparent. 
 
109 
 
 Copperas is used in dying, for procuring a black co- 
 lour; in tanning and dressing of leather; and is an ingredi- 
 ent in making common ink. It likewise affords an oil, and 
 a kind of Spanish brown for painters; and is used in 
 medicine, as a corroborant. 
 
 F. Cor ail, 
 
 G. Korallen. 
 D. Koraalen. 
 1. Corale. 
 
 S. Coral. 
 
 P. Coral. 
 
 CORAL. 
 
 DA. KoraUer. 
 
 SW. Koraller. 
 
 POL. Koralkit Koralii. 
 R , Kcrallii. 
 
 L. Corallina. 
 
 The Corals were formerly believed to be vegetable sub- 
 stances, hardened by the air. Those parts which were 
 supposed to be the flowers, are now discovered to be insedls 
 inhabiting the Coral. The organs of the animal are con- 
 tained in the tubes, and the glandules are the extremities 
 of its feet; the milky liquor is the blood and juice. The 
 animal inhabiting the Coral is of the polype kind, and the 
 Coral has the same relation to the polypes united to it, as 
 there is between the shell of a snail and the snail itself. 
 
 The Coral grows in the caverns of the sea, exposed to 
 every injury; and it grows sometimes perpendicularly 
 downwards, sometimes horizontally, and sometimes up- 
 wards. The colour is either red, white, or black; the lat- 
 ter is the rarest. 
 
 The principal Coral trade is fixed at Genoa, Leghorn, 
 Marseilles, and Messina. The Coral fishery is carried 
 on in the Mediterranean, on the shores of Provence, from 
 Cape de la Couronne, to that of St. Tropex, about the 
 isles of Majorca and Minorca, and on the coast of Sicily; 
 on the coasts of Africa, particularly in the Ethiopic Ocean, 
 about Cape Negro, in the Persian Gulph, and the Red Sea. 
 The immense banks of Coral bordering and almost filling 
 up the Arabic Gulph, rise sometimes ten fathoms above 
 the surface of the sea; and being soft under water, and 
 hence easily wrought, they are preferred to all other stones 
 
110 
 
 for the purpose of building. Very fine branchy Coral is 
 found along the coast, east of the city of Taranto. There 
 was sometime back such abundance of Coral near these 
 shores, that a boat’s crew was once known to draw up in 
 one day as much as sold for five hundred ducats. 
 
 The manner of fishing Coral being nearly the same eve- 
 ry where, it will suffice to mention the method used by 
 the company at Marseilles. Seven or eight men go in a 
 boat, commanded by the patron or proprietor; and when 
 the net is thrown by the caster, the rest work the boat, 
 and help to draw the net in. This is composed of two 
 rafters of wood tied crosswise, with leads fixed to them : 
 to these they fasten a quantity of hemp, twisted loosely 
 round, and intermingled with some loose netting. In 
 this condition the machine is let down into the sea, and 
 when the Coral is pretty strongly embarrassed in the hemp 
 and the nets, they draw it out with a rope, which they 
 unwind according to the depthy and which sometimes re- 
 quires half a dozen boats to draw. If this rope happens 
 to break, the fishermen run the hazard of being lost : Be- 
 fore the fishers' go to sea, they agree for the price of the 
 Coral, and the produce of the fishery is divided on their 
 return, into thirteen parts; of which the proprietor has 
 four, the caster two, and the other six men one each; the 
 thirteenth belongs to the company for payment of the 
 boat furnished them. 
 
 CORIANDER. 
 
 F. Coriandre, 
 
 G. Kor lander . 
 
 D. Koriander. 
 
 I. CoriandrOy Curiandolo. 
 S. Cilantro y Culantro. 
 
 P. CoentrOy Coriandro. 
 
 DA. Koriander. 
 
 SW. Koriander. 
 
 POL Kory under. 
 
 R. Koriander 
 L. Coryandrum sat ivu m. 
 
 Coriander is an* umbelliferous plant, producing pale, yel- 
 lowish or brownish, striated, hemispherical seeds, which 
 . are joined by the flat sides, two togther. It is annual, grow- 
 ing in abundance in the sauthern parts of Europe. 
 
 These seeds when fresh, have a very unpleasant flavor, 
 which however by drying is altered, and becomes tolera- 
 
Ill 
 
 bly grateful. Their taste in this dry state, is moderately 
 warm and slightly pungent. Besides the confections made 
 of Coriander seed, it is sometimes employed in medicine 
 as a stomachic and carminative; it is also used by brewers, 
 both in England and Holland, to give a flavour to the 
 strongest beer. 
 
 DA. K.rL 
 SW. Korkira. 
 
 POL. Korek. 
 
 R. Korkon,voe derenAW. 
 L . Suber. 
 
 F. Liege. 
 
 G. Kork. 
 D, Kork. 
 
 I. Sughero, Su^ero, 
 S. Core ho. 
 
 F. Cor tic a. 
 
 Cork is the bark of a species of oak, called quercu's 
 suber. It grows thirty or forty feet high, having a thick, 
 rough, fungous, cleft bark. To take off this bark they 
 make an incision from the top to the botton of the Cork 
 tree, and at each extremity another round perpendicular 
 to the first. The old bark being detached for use the tree 
 still lives, and in six or seven years, the succeeding young 
 bark is again fit for use. The bark when stripped from 
 the tree, is piled up in a pond or ditch, and loaded with 
 heavv stones to flatten it ; hence it it taken to be dried, and 
 when sufficiently dry, put in bales for carriage. The Cork 
 tree is not injured by the operation of pealing off the 
 bark; for if not performed, it splits and peels off from it- 
 self, being pushed up by another bark formed under- 
 neath. 
 
 The bark of Cork is of some use in medicine, but the 
 chief use of it is for making soles, heels, and stoppers for 
 bottles, &c. The Spaniards burn it, to make that kind of 
 light black, we call Spanish blacky used by painters. They 
 also line stone walls with Cork, which not only renders 
 them very warm, but corrects the moisture of the air. 
 Cork is likewise used for making Cork jackets for swim- 
 ming. 
 
 The Cork tree grows in great plenty in Spain and Por- 
 tugal, and from these countries we receive the bark. It 
 
112 
 
 should be chosen in fine boards, all of a piece, of a mode- 
 rate thickness, yellowish without and within, not full of 
 knots, and even when cut. 
 
 F- Bk'ds, Grains. 
 
 G Getreidet Korn, 
 
 D Graaneny Korea . 
 
 I. Graniy Biadi. 
 
 S. Granos. 
 
 P. Graos. 
 
 Corn is a general name for several grains or seeds, used 
 for the nutriment of man; such as wheat, buckwheat, rye, 
 barley, oats, millet, maize, lentils, peas, &c. for which 
 see under the respective heads. Europe in every part of 
 it, Egypt, the Cape of Good Hope, the coast of Barbary, 
 and some other cantons of Africa, with some parts of 
 America cultivated by the Europeans, are the places which 
 produce Corn. 
 
 Egypt and Sicily were formerly the most fertile of all 
 other countries in Corn. Poland, France, the coast of the 
 Black Sea, and North America, now with their superflui- 
 ties supply a good part of Europe. 
 
 The best method of preserving Corn, is to move and air 
 it frequently for the first six months; after that time it will 
 require less labour, if kept in a dry place. When the Corn 
 has been preserved from all impurities for the space of two 
 years, and has exhaled all its fires, it may be kept for fifty 
 or even one hundred years, by lodging it in pits, cover- 
 ed with strong planks closely joined together: but the sa- 
 fer way is to cover the heap with quicklime, which should 
 be dissolved by sprinkling it over with a small quantity of 
 water; this causes the grains to shoot, to the depth of two 
 or three fingers, and incloses them with an incrustation,^ 
 though which neither air nor insects can penetrate. 
 
 It has been computed with certainty, that the balance 
 paid by Britain for corn imported, after deducting the value 
 of exportation, stood thus: 
 
 CORN. 
 
 DA, Korn. 
 
 SW Sad, Spanmal. 
 POL. Zbo::.e, 
 
 R. Chljeb. 
 h,Frumentum. 
 
113 
 
 In 1771, ^.105,200 
 
 1772, 84,400 
 
 1773, 569,820 
 
 1774, 1,022,230 
 
 and considerablely more in 1775. 
 
 Much larger sums than the above, have been expend- 
 ed by Great Britain during the last war, for purchasing 
 corn, and bounties on the importation of the same. 
 
 CORNELIAN. 
 
 F, Cornaliney Zarde. 
 
 G. Karneol. 
 
 D. Karneol. 
 
 I. Cornalina. 
 
 S. Cornerina. 
 
 P. Cornelinay Corneirina. 
 
 DA. Karneol. 
 
 SW. Karneol. 
 
 POL. Sardyk. 
 
 R. Seredolik. 
 
 L, CarneoluSt Sardus. 
 
 The Cornelian is a precious stone of which there are three 
 kinds*, the red, the yellow, and the white. The red Cor- 
 nelian is very well known among us; of a fine, compact, 
 and close texture, glossy surface, and of all degrees of red, 
 from the palest flesh colour, to the deepest blood red; it is 
 found in roundish or oval masses, much like our common 
 pebbles. It is generally free from spots, clouds, or variega- 
 tions, but sometimes veined very beautifully with an ex- 
 tremely pale red or with white. 
 
 The Cornelian is tolerably hard, and capable of a very 
 good polish. The Ancients have recommended it in 
 medicine, but at present they are only used for seals, trin- 
 kets, &c. 
 
 The finest Cornelians are those of the East Indies; but 
 there are very handsome ones found in the rivers of Silesia 
 and Bohemia; and we have some not despicable ones also 
 in England. 
 
 * 
 
 P 
 
}f4? 
 
 CORTEX SIMAROUB^'. 
 
 F. Simarouha. 
 
 G. Ruhr'-wurzeL 
 
 D. Roodenloop n,vortel. 
 I. Simaruba. 
 
 S. Simaruba. 
 
 P. Simaroba. 
 
 DA. Simaruba. 
 
 SW. Simaruba. 
 
 L. Cortex simarouba. 
 
 Cortex simaroub3e is the bark of the root of a species of 
 terebinthus, or birch tree, not yet sufficiently described. 
 This bark is thick, and transudes a clear transparent resin, 
 very odoriferous, and resembling mastich; it yields also 
 a more fluid resin by incision, which has much the smell 
 and appearance of turpentine. 
 
 This article comes from Guiana, and is the most ef- 
 fectual remedy hitherto known, in bloody fluxes. 
 
 CORTEX WINTERANUS, or cortex winteri. 
 
 F. Ecorce de Winter, Ecorce 
 sans pareil ou sine pari. 
 
 G. Wintersrinde, Amerika-, 
 nische genxurzrinde . 
 
 D. Wintersbark. 
 
 I. Scorza Magelanica. 
 
 S. Corteza Winter ana, 
 
 0 Magelanica. 
 
 P. Canella de Winter* 
 DA. F inter shark. 
 
 SW. Vintersbark. 
 
 L. Cortex Winteranus, s. 
 Magellanicus . 
 
 This is the bark of a tree, first brought from the straights 
 of Magellan, by Captain Winter, in his voyage with Sir 
 Francis Drake. It is aromatic, and found of good use 
 against the scurvy. It also invigorates the blood, is carmi- 
 native and stomachic. 
 
 The bark of the canella alba, wild cinnamon, or bastard 
 Cortex Winteranus, usually sold under the name of 
 Cortex Winteranus, consists of two parts, the outward 
 and inner *, the outward bark is as thin as a milled shil- 
 ling, of a whitish ash or grey colour, with light spots 
 here and there interspersed upon it, and several shallow 
 furrows of a darker colour, inward, variously through it, 
 and making it rough; the inward bark is much thicker 
 than cinnamon, and twice as thick as the outer coat, 
 smooth and of a lighter complexion, of ^ much naore bi- 
 
ting and aromatic taste, somewhat like that of cloves, 
 not glutinous like cinnamon, but dry and crumbling be- 
 tween the teeth. It is cured without any difficulty, by 
 drying in the shade. What is taken from the branches is 
 thinner, and rather milder than that from the body of the 
 trecj more nearly approaching to the true cinnamon. 
 
 This bark very much resembles cassia lignea, and though 
 different in appearance from the true Cortex Winteranus, 
 yet it is so like it in taste and virtue, that it may very well 
 serve as a substitute. 
 
 COTTON-WOOL. 
 
 F, Coton en laine. 
 
 G. BaumnMolle, 
 
 D. Katoen^ Boomnjool. 
 I. Cotone t Bambagia, 
 S. Algo don. 
 
 P. Algodao, 
 
 DA. Bcmuld, 
 
 SW. Bomull. 
 
 POL. Banvelna. 
 
 R. Chlobtschataja bmnaga. 
 L. Gossypiunii Botnbax, 
 
 Cotton-wool is a soft, downy substance, found on the 
 gossypium or cotton-plant, which is of the shrubby kind, 
 and when full grown, resembles the raspberry shrub. 
 
 There are different species of gossypium, all the natives 
 of warmer climates. 1. The common herbaceous Cotton, 
 which creeps along the ground, has yellow flowers, suc- 
 ceeded by large oval pods, furnished with seeds and Cotton 
 wool. 2. The hairy American Cotton, has hairy stalks, 
 two or three feet high. 3. The Barbadoes shrubby Cot- 
 ton, has a shrubby stalk, branching four or five feet high. 
 4. The tree Cotton, has an upright woody stalk, branching 
 six or eight feet high. The flowers and pods of the three 
 latter species are like those of the first. The three spe- 
 cies first enumerated are annual; but the fourth is peren- 
 nial, both in stalk and root; and the common herbaceous 
 Cotton is the plant most generally cultivated. 
 
 The Cotton-wool shrub is propagated by the seed, which 
 in the West India islands is sown in regular lines, about 
 five feet asunder, at the latter end of September, or begin- 
 ning of October; and at first but slightly covered, but af- 
 ter it springs up, and becomes a plant, the root is well 
 moulded, and the ground hoed freo^uently. It grows from 
 ibur to six feet high, and produces two crops annually. 
 
116 
 
 the first in eight, and the second in twelve months, from 
 the time of sowing; and the produce of each tree is about 
 one pound weight. When the pods are come to maturity 
 they burst open and disclose their seeds, intermixed with 
 the flock or wool. When great part of the pods are thus 
 expanded the crop begins. The wool is picked, and af- 
 terwards cleared from the seeds by a convenient machine, 
 of very simple contrivance, called a gin, composed of two 
 or three wooden rollers, ranged horizontally, close and pa- 
 rallel to each other, in a frame; at each extremity they are 
 toothed, or channelled longitudinally, corresponding one 
 with the other; and the central roller being moved with a 
 treadel, makes the other two revolve in a contrary direction. 
 The Cotton-wool is laid, in small quantities at a time, up- 
 on these rollers, whilst they are in motion, and readily 
 passing between them, drops into a sack, placed underneath 
 to receive it, leaving the seeds behind, which are too large 
 to pass with it. The wool thus discharged from the seeds, 
 comes afterwards to be handpicked, and cleansed tho- 
 roughly from any little particles of the pods, or other sub- 
 stances which may be adhering to it. It is then stowed 
 in large bags, where it is well trod by a negro whilst it 
 is thrown in, that it may lie close and compact; and the 
 better to answer this purpose, some water is every now 
 and then sprinkled upon the outside of the bag. The 
 weight of a marketable bag of West India Cotton is usu- 
 ally three hundred pounds; and that weight per acre may 
 be expected in the most productive plantations; but for 
 an average of rich and poor land, only two hundred and 
 seventy pounds weight can be reckoned in Jamaica. 
 
 The finest sort of Cotton-wool comes from the island 
 of Bourbon; then follow the growths of the Brazils, Ber- 
 bice, Surrinarn, Tobago, Szc. that of Surat in the Jfast 
 Indies, is the most inferior kind. 
 
 The Cyprus Cotton-wool, on account of its whiteness, 
 Softness, and the length of its filaments, is accounted the 
 best of the Levant Cotton. They reckon it a good crop, 
 when the produce of the whole island amounts to five 
 thousand bags; under the government of the Venetians it 
 produced thirty thousand bags. 
 
 No small quantity of Cotton-wool is gathered in the 
 Terra di Bari, and the distridls of the cities of Tiirsi, and 
 
117 
 
 Gravina in the Kingdom of Naples; but the best Neapo- 
 litan Cotton-wool grows in the province of Lecce. 
 
 The season for sowing the Cotton plant in the Levant 
 and Italy, and particularly in the island of Cyprus, is the 
 month of April, or earlier. The ground for that purport 
 is prepared in the same manner as the corn fields of 
 Italy. Furrows being formed in the earth, the seeds are 
 put into them in the same manner as French beans. The 
 young plants come up with two yawning lobes, exactly 
 like the cotyledones of the common bean, and as soon as 
 they appear above ground, the weakest are pulled up, and 
 none left but those which are strong and vigorous. In 
 the months of June and July, great care is taken to hoe 
 the earth gently around them, and the crop is collected 
 in the months of 0£lober and November. As some little 
 time is requisite before the seed can be freed from its 
 cover or husk, the first exportation does not take place 
 till February or March, the year following. 
 
 It is supposed that no fewer than 120,000 persons are 
 constantly employed in Great Britain in different branches 
 of the manufadlure of this single staple. 
 
 COWRIES, CORIS, CAURIS. 
 
 F. Coris, Cauris, Bouges. 
 
 G. Kauris y Schnakenkopfe. 
 D. Kauris y ^langenhoofdjes, 
 1. Coriy Porcellanc, 
 
 S. Buciosy Sidney es. 
 
 P. Bucios, Z,imhos» 
 DA. Kauris. 
 
 SW. Kauris, 
 
 R. Kauris. 
 
 Cowries are small, and exceedingly white shells, brought 
 from the Maldavia islands, and used as money in the 
 greatest part of the East Indies, particularly in the states 
 of the Great Mogul. These shells, though in all appear- 
 ance a production of the sea, are however found on land, 
 and dug for pretty deep in the ground. 
 
 The Cowries are used also in the trade which the Eu- 
 ropeans carry on along the coast of Guinea. The Dutch, 
 for the general part, furnish such European nations as 
 trade for slaves, Vv^ith cowries; and the vast quantities they 
 sell will be no matter of siirp/ize, upon considering, that 
 the French give somctiincs eighty pounds weight of Cow- 
 
118 
 
 rtes for a negro; and for gold, ivory, wax, and other 
 commodities in proportion. 
 
 The negroes not only use the Cowries for money, Bttt 
 also for collars and bracelets to adorn themselves. 
 
 CREAM OF TARTAR; see ArgcL 
 
 CUBEBS. 
 
 F. Cuhehes. 
 
 G. Kubehen. 
 D. Koebeben, 
 I. Cubebi. 
 
 S. Cubebas. 
 P. Cohebas. 
 
 DA. Cubeber, 
 SW. Kobeber, 
 POL. Kubeby. 
 R. Kubebu. 
 
 L. Cubebce, 
 
 Cubebs are a small dried fruit, resembling a grain of 
 pepper, but often somewhat longer; brought into Europe 
 from the island of Java, &c. They are to be chosen large, 
 fresh, and sound. Cubebs are an aromatic, though not 
 of a very strong smell; acrid and pungent to the taste, 
 though less so than pepper. They abound in a fine, thin, 
 essential oil, which may be separated from them by distil- 
 lation. 
 
 Cubebs are used in the kitchen as well as in medicine, 
 
 CUMMIN. 
 
 F. Cumin, 
 
 G. Kuminj hanger Kummel, 
 
 D. Komyn, 
 
 I. C amino y Cumino. ' 
 
 S. Comino. 
 
 P. Cuminhoy Cominhos, 
 
 DA. Kummen, 
 
 Cummin is an umbelliferous plant, resembling fennel, 
 but much smaller. It is annual, a native of Egypt and 
 Ethiopia, and cultivated in the islands of Sicily and Malta, 
 from whence we are supplied with the seeds, which are 
 
 SW. Kumminy Cumin y Spis, 
 kumin, 
 
 POL. Kminy Kmin kramny. 
 R. Kmitty Timon, 
 
 L. Cyminumy Cuminum se^ 
 mine longiore. 
 
119 
 
 accounted good carminatives and stomachics; but their 
 principal use is in external applications. 
 
 CURRANTS. 
 
 F. Raisins de Corinthe. 
 Cr. Korintben. 
 
 P. Pass as de Ccrinto. 
 
 POL, Rozinki male, drohne. 
 R. Korinka, Opoek, 
 
 L. Passulce Cortnthiaces, 
 
 D. Korenten, Krenten. 
 I. Uve passe di Corinto. 
 
 S. Pas as de Cvrinto. 
 
 By the name of Currants, we not only understand the 
 fruit of a species of grossularia, growing in our gardens, 
 but particularly a smaller kind of dried black grapes, 
 brought principally from Zante and Cephalonia. They 
 were formerly brought also from the Morea, or isthmus 
 of Corinth, whence their name Currants or Corinths^ this 
 plantation however now produces no more, the Turks not 
 allowing large vessels to enter the gulph, to take them off 
 the hands of the cultivators. 
 
 They gather the Currants in the Archipelago in August, 
 and dispose them in couches on the ground till they dry; 
 then clean and lay them up in magazines, pouring them 
 in at a hole, till the magazine is full: when they cling so 
 fast together, by their own weight, that they are forced 
 to be dug out with iron instruments. 
 
 To cask them for exportation, they have people who 
 grease their feet and legs, and tread them close, that they 
 may keep the better. . 
 
 Zante annually produces a sufficiency to load five or six 
 vessels, Cephalonia three or four, and the other islands 
 one; by far the greatest part being imported into Eng- 
 land. 
 
 Currants are also brought from the Lipari Islands, but 
 this kind is larger, and less esteemed, than the Zante 
 and Cephalonia growth. 
 
 Currants should be chosen small, new, and in large 
 masses. When packed close, they will keep sound for 
 two or three years. 
 

 /\ 
 
 
 
 '■ ' ^ i 
 
 >, .• , 
 
 ' \ . ' ■ - ■'■ - 
 
 / 
 
 ■ ' • . ' i '■ 
 
 ■ . ' ' ' is/V?Vi; 
 
121 
 
 DATES. 
 
 Datfes 
 G. Datteln, 
 
 D. Dadels, Daayen. 
 1. Datteri. 
 
 S. Datiles. 
 
 P. Tamaras, 
 
 DA. DadeUr, 
 
 S W Dadlar. 
 POL. Daktyle, 
 R, Finiki. 
 
 L. Dadyli. 
 
 Dates are a fruit, somewhat in the shape of an acorn. 
 They are composed of a thin, light and glossy membrane, 
 containing a fine, soft, and pulpy substance, which is firm, 
 sweet, and somewhat vinous to the taste, esculent and 
 wholesome; and within this is inclosed, a solid, tough and 
 hard kernel, of a pale grey colour on the outside, and 
 finely marbled within, like the nutmeg. 
 
 This fruit is the produce of the phoenix dactylifera, 
 or Date tree; a native of Africa, and the eastern countries, 
 where it grows to the height of fifty, sixty, and one hun- 
 dred feet. It is produced also in many parts of Europe, 
 but never ripens perfectly there. The best are brought 
 from Tunis; they are likewise very fine and good in Egypt, 
 and in many parts (^f the East. 
 
 Date trees are pljlnted in the neighbourhood of rivulets 
 or waters; for they require much moisture. To propagate 
 them, shoots of the best trees are taken, and planted at a 
 small distance from one another. At the end of three or 
 four years these shoots begin to bear fruit, but this fruit, 
 is yet dry, without sv/eetness, and even without kernels; 
 and they never reach the highest degree of perfection of 
 which they are susceptible, till they are about fifteen to 
 twenty years old. This tree is also propagated from the 
 seeds: but in that case never produces such good fruit as 
 when raised from shoots. 
 
 Those Dates are esteemed the best which are large, 
 soft, yellowish, with few or no wrinkles, and full of 
 
 Q 
 
 * 
 
122 
 
 pulp; either of a good white throughout, or else red- 
 dish towards the surface, and white towards the kernels. 
 
 Dates are preserved in three different ways ; some press- 
 ed and dried, others pressed more moderately, and others 
 not pressed at all, only moistened with the juice of other 
 Dates as they are packed up, which is done in baskets or 
 skins. Those preserved in this last way, are much the 
 best. 
 
 In regard to their medicinal virtues, Dates are said to 
 strengthen the stomach and intestines; they are also re- 
 commended in diseases of the breast, &c. 
 
 In Upper Egypt, many families subsist almost entirely 
 upon this fruit. The stones are as hard as horn, and no 
 body would imagine that any animal could eat them, but 
 the Egyptians break, grind, and for want of better food, 
 give them to their camels to eat. In Barbary, they turn 
 handsome beads for paternosters of these stones. Of the 
 leaves they make baskets, or rather a kind of short bags, 
 which are used in Turkey, on journies and in the houses. 
 In Egypt they make fly-flaps of them, and brushes to 
 clean their sophas and clothes. The hard boughs they 
 use for fenees about their gardens, and cages to keep 
 their poultry in. The trunk or stem, when split, is used 
 for the same purposes, and also for timber and fire 
 wood. The weblike integument covering the tree be- 
 tween the boughs, has threads which run perpendicularly 
 and horizontally crossing each other, in the same man- 
 ner as the cocoa-nut tree; this is of considerable use in 
 Egypt, where they make all their ropes and rigging 
 of the smaller vessels with it. It is esteemed strong and 
 lasting. 
 
 DEALS. 
 
 P. Tabcinhas, 
 DA. Daler, 
 SW. Tiljor, 
 POL. Marche, 
 R.‘ Doski, 
 
 F. Planches. 
 
 G. Dielen. • 
 D. Deelen. 
 
 I. Ta-ooUy Plane. 
 S. Tablas. 
 
 Deals are a thin kind of fir planks, formed by sawing 
 the trunck of a tree into a great many longitudinal divisi- 
 
123 
 
 ^ns, of more or less thickness, according to the purposes 
 they are intended to serve. 
 
 A very good method of seasoning Deals, is to throw 
 them into salt water, as soon as they are sawed, and 
 keep them there three or four days, frequently turning 
 them. 
 
 Deals are imported into this country, from Christiana 
 and other ports of Norway, from Dantzig and various 
 parts of Prussia; and red and white wood Deals, from 
 St. Petersburg, Archangel, Narva, Memel, &c. 
 
 Deals are sold, either by the piece, like Dantzig Deals, 
 or by the reduced or standard hundred like the Russia 
 and Memel Deals; or by the long hundred of one hun- 
 dred and twenty Deals, like the Norway Deals. 
 
 A standard, or reduced Deal, is one inch and a half 
 thick, eleven inches wide, and twelve feet long. A stand- 
 ard, or reduced hundred, is one hundred and twenty 
 times that quantity. 
 
 DIAMOND. 
 
 F. Diamatit. 
 
 G. Diamant. 
 
 D. Diamant y Demant, 
 T. Diamante. 
 
 S. Diamante. 
 
 P. Diamante. 
 
 DA. Diamant. 
 
 SW. Demant, Diamant. 
 POL. Dymant. 
 
 R. Ahnas. 
 
 L. Adamas. 
 
 This is the most valuable and hardest of all gems. It 
 is, when pure, perfectly clear, and pellucid as the purest 
 water; and eminently distinguished from all other sub- 
 stances, by its vivid splendor, and the brightness of its 
 refle(Slions, never fouled by any admixture of earthy or 
 other coarse matter; susceptible of elegant tinges from 
 metalline particles, giving fire with steel, not fermenting 
 with acid menstruums, scarcely calcinable by any degree 
 of fire, and of one simple and permanent appearance in 
 all lights. 
 
 The finest Diamonds are those of a complexion like a 
 drop of pure water. If they are tinctured yellow, blue, 
 green, or red, in a high degree, they are next in estce.m ; 
 but if tinctured with these colours, only in a low degree, 
 the value of them is greatly diminished. There are also 
 Diamonds of other complexions ; such as brown, resem- 
 
bling the brownest sugarcandy ; or of a dark hue, likr 
 dusky iron. In the Philosophical Commerce of Arts, we 
 are even told of a black Diamond. The first water in 
 Diamonds, means the greatest purity and perfection, like 
 the purest water. When they fall short of this perfection, 
 they are said to be of the second and third water, &c. 
 till the stone may be properly called a coloured one. 
 
 The Diamond is extremely various in shape and size ; 
 being found in the greatest quantity very small, and the 
 larger ones very seldom met with. The proper and de- 
 terminate figure into which it must concrete, when not 
 impeded by any accident in its formation, is an inequila- 
 teral octohedron ; and often its several surfaces in this 
 figure, are as bright as if polished by art. The Diamond 
 is likewise often thrown into two other figures, both seem- 
 ing also regular ones j the one a prismatic columnar one of 
 six angles, the other an oblong quadrilateral column, with 
 two truncated ends. Besides these regular figures, it is 
 every day found in numberless other mishapen forms. 
 
 This gem is found only in the East Indies, and in Bra- 
 sil in South America. In the East Indies there are two 
 mines and two rivers from whence it is drawn. The mines 
 are, that of Raolconda, in the province of Carnatica; and 
 that of Gani or Coulour, seven days journey from Gol- 
 conda eastwardly. The two rivers are that of Gonal, near 
 the town of Soumelpour, in Bengal j and that of Succudan 
 in the island of Borneo. 
 
 Diamonds, like all other gems, are divided into oriental 
 and occidental ; the finest and hardest being called orien- 
 tal, whether produced in the east or west ; as the Dia- 
 monds of Brasil equal the finest oriental ones. 
 
 The art of cutting these precious stones, was invented 
 in 1476, by Louis de Berquen, a native of Bruges. They 
 are cut and polished by means of a mill, which turns a 
 wheel of soft iron, sprinkled over with Diamond-dust, 
 mixed with oil of olives. The same dust, well ground, 
 and diluted with water and vinegar, is used in the sawing 
 of Diamonds, which is performed with an iron or brass 
 wire, as fine as a hair. 
 
 .The value of Diamonds among jewellers is thus calcu- 
 lated. Supposing the value of a rough Diamond to be 
 two pounds per carat, to find the value of those of greater 
 weight, they multiply the square of their weight by two : 
 
125 
 
 thus the value of a rough Diamond weighing four carats, 
 is equal 4x4 * x2 = 16x 2=^.32. To find the value of 
 wrought Diamonds, they suppose half their weight lost 
 in manufacturing them, and therefore multiply the square 
 of double their weight by two ; thus the value of a wrought 
 Diamond, weighing three carats, is equal 6x6x2=36 
 X2=^.72. 
 
 The largest Diamond ever known in the world, is that 
 belonging to the king of Portugal, which was found in 
 Brasil, and weighs 1680 carats, and according to the above 
 mentioned calculation, is worth 5,644, 800 sterling, but 
 has been valued by connoisseurs at 224 millions sterling. 
 The famous Diamond, which adorns the sceptre of the 
 Empress of Russia, weighs 779 carats. 
 
 DITTANY, WHITE DITTANY, FRAXINELLA. 
 
 F. Fraxinelkt DiSiame hlancs 
 
 G. Weisser Dipt am. 
 
 D. Witte Dipt am. 
 
 I. Frassinellay Dittamo hianco. 
 S. Chitan, Didarno bianco, 
 Fresnillo. 
 
 P. Fraxinello, DiBamo Iranco. 
 
 DA. H'Z)ud Diptamrod. 
 
 SW. Huit Dipt an. 
 
 POL. Dyptan bialy. 
 
 R. Badan. 
 
 L. Fraxinella, Diciamnus aL 
 bus. 
 
 This is a medicinal plant, reputed excellent against the 
 bitings of venomous beasts, worms engendered in the hu- 
 man body, and the like. Its root, wherein all its virtue 
 is lodged, is about the thickness of a finger, and is fre- 
 quently divided into a number of little branches j its co- 
 lour is white, its taste bitter, and its smell strong, some- 
 what like the scent of a he-goat. It must be chosen white, 
 both inside and outside, not fibrous, and well cleaned. — 
 There are several other kinds of Dittany *, as the bastard 
 Dittany, and the wild Dittany. 
 
126 
 
 DOWN. 
 
 F. Dwvet. 
 
 G. D 'unetti Flaumfedern. 
 £). Dons, 
 
 ^I. Penna matt a, Piumini, 
 S. Plojely Plumazo. 
 
 P. FrouxeL 
 
 DA. Diiurt, 
 SW. Tjun. 
 POL. Puchy 
 R. Puch. 
 
 L. Plumte. 
 
 Down, are the shortest, smoothest, softest, and most 
 delicate feathers of birds, particularly geese, ducks and 
 swans ; growing on their neck and part of their stomach. 
 
 Down is a commodity of most countries ; but that in 
 most repute for fineness, lightness, and warmth, comes 
 from Denmark, Sweden, and other northern countries. 
 See Ederdon, 
 
 OstricFs Down, called otherwise ostrich’s hair, and 
 sometimes wool, is of two sorts ; that called the fine of 
 ostrich, is used by hatters in the manufacture of common 
 hats ; and that called coarse of ostrich, serves for the 
 making of list for fine white cloth. 
 
 DRAGON’S-BLOOD. 
 
 F. Sang dragon, 
 
 G. Drachenblut, 
 
 D. Druakenhloed, 
 
 I. Sangue di dr ago, 
 S. Sangro de dr ago. 
 P. Sangue de dr ago. 
 
 DA. Dragehlod. 
 
 SW. Drakblod. 
 
 POL. Smocza krew, 
 R. Drakonowa krow. 
 L. Sanguis draccnis. 
 
 Dragon’s-blood is a gummi resinous substance, brought 
 from the East Indies, either in oval droops wrapped up in 
 flag leaves, or in large masses, composed of smaller tears. 
 It is said to be obtained from the palmijuncus draeo, the 
 calamus rotang, the dracena draco, the pterocarpus dra- 
 co, and several other vegetables. 
 
 The writers on the materia medica, in general give the 
 preference to the former, though the others are not un- 
 frequently of equal goodness. • The fine Dragon’s-blood 
 of either sort, breaks smooth, free from any visible im- 
 
 * 
 
127 
 
 purities, of a dark red colour ; which changes, upon being 
 powdered, into an elegant bright crimson. 
 
 Several artificial compositions, coloured with the true 
 DragonVhlood, or brasil wood, are sometimes sold in the 
 room of this commodity. Some of these dissolve like 
 gums in water, others crackle in the fire, without proving 
 inflammable ; whilst the genuine DragonVblood melts, 
 catches flame, and is not adled on by watery liquors. — 
 This drug, in substance, has no sensible smell or taste ; 
 when dissolved, it discovers some degree of warmth and 
 pungency. 
 
 Dragon’s-blood is principally used as a pigment 5 in 
 medicine it is very rarely employed in the present practice. 
 
- r^TK:.U' '; ■ '■ * ...•':;.;ci:i^ 
 
 ,..rr5r i ' .“-''J•?^_>' .,"■ '• s.i-, 
 
 '•'i'StjX .1 ’ )' *' -■ '■^"'* 'J ' '-'j •;■". ■ 
 
 n'- '"diV-Kvi.. ; .?■■; ':^ t .• ' o 
 
 ^ - . •• '' .-’■?-.<;''dfi.- 
 
 .. ^!'i>U/' -ji! i.’T; 
 
 Iji’.; dj.d'k'd. ;/-> d'!* • ' ^ '-'^ ■' yJ;'/ 
 
 ' ' .’■■■■ '* ' d' ■■;. '. ’ 
 
 ■ ' ' :■' f f: 
 
 i-5 " tO 
 
 tOy . 
 
 
 y^i ■..■ ' ; 
 
 ,.'*■ • ■ li y 
 .. '.•>■: 
 
 ypt-'yyM. '■■ i^'"j 
 
 '' " ■ ':' ■ 
 
 
 1 
 
 r^i 
 
 y " 
 
129 
 
 EBONY. 
 
 F. Bois d' Ebene. 
 
 G. Ebenholx,. 
 
 D Ebbenhouti Ebbehatit . 
 I. Ebano. 
 
 S. Ebano. 
 
 DA. EbentrceCy Ebenhob. 
 SW. Ehentrcsd, Ebenhclts. 
 POL. Heban. 
 
 R. Ehenonjooe derenvo. 
 
 L. Ebenus. 
 
 P, EbanOy Enjano. 
 
 Ebony is an exceedingly hard and heavy kind of wood, 
 susceptible of a very fine polish, and on that account 
 used in mosaic and inlaid works, for toys, &c. It is of 
 divers colours, most usually black, red, and green ; pro- 
 duced chiefly in the island of Madagascar, and the Mau- 
 ritius. 
 
 Travellers give very different accounts of the tree that 
 yields the black Ebony ; some say that it is a sort of palm 
 tree, others a cytisus, &:c. M. Flacourt tells us, that it 
 grows very high and big, its bark being black, and its 
 leaves resembling those of the myrtle, of a deep, dusk}’', 
 green colour. 
 
 Black Ebony is much preferred to that of other colours. 
 The best is a jet black, free of veins and rind, very mas- 
 sive, astringent, and of an acrid pungent taste. It yields 
 an agreeable perfume, when laid on burning coals : when 
 green, it readily takes fire, from the abundance of its fat. 
 
 Green Ebony, besides Madagascar and the Mauritius, 
 likewise grows in the Antilles, especially in the isle of 
 Tobago. The tree that yields it is very bushy ; its leaves 
 are smooth, and of a fine green colour. Beneath its bark 
 is a white rind, about two inches thick ; all under which, 
 to the very heart, is a deep green, approaching towards 
 a black, though sometimes streaked, with yellow veins. 
 Its use is not confined to inlaid work, it is likewise good 
 in dying, as yielding a fine green tin<51:ure. 
 
 Of red Ebony, called also Grenadilla, we know little 
 more than the name. 
 
 Ebony is now less used than anciently, since the disco- 
 very of giving other hard woods a black colour. 
 
 There is a sort of Ebony coming from the West Indies, 
 which is either black or white. This bears a flower rc- 
 
 R 
 
130 
 
 sembling that of the English broom ; seldom rises above 
 eighteen feet, and in the largest part of the stem, d(5es 
 not exceed five inches diameter. It is a fine timber wood, 
 has a smooth even grain, which takes a good polish, and 
 is very proper for bed-posts, and a variety of turnery 
 ware ; for which purposes the black is generally prefer- 
 red, the heart of which is the complexion of jet. There 
 is likewise a bastard Ebony, growing in the West India 
 islands, called mountain Ebony, which is of a dark brown. 
 
 EIDER-DOWN, ederdon. 
 
 F. EJerdoriy Edredon, Egledon, 
 
 G. Eider diinen. 
 
 D. Eider dons. 
 
 3 . Piumini del Norte. 
 
 S. Ederdon t Edredon. 
 
 P. Edredon. 
 
 D A . Edderduun . 
 
 SW. Aderdun, Dun. 
 POL. Puch bialovs.oro’vcy. 
 R. Agatschii puch. 
 
 Eider-down, is a kind of very fine down, coming from 
 Denmark, Norway, and Iceland, It is the produce of a 
 species of wild duck, called Eider. To collect this down, 
 the inhabitants, at the risk of their lives, by means of 
 cords, let themselves down the steepest precipices, where 
 these birds have their nests. 
 
 The down is made up in balls, about the size of a fist, 
 and weighing from three to four pounds. It is so fine 
 and soft, that if a ball is opened, and the down cautiously 
 held over red hot coals, to warm, it will completely fill a 
 bed for two people. 
 
 This costly article, when fine and picked, costs in Den- 
 mark, twelve shillings sterling the pound, and upwards. 
 
 ELEPHANT’S TEETH j see 
 
151 
 
 EMERALD. 
 
 F. Emeraudi. 
 
 G. Smaragd, 
 
 DA. Stnaragd* 
 SW. Smaragd. 
 
 D. Smaragd y Esmeratid, 
 
 POL. Szmaragd* 
 R. Isumrud. 
 
 L. Smaragdus, 
 
 I. Smeraldo. 
 S. Esmeralda. 
 
 P. E.meralda. 
 
 The Emerald is a genus of precious stones, of a gfeetl 
 colour. ^ 
 
 Like other gems, this is divided into oriental and occi- 
 dental. The oriental Emerald, is of the hardness of the 
 sapphire and ruby, and is second only t(S the diamond iii 
 lustre 5 it is very scarce, and at present only found in the 
 kingdom of Cambay. The American Emerald is of the 
 hardness of the garnet, and the European somewhat softer 
 than that, yet considerably harder than crystal. 
 
 The genuine Emerald in its most perfe6l state, is per- 
 haps the most beautiful of all the gems. It is found of 
 various sizes, but usually small; great numbers of the 
 sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and some as large as a 
 walnut. 
 
 The Emerald is of different figures, sometimes of a peb- 
 ble-like form, but much more frequently of a coluiUnar 
 one, resembling common crystal. 
 
 The Emeralds of the East Indies are evidently finer 
 than those of any other part of the world ; but our jew- 
 ellers seldom meeting with these, call the American- Eme- 
 ralds the oriental, and usually sell crystal, accidentally 
 tinged with green, under the name of the occidental 
 Emerald. 
 
139 
 
 EMERY, EMERIL. 
 
 F. Emertl^ Emeri, 
 
 G. SmirgeL 
 
 P. Ameril, Smergel. 
 
 1. Smeriglio^ Stneregio, 
 S. EsmeviL 
 P. EsmeriL 
 
 DA. Smergel. 
 SW. SmirgeL 
 POL. SzmergieL 
 R. Nash dak* 
 
 L. Smiris. 
 
 Emery is a sort of metallic stone, of which three kinds 
 are usually distinguished ; the Spanish, red, and common 
 Emery. 
 
 The first sort is found in the gold mines of Peru, and 
 being judged a kind of marcasite of that rich metal, is 
 prohibited to be exported. The red Emery is found in 
 copper mines, and the little there is of it in England, 
 comes from Sweden and Denmark. The common Eme- 
 ry, is taken out of iron mines, and almost the only sort 
 used in England *, it is of a brownish colour, bordering a 
 little on red, exceedingly hard, and in consequence diffi- 
 cult to pulverize. 
 
 The English are the only people who have the art of 
 reducing common Emery into powder, and thus send it to 
 their neighbours. Of the powder, the most subtile and 
 impalpable is the best •, as to the stone, it should be cho- 
 sen of a high colour, and as free of the rock as possible. 
 
 The consumption of Emery is very considerable among 
 the armourers, cutlers, locksmith’s, glaziers, lapidaries, 
 masons, and other mechanics ; some of whom use it to 
 polish and burnish iron and steel works ; others, to cut 
 , and scallop glass, marble, and precious stones. 
 
 EPSOM SALT. 
 
 F. Sel d' Epson. 
 
 G. Epsom Sa!z. 
 D. Epsom %out . 
 
 I. Sale di Epsom. 
 
 S, Sal de Epsom. 
 
 P. Sal de Epsc?n. 
 DA. Epsom salt. ' 
 SW. Epsom salt. 
 
 Epsom salt is the result of a combination of the vi- 
 triolic acid with the earthy substance called magnesia. — 
 
iSS 
 
 The vitriolic acid is found combined with magnesia, ift 
 great plenty, in the bitter liquor which remains after the 
 crystallization of common salt. If this liquor is set by 
 for some time in a leaden vessel, a large quantity of salt 
 shoots, very much resembling Glauber’s salt, and fre- 
 quently sold in lieu of it. If after the first crystallization 
 of the bittern the remainder is gently evaporated further, 
 a fresh quantity of the same salt will shoot : and if the 
 liquor is then hastily evaporated, a salt will still be crys- 
 tallized ; but instead of large regular crystals, it will con- 
 crete into very small ones, having something of the ap- 
 pearance of snow, when taken out of the liquid. This 
 salt, shot into small crystals, is termed Epsom salt, from 
 its being first produced from the purging water at Epsom 
 in England. The bittern yielding this salt in such great 
 plenty, these waters were soon negle<Sl:ed, as they afford- 
 ed it but very sparingly. ^ 
 
 ESSENCES. 
 
 Fr Essences, S. Esencias, 
 
 G. Essenzen. P. Essencias, 
 
 I. Essenze. 
 
 Essence in chemistry, denotes the purest, most subtile, 
 and balsamic part of a body ; extracted either by simple 
 expression, or by means of fire, from fruits, flowers, and 
 the like. Of these there are a great variety used on ac- 
 count of their agreeable smell and taste, by apothecaries, 
 perfumers, and others. Those extracSled by means of fire, 
 with more propriety are to be counted among the essential 
 oils. 
 
 Essence of bergamot^ is a fragrant essence, extratSled 
 from a fruit which is produced by ingrafting a branch of 
 lemon-tree upon the stock of a bergamot pear. It is im- 
 ported from Italy and Sicily, particularly from Reggio 
 and Messina. This spirit is extracted, by paring off the 
 rind of the fruit with a broad knife, pressing the peel be- 
 tween wooden pincers against a spunge, and as soon as 
 th«j spunge is saturated, the volatile liquor is squeezed 
 to a phial. 
 
 # 
 
Essence of orange^ and Essence of lemony are prepared ill 
 a similar manner, and come from the same countries. 
 
 The Essence of lavender ^ of thyme^ of rosemary^ of anise^ 
 of cloves^ of cinnamon^ &c. are obtained by means of fire. 
 Essence of neroli ; see Oranges, 
 
135 
 
 FEATHERS, bed-feathers. 
 
 F. Plumes j Plumes a lit* 
 
 G. Federrti Bettfedern. 
 D. Bedveertiy Pluimen* 
 
 I . Plume* 
 
 P. Plumas. 
 
 DA. FierCy Sengejiere^ 
 SW Fjddrar. 
 
 POL. Psora. 
 
 R. Peru. 
 
 S, Plumas. 
 
 The Feathers of birds make a considerable article of 
 commerce, particularly those of the ostrich, heron, swan, 
 peacock, goose, and other poultry ; for plumes, ornaments 
 of the head, filling of beds, and writing pens. See 
 Quills. 
 
 There are scarce any birds, but what Bed-feathers may 
 be procured from, particularly those of the domestic kind ; 
 yet swans, geese and ducks, are those that furnish most, 
 and the best. 
 
 Geese are plucked three times a year ; towards the end 
 of May, about Midsummer, and at the latter end of Au- 
 gust *, but chiefly i^hen the Feathers are ripe, that is, 
 when they are perceived to fall off of themselves. The 
 Feathers of dead birds are in the least esteem, upon ac- 
 count of the blood imbibed by the quill; which putrify- 
 ing, communicates an offensive smell to the Feather, and 
 takes some time to evaporate; for which reason live birds 
 should not be stripped till their Feathers are ripe. 
 
 Feathers are imported in this country from Poland and 
 Germany. They are divided in white, half grey, and 
 grey; and valued accordingly. The best Feathers should 
 be white, downy, void of large stems, fresh and sweet. 
 Care should be taken, that no sand be intermixed, which 
 is frequently practised to increase the weight. 
 
 Ostrich Feathers are dyed and dressed by the feather- 
 dressers, to serve as ornaments. They are a very costly 
 article, brought to us from Africa, and particularly the 
 coast of Barbary. See Down. 
 
1S6 
 
 FENNEL 
 
 F. Fenouil. 
 
 G. Fenchel. 
 
 D. VenkeL 
 I. Finocchio. 
 
 S. Hinojo. 
 
 P. Funcho, 
 
 SEED. 
 
 DA. FennikeL 
 ' SW. FavkoU 
 POL. Kopr nvIo->.vsky, 
 R. Woloikci JJkrcp. 
 
 L. F oenicidum. 
 
 There are two very different sorts of anethum foeni- 
 culum, or Fennel seed; the common and the sweet. 
 
 The sweet Fennel is annual, a native of the warmer 
 climates, and cultivated in our gardens. We commonly 
 received a supply from Germany, France, and other parts, 
 superior to our own growth. Common Fennel is peren- 
 nial, a native of the southern parts of Europe, and cul- 
 tivated in our gardens. The seeds of this species are 
 warmer and more pungent, but less sweet, and of a less 
 grateful flavor than those of the preceding. 
 
 Fennel seed enters into many officinal preparations, and 
 is used in the kitchen, as well as for confectionary. Distil- 
 led waters, oil, and spirituous extracts, are also made of it. 
 
 FENUGREEK. 
 
 Fenu-grec. 
 
 G. Bockihornsamen, Foenum 
 graecum. 
 
 D. Bokshoornzaad, 
 
 I. Fienogreco. 
 
 S. Jlfor^a, Athol^a. 
 
 P. Alfor-vasy Fenogrego. 
 DA. Foniigr<£k. 
 
 SW. Fenitgrik. 
 
 L . Foenum Graecum . 
 
 This is a medicinal plant, thus called because anciently 
 brought from Greece; though now cultivated in several 
 parts of Europe. Its stem is about a foot high, its leaves 
 small, and disposed somewhat like those of trefoil yield- 
 ing a little white flower, from whence arises a long pointed 
 pod, not , unlike the horn of a bullock in shape; the grain 
 or seed is enclosed in this pod, which bears the name of 
 the plant, is smaller than mustard seed, very hard and so- 
 lid, of a triangular form, and a strong disagreeable smell; 
 being of a yellow gold colour when new, but turning rud- 
 dy or brown when kept. The good choice of it cor\sists, 
 in being new, plump, and of a high gold colour. 
 
 This seed is principally cultivated in France, and ex- 
 ported from thence in considerable quantities. 
 
 French dyers use it for the scarlet dye; and physi- 
 cians order it in decoctions and cataplasms; given to 
 
1S7 
 
 cattle, particularly horses, it creates an appetite and fat- 
 tens them. 
 
 ' FIGS. 
 
 F. Figues. 
 
 G. F eigen.. 
 D. Fyp-en. 
 I. Ft\hi. 
 
 S. Higos. 
 
 P. Figos. 
 
 DA. Figen, 
 
 SW. Fikon, 
 
 POL. Fiki, 
 
 R. IVitin 'ua jagodi. 
 L. Ficiy Caricee. 
 
 The ficus carica or Fig tree has an upright stem, branch- 
 ing fifteen or twenty feet high, and garnished with large 
 palmated or hand-shaped leaves. Of this there are a 
 number of varieties-, as the common Fig, a large, oblong, 
 dark purplish, blue fruit, which ripens in August; the 
 brown, or chesnut Fig, a large globular, chesnut-coloured 
 fruit, ripening in July and August; the black, the green, 
 and the brown Ischia Figs; the Malta Fig; the round 
 brown Naples Fig; the long brown Naples Fig; the great 
 blue Fig; the black Genoa Fig. 
 
 Dried Figs are a considerable article amongst groceries, 
 as well as medicaments. The best are those from Tur- 
 key; the Faro or Sicily Figs, are smaller and worth con- 
 siderably less. Many Figs are also brought from the 
 South of France, where they prepare them in the follow- 
 ing manner. The fruit is first dipped in scalding hot ley, 
 made of the ashes of the Fig-tree, and then dried In the 
 sun. Hence these Figs stick to the hands, and scour 
 them like lixivial salts; and for the same reason, they 
 excite to stool, without griping. They are moderately 
 nutrimental, grateful to the stomach, and easier to digest, 
 than any other of the sweet fruits. 
 
 FLAX. 
 
 F. Li7i, 
 
 G. Flachs. 
 
 D. Vlasch. 
 
 1. Lino, 
 
 S. Li?io, 
 
 P. Linho» 
 
 'Ihe Flax plant has a slender hollow stem, usually about 
 two feet high. Its bark consists of fibres, much like those 
 S 
 
 DA. H'ory Flarr, 
 SW. Liny Hor. 
 POL. Len. 
 
 R. Len^ Lon, 
 
 L. Linum, 
 
oi hemp*, which being dressed and worked, are manufac- 
 tured into linen. 
 
 The ground for sowing Flax seed upon ought to be 
 rich, neither too wet nor too dry, laid flat, and reduced 
 to a fine garden mould by much harrowing, and all stones- 
 and sods carried off. 
 
 The time for sowing linseed is from the middle of 
 March to the end of April. Late sown linseed may 
 grow long, but the Flax upon the stalk will be thin and 
 poor. 
 
 When the crop grows so short and branchy as to ap- 
 pear more valuable for seed than Flax, it ought not to be 
 pulled till it be thoroughly ripe; but if it grows long and 
 not branchy, the seed should be disregarded, and all the 
 attention given to the Flax. In the last case it ought to 
 be pulled after the bloom has fallen, when the stalk be-^ 
 gins to turn yellow; and before the leaves fall, and the 
 balls turn hard and sharp pointed. 
 
 When the stalk is small, and carries few balls, the Flax 
 is line; but the stalk of coarse Flax is gross, rank, branchy, 
 and carries many balls^ 
 
 Few persons that have seen pulled Flax are ignorant 
 of the method of laying it in handsful across each other; 
 which gives the Flax sufficient air, and keeps the hands- 
 ful separate and ready for the rippler. After pulling the 
 operation of rippling should by no means be negledted, 
 whether the Flax be regarded more than the seed, or the 
 s^ed more than the Flax. In the latter case it is a mat- 
 ter in course, to preserve and collect the seed ; but even 
 in the former case it is necessary, as the balls if put in 
 the water along with the Flax, breed vermin there, and 
 otherwise spoil the water. In Lincolnshire and Ireland 
 they think that rippling hurts the Flax, and therefore in 
 place of it they strike the balls against a stone. 
 
 The Flax being rippled, must then be watered, and a 
 canal of standing soft water, deserves the preference for 
 this operation. The water should be exposed to the sun, 
 but the Flax in it protected from its rays by divots. The 
 Flax is sufficiently watered when it feels soft to the gripe, 
 and the hazle parts easily with the boon or show; which 
 last is then become brittle and looks whitish. When 
 tliese signs are found, it is taken out of the water, and 
 spread thinly, upon a dry ground of sliort heath or short 
 grass, to dry. 
 
139 
 
 For the pu/port of separating the boon or core from 
 *he Flax, which is the bark of the plant, the stalks ui 
 small parcels are broke in a hand machine, called the 
 brake; and for clearing it of the broken boon the Flax 
 is held over the stock, and struck or threshed with the 
 scutcher. These methods of breaking and scutching the 
 Flax being slcrw and very laborious, a water-mill has 
 been invented in Scotland which makes great despatch, 
 but is generally complained of, as wasteful. 
 
 The next operation that Flax undergoes is heckling, 
 which consists in striking the flax upon the teeth of the 
 heckle, and drawing it through the teeth. 
 
 The principal sorts of Flax imported into this country 
 are: St. Petersburg, Narva, Riga, Reyal, Pernau, Lie- 
 bau, Memel, Oberland, and Dutch Flax. 
 
 The St. Petersburg and Narva Flax are nearly of the 
 same equality, .and the latter but little inferior to the for- 
 mer. Both sorts come to us in bundles of twelve, nine, 
 and six heads. 
 
 The Riga Flax seems to deserve the preference of any 
 imported from tlie Baltic. It is the growth of the pro- 
 vinces of Marienburg, Druania, Thiesenhausen, and -Li- 
 thuania. The best Marienburg is called simply Marien- 
 burg (M), or Marienburg clean; the second quality cut 
 (GM); and t^ie thirdj risten dreyband (RD); of the three 
 other provinces, the first quality carries the name of ra- 
 kitzer; as Druania rakitzer (DR), Thiesenhausen rakit- 
 zer ,(TR), and Lithuania rakitzer (LR<). The cut Flax 
 of these three provinces is the second quality, and to the 
 third quality belong, the badstub, and badstub cut (B and 
 BG); the paternoster (PN); and fiafs three band (HD). 
 Badstub and paternoster is the refuse of the rakitz Flax, 
 and the three band again the refuse of th,e former sorts, 
 and consequently very ordinary. 
 
 The Reval and Pernau Flax consists of Marienburg, 
 cut, risten, hafs three band, and three band. 
 
 The Liebau and Memel growths are distinguished by 
 the denomination of four and three brand. These two 
 sorts, as well as the Oberland Flax, coming from Konigs- 
 berg, Elbing, &c. are little esteemed in the British mar- 
 ketvS. 
 
 The Flanders, or Dutch Flax, is well dressed, and of 
 the finest quality: whereof the fine thread ^nd lace ma4o 
 in those countries, are the strongest evidence. 
 
14Q 
 
 1 he good and even quality of all Flax coming from the 
 Russian ports, proceeds from the institution of public 
 bracks; that is to say, the Flax passes the examination of 
 sworn inspe^lors, who do not suffer it to be shipped if 
 inferior to the usual quality of the mark which it is to 
 bear. 
 
 Flax is much cultivated in Egypt, especially the island 
 of Delta, and near Damietta. A considerable quantity 
 of it is yearly exported to Venice and Leghorn. It is 
 soft and good, but not better than the European. It grows 
 very high in that country, and stems may be seen, four 
 feet high, and as thick as the common rush. It flowers 
 in winter. The cloth they make of it is coarse and thin, 
 and only purchased on account of its cheapness. 
 
 FLAX-SEED; see Linseed. 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 DA. Meet. 
 
 SW. 
 
 ?QL. Maka. 
 
 R. Muka. 
 
 L. F aril: a. 
 
 Meal is the powder of various sorts of grain; or pulse, 
 ground: and Flour the meal of wheat corn, finely ground, 
 and sifted from the bran. 
 
 Wheat being very apt to get heated and damaged in long 
 voyages, the Americans, to prevent this inconveniency, 
 and to diminish the expense of freight, reduce it into 
 Flour, and send it to the European markets made up 
 in barrels; and this made a very important branch of 
 commerce between them and Great Britain, during the 
 last war. 
 
 The finest Flour, particularly when stale or ill prepared, 
 is most liable to be destroyed by a number of little animals, 
 which are so small, that they can only be distinguished 
 with a microscope. When they once have taken posses- 
 sion of a parcel of this valuable commodity, it is impossible 
 to drive them out, and they increase so fast, that the only 
 
 F. Farine. 
 
 G. Mehl. 
 D. Meel. 
 
 I. Farina, 
 S. Harina. 
 P. Far inha. 
 
141 
 
 means of preventing a total loss, is to use it as soon as 
 possible. The way to prevent their breeding in the Flour, 
 is to preserve it from damp, as it c'annot be kept too 
 dry. 
 
 FOSSIL BEZOAR, 
 
 Is a kind of figured stone formed like the animal Be- 
 zoar, and supposed to have the same virtues. It is of a 
 purple colour, the size of a walnut, and light. When 
 broken, it is found to be an irony crust, containing in 
 its hollow a fine greenish white earth, which is used, and 
 not the shells. It is called Sicilian earthy because the Fossil 
 Bezoar is chiefly found in Sicily. 
 
 FRANKFORT BLACK. 
 
 F. Noir d' Allemagne, 
 
 G. Frankfurter scF-wartcey 
 Kupferdruker sch'xvdrze. 
 
 I. Nero di Germania* 
 S. Negro di Germania, 
 P. Negro di Germania, 
 
 This black is made of the lees of wine, burnt, washed 
 in water, and ground in mills, together with ivory or 
 peach stones burnt. 
 
 It is usually brought from Frankfort on the Mayn, 
 Mentz, and Strasburg; either in lumps or powder. That 
 of France, on account of the difference in the lees of win^, 
 is less valued than that of Germany. 
 
 This black makes the principal ingredient in the rolling- 
 press printers ink. 
 
 FRANKINCENSE, incense. 
 
 F. Enansy Encens fin ou malcy 
 O lib an, 
 
 G. Weihrauch, 
 
 D. Wierook. 
 
 1. IncensOy Olibano, 
 
 S. InciensOy Incienso jnachoy 
 Olibano, 
 
 P. Incensoy Incenso ?nacho, 
 Olibano, 
 
 DA. Virogy Virak. 
 
 SW Veirauchy Virack. 
 POL. Kad^idlo. 
 
 R, Ladon prostoi. 
 
 L. FhuSy Olibanuin, 
 
 Frankincense, or Olibanum, is a gummy resin, the pro- 
 luSt of the juniperus lycia; consisting of about equal parts 
 
U2 
 
 of a gummy and resinous substance*, the first soluble in. 
 water, and the other in redllfied spirit. 
 
 It is brought from Turkey and the East Indies, but is 
 principally coUefled in both the Arabias, whence it is 
 brought to Jodda, the harbour of Mecca. It usually 
 comes to us in drops or tears, like those of mastich, but 
 larger; of a pale yellowish, and sometimes reddish colour; 
 a moderately warm pungent taste, and a strong, not very 
 agreeable, smell. When brought to us, it is so full of 
 small stones, that one hundred and fifty pounds weight 
 will not yield above fifty to seventy pounds of pure Frank- 
 incense. 
 
 The Arabians hold their own Incense in no estimation, 
 and make use only of that which comes from India. Pro- 
 bably the appellation of Arabian Incense, among the An- 
 cients, proceeds from the Arabians trading in it, and con- 
 veying it from India to the ports of Egypt and Syria. 
 
 The principal staple place for Frankincense is Mar- 
 seilles, from whence it chiefly goes to Russia, where it is 
 used in making the Russian leather. A large quantity is 
 likewise burnt by the Russians, and Roman Catholics, in 
 their churches. 
 
 This article differs greatly in price and goodness. The 
 best is in tears of a fragrant smell, pellucid, and of a yel- 
 lowish white colour, brittle and easily pulverized. Of 
 this quality however, little is to be found in the common 
 Frankincense, and it is usually selected on purpose for the 
 apothecaries shops. 
 
 The dealers count different sorts of this gum resin: viz. 
 Olibanum masculum, or the best Frankincense, in large, 
 round, palish-yellow pieces; Olibanum mammosum, in 
 soft, yellow, and rather long tears ; Olibanum orobaeum, 
 in small round grains; Olibanum manna thuris, or the 
 broken dust; and the Indian, or Moccha Frankincense, 
 which is the most impure of any. 
 
 In natural history, signifies the last produdlion of a tree 
 or plant, for the propagation of its kind : in commerce 
 Fruit denotes the produftion of a fruit tree; as the apple, 
 pear, plum, peach, apricot, cherry, grape, orange, Ic- 
 
H3 
 
 mon, currant, raislrt, £g, almond, olive, and others, both 
 foreign and domestic. 
 
 FULLERS’ EARTH. 
 
 P. Greda de Pixoerio, 
 
 F. ^erre a foulen. 
 
 G. Walkererde. 
 
 D. Voldarde, 
 
 I. Terra dcd purgatori. 
 S. Tierra de bat an. 
 
 DA. Valkejord. 
 
 SW. Valklera, ValkjoreL 
 R. Schijff'ernaja glina. 
 
 L. Terra fullonum. 
 
 The true Fullers’ Earth of England is a kind of clay, 
 of a greyish ash-coloured brown, in all degrees; from 
 very pale, to almost black, and it has generally something 
 of a greenish cast. When dry it feels as fat and slippery 
 as soap, but is not wholly diffusible in water. When 
 mixed with this fluid it falls to pieces, -either in large or 
 smaller masses, so as to assume the appearance of curds. 
 In the fire it readily melts into a white or reddish frothy 
 flag; which in consequence of its internal vacuities, is 
 then of a larger volume, than it formerly was. In the 
 mass, it breaks into irregular scaly pieces. 
 
 The greatest quantity, and the finest earth of this kind 
 in the world, is dug in the pits of Wavedon, near Wo- 
 burn, in Bedfordshire. The Hampshire Fullers’ Earth, 
 is of a dusky brown, inclining to green, with veins of a 
 faint yellow. 
 
 Every fine clay that does not communicate a colour, is 
 in general fit for the business of fulling; even the excre- 
 ments of hogs, mixed with human urine, are used for this 
 purpose, in various woollen manufaftories. 
 
 The properties required in good Fullers’ Earth are, that 
 it shall carry off the oily impurities of the woollen cloth, 
 and at the same time thicken it, by causing the hairs or 
 fibres to curl up. The best is composed of fine siliceous 
 earth with clay, and a little calcareous earth. 
 
 The real Fullers’ Earth is found besides England, in 
 Sweden, Crim Tartary, and Austrian Flanders, 
 
144 ' 
 
 FURS, 
 
 F. I'ourrure^ 
 
 G. Felxwerki Rauchnjoerk, 
 D. Bontf Bont'iverk. 
 
 I. B elite ce^ 
 
 S. Peleteria, 
 
 P. Pelleteria. 
 
 FURSKINS. 
 
 DA. Foer‘verk, Pelsuerk, 
 
 , Foder'verkt PeUnjerk, 
 POL. Futro, Futro^iznat 
 Komacizna, 
 
 R. Mdchkaja ruchldd. 
 
 Before the discovery of Canada, the forests with which 
 it was overrun, were little more than the extensive haunt 
 of wild beasts, which had multiplied prodigiously. The 
 few men who lived in those deserts having neither flocks 
 of tame animals, nor any husbandry, fed and cloathed 
 themselves entirely with the wild beasts they destroyed. 
 As soon as luxury had led us to make use of their skins, 
 the natives waged a perpetual war against them; which 
 was the more active, as it procured them plenty, and a 
 tariety of gratifications, which they were unaccustomed 
 to; and the more destructive, as they had adopted the 
 use of our fire arms. This caused a great quantity and 
 prodigious variety of Furs to he brought into the ports of 
 Europe. We shall content ourselves with giving some ac- 
 count of those, that are still in request. 
 
 The Otter is a voracious animal, which runs or swims 
 along the banks of the lakes or rivers, commonly lives 
 upon fish, and when that fails, will feed upon grass, or 
 the rind of aquatic plants. He is found in all those coun- 
 tries which abound in water and are temperate, but is 
 more common and much larger in the northern parts of 
 America, and his hair no where else so black or so fine. 
 He much resembles the beaver, but the hair of the for- 
 mer is not half so long as that belonging to the latter, 
 nor is the colour exaCtly the same; for the hair of an 
 Otter under the neck, stomach, and belly, is more grey- 
 ish, than that of the beaver, and it varies in many other 
 respects. 
 
 The Pole-cat 4s in equal estimation with the otter, among 
 the Canadian huntsmen. There are three species of this 
 animal; the first is the common Pole-cat; the second is 
 called the mink; and the third the stinking Pole-cat, be- 
 cause his urine, which he voids in his fright when pur- 
 
145 
 
 sued, is so ofFenaive, that it infefls the air at a great dis- 
 tance. Their hair is darker, more glossy and more silky 
 than in Europe. The stinking Pole-cat, also called skunk, 
 has a long and shining Fur, of a dirty white, mixed in 
 some places with black*, so that it appears to be shaded in 
 particular parts with black, without being either spotted 
 or striped. The skin of the mink is blacker than that of 
 an otter, or almost any other creature ; as black as ^ 
 mink,” being a proverbial expression in America. It 
 is not however so valuable; though this greatly depends 
 upon the season in which it is taken. Its tail is entirely 
 without hair. 
 
 Squirrels. There are five sorts of squirrels in North 
 America; the red, the grey, the black, the variegated, 
 and the flying. The two former are exadlly the same as 
 those of Europe; the black are somewhat larger; and as 
 to the rest, differ from them only in colour. The varie- 
 gated also resemble them in shape and figure, and are 
 very beautiful; being finely striped with white or grey, 
 and sometimes with red or black. The American flying 
 Squirrel, is much less than the European, being not above 
 five inches long, and of a russet, grey, or ash colour on 
 the back, and white on the under parts. 
 
 Even the Rat in North America is valuable for his skin. 
 There are two sorts especially, whose skin is an articl^ 
 of trade. The one, which is called the opossum, is twice 
 as large as an European Rat. His hair is commonly of a 
 silver grey, sometimes of a clear white. The female has 
 a bag under her belly, in which, when pursued, she puts 
 her young ones. The other, which is called the musk 
 Rat, because his testicles contain musk, has all the cha- 
 radleristlc qualities of the beaver, of which he seems to be 
 a diminutive; and his skin is employed for the same pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The Ermine^ which is about the size of a squirrel, but 
 not quite so long, has the same lively eyes and keen look; 
 and his motions are so quick, that the eye cannot follow 
 them. The tip of his long and bushy tail, is as black a£ 
 jet. His hair which is as yellow as gold in summer, turns 
 as white as snow in winter. This lively and light animal, 
 is one of the beauties of Canada; but, though smaller than 
 the sable, is not so common. 
 
 T 
 
146 
 
 The Martin^ is only to be met with in cold countries, 
 in the centre of the forests, far from all habitations. It 
 is a beast of prey, and lives upon birds. Its Fur is much 
 esteemed, though far inferior to that species which is dis- 
 tinguished by the name of the sable. The whole body is 
 covered with Fur of a brownish sallow colour, and there 
 are some in the more northern parts, which are black. 
 The skins of the latter are of much greater value than the 
 others, and the finest among them are those, whose Fur 
 reaches along the back, quite to the tip of the tail. 
 
 The animal which the Ancients called known in 
 
 Siberia by the name of the ounce, is only called the Wildi- 
 cat in Canada, where it is smaller than in our hemisphere. 
 This animal lives upon what game he can catch; his flesh 
 is known to be very white and well flavoured, but he is 
 hunted chiefly for the sake of his skin; the hair of which 
 is very long, and of a flue light grey, but less esteemed 
 than that of the fox. 
 
 The Fox is a carnivorous and mischievous animal, a 
 native of the frozen climates, where nature affording few 
 vegetables, seems to compel all animals to eat one another. 
 Jn warmer climates, he has lost much of his original beauty, 
 and his Fur is not so fine. In the north, it has remained 
 long, soft, and full, sometimes white, sometimes brown, 
 and often red or sandy. The finest of any, is that which 
 is black; but this is more scarce in Canada than in Mus- 
 covy, which lies further north, and is not so damp. There 
 is a kind of foxes to be found near the river Mississippi, 
 W'hose Fur being of a fine silver grey, is extremely beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 The Bear, in a cold and severe climate, is most com- 
 monly black. As he is rather shy than fierce, instead of 
 a cavern, he chuses for his lurking place, the hollow rot- 
 ten trunk of an old tree. There he fixes himself In win- 
 ter, as high as he can climb, and does but seldom go 
 abroad in quest of food. He is forced out of his retreat, 
 by its being set fire to, and as soon as he attempts to come 
 down, he falls under a shower of arrows, before he can 
 reach the ground. The Indians feed upon his flesh, rub 
 themselves with his grease, and clothe themselves with 
 his skin. skins make a Fur in great esteem, used 
 
 in housings, on coach boxes, &:c. Of the skins of Bears* 
 cubs, are made gloves, muffs, and in some countries, 
 cloths. 
 
147 
 
 The VTolf. The Wolves of North America are much 
 less, than those met with in other parts of the world. 
 There are two kinds, one of a sallow colour, the other of 
 a dun, inclining to black. 
 
 The Beaver is a harmless animal, and one which the 
 savages hunt after, with the greatest eagerness and cruelty. 
 He is about three or four feet long, and weighs from forty 
 to sixty pounds. His head, which he carries downwards, 
 is like that of a rat, and his back raised in an arch above 
 it, like that of a mouse. He has webs at his hinder feet^ 
 with which he swims. The toes of his fore feet are sepa- 
 rate, and answer the purpose of hands; the tail which 
 is flat, oval, and covered with scales, he uses to carry 
 loads, and to work with; he has four sharp incisors or 
 cutting teeth, which serve him instead of carpenter’s tools. 
 It is the common want of subsistence and propagation, that 
 colledls the Beavers together in summer, to build theis 
 towns against winter, and this is the time for attacking 
 them. The Beaver gradually decreases and disappears in 
 America, since the Europeans have been in quest of its 
 skin. The skins vary with the climate both in colour and 
 quality. In the same district however, where the colo- 
 nies of civilized Beavers are found, there are some that 
 are wild and solitary, called Earth Beavers, many of which 
 disclaim all communication with their natural element, 
 and live entirely on land. Their coat is dirty, and the 
 hair on their backs is worn off*, by rubbing against the 
 cave, which they dig for their habitation. These wild 
 Beavers have not such sleek hair as those that live in so- 
 cieties; their Furs are answerable to their manners. Bea- 
 vers are found in America from the thirtieth to the six- 
 tieth degree of north latitude. There are but few towards 
 the south; but they increase in number, and grow darker, 
 as we advance towards the north. In the territory of the 
 Illinois they are yellow and straw coloured; higher up 
 in the country, they are of a light chesnut; to the north 
 of Canada, of a dark chesnut, and some are found that 
 are quite black, which are reckoned the finest. Yet ii^ 
 this climate, the coldest that is inhabited by this species, 
 some among the black tribes are quite white; others v/hite, 
 speckled with grey; and sometimes wjtl^wlidy spots on 
 the rump. The value that is set upon them,^ depends upon 
 the colour of their skins. Some of them are so little in 
 
148 
 
 esteem, that it is not thought worth while to kill them; 
 but these are not commonly found. Beaver skins are 
 chiefly divided in three sorts; the new, the dry, and the 
 fat. The new Beaver, also called the white or Muscovy 
 Beaver, because it is generally exported to Russia, is that 
 catched by the Indians in North America in their winter 
 hunting. It is the best for making fine Fur, because it 
 has lost none of its winter hair by shedding. The dry 
 Beaver, sometimes called lean Beaver, comes from the 
 summer hunting, which is the time when these animals 
 lose part of their hair. Though this sort of Beaver be 
 much inferior to the former, it may also be employed in 
 Furs, but is chiefly used in the manufacture of hats. The 
 fat Beaver is that, which has contra6led a certain gross 
 and oily humour, by the sweat exhaling from the body of 
 the Indians, who wear it for some time. Though this 
 sort be better than the dry Beaver, yet it is used only for 
 making hats. 
 
 When the hair has been cut off from the Beavers’ skins, 
 to be used in the manufacturing of hats, those skins are 
 still employed by several workmen; viz. by the trunk- 
 makers for coverings; by the shoemakers to put into slip- 
 pers; and by turners to make sieves for sifting grain and 
 seeds. 
 
 Besides these smallerFurs, North America supplies us with 
 skins of the deer, the moose-deer, and the elk; the strong, 
 soft, and warm skins, of which animals, make excellent 
 garments, which are very light. 
 
 The Deer of North America is higher and of a slim- 
 mer make than that of Europe. Its colour is of a deep 
 fallow. 
 
 The Moose-Deer is nearly about the size of the elk, and 
 its horns almost as enormous as that animal’s. Its tail is 
 not above an inch long, and it Jias feet and legs like a 
 camel. The hair of the Moose is a light grey, mixed with 
 a blackish red. It is very elastic, for though it be beaten 
 ever so long, it will retain its original size. Its hide makes 
 very good leather, being thick and strong, yet soft and 
 pliable. 
 
 The Elk is shaped like a deer, but in bulk equal to a 
 horse. Its hair, the colour of which is grey, and not un- 
 like that of a camel, but of a more reddish cast, is nearly 
 three inches in length, and as coarse as that of a horse. 
 Its skin wdll dress as well as that of a buck. 
 
149 
 
 The Fur trade was the first which tlie Europeans carried 
 on in Canada. It was begun by the French colony at 
 Tadousac, a port situated thirty leagues below Quebec. 
 About 1640, the town of les Trois Rivieres, at the dis- 
 tance of twenty-five leagues above the capital, became a 
 second mart. In process of time, all the Fur trade cen.- 
 tCTcd in Montreal. The number of Indians who resorted 
 to that place, increased as the name of the French spread 
 further. Whenever they returned with a fresh supply 
 of Furs, they always brought a new nation along wit^ 
 them. Thus a kind of fair was opened, to which the 
 several tribes of that vast continent resorted. The English 
 grew jealous of this branch of wealth, and the colony they 
 had founded at New- York, soon found means to divert 
 the stream of this great circulation. They had infinite 
 advantages to give them the preference over their rivals 
 the French, so that they soon engrossed most of the trade 
 that had rendered Montreal so famous. 
 
 The Hudson’s Bay is now the most considerable mart 
 for the Fur trade. In 1670, the Hudson’s Bay company 
 received a grant from Charles II. to carry on this trade 
 exclusively. Throughout the whole of this extensive 
 coast there are only about a hundred soldiers or favors, 
 who live in four bad forts, of which York Fort is the 
 principal. Their business is, to receive the Furs, brought 
 by the neighbouring savages in exchange for merchandise. 
 Though these skins be much more valuable, than those 
 found in more southern countries, yet they are cheaper. 
 The savages give ten beaver skins for a gun, two for a 
 pound of powder, one for four pounds of lead, one for a 
 hatchet, one for six knives, two for a pound of glass beads, 
 six for a cloth coat, five for a petticoat, one for a pound 
 of snuff, &c. As the beaver is the common measure of 
 exchange, two otter skins and three martins, are required 
 instead of one beaver. 
 
150 
 
 FUSTICK. 
 
 F. Bois jautie. 
 
 G. Gelbholz. 
 
 D. Geelhoutf Stock^ischhout. 
 I. Legno gtallo. 
 
 S. Palo amarillo. 
 
 P. Jataibcc. 
 DA. Guulholt. 
 SW. Gelbholts. 
 
 POL. Farbierskie drz€wk0i 
 R. Shsltoe derenjue* 
 
 Fustick is a yellow wood, that grows in all the Charaibbee 
 islands, in Brasil, and other parts. It is used in dying 
 yellow. It makes one of the most valuable trees of the 
 island of Jamaica; the excellence of its timber considered, 
 as well as its use in dying. Its fruit, in size, colour, and 
 shape, resembles the white mulberry; it is in perfecftion 
 in March and April, The leaves of this shrub bear some 
 resemblance to those of the elm tree, but are something 
 smaller and greener. 
 
 Fustick is used for the dying of gold and olive colours, 
 which however are not durable. 
 
GALANGAL. 
 
 F. Galanga^ 
 
 G. Galgant, 
 D, Galinga. 
 T. Galanga, 
 S. Galanga, 
 P. Galanga, 
 
 DA. Galange. 
 
 SW. Galgarot, 
 
 POL. Galgan, Kalkan, 
 R. Kalgan, 
 
 L. Galanga, 
 
 Galangal is the name of fewo roots, a greater and a small- 
 er, of which the smaller is by far most esteemed. 
 
 The lesser Galangal is a small and short root, of an 
 irregular figure, and of the thickness of a man’s little 
 finger, seldom met with more than an inch or two long. 
 It should be chosen full and plump, of a bright colour, 
 very firm and sound, and of an acrid and insupportable 
 hot taste. 
 
 The larger Galangal is brought to us in pieces of two 
 inches or more in length, and of near an inch in thickness, 
 and has a much less acrid and pungent taste, than the 
 smaller kind. It is to be chosen in the largest, soundest 
 and heaviest pieces. 
 
 The lesser Galangal is esteemed an excellent stomachic, 
 cephalic, cardiac, and uterine. The greater Galangal 
 possesses the same virtues, but in a less degree. 
 
 GALLS, GALL NUTS. 
 
 F. GalleSy Noix de Galles, 
 
 G. Galldpfel. 
 
 D. Galnooten. 
 
 I. Galle, Galluzze, 
 
 S. ylgallas, 
 
 P. Galhas, Bugalhos, 
 
 DA. Galdtehler, 
 
 SW. Galldpplen, 
 
 POL. Galas. 
 
 R. Tschernilnue oreschki. 
 L. Gall^e. 
 
 Gall in natural history, denotes any protuberance, or 
 tumour, produced by the puncture of inse£ls, on plants 
 and trees of different kinds. These Galls are of various 
 
152 
 
 forms and sizes, and no less different with regard to their 
 interna! stru6!:ure. Some of them are as hard as the wood 
 of the tree they grow upon, whilst others are soft and 
 spongy; the first being termed Gall nuts, and the latter 
 berry galls, or apple galls. 
 
 The general history of the Gall is this. An insert of 
 the fly-kind, is instructed by nature to take care for the 
 safety of her young, by lodging her eggs in a woody sub- 
 stance, where they will be defended from all Injuries: 
 she for this purpose wounds the leaves or tender branches 
 of the tree; and the lacerated vessels discharging their 
 contents, soon form tumours about the holes thus made. 
 The external coat of this excrescence is dried by the air, 
 and grows into a figure which bears some resemblance to 
 the bow of an arch, or the roundness of a kernel. This 
 little ball receives its nutriment, growth and vegetation, 
 as the other parts of the tree; and is what we call the Gall 
 nut. The worm hatched under this vault drawrs its sub- 
 sistence frorn the Gall till it becomes a nymph; from 
 which state of existence it changes into a fly, and then dis- 
 engages itself from its confinement. 
 
 Oak Gallsy put in very small quantitVj into a solution 
 of vitriol in water, though but a very weak one, give it 
 a purple or violet colour: wiiich, as it grows stronger, 
 becomes black; and on this property depends the art of 
 making our writing ink, as also the art of dying, dressing 
 leather, and other manufaClnres. 
 
 The best oak Galls come from Aleppo: these are not 
 quite round and smooth like the other sorts, but have 
 several tubercles on the surface. Galls have a very aus- 
 tere, styptic taste, without any smell : they are very strong 
 astringents, and as such have been sometimes made use of, 
 both internally and externally. 
 
 GAMBOGE. 
 
 F. Gomme gutte. 
 
 G. Gummigutt . 
 
 D. Gutte Gom^ Gutta gamhay 
 Gitte gom . 
 
 J. Gommagutta. 
 
 S. Gommagutay Guta gamha. 
 
 P. Go7na rom, Goma gut ay 
 Gutta gamba. 
 
 POL. Gummi gotta. 
 
 R. Gumtni gut. 
 
 L Gianmi guttaCy Gutta gatn- 
 ba, Catubcgia. 
 
 Gamboge is a concreted vegetable juice, partly of a 
 gummy, and partly of a resinous nature ; obtained from 
 
the cambogla gutta, a tree which is a native of India. It 
 is chiefly brought to us in large cakes or rolls from Cam- 
 baja, in the East Indies. The best sort is of a deep yel- 
 low or orange colour, breaks shining, and free from dross: 
 it has no smell, and very little taste, unless kept in the 
 mouth for some time, when it impresses a slight sense of 
 acrimony. 
 
 As a pigment, it makes a beautiful yellow water colour, 
 and is chiefly used for maps. Dr. Lewis says, that it makes 
 a beautiful and durable citron yellow stain upon mar- 
 ble, whether rubbed in substance on the hot stone, or ap- 
 plied, as dragon’s blood sometimes is, in form of a spirit- 
 uous tincture. When it is applied on cold marble, the 
 stone is afterwards to be heated, to make the colour 
 penetrate. 
 
 As a medicine, gamboge evacuates powerfully both up- 
 wards and downwards. 
 
 GENEVA, GIN. 
 
 F. Genevrs. I D. Gene^er, 
 
 G. Gene^er» j 
 
 There was formerly sold in the apothecaries shops a 
 distilled spirituous water of juniper; but the vulgar being 
 fond of it as a dram, the distillers supplanted the apothe- 
 caries, and sold it under the name of Geneva. 
 
 The common kind however, is not made from juniper 
 berries, but from oil of turpentine. Two ounces of oil of 
 turpentine, and three handsful of bay salt, are mixed with 
 ten gallons of ordinary malt spirits, and drawn off by a 
 gentle fire. To make the best kind, the distillers take 
 three pounds of juniper berries, ten gallons of proof spirit, 
 and four gallons of water, and draw it off by a gentle 
 fire. 
 
 The best Geneva, called Hollands Geneva, is imported 
 from Holland, and is chiefly manufactured at Schiedam, a 
 village near Rotterdam. It is supposed they use the same 
 ingredients as prescribed in the last mentioned recipe ; 
 only instead of malt spirits, they use French brandies. 
 
 They have also manufactories of Geneva, at Ostend, 
 Antwerp, and other parts of Flanders and Brabant; but 
 U 
 
154 
 
 the Geneva of these countries is greatly inferior to that 
 coming from Rotterdam, and worth nearly one third less 
 ill this market. , 
 
 GENTIAN. 
 
 F. Gentiane. 
 
 G E>,%ian Gentian. 
 D G.miaan. 
 
 I. Gcn’ziana. 
 
 S . Jcncianao 
 I . Ginciana. 
 
 DA. Entiant Sodrod. 
 
 6W . Bagsota. 
 
 FOL. Guryc%.ka. 
 
 R. Enz.io.7i, 
 
 L. Gentiana. 
 
 The gentlana lutea, or c6mmon Gentian of the shops, 
 is a plant that atte^Is most places, but more commonly 
 found in Burgundy, the Alps, Pyreneans, and the moun- 
 tainous distri<^s of Germany; and the roots, the only part 
 used in medicine, are generally brought to England from 
 the latter country. 
 
 Tliey are of a yellowish brown colour, and a very bit- 
 ter taste, sometimes as thick as the arm, but more com- 
 monly divided into brandies, no bigger than the thumb of 
 a man. Tiiey should be chosen dry, new, of a moderate 
 thickness, and free from earth. That which is dried by 
 the air, ought to be held far preferable to that dried in 
 the oven; and tlie two sorts are easily distinguished by the 
 colour; the former being of a golden yellow within, and 
 the latter somewhat blackish. 
 
 This root stands at the head of the stomachic bitters. 
 Infusions of Gentian, flavored with orange peel, are suffi- 
 ciently grateful. 
 
 GINGER. 
 
 F. Gingemhi’e. 
 
 G Ing-zoery Inghcr. 
 p. Getyiler. 
 
 1 . henz^-ro, Zenzc^crOy 
 Zinzibo, Gengic-zt). 
 S. ^enjibrCy Agengibre, 
 
 P. Getigihre. 
 
 DA. In^esaer. 
 
 SW. Inge Sara. 
 
 POL. I m bier. 
 
 R. Jubir. 
 
 L. ATnornum Zingiber. 
 
155 
 
 West India islands. The Indians who were found by 
 the Europeans in the American islands, most generally 
 made use of it j but their consumption in this, as in every 
 other article, was so small, that nature aiForded them a 
 sutficient quantity, without the assistance of cultivation. 
 The usurpers grew passionately fond of this spice*, they 
 ate it in tne morning to sharpen their appetite; they served 
 it up at table, preserved in different ways; t ey used it 
 after meals to facilitate digestion, and at sea as an antidote 
 against the scurvy. The Old world adopted the taste of 
 the New, and this lasted till the price of pepper, which 
 had for a long while been extremely high, was reduced. 
 Ginger then fell into a kind of contempt, and its culture 
 was dropped almost every where, except at Jamaica and 
 Barbadoes. 
 
 When the roots of the Ginger plant are jointed and 
 spread in the ground, they put out many green, red-like 
 stalks in the spring, which arise to the height of two feet 
 and a half, with narrow leaves. The flower stems are 
 naked, ending with an oblong scaly spike. From each 
 of these scales is produced a single blue flower. It attains 
 its full height, and flowers about August or September, 
 and fades about the close of the year. When the stalk is 
 entirely withered the roots are in the state proper for 
 digging. This is generally performed in the months of 
 January and February. Alter being dug they are picked, 
 cleansed, and gradually seethed or scalded in boiling 
 water; they are then spread out and exposed every day 
 to the sun till sufllciently dry, when they are packed in 
 bags for the mark-et: this is called black Gihger. The 
 manner of scalding the roots is as foilov/s; a large pot or 
 copper is fixed in the field, or some convenient place, 
 and kept full of boiling water, the picked Ginger, being 
 divided in small parcels, is laid in baskets, and plunged 
 alternately in the water, where it is suffered to stay for 
 a space of ten or fifteen minutes; it is then spread on 
 a platform for drying; but care is taken during the pro- 
 cess, to change the water as soon as it becomes much 
 impregnated with the juices of the root. 
 
 White Ginger differs but little from the black sort; the 
 difference arising wholly from the methods of curing. 
 The white Ginger is never scalded, but instead of this 
 easy process, the roots are picked, scraped and washed, 
 
156 
 
 one at a time, and then dried; all which requiring miich 
 pains and time, and being made more agreeable to the 
 eye, the price of the white is much higher at market, 
 though not superior in its properties to the black. 
 
 When the root is intended for a sugar preserve it is 
 dug while tender and full of juice; the stems at this time 
 rarely exceed five or six inches in height; the root is 
 carefully picked and washed, and afterwards scalded till 
 sufficiently tender; it is then put in cold water, and peeled 
 and scraped gradually. This operation may last three or 
 four days, during which it is commonly kept in water, 
 and the water frequently shifted, as well for cleanliness, 
 as to extract: more of the native acrimony. After this 
 preparation it is laid in unglazed jars, and covered with a 
 thin syrup, which in two or three days is shifted, and a 
 richer put on, which is sometimes again removed for a 
 third. 
 
 In the year 1738 Jamaica exported 20,933 bags and 
 817 casks of Ginger, which is the greatest quantity ever 
 shipped from it in one year. At present the export is 
 very small, the consumption of this article having very ma- 
 terially decreased in Great Britain as well as in the foreign 
 markets, to which it used to be re-exported. 
 
 GINSENG. 
 
 F. Ginseng. 
 
 G. Kraftnsjurzel, Ginseng. 
 D. Ginsengs Ginsem. 
 
 I. Ginseng. 
 
 S. yin-seng. 
 
 P. Ginsao. 
 
 DA. Ginseng. 
 
 SW. Ginseng. 
 
 L. Ginseng, Pan ax. 
 
 Ginseng is the root of a plant grov/ing upon the confines 
 of Tartary and China, near the great wall; it is also found 
 in Virginia, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, and Canada. It is 
 like a small carrot, but n'ot so taper at the end; sometimes 
 single, sometimes divided into two branches. It has then 
 some resemblance to the inferior parts of man, from whence 
 it has acquired the name of Ginseng in China, and that of 
 garentoguen among the Iroquois. The taste of the root 
 is bitterish. 
 
 Its stem, which is renewed every year, leaves as it falls 
 off, an impression upon the neck of the root; so that the 
 
157 
 
 number of these impressions indicate the age of the plant; 
 and its value increases in proportion to the age. 
 
 The Ginseng root is generally allowed to be a strength- 
 ener of the stomach, and a purifier of the blood. Its 
 transparency is given to it nearly by the same process which 
 the Orientalists employ for the salop. This prepared Gin- 
 seng is in such high estimation among the Chinese tliat 
 they never find it too dear. 
 
 The government sends out ten thousand Tartar soldiers 
 every year to gather this plant ; and every one is obliged 
 to bring home two ounces of the best Ginseng gratis, and 
 for the rest they are paid its weight in silver. 
 
 GLAUBER’S SALT. 
 
 L. Sal mirabih Glauheri, 
 
 Is a neutral salt, which will be produced when the vi- 
 triolic acid is saturated with the salt of soda. It dissolves 
 easily in water; and shoots into long and beautiful crystals, 
 which contain a large quantity of water; in consequence 
 of which they undergo the aqueous fusion, when exposed 
 to heat. This kind of salt was some years since univer- 
 sally recommended as a purgative, and from its manifold 
 virtues was entitled by its inventor sal mirabile; but of late 
 its use has much decreased in many places. 
 
 GLUE. 
 
 F. Colie forte. 
 
 G. Lehn. 
 
 D. Lym. 
 
 1. Colla, 
 
 S. Cola. 
 
 P. Coluf Collay Crude, 
 
 Glue is a tenacious viscid matter which serves as a ce- 
 ment to bind or connedl things together. 
 
 The common or strong Glue is chiefly used by carpen- 
 ters, joiners, cabinet makers, &c. It is made of skins of 
 animals: as oxen, cows, calves, sheep, &c. and the older 
 
 DA. Limy Liim. 
 SW. Lim. 
 
 POL. Kley. 
 
 R. Kiel, 
 
 L. Colla. 
 
15S 
 
 the creature is the better Is the Glue made of its hide. 
 Indeed whole skins are rarely used for this purpose, but 
 only the shavings, parings, or scraps of them; or the 
 feet, sinews, &c. 'Fhat made of whole skins, however, 
 is un.ioiibtedly the best; as tiiat made of sinews is tlie 
 very worst. 
 
 In making Glue of parings, they first keep them two 
 or Mree days in water; t.'ien, washing the n well out, they 
 boii them to the consistence of a thick jedy; which they 
 pass wni e hot tnrough ozier baskets, to separate the im- 
 purities from it; and then let it stand some time, to purify 
 it further. When all the filth and ordures are settled to 
 the bottom of the vessel, they melt and boil it a second 
 time. They next pour it into flat frames, or moulds, 
 whence it is taken out pretty hard and solid, and cut into 
 square pieces or cakes. They afterwards dry it in the 
 wind, in a sort of coarse net, and at last string it, to finish 
 its drying. 
 
 Glue IS considerably improved in quality, by keeping it 
 after it is made; and it is of prime quality If it swells con- 
 siderably without melting, when steeped for three or four 
 days, and then resumes its former dryness when taken out 
 of the water. 
 
 Of this commodity there is a very large exportation 
 from England; the English Glue being universally allowed 
 to be the best in Europe; partly from the excellency of 
 the materials, and partly from the skill of the manufac- 
 turers. Next to this is the Flanders Glue. In both coun- 
 tries it is made by the tanners. In France It is a separate 
 trade, and the Glue generally of an inferior quality. 
 
 GOAT’S HAIR. 
 
 F. Poll Je Che-VYS, 
 
 G Ziegenhaar . 
 
 J teio Ui Capra* 
 
 In Anatolia, the capital of which is Angora, they In'ced 
 the finest goats in the world; and their hair, which is of 
 a dazzling white, is almost as fine as silk, and nine inches 
 in length. The mohair yarn is made of it, and it is worked 
 into very fine stuffs, particularly camblets. 
 
 S. Pe'cte. 
 
 P. Peh de Caprc. 
 
\ 
 
 159 
 
 This hair is imported into England from Smyrna and 
 Aleppo. 
 
 GOAT’S SKINS see Skins, 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 K Or, 
 
 G Go^d. 
 i> Goud, 
 
 1. Oro. 
 
 S. Oro. 
 
 P. Otro, Omo, 
 
 DA. G^ Id. 
 t>W, GJd. 
 POL Zloto. 
 R. Soloio. 
 
 L. Aurum. 
 
 Gold is the most valuable, perfe^l, and indestrufliblov 
 of all metals*, when pure it is of a bright yellow colour. 
 Platina excepted, it is also the heaviest o/ all known bodies, 
 its gravity being to that of water, as 19,280 and 19,290 
 to one. Gold is unalterable by air or water. It never 
 contrails rust like other metals. The a£Iion of the fiercest 
 furnace fires occasions no alteration in it. Kunckel kept 
 gold in a glass-house furnace for a month, without the loss 
 of a single grain. Its ductility can be brought to such a 
 degree, that, according to Cronstedt, one grain of it may 
 be stretched out, so as to cover ninety- eight Swedish ellsj 
 equal to 63.66 English yards of silver wire. But Gallerius 
 asserts, that a grain of Gold may be stretched in such a 
 manner, as to cover five hundred ells of wire. Its mal- 
 leability is not inferior to its du«Stllity. Magellan tells us, 
 that its surface may be extended by the hammer, 159,092 
 times. 
 
 Europe is principally supplied with Gold from Chili 
 and Peru in South America. A smaller quantity is like- 
 wise imported from China, the Island of Sumatra, and 
 the coast of Africa. The principal Gold mines of Europe 
 are those of Elungary, and next to them the mines of 
 Saltzburg. 
 
 The value of Gold to that of Silver varies as Gold is 
 more or less plentiful. It w'as anciently as twelve to one, 
 and in the times of Ctesar as seven and a half to one, on 
 account of the quantity of Gold he brought to Rome. 
 
160 
 
 Glauber, an eminent chemist, says, that there is not' 
 any sand or stone, but Gold may be procured from, lime- 
 stone only excepted; the misfortune is, that the expense 
 of separating it much surmounts the profits. 
 
 Gold is chiefly found in mines; though there is some 
 also found in the sand of rivers, which is in form of a 
 dust, and called Gold dust. It is distinguished by the 
 variously coloured substances wherewith it is mixed ; but 
 it is also found separate from any matrix. It is particularly 
 dispersed through such masses of sand as are of a yellow- 
 ish red, or violet colour; and in this state it is so univer- 
 sally diffused through every kind of earth, that Bergman 
 thinks it the most common of all the metals, iron alone 
 excepted. If one hundred pounds of sand contain twenty- 
 four grains of Gold, the separation is said to be worth 
 attending to. In Africa, five pounds of sand often yield 
 sixty-three grains of Gold, or even more; and the heaviest 
 sand, which is often black, or red, contains the most. 
 Golcl is brought down with most of the large rivers, even 
 those which do not take their^ rise in mountains where 
 Gold is found. 
 
 Gold is soluble by aqua regia, being a composition of 
 the nitrous and marine acids. This solution is corrosive. 
 It gives a violet colour to the fingers, or any animal mat- 
 ter. If the solution is evaporated and cooled, yellow trans- 
 parent crystals will be formed; but if the evaporation is 
 carried too far, the acids with which the Gold is combined, 
 may be driven from it, by heat alone, and the Gold will 
 be left in the state of a yellow powder, called calx of Gold. 
 All the metallic bodies which dissolve in aqua regia, pre- 
 cipitate Gold from it. Mercury and copper throw down 
 the Gold in its bright metallic form; the other in that of 
 calx or powder. Vitriol of iron, though it precipitates 
 Gold, yet has no effedl upon any other metal, hence it 
 , affords an easy method of separating gold from all other 
 metals. 
 
 GRAIN ; see Corn, 
 
161 
 
 GRAINS OF PARADISE, grains of guinea; 
 
 If. Graines de Paradis^ Mani- 
 gue;te, Maniquelte ; Ma- 
 laguette. 
 
 G. Paradieskdrnei^.' 
 
 D. Guinees greitu 
 I. Meleghctta, 
 
 S. Malaguettti grana del par also. 
 
 P. Malaguetta de Guinea Grad 
 do paraizo, 
 
 D A . Paradiskorn, 
 
 SW. Paradiskorn. 
 
 R, Raiskie %iarnka. 
 
 L. A?no'mum grana paradisi. 
 
 Ginger, cardamoms, and Grains of Paradise, are pro-^ 
 duced only by different species of the same genus of 
 plants. 
 
 The Grain of Paradise species is a native of the East 
 Indies, but grows also on the coast of Guinea. The fruit 
 containing the grains is about the size of a fig, divided 
 into three cells; in each of which are contained two roots 
 of small seeds, of a reddish brown colour without, and 
 white within; like cardamoms, only larger. They are 
 somewhat more grateful and considerably more pungent 
 than cardamoms. 
 
 GRANATES, garnets; 
 
 F. Grenates. 
 
 G. Granaten^ 
 
 D. Granaaten. 
 
 1 . Granati, 
 
 S. Granadas» 
 
 P. Granadasy Granates. 
 
 DA. Granater, 
 
 SW. Granater. 
 
 POL. Granatki. 
 
 R. Granatnoi-kamen, 
 L. Granati, 
 
 The Granate is a genus of fossils, ranked among the 
 siliceous earths; but according to Magellan, analogous to 
 gems. The two principal species are the coarse grained 
 and the crystallized Garnet. 
 
 The coarse grained Garnet is a heavy hard stone, crys- 
 tallizing in form of Polygonal bails, mostly of a red and 
 reddish brown colour. It is found of a reddish brown, and 
 whitish or pale yellow, in different parts of Sweden. 
 
 X 
 
169 
 
 l^he crystallized Garnet is reckoned among the precious 
 stones; but varying in colour, and the form of its crystals, 
 more than any of them. Sometimes it is of a deep and 
 dark red colour; sometimes yellowish and purplish; some- 
 times brown, black, or opaque. It is inferior both in 
 lustre and hardness to the other gems. When pure and 
 free from blemishes, it is little inferior in appearance to 
 the oriental ruby, though only of a middling degree of 
 hardness, between the sapphire and common crystal.’ It 
 is found of various sizes, from that of a pin’s head to an 
 inch in diameter. 
 
 The most esteemed is the Syrian Garnet, which is of a 
 fine red, inclining to purple, very transparent, but less 
 beautiful than the oriental amethyst. 
 
 Sometimes the Garnets have a yellow colour, in which 
 case they obtain the name of hyacinths. Like other gems 
 they are divided into oriental and occidental; but this means 
 in fact no more, than more or less valuable; the finest 
 stones being always called oriental, wherever they come 
 from. Some very fine ones are found in Bohemia, they 
 are also met with in Hungary, at Pyrna in Silesia, S. Sa- 
 pho in the Canton of Bern, in Spain, and in Norway. 
 
 GRANITE. 
 
 P. Granites, 
 
 DA. Granitsteen, 
 
 SW Granit, Grasten, 
 L. Granita, 
 
 F. Granit. 
 
 G. Granit, 
 
 D. Granitsteen, 
 I. Granito, 
 
 S. Granites, 
 
 The Granite is a stone of great hardness, giving fire 
 with steel, not fermenting with acids, and slowly and im- 
 perfectly calcinable in a great fire. 
 
 There are three species of Granite : 1 . The hard white 
 Granite with black spots, commonly called Moor stone; 
 this is a very valuable kind, consisting of a beautiful con- 
 geries of very variously constructed coloured particles. It 
 is much used for the steps of public buildings, and on 
 other occasions, where great strength and hardness is re- 
 quired, 2. The hard red Granite, variegated with black 
 and white, and found in immense quantities in Arabia, 
 
163 
 
 and particularly Egypt, along the coast of the Red sea, 
 3 The pale whitisa Granite, variegated with black aAd 
 yellow. 
 
 GREEN VITRIOL; see Copperas. 
 
 GUAJAC WOOD; see Lignum viu. 
 GUINEA PEPPER; 
 
 L» Capsicum, 
 
 This genus of plants has various species, of which the 
 capsicum tetragonum, commonly called bell pepper^ produ- 
 ces fruit fit for pickling. The pods are from an inch to an 
 inch and a half, and two inches long, very large, swelling, 
 and wrinkled. They must gathered before they ar- 
 rive at their full size, while their rind is tender. To get 
 out the seeds they must be slit down on one side after 
 which they should be soaked two or three days in salt 
 water, then taken out, drained, boiling vinegar poured 
 on them, and closely stopped down for two months. 
 Then to make them green, they should be boiled in the 
 vinegar. They are the whalesomest, and best pickle in 
 the world, and require no addition of any spice. 
 
 The capsicum fruteseens, comnionly called Barbary 
 pepper, is used for making cayan buttery cayenne pepper^ or 
 pepper potSy chiefly used by the inhabitants of America, 
 and esteemed by them as the best spice. The following is 
 a recipe for making pepper pot : take the ripe seeds of 
 this sort of capsicum, and dry them well in the sun, then 
 put them into an earthen or stone pot, mixing flour be- 
 tween every stratum of pods, and put them into an oven 
 after the baking of bread, that they may be thoroughly 
 dried; after which they must be well cleansed from the 
 flour, and reduced to a fine powder: to every ounce of 
 this add a pound of wheat flour, and as much leaven as is 
 S,ufiicient for the quantity intended. After this has been 
 properly mixed and wrought, it should be made into small 
 
164 ^ 
 
 cakes, and baked, then cut into small parts, and baked again, 
 that they may be as hard and dry as biscuits, which being 
 powdered and sifted, is to be kept for use. This spice is 
 prodigiously hot and acrimonious, setting the mouth as 
 it were on fire. 
 
 F. Gomme* 
 
 G. Gummi. 
 
 D. Gijm-, Gamine. 
 I. Gamma. 
 
 S. Gama. 
 
 P. Gamma i Gama, 
 
 GUM. 
 
 ) i / . ' 
 
 DA. Gummi, 
 SVV. Gummi. 
 POL. Gummi 
 R. Gummi. 
 
 L. QtUmmi. 
 
 Gum is a concreted vegetable juice, which transudes 
 through the bark of certain trees, and hardens upon the 
 surface. The chemists allow only those* to be properly 
 gums which are dissolvable in water; those which dissolve 
 only in spirits, they call resins; and those of a middle na- 
 ture, Gum-resins. 
 
 Gum AmmoniaCy is a concrete resinous substance, usu- 
 ally in large masses, composed of little lumps or tears of a 
 milky colour, but upon being exposed to the air, soon 
 changing of a yellow hue. 
 
 We have no certain account of the plant which pro- 
 duces this juice, but the seeds usually found among the 
 tears resemble those of the umbelliferous class. It has been 
 alleged, that it is an exudation of a species of the ferula, 
 growing in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the interior parts of 
 Egypt : another species of which produces the assafoetida. 
 It is brought to Great Britain from the Red sea, by some 
 of the ships belonging to the East India company trading 
 to those parts. 
 
 Gum Ammoniac has a nauseous sweet taste followed by 
 a bitter one, and a smell somewhat like that of galbanum. 
 It is in some measure soluble in water and vinegar, with 
 which it assumes the appearance of milk; but the resin- 
 ous part amounting to about one half, subsides on standing. 
 In medicine it is used as a deobstruent. 
 
 Gum Antmey is a kind of Gum resin, distinguished by 
 the names of oriental and occidental. 
 
165 
 
 The oriental, or Ethiopean Gum Anime, is brought to 
 ys in large, dry, and solid masses of irregular figure, and 
 very uncertain colour; some greenish, some reddish, some 
 brown, and some of the colour of myrrh ; but all mode- 
 rately pellucid, of a tolerably compact texture, light and 
 easily powdered, of a fragrant sniell, very inflammable, 
 and of a resinous and somewhat bitter taste. This is the 
 true Gum Anime, and now very rare. 
 
 The occidental Gum Anime, which now is universally 
 sold instead of the oriental sort, is of a fin? yellow whi- 
 tish, or red colour, between frankincense and mastich; and 
 in the purest pieces transparent. It is moderately heavy, 
 friable and somewhat oleaginous to the touch; extremely 
 fragrant, especially when burnt, and of resinous acrid and 
 somewhat bitterish taste. It is brought to us from many 
 parts of America, particularly New Spain and the Brasils. 
 
 The occidental Gum exudes between the principal 
 roots of the hymensea, or locust tree, and makes the finest 
 varnish that is known, superior even to the Chinese lacca. 
 It is likewise used as an article of the materia medica. It 
 is not certain, whether the Ethiopian Gum Anime comes 
 from the same tree. 
 
 Glim Arabic^ is the name of a Gum which distils from a 
 species of acacia, called mimosa nilotica, growing in Ara- 
 bia and Egypt. It is very common among us, but little is 
 to be met With genuine. That is accounted the best which 
 is in smaller pieces, and almost of a white colour. 
 
 This gum is gathered in vast quantities from the trees 
 growing in Upper Egypt, and in Arabia Petrsea, near the 
 north bay of the Red sea, and at the foot of mount Si- 
 nai, whence they bring the Gum Thus or Frankincense^ so 
 called from Thur or Thor, a harbour in the north bay of 
 the Red sea, near mount Sinai; thereby distinguishing it 
 from the Gum Arabic which is brought from Suez, ano- 
 ther port of the Red sea, not far from Cairo. These two 
 Gums though coming from the same tree are different, in 
 so far as the Gum Thus is more pellucid, white, or of no 
 colour at all; the Gum Arabic is less pellucid, and more of 
 a brown or dirty yellow colour. 
 
 Some inferior Gum Arabic is also brought from the East 
 Indies. 
 
 As an example of the nutritive quality of Gum Arabic 
 the following instance may serve. The Abyssinian cara- 
 
166 
 
 vans on their journey to Cairo, in which they travel over 
 terrible deserts, so that their progress is as uncertain, and 
 depends as much on the weather as a voyage at sea; ha- 
 ving in 1750 consumed their provisions when they had 
 still two months to travel, were obliged to search for some- 
 thing among their merchandize, wherewith to support life 
 in their distress. In this extremity they had recourse to 
 Gum Arabic, upon which above one thousand persons 
 lived for two months, and the caravan arrived safe at 
 Cairo without any great loss of people. 
 
 Gum Arabic is one of the most considerable articles of 
 commerce that pass through Egypt. Every year in. the 
 month of October two or three small caravans of the 
 Arabs, from the neighbourhood of Par and mount Sinai, 
 arrive with about 70,000 pound weight of the Gum. 
 Those Arabs are very much in the way of debasing their 
 goods with an intermixture of extraneous matters. A 
 great many caravans arrive from different parts of Africa, 
 in the months of June and July, with three different sorts 
 of this same Gum. A quantity comes also from Habbesch, 
 by the way of Djidda and Suez, which though inferior in 
 quality, passes all into Europe, where annually 500,000 
 pounds weight of this article are imported. 
 
 Gum Benjamin or Benzoin ^ is a brittle, brownish gum- 
 resin, of an exceedingly fragrant smell; it is obtained 
 from the styrax Benzoin, a tree which is a native of the 
 East Indies, particularly of Siam and Sumatra. At the age 
 of six years, or when* its trunk acquires about seven or 
 eight inches in diameter, it is deemed sufficient for afford- 
 ing the Benzoin. The bark is then cut through longitu- 
 dinally or somewhat obliquely, at the origin of the prin- 
 cipal lower branches, from which the drug exudes in a 
 liquid state, and by exposure to the sun and air soon con- 
 cretes; vffien it is scraped off from the bark with a knife 
 or chissel. The quantity of Benzoin which one tree af- 
 fords never exceeds three pounds, nor are the trees found 
 to sustain the effects of these annual incisions longer than 
 ten or twelve years. The Benzoin which issues first from 
 the wounded bark is the purest; being soft, extremely 
 fragrant and very white; that which is less esteemed is of 
 a brownish colour, very hard, and mixed with various im- 
 purities. In Arabia, Persia, and other parts of the East, 
 the coarser kinds of Benjamin are consumed for fumi- 
 
167 
 
 gating and perfuming the temples, and for destroying in- 
 sects. 
 
 The Benzoin commonly brought to us is in large brittle 
 masses, composed partly of white, partly of yellowish or 
 light brown. 
 
 This resin has very little taste, impressing on the palate 
 only a slight sweetness; its smell especially when rubbed 
 or heated, is extremely fragrant and agreeable. Its princi- 
 pal use is in perfumes, and as a cosmetic; and it approach- 
 es much in virtue and fragrance to storax and balsam of 
 tolu. 
 
 Gum CopaU is a Gum of the resinous kind, brought 
 from New Spain, being the concrete juice of a tree, called 
 rhus copallinum, which grows in these parts. It comes 
 to us in irregular masses, some of which are transparent 
 and of different shades as to colour; from a light yellow to 
 a deep brown. Some pieces are whitish and semitranspa- 
 rent. To the smell it is more agreeable than frankincense, 
 but has not the solubility in water common to Gums, so 
 that it is improperly called Gum. It chiefly serves for ma- 
 king a beautiful transparent varnish when dissolved in 
 linseed oil, and the solution diluted with spirit of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 Gum elastic; see India rubber. 
 
 Gum Galbanum, is a Gum issuing from the stem of an 
 umbelliferous plant growing in Persia and many parts of 
 Africa. 
 
 The juice as brought to us is semipellucid, soft, and 
 tenaceous; of a strong, and to some unpleasant smell; 
 and a bitterish warm taste. The better sort is in pale co- 
 loured masses, which on being opened, appear composed 
 of clear white tears. 
 
 Galbanum agrees in virtue with Gum ammoniacum, 
 but is generally accounted less efficacious in asthmas, and 
 more so in hysterical complaints. It is an ingredient in 
 Several officinal compositions. 
 
 Gum G.imboge; see Gamboge, 
 
 Gum Guajacum, Pockivood Gum, improperly called a 
 Gum, is a solid, but very friable resin, much resembling 
 common resin, except that it is of a dusky greenish hue, 
 and sometimes of a reddish colour. It is very acrid and 
 pungent to the taste, and when burnt of a fragrant smell. 
 It is procured from the Quajacum, or lignum vitje tree, by 
 
168 
 
 jagging the body of the tree in May. It exudes copiously 
 from the wounds, though gradually; and when a quanti- 
 ty is found accumulated upon the several wounded trees, 
 hardened by exposure to the air and sun, it is gathered 
 and packed up for exportation. This Gum has been sus- 
 pected sometimes, to have been sophisticated by the ne- 
 groes, with the Gum of the manchineal tree, to which it 
 bears some similitude; but it is easily distinguished, by dis- 
 solving a little in spirit* of wine, or rum. The true Gum, 
 imparts a whitish or milky tinge, but the manchineal gives 
 a greenish cast: and this is still further distinguishable, by 
 pouring a little of the same tincture into fair water, which 
 takes from the Guajacum, almost immediately, the com- 
 plexion of milk. 
 
 This Gum is in demand for its virtues in venereal 
 taints, rheumatisms, &c. 
 
 Gum lac ; see Lac. 
 
 Gum Mastich ; see Mastich. 
 
 Gum Myrrh; see Myrrh. 
 
 Gum Olibafuim; see Frankincense^ 
 
 Gum Opopanaxy is a Gum resin, of a tolerably firm tex- 
 ture, usually brought to us in granules or drops, and* 
 sometimes in large masses, formed by a number of these, 
 connected by a quantity of substance of the same kind; 
 but these are usually loaded with extraneous matter, and 
 greatly inferior to the pure loose kind. The drops or 
 granules of the fine Opopanax, are on the outside of a 
 brownish red colour, and of a dusky yellowish or whitish 
 colour within : they are of a somewhat unctuous appear- 
 ance, smooth on the surface, and are to be chosen in 
 clear pieces, and of a strong smell and acrid taste. 
 
 This Gum is obtained from the pastanaca Opopanax, a 
 plant which grows spontaneously in the warmer countries, 
 and bears the cold- of this. It is obtained by means of in- 
 cisions made at the bottom of the stalk of the plant, from 
 whence the juice gradually exudes; and by undergoing 
 spontaneous concretion, assumes the appearance under 
 which we have it imported from Turkey and the East In- 
 dies. Its virtues are those of an attenuating and aperient 
 medicine. 
 
 Gum Sandaracy is a dry and hard resin, usually met with 
 in loose granules, of the bigness of a pea, a horse bean, 
 or larger; of a pale, whitish yellow, transparent, and of 
 
169 
 
 
 a resinous smell; brittle, very inflammable, of an acrid 
 and aromatic taste, and diffusing a very pleasant smell 
 when burning. It is produced from a species of tne juni- 
 per, and the cedrus baccifera. It flows spontaneously 
 from these trees in hot countries; but the natives promote 
 its discharge by making incisions in the bark. 
 
 What is obtained from the oedar is more fragrant, 
 especially when burnt ; but it is seldom to be met with 
 separate, both being mixed together under the common 
 name of Sandarac. 
 
 Sandarac is used in medicine. A powder, called pounce 
 is also made of it; and dissolved in oil of turpentine or 
 linseed, or in spirit of wine, it is used as a varnish. 
 
 Gum Senegaly is a Gum extremely resembling Gum ara- 
 big. It is brought to us from Egypt, and from the coun- 
 try through which the river Senegal runs, in loose or sin- 
 gle drops: but these are usually much larger than those of 
 the Gum arable; sometimes it is of the bigness of an egg, 
 and sometimes much larger: the surface is very rough and 
 wrinkled, and appears much less bright than the inner 
 substance, where the masses are broken. It has no smell 
 and scarce any taste. It is probably produced from a tree 
 called by Dale, mimosa Senegal, ^ 
 
 The virtues of it are the same with the Gum arabic; 
 but it is rarely used in medicine, unless mixed with the 
 latter: the dyers and other artificers consume the great 
 quantities of it that are annually imported hither. The 
 negroes dissolve it in milk, and in that state make it a prin- 
 cipal ingredient in many of their dishes, and often feed on 
 it thus alone. 
 
 Gum Thus; see Gum Arabic. 
 
 Gum Tragacanth. The Tragacanth plant grows in* the 
 East Indies; it has a thick short ligneous stalk, greatly 
 branched out on 'every side. The young branches are 
 woolly and closely garnished with winged leaves, whose 
 foot stalks end in acute thorns. The roots creep over the 
 surface of the ground, and when wounded, yield a- Gum, 
 which is called Tragacanth. The best sort ought to be 
 clear and sweet, the inferior sorts have a reddish cast. 
 
 Gum Tragacanth possesses all the virtues of Gum ara- 
 bic, and in a higher degree. 
 
 Y 
 
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171 
 
 HAIR* 
 
 Those small fine threads that grow out of the skin of 
 human beings, and most four legged animals, are called 
 Hair ; but upon the latter they frequently bear the deno- 
 mination of shag and wool. 
 
 HUMAN HAIR. 
 
 F. Che^euk. 
 
 G. Haare, Menschenhaar. 
 D. Hair. 
 
 I. Capelli umani. 
 
 S. Gabellos, 
 
 P. C a hellos. 
 
 DA. Hdar, 
 SW. Hat, 
 POL. IVlosy, 
 R. Wolossu. 
 L. Capelli, 
 
 Human Hair makes a considerable article of commerce, 
 the goodness of which consists in its being neither too 
 coarse, nor too slender. Flaxen Hair is particularly va- 
 luable. The scarceness of white Hair has put the dealers 
 in that commodity upon a method of reducing other co- 
 lours thereto*, which is done by spreading the Hair to 
 ble'ach on grass, like linen; and afterwards washing it 
 out in lixivious water; which ley, with the force of the 
 sun and air, brings the Hair to so perfect a whiteness, 
 that the most experienced person may be deceived therein. 
 There is also a method of dying Hair with bismuth, 
 which renders such white Hair, as borders too much up- 
 on the yellow, of a bright silver colour. 
 
 Hair which does not curl or buckle naturally is made 
 to do so; by first boiling and then baking it. 
 
 The Hair of the growth of the northern countries is 
 valued much beyond that of the more southern ones: as 
 Italy, Spain, and the South of France; the latter being 
 generally of a darker colour than the former. 
 
 Great quantities of Hair are imported in Great Britain 
 from France; Spain, and Germany. 
 
172 
 
 There are many frauds in the Hair-trade, human Hair 
 being frequently adulterated with the Hair of camels^ 
 goats, and horses. 
 
 HAIR OF ANIMALS. 
 
 F. Foil. 
 
 G. Haare •von ‘Thieren. 
 
 D. Hair, 
 
 f. Pelo, 
 
 S. Pelo, 
 
 The Hair of several animals also makes an article of 
 commerce ; as horse, cow and ox, buffalo, camel, goats, 
 elks, deer, beaver, hare, coney, &c. Hair is used by up- 
 holsterers, rope-makers, sadlers, bricklayers, plasterers, 
 hatters, &c. The Hair of cattle left to putrify on corn- 
 lands proves a good manure. See Fursj Hides; Skins; 
 Goatshaiv; Mohair. 
 
 Camel-Hair comes from several parts of Asia and Afri- 
 ca, and is fit when spun for the making of stuffs, or, 
 mixed with other Hair, for making of hats, and particu- 
 larly for pencils in painting. 
 
 P. Pello. 
 DA. Haar. 
 SW. Har. 
 R. Scherst. 
 
 HELLEBORE. 
 
 F. Hellebore. 
 
 G. Nies^ixjurz . 
 D. Niesnvortel, 
 I. Ellcboro. 
 
 S . Vedegam bre. 
 P. Hellebore, 
 
 DA. Nyserod. 
 
 SW. Pruitrot. 
 POL. Ciemierzyca, 
 R. P'schemejriza, 
 
 L. Helleborus. 
 
 There are two sorts of Hellebore, the black and white'. 
 Black Hellebore, called in English Christmas rose, has a 
 dark coloured root, furnished with abundance of little 
 fibres; its stem green, its leaves dented, and its flowers 
 of a carnation hue. White Hellebore, called in English, 
 neesewort, has a whitish root, beset with fibres of the 
 same colour; its leaves being broad, at first green, and af- 
 tervrards of a yellowish red. From the middle of the 
 leaves rises a stem, two or three feet high, which separates 
 into branches bearing a considerable number of Small 
 flowers like stars. 
 
173 
 
 In each kind the roots only are used, 'which are to be 
 chosen large and fair, furnished with big filaments : those 
 of the white, tancoloured without, and white within; and 
 those of the black, blackish without, and brow'nish with- 
 in; dry, clean, and of a sharp disagreeable taste. 
 
 They act as purgatives; but so violently, that they are 
 now only retained for the farcy in horses, and for the scab 
 in sheep: but the chief use of wdiite Hellebore is in form 
 of a sternuatory powder. 
 
 F. Chancre. 
 
 G. Hanf. 
 
 D. Hennip, Kennip. 
 I. Canape. 
 
 S. Canamo. 
 
 P. Canha?no. 
 
 DA. Hamp. 
 
 SW. Hampa, 
 
 POL. Konop. 
 
 R. Konapliy Konopel, 
 L. Cannabis. 
 
 The ‘cannabis sativa, or Hemp plant, is cultivated on 
 account of its external filaments, which constitute the 
 Hemp Used for cordage, canvass, cloth, &c. and the seeds 
 abound with oil. 
 
 This plant is annual; it rises quick, into a tall, slender 
 sort of shrub; its leaves growing by fives or sixes from the 
 same pedicle, are a little jagged, and yield a strong smell, 
 which affects the head. 
 
 The culture and management of Hemp makes a consi- 
 derable article in agriculture, requiring divers operations, 
 as pulling, watering, beating, and swingling. It is sown 
 in May, in a warm, sandy, rich soil; and is of itself suf- 
 ficient to destroy weeds on any ground. 
 
 The first season for pulling Hemp is usually about the 
 middle of August, when they begin to pull the male plants, 
 called fimble Hemp. But the safer method is to pull it a 
 fortnight or three weeks later, when the male plants have 
 fully shed their farina or dust, without which the seeds 
 will prove only empty husks. At the second pulling, a 
 little after Michaelmas, the female plants, called karle 
 Hemp, are taken out of the ground. This karle Hemp 
 is laid in the sun to dry, and then housed, for the seed 
 to be thrashed out. The female Hemp alone produces 
 seed to perpetuate the kind. 
 
174 
 
 The operations of harling, watering, breaking, swingling, 
 ^ and hcckHng Hemp, are very much like those practised ia 
 the dressing of flax. 
 
 The Hemp imported into this country chiefly conies 
 from Russia. Amongst it, the Riga Hemp deserves the 
 preference, which according to the quality, is divided in 
 rhyne, outshot, pass, and codilla Hemp. Next followj 
 the importation from St. Petersburg, consisting of dean, 
 outshot, halfclean, and codilla. There is also an inferior 
 kind of Hemp coming from Konigsberg, and divided in 
 rhyne and schoken Hemp. The Italian, known in this 
 country by the name of Bologna Hemp, is of very prime 
 quality, but comes too dear for the consumption of the 
 northern parts of Europe. 
 
 The best Hemp should be clean, soft, tender, of long 
 staple, and a sound palish yellow colour, neither green 
 nor red. 
 
 HERRINGS. 
 
 F. Harengs. 
 
 G. Heriiige^ 
 D. Haringen. 
 I. Jringhe» 
 
 S. Arenques. 
 
 P. Arenques. 
 DA. Slid, 
 SVV. Sill. 
 POL Sledzh, 
 R. Seldi, 
 
 The clupea harengus, or common Herring, has the 
 upper jaw furnished with a serrated mystache, and it is 
 shorter than the under jaw; the branchiostege membrane 
 has eight rays; a scaly'serrated line runs along the belly 
 from the head to the tail. The name of Herring comes 
 from the German heer, an army,’' to express their num- 
 bers. 
 
 The meat of the Herring is every where in great esteem, 
 being fat, soft, and delicate, especially if it is dressed as 
 iSoon as caught: for then it is incomparably better than on 
 the next day. 
 
 Herrings are found from the highest northern latitudes 
 yet known, as low as the northern coasts of France. They 
 are met with in vast shoals on the coast of America as low 
 as Carolina. In Chesapeake Bay is an annual inundation 
 of those fish, which cover the shore in such quantities a? 
 
/ 
 
 175 
 
 to become a nuisance. We find them again in the seas 
 of Kamtschatka, and probably they reach Japan. The 
 great winter rendezvous of the Herring is within the arc- 
 tic circle: there they continue for many months, in order 
 to recruit themselves after the fatigue of spawning; the 
 seas within that space swarming with inse^l food in a far 
 greater degree, than those of our warmer latitudes. This 
 mighty army begins to put itself in motion in Spring. 
 They begin to appear off the Shetland isles in April and 
 May; these are only the forerunners of the grand shoal, 
 which comes in June: and their appearance is marked by 
 certain signs, such as the numbers of birds, like gannets^ 
 and others, which follow to prey on them : but when the 
 main bo4y approaches, its breadth and depth is such, as 
 to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It is divided 
 into distinfl columns of five or six miles in length, and 
 three or four in breadth; and they drive the water before 
 them with a kind of rippling; sometimes they sink for 
 the space of ten or fifteen minutes, and then rise again to 
 the surface; and in fine weather refledl a variety of splen- 
 did colours, like a field, of the most precious gems. 
 
 The first check this army meets in its march southward 
 is frorh the Shetland isles, which divide it into two parts; 
 one wing takes to the east, the other to the western shores, 
 of Great Britain, and fill every bay and creek with their 
 numbers; the former proceeds towards Yarmouth, the 
 great and ancient mart of Herrings: they then pass. through 
 the British Channel, and after that in a manner disappear. 
 Those which take towards the west, after offering them- 
 selves to the Hebrides, where the great stationary fishery 
 is, proceed to the north of Ireland, where they meet with 
 a second interruption, and are obliged to make a second 
 division: the one takes to the western side, and is scarcely 
 perceived, being soon lost in the immensity of the At- 
 lantic; but the other, that passes into the Irish sea, re- 
 joices and feeds the inhabitants of most of the coasts that 
 border on it. These brigades, as we may call them which 
 are thits separated from the greater columns, are often 
 capricious in their motions, and do not shew an invariable 
 attachment to their haunts. 
 
 This instinct of migration was given to the Herrings 
 that they might deposite their spawn in warmer seas, that 
 
176 
 
 would mature and vivify it more assuredly than those of 
 the frozen zone. It is not from a defecl of food that they 
 set themselves in motion, for they come to us full of fat, 
 and on their return are almost universally observed to be 
 lean and miserable. What their food is near the pole we 
 are not yet informed; but in our seas they feed much on 
 the oniscus marinus, a crustaceous insert ; and sometimes 
 on their own fry. 
 
 They are full of roe in the end of June, and continue 
 in perfecStion till the beginning of winter, when they depo- 
 site their spawn. The young Herrings begin to approach 
 the shores in July and August, and are then from half an 
 inch to two inches long. Though we have no particular 
 authority for it, yet, as very few young herrings are found 
 in our seas during winter, it seems most certain that they 
 must return to their parental haunts, beneath the ice. 
 Some of the old Herrings continue on our coast the whole 
 year. 
 
 The Dutch are most extravagantly fond of this fish 
 when it is pickled. A premium is given to the first buss 
 that arrives in Holland with a cargo of Herrings. There 
 is as much joy among the inhabitants on its arrival, as 
 the Egyptians shew, on the first overflowing of the Nile. 
 Flanders had the honour of inventing the art of pickling 
 Herrings. One William Beauklen, of Biverlet, near Sluys, 
 hit on this useful expedient; from him was derived the 
 name pickle. Beauklen died in 1397. The Emperor 
 Charles V, held his memory in such veneration for the 
 service he did to mankind, as to do his tomb the honour 
 of a visit. 
 
 Anderson, in his History of Commerce, gives to the 
 Scots a knowledge of great antiquity in the Herring fishery. 
 It appears that the Dutch, as early as the year 836, were 
 in the habit of purchasing salt fish from the natives; but 
 these imposing upon the strangers, the Dutch learned the 
 art, and took up the trade, afterwards of such immense 
 emolument to them. Numerous have been the attempts, 
 at differents periods, by bounties, to secure this treasure 
 to ourselves, but without much success. 
 
 This fishery is so valuable to the Dutch, that according 
 to Sir William Monson, who lived in the reign of king 
 James I, they vended annually. 
 
177 
 
 ' ■ Lasb, worth £. ster. 
 
 At Konlgsberg, Elbing, Stettin and 
 Dantzig, between 30 and .... 40,000 620,000 
 
 In Denmark, Norway, Sweden and 
 
 Livonia, 10,000 160,000 
 
 In Russia, . 1,500 27,000 
 
 At Stade, Hamburg, Bremen and 
 
 Embden, 6,000 ‘ 100,000 
 
 In Germany, . . ‘. . . 22,000 440,000 
 
 In the Spanish Netherlands, .... 9,000 160,000 
 
 At Rouen, ............. 500 10,000 
 
 making together 89,000 . 1,517,000 
 
 at twelve barrels the last, Containing twelve thousand Her- 
 Hngs; independent of a vast quantity consumed in Holland 
 itself, to the amount of several hundred thousand pounds 
 more. 
 
 Herrings are cured either white of pickledj or they are 
 cured red or smoked. For curing the white or pickled 
 Herring, one of the ship’s crew, appointed for this office, 
 as soon as the fish are taken, cuts them open; taking out 
 the giits, and every thing but the milts and foes: then 
 washing them in fresh water they are left for the space of 
 twelve or fifteen hours in a strong brine, made of fresh 
 water and sea salt. When taken out they are well drained, 
 and put in barrels; taking care to dispose them evenly in 
 layers, pressing them well down, and strewing a layer of 
 salt both at top and bottom. 
 
 In the curing of red Herrings they lay them in brine 
 as the pickled Herring; only they let them lie therein 
 double the time, because they are to take all their salt 
 here, whereas the other kind takes half its salt in the bar- 
 rel. When taken out of the brine they string then: bv 
 the head on little wooden spits, and thus hang them in a 
 kind of chimney, made for the purpose, exposing them 
 to the smoke of brushwood. Until sufficiently smoked and 
 dried; which commonly takes twenty-foUr hours. 
 
 The goodness of red Herrings consists in being large, 
 fresh, fat, oily, soft, and pliable, their outside of a yel- 
 low gold colour, their roes or milts within them, and well 
 salted, smoked, and barrelled. The white Herrings cured 
 by the Dutch were, till latelv, in the greatest repute. The 
 Z ' - 
 
m 
 
 goodness of this commodity consists In its being fat, flesby, 
 firm, white, salted the same time it is taken with good 
 salt, and well barrelled. The Irish Herrings, and princi- 
 pally those of Dublin, are scarce inferior to the best Her- 
 rings of Rotterdam or Enchuysen. The Scotch Herring, 
 is not so well prepared, gutted, salted, and barrelled, as 
 the Dutch, and yet its taste is excellent. A Considerable 
 number of Herrings are also fished on the coasts of Eng- 
 land and Wales, particularly off Yarmouth, and the 
 coast of Cardigan; but they are not so proper for export- 
 ation as the others; the fish being too dry and fresh for 
 the market. 
 
 HIDES- 
 
 F. PeauXt Cuirs, 
 
 G. Haute, 
 
 D. Huiden, 
 
 I. Cud a. 
 
 S. P oily os i P teles. 
 
 P. Pelles, 
 
 DA. HudcTt Huuder, 
 SW. Hudar, 
 
 POL. Skory, 
 
 R. Koshi, 
 
 Hides are the skins of beasts: but the denomination is 
 particularly applied to those of large cattle, as bullocks, 
 cows, buffaloes, horses, &c. See Skins, also Buetios Hyresj 
 and Hides % 
 
 Raw Hides are still a considerable object in the Egyp- 
 tian trade: about 80,000 Hides of buffaloes, camels, cows, 
 and oxen, are exported yearly. Nearly 10,000 go to 
 Marseilles, and a still greater number to Italy. ‘The buf- 
 falo Hides being thicker and heavier than the others, are- 
 chiefly transported to Syria. As the pastures of Lower 
 Egypt are excellent, the Hides of its cattle, in consequence, 
 of their being so well fed, are of the very best quality. 
 
 Great numbers of buffaloes are also in North America. 
 They are larger than an ox, and their head is so full of 
 hair, that it falls over their eyes, and gives them a fright- 
 ful look. There is a bunch on their back, which begins 
 at the haunches, and increasing gradually to the shouldersy 
 reaches on to the neck. The whole body Is covered with 
 long hair, or rather wool of a dun or mouse colour, which 
 is exceedingly valuable, especially that on the fore part of 
 the body, being proper for the manufacture of various 
 
179 
 
 ir tides. The Hide makes a considerable article of ex- 
 ports from America. 
 
 There are Hides of several denominations, according to, 
 their state and quality. 
 
 Raw or green Hide, is that which has not undergone 
 any preparation, being in the same condition as when 
 taken off the carcass. There are also Hides dried in the 
 hair. 
 
 Salted Hide, is a green Hide seasoned with sea salt and 
 alum, or salt petre, to prevent its corruption. Most of 
 the Hides imported from Holland and France are so pre- 
 pared. 
 
 Tanned Hides are further prepared by the tanner, by 
 paring of the hair, and steeping them in pits of lime and 
 
 tan. 
 
 Curried Hides, are those, which after tanning have pas- 
 sed through the currier’s hands, and have thus received 
 their last preparation, so as to be fit for use. 
 
 HONEY. 
 
 F. Miel 
 
 G. Honig, 
 
 D. Honig, Honing. 
 I. Mele. 
 
 S. Miel. 
 
 P. Mel. 
 
 DA. Honning., 
 SW. Honing. 
 POL. Miod. 
 R. Med. 
 
 L. Md. 
 
 I 
 
 Honey is a sweet sort of juice, sucked from vegetables 
 by the bees, and reposited in their combs. 
 
 Every swarm of bees consists of three, different insects 5 
 the queens or females, the drones; or males, and the 'v^ork- 
 ing bees. The latter are by far the most numerous; they 
 are neither male nor female, and it is their business to 
 gather the Honey and wax. 
 
 With regard to the Honey, there are parts in flowers 
 called the nectarium full of a sweet fluid; it is to these 
 the bees resort to gather the liquor, which afterwards be- 
 comes Honey. They make use of their trunks to conduct 
 the fluid to their mouths, and from the gullet it falls into 
 the first stomach, which, while it is filled with Honey, is in 
 shape like an oblong bladder. When a bee has sufficiently 
 
180 
 
 filled its first stomach it returns back to the hive, where 
 it throws up the Honey into a cell. There is reason to 
 believe, that the Honey does not return out of the body 
 unchanged, because the first stomach is capable of contrac-^r 
 tion, in the same manner as that pf curainating animals. 
 Some of the Honey-combs are always left open for coni'^ 
 mon use, but many others are stopped up, till there is a ne- 
 cessity of opening them. Each of these are covered care- 
 fully with wax, so close, that the covers seem to be made 
 at the same time. This practice tends to preserve the 
 Honey iri the same degree of fluidity, as they design it 
 should have. 
 
 In the frost of winter the bees are benumbed and lay in 
 heaps, as close to each other as possible. But as soon as; 
 it thaws, and especially when the sun shines, they are 
 roused out of their lethargy. However, with the return 
 of their activity, they are also under necessity of returning 
 to take nourishment. Hence the milder the winter is, the 
 more Honey they consume, and they are sometimes in 
 danger of a famine. A very severe winter, and one that 
 is too mild, are therefore equally dangerous. 
 
 In France, a good swarm of bees, in two years, will 
 yield near thirty pounds of Honey j and they are still more 
 profitable in countries that are covered with flowers the 
 greatest part of the year. 
 
 There are two sorts of Floney, the white and the yellow. 
 The white or virgin Honey trickles out spontaneously from 
 the comb. These they break soon after they are made, 
 and lay them upon hurdles or mats of osier, or on linen 
 cloth fastened at the four corners to as many posts, and 
 then an excellent white Floney will fall from the combs, 
 and grow hard in a short time. Afterwards they put it 
 into glazed earthen pots. Some press this Floney out, 
 but then it is not so agreeable, for it will taste of the 
 wax. The best sort of French virgin Honey is that of 
 Languedoc, called Honey of Narbonne. It should be 
 new, thick, granulated, of a clear transparent white 
 colour, of a soft and somewhat aromatic smell, and 
 of a sweet and lively taste. If it is very pure it is almost 
 as hard as sugarcandy; and what renders it so superior, 
 are the many aromatic flowers which grow in those parts, 
 and from which the bees gather their Honey. It is always 
 observable, that the Iloney made in mounUiROUs coun- 
 
181 
 
 tries is more highly flavoured than that of low grounds. 
 Th6 Honey made in the spring is more esteemed than 
 that gathered in the summer; that of the summer more 
 than that of the autumn. There is also a preference given 
 to that of young swarms. 
 
 Yellow Honey is obtained by pressure from all sorts of 
 Honey-combs, old as well as new; and even of those from 
 whence the virgin Honey has been extracted. They break 
 the combs, and heat them with a little water in basons, or 
 pots, keeping them continually stirring; then they put 
 them into bags of thin linen cloth, and these they put in a 
 press, to squeeze out the Honey. The wax stays behind 
 in the bag, though always some small particles of it pass 
 through with the Honey. 
 
 Honey is the production of most countries; yet more 
 abundant in the island of Candia, and in the greater part 
 of the islands of t^e Archipelago, than any where else. 
 The Sicilian Honey seems to be particularly high flavour- 
 ed, and in some parts of the island, even to surpass that of 
 Minorca: which no doubt is owing to the quantity of aro- 
 matic plants, with which that country is overspread. This 
 Honey is gathered three times in the year; in July, August 
 and October. It is found by the peasants in the hollows 
 of trees and rocks. The country of the lesser Hybla is 
 still as formerly, the part of the island that is most cele- 
 brated for this article. Considerable quantities of Honey 
 are produced by the wild bees in the woods of North 
 America. 
 
 The bee is an insect, supposed to have been carried 
 from the Old to the New World. The Indians in North 
 America call it the English fly, and it is only found near 
 the coasts. Their numbers are continually increasing in 
 those climates, and their honey and wax become daily a 
 more considerable branch of trade. 
 
 To judge from Niebuhr’s travels, great attention is paid 
 in Egypt to the rearing of bees. Below Mansura he met 
 on the Nile twenty boats laden with beehives, which they 
 were bringing up to make Honey on the banks of the river. 
 In each boat were two hundred hives, four thousand in 
 all. 
 
 The Ancients made much more use of Honey than we 
 do at present, because sugar was not then known; but in 
 some cases it is still preferred in medicine. 
 
182 
 
 HOPS. 
 
 F. Houhlon, 
 
 DA. Humle, Humble, 
 SW. Hutnla. 
 
 POL. ChmieL 
 R. ChtneL 
 
 G. Hopfen, 
 D. Hoppe, 
 
 i. Luppoliy l^rttscandoli, 
 S. Obion. 
 
 P. Luparci Lupulo. 
 
 L. Humulus Lupulush 
 
 Hops afe a plant of the reptile kind, whose flowers are 
 a principal ingredient in malf liquors. They are of a green- 
 ish yellow, resembling the flowers of the female elm, and 
 grow in a kind of bunch; they contain a blackish bitter 
 grain, which is the seed of the Hop. 
 
 Neither the male, nor female flower of the hop plant, 
 has any corolla ; the cup of the former is composed of 
 five leavesj that of the latter, of only a single leaf, very 
 large and of an oval figure. 
 
 They reekon four kinds of Hops: 1. The wild garlic 
 Hop; 2. The long and square Hop; 3. The long white; 
 and 4. The oval Hop. The first of these is not worth 
 Cultivating. The second is a good Hop, but looking ge- 
 nerally red towards the stalk, it will not fetch so good a 
 price. The long white Hop is the finest and most pro- 
 ductive of all, and will grow very well together with the 
 oval Hop. 
 
 Hops delight in a deep, rich, light ground. Some plant 
 them in March and April, but the month of Oflober 
 seems preferable, because they will then be strong and vi- 
 gorous against summer. Plants about eight or ten inches 
 long, with three or four joints or buds each, should be 
 chosen. The land must be dug or ploughed well, and laid 
 very even. A thousand hills may be made in an acre of 
 ground, and six or seven plants set on every hill. If 
 planted in 0<Stober the plants may be covered over an 
 inch deep, but in spring they must not be buried. 
 
 Every winter or spring the Hops ought to be dressed, 
 which consists in pulling down the hills and cutting away 
 all the new and superfluous roots. 
 
 The time for poling the Hops is when they appear 
 above ground; and to receive more of the sun’s rays they 
 
183 
 
 ought to lean towards the south. When the Hops have 
 got two or three feet above the ground, the next business, 
 is to tie them to the proper poles: two or three strings 
 being sufficient for a pole. 
 
 Hops blow in the latter end of July; in the beginning 
 of August they bell, and they are sometimes ripe at the 
 beginning of September, sometimes later. When they 
 begin to change colour are easily pulled to pieces, and 
 their seeds look brown within them, they are ripe ; and 
 they are then to be gathered as quick as possible, for the 
 least blast of wind will hurt them at this time. 
 
 Care should be taken to dry the Hops as fast as they are 
 picked, for in lying undried they are apt to heat and 
 change colour. The drying of the Hops is the most ma- 
 terial part of their manufacture; for if ill dried they lose 
 their appearance and agreeable flavour. It is performed in 
 a kiln, or if the quantity is but small, they will dry better 
 by being laid thin upon a floor and turning them often. 
 
 Hops are packed either in bags or pockets; the latter 
 are always higher in price than the former, partly on ac- 
 count of the better Hops being generally packed in poc- 
 kets, partly on account of the real tare or weight of the 
 linen, which in bags of two and a half cwt. weighs twenty- 
 five, and in pockets of one and a half cwt. five pounds, 
 whereas in trade there is no allowance made for tare. 
 
F. ’Jalap. 
 
 G . Jalap zvurzeL 
 D. Jalappe. 
 
 T. Sciarappa, 
 
 S. Jalapa. 
 
 P. Jalappa. 
 
 DA. Jalaprod. 
 
 SW. Jalaproti Purggerrot, 
 POL. Jalapa. 
 
 R. Ja'ap. 
 
 L. Jalappa. 
 
 Jalap is the root of the convolvulus jalappa. It derives its 
 name from Xalapa, a town of Mexico, in the environs of 
 which it grows plentifully. It is also found among the 
 sands of Vera-Crux. This plant resembles in appearance 
 tp the convolvulus of our hedges. Its stem is climbing, 
 angular, and covered with a slight doiXm. Its leaves al- 
 ternately disposed, are rather large, sometimes entire and 
 cordiform, sometimes divided into several lobes, more or 
 less distindf. The flower is campaniform, whitish on the 
 outside, and of a dark purple within. Its root which is the 
 only part in use, is tuberose, large, lengthened out into 
 the form of a French turnip, white on the inside, and 
 full of a milky juice. The weight of the roots is from 
 twelve to twenty pounds. They are cut into slices in or- 
 der to dry them. They then acquire a brown colour and 
 a resinous appearance. Their taste is rather acrid and ex- 
 cites a nausea. 
 
 The best Jalap is close, hard, weighty, not easily bro- 
 ken, inflammable, brown, and abounding mostly with 
 black circular striae. Slices of bryony root are said to be 
 sometimes mixed with those of Jalap, but may easily be 
 distinguished, by their whiter colour, and less compa(fl: 
 texture. 
 
 Jalap is an active and violent purgative, and is given 
 only in small doses. 
 
 There are seven thousand five hundred quintals of 
 Jalap consumed annually in Europe, which cost ^.45,000 
 sterling. 
 
 A a 
 
Japan earth, cachou. 
 
 F. Cachcuy 'J erre du Japaji. 
 G®' Japanische Erde^ Kate- 
 chu. 
 
 D. Japaansche aarde» 
 
 1 . Cacciuy CattOy Terra cattUy 
 Terra ^apanica, 
 
 DA% Japonish jord. 
 
 SW. Japanisk jord. 
 
 L. Terra Japonica, 
 
 This is a medicinal and aromatic substance, of a dark 
 purple colour; very austere upon the palate, seeming to 
 melt, like bole, in the mouth, and leaving somewhat of 
 a sweetish taste behind it. It is much esteemed as a 
 strengthener of the stomach, and sweetner of the breath, 
 after having been reduced to an impalpable powder, and 
 mixed with ambergrease and gum draganth, and so made 
 up into pastils. 
 
 The nature of this drug is not yet ascertained: some 
 giving it a place among medicinal earths, others reckoning 
 k among gums, and others again considering it a compo- 
 sition of several drugs. 
 
 The best Cachou should be of a dark red colour on 
 the outside, and a clear red within, not burnt, and very 
 glossy. 
 
 F. Jaspe, 
 
 G. y as piss. 
 D. yaspis. 
 I. Diasprs. 
 S. yaspe. 
 
 P. yaspe. 
 
 JASPER. 
 
 DA. yaspis. 
 
 SW. yaspis. 
 
 POL. yaspid kamien. 
 R. yaschma. 
 
 L. yaspis. 
 
 Jasper is a sort of precious stone, chiefly opake, but 
 sometimes transparent in certain parts, not very diflerent 
 from the agate, excepting that it is more soft, and does 
 not take so good a polish. 
 
 This stone is of various colours; as red, green, white 
 with blue stripes, purple, &c. What is now most valued 
 is the green spotted with red. It is found in all parts of 
 
187 
 
 th€ East Indies, likewise in America, and several parts of 
 Europe. In Misnia and Bohemia it is met with of a red 
 colour, in such quantities, and such large pieces, that they 
 manufadlure it into images. It is likewise used for seals, 
 knife-handles, sword hilts, &c. 
 
 JESUrPs BARK; see Peruvian Barh 
 
 JEW’S PITCH; see Bitumen Judaicum^ 
 
 INDIAN ARROW ROOT, maranta. 
 
 it has a stalk and leaf exadlly like the plant called Indian 
 shot; but the flower differs; that of the latter being a 
 beautiful scarlet, and that of the former milk white. Thef 
 leaves fall in December, and the root is fit to dig in Ja- 
 nuary. It is mealy, but may be kept perfedfly sound for 
 many years, as no insert will meddle with it. 
 
 The origin of the name is said to be this. An Indian 
 being taken prisoner after he had wounded an European 
 with a poisoned arrow was put to the torture, till he pro- 
 * mised to cure him; and performed it effedlually with the 
 root of this plant, applying it bruised in form of a poultice, 
 and giving the juice inwardly. 
 
 INDIAN CORN, maize. 
 
 F. Bled de Turquie. 
 
 G. Turkisch korut Mays. 
 
 D. Turksch koortit 
 
 I. Gram Purco o SicilianOy 
 Gram d* India. 
 
 S. Prigo de Indias^ Prtgo ds 
 Pur quia. 
 
 P. Prigo de Purquia, 
 
 DA. Purkisk hvede. 
 
 SW. Purkiskt h-vede, 
 
 R. Purezkoi chljeb. 
 
 Before the discovery of America the Indians in New 
 England, and many other parts of America, had no other 
 vegetable besides the zea mays, or Maize, for making 
 their bread; and at this time there is much of the bread 
 
1S8 
 
 of the country made of this corn. In Italy and Germany 
 also they cultivate Maize as a food for the poor inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 The ear of the Maize yields a much greater quantity 
 of corn than any of our corn ears, one ear or spike ge- 
 nerally consisting of about six hundred grains, which are 
 placed closely together in rows, to the number of eight 
 or ten and sometimes twelve. The grains are usually yel- 
 low, but sometimes they are red, bluish, greenish, or olive 
 coloured, and sometimes striped and variegated. There 
 are three or four varieties of Maize in different parts of 
 Ameriea. That of Virginia is very tall and robust, grow- 
 ing to seven or eight feet high-, that of New England is 
 shorter and lower; and the Indians further up the country 
 have a still smaller sort in common use. The stalk of 
 the Maize is joined like the sugar cane; it is very soft and 
 juicy, and the juice is so sweet and saccharine that a syrup, 
 as sweet as that of sugar, has been often made of it; and 
 things sweetened with it have been found not distinguish- 
 able from those done with sugar. It has not yet been 
 tried whether it will crystallize like sugar, but in all pro- 
 bability it will. 
 
 The stalk of this plant if cut up before too much dried 
 is an excellent winter fodder for cattle. The husks about 
 the ear are usually separated from the rest, and make a 
 particular sort of fodder, not inferior to our hay. 
 
 To reduce the grain into flour it is carefully parched 
 in an oven, and then put in mortars, and sifted. The 
 English have contrived in America, by mixing the flour 
 into a stiff paste, either by itself, or with rye or wheat 
 m^l, fermenting it with leaven or yeast, and baking it 
 in a hot oven, to make good bread of it. They have 
 likewise found out a method of making good beer, either 
 of the bread, or by malting the grain. 
 
 t 
 
189 
 
 INDIAN RUBBER, lead eater, gum elastic. 
 
 F. Gomme Elasiique, Caout- 
 chou. 
 
 G. Gummi Elasticum. 
 
 D. Feerkragtig bars. 
 
 I. Gomma o Resina Elastica. 
 S. Resina Elastica, Ule, 
 Vice. 
 
 P. Borracha, Resinado Para, 
 Resina elastica das borra- 
 chin has, 
 
 DA. Fiergumtni, Elastisk 
 Gummi. 
 
 SW. Elastisk kada. 
 
 L. Gummi Elasticum, 
 
 The syringe tree from which the resinous substance 
 called Gum Elastic is procured, has not yet been fully 
 examined by the botanists; the younger Linnaeus calls it 
 jatropha elastica. It is a tree of moderate size, the trunk 
 of which is smooth and yellowish, the leaves pretty large, 
 the flowers white, and the fruit yellow and rather round, 
 but angular; within it there are kernels as large as filberts, 
 which have a bitter taste. 
 
 This substance oozes out under the form of a vegetable 
 milk, from incisions made in the tree, and is gathered 
 chiefly in time of rain, because it then flows most abun- 
 dantly. It first is white and viscous, afterwards becomes 
 yellow, and lastly of a leaden colour, though rather black- 
 er, which it always remains. The means employed to in- 
 durate and inspissate this juice are kept a profound secret. 
 Some affirm that it thickens and hardens gradually by 
 being exposed to the air; and that as soon as it acquires 
 a solid consistence, it manifests a very extraordinary de- 
 gree of flexibility and elasticity. By means of moulds of 
 clay they give the juice any desired figure. They first 
 spread it over the mould, and as fast as one layer is dry, 
 another is added, till the vessel be of a proper thickness: 
 the whole is then held over a strong smoke of vegetables, 
 or fire, whereby it hardens into the texture and appear- 
 ance of leather; and before the finishing, while yet soft, 
 is capable of having any impression made on the outside, 
 which remains ever after. When the whole is done the 
 inside mould is picked out. 
 
 Among us Gum Elastic is used by surgeons for injecting 
 liquids, and by painters and others, for rubbing out black- 
 lead pencil marks, &c. Gum Elastic may be dissolved in 
 ether, which solution daubed over moulds, is used among 
 
190 
 
 «s, for making tubes, catheters and other instruments. 
 Dissolved in spirit of turpentine, and mixed with nut or 
 linseed oil, it is fit for the purposes of varnish or the like. 
 The Indians manufadture it into boots, bottles, flambeaux, 
 a variety of figures for use and ornament, and also a kind 
 of cloth. 
 
 F. Indigo, 
 G Indigo, 
 D. Indigo. 
 I. Indaco. 
 S. Anil, 
 
 P. Anil. 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 s 
 
 DA. Indigo, 
 
 SW. Indigo. 
 
 POL. Indych. 
 
 R. Krutiki Indigo, 
 L. Indigo, 
 
 Indigo is a blue dye prepared from the leaves and small 
 branches of the indigofera tindloria. This plant is a native 
 of Indostan, and was first transplanted to Mexico, after- 
 wards to the Antilles, and lastly to South Carolina, and 
 Louisiana. It rises in a single ligneous brittle stem, about 
 two feet high, covered with a grey, ashcoloured bark to- 
 wards the bottom, green in the middle, and reddish at 
 the extremity. The leaves, ranged in pairs around the 
 stalk, are oval, smooth, soft to the touch, furrowed above, 
 and of a deep green on the under side. At the extremity 
 of each branch, arise clusters of reddish flowers, succeeded 
 by a small rounded pod, full of cylindrical, shining, and 
 brownish seeds. It is commonly sown in spring, and 
 moisture causes this plant to shoot up in three or four 
 days. It is ripe at the end of about two months, when it 
 begins to flower: it is then cut, and cut again at the end 
 of every six weeks, if the weather is a little rainy. It lasts 
 about two years, after which term it degenerates. It ought 
 to be gathered in with great precaution, for fear of making 
 the farina that lies on the leaves and is very valuable, fall 
 off by shaking it. 
 
 The plant when gathered is first thrown into the steep- 
 ing vat till that is three parts full. A number of rails are 
 then laid the whole length of the vat, and strongly wedged 
 down by means of timbers, which are made to press upon 
 them, to prevent the plants from buoying up when water 
 
191 
 
 Is put upon them. The softest water answers best for the 
 purpose, and as much is let in as the plants will imbibe, 
 covering it with a surface of four or five inches. In this 
 state it is left to ferment.. In twenty-four hours it grows so 
 hot, that no one can bear the hand in it-, and if the pro- 
 cess goes on well, it will bubble like water in a pot upon 
 the fire, and shew a tinge of a very dusky blue. Great 
 nicety is required, in drawing off the water at the critical 
 moment, for if drawn too soon, great part of the pulp will 
 be lost: if too late, the whole may be spoiled. 
 
 From the steeping vat the liquor is drawn off into the 
 second vat, called the beater or mortar. It is now found 
 impregnated with a very subtile earth, which alone con- 
 stitutes the blue substance, and which must be separated 
 from the useless salt of the plant; to effedl: which, the 
 water is forcibly agitated for the space of fifteen or twenty 
 minutes, and if then it appears curdled, or as if full of 
 small grains, a quantity of clear lime water is gradually let 
 in, to augment and precipitate the colouring particles; 
 the stirring and beating the liquor being still continued, 
 until the grain by degrees, passes from a greenish cast 
 into a fine blue. If the dye should be agitated too long, 
 the parts would form a new combination, and the salt re- 
 a(d:ing on the dregs, would excite a second fermentation, 
 which would alter the dye, spoil its colour, and make what 
 is called burnt Indigo. When the dye has been sufficiently 
 agitated the dregs must be left to settle at the bottom of 
 the tub, which they will do in eight or ten hours. The 
 clear water is then very gently drawn off out of the beating 
 vat, through the plug-holes fixed for that purpose, a few 
 inches above the bottom. 
 
 The blue dregs remaining at the bottom having acquired 
 the consistence of a thick muddy liquid, cocks are then 
 opened, which draw it off into the third vat, called the 
 settler. After it is still more cleared of much superfluous 
 water in this last tub, it is then carefully strained through 
 a horsehair sieve, to render the Indigo perfedlly clean, 
 and then put into coarse linen bags, eighteen inches long, 
 and twelve wide, which for the space of five or six hours 
 are suspended in the shade, to drain out the water. The 
 mouths of the bags are then well fastened, and put into a 
 press, to be entirely freed from any remains of water. The 
 press is a box of five feet in length, two and a half m 
 
width, and two in depth, having holes at one end, to Idt 
 ofF the drained water. In this press the Indigo becomes 
 a fine stiff paste, and when taken out of the bags, it is 
 spread upon a plank, and cut into squares of two inches 
 each, which are ranged under cover, in a free air, and 
 when thoroughly dry, it is packed for exportation. 
 
 The best Indigo ought to be of a fine, deep, blue colour 
 inclining to violet, of a smooth grain, and bright and 
 sparkling, especially when broken. It should break easily, 
 swim in water, and burn freely. It may be tried, by dis- 
 solving a little in a glass of water*, if pure, it will mix 
 equably with the liquor, but if otherwise, it will separate 
 and fall to the bottom. By fire, the pure Indigo will be 
 entirely consumed, while the extraneous particles. will re- 
 main. The small, or dust of Indigo, is most subject to 
 adulteration. 
 
 The principal faults in Indigo arise: first, from too long 
 a putrefaction in the steeping vat, which gives it a black, 
 dirty hue; secondly, from too little beating, and then it 
 has a coarse grain, and a greenish colour; thirdly, from too 
 much beating, which always imbues it with a black cast : 
 fourthly, from a mixture of the particles of lime, when the 
 lime water has not been sufficiently depurated, or when too 
 large a quantity of this water has been let in, which ren- 
 ders it greyish and hard: fifthly, for want of limewater, 
 or when none is used, by which neglect it pever comes to 
 a due granulation nor settles well, and deposites only an 
 inconsiderable part of the substance. 
 
 The Ancients procured all their Indigo from the East 
 Indies, but in modern times the cultivation of it seems to 
 be principally fixed besides the East Indies, in Mexico, 
 St. Domingo, Louisiana, Carolina, &c. The Indigo shrub 
 is cultivated also though all Arabia, and several wild spe- 
 cies thereof grow over that country. 
 
 The Spanish Indigo, known under the name of Guati- 
 mala, a province of Mexico, is the most perfect of all the 
 different kinds of Indigo; then comes the growth of Car- 
 raccas, a Spanish town in Terra Firma. The East India 
 Indigo stands next to it in goodness, and that coming from 
 the British possessions is superior to the productions of 
 Manilla, Java, &c. After the East India Indigo follows 
 the growth of St. Domingo, then that of Louisiana, and 
 lastly the produce of Carolina. 
 
193 
 
 About the year 1620, only 350,000 lb. of Indigo were 
 computed to be consumed annually in Europe. In later 
 times. Great Britain and Ireland alone, have consumed 
 800,000 lb. per annum, and were reckoned to pay France 
 
 200, 000 stg. yearly, for what they bought from her. 
 The face of this trade has now totally changed. Jamaica, 
 about the year 1G72, furnished a considerable supply of 
 Indigo, but a duty of 3s. 6d. per pound being laid on, the ' 
 planters were obliged to drop it, .and the French islands, 
 particularly St. Domingo, supplied not only Great Britain, 
 but the greater part of Europe. A wiser parliament, af- 
 ter the manufacture began to thrive in Carolina, took off 
 the duty, and granted a bounty of 6d. per pound, on all 
 Indigo raised in the American colonies and imported into 
 Great Britain; so that about 174-7 the Carolinians remit- 
 ted about 200,000 lb. to Great Britain, and the culture of 
 this production has since continued to increase. The cul- 
 ture of Indigo has in later times been so wonderfully in- 
 creased, and the quality so improved in the British East 
 Indies, that now, three fourths of all the Indigo brought 
 into the European market come from the East Indies, and 
 are in quality little inferior to the Spanish Indigo. 
 
 The manner in wdiich the Giiatimala and Caraccas In- 
 digo is procured is worthy of remark. In these beautiful 
 countries, where every estate is from fifteen to twenty 
 leagues in extent, a part of this large space is annually 
 devoted to the culture of Indigo. For this purpose it is 
 sufficient to burn the shrubs which cover the grounds, 
 and carelessly to pass the plough once over them. This is 
 done in the month of March, a season when it very Seldom 
 rains in these delightful climates. A on horseback 
 then scatters the seed of the plant, in the same manner as 
 we sow corn in Europe; after which no one pays any at- 
 tention to this valuable production till the time of gather- 
 ing it. As great quantities of Indigo are in this manner 
 choaked by the weeds, the Spaniards, accordingly, gather 
 less Indigo from an extent of three or four leagues, than 
 others do from a few acres of ground carefully managed; 
 and this Indigo, though superior to any other, is not so 
 perfect as it might be. Europe receives thereof annually 
 about 6,000 cavt. 
 
 B b 
 
194 
 
 IPECACUANHA. 
 
 F. Ipecacuanha ; 
 
 G. jlmerikanische Brechnvur- 
 
 S. Ipecacuatia. 
 
 P. Cipo de camaraSf Ipecd' 
 
 %eU RuhrnjjurzeL 
 D. Braaknxjortel Roodenloop- 
 
 DA. Brcekrod. 
 SW. Kr'dkrot. 
 
 cuanhat 
 
 n,vorteL 
 
 I. Ipecocacanna. 
 
 L. Radiz Ipecacuannee. 
 
 Ipecacuanha is the root of a species of psychotria. Of 
 this root there are principally two kinds, the one is ash 
 coloured or grey, and brought from Peru*, the other is 
 brown, and brought from the Brasils. The former is a 
 small wrinkled root, bent and contorted into a great va- 
 riety of figures, with a small white woody fibre that runs 
 in the middle of each piece. The cortical part is com- 
 pact, brittle, looks smooth and resinous upon breaking, 
 has very little smell, and the taste is bitterish and subacrid. 
 
 The brown sort is smaller and somewhat more wrink- 
 led than the former; of a brown or blackish colour with- 
 out, and white within. 
 
 The ash coloured or grey Ipecacuanha is that usually 
 preferred. 
 
 A third sort, called the white Ipecacuanha from its co- 
 lour, has also been distinguished. It is woody, has no 
 wrinkles, and no perceptible bitterness in taste. This, 
 though taken in a large dose, has scarce any effect at all> 
 and is therefore by some called bastard Ipecacuanha. 
 
 Ipecacuanha was first brought into Europe about the 
 middle of the last century ; but it did not come into gene- 
 ral use till about the year 1686, and is now used as one of 
 the safest emetics, and frequently prescribed in dysente- 
 ries. 
 
 The roots of a kind of apocynium (dogs bane), are too 
 frequently sold instead of Ipecacuanha; but if the marks 
 above laid down, particularly the ash colour, brittleness, 
 deep wrinkles, and bitterish taste be carefully attended to^ 
 all mistakes can be prevented. 
 
IRON. 
 
 P. Per. 
 
 G. Risen. 
 D. Tzer. 
 I. Ferro. 
 S. Hierro. 
 P. Ferro, 
 
 DA. lern, 
 
 SW. lern. 
 
 POL. Zelazo. 
 
 R, Sheleso. 
 
 L. F err urn i Mars. 
 
 Iron is one of the hardest and most useful, as well as 
 the most plentiful metals; of a livid whitish colour incli- 
 ning to grey, susceptible of a fine polish, and capable 
 of having its hardness more increased or diminished by 
 chemical processes, than any other metal. Next to tin it 
 is the lightest of all metals, losing between a seventh and 
 eighth part of its weight when immersed in water. When 
 very pure it may be drawn into wire as fine as horse hair; 
 but is much less capable of being beaten into thin leaves 
 than the other metals, excepting only lead. Iron grows 
 red hot much sooner than any other metal, and this not 
 only from the application of actual fire, but likewise from 
 strong hammering, fridlion, or other mechanic violence. 
 It nevertheless melts the most difficultly of all metals ex- 
 cept manganese and platina. When perfectly malleable, 
 it is not fusible at all by the heat of furnaces, without the 
 addition of an immediate contact of burning fuel: all the 
 common operations which communicate one of these qua- 
 lities, deprive it at the same time of the other, as if fu- 
 sibility and malleability were in this metal incompatible. 
 
 It is very generally diffused throughout the globe, being 
 frequently found mixed with sand, clay, chalk, and being 
 likewise the colouring matter of a great number of stones 
 and earth. It is found also in the ashes of vegetables, and 
 in the blood of animals, in such abundance, that some au- 
 thors have attributed, both the colour of vegetables, and 
 the vital fluid itself, to the iron contained in them. 
 
 In consequence of this abundance, the Iron ores are 
 extremely numerous. It is found: 1. Native Iron in Si- 
 beria, Senegal, &c. 2. Calciform ores, composed of the 
 blackish, blackish brown, brown, or red calx of the metal ; 
 whereof there are a great many species, all mixed with dif- 
 
196 
 
 ferent minerals. 3. The Magnet, which is a muddy Irpii 
 ore. 4. Magnetic sand-, of this kind is the blackish sand 
 of Virginia, producing above 60 per cent, in Iron and 
 steel. 5. Ochres of different \cinds ; here belong the 
 blood stone, found in great abundance in Galizia in 
 Spain, and sold by the inhabitants for the burnishing of 
 gold leaves; various ochres are also used as paint. 6. Eme- 
 ry, found iri large quantities in the islands of Jersey and 
 Guernsey, and used in polishing glass and metals; for 
 which purpose it must first be ground. 7. Martial pyrites; 
 to which belong the bluish grey pyrites or marcasite, con- 
 sisting of Iron mineralized by sulphur and arsenic. 8. Na- 
 tive Prussian blue, consisting of clay mixed with Iron, and 
 coloured with some unknown tinging substance, generally 
 found in swampy grounds or bogs. 9. The terre verte, 
 or green earth of Verona and Normandy, is used as a' 
 pigment, and contains Iron in some unknown state, mixed 
 with clay. 
 
 Iron is employed in three different states, each having 
 its peculiar properties. The first is cast Iron, 'the second 
 wrought or malleable Iron, and the third is called steel. 
 According to Bergman, cast Iron which may be called 
 unripe or raw Iron, contains the smallest share of phlo-* 
 giston: the malleable Iron contains the greatest quantity: 
 and the steel a middling share betvveen both. This last is 
 called also pig-iron and yetlin in England. 
 
 The richest ores of Iron are the compact and ponde- 
 rous; of a brownish, reddish brown, or red colour: some 
 yielding no less than seventy or eighty per cent, of Iron. 
 
 The British Iron is made from three different kinds of 
 ores. 1. From the Iron ore called the Lancashire ore, 
 from the country where it is found in the greatest abun- 
 dance. This ore is of a fibrous and lamellated texture, 
 and of a dark purple/ 2. The bog ore, \vhich resembles 
 a deep yellow ochry clay, and seems to be the deposition 
 of some ferruginaceous rivulets, whose current had for- 
 merly been over the flat marshy plains where it is found. 
 3. The iron stones; they do not resemble a metal in their 
 external surface, and lie often in beds of great extent, like 
 other stony matters. 
 
 The other ores of Iron'are commonly calcined previous to 
 the fusion, in order to render the masses soft enough to be 
 easily bfoken into fragments of a convenient size for meh- 
 
19t 
 
 Ing. After the metal is duly prepared, it must be smelted' 
 in furnaces of large capacities, from sixteen to twenty- five 
 feet high, and ten to fourteen wide, below which is a 
 square cavity to contain the melted metal. Near the bot- 
 tom is an aperture, for the insertion of the pipe of a large 
 bellows, worked by water, or by other machines, that 
 may produce a strong current of air. Two or more holes 
 are left ready to be occasionally opened at the bottom of 
 the furnace, to permit at a proper time the scoria and the 
 metal to flow out, as the process may require. Charcoal 
 or coke with lighted brushwood is first thrown in: 
 and when the inside of the furnace has acquired a strong 
 ignition, the ore is thrown in by small quantities at a time, 
 with more of the fuel. The ore gradually subsides in the 
 hottest part of the furnace, where it becomes fused; and 
 the metallic parts being revived by the coal, pass through 
 the scoria, and fall to the lower part or bottom of the 
 furnace, where a passage is open for taking off the scum 
 hr dross. The metal now in strong fusion is let out by 
 a tap-hole into furrows made of a bed of sand: the large 
 mass, which sets in the main furrow, is called by the 
 workmen a sow, and the lesser ones pigs of Iron. 
 Chimney backs, stoves, garden-rollers, &c. are formed of 
 this rough metal, taken out of the receiver with ladles, 
 and cast into moulds made of fine sand. 
 
 The best cast Iron is not at all malleable, and so hard, 
 as perfectly to withstand the file ; when broken, it has the 
 appearance of being composed of grain; whereas forged, 
 wrought, malleable, or bar Iron, appears to consist of 
 plates. Forged Iron has long been procured by bringing 
 a mass of cast Iron nearly to the melting point, and pla- 
 cing it under large hammers, to undergo violent and re- 
 peated compressions. Cast Iron has also of late been 
 brought into a malleable state, by passing through rollers, 
 instead of forging it. Indeed this seems to be a real im- 
 provement in the process. The squeezing it between the 
 rollers forces out the melted flags from the metallic pores, 
 and brings its metallic fibres into complete contact. By a 
 few repetitions of either the process with the hammers, 
 or with the rollers, cast Iron becomes compleatly malle- 
 able, and is at length formed into bars for sale. 
 
 * A still more simple process has recently been brought in 
 use for converting cast Iron into forged; this is by, heat 
 
198 
 
 aione. The cast Iron is placed into an air furnace, and 
 kept for several hours in a degree of heat by which it is 
 brought near to the fluid state. It is then allowed to cool 
 gradually, and is found to be converted into forged Iron. 
 To explain this, it will be necessary to observe, that cast 
 Iron is brittle, because it has not had the opportunity of 
 crystallizing regularly. When it is exposed to cold, while 
 fluid, the surface becoming solid, prevents the inner parts 
 from expanding and arranging themselves into regular 
 crystals. When cast Iron is near brought to a melting 
 point, and continued for a sufficient time in that degree 
 of heat, the particles have the opportunity of arranging 
 themselves into that form of crystals, by which forged 
 Iron is distinguished, and by Which it possesses cohesion 
 and all its properties. 
 
 Iron is applied to numberless purposes in the arts and 
 manufactures; among others, it serves as the basis of the 
 fine blue pigment, called Berlin or Prussian blue. By ce- 
 mentation with inflammable matters. Iron imbibes a lar- 
 ger quantity of phlogiston, and becomes much harder, 
 less malleable, and more fusible. It is then called steel. 
 
 Generally speaking, the best Iron is that which is soft- 
 est and toughest, and when it breaks is of an even greyish 
 colour, without any of those glittering specks, or any flaws 
 or divisions like those seen in broken antimony. 
 
 There are several kinds of Iron which have properties 
 very different from one another; as English Iron which is 
 coarse, hard, and brittle, fit for fire bars, and such uses. 
 Swedish Iron, which is a fine tough sort, will best endure 
 the hammer, is softest to file, and in all respects the best 
 to work upon. German Iron, commonly called in Eng- 
 land, Dort square, because brought thither from Dort, is 
 wrought into bars of three quarters of an inch square; be- 
 ing a coarse Iron, and only fit for ordinary uses. 
 
 Iron is principally imported into this country from Swe- 
 den and Russia; a smaller quantity but of superior quality, 
 from Sweden. The Russia Iron comes from the port of 
 St. Petersburg, and consists of assorted, and common bar 
 Iron. The assorted Iron is in squares and flats of particu- 
 lar dimensions. The common bars are either old, or 
 new sable Iron, of various fabrics; as Alex. Greg. Demi- 
 doffs, N. N. Demidoffs, Jacoloffs, See. old sable; and Gu- 
 rioffs, Twerdichoffs, Gleboffs, &c. new sable Iron. 
 
199 
 
 ISINGLASS. 
 
 G. Hausenblase* 
 D. Huisenblaas, 
 T . Colla di pesce. 
 S. Col~pez» 
 
 F. Colle de Poisson, 
 
 DA. HuusbladSt Carlocko 
 SW. Hus bias. 
 
 POL. Kiel ry by, Karluk, 
 R. Kiel ruhui, Karluk. 
 
 L. Ichthyocolla. 
 
 P. Cold de peixe. 
 
 Isinglass is a preparation from fish, principally from that 
 called huso, Linn, accipenser. The method of making 
 Isinglass was long a secret in the hands of the Russians, 
 but has lately been discovered, and the following account 
 of it published by Humphrey Jackson, Esq. in the 63d vo- 
 lume of the Philosophical Transactions; he says: If what 
 « is commercially called long or short staple Isinglass be 
 “ steeped a few hours in fair cold water, the entwisted 
 « membranes will expand, and reassume their original 
 “ beautiful hue, and by a dexterous address may be per- 
 « fectly unfolded. By this operation, we find that Isin- 
 glass is nothing more than certain membraneous parts of 
 « fishes, divestfed of their native mucosity, rolled and 
 « twisted into the form above mentioned, and dried in 
 “ open air.” 
 
 “ The sounds, or air bladders of fresh-water fish in ge- 
 “ neral, are preferred for this purpose, as being the most 
 “ transparent, flexible, delieate substances. These con- 
 « stitute the finest sorts of Isinglass; those called book and 
 ordinary staple, are made of the intestines, and proba- 
 bly of the peritonseum of the fish. The belitiga yields 
 the greatest quantity, as being the largest and most pleh- 
 tiful fish in the Muscovy rivers; but the sounds of all 
 fresh-water fish yield, more or less fine Isinglass, par- 
 “ ticularly the smaller sorts, found in prodigious quanti- 
 ties in the Caspian Sea, and several hundred miles be- 
 « yond Astracan, inthe Wolga, Yaik, Don, and even as 
 far as Siberia.” 
 
 “ Isinglass receives its different shapes in the following 
 manner.” 
 
 “ The parts of which it is composed, particularly the 
 sounds, are taken from the fish while sweet and fresh. 
 
slit open, washed from their slimy sordes, divested ot 
 every thin membrane which envelopes the sound, and 
 “ then exposed to stiffen a little in the air. In this state 
 “ they are formed into rolls about the thickness of a finger, 
 dnd in length according to the size of the intended sta- 
 pie. A thin membrane is generally selected for the 
 centre of the roll, round which the rest are folded 
 altel*nately, and about half an inch of each extremity 
 of the roil are turned inwards. The due dimensions 
 being thus obtained, the two ends of what is called 
 staple are pinned together, with a small wooden 
 peg*, the middle of the roll is then pressed dovmwards^ 
 which gives it the resemblance of a heart-shape j and 
 thus it is laid on boards, or hung up in the air to dry.” 
 
 “ The sounds which compose the long staple are longer 
 “ than the former; but the operator lengthens this sort at 
 “ pleasure, by interfolding the ends of one or more pie- 
 ‘‘ ces of the sounds with each other. The extremities are 
 ‘‘ fastened with a peg, as the former; but the middle part is 
 << bent more considerably downwards; and in order topre- 
 serve the shape of the three obtuse angles thus formed, a 
 piece of round stick is fastened in each angle. In this 
 state it is permitted to dry, long enough to retain its 
 “ form, when the pegs and sticks are taken out, and the 
 drying compleated.” 
 
 “ The membranes of the book sort being thick and re- 
 fractory, will not admit a similar formation; the pieces 
 therefore, after their sides are folded inwardly, are bent 
 in the centre, in such manner, that the opposite sides 
 resemble the cover of a book, from whence its name.” 
 “That called eahe Isinglass is formed of the, bits and 
 fragments of the staple sorts, put into a flat metalline 
 “ pan with a very little water, and heated just enough 
 “to make the parts cohere like a pancake when it is 
 “ dried.” 
 
 Isinglass is chiefly used for clarifying wine, malt liquors, 
 cyder, coffee, &c. It is likewise reducible into jelly 
 with alkaline liquors, and is also sometimes used in me- 
 dicine. 
 
 The peculiar shapes given to Isinglass might probably be 
 introduced originally with a view to conceal and disguise 
 Its real substance, but as the mark is now taken off, it can-- 
 
201 
 
 not be doubted to answer every purport more effectually 
 in its native state; and the sounds of cod and ling might 
 prove valuable substitutes for the Isinglass imported from 
 Russia. 
 
 JUNIPER BERRIES, 
 
 F, Bales de Gene^vre, 
 
 G. Wuchholder beeren. 
 
 D. Dambesieriy Gene'-verbessen. 
 I, Cocole di ginepro, 
 
 S. Bay as de enebro, 
 
 P. Bagas de szimbro. 
 
 DA. Eneheer, 
 
 SW. Enh'dr. 
 
 POL. Jal^viec iagody.. 
 R. Moshshuchu. 
 
 L. ‘J uni peri haccee. 
 
 Juniper berries are the fruit of the juniperus shrub. 
 They have a strong, not disagreeable smell, and a warm^ 
 pungent, sweet taste; which if they are long chewed, or 
 previously well bruised, is followed by a bitterish one. 
 llie pungency seems to reside in the bark; the sweet in 
 the juice; the aromatic flavour in oily vesicles spread 
 through the substance of the pulp, and distinguishable 
 even by the eye; and the bitter in the seeds. The fresh 
 berries yield, on expression, a rich, sweet, honey-like, 
 aromatic juice; if previously pounded, so as to. break the 
 seeds, the juice proves tart and bitter. They are to be 
 chosen fresh, plump, and of a strong taste. 
 
 These berries are useful carminatives and stomachics; 
 for which purposes a spirituous water, and essential oil, 
 are prepared from them. The liquor remaining after the 
 distillation of the oil, passed through a strainer, and gently 
 exhaled to the consistence of a rob, proves likewise a me- 
 dicine of great utility. In Germany, Juniper berries are 
 used frequently in the kitchen, and they also prepare a 
 kind of wine from them. The Laplanders drink infusions 
 of it as we do tea and coffee. In the geneva manufacto- 
 ries it is one of the principal ingredients. 
 
 Juniper berries are imported in this country from Ger-. 
 many and Italy. 
 
 The whole Juniper plant has a strong aromatic smell. 
 The wood when burnt emits a fragrant odour like incense, 
 ]<t is of a reddish colour, very hard and durable, and when 
 large enough, is used in marquetry and veneering, and 
 in making cups, cabinets, &c. The oil of Juniper mixed 
 with that of nuts makes an excellent varnish for pictures, 
 
 C c 
 
202 
 
 wood work, and preserving iron from rusting. The resin 
 powdered and rubbed into paper, prevents the ink from 
 sinking through it, for which it is frequently used under 
 the name of pounce. 
 
 IVORY, 
 
 F. I<voire. 
 
 G. ELfenhein> 
 
 D. Y^oar, 
 
 I. jinjvriOf Jsvolio* 
 S. Murfil. 
 
 P. Mu-rjim., 
 
 DA. Elfenheen, 
 
 SW. Elfenben. 
 
 POL. Slomonva Kosc* 
 R. Kost slononx'ja, 
 
 L. Bbur, 
 
 Ivory is a hard, solid substance, of a white colour, and 
 capable of a very good polish. It is the tusks, or teeth 
 of the elephant, and hollow from the base to a certain 
 height; the cavity being filled up with a compact medul- 
 lary substance, seeming to have a great number of glands 
 in it. 
 
 Elephants’ teeth are brought to us from the East Indies, 
 and from the coast of Guinea. They are valuable in pro- 
 portion to their size; those that weigh a ciut. or more, are 
 the most costly; the second class comprehends such as 
 require two teeth to make a cnvt., or more; the third class, 
 three to the cwt. or more. 
 
 Ivory laid for twelve hours in aqua fortis, and then 
 three days in the juice of beets, will become so soft, that 
 it may be worked into any form: strong vinegar will har- 
 den it again. 
 
 IVORY BLACK. 
 
 F. Noir d'i'vcire. 
 
 G. Elfelbeinschwarx, 
 D. F lunjoeel^LFwart » 
 
 I. Nero (Ea’vorio, 
 
 S. Negro de Marfil. 
 
 P. Negro de Marjim. 
 DA. Elfenbeemnjeerte. 
 SW. Elfenbeni<v'drta» 
 
 Ivory black is prepared from ivory, or bones burnt in 
 a close vessel. This, when finely ground, forms a more 
 beautiful and deeper colour than lamp black; but in the 
 common methods of manufa£luring it is so much adulte- 
 rated with charcoal dust, and so grossly levigated, as to 
 be unfit for use. 
 
KELP; see Pot-ashes, 
 
 KERMES, KCRMES GRAINS, SCARLET BERRIES. 
 
 E. Kermes de Provencet 
 
 S. Gr ana kermes-, Grana de la 
 
 millon. 
 
 G. Scharlach beeren. 
 
 D. Grein, Scharlakenhessen. 
 I. Grana, Chernies, Cr ernes e. 
 
 V ermiglione', Cocchi, 
 
 Graines d^ecarlate, Ver- 
 
 coscoja, V ^.rmellon. 
 
 P. Graa, Mquerines , Kermes, 
 Da. Kermes bar, 
 
 SW. Kermes bar. 
 
 POL. Szarlatne jagody, 
 
 R. Berri. 
 
 L. Grana chermes. 
 
 Kermes grains are the produce of an inse£l, called coc'» 
 cus ilicis, which inhabits the quercus coccifera. It is found 
 in the woods of Vauvert, Vandeman, and Narbonne in 
 France: but more abundantly in Valencia, Murcia, Jaeii, 
 Cordova, Seville, Estremadura, La Mancha, and other 
 parts of Spain; also in the Levant and other countries. 
 
 Both Ancients and Moderns seem to have had very con- 
 fused ideas concerning the origin and nature of the Ker- 
 mes; but it is now ascertained that it is the body of an 
 inse^I, a species of the cochineal, transformed into a grain, 
 berry, or husk, according to the course of nature. 
 
 The progress of this transformation must be considered 
 at three different seasons. First, in the beginning of 
 March, an animalcule, no larger than a grain of millet, 
 scarce able to crawl, is perceived sticking to the branches 
 of the tree, where it fixes itself, and soon becomes im- 
 moveable; at this period it grows the most, and appears 
 to swell and thrive by degrees with the sustenance it draws 
 in. At the second stage, in April, its growth is completed; 
 its shape is then round, and about the size of a pea; it has^ 
 now acquired more strength, and seems to be covered with 
 a dusty husk or capsule, full of a reddish juice, not unlike 
 discoloured blood. In its third state, towards the end of 
 
May, the husk seems to be replete with small eggs, less 
 than the seed of a poppy. These are placed under the 
 belly of the insert, in the nest of down that covers its body. 
 It now soon dies, though it still adheres to its position^ 
 shielding its progeny from the inclemency of the weather. 
 In a good season they multiply exceedingly, having from 
 J,S()0 to 2,000 eggs. The poor are then employed to 
 gather the Kermes, the women letting their nails grow 
 for that purpose, in order to pick them off with greater 
 facility. 
 
 Those who buy the Kermes to send to foreign parts, 
 spread it on linen; taking care to sprinkle it With vinegar, 
 to kill the worms that are within. This produces a red 
 dust, which in Spain is separated from the husk. Then 
 they let it dry, passing it through a seafce, and make it 
 up into bags; in the middle of each, its proportion of red 
 dust, put in a small leather bag. In the kingdom of Se- 
 ville they dry the Kermes on mats in the sun, stirring 
 it about, and separating the red dust, which is the finest 
 part, and being mixed with vinegar, goes by the name 
 pastel. The lutsks have but half the value of the 
 dust. 
 
 Kermes was a dye well known to the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, and it was procured then chiefly from Asia and 
 Africa. In the middle ages, we meet with Kermes under 
 the name of vermiculus or vermiculum. Hence the French 
 word Vermeil, and its derivative Vermilion^ the latter of 
 which originally signified the red dye of Kermes, but is 
 nov/ used for any red paint, and also for fine pounded 
 cinnabar. The Kermes was known in Germany as early 
 as the twelfth century ; but when the American cochineal, 
 on the discovery of that country, came to Europe, the 
 French and Spanish Kermes were almost, and the Ger- 
 man entirely forgotten. At present the Kermes is chiefly 
 used on the coast of Barbary for dying red; principally 
 at Tunis for dying those scarlet caps so much used in 
 the Levant. The Spanish Kermes is preferred to the 
 French. 
 
 Kermes is also used in medicine. 
 
 KID AND LAMB SKINS; sec Skhs. 
 
S05 
 
 LAC, GUM-LAC, 
 
 G. Gumniilak, 
 D. Gomlak. 
 
 I. Gominalaccat 
 S. Goma lac a. 
 
 F. Gommelacqne, 
 
 DA. Gummilak, 
 SW. Gummtlak. 
 POL. Gumalaka, 
 R. Gummilak. 
 
 L. Gumtni laccce. 
 
 P. Laca em faos» 
 
 The coccus lacca, or Gum-lac animal, is a native of 
 the East Indies. The head aild trunk form one uniform, 
 oval, compressed, red body, of the shape and magnitude 
 of a very small louse, consisting of twelve transverse rings. 
 Of this size it is when it sallies forth from the womb of 
 the parent, in November or December. By the middle 
 of January they are all fixed in their proper situations, 
 upon the succulent extremities of the young branches. 
 Their edges are environed with a spissid, subpellucid li- 
 quid, which seems to glue them to the branch: it is the 
 gradual accumulation of this liquid, which forms a com- 
 plete cell for each insect, and is what is called Gum-lac. 
 About the middle of March the cells are completely formed, 
 and the insedl is in appearance an oval, smooth, red bag, 
 without life, about the size of a small cuchanical inseift, 
 emarginated at the obtuse end, and full of a beautiful red 
 liquid. In Oclober and November we find about twenty 
 or thirty oval eggs, or rather young grabs, within the red 
 fluid of the mother. When this fluid is all expended, 
 the young insedls pierce a hole through the back of their 
 mother, and walk off, leaving their exuviae behind, which 
 is that white membranous substance found in the empty 
 cells of the stick-lac. 
 
 These insedls are the inhabitants of four trees; 1, the 
 ficus religiosa, and 2, the ficus indica, Linnaei ; 3, the 
 plaso, Hortus malabarici ; and 4, the rhamnus jujuba, 
 lannaci. 
 
206 
 
 The Guni-lac of this country is principally found upon 
 the uncultivated mountains on both sides the GangeSj 
 where bountiful nature produces it in such abundance, 
 that was the consumption ten times greater, the markets 
 might be supplied by this minute insedl. The best Lac 
 is of a deep red colour; if it is pale and pierced at the 
 top the value diminishes, because the insefls have left their 
 cells, and therefore can be of ho use as a dye or colour, 
 but probably they are better for varnishes. 
 
 Lac is used among us in various arts ; being employed 
 in the preparation of spirit varnishes, for the making of 
 sealing wax, and as a colouring material for dying scarlet. 
 The colour given by Lac is less beautiful, but more dura- 
 ble than that given by cochineal. Lac is likewise employed 
 for medicinal purposes, and stick-lac is the sort used. 
 
 Besides the Gum-lac, which is the cell of the insedl co- 
 loured red by its dead body contained in it there is the 
 Stick-lacy which is the white membranous substance found 
 in the empty cells, or the wax adhering to some of the 
 small branches of the tree ; being the exuvise of the young 
 msefl. This Lac when separated from the adhering sticks, 
 and grossly powdered, is called Seed-lac ; when the Stick- 
 lac is freed from impurities by melting over a gentle fire, 
 and formed into casks, it is called Lump-lac ; and lastly, 
 that called ShelUlac is the cells liquified, and formed into 
 thin transparent laminae. 
 
 A red medicinal gum is procured by incision from the 
 plaso tree so similar to the Gum-lac, that it may readily 
 be taken for the same substance. Hence it is probable, 
 that those inserts have little trouble in animalizing the sap 
 of these trees, in the formation of their cells. 
 
 LAMPBLACK. 
 
 F. Nur lie FiiMse. 
 
 G. KienruiS. 
 
 D. Znvart:zel. 
 
 f. Nero di fumo, Negrofurno, 
 S. Negro de humc. 
 
 F. Ferrugern da chatnmine. 
 
 DA. K'6}:rog. 
 SW. Ki?nrok, 
 POL. Sad%. 
 R. Sasha. 
 
 L. Fidigo, 
 
 Lampblack is the finest of the soot blacks, and more- 
 used than any other. Its preparation is dependent on the 
 
gor 
 
 making of common rosin: the impure resinous juice col- 
 lected from incisions made in pine and fir trees is boiled 
 down with a little water, and strained whilst hot through 
 a bag: the dregs and pieces of bark left in the strainef 
 are burnt in a low oven, from which the smoke is con- 
 veyed through a long passage, into a square chamber, 
 having an opening on the top, on which a large sack made 
 of thin woollen stuff is fixed; the soot, or Lampblack 
 concretes partly in the chamber, from whence it is swept 
 out once in two or three days, and partly in the sack, 
 which is now and then gently struck upon, both for 
 shaking down the soot, and for clearing the interstices 
 betwixt the threads, so as to procure sufficient draught' 
 of air through it. In this manner Lampblack is prepared 
 at the turpentine houses in England, from the dregs and 
 refuse of the resinous matters which are there manu-^ 
 faClured. 
 
 LAPIS ARMENUS; see Copper, 
 
 LAPIS CALAMINARIS; Calamine, 
 
 LAPIS LAZLTLI, azure stone. 
 
 This is a very costly stone, of a blue colour, veined and 
 spotted with white and yellow, of which is prepared the 
 ^ne pigment called ultramarine. 
 
 The real Lapis Lazuli is found in the mountains of that 
 part of Tartary called Bucharia, which extends eastwards 
 from the Caspian Sea, and particularly at Kalab and Bu- 
 duckschu. It is sent thence to the East Indies, and from 
 the East Indies to Europe. As large pieces of a fine colour, 
 and pure, are scarccj even in that country, and as they are 
 employed in making ornaments and toys, the rough stone 
 itself is costly; and this high price is increased in the ul- 
 tramarine, by its laborious preparation; though in later 
 times the process has been rendered much easier. 
 
 This stone, to be of good quality, and proper for ma- 
 king ultramarine, should be heavy, little mixed with rock, 
 having veins of copper, and of a deep blue, inclining to 
 
208 
 
 that of fine indigo. Care should be taken of its not being 
 rubbed with oil of olives, which makes it appear of a deeper 
 blue than it would naturally be; and this imposition may 
 be discovered by breaking it, when if the colour be found 
 paler within than without, it is a sufficient sign that it 
 has been falsified. Whether the azure stone is of a good 
 quality may be also known, by heating it in the fire till 
 it reddens; which far from changing its colour, gives it, 
 on the contrary, a new lustre. 
 
 There is a sort of Lapis Lazuli very common in France, 
 whose colour inclines to green, being chiefly found in 
 Provence; but its quality is much inferior to that which 
 comes from Tartary and India, being in no respedt proper 
 for the making of good ultramarine. 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 F. Plomb. 
 
 G. Blei. 
 
 D, hood, Loot^ 
 I. Piombo. 
 
 S. Plomo, 
 
 P. Chu?nho. 
 
 DA. Bly^ Blye. 
 6W. Bly. 
 
 POL. OIo^v. 
 
 R. S-winez. 
 
 L. Plumbum. 
 
 Lead is a pale, or livid-white metal, soon losing its 
 brightness in the air, and contracfting a blackish or greyish 
 ash colour. It is the softest and most flexible of all me- 
 tallic bodies; but not dudlile to any great degree, either 
 in the form of wire or leaf; coming far short in this 
 respect, of all other metals. It has also the least tenacity 
 of all metallic bodies. Lead has, however, a considerable 
 specific gravity; losing when immersed in water, between 
 one eleventh and one twelfth of its weight. It is of all 
 metals the most fusible, excepting only tin and bis- 
 muth. 
 
 The plumbers cast thin sheets of Lead upon a table or 
 mould covered with woollen, and above this a linen cloth 
 without burning or scorching the cloths. 
 
 The melted Lead is received in a wooden case without 
 a bottom; which, being drawn down the sloping table by 
 a man on each side, leaves a sheet of its own width, and 
 more or less thin, according to the greater or smaller 
 celerity of its descent. For thick plates, the table is co» 
 
209 
 
 vered over with moistened sand, and the liqiiid metal cor** 
 dueled evenly over it, by a wooden strike, which bears oil 
 a ledge at each side. Some have preferred for mechanic 
 uses, the milled lead, or flatted sheets. 
 
 Lead is put up for sale either in pigs, bars, or sheets. The 
 milled or sheet lead is the dearest, then follow the bars, 
 and the pigs are the lowest sort. 
 
 The Principality of Wales, and some parts contiguous 
 to it, have very considerable Lead mines; amongst them 
 deserve to be enumerated the very rich mines in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Holywell, the mine in Llanrwst vale in North 
 Wales, several Lead mines near the village of Llangynnog, 
 amongst which, the mine called Craig-ymwyn yielded an- 
 nually about four thousand tons, but having been filled 
 with water, has but lately been attempted to be drained 
 again. The styper stones, a rocky tra(^ betv/een the high 
 road from Shrewsbury to Bishopscastle, and the vale of 
 Montgomery, have ^Iso very productive Lead mines. In 
 the island of Anglesey, not three quarters of a yard beneath 
 the common soil, is a bed of yellowish greasy clay, from 
 one to four yards thick, containing Lead ore, and yielding 
 from six hundred to one thousand pounds of Lead per ton. 
 Derbyshire, Flintshire, and Montgomeryshire, are also 
 very rich in Lead mines; and upon the whole, this metal 
 is found in greater quantities in Great Britain, than in. 
 any other country. 
 
 Lead yields the dullest and weakest sound of all metalliq 
 bodies. 
 
 Though this metal very soon loses its lustre, and tar- 
 nishes in the air, it resists much longer than copper or 
 iron, the combined aclion of air and water, and hence it 
 is exceedingly useful for many purposes. 
 
 When just become fluid, Lead looks bright like quick- 
 silver, but immediately contracts a variously^coloured pel- 
 licle on the surface. If this is taken off, and the fire con- 
 tinued, a fresh pellicle will always be formed, till the metal 
 is by degrees changed into a dusky powder or calx. The 
 injection of a little fat, charcoal powder, or other inflam- 
 mable matter, prevents this change, and readily revives 
 the calx into Lead again. 
 
 For the preparation of black, white, red, and litharge 
 of Lead, see the respective heads. In Holland, and per- 
 haps in other places, it has been customarv to correCt the 
 D d 
 
21*0 
 
 most offensive expressed oils, as that of rape seed, and rancid 
 oil of almonds or -olives, by impregnating them with Lead. 
 This dangerous abuse may be discovered, by mixing a 
 little of that oil with a solution of orpiment, or liver of 
 sulphur, made in lime water; for on shaking them to- 
 gether, and suffering them to rest, the oil, if it has any 
 saturnine tint, will appear of an orange red, and if pure, 
 of a pale, yellowish one. A similar abuse is also pradlised 
 with sour wines, which dissolve as much of the lead as 
 communicates a sweetish taste. If a few drops of the just- 
 mentioned test liquor be put in a glass of the suspedted 
 wine, it will, if adulterated with lead, exhibit a precipi- 
 tation like a dark coloured cloud, which is owing to the 
 attachment of the Lead to the sulphur in the orpiment. 
 Lead unites with most other metals. It cannot, however, 
 be united with iron ; but if both are exposed to the fire 
 -in a proper vessel, the Lead scorifies the iron, by seizing 
 on its phlogiston; after which it melts with the calx into 
 a dark coloured glass. This property which lead possesses, 
 of reducing all the imperfedl metals to glass, is the reason 
 of its being used in the purification of gold and silver, 
 neither of which can be touched by it, but remain pure, 
 in the bottom of the cupel. 
 
 Lead is employed in making of various vessels, and fre- 
 quently mixed with tin by the pewterers; a pradlice how- 
 ever which is very dangerous. 
 
 Lead, when taken in the human body, is productive of 
 various disorders, particularly a kind of dangerous cholic, 
 terminating in a palsy; and as all the common earthenware 
 is glazed with minium, the use of it cannot be supposed 
 to be void of danger in all cases. Fountains, or vessels of 
 Lead which contain water, often communicate a noxious 
 quality to it, when suffered to remain long full. Its va- 
 pour is dangerous to the workmen who melt it, and the 
 fumes falling upon the grass, render it poisonous to the 
 cattle who eat it; the fish who inhabit the water near 
 smelting houses soon die, nor is it safe for any animal to 
 drink it. Even the external use of Lead in surgery is not 
 altogether safe. Certain it is, that all workmen who deal 
 much in Lead, are subjeCl to the cholic above mentioned, 
 from the habitual contaCl of the metal or its calces, even 
 though they neither take it internally, nor are exposed 
 to its fumes. 
 
211 
 
 LEATHER. 
 
 D. Ledery Leer. 
 
 F. Cuir. 
 
 G. Leder. 
 
 DA. Lader, 
 SW. L'dder. 
 POL. Rzejnien* 
 
 1. Cuojo. 
 S. Cuero. 
 
 R. Kasha. 
 L. Criurn, 
 
 P. CourOy Cairo, 
 
 Leather is the tanned skin or hide of animals. The use 
 of tanning is twofold, first to preserve the Leather from 
 rotting, and then to render it impervious to water. 
 
 An infusion of any strongly astringent vegetable will 
 serve to tan Leather so far as to prevent its rotting; but 
 if this vegetable does not contain a good deal of gum resin, 
 it will not answer for enabling it to keep out water; and 
 hence it is, that oak bark, which is more abundant in the 
 gummy resinous part, than any of our common indigenous 
 astringents, is preferred to all other substances for the pur- 
 pose of tanning. 
 
 The tanners prepare their bark by gently drying it on 
 a kiln, and grinding it into a very coarse powder. They 
 then either use it in the way of infusion, which is called 
 ooze, or they strew the dry powder between the layers of 
 hides and skins, when these are laid" away in tlie tan pits. 
 
 The first operation of the tanner is, to cleanse his hides 
 from all extraneous filth, and remove any remains of 
 flesh or fat, which may have been left behind by the 
 butcher. 
 
 The hair is next to be taken off; and this is accomplished, 
 either by steeping the hides for a short time in a mixture 
 of lime and water, or by rolling them up close, and piling 
 them in heaps, where they quickly begin to heat and putri- 
 fy. This hair being loosened, is scraped off, and the tanner 
 proceeds to the operation called fleshing; which consists in 
 a further scraping, with a particular kind of knife, contrived 
 for the purpose, and cutting away the jagged extremities, 
 and offal parts, such as the ears and nostrils. 
 
 The raw Leather is then put into an alkaline ley, in 
 order to discharge the oil, and render its pores more capa- 
 ble of imbibing the ooze. The tanners of this country, 
 generally make their ley of pigeon’s dung; but a more 
 
active one may be prepared from kelp, or potash; taking 
 care however, not to make it too strong of the ashes, nor 
 to allow the Leather to remain too long in the ley. 
 
 The oil being sufficiently discharged, the Leather is rea- 
 dy for the ooze, and at first is thrown into smaller holes, 
 which are termed handlers, because the hides or skins 
 during this part of the process are taken up, from time 
 to time, and allowed to drain; th-ey continue to work the 
 Leather in those handlers, every now and then stirring it 
 up with the utensil called a plunger, which is nothing more 
 than a pole wdth a knob at the end of it, until they think 
 proper to lay it aw^ay on the vats. In these holes, which 
 are the largest in the tan yard, the Leather is spread out 
 smooth, whereas they toss it into the handlers at random, 
 and between each layer of Leather they sprinkle on some 
 powdered bark, until the pit is filled by the Leather and 
 bark, thus laid in stratum super stratum: ooze is then 
 poured on, to fill up the interstices, and the whole crowned 
 with a sprinkling of bark. 
 
 In this manner the Leather is allowed to macerate un- 
 til the tanner sees it is completely penetrated by the ooze; 
 when this is accomplished the manufacture is finished, 
 so far as relates to tanning; since nothing now remains 
 but to dry the goods thoroughly; by hanging them up 
 in airy lofts built for the purpose. Such in general is 
 the process for tanning calf skins*, and the lighter sorts 
 of hides, but the large, thick, heavy hides, of which the 
 strongest kind of sole Leather is made, require to have 
 their pores more thoroughly opened before the ooze can 
 sufficiently penetrate them. For this purpose, while the 
 hides are in the putrescent state from being allowed to 
 heat in the manner already mentioned, and well soaked 
 in an alkaline ley, they are thrown into a sour liquor, gene- 
 rally brewed from rye, in order that the effervescence 
 which necessarily ensues, may open the pores. It seems 
 that the foreign tanners knew nothing of this branch of the 
 business; indeed their whole process, according to M. de 
 la Lande is slovenly, and even more tedious than our 
 method, and makes but indifferent Leather. 
 
 When this operation is accomplished, the Leather is put 
 into the handlers, and worked in them for the requisite 
 time; then laid away in the vats, and there left to mace- 
 
213 
 
 rjrtc, until the tanning is found to be completely finishec^ 
 which for this kind of Leather, requires, from first to 
 last, full two years. 
 
 It is this tediousness of the process which enhances the 
 value of Leather; and the returns being so slow the trade 
 of tanning never can be carried on to advantage but by 
 people of large capital. 
 
 The quantity of Leather butts annually exported from 
 this country to most parts of Europe is very conside- 
 rable. 
 
 Under the denomination of tanned hides are compre- 
 hended sole Leather, and upper Leather. 
 
 Sole Leather consists of butts, backs, bends, clout Lea- 
 ther and Grope soles. Butts are generally made of the lar- 
 gest ox or cowhides, and are tanned whole, except the 
 pates and tails. Backs are made from small, as much as 
 from large hides, and slit down the back in two parts, for 
 the conveniency of tanning and packing. Bends are cut 
 off the best part of the hide, as the back, ribs, shoulders, 
 and buttocks: so that out of one hide there may be 
 made six, eight, or ten bends. Clout leather are a small 
 sort of bends. Crope soles are cut off the back of good 
 upper Leather hides. 
 
 Upper Leather are roundings, rands, wombs, dippings, 
 and heads; being only the thin part, or offal of the hides^ 
 
 LEMNIAN EARTH; see Terra Lemma* 
 
 LEMONS. 
 
 F. Citronsy Limons. 
 
 G. Limoneriy Citronen. 
 D. Limoeneriy Citroenen. 
 I. Limoni, 
 
 S. Limonesy Limoes. 
 
 DA. Li money , City oner . 
 SW. Limoneyy Citronery 
 POL. Limonii. 
 
 R. Limonu* 
 
 L. Limoni a. 
 
 The citrus lima, or Lemon tree, has an upright smooth 
 trunk, divided at the top into a branchy regular head; 
 from twelve to fifteen feet high; large oval, spear-shaped, 
 pointed, slightly sawed leaves, on lineal footstalks; and 
 rnany flowers from the sides of the branches, succeeded by 
 
211 * 
 
 large oval fruit, prominent at the top. The varieties are: 
 the Lemon tree with sour fruit; with sweetish fruit; with 
 very large fruit called Imperial Lemon; with pear sha- 
 ped fruit; with furrowed fruit; with clustered fruit; with 
 childing fruit; with whitish fruit; with tricoloured striped 
 fruit, See. 
 
 The flowering and fruit setting season for the Lemon 
 tree is chiefly in June and July. It continues blowing and 
 setting fruit, for three months, when a full crop is set. 
 The fruit is of a green colour first, turning yellow as it 
 grows ripe. Its shape is almost oval, and divided into se- 
 veral cells, in which are lodged hard seeds, surrounded 
 by a thick fleshy substance, full of an acrid juice. The 
 best Lemons should be large, weighty, and of a thin rind. 
 
 In the southern part of France, Spain, Portugal, and 
 Italy, there are forests full of Lemon trees, and a conside- 
 rable trade is carried on in transporting them to all the 
 northern parts of Europe. They are to that purport wrap- 
 ped up in soft paper, and packed up in chests. 
 
 The Lemon yields a very agreeable acid juice, which 
 besides its common use, answers considerable purposes in 
 medicine. The yellow peel of the Lemon is an agreeable 
 aromatic and excellent stomachic; it is also used by the 
 confectioners to be candied. Considerable quantities of 
 pickled Lemons are annually shipped from the Mediterra- 
 nean for the Baltic. The true, unadulterated oil, ob- 
 tained from Lemon peel, is very valuable. 
 
 LIGNUM VIT-^, GUAjAcuM, pockwood. 
 
 F. GayaCt Boh saint. 
 
 G. Pockholz,. 
 
 D. Pockhout. 
 
 I, GuajacOf Legno santo. 
 S. GuayacOy Palo santo. 
 P. Guaiaco, Pao sancto. 
 
 DA. Pokkentr^eCy Fransos- 
 ir^ee. 
 
 SW. PockenholtSy Fransos- 
 enholls. 
 
 POL. G<waiak. 
 
 R. Bakaut. 
 
 L. Guaiacutn. 
 
 The Lignum vitse tree is a native of the West Indies and 
 the warmer parts of America; there is also a species a na- 
 tive of the Cape of Good Hope. It is a large tree rising 
 at its full growth to the height of forty feet, and measur- 
 
215 
 
 ing from fifteen to eighteen inches in diameter^ having a | 
 
 hardj brittle, brownish bark, not very thick. jt 
 
 The wood is firm, solid, ponderous, very resinous, of t 
 
 a blackish yellow colour in the middle, and a hot aromatic \ 
 
 taste. It is so hard, as to break the tools which are em- j 
 
 ployed in felling it, and is therefore seldom used as fire- j 
 
 wood, but is of great use to the sugar planters, ■ for mas- ; 
 
 king wheels and cogs to the sugar mills. It is also frequent- | 
 
 ly wrought in bowls, mortars, and other Utensils. It is H 
 
 imported into England, in large pieces of four or five , 
 
 cwt. each, and from its hardness and beauty, is in great j 
 
 demand for various articles in the turnery ware, and ii 
 
 for trucks of ship-blocks. The wood, gum, bark, fruit, | 
 
 and even the flowers of this plant have been found to pos- [ 
 
 sess medicinal virtues. This wood was first introduced ( 
 
 into Europe as a remedy for the venereal disease, whence j 
 
 the origin of the name Pockwood. 
 
 In the choice of the wood, that which is the freshest, | 
 
 most ponderous, and of the darkest colour, is the best^ | 
 
 and the largest pieces are to be preferred. { 
 
 LINSEED, LINTSEED, FLAXSEED. 
 
 F. Lin, Graine de Lin, 
 
 G. Leinsaat. 
 
 D. Lynzaad. 
 
 I. Lin seme. 
 
 S. Linaza. 
 
 P. Linhaca. 
 
 DA. Horrjroe. 
 
 SW. L infra. 
 
 POL. Siemie, Ini am. 
 R. Semja lenjanoe. 
 
 L. Lini semen. 
 
 Idnseed is the seed of flax, and is either sowing or 
 crushing seed : the former of a more clean and superior 
 quality to the latter which is used for the oil mills. 
 
 The brighter in colour and the cleaner and heavier the 
 seed is, the better. That which, when bruised, appears 
 of a light or yellowish green, and fresh in the heart, oily, 
 and not dry, of sweet taste and smell, not musty, may be 
 depended upon as a good sowing seed. 
 
 The flax being generally preferred in this country to 
 the seed, as being more valuable, the latter is sacrificed, 
 and considerable quantities imported in consequence. 
 
216 
 
 Our crushing seed generally comes from Archangel, Sl^ 
 Petersburg, Riga, Konigsberg, and other ports of the 
 Baltic. That coming from Konigsberg is of the best 
 sort, and the quality decreases in proportion as the ports 
 lay further to the north. 
 
 Of sowing seed, Dutch seed of the preceding year’s 
 growth is preferred. Riga sowing seed is also esteemed. 
 
 LINSEED OIL. 
 
 F. Huile de Lin. 
 
 G. LeinoL 
 D. Lynoli. 
 
 I. Olio di lino, 
 
 S. Aceite de linaza, 
 P. Oko de linhaca. 
 
 DA. Liinolict Horrolie, 
 SW. Linolja. 
 
 POL. Oley Iniany. 
 
 R. Lnjanoe tnasslo, 
 
 L. Oleum Uni. 
 
 This Oil is obtained by expression from Linseed ; it has 
 most of the qualities of nut oil, and is accordingly some- 
 times used instead thereof by painters, printers, and for 
 burning. In many parts, particularly in Poland, it is also 
 used in the kitchen. That drawn without the assistance of 
 fire is of much esteem in medicine. 
 
 LIQUORICE, 
 
 F. Reglisse. 
 
 G. Siiisholzsaft. 
 
 D. Zoethout. 
 
 I. Pasta liquirizia. 
 
 S. RegaliZf Orozuz. 
 
 P. RegoIiZf Rogoliz, Alca- 
 cuz. 
 
 SPANISH JUICE. 
 
 DA. Lakrizrod, 
 
 SW. Lakritsrot, 
 
 POL Lakrycia, Slodki kor> 
 zen, 
 
 R, Keren soledkonvoi, 
 
 L . Glycyrrhiza. 
 
 The glycirrhiza, or common Liquorice shrub, has a 
 long, thick, creeping root, striking several feet deep into 
 the ground j an upright, firm, herbaceous, annual stalk, 
 three or four feet high, garnished with winged leaves, of 
 four or five pair of oval lobes, terminated by an odd one : 
 and from the axillas, ere6t spikes of pale blue flowers in 
 July, succeeded by short smooth pods. 
 
 The root of this plant is the useful part, being replete 
 with a sweet, balsamic, pectoral juice, which is either ex- 
 
21T 
 
 tracte4) or the wood sold in substance. It is much used 
 in all compositions for coughs and disorders of the sto*. 
 mach; but by far the greatest quantity is used by brewers. 
 
 The common Liquorice is cultivated in most countries 
 of Europe, for the sake of its root *, but in Spain and Ita- 
 ly, and particularly in Sicily and Calabria, it makes a con- 
 siderable article of commerce with this country. In Cala- 
 bria, Liquorice is chiefly manufactured, and exported 
 from Corigliano, Rossano, Cassano, and Palermo. The 
 Calabria Liquorice upon the whole is preferable lo that 
 coming from Sicily, and the Italian paste to that coming 
 from Spain. Liquorice also grows in great abundance in 
 the Levant, and vast quantities of it are consumed there 
 in making a decoction which is drank cold in the sum- 
 mer in the manner of sherbet. 
 
 To prepare Liquorice, the roots are boiled a long time 
 in water, till the fluid has got a deep yellow tiiKTlure; and 
 the water at length evaporated till the remains acquire a 
 consistency, whep they are formed into sticks, which are 
 packed up with bay. leaves, in the same order as we re- 
 ceive them. The boiling requires the utmost care and 
 precaution, as the juice takes an unpleasant smell and fla- 
 vour if burnt in the least degree. This paste is manufac- 
 tured from the month of November till March, the warm 
 season being very unfavourable for it j so much so, that it 
 is not adviseable to ship any in summer, as it easily runs 
 in one mass in the boxes, and then is only to be sold for 
 damaged Liquorice. 
 
 The round sticks are preferable to the flat ones, and 
 the good quality is to be brittle, bright, v/ithout pores, 
 and of a good fragrant smell. 
 
 LFFHARGE, 
 
 F. Litharge, 
 
 (j. Glceite. 
 
 D. Gelit. 
 
 I, Litargirio. 
 
 S. Almartnga, Litarjirio. 
 P. Almartaga, Lithargirio, 
 
 DA. Gl'U. 
 
 SW. Gl:tt, Gleiie. 
 POL. G'eyie, Gleia. 
 R. Glet. 
 
 L Lithargyrium. 
 
 There are two kinds of Litharge, the one natural, the 
 other artificial. The natural is a mineral, sometimes 
 E e 
 
218 
 
 found in lead naines; reddish, scaly, brittle, and somewhat 
 resembling white lead, --fiut this kind is so scarce, that 
 the artificial kind only is to be met with in commerce. 
 
 If instead of keeping the calx of lead in a continued 
 -moderate heat, as is done for the manufadlory of red lead, 
 it be suddenly fused; the matter then puts on a foliated 
 appearance, changing to a dull kind of brick colour when 
 powdered, and is called Litharge. Most of this substance 
 is produced byrefining silver with lead; and is of two 
 kinds, red and white. 
 
 These two sorts are distinguished by the names of Li- 
 tharge of gold, and Litharge of silver. The most perfecl is 
 the former: the pale sort contains a considerable propor- 
 tion of lead in its metallic state; and even the highest co- 
 loured Lkharge is seldom free from a little metallic lead, 
 discoverable and separable, by melting the mass in a cru- 
 cible; when the lead subsides to the bottom. 
 
 Litharge is used in the composition of plaisters, to give 
 them a due consistence. Potters use it to give a beau- 
 tiful gloss to their ware; it is also used by painters, dyers, 
 skinners, and glaziers. When mixed with wine it gives 
 it a bright sprightly colour, but renders it extremely un- 
 wholesome. 
 
 LOGWOOD. 
 
 F. Bois de Ctnnpcchs, 
 
 G. BlauhoI%. 
 
 D. Kampechehout , 
 
 1. Campeggw, legno tauro. 
 S. Paolo de Campeche. 
 
 P. Pao de Campeche. 
 
 DA. Blaaholt, Campesche- 
 fra 
 
 SW. Campeschefrd. 
 
 POL Kampesza, 
 
 R Knmpetschkoe derenjjo. 
 
 L. Hamaioxylum. 
 
 Logwood grows naturally in the bay of Campeachy, at 
 Honduras, and' other parts of the Spanish West Indies; 
 also in Jamaica; and rises from sixteen to twenty-four 
 feet high. The stems are generally crooked and very de- 
 formed, and seldom thicker than a man’s thigh. For 
 sending it to market they are cut up in billets or junks, 
 and sometimes the bark and white sap are chipped off, 
 which is called chipt Logwood. 
 
 The most internal part of the wood, which is at first 
 red, becomes black some time after the felling, and it is 
 
I 
 
 ^219 
 
 only inner part of the tree that yields a black and vi- 
 olet colour. 
 
 The taste for these colours, which was perhaps more ge- 
 neral two centuries ago than it is at present, procured a 
 considerable vent for this valuable wood. This trade was 
 entirely in the hands of the Spaniards till the settlement 
 of the British at Jamaica. Among the number of pirates 
 who were continually coming from this island, several 
 went to cruise in the bays of Campeachy and Honduras, 
 and on the coasts of Jucatan, to intercept the vessels that 
 sailed there. These plunderers were so little acquainted 
 with the value of Logwood, that when they found barks la- 
 den with it, they took away nothing but the iron uten- 
 sils. One of them having carried off a large vessel entire- 
 ly loaded with Logwood, brought it into the Thames, de- 
 signing to equip it as a privateer, when contrary to his ex- 
 pectation, he sold at a very high price, the wood which 
 he had thought to be of so little value, that he had always 
 burnt it as fire wood during the voyage. After this disco- 
 very, the pirates who were not successful at sea, never 
 failed to repair to the river of Champeton, in the Bay of 
 Campeachy, where they took on board the piles of wood 
 which were always found ranged on the shore. The peace 
 between England and Spain having put a stop to the depre- 
 dations of these pirates, they went to settle between Ta- 
 basco and the river Champeton, about Lake Triste, and 
 in Beef island. In 1675 their numbers amounted to two 
 hundred and sixty. Being driven from here by the Spa- 
 niards, they took refuge in the Bay of Honduras, where 
 they were joined by some freebooters of North Americai 
 In process of time they increased to fifteen hundred men, 
 and they sold the Logwood which they cut to the people of 
 Jamaica, and to the English colonies in North America. 
 'This commerce, till then carried on by smugglers, and 
 which occasioned much clamour, became lawful in 1763. 
 The liberty of cutting Logwood was secured to Great 
 Britain, but she was not permitted to raise forts. 
 
 The wood which grows upon the dry soil at Campeachy, 
 is much superior to that which is cut in the marshes of 
 Honduras. The growth of Jamaica is inferior to either 
 of them. 
 
 Logwood is used in great quantities for dying purple, 
 but especially black colours. It is the material which adds 
 
220 
 
 blackness to the vitriol and gallbrown, and this black dye^ 
 though not of the most durable kind, is the tnost com- 
 mon. 
 
 The Logwood tree, seeds in April. The season fot 
 sowing the seed should not be too wet, otherwise it will 
 rot in the ground. It was first propagated in the island 
 of Jamaica, in the year 1715, from some seed brought 
 from the Bay of Campeachy, and there are now such quan- 
 tities of it growing wild in the neighbourhood of Savannah 
 la Mar, as to incommode the landholders extremely. The 
 growth of this tree is so quick, that it will rise in proper 
 soils, to the height of ten feet in three years. 
 
 Logwood ought to be chosen in the largest, thiekest 
 pieces, sound, and of a deep red colour. 
 
 LONC PEPPER; see Pepper. 
 
 LUCERNE SEED. 
 
 F. Graine de Lucerne. 
 
 G. Luzerne Saamen, 
 
 D. Luzerne zaad. 
 
 1. Semenza di Lucerna. 
 
 S. Semilla de jdlfalsa. 
 
 P. Sememe de Luzern a. 
 DA. Lucernefro . 
 
 S W . L iicernefro . 
 
 Lucerne is a plant frequently cultivated in the manner 
 of clover. Its leaves like the latter grow three at a joint, 
 its stalks are ere61, and after mowing, immediately spring 
 up again from the stubble. It is made into hay in the 
 same manner as saint-foin, but should be mowed before it 
 flowers. It makes the sweetest, and most fattening food 
 in the world for cattle. 
 
 LUMP-LAC; see Lac. 
 
221 
 
 MACE. 
 
 F. Mads, Fkur de Mu s cade. 
 
 G. Muikatbl'uthe* 
 
 D. Foelie, Foely, Muse act- 
 bloom. 
 
 I. Mace. 
 
 S. Macio. 
 
 P. Mads, Flor de no% mos- 
 cad a. 
 
 DA. Muskatblomer. 
 
 SW. Muskottblcmma. 
 
 POL. Muskatonxjy k%viat, 
 
 R. Muskatnoi %nvet. 
 
 L. Mads. 
 
 Mace is a fleshy and fatty membranous substance, which 
 divides into filaments, laying under the green and cover- 
 ing the ligneous shell of the nutmeg. When carefully 
 taken off with a small knife, it has at first a beautiful red, 
 but afterwards a darkish colour; it is then laid to dry in 
 the sun for the space of a day, and afterwards removed to 
 a place less exposed to his rays, where it remains for eight 
 days, that it may soften a little. They then moisten it 
 with sea water, to prevent it from drying too much, or 
 from loosing its oil. It is last of all put into small bags, 
 and squeezed very close. The Banda isles produce about 
 100,000 lbs. of Mace. 
 
 The Mace has the same properties with the nutmeg, 
 being of an astringent, drying nature. An oil is also ex- 
 tracted from Mace, of various uses in medicine. 
 
 MADDER. 
 
 F. Garancc. 
 
 G. Krapp, Ffcrhenothe, 
 D. Mee, Meekrap, Krap. 
 I. Robb't. 
 
 S. Granza, Rubia, 
 
 P. Granca, Ruinja. 
 
 DA. Krap. 
 
 SW. Krapp. 
 
 POL. Marza7ta. 
 
 R. Mariana, Krap. 
 L. Rubia tinctorum. 
 
 Madder is a plant with rough narrow leaves set in form 
 of a star at the joints of the stalk. The root, which is 
 
the only part made use of, is long, slender, of a red co» 
 lour, both on the outside and within, excepting a whitish 
 pith which runs along the middle. 
 
 For cultivating this plant the ground is ploughed deep 
 in autumn, and again in March: and then laid up in ridges, 
 eighteen inches asunder, and about a foot high. About 
 the beginning of April they open the ground where old 
 roots are planted, and take off all the side shoots: which 
 extend themselves horizontally, these they transplant im- 
 mediately upon the new ridges; at about a foot distance, 
 where they remain two seasons; and at Michaelmas, when 
 the tops of the plants are decayed, they take up the roots. 
 
 It is to be observed, that this method of planting in ridges 
 is only necessary in wet land, and that the rows are some- 
 times planted three feet, and the plants in the rows eigh- 
 teen inches asunder. If all the horizontal roots are destroy- 
 ed from time to time, it will cause the large, downriglat 
 roots to be much bigger, in which the goodness of this 
 commodity chiefly consists. 
 
 After the Madder roots are taken up they are kiln dried, 
 and then reduced to powder, by a mill. Previous to the 
 grinding they are carefully assorted; the finest roots peeled 
 make what is called Crop, or fine Madder from the Ger- 
 man Krap ; good roots not peeled make the Ombro, 
 hraubt; Gamene or Gemeine are all the inferior small roots; 
 the Mulls consist of the refuse, peelings, &c. 
 
 Madder gives out its colour both to water and rectified 
 spirit: the watery tincture is of a dark dull red; the spiri- 
 tuous of a deep bright one. It imparts to woollen cloth, 
 prepared with alum and tartar, a very durable, though not 
 a very beautiful red dye. j^s it is the cheapest of all the 
 red drugs that give a durable colour, it is the principal one 
 commonly made use of for ordinary stuffs. Sometimes its 
 dye is heightened by the addition, of brazilwood, and 
 sometimes it is employed in conjunction with the dearer 
 reds, as cochineal; for demi-scarlets, and demi-crimsons. 
 
 The rubia peregrina, or Turkey Madder root, is prin- 
 cipally cultivated about Smyrna. It is always imported in 
 its original state, as a root. Our dyers have tried to order 
 the Dutch Madder from abroad, in the same state, but 
 were not able to use it. 
 
 The fine quality of Madder is distinguished by its being 
 of a bright, lively, light colour, well ground, without any 
 
223 
 
 coarse parts, proceeding from the peelings. Fresh is al- 
 ways more valuable than old Madder. It should be kept 
 close, to prevent the access of air, as its virtues evaporate 
 when exposed. 
 
 Madder was formerly cultivated among us: but we 
 are now entirely supplied with it from Holland, Germany, 
 and France. 
 
 
 F. Bois d* Jcajoii^ Bois de 
 
 M ah agony . 
 
 G. Mahagonienholzs 
 D. Mahognyhout . 
 
 I. Legno mogano, 
 
 S. Caohay Caobana. 
 DA. Mahagoni. 
 
 SW. Mahagony. 
 
 The swietenia mahagoni, or Mahogany tree, is a nativ^e 
 of the warmest parts of America, and grows also in the 
 island of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and the Bahama 
 islands. It abounded formerly in the low lands of Ja- 
 maica, but it is now found only on high hills, and places 
 difficult of access. 
 
 This tree grows tall and straight, rising often sixty feet 
 from the spur to the limbs; and is usually four feet in di- 
 ameter. The foliage is a beautiful deep green, and the ap- 
 pearance made by the whole tree so elegant, that none 
 could be more ornamental for an avenue. The flowers 
 are of a reddish or saffron colour; and the fruit of an 
 oval form, about the size of a turkey’s egg. Some of them 
 have reached to a monstrous size, exceeding one hundred 
 feet in height. One was cut about thirty years since in 
 St. Elizabeth’s in Jamaica, which measured tw^elve feet in 
 diameter, and cleared to the proprietor £.500 currency. 
 In felling these trees the most beautiful part is commonly 
 left behind. The negro v/orkmen raise a scaffolding of 
 four or five feet elevation from the ground, and hack up 
 the trunk, which they cut up into balks. The part be- 
 low Extending to the root is not only of larger diameter, 
 but of a closer texture than the other parts, most elegantly 
 diversified with shades or clouds, or dotted like ermine, 
 with black spots; it takes the highest polish, with a singu- 
 lar lustre. This part is only to be come at by digging be- 
 low the spur, to the depth of two or three feet, and cut- 
 ting it through; which is so laborious an operation that 
 
224f 
 
 few attempt it, except they are uncommonly curious in 
 the choice of their wood, or to serve a particular order. 
 
 The mahogany tree thrives In most soils, but varies in 
 texture and grain, according to the nature of the soil. 
 On rocks it is of a smaller size, but very hard and weighty, 
 and of a close grain, and beaucifully shaded j while the 
 produce of the low and richer lands, is observed to be 
 more light and porous, of a paler colour and open grain; 
 and that of mixed soils to hold a medium between both. 
 This constitutes the difference between the Jamaica wood, 
 and that which is collefled from the coast of Cuba and 
 the Spanish Main, the former is mostly found on rocky 
 eminences; the latter is cut in swampy soils near the sea 
 coast. The superior value of the Jamaica wood, for beauty 
 of colouring, firmness, and durability, may therefore be 
 easily accounted for ; but as a large quantity of balks and 
 planks is brought from the Spanish American coasts to 
 Jamaica, to be shipped from thence to Great Britain, the 
 dealers are apt to confound all under the name of Jamaica 
 wood, which in some measure hurts the credit of this 
 staple production. 
 
 This wood is generally hard, takes a fine polish, and is 
 found to answer better than any other sort, in all kinds 
 of cabinet ware. It is a very strong timber, and was fre- 
 quently used as such in Jamaica,, in former times. It is 
 said to be used sometimes in ship building; a purpose for 
 which it would be remarkably adapted if not too costly: 
 being very durable, capable of resisting gun shots, and 
 burying the shots without splintering. 
 
 It was not till the commencement of the last century 
 that Mahogany was imported into England, with the view 
 of making household furniture of it. The carpenters in 
 the beginning found this wood much too hard for their 
 tools, and it was some time, before this difficulty was^ 
 overcome. 
 
 MAIOT; see Indian Corn. 
 
 MALACHITE; see Copper. 
 
 MANHEIM GOLD; see Copper. 
 
225 
 
 MANNA. 
 
 J*'. Marine 
 G. Manna, 
 
 D. Manna, 
 
 I. Manna. 
 
 S. Manay Mangluy Alman- 
 gre. 
 
 P. Manna, 
 DA. Manna, 
 SW. Manna. 
 POL. Manna. 
 R. Manna, 
 
 L. Manna. 
 
 Manna is a gummous substance obtained from the fraxi- 
 nus ornus, a species of ash tree in the southern parts of 
 Europe, particularly in Calabria and Sicily. 
 
 Towards the end of July, or about the beginning of 
 August, during the season of the greatest heat, they make 
 an incision in the bark, near to tixe root of the tree. A 
 thick whitish liquor is discharged from the wound which 
 hardens in the sun; when it is carefully taken off, and 
 gathered into chests. They renew these incisions every 
 day during the season, observing however, only to round 
 one side of the tree, the other side they reserve for the 
 summer following. These trees never arrive at any con- 
 siderable size on account of their annual bleedings; but 
 they are said to last a century, yielding Manna. Each 
 tree produces about half a pound of gum a year. 
 
 The best sort of Manna is in oblong pieces or flakes, 
 moderately dry, friable, very light, of a whitish or pale 
 yellow colour, and in some degree transparent. The in- 
 ferior kinds are moist, undluous, and brown. 
 
 All Manna in Calabria belongs to the king, who gives 
 it in farm to a set of contraclors. To gather it, a certain 
 number of countrymen are furnished by the feudatory, 
 whose scanty wages are a poor compensation for this in- 
 voluntary service. The peasants are punished with the 
 utmost severity if detedled in burning, destroying, or da- 
 maging any of these trees, that cause to them so much 
 vexation ; and are sent to prison if the smallest quantity 
 of the juiee be found in their houses. They may eat as 
 much as they please in the woods, and most of them take 
 this physic once a year. 
 
 The best, and the greatest quantity of Manna comes 
 from the island of Sicily. It consists of two sorts, the one 
 called flakey, generally of more than double the value of 
 F f 
 
226 
 
 the other, called Manna in sorts. The principal places 
 where this drug is collected in Sicily are Cinesi and Ge- 
 raci. The denomination of Cinesi Manna comprehends, 
 not only the produce of Cinesi, but also of the villages 
 of Capace, Carini, Favoretta, See. so also Geraqi Manna 
 means, not only the Manna collefted at Geraci, but at 
 Castelbuono, Cefalu, and S°. Mauro. 
 
 The best flakey Manna comes from Cinesi and Capace; 
 the very best from Cinesi. 
 
 They reckon that the four villages of Cinesi, Capace, 
 Carini, and Favoretta, produce on an average, above 1,400 
 Sicilian Cantars of Marina, whereof four fifths are in sorts^ 
 and the rest flakey. The four villages of Geraci, Castel- 
 buono, Cefalu, and S°. Mauro, are reckoned to produce 
 annually about one thousand Cantars of Manna in sorts, 
 and twenty-five to thirty Cantars flakes. A Sicilian Can- 
 tar is equal to 1961b. Avoirdupois. The whole crop of 
 Sicily Manna is generally bought by the merchants at Pa- 
 lermo, at the harvest, which begins in August and ends 
 in 06lober. The chief market for flakey Manna is at 
 Leghorn. The Manna in sorts generally goes to Mar- 
 seilles, or the Levant. 
 
 Tolpha Manna is inferior in value to the flakey, but 
 more valuable than Manna in sorts. It bears its name frorh 
 Tolpha, a place in the territory of the Pope. 
 
 Manna, in medicine, proves a gentle laxative, operating 
 with great mildness. • 
 
 MARBLE. 
 
 DA. M armor. 
 SVV. Mar77ior. 
 POL Ma7 •777V.r. 
 R. M armor. 
 
 F. Mar hr c. 
 
 G. M armor . 
 D. Marmer. 
 I. Marmo. 
 
 S. Mar mol. 
 
 L Mar7nor. 
 
 P. Mannore. 
 
 Marble is a kind of stone, found in great masses, and 
 dug out of pits or quarries. It is of so hard, compact, and 
 fine a texture, as readily to take a beautiful polish, and 
 much used in ornaments of buildings; as columns, statuei, 
 altars, tombs, chimney pieces, tables, and the like. 
 
2'27 
 
 rhere are infinite numbers of clifFerent kinds of Marble. 
 Some are of one simple colour, as white, or black; others 
 variegated with stains, clouds, waves, and veins: but all 
 opaque, excepting the white, which cut into thin pieces 
 becomes transparent. 
 
 Some under the genus of Marble comprehend also por- 
 phyry, granate, and alabaster. 
 
 Marble is found in considerable quantities in most of the 
 mountainous parts of Europe. Derbyshire is that county 
 of England most abounding in this article. Near Kemlyii 
 bay, in the island of Anglesey, there is a quarry of beau- 
 tiful Marble, called Verde di Corsica, being common to 
 this place, some parts of Italy, and Corsica. Its colours 
 are green, black, white, and dull purple, irregularly dis- 
 posed. Italy is that part of Europe which produces the 
 most valuable Marble, and in which its exportation makes 
 a considerable branch of foreign commerce. The black 
 and the milk white Marble coming from Carara, a town 
 in the Duchy of Massa, are particularly esteemed. 
 
 Bruce gives us a very particular account of the source 
 from whence were derived those vast quantities of Marble, 
 granite, &c. found in Egypt. These he discovered on his 
 journey from Kenne to Cosseir, on the Red Sea. At 
 Hamra the porphyry mountains and quarries begin, in the 
 latitude of nearly twenty-four degrees, continuing alpng 
 the coast of the Red Sea, to about 22° 30', when they are 
 succeeded by Marble mountains; these again by others 
 of alabaster, and these last by basaltic mountains; some 
 of the mountains appearing to be composed entirely of red, 
 and others of green Marble. Near to Cosseir he discovered 
 the quarries from whence the Ancients obtained those 
 immense quantities of Marble with which they constructed 
 so many wonderful works. In four days, during which 
 our author travelled, he says, that he had passed more 
 Marble, granite, porphyry, and jasper, than v/ould build 
 Rome, Athens, Corinth, Syracuse, Memphis, Alexandria, 
 and half a dozen such cities. The whole is situated on a 
 ridge, with a descent to the east and west, by which means 
 it might easily be conveyed either to the Nile or Red 
 Sea. 
 
MA8TICH. 
 
 Masiic. 
 
 G. Mast’X, 
 
 D. Maitik. 
 
 1. Maslice. 
 
 S. Almaitiga^ 
 P. Almacega. 
 
 Alniacig.a. 
 
 DA. Alanix. 
 SW. Mastix. 
 
 1 OL. Mastyks, 
 R. Mastika. 
 
 L. Mastix. 
 
 Mastich, or gum Mastic, is gathered from the pistaci* 
 orientalis, or true Mastich tree of the Levant. The bark 
 of the tree is brown ^ the leaves are composed of two or 
 three pair of spear-shaped lobes, terminated by an odd 
 one. These turn of a brownish colour towards autumn^ 
 but continue all the year. 
 
 This gum is in small granules, being white, clear, and 
 sweet, if good; though age makes it turn yellowish. There 
 is also a kind of black Mastich, brought from Egypt, which 
 serves to sophisticate camphor. 
 
 Mastich is chiefly the product of Chios, an island in the 
 Turkish Archipelago; where the trees that yield it are 
 cultivated with as much care as the vines; and it brings 
 in a yearly revenue of about £. 2000 sterling to the Grand 
 Seignior. 
 
 Mastich is temperate in heat, and of a dry binding 
 quality. It is used in medicine, and jewellers mix it with 
 turpentine and black ivory, and lay it under their diamonds 
 to give them a lustre. 
 
 MERCURY ; see ^tichilver. 
 
 MILLET. 
 
 h\ Millet, Mil. 
 
 G. Mine, 
 
 D, Geerst, Geers, Gierst. 
 I. Miglio, Panicastrello. 
 S. Mijo. 
 
 P. Milho, Pain^o. 
 
 DA. Hirst. 
 
 SW. Hirs. 
 
 POL. Pveso. 
 
 R. Proszo. 
 
 L. Milium, Panicum milia- 
 
 Millet is -a native of India, but is now commonly culti- 
 vated in many parts of Europe as an excellent grain. It 
 
529 
 
 rises with a reedlike stalk three or four feet high. Thfe 
 top of the stalk is terminated by a large loose panicle, 
 which hangs on one side, having a chaffy flower, which 
 is succeeded by a small round seed. There are two varie- 
 ties, one with white, and the other with black seeds*, but 
 they do not differ in any other particular. This plant is 
 greatly cultivated in the oriental countries from whence it 
 is annually brought to us. It is seldom cultivated in Bri- 
 tain but in small gardens. It is used as an ingredient in 
 puddings, and is by some people greatly esteemed. In 
 this country the seeds ripen in August, when the plant 
 must be cut down, and the seeds beaten out. If not pro- 
 tedled from birds, they will devour it is as soon as it be- 
 gins to ripen. 
 
 MINIUM; see Red Lead, 
 
 MOHAIR, 
 
 F. Moire, 
 
 G. Mohr, Moor. 
 
 T>, IjLor. 
 
 I. moirro, 
 
 S. Mue, Muer, 
 
 MOREEN. 
 
 P. Chamalote, Melania. 
 DA. Moor. 
 
 SW, Moire. 
 
 POL. Mora. 
 
 R. Ohur, 
 
 The Mohair goats are a variety of the common goats, 
 being famous for their soft and silver white hairs, the like 
 of which are not to be found in any place but Angora. 
 This hair is commonly carried ready spun to Europe, and 
 being there woven into camlets and other manufactures, 
 particularly by the English, is afterwards exported to all 
 parts of the world, and even to those, whence the yarn 
 was originally brought. 
 
 MEL ASSES. 
 
 F. Syr op de Sucre, Melasses. 
 
 G. Syrup. 
 
 D. Syroop. 
 
 I. MielaxTOo di •zucchero, 
 
 S. Miel de azucar, Chancaca. 
 
 P. Melasso, Assucar liquido. 
 DA. Sirup. 
 
 SW. Sirap. 
 
 R. Pat oka sacharnaja. 
 
 Molasses, Molosses, or Melasses, are that gross fluid 
 matter remaining of sugar after refining *, and which no 
 

 230 
 
 boiling will bring to a consistence more solid than that of 
 syrup. ‘ 
 
 Melasses are much used on the continent for the pre- 
 paration of tobacco, and also among poor people instead 
 of sugar. 
 
 In England Melasses are chiefly used for the purport of 
 distilling a spirit from it, which is dearer and superior to 
 malt spirits. 
 
 MOTHER OF PEARL. 
 
 F. Nacre* 
 
 G. Perlmutter. 
 
 D. Paarlemoer. 
 
 1. Macireperla. 
 
 S. Madre de Perlas, Coficha 
 de Nacar. 
 
 P. Madreperola* 
 
 DA. PerlemoYi P erla?nQder . 
 SW, Perlmo. 
 
 POL. Made a perlonjua. 
 
 R. Shemtschujhnaja, rako' 
 ^joina, 
 
 L. Mater perl arum. 
 
 Mother of Pearl is the shell of the mytilus margariti- 
 ferus, or pearl-bearing muscle. It has the shell compressed 
 and flat, nearly orbicular, the base transverse, and imbri- 
 cated with dentated coats. It dwells in the ocean of either 
 Indies. On the inside it is exquisitely polished, and of 
 the whiteness and water of pearl itself. It has also the 
 same lustre on the outside after the external laminae have 
 been taken off by aquafortis and the lapidary^s mill. 
 
 Mother of pearl is used in inlaid works, and in several 
 toys, &c. 
 
 MOUNTAIN BLUE; see Copper* 
 
 \ 
 
 MOUNTAIN GREEN; see Copper 
 
Q31 
 
 MUSK. 
 
 F. Muse. 
 
 G. Bisam. 
 D. Muskus. 
 I. Muschio. 
 S. Almizele. 
 P. Jlmiscar. 
 
 DA. Desmer. 
 SW. Desman. 
 POL. Pizmo. 
 R. Muscus. 
 
 L. Mg sc bus. 
 
 Musk is a very strong scented substance, found under 
 the belly of the male, of a species of goat, called moschus 
 mosciferus. After killing it the peasants cut off the bag 
 containing the Musk. It is about the size of a hen’s egg, 
 and is situated nearer to the organs of generation than the 
 navel. In its original state it is nothing more than putrid 
 blood, which coagulates in this bag. The largest bladder 
 cannot furnish above half an ounce of Musk, generally but 
 little more than a quarter of an ounce. 
 
 Musk affords such a strong smell, that it becomes dis- 
 agreeable if not kept at a distance, or weakened by the 
 admixture of other substances. It is likewise so fixed and 
 permanent, that at the end of several years it seems to 
 have lost no part of its adlivity. When it comes to us 
 it is dry with a kind of unfluosity, of a dark reddish brown, 
 or rusty blackish colour, in small round grains, with very 
 few hard black clots, and perfectly free from any sandy 
 or other visible foreign matter. If chewed and rubbed 
 with a knife on paper it looks smooth, bright, yellowish, 
 and is free from bitterness. Laid on a red-hot iron it 
 catches flame, and burns almost entirely away, leaving 
 only an exceeding small quantity of light greyish ashes: 
 if any earthy substances ha.ve been mixed with the Musk, 
 the quantity of the residuum will readily discover them. 
 
 The best and greatest quantities of Musk come from 
 Thibet, from whence they are carried for sale to Patna, 
 the chief town of Bengal. That which is produced in Si- 
 beria is inferior, having somewhat of the flavour of castor. 
 It seems to be the produce of the Musquash or Musk-rat, 
 a diminutive of the beaver, and is also to be met with in 
 North America. 
 
 Musk, besides its use as a perfume, is esteemed a medi- 
 cine of great efficacy. 
 

 232 
 
 MUSTARD SEED. 
 
 F. Gruine Je Moutarde. 
 
 G. Senfsaat, 
 
 DA. Senep. 
 
 SW, Senap. 
 
 POL. Gorrozyka. 
 
 D Mosterd, 
 
 I. Most ar da, Senapa, 
 S. Mostasaa. 
 
 R. Gortschiza. 
 L. Sinapis. 
 
 P. Most ar da. 
 
 Mustard is a plant of which there are seventeen species, 
 three of which are natives of Great Britain j the sinapis 
 alba, nigra, and arvensis. 
 
 The alba, or white Mustard, which is frequently culti- 
 vated as a sallad herb for winter and spring use, produces 
 white seeds, used for making the sauce called mustard. 
 
 The nigra, or common Mustard, which is frequently 
 found growing naturally, but is also cultivated in the fields 
 for its brown seed. 
 
 The arvensis grows naturally on arable land in many 
 parts of Great Britain. The seed of this is commonly sold 
 under the title of Durham Mustard-seed. 
 
 The white and brown Mustard-seed is mostly imported 
 from Holland, though always inferior to the English growth. 
 Brown seed is higher in value than the white, and is chiefly 
 used for pickling. 
 
 MYRRH, GUM MYRRI^. 
 
 P. Mirra, 
 
 F. Myrrhe. 
 
 G. Myrrhen 
 D. Mirrhe, 
 I. Mirra, 
 
 8 Mirra. 
 
 DA. Myrre. 
 SW. Myrha. 
 POL. Mirra, 
 L. Myrrha, 
 
 Myrrh is a gummy resinous, concrete juice, obtained 
 from an oriental tree, of which we have as yet no certain 
 account. It is a native of Abexim in Ethiopia, and grows 
 besides on the eastern shores of Arabia Felix, and on the 
 coasts of the Indian ocean. 
 
 The best Gum Myrrh is somewhat transparent, friable, 
 in some degree unctuous to the touch, of an uniform 
 brownish, or reddish yellow colour, a moderately strong 
 
233 
 
 not disagreeable smell, and a slightly pungent, very bitte'r 
 taste. The inferior sorts are of a red-blackish, or black 
 earthy colour, solid, and heavy. There are sometimes 
 found among it, hard, shining pieces, of a pale yellowish 
 colour, resembling gum arabic, of no taste and smell j 
 sometimes masses of bdellium, darker coloured, and dif- 
 fering from Myrrh both in taste and smell; sometimes an 
 un^fuous gummy resin, of a moderately strong, somewhat 
 ungrateful smell, and a bitterish very durable taste, ob- 
 viously different from those of bdellium and Myrrh. On 
 account of these and other adulterations great care is re- 
 quisite in the choice of this drug. 
 
 To have the first and most perfe^l kind of Myrrh, a 
 young vigorous tree is selefted, free from moss or any 
 other plant adhering to the bark, and a deep incision made 
 with a hatchet above the first large branches. What runs 
 from this wound the first year is Myrrh of the first growth, 
 and never plentiful. This operation is performed some 
 time after the rains have ceased. At each return of the 
 season the sap continues to run in the course to which it 
 has been accustomed; but by the second year the tree 
 begins to rot at the place of the incision, so that the Myrrh 
 is of a secondary quality. That obtained from incisions 
 near the roots, and in the trunks of old trees, is also of 
 an inferior quality. 
 
 Grand Cairo is the great staple place for the Myrrh 
 trade; but by far more considerable quantities are brought 
 from Arabia Felix than from Ethiopia and Abyssinia; and 
 the quality of the latter, distinguished also by the name 
 of Troglodite Myrrh, was always more valued. 
 
 The medical effects of this aromatic bitter are to warm 
 and to strengthen. It seems now to be less used than in 
 former times. 
 
NICARAGUA WOOD. 
 
 Bois de Sang, Boh de Ni~ 
 
 S. Palo de sangre, 
 P. Pdo sanguinho. 
 DA. Blodtrae^ 
 SW. Blodtr'dd, 
 
 carague. 
 
 G. Blutholz, Nikaragaholx., 
 D. Bloedhout. 
 
 J. Legno sangutgno. 
 
 Nicaragua wood is a kind of dying wood, of a very 
 bright, red colour j brought from Nicaragua, a province 
 m the Spanish America. 
 
 NITl^E ; see Saltpetre, 
 
 NUTMEGS. 
 
 P. Noz mo sc ad a. \ 
 
 DA. Muskadnodder, 
 
 SW. Muskot. 
 
 POL. Muszatonjoa galka, 
 R. Muskatnue oreschki. 
 
 L. Nux mo s chat a. 
 
 I. "Noct muscade, 
 S. Nuez 7nuscada, 
 
 The myristica moschata, or Nutmeg tree, in its size 
 and foliage resembles the pear tree: it attains the height 
 of 30 feet, producing numerous branches, which rise to- 
 gether in stor ies: the bark of the trunk is of a reddish 
 brown, but that of the young branches of a bright green 
 colour, the leaves are nearly eliptical, pointed, undulated, 
 on the upper side of a bright green, on the under whitish. 
 The flowers are small, and male and female upon separate 
 trees; they are succeeded by the fruit, which is covered 
 with an external green substance, similar in its form to 
 that of the common walnut, but more fleshy and full of 
 juice. This external covering, when grown ripe, acquires 
 
235 
 
 a deep yellow colour, and as it opens, discovers an inter- 
 nal membranous coat, of a beautiful red colour, which di- 
 vides into filaments, and is known by the name of mace. 
 This lies immediately over the thin and brittle shell that 
 encloses the Nutmeg. It is now necessary to gather the 
 fruit, otherwise the mace would get loose, and the Nut- 
 meg would lose that oil which preserves it, and in which 
 its excellence consists. 
 
 It is nine months before the fruit comes to perfection. 
 After it is gathered the outer rind is stripped off. The 
 nuts are then carried home, and the mace carefully taken 
 off with a small knife, after which they are for three 
 days exposed to the sun, and then dried before a fire, till 
 they emit a sound when they are shaken; they then beat 
 them with small sticks, in order to remove their ligneous 
 shell, which flies off in pieces.. These nuts are now divided 
 in three parcels; the first contains the largest and most 
 beautiful, destined to be brought to Europe; the second 
 contains such as are reserved for the use of the inhabitants ; 
 and the third contains the smallest, which are irregular or 
 unripe. The latter are burnt, and the former used for 
 making oil. 
 
 To prevent the Nutmegs thus selected from corrupting, 
 they are plunged in a liquid of lime and salt-water ; they 
 are afterwards laid in heaps where they heat, and lose 
 their superfluous moisture by evaporation: when they are 
 fit for being sent to Europe. 
 
 The Nutmeg differs in goodness according to the age of 
 the tree, the soil, the exposition, and method of culture. 
 The round Nutmeg is preferred to that which is oblong ; 
 and that fruit is more particularly esteemed which is fresh, 
 moist, heavy, of good smell, and an agreeable, though 
 bitter flavour; and which yields an oily juice upon being 
 pricked, 
 
 A congealed oil is obtained by expression from the Nut- 
 megs rejeded at market; there is also an oil distilled from 
 them. 
 
 The use of the Nutmeg, both for culinary and medical 
 purposes, has been known for many centuries. 
 
 Nutmeg trees grow in several islands of the eastern 
 ocean. The wood-pigeon of the Moluccas is unintentionally 
 a great planter of these trees, and disseminates them in 
 places, where the Dutch conceived it their interest, that 
 
236 
 
 they should be rooted out, or destroyed. The growth of 
 this aromatic therefore, now is chiefly confined to a few- 
 of the Banda islands, whereof Banda itself, Neira, and 
 Pouloay produce 800,0001b. of Nutmegs annually. 
 
 NUTS; see small Nats, 
 
 NUX VOMICA. 
 
 F. Noix 'vomiques. 
 
 G. Krahenaugen, 
 
 D Braaknooten, Kraanoogen. 
 I. Nod vomiche, 
 
 S. Mataperrosy Matacariy 
 Nuex, vomica. 
 
 P. Noz ‘vomica, Canirao. 
 DA Krantsoiney Breeknod- 
 der, • 
 
 SW. Rdfkaka. 
 
 POL Wronie oka, 
 
 R. Zulibuchu. 
 
 Nux vomica, is a flat, compressed, round fruit, about 
 the breadth of a shilling, brought from the East Indies. 
 Its surface is not much corrugated, and its texture is firm 
 like horn, and of a pale greyish brown colour without, 
 and various colours within, sometimes white, and some- 
 times brown: the largest, whitest, newest, and cleanest 
 being the best. It is considerably bitter and deleterious, 
 and used in medicine. 
 
237 
 
 OAK. 
 
 F. Chene, 
 
 G. Eiche, 
 
 D. Elk, 
 
 I. ^ercia, 
 
 S. Robky Car hallo, 
 P, Robkt Carvalho. 
 
 DA. Eeg. 
 SW, Ek. 
 POL. Dab. 
 R. Dub. 
 
 L. l^ercus. 
 
 There are various species of the Oak tree, of which 
 the most useful is our common English Oak, quercus ro- 
 bur. It grows from about sixty to one hundred feet high, 
 with a prodigiously large trunk, and spreading headj and 
 is supposed to continue its growth many centuries. 
 
 The Oak tree is of the utmost importance to Britain for 
 building, and particularly for her navy. The English Oak 
 claims precedence above any foreign species, for its prodi- 
 gious height and bulk, and the superior hardness and du- 
 rability of the wood. The American Oak stands next in 
 repute to the English. 
 
 The acorns, the fruit of the Oak, are good food for 
 swine, deer, and turkeys. 
 
 OAK BARK; see Bark. 
 
 OATS. 
 
 F. Anjoine. 
 
 G. Haber, Hafer, 
 D, Hanjer. 
 
 I. Vena, A^vena. 
 S. A'vena. 
 
 P. A<vea, 
 DA. Havre. 
 SW. Hafre, 
 R. Ovoes, 
 
 L. Avena. 
 
 Oats are a small sort of corn or grain used for the feed- 
 ing of horses, and sometimes, in the northern parts of 
 
238 
 
 Europe, for the making of bread, after having reduced 
 them into meal by grinding and cleaning. Oatmeal is also 
 used in considerable quantities for the making of gruel. 
 
 The best Oats should be white, clean, of a large full 
 grain, and heavy. We have annually a large importation 
 of oats, from Prussia, Lower Saxony, and Westphalia*, 
 principally for the use of the metropolis, which with its 
 environs, is computed to consume on an average, thirty 
 thousand quarters of Oats weekly. 
 
 OIL. 
 
 F. Huile. 
 
 • G. OehL 
 
 D. O//, Oik, Oly. 
 
 I. Olio. 
 
 S. Aceite. 
 
 P. Oko. 
 
 Oil is an unctuous inflammable substance, drawn from 
 several animal and vegetable bodies. 
 
 Animal Oils are their fats: all animal substances yield 
 them, together with their volatile salts in distillation. 
 
 Vegetable Oils are obtained by expression, infusion, 
 and distillation. 
 
 The Oils by expression are obtained from the seeds, 
 leaves, fruits, and bark of plants*, thus the seed of mus- 
 tard and of the sunflower, of almonds, nuts, olives, lin- 
 seed, rapeseed, bay berries, mace, nutmegs, beechmast, 
 &c. afford a copious Oil by expression. The method 
 of obtaining Oils by expression is very simple; thus if 
 fresh almonds be pounded in a mortar, the Oil may be 
 forced out without a press not heated. The avoiding the 
 use of heat in preparing all Oils intended for internal 
 use is of great importance, as heat gives a very disagreea- 
 ble rancidness. This method holds of all those vegetable 
 matters that contain a copious Oil. Certain dry matters 
 may be made to afford Oils by expression, by grinding 
 them into a meal, which being suspended to receive the va- 
 pour of boiling water will thus be moistened, so as to af- 
 ford an Oil, in the same manner as almonds: and by this 
 process an Oil may be procured from linseed, hempseed, 
 lettuce seed, white poppy seed, &c. 
 
 DA. Olje. 
 SW. Olja. 
 POL. Oley. 
 R. Maslo. 
 L. Oleum. 
 
239 
 
 Oils obtained by expression should be suffered to depu- 
 rate themselves by standing in a moderately cool place ; 
 to separate from their water, and deposite their feces*, 
 from both which they ought to be carefully freed. 
 
 The next class of Oils are those made by infpsion or de- 
 coction, wherein the virtues of some herb or flower are 
 drawn out in the Oil. The scented flowers like jessamine, 
 honey suckle, sweet briar, roses, &c. require to be treat- 
 ed in a particular manner, the essential Oil being too dear, 
 and scarcely obtainable by distillation; if the flowers are 
 barely infused in fine Oil of nuts, or Oil of ben, drawn 
 without heat, and kept in a cool place, their subtile odo- 
 rous matter will pass into the Oil, and richly impregnate 
 it with their flavour. These essences may be rendered still 
 more perfect, by straining off the Oil first put on, and let- 
 ting it stand again without heat upon fresh flowers: which 
 operation may be repeated twice or thrice. Oil impreg- 
 nated with green herbs, as chamomile, alder, &c. require 
 long boiling to convey their virtues over into the Oil. 
 
 By distillation with an alembic, and a large refrigera- 
 tory, the essential Oils of vegetables are obtained. Water 
 must be added to the materials in sufficient quantity to 
 prevent their burning; and they should be macerated or 
 digested in that water a little time before distillation. The 
 Oil comes over with the water; and either swims on the 
 top or sinks to the bottom, according as it is specifically 
 heavier or lighter than water. 
 
 Many of the essential Oils being dear, it is a very com- 
 mon practice to adulterate or debase them several ways; 
 viz. 1. with expressed Oils; 2. with alcohol; and 3. with 
 cheaper essential Oils. 
 
 If an essential Oil be adulterated with an expressed Oil 
 it is easy to discover the fraud by adding a little spirit of 
 wine to a few drops of the suspected essential Oil, and 
 shaking them together; for the spirit will dissolve all the 
 Oil that is essential and leave the expressed Oil untouched. 
 
 If an essential oil be adulterated with alcohol, to disco- 
 ver the fraud, put a few drops of the oil into a glass of 
 fair water; if the Oil be adulterated with spirit, the water 
 will immediately turn milky, and by continuing to shake 
 the glass, the whole quantity of spirit will be absorbed 
 by the water, and leave the Oil pure at the top. If an es- 
 sential Oil be adulterated by a cheaper essential Oil, like 
 
240 
 
 Oil of turpentine, this fraud will always disg^Hver itself in 
 time, by the real flavour being overpowered by the tur- 
 pentine smell: but the ready way to detedf the fraud is, to 
 drench a piece of rag or paper in the Oil and hold it be- 
 fore the fire*, when the grateful flavour of the plant will 
 fly off, and leave the naked turpentine scent behind. 
 
 The animal Oils or fats may be obtained by boiling and 
 expression from certain animal substances; for the mem- 
 branes which contain the fat being chopped small, and set 
 in a pan over the fire, become fit for the canvas bag, and 
 by pressure afford a large quantity of fat. 
 
 We shall content ourselves here with enumerating the 
 most usual kinds of Oil occurring in commerce. 
 
 Oil of Castor; see Castor Oil. 
 
 Oil of Cinnamon.^ is an Oil or essence extracted from 
 Cinnamon, and hitherto prepared by the Dutch, who 
 were much in the habit of adulterating it. The Cinnamon 
 out of which this Oil has been extradted, is said often to 
 be mixed up with the good Cinnamon. 
 
 Oil of Cloves ; see Cloves. 
 
 Oil of Linseed; see Linseed Oil. 
 
 Oil of Mace; see Oil of Nutmegs. 
 
 Oil of Neroli; see Oranges. 
 
 Oil of Nutmegs, is an essential Oil obtained from the 
 nutmeg when distilled in water, and resembling in flavour 
 to the nutmeg itself. Rectified spirit extracts the whole 
 virtue of the nutmeg by infusion, and elevates very little 
 of it in distillation; hence the spirituous extract, or the 
 spirit of nutmeg, possesses the flavour of the spice in an 
 eminent degree. 
 
 Nutmegs when heated yield to the press a considerable 
 quantity of limpid yellow Oil, which, on cooling, has the 
 consistence of tallow, the colour of mace, and entirely the 
 flavour of nutmegs. A pound of nutmegs commonly gives 
 three ounces of Oil. This Oil is improperly called Oil of 
 mace. The best is brought from the East Indies in stone 
 jars. There is also an artificial composition of sevum, 
 palm Oil, &c. and a little genuine Oil of nutmeg which is 
 usually called common Oil of mace. 
 
 An Oil is readily extra(51:ed from mace by distillation 
 with water; this is an essential, transparent, and more vo- 
 latile and acrid Oil than the essential oil of Nutmegs. 
 
241 
 
 0/7 of Olives i is the Oil obtained by pressnre, from the 
 fruit of the olive tree, called olea Europea. This tree is a 
 native of the southern, warm parts of Europe, where it is 
 cultivated in great quantities. It rises with an upright 
 solid stem, branching numerously on every side, twenty 
 or thirty feet high; spear-shaped, stiff, opposite leaves, 
 tv/o or three inches long, and half an inch or more broad; 
 and at the axillas small clusters of white flowers, succeeded 
 by oval fruit. 
 
 The Oil is undoubtedly that part of the produce of 
 olive trees which is of the greatest value. The quality of 
 it depends on the nature of the soil where the trees grow, 
 on the kind of olive from which it is expressed, on the care 
 which is taken in the gathering and pressing of the fruit, 
 and likewise on the separation of the part to be extra61:ed. 
 Unripe olives give an intolerable bitterness to the Oil: when 
 they are overripe, the Oil has a rancid unguinous taste: it 
 is therefore of importance to choose the true point of ma- 
 turity. When the situation is favourable, those species- of 
 olives are cultivated, which yield fine Oils; otherwise they 
 cultivate such trees as bear a great quantity of fruit, and 
 they extradl Oil from it for the use of soaperies and lamps. 
 
 They gather the olives about the months of November 
 or December. It is best to put them as soon as possible 
 into baskets, or into bags made of wool or hair, and to 
 press them immediately in order to extract a fine Oil. 
 Those who make Oil only for soaperies let them remain 
 in heaps for some time in their storehouses; when after- 
 wards pressed, they yield a much greater quantity of Oil. 
 Those even, who extraft Oil to be used in food, some- 
 times allow them to ferment in heaps, that they may have 
 more Oil, but this is extremely hurtful to the quality, and 
 the reason why fine Oil is so very rare. In order to have 
 the Oil in its purity it must be allowed to deposite its se- 
 diment, and then poured off into another vessel. The 
 Oil extra^led from the pulp only of olives is the most per- 
 feft which can be obtained, and will keep for several 
 years; but that which is extracted from the kernel, or 
 from the nut, or from the whole olive ground in the com- 
 mon way, in public mills, has always more or fewer defeats, 
 loses its limpidity in a certain time, and is very apt to 
 become rancid. After all, in the course of time, olive Oil 
 loses its qualities, becomes disagreeable to the taste and 
 H h 
 
24 -^ 
 
 smell, diminishes in fluidity, and at last thickens conside- 
 rably. 
 
 The refuse of the first pressing, when squeezed a se- 
 cond time, yields an Oil, but thicker and less pure than 
 the first. What remains after the second pressing, when 
 mixed with a little water and placed in a pan over the fire, 
 produces by pressure a third Oil, but of a very inferior 
 quality. 
 
 Oil of olives is an ingredient in the composition of a 
 great many balsams, ointments, plasters, mollifying and 
 relaxing liniments; but its chief use is for eating, and the 
 inferior sorts are used for the preparation of wool. 
 
 The consumption of this Oil is incredible; the southern 
 parts of France as also Candia, and particularly Italy and 
 Sicily, yield the greatest quantities. 
 
 The provinces in the kingdom of Naples most abundant 
 in Oils are Bari, Otranto, Calabria, and Abruzzo. The 
 produce upon ten years average has been esteemed at six 
 hundred thousand salme; about six and a half salme ma- 
 king a tun of 252 gallons. The exportation of Oil brings 
 into Calabria-Ultra half a million of ducats annually. Gal- 
 lipoli, a seaport town in the province of Otranto, is that 
 place in the kingdom of Naples, from which the greatest 
 quantity of Olive Oil, and the best quality for the use of 
 the British woollen manufa<fl:ories is exported. This trade 
 is entirely in the hands of the merchants at Naples and 
 Leghorn, particularly the former, who have their agents at 
 Gallipoli, and by making advances to the poor cultivator 
 keep him constantly in their chains; so much so, that it 
 would be difficult to purchase a cargo of Gallipoli Oil at 
 Gallipoli, and it always can be procured more reasonably 
 at Naples. The Neapolitan contradlors, either purchase 
 at a fixed price, or at the prezzo della voce, that is to say, 
 the average price of the sales made in the months of No- 
 vember and December. The orders for the delivery of 
 Oi^ at Gallipoli are treated like bills of exchange, and 
 have sometimes five or six endorsements. On buying Oil 
 the seller will perhaps not deliver any of it out of his own 
 cellars, but give orders upon others, and they upon others 
 again, so that the buyers may have to receive it from a 
 dozen different people. Oil therefore, at Gallipoli, never 
 can be bought according to sample, but if not of a good 
 merchantable quality it can be refused. There is much 
 
24-3 
 
 jobbing carried on in this trade; frequently the Gallipoli 
 agents sell on their own account the Oil purchased for 
 their principals, and when the orders for the delivery come 
 upon them of a sudden they must replace it at any price. A 
 plentiful crop of olives in the neighbourhood of Gallipoli 
 yields forty or fifty thousand salms of Oil. 
 
 Sicily Oil is inferior to Calabria, and the latter to Gal- 
 lipoli Oil; so that Gallipoli Oil is always worth about two 
 pounds sterling per ton more, than the best Calabria; and 
 from three to five pounds more than the best Sicily Oil. 
 The reason is, that the Calabria and Gallipoli Oils have 
 less foot, and more colour and substance than those of 
 'Sicily. This superior quality of the Gallipoli Oil may in 
 some measure proceed from the nature of the soil; but it 
 lays more particularly in the better management in manu- 
 facturing and refining it. At Gallipoli they keep their 
 Oil to settle and purify in large stone cisterns, fixed un- 
 der ground, and the quality of the stone used for that pur- 
 port is said to be particularly adapted for retaining the 
 heat, and promoting thereby the fermentation necessary 
 for its refinement. In Calabria and Sicily it is kept in large 
 earthen jars. 
 
 At Gallipoli, if the oil on delivery does not prove lam- 
 pante e bacille, that is, bright and clear, the buyer has 
 the right to refuse it. In Sicily, to prevent disputes, the 
 contract ought to be made with the clause, a leva raanu, 
 viz. as soon as the top of a jar is taken off with a ladle, and 
 the Oil appears in the least disturbed, the buyer may say 
 he will have no more of that jar. 
 
 The district of Dietro Marino produces the best Oil 
 in Calabria, in goodness very little inferior to that of Gal- 
 lipoli. 
 
 Milazzo is the place which in Sicily produces the great- 
 est quantity of Oil; then comes Sciacca, then Cefalu, Tasa, 
 Mistretta, Pettineo, and S°. Stefano. The Oils comipg 
 from Milazzo and Sciacca are chiefly used for the soap ma- 
 nufactories; those from Pettineo and Mistretta are the best 
 for eating; but the consumption of it is limited to Italy, 
 as they have without exception, like all Oils produced in 
 Naples and Sicily, a rank taste and smell. This country 
 is entirely supplied with eating Oil from Leghorn and 
 Genoa, known under the denomination of Lucca and Fk>- 
 renQe salad Oil. 
 
244 
 
 Oil abroad, should never be bought out of casks as it is 
 difficult to judge of the quality, and scarcely possible to 
 draw it off without receiving some of the foot. To pre- 
 vent leakage, it is best not to ship Oil in cargoes from Ita- 
 ly, unless in autumn or winter. This article is sold in 
 London by the ton of 236 gallons, but pays freight and 
 duty at the rate of 252 gallons to the ton. 
 
 The best Oil should be clear, of strong body, free from 
 foot or sediment, of a perfectly sweet taste and smell, and 
 a bright gold colour. 
 
 Oil of Palm; see Palm Oil. 
 
 Oil of Petrol; see Petrol. 
 
 Oil of Rape; see Rape Oil. 
 
 Oil of sweet Almonds, cold drawn, or without fire, is 
 prepared various ways. Some peel the almonds before 
 pounding them, others not; some warm them in lukewarm 
 water, others in balneo mariae; some only bruise them, 
 others beat them into a paste. When pressed gently, and 
 when all the unctuous and fluid parts are expressed, they 
 will yield a sweet Oil, without any sediment. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. Upon making turpentine, the sap 
 which collects in a hole at the bottom of the tree, is put 
 in a basket. The part which runs through constitutes 
 the turpentine, and the thicker matter which remains in. 
 the basket they put into a common alembic, adding a large 
 quantity of water; they distil this as long as any Oil is 
 seen swimming upon the water; this Oil separated from the 
 surface, is the common limpid, essential Oil, called Spirit 
 of Turpentine. The remaining matter at the bottom of the 
 still is common yellow Rosin. 
 
 Oil of Vitriol is the common name given in trade to the 
 vitriolic acid. It was formerly extracted by distillation from 
 copperas, but is now solely procured frum sulphur. This 
 substance contains the vitrolic acid in such abundance, that 
 as much as fourteen ounces of Oil have been drawn from 
 one pound of sulphur; and as the only method hitherto 
 practised of decomposing sulphur is by burning it, and 
 no process has as yet been fallen upon to condense all feho 
 steams of burning sulphur, it must contain a much larger 
 quannty. 
 
 The difficulties here are, that sulphur cannot be burnt 
 but in an open vessel, and the steam of air which is admitted 
 to make it burn, also carries off the acid, which is emitted 
 
245 
 
 in the form of smoke. To avoid this, a method was con- 
 trived of burning sulphur in large glass globes, capable of 
 containing an hogshead or more. The fume of the burn- 
 ing sulphur was then allowed to circulate till it would 
 condense into an acid liquor. A greater dilFiculty however 
 now occurred; for though the sulphur burned very well, 
 its steams never condensed. For this purpose nitre was 
 advantageously used. This consumes a very large quanti- 
 ty of the phlogiston contained in sulphur, and renders the 
 acid easily condensible: but it is plain, that few of the 
 fumes comparatively speaking, are thus deprived of the in- 
 flammable principle; for the vessel in which the sulphur 
 and nitre are burnt remains filled with a volatile and most 
 suffocating fume, which extinguishes flame, and issues in 
 such quantity, as to render it highly dangerous to stay 
 near the place. 
 
 The proportion of nitre to the sulphur used in the large 
 Oil of Vitriol works is not known, every thing being kept 
 as secret as possible by the proprietors. It seems that an 
 ounce and a half, or two ounces, may be advantageously 
 used to a pound of sulphur. 
 
 A very great improvement in the art of making Oil of 
 Vitriol lies in the using lead vessels instead of glass globes; 
 the globe being so apt to be broken. The leaden vessels, 
 according to the best accounts we have been able to procure, 
 are cubes of about three feet, having on one side a door a- 
 bout six inches wide. The mixture of sulphur and nitre is 
 placed in the hollow of the cube, in an earthen saucer seton 
 a stand made of the same materials. The quantity which 
 can be consumed at once in such a vessel is about two 
 ounces. The sulphur being kindled, the door is to be 
 close shut, and the whole let alone for two hours. In that 
 time the fumes will be condensed. The door is then to 
 be opened, and the operator must immediately retire, to 
 escape the suffocating fumes which issue from the vessel. 
 It will be an hour before he can safely return, and intro- 
 duce another quantity of materials, which are to be treat- 
 ed precisely in the same manner. 
 
 Where Oil of Vitriol is made in large quantities, the 
 slowness of the operation requires a great number of lead 
 vessels, and constant attendance day and night. lienee 
 the making of this acid is very expensive. The apparatus 
 
246 
 
 for a large work usually costs fifteen hundred pounds 
 sterling. 
 
 OLIBANUMj see Fraftkincense, 
 
 OLIVES. 
 
 F. Olives. 
 
 G. Oilmen. 
 
 1. Uli^e, Oli^ve, 
 S. Aceitunas. 
 
 P. Axeitonas* 
 
 DA. Oliver, 
 SW. Oliver, 
 POL. Olinvki, 
 R. Olifwk 'ut 
 L. Oli^’es. 
 
 Olives are the fruit of the olea Europea or common 
 Olive tree, cultivated in great quantities in the south of 
 France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Olives have an acid, 
 bitter, extremely disagreeable taste: pickled as we receive 
 them from abroad, they prove less disagreeable. The 
 Lucca Olives, which are smaller than the others, have the 
 weakest taste j the Provence Olives being of a middling 
 size, are generally the most esteemed. The Olives of 
 Reggio are large and pulpy, and much admired by those 
 who relish a high flavour, but to those who have been ac- 
 customed only to eat the Provence sort they appear too 
 strong. 
 
 When Olives are intended for preservation they are ga- 
 thered before they are ripe. The art of preparing them 
 consists in removing their bitterness, in preserving them 
 green, and in impregnating them with a brine of aroma- 
 tic sea-salt, which gives them an agreeable taste. For 
 this purpose different methods are employed. Formerly 
 they used a mixture of a pound of quicklime with six 
 pounds of newly sifted wood-ashes; but of late instead of 
 the ashes they employ nothing but a lye. 
 
 Olives perfectly ripe are of a dark red colour. They 
 are then eaten without any preparation, excepting only a 
 seasoning of pepper, salt, and oil; for they are extreme- 
 ly tart, bitter, and corrosive. 
 
 The quantity of Olives used for eating, when ripe, and 
 for preserving, is but trifling if compared to that consu- 
 med for the manufacture of Olive Oil. 
 
247 
 
 ONIONS. 
 
 F. Ognions. 
 
 G. X’VJtebel. 
 
 D. Vyeriy Ajuhi. 
 I. Cipolla, 
 
 S. Cebolla, 
 
 P. Cebola. 
 
 DA. Rod tog, 
 SW. RodlU. 
 POL. Cebula, 
 R. Luk. 
 
 L. Allium cep a. 
 
 The most reputed sorts of Onions are, the Strasburgh, 
 the Spanish, and the Egyptian, It is not known from 
 whence this plant was first brought to Europe, but certain 
 it is, that it was known in Egypt two thousand years be- 
 fore Christ. Dr, Hasselquist much celebrates the sweet- 
 ness of the Egyptian Onion. The Spanish Onion is most 
 famous in this country, and imported in quantities. 
 
 OPAL, 
 
 Is one of the rarest gems to be met with. One descri- 
 bed in Frederick HasselquisPs travels in the Levant, was 
 of the size of a hazel nut, in the form of a half globe. 
 
 If held horizontally, it had a very fine olive colour 
 but if held perpendicularly, between the eye and the light, 
 it had the colour of the finest ruby. 
 
 The^Jwiiswas more common among the Ancients than 
 it is at present. The above described Opal had probably 
 Iain concealed in the ruins of Alexandria; and there is 
 scarcely any kind of stone accounted precious by the An- 
 cients, which is not to be found in the ruins of Alexan- 
 dria and Old Cairo. Tavernier says, the Opal is now to 
 be found only in a mine in Hungary. 
 
 OPIUM, 
 
 Is an inspissated juice, partly of the resinous, and part- 
 ly of the gummy kind, brought to us in cakes, from 
 eight ounces to a pound weight. It is very heavy, of 
 a dense texture, and not perfectly dry; but in general 
 
24S 
 
 easily receives an impression from the finger: its colour is 
 of a brownish yellow, so very dark and dusky, that at 
 first it appears black. It has a dead and faint smell, and 
 its taste is very bitter and acrid. That kind is most in 
 esteem which is rather soft and yields to the touch, is in- 
 flammable, of a blackish brown colour, and has a strong 
 fetid smell. Careis also to be taken that there be no dirty 
 or stony matter in it. 
 
 Opium is the juice of the papaver somniferum, with 
 which the fields of Asia Minor, and Bahar in India are in 
 many places sown, as ours are with corn. When the 
 heads are near ripening they wound them with an instru- 
 ment that makes at once five long cuts, and out of these 
 wounds the Opium flows. After they have colledled the 
 Opium, they moisten it with a small quantity of water or 
 honey, and work it a long time upon a flat, hard, and 
 smooth board, with a thick and strong instrument of the 
 same wood, till it becomes of the consistence of pitch; and 
 then form it into cakes or rolls for sale. 
 
 The meconium, or common Opium, is prepared in the 
 East Indies, by pressing the poppy heads, that have been 
 already cut. The juice which comes out of them, mixed 
 with the least beautiful of the other drops, is kneaded 
 with water and made into cakes which are sent to Europe. 
 The finer East India Opium not being brought to Europe 
 may account for the superior quality of the Turkey Opium. 
 A very considerable trade in this article is carried on at Pat- 
 na, on the river Ganges. 
 
 An excessive fondness for Opium prevails in all parts of 
 Turkey and the East Indies. In vain have the laws of 
 China condemned to the flames every vessel that imports, 
 and every house that receives it; the consumption is not 
 less considerable. It is still greater at Malacca, Borneo, 
 the Moluccas, Java, Macassar, Sumatra, &c. These 
 islanders smoke it with their tobacco; those who are de- 
 sirous of attempting some desperate adlion intoxicate 
 themselves with this smoke. 
 
 Opium, at present, is in great esteem, and is one of 
 the most valuable of all the simple medicines. It is the 
 most sovereign remedy for easing pain, and procuring 
 sleep. According to the different manner of preparing it, 
 and the doses in which it is given, it stupifies, excites 
 agreeable ideas, or occasions madness. 
 
 
249 
 
 OPOBALSAMUMj see Balsam of Gilead, 
 
 OPOPONAXj see Gum Opoponax, 
 ORANGE BUDS. 
 
 Are small dried Oranges which fromwant of nourishment, 
 blights, or other causes, fall from the trees, before coming 
 to perfection ; as is the case with other fruit. They come 
 mostly from Italy and are used by distillers and others to 
 give a flavour to various kinds of spirits and liquids, s 
 
 ORANGES. 
 
 F. 0 ranges. 
 
 G. Po7neranzen. 
 D . Oranj en, 
 
 I. Melarance. 
 
 S. Naranjas, 
 
 P. Laranjas. 
 
 DA. Pomeraniser, 
 SW. Pomeranser. 
 POL. Pomeranczy. 
 R. Pomeranczu. 
 
 L. Aurantia mala. 
 
 Oranges are the fruit of the citrus aurantium, or Orange 
 tree. This tree has an upright smooth trunk, divided up- 
 wards into a branchy regular head, from five to ten and 
 twelve feet high *, oval, spear shaped, entire leaves, ha- 
 ving winged footstalks, and numerous white flowers at 
 the sides of the branches, succeeded by globular fruit, 
 compressed at both ends. The most noted varieties are: 
 1, The Seville Orange, being a large rough rinded, and 
 sour fruit, of excellent quality for economical uses. 2, The 
 China Orange, a smooth thin rinded sweet fruit, of which 
 there are several varieties. 3, The great Shaddock Orange, 
 a very large fruit, having a reddish pulp. It derives the 
 name of Shaddock from one of that name, who first 
 brought it from the East Indies, 4, The forbidden fruit 
 tree bears a fruit which when ripe, is larger and longer 
 than the biggest Orange. It has somewhat the taste of a 
 I i 
 
250 
 
 Siiaddock, but far exceeds that, as well as the best Orange^ 
 in its delicious taste and flavour. 5, The horned Orange 
 tree produces fruit which divide, and the rind runs out 
 into divisions like horns. 6, The hermaphrodite Orange 
 bears fruit partly like an Orange and partly like a citron. 
 7, The dwarf Orange tree, or nutmeg Orange, bears a 
 very small fruit. 
 
 The flowers of all the species and varieties of citrus ap- 
 pear principally in ‘May or June; the fruit continue setting 
 in June and July, and ripen the year following. 
 
 Great quantities of Seville Oranges are consumed in 
 Great Britain and Ireland, which are chiefly brought from 
 Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Reggio is said to be the spot where the culture of Oran- 
 ges was first attempted in Italy, and from whence it was 
 extended over the country. 
 
 The exports from Charleston, South Carolina, in the 
 year 1747, comprehended 296,000 Oranges, and in 1761 
 161,000. Whence it appears, that this fruit is as much an 
 established commodity for their export, as it is at Lisbon 
 or Seville. As Oranges come to great perfection in the 
 West India islands, it is a pity their culture is not more 
 attended to in Jamaica and other of our colonies. 
 
 Oranges are reckoned a very efficacious antiscorbutic 
 medicine. The peel of the Orange contains a conside- 
 rable warmth, and abounds in essential oil; its flavour is 
 also less perishable than that of lemons, and it serves as an 
 ingredient in many medicinal preparations. The flowers 
 of the Orange tree have been for some time past in great 
 esteem as a perfume. They are highly odoriferous, and 
 of* a somewhat warm and bitter taste. They yield their 
 flavour by infusion to rectified spirit, and in distillation 
 both to spirit and water. An oil distilled from the flow- 
 ers is brought from Italy, under the name of okuniy or /?f- 
 sentia nerolL 
 
ORCHELLA, archilla. 
 
 F. Orseille. 
 
 G. Orselje. 
 
 D, Orseille, Or cel j Orchil 
 lie. 
 
 1. Oricellot Orcella, Recella^ 
 Rasp a, 
 
 S. Orchilla. 
 
 P. Orsella^ Orzella. 
 DA. Orselje, Far-vemos. 
 SW, Orsilja. 
 
 POL. Mech far bier ski. 
 R. Arsel. 
 
 L. Rocella. 
 
 The lichen rocella, or Orchella weed, is a whitish moss, 
 yielding a rich purpla tindlure used for dying. It is found 
 in abundance in several of the islands of the Archipelago, 
 and also in some of those near the African coast, particu- 
 larly the Canary and Cape de Verd islands. It grows part- 
 ly in single, partly in double stems, to the height‘of about 
 two inches, of a light or sometimes dark grey. 
 
 As early as the times of Pliny, it would appear that 
 this plant was used for giving the ground to dye purple, 
 as the phycos thalasion or pontion, of which he speaks, 
 is probably our Orchella. 
 
 However this be, the art of dying with Orchella was 
 discovered in the Levant about the year 1300, by a Flo- 
 rentine merchant, of the family of Oricellarii or Rucellai, 
 who happening one day to make water on a plant, of 
 which there was great abundance, observed that it became 
 extraordinary red, and having made several experiments 
 on the herb, and finding it proper to die wool purple, he 
 sent some of it to Florence, where it became of great uti- 
 lity in the cloth manufactures. 
 
 Certain it is, from a variety of documents, that the art 
 of dying in Oricello was known at Florence in the com- 
 mencement of the fourteenth century, from whence it 
 spread over the rest of Europe. 
 
 The Italians alone for some time furnished all Europe 
 with Orchella from the Levant. But upon the Canary 
 islands being re-discovered, about the end of the four- 
 teenth or the, beginning of the fifteenth century, it was 
 principally imported from thence. 
 
 The growth of Orchella in the Canary islands is more 
 beautiful and in greater abundance, than in the Levant; 
 and that of the Cape de Verd island^ again, appears 
 
252 
 
 larger, richer, and longer, than that coming from the 
 Canaries; which may be owing to its not being colledled 
 every year. 
 
 This moss is imported to us as it is gathered, but to pre- 
 pare it for the purpose of dying, it is ground betwixt 
 stones, moistened occasionally with spirits of wine, and 
 so made up in a paste, called by the French Orseille en 
 pate; and many, instead of keeping the paste in a moist 
 state with wine, as they ought, suffer it to dry, in order 
 to save a litte dirty work. It then has the appearance of 
 a dark violet-coloured earth, with here and there some 
 white spots in it. 
 
 The Dutch are the inventors of a dye called lacmus, or 
 Orseille en pierre^ which seems to be an adulterated kind of 
 Orchella paste. 
 
 There is also a kind of moss different frorh the Archilla, 
 and known by the name of Orseille de terre^ Orseille d' Au- 
 vergne^ which is used for the like purposes, but it contains 
 fewer and weaker colouring particles. 
 
 The Orchella piste is rarely used as a dying material by 
 itself, on account of its being too dear, and its beauty too 
 perishable. It is chiefly employed to give a bloom to other 
 colours, as pinks, &c. 
 
 Linnaeus in the Swedish transactions for the year 1748 
 mentions, that the true Archil moss is to be found on the 
 western coasts of England. 
 
 This dye has be^n for a considerable time past prepared 
 in Scotland from a species found in the Highlands. 
 
 ORPIMENT. 
 
 F. Orpintenty Orpin. 
 
 G. Operment. 
 
 D. Operment, 
 
 I. Orpimento. 
 
 S. Oropimente, 
 
 P. Ouropimente. 
 
 DA. Operment. 
 
 SW. Operment. 
 
 POL. Jurypigmentt Zlcto- 
 kost. 
 
 R, Avjripigment y Opermente, 
 L . Auripigmentum . 
 
 Orpiment is a semi-ihetal usually found in copper mines. 
 Its colour is always yellow, intermixed with shades of 
 other colours, as green, red, oKange, and others. 
 
 What is usually called red Orpiment, or red arsenic, 
 is only the yellow Orpiment heated to a great degree. 
 
253 
 
 and put into a crucible with oil of hempseed, olives, or 
 nuts. 
 
 Painters, farriers, and others, make a great consump- 
 tion of this mineral; but as it is found a violent corrosive, 
 it should be used with great precaution. 
 
 White Orpiment, is the same with arsenic. 
 
 OSTRICHES DOWN and FEATHERS; see Do^on 
 and Feathers* 
 
 OYSTERS. 
 
 F. Huitres. 
 
 G. Austern. 
 D. Oesters, 
 1. OAriche* 
 S. Ostras. 
 P. Ostrass, 
 
 DA. Osters. 
 SW. O sir on, 
 POL. Ostrygi. 
 R. Ustri%,u. 
 
 L. Ostrea. 
 
 The Oyster is a small, flat, shell fish, the fishery of 
 which is carried on in a very considerable manner in seve- 
 ral places along the British and Irish coasts; but more parti- 
 cularly in Wales, and the eastern part of England; from 
 whence they are sent to market, either fresh, or pickled 
 in barrels. The Colchester Oysters are particularly fa- 
 mous. 
 
 They also take Oysters on the coast of France; but 
 they are so very poor, that they bring them over to Eng- 
 land to be fattened. The Dutch have likewise a few 
 Oysters; but they, as well as the French, are obliged to 
 have recourse to the English for Oysters of any delicacy. 
 
 Oysters are in season from the month of August all au- 
 tumn aud winter till March, when they begin to spawn. 
 
254 
 
 PALM OIL. 
 
 F. Huile de palme, Huile de 
 Senegal. 
 
 G. Palm oL 
 D. Palm olie. 
 
 I. Olio di palma. 
 
 S. Aceite de palma. 
 
 P. Oleo de palma. 
 
 DA. Palmeolie. 
 
 SW. Palm olja. 
 
 L. Oleum paimee 'verum. 
 
 This oil is said to be the produce of the palma spinosa 
 major; the fruit or nuts of which are full of oil. It is olv 
 tained by boiling them in water, when the oleaginous par- 
 ticles rise to the surface, and are skimmed off, and strain- 
 ed for use. 
 
 This tree grows in most parts of Asia, Africa, and Ame- 
 rica. The negroes are fond of the oil, v/hieh sometimes 
 makes an ingredient in their food. It is very efficaeious by 
 way of embrocation, for strains, or to discuss rheumatic 
 aches, &c. 
 
 PASTEL; see Kermes. 
 
 PEARL ASHES. 
 
 F. Perleasse, Cendres de 
 Perle. 
 
 G. Perlasche. 
 
 D. Paerel'dsch. 
 
 1. Cenere di Per la. 
 
 S. Cenizas de Per I as. 
 P. Cinza de Perolas. 
 DA. Perlaske. 
 
 SW. Perlaska, 
 
 Pearl Ashes are a kind of fixed alkaline salt. It is pre- 
 pared by mixing the ashes of burnt wood with water, eva- 
 porating the clear ley, and calcining them for a conside- 
 rable time in an oven moderately hot. The goodness of 
 Pearl Ashes is distinguished by their strong body, and an 
 uniform white appearance; and their value decreases in 
 
255 
 
 proportion to the blue cast they have: blue then, are the 
 most inferior sort of Pearl ashes. This article being subject 
 to an adulteration, by the addition of common salt, the fraud 
 can be discovered by taking a small quantity of suspected 
 matter,, and letting it lay to soften in the air, and then put- 
 ting it in a shovel over the fire; if it contains any common 
 salt a crackling, and kind of slight explosion, will take place 
 when the salt grows hot. 
 
 Pearl Ashes are chiefly prepared in Russia, Poland, Hun- 
 gary, and North America; they are much used in the ma- 
 nufacture of glass, also for bleaching. See. 
 
 The patent dated 2d April, 1791, granted to George 
 Glenny, of Bromley-Hill, in the county of Kent, Esq. for 
 his method of obtaining from wood ashes, a much greater 
 quantity than usual of Pearl and pot-ashes, is as follows: 
 That the common ashes produced by burning wood, must 
 be completely calcined in a furnace ; and if a small propor- 
 tion of lime be sifted among the wood ashes before they 
 are put in the calcining furnace, it will prevent them from 
 vitrifying; but if they are at times stirred with an iron rake, 
 or other proper instrument, during the process of calcination, 
 that will answer the purpose of adding the lime; and when 
 the ashes are calcined into a fine powder, the usual method 
 may be pursued, ,btit it is better to boil them in large vessels, 
 especially in frosty weather. 
 
 F. Perles. 
 
 G. Perlen. 
 D. Paarlen, 
 1. Perle. 
 
 S. Per las. 
 
 DA. Perler. 
 SW. Parlor, 
 POL. Perly. 
 
 R. Shemtschug. 
 L, Margarita! . 
 
 P. Perolas. 
 
 Pearls are a hard, white, shining, usually roundish body, 
 found in a testaceous fish resembling an oyster. 
 
 The fish in which these are usually produced is the East 
 Indian Pearl oyster, as it is commonly called. Besides this, 
 the common oyster, the muscle, and several other shell-fish, 
 produce a kind of Pearl. 
 
 All Pearls are formed of the matter of the shell, and con- 
 sist of a number of coats, spread with perfect regularity, 
 one over another, like the several coats of an onion. They 
 are said to proceed only from a distemper in the fish, ana- 
 
256 
 
 iagous to the bezoars, and other stony concretions in several 
 animals of other kinds. 
 
 Though these ornaments are met with in all parts of the 
 globe, the most esteemed have always been those of Asia, 
 and the east coast of Africa. In the kingdom of Madura, 
 which lies on the east of Malabar, there are many Pearl fishe- 
 ries. Tutukurin or Tutucorin is the principal, if not the 
 only city, on the fishery coast. At the time the Portuguese 
 were masters in these parts, the Pearl fishery in the straits 
 betwixt \h.e island of Ceylon and the continent, was stiled, 
 by way of excellence, the fishery, and very deservedly; for 
 though some prefer the Pearls taken near the island of Ba- 
 haren, in the Persian gulf, and those likewise found on the 
 coast of China at Hainan, yet the produce of these fisheries 
 was very seldom superior to that alluded to. At present the 
 Pearl fishery carried on in the strait between Ceylon and 
 the Continent is so much exhausted, that it takes generally 
 five or six years before a sufficient quantity of Pearls are to 
 be found. The Pearls taken at Beharen, though not so 
 white as those of China and Ceylon, are much larger than 
 those of the latter place, and much more regularly shaped 
 than the former. They are of a yellowish cast, but preserve 
 their golden hue, whereas the whiter kind lose much of 
 their lustre by keeping; particularly in a hot climate. The 
 shell of both these species, which is known by the name of 
 Mother of Pearf is used for various purposes. There are a 
 variety of rivers in the Eastern Tartary considerable for 
 Pearl fishery, though defe<Si;ive in shape and colour. Many 
 rivulets in Livonia produce Pearls, almost equal in size to 
 the oriental ones. In Scotland, especially to the northward, 
 about Perth, as far as Loch-Tay, in all the rivers running 
 from lakes, there are found muscles that have Pearls of more 
 than ordinary merit, though seldom of large size; but this 
 fishery is at present exhausted. 
 
 The American Pearl fisheries are all in the gulf of Mexico, 
 along the coast of Terra Firma. The greatest quantity, and 
 the finest, both with regard to weight and water, are found 
 about the island of Marguerites. There are also some small 
 Pearls in the South Sea, particularly in the bay of Panama; 
 but they are very inconsiderable. The West Indians knew 
 the value of their P^earls before the discovery of America, 
 and when the Spaniards arrived there they found great quan- 
 tities stored up; but they were almost all imperfect, and 
 their water yellow and smoky, because they used fire in 
 opening the fish. 
 
259 
 
 There are two seasons for Pearl fishing in the East Indies ; 
 the first is in March and April, and the last in August and 
 September; and the more rain there falls in the year the 
 more plentiful are these fisheries. As the oysters are usually 
 firmly fastened to the rocks, the divers commonly take iron 
 rakes down in the sea to loosen them; they also carry down 
 with them a large net, in the manner of a sack, tied to the 
 neck by a long cord, the other end of which is fastened to 
 the side of the bark. This net is to hold the oysters gathered 
 from the rock, and the cord is to pull up the diver, when 
 the bag is full, or when he wants air. He sometimes pre- 
 cipitates himself sixty feet under the water, and whatever 
 depth he be, the light is so great, that he easily sees what- 
 ever passes in the sea. To his great consternation he some- 
 times perceives monstrous fishes, from which all his ad- 
 dress in mudding the water, &c. will not always save him, 
 and this is one of the greatest dangers of the fishery. The 
 best divers will keep under water near half an hour, and 
 the rest do not stay less than a^ quarter. During this time, 
 they hold their breath, without the use of oils or any other 
 liquors. When they find themselves straitened they pull 
 the rope to be hove up in the air. On the shore they 
 unload their barks, and lay the Pearl fish in an infinite 
 number of little pits dug in the sand, raising heaps of sand 
 over them; and in this condition they are left till the rain, 
 wind, and sun, have obliged them to open, which soon kills 
 them; upon this the flesh rots and dries, and the Pearls thus 
 disengaged, fall into the pit on their taking out the shell. 
 After clearing the pits, and cleaning and drying the Pearls, 
 they are passed through a kind of sieve, according to their 
 sizes. 
 
 Aleppo is the staple place of the East Indian Pearls; from 
 thence they are transported to Leghorn, and then circulated 
 through Europe. 
 
 PEASE, 
 
 F . Pqzs. 
 
 G. Erbsin. \ 
 
 D. Ernvien. 
 
 I Piselliy Bisi, Erhione. 
 S. Pesolcsy Guisanies. 
 
 Da. Aerter. 
 SW. Aerter. 
 POL. Grech, 
 R. Goroch. 
 
 L. Pirn, 
 
 P. E'vilhasy Her-vilhas, 
 
 Pease are a kind of pulse, of several sorts; as white, yel- 
 low, green, and grey. They are also divided into boiling 
 
 KL 
 
260 
 
 and hog Pease. The former kind is proper for the food of 
 man, and particularly serviceable as sea provision. 
 
 PEPPER. 
 
 F. Pci^vre. 
 
 G. Pfeffer. 
 D. Peper. 
 
 1. Pcpe. 
 
 S. Pimienta. 
 P. Pimenta, 
 
 DA. Peher. 
 SW. Feppar, 
 POL, Pieprz. 
 R. Pere-z., 
 
 L. Piper. 
 
 Pepper is an aromatic berry of a hot dry quality, chiefly 
 used in seasoning. There are three kinds of Pepper at 
 present used in the shops, the black, the white, and the long 
 Pepper. 
 
 Black Pepper is the fruit of the piper siriboa. This is a 
 shrub rising into a stem which requires a tree or prop to 
 support it. The leaves, which have a strong smell and pun- 
 gent taste, are of an oval shape, though terminating in a 
 point. From the flower buds, which are white, are pro- 
 duced small berries, commonly gathered in October, and 
 exposed to the sun for seven or eight days. This fruit, 
 which is green at first, and afterwards red, assumes the ap- 
 pearance which Black Pepper has when it comes to us. The 
 largest, heaviest, and least shrivelled, is the best. 
 
 The Pepper plant flourishes in the islands of Java, Suma- 
 tra, and Ceylon; and more particularly on the Malabar coast. 
 It is planted from shoots which produce no fruit till the end 
 of three years, but bear so plentifully the three succeeding 
 years, that some plants yield from six to seven pounds of 
 Pepper. The shrub then declines so fast that in twelve years 
 time it ceases bearing. 
 
 The common White Pepper is factitious, being prepared 
 from the black, in the following manner: they steep this in 
 sea-water, exposed to the heat of the sun for several days, 
 till the rind or outer bark loosens ; they then take it out, 
 and when it is half dry rub it till the rind falls off; then 
 they dry the white fruit, and the remains of the rind blow 
 off like chaff. A great deal of the heat of the Pepper is 
 taken off* by this process, so that the white kind is more fit 
 for many purposes than the black. 'Fhere is however a sort 
 of native Avhite Pepper produced on a species of the same 
 plant, which is much better than the factitious. 
 
 The long Pepper is a dried fruit of an inch, or an inch 
 and a half long, and about the thickness of a large goos^- 
 
261 
 
 quill: it is of a brownish grey colour, cylindrical in figure, 
 and said to be produced on a plant of the same genus. 
 
 The people of the East Indies esteem Pepper as a stomachic, 
 and drink a strong infusion of it in water, by way of creating 
 an appetite. They have also a way of making a fiery spirit 
 of fermented fresh Pepper with water, which they use for 
 the same purposes. 
 
 The piper amalgo or black Pepper, and the piper inequale 
 or long Pepper of Jamaica, are indigenous. The whole 
 plant of the former has the exadt taste of the East India black 
 Pepper; the fruit of the latter is similar to the East India 
 long Pepper. Both these plants may, perhaps, hereafter be 
 deemed worthy of attention. 
 
 Pepper that is sold ground is very apt to be sophisticated; 
 the black with burnt crusts of bread, &c. the white with 
 beaten rice. 
 
 PERNAMBUCCO WOOD; see Brazilwood. 
 PERUVIAN BARK. 
 
 F. Quinquina. 
 
 G. Chinarinde. 
 
 D. Kinay Quinquina. 
 
 I. China y Chinacchina. 
 
 S. ^ina, ^uina-^dnay Ccr- 
 teza de Loja, 
 
 P. ^uinUy ^uinquma. 
 
 DA. KinayChinUyChinabark. 
 SW. Feberbarky China. 
 
 POL. Kwinkwinna. 
 
 R. ChinUy Chinchina. 
 
 L. ^inquinuy China, Cortex 
 Peruvianus. 
 
 Bark is the produce of a tree called cinchona. Linnaeus 
 describes two species: first the corymbifera, corymbbearing, 
 or white Peruvian Bark, with oblong lanceolate leaves, and 
 axillary corymbs; and secondly the officinalis, or coloured 
 Peruvian Bark, with elliptic leaves, downy underneath, and 
 the leaves of the corolla woolly. Both species are natives of 
 Peru, where the trees attain the height of fifteen to twenty 
 feet. The former particularly abounds in the hilly parts 
 of Quito, growing promiscuously in the forests, and is spon- 
 taneously propagated from its seeds. Both sorts have also 
 been found in the province of Santa Fe. 
 
 The Bark has some odour, to most people not unpleasant, 
 and very perceptible in the distilled water, in which floating 
 globules, like essential oil, have been observed. Its taste 
 is bitter and astringent, accompanied with a degree of pun- 
 gency, and leaving a considerably lasting impression on the 
 tongue. 
 
26 ^ 
 
 According to some, the virtue of the Bark was first dis- 
 covered by a Peruvian, who in his fits of the ague taking the 
 habit of seizing and sucking a branch of the tree, found 
 himself thereby relieved, and at last cured. About the year 
 1640, the lady of the Spanish Viceroy, the Comitessa del 
 Cinchon, was cured by the Bark, which has therefore been 
 called cortex, or pulvis Comitessse Cinchona, Chinachina, or 
 Chinchina, Kinakina or Kinkina, Quinaquina or Quinquina; 
 and from the interest which the Cardinal de Lugo and the 
 Jesuit fathers took in its distribution, it has been called cor- 
 tex or pal vis Cardinalis de Lugo, Jesuiticus, Patrum, 8<c. 
 
 On its first introdiuStion into Europe it was reprobated by 
 many eminent physicians; and at different periods, long after, 
 it was considered a dangerous remedy; but its chara(S:er in 
 process of time became very universally established. For a 
 number of years, the Bark which is rolled up into short thick 
 quills, with a rough coat, and a bright cinnamon colour in 
 the inside, which broke brittle, and was sound, had an 
 aromatic flavour, a bitterish astringent taste, with a degree 
 of aromatic warmth, was esteemed the best; thongh some 
 esteemed the large pieces as of equal goodness. 
 
 During the time of the war before last, in^the year 1779, 
 the Hussar frigate took a Spanish ship loaded principally 
 wdth Peruvian Bark, which was much larger, thicker, and 
 of a deeper reddish colour than the Bark in common use. 
 Soon after it was brought to London it was tried in St. Bar- 
 tholomew’s, and other Hospitals about town. In July, 1782, 
 Dr. William Saunders published an account of this red Bark; 
 in which he says, that the small quill Bark used in England, 
 is either the Bark of young trees, or of the twigs or branches 
 , of the old ones; and that the large Bark, called the red Bark, 
 from its deep colour, is the Bark of the trunk of the old 
 trees: and he mentions as Mr. Arnot, who himself gathered 
 the Bark from the trees in Peru, and Mons. Condamine, 
 that taking the bark from an old tree effectually kills it; but 
 that most of the young trees which are barked recover, and 
 continue healthy; and that for these reasons, the Spaniards 
 now barked the younger trees for foreign markets, though 
 they still imported into Spain some of the Bark of the old 
 trees, which they esteemed much more efficacious, than 
 what was got from the young. Dr. Saunders himself thinks, 
 that it is not only stronger and more resinous, but likewise 
 more efficacious and certain in its efleCls than the com- 
 mon bark, and had cured many agues after the other had 
 failed. 
 
263 
 
 The pale bark is brought to us in pieces of different sizes, 
 either flat or quilled, and the powder is rather of a lighter 
 colour than that of cinnamon. The red is generally in much 
 larger, thicker, flattish pieces, but sometimes also in the 
 form of quills, and its powder is reddish, like that of Ar- 
 menian bole. As already observed, it is much more resinous, 
 and possesses the sensible qualities of the cinchona in a much 
 higher degree than the other sorts. The red Bark is heavy, 
 firm, sound, and dryj friable between the teeth, does not 
 separate into fibres; and breaks, not shivery, but short, close, 
 and smooth. It consists of three layers ; the outer is thin, 
 rugged, of a whitish brown colour, but frequently covered 
 with mossy matter: the middle is thicker, more compa£l, 
 darker coloured, very resinous, brittle, and yields first to 
 the pestle: the inmost is more woody, fibrous, and of a 
 brighter ‘red. 
 
 The Peruvian Bark is prescribed for many diseases, chiefly 
 as a powerful astringent, tonic, and antiseptic. 
 
 PETROL, OIL OF PETRE, ROCK OIL. 
 
 F. Petr ole. 
 
 G, SteinoL 
 D. Steenoli, 
 I. Petroleo. 
 
 SW. Stenclja. 
 
 POL. Skalney oley. 
 R. Kamennoe ?nasilo. 
 L. Petroleum. 
 
 DA. Sieenolje. 
 
 Petrol is a mineral oil supposed to issue out of the clefts 
 of rocks, and found floating on the waters of certain springs. 
 It diflers by its liquidity only from bitumens, like esphattum, 
 jet, See. Hitherto there has been but little Petrol found, 
 except in hot countries, as Persia, the southern provinces of 
 France, and the dlichy of Modena in Italy. 
 
 The naphta, which is either a liquid, or at least a very 
 soft bitumen, is much the same with Petrol. 
 
 PILCHARDS 
 
 Are fish, which have a general likeness to the herring, but 
 dlfler in some particulars very essentially. The body of 
 the Pilchard is less compressed than that ^of the herring, 
 being thicker and rounder: the nose is shorter in proportion, 
 and turns up, the under jaw is also shorter. The dorsal fin 
 of the Pilchard is placed exa(Stly in the centre of gravity, so 
 that when taken up by it, the body preserves an equilibrium; 
 
264* 
 
 
 whereas that of the herring dips at the head. The Pilchard 
 in general is less, than the herring, but it is fatter, or more 
 full of oil. 
 
 The Pilchard appears in vast shoals off the Cornish coasts 
 about the middle of July, disappearing the beginning of 
 ■winter. Their winter retreat and their motives for migrating 
 are the same with those of the herring. The approach of 
 the Pilchard is known by much the same signs as those that 
 indicate the arrival of the herring. Persons called in Corn- 
 wall, huers, are placed in the cliffs to point out to the boats 
 stationed off the land, the course of the fish. 
 
 The emoluments that accrue to the county of Cornwall 
 by the Pilchard fishery are very considerable. But a small 
 part of the Pilchards taken here are consumed in the county, 
 notwithstanding they are very delicious eating. The greatest 
 part are salted, and placed together in large heaps, where 
 they lie for several days, under a pressure of large stone 
 weights, by which means the fat and oil are drained from 
 them In large quantities, into proper vessels; then they pickle 
 and press them into cases for exportation. Thousands are^ 
 employed in catching and curing the fish, and the fishermen 
 and merchants make large gains in sending them to Italy, 
 Spain, and France. The poor are fed with the offals of the 
 captures, and the land is manured with the refuse of the fish 
 and fat. A considerable quantity of fish is also annually 
 used for making Pilchard oil. 
 
 The number of Pilchards exported yearly from the four 
 ports of Fowey, Falmouth, Penzance, and St. Ives, ac- 
 cording to an average of ten years, from 1747 to 1756 was, 
 from 
 
 Fowey 1,732 hhds. 
 
 Falmouth 14,631^ ditto 
 
 Penzance and Mountsbay . . . 12,149| ditto 
 
 St. Ives 1,282 ditto 
 
 Total 29,795 hhds. 
 
263 
 
 PIMENTO, ALLSPICE. 
 
 F. Piment. 
 
 G. PimentOy J amaica pfeffer. 
 D. Piementi Jamaica feper, 
 
 1 . Pepe garojanato. 
 
 S. Pimienta de Jamaica, 
 
 DA. Piment i Mlehaande. 
 SW. Kryddpeppar, 
 
 POL. Pieprz x Jatnaiki. 
 R. Anglin dioi pere^t. 
 
 L. Piper Jamaicense, 
 
 P. AmomOy Piment a da Ja- 
 maica. 
 
 The Pimento, Allspice, or Jamaica Pepper tree, myrtus 
 pimenta, is a native of New Spain, and the West India 
 islands. In Jamaica it grows very plentifully, and delights in 
 a hilly situation. It grows above thirty feet in height, and 
 two in circumference, is very straight, and covered with a 
 greyish, smooth, and shining bark. Its leaves, which have 
 a pleasant smell, resemble in form and disposition those of the 
 laurel-, and the branches in June, July, and August, put 
 forth clusters of Flowers, entirely similar to those of the 
 common myrtle. 
 
 The berries are generally gathered in July, while yet green; 
 for if they are suffered to remain till full ripe, they will not 
 cure. They are when ripe of a dark purple colour, and full 
 of a sweet pulp, which the birds devour greedily, and mu- 
 ting the seeds afterwards, , propagate these trees in all parts 
 of the woods. 
 
 When gathered, they are laid on cloths spread over terraced 
 floors. During the first and second day they are turned often, 
 that the whole may be more exposed to the sun, but when they 
 begin to dry they are frequently winnowed, still exposing them 
 to the sun all day, and removing them under covers every 
 evening, till they are sufficiently dried, which happens in ten 
 or tw'^elve days, and is known by the darkness of their com- 
 plexion, and the ratling of the seeds; they appear at this time 
 wrinkled, and have changed from green to a very dark brown; 
 and in this state, being ready for the market, they are stowed 
 in bags and casks. Some planters kiln-dry them with great 
 success, and it seems indeed a most eligible method, where 
 from the abundance of the crop, despatch and security against 
 rain are very essential. 
 
 As there is so great an affinity between this and the true 
 clove, it has been proposed as worthy of trial, if the fruit, 
 Avhen first formed, or the flowers picked off the tree, and 
 dried, might not answer the same purpose as as the Asiatic. 
 The more odoriferous and small the berries are the better they 
 are reckoned. The leaves and bark of the tree are full of 
 
261 ^ 
 
 aromatic inflammable particles, for whidi reason the growers 
 are extremely cautious not to suffer any fire to be made near 
 the walks, for if it once should catch the trees they would con- 
 sume with great fury. The berries have a resemblance in 
 smell and taste to cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon, and 
 pepper, or rather a peculiar mixture, somewhat akin to 
 them all; whence their name of Allspice. 
 
 Pimento is cliiefly imported into Britain from Jamaica, 
 where it is one of the staple articles. That growing in the 
 Spanish dominions is of a larger berry, weaker aromatic fla- 
 vour, and consequently inferior in quality. The quantity 
 exported from Jamaic;i may be estimated on an average at 
 two millions of pounds annually. 
 
 PINCHBECK; see Copper. 
 
 PISTACIA NUTS. 
 
 F. Fist aches. 
 
 G. Pistaxieii, Pistaschen* 
 D. Pistasjes. 
 
 I. Pistacchiy Fastucchi, 
 
 S. A'Jocigos. 
 
 P. Pisfaciasy Ft Stic os. 
 DA. Pistaciery Pistaser 
 SW. Pistacier. 
 
 POL. Pistacye, 
 
 L. Putaciae. 
 
 Pistacia Nuts are the fruit of the pistacia terebinthus. 
 This tree grows naturally in Arabia, Persia, and Syria, also 
 in Sicily, whence the nuts are annually brought to us. The 
 fruit loses much of its beauty by drying, but improves per- 
 haps in flavour. The tree when laden with clusters of the 
 ripe smooth nuts, of a beautiful pale blush colour, makes a 
 fine appearance. It seldom exceeds thirty feet in height, 
 and is often not more than twenty ; the trunk which is pro- 
 portionally short, is about three or three feet and a half in 
 circumference. Some of these trees have male, and others 
 female flowers, and some both male and femrde on the same 
 tree. The female flowers come out in clusters from the 
 -sides of the branches: they have no petals, but a large oval 
 germen, supporting three reflexed styles; and are succeeded 
 by oval nuts. These nuts are moderately large, containing 
 a kernel of a pale greenish colour, covered with an outer 
 husk of difterent colours, from almost white to a red. They 
 have a pleasant, sweet, un6Iuous taste, resembling that of 
 almonds; and they abound with a sweet and well tasted oil, 
 which they yield in great abundance on being pressed, after 
 bruising them. They are wholesome and nutritive, and in 
 medicine arc classed amongst the analeptics and restoratives. 
 
265 
 
 PIT-COAL, STONE COAL. 
 
 F. Charhons de terre, 
 
 G. Steinkohlen. 
 
 D. Steenkoolen. 
 
 I. Carboni f os silt. 
 
 S. Carbones de tierra. Car- 
 
 P. Carvoes de terra ou de Jje- 
 
 dr a. 
 
 DA. Steejtkull. 
 SW. Stenkol. 
 
 bones de pie dr a. 
 
 R. Ugolje kamennoe. 
 L. Lithanthrax. 
 
 Pit-Coal is a black, solid, compa^l, brittle, and infiam- 
 mable mass, of moderate hardness, lamellated stru£l:ure, 
 more or less shining, but seldom capable of a good polish, 
 and does not melt when heated. It is commonly used for 
 fuel, and according to Kirwan, consists of petrol or as- 
 phaltum, intimately mixed with a small portion of earth, 
 chiefly argillaceous, and frequently with pyrites. 
 
 The inland Coal trade, that is, carrying Coals from New- 
 castle, Sunderland, Blith, and other adjacent places, in the 
 North of England, as also from the Frith of Edinburgh, and 
 other neighbouring parts of the city of London, and the in- 
 termediate port towns, as well as to the North of Edinburgh 
 and Newcastle, and up the channel as high as Portsmouth 
 west, employs abundance of shipping and seamen; insomuch, 
 that in a time of urgent necessity, the coalery navigation 
 alone has been able to supply the government with a body of 
 seamen for the royal navy, able to man a considerable fleet 
 at a very short notice. 
 
 The produce of Coals exported, which amounts to a very 
 considerable sum annually, besides being profitable to the 
 owners, merchants, and mariners, is so much clear gain to 
 the nation. The value also of this commodity as a conve- 
 niency of life is a great consideration, and a multitude of 
 manufadlures could not be carried on but by the help and 
 cheapness of the best Coals. Lastly, thousands of labori- 
 ous people are employed in and about the mines, in convey- 
 ing the Coals to the ports, and shipping them, in the whole- 
 sale and retail trade, &c. 
 
 As to the use of the common fuel which we call Coals, 
 the Romans in Italy seem to have been entirely ignorant of 
 it; which is the more easily accounted for, as there are no 
 beds of Coals in the compass of Italy. But the prirnseval 
 Britons appear to have used it. In the precincts of Man- 
 chester particularly, they could not have remained unappri- 
 sed of the combustible which surrounded them so abimdant- 
 
 Ll 
 
266 
 
 ly; the currents there bringing frequently down fragments 
 of Coals from the mountains. Not less than forty pieces of 
 Coals, and a quantity of slack, were discovered sometime 
 since in the sand under the Roman road to Ribchester, when 
 both were dug up at the constru(5lion of a house in Quay 
 street. These Coals must have been lodged upon the spot 
 before the road of the Romans covered it. It seems there- 
 fore certain, that before the arrival of the Romans, the 
 Britains were acquainted with the extensive beds of fuel 
 with which the precindls of Manchester are so happily stored. 
 But for ages after the discovery, wood seems to have con- 
 stituted the general firing of the nation, and would naturally 
 continue so, as long as the forests and thickets presented 
 themselves so ready to the hand. In 852 a grant was made 
 of some lands by the Abbey of Peterborough, under the re- 
 servation of certain loans and payments in kind, to the mo- 
 nastery; as sixty cart loads of wood, and twelve of Pit-Coal, 
 &c. by which we see the quantity of Coal was only one cart 
 load to five of wood. The first time we find Coals publickly 
 noticed is in the reign of Henry III. who in the year 1272 
 granted a charter to the town of Newcastle, giving the 
 inhabitants a license to dig Coals. They were however not 
 brought into common use till the reign of Carles I. and were 
 then sold about 17s. a chaldron. In some years after the re- 
 storation there were about 200,000 chaldrons burnt in Lon- 
 don; in 1670 about 270,000; at the revolution, upwards of 
 300,000; and at present above 600,000 chaldrons are annu- 
 ally consumed. In Ireland, though they have Coal of their 
 own, yet they annually import to the value of ^.30,000 from 
 England, and 12,000 from Scotland. 
 
 There are several other countries in Europe which possess 
 considerable Coal mines; as France, Brabant, Liege, Ger- 
 many, and Sweden. Also on the other side of the Atlantic 
 Ocean there has been Coal discovered, and wrought, in 
 Newfoundland, Cape-Breton, Canada, and some of the New- 
 England provinces and in Virginia. But in all these coun- 
 tries the Coal is of a quality much inferior to the British, and 
 entirely unfit to be used in many manufactories; so that they 
 are obliged to import great quantities from Britain for the 
 use of their manufactories of iron, &c. 
 
 If we consider Coals according to their degree of inflam- 
 mability they are distinguishable in three kinds: ],The least 
 inflammable kind is that known by the name of Welsh Coal, 
 found in Wales; Kilkenny Coal, found near Kilkenny, in 
 Ireland; and blind or deaf coal found in many parts of Scot- 
 
267 
 
 iand and England. This Coal takes a considerable degree of 
 heat to kindle it, but when once thoroughly ignited will burn 
 a long timej it remains in the fire in separate pieces without 
 sticking together or caking: it produces neither flame or 
 smoke, and makes no cinder, but burns to a white stony 
 slag. It makes a hot glowing fire, like charcoals or cinders, 
 and emits effluvia of a suffocating nature, which renders it 
 unfit for burning in dwelling houses, its chief use being 
 amongst malsters, dyers, &c. for drying their commodities. 
 
 2. Ope7i burning Coal, soon kindles, making a hot pleasant 
 fire, but is soon consumed: it produces both smoke and flame 
 in abundance: but lies open in the fire and does not cake 
 together sp as to form cinders, its surface being burnt to 
 ashes before it is thoroughly calcined in the midst; from 
 this it has its name of an open burning Coal ; it burns to 
 white, or light brown ashes. Of this kind is cannel-coal, 
 jet, parrot, splint, and most of the Coals in Scotland. 
 
 3. Close burning Coal, kindles very quickly, makes a very 
 hot fire, melts and runs together like bitumen, the very 
 smallest culm making the finest cinders, which being tho- 
 roughly burnt, are porous and light, as a pumice stone; and 
 when broke are of a shining lead colour. It makes a more 
 durable fire than any other Coal, and finally turns to brown 
 or reddish coloured heavy ashes. Of this kind are the New- 
 castle and several other of the English Coals, and the smi- 
 thy Coals of Scotland, The open burning and the close 
 bnrning Coal mixed together make a more profitable fire for 
 domestic uses than either of them separate. 
 
 PITCH. 
 
 F. Poix. 
 
 G. Fech. 
 
 D. Fek, BraU 
 I. Pece. 
 
 S. Pex,. ' 
 
 P. Brea, 
 
 DA. Beg. 
 
 SW. Beck. 
 
 POL Smola. 
 
 R. Smola gustaja. 
 
 L. Pix. 
 
 Pitch is a tenaceous oily substance, drawn from pines and 
 firs, and used in shipping, medicine, and various arts. It 
 is tar inspissated by boiling it over a slow fire. For further 
 particulars see Tar. 
 
268 
 
 PLATINA, 
 
 Is the heaviest of all metals, its specific gravity being to 
 that of water as twenty-three to onej that of gold being 
 only nineteen. Its colour is that of the purest silver. The 
 very small globules of it are extremely malleable; but when 
 many of these are colle£led together, they can scarcely be so 
 perfedlly fused as to preserve the same degree of malleability. 
 They are not affedted by the magnet in the least, nor can 
 they be dissolved in any simple menstruum, excepting de- 
 phlogisticated marine acid. Platina however, as it is common- 
 ly met with, is mixed with many foreign substances, as gold, 
 mercury, and blackish, ferruginous, sandy particles. In this 
 state it has the form of small grains, its plates of a bluish 
 black, whose colour is intermediate betwixt those of silver 
 , and iron. 
 
 The great specific gravity of Platina has rendered it a very 
 desirable matter for such as wish to adulterate the precious 
 metals, and can procure the Platina easily. This however 
 can only be done in South America, where Platina is met 
 with in plenty. In Europe the scarcity of Platina renders 
 it a more valuable objeT than even gold itself. Fears of this 
 fraud have undoubtedly given occasion to the prohibition of 
 exporting it from America. It is however not difficult to 
 discover the adulteration by precipitation with green vitriol, 
 which throws down the gold, and leaves the Platina united 
 with the menstruum; and by various other methods, but 
 chiefly by its greater specific gravity. 
 
 Platina has been remarkable ever since its first discovery 
 for being the most infusible substance in the world. It has 
 been kept in the most violent heat of a glass furnace for seve- 
 ral days without any alteration. This refracStory metal was 
 first melted with a large burning mirror. It has since been 
 found capable not only of fusion, but of vitrification, by the 
 eletSlric fire; but de Lisle was the first who was able to melt 
 it with tlie heat of a common forge, when exposed to the 
 blast of double bellows in a double crucible. It must be 
 observed however, that this fusion was not performed on 
 common Platina, but on such as had been dissolved in aqua- 
 regia, and precipitated by means of sal ammoniac. This pre- 
 cipitate, or even crude Platina, is fusible by the assistance of 
 fluxes, as, white glass, borax, and charcoal. 
 
269 
 
 PORPHYRY. 
 
 F. Porphyre. 
 
 G. Perphyr. 
 
 DA. Porphyr. 
 SW. Porphyr. 
 POL. Parfr. 
 R. Porjir. 
 
 D. Porjier Steen. 
 
 I. Porjido, 
 S. Porfido. 
 
 L. Porphyrins lapis. 
 
 P. Porfdo. 
 
 Porphyry includes those stones which contain either felt- 
 spar, schoerl, quarz, or mica, with other species of crystal- 
 lized stone, on a siliceous or calcareous ground. It is found 
 of several different colours, as green, deep red, purple, black, 
 dark brown and grey. 
 
 The Egyptian Porphyry is a most elegant rrf^ss of an ex- 
 tremely firm and compaft structure, remarkably heavy, and 
 of a fine strong purple, variegated more or less, with pale 
 red and white. In Upper Egypt, and in Arabia Petraea, 
 the hard pale red Porphyry is also found in surprizing quan- 
 tities: it is variegated with black, white, and green, takes 
 a high polish, and emulates all the qualities of the Oriental 
 Porphyry. 
 
 The hard, red lead coloured Porphyry variegated with 
 black, white, and green, is a most beautiful and valuable 
 substance. It has the hardness and all the other charaiSIers 
 of the Oriental Porphyry, and even greatly excels it in 
 brightness, beauty, and variegation of its colours. It is 
 found in great quantities in the island of Minorca, and is 
 well w'orth importing, being greatly superior to all the 
 Italian marbles. 
 
 PORTLAND STONE 
 
 a free stone found in Portland, a peninsula in Dorset- 
 shire. It is mostly brought to London for the structure of 
 the finest edifices. St. Paufs church in particular was built 
 therewith. 
 
270 
 
 POT-ASHES. 
 
 F. Potasse. 
 
 G. Pottasche, 
 D. Potds, 
 
 I. Potassa. 
 
 S. Potassa. 
 
 DA. Pottaske* 
 SW. Potaska, 
 POL. Potasz. 
 R. Potasch. 
 
 L. Cineres cla<vellati. 
 
 P. Potassa. 
 
 Pot-ashes are an impure fixed alkaline salt, of the colour 
 'of iron stone, or paler. They are obtained by burning birch 
 or alder by a slow fire to ashes, and making them into a 
 paste with water. This paste is plastered over a row of 
 green pine and fir logs. Above that is laid, transversely, 
 another row of the same, and that likewise is plastered over. 
 In this way they continue building and plastering till the 
 pile be of considerable height. This pile is set on fire, and 
 whenever the ashes begin to run, it is overturned, and the 
 melted ashes are beat with flexible sticks, so that they in- 
 crust the logs of wood, and become as hard as stone. This 
 seems to be the method of making Pot-ashes in Sweden, 
 Poland, &c. The Russia Pot-ashes are stronger, and accord- 
 ing to Sir Peter Warren, the best woods for making them 
 are, oak, ash, poplar, elm, hazle, and beach. They must 
 be cut in winter, split, and stacked to dry. After twelve 
 months in warm open weather, the wood must be burnt on 
 a brick hearth by a slow fire, in a kiln or close place; the 
 ashes must be sifted through two sieves, one finer than the 
 other, and then put up in brick troughs or wooden backs, 
 covered with rain or river water, and must remain well 
 mashed and incorporated for five months. Brick furnaces, 
 shaped like bakers’ ovens, must be heated with a strong fire 
 of oak or ash, burning night and day; and the prepared 
 ashes must gradually be thrown on the fire, when they will 
 run into metal like lead: the fire must not go out till the 
 furnace is nigh filled with Pot-ashes. The ashes must then 
 be broken, ‘to be taken out, but the larger the pieces, the 
 better ; they must be preserved from the air in tight casks, 
 the large pieces by themselves and the dust by itself. 
 
 Pot-ashes are principally used by the soap-boiler, glass- 
 . maker, fuller, &c. 
 
 The denomination of Pot-ashes is said to originate from 
 their formerly having been prepared or shipped in pots, to 
 prevent their dissolving from the access of air. 
 
271 
 
 The greatest quantities of Pot-ashes come from Russia, 
 Prussia, Poland, and North America. 
 
 Kelp is a sort of ashes made use of in many of the glass 
 works of this country, particularly for green glass. It is 
 the calcined ashes of a plant called by the same name; and 
 in some places, of sea-thongs or laces, a sort of thick leaved 
 fucus or sea-wrack. These ashes, like Barilla, contain the \ 
 mineral alkali. 
 
 The kelp-plant is thrown on the rocks and shores in great 
 abundance, and in the summer months is raked together, 
 and dried as hay in the sun and wind, and afterwards burnt 
 to the ashes called kelp. The process of making it is thus: 
 the rocks, which are dry at low-water, are the beds of great 
 quantities of sea weed; which is cut, carried to the beach 
 and dried: a hollow is dug into the ground three or four 
 feet wide ; round its margin are laid a row of stones, on 
 which the sea-weed is placed, and set on fire within; and 
 quantities of this fuel being continually heaped upon the 
 circle, there is in the centre a perpetual flame, from which 
 a liquid like melted metal drops into the hollow beneath; 
 when full, as it commonly is before the close of the day, 
 all heterogeijieous matter being removed, the kelp is wrought 
 with iron rakes, and brought to an uniform consistence, in 
 a state of fusion. When cool, it consolidates into a heavy, 
 dark coloured, alkaline substance, which undergoes in the 
 glass-houses a second vitrification, and assumes a perfe^f 
 transparency. 
 
 The greatest quantity of kelp is prepared in the Scilly 
 islands. 
 
 POTATOES. 
 
 F. Pommes de terre» 
 
 G. Kart off eln. 
 
 D. Aardappelen. 
 
 I. Pat ate i Pomi di Terra, 
 
 S. Pat at as manchegas . 
 
 P. Batatas de terra ^ Porno s de 
 
 terra. 
 
 Potatoes, it is generally thought, came originally from 
 North America. They were first, we are told, introduced 
 into Ireland in the year 1565, and from thence into England. 
 
 It v/as forty years after their introdu^ion however, before 
 they were much cultivated about London; and not before 
 1663 they came into general use. The utility of Potatoes, 
 
 DA. Patater, ‘Jordeehler, 
 SW. PotatoSy yordpdrori, 
 
 R. Jabloki Semlenilsy Kar^ 
 toffu. 
 
 L. Tuber a njtrginiana escu- 
 lent a. 
 
1 
 
 i 
 
 272 
 
 as food for man and cattle, is well established. Instances of 
 the amazing increase of Potatoes are very numerous. In 
 the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1757 we are told, that from 
 one slice of a Potatoe, planted by S. Hoy, near Tuam, 
 in Ireland, there was a produce of nine hundred and sixty- 
 five Potatoes. This article is exported to Gibraltar, the 
 Mediterranean, and the West Indies., 
 
 PRINCES IMETAL; see Copper, 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE. Berlin blue. 
 
 F. Bleu de Bruise, 
 
 G Berlinerblau, 
 
 D. Berlyns blaau^v, 
 
 I, Azzuro PrussianOy o di Ber- 
 lino, 
 
 S. Aneul de Prussia, 
 
 P. Azul de Aiemanha, ou de 
 Prussia. 
 
 DA. Berlinerblaat, 
 
 SW. Berliner blatt, 
 
 R. Lasor Berlinskaja. 
 
 L. Coeruleum Berolineuse, 
 
 Iron is the basis of the fine blue pigment, called from the 
 place where it was first discovered, Berlin, or Prussian blue. 
 This colour was accidentally discovered about t,he beginning 
 of the last century, by a chemist of Berlin; who having suc- 
 cessively thrown upon the ground several liquors from his 
 laboratory, was much surprized to see it suddenly stained 
 with a beautiful blue colour. Recollecting what liquors he 
 had thrown out, and observing the same effeCts from a si- 
 milar mixture, he prepared the blue for tlie use of painters; 
 who found that it might be substituted for ultramarine, and 
 accordingly have used it ever since. 
 
 The process of manufaCluring this pigment is by calcining 
 a quantity of vegetable alkali with twice its weight of dried 
 bullocks blood, until the blood be reduced to a perfect coal. 
 This coal is boiled in water, the lixivium decanted, and poured 
 into a solution, of one part of martial vitriol to six of alum, 
 the lixivium and the solution both hot. The mixture will 
 then acquire a very pale blue colour, and deposite as pale 
 a precipitate. On adding more and more of a fresh solution 
 of vitriol the colour becomes deeper and deeper. In order 
 to separate this precipitate, it is now filtrated, the next day 
 washed till the water comes from it insipid, and the blue 
 colour then gently dried. 
 
 Prussian Blue is nothing more than the iron of the vitriol, 
 revived by the inflammable matter of the alkaline lixivium, 
 and perhaps a little brightened by the earth of alum. 
 
27S 
 
 PUMICE STONE. 
 
 F. Pterre-ponce, 
 
 G. Bimsiein. 
 
 D. Puimsteen. 
 
 J. Pietra pomice, 
 
 S. Piedra pomez. 
 
 P. Pedra pomes. 
 
 The Pumice Stone, though universally admitted to be the 
 product of volcanic fire, is one of those bodies which have 
 divided the (Opinion of naturalists. The Abbe Lazaro Spa- 
 lanzani, who most minutely examined this article, says, that 
 the Pumice fields where the common Pumice is found, con- 
 sist of an aggregation of numerous beds or strata of Pumices, 
 each bed not forming a distindf whole, but being a collection 
 of balls of Pumice, without adhesion; from which he deduces 
 that they were thrown out by the volcano, in a state of 
 fusion; and took a globose form in the air. They are of 
 different sizes, from that of a nut to a foot and more in 
 diameter. Though the ground colour of them all is white, 
 in some it inclines to yellow, and in others to a grey. They 
 swim in water, and do not give fire with steel. Their frac- 
 ture is dry, and rough to the touch, their angles and thin- 
 ner parts slightly transparent. Some are so compact, that 
 the smallest pore is not visible, nor do they exhibit the least 
 trace of a filamentous texture; others on the contrary are 
 full of pores and vacuities, and their texture is formed by 
 filaments and streaks, in general parallel to each other, of 
 a shining silver whiteness. 
 
 This is the common Pumice Stone known amongst us, 
 and the only kind constituting an article of commerce from 
 the Mediterranean to this country. 
 
 There are several other varieties, particularly one of a 
 dark dirty, and another of a pale red colour; both to be 
 found, not loose, but in solid beds, and cut by the labourers 
 in form of parallelopipeds. Both the latter sorts are used 
 in Italy for building arched vaults, cornices, &c. but do not 
 constitute an article of foreign commerce. 
 
 The greatest part of Pumices seem to have felt-spar for 
 their constituent principle, some also horn-stone, some as- 
 bestos or a stone analogous to the asbestos. 
 
 The greatest quantity of Pumice to be met with any 
 where is the Campo Bianco, in the Island of Lipari, a moun- 
 M m 
 
 DA. Pimpsteen, Bimsteen. 
 SW. Pimsteriy KlaUen. 
 POL. Zuzel kamienna, 
 
 R. Pe7Jiza, 
 
 L. Pumex. 
 
274 
 
 tain about a quarter of a mile in breadth. The rock also, 
 upon which the castle of Lipari is built, is an immense heap 
 of lava, glass, and Pumice Stones; which latter, in fa^l, are 
 nothing else but an imperfect gl^ss, or a volcanous ejection, 
 which if exposed to a greater degree of heat, would have 
 been changed in a vitreous mass. Small quantities of Pu- 
 mice are found also in the Arso, in the island of Ischia. 
 But a place in Europe, which in the abundance of its Pumices 
 can equal, or perhaps surpass Lipari, is the island of San- 
 torine in the Archipelago, almost covered with Pumice Stone. 
 Many eruptions of Pumices are in the Phlegrean Field; one 
 of which overwhelmed the unfortunate town of Pompeii. 
 
 Pumice Stone is used in several mechanical arts; as, for 
 rubbing and smoothing the surface of metals, wood, paste- 
 board, and stone; for which it is well qualified by reason 
 of its harsh and brittle texture. 
 
 PUZZULANA, or terra pozzolana, 
 
 Is a kind of earth used for building under water. It is a 
 volcanic product, composed of heterogeneous substances, 
 thrown out from the burning mouths of volcanoes, in the 
 form of ashes; sometimes in such large quantities, and with 
 so great violence, that whole provinces have been covered 
 with it at a considerable distance. This volcanic earth is 
 of a grey, brown, or blackish colour; of a loose granular 
 or dusty, and rough porous, or spongy texture, resembling 
 a clay, hardened by fire, and then reduced to a gross pow- 
 der. Its most distinguished property is, that it hardens very^ 
 suddenly when mixed with one-third of its weight of lime 
 and water; and forms a cement which is more durable in 
 water than any other. 
 
 The best Puzzolana is found about Puzzuoli or Puteoli, 
 Baiae, and Cumae, in the kingdom ofNaples; from the first 
 of which places it derives its name. 
 
QUASSIA. 
 
 F. Bois de ^assie. 
 
 G. ^assienholz.. 
 
 D. K'uoas lehout . 
 
 I. Legno di ^jiassia. 
 
 P, Pao de ^assia^ 
 DA. !^assebark. 
 
 SW. ^assio^trced. 
 L. Lignum ^assia» 
 
 S. Leno de ^^assia. 
 
 There are three species of, Quassia; the amara, simaruba, 
 and excelsa or polygama. 
 
 The ^iassta Amara grows to the height of several feet, 
 and sends off many strong branches. The wood is of a 
 white colour and light; the bark is thin and grey. It is a 
 native of South America, particularly of Surinam, and also 
 of some of the West Indian islands. The root, bark, and 
 wood of this tree, have all places in the materia medica. 
 The wood is most generally used, and is said to be a tonic, 
 stomachic, antiseptic and febrifuge. 
 
 The ^tassia Simaruba is common in all the woodlands 
 of Jamaica. It grows to a great height, and considerable 
 thickness. The trunks of the old trees are black and a little 
 furrowed. Those of the young trees are smooth and grey, 
 with here and there a broad yellow spot. The inside bark 
 of the trunk and branches is white, fibrous, and tough. It 
 tastes slightly bitter. The wood is useful for building, and 
 has no sensibly bitter taste. The roots are thick, and run 
 slightly under the ou p fi i fte of the ground to a considerable 
 distance. Their bark is rough, scaly, and warted. The in- 
 side when fresh is a full yellow, but when dry, paler. It 
 has but little smell. The taste is bitter, but not very dis- 
 agreeable. This is the true cortex, simarubae of the shops. 
 
 The ^iassia excelsa or polygama is likewise very common 
 in the woodlands of Jamaica. It is a beautiful, tall, and 
 stately tree; some of them being one hundred feet long, and 
 ten feet in circumference. The trunk ds straight, smooth, 
 and tapering, sending off its branches towards the top. The 
 outside bark is pretty smooth, and of a light grey, or ash- 
 colour. The bark of the roots is of a yellow cast, somewhat 
 
like the cortex simarubse. The inner bark is tough, and 
 composed of fine flaxy fibres. The bark of this Quassia, 
 but especially the wood, is intensely bitter. The wood is 
 of a yellow colour, tough, but not very hard*, it takes a 
 good polish, and is used as flooring. In taste and virtues 
 it is nearly equal to the Quassia Amara, and frequently sold 
 for the same. 
 
 Besides its use in medicine. Quassia is consumed in large 
 quantities by the brewers, to give a bitterish taste to the 
 beer. 
 
 ' QUERCITRON BARK. 
 
 G. ^ercitron. 
 
 This is the bark of a species of oak growing spontaneously 
 on the continent of North America, particularly in Massa- 
 chusetts bay, where it is commonly called yellow oak; and 
 in other parts, particularly in Pennsylvania, the black oak; 
 Linnaeus terms it quercus nigra. It is very rough, of a dark 
 brown or black colour on the outside, and of a yellowish 
 brown within. If boiled in water its decoction becomes yel- 
 low by the addition of alum; or a kind of olive brown by 
 the addition of a solution of iron by some mineral or ve- 
 getable acid. On account of this property it has been in- 
 troduced, first by Dr. Edward Bancroft, for dying yellow. 
 He first imported a cargo of it from Philadelphia to London 
 in 1775, at which time no other person had ever imported 
 this bark in Great Britain. 
 
 Its tingent particles very much resemble in their properties 
 and clfefts those of the weld plant; though all the colours 
 given by the latter may be given more advantageously by 
 the Quercitron Bark. The latter name given to this bark 
 by Dr. Bancroft is of the Latin words Quercus citrina. 
 
 This bark may be advantageously peeled from the tree in 
 the spring months; and as its rough, blackish outside parr, 
 making nearly half of the whole, contains little or no colour- 
 ing matter, it is cut off from the inner part; which being 
 thoroughly dried, and coarsely ground, is then closely packed 
 and pressed in proper casks, and so shipped. 
 
277 
 
 QUICKSILVER, mercury. 
 
 F. Vif argent. 
 
 G. ^(cckjilher . 
 D, K^jikzil‘vdr. 
 J. Jlrgento njinjo. 
 S. A'zogue. 
 
 V. yJzougue. 
 
 Di^. ^leksdlv. 
 
 SW. i^iicksilf'-uer. 
 POL Xynx^e srebro, 
 Pv. Rtut. 
 
 L . Hy dr a rgy ri urn • 
 
 Quicksilver is a semimetal, so fusible, that it cannot be re- 
 du^d to a solid state but by the most intense de^^ree of cold. 
 Its dilatation by heat is extremely regular, for v/hich reason 
 thermometers are frequently filled with it. 
 
 It is of a bright silver colour, resembling lead or tin when 
 melted, entirely void of taste and smell. It is the most pon- 
 derous of all known bodies, gold and platina excepted; its 
 specific gravity being to that of water nearly as fourteen to 
 one. It is found to be specifically heavier in winter than in 
 summer, by twenty- five grains in eleven ounces. Neither air 
 nor water, nor the united action of these two, seem to make 
 any impression upon Mercury, nor is it more susceptible of 
 rust than the most perfect metals. Its surface nevertheless 
 is more quickly tarnished by dust seizing upon it. From this 
 however it can easily be cleansed by passing it though a new 
 clean cloth. 
 
 It is found either native, or mineralized by aerial acid, by 
 the vitriolic and marine acids, by sulphur, copper, iron, &c. 
 
 The principal Quicksilver mines are, at Iciria in Austria, 
 Almaden in Spain, and Quancavelica in Brasil. But there 
 is Quicksilver found in many other parts; as in Japan, in Si- 
 cily, Deuxponts, Lower Austria, Kremnitz in Plungary, Ha- 
 rowitz in Bohemia, Villa Rica in Brasils, &c. 
 
 Tire mines of Idria have produced at the rate of 231,778 
 lb. of Quicksilver per annum; and those of Almaden pro- 
 duce between 5 and 600,0001b. yearly; but the annual pro- 
 duce of those at Quancavelica amounts to one million of 
 pounds. 
 
 Quicksilver is employed in Chili and Peru to extract gold 
 and silver, when native, from the earthy matters with which 
 they are mixed. The principle on which this method is 
 founded, is the strong mutual attraffion betwixt Mercury and 
 the precious metals. Mercury uniting with almost all metals 
 and seinimetals, these compounds are called amalgams. Tlie 
 amalgam with gold serves to gild copper or silver, so that 
 they appear as if made of solid gold. The only use to which 
 the amalgam of Quicksilver with lead has hitherto been ap- 
 
278 
 
 plied, is the luting glass vessels. The amalgam of tin is 
 commonly employed in making looking-glasses. 
 
 With sulphur, by trituration or simple fusion. Mercury 
 forms a black powder or mass, called Ethiops mineral; which 
 by careful sublimation, becomes the beautiful red pigment 
 called Vermillion. 
 
 Various preparations are made in pharmacy of Quicksilver 
 for external and internal use; as sublimate corrosive, Mercu- 
 rius precipitatus per se, Mercurius dulcis, calomel, &c. 
 
 Mercury should be chosen white, fluid, clean, quick, and 
 of a beautiful water colour; if brown and leady, sticking to 
 the hands, and running in minute globules, it is a sign that 
 it is mixed with lead. 
 
 QUILLS. 
 
 F. Plumes a ecrice. 
 
 G. Posen. 
 
 'D. Pennen. 
 
 I. Penne da scri'vere. 
 
 S. Plumas 0 canones para es- 
 cribir. 
 
 P. Penn as ou lanos para escre- 
 njer, 
 
 DA. Penne. 
 
 SW. Pennor. 
 
 POL. Pioray Pipy, Pipki. 
 
 R. Peru, St'woli. 
 
 Quills are the large feathers taken out of the end of the 
 wings of geese, ostriches, crows, &c. They are denomina- 
 ted from the order in which they are fixed in the wing; the 
 second and third quills being the best for writing, as they 
 have the largest and roundest barrels. Crow Quills are chief- 
 ly used for drawing. In order to harden a Quill that is soft 
 thrust the barrel into hot ashes, stirring it till it is soft, and 
 then taking it out, press it almost flat upon your knee with 
 the back of a pen knife, and afterwards reduce it to a round- 
 ness with your fingers. Another method to harden Quills, 
 is by setting water and alum over the fire, and while it is 
 boiling, put in a handful of Quills, the barrels only, for a 
 minute, and then lay them by. 
 
 Large quantities of Quills are yearly imported in Britain 
 from Germany and Holland. 
 
 The goodness of Quills is judged by the size of the barrels, 
 but particularly by the weight; hence the denomination of 
 Quills of fourteen, fifteen, &c. loths; viz. the thousand con- 
 sisting of twelve hundred Quills, weighing fourteen, fifteen, 
 &c. loths. The loth is a German weight, weighing some- 
 thing more than an ounce. Particular attention should be paid 
 on purchasing Quills, that they may not be left handed, that 
 is, not out of the left wing. 
 
279 
 
 RAISINS. 
 
 F. Raisins secs ou passh. 
 
 G. Rosinen. 
 
 D. Rozy nen. 
 
 I. U^e passe, 
 
 S. Rasas. 
 
 P. Rassasy Rassa de u^as. 
 
 DA. Ro shier. 
 SW. Russin. 
 POL. Rozynki, 
 R. Is sum. 
 
 L. U<va pass a. 
 
 Raisins are grapes prepared, by suffering them to remain 
 on the vine till they are perfedlly ripe, and then drying them 
 in the sun, or by the heat of an oven. The difference between 
 Raisins dried in the sun and those dried in ovens, is very ob- 
 vious: the former are sweet and pleasant, but the latter have 
 a latent acidity with the sweetness, that renders them much 
 less agreeable. 
 
 The common way of drying grapes for Raisins is to tie two 
 or three bunches of them together while on the vine, and 
 dip them into a hot lixivium of woodashes, with a little of 
 the oil of olives in it. This disposes them to shrink and 
 wrinkle; and after this they are left on the vine three or 
 four days, separated on sticks, in an horizontal situation, 
 and then dried in the sun at leisure after being cut from the 
 tree. Most raisins, as the sun and jar Raisins &c. are all 
 dried in the sun. 
 
 RAPE OIL. 
 
 F. Huile de na^etie, 
 
 G. Rueboel, 
 
 D. Raapoli, 
 
 I. Olio di ranjizzone, 
 
 S. Aceite de nabina. 
 
 Rape Oil is expressed from the rapeseed : its use being for 
 the manufaflure of wool, for burning in lamps, and to serve 
 instead of train oil when there is a scarcity of it. 
 
 P. Oleo de nabina, 
 DA. Roeolje. 
 
 SW. Rofolja. 
 
 R. R'dpnoe masslo. 
 
280 
 
 Its good qualities are, a gold colour, an agreeable smell, 
 and a sweet taste. It is sometimes mixed with linseed 
 oil, which is discoverable by its bitterness, and a less agree- 
 able smell. 
 
 RAPESEED, COLESEED. 
 
 F. Graine de Navette, 
 G Ruhsaaty Kubseru 
 D. Raapzaad. 
 
 1. Ra<viz%one. 
 
 S. Nabina. 
 
 DA. Rcefto. 
 
 S Vv . Rojfr'6. 
 
 POL Rzepjitca. 
 
 R, Rdpnoe Sd /ija, 
 
 L. Brassica Chinends, 
 
 P. Nabiguy Semente ,de Nabos. 
 
 Rapeseed is the seed of the napus sativa, or long rooted, 
 narrow leaved rapa, called in English navew, and reckoned 
 by Linnaeus among the brassicas or cabbage kind. 
 
 This plant is cultivated in many parts of England to great 
 advantage, particularly in Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, 
 on account of the rape oil expressed from its seeds. The 
 cultivation of it was first introduced by those Germans and 
 Dutchmen who drained the fens of Lincolnshire; and hence 
 the notion has erroneously prevailed, that it will only thrive 
 in a marshy soil. It is to be sown about midsummer. In the 
 months of January, February, and March, it alFords very 
 good food for cattle, and will sprout again wdien cut; after 
 which it is excellent nourishment for sheep, and after all, if 
 not too closely fed, will bear seed against July. 
 
 Large quantities of Rapeseed are imported annually, from 
 Flanders, Holland, and Germany; also from Champagne, 
 and Normandy, for the purport of extradling rape oil. 
 
 RATAFIA^ 
 
 Is a fine spirituous liquor, prepared from the kernels, &c. 
 of several kinds of fruit, particularly cherries and apricots, 
 with an addition of spice and brandy. 
 
 Ratifia of cherries is prepared by burning the cherries, and 
 putting them into a vessel, wherein brandy has been long 
 kept: then adding to them the kernels of cherries, with 
 strawberries, sugar, cinnamon, white pepper, nutmegs, cloves, 
 and to twenty pounds of cherries, ten quarts of brandy. The 
 vessel is left open ten or twelve days, and then stopped close 
 for two months before it be tapped. 
 
 Ratafia is chiefly prepared by the French. 
 
281 
 
 RED LEAD. 
 
 F. Minium^ Plomb rouge, 
 
 G. Menriig. 
 
 D. Menie. 
 
 I. Minio, 
 
 S. Minium y Jzarcon, 
 
 DA Minie, 
 SW Moija, 
 POL. Mini a. 
 R Surik. 
 
 L. Minium, 
 
 P. MimOy Azarcao. 
 
 Red Lead is a calx of lead, of a vivid red colour which 
 colour it acquires by a slow calcination and reverberation. 
 
 The process by which Red Lead is prepared in large 
 quantities in this country, is as follows. They first burn 
 lead in a furnace into a kind of litharge, by continually stir- 
 ring it while melted with an iron rake; this they afterwards 
 grind to a fine powder, when it is washed, and again put in 
 a furnace, where it is burnt with a reverberatory fire for two 
 or three days. Towards the end of the time they watch its 
 being of the right colour. When this is doing the fire must 
 not be carried beyond a certain degree, lest the matter clod 
 and run together. 
 
 The goodness of Red Lead, or Minium, may be distin- 
 guished by the brightness of its colour; and the adultera- 
 tion to which it is liable may be detedled, by putting an 
 ounce of it into a crucible with an equal quantity of char- 
 coal dust well mixed together, and placing the crucible in a 
 common fire, sufficient to melt lead, which is to be covered 
 with another small crucible inverted into it. When it has 
 continued for some time on the fire, take it out and strike it 
 against the ground. The Red Lead will thus be reduced to 
 its metallic state; and its diminished weight when cold, and 
 freed from the charcoal dust, will indicate the proportion of 
 adulterated matter. 
 
 Minium is used in painting, varnishing, as a flux in form- 
 ing the enamel for grounds, and in glazing, See. In medi- 
 cine for external applications. 
 
 RED SAUNDERS; see Saunders, 
 
 N n 
 
1 
 
 282 
 
 RHUBARB. 
 
 F. Rhuharhe. 
 
 G. Rhabarher, 
 D. Rhabarber, 
 
 SW. Raharher. 
 
 POL. ReubarbarutHi Rum tu- 
 
 reckie. 
 
 R. Rexven. 
 
 L. Rl^abarbarumt Rheum pal- 
 
 I. Rabarbaro, Resbarbaro. 
 
 S. Ruibarbo. 
 P. Ruibarbo. 
 
 fnatum. 
 
 Da. Rabarbcr. 
 
 Rhubarb is the root of the rheum palmatum. This root is 
 of an oblong figure, large at the head, and tapering pretty 
 suddenly as it extends in length. It is sometimes single, but 
 more usually divided into two or three parts at the lower end. 
 We frequently meet with it in pieces of four, five or six 
 inches long, and three or four in diameter at the top. It is 
 of a tolerably smooth and even surface, and of a faint yellow 
 colour, with an admixture of btown. It is moderately hea- 
 vy and not hard; of a somewhat lax and spongy texture. 
 It has an agreeable and aromatic smell, and a bitterish, as- 
 tringent, and subacid taste. 
 
 Rhubarb is to be chosen fresh, and such as does not dust 
 the fingers in handling; such as infused a few minutes in wa- 
 ter, gives it a fine yellow colour, and when bruised in a mor- 
 tar, has a reddish colour with the yellow. 
 
 Rhubarb is not so often adulterated, as damaged; care is 
 to be taken that it is not wet, nor rotten ; it is much subjedl: 
 to be worm eaten and full of holes on the surface. There 
 is a way of filling up these holes with the powder of some 
 of the most decayed pieces, which however may be easily 
 discovered. 
 
 This drug is brought to us from Russia, and from the 
 East Indies. It is produced in great plenty on the confines of 
 China and Tartary, and in many parts of Tartary itself: the 
 mountains of Thibet abound with it, and a very conside- 
 rable part of what is sent to Europe grows there. 
 
 Rhubarb possesses the double virtue of a cathartic and 
 an astringent, and is acknowledged to be an excellent me- 
 dicine. 
 
283 
 
 F. Ris, 
 
 G. Reiss. 
 
 D. Ryst. 
 
 1. Ml so. 
 
 S. Arroz. 
 
 P. ArroZy Arros. 
 
 RICE. 
 
 DA. Riis. 
 
 SVV. Ris. 
 
 POL. Ryz. 
 
 R. Pscheno sarazinsLoe. 
 L, OryzUf Rizian. 
 
 Rice is a plant very much resembling wheat in shape and 
 colour, and in the figure and disposition of its leaves. The 
 panicle which terminates the stem is composed of small flow- 
 ers, distindl from each other, which have four unequal 
 scales, six stamina, and one pistil, surrounded with two 
 styles. This pistil becomes a white seed, extremely farina- 
 ceous, covered with two interior scales. 
 
 This plant thrives only in low, damp, and marshy lands, 
 when they are even a little overflowed. The period of its 
 discovery is traced to the remotest antiquity. 
 
 Egypt, unfortunately for itself, first attended to it. The 
 pernicious efFedts of this culture rendered the country the 
 most unhealthy in the known world. China and the East In- 
 dies must experience the same calamity, if art does not op- 
 pose preservatives to nature, whose benefits are sometimes 
 accompanied with evils j or if the heat of the torrid zone does 
 not quickly dispel the damp and malignant vapours, which 
 are exhaled from the Rice grounds. It is a known fadt, 
 that in the Rice grounds of the Milanese the cultivators are 
 all livid and dropsical. 
 
 The culture of Rice is still very considerable about Da- 
 mietta, Mansura, and other parts of Egypt. Were the trade 
 in this article under no restraint a considerable quantity 
 might be exported; but the port of Damietta alone is open 
 for the exportation of Rice. The Americans are even said 
 to have brought Rice to Egypt from Carolina, for some time, 
 which would be a proof of the astonishing decline of agri- 
 culture in that country. 
 
 Opinions differ about the manner in which Rice has 
 been naturalized in Carolina. But whether the province 
 may have acquired it by a shipwreck, whether it may have 
 been carried there with slaves, or whether it be sent from 
 England, it is certain that the soil seemed favourable for it. 
 It multiplied however but slowly, because the colonists, who 
 were obliged to send their harvests into the ports of the mo- 
 
284 
 
 ther country, by which they were sent into Spain and Por- 
 tugal, acquired so small a profit from their productions, 
 that it was scarcely sufficient to defray the expenses of culti- 
 vation. In 1730 a more enlightened administration permit- 
 ted the direct exportation of this gr^in beyond Finisterre. 
 Some years afterwards it was allowed to be carried to the 
 West-Indies, and then the provinces being sure of selling 
 the good ' Rice advantageously in Europe, and the inferior 
 or spoiled Rice in America, attended seriously to the culti- 
 vation of it. This production grows, by the care of negroes, 
 in the morasses which are near the coasts. 
 
 There is a wild kind of Rice growing in great plenty 
 throughout the interior parts of North America, which sup- 
 plies the inhabitants with food without any further trouble 
 than that of gathering it. It grows in the water where it is 
 about two feet deep, and where it finds a rich muddy soil. 
 The stalks of it, and the br^^nches or ears that bear the seed, 
 resemble oats, b,)th in their appearance, and manner of 
 growing. The stalks are full of joints, and rise more than 
 eight feet from the water. 
 
 ROCK OIL; see Petrol. 
 
 ROMAN VITRIOL; see Blue Vitriol. 
 
 / 
 
 ROSIN; see Oil of Turpentine, and Turpentine. 
 
 RUBY. 
 
 F. Rubis. 
 
 G. Rubin. 
 
 D. Robyn. 
 
 1. Rubino. 
 
 S. Rubi. 
 
 P. Rubim. 
 
 The Ruby is a beautiful gem of red colour, with an ad- 
 mixture of purple. ^ 
 
 This in its most perfeCl and best coloured state is a gem of 
 prodigious beauty, and extreme value. In hardness it is 
 equal to the sapphire and inferior only to the diamond. It is 
 usually found very small, equal to the head of the largest 
 sort of pins; but sometimes of four, eight, and ten carats; 
 and sometimes, though very seldom, of twenty, thirty, up 
 to forty carats. It is never found of an angular or crystalli- 
 
 DA. Rubin. 
 
 SVV. Rubin. 
 
 POL. Rubin. 
 
 R, Jachont ischer<votschatoi. 
 L. Rubinus. 
 
form, but always of a pebble-like shape. It commonly is 
 naturally so bright, and pure on the surface, that when its 
 figure will admit, it is set in its rough state. 
 
 Our jewellers distinguish this gem, according to its dif- 
 ferent degrees of colours,' under three different names; viz. 
 the Ruby, which name simply is given to the stone when 
 in its deepest coloured and most perfect state; the spinel 
 Ruby, comprehending those Rubies that are of a somewhat 
 less bright colour; and the balass Ruby, w'hich expresses a 
 pale, yet very bright Ruby, with less admixture of the pur- 
 ple tinge than in the deeper colour ones. 
 
 The true Ruby only comes from the East Indies, and the 
 principal mines are in the kingdom of Pegu and the island 
 of Ceylon. We have in Europe crystals tinged of the colour 
 of the Ruby, but they have nothing of its lustre or hardness. 
 
 RUM. 
 
 F. Rimy Gueldinje. 
 
 G. Rum. 
 
 D. Runiy Keeldui<vel. 
 I. Rum, T uj^a. 
 
 S. Ron, Rom, Tafia. 
 
 P. Rom. 
 
 DA. R m, Gsidy'vel. 
 bW. Rom, Rum. 
 
 R. Rom. 
 
 Rum differs from simple sugar spirit in containing more 
 of the natural flavour, or essential oil of tb-^ sugar cane ; 
 a great deal of raw juice, and parts of the cane itself being 
 fermented in the liquor of which it is prepared. The unc- 
 tuous or oily flavour of Rum is the effe^ of the natural 
 flavour of the sugar cane. 
 
 The method of making Rum is this: When a sufficient 
 stock of the materials is got together, they add water to 
 them, and ferment them in the common manner. When 
 the wash is fully fermented, or to a due degree of acidity, 
 the distillation is carried on in the common way, and the 
 spirit is made up proof ; though sometimes it is reduced to 
 a much greater strength, nearly approaching that of alcohol, 
 and is then called double distilled Rum? It would be easy 
 to rectify the spirit, and bring it to a much greater purity 
 than we usually find it to be; for it brings over in the distil-, 
 'lation a very large quantity of the oil, and this is often so 
 disagreeable, that the Rum must be suffered to lie by a long 
 time to mellow, before it can be used; whereas if w^ell rec- 
 tified, it would grow mellow much sooner, and would have 
 a much less potent flavour. If the business of redlifying w^as 
 
^86 
 
 more nicely managed, it seems very practicable, to throw 
 out so much of the oil as to have it in the fine light state of 
 a clear spirit. In this state it would very near resemble arrac, 
 as is proved, by mixing a very small quantity of it with a 
 tasteless spirit. 
 
 Rum is usually very mueh adulterated in England. Some 
 are so barefaced as to do it with malt spirit ; but if done 
 with melasses spirit, the tastes of both are so nearly allied, 
 that it is not easily discovered. 
 
 / 
 
 RYE. 
 
 F. SeigJe. 
 
 G. Roggen. 
 
 D. Rogi Roggn. 
 
 I. Segale, Segala. 
 S. Centeno. 
 
 DA. Rug. 
 
 SVV. Rog. 
 
 POL. A’fx, Zlto. 
 
 11. Rosch^ Self "Jar. 
 
 L. Secale. 
 
 P. Seteioj Centeio. 
 
 The secale cereale or common Rye, is a native of the island 
 of Candia, and was introduced into the North of Europe, 
 and England many years ago. There are two varieties, 
 the winter and spring Rye. The winter Rye, which is 
 larger than the spring Rye, is sown in autumn, at the same 
 time with wheat. The spring Rye which is sown along 
 with the oats, usually ripens as soon as the winter Rye; but 
 the grain produced being lighter, it is seldom sown, except 
 where the autumnal crop has failed. 
 
 Rye is commonly used for bread, either alone, or mixed 
 with wheat. The consumption of this article is particularly 
 great in Yorkshire and Scotland. Rye is frequently imported 
 into Great Britain from Russia. ' 
 
 Rye is subject to a disease, which the French call ergot, 
 and the English horned Rye. This commonly arises from a 
 hot summer succeeding a rainy spring. Horned Rye is such 
 as suffers an irregular vegetation in the middle substance be- 
 tween the grain and the leaf, producing an excrescence of 
 ft brownish colour, about an inch and a half long, and two 
 tenths of an inch broad. Bread made of this kind of Rye 
 has a nauseous acrid taste, and produces spasmodic and gan- 
 grenous disorders. Horned Rye has been known to destroy 
 sheep, dogs, poultry, &c. 
 
 1 
 
287 
 
 TI, SUGAR OF LEAD. 
 
 S. A^ucar de Saturno, 
 P. Assucar de Saturno, 
 L. Sacchoi-um saturni. 
 
 ead, boil ceruse with dis- 
 )ecomes sufficiently sweet ; 
 iper, and after due evapo- 
 
 ine for internal use, but is 
 ; frequently imported from 
 
 ^ER. 
 
 P, A^afroa, Azafrca^ Carta- 
 moy Fusaro. 
 
 DA. S a fiery Uegte Saffran* 
 SW. Safiory O'dgt Safran* 
 POL. S%£fran polnyy Krokos^ 
 R. Polevoi y prostci schafran, 
 L. Carthamus tindlcriusy Saf- 
 franum. 
 
 e flower of the carthamus 
 dng in Egypt, and some of 
 . also in the Levant, from 
 lually imported into Great 
 ig a yellow dye. The good 
 bright colour of a saffron 
 nuch rain during the time 
 j flowers are gathered with 
 change into a dark dirty 
 
 Saffiower in Egypt is as fol- 
 ;h, and pressed between two 
 
^86 
 
 more nicely managed, it seems very practicable, to throw 
 out so much of the oil as to have it in the fine light state of 
 a clear spirit. In this state it would very near resemble arrac, 
 as is proved, by mixing a very small quantity of it with a 
 tasteless spirit. 
 
 Rum is usually very much adulterated in England. Some 
 are so barefaced as to do it with — ' ^ut if done 
 
 with melasses spiri 
 that it is not easily 
 
 irly allied, 
 
 F. Seigfe. 
 
 G. Roggett. 
 
 D. Rogf Roggn. 
 
 I. Segale, Segala. 
 S, Centeno. 
 
 P. Seteioj Centeio. 
 
 The secale cereale ( 
 of Candia, and was i 
 and England many 
 the winter and sprir 
 larger than the spring 
 time with wheat. 1 
 with the oats, usually 
 the grain produced bei 
 where the autumnal cr» 
 Rye is commonly us< 
 with wheat. The cons 
 great in Yorkshire and i 
 into Great Britain from 
 Rye is subject to a d 
 and the English horned j 
 hot summer succeeding a 
 as suffers an irregular ve^ 
 tween the grain and the 
 ft brownish colour, about 
 tenths of an inch broad, 
 has a nauseous acrid taste, 
 grenous disorders. Horm 
 sheep, dogs, poultry, &c. 
 
287 
 
 SACCHARUM SATURNI, sugar of lead. 
 
 F. Sucre de Saturne. 
 
 G. Bley%ucker. 
 
 D Lcodsuiker, 
 
 I, Zucchero di Saturno. 
 
 S. A'zucar de Saturno* 
 P. Assucar de Saturno* 
 L. Sacchariim saturni. 
 
 To make this preparation of lead, boil cernse with dis- 
 tilled vinegar until the vinegar becomes sufficiently sweet ; 
 then filter the vinegar through paper, and after due evapo- 
 ration set it to crystallize. 
 
 This is a very dangerous medicine for internal use, but is 
 of great service externally. It is frequently imported from 
 Germany. 
 
 SAFFLOWER. 
 
 F. Saffranon, Cart a met S - 
 fran batard* 
 
 G, SaJ^or* Wilder Saffran. 
 D. Saffioer, Floers, Basterd 
 
 Saffran* 
 
 I. Zajfrone, Zafferuno saraci- 
 nesco, 
 
 S. Ala%ory Ax.afran bast ar do, 
 Cartamo. 
 
 P, A^afroa, Azafrcat Carta- 
 mOf Fusaro. 
 
 DA. Safflort Vegte Sajffran* 
 SW. Saffor, O'dgt Sa^ran* 
 POL. Szafran pohiy^ Krokos* 
 R. Fole^oiy prostci schafran, 
 L. Carthamus tindiorius, Saf- 
 franum. 
 
 Safflower is the florets of the flower of the carthamus 
 tindlorius, a plant originally growing in Egypt, and some of 
 the warm parts of Europe, and also in the Levant, from 
 whence great quantities are annually imported into Great 
 Britain, for the purpose of making a yellow dye. The good 
 quality of this commodity is in a bright colour of a saffron 
 hue. If there happens to fall much rain during the time 
 the plants are in flower, or if the flowers are gathered with 
 any moisture upon them, they change into a dark dirty 
 yellow. 
 
 The manner of preparing the Safflower in Egypt is as fol- 
 lows: the flowers are gathered fresh, and pressed between two 
 
288 
 
 stones to extract the crude juice, which is thrown away: they 
 then are washed several times in spring water which is brack- 
 ish in Egypt, and by this the remaining acrid juice is carried 
 away. When well pressed with the hands, they are put on 
 the flat roofs of houses, and laid on mats, being now of a 
 yellow colour. In the daytime they are covered with rushes 
 or straw, lest they should dry too fast, but at night they are 
 uncovered and exposed to the air and dew. They are turn- 
 ed every now and then, and when dry are changed into a 
 deep yellow, and so packed and shipped for Europe. 
 
 SAFFRON. 
 
 F. Sajran. 
 
 G. Saffran. 
 
 D. Saffraan. 
 
 I. Zafferano, Gruogo, 
 S. Azafran. 
 
 P. A^afrao. 
 
 DA. Saffran, 
 SW Saffran. 
 POL. Szafran, 
 R. Schafran, 
 L. Crocus » 
 
 Saffron is a bulbous plant, of which there are two species, 
 one blowing in spring, and the other in autumn. The for- 
 mer is merely esteemed on account of the beauty of its flow- 
 ers-, the latter is in blossom earlier than the green leaves ap- 
 pear, which remain during winter, and the flowers contain 
 those small threads or filaments used in medicine, and as a 
 paint, and employed also for seasoning various kinds of 
 food. 
 
 It appears that the medicinal use of this plant has always 
 continued among the orientals. The Europeans who adopted 
 the medicine of the Greeks sent to the Levant for Saffron, 
 until they learned the art of rearing it themselves-, and em- 
 ployed it very much, until they were made acquainted with 
 the use of more beneficial articles. ^ 
 
 What in the ancient use of Saffron is most discordant 
 with our taste is the employing it as a perfume. Not only 
 were halls, theatres, and courts, through which one wished 
 to diffuse an agreeable smell, strewed with this plant, but 
 it entered into the composition of many vinous extracts, 
 Avhich retained the same scent; and these costly smelling 
 waters were often made to flow in small streams, which 
 spread abroad their much admired odour. Luxurious people 
 even moistened or filled with them a*ll those things, with 
 which they were desirous of surprising their guests in an 
 agreeable manner, or with which they ornamented their 
 apartments. From Saffron, with the addition of wax and 
 
289 
 
 ether ingredients, the Greeks as well as the Romans prepared 
 also scented salves, which they used in the same manner as 
 our ancestors their balsams. In modern times it does not 
 appear tiiat the smell of Saffron was ever much admired. 
 
 That Saffron was as much employed in seasoning dishes, 
 as for a perfume, appears from the oldest works of cookery; 
 and its use in this respedl has been long continued, and in 
 many countries is still more prevalent than physicians wish 
 it to be. 
 
 It may readily be supposed that the great use made of this 
 plant in cookery, must have induced people to attempt to 
 cultivate it in Europe; and it is probable, that it was first 
 introduced into Spain by the Arabs. From Spain it was, 
 according to every appearance, carried afterwards into France. 
 As to its introdu(5tion into England we are assured, that a 
 pilgrim brought from the Levant to England, under the 
 reign of Edward III. the first root of Saffron, which he had 
 found means to conceal in his stadi made hollow for that 
 purpose. 
 
 In the fifteenth and following century, the cultivation of 
 Saffron was so important an article in the European hus- 
 bandry, that it was omitted by no writer on that subject:. 
 The Saffron consumed at present in this country comes from 
 France and Spain. 
 
 One million eight hundred thousand pounds of Saffron 
 are annually prepared in Egypt. The greater part of it goes 
 to Marseilles and Italy, the rest to Syria and Arabia. The 
 best Saffron grows in the vicinity of Cairo; that of Upper 
 Egypt is not reckoned so good, 
 
 SAGO. 
 
 F. Sagou. 
 
 G. Sago, 
 D. Sago. 
 I. Sago. 
 
 S. Sago. 
 
 P Sago. 
 
 DA. Sagogryn. 
 SW. Sagogryn. 
 
 The Sago-tree, cycas circinalis, grows spontaneously in 
 the East Indies, and particularly in the Moluccas, and on 
 the coast of Malabar. 
 
 This is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as it 
 not only furnishes a considerable part of their constant bread, 
 but also supplied them with a large article of trade. It runs 
 up with a straight trunk to forty feet or more. The body 
 O o 
 
290 
 
 contains a farinaceous substance, which they extract from it, 
 and make into bread. 
 
 The tree, which seems to grow merely for the use of man, 
 points out the meal by a fine white powder which covers its 
 leaves, and is a certain indication of the maturity of the 
 Sago. The inhabitants then cut it dowm to the root, saw 
 the body into small pieces, and after beating them in a mor- 
 tar, pour water upon the mass*, this is left for some hours 
 to settle. When fit, it is strained through a cloth, and 
 the finer particles of the mealy substance running through 
 with the water, the gross ones are left behind and thrown 
 away. After the farinaceous part is sufficiently subsided, 
 the water is poured off, and the meal being properly dried 
 is occasionally made into cakes, and baked. These cakes 
 are said to eat nearly as well as wheaten bread, and are 
 the support of the inhabitants for three or four months in 
 the year. 
 
 The same meal, more firmly pulverized, and reduced in 
 granules, is what is called Sago, which is sent into all parts 
 of Europe, and sold in the shops as a great strengthener 
 and restorative. 
 
 There is, a sort of Sago brought from the West Indies, but 
 far inferior in quality to that coming from the East. It is 
 supposed to be made from the pith or areca oleracea. 
 
 SAL AMMONIAC. 
 
 F. Sel Ammoniac. 
 
 G. Salmiuk. 
 
 D. Sal Arnmoniak. 
 1. Sale Atnmoniaco. 
 S. Sal Ammoniacu. 
 P. Sal Anunoniaco. 
 
 DA. Salmiak, 
 
 SW. Salmiak. 
 
 POL. Salmiak, Sahne- 
 niak, 
 
 R. Naschaiur. 
 
 L. Sal amrnoniaciim. 
 
 Of this volatile salt there are two sorts, the ancient and 
 modern. The ancient was a native sort generated in those 
 large inns or caravanseras where the crowd of pilgrims, coming 
 from the temple of Jupiter Ammon, used to lodge. There, 
 from the remarkably strong urine of their camels, arose a 
 kind of salt denominated sometimes Ammoniac, from the 
 temple, and sometimes Cyreniac, from the Egyptian province 
 Cyrene, in which the temple stood. 
 
 Large quantities of a salt nearly of the same nature, have 
 been thrown out by mount .^tna. 
 
 The modern Sal Ammoniac is entirely the produce of art. 
 
291 
 
 
 Marine add combined with volatile alkali produces the 
 modern common Sal Ammoniac. The method of making 
 this salt was long unknown, and it was all imported from 
 Egypt. Its composing parts however, being once known, 
 there was nothing left in order to prepare it, but to procure 
 them sufficiently cheap, so as to affi^rd Sal Ammoniac made 
 in Britain at an equally low price with that imported from 
 Egypt. The volatile alkali is to be procured in plenty from 
 animal substances, or from soot; and the low price of the 
 vitriolic acid made from sulphur, affords an easy method 
 of decomposing sea-salt, and obtaining its acid at a cheap 
 rate. A Sal Ammoniac work has been established a consi- 
 derable time since at Edinburgh upon this principle. 
 
 The art of sublimating Sal Ammoniac in Egypt is as fol- 
 lows. As Egypt is without wood its inhabitants are obiiged 
 to burn the dung of their domestic animals. The dung of 
 asses and camels is chiefly used; they mix it with cut straw, 
 and of this mixture make cakes, which are dried in the sun. 
 A soot, very rich in salts, is produced by the burning of 
 these cakes, which is employed in the manufadlure of Sal 
 Ammoniac. The sublimation of this soot is performed in 
 large bottles of thick glass, shaped like bombs, and put into 
 a furnace which is heated with dung. For three days and 
 three nights an equal heat is kept up, and that intense 
 enough to vitrify the potters earth with which the bottles 
 are coated, to make them resist the violence of the Are. 
 The furnace is then suffered to cool, the bottles are broken, 
 and the Sal Ammoniac taken out of their necks, into which 
 it has been raised by sublimation. 
 
 Sal Ammoniac has the property of making tin unite very 
 readily with iron and copper, and is therefore much used 
 by coppersmiths, and in the manufaflory of tinned iron. 
 A solution of Sal Ammoniac has the property of dissolving 
 resins. 
 
 SALT. 
 
 F. Sel. 
 
 DA. Salt. 
 
 G. Sa/z. 
 
 SW. Salt. 
 
 D. Xout. 
 
 POL. Sol. 
 
 I. ^ale. 
 
 R. Sol. 
 
 S. Sal, 
 
 L. Sal. 
 
 P. Sal. 
 
 
 Salt is a mineral body, readily soluble in water, not inflam- 
 mable, and tasting sharp or pungent upon the tongue. 
 
292 
 
 Alum, nitre, the different kinds of alkali, &c. are all 
 Salts; but we limit ourselves here to treat of alimentary Salt, 
 Or muria. 
 
 Alimentary Salt is found under a variety of forms in its 
 different states; but it is immediately distinguished by ap- 
 plying it to the tongue; and always assumes a cubic, pyra- 
 midal, or parallelepiped figure, after a regular crystalliza- 
 tion. It is sustained in vast quantities, in a liquid form, 
 among sea-water, and that of salt-springs; but is also found 
 solid in the bowels of the earth. 
 
 'Fhe sea-water in different parts of the world is very dif- 
 ferently saturated with Salt, some parts containing twice as 
 much as others; but salt-springs are always much more so 
 than any sea-water; some containing as much, nearly, as 
 they could be made to dissolve, and yielding a brine, a 
 pound of which affords near a quarter of a pound of Salt. 
 The common run of sea-water does not hold so much as one- 
 fourth part of this quantity, some not one-eighth of it. 
 
 Salt produced from the sea -water or salt-springs, of any 
 part of the world, only differs in strength; and the strength 
 of Salt principally seems to depend upon the method of 
 preparing it. The quicker the liquor is evaporated the 
 weaker is the Salt, which seems to proceed from part of the 
 acid being raised and carried away with the water, when 
 exposed to a violent fire. Salt obtained by codfion is there- 
 fore always much weaker than Sea-salt, obtained only by 
 exposure to the rays of the sun. 
 
 Of Sea-Salt there are two kinds, that which requires the 
 heat of the sun to give it its consistence, called from its brown 
 colour bay Salt; and that which receives its consistence from 
 the heat of fire, called white Salt. Low marshy grounds 
 disposed by nature for the reception of the sea-water when 
 the tide swells, and provided with banks and sluices to retain 
 the same, are called a salt marsh. These salt-marshes, the 
 bottoms whereof they ram with a deal of care, are di- 
 vided into several pits or basons, and into these basons, 
 when the season is at hand, they let in the sea-water. The 
 Salt-season is from the middle of May to the end of August; 
 in which time, the days being long, and the sun’s rays 
 strongest, the Salt is raised and crystallized better than in 
 any other season. The water is admitted to the height of 
 about six inches, after first having let it rest and warm two 
 or three days in lar'ge reservoirs without the works, that it 
 may come in lukewarm. The water admitted, the sluices 
 are shut, and the rest of the work left to the wind and the 
 
293 
 
 sun. The surface of the water thickens at first imperceptibly, 
 and becomes at length covered over with a slight crust; 
 which hardening by the continuance of the heat is wholly 
 converted into Salt. When the Salt has received its full 
 crystallization they break it with a pole, upon which it sinks 
 to the bottom; whence being dragged out again, they leave 
 it some time in little heaps about the edge of the pit, to 
 complete the drying; and at length in greater heaps, which 
 they cover over with straw or rushes to secure them from 
 rain. Eight, ten, or at most fifteen days, having thus com- 
 pleted the process, they open the sluices when the tide is 
 rising, for a fresh stock of w^ater, and gather the Salt till 
 the season is over. Rainy weather is very pernicious to the 
 work; for rain water mixing in any quantity with the sea- 
 water renders it useless. The Salt is brown, green, or red- 
 dish, when taken out of the pits, on account of the mud 
 slime, always mixed with it. In some places they make it 
 into white Salt by boiling it. 
 
 The chief coasts for bay Salt are those of Bretagne, 
 Saintonge, and the Pays d’Aunis, in France. Ba^j^-salt is 
 also made in Portugal, particularly at Setubal or St. Ubes. 
 About four thousand tons of bay-salt are made annuailv at 
 Porto Ferraio in Italy; large quantities also at Trapani in 
 Sicily, and in various parts on the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. Also in the Cape de Verd islands they prepare 
 bay-salt, and particularly in the island of Tortuga, near the 
 coast of Terra Firma, in America, which supplies the best 
 part of North America. 
 
 The white salt of Normandy is made by refining the bay- 
 salt, but has this ' colour naturally, when taken out of the 
 pits. To make it, they gather a muddy sand on the fiats 
 of the shore, which the rising tide has covered, and impreg- 
 nated with its waters for seven days. This sund being re- 
 moved into pits for the purpose, discharges itself by degrees 
 of all the water, which filtrates through some straw where- 
 with the bottom of the pit is filled, and trickles into vessels 
 set on purpose to receive it; of which water they make the 
 Salt. 
 
 The English and Dutch, and in times of war the Danes 
 and Swedes, take most of the salts of Bretagne. That of 
 Guerande is preferred by the English and Irish to all the 
 rest, as the best and whitest. That of Borneuf, though 
 browner and heavier, is most used in France and in the 
 Baltic. 
 
294 . 
 
 The English and Dutch have frequently strove hard in 
 times of war to do without the French Salt, and to that 
 end ‘have endeavoured to supply their wants from Spain, Por- 
 tugal, and Italy; but there is a disagreeable sharpness and se- 
 rosity natural to them, which renders them not so fit for the 
 salting of fish and flesh; and they always eagerly return to 
 the Salts of Bretagne, as soon as any treaty has opened the 
 commerce. 
 
 The process of obtaining Salt from springs^ by boiling or 
 coclion, is as follows. The boiling house is furnished with a 
 furnace, and one or two large Iron pans. The pan being 
 filled with the liquor, a strong pit-coal fire is lighted, and 
 when the water is lukewarm, some white of eggs, or blood 
 of sheep or oxen, is thrown into it, and stirred about to cla- 
 rify it; and as the water gets hotter, the black frothy scum 
 which arises is taken off. After boiling the liquor briskly 
 about four hours, a pan of about fifteen inches depth, will 
 begin to' form crystals on its surface. 'Fhe pan is then filled 
 up a second time with fresh water, and this second filling is 
 boiled down in the same manner as the first, and so a third, 
 and fourth; but in the evaporation of the fourth, when the 
 crystals begin to form themselves, they slacken the fire, and 
 only keep the liquor simmering. In this heat they keep it 
 all the while the Salt is granulating, which is nine or ten 
 hours. When the Salt. lays nearly dry they rake it all toge- 
 ther into a long heap on one side of the pan, where it lies a 
 while to drain from the brine, and then is carried to the 
 storehouse. In this manner the whole process is performed 
 in twenty-four hours. In some salt-works they fill the pan 
 seven times before they boil up the Salt, and so make it out 
 but once in two days. In the common way, of four boilings 
 with a pan of the usual size, containing one thousand three 
 hundred gallons, they draw from fifteen to twenty bushels 
 of Salt every day, each bushel weighing fifty six pounds. 
 
 When the Salt is carried into the storehouse it is put up 
 into drabs, whicff are partitions like stalls for horses, lined at 
 three sides and the bottom with boards, and having a sli- 
 ding board oh the foreside, to draw up on occasion. The 
 bottoms are made shelving, being highest at the back, and 
 gradually inclining forward. By this means the brine remain- 
 ing among the Salt easily separates and runs from it, and the 
 Salt, in three or four days becomes sufficiently dry. In some 
 places they use long and conic wicker baskets, and in others 
 wooden troughs, with holes in the bottom, for this purport. 
 
295 
 
 What is called basket Salt is fine white Salt obtained from 
 our salt springs. It is usually the weakest of all Salts. 
 
 Brine springs are fountains which flow with salt-water. 
 Of these there are a good many, particularly in South Britain. 
 At a place called Salt-water Haugh, near Butterpy, in the 
 Bishopric of Durham, there are a multitude of salt-springs 
 which rise in the river Weare, for the space of about forty 
 yards in length, and ten in breadth, but particularly one out 
 of a rock, which is so strong, that in a hot summer the sur- 
 face will be covered with pure white Salt. Namptwich on 
 the river Weever, and Northwich on the confluence of the 
 Weever and the Dan, in Cheshire, have very rich Salt 
 brines, the latter so much so, that they obtain six ounces of 
 Salt out of sixteen of water. That at Namptwich, according 
 to the account of the people of the place, could be worked 
 so as to yield a sufficiency of Salt for the whole kingdom. 
 In Lancashirer he spring at Barton is also very rich. 
 
 The fossile or rock Salt makes a considerable article of 
 commerce. The mines of Wilisca in Poland, and those near 
 Eperies in Flungary are particularly famous. Their depth 
 and capacity are surprising, and within them is found a kind 
 of a subterraneous republic. The rocks of Salt are hewn in 
 form of great cylinders; the workmen using hammers, pick- 
 axes, and chissels, as in stone quarries, to separate the several 
 banks of stone. As soon as the massive pieces are got out 
 of the quarry they break them into fragments, fit to be 
 thrown into the mill, where they are ground and reduced 
 into a coarse flour, which serves all the uses of sea-salt. The 
 salt mines of Catalonia in Spain are found in the mountains 
 of the dutchy of Cordonna. 
 
 The rock-salt exported from Liverpool makes a con- 
 siderable article of commerce, and goes principally to the 
 
 Baltic. 
 
 SALTPETRE, nitre. 
 
 F. SalpstrSi Nitret Nitre, 
 
 G. Sa'peter. 
 
 D. Salpeter. 
 
 I. Nitro, Salnitro, 
 
 S. Nitro, Salitre, 
 
 P. Salitre, 
 
 POL. Saleira, Salnitra, 
 
 R. Senitra. 
 L. Nitrum. 
 
 Vegetable fixed alkali, combined with the nitrous acid, to 
 the point of saturation, and an addition of some quick-lime, 
 produces Saltpetre. 
 
296 
 
 Saltpetre is made in great plenty in the more southern 
 parts of'Europej likewise in the southern parts of Persia, in 
 China, the East Indies and in North America. In Podolia, 
 in Poland, it is obtained from tumuli or hillocks, which are 
 the remains of former habitations. In Spain it is said, the 
 inhabitants extradl it from the soil, after a crop of corn. In 
 America it has been found in limestone grounds, in the 
 floors of pigeon houses, tobacco houses, or the ruins of old 
 stables. In Hanover it is got by colledfing the rakings of 
 the streets, which are built of mudwalls; and the peasants 
 •are dircfled by law to build mudwalls, with the dung and 
 urine of animals and some straw. After they have stood 
 for sometime, and the vegetable and animal substances 
 are rotten, they afford a considerable quantity of Nitre. 
 In France it is obtained from accidental collections, as were 
 loose earth has been exposed for some time to the contadl 
 of animal substances, like the grounds of stables, ruins of 
 pigeon houses, sometimes from the mould upon the ground 
 where dunghills have been laying. The general account is, 
 that in the East Indies it is obtained from the soil of certain 
 districts, which are called Saltpetre ground ; where the soil 
 is very cold,^ barren, and unhealthy. To extract the salt, 
 it is there only necessary to gather large quantities of the 
 impregnated earth, and to put them into a cavity, through 
 which a great quantity of water is poured, which dissolves 
 the Nitre; and the lixivium runs into an adjacent pit, out 
 of which it is lifted, in order to be evaporated, and obtain- 
 ed in the form of crystals. In Germany and France the 
 Saltpetre boilers go about in search of these materials, and 
 when, on making a small essay, they find that they will turn 
 to account, they put the earth or other materials into a large 
 tub, pour water upon it, and let it stand so for several days, 
 A cock is placed at the bottom of the tub, and to its inside 
 opening some straw is applied, so that when the cock is 
 opened, the lixivium filters through the straw, and is re- 
 ceived in another tub, and from thence conveyed in a cop- 
 per, and boiled to a proper consistence for crystallization. 
 The crystals are at first brown and very impure, but by re- 
 peated dissolution and crystallization, become white and 
 pure. 
 
 Saltpetre in general therefore is extrafted from artificial 
 compounds or accidental mixtures, where anima] and vege- 
 table substances have been fully putrified, by being exposed 
 to the air with any spongy or loose earth, especially of the 
 calcareous kind; open to the north or north-east winds, and 
 
297 
 
 more or less covered from the heat and rams. Cramer, an 
 author of the greatest credit, informs us, that he made a 
 little hut, with windows to admit the wind.' In this he put 
 a mixture of garden mould, the rubbish of lime, and pu- 
 trid animal and vegetable substances. He frequently mois- 
 tened them with urine, and in a month or two found his 
 composition very rich in Saltpetre, yielding at least one 
 eighth part of its weight. 
 
 Saltpetre is of very extensive use in different arts ; being 
 the principal ingredient in gunpowder *, and serving as an 
 excellent flux to other matters: whence its use in glass ma- 
 king. It is also possessed of a considerable antiseptic pow- 
 er; whence its use in preserving meat, to which it commu- 
 nicates a red colour. In medicine it is used as a diuretic, 
 sedative, and cooler. Nitre is also used in the oil of vitriol 
 manufactories. 
 
 SAPPHIRE. 
 
 F. Saphir. 
 
 G. Sapphir. 
 
 D. Saj^ersteen, 
 
 I. Zaj^ro, 
 
 S. Sajir. 
 
 P. Safra. 
 
 DA. Saphir, 
 SW. Saphir. 
 POL. Szajir^ 
 
 R. Jachant. 
 L. Sapphirus, 
 
 The Sapphire is a pellucid gem, which in its finest state 
 is extremely beautiful and valuable, and inferior only to the 
 diamond in lustre, hardness and price. Its proper colour 
 is a pure blue: in the finest specimens it is of the deepest 
 azure, and in others varies into paleness, in shades of all 
 degrees between that and a pure crystal brightness, without 
 the least tinge of colour. This gem is distinguished into 
 four sorts; the blue, the white, the water, and the milk 
 Sapphire. 
 
 This stone in its greatest perfection is brought from the 
 kingdom of Pegu in the East Indies; always in the shape of 
 pebbles. Very fine Sapphires also, partly pebble, partly 
 crystal shaped, and of all the shades of blue, come from 
 Bisnager, Conanor, Calicut, and the island of Ceylon. The 
 occidental Sapphires are from Silesia, Bohemia, and many 
 other parts of Europe; but they are greatly inferior ia 
 lustre and hardness to the oriental ones^ 
 
 Pp 
 
f98 
 
 SARSAPARILLA. 
 
 F. Saheparesille. 
 G- Sassaparille, 
 .D. Safxaparille. 
 I. Salsapariglia, 
 S. Z ur zap ar ilia. 
 
 P. Salsa-parUha. 
 DA. Sana-parille. 
 SW. Sarsaparilla, 
 L. Sarsaparilla, 
 
 Sarsaparilla is the root of the smilax Sarsaparilla, a plant 
 growing in America, and particularly abundantly in Jamaica, 
 whence we receive it. It has stems of the thickness of a 
 man’s finger, they are jointed, triangular, and beset with 
 crooked spines. The leaves are alternate, smooth, and shi- 
 ning on the. upper side. The flower is yellow mixed with 
 red. The fruit is a black berry containing several brown 
 seeds. The roots, which are about the size of a goose quill, 
 run superficially under the surface of the ground. The ga- 
 therers have only to loosen the soil a little, and to draw out 
 the long fibres with a wmoden hook. In this manner they 
 proceed till the whole root is got out. It is then cleared of 
 the mud, dried, and made into bundles. 
 
 The sensible qualities of Sarsaparilla are mucilaginous and 
 farinaceous*, and it is esteemed in medicine as a gentle sudo- 
 rific, and powerful in attenuating the blood when impeded' 
 by gross humours. 
 
 SASSAFRAS. 
 
 F. Sassafras. 
 
 G. Sassafrass. 
 D. Sassafrass, 
 1. Sassafrasso, 
 S. Sasafras. 
 
 P. Sa ssafraZi 
 
 Salsafraz. 
 
 DA. Sassafras, 
 SW Sassafras, 
 POL Sasafras, 
 R. Sasafras, 
 
 L. Sassafras, 
 
 The laurus Sassafras, or Sassafrass tree, is a native of 
 North America, and grows in the greatest perfection in Flo- 
 rida. Its roots are even with the surface of the ground. Its 
 trunk which is very straight, without leaves, and not high, 
 is covered with a thick and dirty bark, of an ash colour, 
 and throws out a number of branches, which spread out 
 on the coast. The leaves are disposed alternately, green 
 on the upper, and white on the under surface, sometimes 
 divided into three lobes, sometimes entire, of difierent sizes, 
 from three to six inches long, and near as broad, with clus* 
 
299 
 
 ters of small yellowish flowers, succeeded by small blackish 
 pendent berries, fixed to a red pedicle and to a calix of the 
 same colour. 
 
 The root of the Sassafrass has a fragrant smell, and a 
 sweetish, aromatic, subacrid taste; the bark tastes much 
 stronger than any other part, and the small twigs stronger 
 than the large pieces. It is a warm aperient and corroborant, 
 and frequently employed with good success for purifying 
 and sweetening the blood and juices. For these purposes 
 decoctions are made from the rasped root or bark. 
 
 In America the bark of this tree is used for dying worsted 
 a fine lasting orange colour: some people also boil the peel 
 pf the root with the beer which they are brewing, because 
 they believe it wholesome. The flowers are used instead of 
 tea. 
 
 SAUNDERS, SANDERS. 
 
 F. Santalf Sandal, 
 
 G. Sandelholz. 
 
 D, Sandelhout. 
 
 I. Sandalo, 
 
 S. Sandalo, 
 
 P. Sandalo, 
 
 DA, Sandelholt, 
 SW. Sandel, 
 POL, Cyndal, 
 R. Sanaal, 
 
 L. Sant alum. 
 
 Saunders is a hard odoriferous wood the produce of the 
 pterocarpus santalinus, brought from the East Indies. Of 
 this there are three sorts : the yellow, white, and red. 
 
 The yellow or citrine Saunders is a beautiful wood of the 
 colour of lemon peel, of a smell resembling a mixture of 
 musk and roses, and of a somewhat acrid taste with a slight 
 bitterness. \ 
 
 The white Saunders resembles the yellow, and is of the 
 same fragrant smell and aromatic taste, but in a more remiss 
 degree. Both these sorts should be chosen sound, firm, 
 heavy, and of a good smell when cut; they should also 
 be chosen in the block, and not cut into chips as they usu- 
 ally are. 
 
 The red Saunders is of a dense and compacSt texture, re- 
 markably heavy, and very hard. It is brought to us in logs 
 of considerable length, the out part of which is of a dusky, 
 and the inner of a blood red. It has but little smell and 
 taste. 
 
300 
 
 Brazil wood is frequently sold for red Saunders; but the 
 latter can principally be distinguished from the former, by 
 its not giving any tinge to aqueous liquors, whereas Brazil 
 wood imparts its colour to water. 
 
 These three kinds of wood enter into the materia medi- 
 ca; they are also used by the turners and cabinet makers, 
 and the red by the dyers. 
 
 SCAMMONY. 
 
 F. Sammonee. 
 
 G. Skammonie. 
 
 D. Skammoneum* 
 
 I. Scamonea, 
 
 S. Escamonea, 
 
 Scammony is the produce of a species of convolvulus, or 
 creeper plant, which grows wild in the vales between Naza- 
 reth and Mount Carmel. 
 
 The Scammony is prepared from the root and the stalk 
 of the plant, and when genuine, ought to be like a fine 
 clear gum, of a darkish grey, light and brittle; and in chew- 
 ing, ought to yield a white milky froth. 
 
 The best Scammony is brought from Marasch, a town 
 about four days journey from Aleppo, near the confines of 
 Armenia. It is thence brought to Aleppo in small skins, 
 and by the merchants sent to London and Marseilles. It was 
 formerly to be had very good from Mount Carmel by way of 
 Acra; but at present scarcely any comes from that place, as 
 the Arabian inhabitants of the mountain have neglected to 
 gather it, being more addicted to plunder than labour. 
 
 Scammony is regularly used in the materia medica as % 
 purgative. 
 
 SCARLET BERRIES, see Kermes. 
 
 SEED LAC, see Lac, 
 
 SELTZER WATER 
 
 Is a mineral water which springs up at Lower Seltzer, a 
 village in the Eledlorate of Triers, about ten miles from 
 El ankfurth on the Mayne. This is a very useful medicinal 
 water. It contains, according to some, a small portion of 
 calcareous earth, a native mineral alkali, and acid, also near 
 
 P. Escamonea. : 
 
 DA, Skammonium. ?: 
 
 SW. Scammonium. f 
 
 L. Scammonium. | 
 
301 
 
 ®ne*seventh of its bulk of fixed air; which latter is more 
 than is found in any other mineral water. 
 
 This water was formerly imported in considerable quan- 
 tities; but, at present, almost all the Seltzer water drank in 
 Great Britain, is artificial. This is more pleasant to the 
 taste than the natural Seltzer water, as the saline particles, 
 of a disagreeable taste, and which contribute nothing to its 
 medicinal virtue, are left out of the composition. It is like- 
 wise considerably stronger. 
 
 SENA, SENNA. 
 
 F. Sency Sene en feuilles^ 
 
 G. Senna y Senesbl’dtter, 
 D. Senebladen* 
 
 I. Sena. 
 
 S. Seny Sena. 
 
 P. Seney Senna. 
 
 DA. Setruhlader. 
 SW. Sennet sblader. 
 POL. SenCy Senna. 
 R. Senetnue listu, 
 L. Sennce folia. 
 
 The cassia Senna, from which the Sena leaf is taken, is 
 a shrubby plant, cultivated in Persia and Syria, but parti- 
 cularly in Upper Egypt, and that part of Arabia which lies 
 opposite to it. The leaves are of an oblong figure, sharp 
 pointed at the ends, abcfut a quarter of an inch broad, and 
 not a full inch in length, of a lively yellowish green colour, 
 a faint, not disagreeable smell, and a subacrid, Ktterish, 
 nauseous' taste. That which is called Sena of Alexandria 
 grows in great abundance in the territory of Abu Arisch, in 
 Arabia. The Arabians sell it at Mecca and Jidda, whence 
 it passes by the way of Suez and Kahira to Alexandria, and 
 from thence is imported into Europe. It is brought from 
 the above countries dried, and picked from the stalks. Some 
 inferior sorts are brought from Tripoli, and other places; 
 these may easily be distinguished by the shape and dimen- 
 sions of the leaves, being different from the good Sena, of a 
 fresh green colour, without any yellow cast. 
 
 The Sena Italica, or blunt leaved Sena,' is a variety of 
 the Alexandria species, which, by its cultivation in the South 
 of France, has been found to assume this change. It is less 
 purgative than the pointed leaved Sena. 
 
 Sena in medicine, is a very useful cathartic. 
 
 SHELL LAC, see Lac. 
 
302 
 
 SHUMAC. 
 
 F. Sumac ^ RourCi Roux. 
 
 G. SuTnach, Schmack. 
 
 D. Sumak, Smak. 
 
 I. Sommaco. 
 
 S. Zumaque. 
 
 P . Sum ogre , Cumagre. 
 
 DA. Smak, Sumak. 
 
 SVV. Sumach, Smack. 
 
 POL Garhankie drze-jok^, 
 Macznika, 
 
 R. Sumak. 
 
 L. Rhus coriaricrum. 
 
 The Shumac plant is a myrtle leaved shrub, cultivated in 
 Sicily, Portugal, the South of Spain, and France. The 
 French Shumac is very little esteemed, even by the dyers 
 of that countrv. Sicily Shumac is the best and most valua- 
 ble. 
 
 The leaves and flowers are stripped off the bush, dried, 
 pounded to powder, and exported from Spain in skins, and 
 from Sicily in bags. These plants are set in the shade of 
 olive trees, and remain in vigour about twenty years. 
 
 The prime quality of Sicily Shumac comes from Alcamo, 
 and is shipped in the gulf of Castellomare. Inferior sorts 
 are coming from Carini, Calatafini, Montreale, Termini, &c. 
 There are also some places on the southern coasts of the 
 Island producing Shumac, but of an indifferent quality. 
 The crop, in Sicily, is made in July and August. 
 
 The goodness of Shumac shews itself by its strong smell, 
 fine greenish, lively colour, and by its being well ground, 
 and free of stalks, though the Spanish Shumac is never free 
 of them. 
 
 Shumac, on account of its astringent quality, is used for 
 tanning Spanish and other fine sorts of leather. 
 
 SICILIAN EARTH, see Fossil Bezoar. 
 
 SILK. 
 
 F. Sole. 
 
 G. Siede. 
 
 D. Zyde, Zy. 
 I. Seta. 
 
 S. Seda. 
 
 P. Seda. 
 
 DA. Silke. 
 
 SW. Silke. 
 POL. Jednxah. 
 R. Sc he Ik. 
 
 L. Seri cum. 
 
 Silk is a very soft, fine, bright thread, the work of an 
 insefl called bombyx, or the silk worm. 
 
$05 
 
 As the silk worm is a native of China, the culture of the 
 silk, in ancient times, was entirely confined to that country. 
 Till the reign of Justinian the silk worm was unknown be- 
 yond the territories of China; but silk was introduced into 
 Persia long before that period. After the conquest of the 
 Persian empire by Alexander the great, this valuable com- 
 modity was brought into Greece, and thence conveyed to 
 Rome. The first of the Roman writers extant, by whom 
 Silk is mentioned, are Virgil and Horace; but it is probable, 
 that neither of them knew from what country it was obtained, 
 nor how it was produced. Among the Romans, Silk was 
 deemed a dress too expensive and delicate for men, and was 
 appropriated wholly to women of eminent rank and opulence. 
 Aurelian complained, that a pound of silk was sold at Rome 
 for twelve ounces of gold; and it is said, he refused to give 
 his wife permission to wear it, on account of its exorbitant 
 price. 
 
 For several centuries the Persians supplied the Roman 
 Empire with the silks of China. Caravans traversed the 
 whole latitude of Asia in 243 days, from the Chinese ocean 
 to the sea coasts of Syria, carrying this commodity. Some- 
 times it was conveyed to the ports of Guzerat and Malabar, 
 and thence transported by sea to the Persian Gulph. The 
 Persians, with the usual rapacity of monopolists, raised the 
 price of Silk to such an exorbitant height, that Justinian 
 endeavoured by means of his ally, the Christian monarch of 
 Abyssinia, to wrest some portion of the Silk trade from the 
 Persians. In this attempt he failed, but he obtained, in 
 some measure, by an unforeseen event, the object which he 
 had in view. Two Persian monks having been employed as 
 missionaries in some of the Christian churches v/hich were 
 established in dififerent parts of India, had penetrated into 
 the country of the Seres, or China. There they observed 
 the labours of the silk worm, and became acquainted with 
 all the arts of man, in working up its productions into such 
 a variety of elegant fabrics. They repaired to Constanti- 
 nople, to explain to the Emperor the discoveries they had 
 made, and encouraged by his liberal promises, they under- 
 took to bring to the capital, a sufficient number of these 
 wonderful inseCts; which they accomplished, by conveying 
 the eggs of the silk worm in a hollow cane. 
 
 Vast numbers of these inseCts were soon reared in different 
 parts of Greece. Sicily afterwards undertook to breed silk- 
 worms with equal success; and was imitated by several towns 
 of Italy. In all these places exten;3ive manufaCIories were 
 
504 
 
 established and carfied on with silk of domestic produdlion. 
 The deirxand for Silk from the East diminished of course, and 
 a considerable change took place ifi the nature of the com- 
 mercial intercourse between Europe and India. 
 
 The silkworm is a species of caterpillar, which, like all 
 others of the sam^ class, undergoes a variety of changes, that, 
 to persons who are not acquainted with objefts of this kind, 
 will appear to be not a little surprising. 
 
 It is produced from a yellowish coloured egg, about the 
 size of a small pin’s head, which has been laid by a greyish 
 coloured moth, vulgarly confounded with the butterfly. 
 These eggs, in the temperature of this climate, even in sum- 
 mer, may be prevented from hatching, if they be kept in 
 a cool place; and when the food on which the worm is fed 
 is in perieiflion, the eggs need only be exposed to the 
 sun for a day or two, when they will be hatched with great 
 facility. 
 
 When the animal is first protruded from the egg it is 
 a small black worm, which is active in search of food. At 
 this stage of his growth the silkworm requires to be fed 
 with the youngest and most tender leaves. On these he will 
 feed very freely for about eight days, during which period 
 he increases in size to about a quarter of an inch in length. 
 He is then attacked with his first sickness, which consists 
 in a sort of lethargic sleep for about three days eontinuance; 
 during which time he refuses to eat, and changes his skin; 
 preserving the same bulk. This sleep being over, he begins 
 to eat again during five days, at which term he is grown to 
 the size of full half an inch in length. After this follows 
 a second, then a third, and a fourth sickness, in every 
 respecl like the former; and after every sickness he feeds 
 again for five days. At the time he is attacked by his fourth 
 sickness he is arrived at his full growth; and on recovering, 
 he feeds once more during five days with a most voracious 
 appetite; after which he disdains his food, becomes transpa- 
 rent, a little on the yellowish cast, and leaves his silky traces 
 on the leaves where he passes. These signs denote that he 
 is ready to begin his cocoon. Thus it appears, that the 
 whole duration of the life of the worm, in this state of his 
 existence, in our climate, is usually about forty days; twen- 
 ty-eight of which days he takes food, and remains in his 
 sick or torpid state about twelve; but it is to be observed, 
 that warm weather shortens, and cold weather lengthens the 
 periods of sickness. 
 
S05 
 
 When the worm is come to full perfe(ftion it searches about 
 for a convenient place for forming its cocoon, and mounis 
 upon any branches or twigs that are put in its way for that 
 purpose. After about two days spent in this manner, it 
 setties in its place, and forms the cocoon by winding the 
 Silk, which it draws from its bowels, round itself, into an 
 oblong roundish ball. During this operation it gradually 
 loses the appearance of a worm; its length is much con- 
 trailed, and its thickness auguSented. By the time the web 
 is finished, it is found to be transformed into an oblong 
 roundish ball, covered with a smooth shelly skin, and appears 
 to be perfeilly dead. 
 
 In this state it remains for several days, entirely motion- 
 less, in the heart of the cocoon, after which it bursts, like 
 an egg hatching, and from that comes forth a heavy, dull 
 looking moth with wings; but these wings it never uses for 
 Hying. This creature forces its way through the Silk co- 
 vering which the worm had woven, goes immediately in 
 quest of its mate, after which the female lays her eggs; and 
 both male and female, without tasting food in this stage of 
 their existence, die in a very short time. 
 
 The Silk worm, when at its full size, is from an inch and 
 a quarter, to an inch and a half in length, and about half 
 an inch in circumference. He is either of a milk or pearl 
 colour, or blackish; these last are esteemed the best. His 
 body is divided into seven rings, to each of which are joined 
 two very short feet. He has- a very small point like a thorn 
 oxadlly above the anus. The substance which forms the 
 Silk is in his stomach, which is very long, wound up as it 
 were upon two spindles, and surrounded with a gum, com- 
 monly yellowish, sometimes white, but seldom greenish. 
 When the worm spins his cocoon he winds off a thread from 
 each of his spindles, and joins them afterwards by means of 
 two hooks which are placed in his mouth, so that the cocopu 
 is formed of a double thread. 
 
 Of Silk worms, as of most animals, there is a considerable 
 variety of breeds, some of which are much more hardy, and 
 possess qualities considerably different from others. This 
 is a particular of much importance to be adverted to at the 
 time of beginning to breed these creatures in any place. 
 
 Though the Silk worm be a native of China, there is no 
 doubt, but it might be propagated in most parts of the tem- 
 perate zones. The mulberry tree, upon the leaves of which 
 it lives, is a hardy vegetable, bearing without injury even 
 the winters of Siberia, and could without doubt be reared in 
 
 Q H 
 
306 
 
 Great Britain. Nature therefore has furnished us with every 
 thing necessary for the Silk manufadlure. 
 
 The cocoons from which the Silk is to be immediately 
 wound must be exposed to the heat of an oven, in order to 
 kill the chrysalis or aurelia, which would otherwise eat its 
 way through the cocoon and render it useless. Good co- 
 coons are small, strong, and firm, have a fine grain, both 
 ends round, and they are free from spots. Of the bad co- 
 coons there are six species. 1. pointed cocoons, one ex- 
 tremity of which ends in a point; the Silk which covers the 
 point is weak, and soon breaks or tears. 2. The cocalonsy 
 - which are bigger, but the contexture is weak. 3. The du- 
 pionsy or double cocoons. 4. The souffons, which have a 
 loose contexture, sometimes so loose, that they are transpa- 
 rent. 5. The perforated cocoons, which have a hole at one 
 end. 6. The had choquette^ which is composed of defedlive 
 cocoons, spotted or rotten. 
 
 The cocoons which are kept for breeding are called royal 
 cocoons. The largest and the best cocoons ought to be pre- 
 served for breed, about an equal number of males and fe- 
 males, though one male will serve two or three females, if 
 the time of their coming out of the cocoon answers. About 
 twelve or fifteen days after they begin to spin, the cocoons 
 for breed may be laid on sheets of white paper; as about this 
 time the moth opens for itself a passage tlij;ough the end of 
 the cocoon. When this female has laid her eggs, which 
 on an average may amount to two hundred and. fifty, they 
 are spread upon paper, and hung up to dry in some cool 
 place. 
 
 The next operation is the winding of the Silk, before which 
 the cocoons must be prepared as follows: 
 
 1. Strip them of the waste Silk that surrounds them, and 
 which served to fasten them to the twigs. This burr is 
 proper to stuff quilts, or other such uses; you may likewise 
 spin it to make stockings, but they will be very coarse and 
 ordinary. 
 
 2. You must sort your cocoons, separating them into dif- 
 ferent classes, in order to wind them apart. These classes 
 are, the good white cocoons; the good cocoons of all the 
 other colours; the dupions; the cocalons, among which 
 are included the weak cocoons; the good choquette; and 
 lastly, the bad choquette. In sorting the cocoons you will 
 always find some perforated cocoons among them, whose 
 worm is already born; these you must set apart for fleuret. 
 
S07 
 
 You will likewise find a few soufflonsj but being very few 
 they may be put among the bad choquette. 
 
 The good cocoons, as well white as yellow, are the easi- 
 est to windj those which require the greatest care and pains 
 are the cocalonsj you must wind them in cooler water than 
 the others, and if you take care to give them to a good 
 windster, you will have as good Silk from them as the rest. 
 You must likewise have careful windsters for the dupions 
 and choquettes. These two species require hotter water 
 than the common cocoons. 
 
 The cocoons produce a thread of very unequal length; 
 you may meet with some that yield more than one thousand 
 two hundred and twenty ells, whilst others will scarcely 
 afford two hundred ells. In general you may calculate the 
 production of a cocoon from five to six hundred ells in 
 length. 
 
 The Silk imported in this country is the produce of Italy, 
 Turkey, and the East Indies. 
 
 The kingdom of Naples is computed to produce about 
 eight hundred thousand pounds weight of Silk annually, of 
 which half is supposed to be worked at home, and the other 
 half exported raw. The exportation of raw Silk from the 
 Calabrias, through the customhouse, is about fifty-three 
 thousand pounds; but perhaps double that quantity is smug- 
 gled out. The exportation of thrown Silk, upon an average 
 of many years, amounts to one hundred and forty-eight thou- 
 sand two hundred and seventeen pounds. 
 
 The red mulberry tree is invariably used as food of the 
 Silk worm in Calabria, and it is the opinion of the Silk 
 workers, that worms fed with it produce a more compaCt 
 heavy Silk than those that live upon the leaves of the white 
 one. This however seems to be a prejudice, as the Chinese, 
 Piedmontese, and Languedocians prefer the white sort. In 
 case of a blight among the mulberry trees, bramble tops 
 have been found the best succedaneum. The silk worm-houses 
 in Calabria are mostly the property of reputable families in 
 Reggio, who furnish rooms, leaves, eggs, and every neces- 
 sary implement; take two-thirds of the profit, and leave the 
 rest for the attendants. A succession of eggs is imported 
 from Leghorn and other places to renew the breed, and by 
 frequent changes keep up the quality of the Silk. 
 
 Silk is an important branch of the commerce of the island 
 of Cyprus. The breeding of Silk worms here is not subjeCl 
 to the inconveniences arising from the variations of the at- 
 mosphere, as it is in other parts. The finest and whitest 
 
Silk is that produced in the environs of Famagusta and Car- 
 passia. The orange and sulphur coloured comes from Cy- 
 thera, or the villages beyond the northern mountains-, and 
 that of a gold yellow colour is produced in the territory of 
 Paphos and the neighbouring country. That principally 
 esteemed in Europe is the white Silk, with which a little of 
 the orange and sulphur coloured is sometimes mixed. Venice 
 and Leghorn receive both, though the white Silk has also 
 there the preference. The island produces on an average 
 twenty-five thousand bags of Silk. It is not uncommon in 
 Cyprus to receive commissions from Constantinople, Aleppo, 
 and Egypt, for Silk which is afterwards sent to Europe. 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 F. Jrgent, 
 
 G. saber. 
 D. Za^er. 
 
 I. Jr gent 0. 
 S. Plata. 
 P. Praia. 
 
 DA. Sol‘V. 
 SW. Silfk^er. 
 POL Srebro. 
 R. Serebro. 
 
 L. Argentum, 
 
 Silver, next to gold, is the most perfeft, fixed, and duc- 
 tile metal, and the wLitest and most brilliant among them 
 all. Its dudtility and malleability is not greatly inferior to 
 that of gold, as a grain of Silver leaf measures somewhat 
 more than fifty-one square inches; and the Silver wire used 
 for astronomical purposes, measures only the seven hundred 
 and fiftieth part of an inch’ in diameter; which is no more 
 than half the thickness of the hair of the human head. It 
 is harder and more elastic than lead, tin, or gold; but less 
 so than copper, platina, or iron. It is more destrudtible 
 :than gold, and is particularly adled upon by sulphureous 
 vapours; hence its surface tarnishes in the air. Its specific 
 gravity is to that of water nearly as eleven to one. 
 
 Though Silver is much more difficult to calcine than other 
 metallic matters, yet it is capable of being converted after 
 a long time into a white calx, which treated in a violent 
 fire, affords an olive coloured glass. It is found in the 
 earth. 
 
 1. Native, generally of the fineness of sixteen carats. 
 Most of the Silver of Potosi in America, and of Kunsberg 
 in Norway is of this kind. 
 
 2. Native, alloyed with other metals, particularly with 
 lead, which is said never to be found without some Silver, 
 
309 
 
 though frequently in too small a quantity to defray the ex- 
 pense of separating it. The lead in only one of the smelting 
 houses at Holywell in Flintshire, produced no less than 
 3126i lb. of Silver from the year 1754 to 1756, and from 
 ,1774 to 1776. There are some lead ores in England, which, 
 though very poor in that metal, contain between three hun- 
 dred and four hundred ounces of Silver in a ton of lead. 
 
 3. Silver mineralized by various substances, as with sul- 
 phur, arsenic, copper, antimony, lead, &c. 
 
 Silver combines in all proportions with copper, by which 
 it is not deprived of its ductility, but rendered harder 
 and more sonorous. It is on that account often used in 
 bells. It is otherwise highly useful on account of its in- 
 destructibility by fire and air, and its extreme ductility. 
 Its fine colour renders it extremely proper for ornamental 
 purposes, and it is applied like gold on the surface of diffe- 
 rent bodies. It likewise enters the texture of rich silks j but 
 its most considerable use is that of being employed as money, 
 of an inferior value to that of gold. In this case it is alloyed 
 with one twelfth part of copper. It is likewise often em- 
 ployed in making household utensils of all kinds, for which 
 purport it is usually alloyed with one twenty-fourth of cop- 
 per, which gives it a greater degree of hardness and cohe- 
 rence, without rendering it in the least noxious. 
 
 The most considerable Silver mines are, at Potosi in South 
 America, Kunsberg in Norway, Annaberg in Austria, the 
 Hartz, Saxony in general, Schemnitz, in Hungary, &c. 
 
 SIMILORj see Copper, 
 
 SKINS, FELLS. 
 
 F. Peaux. 
 
 G. Felle. 
 D. Fellen, 
 I. Pelli, 
 
 S. Picks, 
 
 P. Pelles, 
 
 DA. Skind, Huder, 
 SW. Skinn, 
 
 POL. Skory, 
 
 R . Kosh'u. 
 
 Skin is the membrane stripped off the animal to be prepared 
 by the tanner and others, and converted into leather, &c. 
 
 The different sorts of skins brought from North America 
 for the use of the furrier, are enumerated under the article 
 furs, the stag and roebuck excepted. 
 
 Kid and lamb Skins come from Italy and Spain, they ought 
 to be very large and free of blemish, an-d require to be very 
 carefully examined by the purchaser. 
 
SIO 
 
 Goat Skins serve for morocco leather, and sometimes for 
 parchment, by which the real chamoisis is frequently counter- 
 feited. The Goats of Barbary and the Indies are esteemed 
 the most beautiful of any called common goats. Goat Skins 
 are chiefly imported into England from Switzerland, Ger- 
 many, Spain, &c. 
 
 SLATE. 
 
 F. Ardoise, 
 
 G. Schiefer* 
 
 D. Arduin. 
 
 I. Lanjagna, Lustra. 
 S. Ptzarra. 
 
 P. PicarrUt Ardoisa. 
 
 DA. Skifer. 
 
 SW. Skifver. 
 
 POL. Lupny kamien. 
 
 R. Tesannoi kamen, Tschere- 
 pi'za. 
 
 L. Schistus Ardesia. 
 
 Slate is a stone of a compact texture, and laminated struc- 
 ture, splitting into fine plates. 
 
 There are four species of Slate. 
 
 First; The ivhitish Slate^ being a soft friable stone, of a to- 
 lerable fine and close texture, considerably heavy, perfectly 
 dull and destitute of brightness, variegated with a pale brown 
 or brownish yellow. This species is common in many coun- 
 ties of England, lying near the surface of the ground. It is 
 commonly used for covering houses. 
 
 Secondly; The red Slate^ is of a very fine, elegant, and 
 smooth surface, considerably heavy, and of a very beautiful 
 pale purple, glittering all over with small glossy spangles. 
 This kind of Slate is very common in the North of England, 
 and is much valued as a strong and beautiful covering for 
 houses. 
 
 Thirdly; The common blue Slate ^ is of a fine smooth texture 
 and glossy surface, moderately heavy, and of a pale greyish 
 blue. This is also very common in the northern parts of Eng- 
 land, and is used in most places for the covering of houses. 
 
 Fourthly; The friable, aluminous, black Slate y being the 
 Irish Slate of the shops. It is common in many parts of Ire- 
 land, and is also found in some places in England. 
 
 The island of Eusdale, one of the Hebrides, on the west 
 coast of Scotland, is entirely composed of Slate. The stra- 
 tum is thirty-six feet thick. About two millions and a half 
 of Slates, at the rate of twenty shillings per thousand, are 
 sold annually to England, Canada, the West Indies, and 
 Norway. 
 
 Considerable quantities of coarse Slates are found in many 
 parts of Wales, particularly in a quarry near Llangynnog, ip 
 
Sll 
 
 North Wales, which from November 1775 to November 
 1776, yielded 904,000 Slates, sold from six to twenty shil- 
 lings per thousand. Port Penrhyn, half a mile from Bangor, 
 is the grand repository of the Slate procured from Lord 
 Penrhyn’s quarries at Dolawen. 
 
 SMALL NUTS, hazel nuts. 
 
 F. Noisettes, Avelines. 
 
 G. Haselnusse, 
 
 D. Hazelnooten, 
 
 I. Nocciuole, A^ellane, 
 S. A<vellanas, 
 
 P. A‘vellaas» 
 
 DA. Hassel nodder, 
 
 SW. Hasselnotter. 
 
 POL. Laskonxsy, or%ech* 
 R. Orechi, 
 
 L. A^ellanas, 
 
 These nuts are more nourishing than walnuts, but also 
 harder to digest. To come to perfection they require a 
 dry season, and much rain will destroy them. Hence con- 
 siderable quantities, and species superior to ours, are brought 
 annually from Barcelona in Spain, from Sicily, and Naples. 
 In the latter kingdom, the district of Avellino is almost 
 covered with Hazelnut bushes, which in good years bring in 
 a profit of sixty thousand ducats. These bushes were origi- 
 nally imported into Italy from Pontus, and known among the 
 Romans by the appellation of nux Pontica, which in process 
 of time was changed into that of nux Avellana, from the 
 place where they had been propagated with the greatest suc- 
 cess. The proprietors plant them in rows, and by dres- 
 sing form them into large bushes of many stems. Every 
 year they refresh the roots with new earth, and prune off 
 the straggling shoots with much attention. 
 
 SMALTS. 
 
 F. Azur d^Hollande, 
 
 G. Smalt e Blaussel, 
 
 D. Smalts 
 
 I. Smalto azzuro, Smaltino, 
 S. E smalt e, Azul de Azur, 
 P. E smalt e. 
 
 DA. Smalt, 
 SW. Smalt. 
 POL. Lazur. 
 R. Laser. 
 
 L. Smalt um. 
 
 Zafer is an impure grey calx of cobalt, which is prepared, 
 by first roasting and freeing the cobalt from all foreign bo- 
 dies j after which it is well calcined and sometimes mixed 
 with fine sand. 
 
 Zaffer if mixed with siliceous earth and potashes, and ex- 
 posed to a strong fire, melts into a kind of blue glass, called 
 
312 
 
 Smalts, which when ground very fine, obtains the denomina- 
 tion of powder blue. 
 
 Smalts are a most durable pigment, which perfe£lly with- ' 
 stands the fire, and is fit to produce every shade of blue. It - 
 is therefore employed in preference to any other colour for 
 tinging crystals, and for enamelling; for counterfeiting opake 
 and transparent precious stones, and for painting and var- 
 nishing real porcelain, earthen and potters ware. The blue 
 col mr of this pigment inclines much to that of ultramarine, 
 and in want of the latter article, or when too costly, it is 
 indispensably necessary to the painter, for imitating the fine 
 azure colour. The cheaper kind is employed to give a blue- 
 ish tinge to new washed linen, though not without injury to 
 the health, as well as to the linen. 
 
 The preparation of this new colour may be reckoned 
 among the most beneficial inventions of modern times. The 
 principal reason why many authors think that the Ancients 
 used Smalts, is, that various antiquities both of painting and 
 enamel have been discovered, in which a blue appears, that 
 gives ground for conjeAuring it was produced by cobalt; 
 particularly blue enamelled figures of Egyptian deities, the 
 blue squares in mosaic work, likewise the fine blue colour 
 that the Chinese and people of Japan gave to their porce- 
 lain, and the blue also seen on mummies, which even after 
 so many centuries, seems to have lost little or nothing of 
 its beauty. But it has been proved by chemical experiments, 
 that it is not only possible to give to glass and enamel a blue 
 colour by means of iron, but that the before mentioned an- 
 tiquities shew not the smallest traces of cobalt. 
 
 About the end of the fifteenth century, cobalt seems to 
 have been dug up in great quantities in the mines on the 
 borders of Saxony and Bohemia. The invention of making 
 an useful blue glass from cobalt seems to fall about the period 
 of 1540 and 1560. Christopher Schurer, a glass maker at 
 Flatten in Bohemia, is said to be the inventor of the art. As 
 painting in glass was then much cultivated in Holland, eight 
 colour mills were soon erCdted there, for which the cobalt 
 was brought from Schneeberg, around which place colour 
 mills were afterwards also erected. At present the manufac- 
 ture of Smalts is almost entirely in the hands of the Dutch, 
 who grind the German cobalt to great advantage. 
 
 Azure y among painters, is an expression which at present 
 signifies, in general, a fine blue colour, but was formerly 
 applied to lapis lazuli, called azure stone, and to the blue 
 prepared from it, now called ultramarine. But since a blue 
 
313 
 
 has been extracted from cobalt, custom has applied to it the 
 name of azure, although it differs considerably from the 
 former, and is incapable of being used for the same pur- 
 pose, and particularly for painting in oil. The name of azure 
 is generally applied to the blue glass made from the earth of 
 cobalt and vitrifiable matters. This glass, which is called 
 Smalts when in masses, is called azure only when reduced 
 to a fine powder. Several kinds of azure are distinguished, 
 according to its degree of beauty, by the names of fine azure, 
 powdered azure, and azure of four fires. In general, the 
 more intense the colour, and the finer the powder, the more 
 beautiful and dear it is. 
 
 SNAKE ROOT. 
 
 F. Contrayer'ua, 
 
 G. Amerikanischey oder Peru- 
 anische GifUvour^el, 
 
 D . GiftworteL 
 1. Contra-erba. 
 
 S. Contra-yerha. 
 
 P. Contra-er'va, 
 
 DA- GiJ'trod. 
 
 SW. Gif trot, 
 
 L. Contrayer<vay Serpentariay 
 
 There are several species of this root all supposed to be 
 counter poisons. 
 
 The Virginian Snake root has its leaves green and large, 
 almost in figure of a heart; it$ fruit round; and its root which 
 is of a very strong aromatic smell, has at the bottom an in- 
 finite number of long, small filaments, representing a kind 
 of beard. It was first brought into Europe by the English 
 from Virginia, where it is esteemed a sovereign remedy 
 against the bite of the rattle snake. 
 
 SOAP, sopE. 
 
 Savon, 
 G. Sefe, 
 D. Zeep. 
 I, Sapone, 
 S. Jubon, 
 P. Sabao, 
 
 DA. S<rbe, 
 
 SW. ‘Tval, Grune Capa. 
 POL. Mydlo. 
 
 R. Mulo. 
 
 L. Sapo, 
 
 Soap is an uncluous kind of paste made with oil or other 
 kinds of fat, and an alkali, sometimes actuated with quick- 
 lime. It is sometimes hard and dry, and sometimes soft 
 and liquid. The principal Soaps of our manufacture consist 
 of an intimate union of the salt of potash with oil or animal 
 fat. The common coarse Soaps are made with tallow; the 
 R r 
 
3U 
 
 soft, blackish, and greenish sorts with train oil; and the 
 fine hard white Soaps with olive oil, and an alkali adluated 
 with quick lime, which promotes the action of the salt upon 
 the oil, and at the same time disposes the Soap to a hard and 
 dry consistence, which it does not easily assume when made 
 with plain alkali. A quantity of common salt is generally 
 added in the process, the use of which is, when the oil has 
 been incorporated by boiling with the alkaline salt of the ley, 
 to promote the separation of the saponaceous concrete from 
 the water. 
 
 The greatest quantities of Soap are made in Spain, Portu- 
 gal, France, and Italy ; olive oil being in those countries 
 most plentiful. 
 
 SODA; see Barilla, 
 SPANISH JUICE; see Liquorice, 
 SPELTER; see Zinc, 
 
 SPERMACETI. 
 
 F. Blanc de haleine, Sperme 
 de Baleincy 
 
 G. IVallrath, 
 
 D. IV ah c hot. 
 
 I. Spermaceti. 
 
 S. Esperma de ballenUy Esper- 
 maati. 
 
 P. E spermaceti, 
 
 DA. H'valra^v, Hojalsperme. 
 SW. Fallrat, Valraf, 
 
 POL. Spermaceti y Olbrod, 
 R. Spermazet. 
 
 L. Spermaceti. 
 
 Spermaceti is a whitish, unctuous, flaky substance, pre- 
 pared from the oil, but chiefly from the brains of a species 
 of a whale called physeter macrocephalus. 
 
 Good Spermaceti is glossy and semi-transparent; in fine 
 white flakes; soft and uncfluous to the touch, yet dry and 
 friable; in taste somewhat like butter; and of a faint smell 
 like that of tallow. It is apt in general to grow yellowish, 
 and to contradl a rancid fishy smell if not carefully secured 
 from the air. The more perfedlly it has been purified at first 
 the less susceptible it is of those alterations, and after it has 
 been- changed, it may be rendered white and sweet again, by 
 steeping it afresh in a ley of alkaline salt and quicklime. It 
 melts in a small degree of heat, and congeals again as it 
 cools. 
 
315 
 
 Spermaceti is of use in medicine, though chiefly only ex- 
 ternally. 
 
 Spermaceti candles are of modern manufa<fl:ure : they are 
 made smooth, with a fine gloss, free from rings and scars, 
 superior to the finest wax candles in colour and lustre j and 
 when genuine leave no spot or stain on the finest silk cloth 
 or linen. 
 
 In the transactions of the Royal Society of London, there 
 is a treatise on the conversion of animal muscle, into a sub- 
 stance much resembling Spermaceti. It appears from a num- 
 ber of experiments, that if flesh is exposed to the aCtion of 
 water for a considerable time it will change it into a fatty 
 substance; which discovery might be applied to profit, for 
 making grease or fat for many purposes. The nitrous acid 
 greatly accelerates this transformation, and takes away the 
 offensive putrefaClive smell. By submitting it to the aCIion 
 of the oxygenated muriatic acid, the fermentation goes on 
 more slowly, but it may be procured quite white and pure. 
 
 SPIRIT OF WINE; ste Brandy, 
 
 SPRUCE BEER 
 
 Is a cheap and wholesome liquor said to be thus made. 
 Take of water sixteen gallons, and boil the half of it. Put 
 the boiled water, while in full heat, to the reserved cold 
 part, which should be previously put into a barrel; then add 
 sixteen pounds of treacle or melasses, with a few table spoons- 
 ful of the essence of Spruce, stirring the whole well toge- 
 ther; add half a pint of yeast, and keep it in a temperate 
 situation, with the bung hole open, for two days, till the 
 fermentation be abated. Then close it up or bottle it off, 
 and it will be fit for being drank in a few days afterwards. 
 
 The essence of Spruce is extradled from the small twigs 
 or sprouts of the black and white Spruce fir. 
 
 The Dantzig Spruce beer is reckoned the best; the taste 
 of the American Spruce is less agreeable, and it is not so 
 nourishing. 
 
S16 
 
 SPUNGE. 
 
 F. Eponge, 
 
 O. Schwainnii Badeichnjoatnm* 
 D. Spongie, Spans. 
 
 r. Spugn^y Spungia, 
 
 S. Esponja. 
 
 P. Esponga. 
 
 DA. S^oamp. 
 
 SW. S^vamp, 
 
 POL Gebka, 
 
 R . Guba grezkaja, 
 L. Spongia, 
 
 Spunge is a plant of very irregular figure, generally to be 
 met with in shops only in pieees. Its texture is cavernous 
 and porous; its great elasticity, and its property of imbibing, 
 and as readily parting with a large quantity of water, render 
 it useful. 
 
 Spunge is to be chosen as light as possible, perfectly clean 
 and free from stone, of as pale a colour as may be, with small 
 holes, and fine and soft to the touch. 
 
 The greatest part of the Spunge we use is brought from 
 Aleppo and Smyrna. It grows in the Archipelago, at con- 
 siderable depths, on the rocks about some of the islands 
 there, and multitudes of people make a trade of diving for 
 it. It is also common in the Mediterranean, and many other 
 seas, though in general browner or yellower, and not so 
 fine as that of the Archipelago. It grows in large masses to 
 rocks and stones, sometimes to large shells; and is sometimes 
 round, sometimes flat, sometimes hollow like a funnel. 
 
 SQUILL, SEA ONION. 
 
 F. Scille, Oignon marin* 
 
 G. Meer%<^iebeL 
 
 D. Zeeajuin, Squille. 
 
 1. Scilluy Cipolla marina. 
 S. Cebolla alburrana, 
 
 P. Cebcila alnsarraa. 
 
 DA. Ski He, Strandlogrod. 
 SW. Skilluy Hafslok. 
 POL. Cobula zamorska* 
 R. Luk morskii. 
 
 L. Scilla, Squilla, 
 
 The Squill is a plant with a large, bulbous, onion-like, 
 root: from which rise, first a naked stalk, bearing seve- 
 ral hexapetalous white flowers, and afterwards large green 
 lily like leaves, with a remarkable rib in the middle of 
 each. It grows spontaneously on sandy shores, in Spain, 
 and in the Levant, from whence we are annually supplied 
 with the roots. They should be chosen large, plump, fresh, 
 and full of a clammy juice: some are of a reddish colour, 
 
317 
 
 and others white; but no difference is observed in the qua- 
 lity of the two sorts. This root is to the taste very nauseous, 
 intensely bitter and acrimonious; much handled, it ulcerates 
 the skin. Taken internally it serves as a powerful attenuant 
 and aperient. 
 
 STARCH. 
 
 F. Atnidon. 
 
 G. A mi dam. 
 
 D. Amy don y Ameldonk. 
 i. Ami do y Amite, 
 
 S. Amidony Almidon. 
 P. Ami do. 
 
 Dx'\. Amdam. 
 SW. Sidrkelse. 
 POL. Krochmal, 
 R Kruchmal. 
 
 L. Amyliitn, 
 
 Starch is the sediment found at the bottom of vessels where- 
 in wheat has been steeped in water; of this fecula, after 
 the bran is separated from it, by passing through sieves, 
 they form a kind of loaves, which being dried in the sun, or 
 an oven, are afterwards broke in little pieces, and so sold as 
 starch. 
 
 Starch is also made of potatoes, and rice, but both sorts 
 are reckoned injurious to linen. 
 
 The best Starch comes from Poland. 
 
 STICK LAC; see Lac. 
 
 STONE COAL; see Pitcoal. 
 
 STORAX. 
 
 F. Styraxy Storax, 
 
 G. Storax. 
 
 D. StyraXy Storax. 
 
 1. Storace 
 S. Estoraque. 
 
 P. Estoraquey Storaque. 
 
 D A . Storax, 
 SW Storax. 
 POL. Styrax. 
 R. Stir ax. 
 
 L. Styrax. 
 
 Storax is a resinous drug, which issues in a fluid state, 
 from incisions made in the trunk or branches of the sty- 
 rax officinale, or Storax tree. Two sorts of this resin 
 have been commonly distinguished, the Storax in the tearj^ 
 and the common Storax. 
 
 The Storax in the tear is scarcely, if ever, found in sepa- 
 parate tears, but in masses, sometimes composed of whitish, 
 and pale reddish brown tears, and sometimes of an uniform 
 
318 
 
 reddish yellow, or brownish appearance; unfluous and soft 
 like wax, and free from visible impurities. This is supposed 
 to be the sort which the Ancients received from Pamphylia 
 in reeds or canes, and which was thence named calamita. 
 
 The common Storax is in large masses, considerably light- 
 er and less compa6l than the former, and having a large ad- 
 mixture of woody matter, like sawdust. Indeed there is 
 scarcely any other than this impure Storax to be met with in 
 trade. 
 
 This odoriferous drug, though formerly a familiar remedy 
 as a resolvent, has now no place in any of the officinal com- 
 pounds, and its use seems to be limited to that of an incense. 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 F. Sucre. 
 
 G. Xucker. 
 D. Suiker* 
 I. Zuccaro, 
 6. Azucar, 
 P, Assucar, 
 
 DA. Suker, 
 SW. Socker, 
 POL. Cukier, 
 R. Sachar. 
 
 L. Saccharum. 
 
 Sugar is a solid sweet substance obtained from the Sugar 
 cane; or according to chemists, an essential salt, capable of 
 crystallization; of a sweet and agreeable flavour, and con- 
 tained in a greater or smaller quantity, in almost every spe- 
 cies of vegetables, but most abundant in the Sugar cane. 
 Sugar is of the same nature as honey; it yields the same 
 principles; it is a native vegetable soap, containing an oil 
 miscible with water, by means of a salino-acid substance. 
 
 As the Sugar cane is the principal produdlion of the West 
 Indies, and the great source of their riches, it may justly be 
 esteemed one of the most valuable plants in the world. The 
 quantity consumed in Europe is estimated at nine millions 
 sterling, and the demand would probably be greater if it 
 could be sold at a reduced price. 
 
 From the few remains of the Grecian and Roman authors 
 which have survived the ravages of time, we can find no 
 proofs that the juice of the Sugar cane was known at a very 
 early period. There can be no doubt however, that in those 
 countries where it was indigenous, its value was not long 
 concealed. It is not improbable, that it was known to the 
 ancient Jews; for there is some reason to suppose, that the 
 Hebrew word, which by our translators sometimes is render- 
 
319 
 
 cd calamus, and sometimes sweet-cane does In fadl mean the 
 Sugar cane. 
 
 The Sugar cane was first made known to the western parts 
 of the world by the conquests of Alexander the Great. 
 Strabo relates, that Nearchus, his admiral, found it in the 
 East Indies, in the year before Christ 325. It is evidently 
 alluded to in a fragment of Theophrastus, preserved in Pho- 
 tius. Varro who lived A. D. 68, describes it in a fragment 
 quoted by Isidorus, as a fluid pressed from reeds of a large 
 size, which was sweeter than honey. Dioscorides, about 
 the year 35 before Christ, says: “ There is a kind of honey 
 « called saccharon, which is found in India and Arabia Fe- 
 “ lix. It has the appearance of salt, and is brittle when 
 
 chewed. If dissolved in water, it is beneficial to the 
 «« bowels and stomach, useful in diseases of the bladder 
 “ and kidneys, and when sprinkled on the eye, removes 
 ‘‘ those substances, that obscure the sight.” ^ This is the first 
 account we have of its medical qualities. Galen often pre- 
 scribed it as a medicine. Lucan relates, that an oriental na- 
 tion in alliance with Pompey, used the juice of the cane as a 
 common drink. Pliny says, it was produced in Arabia and 
 India, but that the best came from the latter country. It is 
 also mentioned by Arrian, in his Periplus of the Red Sea, 
 by the name of sachar, as an article of commerce from In- 
 dia to the Red Sea. Aelian, Tertullian, and Alexander 
 Aphrodisseus, mention it as a species of honey procured 
 from canes. 
 
 That the Sugar cane is an indigenous plant in some parts 
 of the East Indies we have the strongest reason to believe: 
 for Thunberg found it in Japan, and has accordingly men- 
 tioned it as a native of that country, in his Flora Japonica, 
 published in 1784*. Osbeck also found it in China in 1751. 
 It may indeed have been transplanted from some other coun- 
 try, but as it does not appear from history that the inhabi- 
 tants of China or Japan ever carried on any commerce with 
 remote nations, it could only be conveyed from some neigh- 
 bouring country. Marco Polo, a noble Venetian, who tra- 
 velled in the East about the year 1250, found Sugar in abun- 
 dance in Bengal. 
 
 Vasco de Gama, who doubled the Cape of Good Hope 
 in 14*97, relates, that a considerable trade in Sugar was 
 carried on in the Kingdom of Calicut. On the autho- 
 rity of Dioscorides, and Pliny too, we should be disposed to 
 admit, that it is a native of Arabia, did we not find, on 
 consulting Niebuhr's travels, that this botanist has o.mitted 
 
320 
 
 it, when enumerating the most valuable plants of that coun- 
 try. If it be a spontaneous production of Arabia, it must 
 still flourish in its native soil. Bruce found it in Upper 
 Egypt. If we may believe the relation of Giovan Lioni, a 
 considerable trade was carried on in Sugar in Nubia, in 
 1500: it abounded also at Thebes, on the Nile, and in the 
 northern parts of Africa, about the same period. 
 
 There is reason to believe, that the Sugar cane was intro- 
 duced into Europe during the crusades ; expeditions, which 
 however romantic in their plan, and unsuccessful in their ex- 
 ecution, were certainly productive of many advantages to 
 the nations of Europe. Albertus Aqiiensis, a monkish wri- 
 ter, observes, thas the Christian soldiers in the Holy Land, 
 frequently derived refreshment and support, during a scar- 
 city of provisions, by sucking the canes. This plant flou- 
 rished also in the Morea, and in the islands of Rhodes and 
 Malta; from which it was transported into Sicily. The date 
 of this transaction is not easily ascertained, but we are sure, 
 that Sugar was cultivated in that island previous to the year 
 1166; for Lafitau the Jesuit, who wrote a history of the 
 Portuguese discoveries, mentions a donation made that year 
 to the monastery of St. Bennet, by William the Second, 
 king of Sicily, of a mill for grinding Sugar canes, with all 
 its rights, members and appurtenances. 
 
 The quantity of Sugar canes now cultivated in Sicily is 
 very inconsiderable, and Sicilian Sugar is quite a rarity. It 
 is of good colour and quality, but from want of encourage- 
 ment or industry, is almost entirely supplanted by foreign 
 Sugars. This culture, is in its greatest vigour on the eastern 
 coast of Valdinoto, but might be extended to advantage in 
 many other districts. The canes grow to a fine size, and are 
 very juicy, thrive almost without care, have heat and mois- 
 ture enough, and neither hurricanes nor inse(^fs to appre- 
 hend; labour is dear and hands scarce, but certainly not so 
 much as to prevent the Sicilians from underselling foreigners, 
 at their own market at least. 
 
 There is even Sugar produced in Egypt, the canes grow- 
 ing in Upper Egypt; but it is so ill prepared, that they can- 
 not sell it so cheap as the American Sugars. 
 
 From Sicily the Sugar cane was conveyed to Spain, Ma- 
 deira, the Canary, and Cape de Verd islands, soon after 
 they were discovered in the fifteenth century. 
 
 An opinion has prevailed, that the Sugar cane is not a 
 native of the western continent, or its adjacent islands the 
 West Indies, but was conveyed thither by the Spaniards 
 
321 
 
 or Portuguese, soon after the discovery of America by Co- 
 lumbus. From the testimony of Peter Martyr, in the third 
 book of his first decade, composed during Columbus’s second 
 voyage, which commenced in 14-93 and ended in 14<95^ it 
 appears, that the Sugar cane was known at that time in Hi- 
 spaniola. It may be said that it was brought thither by Co- 
 lumbus*, but for this assertion we have found no direH 
 evidence, and though w^ had dire(S: evidence, this would 
 not prove that the Sugar cane was not an indigenous plant 
 of the West Indies. There are authors of learning, who 
 after investigating this subject with attention, do not hesitate 
 to maintain, that it is a native both of the islands and of the 
 continent of America. 
 
 The Sugar cane, or saccharum ofHcinarum of botanists, 
 is a jointed reed, commonly measuring, the flag part not 
 included, from three feet and a half to seven feet in height, 
 but sometimes rising to twelve feet. When ripe it is of a 
 fine straw colour inclining to yellow, producing leaves or 
 blades, the edges of which are finely and sharply serrated, 
 and terminating in an arrow, decorated with a panicle. The 
 joints in one stalk are from forty to sixty in number, and 
 the stalks rising from one root are sometimes very numerous. 
 The young root ascends from the earth like the point of an 
 arrow, the shaft of which soon breaks, and the two first 
 leaves, which had been inclosed within a quadruple sheath 
 of seminal leaves, rise to a considerable height. 
 
 As the cane is a rank succulent plant it must require a 
 strong deep soil to bring it to perfedlion, perhaps indeed no 
 soil can be too rich for this purpose. The soil which ex- 
 perience has found to be the most favourable to the cultiva- 
 tion of it in the West Indies, is the dark grey loam of St. 
 Christopher’s, which is so light and porous, as to be pene- 
 trable by the slightest application of the hoe. The under 
 stratum is gravel from eight to twelve inches deep. Canes 
 planted in particular spots in this island, have been known 
 to yield eight thousand pounds of muscovado sugar from a 
 single acre. The average produce of the island, for a series 
 of years, has been sixteen thousand hogsheads of sixteen 
 cwt. which is one half only of the whole cane land, or eight 
 thousand five hundred acres. When annually cut, it gives 
 nearly two hogsheads of sixteen cwt. per acre, for the whole 
 of the land in ripe canes. Next to the ashy loam of St. 
 Cliristopher’s is the soil which in Jamaica is called brick 
 mould, containing a mixture of clay and sand. After this 
 
322 
 
 may be reckoned the deep black mould of Barbadoes, Antigua> 
 and some other of the windward islands. 
 
 As the eane requires a great deal of moisture to bring it 
 to maturity, the niost proper season for planting it is in the 
 months of September and October, when the autumnal rains 
 begin, that it may be sufficiently luxuriant to shade the 
 ground when the dry weather sets in. A January plant 
 commonly turns out well likewise. 
 
 The Sugar cane is propagated by the top shoots, whieh 
 are cut from the tops of the old canes. Two of them are 
 sufficient for a cane hole. These, being placed longitudi- 
 nally in the bottom of the hole, are eovered with mould 
 about two inches deep; and in about twelve or fourteen days 
 the young sprouts begin to appear. 
 
 In most parts of the West Indies it is usual to plant only 
 a certain proportion of the cane land, commonly one third, 
 in annual rotation. Canes of the first year’s growth are 
 called plant canes. The sprouts that spring from the roots 
 of canes which have been previously cut for Sugar, are 
 called ratoons; the first yearly returns from their roots 
 are called first ratoons; the second year’s growth second 
 ratoons. 
 
 The Sugar cane is liable to be destroyed by monkeys, rats, 
 and mice. The upland plantations suffer greatly from mon- 
 keys, and the lowland plantations as much by rats, and mice. 
 The Sugar cane is also subje<ft to a disease called the blast; 
 the fine, broad, green blades, then become sickly, dry, and 
 withered; soon after they appear stained in spots, and if 
 these spots are carefully examined, they will be found to 
 contain innumerable eggs of an jnsedt, like a bug, which are 
 soon quickened and cover the plants with vermin. The juice 
 of the canes thus affedfed becomes sour, and no future shoot 
 issues from the joints. 
 
 The crops of Sugar canes do not ripen precisely at the 
 same period in all the colonies. In the Danish, Spanish, and 
 Dutch settlements, they begin in January and continue till 
 October. This method does not imply any fixed season for 
 the maturity of the Sugar cane. The plant, however, like 
 others, must have its progress; and it must necessarily fol- 
 low, from the custom these nations have adopted, of con- 
 tinuing t) gather their crops for ten months without inter- 
 mission, that they cut some canes which are not ripe enough, 
 and others that are too ripe, and then the fruit has not 
 the requisite qualities. The time of gathering them should 
 be at a fixed period, and probably the months of March 
 
S23 
 
 and April, when the English cut their canes, are the fittest 
 for it j because all the sweet fruits are ripe at that time, 
 while the sour ones do not arrive to a state of maturity till 
 the months of July and August. The English, however, 
 are not induced to do so on account of the ripeness of the 
 cane. The drought that prevails in their islands, renders 
 the rains which fall in September necessary to their plant- 
 ing; and as the canes are eighteen months In growing, 
 this period always brings them to the precise point of ma- 
 turity. 
 
 The time of crop In the Sugar islands is the season of glad- 
 ness and festivity to man and beast. So palatable, salutary, 
 and nourishing, is the juice of the cane, that every indivi- 
 dual of the animal creation, drinking freely of it, derives 
 health and vigour from its use. The meagre and sickly 
 among the negroes, exhibit a surprising alteration in a few 
 weeks after the mill is set in action. The labouring horses, 
 oxen, and mules, though almost constantly at work during 
 this season, yet, being indulged with plenty of the green 
 tops of this noble plant, and some of the scummings from 
 the boiling house, improve more, than at any other period 
 of the year. Even the pigs and poultry fatten on the 
 refuse. 
 
 The plants being cut, the branches at the top are given 
 to the cattle for food; the top shoot, which is full of eyes, 
 is preserved for planting. The canes are cut into pieces 
 about a yard long, tied up in bundles, and carried in carts 
 to the mill, where they are bruised, and the juice pressed 
 out of them, which is received in a leaden bed, and thence 
 conveyed into a vessel called the receiver. The refuse, or 
 macerated rind of the cane, called cane trash, serves for 
 fuel to boil the liquor. 
 
 The juice, as it flows from the mill, taken at a medium, 
 contains eight parts of pure water, one part of Sugar, and 
 one part consisting of coarse oil and mucilaginous gum, with 
 a portion of essential oil. 
 
 As this juice has a strong disposition to fermentation, it 
 must be boiled as soon as possible. From the receivers there- 
 fore it is led into the boiling-house, where it is received into 
 one of the clarifiers. When the clarifier is filled, a fire is 
 lighted, and a quantity of Bristol quicklime in powder, which 
 is called temper, is poured into the vessel. The use of the 
 lime is, to unite the superabundant acid, which for the 
 success of the process it is necessary to get rid of. The heat 
 then is suffered gradually to increase, till it approaches within 
 
324 ? 
 
 a few degrees of the heat of boiling water, that the impuri- 
 ties may be thoroughly separated. But if the liquor was 
 suffered to boil with violence, the impurities would again 
 incorporate with it. It is known to be sufficiently heated 
 when the scum begins to rise in blisters which break into 
 white froth. The fire is then suddenly extinguished by 
 means of a damper, and the liquor is allowed to remain about 
 an hour undisturbed, during which time the impurities are 
 collcfled in scum on the surface. The juice is then conveyed 
 from the clarifier into the evaporating boiler, commonly 
 termed the grand copper. The scum being of a tenacious 
 gummy nature, does not flow out with the liquor, but re- 
 mains behind in the clarifier. 
 
 If the juice has been obtained from good canes it generally 
 appears transparent when flowing in the grand copper. Here 
 the liquor is allowed to boil, and as the scum rises, it is 
 taken off. The scumming and evaporation are continued 
 till the liquor becomes finer and thicker, and so far dimi- 
 nished in bulk, that it may be easily contained in the second 
 copper. When put into the second copper it is nearly of 
 the colour of Madeira wine; the boiling and scumming are 
 continued, and if the impurities be considerable, a quantity 
 of limewater is added. This process is carried on, till the 
 liquor be sufficiently diminished in quantity to be contained 
 in the third copper. After being purified a third time it is 
 put into the fourth copper, which is called the teache, where 
 it is boiled and evaporated, till it is judged sufficiently pure 
 to be removed from the fire. To judge of the purity of the 
 liquor, many of the negroes Examine the appearance of the 
 grain on the back of the ladle. But the pradlice most in 
 use, is to judge by what is called the touch; i. e. taking up 
 with the thumb a small portion of the hot liquor from the 
 ladle, and as the heat diminishes, drawing with the forefinger 
 the liquid into a thread. This thread will suddenly breaks 
 and shrink from the thumb to the suspended finger, in dif- 
 ferent lengths, according as the liquor is more or less boiled. 
 The proper boiling length for strong muscovado Sugar, is 
 generally determined by a thread of a quarter of an inch 
 long. 
 
 The juice being thus purified by passing through the cla- 
 rifier and four coppers, it is poured into coolers, which are 
 shallow wooden vessels. As the liquor cools, the Sugar grains 
 colle£l into an irregular mass of imperfedf crystals, separating 
 from the melasses. It is then removed from the cooler, and 
 conveyed to the curing house, where the melasses drain from 
 
325 
 
 it. For receiving them there is a large cistern, the sloping 
 sides of which are lined with boards. Directly above the 
 cistern, a frame of joist-work without boarding is placed, 
 on which empty hogsheads without heads are ranged. The 
 bottoms of these hogsheads are pierced with eight or ten 
 holes, in each of which the stalk of a plantain leaf is fixed, 
 so as to proje6l six or eight inches below the joists, and rise 
 a little above the top of the hogshead. The hogsheads feeing 
 filled with the contents of the cooler, consisting of Sugar 
 and melasses, the latter being liquid, drain through the 
 spungy stalk, and drop into the cistern. After the melasses 
 are drained olF, the Sugar becomes dry and fair, and is then 
 called muscovado or raw Sugar. 
 
 This is the process for extracting Sugar generally adopted 
 in the West India islands, according to the latest improve- 
 ments. It will not be disagreeable now to learn, by what 
 methods the French make their clayed Sugars, purer and 
 whiter than our muscovadoes. A quantity of Sugar from 
 the cooler is put into conical pans or earthen pots, called by 
 the French formes, having a small perforation at the apex, 
 which is kept closed. Each pan, reversed on its apex, is 
 supported in another earthen vessel. The syrup is stirred 
 together, and then left to crystallize. At the end of fifteen 
 or sixteen hours, the hole in the point of each cone is opened, 
 that the impure syrup may run out. The base of these Sugar 
 loaves is then taken out, and white pulverized Sugar sub- 
 stituted in its stead; which being well pressed down, the 
 whole is covered with clay moistened with water. This 
 water filters through the mass, carrying the Syrup with it, 
 which was mixed with the Sugar, but which by this manage- 
 ment flows in a pot substituted in the place of the first. This 
 second fluid is called fine syrup. Care is taken to moisten, 
 and keep the clay to a proper degree of softness, as it be- 
 comes dry. The Sugar loaves are afterwards taken out, and 
 dried in a stove for eight or ten days, after which they are 
 pulverized, packed, and exported to Europe, where they 
 are still further purified. The reason assigned why this 
 process is not universally adopted in the British Sugar islands, 
 is this, that the water v/hich dilutes, and carries away the 
 melasses, dissolves and carries with it so much Sugar, that 
 the difierence in quality does not pay for the difference in 
 quantity. The French planters probably think otherwise. 
 All the Sugar coming from the East Indies is clayed, and 
 manufadfured in a similar manner to that in the French 
 West India islands. But as there are no slaves, the Sugar 
 
526 
 
 estates in the East are condudled in a very different and 
 more improved manner, from what they are in the West 
 India islands. The superintendant of a Sugar estate agrees 
 to give such a price p. pecul to any set of tradesmen, for 
 cutting all his crop of cane, carrying them to the mill, and 
 grinding them. With a second set he agrees, to boil them 
 •at so much p. pecul; with a third to clay them, &c. This, 
 like all other complex arts, by being divided into several 
 branches, renders the labour cheaper and the work more 
 perfectly done. 
 
 The art of refining Sugar was first made known to the 
 Europeans by a Venetian, who is said to have received 100,000 
 crowns for the invention. This discovery was made before 
 the New World was explored; but whether it was an in- 
 vention of the person who first communicated it, or whether 
 it was conveyed from China, where it had been known for 
 a considerable time before, cannot now perhaps be accurately 
 ascertained. We find no mention made of the refining of 
 Sugar in Britain till the year 1659, though it probably was 
 praflised several years before. For in the Portuguese island 
 of St. Thomas, in 1624, there were seventy-four Sugar in- 
 genios, each having upwards of two hundred slaves. 
 
 The Sugar which undergoes the operation of refining in 
 Europe, is either raw Sugar, sometimes called muscovado, 
 or it is clayed Sugar. The raw Sugar generally contains a 
 certain quantity of melasses as well as earthy and feculent 
 substances, whereas the clayed Sugar is freed from its me- 
 lasses. The first process which Sugar undergoes, which is 
 to be refined, is called clarification. It consists in dissolving 
 the Sugar in a certain proportion of lime-water, adding a 
 proper quantity of bullock’s blood, and exposing it to heat, 
 in order to remove the impurities. 
 
 The heat is increased gradually till it approaches that of 
 boiling water. By the assistance of the heat, the animal 
 matter which was thrown in, coagulates, at the same time 
 that it attracls all the solid, feculent, and earthy matter, and 
 raises it to the surface, in the appearance of a thick foam of 
 a brownish colour; \vhen they are skimmed off. As the 
 feculencles are never entirely removed by a first process, a 
 second is necessary; and the same operation is repeated a 
 third, and even a fourth time; but in the two latter opera- 
 tions, no addition is made to the liquor, except water. If 
 the different processes have been properly condu6led, the 
 solution will be freed from every impurity and appear tran- 
 sparent. It is then conveyed into an oblong basket, about 
 
327 
 
 sixteen inches deep, lined with a woollen cloth; and after 
 filtering through this cloth, it is received in a cistern or cop- 
 per, which is placed below. 
 
 The solution being thus clarified, it undergoes a second 
 general operation, called evaporation. Fire is applied to the 
 copper into which the solution was received, and the liquid is 
 boiled till it has acquired the proper degree of consistency. A 
 judgment is formed of this by taking up a small portion of the 
 liquid, and drawing it into a thread. When after this trial it 
 is found sufficiently viscous, the fire is extinguished, and the 
 liquid poured into coolers. It is then stirred violently by an 
 intrument called an oar. This is done in order to diminish 
 the viscosity, and promote the granulation. When the liquid 
 is properly mixed and cooled, it is then poured into moulds 
 of the form of a Sugar loaf. The small ends, which are 
 lowest, are placed in pots; and they have each of them aper- 
 tures stopped up with linen, for filtering the syrup. When the . 
 moulds are filled, and the contents still in a fluid state, it is 
 necessary to stir them, that no part may adhere to the moulds, 
 and that the small crystals which are just formed, may be e- 
 qually diffused though the whole mass. When the Sugar is 
 completely crystallized, the linen is taken away from the 
 apertures in the moulds, and the syrup descends into the pots 
 in which the moulds are placed. After this a stratum of 
 fine white clay, diluted with water. Is laid on the upper part 
 of the loaf. The water descending tjarough the Sugar by its 
 own weight, mixes with the syrup, which still remains in the 
 body of the loaf, and washes it away. When the clay dries, 
 it is replaced every time by fresh moist clay. After the loaves 
 have stood some days in the moulds, and have acquired a con- 
 siderable degree of firmness and solidity, they are taken out 
 and carried to a stove, where they are gradually heated to fifty 
 degrees of Reaumur, in order to dissipate any moisture which 
 may be still confined in them. After remaining in the stove 
 eight days they are taken out, and being wrapped in blue 
 paper, they are ready for sale. This process refers to Sugar 
 once refined; double refined Sugar is clarified by white of 
 eggs instead of blood, and fresh water instead of lime water. 
 
 The beauty of refined Sugar, when formed into Ipaves or 
 lumps, consists in whiteness, joined to a smallness of grain; 
 in being dry, hard, gnd somewhat transparent. 
 
328 
 
 SUGAR-CANDY. 
 
 * 
 
 F. Sucre Candy, 
 
 G. Kandis%uher 
 
 SW. Candisocker t Sockcrcan^ 
 
 di. 
 
 D. Kandy i Kandy^utker. 
 
 I. Ttucchero candi o candito. 
 S. Jzucar piedra 6 cande* 
 P. Assiicar candi. 
 
 POL. Cukier lodonjjaty, 
 Ledenex. 
 
 L. Saccharum cantum, crys^ 
 
 tallinutn. 
 
 DA. Sukkerkandi» 
 
 Sugar Candy is a preparation of Sugar made by meiting 
 and crystallizing it six or seven times over, to render it 
 hard or transparent. It is of three kinds; white, yellow, 
 and red. The white comes from the loaf, the yellow from 
 the clayed, and the red from the muscovado Sugar. 
 
 SULPHUR; see Brimstone. 
 
TALLOW. 
 
 F. Sai/'. 
 
 G. Ta/g, 
 
 D. Talg, Talg. 
 
 I. Se^vOy Sega. 
 
 S. Sebo, 
 
 P. Sebo, 
 
 Tallow is a sort of animal fat, melted down and clarified 5 
 being used in making soap, and the dressing of leather, but 
 chiefly in the making of candles. 
 
 Tallow is either yellow or white candle, or soap tallow. 
 Its goodness consists in its sweetness and purity. Our chief 
 importation of Tallow is from Russia; considerable quan- 
 tities are also brought to Europe from America. 
 
 TAMARINDS, 
 
 SW. Talg. 
 POL. Lay, 
 
 R. Salo toplenoe* 
 L. Sebum, 
 
 F. ^amarins, 
 
 G. Tamarinden, 
 D. L'amarinden, 
 I. L^amarindo, 
 
 S. Tamarindo, 
 
 P. Tamarinho. 
 DA. Tamarin. 
 SW. L^amarind, 
 L. Tamarindus, 
 
 The Tamarind tree, or tamarindus Indica, rises to the 
 height of thirty or forty feet, sending off numerous large 
 branches, which spread to a considerable extent, and have 
 a beautiful appearance; the trunk is eredt, and covered with 
 rough bark of a greyish or ash colour; the leaves ai*e small 
 and pinnated, and of a yellowish green : the flowers resem- 
 ble the papilionaceous kind, and grow in lateral clusters: the 
 fruit is a pod of a roundish compressed form, from three to 
 five inches long, containing two, three, or four seeds lodged 
 in a dark pulpy matter, of a vineous taste, of which a whole- 
 some refreshing liquor is prepared. 
 
 The fruit or pods are gathered in the West India islands, 
 in June, July, and August, arriving sooner to maturity in 
 T t 
 
330 
 
 some parts than in others. The pulp of the Tamarind, witli# 
 the seeds connefted together by numerous tough' strings or 
 fibres, are brought to us free from the outer shell and com- 
 monly preserved in syrup. According to Long, Tamarinds 
 are prepared for exportation at Jamaica in the following man- 
 ner. The pods are gathered when full ripe; the fruit is 
 then taken out of the pod, cleared from the shelly frag- 
 ments, and placed in layers in a cask-, boiling syrup just be- 
 fore it begins to granulate, is poured in, till the cask is filled. 
 The syrup pervades every part quite down to the bottom, 
 and when cool the cask is headed for sale. A better mode 
 of preserving this fruit is with sugar, well clarified with 
 eggs, till a transparent syrup is formed, which produces a 
 pleasant flavour. 
 
 The Tamarind tree is a native of both Indies, of Ame- 
 rica, Arabia, and Egypt. The fruit produced in the East- 
 Indies, is more esteemed than that of the West, and easily to 
 be distinguished by the greater length of the pods, and the 
 pulp being dryer, and of a darker colour. From the East- 
 Indies the pulp is also brought to us preserved without su- 
 gar, which makes it better adapted for medicinal composi- 
 tion. 
 
 This fruit is employed as a desert, and in medicine as a lax- 
 ative, for abating thirst and heat in various inflammatory 
 complaints, likewise for correcting putrid disorders. 
 
 TAR. 
 
 DA. T'itxre. 
 
 SW. Tjdra. 
 
 POL. Smola gesta. 
 
 R. Degot, Smola shitkaja^ 
 L. Fix liquida. 
 
 F. Goudt'on* 
 
 G. Theer, 
 D. Teer. 
 
 I. Catrame. 
 S. Alquitran. 
 
 P. Alcatrao» 
 
 Tar is mostly made from the wood pinus pinea pincaster, or 
 wild pine tree. When they have obtained all they can from 
 the sap of the tree, for the manufactory of turpentine and 
 resin, they cut it down, and hewing the wood into billets, 
 they fill a pit dug in the earth, with these billets, and being 
 set on fire, there runs from them, while they are burning, 
 a black thick matter. This naturally falls to the bottom of 
 the pit, and is the Tar. The top of the pit is covered with 
 tiles to keep the heat in, and there is at the bottom a little 
 hole, out of v/hich the Tar runs like oil. If this hole be 
 
S31 
 
 made too large, it sets the whole quantity of the tar on fire, 
 but if small enough, it runs quickly out. 
 
 The Tar being thus made, is put in barrels: and if to be 
 made in pitch they put it into large boiling vessels, without 
 adding any thing to it. It is then suffered to boil a while, 
 and on being let out and cooled, is found to be what we call 
 pitch. 
 
 The finest and clearest Tar, as it distils from the wood, 
 being kept separate, white or Burgundy pitch is made of 
 it, by melting the same with oil of turpentine. Some er- 
 roneously pretend, that Burgundy pitch is a native pitch, 
 distilling from a resinous tree growing in the mountains of 
 Franche Comte. 
 
 TARTAR*, see ArgoL 
 
 F. The. 
 
 G. Thee. 
 
 D. Thee. 
 
 I. Te. 
 
 S. The, Te. 
 P. Cha. 
 
 TEA. 
 
 DA. Thee, 
 
 SW. Thee. 
 
 POL. Her bat a, Te, 
 R. Tschai, 
 
 L. Thea. 
 
 Tea, is the dried leaves of the Tea plant, a commodity so 
 generally used among us, that it must excite the curiosity of 
 every one, to know something of its origin*, but unluckily, the 
 countries of which the Tea plant is a native, are so much 
 hidden from the exploring eyes of Europeans, that we are 
 not able to give any thing but an imperfe6f account of it. 
 
 The first European writer who mentions Tea is Giovanni 
 Botero, an eminent Italian author, who published a treatise 
 about the year 1590, of the causes of the magnificence and 
 greatness of cities. He does not indeed mention its name, 
 but describes it in such a manner, that it is impossible to 
 mistake it. “ The Chinese (says he,) have an herb, out of 
 which they press a delicate juice, which serves them for drink 
 instead of wine: it also preserves their health, and frees them 
 from all those evils, which the immoderate use of wine pro- 
 duces among us.’’ 
 
 Tea was introduced into Europe by the Dutch East India 
 Company in the year 1610. It is generally said, that it was 
 first imported from Holland into England in 1666, by the 
 Lords Arlington and Ossory, whose ladies brought it into 
 
232 
 
 fashion among people of their rank. But it was used in cof- 
 fee houses before that period, as appears from an aft of par- 
 liament made in 1660, in which a duty of 8d. was laid on 
 every gallon of the infusion sold in these places. In 1666 it 
 was sold in London for 60s. per pound, though it did not 
 cost more than 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. at Batavia. It continued 
 at this price till 1707. In 1715 green Tea began to be used; 
 and as great quantities were then imported, the price was 
 lessened, and the pradlice of drinking Tea descended to the 
 lower ranks. In 1720 the French began to send it to us by 
 a clandestine commerce. Since that period the demand has 
 been increasing yearly, and it has become almost a necessary 
 of life in several parts of Europe, among the lowest as well 
 as the highest ranks. 
 
 The following table, of the Tea imported annually into 
 Great Britain and Ireland since 1717, will give an idea of 
 the growing consumption of this article; 
 
 from 1717 to 1726 7bo,OO0lb. 
 
 1732 to 1742 1,200,0001b. 
 
 in 1755 near 4,000,000lb. 
 
 1766 .. 6,000,0001b. 
 
 1785 about 12,000,0001b. 
 
 1794 from .... 16 to 20,000, OOOlb. 
 
 Besides these immense quantities imported into Great Bri- 
 tain and Ireland, much has been brought to other parts of 
 Europe. In 1766 the whole quantity of Tea imported into 
 Europe from China amounted to seventeen millions, and in 
 1785 it was computed to be about nineteen millions of 
 pounds. 
 
 The Tea plant is a native of Japan, China, and Tonquin; 
 and has not as far as we can learn, been found growing spon- 
 taneously in any other part of the world. Linnaeus says, 
 that there are two species of the Tea plant, the bohea, and 
 the viridis or green Tea. It is an evergreen, which grows to 
 the height of five or six feet; Le Compte says ten or twelve. 
 The leaves which are the only valuable part of it, are about 
 an inch and a half long, narrow, indented and tapering to a 
 point, like those of the sweet briar, and of a dark green co- 
 lour. The flowers resemble those of the white wild rose. 
 The stem spreads into many irregular brartches. The wood 
 is hard, of a whitish green colour, and the bark is of a green- 
 ish colour, with a bitter nauseous and astringent taste. The 
 fruit is small, and contains several round blackish seeds, about 
 the bigness of a bean or large pea. 
 
This plant delights in valleys, is frequent on the sloping 
 sides of mountains, and the banks of rivers, where it enjoys 
 a southern exposure. It flourishes in the northern latitudes 
 of Pekin, as well as round Canton, but attains the greatest 
 perfection in the mild temperate regions of Nankin. In Ja- 
 pan, Tea is planted round the borders of fields, without re- 
 gard to the soil: but as it is an important article of com- 
 merce with the Chinese, whose fields are covered with it, 
 it is by them cultivated with care. The Tea which grows in 
 rocky ground is the best. It is propagated by seeds. 
 
 The leaves are not fit for being plucked till the shrub be 
 of three years growth. In seven years it rises to a man’s 
 height; but as it then bears but few leaves it is cut down to 
 the stem, and this produces a new crop of fresh shoots the 
 following summer, every one of which bears nearly as many 
 leaves as a whole shrub. Sometimes the plants are not cut 
 down till they are ten years old. We are informed by 
 Koempfer that there are three seasons in which the leaves 
 are colle<Sl:ed in the isles of Japan, from which the Tea de- 
 rives difierent degrees of perfe^ion. 
 
 The first gathering commences at the end of February or 
 beginning of March. The leaves are then small, tender, 
 and unfolded, and not above three or four days old: these 
 are called fichi-tsiaa^ or Tea in powder; it is also called Im- 
 perial Tea, being generally reserved for the court and peo- 
 ple of rank; and sometimes it is also named bloom Tea. It 
 is sold in China for 20d. or 2s. per lb. The labourers em- 
 ployed in collecting k do not pull the leaves by handfuls, but 
 pick them one by one, and take every precaution that they 
 may not break them. 
 
 The second crop is gathered about the end of March, or 
 beginning of April. At this season part of the leaves have 
 attained their full growth, and the rest are not half their 
 size. This difference however does not prevent them from 
 being all gathered indiscriminately. They are afterwards 
 picked and assorted into different parcels, according to their 
 age and size. The youngest are carefully separated from the 
 rest, and often sold for Imperial Tea. 
 
 The third crop is gathered in the end of May, or in the 
 month of June. The leaves are then very numerous and 
 thick, and have acquired their full growth. This is the 
 coarsest kind of Tea of all, and is reserved for the common 
 people. Some of the Japanese colleCt their Tea only at 
 two seasons of the year, which correspond to the second 
 and third already mentioned; others confine themselves to 
 
234 
 
 4 
 
 one general gathering of their crop towards the month of 
 June; however, they always form afterwards different as- 
 sortments of the leaves. 
 
 The finest and most celebrated Tea of Japan is that which 
 grows near Ud-si, a small village situated close to the sea, 
 and not far distant from Meaco. In the distridl: of this vil- 
 lage is a mountain extremely adapted for the culture of fine 
 Tea. It is enclosed by hedges and ditches to prevent all ac- 
 cess to it. The Tea shrubs that grow on this mountain are 
 planted in regular order, and are divided by different ave- 
 nues and alleys. Tlie care of this place is entrusted to peo- 
 ple who are ordered to guard the leaves from dust, and to 
 defend them from the inclemency of the weather. Before 
 collecting the Tea they abstain from every kind of gross food 
 for some weeks, that their breath and perspiration may not 
 in the least injure the leaves, which they do not touch but 
 with very fine gloves. When this fine Tea has undergone 
 the process necessary for its preservation, it is escorted by 
 the superintendant of the mountain, and a strong guard, 
 to the Emperor’s court, and reserved for the use of the Im- 
 perial family. 
 
 When the Tea leaves have been collected they are expo- 
 sed to the steam of boiling water; after which they are put 
 upon plates of copper, and held over the fire until they be- 
 come dry and shrivelled, and appear such as we have them 
 in Europe. According to the testimony of Koempfer Tea is 
 prepared in the isles of Japan in the following manner. 
 There are public buildings ereCted for the purpose of prepa- 
 ring the fresh gathered Tea. These buildings contain a 
 great number of small stoves raised about three feet high, 
 and each of which has a broad plate of iron fixed over its 
 mouth. The workmen are seated round a large table co- 
 vered with mats, and are employed in rolling the Tea leaves, 
 which are spread out upon them. When the iron plates are 
 heated to a certain degree by the fire they cover them with 
 a few pounds of fresh gathered leaves, which being green 
 and full of sap, crackle as soon as they touch the plate. It 
 is then the business of the workman to stir them with his na- 
 ked hands as quickly as possible, until they become so warm, 
 that he cannot easily endure the heat. He then takes off the 
 leaves with a kind of shovel, and lays them upon mats. The 
 people who are employed in mixing them take a small quan- 
 tity at a time, roll them in their hands always in the same 
 direction; while others keep continually stirring them, in or- 
 der that they may cool sooner, and preserve their shrivelled 
 
335 
 
 figure the longer. This process is repeated two or three 
 times, and even oftener, before the Tea is deposited in the 
 warehouses. These precautions are necessary to extract all 
 the moisture from the leaves. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to introduce this valuable 
 plant into Europe, but from want of proper precautions most 
 of these attempts have miscarried. The plants which are cul- 
 tivated in the gardens near London, thrive well in the green 
 house during winter, and some stand that season in the open 
 air. 
 
 In this country Teas are generally divided into three kinds 
 of green, and five of bohea: the former are, 1. Imperial or 
 Bloom Tea, with a large loose leaf, light green colour, and 
 faint delicate smell; 2. Hyson, so called from the merchant 
 who first imported it: the leaves of this are closely curled 
 and small of a green colour, verging to a blue; and 3. Sin- 
 glo Tea, from the name of the place where it is cultivated. 
 The Boheas are, 1. Souchong, which imparts a yellow green 
 colour by infusion; 2. Camho, so called from the place where 
 it is made, a fragrant Tea, with a violet smell, its infusion 
 pale; 3. Congo, which has a larger leaf than the following, 
 and its infusion somewhat deeper, resembling common Bo- 
 hea in the colour^of the leaf; 4. Pekoe Tea, known by the 
 appearance of small white flowers mixed with it; 5. Com- 
 mon Bohea, whose leaves are of one colour. There are 
 other varieties, particularly a kind of green Tea; done up 
 in roundish balls, called gunpowder Tea. 
 
 Tea is the common drink of the Chinese; and was not 
 Introduced among them through vain caprice. Almost 
 throughout the empire the water is unwholsome and nau- 
 seous. Of all the methods that were tried to improve it, 
 none succeeded so well as Tea. Upon trial, it was thought 
 to be endued with other virtues, and was extolled as an ex- 
 cellent dissolvent, a purifier of the blood, a strengthener of 
 the head and stomach, and a promoter of digestion and per- 
 spiration. ' ‘ 
 
 We know the^rfiinese reserve the best Tea for themselves, 
 and adulterate that intended for exportation; we know also, 
 that since the exportation has been so great, they are not 
 so circumspe£l: in the choice of the soil, nor so careful in 
 the preparation of the Tea, and that our manner of using it 
 too hot and strong, always mixed with a deal of sugar, fre- 
 quently with perfumes, and sometimes with pernicious li- 
 quors, must contribute to lessen its virtues. Notwithstanding 
 all this, the frenzy for this Asiatic infusion has now become 
 
336 
 
 almost universal in the northern parts of Europe 5 but it can- 
 not be denied, that since its first introdudlion, it has con- 
 tributed more to the sobriety of the nation, than the severest 
 laws, the most eloquent harangues of Christian orators, or 
 the best treatises of morality. 
 
 TERRA JAPANICAj see Japan Earth, 
 
 TERRA LEMNIA; sqq Bole, 
 
 TERRA POZZOLANA; see Puzzulana, 
 
 TERRA SIGILLATA; see Bole, 
 
 TERRE VERTE, 
 
 Is the name of a green earth much used by painters, both 
 singly for a good standing green, and in mixture with other 
 colours. 
 
 It is an indurated clay, of a deep bluish-green colour, and 
 is found in the earth in lumps of different sizes. It is of a 
 fine regular and even struiSlure, and not very hard; of an 
 even and glossy surface, very smooth to |he touch, and in 
 some degree resembling the morochthus, or French chalk, 
 but adhering firmly to the tongue. It does not ferment 
 with acids, and burns to a dusky brown colour. 
 
 This earth is dug in the island of Cyprus, and in many 
 parts of France and Italy. That from the neighbourhood of 
 Verona has been esteemed the best in the world; but of late 
 there has been aome dug in France that equals it. There is 
 also an earth dug on Mendip Hills, in the sinking for coal, 
 which, though wholly unnoticed, is nearly, if not wholly, 
 of equal value. 
 
 TIN. - ' 
 
 F. Etain, 
 
 G. Zinn, " 
 
 D. Tin, 
 
 1. Stagno, 
 
 S, EstagnOt Peltre, 
 P. Estanho, * 
 
 DA. Tin. 
 SW. Tenn. 
 POL. Cyna, 
 R. Olo^juo. 
 L. Stannum, 
 
 The colour of this metal resembles silver, but is somewhat 
 darker. It is softer, less elastic and sonorous, than any 
 other metal, except lead. When bent backwards and for- 
 
wards, it occasions a crackling sound, as if torn asunder. It 
 is the lightest of all the malleable metals, being little more 
 than seven times specifically heavier than water. 
 
 Tin is commonly reckoned the least ductile of all metals 
 except lead; and certainly is so in regard to ductility into 
 wire, but not in regard to extensibility into leaves. It melts 
 the most easily of all the metals. Heated till almost ready 
 to melt it becomes so brittle, that large blocks may be easily 
 beat to pieces by a blow. The purer sort, from its facility 
 of breaking into long shining pieces, is called grain Tin, 
 
 With the heat necessary for fusion it may also be calcined; 
 or at least so far deprived of its phlogiston, as to appear in 
 the form of a grey calx, which may be entirely reduced to 
 Tin by the addition oflnflammable matter. By longer con- 
 tinuance in the fire the metal is converted from a greyish 
 into a perfeflly white calx, called putty^ which is used for 
 polishing glass, and other hard bodies. 
 
 The calx of Tin is the most refradlory of all others. Even 
 in the focus of a large burning mirror it only softens a little, 
 and forms crystalline filaments. With glass of bismuth, and 
 the simple and arsenical glasses of lead, it forms opaque milky 
 compounds. By this property it is fitted for making the 
 basis of the imperfect glasses called efiamels. 
 
 The vapours which rise from Tin, by whatever method it 
 is calcined, have generally an arsenical smell. The arsenic 
 is strongly retained by the Tin, so as scarcely to be separable 
 by any degree of fire. Hence as the Tin ores abound in 
 arsenic^ the common Tin is found also to participate of that 
 mineral. It has been observed that Malacca Tin, which is one 
 of the purest sorts, yielded no less than one-fourth of its 
 weight of arsenical crystals. 
 
 Tin, notwithstanding its being soon deprived of its lustre, is 
 nevertheless much less liable to rust than iron, copper, or lead ; 
 and hence is advantageously used for covering over the in- 
 sides of other metalline vessels. The amalgama of mercury 
 and Tin is employed to cover one of the surfaces of looking 
 glasses. • •. 
 
 There are considerable Tin mines on the Malabar coast, 
 the island of Banda, in Spain, and in the Spanish West 
 Indies ; both the latter are not worked. But mines which 
 produce by far more Tin than any of the above are those 
 of the county of Cornwall. The Phenicians early visited 
 these coasts for the said article, some think four hundred or 
 four hundred and fifty years before Christ, and the mines 
 continued to be wrought, with various success, at different 
 U u 
 
S38 
 
 periods. In the time of King John they appear to have 
 yielded no great emolument^ the right of working them 
 being wholly in the king, as Earl of Cornwall*, but in the 
 time of Richard, king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall, 
 the Tin-mines were immensely rich. After that time they 
 Were again neglected, till the gentlemen of Blackmore, lords 
 of seven tithings, best stored with Tin at that time, obtained 
 of Edmund, Earl of Cornwall, son of Richard king of the 
 Romans, a charter under his own seal, with more explicit 
 grants of privileges. 
 
 The Tin of the whole county, which in Carew’s time in 
 the last century amounted from to 40,000 yearly, has 
 of late amounted from ^.180,000 to. 190,000 sterling. Of 
 this the duke of Cornwall receives for his 4s. duty on every 
 cwt. of coined white Tin about ^.10,000 yearly; the bounders 
 or proprietors of the soil about one-sixth at a medium clear, 
 or about ^.30,000 yearly; the remainder goes to the adven- 
 turers in the mine, who are at all the charge of working. 
 
 Tin is found collected and fixed in lodes and floors, or in 
 grains and bunches, in the natural rock; or loose and de- 
 tached in single separate stones, called shodes or streams; 
 or in a continued course of such stones, called the beuheyl 
 or living stream; or in an arenaceous pulverized state. 
 
 The Tin being divided among the lords and adventurers 
 is stamped and worked at the mill; and being thus dressed, 
 is carried under the name of black Tin to the melting house, 
 where it is melted by Welsh pit-coal, poured int^ blocks or 
 bars, and carried to the coinage town. 
 
 The coinage towns are five towns, appointed in the most 
 convenient parts of the county of Cornwall, for the tinners 
 to bring their Tin to every quarter of a year. These are: 
 Leskard, Lestwithiel, Truro, Helston, and Penzance. 
 
 TIN GLASS; see Bismuth, 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 F. I'abac, 
 
 G. Tabak, 
 D. Tabak, 
 I. I' abac CO., 
 S. Tabaco. 
 P. Tabacco. 
 
 DA. ’Tobak. 
 SW. Tobak, 
 POL. Tabaka. 
 R. Tabak. 
 
 L. Tabacum, 
 
 The Tobacco plant, nicotiana tobacum, was first discovered 
 by the Spaniards in 1520, near Tobasco, a province of Yu- 
 
 / 
 
SS9 
 
 tatan, in the gulf" of Mexico; whence it derives its name* 
 It had been used by the inhabitants of America long before 
 that period, and was soon after brought to our climates. 
 The French at its first introduction among them gave it 
 several names; as nicotiana, or the embassador’s herb, from 
 J. Nicot, the French embassador at Lisbon, wdio brought 
 some of it from thence. Sir Walter Raleigh is generally 
 said to have been the first who introduced it into England, 
 about the year 1585, and who taught his countrymen how 
 to smoke it. 
 
 There are two varieties of that species of Tobacco which 
 is cultivated for common use; which are distinguished by 
 the names Oronokoe and sweet scented Tobacco. They 
 differ from each other only in thefigure of their leaves; thoseof 
 the former being longer and narrower than the latter. The 
 Oronokoe is principally used for smoking, and the sweet 
 scented Tobacco for snufF. They are tall herbaceous plants, 
 rising with a strong stem from six to nine feet high. The 
 stalk near the root is upwards of an inch in diameter, and 
 surrounded v/ith a kind of hairy or velvet clammy substance, 
 of a yellowish green colour. The leaves are rather of a 
 deeper green, and grow^ alternately, at the distance of two 
 or three inches from each other; but as they increase in ^ize 
 they acquire a yellowish cast. They are oblong, of appear 
 shaped oval, the largest about twenty inches long, but de- 
 creasing in size as they ascend, till they come to be only ten 
 inches long, and about half as broad. The stem and branches 
 are terminated by large bunches of flowers coliedfed into 
 clusters, of a delicate red, the edges inclining to a pale purple; 
 these are succeeded by seeds of a brown colour, and kidney 
 shaped. The seeds are very small, each capsule containing 
 about one thousand; and the whole produce of a single plant 
 is reckoned at about 350,000. 
 
 Tobacco thrives best in a warm, light, kindly-rich soil* 
 It is generally sown about the middle of April, and in about 
 a month’s time it has four or five leaves, when it is fit for 
 being transplanted. When it has risen to the height of two 
 feet or more, it commonly begins to put forth the branches 
 on which the flowers and seeds are produced; but as this 
 expansion if suffered to take place would drain the nutriment 
 from the leaves, and thereby lessen their size and efficacy, 
 it becomes needful at this stage to nip off the extremity of 
 the stalk, to prevent its growing higher. In some parts, 
 when the Tobacco is designed to be remarkably powerful, 
 eleven or twelve leaves only are allowed to expand; but 
 
sometimes the planter suffers it to put forth more, as far as 
 eighteen or twenty, in proportion to the degree of strength 
 or mildness, which he wishes his crop to have. In this cal- 
 culation, the three or four inferior and smaller leaves next 
 the ground are not to be reckoned. 
 
 When the Tobacco is fit to be gathered, which will appear 
 from the leaves becoming more corrugated or rough, and mot- 
 tled with yellowish spots on the raised parts, it will be necessary 
 to cut the plants down, as close to the root as possible, which 
 being done in the morning, they must be left exposed to the 
 rays of the sun till the leaves become limber, and bend any 
 way without breaking. Then the plants must be laid in heaps 
 to ferment. The longer they lie in this situation, which is 
 called sweating, the darker coloured is the Tobacco; and 
 after having been left in it for three or four days, they may be 
 fastened together in pairs, and hung across a pole. In about 
 a month the leaves will be thoroughly dried, and of a proper 
 temperature to be taken down. As soon as taken down they 
 must again be laid in a heap, and pressed with heavy logs 
 of wood for about a week. This is called the second and last 
 sweating, and when compleated, the leaves are tied up in 
 bunches or hands, and kept in a cellar or other damp place, 
 fit for sale. 
 
 Among all the productions of foreign climates introduced 
 into these Kingdoms, scarce any has been held in higher es- 
 teem by persons of every rank, thanTobacco. In the countries 
 of which it is a native, it is considered by the Indians as the 
 most valuable offering that can be made to the beings they 
 worship. 
 
 The inhabitants of the East Indies, and of Africa, culti- 
 vate Tobacco only for their own use. They neither sell nor 
 purchase any. 
 
 In Turkey the Tobacco leaves^are soaked in salt-water, 
 before they are dried, to extract some of their acrimony and 
 render them more mild. 
 
 The Turks smoke their Tobacco either in the common 
 way, or they draw the smoke through water, in order to 
 render it milder, and make it less disagreeable to the smell 
 and taste. The Persian Tobacco is the only sort fit to be 
 smoked through water; it is stronger than the ordinary To- 
 bacco of the East and smokes disagreeable in a common 
 pipe. It appears that the use of Tobacco was not known in 
 Turkey, earlier than the seventeenth cerXury. 
 
 Salonica is the great mart for Tobacco in the Levant. Sy- 
 ria, the Morea or the Peloponnesus, and Egypt, send there 
 
S41 
 
 nil their superfluous quantity. From this port it Is sent to 
 Italy, where it is smoked, after it has been mixed with To- 
 bacco of Dalmatia and Croatia. 
 
 The Tobacco of these two last provinces Is of a very ex- 
 cellent kind : but it is so strong that it cannot be used till 
 mixed with a milder sort. 
 
 The Tobacco of Hungary would be tolerably good if it 
 had not generally a smell of smoke, which is very disgusting. 
 
 In Ukraine, Livonia, Prussia, and Pomerania, they cul- 
 tivate a tolerably large quantity of this production. Its leaves 
 are wider than they are long, very thin, and have neither 
 flavour nor consistence. 
 
 The Tobacco of the Palatinate Is very indifferent, but has 
 the quality of mixing with a better kind, and of acquiring 
 its flavour. 
 
 Holland also furnishes Tobacco; that which is produced 
 in the province of Utrecht, at Ammersfort, and four or five 
 neighbouring districts, is of a superior quality. Its leaves 
 are large, supple, oily, and of a good colour. It has the 
 advantage of communicating its perfume to Tobacco of infe- 
 rior value. There is a great deal of this latter sort upon the 
 territories of the Republic; but the species which grows in 
 Guelderlaiid Is the worst of any. 
 
 Tobacco was formerly cultivated in France, and with great 
 success, near Pont de f Arche in Normandy; at Verton in 
 Picardy; and at Montauban, Tonneins, and Cleral, in Guy- 
 enne. It was prohibited in 1721, except upon some frontier 
 towns, wdiose terms of capitulation it was not thought proper 
 to infringe. In consequence of this. Tobacco was cultivated 
 previous to the revolution in Flanders and Alsace. These 
 Tobaccos, though weak, may be mixed without inconveni- 
 ence, with others of a superior kind. 
 
 In the beginning, the islands of the New World attended 
 to the culture of Tobacco, but it was by degrees succeeded 
 by richer productions in them all, except Cuba, which sup- 
 plies all the snuff consumed by the Spaniards of both hemi- 
 spheres. Its perfume is exquisite, but it is too strong. The 
 same crown derives from Caraccas, the Tobacco which is 
 smoked by its subjeCts in Europe. It is likewise used in the 
 North, and in Holland, because there is none to be found 
 any where to be compared with It for this purpose. Hence 
 the Havanna segars. 
 
 The Brazils cultivated this production very early, and 
 have^ot since disdained it. They have been encouraged in 
 
this pursuit by the constant repute which their Tobacco has 
 enjoyed upon the western coasts of Africa. Even in our 
 climates it is in tolerable request among persons who smoke. 
 It could not be taken in snuff on account of its acrimony, 
 without the preparations which it undergoes. These prepa- 
 rations consist in soaking every leaf in a decodtion of Tobacco 
 and Gum Copal. These leaves, thus steeped, are formed 
 into rolls, and wrapped up in the skin of an ox, which keeps 
 up their, moisture. 
 
 But the Tobaccos of all these countries are but small, and 
 the quality upon the whole very inferior, compared to the 
 Maryland and the Virginia crops, the former province pro- 
 ducing, principally, Tobacco fit for smoking, and the latter 
 for snuff. 
 
 From 1752 till the end of 1755 Great Britain received 
 from Virginia and Maryland together, 3,501,110 cwt. of 
 Tobacco, being for each year 875,280 cwt. Great Britain 
 exported 2,989,800 cwt. which reduced its annual consump- 
 tion to 127,830 cwt. From the year 1763 till the end of 
 1770, the two colonies sent to the mother country no more 
 than 6,500,000 cwt. or 812,500 cwt. each of the eight 
 years. No more was sold to foreigners than 5,H'8,000 cwt. 
 or 643,500 cwt. per annum; the nation therefore annually 
 consumed 169,000 cwt. 
 
 In the interval between these two periods therefore, the 
 importation decreased annually, one year with another 
 62,780 cwt. and the exportation 103,950 cwt. while the 
 consumption in England increased 41,170 cwt. every year. 
 
 The use of Tobacco has not decreased in Europe; the 
 passion for this superfluity has even increased, notwithstand- 
 ing the heavy duties with which it has been burthened by 
 all governments. If the Tobacco furnished by North Ame- 
 rica be daily less sought after among us, it is because Hol- 
 land, Alsace, the Palatinate and Russia, have carried on 
 this culture with great industry. 
 
 Tobacco is used in medicine, externally and internally. 
 
343 
 
 TOPAZ. 
 
 F. Topase. 
 
 G. Topas. 
 D. 'Topaas. 
 I. Topaxto, 
 S. Top ado. 
 P« Topaxio. 
 
 DA. Topas, 
 SW. Topas. 
 POL. Topaxyn. 
 R. Topas. 
 
 L. Topasius. 
 
 The Topaz is a sort of a precious stone; being transparent, 
 of a beautiful yellow, or gold colour, very hard, and takes 
 a fine polish. It is found in several parts of the East Indies, 
 in Ethiopia, Arabia, Peru, and Bohemia. The oriental To- 
 pazes are most esteemed, whose colour borders on the orange; 
 those of Peru are softer, but their colour much the same; 
 the yellow of those of Bohemia is a little blackish, they are 
 softest of all, and their polish the coarsest. This gem is 
 easily counterfeited ; and there are fa6litious Topazes, to the 
 eye not inferior to the real ones. 
 
 TORTOISE SHELL. 
 
 F. Ecaille (de tortuejy Caret. 
 
 G. Schildpad, Tchildkrotcn 
 schale. 
 
 D. Schildpad. 
 
 I. Tartaruga. 
 
 S. Carey, Concha, 
 
 P. Tartaruga, Concha, 
 DA. Skildpaddeskal. 
 
 SW. Skoldpadda. 
 
 POL. Skorupa xolavia. 
 
 R. Kost tscherepachonuaja, 
 L. Testudinis testa. 
 
 Tortoise shell is the shell, or rather the scales, of the 
 testaceous animal called the tortoise, used in inlaying and in 
 various other works, as for snuffboxes, combs, &c. 
 
 The best Tortoise shell is thick, clear, transparent, of the 
 colour of antimony, sprinkled with brown and white. When 
 used in marquetry, &c. the workmen give it what colour 
 they please by means of coloured leaves, which they put 
 underneath it. 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
344 . 
 
 TRAIN OIL. 
 
 F. Huile de poisscn. 
 
 G. Fisch Fhran, 
 
 D. Thraan. 
 
 I . Olio di pesce. 
 
 S. Gras a, Aceito de Pescado. 
 
 P. Azeiie de peixe. 
 
 DA. Tran. 
 
 SW. Tran. 
 
 R. Salo nxioYnjoannoey Wor^an, 
 L. Oleum piscinum. 
 
 Train-oil is a general name for different sorts of fish oils ; 
 such as whale, seal, cod, elephant, pilchard oil, &c. Among 
 these, whale oil is by far the most important article. 
 
 Great Britain was for a long time agitated with the desire 
 of sharing the whale fishery with the Dutch; and. the legis- 
 lature justly considering that trade as of great national im- 
 portance, bestowed upon it, at different periods, very con- 
 siderable encouragement. In particular, every British ves- 
 sel bound for the whale fishery and duly qualified according 
 to the act, obtained a license to proceed on such voyage, 
 and on her return, the master and mate making oath that 
 they proceeded on such voyage, and no other, and used all 
 their endeavours to take whales, &c. also that all the blub- 
 ber, fins, &c. imported in their ship were taken by the crew, 
 there was allowed 40s. for each ton according to the admea- 
 surement of the ship. It was afterwards found however, 
 that so great an encouragement was not necessary, and in 
 1786 the bounty was reduced to 30s. The number of ships 
 employed said year in the whale fishery, to Davis’s straits 
 and the Greenland seas, amounted to one hundred and thirty- 
 nine from England, and fifteen from Scotland. The reduc- 
 tion took place in 1787, and notwithstanding it, the trade 
 increased. The number of ships employed the same year 
 from England amounting to two hundred and seventeen, 
 and in the year 1788,^ to two hundred and twenty-two 
 vessels. 
 
 The face of things particularly changed when the seas of 
 North America came into the possession of the English, who 
 now may be considered the first nation in the whale as well 
 as other kinds of fisheries. The whale fishery is carried 
 on there in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and adjacent lati- 
 tudes. These seas are less tempestuous, and less embarrassed 
 with ice than those of Greenland ; accordingly it begins sooner 
 and ends later. The ships employed for the purpose are 
 smaller and have less numerous crews. These reasons must 
 give to the American continent advantages, which the eco- 
 nomy of the Dutch will never be able to balance. 
 
345 
 
 In the|fereenland wKale fishery, when the fat is all got 
 cfFfrom the whale, it is cut in small pieces, and put up in tubs 
 In the hold, cramming them very full and; close; and when 
 the ships get home, this fat is boiled and melted down into 
 Train oil. In the South Sea fishery the boiled on 
 
 board the ships, as the fish are caught. 
 
 Greenland oil is purer than Southern oil, and fit for dif- 
 ferent purposes where the latter will not answer; it is on that 
 account generally worth four and five pounds per ton more. 
 
 The Seal is a native of the North seas; it is an amphibious 
 animal with four feet, and called in many places the sea- 
 calf, or sea-wolf. Its fat, which is near four inches thick, 
 is converted into Train oil, and', the Train which drops 
 from that blubber, is not more rancid, than stale oil of olives. 
 
 Train-oil is used by leather dressers, soap boilers, for 
 burning, &c. 
 
 TURKEY MADDER ROOTS; see 
 
 TURMERIC. 
 
 F. Curcuma, Terre merit e. 
 
 (ji Kurkuma. 
 
 D. Kurkuma, 
 
 I. Curcuma. 
 
 S, Curcuma, 
 
 P. Curcuma, Acafrao da In- 
 dia, 
 
 DA. Gurgumeye, 
 
 SW, Gurkmaja. 
 
 POL. Szafranica, Ostrzyz 
 indyyski, 
 
 R. Kurkuma, 
 
 L. Curcuma, Terra merit a, . 
 
 The curcuma longa, or Turmeric plant, is a shrub grow- 
 ing in the East Indies; it bears a purple red flower, succeeded 
 by a capsule which prickles like a chesnut, containing a num- 
 ber of seeds. The root bears a great resemblance to ginger, 
 and in the East Indies enters in almost every dish; with us 
 it is used for the purpose of dying yellow, sometimes also 
 by apothecaries. 
 
 TURPENTINE. 
 
 F. Terehenthine. 
 
 G. Ter pent in, 
 
 D. Terpentyn, 
 
 I. Trementina, . 
 S. Trementina, 
 P. Terebenthina, 
 
 DA. Terpentin. 
 SW. Terpetitin, 
 POL. Terpentyna, 
 R. Skipidar, 
 
 L. Terebenthina, 
 
 The true Turpentine tree is found in Spain and the sou- 
 thern parts of France, as well as in the island of Cliio and 
 X X 
 
346 
 
 in the Indies. It is a middling sized evergreen tree, with 
 leaves like those of the bay, bearing purplish imperfect flow- 
 ers; and on separate pedicles, hard unctuous berries like 
 those of juniper. It is extremely resinous, and unless the 
 resin is discharged it decays, produces fungous excrescences, 
 swells, bursts, and dies; the prevention of which consists 
 wholly in plentiful bleeding, both in the trunk and branches. 
 The juice is the Ohio or Cyprus Turpentine of the shops. This 
 sort is quite of thick consistence, of a greenish whitish 
 colour, clear and transparent, and of scarcely any taste or 
 smell. 
 
 The kind, now called Venice Turpentine^ is no other than 
 a mixture of eight parts of common yellow or black rosin, 
 with five parts of oil of Turpentine. What was originally 
 Venice Turpentine, is now unknown. 
 
 The Strasburg Turpentine is extracted from the silver 
 fir. 
 
 The common Turpentine is prepared from different sorts 
 of the pine, and is quite thick, white and opaque. Even 
 this is often counterfeited by mixtures of rosin and common 
 expressed oils. 
 
 The process of making Turpentine is very familiar. In 
 the spring, when the sap is most free in running, they pare 
 off the bark of the pine tree, to make the sap run down in 
 a hole at the bottom, which they cut to receive it. In the 
 way as it runs it leaves a white matter, like cream, but a 
 little thicker. This is very different from all the kinds of 
 rosin and Turpentine in use, and it is generally sold, to be 
 used in the making of flambeaux, instead of white bees wax. 
 The matter that is received in the hole at the bottom is 
 taken up with ladles, and put into a large basket. A great 
 part of this immediately runs through, and is the common 
 Turpentine. It is received into stone or earthen pots, and 
 is ready for sale. When Turpentine is distilled, or boiled 
 with water till it becomes solid, it appears yellowish; when 
 the process is further continued, of a reddish brown colour : 
 in the first state it is called boiled Turpentine, and in the 
 latter Colophony or Rosin, 
 
 Turpentine is much used by farriers, and for various other 
 purposes. 
 
 TURQUOISE ; see Copper, 
 
VALONEA, 
 
 F. Anjelanede. 1. Vallonea, Valonia, 
 
 G. Acker doppen. L. Valonece, 
 
 D. Akerdoppen% 
 
 Valonea is the husks of the acorn generally mixed with 
 that fruit*, though this diminishes its value. It is brought 
 to us from Italy and the Levant, and used as a dying in- 
 gredient. 
 
 VANILLA. 
 
 F. Vanille. 
 
 G. Vanilje, 
 
 D. Banilje. 
 
 I. Vainiglia. 
 
 S. Vainillay Vainica. 
 P. Vainilhat Baonilha, 
 
 DA. Vaniller, 
 SW. Baniller. 
 POL. B anile. 
 R. Bdnila, 
 
 L. Vanilla, 
 
 Vanilla in commerce, is the pod of a species of epiden- 
 drum, which is brought to us entire, and with the seeds in 
 it, being usually about five or six inches long, and half an 
 inch broad, and containing an almost innumerable quantity 
 of minute and glossy black seeds. 
 
 The Vanilla plant is a native of ’Mexico, where, like the 
 ivy, it grows to the trees it meets with, covers them almost 
 entirely, and raises itself by their aid. Its stem, of the 
 thickness of the little finger, is greenish, fleshy, almost cy- 
 lindrical, knotty at intervals, and sarmentose as that of the 
 vine. Each knot is furnished with an alternate leaf, rather 
 thick, of an oval shape, eight inches long and three broad. 
 It also pushes forth roots, which, penetrating the bark of 
 the trees, extradl a sufficient degree of nourishment, to sup- 
 port the plant for some time in vigour, when by accident 
 the bottom of the stem happens to be damaged, or even 
 separated from the principal root. The flowers are in clus- 
 ters, rather large, white on the inside, and greenish with- 
 out; they produce a fleshy fruit formed like a pod, of seven 
 or eight inches long, and opening into three valves, loaded 
 with small seeds. 
 
34-8 
 
 This plant grows naturally in uncultivated lands that are 
 always damp, sometimes under water, and cavered with 
 large trees. In order to multiply it, it is sufficient to plant 
 at the foot of the tree some branches or twigs, which take 
 root, and rise up in a short time. Some cultivators to pre- 
 serye their plants from rotting, prefer the fastening of them 
 to trees, as they soon throw out filaments which descend to 
 the ground, and form roots there. 
 
 This plant produces but one crop of fruit in a year, which 
 is commonly ripe towards the end of September, or rather 
 fit for gathering; for it is not suffered to remain till perfecl- 
 ly mature, because it is then not so fit for use. The pods 
 grow in pairs, are generally the thickness of a child’s finger, 
 green at first, then yellowish, and turning to a brownish 
 cast, when completely ripe. When it is about half changed 
 yellow, it is esteemed better for gathering, than when chan- 
 ged to a brown colour, at which time it spHts and discloses 
 its seeds. 
 
 The aromatic odour that is peculiar to them cannot be ob- 
 tained without preparation. • This preparation consists in 
 threading several pods, and dipping them for a moment in a 
 caldron of boiling w^ater to whiten them. They are after- 
 wards suspended in a place exposed to the open air, and to 
 the rays of the suh. A thick and plentiful liquor then dis- 
 tils from their extremity, the exit of which is facilitated by a 
 slight pressure, repeated two or three times in the course of 
 the day. In order to retard the drying, which ought to go 
 on slowly, they are rubbed over at several different times 
 with oil, which preserves their suppleness, and keeps them 
 from inse<Sts. They are also tied round with a cotton thread 
 to prevent them from opening. When they are sufficiently 
 dried they are rubbed with the hands, anointed with oil, and 
 put into a pot that is varnished, in order to keep them fresh. 
 In some parts after gathering, as before mentioned, they 
 scald the pods in the following liquor: viz. a brine is made 
 with salt and water strong enough to bear an egg. To this 
 are added a fourth part of chamber-lye, and a small quanti- 
 ty of quicklime: these are boiled together for half an hour 
 and then taken off. The Vanillas are put into this liquor un- 
 til thoroughly scalded, then taken out and dried in the 
 shade. When fit for market they are put up, from fifty to 
 one hundred and fifty in little bags. 
 
 Vanilla is used in the nianufa(5tury of chocolate, likewise to 
 perfume snuffs and other substances. 
 
 Only fifty quintals of it are annually brought to Europe. 
 It is found wild in many parts of Jamaica, but makes none 
 of the exports from thence. 
 
349 
 
 VERDIGRISE. 
 
 P. Verdetei Verdegris, Car- 
 dinilho. 
 
 D A . Spansk grant . 
 
 SW. Spansk grona* 
 
 POL. Gryizpan. 
 
 R, Jar. 
 
 L. Aerugo t Viride ter is ^ 
 
 Verdigrise is copper converted into a green calx by vinous 
 acid. It is much used by painters as a green colour, and 
 chiefly manufa£lured at Montpelier; the vines of Languedoc 
 being very convenient for that purport. 
 
 The following is the process used at Montpelier for ma- 
 king the Verdigrise. 
 
 Vine stalks, well dried in the sun, are put into earthen 
 pots, and upon them wine is poured. The pots being fully 
 covered, the wine then undergoes the acetous fermentation, 
 which in summer is finished in seven or eight days. When 
 the fermentation is sufficiently advanced, the stalks are taken 
 out of the pots, and being by this method impregnated with 
 all the acid of the wine, the remaining liquor is but a very 
 weak vinegar. The stalks well drained, are put in earthen 
 pots, in alternate layers with plates of copper. The copper 
 is thus left to the adl'ion of the vinegar for three or four days, 
 or more; in which time the plates become covered with 
 Verdigrise. The plates are then taken out of the pots and 
 left in the cellar three or four days; when they are moistened 
 with water, or with the weak vinegar above mentioned, and 
 left to dry. When this moistening and drying of the plates 
 has been thrice repeated, the Verdigrise will be found to 
 have considerably increased in quantity; and it may then be 
 scraped off* for sale. 
 
 To discover the method of procuring this substance could 
 not be difficult, as copper contrails a green rust oftener than 
 wished for, when in the least exposed to acids. The anci- 
 ents for this purpose used their vessels and plates of copper, 
 or only shavings and filings, and the acid they employed, 
 was either the sourest vinegar or the sour remains, left when 
 they made wine: such as grapes become sour, or the stalks 
 and skins after the juice had been pressed from them. Some- 
 times the. copper was only exposed to the vapour of vinegar 
 in close vessels, sometimes immersed in it, sometimes cop- 
 per filings were pounded with vinegar in a copper mortar, 
 till they were changed in the wished for green calx. 
 
 F. Verd-de-griSy Verdet» 
 
 G. Grunipan^ 
 
 D. Spaansch groen. 
 
 I. Verderame. 
 
 S. Cardenilloj Verdeta, Ver- 
 de -gr is- 
 
350 
 
 It appears that the greater part of the Verdigrise in ancient 
 times was made in Cyprus, which was celebrated for its cop- 
 per works, and in the island of Rhodes. 
 
 The most saleable natural Verdigrise is collected in Hun- 
 gary. The clear water which runs from old copper works is 
 put into large vessels, and after sometime, the green earth 
 falls to the bottom as a sediment. 
 
 The trade which Montpelier formerly carried on in Ver- 
 digrise, has of late very much decayed. Between the year 
 1748 and 1755, from nine to ten thousand quintals were 
 manufactured annually, by which the proprietors had a clear 
 profit of 50,000 crowns; but a sudden change seems to have 
 taken place, for in 1759 the quantity manufactured was es- 
 timated at only three thousand quintals, which gave a neat 
 profit of no more than 935 crowns. Other nations, who till 
 that period had consumed at least three fourths of the French 
 Verdigrise, have partly succeeded in their attempts of manu- 
 facturing it at home, and the use of this substance seems to 
 have greatly lessened. 
 
 Verdigrise besides its use in painting, is also employed 
 externally in medicine, for deterging foul ulcers, and as an 
 escharotic. 
 
 In commerce there is a kind of this substance known un- 
 der the name of distilled Verdigrise, which properly, is no- 
 thing else than Verdigrise purified, and somewhat crystal- 
 lized by being dissolved in vinegar. 
 
 VERDITER. 
 
 P. Verdemontanha az.uL 
 D A . Biergblaat, 
 
 SW. Bergblatt. 
 
 R. Golubez.t Mednaia lazut\ 
 L. C^eruleum montanum. 
 
 F. Cendres bleues, 
 
 G. Bergblau. 
 
 D. Betgblaaii<vj. 
 
 I, Azzurro di montagna. 
 S. Verdetierra, 
 
 Verditer is a kind of mineral substance, sometimes used 
 by painters for a blue; but more usually mixed with yellow 
 ibr a green colour. 
 
 Verditer, according to Savory, ought to be made of lapis 
 armenus, or at least of an earthy substance much like it, 
 brought from the mountains of Hungary, &c. only prepared 
 by powdering it and cleansing it by lotion. 
 
 But this stone being very scarce, the Verditer commonly 
 used, is not native, but a factitious substance, and the me- 
 thod of making it in England, is as follows: the refiners 
 pour their copper water into whiting, stirring them well to- 
 gether every day for some hours, till the water grows pale; 
 
351 
 
 then they pour that off, and pour on more of the green wa- 
 ter, repeating this till the Verditer is made, which then they 
 take out, and lay on large pieces of chalk in the sun to dry. 
 The copper water by this process deposites its particles of 
 copper with the spirit of vitriol, in the chalk. 
 
 VERMILION. 
 
 F. Vermilion, 
 
 G. Vermiljon, 
 D. Vermiljoen, 
 I. Vermiglione. 
 
 S. Vermilion. 
 
 P. Vermelhao, 
 DA. Vermillion, 
 SW. Vermilion, 
 
 Vermilion is a very bright, beautiful red colour, In great 
 esteem among the Ancients. It is either native or fadlitious. 
 The natural Vermilion is found in some silver mines, in the 
 form of a ruddy sand, which is afterwards prepared and pu- 
 rified by several lotions and cotStions. The artificial is made 
 of mineral cinnabar, ground up with aqua vitae and urine, 
 and afterwards dried. See Cinnabar, 
 
 We have two kinds of Vermilion from Holland, the one 
 of a deep red, the other pale; which difference only proceeds 
 from the cinnabars being more or less ground. When the 
 cinnabar is finely ground the Vermilion is pale, and this Is 
 preferred to that which is coarser and redder. 
 
 It is of very great use with painters in oil and miniature, 
 and among the ladies, to heighten the bloom of their com- 
 plexion. See Kermes, 
 
 F. Vinaigre, 
 
 G. Essig, 
 
 D. Jzyn, 
 
 I. Aceto* 
 
 S. Vinagre, 
 P. Vinagre. 
 
 VINEGAR. 
 
 DA. Aeddike, 
 SW. Attika, 
 POL. Ocet. 
 R, Uk%us, 
 
 L. Acetnm. 
 
 Vinegar is an acid penetrating liquor, prepared from wine, 
 cyder, beer, &c. of considerable use, both as. a medicine 
 and in the kitchen. 
 
 Vinegar can be made in a cheap manner from refuse and 
 other materials, which are frequently thrown away as use- 
 less. Such are the husks of grapes, decayed raisins, the 
 lees of wine, grounds of ale, beer, &c. all our summer 
 fruits in England, even blackberries; all the refuse washings 
 pf a sugar house, cyder pressings, and the like; all these 
 
‘ 352 
 
 ingredients will make Vinegar, with the aid of water, the 
 open air, and warmth. 
 
 The process of turning similar vegetable matters, for ex- 
 ample the skins of raisins, into^ Vinegar, is as follows. Take 
 the skins of raisins after they have been used in making 
 wine, and pour three or four times their own quantity of 
 boiling water over them, so as to make a thin aqueous mix- 
 ture. Then set the containing task loosely covered in a 
 warmer place than is used for vinous fermentation, and the 
 liquor in a few weeks time will become a clear and sound 
 Vinegar; which being drawn off from its sediment, and pre- 
 served in another cask well stopped down will continue per- 
 fect and fit for use. 
 
 Method of making cyder Vinegar. The cyder, the meanest 
 of which will serve the purpose, is first to be drawn off fine 
 into another vessel, and a quantity of the must or pouz of 
 apples to be added. The whole is set in the sun, if there 
 be a conveniency for the purpose; and at a week or nine days 
 end, it may be drawn off; 
 
 To make beer Vinegar, take a middling sort of beer, indif- 
 ferently well hopped; into which, when it has worked well, 
 and is grown fine, put some husks of grapes, and mash them 
 together in a tub, then letting it settle, draw off the liquid 
 part, and set it in the sun; the bung being slightly covered. 
 In about thirty or forty days it will be a good Vinegar. 
 
 To make wine Vinegar, any sort of vinous liquor being 
 mixed with its own fseces, and its own tartar first reduced to 
 powder, and the whole being kept frequently stirring in a 
 vessel which has formerly held Vinegar, or set in a warm 
 place full of the steams of the same, will begin to ferment 
 anew, and by degrees turn into Vinegar. 
 
 The remote subjefts of acetous fermentation are the same 
 with those of vinous; but the immediate subjedfs of it are all 
 kinds of vegetable juices, after they have once undergone 
 that fermentation which reduces them to wine; for it is ab- 
 solutely impossible to make Vinegar of must, the acute juice 
 of grapes, or other ripe fruits, without the previous assist- 
 ance of vinous fermentation. The proper ferments for this 
 operation, whereby Vinegar is prepared are: 1, The fseces of 
 all acid wines; 2, the lees of Vinegar; 3, pulverised tartar; 
 4, Vinegar itself; 5, a wooden vessel, well drenched with 
 Vinegar;' G, wine that has often been mixed with its own 
 faeces; 7, the twigs of vines and the stalks of grapes, cur- 
 rants, and all vegetables of an acid austere taste; 8, bakers 
 leaven when turned sour. 
 
S5S 
 
 ULTRAMARINE. 
 
 F. D^Outremer* 
 
 G. Ultramar in, 
 D. Ultramaryn, 
 j . Oltramarino. 
 S. Ultramar. 
 
 A 7^7/y 0 4-/1’ 
 
 POL. Ultratnaryua. 
 R. Ultramarin. 
 
 L . _ Ult ram a 7 'in um . 
 
 P. Azul d^uhratnarinho. 
 
 Ultramarine is a very fine blue powder, almost of tlie co- 
 lour of the corn flower, or blue bottle, which has this uncom- 
 mon property, that when exposed 'to the air or a moderate 
 heat, it neither fades nor becomes tarnished. On this ac- 
 count it is used in painting-, but it was employed formerly 
 for that purpose, .much more than at present; as smalts, a 
 far cheaper article, w^as not then known. It is made of the 
 blue parts of the lapis lazuli^ by separating them as much as 
 possible from the other coloured particles with which they 
 are mixed, and reducing them to a fine powder. 
 
 On account of the scarcity and great value of the lapis 
 lazuli other stones somewhat like it only in colour, have 
 been substituted in its stead; and Ultramarine of course is not 
 always what it ought to be. Good Ultramarine must be of a 
 beautiful dark colour, and free from sand, as well as every 
 other mixture. It must unite readily with oil, not become 
 tarnished on a red hot tile, or plate of iron, and it ought to 
 dissolve in strong acids, almost like the zeolite, without Cau- 
 sing an effervescence. In the year 1763 an ounce of it at 
 Paris cost four pounds sterling, and an ounce of cendre d’ou- 
 tremer, which is the refuse, two pounds. 
 
 Ultramarine, it appears must have been common about the 
 end of the fifteenth century. In the first half of the six- 
 teenth century, Vanuccio Biringoccio gave directions for 
 preparing the real Ultramarine, which he distinguishes with 
 sufficient accuracy from copper aziir. In the beginning of 
 the sixteenth century, the father of the celebrated Giamba- 
 ista Pigna, an apothecary at Modena, acquired great riches 
 
 Y V 
 
354i 
 
 by possessing the secret of making the best Ultramarine. 
 Alexius Pedemontanus in his book De Secretis, seems to 
 have been the first author wluo in the beginning of the six- 
 teenth century gave a proper account of Ultramarine. 
 
 UMBER, UMBRE. 
 
 F. Ombre. 
 
 G. Umbra. 
 
 U. Umbra. 
 
 I. Umbria i T^erra d' Ombre. 
 S. Sombra. 
 
 P. Terra sombra. 
 
 DA. Umbra. 
 SW. Umbra. 
 POL. Umbra. 
 R. Umbra. 
 
 L. Umbra.. 
 
 Umber is a fossil, of brown or blackish colour, used in 
 painting 5- so called from Umbria, the ancient name of the 
 dutchy of Spoleto in Italy, whence it was first obtained. 
 Diluted with water it serves to make a dark brown colour, 
 usually called with us hair colour. 
 
 Dr. Hill, and Mr. da Costa, consider it as an earth of the 
 ochre kind. It is found in Egypt, Italy, Spain, and Germa- 
 ny j in Cyprus also, it is found in large quantities; but what 
 we have brought into England is principally from different 
 parts of th^ Turkish dominions. 
 
WAX, BEES WAX. 
 
 F. Cire. 
 
 G, Wacks* 
 D. Wasch. 
 [. Cera. 
 
 S. Cera. 
 
 P, Cera. 
 
 DA. Fox. 
 SW. Fax. 
 POL. fFosk. 
 R. msjk. 
 
 L. Cera. 
 
 The substance wherewith the bees make their combs is 
 gathered from the stamina of flowers. It is very common to 
 see bees sitting upon flowers with their bodies all over pow- 
 der. They take care to clean themsolves of this powder with 
 the brushes of their feet, and to make it into two small balls, 
 which they place in the two triangular cavities of their hind- 
 er legs. Some of these balls are yellow, some red, others 
 green,' &c. according to the colour of the flower dust. This 
 substance however does not become Wax till it has been 
 eaten and transformed by the bee. It is said that the second 
 stomach is the organ by which this powder is altered, and 
 changed into real Wax, and is thrown out again through the 
 same passage that it went in. It is observable, that the bees 
 extract but a small quantity of real Wax out of the powder 
 which they gather, the residue serving to feed them. It is 
 with this sort of paste that they build their combs*, and 
 when dry it becomes the substance named Bees-Wax. Every 
 comb, newly made is white; but they become yellowish as 
 they grow old, and at last almost black. But all combs do 
 not furnish Wax equally white, as is well known to those 
 whose business it is to blanch it. 
 
 As it is necessary for bees to make a provision of rough 
 Wax, there is in every hive a pretty large portion of the 
 combs, whose cells are filled with nothing but Wax,, and 
 like so many little magazines, where the bees go to deposite 
 their little balls, one after another, while other bees take 
 care to knead, press, and lay them in order. The provi- 
 sions of undigested Wax which some have called bee- bread, 
 serve them in winter to feed upon. 
 
 Yellow Wax should always be of a good consistence, 
 fine colour, and of a pleasant smell. The French consi- 
 der that made in Champagne to be the best. It contains 
 
356 
 
 'j great deal of essential or acid salt and phlegm, with a 
 small quantity of oil ^ind earth. The white Wax contains 
 the same principles, only not quite so much salt. 
 
 Virgin Wax is tlrat which is made without the help of 
 fire, and is only a preparation of the yellow, which must be 
 melted, washed several times in water, divided into pieces, 
 laid upon linen cloth, and so exposed to the sun for six 
 weeks or two months, till it becomes white. That which is 
 very white, clear, transparent, hard, brittle, tasteless, and 
 not sticking to the teeth when chewed, is reckoned the best. 
 In Russia, and in America, there is sometimes found in 
 the trunks of old trees a sort of black Wax, in round bits, 
 of the size of a rrutmeg. This is produced by a small kind 
 of bees, and when heated has a smell like balm; the Ame> 
 ricans make candles of it. • 
 
 Wax is seldom used inwardly in medicine, but enters into 
 many compositions of outward applications. It is a particu- 
 larly valuable article in hot countries, where tallow is too 
 soft to make candles with. 
 
 The yellow Wax used in this ^ountry principally comes 
 from Poland and Russia. Upper Egypt produces large quan- 
 tities of this article. 
 
 WEED-ASHES. 
 
 ' F. Vedasse^ ^tedasse, DA. Veedaske, 
 
 G. JVaidasche. SW. Feedaska* 
 
 D. fFeeddsc-hy TFeedds, 
 
 ' Weed-ashes are a kind of wood ashes not lixiviated, but 
 repeatedly wetted with the lye of .wood-ashes, and calcined 
 to a degree so as to .vitrify; on' this account it is difficult to 
 extract their salt. 
 
 W eed-ashes are particularly used by dyers, and come from 
 Poland, and other parts. 
 
 WELDj DYERS WEED, YELLOW WEED. 
 
 F. Gaude, Herbe a jaunir, 
 
 G. JVaUy Waude. ■ 
 
 D. J'Fou^y Wounve. 
 
 1. Giiadarellay Giiado minor By 
 Erba guada. 
 
 S. Guala i. 
 
 P. Gauday Her^a gauda, 
 DA. Vau, 
 
 SW. Fauy Gaude, 
 
 POL. Farbonjonik, 
 
 R. JFou. 
 
 L. Reseda luteola. 
 
 The Weld or Would plant, or reseda luteola of Linnaeus, 
 gro ws spontaneously in most of the southern parts of Europe, 
 
and in the Levant. It is a stalky plant, which in France is 
 ripe in June and July, when it. is colle£l;ed and made up in 
 bundles for shipping. The smaller yellow Weld is preferred 
 to that which is larger and greenish. 
 
 The use of this plant in dying yellow, has decreased in 
 Great Britain, since the discovery of the superior qualities of 
 the quercitron bark. The latter, if of fine quality, yielding 
 about ten times as much colour, as the best Weld, and 
 producing all the colours and effects to be produced by the 
 Weld plant.*^ 
 
 WHALEFINS, whalebone. 
 
 F. F annons de Baleine^ 
 
 G. Wallfischbarderit Fischle- 
 
 in, 
 
 D, Balein, Balyn, Wal^isch- 
 been. 
 
 I. Osso di Ballena. . 
 
 S. Ballenas Palo de Col ilia. , 
 
 r. Osso de Balea. 
 
 DA. Fiskfleen, H^aljiskeleen* 
 SW. Fiskben. ' 
 
 POL. Fiszbin. 
 
 R. Ussu kitonjoiie, 
 
 L. Festunii Costa Sartoria, 
 
 What is called Whalebone, adheres to the upper jaw of 
 the whale, and is formed of thin parallel laminse, some of the 
 longest four yards in length. Of these there are commonly 
 three hundred and fifty on each side, but in very old fish 
 more; about five hundred of them are of a length fit for use, 
 the others* being too short. 
 
 WHALE OIL; see Train Oil. 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 F. , Froment. 
 
 G. Weizen. 
 
 D. Tar^. 
 
 I. Grano, frotnenio, 
 S. Trigo, 
 
 P. Trigo. 
 
 DA. Huede. 
 SW. H-vede, 
 POL. Pszenica, 
 R. ‘Pscheniza. 
 L. Fr omentum. 
 
 Linnaeus comprehends the dilFerent kinds of Wheat cultL 
 vated at present under six species; but cultivation has pro- 
 duced a great many varieties from these. 
 
 1. Triticum sestivum, or spring Wheat; 2. Triticum hy*- 
 bernum, winter or common Wheat; 3. Triticurn turgidum, 
 thick spiked, or' cone Wheat; 4. Triticurn polonicum, or 
 Polish Wheat, similar to the turgidum; 5.' Triticurn speka, 
 
35 ^ 
 
 spelt, or German "Wheat; 6. Triticiim monococcum, St. 
 Peter’s corn or one grained Wheat. 
 
 Amongst these six species, the triticum hybernum, (winter 
 or common Wheat) principally or only deserves our notice. 
 Of what country it be a native, cannot now be determined. 
 The grain is rather plumper than the summer Wheat, and 
 is cultivated in most parts of Europe. The principal corn 
 countries froiti whence we draw our supply in war times, 
 and in case of a deficiency of our own crops, are Poland, 
 Prussia, Russia, Germany, Zeeland, the coast of Barbary, 
 and the shores of the Black Sea. 
 
 North America produces a considerable quantity of Wheat, 
 but the Americans are in the habit of reducing it in flower, 
 and to export it in that state. 
 
 The Zeeland Wheat approaches nearest in quality to our 
 full grained English white Wheat, then follow the high mix- 
 ed and then the mixed Wheats of Poland. The red Wheat 
 growing in the latter country is similar to the red Wheat 
 coming from Germany; but the Russian red Wheat is .of 
 an inferior quality. 
 
 A lean, hard kind, of red Wheat grows in Barbary, and 
 also on the shores of the Black Sea. The crops in the latter 
 distrifts are so plentiful, ^ that it is usual to allow one half to 
 the reapers by way of wages. 
 
 It seems now beyond dispute, that in war times, when 
 the consumption of corn is considerably increased. Great 
 Britain does not produce a sufficiency of Wheat for her 
 own use. 
 
 WHITE CINNAMON; see Cortex Wmteranus. 
 WHITE-LEAD, ceruse. 
 
 F. Cerusey Chaux de pJomb, 
 
 G. Bley nxeissy 
 D. Locdavit. - 
 I. Biacca. 
 
 S. Blbayalde, 
 
 P. Albaiade.- 
 
 DA. Blyeh’vidt. 
 
 SW. Blyh'vitt. 
 
 POL. Bielidlo, Bleynvas, 
 R. Bjelil'u, 
 
 L. Cerum, 
 
 If lead is exposed to th-e vapours of warm vinegar it is 
 corroded Into a kind of calx, which is used in great quanti- 
 ties in painting, and is known by the name of Ceruse or 
 White lead. Idae preparation of this pigment has become a 
 distinct trade, and is pra£lised in some places of this king- 
 
359 
 
 dom where lead is procurable at the lowest price. The pro- 
 cess for making White-lead is as follows. 
 
 Leaden plates rolled spirally, so that the space of an inch 
 shall be left between each circumvolution, must be placed 
 vertically in earthen pots of a proper size, containing some 
 good vinegar. These leaden rolls ought to be so supported 
 in the pots, that they do not touch the vinegar, but that the 
 acid vapour may circulate freely, between the circumvolu- 
 tions. The pots are to be covered and placed in a bed of 
 dung, or sand bath, by which a gentle heat may be applied. 
 The acid of vinegar being thus reduced into vapour, easily 
 attaches itself to the surface of these plates, penetrates them, 
 and is impregnated with the metal, which it reduces to a 
 beautiful white powder, called Ceruse. When a sufficient 
 quantity of it is collected on the plates, the rolls are taken out 
 of the pots and unfolded j the Ceruse is then taken off, and 
 they are again rolled up, that the operation may be repeated. 
 
 In this process the acid being overcharged with lead, this, 
 metal is not properly in a saline state; hence Ceruse is not 
 in crystals, nor soluble in water. 
 
 This preparation is the only white hitherto found fit for 
 painting in oil: but the discovery of another would be desi- 
 rable; not only from the 'faults of Ceruse, but also from its 
 injuring the health of people employed with it. 
 
 WHITE PEPPER ; see Pepper, 
 
 WINE. 
 
 F. Vin, 
 
 G. Wein, 
 D. Wyn, 
 I. Vino, 
 S. Vino, 
 P. Vinho. 
 
 DA. Fin. 
 
 SW. Fin. 
 
 POL. Wino. 
 
 K. Winoy Winogradnoe 
 
 'ivino. 
 
 L. Finum. 
 
 Wine is an agreeable spirituous liquor, produced by fer- 
 mentation from those vegetable substances that contain sac- 
 charine matter. A very great number of vegetable substances, 
 may be made to afford Wine: as grapes, currants, mulber- 
 ries, elderberries, cherries, apples, pulse, beans, peas, tur- 
 nips, radishes, &c. Hence under, the class of Wines or 
 vinous liquors, come not only Wines absolutely so called, 
 but also ale, cider, &c. 
 
 Wine, however, is in a more particular, manner appro- 
 priated to the liquor, drawn from the fruit of the common 
 vine, vitis vinifera. All the sorts are propagated either from 
 
360 
 
 layers or cuttings, the former of which is greatly practised 
 in England, but the latter is much preferable. . 
 
 The vine was introduced by the Romans into Britain, and 
 appears formerly to have been very common. From the 
 name of vineyard yet adhering to the ruinous scites of our 
 castles and monasteries, there seem to liave been few in the 
 country but what had a vineyard belonging to them. The 
 county of Gloucester is particularly commended by Malmsbury 
 in the twelfth century, as excelling all the rest of the kingdom 
 in the number and goodness of its vineyards. In tlie earlier 
 periods of our history the isle of Ely was expressly denomi- 
 nated the isle of vines by the Normans. 
 
 Doomsday exhibits to us a particular proof that Wine was-* 
 made in Erigland during the period preceding the conquest. 
 After the conquest, the Bishop of l^ly appears k) have re- 
 ceived at least three or four tons of Wine annually, as tithes, 
 from the produce 'of the vineyards in his diocese; and to 
 have made frequent reservations in his leases, of a certain . 
 quantity of Wine for rent. A plot of land in London, which 
 now forms East Smithfield and some adjoining streets, was 
 withheld from the religious house within Aldgate by four 
 successive constables of the tower, in the reign of Rufus, 
 Henry, and Stephen; and made by them into a vineyard, 
 to their great emolument and profit. The Wines of Glou- 
 cestershire, within a century after the conquest, were little 
 inferior to the French in sweetness. The beautiful region 
 of Gaul, which had not a single vine in the days of Caesar, 
 had numbers so early as the time of Strabo. The south of 
 it was particularly stocked with them, and they had even 
 extended themselves into the interior parts of the country: 
 but the grapes of the latter did not ripen kindly. France 
 was famous for her vineyards in the reign of Vespasian, and 
 even exported the Wines to Italy. The whole province of 
 Narbonne was then covered with vines; and the Wine mer- 
 chants of the country were remarkable for all the knavish 
 dexterity of our modern brewers; tinging it with smoke, 
 colouring it with herbs and noxious’ dyes, and even adulte- 
 rating the taste and appearance with aloes. And as our first 
 vines would be transplanted from Gaul, so were in all pro- 
 bability those of the Allobroges in Franche Compte. These 
 were peculiarly fitted for cold countries. They ripened even 
 in the frosts of the advancing winter, and they were of the * 
 same colour, and seem to have been of the same kind, as 
 the black muscadines of the present day. These were pretty 
 certainly brought into Britain a little ^fter vines had been 
 carried over all the kingdom of Gaul, and about the middle ' 
 
3(31 
 
 of the third century: when the numerous plantations had 
 gradually spread over the face of the latter, and must natu- 
 rally have continued their progress into the former. 
 
 The Romans, even nearly to the days of Lucullus, were 
 very seldom able to regale themselves with Wine. Very 
 little was then raised in the compass of Itary, and the foreign 
 Wines were so dear, that they were rarely produced at an 
 entertainment; and when they were, each guest was indulged 
 only with a single draught. But in the seventh century of 
 Rome, as their conquests augmented the degree of their 
 wealth, and enlarged the 'sphere of their luxury, Wines 
 became the object of particular attention. Many vaults were 
 constru(Sted, and good stocks of liquor deposited in them. 
 This naturally gave encouragement to the Wines of Italy. 
 The Falernian rose immediately into great repute; and a 
 variety of others, that of Florence among the rest, succeeded 
 it about the close of the century. The more westerly parts 
 of the European continent were at once subjfefled to the 
 arms, and enriched with the vines of Italy. 
 
 The process of making Wine is as follows: when the 
 grapes are ripe, and the saccharine principle is developed, 
 they are mashed, and a few days afterwards pressed. • The 
 juice which flows out is received in vessels of a proper 
 capacity in which the fermentation appears, and proceeds 
 in the following manner. At the end of several days, and 
 frequently after a few hours, according to the heat of the 
 atmosphere, the nature of the grapes, the quantity of the 
 liquid, and the temperature of the place in which the ope- 
 ration is performed, a movement is produced in the liquor, 
 which continually increases; the volume of the fluid aug- 
 ments; it becomes turbid and oily; carbonic acid is disen- 
 gaged, which fills all the unoccupied part of the vessel, and 
 the temperature rises. At the end of several days these 
 tumultuous motions subside, the mass falls, the liquor be- 
 comes clearer, and is found to be less saccharine, more 
 odorant, and of a red colour, if the grapes have been black; 
 from the reaction of the ardent spirit upon the colouring 
 matter of the pellicle of the grape. To give a deep red 
 colour to wine it is necessary to use only black grapes, and 
 to leave them fermenting in their mashed state previous to 
 the pressing. 
 
 The Wine is usually taken out of the fermenting vessels 
 when the phenomena of fermentation have subsided. When 
 the mass is settled, the colour of the liquor is well developed ; 
 when it has become clear, and its heat has disappeared, it 
 Z z 
 
562 
 
 is then put into casks, where, by a second, less sensible 
 fermentation, the AV^ine is clarified, its principles combine 
 ‘more perfe<5Uy together, and its taste and smell become 
 more and more developed. If this fermentation be stopped 
 or suffocated, the gaseous principles are retained, the Wine 
 is brisker, and r'. 're of the nature of must. 
 
 The diflerent kinds of Wines produced in Europe and 
 other parts of the world are many; the principal of them, 
 and their qualities, are well known: a catalogue of them 
 would serve no purpose here. 
 
 The eolour of wine is frequently artificial; a deep red is 
 almost always the effecl of artificial additions, as the red 
 woods, elder berries, bilberries, &c. In France no secret 
 is made of these practices,- the colouring matters being pub- 
 licly thrown out after they have been used. A common 
 pradlice is to throw sugar of lead and alum amongst sour 
 AVine in order to sweeten it. These substances being ex- 
 tremely hurtful to the human constitution it becomes of 
 importance, to be able to detect them, when mixed with 
 AVine. For this purpose the following test is furnished: 
 
 Take equal parts of calcined oyster shells and crude sul- 
 phur in fine powder, and put them in a crucible, which 
 place into the fire, and raise the heat suddenly, till it has 
 been exposed' to a white heat for fifteen minutes. Then 
 take it out, let it cool, beat the ingredients to powder, and 
 put them into a well corked bottle. To prepare the test 
 liquor, put twenty grains of this powder, together with one 
 hundred and twenty grains of cream of tartar, into a strong 
 bottle, fill it up with water, boil it for an hour, and let it 
 cool. Cork the bottle immediately and shake it from time 
 to time. After some hours repose, decant off the clear 
 liquor into an ounce phial, having first put twenty-two drops 
 of muriatic acid into each phial. Cork these phials accu- 
 rately with a little wax mixed up with a little turpentine. 
 One part of this liquor, mixed with three parts of suspected 
 AVine, will discover the presence of the smallest quantity 
 of lead or copper, by a very sensible black precipitate; and 
 of arsenic, by an orange precipitate. Pure wine remains 
 limpid after the addition of this liquor. 
 
 To discover whether A^dne is free of alum, put a small 
 quantity of it with limewater; this mixture, at the end of 
 twelve or fifteen hours, will furnish a quantity of crystals, 
 which may be separated by filtration, and these crystals will 
 be easiest discovered when the quantities of wine and lime- 
 water arc equal. AVin^ which contains alum will not form 
 
363 
 
 crystals wlien mixed with limewater, but merely deposites 
 a inucldy sediment. 
 
 The greatest proportion of the wines consumed in this 
 country are. brought from Spain and' Portugal, particularly 
 the latter kingdom; government having' always discouraged 
 the importation of French Wines by heavy taxes. AVe are 
 not sure how far such conduct is founded on good policy, 
 as the French Wines are certainly, the most wholesome, 
 and might be the cheapest, 'i'he advantages which Britain 
 derives from the Portugal trade are so great, that they 
 deserve some return, and it would perhaps not be easy to 
 secure them on any other terms. 
 
 The consumption of the German, French, and Italian 
 Wines in this country, is but trifling. Sicily produces red 
 and white Wines equally as strong as the Portugal Wines, 
 and which would come cheaper. Amongst them the white 
 Mount Etna Wine is famous for its strength, being very, 
 similar in, taste to Madeira. 
 
 The Constantia or Cape AVine, sold in Europe at so high 
 a price, comes from two farms, called Great and Little 
 Constantia, situated below the East side of Table mountain, 
 on the Cape of Good Plope. This Wine is highly delicious, 
 but so extremely sweet, as only to be fit for the desert. 
 Of the red Constantia about sixty pipes are made, and of 
 the white about ninety. 
 
 The best Cyprus AVine is produced in that part of the 
 island of Cyprus called the Commandery, from the Grand 
 Commandery of the Templars and Knights of Malta occupy- 
 ing that districl. This AAhne is accounted a delicacy at most 
 of the tables of Euppe. The wlmle quantity of the best 
 Wines made annually in Cyprus amounts to forty thou- 
 sand jars. Larnic is the port in the island from which all 
 the Wines are exported; and they r>J*incipally go to Ve- 
 nice. 
 
 On landing Wines in this country, the less they are ex- 
 posed the better; for they are affected by the seasons, and 
 more or less by the weather. The great art in keeping 
 Wines is to prevent their fretting, which is done by keeping 
 them in the same degree of heat. In spring and fall the 
 Wines of Bourdeaux are subject to changes that may be 
 dangerous, if not prevented by necessary rackings : these 
 changes are solely the effect: of the seasons. If Wines are 
 chilled, and of course turn foul, from being shipped and 
 landed in cold weather, they will soon recover by putting 
 them in a warm vault, well covered with saw dust. But if 
 
364 
 
 shipped or landed in summer, if the smallest degree of fer- 
 mentation be found on them, it will be requisite to dip 
 the bung cloths in brandy, and leave the bungs loose for 
 some days, to give them time to coolj and if in a fortnight 
 or three weeks the fermentation does not cease, and the 
 Wine become bright, it will be proper to rack it, matching 
 the hogsheads well with brimstone, and force it with the 
 white of eight eggs. If it then becomes fine, bung it 
 tight, and let it remain so until it is bottled. Attention 
 should be had to bottle in fine weather, when the wind is 
 north, but to avoid cold and frosty weather. The months 
 of April and October are favourable. 
 
 The forcings proper for claret, are the whites of a dozen 
 eggs, beat up with a teaspoonful of fine salt, and well worked 
 with a forcing rod. This is for one hogshead, and care 
 must be taken not to use any bad egg. The forcing for 
 white Wine, is isinglass dissolved in wine. An ounce is 
 sufficient for (wo hogsheads. No salt is to be used. 
 
 WO AD. 
 
 F. Pastely ^edcy Vcuede, 
 
 G. Watd, 
 
 D. Weede. 
 
 I. ^uadortBy ^uadoy GlastrOy 
 6. Pastely GlastOy . 
 
 P. Pastel, 
 
 DA. Fede. 
 
 SW. Fejde. 
 
 POL. Sinilo. 
 
 R, Ljernak. 
 
 L. ^aduhiy Glastutn. 
 
 The Isatis tinfloria, or Woad plant, is biennial, the lower 
 leaves are of an oblong oval figure, and pretty thick con- 
 sistence, ending in obtuse roundish points, of a lucid green. 
 
 The stalks rise four feet high, dividing into several branches, 
 garnished with arrow-shaped leaves, sitting close to the stalk.' 
 The branches are terihinated by small yellow flowers. The 
 time for gathering the crop is according to the seasons*, but 
 it should be performed as soon as the leaves are fully grown 
 while they are perfectly green: for when they begin to 
 change pale, great part of their goodness , is over. If the 
 land he good, and the crop well husbanded, it will produce 
 three or four gatherings, but the two first are the best, 
 being worth about four times as much as the third and fourth 
 crop. 
 
 The leaves are carried directly to a mill, much resembling 
 the oil or tan mills, and ground into a. smooth paste. If 
 this process was deferred for some time they would putrify, 
 and send forth an unsufFerable stench. The paste is laid 
 in heaps, pressed close and smooth,, and the blackish crust 
 
365 
 
 which forms on the outside, reunited if it happens to crack. 
 If this was neglected, little worms would be produced, and 
 the Woad would lose part of its strength. After lying for 
 fifteen days the heaps are opened, the crust rubbed, and 
 mixed with the inside, and the matter formed into oval 
 balls, which are pressed close and solid in wooden moulds. 
 These are dried upon hurdles; they turn black on the out- 
 side if in the sun; if in a close place, yellowish, especially 
 if the weather be rainy. The dealers in this commodity 
 prefer the first. The good balls are distinguished by their 
 being weighty, of an agreeable smell, and when rubbed, of 
 a violet colour within. 
 
 Woad not only affords a lasting and substantial blue, which, 
 according to the scale of the dyers may be reduced into 
 many different shades, but is also of great use in dying and 
 fixing many other colours. But the use of Woad has very 
 much decreased since the introduction of indigo, which af- 
 fords a more lively and pleasing colour, is managed with 
 more ease by the dyers, and does their business more ex- 
 peditiously. Woad and indigo are freqii^g^\\y used in con- 
 junction; the former to give solidity and the lat- 
 
 ter brightness and colour. 
 
 Woad was once the great staple of Languedoc, and was 
 cultivated also in Normandy, and other provinces of France. 
 It now is cultivated in several parts of Great Britain, in 
 Spain, Portugal, the Azores, and Canary islands, in Switzer- 
 land, different parts of Germany, and in Sweden. 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 DA. Vld, 
 
 SW. Vll, 
 
 POL. Welna, 
 
 R. Wolnay Sc her St, 
 
 L. Lana, 
 
 Wool is the covering of the sheep; and like hair of horses, 
 cattle, &c, completes its growth in one year, then falls off, 
 and is succeeded by a fresh crop. Hairs are commonly of 
 the same thickness in every part; but Wool constantly dif- 
 fers in thickness in different parts, being generally thicker 
 at the points than at the roots. That part of the fleece of 
 sheep which grows during the winter is finer than what 
 grows in summer. Each fleece consists of wool of divers 
 equalities and degrees of fineness, which the dealers take care 
 
 F. 
 
 G. JVolle, 
 
 D. Wol, 
 
 1. Lana, 
 
 S. Lana, 
 
 P, Laa, Ld, 
 
366 
 
 to separate. The French, Spaniards, and English, usually 
 separate each fleece into three sorts, , viz. 1, Mother V^ool, 
 which us that of the back and neck. 2, l"he Wool of the 
 tails and legs. S, That of the breast and under the belly. 
 These assortments are called prime, second and third qua- 
 lity. The Spaniards in packing their Wool mark each bag 
 with a capital letter, denoting the sort. If the separation 
 be well made, in fifteen l^ags of Wool there will be twelve 
 marked R, that is refined, or prime; two marked F for fine 
 or second; and on^ S for the third quality. 
 
 In Spain there are two kinds of sheep: the coarse wooled, 
 which always remain in their native country, and are housed 
 every night in winter, and the fine wooled, which are con- 
 stantly in the open air, and travel every summer from the 
 cool mountains of the northern parts of Spain, to feed in 
 winter on the southern warm plains of Andalusia, Mancha, 
 and Estremadura. Of these latter it appears, from accurate 
 computation, that there are about five millions; and that 
 the Wool and flesh of a flock of ten thousand sheep, pro- 
 duce yearly abo^- wenty-four reals a head, two of wlfich 
 belong to er, six to the king, and the remaining 
 
 sixteen are aUowed for the expenses of pasture, tithes, shep- 
 herds, dogs, shearing, 8cc. 'Fen thousand sheep form a 
 flock, which is divided into ten tribes, under the manage- 
 ment of one person, who has absolute dominion over fifty 
 shepherds and fifty dogs. They leave the north of Spain 
 in the month of Q(fl:ober, and return in April: and vdiethcr 
 it be habit, or natural instindf, that draws them towards the 
 climate, which at those seasons becomes most proper for 
 them, the inquietude which they manifest, might in case of 
 need, serve as an almanac for their conductors. 
 
 The Spanish wandering sheep on the whole, resemble 
 those of the South Down?; their legs are as short as those 
 of that breed: a point w^hich merits observation, as they . 
 travel so much and so well. Their shape is very ’good: 
 round ribs, and flat straight backs; and would with us be 
 reckoned handsome sheep, and in good order and flesh. 
 The soil of these mountain pastureji is in general stony, and 
 the herbage has nothing peculiar, so that the fine quality 
 of the Wool seems principally owing to the constant exposure 
 of a temperate atmosphere. The fleece of some of the finest 
 rams is said to weigh as much as eight pounds; but on an 
 average, the fleeces of the flock, weigh from four to five 
 pounds English. 
 
 The number of stationary sheep in Spain is computed to 
 be eight millions. 
 
367 
 
 In England, the best sort of sheep for fine Wool, are 
 those bred in Herefordshire, Devonshire, and Worcester- 
 shire; but they are small and black faced, and bear but a 
 small quantity. Warwick, Leicestershire, Buckingham, and 
 Northamptonshire, breed a large-boned sheep, of . the best 
 shape and deepest Wool we have, 'fhe marshes of Lincoln- 
 shire breed a very large kind of sheep, but their Wool 
 is not good, unless the breed be mended, by bringing in 
 sheep of other countries among them, which is a scheme 
 of late very successfully followed there. Suffolk also breeds 
 a very valuable kind of sheep. The northern counties, in 
 general, breed sheep with long, but hairy Wool: that how- 
 ever, taken from the neck and shoulders of the Yorkshire 
 sheep, is used for mixing with Spanish Wool, in some of 
 the finest cloths. Wales bears a small hardy kind of sheep, 
 which has the best tasted flesh, but the worst Wool of all. 
 Nevertheless, it is of more extensive use than the finest 
 Segovian fleeces; for the benefit of the flannel manufa<fl:ure 
 is universally known. 
 
 The sheep of Ireland vary like those of Great Britain; 
 those of Scotland are of a small kind, and their fleeces 
 coarse. 
 
 The finest French Wool comes from Rousilloh and Berry; 
 the latter is said to have the particular property, that it will 
 knot or bind with any other sort, whereas other kinds will 
 only knot with their own sort. 
 
 Among the ancients, the Wools of Attica, Megara, Lao- 
 dicea, Apulia, and especially those of Tarentum, Parma, 
 and Altino, were the most valued. Varro assures us, that 
 the people there used, to clothe their sheep with skins, 
 to secure the Wool from being damaged. 
 
 YELLOW BERRIES, avignon berries. 
 
 F. Grains d' A'uigno7t. j G. Gelb Bceren. 
 
 This is the fruit of a species of Lycium, growing plenti- 
 fully in diflerent parts of France, and particularly in the 
 neighbourhood of Avignon. The berry is somewhat less 
 than a pea: its colour is green approaching towards a yellow, 
 and it is of an astringent and bitter tas'te. It is much used 
 by the dyers, who stain a yellow colour with it: and by the 
 painters, who ^Iso make a fine golden yellow of it. 
 
568 
 
 ZINC, SPELTER. 
 
 F, Zinc, 
 
 G. Zinjit Spiauter, 
 
 D. Zinkt Spiauter, 
 
 1. Zinco, 
 
 S. Zinco, 
 
 P . Z'Jnco, 
 
 Zinc is a semimetal of a bluish white colour. It is the 
 least brittle of any of the semimetals, and when amply sup- 
 plied with phlogiston, it possesses a semidu£lility, by which 
 it may be flattened into thin plates. When broken it ap- 
 pears formed of many flat, shining plates or fauts, which are 
 larger when slowly, than when hastily cooled. Exposed to 
 the air, it contrafts in length of time a yellowish rust. Its 
 specific gravity is to that of water, as 7^^ to one. It begins 
 to melt as soon as red hot, but does not flow thin, till the 
 fire is raised to a white heat; then the Zinc immediately 
 begins to burn with an exceedingly bright and beautiful 
 flame. 
 
 Zinc, besides its medical qualities, is of great use in the 
 arts: united with copper in different proportions it forms 
 brass and pinchbeck ; and united with tin it forms a kind of 
 pewter. Its inflammable property, renders Zinc an useful 
 ingredient in fireworks. 
 
 ZAFFER; see Cohalt,, 
 
 THE END. 
 
 { 
 
 DA. Zink, 
 SW. Zink, 
 POL. Cynek, 
 R. Schpiauter, 
 L. Zincutn, 
 

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