Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2014 
 
 https://archive.org/details/earlyworkinphotoOOhenr 
 
I 
 
 ]£arr£ Work m 
 flbbotograpbY?: 
 
 A TEXT-BOOK FOR BEGINNERS. 
 
 BY 
 
 W. ETHELBERT HENRY, C.E. 
 
 WITH A CHAPTER ON LENSES 
 
 BY 
 
 H, SNOWDEN WARD. 
 Editor of The Photogram, 
 
 Illustrated with an actual negative and positive on celluloid, and 
 numerous explanatory diagrams throughout the text, 
 
 London 
 
 DAWBARN AND WARD, LIMITED, 
 
 6, FARRINGDON AVENUE, EX*. 
 1806. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I ntroductory. 
 I. First Lessons in Printing. 
 II. First Lessons in Toning. 
 Ill - Printing from Negatives The Use of Marks, Discs, 
 IV. The Dark-room and its Fittings. 
 . V. First Lessons in Development. 
 
 VI. The Outfit. 
 
 VII. — Facts about Lenses. 
 VIII. How to Use the Outfit. 
 
 IX. Stocking the Dark-room. 
 
 X. Development of Negatives Failures: their Cause 
 Cure. 
 
 XL The After Treatment of Negatives. 
 XII. Weights, Measures, &c, and various Useful Formulae 
 Glossary of Terms. 
 
A HINT TO BEGINNERS. 
 
 (Based upon Personal Experience.) 
 
 IF you wish to be an all-round slip-shod dabbler, try 
 every different make of plate, paper, developer, and 
 toning bath, that each of your friends recommends 
 —of course before mastering any of the technical details 
 of photography. 
 
 But, on the other hand, if you wish to become a clean 
 and careful worker, capable of producing excellent re- 
 sults, stick to one brand of plates, one formula for 
 developer, and one toning bath, until you understand 
 them thoroughly and can produce a good negative and a 
 good print every time — or else know the exact cause of 
 failure. 
 
 When you can do this — the 'field of experiment is 
 ready to offer you a welcome. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 N this instruction book the student is advised to begin his 
 
 photographic education with silver-printing. In every 
 
 other hand-book (so far as we are aware) negative- 
 making is the first branch described, apparently because 
 making a negative is the first step in the production of 
 a photographic picture. We are sure, trom a wide ex- 
 perience of beginners and their requirements, that our system 
 will save the student both time and money, will render the 
 path to proficiency easier and far more pleasant than it 
 usually is (especially for those who have to work entirely 
 alone), and will result in a larger proportion of competent 
 workers from a given number of aspirants, than any other 
 method. In everything we have aimed at simplicity. 
 
 The recommendation of the hydroquinone developer 
 arises from the fact that hydroquinone is the best developer 
 for " all-round " work for negatives, lantern-slides, bromide 
 paper and chloride paper, and because one formula may be 
 adapted to all classes of development according to the 
 amount of subsequent dilution. Some of the newer single 
 solution developers might have been recommended ; but, 
 if a knowledge of photography is the student's aim, there is a 
 distinct advantage in beginning with the use of developer, 
 accelerator, and restrainer, in separate solutions. 
 
 No attempt has been made to exhaust the subject. Our 
 object is to enable any beginner, who will work, to do well all 
 that is necessary to the production of good photograms. 
 When he has thoroughly mastered the first principles con- 
 tained in this text-book he will have acquired the basis for 
 further work, and may then fearlessly launch into the in- 
 numerable and fascinating branches of photography, and 
 its many applications to the arts and sciences. 
 
 B 
 
vi. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Study this text-book closely, and apply its teaching 
 practically, chapter by chapter. If you fail in any detail, 
 do not pass on to the next until that one has been properly 
 mastered. Do not dabble with more than one make of 
 paper, one make of plate, or one formula for developer, until 
 you can honestly say you have mastered the contents of this 
 book. If you are content to do this, and will plod steadily 
 onwards, you are bound to succeed. 
 
 Finally, as to our use of the word u photogram " as indi- 
 cating a photographic print. Its adoption is simply an effort 
 towards consistency and purity in that English language of 
 which we are justly proud. The noun " photogram " is 
 superseding the incorrect term M photograph," and its 
 adoption among the educated classes is rapidly taking place. 
 What should we think of a person who sent or received " a 
 telegraph " ? 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN PRINTING. 
 
 The Action of Light. 
 
 Materials Required for this Chapter : — One \ -plate printing 
 frame (cost about 9d.), and one packet of \ plate gelatino-chloride 
 printing-out paper (cost is.), one pound of hypo (costs 2d.), one 
 deep porcelain tray (costs iod.), one piece clear glass 4^ x 3J. These 
 may be obtained from any dealer in photographic goods. 
 
 EF'ORE we begin operations, it will be well for readers 
 to have some knowledge of the action of light in 
 photography, upon which all photographic processes 
 are based. It is almost generally known that many 
 substances undergo a decided chemical change under the 
 influence of light, and this change is more or less visible in 
 different cases. Note the effect of lunar caustic upon the 
 skin ; all our readers are acquainted with the decided black 
 mark that clings so persistently after an application of this 
 chemical, which is, after all, simply nitrate of silver (used by 
 photographers), fused into sticks. 
 
 Many other chemicals undergo a similar change under the 
 influence of light, and are used, more or less, in various 
 photographic processes. Of these we shall treat fully in a 
 later book. Silver nitrate, then, is the most important 
 chemical used by photographers. In conjunction with other 
 chemicals, it forms the sensitizing agent in the photographic 
 papers and dry plates of which we shall treat. 
 
 Gelatino-chloride " printing out " paper (often called 
 "P.O.P.") is made by mixing certain proportions of nitrate of 
 silver, chloride of sodium, citrate of potassium and gelatine; 
 this mixture forms an emulsion* which is subsequently 
 spread upon a sheet of paper and dried in the dark. The 
 presence of chlorides increases the sensitiveness of such a 
 paper (nitrate of silver, alone, would be practically useless 
 for the purpose), but there always remains a slight excess of 
 silver nitrate, which tends to give the vigorous image re- 
 quired in this process. Before attempting a more interesting 
 experiment, let us realize the effect of light upon this sensi- 
 
 *See Glossary. 
 
8 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 tive paper. Take a small piece (say an inch square), put it 
 face (or shiny side) up on a book, and cover one half of it 
 with any opaque substance, such as a piece of cardboard, 
 then remove it to the window, and expose it for a minute 
 to daylight. Then lift the cardboard, and notice the differ- 
 ence in color between the part that was protected from, and 
 the part that was exposed to, daylight. In one minute 
 this will probably be slight, but, if you replace the card and 
 expose the paper again for five minutes, a great change will 
 be noticeable : you will observe that one half the paper is 
 white (having been protected from the action of light), while 
 the other half has turned to a deep reddish brown. Photo- 
 graphy is founded upon this action. You will also notice 
 that the paper, as you buy it from the dealer, is enclosed in 
 a red or orange-coloured wrapper ; this is done to protect it 
 from the action of light, because a ruby coloured or yellow 
 light does not exert the same action as white or blue light. 
 In dealing with gelatino-chloride printing-out paper, it is 
 only necessary to handle it in a diffused light (about five or 
 ten feet from the window in an ordinary room), and to keep 
 the stock of paper stored in a light-tight box, or in an 
 opaque envelope. Having satisfied yourself as to the effect 
 of light upon sensitized paper, and the necessity ior pro- 
 tecting unused paper from its action, we will now under- 
 take a more interesting experiment, which will further de- 
 monstrate that varying degrees of density depend upon the 
 varying amount of light admitted to the paper. 
 
 Take a piece of glass the size of the quarter-plate printing 
 frame (3J x 4^ inches) and paste upon it half-a-dozen pieces of 
 tissue paper (each one half-an-inch longer than the rest), 
 as in the diagram on page 9. 
 
 No. 1 being covered with one thickness of tissue, No. 2 with 
 two thicknesses, andj so on. Then put the sheet of glass 
 (paper-covered side downwards) into the printing frame, 
 next cover the glass with a sheet of sensitive paper — being 
 careful to place the coated (or shiny) side of the paper 
 downwards — and re-adjust the back (hinged part) of the 
 frame in its place. You will note that the pressure of the 
 springs holds the back of the frame firmly in place, and, of 
 course, presses the paper firmly to the glass, thus ensuring 
 perfect contact. Now remove the frame and its contents to 
 bright daylight, and expose the paper-covered glass thereto, 
 for about fifteen minutes. After exposure, remove it into a 
 shady place (the interior of a room, for instance) and examine 
 the course of the printing. To do this, without moving the 
 paper, requires a little care at first, but is really very simple. 
 
First Lessons in Printing. 
 
 9 
 
 Skeleton Leaf. 
 
 Negative of Skeleton Leaf. 
 
iO 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Hold the frame, back upwards, in the left hand, keeping the 
 thumb firmly pressed upon the lower half of the back, to 
 prevent it moving; with the right thumb, release the top 
 pressure spring, and turn it clear of the back. The top half 
 of the back may now be opened, and the paper turned back, 
 so that its face (or sensitive side) may be examined. You 
 will notice quite a variation in the depth of colour, repre- 
 senting a scale of tones. It is this variation of colour according 
 to the amount of light action that causes the subtle half-tones 
 in a photogram. A practical application of this experiment 
 may be made with a piece of lace or dried seaweed, or, still 
 more beautiful, a dried or a skeleton leaf. In this case it is 
 only necessary to put a sheet of clean glass in the printing 
 frame, and on it place the leaf (or other object); then cover 
 it with a sheet of sensitive paper ; replace the back of the 
 frame and expose to daylight, until the visible portions of 
 the paper are quite black. The leaf will then show in 
 beautiful white or tinted tracery upon a black, or very deep 
 brown, ground. On no account remove from the frame 
 until the printing has proceeded far enough, or the result 
 cannot fail to be disappointing in its " washed-out " appear- 
 ance, due to the fact that the fixing operation (about to be 
 described) lightens the tint of such prints to a considerable 
 degree. Many varieties of dried leaves and ferns may be 
 reproduced in the same manner; but it must be borne in 
 mind that it is necessary to use them only in a dry state, 
 otherwise, the sap would injure the paper, and probably 
 cause it to stick to the glass. 
 
 It is necessary to keep these prints protected from the 
 further influence of light, until they have been " fixed." 
 
 And now let us consider what is the nature of the change 
 effected by light in the salts of silver, with which we have 
 been dealing ; it is simply this : The silver salts have been 
 reduced to their metallic* state, more or less, according to the 
 intensity of the light attacking them. It will be clearh 
 understood that portions of the paper, hitherto protected 
 from light, still contain sensitive matter, capable of reduction 
 if exposed to light, and it will be equally obvious that if we 
 can remove this sensitive matter without removing the parts 
 already altered by light we shall have a picture composed 
 of metallic silver, the white portions of which contain no 
 matter sensitive to light, hence no further change can be 
 
 *This statement is made for the sake of impressing the action upon the be- 
 ginner ; as a matter of fact the visible image consists ot a mixture of metallic 
 silver and silver photo-chloride, and the latter usually preponderates. 
 
First Lessons in Printing. 
 
 effected by light. This is the principle upon which the 
 operation, known as " fixing," is based. 
 
 % Sodium thiosulphate (commonly known as " hypo " ) pos- 
 sesses the power of attacking and dissolving the sensitive 
 salts of silver existing in the paper, without attacking those 
 parts which have been altered by the action of light. We 
 will, therefore, make up a small quantity of solution, called 
 by photographers u the fixing bath." 
 
 Hypo •*• 3 ounces. 
 
 Water 20 ounces. 
 
 The hypo must be quite dissolved in the water, and the 
 solution must be used cold, otherwise the gelatine coating 
 of the sensitive paper would probably be dissolved. In 
 order to render the prints insensitive to further light action, 
 we must immerse them singly in clean cold water, until 
 they lie flat and limp (about 15 minutes), and then transfer 
 them to the fixing bath, which may be contained in a basin 
 or deep soup plate or, better still, a deep porcelain tray* 
 (about 7 by 5 inches), which may be had from a stock-dealer 
 for about tenpence. 
 
 While they are in the fixing bath, the prints must be kept 
 moving constantly — lifting the bottom print to the top, 
 slowly and steadily — examining each print and removing 
 air bells if any are formed on the surface. Fifteen minutes 
 in the fixing bath will be sufficient to thoroughly remove all 
 the sensitive silver salts from the prints, which must then 
 be freely washed in several 
 changes of clean cold water, 
 in which they must be con- 
 stantly moved in order to 
 permit the water to act freely 
 upon their surfaces. When 
 
 we say immerse singly, we do Deep Porce i ain jray. 
 
 not mean that only one print 
 
 may be fixed at a time, but that a lot of prints must not be 
 dumped in together, otherwise they would stick to each 
 other. Directly one print is quite immersed — another may 
 follow, and so on until all are in the bath. 
 
 Two dozen \ plates may be fixed in twenty ounces of fixing 
 bath, and after use the bath must be thrown away ; never 
 attempt to keep it for a day or two after once fixing a batch 
 
 *This tray must be reserved exclusively for use with hypo, and for washing 
 the prints aftet fixing. On no account must it be used for any other chemical 
 if it has once been used for hypj, nor must it be used to wash prints before 
 fixing them, as a contamination of this salt would certainly be a fruitful 
 source of failure and vexation. 
 
12 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 of prints in it. Using an old fixing bath is a fruitful cause 
 of stains and yellowness in photographic prints. 
 
 It is advisable to give the prints at least ten changes ot 
 water, washing them for about six minutes after each change; 
 they may then be mounted on cardboard or laid, face up- 
 wards, on blotting paper to dry. On no account attempt to 
 dry them by heat, or the gelatine surface will melt and the 
 picture be spoilt. 
 
 If prints are to be mounted it is best to trim* them before 
 
 print, face up, on a piece of glass, apply a straight-edge 
 firmly along the part of the margin to be removed and then 
 cut it off by means of an ordinary pocket knife. 
 
 If any difficulty exists in securing true angles — and bad 
 trimming is very objectionable — there are several trimming 
 boards in the market that render untrue trimming almost 
 impossible. One of these is a sheet of plate glass ruled with 
 lines at right angles, and another is an arrangement with a 
 plate glass bed and two graduated edges, at right angles, 
 which lock over the print and hold it firmly while it is being 
 trimmed. Both of these appliances are very useful to a 
 photographer, but are not absolutely essential. 
 
 Mounting the photograms is an easy operation when pro- 
 perly understood, but very messy if not done in the right 
 manner. 
 
 The best way is to take the prints from the last washing 
 water and put them face down on a piece of clean wet glass 
 — first one, and then another on the top of it, and then 
 another, and so on, until all are in a neat pile on the glass. 
 Then rest the glass on a perfectly flat table, cover the heap 
 of prints with four or five folds of clean blotting paper and 
 then roll a round ruler (or a glass bottle) firmly over the top 
 so as to press out the superfluous moisture. Quite a decided 
 pressure is necessary to do this, if there are more than a 
 dozen prints in the pile, and that is the reason why the glass 
 must be laid upon a perfectly flat surface to avoid breakage. 
 There are several other methods for driving out the water, 
 one of which is the squeegee — a narrow strip of rubber- 
 mounted in wood. It is used thus : The prints are covered 
 with a sheet of tough writing, or cartridge, paper, instead of 
 blotting paper; a squeegee is then grasped in the right hand 
 
 Trimming Knife. 
 
 wetting them at all. There 
 are many devices for this 
 purpose, and some of them 
 are very ingenious, but the 
 simplest plan is to put the 
 
 See Glossary. 
 
First Lessons in Printing. 
 
 13 
 
 (the left hand being used to hold the covering paper from 
 moving) and firmly dragged from the centre to one end of 
 the pile of prints. They are then 
 turned end for end and the opera- 
 tion repeated. This effectually ex- 
 pels the water, but as some practice 
 Squeegee. j s necessary before a beginner can 
 
 thoroughly master the squeegee, we recommend the former 
 plan for the present. 
 
 When all superfluous water has been driven from the 
 prints the top one is coated with a thin layer of arrowroot 
 paste, applied with a bristle brush, and then lifted by one 
 corner from the heap. It is then turned face upwards and 
 firmly held about an inch towards the centre from the top 
 right hand and bottom left hand corners. The top left hand 
 corner is then lowered to the required position on the mount, 
 the top edge is allowed to follow it, and, when it is in correct 
 position, the rest of the print falls easily into its place. It 
 must then be covered with a sheet of clean dry blotting- 
 paper and rubbed firmly into place with the side of the 
 hand. After a little practice this soon becomes a very 
 simple and easy matter, and the print always dries free 
 from creases. 
 
 Paste for mounting photograms may be bought of most 
 stock dealers, but the following formula is an excellent one: 
 
 Bermuda Arrowroot (best) ... 3^ ounces 
 
 Gelatine (Nelson's No. 1) ... 160 grains 
 
 Methylated Spirits 2 ounces 
 
 Carbolic Acid (pure) 12 minims 
 
 Water (cold) 30 ounces 
 
 Mix the arrowroot into a stiff cream with two ounces ot 
 the water, while the gelatine is placed to soak in the re- 
 mainder. When the gelatine is softened and the arrowroot 
 well mixed, pour all together into an iron saucepan and 
 bring to the boiling point. Keep at this heat for about five 
 minutes, being particularly careful to stir continually from 
 the moment the mixture is placed on the fire. When 
 sufficiently cooked, pour into a basin to cool. When cool, 
 add the carbolic acid and spirit (previously mixed) in a 
 thin stream with constant stirring. Then bottle and keep 
 well corked. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 FIRST LESSONS IN TONING. 
 
 Materials required :— One tube of gold (price about 2s.) ; one 
 oz. bicarbonate of soda (price id.) one io-oz. graduate (cost about 
 8d.) ; two 20-oz. bottles (cost about 2d. each). 
 
 IN the last chapter we dealt with the simplest method of 
 producing pictures by light, and gave formula for a fixing 
 bath to prevent such pictures undergoing further change 
 under the influence of light. It will be noticed, however, 
 that the color of such photographic prints, after removal 
 from the fixing bath, is not agreeable, but ranges from a 
 more or less impure white, through various shades of 
 yellowish brown, until it ends in a deep reddish chocolate, 
 altogether different from prints made by professional pho- 
 tographers. 
 
 We suggested the use of the fixing bath in order that 
 students should early become acquainted with the simple 
 method of checking the change that light produces upon 
 sensitive silvered paper, and we advise students to become 
 thoroughly familiar with this action before entering upon the 
 more complex change brought about in the toning bath. 
 
 We will take for granted that the color of a print, simply 
 fixed and washed, is objectionable; let us now consider how 
 it may be altered (previous to fixing) so that it will assume 
 the pleasing purple and black tones* so peculiar to photo- 
 grams made by professional workers. 
 
 The principle of the so-called u toning" action may be 
 simply described thus: — After all the free nitrate of silver 
 has been removed from the print (as it comes from the 
 printing frame), by washing in several changes of water, it 
 is then treated with a weak alkaline solution ot gold chloride. 
 In its alkaline state (and this is why an alkali should 
 always be present in a toning bath) the gold present in 
 solution is attracted by the metallic silver present in the 
 print (which forms the picture) and becomes deposited upon 
 it in a finely divided metallic state. These fine particles of 
 
 *See Glossary. 
 
First Lessons in Toning. 
 
 ■5 
 
 gold, if collected as a precipitate, would be found to exist 
 as a beautiful purple powder — resembling that known to 
 painters as u purple of cassius." 
 
 The longer a print is immersed in such a toning bath, the 
 deposition of gold of course becomes heavier, and causes 
 a deepening of the tone until the print changes from red, or 
 reddish brown, to a purple brown, then to purple, and finally 
 to a blue black. The color of the resultant photogram there- 
 fore depends, to a great extent, upon the length of immersion 
 in the gold toning bath, and it will be readily inferred that 
 the permanence of the print will be much improved by 
 receiving a deposit of gold — which is so little affected by 
 atmospheric influences as compared with silver. 
 
 Toning, therefore, answers a two-fold purpose : it im- 
 proves the color of the silver print and increases its 
 permanence. The action of the gold bath also exerts a 
 pleasing influence upon the white parts of the print, changing 
 the slight yellowish deposit of silver into almost invisible 
 pale violet or purple, thus enhancing the brilliance of the 
 high lights ; this will be very noticeable as we proceed with 
 the toning. 
 
 In order to avoid waste in preparing a toning bath (as 
 well as on account of general neatness), it is desirable to 
 make up the following stock solutions : — 
 
 Gold Stock Solution. 
 Gold chloride ... ... 15 grains 
 
 Water ... ... ... 15 ounces. 
 
 The gold chloride is sold in hermetically sealed tubes con- 
 taining 15 grains each. The water must be measured in a 
 graduate divided into fluid drams and ounces. Care is 
 necessary in breaking the tube of 
 gold so as to prevent waste. The 
 best plan is to put the tube of gold 
 into the graduate and press it, or tap 
 it smartly, with a thick glass rod or 
 piece of clean smooth hard wood. 
 When the tube is broken, add a few 
 ounces of water and stir it up with a 
 glass rod and then pour the solution Graduates. 
 into a stoppered bottle; add more water and pour it off as 
 before, and so on until fifteen ounces have been measured. 
 The fragments of glass will remain in the graduate and 
 may be thrown away. It is advisable to keep this solution 
 in a cupboard away from strong daylight, or else cover the 
 bottle with a sheet of brown ft paper. 
 
i<5 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Next make up the 
 
 Alkaline Stock Solution, 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda ... ... i ounce 
 
 Table salt ... ... ... 1 , 
 
 Water, to make ... ... 15 ounces, 
 
 This may be kept in an ordinary corked bottle. 
 To use a toning bath proceed as follows : — 
 The prints must appear darker than we wish to have them 
 when finished (for reasons we have already given), and it is 
 advisable to have a decided tinge of color in the parts that 
 are tc be white in the finished photogram. The exact depth 
 can only be known after a few trials and possibly some 
 disappointment. 
 
 Instead of putting these prints into a fixing bath we must 
 now immerse them in clean cold water and turn them over 
 therein for five minutes ; this had better be done four or 
 five times, then cover the tray, containing the prints, with a 
 piece of cardboard to exclude light, and make up the following 
 toning bath in a clean deep porcelain tray, size about 7 by 5 
 inches, or, better still, 9 by 7 inches. 
 
 Toning bath for use, 
 
 Water, cold (about 65 0 F,) ... 20 ounces. 
 
 Stock gold solution ... ... 2 ,, 
 
 Stock alkaline solution ... 2 ,, 
 
 This may be used at once, but will not keep. 
 Put the tray oi prints on a table at your left hand, the 
 toning bath in front, and a basin or tray of clean water 
 
 at your right, as 
 shown in the dia- 
 gram. Take a 
 print from the tray 
 and immerse it 
 face downwards in 
 the toning bath, 
 then turn it face 
 upwards and re- 
 move any air bells 
 that may have 
 formed upon it and turn it down again. Keep it moving, 
 first face up and then face down, being particular to keep 
 it under the solution, except at such times as you may 
 desire to lift it out for closer inspection. In about a 
 minute, put another print into the bath and treat it in a 
 similar manner, but do not forget to turn print No. i,^and 
 
 tray 
 
 c/ean 
 water 
 
First Lessons in Toning. 
 
 i7 
 
 examine it at frequent intervals. In another minute or so, 
 another print may be added to the bath, and if it is 
 compared with No. 1 there should be a decided difference 
 in their appearance ; No. 3 should appear to be red, while 
 No. 1 should be a decided brown color, and the white parts 
 of No. 1 should begin to assume a purer appearance than 
 No. 3. If this be so, no matter how slight the change, you 
 may rest assured that the deposit of gold is taking place and 
 the toning bath is working satisfactorily. Five or six prints 
 may be treated together in the toning bath — putting them in 
 at intervals, of course — but we do not advise a learner to 
 attempt a greater number. 
 
 When No. 1 is sufficiently toned, which may be judged 
 best by the brilliance and pureness ot the white parts and 
 the purple color of the deep shades, it must be removed to 
 the basin of clean water on the right. For all purposes of 
 washing photographic prints we have found good-sized 
 glazed earthenware pancheons very serviceable ; but purely 
 chemical operations, such as toning and fixing, are best 
 carried out in porcelain trays sold for the purpose. After 
 the prints are all toned, the toning bath may be thrown away, 
 and it is well to wash out the toning tray and put it away 
 until it is wanted again. 
 
 The prints should next be washed for a few minutes in a 
 change of clean water and may then be transferred to the 
 fixing bath (hypo. 3 oz., water 20 oz.) where they are to be 
 kept moving for fifteen minutes; they must then be removed 
 to clean water, and well washed for at least an hour. 
 
 After this treatment the prints will be far more agreeable 
 in color than when the toning bath is omitted. Should the 
 color still be browner than desired, the cause lies in too 
 short an immersion in the toning bath, and the remedy is 
 obvious. • 
 
 A slatey bluish black indicates too L long continued an 
 action of the toning bath. 
 
 In the course of a few trials the right moment to remove 
 the prints from the toning solution will soon be learnt. 
 
 The operations of washing and toning may all be carried 
 on in subdued daylight, so long as care be taken to prevent 
 direct rays of strong light striking the prints. Candle or gas 
 light has no apparent effect upon the paper, but it is difficult 
 (owing to the yellow rays of such illuminant) to judge of the 
 various degrees of color while toning them, hence we advise 
 weak diffused daylight. 
 
 And here we most strongly recommend beginners to per= 
 severe incessantly : printing, toning and fixing dozens of 
 
[8 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 small batches (of half-a-dozen or so, if need be, (until perfect 
 confidence is acquired. 
 
 By perfect confidence we mean confidence in the ability to 
 produce any number of prints from one subject of an equal 
 depth both of light action and of toning; in fact, so that 
 the prints shall be indistinguishable one from another. 
 Then, and not until then, it will be time to learn to print 
 from an actual negative. 
 
 Probable Failures and their Cause. 
 
 An indistinct image, possessing no sharpness of detail. — 
 Probable cause, film side of negative put dozvnwards instead 
 of up, thus interposing a transparent substance (the celluloid 
 upon which the negative image is made) between the actual 
 negative image and the sensitive paper. It is impossible to 
 secure sharp detail without actual contact between the ne- 
 gative film and the paper. 
 
 A blurred appearance, as if two images existed instead of 
 one.— Cause, carelessness in handling the printing frame 
 when examining the print, thus slightly moving the paper 
 from its original position and so securing a double impression 
 through the negative. 
 
 Veiled, foggy appearance of prints. — Insufficient washing 
 before toning. 
 
 Measles. — Too strong, or too alkaline, toning bath. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRINTING FROM THE NEGATIVE. 
 
 Materials Required: — i box of assorted masks and discs, 
 i plate size (cost is.). 
 
 AVING thoroughly mastered printing and toning photo- 
 grams of simple objects, we will now go on to the use 
 of a negative in photography. As it is our intention 
 to lead beginners gradually to the production of a 
 negative, we shall not say much on the subject here, 
 especially as we have provided a ready-made negative for 
 their use, until we have taught them how to make negatives 
 of any subject for themselves. 
 
 It will be sufficient, then, to simply state^that a negative (in 
 the photographic sense) is a transparent picture, in which the 
 lights and shades are reversed. This peculiarity will be in- 
 stantly noticed, if we examine the negative supplied with 
 this textbook. 
 
 Let us hold this transparent picture to the light, and ob- 
 serve it critically : The sky is the darkest portion, and 
 many details of varying degrees of opacity appear in different 
 places, until we finally discover some quite clear parts. 
 The negative should be, so far as light and shade is concerned, 
 the exact reverse of the scene from which it was made. 
 
 A careful student will remember that the action of light upon 
 sensitive paper causes it to rapidly darken; it therefore follows 
 that if such paper is placed in contact behind a negative, 
 through which light must pass before attacking the sensitive 
 surface, it stands to reason that the light will act most 
 rapidly through the clearest portions of the negative, while 
 the very dark parts (such as sky and water) will be scarcely 
 altered at all. To put this theory to a practical test, take a 
 piece of clear glass (size by 3! in) and fit it in the printing 
 frame; then place the negative upon the glass, film side* up- 
 
 _*The film side may easily be recognised, as it presents a rather uneven 
 appearance in comparison with the back, which is of a more glossy nature. 
 In order to make the distinction more obvious — we have labelled the film 
 side of the negative. 
 
2o Early Work in Photography. 
 
 wards, and cover it with a sheet of sensitive paper — sensi- 
 tive side downwards, i.e. in contact with the film side of the 
 negative. Then replace the back of the printing frame, and 
 expose the glass side to strong daylight. 
 
 At the end of about ten minutes the frame may be removed 
 to a weaker light and one half of the picture examined, when 
 the use of a negative in producing a positive image will at once 
 be apparent. If printing has not been carried far enough, 
 in other words if the photogram does not appear to be several 
 shades darker than required, the frame must again be closed 
 (care being observed to avoid moving either negative or 
 print, during the operation), and again exposed to daylight. 
 
 There is no rule whereby the time of exposure can be 
 accurately determined ; all depends upon the quality of the 
 negative, and the actinic* power of the light. For instance, 
 if the negative be a dense one, more exposure must be 
 allowed than if it be a soft one, full of delicate gradations. 
 Again, if the sensitive paper is exposed to sunlight, the 
 action will necessarily take place more rapidly than on ex- 
 posure to diffused daylight. The light during the winter 
 season is also much less powerful than of springtime or 
 summer. All these matters tend to govern the time of ex- 
 posure, hence the necessity of examining the course of the 
 printing, at frequent intervals. 
 
 As a rule it is advisable that the printing be carried on 
 until the deep shades are more vigorous than will be desired 
 in the finished photogram, and the white portions are ap- 
 preciably tinged with colour. 
 
 When the student is able to secure the same effects (from 
 one negative) half-a-dozen times consecutively, he may ven- 
 ture to try some experiments in printing medallions and 
 vignettes. And here we must again impress upon the 
 student that our object is to make him feel quite conversant 
 with the method of printing from, and handling, a negative 
 before dealing with the more complex matter of making one. 
 
 In order to produce the so-called " medallion " prints, we 
 shall require a packet of masks and discs {\ plate size), pro- 
 curable of any stock-dealer. These masks are made of black 
 paper, pierced with various sized openings in ovals, squares, 
 and other shapes, and they are used as follows: 
 
 The negative is supported (film side upwards) upon a sheet 
 of glass in the printing frame in the usual way, but, instead 
 of then placing a sheet of sensitive paper directly in contact 
 with it, we must first cover it with a black paper mask, 
 
 * See . Glossary. 
 
Printing front the Negative. 
 
 A MEDALLION 
 
 (^Printed with Black^Paper Mask). 
 From dlPhotogram by Friedrich Midler, Munich. 
 
22 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 having an opening of the desired shape. Upon this mask 
 we next place the sensitive paper (face downwards) close the 
 printing frame, and expose to the light in the usual way. 
 The black part of the mask, it will be readily understood, 
 prevents any light having access to those parts of the paper 
 covered by it. Hence it follows that only that part of the 
 negative, visible through the central opening, possesses the 
 power of transmitting light to the paper with which it is 
 covered. The result will be a print, having a centre of an 
 oval (or other) shape, surrounded by clear white margins. 
 
 The student will find much amusement in cutting out 
 various shaped designs, to suit his own taste, and trying 
 their effect in printing from various parts of the negative. 
 The best paper for this purpose is known as black needle- 
 paper, and the designs can be easily made if the paper be 
 supported upon a sheet of glass and the cutting done with a 
 sharp penknife. 
 
 Another style of print which is popular among the general 
 public, although personally we cannot confess to much par- 
 tiality for it, is that known as a "vignette." A vignette 
 usually has the main portion of the subject printed to full 
 depth, while the edges are graded off until they merge into 
 plain paper devoid of any impression. 
 
 This effect is due to a retarded action of light brought 
 about by covering the negative with an opaque shield pierced 
 
 an experiment in vignetting if he will follow our instruc- 
 tions We do not advise a beginner to encumber himself 
 with such apparatus until he has made a few experimental 
 trials with the make-shifts we are going to suggest, later 
 on he may find it an advantage, especially if he adopts 
 photography as a business. . . . 
 
 Still dealing with the same sized negative and printing 
 1 frame as in the former experiments, we will now take a 
 piece of cardboard, the dimensions of which are equal to the 
 extreme outside size of the printing frame. A hole must 
 now be made r in the centre of this card— the shape being 
 o-overned by individual taste— but for our experiment let it 
 be an oval. The size of the hole must be less than will cover 
 
 Vignetter. 
 
 with an opening of any de- 
 sired shape. Appliances, 
 known in the trade as " vig- 
 netters," are sold especially 
 for the purpose of producing 
 such prints, and some of 
 them are admirable; but 
 the student may easily try 
 
Printing from the Negative. 
 
 23 
 
 the amount of subject we wish to include when printing 
 from the negative it is destined to cover. The hole may be 
 made with knife or scissors, and it is not necessary to be at 
 all careful in keeping the edges clean cut, in fact they may 
 be quite rough in outline. 
 
 The pierced cardboard is now to be tacked upon the outside 
 of the printing frame in such a position that the opening of 
 the card comes over the part of the negative that is to be 
 printed. 
 
 The negative and sensitive paper are placed in the frame 
 as previously described, the opening in the cardboard is 
 then to be covered with a piece of tissue paper to ensure 
 diffusion of light, and the whole exposed to light in the usual 
 way. In this position the negative, instead of being visible, 
 will be covered with the cardboard vignetter, the opening of 
 which is covered with tissue paper. 
 
 Of course, printing will take a longer time than when the 
 negative is quite uncovered, and the result will be different 
 from any other method of printing. Thus, when using a 
 medallion mask the resulting print possesses a clean-cut 
 outline, dividing the picture from its white margin ; this is 
 due to the opaque mask being in actual contact with both 
 negative and sensitive paper. 
 
 The effect of the vignetter will be very different, for this 
 reason : the vignette, although partially protecting the sen- 
 sitive paper from the action of light, is placed not in contact 
 with the negative film, but at a considerable distance from 
 it, i.e.yOn the exterior of the printing frame. 
 
 The light is thus enabled to strike beneath the protecting 
 cardboard and exert a gradually lessening influence upon 
 the sensitive paper which, therefore, yields a print with a 
 softened and graduated margin. 
 
 If the outline is at all harsh in appearance, it is due to the 
 vignetter being too near to the surface of the negative. This 
 fault may be remedied by nailing a strip of wood (about 
 half-an-inch thick) around the outside (front surface) of the 
 printing frame and attaching the vignette to it. This will 
 increase the distance between vignetter and negative, and so 
 cause a greater diffusion of light and, of course, increased 
 softness of margin to the print. 
 
 There are, of course, many other methods of dealing with % 
 sensitive paper (such as combination printing, &c.), but as 
 they do not properly come within the scope of a first hand- 
 book, we shall defer their treatment for a later and more 
 advanced work. 
 
 We ask the student to carefully and thoroughly practise 
 
24 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 the lessons contained in this chapter, and we beg him not to 
 attempt to push farther ahead until he feels that confidence 
 in himself that is bound to be the reward of dogged perse- 
 verance. In the next chapter we make another step in the 
 direction of the mysterious darkened chamber so essential 
 to the production of a photographic negative. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE DARK-ROOM AND ITS FITTINGS. 
 
 ^\ARK-ROOM is a misnomer, but we will try to explain 
 I why such a chamber, in which the critical operation 
 of development is usually carried on, is designated 
 "dark." 
 
 I- Most students are aware that white light, when examined 
 through the spectroscope, is seen to consist of many beautiful 
 and vivid colors. Now one end of the spectrum is princi- 
 pally formed of blue and violet light, while the constituents 
 of the other end are chiefly yellow and red. 
 % t It is well known (even among the general public) that red 
 cannot be photographed so quickly as can blue — hence it is 
 also well known that a bright red dress usually appears 
 black in a photogram, while blue, even dark blue, comes out 
 white. Now we will try to show the reason for this. White 
 light contains both rays of light and rays of heat. The spec- 
 troscope divides this light into its several parts and shows 
 us that it is possible to so filter white light as to exclude the 
 active rays of light at will. The blue and violet rays 
 are the actinic*' ones, and exert the greatest power upon 
 a photographic plate, of which we shall speak later. The 
 red or heat rays are the non-actinic* ones and exert no 
 influence on a light-sensitive plate. Photographic plates are 
 now prepared to such a degree of sensitiveness that an 
 exposure to white light of even a small fraction of a second 
 is sufficient to impress it with a visible image, but the same 
 plate may be exposed to red and yellow light for considerable 
 time without leaving any sign of an impression. At the 
 risk of repetition we once more impress upon the student the 
 reason for this : the red and yellow rays transmit only heat ; 
 the blue and violet rays transmit active light. 
 
 How, then, can we so illuminate a chamber that we can 
 conduct photographic operations without risk of injuring so 
 sensitive a plate ? Easily enough. We have said that it is 
 possible to filter certain rays from others, and it is only 
 
 * See Glossary. 
 
26 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 necessary to exclude the blue and violet rays in order to 
 have what is known as a " safe" light. Blue and violet light 
 cannot pass through red glass, as such glass will only trans- 
 mit the heat rays : red and yellow. 
 
 We must bear this fact in mind while providing illumina- 
 tion in the otherwise darkened chamber. 
 
 The chemical operation of development may be carried *on 
 in any room so long as absolutely no white light (even from 
 the cracks beneath a door) is allowed access to it. 
 
 An ordinary window may be used, but it must be covered 
 with a frame glazed with ruby glass, and provided with an 
 extra frame covered with " canary medium," which is 
 obtainable from any photographic dealer. 
 
 We shall give a plan showing a convenient way of fitting 
 the dark room sink, &c, but we do not advise the beginner 
 to make use of day light (even when filtered through ruby 
 glass) chiefly because the fluctuation from such a source of 
 light often leads to a bewildering state of uncertainty. 
 
 It is better to exclude all light from the room by covering 
 the window with several layers of brown paper and covering 
 all cracks with the same material. 
 
 For effective illumination, then, we strongly advise the 
 student to buy a well-made dark-room lantern; it would 
 hardly be becoming to specially mention any particular 
 make, although some years ago we used a lantern that has 
 since been our ideal. 
 
 As a guide to a beginner, we suggest the following features . 
 which should be possessed by a good dark room lantern. 
 
 It should be large. 
 
 It should consume either gas or paraffin. 
 
 It should be provided with deep ruby glass, fitted in 
 grooves and easily changeable. 
 
 It should have extra grooves to permit of two panes of 
 glass (red and yellow) being used, one over the other it 
 desired. 
 
 The flame should be regulated from outside the lantern. 
 The chimney should be provided with " light traps" so 
 that no white light can escape. 
 The ventilation must be perfect. 
 The price may range from 5s. to £1. 
 
 All lanterns of this class are glazed with ruby glass, 
 through which the flame is distinctly visible in its full glare. 
 In our practice we always paste a sheet of orange-colored 
 tissue paper over each pane of glass, which causes a pleasant 
 diffusion of light, less trying to the eyes than a direct flame. 
 
 The following features must be avoided in a lantern : 
 
The Dark-Room and its Fittings. 
 
 It must not be a so-called "pocket lantern." 
 
 It must not be so small as to become red hot in about five 
 minutes — such lanterns (to avoid risk of explosion, we pre- 
 sume) are usually provided with an inch or two of candle, 
 which melts at a critical moment. 
 
 The only means of access to the interior must not be 
 through a patented spring arrangement at the top or bottom. 
 
 It must not have the flame within three inches of the ruby 
 glass. 
 
 It must not allow the slightest suspicion of light (other 
 than red) to escape. To test for this particular defect the 
 best plan is to light the lamp 
 and close it ready for use ; 
 then take a piece of card- 
 board, the size of the panes, 
 and hold it over each sheet of 
 glass, examining the sides of 
 the grooves in which the 
 glass is fixed. You will soon 
 see if white light escapes. 
 Instructions have been pub- 
 lished from time to time in 
 the photographic journals 
 whereby a suitable lantern 
 can be made at a small outlay. 
 
 Having decided upon the 
 lantern, let us now turn to 
 the general fittings of the 
 developing room. 
 
 If the student is fortunate 
 enough to have a fair-sized 
 room (say 10 by 8 feet) fitted 
 with a supply of water and 
 a waste pipe it will be well 
 to adapt the place for use 
 as a general photographic workroom, as well as a developing 
 room. 
 
 The following plan is arranged upon this principle. 
 
 Plenty of shelving and a large sink are, in our opinion, of 
 the first importance. An excellent sink can be made of 
 matched boards put together in the form of a box about 
 3 feet long, by 18 inches wide, by 6 inches deep. This 
 should be lined with thin sheet lead, and fixed permanently 
 upon a framework at one end of the workroom. Beneath 
 the sink it is advisable to have a number of racks in which 
 to store the various trays used in the work. 
 
 A Bye-pass Ruby Layitern- 
 
28 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 At one end of the sink there should be a space especially 
 reserved for the bath used when fixing glass plates. An 
 excellent bath for this purpose — and we have never yet seen 
 one we like better — may be made by anyone handy with 
 carpenter's tools. It has the advantage of being usable with 
 any sized plates from the smallest to the largest for which it 
 is made, and it fixes the plate more thoroughly than any 
 other pattern. It is made of two pieces of board screwed 
 together lengthwise at right angles to each other, their ends 
 being recessed into a rectangular board at each end. All the 
 
 lantern 
 
 fejci n 
 Z>ct£/? 
 
 Plan o+' General Workroom. 
 
 joints should be put together with a liberal layer ot red lead 
 in order to ensure a watertight joint. The inside must be 
 well coated either with asphaltum varnish or solid paraffin 
 wax applied hot and worked in with a hot iron. The latter 
 plan is the one we recommend. 
 
 The sketch on page 30 will give a general idea of the 
 trough. When used for fixing it must contain a liberal supply 
 of hypo solution, and the plates must be placed face down- 
 wards ; but we shall speak of this matter in the next chapter. 
 
 The question of water supply is a matter for serious con- 
 sideration and, wherever possible (especially if photography 
 
The Dark-Room and its Fittings. 
 
 2$ 
 
 is likely to be adopted as a serious hobby), we recommend 
 the student to arrange for a plentiful supply. Of course, if 
 it is impossible to run a supply from the main we can 
 arrange for a tank, or small keg, to contain enough for use 
 during development; but we strongly urge the student to 
 arrange for a direct supply, and a direct waste pipe. If he 
 has these, photography will lose all its terrors and become a 
 most agreeable and fascinating occupation. 
 
 We advise the beginner to permanently block up the top 
 half of the window in his workroom and provide a sliding 
 shutter (working up and down in grooves) to the lower half. 
 
 Thus he can, at a moment's notice, convert his dark-room 
 into a light workroom for ordinary work or vice-versd. Both 
 sink and table should be of a convenient height, so that de- 
 velopment and other work may be undertaken while the 
 operator is sitting in comfort, instead of standing for long 
 periods watching the slow appearance of an under-exposed 
 negative. It is a common mistake to build the sink so high 
 as to be useless except while standing. 
 
 The dark-room door should be fitted with a spring latch, 
 which will effectually prevent untimely intrusions while 
 development is proceeding, and we recommend the use of a 
 draw-curtain (inside the door) sufficiently long and wide to 
 cover all the cracks around and beneath the door and so 
 exclude even the faintest ray of unfiltered light. 
 
 It is a good plan to test the thorough darkness of the room 
 by closing it and sitting in total darkness for five minutes. 
 Long before this time has elapsed the student will observe 
 
3o 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 innumerable rays of white light penetrating in places whence 
 they are least expected. These should be carefully covered 
 as fast as they become visible and the final result will be a 
 
 \A Home-made Fixing Trough. 
 
 developing room in which a sensitive plate may be exposed 
 without fear of ruining it. 
 
 We will now pass on to another distinct step towards the 
 production of a negative, viz.: the development of the latent 
 image on a sensitive plate. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 FIRST LESSON IN DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Lantern Slides. 
 
 Required for this Chapter: — One box slow lantern slide plates 
 (price is.), porcelain developing dish and developer. 
 
 ITHERTO we have confined ourselves to the compara- 
 tively simple process of printing a visible image, by 
 long exposure to daylight. We must now deal with 
 a substance so sensitive as to be fully impressed with 
 a latent or invisible image by an exposure of one second to 
 daylight, or a proportionate time to artificial light. 
 
 The emulsion spread upon the plates we shall use for this 
 purpose, differs from that with which the printing-out paper 
 (chap, i) is coated, in an essential feature. The emulsion 
 spread upon that paper contains gelatine, chloride of silver, 
 and free nitrate of silver. The plates we shall now use con- 
 tain only gelatine and chloride of silver, without the least 
 trace of nitrate. If any free nitrate of silver was present 
 the emulsion would be useless for development. Plates 
 that are made specially for development are prepared by 
 ruby or yellow light, and must never be exposed to white 
 light (no matter how feeble), except when we wish to im- 
 press them with an image. 
 
 The method of printing is briefly this: A negative is placed 
 (film upwards) in the printing frame, and a lantern plate is 
 placed upon it, film downwards, that is, both films in contact. 
 The back of the frame is then replaced and fastened. 
 
 The negative is then exposed to daylight for a second, or 
 to other illumination, as will be described. 
 
 Upon applying certain chemicals (known as the developer) 
 to the film of the lantern plate, after such exposure, the 
 latent image is converted into metallic silver, and becomes 
 visible in various degrees according to the action of light. 
 The image, so formed, is insoluble in the fixing bath (hypo), 
 but the other parts of the plate, i.e. those not altered by the 
 combined action of light and developer, still consist of 
 chloride of silver, which is easily soluble in the fixing bath. 
 
32 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Therefore it follows that if, after development, the plate be 
 immersed in a solution of hypo, the creamy-looking chloride 
 of silver will be dissolved, leaving the insoluble metallic 
 image upon a transparent film of colourless gelatine. 
 
 If the student will now examine the transparent positive 
 that accompanies this handbook, he will understand exactly 
 the qualities that must be sought when making lantern slides 
 by development. 
 
 And now, to come to the matter of printing and developing 
 in detail, we must impress one vital fact upon the student : 
 The lantern plates are extremely sensitive to the faintest ray 
 of white light, though they are not affected by deep yellow, 
 orange, or red light. 
 
 The best and most comfortable light to use while working 
 with lantern plates is a rich yellow, such as is transmitted 
 through a pane ol yellow glass, covered with one thickness 
 of canary medium. It is positively necessary to use deep 
 ruby light only when dealing with the plates of ultra 
 sensitiveness, to be described in a later chapter. 
 
 Let us now shut ourselves in the dark room, and prepare 
 to make a trial exposure : Place the negative (film up) on a 
 sheet of glass in the printing frame ; put a lantern plate 
 (film down) upon it, and re-adjust the back of the frame.^^; 
 
 And here it may be well to tell the student that makers j3f 
 lantern plates always pack their plates in a similar manner, 
 i.e. film to film, with either a slip of paper or small piece of 
 card between. When a box of plates is opened (of course, 
 only by yellow light, as described) it will be observed that 
 the first plate always has its back (or glass side) upwards. 
 The next plate will have its film side upward, and the next 
 one the glass side upward, and so on. 
 
 But, if at any time there be any doubt as to which is the 
 film side (and they are so exactly similar that this may easily 
 happen in the yellow light of the dark room), the matter may 
 be easily set right. Hold a plate by the edges, and turn it at 
 such an angle towards the lantern that the light is reflected 
 upon it ; then breathe lightly on the surface. If the film side 
 be uppermost, the breath will leave no impression, but, if 
 the glass side be upwards, the breath will condense upon it. 
 This is the simplest and neatest method we know for deter- 
 mining the film side of a plate. 
 
 The negative and sensitive plate being in contact, and 
 ready for exposure, it is necessary to completely cover the 
 negative, except during the time of actual exposure. This 
 may be done with a book, or a piece of cardboard. The 
 frame and its contents must next be taken into daylight (the 
 
First Lesson in Development. 
 
 33 
 
 convenience of a sliding shutter in the workroom will here be 
 apparent), and the protecting cover removed for one second ; 
 in very dull weather two seconds may possibly be necessary. 
 After exposure, remove again to the workroom, and (still 
 by yellow light, of course,) remove the now invisibly im- 
 pressed plate, and prepare for development. 
 
 For reasons explained in our introductory chapter, we 
 strongly recommend the hydroquinone developer. This 
 may be bought, ready prepared, of most photographic dealers ; 
 but as soon as the student feels confidence in himself we 
 advise him to make his own. The following is a reliable 
 formula: 
 
 A. 
 
 Hydroquinone 720 or 160 grains 
 
 Citric Acid 
 Potassium Bromide 
 Sodium Sulphite ... 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 Water to 
 
 270 or 60 
 135 or 30 „ 
 9 or 2 ounces 
 4 or 1 „ 
 90 or 20 „ 
 
 Dissolve the citric acid, bromide, and sulphite together, 
 in about sixty (or fourteen) ounces of water ; dissolve the 
 hydroquinone in the alcohol, and then add gradually to the 
 other solution with frequent shaking; finally add the rest 
 of the water. 
 
 B. 
 
 Potassium Carbonate ... 13^ or 3 ounces 
 
 Sodium Carbonate 13^ or 3 „ 
 
 Water to 90 or 20 „ 
 
 Before beginning to develop a plate, we must make up a 
 fixing bath in a clean porcelain try, the following is the best 
 strength for this bath: 
 
 Fixing \bath for lantern plates. 
 Hypo .... ... ... ... 3 ounces. 
 
 Water ... ... ... ... 10 „ 
 
 This bath should not be used for lantern plates more than 
 one day ; if kept and used on a later occasion, stains will re- 
 sult. 
 
 To develop a lantern plate : Pour into a graduate* half an 
 ounce of A, half an ounce of B, and add one ounce of water. 
 Put the plate, film side upwards, into a small porcelain tray 
 (about 4 by 5 inches in size) and, with a steady sweep, 
 flow the developer over its surface. Do not hurry ; do not 
 splash the developer, or air bells will be formed ; do not pour 
 the solution on the centre of the plate. The best way is to 
 
 *See Glossary. 
 
34 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 hold the tray in the left hand, and then put the lip of the 
 graduate at the left end of the edge nearest to you. 
 
 Then, drawing the graduate along the edge of the tray from 
 left to right, allow the developer to flow smoothly in one 
 continuous wave across the surface of the plate; in this 
 manner the plate will be quickly and thoroughly covered 
 with the solution, without the formation of air bells. 
 
 As soon as the developer is on the plate, the dish must be 
 gently rocked from side to side, and end to end, so as to 
 cause a gentle movement of the solution. 
 
 The image will make its first appearance in less than a 
 minute, and will gradually gain vigor and intensity; if the 
 exposure has been correct, development should be complete 
 in about three minutes. 
 
 If the image starts up instantly upon applying the 
 developer, it is a sign that the plate has been exposed too 
 long to light; the remedy is to expose another plate for 
 less time. 
 
 If the image fails to appear in two minutes you may be 
 sure that the exposure under the negative has not been 
 sufficiently long ; therefore expose another plate for twice 
 the time. These trials, when he knows why he makes them, 
 and what to expect, tend to give a student confidence in the 
 materials at his command. Supposing the image has come 
 in sight gradually in about a minute after applying the 
 developer : the action may be allowed to proceed for about 
 another minute, and then it is advisable to examine the 
 intensity of the image by looking through it at the yellow 
 light. For this purpose the plate may be lifted (by its 
 edges) from the developing tray and held between the eyes 
 and the light. If the image looks weak, it is necessary to 
 continue development; but if it looks dark, and full of detail, 
 it may be rinsed and then fixed. In order that the student 
 may form some idea as to the requisite density of the image, 
 we advise him to examine the accompanying transparent 
 positive under the same conditions as the plate he is de- 
 veloping, that is, by looking through it at the yellow light. 
 
 Of course some allowance must be made for the creamy 
 opalescence of the plate he is developing, which will in- 
 crease, to some extent, the apparent vigor of the image. 
 
 We advise the student to make one or two trials that he 
 may think incorrect; thus, carry development considerably 
 farther than appears to be necessary, then fix the plate and 
 judge of it by daylight. Stop development at the apparently 
 correct time and fix the plate. 
 
 A valuable lesson will be learnt by comparing the results ; 
 
First Lesson in Development. 
 
 35 
 
 it will be seen that the image loses considerable vigor when 
 the chloride of silver has been fixed out, and nothing left 
 save the image and a thin film of transparent gelatine. 
 
 Another thing to be borne in mind, too, is this: the 
 resulting picture is to be viewed by transmitted light — that 
 is by light passing through it — not by reflected light, as 
 ordinary pictures, so that we cannot judge accurately of the 
 image as it appears to us while the plate is in the developer. 
 
 A-well-fiticd Development Sink 
 
 If we did so, and fixed the plate directly we saw an image 
 upon it, the result would be almost clear glass with barely a 
 trace of an image discernible on it. That is why we must 
 examine the plate by allowing light to pass through it. 
 
 When we have decided that the plate is sufficiently de- 
 veloped, we must rinse it under the tap for about a minute, 
 to free it of all adherent developer, and then place it film 
 upwards in the fixing bath.* The plate may be examined in 
 about five minutes, when the back (or glass side) will be 
 
 * If an ordinary tray be used. If the trough on fpage 30 is adopted the 
 plates may be placed film down without injury. 
 
36 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 observed to be almost entirely free of the creamy appearance 
 it possessed before being put in the fixing bath. 
 
 This appearance proves that the hypo is dissolving the 
 chloride of silver, and that everything is going on well. The 
 plate must be returned to the fixing bath (even if quite clear) 
 until it has had a total immersion of fifteen minutes. 
 
 After the plate is fixed it may be examined in white light, 
 which can no longer exert any influence upon it. Then 
 wash in running water for at least an hour. This may be 
 done either in a special grooved trough sold for the purpose 
 (which will hold about two dozen plates at once), or by 
 putting the plate, film upwards, in a tray under the tap, 
 letting the water run for an hour, or an hour and a half. 
 
 When the plate is sufficiently washed there will probably 
 be a slight deposit upon its surface, due to impurities in the 
 water. This must be removed thus : take a wad of cotton 
 wool and wet it under the tap, then (still letting the water 
 run on the plate, while you hold it in the left hand) firmly, but 
 gently, pass the cotton wool from end to end of the plate, 
 being particular to wipe it all over. A final rinse under the 
 tap will remove all particles of cotton, and the plate may then 
 be put away to dry in a place free from dust. 
 
 The best way to dry a plate is, at least in our opinion, to 
 drive a couple of tacks in a wall (say three inches apart) and 
 hang the plate between them with its back (glass side) 
 resting flat against the wall, one of the corners being down- 
 wards. In this way a lantern plate should be thorough^ 
 dry in a very short time. 
 
 We have mentioned other methods of exposure besides 
 daylight. One capital plan (which has the advantage of 
 being always constant) is to use magnesium ribbon. A 
 sufficient exposure may be given to a lantern plate by 
 burning one inch (more or less) of ribbon at a distance of 
 three feet from the negative. 
 
 Gas or lamp light may also be used, but they necessitate 
 an exposure of from thirty to ninety seconds atone foot from 
 the negative — more or less according to the size of the 
 flame Of all illuminants we much prefer magnesium 
 ribbon for this purpose. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE OUTFIT. 
 
 Y the time the student has overcome the difficulties of 
 development, and has, to a reasonable extent, t 
 mastered the lesson contained in the last chapter, he 
 will naturally be anxious to make his own negatives. 
 If he is able to develop a lantern slide plate with any degree 
 of accuracy, he may with safety make up his mind to buy a 
 camera, and take up photography in earnest. The worst 
 trials are over, and any future difficulties he may have, will 
 only add zest to his pursuit. 
 
 The choice of apparatus requires deep consideration, and 
 that is why we have gradually led the student up to the 
 mystery of development. 
 
 Had we not done so, it is probable that the first purchase 
 would have been a cheap and useless outfit, which would be 
 cast aside in unspeakable disgust, after a few blundering 
 trials, accompanied by unaccountable failures. 
 
 But now the student has sufficient insight into photography 
 to know whether he will care to follow it up with enthusiasm, 
 or to drop it, or only to dabble with it by fits and starts. 
 
 If the latter be the case we advise him to buy a small, 
 moderately cheap, complete outfit which, for a size of 3J by 
 4j inches (commonly called " quarter-plate "), may be bought 
 for about 35s. or 40s. This price includes a single lens, a 
 camera, one dark slide (to carry two plates), and a tripod. 
 
 If, on the contrary, he is determined to take up photography 
 as a favourite hobby, or for illustrative purposes, we strongly 
 recommend the purchase (at first hand) of a perfect set of 
 appliances. No matter what size is decided upon, let each 
 article be the very best obtainable. 
 
 Let us now consider the matter of size, as suited to in- 
 dividual requirements. An artist who simply wishes to 
 utilize photography as a rapid means of sketching " studies " 
 —whether of still, or animal life— may find a quarter-plate 
 camera sufficiently large for his purpose, and this small size 
 has several advantages, that it will be well to consider. In 
 the first place it is light and easy to carry ; the camera, tri- 
 
 c 
 
3§ 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 pod, lens, and a dozen plates in holders, only weighing four 
 or five pounds. The cost of such small plates is necessarily 
 very low (about is. a dozen), and the cost of paper, mounts, 
 developer, and everything else, is in the same proportion. 
 Then, again, if a picture should prove of extra interest, and 
 larger copies be desirable, the negative may be sent to one of 
 the firms undertaking such work, who will supply an enlarged 
 negative (of almost any dimensions) at the cost of a few shillings. 
 Or, if only one or two large prints be required, the negative 
 may be sent to a trade enlarger, who will make any sized 
 prints from it at a low charge. Lantern slides may be made 
 by direct contact, as described in chapter v. These are a few 
 of the advantages of a small sized camera, but in our opinion 
 there is but one size worthy the attention of any but painters 
 or portrait photographers, and that is the one known as 
 whole plate. 
 
 The whole-plate camera accommodates plates 6| by 
 inches in size, and is, without doubt, far and away the most 
 serviceable size that is made. It is sufficiently large to pro- 
 duce pleasing pictures, without further enlargement; the 
 weight of such an outfit, with six plates ready for exposure 
 is not more than can be carried comfortably. The plates 
 cost about 4/3 a dozen, and the photographer using such an 
 outfit, and carrying six plates for the day's use, is more 
 likely to bring back six pictures than is the man with the 
 small outfit and larger number of plates. 
 
 The man with the small outfit is too prone to think " the 
 plate only costs a penny, and I have a dozen to use during 
 the day." The consequence often is that his plates are 
 rapidly used, and when a really striking arrangement of 
 scenery appears before him, he has no plate left to secure it. 
 
 Not so with the other ; he is cautious of his plates — not on 
 account of their cost, but because he carries only six — hence 
 each composition is very carefully considered, and no ex- 
 posure made without due thought. 
 
 The pleasure of developing a large negative is infinitely 
 greater than that of a small one, and the resulting prints are 
 more pleasing If enlarged negatives are desired they can be 
 as readily made from whole-plate as from quarter-plate, and 
 enlarged prints can be made with the same facility. 
 
 Lantern slides can also be made from them by reduction 
 by almost any trade printer. We shall treat of these subjects 
 fully in our advanced handbook. 
 
 We have said that for artists, journalists, and landscape 
 photographers, we only recognise the use of two sizes 
 of cameras ; let us now explain why. In the first place 
 
The Outfit. 
 
 39 
 
 observe the following stock shapes and sizes of plates taken 
 by cameras already in the market, the diagrams ot which 
 are drawn to scale. It will be observed that the 4x5 size 
 varies but a little from quarter-plate, yet the cost of outfit 
 and materials is considerably higher and the extra weight is, 
 of course, appreciable. The half-plate size is a pretty one, 
 but the negatives are too large for making lantern slides by 
 contact printing, and are rarely large enough for decorative 
 purposes, neither do they reduce nicely to lantern plate size. 
 Such a size would be useful for artists' studies, but the 
 weight of the outfit is far in excess of the quarter-plate, with 
 no corresponding advantage. 
 
 The same remarks apply to 5 x 7. But when we come to 
 the whole-plate we at once realise that here is a shape 
 having vast possibilities, most of which we have already 
 pointed out. We need only 
 add that we may, of course, 
 produce long and narrow 
 
 Eictures, with such an outfit 
 y printing upon paper of 
 the desired shape, when 
 only part of the negative is 
 wanted. 
 
 Further, by means of in- 
 terior u carriers " it is pos- 
 sible to expose plates of 
 small size (anything from 
 quarter-plate, in fact) in a 
 whole-plate camera, so that 
 it is not necessary to spend money on large fplates, until a 
 fair degree of accuracy in judging exposure and development 
 has been attained. 
 
 Going on now to the next size larger there will be 
 observed no advantage in the 8 x 10 size, while the cost of 
 both outfit and materials, as well as the weight, is very 
 materially increased. 
 
 The 10 x 12 and larger sizes are in our opinion useless, 
 unless we have servants to drag them around for us. 
 
 It will be gathered from the foregoing that the choice ot 
 camera and other apparatus will now chiefly depend upon 
 the amount of money at disposal. 
 
 If this is small, then our advice is, by" all means buy a 
 quarter-plate outfit, but buy the best one possible. 
 
 If money is not a serious object buy the best whole-plate 
 outfit in the market. On no account buy a cheap and nasty 
 set. 
 
4 o 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 A photographic camera in its simplest form is a dark 
 box which forms a receptacle for a sensitive plate. The 
 only light admitted to this box is through a lens whichj pro- 
 jects a more or less luminous image of the objects within its 
 field. 
 
 The projected image falls upon the sensitive plate, and 
 impresses it in a moment with an invisible image capable of 
 development. This image is the negative (or reverse) of 
 that seen in nature, owing to the action of light (combined 
 with development) causing a deposit of black metallic silver. 
 
 Such deposit is greater in the parts most acted upon by 
 light, as has been explained in previous chapters. 
 
 The modern camera consists of a dark chamber, the sides 
 of which are made of collapsible light-proof bellows. 
 
 The front, back, and base, are rigid, and are usually made 
 of mahogany. 
 
 In these respects all modern cameras are alike ; but the 
 better class are provided with various movable adjustments, 
 absolutely necessary if first class work is to be done. 
 
 The principal adjustments are "rising front," 44 double 
 swing back," 44 reversible back," and 44 double extension"; 
 and the purchaser should insist upon his camera being pro- 
 vided with these movements, the use of which we shall 
 describe in chapter viii. Finally, the camera should close 
 into small compass. 
 
 Fanciful adjustments, such as 44 swinging fronts," are use- 
 less, and only entail the use of a bewildering number of highly 
 polished brass screws, which prove a source of constant 
 worry. 
 
 The bellows should be made of morocco leather, and 
 the best ones are now usually made somewhat conical in 
 shape. To some extent this shape is an advantage, but we 
 must not go to extremes and have a bellows that is very 
 small in front (lens end), or we shall find that part of our 
 view is cut off by the intermediate ridges obstructing the 
 free passage of the image projected by the lens. 
 
 Another point worth attention is the way the rising front 
 works ; this front is designed to carry the lens, and must be 
 movable up and down at will. In the best forms of camera 
 the bellows front is attached to the rising front, so that both 
 move together, but in some forms the rising front is movable, 
 while the bellows front is permanently rigid : this is bad, 
 because it greatly limits the use of the rising front. The 
 purchaser should buy his goods from a dealer whom he 
 knows, and mention the foregoing requirements ; he may 
 then depend upon being served satisfactorily with a 
 
The Outfit. 
 
 41 
 
 thoroughly reliable outfit. We ueed hardly advise the 
 beginner on no account to buy second-hand 44 bargains," or 
 " bankrupt stock"; such traps are often laid for the unwary, and 
 cause much trouble, loss of money, and ultimate disgust 
 with all things photographic. 
 
 Some cameras are provided with a very convenient 
 arrangement called a " turntable," into which the tripod 
 legs fit. This does away with a tripod head as well as a 
 tripod screw, but is not really a necessary adjunct. 
 
 Most cameras simply have a screw-hole lined with a brass 
 bush at the bottom of the baseboard ; by this means the 
 camera is screwed firmly to the head of the tripod when in 
 use. 
 
 Many varieties of tripod are in exis- 
 tence, and most of them are good ; some 
 are a little more portable than others, 
 while others are more rigid. 
 
 The one we use and prefer has its legs 
 permanently rivetted to the head, and the 
 lower legs slide in and out from between 
 the upper ones ; the clamping arrange- 
 ment is especially firm, or we should 
 prefer one of the many folding patterns. 
 
 We advise the student to examine seve- 
 ral patterns of tripod, and then select the 
 one that seems to combine lightness, 
 compactness, and rigidity ; 
 in this matter your dealer 
 should give you valuable 
 help. One other small at- 
 tachment (and a very im- 
 portant one) is a circular- 
 level, which may be fixed 
 
 A Folding Tripod. 
 
 to the top of the camera back, near to the handle. The 
 use of this level will be explained, though it will pro- 
 bably be obvious to all. The lens must be attached to 
 the front of the camera (which is bored for the purpose), and 
 the junction between the lens collar and the woodwork must 
 be filled with putty, or other substance, so as to exclude 
 extraneous rays of light. 
 
 The ground glass in the focussing screen at the opposite 
 end of the camera, must be of the finest quality, and 
 almost entirely devoid of granularity, in order that the image 
 may be properly focussed. 
 
 The reversing back is a simple arrangement, whereby a 
 plate may be exposed in either a^ vertical or horizontal 
 
42 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 position at will, and the change should be effected almost 
 instantly; this does away with the old clumsy method 
 of unscrewing the camera from the tripod head, and screwing 
 it down again in another position. 
 
 Double extension provides for the use of either short or 
 long focus lenses, and in a whole-plate is an absolute necessity. 
 
 Most modern cameras are built to accommodate lenses of 
 widely different foci; as a general guide a whole-plate 
 camera should be adapted for use with lenses of from five 
 inches to twenty inches focus — such an extension will pro- 
 vide for extreme requirements. Another feature to note in 
 choosing a camera is to see that the focussing is eftected 
 from the front, i.e., that the front of the camera is movable, 
 while the back parts (containing the focussing screen) is sta- 
 tionary. In some cameras the focussing may be effected from 
 the front, and the back also is movable ; when using lenses of 
 
 Double Dark Slide. 
 
 short focus this is a great advantage, as it avoids any possi- 
 bility of the front of the base-board coming within the field 
 of the lens. 
 
 The sensitive plates are carried ready for exposure in a 
 small light-tight chamber. The plate lies flat in this chamber, 
 and its face is covered by an opaque lid or cover, sliding 
 in grooves. This chamber fits tightly on to the back of the 
 camera in the same position as was occupied by the ground 
 glass, and enables the photographer to insert the plate into 
 the camera, and withdraw the protecting cover from the 
 outside, without admitting light. 
 
 The lens is covered during this operation, as will be ex- 
 plained ; of course, directly the lens is uncovered, the image 
 falls upon the plate, until the lens is again covered, this 
 constitutes the ^exposure; the cover is then replaced 
 over the exposed plate, so that it can be removed from the 
 camera. These chambers each carry two plates, and are 
 
The Outfit. 
 
 43 
 
 known as " double plate-holders," or " double dark-slides." 
 
 We have but little to say regarding the lens in this 
 chapter, as the principles of its action are of sufficient im- 
 portance to receive consideration in a special chapter ; we 
 shall here simply content ourselves by giving a word or 
 two of advice as to the lens best adapted to amateur re- 
 quirements. 
 
 For all ordinary purposes of photography, including out- 
 door groups and portraits, general views, and copying work, 
 what is known as a single landscape lens is quite good. 
 If we wish to photograph buildings the full size of the 
 plate, we cannot use such a lens, otherwise the chief lines 
 will not be absolutely rectilinear ; the cause will be found in 
 the next chapter. 
 
 For such subjects we must make use of a " rapid rectilinear" 
 lens which, being a doublet, will cost considerably more 
 than a single lens. For interiors of rooms, where it is neces- 
 sary to include a very wide angle of view, we must use a 
 lens of extremely short focus, commonly known as a "wide- 
 angle" lens. 
 
 A wide-angle lens should never be used where it is possible 
 to do the work without it. 
 
 If only one lens can be afforded, we advise the student 
 to buy a " rapid rectilinear " (just large enough to cover the 
 largest plate he intends to use) which is the best general lens 
 for all-round work that he can have. By simply removing 
 the front combination of such a lens, it is at once transformed 
 into a single lens of about double the original focus; that is 
 to say, will require double the distance that was required 
 with the double combination to intervene between lens and 
 plate. The extension of focus (as will be explained) narrows 
 the field of view, and consequently projects an image on a 
 much larger scale — a valuable power in the hands of a photo- 
 grapher. With our own whole-plate outfit we possess only 
 two lenses, yet we have practically a battery at our disposal. 
 One of them is a rapid rectilinear of 1 1 inches focus, 
 the back combination is 17 inches focus and the front 
 combination (which may be used in place of the back one 
 when necessary) is 21 inches focus. 
 
 The other lens is a wide-angle doublet of five inches 
 focus, which, by removing one combination, gives us a 
 single lens of about 9 inches focus. It will thus be seen that 
 from one standpoint, by simply altering our two lenses, it is 
 possible to obtain five different renderings of the same sub- 
 ject. This will be made clearer to the student in the chapter 
 dealing with lenses. We only mention it here to show what 
 
Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Taken -with d 21-inch Combination of xx-inch Rectilinear Lens. 
 
 Taken ivith 17-inch Combination of \\-inch~Rectilinear Lens. 
 
 These four views of the same object were taken 
 
The Outfit. 
 
 45 
 
 Taken with $-inch Rectilinear Lens. 
 
 from one standpoint, the lens only being changed. 
 
46 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 can be done with two lenses, and we may add that, speaking 
 as professional photographers, we consider these lenses 
 quite ample for general purposes. 
 
 Of course a focussing cloth will be required, as by its 
 means we exclude outside light from the surface of the 
 focussing screen while examining and focussing the image 
 upon it. Various materials have been recommended for 
 this purpose, including a very thin class of waterproof cloth. 
 While we must admit this is useful for covering the camera 
 during a shower of rain, we cannot say we like it for focussing. 
 It is too light and too easily blown from the head and camera 
 during even a slight breeze. Broad cloth is very nice but is 
 too heavy for general use, and we think that after all there 
 is nothing equal to a liberal square of dark blue or dark 
 green velveteen. Ours is of dark blue, and while notTobtru- 
 sive in any way, it has the 
 advantage of not being 
 funereal in appearance. 
 Velveteen is sold in widths 
 of 27 inches, so three yards 
 divided and sewn together 
 along its length will provide 
 us with a cloth between 
 four and five feet square. 
 Of course a much smaller 
 one will be large enough 
 for use with a quarter-plate 
 camera. 
 
 A carrying case in which 
 to pack the camera, lenses, Carrying Case. 
 
 plate holders, and focussing cloth will be necessary to complete 
 the outfit ; we have seen some cases that also accommodated 
 the tripod, and they were very handy to carry owing to their 
 length and thinness. Some cases are much too bulky and 
 cause inconvenience by bumping against the legs of the 
 person carrying them. 
 
 We have often seen two cases recommended — one for the 
 camera and one for the plate holders — which of course means 
 that the tripod must make a third parcel, even if one of the 
 cases will accommodate the lenses. This plan is a good one 
 if there are two people to carry them, but we have two such 
 cases and find them far more inconvenient than one long 
 case, that will take the camera and slides (end to end) to- 
 gether with the tripod and other apparatus. The best 
 material for these cases is " B mail-canvas," and is similar to 
 that of which the government mail-bags are made. The case 
 
The Outfit. 
 
 •17 
 
 should be well lined with baize or other soft material, and 
 should be provided with a first-class lock. This latter pre- 
 caution will be appreciated if the luckless student be ever 
 fated to leave his camera and exposed plates to the tender 
 mercies of continental hotel servants. 
 
 Two useful additions to the outfit of a photographer going 
 in for general work, are an exposure meter and exposure 
 note-book. Personally we do not use a meter except on rare 
 ^occasions, as we have learnt by experience to know the 
 
 Exposure Meters. 
 
 correct exposure for most subjects that come within our 
 practice. But we must frankly admit that, on the rare occasions 
 mentioned, we have found an exposure meter of inestimable 
 service. We strongly advise beginners to procure one of 
 reliable make, and learn how to use it promptly; when once 
 it is mastered, it will take but a few seconds to estimate an 
 exposure and will undoubtedly save the loss of many plates. 
 The exposure note-books are all more or less ruled upon the 
 same lines and contain spaces for recording the number of 
 negatives, number of dark slide holding the plate, make and 
 speed of plate, lens, stop, light and exposure, as well as 
 space for remarks to assist in development. 
 
 We recommend the student to complete the record by 
 
4* 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 adding notes as to the mode of development and appearance 
 of the image, whether correctly exposed or not, and so on; 
 in this way the note-book will become a most useful book of 
 reference. 
 
 Before finally deciding upon the lenses he will buy, we 
 must ask the student to read carefully the following chapter. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FACTS ABOUT LENSES 
 
 O part of his outfit puzzles the average photographer 
 so much as the lens, and ignorance of some of its 
 simplest properties exists even among advanced 
 workers. This seems to be because the elementary 
 principles have not been carefully explained, and because 
 the meaning of a few technical terms has not been learned. 
 
 There is a great deal of " superstition " about the lens, and 
 many fallacies are believed about it; but its operations are 
 based on the unchangeable laws of the universe, and the 
 first of these is that " like causes, acting under like conditions, 
 produce like effects." If photographers would always realise 
 this, they would meet fewer difficulties. 
 
 To understand the principles of the lens it is well to do a 
 little experimenting with a pin-hole; for the fundamental 
 laws are the same in both cases. 
 
 Take your camera, screw out the lens and put in its place 
 a piece of tin or fine card-board through which you have 
 made a hole with a fine brad-awl or a darning needle. Go 
 into a fairly dark room and place a lighted candle with the 
 centre of its flame three inches from the hole (which we will 
 now call a pin-hole). Adjust your camera so that the ground 
 glass screen is three inches from the pin-hole, and you will 
 be able to see on the screen an image of the candle-flame 
 exactly the same size as the original flame, but inverted. 
 Why is it inverted ? Because light proceeds in a straight 
 line (Fig. i) ; and cannot work round corners (Fig. 2). 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2 
 
 If this is not clear at once, think it over until it becomes 
 so. Then remember it is a law, applying to church steeples and 
 
$o Early Work in Photography. 
 
 maiden aunts as well as to candle flames, and that this is the 
 reason why the lens image is inverted — no witchcraft about 
 the lens. 
 
 Let us now put our candle in a lantern or behind a piece 
 of tin or card-board having an opening an inch square 
 covered with a piece of ground glass or waxed paper. When 
 this illuminated square is placed opposite the pin-hole and 
 three inches distant, it will throw upon the ground glass 
 screen, if that is also three inches distant, an image exactly 
 one inch square. Why is it exactly one inch square ? 
 Because light travels in straight lines, thus : 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 and not in bent lines thus : 
 
 or thus: 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 If we now move the ground glass screen to six inched 
 distance we shall find that it bears an image occupying four 
 square inches, or two inches by two. The reason seems ob- 
 vious, for we double both the length and the breadth of the 
 image. We shall observe moreover, that the image in this 
 case is much less bright than it was in the previous ease, 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 In fact, it is exactly one-fourth the brilliancy, and for a very 
 
Facts about Lenses. 
 
 5* 
 
 simple reason. We have dc-ne^ 1 nothing* to increase the 
 amount of light passing through the pin-hole ; but we have 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 made it cover four times as much space. This applies with 
 lenses also, and is the basis of one of the most valuable but 
 least understood of all the laws relating to lens work. 
 
 Let us return to our naked candle flame ; still leaving it 
 three inches, and the ground glass six inches from the pin- 
 hole, and we shall see that the image of the candle flame is 
 just twice as long and twice as broad as when the ground 
 glass was three inches distant. It is also just one fourth 
 the brilliancy of the former image. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Let us now move the candle flame to a distance above the pin- 
 hole; still keeping it three inches from the front of the camera 
 The image will fall towards the edge of the ground glass, 
 instead of in the centre, and we shall notice that the image 
 
 Fig. 8, 
 
 looks longer and narrower on the ground glass than it would 
 appear if viewed by the eye placed at the position which 
 
5^ 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 the ground glass occupies. The reason for this is the angle 
 at which the image falls upon the ground glass surface, and 
 in order to obtain an image more truly approximating what 
 the eye would see, we might have the ground glass curved, 
 as shewn by the dotted lines. But better still if we can 
 remove the candle to six inches, and the ground glass to six 
 inches from the pin-hole. This will give us the image in 
 the same relative position on the ground glass, and of (ap- 
 proximately) the same size, but in better proportion. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Suppose now, in place of the very small pin-hole in a very 
 thin card, we take a hole one-eighth of an inch in diameter 
 in a card one-eighth of an inch thick. The rays from a 
 candle placed at A will pass through easily. If we remove 
 the candle to B only a small pencil of rays will pass through, 
 while by moving the candle to C, we prevent any rays from 
 passing through, because no straight line from C can pass 
 through the hole. 
 
 Fig. 10. Fig. 11. 1 ig. 12. 
 
 If we now make the pin-hole considerably larger, say, a 
 quarter inch diameter, we shall find the image on the 
 ground glass much more brilliant, but much worse defined 
 
Facts about Lenses. 
 
 53 
 
 This is simply because light rays from the candle proceed 
 in all directions, and while the rays proceeding through the 
 centre of the pin-hole are making a definite image, those 
 passing through the upper part of the hole are making an- 
 other, while those passing through the bottom and the sides 
 of the hole are all making their own images and the result 
 is confusion. 
 
 As the hole is further enlarged, the image constantly 
 becomes brighter, and constantly more indistinct until it is 
 simply a circular patch of light, with no resemblance to 
 the shape of the candle flame. This would, perhaps, be 
 more easily and clearly understood if instead of the one large 
 hole, four or five-pin holes are made at about a quarter 
 inch distance from a common centre. The blurring of the 
 image will be seen easily; and the large hole acts as an in- 
 finite number of smaller ones. 
 
 If we return to our original small pin-hole and take the 
 camera out of doors, we shall find that an image of any 
 fairly lighted natural object toward which the pin-hole is 
 directed will fall (in an inverted position) upon the ground 
 glass. If we cover our heads and the back of the camera 
 with the focussing cloth we shall see that the image, though 
 faintly illuminated, is clear and sharp, and if we expose a 
 sensitive plate to this image, an impression is made which 
 can be developed into a negative. But the amount of light 
 passing through the pin-hole is so small that it must act for 
 a long time (i.e. we must give a long "exposure") in order to 
 make a strong impression. But in photography we must 
 face the fact that we wish to make our exposures as 
 short as possible, especially when the objects to be photo- 
 graphed are in motion (say express trains or unruly 
 children). This brings us to the problem which led to 
 the use of lenses in photography — the desire to use a big 
 hole, in order to pass plenty of light, combined with the 
 necessity of keeping the image " sharp " and well defined. 
 
 The lack of sharpness when the rays passed through the 
 large hole was seen to be due to the want of coincidence between 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
54 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 the images formed by the rays passing through the sides, and 
 those through the centre of the hole. We need, therefore, 
 some means of causing the images formed by the outer rays 
 to fall on the same same spot as those formed by the rays 
 passing through the centre. In other words, we want a 
 means to bend slightly inward the outer set of images. The 
 bending of the waves of light is usually accomplished by re- 
 flection or refraction, and in camera work the latter is found 
 more convenient. When light passes from a medium of 
 given density into one of different density, its rays are bent 
 or refracted, and a simple example of this is found in the use 
 of a prism. Suppose, therefore, we make our pin-hole much 
 larger than before, allow the centre to be open for the central 
 rays to pass through, and fill the upper and lower part with 
 prisms, what will happen? 
 
 The central rays of light will pass through the centre, as 
 before, while those through the top will be bent (or re- 
 fracted) downward and those through the bottom will be bent 
 upward, so that the three images coincide on the ground 
 glass. We shall need another prism at the right-hand side 
 and one at the left-hand side of the hole, to refract the rays 
 from those directions, and then as four straight lines will 
 not fill a circle, we shall need other prisms in corners between 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 those already placed. In fact, we need an infinite number 
 of prisms, arranged round a common centre, and this is sim- 
 ply a lens in a primary form (Fig. 14). • 
 
Facts about Lenses. 
 
 55 
 
 This form of lens has two main defects — its pictures suffer 
 from spherical and chromatic aberration, the nature of 
 which we will attempt to explain, first taking chromatic 
 
 ABERRATION. 
 
 If all the rays were of one color, and therefore equally re- 
 frangible, (i.e. equally capable of being bent) this simple lens 
 would answer many purposes, but we know when a thin 
 beam of light is passed through a prism the rays are divided 
 according to their refrangibility, and instead of getting a 
 spot of light where the rays from the prism fall, we get a long 
 vari-colored strip of light— a spectrum. The same thing 
 occurs with the lens, for all light is composite in its character, 
 and its violet rays, which are more refrangible than the 
 yellow, will be focussed, and will give a sharp image at a 
 point nearer the lens. As the violet light rays which are 
 dark to the eye are those which are most active photographi- 
 cally,while the yellow light rays (brightest to the eye) are least 
 active we find that we have here two foci (explained later) one 
 called the visual, and the other the chemical or actinic focus. If 
 we place our ground glass screen (or later our sensitive plate) 
 at the point where the visual image is strongest and sharpest, 
 we shall find, on developing the photographic image, that it 
 is feeble and blurred. If we move the screen (and plate) 
 forward until the visual image is somewhat blurred, we shall 
 find that the photographic image, on development, is better 
 defined. This class of truly single lens is sometimes used 
 by photographers of the impressionist school, and they find 
 it necessary, after focussing their image on the screen, to 
 rack in the camera back to an extent ascertained by experi- 
 ment. 
 
 Spherical aberration is rather more difficult to explain. In 
 the last diagram we shewed all the rays from (say) the tip 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 of candle-frame, coming to one point on the ground-glass, 
 whether they passed through the centre or the margin ot 
 the lens. But this diagram was falsely drawn, merely to 
 illustrate a point in passing; and what actually happens 
 would be better represented by the above diagram, which 
 
56 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 is, however, grossly exaggerated. It will be seen that the 
 rays passing through the centre of the lens pass through or 
 focus at the point F, while those passing through the edges 
 of the lens focus at F ; , with the result that the images 
 formed by the two sets of rays do not coincide ; and, as 
 every point in the lens gives a slightly different focus, we 
 obtain on the ground-glass an infinite number of images, 
 just as we did with the large pin-hole in fig. 12. The 
 exaggeration in the diagram consists mainly in the enormous 
 size of the lens, as compared with the size and distance of 
 the objects. In actual work the lens would, as a rule, be 
 much smaller (relatively). It will at once occur to the 
 reader that by covering up the outer rim of the lens, and 
 allowing only the centre to act, we shall have a greater 
 sharpness of the image, just as we did when the pin-hole 
 was small. But this image will not be so strongly 
 illuminated. 
 
 Fortunately both chromatic and spherical aberration can be 
 largely prevented by comparatively simple means. If, 
 instead of using one single lens ground from one piece of 
 glass, we make it of two pieces of glass, which differ 
 suitably in their refraction of the violet and yellow rays, we 
 can make the two sets of rays focus at approximately the 
 same point. In the same way, while the form of lens we 
 have illustrated makes the marginal rays focus nearer than 
 the central or axial rays, a different construction would cause 
 the axial rays to focus nearer than marginal. By combining 
 two glasses, possessing the opposite properties in the right 
 proportions, one will correct the other to a practically 
 sufficient extent ; and with this lens of two glasses we obtain 
 what we desire, viz., a sharp distinct image, using all the 
 rays that can pass through a comparatively large hole. In 
 other words we are able, with a comparatively short ex- 
 posure, to obtain an image free from chromatic and spherical 
 aberration. 
 
 This form of lens, made from two glasses (usually a crown 
 and a flint glass) is commonly spoken of as a u single " lens, 
 and is also called an achromatic, or a landscape lens, — 
 achromatic, because its chromatism (or chromatic aberration) 
 is cured ; landscape, because of its ordinary use. Even 
 with such a lens the correction of the defects mentioned is 
 relative, and not absolute; so we introduce a " stop " or 
 " diaphragm " to cut off some of the rays, and use only a 
 portion of the centre of the lens for the central rays, while 
 the marginal rays can only pass through the margin of the 
 lens. Thus we make a compromise, sacrificing something 
 
Facts about Lenses. 
 
 57 
 
 of our light (and rapidity of exposure) for extra sharpness of 
 image. And as circumstances vary, so that at one time 
 sharpness of image, and at another time shortness of ex- 
 posure is the more important, the lens-makers provide a 
 series of u stops," so that the photographer may use a large 
 or a small one, as circumstances require. 
 
 This form of lens is exceedingly useful for all ordinary 
 landscape work, groups, and portraits, but it has certain de- 
 fects which become very apparent when we use it for copying 
 plans, or for photographing buildings and other objects, in 
 which there are straight lines near the edge of the picture. 
 
 Curvilinear Distortion is the chief difficulty in this 
 direction, and though it is rather difficult to explain, we may 
 be able to make it fairly clear by an exaggerated example. We 
 
 Fig. 1 6. 
 
 may say that the defect is introduced by the stop or small 
 aperture that we provided to remedy the aberration just 
 mentioned. This stop cuts off the rays proceeding from the 
 corners of the house to the centre of the lens, so that the 
 image of corners and outer lines is formed entirely by rays 
 passing throught the outer portions of the lens, while the 
 image of the central part (say, the top of the door) is formed 
 almost entirely by rays passing through or near the centre 
 of the lens. The outer part ot lens deflects the rays most 
 strongly, so that the width and height of the house become 
 diminished in proportion to the width ,and height of the 
 door which is near the centre; while the corners are de- 
 flected more strongly than the centres of the walls, because 
 they are more distant from the lens centre. 
 
 Curvature of Field is another difficulty with lenses. In 
 our diagrams of the candle-flame we have represented the 
 image as coming to a focus on a plane surface, as a flat 
 ground-glass screen. As a matter of fact this does not 
 happen, but the image comes to a focus on a curved field. 
 The line C C represents such a curved field, and it will be 
 at once seen that if the plate (or ground-glass) is placed at 
 A, the central part of the object will be sharp, while the top 
 and bottom of the candle-flame will be out of focus. If the 
 
58 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 screen is placed at B, the top and bottom of the image will 
 be sharp, while the centre will be out of focus. The best 
 effect is obtained by placing the plate between these two 
 points. 
 
 7? 3 c 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fortunately, as in the case of aberration, this distortion 
 and curvature of field can be largely overcome. While a 
 single lens with the stop in front of it gives barrel-shaped 
 distortion, the same lens turned round, with the stop behind 
 it, will give the reverse, or pin-cushion distortion, thus : — 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 and by combining two such lenses and, placing the stop 
 between them, we form a " rectilinear " or " doublet " lens, 
 which gives straight lines right to the margin of the picture. 
 In the same way, while a single lens of given construction 
 gives us curvature of field in one direction, concave towards 
 the lens, the same lens turned round will give a curvature 
 of field convex towards itself. Thus the rectilinear or 
 doublet form cures two distinct defects of the single lens. 
 Here, as in all problems of practical optics, the result is 
 relative, rather than absolute, for we almost invariably 
 find that in gaining a given advantage we have to put up 
 with a corresponding disadvantage ; so that the whole science 
 of lens-making is a series of compromises. 
 The single lens and the doublet, which is also called the 
 
tacts about Lenses. 
 
 59 
 
 rectilinear or the symmetrical, are the two main types of 
 which all photographic lenses may be said to be modifica- 
 tions. As the rectilinear lens consists of two single lenses, 
 mounted at opposite ends of a tube, it is possible to screw 
 out one of the singles and use the other. In this case the 
 single lens is about double the focal length of the doublet of 
 which it forms a part, so that the rectilinear can be used for 
 two distinctly different purposes. If the front combination 
 is used, it will have a slight tendency to 44 pin-cushon " dis- 
 tortion, while the back will give slight distortion of the 
 44 barrel " type. 
 
 There is little more to say of the general construction of 
 the lens, until we come to a more advanced hand-book than 
 this, but there are one or two points in working that must 
 be made clear. 
 
 First is the question of focus and focal length. We saw, 
 with the pin-bole, that the image was, to all intents and 
 purposes, equally sharp, whether the ground-glass was three 
 inches or six inches distant. In this case the rays of light 
 from the object passed through a hole so small as to be 
 practically a point. With the lens it is different, as we have 
 seen ; for, in order to get the image sharp, we must place 
 the ground-glass at the point where the rays from the centre 
 and from the sides of the lens meet, or focus (see fig. 17). 
 The distance between the centre of the plate, and the 
 centre of the lens when in this position, is called the focus, 
 or the focal length of the lens. Though this is not a 
 scientifically correct statement, it is near enough for practical 
 purposes, and is what is commonly used. It is not quite 
 so easy to measure the focal length of a doublet as of a 
 single lens, though for practical purposes it may be obtained 
 by focussing on some distant object, and measuring the dis- 
 tance from the diaphragm aperture to the ground-glass. 
 Opticians do it in a different way, and speak of the equiva- 
 lent focus. This means the focal length that is equal to that 
 of a single lens giving an image of the same size as is given 
 by the doublet. 
 
 We have seen that, with a pin-hole, the distance between 
 pin-hole and screen greatly aftects the brilliancy of the image 
 (pages 50-51). In the same way with the lens. If we have 
 a lens of (say) one inch diameter, throwing an image on a 
 screen eight inches distant, the image will be just four 
 times as brilliant as it would be if thrown on a screen 
 sixteen inches distant. And as the brilliancy of the image 
 directly affects the length of exposure necessary to the 
 plate, the relative size of the lens-opening to its focal length 
 
6o Early Work in Photography. 
 
 becomes an important factor in calculating exposure. It is, 
 therefore, very necessary to know the size of our " stops " 
 or diaphragms, relative to focal length, and, in order to ex- 
 press this, we measure both. Dividing the focal length 
 of the lens by the diameter of the opening of the stop, we 
 place the result as denominator of a fraction, with / as 
 numerator. Thus a one-inch stop in an eight-inch focus 
 lens is f/s while the same stop in sixteen-inch focus lens 
 would be /7i6. As, using a one-inch stop, the image at six- 
 teen inches distance is only one-fourth the brilliancy of that 
 at eight inches distance, it requires four times the exposure ; 
 butj stops marked with the same focal value require a similar 
 exposure. Or, c in other words, the exposure in each case 
 is | proportional! to the square of the / number. For con- 
 venience the lens-makers mark the / numbers on the stops, 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 and usually arrange them so that each stop requires half the 
 exposure of the next one smaller, or double the exposure^of 
 the next larger. They usually run //s, // n- 3 , //16, // 22 , &c.J^ 
 
 Wide Angle and Narrow Angle. As a matter of facUall 
 lenses are both wide-angle and narrow angle, as wellj as 
 being both long and short focus at the same time. We state 
 this apparent paradox because it is very necessary that the 
 student should fully understand the matter, if he is to be the 
 master, and not the slave of his instruments. Suppose we 
 have here a lens of nine inches focus, throwing an image 
 upon a half-plate (6^ x 4| inches). We should call it a 
 medium-angle lens. If, however, we are only using it for a 
 quarter-plate (4J x 3i inches), we should call it a narrow- 
 
Facts about Lenses. 
 
 61 
 
 angle lens ; while, if we used it tor a plate twelve inches by 
 ten, it would be a wide-angle. On the quarter-plate it would 
 be a long-focus, while on the twelve by ten it would be a 
 short-focus lens. The terms wide-angle, short-focus, etc., 
 are relative, not absolute ; and depend upon the focus of the 
 lens in relation to the plate it is covering. The ordinary 
 rectilinear lens has usually a focal length about equal to the 
 diagonal of the plate it is intended to cover ; and a lens of 
 focal length appreciably longer than the diagonal of the 
 plate, is called a long-focus or narrow-angle lens, for the two 
 terms are interchangeable. 
 
 From this it might seem that long-focus or short-focus 
 lenses can be used indifferently and interchangeably, but 
 this notion has its limits. While it is true that any nine- 
 inch focus lens covering a 12 x 10 plate is a wide-angle, it is 
 also true that many nine-inch focus lenses will not sharply 
 cover a plate of that size. A rapid rectilinear is usually 
 constructed to work with a stop as large as f/s ; while the 
 wide-angle usually has its largest stop f/u- 3 or Z/^. Although 
 a wide-angle lens will always cover a smaller plate than that 
 for which it is intended, a narrow-angle will not always 
 cover a plate much larger than that for which it is made. 
 And, although the wide-angle can always be used as a 
 medium or narrow-angle on a plate smaller than that for 
 which it is intended, it will not allow of such extremely 
 rapid exposures as could be made with a medium, or 
 narrow-angle lens. 
 
 All other things being equal, it is better to employ a 
 medium-angle than a wide-angle lens; because, with the 
 latter, the images of things near the edge of the ground- 
 glass (or sensitive plate) are in a strained or distorted per- 
 spective, for the reason explained in figs. 8 and 9. If it is 
 necessary to have the image of a good size, and impossible 
 to get far away from the subject; it is often absolutely 
 necessary to use a very wide-angle lens. 
 
 The instructions in this chapter, if once fully grasped, 
 will give a fair working knowledge of the properties of the 
 lens. There are many more advanced points that must be 
 left for a later book, and some of the applications will be 
 treated in succeeding chapters. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HOW TO USE THE OUTFIT. 
 
 Requirements : — One box gelatino-bromide "Ordinary " plates (cost 
 quarter plate is., whole plate 4s. 3d.) A box contains one dozen plates. 
 
 EFORE attempting to use the outfit we have described, 
 it will be well to carefully examine it and try a few 
 experiments with a view of becoming used to its 
 various movements. We therefore urge the student 
 to restrain his probable impatience, and postpone the actual 
 exposure of a plate until he has acquired some dexterity in 
 setting up his apparatus and focussing an image upon the 
 ground glass screen. He will thus ensure almost certain 
 success with his first negative, and this will always be a 
 matter for self-congratulation in after years. 
 
 If the student follows our advice, and buys his outfit from 
 a dealer whom he knows to be reliable, he will have all the 
 various movements pointed out to him and briefly explained. 
 Such a practical demonstration — even if confined to a half- 
 hour — will be of lasting benefit. If there is no chance of 
 such instruction, the student must first of all carefully over- 
 haul the camera and master its intricacies for himself. As 
 we have already pointed out, all modern cameras are made 
 in a portable form, and consequently fold up into small 
 compass. We must first release the milled screws upon 
 each side of the camera by giving them about two turns 
 from right to left and then look carefully for the spring stud 
 (or, perhaps, folding hooks) by which the camera is closed. 
 This will usually be found upon the top edge of the camera 
 near to the leather handle. Upon releasing this fastener, the 
 camera will open from the centre. 
 
 The focussing screen {i.e. the ground glass) must be held 
 in an upright position while the piece of polished wood 
 (which is in reality the base-board) is allowed to gently fall 
 until it is at right angles to the glass screen. When it arrives 
 at this position it may be clamped by means of two milled 
 screws, (A, Fig. 2) which will be found one on each side of 
 the upright part of the camera. 
 
How to Use the Outfit. 
 
 63 
 
 The camera may next be fastened to the tripod by means 
 of a brass screw (supplied with it) which passes upwards 
 through the tripod head into a hole in the underneath part of 
 the camera base-board. This screw should be turned "home" 
 until the camera is firmly attached and immovable, then 
 release the screw just enough to permit the camera to be 
 swung round if required. 
 
 The tripod legs must be fully extended upon the ground 
 (and firmly embedded therein to avoid slipping) while the 
 camera is being placed in position. 
 
 The student will now observe that although the back of the 
 camera is firmly fixed at right angles to the base-board, the 
 
 Fig. 1.— Closed Camera attached to Tripod. Fig. 2. — Camera partly opened- 
 
 front of the camera, which is to carry the lens, is still loose. 
 This must now be brought into position, and the manner ot 
 doing this varies according to the make of the camera. In 
 some cameras (as in Watson's and McKellan's) the front 
 closes in a somewhat similar manner to the back, and folds 
 face downwards on the base-board. Fig. 2 shows this pat- 
 tern before the front board is raised. The front board may 
 be lifted by inserting a finger under the end farthest from 
 the upright back. When it has gained an upright position it 
 must be clamped by means of its milled screws. 
 
 In some other patterns the front board will be found 
 (together with the bellows) packed upright inside the upright 
 back (ground glass end) of the camera. This may simply be 
 grasped and pulled forward to the end of the base-board and 
 clamped with two screws that will be found upon the top ot 
 the front board— as is the case in cameras of Hare's make. 
 
 Whatever lens the student has chosen, it will be necessary 
 
64 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 to have it fitted to the front board of the camera. In "com- 
 plete sets " this is already done ; but when separate articles 
 are selected, the front board of the camera is not pierced 
 until required. The best plan is to ask the dealer to have 
 the lens fitted to the board, and he will see that it is properly 
 done. Should the student live in a remote country, he may 
 have to do the work lor himself. 
 
 If he examines the front board he will find the true centre 
 is indicated by a small dent punched in it, or else by a 
 small cross. He must then unscrew the lens from its flange 
 (or collar) and make a hole in the front board just large 
 enough to admit the rim that will be found on the inside of 
 the flange. The flange, of course, is to be screwed on to the 
 board. A circle (the exact size required) should be marked 
 on the board, and then cut out with a fret-saw or in a lathe. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Camera extended for use with Long Focus Lens. 
 
 The part of the lens collar that is to come in contact with 
 the wood-work should receive a thin coating of putty, and be 
 then screwed as firmly as possible to the board. "Rose- 
 headed " screws are the nicest for the purpose. 
 
 The lens collar thus becomes a permanent part of the 
 camera, into which the lens may be screwed whenever it is 
 required for use, or from which it may be removed before 
 closing the camera. The extended camera, with lens in 
 position ready for use, is shown in fig. 3. 
 
 The student having several times attached the camera to 
 the tripod, and removed it until he can do it readily and 
 almost mechanically, may now attach- the lens and take the 
 
How In Use the Outfit. 
 
 65 
 
 apparatus into the open-air to learn the use of the swing 
 back (and other movements), and try his skill at focussing. 
 
 Let us first examine the plate-holders, and then adjourn 
 to the dark-room and load them with sensitive plates. 
 
 We advise the student to study the plate holders, and 
 ascertain just how they are to be opened and closed, before 
 attempting to handle them by the dim light of the dark-room. 
 The most generally-used plate holder in England is known 
 as the " book form " ; this is hinged at one end, and the two 
 sides, when folded together, are fastened with brass clips. 
 At the end- -opposite to the hinges— are two pieces which 
 
 Fig. 4.— Camera arranged for Fig. 5.— Book-form^ Double DarklSlide, 
 
 use ivith Short Focus Lens, 
 
 extend beyond the end of the holder, sufficiently far to be 
 grasped between the fingers and thumb. These are the 
 ends of the shutters which protect the plates from light, 
 until we wish to expose them in the camera. The shutters 
 usually have a clip of some kind attached near to the pro- 
 jecting ends, which prevents them from being accidentally 
 withdrawn. Let us now find this clip and release it, and 
 then pull the shutter out as far as it will come ; it cannot be 
 entirely pulled out from the book form. Now close it again, 
 and test the other side ; fasten the shutters again, and undo 
 the other clips so that the holder opens on its hinges. The 
 inside holder is painted a dull black, and is provided with 
 a central metal partition which (in the best makes) is also 
 hinged at one end. In some holders this partition is quite 
 loose, but such loose pieces are only a thorn in the flesh, and 
 should be discountenanced, 
 
66 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Supposing, then, the student has purchased a holder with 
 a properly hinged central partition, he will notice that it lies 
 closer to one side than to the other, and that it is held in 
 position by means of two small clips or " turn buttons." He 
 will also notice a rebate (or ledge) beneath it. The sensi- 
 tive plate is to rest face downwards against this rebate, and 
 we advise the student to load the holder with a piece of 
 plain glass of the correct size, and then fix it in place by 
 fastening over it the central hinged partition. Then place 
 another plate of glass in the rebate upon the other half of 
 the holder, and close the holder, clamping it together upon 
 the outside. 
 
 If the student now withdraws one of the protecting slides 
 he will see the glass plate, and understand at once the en- 
 tire principle. 
 
 To complete this preliminary lesson, it only remains to 
 undo the fastenings of the focussing screen, which is ( or 
 should be ) hinged like a door to the camera, when he will 
 notice a couple of grooves which permit him to slide the 
 plate holder into the space formerly occupied by the screen. 
 This must next be done a few times, pushing the plate 
 holder " home," until it engages with a spring fastener (pro- 
 vided on all cameras), which will hold it in position. The 
 protecting slide must next be withdrawn while the plate 
 holder is still fixed to the camera. 
 
 If the student now removes the lens, and looks into the 
 camera through the hole in the front board, he will see that 
 the plate of glass is now exposed upon the inside of the 
 camera, immediately opposite the place to be occupied by 
 the lens. 
 
 The student must familiarize himself with all these move- 
 ments, and then he may replace the lens, empty the plate 
 holder, and load it in dead earnest with sensitive plates. 
 And now, before we open the box of bromide plates, we 
 must bear in mind that we are about to deal with a substance 
 far more sensitive to light than any we have yet handled. 
 The slightest ray of white light will cause a deposit upon the 
 plates that cannot fail to injuriously affect the brilliancy of 
 the negatives we are about to make. Let us therefore re- 
 double our precautions to exclude all extraneous light, and 
 be careful that our lamp only transmits light that will not 
 injuriously affect our work. The lamp should be glazed 
 with one sheet of ruby glass, covered with one sheet of 
 " canary medium," or " canary fabric "; or, if the student has 
 a preference for yellow light, it may be glazed with one sheet 
 of yellow glass, covered with two sheets of canary medium, 
 
How to Uoe the Outfit 
 
 67 
 
 It is safe to handle some bromide plates by light trans- 
 mitted through one sheet of yellow glass, and one sheet of 
 canary medium ; but we do not advise a beginner to court 
 failure by trying such experiments at too early a stage of 
 his studies. Experiments will be interesting and helpful 
 to him after he has succeeded in doing good work, and 
 will then not be likely to discourage him. We shall have 
 more to say about bromide plates when we deal with their 
 development; in the meantime the plate holders may be 
 filled with sensitive plates, which are packed in the same 
 way as the lantern slide plates dealt with in a former 
 chapter. 
 
 The sensitive side of a bromide plate is far more easily 
 determined than in the case of lantern plates, owing to its 
 slightly dull appearance, The sensitive surface must be 
 lightly brushed with a camel hair brush and then put (film 
 downwards) into the holders, so that the opaque partition 
 rests against the glass side; the sensitive side will then be 
 towards the movable protecting slide. 
 
 Fasten each plate-holder as you finish loading it and, 
 before opening the dark-room door, be sure and shut the box 
 of plates. 
 
 Before taking a negative of any subject, we must set up the 
 camera opposite to it (with the lens pointing towards it) so 
 that the image falls upon the focussing screen. The camera 
 must be adjusted in a level position and then the image must 
 be drawn to a locus. To do this, the student must remove 
 the cap from the lens and put his face within about a foot of 
 the ground glass. He must then cover both his head and 
 the camera with the focussing cloth, and hold it closely to- 
 gether in such a way as to exclude all light except that which 
 coming through the lens, appears upon the screen in the 
 form of a more or less indistinct view of the scene towards 
 which the lens is directed. This image will be upside down, 
 as explained in Chapter VII. 
 
 In order to secure a clearly defined image it is necessary 
 to move the lens farther from, or nearer to, the ground glass 
 until it arrives at the position giving a true focus. The 
 student will probably fall into the common error and attempt 
 to look through the ground glass in his search for a visible 
 image, but in order to see it he must look upon the surface of 
 the glass. It is well to try the first experiments in focussing 
 with the full aperture of the lens, i.e. without any " stops " or 
 diaphragm ; this will help the student by admitting plenty of 
 light and rendering the image more brilliant. 
 
 Let us now suppose that the front part of the camera 
 
68 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 (carrying the lens) is extended as far as it will go, without 
 using the second extension which is actuated by the milled 
 focussing screw. It is just possible that the lens is too 
 far from the screen to give an image of correct focus, 
 so we must release the clamping screws and move the 
 lens-board nearer to the ground glass, at the same time 
 keeping the head under the focussing cloth and closely 
 observing the appearance of the image. If this does not 
 become quite clear and distinct, we must return the lens 
 to its original position and clamp it. We must next resort 
 to the milled screw and turn it towards the lens ; this will 
 bring the " double extension" into action, and move the lens 
 still farther from the focussing screen. As the image is 
 gradually seen to become sharper and better defined, it must 
 be watched closely until it finally begins to go out of focus 
 again. At this stage the focussing screw must be turned in 
 the opposite direction until some object in the centre of the 
 screen is at its sharpest possible focus. It will be well for 
 the student to move the lens back and forth till this one par- 
 ticular object is absolutely sharply defined. Upon now 
 turning his attention to the marginal objects he will notice 
 that they are all more or less blurred, or out of locus. The 
 student must now try and divide his attention between the 
 central object and an object in one of the margins of the screen 
 while he very gradually turns the focussing screw first one 
 way and then another: He will now observe that, by the 
 time the marginal point is sharply focussed, the central 
 object is slightly blurred. He must now focus (as nearly as 
 possible) an average between these points and then try the 
 effect of using a "stop." Insert the stop, marked (say) //u, 
 in the place provided for it in the lens ; or, if the stops 
 are not so marked, insert the one having the largest opening 
 but one. Then (without disturbing it in any way) again care- 
 fully examine the focussing screen. Owing to the action of 
 the stop (which, of course, intercepts a certain amount of 
 light) the image will appear much less brilliant than before, 
 but the general focus will be more clearly defined. The 
 marginal and central objects will appear almost equally 
 sharp, but the student had better try the effect of again 
 using the focussing screw. After racking the lens back 
 and forth several times (letting it slightly pass the point 
 of extreme definition each time) he may try the effect of using 
 a still smaller stop. 
 
 By the time he has tried several experiments with each 
 stop, he will note that the smaller stops reduce the lumin- 
 osity of the image, while they increase its definition. When 
 
How to Use the Outfit. 
 
 69 
 
 working with a very small stop, the student will note that he 
 may move the lens back and forth a considerable distance 
 without seriously affecting the definition ; thus he becomes 
 able to bring marginal objects into locus, without disturbing 
 the focus of the central ones. We do not intend to attempt 
 to treat photography as an art — that 'is not within the scope 
 of a simple text-book — but we may mention here that the 
 student will, in the course of his advanced studies, find an 
 enormous field for artistic expression in this power of sup- 
 pressing or accentuating focus, by means of large or small 
 stops. 
 
 We want our student to learn to secure a perfectly 
 focussed image ; when he can do that with certainty, and 
 develop his negatives without stains, dust specks, or 
 blotches, he may wander from this book and turn towards 
 artistic photography. 
 
 We will suppose that the student has secured a sharply 
 defined image upon the ground glass ; he must now 
 examine the circular level which is (or should be) permanently 
 screwed on the top of the camera near the focussing screen. 
 If the bubble is in the centre, all is well, and an exposure 
 may be made. But it is extremely unlikely that the camera 
 has remained absolutely level while the student has 
 been experimenting with it; therefore it must again be 
 levelled. If, after levelling the camera, the image is still 
 in focus, we may expose a plate. First clamp the camera 
 by tightening the screw which passes through the tripod 
 head, then replace the " cap " (or cover) upon the lens so 
 that no light can pass through it ; then unfasten the focussing 
 screw and turn it back without shaking the camera. 
 
 With the same care to avoid shaking the camera, slide the 
 plate holder (numbered " 1 " and " 2 " ), with number " 1 " 
 towards the camera, into the grooves made to receive it. 
 When it has engaged with the spring catch it should be 
 covered with the focussing cloth, so that no direct sunlight 
 can have access to the junction between camera and plate 
 holder. With a firm movement, the protecting slide may 
 nowl:e withdrawn, and, when the camera is perfectly steady, 
 the cap may be removed from the lens for sufficient time 
 to properly impress the plate. W^ith regard to the actual 
 time of exposure, there is no absolute rule to guide the be- 
 ginner ; all depends upon so many factors. For instance, 
 we have to consider the quality of light, speed of plate 
 (whether " ordinary," " rapid," or instantaneous " ), size of 
 stop in the lens, and the class of subject ; these are all pro- 
 vided for in the commercial " exposure meters." As we de- 
 
 E 
 
Early Work in Photography. 
 
 sire the student to work under the least harrassing con- 
 ditions, we shall try to reduce these considerations to a 
 minimum. First of all, therefore, we advise the use of an 
 "ordinary" plate, a small stop (about /./16), an outdoor sub- 
 ject, a good light and a full exposure. 
 
 We do this because an " ordinary " plate (being much 
 slower than one of the " instantaneous " class) allows more 
 latitude in exposure ; a small stop (admitting less light than 
 a large one) allows a certain amount of latitude also; while 
 an outdoor subject and a good light is far easier for a be- 
 ginner than anything else. We recommend a liberal ex- 
 posure, simply because we do not believe it right to urge a 
 beginner to attempt instantaneous work. We might just 
 as well try to teach a child to run or ride a bicycle be- 
 fore he can crawl on all fours. 
 
 The frequency with which beginners attempt to do 
 rapid work is a most fruitful cause of failure and disgust, 
 and we regret that so many dealers urge beginners to 
 buy " shutter outfits." 
 
 A beginner, with no knowledge of photography, is 
 naturally tempted with the apparent simplicity of such an 
 outfit ; he need only " push the button " or 41 press the bulb," 
 and the thing is done. Let us here offer a stern protest 
 against such a mistaken idea ; a beginner should not touch 
 a shutter, or have anything to do with one, until he has 
 thoroughly mastered this text-book. When he has accom- 
 plished that, he may turn his attention to shutter work 
 with some probability of success. 
 
 To return from this digression, 
 let us suppose that all is ready for 
 exposure. We will presume that 
 the subject is a landscape view, 
 lighted from the side with bright 
 sunlight, the stop in the lens is /./16, 
 the plate an " ordinary" one. Let 
 the exposure be two seconds. In 
 taking the cap from the lens, it is 
 well to gently and gradually move 
 it forward until it is almost free, Expos Zf t % Piate . 
 then (without jerking, or shaking the 
 
 camera) lift the cap upwards, free from the lens and 
 towards the top of the camera. 
 
 In this way we avoid the chance of the lens cap coming 
 within the field of the lens and obstructing the view. 
 Directly the cap is free from the lens it must be moved 
 completely out of the way, otherwise diffused light will 
 
How to Use the Outfit. 
 
 7i 
 
 penetrate into the camera and fog the plate within. The 
 lens must be uncovered for only two seconds, then the 
 cap must be firmly replaced, and the protecting slide 
 of the plate holder again pushed in to cover the surface of 
 the plate. The plate holder may then be removed and taken 
 to the darkroom for the plate to be developed ; or it may 
 be kept until all the plates are exposed. The plates may 
 be kept after exposure for almost any length of time 
 before development without deterioration. There is no 
 fixed limit ; but in our own experience we have kept ex- 
 posed plates in all climates for six months, without ill effect. 
 
 We intend to treat of the development of negatives in a 
 future chapter, devoted especially to the subject; in the 
 meantime we have to say a few words concerning some pro- 
 bable faults in adjusting the camera, and how such faults 
 may be recognised. 
 
 In order to make these faults sufficiently conspicuous, we 
 must ask the student to set up his camera opposite a rather 
 high building, and focus it upon the ground glass screen. 
 For this purpose (as 
 we do not intend to 
 expose a plate) it 
 will be well to use 
 the lens at its full 
 opening — without 
 any stop — so that we 
 may have a brilli- 
 ant image to look at. 
 Now, in order to in- 
 clude the entire 
 building upon the 
 screen it will be necessary to tilt the camera a little so that 
 the lens is directed upwards, rather than exactly level 
 (fig. 7). This will naturally throw the focussing screen 
 (while it is clamped at right angles to the base-board) out 
 of the truly upright position — as will be seen by the plumb 
 line shown in the sketch. The question is : how will this 
 affect the image on the screen? 
 
 If the student will carefully examine the ground glass he 
 will find that none of the upright lines are truly perpen- 
 dicular, all of them are (owing to the rules of perspective) 
 converging towards the top of the building, which will be 
 found at the bottom of the screen. The effect is shown in fig 8. 
 
 This unsightly convergence maybe eliminated by one sim- 
 ple movement : the levelling of the focussing screen, which 
 is done by means of the swing back. 
 
72 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 To bring it into action, we must release the tension of the 
 milled side screws (which hold the back of the camera at 
 right angles to the board) and then push the top of the 
 focussing screen towards the lens until the bubble of the 
 level is in a central position ; or a plumb line, as shown in 
 the sketch (fig. 9) may be used ; this will indicate directly 
 the screen is " plumb," or upright. When the screw is in 
 its correct position, the screws must again be clamped and 
 the image examined on the screen. 
 
 The student will now observe that the upright lines are all 
 perpendicular, but the focus of the image is not equal all 
 over the screen, this is because one part of the screen is 
 nearer to the lens than another. 
 
 We can equalise this focus only by very careful adjust- 
 ment of the focussing screw and the use of a small stop. We 
 advise the student to try several experiments in such focussing, 
 and count the time well spent when he has learnt to set up 
 
 It sometimes happens (though not often, unless with a 
 very careless worker) that the back of the camera is set up 
 " out of plumb" in the other direction (i.e. sideways) as shown 
 in fig. 11; it is best to remedy this defect by moving the 
 tripod legs — which is easily done if the tripod be properly 
 set up. A variety of opinion seems to exist as to the best 
 way to set up the ti ipod— many writers favouring the method 
 of having one leg beneath the front of the camera and two at 
 the back. 
 
 Although at first sight, this may seem the simplest plan, 
 owing to the ease with which the student may approach the 
 focussing screen, we cannot say we favour it at all. 
 
 We much prefer to adjust the tripod so that one leg falls 
 exactly beneath the centre of the focussing screen. The 
 camera may then be almost instantaneously levelled by 
 slightly moving this one tripod in one direction or another. 
 
 Furthermore, we do not find it cause any inconvenience 
 
 11 
 
 his camera opposite 
 a high building and 
 focus it correctly on 
 the screen within 
 twenty minutes. 
 When the screen is 
 correctly adjusted, 
 the lines of the 
 building will all ap- 
 pear truly upright 
 on the screen, as 
 shown in fig. 10. 
 
How to Use the Outfit. 
 
 73 
 
 whatever. In fig. 1 1 we show the back of the camera with 
 its side adjustment out of plumb ; the dotted line shows how 
 easy it may be set right by one movement of the back leg 
 of the tripod. 
 
 Sometimes — especially in photographing buildings — there 
 appears to be too much foreground and not enough sky 
 (fig. 12); this may usually be remedied without using the 
 swing back. 
 
 The simplest plan is to use the " rising front" (as shewn 
 in fig. 13), which isop3rated in various ways according to 
 
 Fig. 11. Fig. 13. 
 
 the make of the camera. In some the rising front (which 
 carries the lens) is clamped by screws which must be eased 
 a little while the lens board is lifted upwards. The student 
 should examine the image on the screen while he moves 
 the lens, and note the effect. When it is raised enough 
 it may again be clamped in position. 
 
 When photographing high buildings, we advise the student 
 to raise the lens front before tilting his camera ; in this way 
 he will diminish the necessity for using the swing back, and 
 may possibly obviate it altogether. 
 
74 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 In some other cases — especially in open landscape— it 
 may be desirable to secure more foreground than appears 
 when the camera is absolutely level. In this case he may 
 lower the lens front, by pushing it downwards. 
 
 If it becomes necessary to tilt the camera (front downward s ) 
 he must still level the focussing screen by pulling it away 
 from the lens and clamping it directly it is perpendicular. 
 
 Remember the golden rule : Always see that the focussing- 
 screen is truly perpendicular before exposing a plate. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 STOCKING THE DARKROOM. 
 
 ITHERTO we have mentioned only the chemicals that 
 were absolutely necessary to perform the simplest 
 operations, and have even gone so far as to coun- 
 tenance the use of ready-prepared developer. The 
 reason for doing so was that the student need not burden 
 himself with a lot of useless paraphernalia in case he should 
 not care to prosecute a more advanced search into the mys- 
 teries of photography. 
 
 If, however, he has been enthusiastic enough to buy a 
 decent outfit, we may safely rely upon him being willing to 
 fit out his workroom with a proper assortment ot chemicals 
 and apparatus. 
 
 We shall give what we consider a sufficiently full list ot 
 materials for making negatives, and modifying them by 
 various methods of after treatment, as well as for silver 
 printing. When the student goes on to other methods ot 
 printing, he will find it necessary to add a few items to his 
 collection. First of all we advise the student to reserve one 
 shelf especially for stock chemicals, and to avoid keeping any 
 mixtures upon the same shelf. 
 
 All dry chemicals should be stored in 4 oz. or 8 oz. wide- 
 mouthed glass-stoppered bottles; liquids should be kept in 
 8 oz. or 10 oz. narrow-mouthed glass-stoppered bottles, 
 except where otherwise stated. 
 The following is a useful list :— 
 
 Dry Chemicals. 
 
 Approximate cost. 
 s. d. 
 
 Hydroquinone ... ... 1 ounce ... 10 
 
 ^Sodium Sulphite ... ... 1 lb. ... 06 
 
 *Sodium Thiosulphate ("Hy^u ") 7 lbs. ... 1 o 
 
 Sodium Hydrate (caustic soda) 4 oz. ... o 8 
 
 Sodium Acetate ... ... 2 oz. ... 02 
 
 vSodium Carbonate (washing soda) 4 oz. ... 01 
 
 Potassium Bromide ... 1 oz. ... 02 
 
 Potassium Cyanide ... 2 oz. ... 04 
 
 *Stored in a stoneware jar. 
 
7^ 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Dry Chemicals (continued). 
 
 Approximate Cost 
 s. d. 
 
 Potassium Carbonate - ... 4 oz. ... o 2 
 
 Iodine ... ... ... i oz. ... .12 
 
 Mercury Bichloride ... 1 oz. ... 04 
 
 *Alum (ground) ... ... 1 lb. ... 02 
 
 Potassium Ferricyanide (red prussiate 
 
 of potash) ... ... 2 oz. ... 06 
 
 Liquids. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 4 oz. 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Acetic Acid ... 
 
 4 oz, 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Hydrochloric Acid ... 
 
 4 oz. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Pure Alcohol 
 
 8oz. 
 
 
 
 Methylated Alcohol ... 
 
 16 oz. 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Uranium Nitrate Solution .. 
 
 . (= 20 grs. per oz.) 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Go!d Chloride Solution 
 
 .. (=1 gr. per oz.) 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Ammonia ... 
 
 4 oz. 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Apparatus, &>c. 
 
 Red Litmus Paper ... ... 1 book ... 02 
 
 Blue „ ... ... 1 book ... o 2 
 
 Filter Papers ... ... 100 ... 10 
 
 Glass Funnel, 6 inch... ... 1 ...08 
 
 2 oz graduate ... ... 1 ... 06 
 
 4 oz ... ... 1 ... o 10 
 
 10 oz ... ... 1 ... 1 2 
 
 Minim ... ... 1 ... o 6 
 
 Chemical Thermometer 
 
 2 oz Dropping Bottle ... ... ... 06 
 
 Scales and Weights... ... ... ... 26 
 
 Granitine Porcelain Trays of various sizes. 
 
 All the chemicals named in the foregoing list can be 
 obtained from any reliable dealer in photographic supplies, 
 with the exception of the solutions of gold chloride and 
 uranium nitrate ; these must be prepared by the student. 
 Gold chloride is usually sold in hermetically sealed glass 
 tubes containing 15 grains of chloride of gold and sodium; 
 but the contents of most of the tubes are only equal to yh 
 grains of pure gold chloride. To make the stock gold solution 
 we must put a few ounces of distilled water in a graduate, 
 a id then drop in a tube of gold chloride; crush the tube with 
 
 ^Stored in a stoneware jar. 
 
Stocking the Darkroom. 
 
 77 
 
 a glass rod, stir up the mixture (which will at once become a 
 bright yellow), and add enough water to make 7^ ounces in all. 
 
 Uranium nitrate (or uranyl nitrate) is, like gold chloride, 
 extremely deliquescent, and soon becomes liquid if loft 
 exposed to air; for this reason it is best to keep it as a 
 standard stock solution of known strength. To make it, add 
 120 grains of uranyl nitrate to four ounces of distilled water; 
 stir until dissolved, and then make up the bulk to six ounces 
 with distilled water. Each ounce of this solution will contain 
 twenty grains of the nitrate. 
 
 A lead-lined sink, such as was mentioned in Chapter IV., 
 is almost a necessity in the dark room ; but, for the con- 
 venience of those who have mechanical ability, and prefer 
 to make their own fittings, we give particulars of a convenient 
 sink described by Mr. F. W. Cooper in the May 1896 issue of 
 The Photogram. After a few preliminary remarks as to the 
 convenience of the arrangement, the writer says : 
 "The following materials will be required: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 about. 
 
 No. 
 
 Description in. in. 
 
 
 ft. in. 
 
 s.d. 
 
 i. Cross pieces 
 
 2 pieces of deal 3 x f 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 planed 0 6 
 
 2. Legs ... 
 
 4 m H X 2\ 
 
 X 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 t 0 
 
 3, Stays ... 
 
 4 », 3 X f 
 
 X 
 
 I 
 
 4^ 
 
 0 7 
 
 4. Shelf ... 
 
 1 „ 6 X | 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 04 
 
 5. Top bar 
 
 1 ,, 2 X \ 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 03 
 
 6. Table top, &c 
 
 7 » 6 x .i 
 
 X 
 
 
 8 
 
 ,; 1 2 
 
 7. Tank bottom 
 
 2 ,, 6 x | 
 
 X 
 
 
 6 
 
 08 
 
 8. Tank sides 
 
 2 „ 3 X 1 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 4i 
 
 0 5 
 
 g. Lid baldens 
 
 2 2 x \ 
 
 X 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 n 02 
 
 lib. nails, ijin.. 2in,. 3111. mixed w ire (French; 
 
 1 . 
 
 
 
 ... 0 2 
 
 2 buckets (one a little larger than the other) 
 
 
 
 
 ... i 8 
 
 1 yard best rubber tube, § bore 
 
 
 
 
 ... 0 8 
 
 1 small f gas tap 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 0 6 
 
 4 sqr. ft. of 4 lb. sheet lead } , , 
 1 ft. f lead pipe ) see Delcm ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 ft. 6 in. J lead gas pipe ... 
 
 
 
 
 0 3 
 
 id smallest size copper tacks or zinc tacks 
 
 
 
 
 ... 0 1 
 
 The price of lead and outlet pipe is omitted because the 
 best way is to take the frame, when complete, to a plumber, 
 and get him to put a lead trough to the place made for it, and 
 to fix a piece of lead pipe as shown in sketch. 
 
 See that all the timber is sound and free from large knots ; 
 many people have spare wood at hand that can be cut to sizes 
 named and thus save the cost of purchase. 
 
 After all the material has been cut to sizes mentioned, 
 planed, and the edges made square, proceed as follows : — 
 
7* 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Place the two pieces No. r on edge, not flat, parallel to 
 each other and with ift. 4jin. between the two, then nail one 
 of the seven boards (No. 6) at each end, leaving iin. over- 
 lapping at front and back ; now nail another of these seven 
 boards alongside those already fixed at each end, this will 
 leave a space of ift. 6in. between the two pairs, next fix the 
 two pieces (No. 8) just under the boards last mentioned, as 
 shown at A, fig. A, and nail through the side pieces; these 
 form sides for the lead trough, the ends, of course, being- 
 formed by the cross pieces (No. i). 
 
 Turn the frame over and nail the three boards (No. 7) 
 over the hole to form bottom of tank, now fasten the two 
 battens (No. 9 on list) across the three remaining pieces 
 of No. 6 lot to form a lid for the lead tank when not in use. 
 These battens should be ifin. from the edge at each end 
 
 (see sketch, No. 2) so as to hold the lid in place and prevent 
 its slipping backward or forward by fitting just inside tank 
 at each end ; the woodwork of top is now complete. 
 
 Take the four pieces (No. 2) which form the legs and place 
 them parallel on floor or bench 11 Jin. apart (inside measure- 
 ment) and 4in from top, nail one of the four pieces (No. 3) 
 across; nail one piece of same lot across I2in. from bottom, 
 leaving a space of 11 in. between the top edge of each. Do 
 the same with the other two legs — see sketch No. 2. Next 
 get someone to help you to place the top in position on the 
 legs, the upper ends of legs should fit exactly to each end of 
 the cross pieces. Put one or two nails in each corner, then 
 nail No. 5 across the two top side pieces, and No. 4 across 
 the two bottom side pieces to form a shelf— the woodwork 
 will now be complete. 
 
 Bore a hole i^in. in diameter in the righ-hand back 
 corner of bottom of tank frame and then interview your 
 plumber. Instruct him to make a lead tank of 41b. lead (that 
 is 4lbs. to 1 sqr. foot, about 4 sqr. feet will be required) to 
 
 Fig. B. 
 
 rubber 
 lute 
 
Stocking the Darkroom. 
 
 79 
 
 fit your frame, it should be ift. 4jin. x i ft. 6in., and 3m. deep 
 outside measurement, with a ift. piece of lead pipe fin. bore 
 soldered in position to pass through the i^-in. hole at back ; 
 the reason for making this hole so large is to allow a little 
 adjustment, and also that the lead round top of pipe can 
 be pressed into it, to prevent anything from lodging 
 there. When the lead is in position fasten along the top 
 edges with small zinc or copper tacks about 2in. apart. 
 This tank may be made of tin, iron, or any other suitable 
 material, but lead is by far the best, as none of the chemicals 
 used in photography are likely to have any effect on it, of 
 course excepting concentrated acids, which are not likely to 
 be poured ^[downjQhe 
 sink. The lead tank 
 complete should not cost 
 more than 6s. or 7s., but 
 that all depends upon 
 the conscience of the 
 plumber who makes it. 
 The next job is to string 
 or wire the shelf from 
 the piece above to form 
 a rack for dishes ; thin 
 galvanised iron or cop- 
 per wire is best. This 
 work is easily done and 
 very convenient, as the 
 dishes do not contami- 
 nate each other when so 
 placed, and are always 
 at hand when required. 
 The wires should be 
 about ifin. apart or as 
 broard as the dishes in 
 use, fasten them in posi- 
 tion with small tacks or staples top and bottom, or wood 
 partitions may be used instead of wire if so desired. 
 
 The water supply can be from a tap fixed above the tank, 
 and the outlet can discharge on to a gulley below if the dark- 
 room is permanent, but where the photographer does not 
 wish to go to this expense, or where it is likely there will be 
 a removal to another house now and then, a very satisfactory 
 and cheap method is to procure two buckets, one larger size 
 for the waste and a smaller one to contain the water to be 
 used, which is put on a shelf above, or hung from the ceiling, 
 or in any position that may be convenient so that it is above 
 
 Fig. C. 
 
8o Early Work in Photography. 
 
 the head. A piece off lead gas pipe bent as in fig. B with a 
 piece of rubber pipe attached to the required length, and a 
 small tap at the end, will form an excellent water supply. 
 To use — fill the bucket, place bent lead tube in position with 
 the rubber tube and tap hanging over the tank, and turn tap 
 on, then suck the top until water is drawn over the highest 
 point of tube, that is at top of bucket. When tap is on, the 
 water will continue to flow until the bucket is completely 
 empty; the lead tube must reach to the bottom of the bucket 
 and have the end cut as shown in fig. B. The whole arrange- 
 ment is shown complete in fig. C; it is merely a simple 
 syphon, but very effective, less trouble, and costs less than 
 a metal tube and tap soldered into bucket. A small rack for 
 dishes should be fitted in the sink; it can easily be made out of 
 
 7 pieces of wood, ^in. x ^in. x ift. 4m. 
 3 » „ |in. x ^in. x 9m. 
 
 I put together as in fig. D ; this is very useful and 
 1 keeps the bottom of dishes dry and out of the 
 mixture of chemicals which are sure to accumu- 
 late in the sink when in use. When the lid is 
 placed in position over the sink and a clean 
 newspaper put on as a tablecloth, mounting or 
 Fig. D. an y otner such W ork can be done with ease and 
 comfort." 
 
 It will be noticed that Mr. Cooper's arrangement makes 
 allowance for the non-existence of a water supply, the 
 suspended bucket providing an efficient substitute. It 
 will, of course, often happen that a beginner cannot secure 
 the entire use of even a small room for photographic pur- 
 poses, and may often have to be content with the use of a 
 cupboard under the stairs. We shall, however, deal only 
 with the fittings of a fair-sized apartment, leaving the occu- 
 pants of smaller rooms to adapt themselves to circumstances. 
 
 A room 12 by 10 feet in size will give ample space for a 
 permanent daylight enlarging apparatus in addition to the 
 development sink and the ordinary fittings of a dark room; 
 the accompanying sketch plan will give a general idea as to 
 the interior fixtures. The enlarging bench should be firmly 
 built of stout boards upon good substantial legs ; or, if the 
 room be small, it may be arranged as a drop-table and held 
 in position, when required for use, by stout brackets hinged 
 to the walls. In either case it should be fitted with a good 
 sized " easel " (or drawing board), provided with vertical 
 and horizontal adjustments similar to those on the front 
 board of a camera ; and the bench itself should be marked 
 
Stocking I he Darkroom . 
 
 every three inches with lines at right angles to its edge, for 
 convenience in estimating the sizes of enlargements. A 
 drop-table (shewn in dotted lines) at one end of the room 
 will be found very convenient for cutting paper or filling 
 dark slides, and should be kept scrupulously clean and dry. 
 
 The other side of the room should be fitted wiih a long 
 bench 2 ft. 6 in. in width, having a lead-lined sink in its 
 centre. This, by preference, should be countersunk so that 
 its top edge is about an inch below the surface of the bench; 
 when not in actual use it can then be covered by a well-fitted 
 top, which will thus provide extra bench room. The window 
 just over the sink should have a sliding shutter excluding 
 
 TZZZZZZZZZZZggZZZZL 
 
 Drop taltfe 
 
 //////////////////;/// 
 
 all light, or filling the room with white light, at will ; this 
 will be a great convenience when mixing developers, &c., or 
 while toning. Plenty of shelving should be placed upon 
 each side of the window, and it would be advisable to reserve 
 one set for chemicals and the other set for " stock solutions" 
 and oddments. One broad shelf should be placed just below 
 the window, right in front of the sink, for the developers and 
 graduates actually in use while at work ; the centre of this 
 shelf should be reserved for the lantern,which should always 
 be used for development in preference to the constantly 
 changing light of day. 
 
 The fixing bath should be placed exactly beneath the sink, 
 and the whole space occupied by the sink should be boarded. 
 
82 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 off from bench to floor upon each side, so as to avoid the 
 possibility of hypo being splashed into the adjoining spaces. 
 One of the other spaces should be divided into racks for 
 storing development and toning trays, and the other space 
 should contain a well-made cupboard for storing dry plates, 
 mounts, and apparatus in security against dust and damp. 
 It would be convenient to have a couple of drawers fitted 
 above the cupboard, just beneath the top of the bench, for 
 storing various things (such as cutting shapes, and so on) in 
 use. 
 
 As it will be quite possible for an amateur to use such a 
 room for printing as well as development, it would be well 
 to provide a spring blind of canary fabric to draw over the 
 window while cutting up P.O.P. paper, or trimming prints. 
 We advise a spring roller, because the blind will then be 
 out of the way of splashes when not in actual use. 
 
 A small window (about 10 or 12 inches square) at one end 
 of the enlarging bench, should be fitted with a series of 
 " kits," or carriers, to take all sizes of plate from \ pi. up to 
 10 x 8, or 12 by x 10; this, also, should have a sliding 
 shutter. A reflector should be fitted outside this window at 
 an angle of 45 0 in order to throw the light from the sky upon 
 the surface of the negative undergoing enlargement. 
 
 Should the room be large enough to permit of the enlarging 
 bench being a permanent fixture, instead of on the drop-table 
 principle, we should strongly advise the student to let it 
 form the top of a long cupboard or series of cupboards and 
 drawers. Plenty of bench room and plenty of cupboards 
 will be found most useful; in fact the benefits of accommo- 
 dation of that kind cannot be over-estimated. If it is possible 
 to provide cupboards in that space, we should then reserve 
 one of the lower compartments of the development bench for 
 washing tanks, large bottles of stock solutions, jars of hypo, 
 alum, &c. 
 
 In addition to the articles we have named many more may 
 be added, according to the inclination or purse of the student; 
 some are luxuries, some mere fads, but none actually neces- 
 sary for the present. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF NEGATIVES. 
 
 Causes and Cure of Failures. 
 
 S stated in a previous chapter, we prefer the hydro- 
 quinone developer for most subjects, and we give 
 herewith a slightly modified formula suited to nearly 
 all classes of subject. The modification consists 
 merely of an extra solution forming an alternative accelerator 
 for special subjects where excessive density is required. 
 
 At this stage it will be well for the student to prepare his 
 own solutions, which can easily be done if our directions be 
 accurately followed. It must be remembered that specific 
 directions as to the order of mixing are of decided importance 
 and materially affect the result. 
 
 For instance, if a formula directs separate solutions o! 
 sodium sulphite in water, and of hydroquinone in alcohol, to 
 be ultimately mixed, it would be manifestly absurd to mix 
 the alcohol, water, sodium sulphite, and hydroquinone in- 
 discriminately together, and expect a similar result; yet such 
 absurdities are often perpetrated, and then the author of the 
 formula is blamed. 
 
 Another point to be borne in mind is the different values 
 of weights used : thanks to the absurdity of the British system, 
 all chemicals are sold by avoirdupois weight (437 j- grains [16 
 drams] = 1 oz.), but photographic formulae are usually com- 
 pounded by apothecaries weight (480 grains [8 drams] = 1 oz.) 
 For this reason we give our formulae in grains (or parts) 
 wherever possible, in order to avoid the possibility of error 
 due to the different value of drams, &c. Sometime, perhaps, 
 we shall have established throughout the land a proper deci- 
 mal system which will remove one legitimate cause of the 
 ridicule directed towards us by foreigners. 
 
 Let us now make up a stock of developer suitable for all 
 classes of work. The ounces in the case of liquids are, of 
 course, fluid ounces. 
 
84 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Hydroquinone ... ... ... 160 grains 
 
 Citric Acid ... ... ... 60 
 
 Potassium Bromide ... ... 30 
 
 Sodium Sulphite ... ... 960 „ 
 
 Alcohol ... ... ... 1 ounce 
 
 Water, to ... ... ... 20 „ 
 
 Dissolve the citric acide, bromide, and sulphite together 
 in about fifteen ounces of water; dissolve the hydroquinone 
 in the alcohol, and then add it gradually to the other solution 
 with frequent shaking ; finally, add the rest of the water to 
 make the entire bulk up to twenty fluid ounces. 
 
 B. 
 
 Potassium Carbonate ... 1,440 grains 
 
 Sodium Carbonate ... ... 1,440 ,, 
 
 Water, to ... ... ... 20 ounces 
 
 C. 
 
 Sodium Hydrate (sticks) ... i6ograins 
 
 Water, to ... ... ... 20 ounces 
 
 D. 
 
 Potassium Bromide ... ... 480 grains 
 
 Water, to ... ... ... 10 ounces 
 
 For producing delicate negatives full of detail (having a 
 correctly exposed plate) we must use equal parts of A and B. 
 If we wish to secure much contrast, that is, a negative that 
 will give extremes of light and shade, we must use equal 
 parts of A and C. For general purposes we recommend the 
 use of carbonates as the accelerator, as in B. 
 
 Let us now suppose that we have an exposed plate ready 
 for development. We must first see that we have ready a 
 clean fixing bath made of 
 
 Hypo ... ... ... 4 or 5 ounces 
 
 Water ... ... ... 20 „ 
 
 We must also see that the ruby lantern is in good condition, 
 and that no stray white light is creeping into the develop- 
 ment room. Take a clean white porcelain tray (9x7 inches 
 for whole plate, or 5 x 4 for \ plate) and place it near enough 
 to the lantern to be comfortably visible. Then remove the 
 exposed plate from the holder, dust it lightly with a broad 
 camel-hair brush, and place it face upwards in the tray. 
 Mix \\ ounces each of A & B, and flow it in an even wave 
 over the plate, and then rock the tray gently in order to keep 
 the solution moving over every part of the plate. Then put 
 
Development of Negatives. 
 
 8 5 
 
 60 drops of I) into the empty graduate, and pkice it within 
 easy reach. 
 
 After the solution is seen to be evenly flowing, it is well 
 to cover the tray with a cardboard lid to protect the plate 
 from even the ruby lamp during the early stage of develop- 
 ment ; the lid may be raised occasionally to see if the image 
 is making any appearance. A visible image should appear 
 within a minute if the plate has been correctly exposed; in 
 this case we may continue development with the same 
 solution until finished. The chief trouble with beginners is 
 the fact that they almost invariably stop development too 
 soon; remember that it is infinitely better to over develop 
 than to not carry development far enough. In the former 
 case we can always reduce the density, but in the latter it is 
 difficult — well-nigh impossible — to remedy the deficiency by 
 any method of intensification. 
 
 As a general rule, it will be well to cany development 
 until when we look at the negative there appears little or no 
 trace of the original image ; the plate should look almost 
 uniformly black except at the extreme edges, which were 
 protected by the rabbets of the dark slide. Upon lifting the 
 plate and looking through it at the ruby lamp there should 
 be considerable density, but the outlines of the picture 
 should be visible. 
 
 In a properly exposed plate, the highest lights ( such as the 
 sky) should show first, followed by the half-tones, and finally 
 the shadow details ; but it the plate has been over-exposed, 
 we shall see quite a different effect upon first applying the 
 developer. An over-exposed plate upon being flowed with 
 developer will show no sign for a few seconds ; then, all at 
 once, the sky will appear, followed almost immediately by 
 a general " flash " of the whole plate. Directly these signs 
 appear, pour the developer again into the graduate (which 
 contains 60 drops of D), and return it at once to the plate, 
 and continue the rocking. 
 
 In this case we must (in order to save the negative) carry 
 development much farther than is apparently necessary, 
 bearing in mind that we can always remedy over-develop- 
 ment ; we shall then have a plate from which a good nega- 
 tive can be made by using a reducer, as will be explained 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 And now let us see what effect D has upon the developer : 
 Bromide of potassium is a powerful " restrainer," and pre- 
 vents the less exposed parts of the image acquiring density 
 in the same proportion as those more exposed. If we did 
 not use it the probabilities are that the shadows would 
 
 F 
 
86 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 rapidly acquire density (of a kind), while the high lights 
 (owing to too much light action) have not the power of 
 gaining density in proper proportion. 
 
 The bromide permits the high lights to gain density at 
 the same time that it holds the shadows in check. Thus, 
 no matter if the plate has become fogged all over before 
 the bromide was used, we can still go on developing the 
 image in proper proportion directly bromide is present, and 
 by a subsequent operation we can remove the veil ot fog. 
 
 A Handy Dropping Bottle. 
 
 On the other hand, should 
 no image become visible after 
 two or three minutes, we must 
 add water to the developer 
 (about an equal bulk), and a 
 few drops (about 5 per ounce) 
 of Rodinal. Rodinal is a 
 ready-prepared and powerful 
 developer, sold by all dealers 
 in photographic goods. 
 
 After this addition the image will slowly develop with- 
 out acquiring too much contrast. If it is not added, an 
 under-exposed plate would develop into a harsh negative 
 without detail in the shadows. 
 
 In any case, when the negative is sufficiently developed, 
 it should be rinsed in water, and then placed in the fixing 
 bath until quite fixed. An unfixed plate has a creamy 
 appearance upon the glass side ; this is due to bromide of 
 silver that must be dissolved in the fixing bath. 
 
 By-and-bye (say in 15 minutes) this white deposit will 
 disappear, leaving the plate clear ; but we must leave the 
 
 Rose Jet for Rinsing Negatives 
 
Development of Negatives. 
 
 37 
 
 plate in the fixing bath for at least five minutes after the 
 plate is apparently fixed. If we omit to do so, the plate 
 will contain a salt of silver that is soluble in hypo, but- not 
 in plain water; this salt becomes yellow in daylight, so 
 that the negative would soon be useless. ^ 
 
 After w T ell fixing the plate, it must be washed in running 
 water for an hour, or else in several changes of clean 
 water in a dish ; it must then be held film upwards 
 beneath a stream of water, and gently wiped withja wad of 
 wet cotton wool to remove any sediment left from the 
 washing water. It may then be placed to dry, the best 
 position being on a shelf, glass 
 side towards the wall and film 
 outwards; the plate should 
 stand on end with a piece of 
 blotting paper beneath to pre- 
 vent dirt climbing up the ne- 
 gative by capillary attraction. 
 A capital drying arrangement 
 that we use is a series of nails 
 driven in a wall, so fixed as to 
 permit one end and one side of 
 a negative to rest upon them, 
 while a corner of the negative 
 is downwards ; of course the 
 plate is put with its glass side 
 next the wall. i 
 On no account must heat be 
 used to dry a gelatine nega- 
 tive, or the film will melt and 
 leave the glass. 
 
 A negative may, however, be 
 quickly dried, thus : Immerse 
 it in a tray containing enough 
 
 Washing Tank for Negative 
 
 alcohol to cover it to 
 the depth of an inch. After ten minutes immersion remove it 
 and stand it on edge on blotting paper. In a few minutes 
 it will be surface dry, and may then be held about two feet 
 from a fire and fanned rapidly until quite dry. The film is 
 liable to melt in patches unless the fan is used. 
 We will conclude this chapter with a few failures in 
 
 NEGATIVES J THEIR CAUSE AND CURE. 
 
 Foggy negatives .-—These have a dirty foggy appearance 
 without density or contrast. Causes: Over-exposure; 
 white light in camera or dark room ; defective ruby lamp ; 
 developer contaminated with hypo ; developer too warm or 
 containing too much accelerator (sodium or potassium 
 
88 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 carbonate or hydrate) without bromide. Remedies : Obvious. 
 
 Weak clear negatives. —If placed in contact with white 
 paper, such negatives are perfectly clear in the shadows ; 
 general thinness of deposit. Cause : Not sufficiently deve- 
 loped. Remedy : They may be slightly improved by in- 
 tensification : see chap. xi. 
 
 Too dense, with clear shadoivs.— Cause: Under exposure 
 and development with an unsuitable developer. Should be 
 developed with less hydroquinone (or pyro), no bromide, 
 and add water. Remedy: Re-development (see chap. xi.). 
 
 Flat negatives, full of detail.— They look u all over alike " 
 without contrast between high light and shadow; much de- 
 tail in the shadows, but no printing strength. Cause : Over- 
 exposure, or correct exposure and too weak developer. 
 Remedy : Intensification. 
 
 Too much density. — Cause: Developer too strong or too 
 warm. Remedy: Reduction (see chap. xi). 
 
 Round transparent spots. —Cause : Air bubbles settling on 
 the plate at the moment of flo wi ng the developer. By carefn 1 
 flowing they may be avoided, or they may be removed by 
 passing a piece of clean cotton wool over the surface of 
 the plate during development. Remedy: Spotting (see 
 chap xi). 
 
 Transparent specks, not circular.— Cause : Dust on the 
 plate during exposure and development. Always keep 
 the plate holder free from dust, and always dust the plate 
 lightly before putting it in the holder, and before develop- 
 ment. Remedy : Spotting. 
 
 Yellow negatives. — Cause: These do not occur in hydro- 
 quinone development ; they are due to discolored pyro 
 developer, or to insufficient (or decomposed) sodium sul- 
 phite in pyro developer. Remedy : Immersion in a clearing 
 bath. 
 
 Iridescent stains.— Cause : Developer too strong in alkali ; 
 dirty fixing bath. Remedy: Slight immersion in reducing 
 bath (see chap xi) and swabbing with pad of cotton wool. 
 
 Mottled appearance. — Sulphur deposited from fixing bath. 
 This sometimes happens with an old fixing bath containing 
 alum, or through immersing plate in alum bath, and in- 
 sufficiently washing it before fixation. 
 
 Brown patches. — These are visible in a few days after 
 fixing, and are quite brown when viewed by transmitted 
 light ; if looked at on the glass side by reflected light the 
 places look opalescent. Cause : Insufficient fixation ; plates 
 
Development of Negatives. 
 
 8 9 
 
 sliould be left in the fixing bath at least five minutes after 
 all the visible cream iness has left the plate when examined 
 on the glass side. Remedy: None. 
 
 Crystallization and fading. —The film of negative is covered 
 with crystals more or less moist, and the image rapidly 
 fades; the film, if touched with the tongue, has a sweet 
 metallic taste. Cause : Insufficient washing after fixation. 
 Remedy : Wash thoroughly. If the film shows any 
 tendency to frill (or leave the plate), as it probably will, it 
 must at once be immersed in two parts of methylated spirit 
 and one part of water for fifteen minutes, and then be again 
 washed. It may then be intensified if considered necessary. 
 
 Fine transparent lines.— Cause : Using too stiff a brush to 
 dust the sensitive plates ; only soft camel-hair should be 
 used for the purpose. 
 
 An indistinct reversed image.— An indistinct image with 
 the right and left sides reversed from their correct position. 
 Cause: Plate inserted in dark slide wrong way about; 
 that is, with the glass side next to the draw-shutter, and the 
 film inwards. Thus the negative has been taken through 
 the glass. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE AFTER TREATMENT OF NEGATIVES. 
 
 O matter how carefully a negative has been developed, 
 occasions sometimes arise when a little after treat- 
 ment will prove a decided benefit. For instance, let us 
 suppose that a negative has been correctly exposed 
 but not sufficiently developed; it is no uncommon occur- 
 rence, especially when working with a different brand of 
 plates from that generally used. Some plates are deceptive 
 in appearance during development and, after all detail has 
 come up, seem to be sufficiently dense for printing purposes, 
 when in reality they lose much of their apparent vigor in 
 the fixing bath. 
 
 The result is a clear plate full of detail but devoid of 
 density, such a negative as would print in a few minutes, 
 but give a weakly print that would be quite incapable of 
 toning to a pleasant color. 
 
 A negative of this kind can be readily brought up to 
 full printing density by after treatment called " intensifying." 
 
 Let us consider the principle of the action. We have 
 seen that a silver print on paper is formed by various shades 
 of silver deposited by the action of light, and we know that 
 immersion in a bath of gold causes it to change to a purple 
 color, more or less, according to the depth of the print ; this 
 is commonly known as "toning" and, as previously pointed 
 out, is due to the affinity between the gold in solution and 
 the silver in the print. 
 
 Intensification is somewhat analogous ; in the thin 
 negative (full of detail and lacking density) we have an 
 image composed of more or less silver. Now, if we put 
 such a negative in a specially prepared bath, we can cause 
 another metal to become deposited upon the silver in direct 
 proportion to the amount of silver already there. Thus, it 
 stands to reason, we add to the density of the deposit and 
 give to the negative the necessary printing quality. All the 
 extra density that will generally be required can be given by 
 means of mercury and silver cyanide, and in our opinion it 
 is a far better method than the common plan of following the 
 
The After Treatment o/ Negatives. 
 
 91 
 
 mercury with ammonia. The silver cyanide method is as 
 follows : 
 
 Mercuro-Silver- Cyan ide Intensifter. 
 
 A. — Mercury perchloride... ... ... 60 grains 
 
 Potassium bromide ... ... ... 60 
 
 Water to ... ... ... ... 20 ozs 
 
 B — Silver nitrate ... ... ... i20grains 
 
 Potassium cyanide (pure) ... ... 120 
 
 Water to ... ... ... ... 20 ozs 
 
 The solutions must be kept in separate bottles, and should 
 be made up at least a day before required for use, being 
 frequently shaken until dissolved. A sediment will be 
 found in the bottle containing B, but this should not be re- 
 moved. When required for use, the clear solution should be 
 decanted from the sediment, and, after use, returned to the 
 bottle and well shaken. 
 
 These two solutions will, with proper care and cleanliness, 
 serve to intensify many negatives, and will keep indefinitely. 
 The negative before intensification must be well washed for 
 at least an hour to free it from hypo, otherwise stains will be 
 the inevitable result. If the negative has been dried, it 
 must be well soaked in clean water until the gelatine film is 
 swelled, and then be immersed in some of solution A con- 
 tained in a clean tray ; a black vulcanite tray should be re- 
 served exclusively for this solution, as the change is more 
 readily observed in a black dish than a white one. After 
 immersing the negative, it is necessary to gently rock the 
 tray to keep the solution moving over the plate, back and 
 forth. If the plate has been properly washed, a gradual 
 change will take place, and the image will begin to turn 
 white (due to the deposit of mercury upon the silver), so that 
 it will be distinctly visible as a positive, while the black 
 portions will be supplied by the vulcanite tray showing 
 through the clearer parts. The action should be allowed to 
 proceed until the image when viewed from the gla^s side 
 appears white ; the negative must then be removed and 
 well washed for about twenty minutes. 
 
 After it is washed, it must be placed in a clean porcelain 
 tray and flowed with some of solution B, applied as in 
 development, and rocked in the same way. This again 
 blackens the image and adds considerably to its density ; as 
 soon as the image shows no sign of whiteness upon the g/ass 
 side, the action has penetrated throughout the film and is 
 complete. The negative must then be once more washed 
 and put away to dry. 
 
92 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 A negative is sometimes so extremely thin and ghostly as 
 to render anything but the most drastic treatment un- 
 availing; in such cases (and in those only) we recommend 
 the use of uranium, which changes the color of the deposit 
 to red, and effectually stops the passage of light. Do not use 
 it on a negative requiring but slight increase of density, 
 otherwise it will yield nothing better than " soot and white- 
 wash " prints. 
 
 The following is the formula : 
 
 Uranium Intensifier. 
 
 Uranium nitrate ... ... ... 10 grains 
 
 Potassium ferricyanide ... ... 10 
 
 Water ... ... ... ... 10 ounces 
 
 When dissolved add — 
 
 Glacial Acetic acid ... ... 4 drams 
 
 This intensifier must be used as soon as mixed, as it will 
 not keep. It is a good plan to keep the uranium nitrate in 
 a solution of a known strength, say 80 grains per ounce. 
 
 The well washed negative must be immersed in the solu- 
 tion and rocked until it acquires the desired color; it changes 
 rapidly from black to chocolate brown, and then on to red. 
 The clear parts of the negative become yellow in this bath, 
 but a few minutes washing under a " rose "jet will remove 
 the stain, and the negatives may then be dried. The color 
 leaves the negatives entirely if washing be prolonged, and 
 a flow of water on one particular part of the negative re- 
 moves the intensification from the place, so care must be 
 observed to wash evenly and just enough to clear the yellow- 
 ness from the shadows. 
 
 Very dense negatives are often caused by over develop- 
 ment, and they are frequently so dense as to require several 
 days' exposure to sunlight, to obtain a print. This is a fault 
 that is easily remedied as follows : Dissolve about twenty 
 grains of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash) in 
 an ounce of water, and add it to three ounces of fresh hypo 
 fixing bath of usual strength ; this forms the reducer. If the 
 negative is dry, it must be well soaked in water, or in the 
 fixing bath, and then put in a white tray and covered with 
 the reducing solution. The dish must be rocked to prevent 
 uneven action, and it must be borne in mind that this 
 solution acts with great rapidity ; examine the plate 
 frequently, and, when nearly thin enough, remove it to a 
 tray of clean water and wash it thoroughly. Thus it is 
 
77?^ After Treatment of Negatives. 
 
 93 
 
 possible to make a quick printer of a negative that was 
 previously as dense as a brick wall. The action that takes 
 place in the reducing bath is simply this : The potassium 
 ferricyanide becomes converted into potassium ferrocyanide, 
 and the metallic silver of the image (practically unaffected 
 by hypo) becomes simultaneously converted into silver 
 ferrocyanide, which is soluble in hypo. The hypo attacks 
 the silver ferrocyanide and converts it into sodium ferro- 
 cyanide and silver sodium thiosulphate. In other words: as 
 fast as the insoluble silver is converted into a soluble salt, it 
 is dissolved in the hypo and removed, thus effecting reduction 
 of density. 
 
 If reduction takes place too slowly, use more red prussi- 
 ate ; if too fast, use less. 
 
 A more strictly scientific method of reduction, and the 
 only one that is practicable with negatives possessing great 
 contrast (i.e. great density, and a little detail in the shadows), 
 is that of re-development. By this method we first convert 
 the metallic deposit into a chloride, thus : Mix fifty grains ol 
 potassium bichromate in ten ounces of water and add tw T o 
 and a-half drams of hydrochloric acid. The negative must 
 be immersed in this solution and rocked until the deposit 
 becomes bleached throughout and the image looks quite 
 white on the glass side. The plate must next be washed 
 for 10 or 15 minutes and covered (in daylight or otherwise) 
 with a weak developer, when the image will gradually darken ; 
 the action must be carefully watched, or the original density 
 will be acquired. As soon as the negative appears 
 sufficiently dense, the plate must be immersed in a clean 
 fixing bath until the remaining white deposit of silver 
 chloride (visible on the glass side) is dissolved, it must then 
 be well washed. 
 
 The advantage of this plan (especially with negatives of 
 great contrast) lies in the fact that the shadow detail (having 
 been first re-converted into metallic silver by re-development) 
 is not attacked in the hypo, whereas the extra density of the 
 high lights (being still in the state of silver chloride) is dis- 
 solved in the hypo. 
 
 Flat foggy negatives, the result of over exposure and care- 
 less development, can usually be remedied by intensification; 
 but in most cases it is advisable to first reduce them slightly 
 in the ferricyanide and hypo bath in order to remove the 
 foggy deposit from the extreme shadows. If this is not 
 done, intensification rarely gives the desired contrast, owing 
 to the fact that the foggy deposit becomes intensified in 
 the same proportion as the image. 
 
94 
 
 Early Work in Photography, 
 
 Another defect that will often be noticed is that known as 
 4< halation." This is most apparent around the windows of 
 interior, and around the tops of trees and buildings where 
 sky forms the background. 
 
 This defect appears most frequently upon poor thinly- 
 coated plates, and is due to the light having passed com- 
 pletely through the film and thence been reflected back to 
 the sensitive surface. After development it shows as a 
 dense black deposit forming a halo and partly obscuring the 
 objects surrounded by it. It may be removed by simple 
 friction, thus : Stretch a piece of wash-leather tightly over a 
 finger and moisten it with alcohol, place the perfectly dry 
 negative film upwards on a solid bed — such as a piece of 
 stout plate-glass— and then rub the dense portion vigorously 
 with the leather and alcohol. Use plenty of pressure and 
 gradually extend the field, so as not to leave too decided a 
 mark. The leather will soon become black with silver, and 
 the negative correspondingly reduced; this method is also 
 useful in other cases requiring local reduction. 
 
 The prevention of " halation " is better than its cure, and 
 we advise beginners to use either u anti-halation " or thickty- 
 coated plates, or, better still, an ordinary plate backed with 
 caramel and burnt sienna. 
 
 The mixture is made by mixing one part of dextrine, two 
 parts of burnt sienna and three parts of caramel (burnt 
 sugar) with as little water as possible to make a very stiff 
 paste ; then thin it down with methylated spirits. It should 
 not be very thin or sloppy, but about the consistency of a 
 starch mountant. 
 
 The plate is placed face downwards on clean blotting 
 paper, and a little of the backing composition is applied to 
 the glass side and distributed by " dabbing " with a soft pad 
 of linen, or by rolling with a roller squeegee. Very little is 
 required to prevent all possibility of " halation," and it is 
 washed off easily with a damp sponge before development. 
 
 Pinholes, and other clear marks due to dust and other 
 causes, should be spotted out before prints are taken from 
 the negative. A mixture of moist water colors (indigo and 
 vermilion) applied with the tip of a round sable pencil is the 
 best thing to use for this purpose. We do not intend to 
 treat of retouching in this book, as that comes more within 
 the range of advanced work, and there are several books de- 
 voted exclusively to the subject ; all we need say is that '' re- 
 touching" is principally done in lead pencil upon the negative 
 film, which is previously rubbed with a " medium " (or var- 
 nish) in order to give it sufficient " tooth" to take the pencil. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, VARIOUS USEFUL 
 FORMULA. 
 
 The Metric (Decimal) System; for ale purposes. 
 
 Weights ( Used for all solids.) 
 
 i Milligram = i-ioooth gram = *ooi grams 
 
 i o Milligrams = i Centigram = 01 „ 
 
 i o Centigrams == i Decigram = 'i „ 
 
 10 Decigrams = i Gram (== the unit) = i „ 
 
 10 Grams = i Dekagram = 10 „ 
 
 10 Dekograms = i Hectogram = 100 „ 
 
 10 Hectograms = i Kilogram (or kilo) = 1,000 „ 
 
 10 Kilograms i Myriagram = 10,000 „ 
 
 10 Myriagrams = 1 Quintal = 100,000 ,, 
 
 10 Quintals = 1 Mil Her, or Tonneau = 1,000,000 „ 
 
 The gram is the unit of weight, and is the exact weight 01 
 one cubic centimeter of distilled water. 
 
 The metric solid measure has exact equivalents in the 
 metric fluid measure ; the fluid equivalent of one gram being 
 1 cubic centimeter (= 1 c.c). The cubit centimeter and the 
 gram bear the same relation to each other as the English 
 minim and grain, with the additional advantage of being di- 
 vided or multiplied ( without possibility of complication) by 
 tens, hundreds, or thousands, etc. 
 
 Measure of Volume ( Used for all fl uids ). 
 
 1 Milliliter (— 1-1,000 liter) — 1 c.c." 
 
 10 Milliliters — 1 Centiliter 10 
 
 10 Centiliters i= 1 Deciliter ~ 100 „ 
 
 io Deciliters 1 Liter (— the unit) 1,000 „ 
 
 10 Litres 1 Decaliter io,oco „ 
 
 10 Decaliters 1 Hectoliter ioo,coo „ 
 
 10 Hectoliters : 1 Kiloliter, or Stere 1,000,000 „ 
 
 i c.c. is the genera! way of writing i cubic centimeter. 
 
9 6 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 The liter (= 1,000 c.c.) is the unit of the decimal fluid 
 measure, and weighs 1,000 grams. One c.c. equals 17 minims 
 English. The metric system has been adopted by many 
 nations, the English excepted. In America its use is optional, 
 but is legalised by Congress. 
 
 European formulae are expressed in grams and cubic 
 centimeters; these may be made up in any quantity by 
 counting the amounts as "parts" — either grains or drams 
 (apothecaries or fluid). The better plan, however, is to buy 
 a set of metric weights and cubic centimeter graduates and 
 mix the formulae at once without calculation or confusion. 
 Without doubt, the metric system is the only onefDr scienti- 
 fic use. 
 
 English Weights and Measures used in Photography. 
 Apothecaries 1 Weight. 
 By which photographic formulae are generally compounded. 
 
 1 grain the unit 
 
 20 grains 1 scruple 
 
 3 scruples = 1 dram ( 60 grains) 
 
 8 drams = 1 ounce ( 480 grains) 
 
 12 ounces 1 pound (= 5760 grains) 
 
 The measure employed for liquids is as follows : 
 1 minim the unit ( 1 grain 
 
 60 minims 1 dram 
 
 8 drams 1 ounce ( 480 minims) 
 
 20 ounces 1 pint ( 9600 minims 
 
 Avoirdupois weight, by which chemicals are sold. 
 1 grain = the unit 
 27*1/32 grains = 1 dram 
 16 drams 1 ounce ( 437^ grains) 
 
 16 ounces 1 pound ( 7,000 grains) 
 
 Pyro-soda Developer. 
 An excellent pyro-soda developer can be made in three 
 solutions as follows: 
 Pyro. ( Sulphuric acid, CP. 60 minims 
 Water, . . 40 ounces 
 
 ( add Pyro . .480 grains 
 
 Carbonate. ( Sodium carbonate . . 6 ounces ( 2880 grs.) 
 
 \ Water, to . . 40 ounces 
 
 Sulphite, ] Sodium sulphite .. 6 ounces ( 2880 grs.) 
 \ Water, to . . 40 ounces 
 
Weights and Measures, Other Useful Formula'. 97 
 
 For normal exposure take equal parts of each solutions. 
 For over exposures add a few drops per ounce often percent 
 potassium bromide solution. Bear in mind the following 
 points regarding this developer. Pyro is the developer and 
 does the work, sulphuric acid being simply a preservative ; 
 sodium carbonate is the accelerator that forces pyro to do the 
 work ; potassium bromide is a restrainer that prevents the 
 work being done too quickly ; sodium sulphite keeps the 
 work clean. 
 
 Sodium carbonate opens the pores of the gelatine and eu- 
 ables the pyro to work vigorously, but too much carbonate 
 causes fog and clogs up the half-tones of the negative with 
 detail. Too much pyro gives too much contrast ; too little 
 pyro gives a weak negative lacking contrast. Sodium 
 sulphite prevents discolouration and gives bluish-black 
 negatives, too little causes yellow negatives. 
 
 Therefore: for normal development of correct exposures 
 use equal parts of pyro, carbonate and sulphite ; but if 
 yellowish negatives are required reduce the amount of 
 sulphite. 
 
 In over-exposure use pyro 2 parts, sulphite 2 parts, carbonate 
 f part, bromide (10 per cent, solution) from 10 to 30 drops per 
 ounce. 
 
 In under-exposure use pyro 1 part, carbonate 2 parts, sul- 
 phite i part, water 1 part, and allow plenty of time for 
 development. 
 
 Should pyro-developed negatives be much discoloured 
 after fixing and washing, they can be cleared by a few 
 minutes' immersion in the following 
 
 Clearing Bath. 
 
 Alum . . . . 1 ounce ( 
 
 Sulphate of iron . . 3 ounces ( 
 
 Water • . . 20 ounces 
 
 When dissolved, add slowly 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . 120 minims 
 They must then be again well washed. 
 
 480 grains) 
 = 1440" „ 
 
 Metol Developer. 
 
 A. - -Metol .. .. .. 154 grains 
 
 Dissolved in water . . . . 35 ounces 
 
 Add sodium sulphite . . . . 1543 grains 
 
 B. Potassium carbonate .. .. 515 „ 
 Water . . . . . . 12 ounces 
 
98 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 For normal exposures take three parts of A to one part of 
 B and add a few drops of a 10 percent, solution of potassium 
 bromide. 
 
 If a very soft, delicate negative is required, use 6 parts of 
 A, i part of B, and 2 parts of water; of course, a longer time 
 must be allowed for development. 
 
 Eikonogen and Hydroquinone Compound Developer. 
 
 A. — Eikonogen . , . . . . 240 grains 
 
 Hydroquinone . . 60 „ 
 
 Sodium sulphite . . . . 720 „ 
 
 Potassium bromide . . . . 8 ,, 
 
 Water, to . . . . 30 ounces 
 
 The sodium sulphite should be dissolved first ; the other 
 ingredients ma}^ then be added and dissolved in a thin glass 
 flask by heat. 
 
 B-— Potassium carbonate . . . . 480 grains 
 
 Water, to . . . . 10 ounces 
 
 For normal exposures, use three parts of A to one of B. 
 
 Acid Fixing Bath. 
 
 This bath combines the following advantages: It remains 
 clear after frequent use, does not discolour the negatives, 
 forms no precipitate upon them, and hardens the gelatine to 
 such a degree, that the negatives can be washed in warm 
 water, provided they have been left in the bath a sufficient 
 time. 
 
 Prepare two solutions. 
 
 . /.—Hyposulphite of soda .. 4 ounces 
 
 Water . . . . . . 15 „ 
 
 B. — Water . . . . 5 ounces 
 
 Sulphuric acid . . . . 30 minims 
 
 Sulphite of Sodium crystals . . 240 grains 
 
 Chrome Alum . . . . 180 „ 
 
 After the ingredients are dissolved pour B solution into A. 
 During the winter one-half the quantity of A is 
 
 SUFFICIENT. 
 
 The plate should be allowed to remain in the bath live to 
 ten minutes after the bromide of silver appears to l>e dis- 
 
Weights and Measures, Other Useful Formula?. 
 
 99 
 
 solved. The permanency of the negative and freedom from 
 stain, as well as the hardening of the film, depends upon this. 
 
 Wooden boxes with vertical grooves to hold a number of 
 plates, will be found both convenient and economical for fixing. 
 
 When the bath becomes weakened by constant use, it 
 must be replaced by a new one. 
 
 Toning Bath for Prints, 
 
 We recommend the following bath for prints on gelatino- 
 chloride or albumenised paper. 
 
 Stock Solution. 
 
 Chloride of gold * .. ... 15 grains 
 
 Acetate of soda . . . . . . 480 grains 
 
 Water, to . . . . . . 15 ounces 
 
 Dissolve the acetate of soda in ten ounces of water, 
 then break the tubes of gold in a glass graduate and pour 
 some of the solution over them, stirring up with a glass rod ; 
 add this to the bottle of solution and pour some more over 
 the broken tubes until all the gold is extracted ; then add 
 water to make 1 5 ounces. Store this bottle away from strong 
 light, and label it " Stock toning solution, gold = 1 gr 
 per oz." 
 
 To make the toning bath, mix 
 
 Stock toning solution . . . . 1 oz. 
 
 Water . . . . . . 20 to 30 oz 
 
 Test with blue litmus paper ; if the paper becomes red, 
 the solution is acid, and must have a little bi-carbonate of 
 soda added to it, sufficient to prevent blue litmus paper 
 from becoming red : a few grains should be enough. The 
 temperature of the bath should be not lower than 65 0 F, 
 nor higher than 75 0 F. The bath may be used again and 
 again, for months, if strengthened with stock solution before 
 use. 
 
 Combined Toning and Fixing Bath. 
 
 This is commonly called known as " The Lazy Man's 
 Hath ; " it is convenient and always ready for immediate use. 
 It gives nice tones, fixes the prints at the same time, and 
 necessitates no previous washing. 
 
 *The t$-gr. tubes of gold and sodium contain only 7 ' grs. of gold chloride 
 
roo 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Prints toned in this bath are rarely, if ever, permanent ; it 
 is very wasteful, and we do not recommend it. It is made 
 thus : 
 
 A. 
 
 B.- 
 
 -Sodium tungstate. . 
 Ammonium sulphocyanide 
 Sodium thiosulphate (hypo) 
 Water 
 
 -Gold Chloride :f . . 
 Water 
 
 180 grains 
 
 6 ounces 
 20 „ 
 7i grains 
 4 ounces 
 
 When quite dissolved, pour solution B, a little at a time 
 with constant stirring, into solution A; more water may be 
 added if the bath tones too quickly. 
 
 This will give rich purple tones upon prints from plucky 
 negatives. Prints must be deep in color, and are to be im- 
 mersed without previous washing; they change to a dirty 
 yellow and gradually work back again to purple. They 
 must be well washed after toning. 
 
 Some combined baths contain alum and acetate of lead ; 
 but, as they are infinitely worse than the foregoing, we 
 refrain from inflicting them on beginners. Lead tones are 
 beautiful in the extreme while they last, but they can be 
 obtained without the use and waste of gold. 
 
 As a warning to avoid lead, we give a formula that will 
 yield exquisite results for a time. All we ask is that a 
 beginner will not try it until he has mastered the separate 
 toning and fixing baths. He will then be interested in 
 toning some prints with lead, and exposing them for a week 
 to strong daylight and the open-air. When he sees the re- 
 sult, he must recollect that we did not advise the use of the 
 bath. The following is the formula : 
 
 Lead Toning and Fixing Bath. 
 
 Lead acetate 
 
 Hypo 
 
 Water 
 
 Print deeply and do not wash before toning. 
 
 Varnish for Negatives. 
 
 Shellac 
 
 Sandarac 
 
 Camphor 
 
 Alcohol (methylated) 
 Filter before use. 
 
 280 grains 
 4 ounces 
 
 960 grains 
 600 „ 
 io „ 
 
 20 ounces 
 
 *rhe 15-gi • tubes of gold and sodium contain <mly 7 ; L > grs. of gold chloride. 
 
Weights and Measures, Other Useful Formulae. \o\ 
 
 The negative should be made distinctly warm, but not 
 hot; a pool of varnish must then be poured upon its centre, 
 while the plate is held by the lower left hand corner between 
 the thumb and finger. After distributing the varnish over 
 the plate, the surplus must be poured into a separate bottle 
 kept for the purpose. The lower right hand corner should 
 be held downwards on a piece ol blotting paper (to absorb 
 the drop that will collect there) until set. When set, the 
 plate should be evenly heated until hardly bearable to the 
 back of the hand, it may then be set away until cold. 
 
 To remove varnish from a negative. 
 
 it is sometimes necessary to remove varnish from a nega- 
 tive in order to modify it by intensification or reduction. 
 
 This is best done by placing t^e negative (varnish up- 
 wards) in a tray and covering it with methylated alcohol, to 
 each ounce of which is added about twenty drops of liquid 
 ammonia. Wipe the film occasionally with a wad of cotton 
 wool and, when the varnish has apparently disappeared, 
 transfer the negative to a tray containing water and ammonia 
 in the same proportions. Finally, w T ell wash in plain 
 water. 
 
 Cold Varnish for Negatives. 
 
 This varnish may be applied to a cold negative, and will 
 dry in a few minutes. It is sometimes sold as " crystal'* 
 varnish. 
 
 Gum dammar . . . . . . 90 grains 
 
 Benzole . . . . 1 ounce 
 
 The film will not be hard enough to bear printing under 24 
 hours, unless the plate be heated after the film has set. If 
 made quite hot (after the varnish is set) it will be ready for 
 printing when cold. 
 
 The following is preferred by some workers : 
 
 Amyl acetate . . . . 1 part 
 
 Petroleum benzine . . . . 1 „ 
 
 Alcohol . . . . . . . . 3 parts 
 
 Ether . . . . . . . . 3 „ 
 
 Celluloid, enough to give the desired consistency. Old 
 celluloid films cut into strips answer the purpose admirably. 
 
 The celluloid swells and dissolves slowly, and requires 
 frequent shaking during several days. Filter through 
 cotton before use. 
 
 G 
 
102 
 
 Early Work in Photography. 
 
 Matt, or ground-glass, Varnish. 
 
 This is for applying to the glass side of negatives, and 
 must be applied while the glass is perfect!}' cold, otherwise 
 it will dry brilliant. It sets with a matt surface similar to 
 ground-glass, very suitable for working upon with lead 
 pencil. It is also useful for making focussing screens and 
 backing for window transparencies 
 
 Gum sandarac . . . . . . 90 grains 
 
 Gum mastic . . . . 20 „ 
 
 Methylated ether . . . . 2 ounces 
 
 Kenzole (pure) ... . . | to i| „ 
 
 The benzole determines the nature of the grain ; the 
 greater the proportion, the coarser the matt surface. 
 
 Retouching Medium. 
 The following is the best formula of which we know: 
 
 Sandarac 
 
 Camphor 
 
 Castor oil 
 Venice turpentine 
 Alcohol 
 
 Apply a little of the medium to the negative film (either 
 varnished or unvarnished) by means of a piece of soft cam- 
 bric stretched over the finger. It should be rubbed in small 
 circles until irearly dry ; in a few minutes it will be in a 
 fine condition to receive black lead pencil. The pencil 
 work can be fixed when finished by heating the plate. 
 
 60 
 
 Dead-black Varnish. 
 
 This is useful for many purposes, such as for coating the 
 lens flange or inside woodwork of camera. 
 
 Japanner's oil gold size . . . . 1 part 
 
 Lampblack . . . . . . 1 „ 
 
 Rub together in a mortar, or on a slab, then add — 
 
 Turpentine . . . . . . 8 ounces 
 
 Methylated spirits . . : . . . . 4 drams 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 The following list includes the principal photographic U < 
 used in the first diopters of Early Work. 
 
 Actinic.-— By "actinic light"' in photography is meant the activ. 
 rays capable of affecting a photographic dry plate; whit' 
 light, or white light transmitted through a blue or violet 
 glass, has actinic power, but red light has not. Red ligl I * 
 inactive, or " non-actinic." 
 
 Back of Negative. When one speaks of the "back" of a 
 negative, the glass side is always meant. The film side ton 
 which the image is formed) is called the "front," or film side. 
 
 Emulsion 1 . — A photographic emulsion is a thick, semi-fluid mass 
 composed of gelatine or collodion, containing silver com- 
 pounds in suspension. The emulsion, when spread on glass 
 aud dried, forms -the sensitive film of the modern dry jjlates. 
 
 Face Side. — The film side of a negative is sometimes called the 
 "face,' or film side, and sometimes the "front," to distin- 
 guish it from the back or glass side. 
 
 Front of Negative.. -See Face Side. 
 
 Graduate. — A graduated glass used for measuring liquids. 
 
 Light-tight.— A common term in photography, used to indicate 
 anything through which light cannot leak. Thus, if th< 
 chinks around the door of a dark room admit s ray white 
 light, it is not light-tight ; but by pasting blick paper over 
 the crevices the room becomes light-tight. The same defi- 
 nition applies indiscriminately to cameras and plate boxes. 
 
 Non-actinic. — Rays of light incapable of affecting a photographic 
 plate are usually termed " non-actinic" or inactive. Red and 
 yellow light are more or less non-actinic, hence their use for 
 illuminating the dark room. 
 
 Tone. — The general definition of this word in photography is 
 " color." The " tone " of a silver print is formed by the 
 deposition of violet gold or platinum black. The act ol 
 depositing precious metals upon the silver image is com- 
 monly called toning." 
 
 Trim. —To " trim" a print is to cut the edges true by means of a 
 knife and a sheet of glass; an untrimmed print is one with 
 its edges rough and unfinished. All prints must be carefully 
 trimmed before they are mounted upon cardboard. 
 
Monthly, Price 3d. ; Post Free 4^d. 
 
 <^A JOURNAL FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS.^* 
 
 Editors H. Snowden Ward and Catharine Weed Ward. 
 
 Permanent Stajf\ ™' E™elbert Henry. Schriftfuhrer. 
 
 M ( Charles W. Gamble. W. T. Whitehead. 
 
 LARGEST CIRCULATION PER ISSUE OF ANY PHOTOGRAPHIC JOURNAL 
 
 The Optician.— "'P ar and away ahead of its contemporaries." 
 News of the World. — kt The Photogram is a most excellent magazine, with 
 'charmingly reproduced photograms, and excellent practical articles." 
 
 /proce55~ 
 
 PlxxodrAtT), 
 
 ? I 
 
 00 3 
 
 w - 
 
 AND ILLUSTRATOR. 
 
 (bluest iourmtl spctialfo OcuoTcb to the \niitjt&U of p b 0 1 0 - ^Hctbanual Moxkm 
 
 Frequent Yah/a ble Supplements. No Process Worki r ean keep up to date without it. 
 The Photogram for 1895 the Process=Photogram for 1895.— 
 
 Handsomely bound in cl< th, blocked in fold and c< lour, and crammed with illustra- 
 tions and supplements, Price ;s 6.1. each, pos* lite, 8s (A few copies still remain 
 of Vol. I. of The Photogram (.180,4 ) and may Le had at the same price.) 
 
 ' jpbotoorams of '96,' 
 
 WILL BE READY IN OCTOBER NEXT. 
 
 Price is. ; cloth 2s. ; postage 6d. extra. Photograms of '95 may still 
 be obtained at same price as above. 
 
 T p h ubHshId for THE PHOTOGRAM, Limited, 
 
 . [y DAW BARN & WARD. Lti.. 6. FARRINGDON AVENUE, E.C. 
 
Woodbury Permanent Photographic 
 Printing Company, 
 
 Eyre & Spottiswoode) IPropbietoi 
 
 Great New Street, Fetter Lane. London, B.C. 
 
 Ca rbon Enlargements. 
 
 pl atinotp pe Enlargements. 
 
 Bromioe Enlargements. 
 
 Mo^l^^^pejpnn^m^ 
 
 Moobrmrv, (Br avure, 
 
 Collotype printing 
 
 Silver printing. 
 
 platinotype pri nting . 
 
 IbalHTone process $locfes. 
 
 PAPRftN TI^lIF Jiiade in our own superior manner, on sale 
 vaADUH llODuu in cut ]>ieces, sensitized or unsensitized. 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN THE ART OF CARBON PRINTING. 
 
 For Amateurs, 
 
 A concise pamphlet, with specimen print, post free 4 stamps. 
 
 Amateurs' Negatives developed, varnished, spotted, 
 
 blockeu one, printed from, mounted, or enlarged. 
 
 Our Works are fitted with every modern appliance for the rapid production 
 of all classes of photographic printing, and ivc guarantee the besi possible result 
 in every case. The production of the sample negative and positive given zi ith 
 this zvork has been entrusted to us for execution. 
 
 Price lists and furth r information on application, as above. 
 
THE "ARCHER EXPRESS" HAND CAMERA, 
 
 Illustrated Price List of 20 different Cameras. 132 pp., free, postage i%d. 
 
 ARCHER & SONS, ^^lordsT LIVERPOOL 
 
 Established 1848. 
 
 THE 
 
 PATENT 
 
 TIME 
 
 AND INSTANTANEOUS 
 
 SHUTTER. 
 
 Theoretically and Practically the Best. Gives 
 any Exposure, from fractions of a second up to 
 minutes or hours, without vibration. 
 From 18 '6- Speed Indicator, 3 6 extra. 
 
 Sna-p-Shot Shutter, from 10/-- Focal 
 Plane Shutter, for high speed \vork,frrn 35 ~ 
 
 HOMON-pICKARD 
 
 RUBY CAMERA. 
 
 The Finest extant. Can be used as a Hand 
 Camera, or on a Tripod. Also suitable for 
 Stereoscopic Pictures. From £8 11 S. 
 CATALOGUE FREE. 
 
 Tiornton-Pickard Manufacturing Co., 
 
 ALTHING HAM, NEAR MANCHESTER. 
 
C ELLULOID. 
 
 (Trade Mark of the Celluloid Co.) 
 
 The film used by English Plate Makers is 
 our STANDARD 101000 inch. 
 
 The Negative given with this book is on our 
 5 1000 inch. 
 
 Our ROLL FILM is used in the Cinemato- 
 graphe, Kinetoscope, &c, &.C., and has 
 made such pictures possible. 
 
 S. GUITERMAN & CO., 
 
 35 & 36, ALDERMANBURY, 
 
 LONDON, E.C. 
 
THE MOST POPULAR AMATEUR'S PAPER. 
 
 JF you want to become a proficient 
 photographer, you will find weekly 
 perusal of " The Photographic News 99 
 well worth your while. 
 
 In "Our Consulting: Room" Column the Editor 
 will be pleased to explain away any difficulties 
 you may experience as a beginner in photo- 
 graphy. 
 
 Of all Photo Dealers, Newsagents, and Railway Bookstalls, 
 
 THE PUBLISHER, 22, Furnival St, 
 
 ONE PENNY WEEKLY. 
 
 or direct from 
 
 LONDON, E.C. 
 
A. B. FLEMING^ 
 
 Scottish Printing Ink 
 Manufactory, 
 
 & Co., Ltd 
 
 CflHOIilNE PAHK. EDINBURGH- 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF EVERY K.INU OF 
 
 BLACK 
 AND 
 
 COLORED 
 
 Warehouse— 15, Wfiifefriars Afreet, icondon, £.2. 
 Fine Color Dept.— 101, Leadenhall Afreet, London, E.G. 
 
 HALF-TONE PRINTING INKS in Black and Art 
 Shades a speciality (any shade made to order). Our 
 Half-tone Inks will not fill up, do not contain Earth- 
 Colors, and are permanent. 
 
 PHOTOCHROME PRINTING IN THREE COLORS. 
 
 —The three Neutral Colors (Red, Blue and Yellow), 
 specially prepared and guaranteed absolutely perma- 
 nent. Shades verified by Lovibond's Tintometer. 
 
 High = Class GOkicOTT? t IKKi> °f ail Shades 
 
NOW READY. 
 
 Photography 
 
 Annual for 1896 
 
 Should be in the hands of every fhofograpfier. 
 
 It contains a series of practical articles on a variety ot 
 subjects, many of which are freely illustrated. 
 
 The Annals of Photography gives a full record of photographic 
 progress for the year, and is most complete, written as it is 
 by the best authorities. 
 
 Apparatus of all kinds relating in any way to the pursuit 
 of photography is amply described, hundreds of pages being 
 devoted to this section. 
 
 A very full list is given of dealers and dark rooms in the 
 United Kingdom and in foreign countries ; and a list of 
 Photographic Societies of a most comprehensive character is 
 provided. 
 
 It is a book for enjoyment as much as for reference, as 
 well as being encyclopaedic in character, and it is freely 
 illustrated with process blocks of high quality by a large 
 number of eminent firms. 
 
 Price, Paper 2j6; Cloth, 3 6. 
 
 ILIFFE & SON, 3, St. Bride Street, 
 
 LUDGATE CIRCUS, LONDON, E.C. 
 
Price is. Cloth is, 6d. 
 Postage 2d. extra. 
 
 now Ready. 
 
 c^>> 
 
 A HANDBOOK OP THE 
 APPLICATION OP THE X-RAYS 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS IMPORTANT 
 ILLUSTRA TIONS. 
 
 By H. SNOWDEN WARD, Editor of The Pkotogram, 
 
 WITH CHAPTERS BY 
 
 E. A. ROBINS and A. E. LIVERMORE. 
 
 ■ELECTRICITY says — "This little work has appeared at an opportune 
 moment, and is one which we can candidly recommend." 
 
 THE BRITISH JOURNAL OF PHOTOGRAPHY says—" One of the 
 most practical of the many volumes so far called into existence by 
 Professor Rontgen's remarkable paper and experiments." 
 
 THE BRIGHOUSE ECHO says— " A capital practical guide . . . . 
 teeming with information and valuable hints . . . the illustrations 
 are capital . . . and this most useful book, which is published at 
 the low price of one shilling, ought to have a very ready sale." 
 
 ENLARGED TO 24 PAGES. 
 
 The New Light 
 
 AND. 
 
 The New Photography 
 
 Full particulars, popularly written of Prof. Rontgen's Discovery. 
 Being a Special Issue of "The Photogram." 
 
 Price 3d. Post Free 4d. 
 
 FIFTH EDITION NOW SELLING!!! 
 
 OF ALL NEWSAGENTS. 
 
 PUBLISHED FOR 
 
 THE PHOTOGRAM, Ltd., 
 
 BY 
 
 DAWBARN & WARD, Ltd., 6, Farringdon Avenue, LONDON, E.C 
 
 Practical * 
 
 Radiography. 
 
Banb of Blue Xtbtai^. 
 
 Compiled by Dr. E. L. Wilson. The 
 most complete work ever published. 
 Postage 7 .Yd. Cloth, bevelled boards, gilt 
 lettered and top, 12/6 net. Cheap edition, 
 cloth, Postage 6d., 7 6 net. 
 
 By Georg Fritz. Translated by E. J. |m 
 Wall, F.R.P.S. With six illustrated full- jft 
 page supplements. Cloth. Postage 3d. 3/6 4J 
 net. 
 
 By A. Horsley Hi n ton, with reproduc- 
 tions from Photograms and Drawings by 
 the Author and other Artists, by a variety 
 of Processes. Postage 6d. 3/- net. 
 
 By F. W. Mills, F.R.M.S. Illustrated. 
 Cloth, gilt lettered. Postage 3d. 3s.net. 
 
 Practical . . A Handbook of the Application of 
 
 - — the X Rays. By 11. Snowden Ward. 
 
 Radiography. -Postage 2d. Clofh 16 net. Paper i/-. 
 net. 
 
 Of all Booksellers, Photographic Dealers, or of I he Publishers, 
 
 DAWBARN & WARD, Ltd. 
 
 6, FARRINGDON AVKXrK, LONDON, F.C 
 
 A Complete List of Photographic Works post free on application. 
 
GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE 
 
 3 3125 01204 1071