L ■ hi!: V :4;i jji! & I m ;i N : i ! I I H ii!!!iiljl! ii!;!!|!!!l| :!>:!! !|nl! !i! ■ii ! | il!l!ilj!!i!!!!i!!!jiil|!iij|iiiliji l lllil! I l | III |i I : II ill b!;; i!!|!!!l 11 Iptaiiti !ii|j i i III ! / . THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR BOOKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR Color and Its Applications (1915). 360 Pages, 129 Illustrations, 21 Tables, and 4 Color Plates. Light and Shade and Their Applications (1916). 277 Pages, 135 Illustrations, 10 Tables. The Lighting Art (1917). 229 Pages, 43 Illustrations, 9 Tables. The Language of Color (1918). THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR BY M. LUCKIESH Physicist, Nela Research Laboratory National Lamp Works of General Electric Company Author of “Color and Its Applications,” "Light and Shade and Their Applications,” "The Lighting Art” NEW' YORK DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 1918 Copyright, 1918 By DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY, Iwc. MY WIFE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/languageofcolorbOOIuck_O PREFACE There is evidence on all sides of a lack of correlation of the sciences and the arts which doubtless is due to the difficulty an individual encounters in adapting himself to these two viewpoints. For the benefit of his art, the art¬ ist should acquaint himself with the general sciences upon which his art is founded; and for the benefit of progress the scientist should bear in mind the viewpoint of the artist. There should be no misapprehension regarding the relation of science and art because the former supplies the enduring foundation for the latter. For this reason it appears that those who pri¬ marily possess a scientific viewpoint should at¬ tempt to bridge the gap by laying their course upon facts. It is with this attitude that I have attempted to present a brief review of the lan¬ guage of color in which its present status, and the foundation upon which its future must be established, are discussed. No subject has been more abused than Color by those possessing only a superficial knowl- vii VI11 PREFACE edge of the underlying scientific principles; therefore, there is a need for presentations of the facts of various aspects of color. The sub¬ ject of this book is very extensive in scope for it includes not only various sciences but also many arts. Brevity of treatment was essential in order to present a concise review of the sub¬ ject and it has appeared the better plan at this time to present merely a review as suggestively as possible. The goal which I have kept in mind is the possibility of an ultimate art purely of color or at least of an extension of the pres¬ ent use of the expressiveness of color. Such an aim can only be realized by interpreting our present language of color, by extending this knowledge by further study and experiments, and by making the understanding of the ex¬ pressiveness of color a general accomplishment of mankind. It will be noted that in dealing with those as¬ pects of color which are only vaguely under¬ stood the discussion does not depart far from the known scientific facts which appear to be associated with the future development of these aspects. On the whole, this brief treatise aims to correlate the science and art of the expres¬ siveness of color in a fundamental manner. It is hoped that this rudimentary “dictionary” of PREFACE IX the language of color is a forerunner of a more extensive discussion which may appear in later years if the developments are sufficient to war¬ rant it. Regardless of the future, it appears that the effort has been well spent if it has yielded no more than a correlation of some of the data of the sciences and arts of color. My viewpoint is more comprehensively discussed in the first chapter which is in reality a preface to be read and in the last chapter which points toward the future. I take pleasure in recording my appreciation of the opportunities afforded by the manage¬ ment of the National Lamp Works of General Electric Company for prosecuting various stud¬ ies and of the courtesies extended by Dr. E. P. Hyde, director of the Nela Research Labora¬ tory. Oct. 31, 1916 M. Ltjckiesh CONTENTS PART I CHAPTER PAGE Introduction.3 Mythology.13 Association .19 Nature.29 Primitive Language.41 Literature...55 Painting.68 Ecclesiasticism.79 Theatre.89 PART II Symbolism oe Color.95 Red.100 Yellow.109 Green.115 Blue.119 White.^.123 Black.127 Gray.133 Various Colors.136 XI xii CONTENTS PART III CHAPTER PAGE Nomenclature.143 Psycho-physiology op Color.156 Color Preference.176 Affective Value of Colors .193 Attention Value of Colors.209 PART IV Esthetics .219 Harmony .235 Color Practice.252 Color-Music.262 Finale.277 Bibliography .282 PART I THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR INTRODUCTION P ROLONGED intimacy with color, either in its science or art, doubtless has always aroused and stimulated thought and specula¬ tion regarding its effects upon the human or¬ ganism. In fact, it is one of the aims of the artist to discover the powers of colors and to employ their suggestiveness in his appeals to emotional man. In this respect our final inter¬ est in the use of color, as in many other activi¬ ties, is largely concerned with the psychological effects. In other words, the ultimate object of the various arts lies largely in their influences upon human consciousness. It would he an in¬ teresting study to explore the maze of devious highways traversed by that evoluting some¬ thing which is an emotion in the making but this is a field for the psychologist. Investiga¬ tors in psychology are invading this vast un¬ known and from this angle it is hoped that our knowledge of the emotional effects of color will some day be greatly extended. It is the object in this brief work to explore 3 4 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR various fields in which color is used, to attempt to sift out the part played by color in arousing emotions and in portraying ideas, and to pre¬ sent discussions and suggestions regarding the possibility of a future art purely or predomi¬ nantly of color. The wonderful gift of color- vision has made it possible to touch the emo¬ tional side of the human organism through color in Nature and through the use of color in such arts as painting, architecture, literature, danc¬ ing, and the drama. Exhaustive research in these various fields is not entertained at present but it is the hope that the following brief dis¬ cussions, combined with a study of color in na¬ ture and with the meager data supplied by the physiologist and psychologist, will illuminate the pathway toward a rudimentary dictionary of the language of color. It would be unscientific to deny the existence of a language of color because we do not un¬ derstand it thoroughly at present and quite un¬ progressive to reject the possibility of finally completing the dictionary of this language. Color experiences are indeed very intricate at present but it is likely that this is due to our scanty knowledge of the elements and processes involved in the emotional appeal of colors, and to our inability to interpret and to correlate THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 5 properly the various factors. Much knowledge must be unearthed before a rudimentary dic¬ tionary of this language is available but first the scientific attitude should admit the possi¬ bility that the language of the group of experi¬ ences associated with color eventually will be understood. Directly and indirectly we have occasional glimmerings of understanding but the data which must build the foundation of this dictionary are meager indeed. It must be sought in many indirectly related activities of man, the emotional aspects of which are at best only faintly understood. When it is considered that most of the knowledge of the expressiveness of color must be sought in these various activi¬ ties whose allegorical, representative or emo¬ tional powers are more or less obscure, it would be presumptuous to expect to emerge from the final chapter of this book with an unabridged dictionary of the language of color. Therefore, no greater result is expected than a correlation of the various viewpoints and sources of infor¬ mation which may serve as a preliminary analysis of present knowledge of the subject. At least it is hoped that fruitful trends of thought and investigation and various exten¬ sions of the application of color will be made apparent. 6 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR In the arts, color has not yet played a solo part. It has been merely an element in the en¬ semble, but even in this minor role its influence appears to be positive though difficult to analyze. Instead of being merely an element in an en¬ semble, is it not possible, when its language is understood, that there will have evolved an art purely, or at least predominantly, of color, which, in order to be interpretable, will require little or no assistance from line, form, subject, words, rhythmic sounds or movements? The chief object here is to record results of excur¬ sions into the various fields, including arts and sciences, and to discuss briefly the meager, avail¬ able data which contribute toward a language of color. However occasionally, by drawing upon intimacies gained through direct interest and contact with the artistic and scientific as¬ pects of color, the author will venture sugges¬ tions and possibly a few predictions, with the object of hastening, doubtless ever so slightly, the possible advent of such an art or at least the extension of the use of color. Experiments, ob¬ servation and study must be relied upon to sup¬ ply the foundation and to enlarge the dictionary of the language of color so that, eventually, a language, crude though it may be in the begin- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 7 ning, may form a broader foundation for a work¬ ing knowledge of the emotional possibilities of color. If it appears to some that the subject treated here is outside the realm of the scientist in the field of color, the defense offered is that this book is not dealing with a recognized exist¬ ing reality but with a possible futurity. Fur¬ thermore, the foundation of all arts is science, and definite progress will best result from a scientific analysis of the available knowledge and from two perspective views, one backward and the other forward. Color in a broad sense includes light and shade and is synonymous to light. In all in¬ terpretations, difficulties arise from the unfortu¬ nate indefiniteness, and consequent looseness, of the nomenclature of color. Ofttimes through¬ out this study and discussion it has been neces¬ sary to interpret a vague description or use of color, and it is recognized that these instances provide opportunities for different opinions. Furthermore, all the data recorded in the fol¬ lowing chapters are not considered conclusive, and the author does not necessarily commit him¬ self to a complete accord with many of these symbolical uses of color by the act of incorpo¬ rating descriptions of them. The material has 8 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR been carefully selected and recorded because of its possible value and has been condensed for the sake of interest and clarity. Not the least incentive in presenting this brief work has been the desire to illustrate the differ¬ ence in the value of material of this character, which has at least some semblance of a sound foundation of fact, and that which springs from pure imagination. It is not unusual to hear the scientist—the searcher after facts, the analyst who not only aims to discover truths but to learn their relations to each other—accused of a lack of imagination. It is quite consistent that the accusers are usually possessed of ab¬ normal imaginations which dominate or smother that which furnishes the ties to this world of ac¬ cepted facts. They have little respect for ac¬ cepted facts but a relatively much greater re¬ gard for the products of their imaginations. Ofttimes they are neither adequately versed in science nor sufficiently analytical to discern the difference between that which is fact in the ordi¬ nary sense and that which they think is fact. This is simply illustrated in the foregoing ac¬ cusation because it has been imagination that has led the scientist to discoveries. The differ¬ ence between the scientist and the ultra-imagi¬ native is that the former does not permit his THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 9 imagination to carry him away from the base of facts without maintaining lines of communica¬ tion, while the latter soars serenely into the un¬ known, feeling secure in a world that exists only in his imagination. Nothing can harm him be¬ cause he is invulnerable to facts and his imagi¬ nation can create protective expedients at will. To be safe, the possibility may be admitted that perhaps each individual’s world only exists in his imagination, however, for the everyday business of life there is a striking similarity among most of the individual “worlds” regard¬ ing that which we call fact. It is true that much of the progress of civiliza¬ tion has been due primarily to radicals, but the blind imaginings of radicalism aid in progress only by stimulating controversial activity or by mere accident. Moderate imagination which does not carry the individual too far from the base of accepted facts is helpful to progress, but an excessive amount hinders progress by the wasting of energy in controversy. It is not the intention to disparage the value of sane imagi¬ nation which does not blind the individual to the value and necessity of discovering and organiz¬ ing facts. However, it is likely that no subject has been abused more than Color because its effects are so vaguely understood that the ma- 10 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR jority of persons arc inclined to hearken to the sayings of the ultra-imaginative with more or less credulity. Examples of the harmful effects will be glimpsed occasionally in the following chapters. It is the object in this brief work to record some of the impressions colors have made upon the human organism. In doing so, as already stated, the author does not necessarily commit himself favorably or unfavorably, for the very good reason that he appreciates the limitations of the impressions of colors upon a single mind. Impressions are closely dependent upon asso¬ ciations and the latter are individualistic to a certain degree, owing to their intimate depend¬ ence upon the past experiences of the individual, so that single minds can hardly be expected to be impressed entirely alike. However, colors apparently have some definite attributes almost universally recognized, and it is reasonable to expect that a possibility exists for a more or less definite language of color to evolve from this common beginning through continued culti¬ vation. The ultimate language of color will be that which arises from the common consent of a great percentage of intellects developed under similar adaptations, but science must organize this art before much progress can be made, just THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 11 as it did in the case of music. Music as a sci¬ ence is in advance of the fine arts, its most es¬ sential principles being expressed mathematic¬ ally; however, no scientist entertains the belief that he can rival Mozart in the composition of music by virtue of his mathematical skill alone. Such is also the viewpoint of the scientist re¬ garding an art purely of color, and by the fore¬ going precedent and others he is freed from criticism if he entertains the idea that it is his work to organize the art. It is with this attitude that this present chaos of color expression is invaded. Besides re¬ cording impressions and symbolical uses of color gleaned from many diversified sources, some discussions of various aspects of the sub¬ ject will be indulged in. In the latter there are opportunities for other opinions and conclu¬ sions, but in dealing with a subject of which only fragmentary and, at best, only rudimen¬ tary facts are positively known and of whose future we can do little more than to conjecture, a feeling of security is entertained inasmuch as accepted facts have formed the foundations. There appears to be a sufficient number of facts available to warrant the belief that a discussion of the possibilities of a language of color will be of value at the present time. Furthermore, it 12 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR appears from the apparently consistent uses of color in the past and from the trends at pres¬ ent that this brief record and discussion will aid in laying a foundation for an ultimate art purely or predominantly of color, if future de¬ velopments prove that the human organism can adapt itself to an understanding of such an art. This possible art will appeal to us through the language of color and its development will re¬ quire experiments directed by sane imagination which is resigned to a work extending for years and perhaps for generations. MYTHOLOGY “I feed the clouds, the rainbows, and the flowers With their ethereal colors.” —Shelley: “Hymn of Apollo.” I N order to begin with a comprehensive view of the subject, the more important sources of information will be briefly reviewed. Chron¬ ologically, one of the first sources is found be¬ yond the outskirts of recorded writing, in the more or less vague imaginings of mythology. This subject provides an interesting introduc¬ tion into the study of the language of color and also glimpses of the impressions that light and color have made upon the intellects of the early peoples. Furthermore, the crystallization of these impressions into the permanent and rec¬ ognized usage of the present time can be readily witnessed and understood. Colors have played a conspicuous part in mythology. Doubtless the attributes which they are supposed to pos¬ sess were very real to many but even though it were originally realized that the colors were used symbolically through mere fancy, they have acquired, by continued association and common consent, some degree of signification similar to words. 13 14 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR It is impossible to separate the treatments of color in mythology and in symbolism because the use of colors in mythology is largely sym¬ bolical. Much of the color has been inserted by artists and writers centuries after the myths had evolved to a more or less stable state. At this point it appears desirable to discriminate between fable and mythology. The former is a story in which characters take part in a plot and no pretense to reality is entertained. It is a narrative in which beings, sometimes irra¬ tional or inanimate, are feigned to perform as human beings. Myths are stories of anony¬ mous origin prevalent chiefly among primitive peoples and accepted by them with credulity. Natural phenomena and various events are ac¬ counted for by attributing them to the super¬ natural. According to Jonson, “Fables are vessels made to order into which a lesson may be poured. Myths are born, not made. They owe their features to the imaginative efforts of a generation of story-tellers.” When the origin, purpose, and life of myths are considered, a view is obtained of the im¬ portance of a symbolic use of color which has survived during the long and devious process passed through by a myth during its evolution. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 15 The power of association of color with a certain event for years is exemplified in many cases at the present time and, therefore, the symbolical use of color in mythology should not be rejected. Many of these symbolical uses of color in my¬ thology, art, and language have become deeply rooted and have their places in the language of color as firmly established as words in a dic¬ tionary of spoken language. Many of the commonplace facts and fables preserved from generation to generation, though perhaps altered by fancy from time to time, form a considerable portion of the mate¬ rial of literature and of the representative arts. Sculpture was the finest art of the ancient Greeks and, perhaps for this reason, color is not as conspicuous in their mythological repre¬ sentations as it doubtless would have been if the art of painting had reached a higher state of development during that early period. A complete inquiry into these symbolical uses of color would require exhaustive research because of the haziness of interpretations and of the extensiveness of the field which includes all of the pure and applied arts in which color is em¬ ployed. The indefiniteness of color terminol¬ ogy and notation causes difficulties in attempt¬ ing to interpret data rescued from obscurity. 16 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR Endless complications arise owing to the vary¬ ing interpretations of the countless personali¬ ties involved. To do this subject justice would require years of research in the arts, traditions, and mythology of many peoples of all ages. Frankly, this has not been attempted, and it is doubtful if the fruits of such an effort would be sufficiently valuable in contributing toward a language of color to justify the expenditure of such an effort at present. However, sufficient data of this character have been obtained from which to forge a link in the chain of evidence and some of this material is presented in vari¬ ous chapters especially in those dealing with the symbolism of colors. We would gain more valuable data from the early writings, which were largely a record of myths, if color-names had been more definitely developed in those early periods. In fact, the scarcity of color-names especially those for blue and green, makes it necessary to interpret vari¬ ous meanings which in many cases can be no more certain than mere speculation. Some of the early Greek myths which form the basis of excellent literature, such as the Iliad and Odys¬ sey, are quite lacking in definite color-names especially for some colors. The Vedas contain many descriptions of the sky in all of its vari- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 17 ety of moods, but Geiger says, “the fact that the sky is blue could never have been gathered from these poems by any one who did not al¬ ready know it himself. ” The sky or heaven also plays a prominent part in the Bible, occur¬ ring in the first verse and in no less than four hundred other passages, yet the blue color is not mentioned. Geiger also states that “the ten books of Rigveda hymns, though they fre¬ quently mention the earth, no more bestow upon it the epithet ‘green’ than on the heaven that of ‘blue.’ ” In many early writings no name for yellow appears. Notwithstanding this paucity of color-names there can be no doubt that the colors of such abiding places of gods, mysteries, etc., as the sky, the earth, and the sea, impressed those beings of early history. In many cases it is a simple task to supply the color-name and to in¬ terpret the part that color played in the super¬ stitions and myths of these beings. Many of the characteristics which are bestowed upon colors at the present time owe their origin to the imaginings of early peoples who lived at a period when knowledge was too scanty to cur¬ tail, to any appreciable extent, the fancies of these children. Much color has been introduced into mythol- 18 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR ogy and mythological representations by eccle- siasts, artists, and story-tellers of more recent periods and these also add their influence in molding the language of color. Here and there throughout this book the influence of mythology will be discerned. ASSOCIATION I SOLATED mental processes which become related to each other, but not blended suffi¬ ciently to lose their identity, are said to be as¬ sociated and these relations are termed “asso¬ ciations.” An attempt to explain the mental mechanism of association doubtless would prove futile even after having devoted considerable space to the discussion because psychologists are not universally in accord with any hypoth¬ esis or theory. Association has been a power¬ ful factor in the development of our rudimen¬ tary language of color for in many cases the continued associations of colors with certain events, things, sensations, ideas, or emotions have resulted in accepted significations of those colors and the associations no longer are ap¬ parent or necessary. In fact, all of our ex¬ periences are the results of an intermingling of a vast complex of associations. The entire his¬ tory of a human being consists of endless chains of associations traceable far back into the early periods of infancy. Where associations begin to mold the development of the human organ¬ ism and to influence the mind, it is difficult to 19 20 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR state. Doubtless they begin with the begin¬ ning of what we term experience. Associations are of many degrees of intimacy varying from those in which the components are almost completely blended to those of lesser in¬ timacy in which experiences are merely linked. They are of far-reaching influence in the mental life of mankind and perhaps it is safe to state that, as far as result is concerned, the associ¬ ations are chiefly of the former or very intimate type because relatively few persons are, under ordinary circumstances, sufficiently analytical to diagnose them. For the present purpose, and even for the ultimate application of a lan¬ guage of color, this latter point is of interest because, fortunately, any language, whether it be literature, music, painting, or sculpture, is largely successful because of the fusing of the individual elements to a considerable degree. One loses much of the joy of the normal appeal of these arts if he be continually awaiting with critical or analytical attitude. It is of interest to note here that psycholo¬ gists tell us that the probability of the occur¬ rence of a certain mental state or act due to a certain situation is dependent upon the “fre¬ quency, recency, intensity, and resulting satis¬ faction of its connection with that situation or THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 21 some part of it and with the whole frame of mind in which the situation is felt.” Associ¬ ation of colors with certain things, events, ideas, sentiments, and emotions, that is, with certain experiences, has formed a rudimentary founda¬ tion of a language of color. It may doubtless contribute much toward the completion of the structure. In fact, the very nature of learning, or the cultivation of the intellect, is largely, if not wholly, a matter of association. It is true that many of the rudiments of a language of color are likely to come originally from various sources but prolonged association, that is, con¬ tinued practise, must be the means of standard¬ izing this possible art. The power of continued association of colors with certain things or experiences can be illus¬ trated in a great many instances. A few sim¬ ple cases will be mentioned in order to em¬ phasize this aspect in respect to the expressive¬ ness of color so that this influence will be borne in mind in any uses of color in this manner. In fact, few uses of color are free from this influ¬ ence and many wrong conclusions are arrived at by not recognizing its importance. For in¬ stance, in the field of lighting—of interest to every civilized being—artificial light is tradi¬ tionally of a yellowish or “warm” color. The 22 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR habit arising from this association, throughout many generations, of a yellow-orange tint with the light from such sources as the camp-fire, the grease lamp, the tallow candle, the kerosene flame, and the electric incandescent lamp is so deeply rooted that discussions of lighting are sometimes faulty owing to a lack of realization of this influence. The habit is so firmly estab¬ lished that usually it is not recognized as habit. For example, it is not uncommon for persons to attribute various physiological effects due to the “white” light from a tungsten lamp (which really is not even a near approach to white) whereas these persons and millions of others and their ancestors since the beginning of man have lived uncomplainingly under natural day¬ light for a much greater percentage of their conscious hours. Inasmuch as the tungsten light is very yellowish in color as compared with daylight it is almost needless to state that the logic is defective when physiological disturb¬ ances are attributed to the “whiteness” of the artificial light if these same disturbances are not experienced in natural daylight. Turning to a few simple associations of color, one of the most common is the signification of red for danger. Of course, environment de¬ termines the interpretation of the significance THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 23 of a color as it does of other experiences, but it is unnecessary to discuss this matter here. The fact remains that red in its proper environment is unmistakably a signal for danger and that the color is the important element in effecting the deduction. Red is also readily associated with blood and its expressiveness partakes of the effects of such association. Yellow or orange is often significant of light and warmth due to the association of this color with the sun or with sunlight. Again, analysis proves that sunlight is far from this color ex¬ cept when altered at sunrise or sunset by the absorption of smoke, dust, etc., in the excessive thickness of atmosphere through which the light must penetrate when the sun is at low altitudes. By contrast with blue skylight the light from the sun appears of a yellowish color and doubt¬ less this effect of contrast has played a great part in attributing a yellow tint to sunlight. Direct sunlight during a great portion of the day apparently has a just claim to being white in color although there is no general agreement as to a standard white. Physicists, at least, do not generally consider noon sunlight on a clear day of a yellow tint and some physiologists and psychologists consider it to be bluish in color as compared with a true ‘‘physiological” white. 24 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR However, the sun does appear yellowish by con¬ trast with the blue background of clear sky and this is the fact that is of importance here. Likewise a sunlit cloud appears yellow by con¬ trast with the adjacent patch of clear blue sky and a sunlit surface usually appears as though it were illuminated by a yellowish light because of the contrast with the cold bluish color of shadows which receive chiefly the bluish light from tiie sky. These are excellent illustrations of the difference between that which is and that which appears to be. Green is the most conspicuous garb of nature, and thus represents life. Perhaps because of its freshness or newness in springtime, it is associated very much with this season and, from analogy, there have arisen many metaphorical uses of green symbolizing youth, immaturity, and the early slage of any career. Adaptation of the eye predominantly to this color may be responsible for the neutrality of green. It is neither warm nor cold, but restful, and its sym¬ bolic uses sometimes reflect the influences of such associations. The earliest associations of blue were doubt¬ less with the sky or heavens and it logically as¬ sumes a divine significance. A clear blue sky of summer is the acme of serenity and we are THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 25 not surprised to find this color endowed with a corresponding attribute. There are periods, especially toward nightfall, when the color of the sky approaches a darker shade of blue. The quietude of approaching night aids by asso¬ ciation in bestowing upon this color the attri¬ bute of sedateness. Poets often employ the phrase, “the serene sky,” and Southey uses the word as a noun in the following association: ‘‘The serene of heaven.” Again, the association of blue with the color of the eye, which in turn is associated for various reasons with the intellect, has resulted, perhaps with the aid of the divine attribute, in the sig¬ nification of this color for intelligence. Purple, of a hue resulting from mixtures of approximately equal parts of red and blue lights, has long been the color of state. Why it has dyed the robes of royalty perhaps can not be determined with certainty. We know that it was one of the most costly colors in early his¬ tory and this may account for its use as a regal color denoting superiority. On the other hand, purple is fairly neutral—between warm and cold —and appears to many to possess a natural at¬ tribute of dignity. This latter conclusion may perhaps be due to a secondary association, that 26 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR is, its attribute of dignity may easily arise by unconsciously associating this color with roy¬ alty. Thus it is seen that the complexity of the associational mental processes is often very great. The exact reason for the regal or stately attribute which this color is thought to possess is of secondary interest as compared with the fact that purple is readily associated with royal garments and draperies. Like other colors it has various significations depending upon other associations. White is the logical color for symbolizing purity, innocence, chastity, etc., because of its unsullied appearance. It is unadulterated, un¬ touched, and uncontaminated. A ready associ¬ ation of this color with the foregoing and allied attributes is provided by the white mantle of winter. Is there any person who has gazed upon Nature’s white mantle of freshly fallen snow without commenting upon its purity? And have not all of us experienced feelings of guilt or of resentment when this beautiful white cloak is wantonly soiled or disturbed? We as¬ sociate liveliness with white but not exactly gayety, and hence other attributes are bestowed upon this color which partake of this associ¬ ation. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 27 Black is the antithesis of white and its asso¬ ciation with gloom and darkness renders it a fitting symbol for woe and fear. It provides an environment for evil deeds, and hence is em¬ blematic of crime. The primal instinct asso¬ ciates darkness with hidden dangers for it con¬ cealed the enemy, whether man or wild beast, and these appropriate attributes have clung to black or darkness throughout the entire evolu¬ tion of the race. Gray is the color of age because the hair of the aged is “hoary gray.” This association also results in a signification of ripened judg¬ ment and maturity. It naturally partakes par¬ tially of the attributes of its components, black and white, between which it distinctly exists. White is enlivening; black is gloomy; and gray is intermediate, sad. The winter sky is often “leaden” and we associate this color with de¬ pression. Thus it is seen by these few simple examples that association is an extremely important factor in the evolution of the language of color. There are few instances of color expression which do not provide interesting problems for analysis from the associational viewpoint. These problems present many ramifications and 28 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR it is easy to go astray. It has been thought best to avoid the extended discussions necessary tc present elaborate analyses of the associ- ational aspects and therefore these brief state¬ ments are made with reservation. NATURE “The man Whose eyes ne’er open’d on the light of heaven Might smile with scorn, while raptured vision tells Of the gay-eolour’d radiance blushing bright O’er all creation.” —Akenside. M ANY eyes that have long been “open’d on the light of heaven” seldom notice more than casually the wonderful colors, ever- changing in hue and value, which Nature pre¬ sents throughout the day and year. The ablest pen can not do justice to Nature’s painting be¬ cause words are not available which describe the endless variation of sequences and contrasts of primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries. This must be left to the painter who possesses mate¬ rials of descriptive power superior to words for such a task. Variety is indeed the keynote of Nature’s composition and she lavishes the con¬ tents of an infinite palette with unceasing en¬ ergy. No two sunsets are alike and successive moments present everchanging expressions in light, shade, and color which are always full of interest to those who employ their sense of 29 30 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR vision to its full capacity. It is often wondered why Nature’s lighting is so pleasing but the answer is found in its ever-changeableness—its variety. The thoughtful observer has doubtless often asked with Prior: “Why does one climate and one soil endue The blushing- poppy with an orange hue, Yet leave the lily pale, and tinge the violet blue?” “Ultimately for mankind” is the usual answer and it is reasonable to suppose that such is true when deduced from man’s idea of the object of creation. At least there is much of interest in the colors of Nature, much that apparently is tuned in sympathy with human moods, and much that has been the source of our meager language of color. “To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language; for her gayer hours She has a voice of gladness and a smile And eloquence of beauty, and she glides Into his darker musings, with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness, ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last bitter hour come like a blight O’er thy spirit, and sad images Of the stem agony, and shroud, and pall, And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 31 Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart, Go forth under the open sky, and list To Nature’s teachings, while from all around Earth and her waters, and the depths of air, Comes a still voice.” —Bryant. And in the words of Emerson, “Nature is a setting that fits equally well with a comic or a mourning piece.” That colors perform many functions in Na¬ ture has been suggested or proved by science. The colors of flowers doubtless attract insects that gather food and in return aid in polleniza- tion. It is fairly evident that the colors of many animals perform the positive function of pro¬ tective concealment. But it appears that a gen¬ eral office of Nature’s melodies in fine grada¬ tions of hues, tints, and shades, and harmonies of contrast is to please the eye of the beholder and to touch the emotional strings of the finer sensibilities. At any rate, the specific offices of colors in Nature are not of the chief interest here but the fact that Nature has affected throughout the ages, those observing, thought¬ ful, and sensitive individuals who have directed the mental progress of mankind. It is there¬ fore of considerable moment to inquire briefly into this source which doubtless always has been 32 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR a mighty influence upon the intellect of man, especially in the early ages when mythology and superstition were rampant, and will continue to be full of meaning and enjoyment to those pos¬ sessing responsive sensibilities. In this chap¬ ter only glimpses of Nature’s part in the de¬ velopment of our rudimentary language of color will be provided; however, in later chap¬ ters more specific data will be presented. In making this inquiry into the possible con¬ tribution of Nature to the language of color it appears quite evident that the seasons and the progress of the year, season by season, have been of dominating appeal to the imagination. In a similar manner the relations of light and color to the various portions of the day from dawn to night have not escaped the observation of mankind. The conspicuous and dominating color of springtime is green. It is at this season that green is fresh, abundant, and unmixed with the coloring of ripening crops or of sun-burnt fol¬ iage. It is also dominatingly conspicuous at this time perhaps owing to its welcome advent after months of black, white, and subdued color. Spring being the beginning of another year as applied to Flora’s yield, its predominant color consistently symbolizes cheerfulness, hope, THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 33 freshness, youth, inexperience, and immaturity. This season is sometimes signified by the prom¬ ising bud and also has been personified as “bright, infantine, and crowned with flowers.” White is the usual color of virginity because of its purity and unblemished character, but the poets in the following lines apply the term to spring quite consistently and befittingly as¬ sociated with this immature season: “While virgin Spring, by Eden’s flood, Unfolds her tender mantle green.” —Burns. “And softly came the fair young queen O’er mountain, dale and dell; And where her golden light was seen An emerald shadow fell.” —Leland. Summer is but the continuation and merging of spring or youth into autumn or maturity. It has been personified by a female figure with a lapful of roses and in other ways equally full of meaning. “When Nature, prodigal of flowers Holds her own court ’mid rosy bowers; Where the soft radiant summer’s sky Spreads its ethereal canopy Deepening while mellowing its hue In its intensity of blue.” —M. A. Brown. 34 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR This brings to mind one of the most impell¬ ing aspects of Nature—the sky. Who can imagine anything more serene than a clear blue sky of a summer’s day? Blue, the color of a clear sky, is used to symbolize serenity, tran¬ quillity, constancy, and fidelity. In early my¬ thology the blue firmament held the heavens and was the abode of divine beings. It is therefore consistent that this color be associated with divine love, generosity, and intelligence. The darker shades of this color have been thought to possess the attribute of melancholy, perhaps either through association with the sedateness of the darkened blue sky of approaching night or of the bluish shade of Nature’s solitudes. The sky gives character and expression to every landscape and arouses sentiment in the finer sensibilities. It indicates the calm after the storm and in infinite ways “betrays the latent emotions of the spirit of Nature.” The green of spring prevails throughout summer and as the color begins to give way to the yellow, gold, and brown of approaching autumn, the effect is as though the scene were gently touched by the hand of sadness. “ ’Tis sweet and sad tbe latest notes to hear Of distant music dying on the ear; THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 35 ’Tis sweet to hear expiring summer’s sigh, Thro’ forests tinged with russet, wail and die.” —Joanna Baillie. Early autumn, with its riot of yellow, gold, brown, red, and purple mixed with some linger¬ ing green of summer, is a natural representa¬ tion of maturity, fruitfulness, and strength. It has been personified as fruitful. ‘‘Rich the bounty Autumn brings.” —H. J. Williams. In the following passage the poet has painted the color and mood of autumn in a masterful manner and has given us an excellent example of the expressiveness of word coloring. “But see the fading many-colourid woods, Shade deepening over shade, the country round Embrown, a crowded umbrage dark and dun Of every hue.” —Thomson. The meditation of maturity has been ex¬ pressed by some one thus:— “Go, mark in meditative mood where Autumn Steals o’er his woods with mellowing touch, like Time Ripening the tints of some delicious Claude.” The late Autumn is almost universally char¬ acterized with a melancholy mood possibly not 36 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR inherent in autumn itself but inspired by- thoughts of the cold and bleak months near at hand which signify the decay and death of the year. “The leaves of life are falling one by one The woods once thick and green ai - e brown and sere; And youth with all her bounteous hours is done, And age is here.” —E. N. Bland. Some one has beautifully expressed his senti¬ ment of Autumn thus: “ ’Tis a scene That o’er us sheds the mild and musing calm Of wisdom, breathes as noblest bards have own’d Poetic inspiration, bids us taste The lonely sweetness of a walk with her By Milton wooed, ‘divinest melancholy.’ And wouldst thou go, unfeeling, and prefer The gorgeous blaze of summer to the charm— The dying charm of Autumn’s farewell smile?” During autumn there seems to be a rivalry of moods, apparently the gayety of summer un¬ willingly succumbing to the sobriety of autumn. The poet has beautifully suggested this in the following: “Sorrow and the scarlet leaf, Sad thoughts and sunny weather; Ah me! this glory and this grief Agree not well together!” —T. W. Parsons, THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 37 This general sentiment is also expressed by Mary Clemmer: “The Indian Summer, the dead Summer’s soul.” Many examples could be presented to illustrate how this autumnal season, the most attractive of all the seasons to poets and painters, is as¬ sociated in ideas and how the dominant colors become possessed of appropriate attributes. Winter with her mantle of gray, white, and subdued tertiaries has been variously and befit- tingly represented, but, in a dominating sense here in respect to the year, as symbolic of old age, decrepitude, and death. Its influence also arises from its cold and bleak aspects and from associating with it the white mantle of ice and snow. Like other seasons it has dominating in¬ fluences and is capable of reflecting to a certain degree the moods of mankind. Therefore its moods are also sometimes lively but not gay as the summer season. Winter is often represented as sad and even sullen perhaps through the bleakness of the landscape and the gray skies. “See, Winter comes, to rule the year, Sullen and sad, with all his rising train; Vapors, and Clouds, and Storms.” ■Thomson. 38 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR “Dread Winter spreads his latest glooms.” — Idem. “Every winter, When the great sun has turned his face away, The earth goes down into a vale of grief, And fasts, and weeps, and shrouds herself in sables, Leaving her wedding-garlands to decay— Then leaps in spring to his returning kisses.” —Charles Kingsley. And to complete the cycle of the year the fol¬ lowing is presented in which the poet contrasts winter and spring: “Gentle Spring!—in sunshine clad, Well dost thou thy power display! For Winter maketh the light heart sad And thou,—thou makest the sad heart gay.” —Charles d’Orleans. The influence of natural seasons and portions of the day, and accordingly their corresponding dominant colors, are indicated by many meta¬ phorical relations found in literature. On this point Field has written as follows: “The analogy of the natural series of colors, with the course of the day and the seasons, coincides with the ages of man or the seasons of life and adapts it to express them in the hues and shades of draperies and effects; from the white or light of the morn or dawn of innocuous infancy, through all the colors, ages, and stages of human life, to the black and dark night of guilt, age, despair and death.” THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 39 He continues and draws closer analogies be¬ tween human life, with its attendant moods, and the expressions of Nature. The language of color is apparently universal and though our understanding is meager, there is a consistency which has been an incentive to this study and to this attempt to record it briefly. It appears to the author that, in reference to flowers, the white and lighter tints predomi¬ nate in early spring and as summer progresses, yellow and stronger tints appear more in evi¬ dence until in late summer red, purple, and blue appear in more abundance, the whole reach¬ ing a climax in early autumn in a riot of color. This impression may not be supported by care¬ ful investigation, but is presented here for what¬ ever value it may have. This point cannot be passed by without quoting the following ap¬ propriate lines whose authorship is unknown: “Already now the snow-drop does appear, The first pale blossom of the unripen’d year. Fair Flora’s breath, by some transforming power, Hath changed an icicle into a flower; Its name and hue the scentless plant retains, And winter lingers in its icy veins.” In a manner analogous to that of the seasons, the dawn, morning, noon-day, sunset, and night, with their characteristic colors and light effects, 40 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR have influenced the emotional nature of man¬ kind. Sufficient examples of these influences are found in succeeding chapters. Through¬ out Nature all colors are found in varying abundance as apparently coincides with her moods and with her ideas of harmony. Per¬ haps Nature does not harmonize color at all but, by gradual adaptation, the slowly evolving hu¬ man organism may adopt its laws of harmony and interpret the powers of colors according to the ruling archeus—the guiding hand of Nature. At any rate, the ultimate result is unaltered and we can join in this sentiment of the poet, “Who can paint Like Nature? Can imagination boast Amid her gay creation, hues like these? What hand can mix them with that matchless skill, And lay them on so delicately fine, And lose them in each other, as appears In every bud that blows?” PRIMITIVE LANGUAGE I T is often remarked that the prevailing color- names found in the languages of primitive races and in the vocabularies of children can be assumed to represent the colors which affect these beings most powerfully. Usually deduc¬ tions of the orders of preference are made by noting the relative frequencies of occurrence of the various color-names. It should be obvious that such a criterion is dangerous if depended upon too confidently in a study of the expres¬ sive powers of colors. The present subject is introduced here chiefly for the purpose of em¬ phasizing the danger of placing too much value upon information from this source. It is rea¬ sonable to suppose that the color-names in the vocabularies of primitive beings indicate in a general manner the more powerful colors. However, these are known through other sources including ordinary observation so that such evidence is at best only corroborative. The limitations of interpretations from this source are due, among other reasons, to the in¬ completeness of knowledge regarding the color- vision of these primitives and the influence of 42 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR mental growth in the case of the child. There are many thousands of different colors dis¬ tinguishable by an adult at the present time; in fact, in a broad sense, wherein grays are con¬ sidered as colors, the number of different color sensations that can be experienced is perhaps several hundred thousand. It is not surprising that the immature or primitive intellect only comprehends a few of these and it is reasonable to suppose that the most striking colors will be recognized first. The finer feeling toward colors, that is, the recognition of their beauty, depends largely upon the taste of the beholder and taste, ac¬ cording to civilized standards, is of course largely a matter of civilization. The savage or the child prefers brilliant colors while more re¬ fined and matured persons prefer to have the colors about them somewhat subdued. The symphony of greenish, silvery grays of a Corot does not appeal to the primitive mind. Fur¬ thermore, it should be noted that preference alone does not reveal the attributes or the ulti¬ mate powers of expression possessed by colors. Even refined persons when choosing colors for “color’s sake” alone are found to prefer the purer, highly saturated colors to tints and shades yet they do not surround themselves pro- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 43 fusely with these colors. The fact that colors of relatively high purity are in general much more preferred than colors containing com¬ ponents of other hues or of white or “ black,” has been quite conclusively shown by actual ex¬ periments conducted by various investigators as indicated in the third section of this book. Other data of interest at this point are also in¬ corporated in later sections. Philologists have shown that many of the languages of antiquity are characterized by in¬ definiteness and paucity of color-names. In many cases red and yellow have appeared earlier than names for green and blue. Some have thought this to be due to a subnormal visual sensitivity to the latter two colors as compared with that of the former, however, the tenability of this hypothesis is doubtful because, according to this view, it must be assumed that the color-sense is of comparatively recent acqui¬ sition and that it developed from red and yellow through green to blue. It cannot be argued, a priori, that the development of color-names has always kept pace with the development of color sensitivity. Furthermore, it appears incredi¬ ble that a function so highly developed as color- vision could have evolved in the course of a hun¬ dred generations. Finally, it must be noted that 44 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR many of the lower animals appear to be able to distinguish practically all colors visible to man¬ kind so it is likely that even the most primitive race of mankind possessed a fairly well-devel¬ oped color-sense. The explanation of the scar¬ city of color-names in primitive languages is more likely found in the absence of a need for them. Those colors which are closely associ¬ ated with the lives of the primitive beings were the first to receive names. Inasmuch as most of the records of color expression of the primi¬ tives are not found among the remnants of language but among the relics of handiwork available, it is significant to note that red and yellow pigments were more common than the green and blue during the early periods. In fact it is quite reasonable to suppose that blue pigments were very rare before civilization reached a much higher stage. There is some evidence obtained by experiment that children name the colors red, yellow, green, and blue more often correctly than other common colors and that they apparently prefer these colors more than others. It appears of interest to review briefly the data concerning the color-vision and the color- language of primitive beings and of children. Gladstone noted the indefiniteness of the color THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 45 terminology employed by Homer and concluded that the ideas of color which prevailed during the Homeric age were different from those of the present time. In the early Chinese and Semitic writings, in the Indian Vedic hymns and Norse Eddas, and even in Greek literature, a paucity of color-names is apparent especially those for green and blue. From such studies Geiger concluded that the color-sense for red evolved first, then yellow, next green, and lastly blue. Others arrived at similar conclusions from the same kind of researches. However, such views have been severely criticized because it has been shown that many modern literary works exhibit the same characteristics as the ancient writings. Philological evidence in this case is open to severe criticism although it doubtless should be given some attention. Examinations of vari¬ ous primitive people by modern scientists have revealed the fact that, while the same word may be applied to black, blue, and other dark colors, the primitive subjects are able to sort these dif¬ ferent colors correctly. The Egyptians employed green and blue pig¬ ments long before the Homeric age and beads of these colors have been found even in the pre¬ historic tombs constructed by this race. Such 46 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR facts have been used by some to disprove the existence of color defects in the vision of these early peoples. It has been stated that blue has been used incongruously in Egyptian statues and even in the Acropolis since the time of Homer, but such incongruities cannot be a cer¬ tain indication of an inability to distinguish colors. Rivers extensively studied the color-vision of primitive tribes and showed that the languages of these uncivilized and primitive peoples in¬ dicated different stages of evolution of color- names which closely correspond with the prog¬ ress of evolution of color terminology, as con¬ cluded by Geiger and others from studies of early writings. For instance, certain Austral¬ ian natives used one color-name for red, orange, and purple; another for black, blue, and violet; and a third for white, yellow, and green. Other tribes used a definite term for red; a less defi¬ nite name for yellow; one name for green, black, and white; and another name for black, blue, and violet. Some primitives gave the same name to green, violet, and black. Other natives appeared to have advanced into further stages of development of color language there being four fairly distinct stages detected by Rivers which corresponded with the general THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 47 intellectual development and degree of civiliza¬ tion. Those of the lowest stage had names for red, white, and black. In the next stage there appeared an additional name for yellow and an indication of one for green. Those primitives in the third stage had a definite term for green and a less definite one for blue. In the highest stage there were names for green and blue al¬ though some confusion appeared to exist. In the primitive languages that have been ex¬ amined, which included those of primitive tribes of Australia, Africa, Asia, and South America, the absence of a definite word for blue is quite common and often the same term is used for green and blue. The extensive investigations performed by scientists in various parts of the world tend to corroborate the general conclu¬ sions already presented. Much of this work was done with the study of color-vision as the chief object. However, from the viewpoint of this book the relation of color-names to the de¬ gree of intellectual and cultural development is of greater interest. Environment doubtless has been a great in¬ fluence upon the sensibility of the human or¬ ganism to various colors and consequently upon the introduction of color-names into languages. Our attention is drawn to rare occurrences more 48 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR decidedly than to those that are common. Red is relatively rare in nature and therefore when it occurs, as in such a case as a red flower amid sylvan surroundings, the attention is attracted. The red object is mentally noted and remem¬ bered while the green surroundings make little or no impression excepting upon those who are exceptionally observing and analytical. Thus it is possible that the primitives of the lower types would naturally have a name for red but none for green and blue which occur in vastly abundant areas in Nature. Red objects, be¬ sides being relatively rare in Nature, have an¬ other claim to the attention of the primitives because they often represent objects of impor¬ tance in the daily life of these beings. For in¬ stance, such things as animals, iron, stone, fruits, and meats are not uncommonly red in color. The green foliage which is so abundant and ex¬ tensive in area in most summer and tropical landscapes abounds in a variety of shades and hues. This demands some degree of discrimi¬ nating ability so that it is not surprising to find at least a slight degree of development of per¬ ception for green colors among the primitives. However, the extensive areas of the blue such as the sky and the sea are not striking because they are so commonplace and unsaturated in color. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 49 Furthermore, blue is not commonly associated with objects of necessity or of practical impor¬ tance to the primitive being. It can be concluded from the foregoing that color nomenclature usually begins with red and progresses in general toward the blue end of the spectrum. In the early stages of its evolu¬ tion the transitional colors such as orange, blue- green, and violet are passed by. Nearly all languages have a name for red; most of them have one for yellow; but comparatively few have a conventional word for green and fewer have one for blue. It is not uncommon in primi¬ tive languages to find the same name applied to colors closely related in the spectrum. Some of the American Indian languages have no color-names, the color of an object usually being described as being like that of another more common object. In the absence of fixed comparison standards it is seen that color lan¬ guage is in a very primitive state, subject to change at any time. Woodworth suggests the possibility of sev¬ eral stages in the establishment of a color-name. In the first stage there are no conventional names for colors but comparisons of color are made in terms of the colors of common objects. In the next stage the usage centers about some 50 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR comparison standard so that all objects having approximately the same color are said to pos¬ sess the color of a particular object. Abstract names begin to appear in a later stage and no longer are the particular comparison objects thought of when their names are used in desig¬ nating colors. An example of the last two stages is the word “orange’’ in our vocabulary of color. In still later stages the color-names evolved in this manner may become obsolete as applied to the object and remain exclusively as the name of the color. Some of these latter cases are very interesting from the viewpoint of the evolution of color meaning. Doubtless the usage of a color-name becomes fixed if the name is employed sufficiently; that is, if the need for it is quite urgent. It does not appear essential that an absence of a defi¬ nitely established usage indicates an absence of high sensitivity to colors because the common color-names of the most elaborate languages cover many actually different colors. For this reason the first primitive color terminology per¬ sists in the vocabularies of those who do not find it necessary to describe colors with ac¬ curacy. Many of the difficulties encountered in primitive languages, in describing colors, per¬ sist in modern languages of highly civilized peo- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 51 pies. For example, most persons confuse and misname the colors between blue and green. The modern languages of the highly civilized peoples are rich in names for various parts of the spectrum. Our language is far richer in abstract names for the colors of the red end of the spectrum, that is, from yellow to red, than for colors in the blue region. Woodworth pre¬ sents various names in which the color ref¬ erence is thoroughly dissociated, in common usage, from any specific object. For reds and yellows and their various tints and shades he presents: red, rubicund, russet, roan, auburn, carmine, crimson, scarlet, brown, bay, sorrel, dun, yellow, tawny, sallow, lurid. To these he suggests the possibility of adding buff, maroon, vermilion, and perhaps such words as magenta, since the objects to which these names primarily refer are unknown to most persons. For the greens, blues, and violets he presents the fol¬ lowing: green, verdant, blue, azure, purple, livid. It is thus noted that names for red and yellow not only develop first in an evolving lan¬ guage but names for these colors predominate even in highly developed modern languages. It has already been shown that names for red and yellow are in greater demand in primitive language .because these are colors associated 52 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR very predominantly with things of great im¬ portance in the lives of primitive beings. These colors are associated with animals and it is said that certain African tribes name them without difficulty but they cannot name colors such as blue and green although they can dis¬ tinguish them. As Woodworth states: “The absence of a name for a sensory quality does not point to the absence of the quality. The case of smell is convincing. Odors are vivid experi¬ ences yet there is almost complete absence of abstract odor names from all languages. Many objections have been offered against the use of such data as the occurrence of color- names in primitive languages in drawing con¬ clusions as to color blindness or other facts of color vision. These objections are well founded. It is likely that a color-name is intro¬ duced into a language only when it is necessary, and necessity is not essentially related to color sensibility. However, from the viewpoint of the impressiveness of colors upon the human in¬ tellect, the occurrence of color-names in lan¬ guage is of great importance because it appears fairly certain that colors having the ability to impress the intellect powerfully will naturally be provided with names. For this reason the foregoing discussion has been presented. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 53 In closing this brief chapter it is of interest to discuss the impression of colors upon the primi¬ tive intellect of the child because many accept the analogy between the development of the faculties of the child and the evolution of the race at large. Darwin drew attention to the fact that the child does not possess the ability of distinguishing colors until after it is able to discriminate most common objects correctly. The results of some elaborate investigations in¬ dicate that the normal child is unable to dis¬ tinguish colors accurately until nearly two years of age. It is apparent that the child is able to distinguish colors before it is able to name them. Others have claimed that the child be¬ gins to appreciate colors as early as in the fifth month. Experiments of this kind are difficult to interpret and various methods that have been used appear to yield different results. Color- vision, association, brightness and novelty play important but more or less undetermined roles. Without entering into an elaborate analysis of the data available no more definite statement can be made than that the child is impressed more with the striking colors and that bright¬ ness and novelty are important factors. Al¬ though the data obtained by different methods with young children of various ages, from three 54 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR months to two years, do not agree, it appears safe to conclude that among the various colors red is the more striking to the child than blue and is named correctly at an earlier age. LITERATURE “Poets are Painters; Words are their paint by winch their thoughts are shown, And Nature is their object.” —Granville. T HE poetry of coloring is a common phrase but the coloring of poetry apparently has not been so generally appreciated. Metaphor¬ ically, the poets are word painters and literally, in reference to their use of color, they are actual painters of figures, natural and rhetorical. Plutarch says, “It is a common saying that poetry is vocal painting, and painting, silent poetry.” Poetry abounds in the use of color for its descriptive power and emotional effect and among the poets are found not only mas¬ terly word painters but skilled colorists in the selection and arrangement of colors. In the works of Homer, Milton, Spenser, Byron, and others many examples of delightful coloring are found, but Shakespeare’s ability is not excelled in conceiving the beauty and power of color and in accurate knowledge of its science and of its harmony he stands eminently among the best writers. In the use of color, poets appear to 55 56 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR exhibit individuality just as the great masters of painting, but there exists among them a generally consistent symbolism of color. It is delightful and profitable to study the use of colors by the poets from the viewpoint of scientific knowledge and techinque. Some men¬ tion of these aspects will be made occasionally in passing but the chief interest will be focussed upon the symbolical use of color. Doubtless the literary writers of the past are largely re¬ sponsible for the rudiments of the language of color which are available to-day and it is en¬ couraging to note a consistency among them in recognizing the attributes possessed by various colors. The vagueness of the nomenclature of color engenders difficulty in describing colors and for this reason the uses of color by the poets must be carefully analyzed. Further¬ more, it must be remembered that color in poetry is merely an element in the ensemble which has been organized for the purpose of realizing various mental pictures, sentiments, and moods. Therefore, a color in one ensemble may possess a signification quite different from that amid another environment. For this rea¬ son concrete examples in the form of quota¬ tions from the poets are presented in this brief work. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 57 Artists and others interested in color can profitably borrow from the poets who have taken advantage of the powers of colors on the imagination in much of the imagery and witchery of their art. A great deal of the charm of many poems, or portions of them at least, is due to the bewitching power of colors. However, it appears unlikely that spoken or written coloring has possibilities in appealing to the imagination and emotion as great ultimately as painted coloring, assuming the same degree of development in the imagina¬ tive power to which both make their appeal. Spoken coloring is limited in expressiveness to the significance of words whereas painters, per¬ haps, will ever be able to apply colors beyond the descriptive power of language. In other words, the eye is the primary apparatus espe¬ cially designed and adapted for the perception of color. It is the normal gateway for the stimulus on its way to arouse a color sensation and, finally, an emotion. Notwithstanding the foregoing, the poet has employed colors delight¬ fully, thoughtfully, and with good effect. Among the poets are good and bad colorists. Some apparently are concerned only with eu¬ phony while others interweave science, har¬ mony, and beauty of color with wonderful ef- 58 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR feet. Some one has declared the poet, Ariosto, to be a Titian in the art of coloring poetry, however, from both viewpoints of quantity and quality of coloring, Shakespeare must be ranked among the foremost. Among the poets of lesser fame, there are many who have exhibited noteworthy ability in the use of color but they must be largely overlooked in a fleeting discus¬ sion of this character. The poet has the ad¬ vantage of poetic license which frees him from the necessity of using color as it is found in Nature and thus is enabled to extend his de¬ scriptive powers. He is licensed to describe the sea as the “black ocean,” the “emerald main” or the “azure deep” and may freely ex¬ tend this license to all natural and imaginary things. The colors used by the poets represent the whole range of the spectrum and also of the purples. These colors are often more or less disguised by merely inferring one or more of them and thus awakening the imagination; by using more euphonious terms instead of the simple color-names; and by substituting natural objects which possess characteristic and well- known colors. For instance, gold often takes the place of yellow or orange and furnishes a metallic luster or glitter in addition to the hue. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 59 The poet runs the whole gamut of primaries, secondaries, and tertiaries, and it might be said that he avails himself of all the gradations of hue, tint, and shade, that his imaginary palette contains. His supply of colors is only limited by his ability to observe, to imagine, and to describe. Poets appear to exhibit distinct preferences for certain colors; for instance it is not surpris¬ ing to find Milton’s palette often set with black and red. Sometimes the primary colors are boldly contrasted and harmonized or the second¬ aries may be employed. They exhibit vari¬ ous moods, sometimes preferring the quiet, restful or somber palettes consisting of shades but as often having gayer moods when they de¬ light in painting boisterously with bright colors or delicately with light and airy tints. Their uses of color are not always simple, clear or bold. Ofttimes the color is so subdued or hid¬ den that only the subtle influence of its “atmos¬ phere” is felt. However, an analysis of their individual palettes is beyond the scope and aim of this brief discussion. As already stated, the present object is to illustrate as broadly and concisely as possible the symbolical uses of color by the poets by means of excerpts from their works. These examples, which are pre- 60 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR sented in other chapters, have not been selected primarily for their beauty of coloring but for the purpose of illustrating various different ap¬ plications or associations of each color which appear of value. In selecting the examples of symbolic color in poetry it is difficult to escape from the charm of many fine sketches of coloring encountered. Appreciation of color makes our surroundings more beautiful, adds beauty and interest to art, and widens the appeal of poetry. Hence, it ap¬ pears worth while to digress for a moment to view other aspects of color in poetry aside from the primary aim of this book. The following beautiful color sketch by M. A. Brown illus¬ trates the value of color in enhancing the witch¬ ery of poetry: “ ’Twas in a glorious eastern isle,— Where the acacias lightly move Their snowy wreaths, where sunbeams smile Brightly, but scorchingly, like love,— Round which the ocean lies so clear The deep red coral blushes through The waves that catch its crimson hue, While the soft roseate tints appear Mix’d with the sky’s reflected blue! Where, brilliant as the golden rays That shine when day gives place to night, The shells, that are as rainbow bright, Glow through the waters in a blaze THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 61 Of glorious gold and purple light! Where roses blossom through the year, And palms their green-plumed branches rear.” Imagine the foregoing passage stripped of its coloring yet doubtless many are practically color-blind in respect to poetry as they are to many other beautiful uses of color about them. Some of the poets appear to have had a con¬ siderable knowledge of various sciences and in the science of color some have exhibited an ac¬ quaintance with the phenomena of simultaneous and successive contrast, of after-images and with the laws of color-mixture and harmony. Shakespeare’s knowledge of these aspects of color is illustrated by the following passages. He often takes advantage of the law of simul¬ taneous contrast, the effect of one color upon another adjacent to it. This is simply but effectively demonstrated by means of two exam¬ ples of white contrasted with black. “Whiter than new snow on a raven’s back.” “I take thy hand;—this hand As soft as dove’s down, and as white as it; Or Ethiopian’s tooth, or fann’d snow that’s bolted By the northern blast twice o’er.” His acquaintance with the visual phenomenon of the after-image is illustrated thus: 62 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR ‘‘My mistaking eyes, That have been bedazzled with the sun, That everything I look on seemeth green.” Other examples could be presented to illustrate that poets are skilled in the science and tech¬ nique of color, however, with the risk of digress¬ ing far from the symbolical aspect. In the nineteenth century there arose in France a group of poets who aimed to express poetic sentiments by the use of forced or strained metaphors and by means of the sounds of letters and words. They assumed an exist¬ ing harmony between vowel sounds and musical instruments and according to one writer “dwelt much on the hidden influence which should ex¬ hale through the inclosing envelope of the spoken word.” They believed in a suggestive¬ ness of the sounds of letters and words quite in¬ dependent of their ordinary signification and at¬ tempted to apply these ideas. For instance, according to some the sound of the vowel o sug¬ gested red and according to others it suggested blue. This difference of opinion is not surpris¬ ing when the complexity of the psychological phenomena and the scarcity of knowledge re¬ garding them are considered. Prominent in this school of Symbolists, as they were called, THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 63 were Verlaine, a “lyric poet of high order,” de Regnier, and Arethuse. The symbolic use of color in literature is not confined to poetry although the poets have con¬ tributed more definitely to the language of color than other writers. Occasional imagin¬ ings of writers of both classic and popular liter¬ ature are found which indicate that others be¬ sides those intimately associating with color as a science or as an art have been impressed with the possibility of extending the employment of color for emotional effect. It is true that some of these are merely the wildest flights of fancy with no firm basis of fact beneath them but there are other examples worthy of attention. Sometimes these imaginings have involved the use of color so positively, logically, and unas¬ sisted as to appear that the writer was foster¬ ing the belief that a language of color might actually exist outside of fiction. Confusion has arisen in the minds of readers when an author grasps some abnormal psychological condition such as chromsesthesia and weaves a story ap¬ parently based on fact. However, such cases as colored audition and colored gustation are rare and abnormal, although it might be con¬ tended that they are mutations which are fore- 64 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR runners of a new type. However, those who seize upon such abnormal and isolated cases to play upon the imagination are not usually suf¬ ficiently interested in the facts to supply an excuse or argument such as the foregoing. Further discussion of this rare phenomenon would not be justified here if it were not for the harmful influence it has had in certain discus¬ sions of what has been termed “color music.” A number of cases of chromaBsthesia have been studied by various investigators and there ap¬ pears to be scanty consistency among them. For instance, a certain taste or sound, depend¬ ing upon whether the case is one of colored gus¬ tation or of colored hearing, does not have as¬ sociated with it similar color sensations in the different cases on record. One subject may re¬ gard his chromaBsthesia as the result of some sympathy existing in him between auditory and visual experiences whereas another may recog¬ nize the “colors” of certain tastes by their “feel.” In one of the latter cases, substances as different as cayenne pepper and quinine were indistinguishable as tastes both producing the same “feel” and inducing the same color, a dull orange-red. The behavior of the induced color in this case was dependent upon the tem- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 65 perature of the solutions. It apparently has been proved in some cases that chromaesthesia was sensational rather than imaginal. In a case of colored audition the colors were induced by tones,—timbre, intensity, and pitch being conjointly influential. Tones below 600 vibra¬ tions per second induced orange and brown colors; those above 12000, a colorless gray; and those between 600 and 12000 vibrations per sec¬ ond gave blue changing to green. In one case the subject experienced colors for spoken or written words and sounds, the endless variety of color and shading being the special feature of the case. The colors were always seen “hovering in space.” In a table representing the reports of twenty- three cases of colored hearing, the most ap¬ parent characteristic was the wide range of in¬ dividual variation. These cases are briefly noted merely as of interest in passing and in order that no misinterpretation may result from their mention here it is again emphasized that these abnormal cases cannot at present be con¬ sidered as of any importance whatsoever in the possible future art purely of color. Besides a mere passing interest they have been briefly considered for a negative purpose; that is, for 66 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR the purpose of warning against any imaginative uses of this and similar phenomena which may be employed by writers. Prose has contributed toward the standard¬ ization and extension of the language of color in quite the same manner as poetry but perhaps not as effectively. For this reason the exam¬ ples of symbolical uses of color which are pre¬ sented from poetical writings will not be re¬ peated by means of prose examples. It is doubtful if writers of prose have aided in other ways unless by their imaginings they have stim¬ ulated or directed thought in certain directions. It is with considerable hesitancy that the author continues this subject further at present be¬ cause of a fear that the discussion may be more harmful than beneficial to the cause. How¬ ever, it appears safe to mention a classic in¬ stance of a beautiful employment of imagina¬ tion in “The Blind Musician” by Korolenko. In this sketch which the author calls a psycho¬ logical study, he has attempted to study and analyze the inner life of the blind. The sub¬ jects of this study are a blind girl, whom the author had known as a child, a boy pupil of his who was gradually losing his sight, and a pro¬ fessional musician blind from birth but schol¬ arly, refined, and intellectually gifted. The life THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 67 of the blind musician is followed from birth to manhood and his education in colors, by repre¬ senting them as sounds, is interestingly por¬ trayed. Doubtless it is largely fiction; but classic fiction properly digested has value even in the discussion of a subject such as the pres¬ ent one where the object is to build with facts. PAINTING “Every passion and affection of the mind has its appro¬ priate tint; and colouring, if properly adapted, lends its aid, with powerful effect, in the just discrimination and forcible expression of them; it heightens joy, warms love, inflames anger, deepens sadness, and adds coldness to the cheek of death itself.”—O pie. I T might logically be expected that the art of painting should contribute very materially to an understanding of the language of color, but the definite data available from this source aid us but little more than by verifying that obtained from other sources. However, there is reason to believe that the art of painting will likely contribute much of value in the direction of interest here. This art is apparently in the midst of one of its periodic upheavals during which it seems that a state of anarchy exists. During such disturbances in art, as well as in other fields, many experiments are conceived and performed and those interested in progress welcome them and await the results expectantly. Of course, experiments are always in progress in art as in other activities but it appears that the present is seething with new and anarchistic 68 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 69 ideas in the art of painting to an extent only equaled at rare periods many years apart. Much criticism and relatively little commenda¬ tion is heard on every side but it appears that, if sympathy is so meager that encouragement cannot be extended, at least an open-minded in¬ dulgence should prevail. A comprehensive study of the signification of color in painting is a tremendous undertaking if it is to be exhaustive. In this primer of the language of color, wherein the object has been to remain close to proved facts and accepted symbolisms of color, it would be beyond the scope and aim to record the results of such a study even though it were made. It has been considered the wiser plan to carry the discus¬ sion in many cases only so far as definite data, universal in application, are yielded because be¬ yond this the interpretations become limited in value. Furthermore, at the present time the author acknowledges inability to analyze this subject beyond the realm of accepted facts. Doubtless there are artists who apply the lan¬ guage of color too deeply for even the thought¬ ful observer to analyze but it has been difficult for the author to obtain positive data from the writings of the great artists. The evolution of the use of color in painting 70 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR is in itself a delightfully interesting study. Not long ago paintings were almost universally realistic or photographic in character, the sub¬ ject, usually very simple, being the chief means of appeal employed by the artist. Pure and un¬ diluted pigments were applied sparingly if at all. They were usually toned down apparently through lack of confidence or through fear of consequences. Backgrounds were begun fal- teringly in dark secondary and tertiary colors and the finished painting, as compared with many of the colorful works of the present period, appeared to lack stamina and power. It is true that certain schools, generations ago, employed much beautiful coloring, yet the real¬ istic subject was depended upon to make their work interpretable and acceptable and to over¬ ride criticism. Slowly the artist gained confi¬ dence in the employment of purer colors and ap¬ parently through this growing use he has gradu¬ ally gained in his comprehension of the powers of colors. In the past, the art of painting has contrib¬ uted to the language of color by using colors symbolically in accordance with the established usage in mythology and ecclesiasticism. In this manner the signification of colors has been strengthened by association and common con- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 71 sent quite independent of the necessity of justi¬ fying these usages from any deeper or more fundamental influence; that is, it matters not if the established symbolism is supported by real corresponding effects of the colors upon the mind. The deeper and more fundamental source of data for the language of color lies in the unexplored unknown which the psychologist is best equipped to invade but, as stated be¬ fore, we can not reject the language which is already established by common consent through¬ out the past ages. Hence in chapters which follow the pure symbolic uses of color in paint¬ ing will be utilized in building our rudimentary dictionary. The artist has employed colors according to a more or less vague understanding of their psychological influence. The drapery of color has cast over paintings certain moods, often ob¬ viously consistent with our scanty knowledge of such powers of colors. Many artists have realized that color can excite the imagination and extend ideas and those who have compre¬ hended this have been able to awaken in the thoughtful observer a responsive chord, as yet, perhaps, generally defying complete analysis. To revert to the discussion of the possible con¬ tributions of color in painting it appears that, 72 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR with the development of the art of photography, the artist foresaw defeat in the production of realistic records and therefore turned with more earnestness to the problem of revealing the hid¬ den powers of colors. Photography can pro¬ duce in black and white a satisfactory imita¬ tion of the appearance of natural objects and even with a fair degree of success can repro¬ duce the colors. In the presence of knowledge these records satisfy the requirements of “ sub¬ ject ” appeal. But the artist was undismayed, who realized that colors guided by skill, per¬ ception, and imagination still contained the in¬ herent power of producing a fairer or deeper creation than Nature herself. This stimu¬ lated the realization that the object of painting was not mere copying, in that painting not only embodies a reproduction of Nature but an ex¬ pression of the thoughts, impressions, and emo¬ tions of the artist. Such a combination as col¬ ors, technique, knowledge, perceptive power, and imagination need not fear photography. Realism began to give way to expressions of light—the broad term which includes all colors. For instance, Turner’s later works, radical and “futuristic” during his time but accepted to-day as wonderful expressions of color, are examples of the result of breaking away from THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 73 the traditional painstaking reproduction of a realistic subject. The story of the evolution of the employment of color expression in painting is replete with such awakenings on the part of artists and also ultimate, though lagging, changes of attitude on the part of critics. Not¬ withstanding these examples in the past history of art, the antagonism toward modern isms in art to-day is as intense as it has been toward correspondingly radical departures during the past. The same condition is exemplified throughout the entire past by the persecutions of pathfinders in science, invention, politics, sociology, and other fields of endeavor but these wrongs are blithely ignored or forgotten when the martyrs are gone< and their dreams have come true. It is certain that impostors are numerous, but mankind should have learned long ago that the grain cannot be harvested and separated from the chaff unless seeds are first planted, encouraged, and nourished to maturity. Furthermore, many successes have been built upon radical departures in the use of color in painting. The unprejudiced must find it difficult to avoid the admission that the modern isms in painting have already borne fruit if they have accom¬ plished no more than to stimulate experimenta- 74 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR tion and thought and to stiffen the backbone of the artist which has resulted in a bolder use of color. These new movements may give rise to an ultimate use of color largely for “color’s sake” and, by suppressing the prominence of realism or subject, may possibly contribute more definitely to the understanding of the language of color than all the painting of the past. In the furore of criticism and defense, of which the modernists in painting have been the center during the past few years, many viewpoints have been aired. The aim of these “anarch¬ ists” has been variously stated many times, however, another view, which possibly may not be original, appears to be sane at least. In judging the work of the extremists to-day the traditions of the past must be kept in the back¬ ground. It is ill-spent and unfair criticism that results from a judgment of a new movement entirely in terms of the standards of the past. The standards of realism are nearly as useless in measuring the value of futuristic art as a tonoscope would be in determining the odor or color of a rose. Judged by the old standards a sky could not be painted scarlet or yellow-green for the artist must not be a nature-faker only to a reasonable degree. However, is it not possible that the modernists are demanding an extension THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 75 of “coloristic license”? And are they not en¬ titled to an extension of this license to a de¬ gree comparable with the extent of poetic license enjoyed by the poet? The author does not attempt to answer but is resigned to await the results of the experiments now in progress. To recapitulate, let us ask, What is art? The answers that have been given to this question are extremely variable in construction or in superficial meaning, but many of the ideas pre¬ sented are quite similar. The general senti¬ ment is that art is the perfection of Nature or indeed, as Emerson has said, the aim of art is to produce a fairer creation than exists in Nature. It appears that possibly both are correct and surely they are ultimately identical. In paint¬ ing it must be understood that not only the physical is depicted but all appealing art of this character includes painting of the mental. Various schools appear to attempt to paint dif¬ ferent proportions of these two elements. In order to improve upon Nature the artist must depend upon improving the mental aspect be¬ cause he cannot in general reproduce from pig¬ ments alone the physical in a scene. As Mason has beautifully expressed it: “Vain is the hope by colouring to display The bright effulgence of the noontide ray 76 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR Or paint the full-orb’d ruler of the skies With pencils dipt in full terrestrial dyes.” Logically it might be asked, how can the artist perfect or improve upon Nature if he is limited at the outset by the incapacities of pig¬ ments in rendering the physical? It is possi¬ ble that he may accomplish this perfection b) 7- bringing together in one grand ensemble all the elements, physical and mental, which coop¬ erate to the same end without waste or discord. Nature is wonderful to look upon, is always in¬ teresting, but only occasionally presents the ideal. Ruskin has expressed a similar senti¬ ment thus: “Painting with all its technicalities, difficulties, and peculiar ends, is nothing but a noble and expressive lan¬ guage, invaluable as the vehicle of thought but by itself nothing.” Plotinus and many others who have philos¬ ophized on art and the beautiful contend that beauty does not exist in the material substance but in the ideas which natural forms very in¬ adequately reflect. It is not seen with “the outward, but with the inward eye.” The Ger¬ man artist, Mengs, defined beauty as “visible perfection, an imperfect image of the supreme perfection.” According to Goethe, “Beauty is neither light nor darkness, it is twilight, the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 77 medium between truth and untruth.” Hogarth contends that the charm of painting which is due to colors depends upon their infinite variety and states that coloring in the art of painting has been “a mystery of all ages.” Plato found the beauty of color to lie in its intrinsic signifi¬ cance and symbolism but also attributed to color a pure sensuous agreeableness. The definitions of art and beauty and the roles apportioned to color are almost number¬ less and also quite diverse, however, there is a general agreement that beauty depends upon harmony—a harmony of both the physical and mental aspects. Many of those who contend that beauty is the result of harmony also ac¬ cord with the sentiment that it emanates from the soul. Certainly that which we derive from viewing a masterpiece of art is in direct pro¬ portion to that which we put into it. The an¬ swer to the question concerning the part which color plays in the harmony which is essential to beauty will only be completely answered when the language of color is written. No color is beautiful everywhere, but each color is beauti¬ ful in its way and in certain environments and relations. This brief discussion of art and beauty is presented with the hope it will aid the reader who gives further thought to the expres- 78 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR siveness of color in painting. This subject is touched upon here and there throughout this book. Although painting has contributed in many ways to the language of color its most positive or most apparent contribution has been through the symbolical use of color. St. Augustine has said of the representations of art that they are “libri idiotarium” (the books of the simple) and certainly one of the chief aims of early art was to teach. Hence there arose a definite sym¬ bolism which is quite uniform in respect to line and form but less easily analyzed in respect to the use of color. As art advanced, symbolism has been influenced by tradition, convention, esthetic taste, and intellect, however, from its early infancy various forms and symbols have been a part of its language. These are mean¬ ingless without understanding but when noted and analyzed they form an interesting part of the expression of the representative arts. Colors are used symbolically to express a simple fact or sentiment, to emphasize a mood, and di¬ rectly or indirectly they are effective through various associations. Thus it is seen that the field of painting is a fertile one but it will not yield the facts of the language of color without careful and thoughtful cultivation. ECCLESIASTICISM R ELIGION, ecclesiasticism, and liturgy have contributed something to the signification of colors and have strengthened their symbolical usage. Especially in the early ages, emblems formed an important part of religious cere¬ monies and in some churches these have sur¬ vived to the present time. Many sources were drawn upon for emblems in the church and the conspicuousness of colors did not escape the early ecclesiasts. It appears that the same general significations were attributed to colors among many of the nations of remote antiquity. Colors provided an easy means for transmitting thought and for aiding the memory. To some extent, certain colors were arbitrarily associ¬ ated with religious events and ideas. The colors used in religious ceremonies were adapted from early writings and some usages originated in the mandates of powerful ecclesi¬ asts. The significations of colors are found to be in accordance with usages established in other activities as well as with the arbitrary mandates and the resulting customs. Many adopted meanings were merely fitted into the real and 79 80 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR mythological episodes which formed the basis of religion and therefore many significations of colors arose and became established within the church. Paintings executed expressly for church decoration and for illustrating the teach¬ ings were doubtless guided in coloring, as in other details, by the ecclesiasts and hence the uses of colors in such representations as well as in the religious ceremonies cannot be disre¬ garded in the present review. According to Fairholt, the history of symbolic colors in Christianity indicates a triple origin marked by the three epochs in the history of re¬ ligion, namely, the divine, the consecrated, and the profane. The first regulated the costume of Aaron and of the Levites, the ritual of wor¬ ship, and similar matters. Sculpture and paint¬ ing were introduced for illustrating the teach¬ ings and for decorating the temples and thus the consecrated language arose. The theocratic era extended until the Renaissance at which time the symbolic expression largely disap¬ peared, that is, the “divine” language of color was smothered in the evolution of painting from a science into an art. This marked the begin¬ ning of the “profane” era in which the sym¬ bolism of colors was largely banished from the church and the “divine” and the “consecrated” THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 81 language of colors gave way to the “profane” language. In the latter part of the Middle Ages the sym¬ bolic use of colors in the church became disor¬ ganized. Other colors and various combina¬ tions were introduced and these innovations crept into the Sarum ritual. The five “mystic” colors, which were supposed to have been given by God to Moses, were in general use in England until the middle of the sixteenth century. The lack of uniformity in the symbolic use of colors at the present time is doubtless due to the fact that modern churchmen exercise their fancy and taste which in olden times were made subservi¬ ent to the “divine command.” Inasmuch as the Sarum use is conspicuous in the symbolism of colors in the church, it may be of interest to note the origin of the term. Sarum was a small borough in England which dated from the time of the Romans although it is now extinct except for a few ruins which mark its site. At the time of William the Con¬ queror, the Church of England was split into two parties, the conquerors and the conquered, according to Rolfe. In order to preserve a uni¬ formity of divine service between these rivals the bishop, whose seat was at Sarum, revived and standardized the signification of the five 82 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR “mystic colors,’’ red, gold, blue, purple, and white, hence the origin of the Sarum liturgy. An interesting reference to these colors is found in the Bible in the first part of the twenty-eighth chapter of Exodus. A discussion of the signifi¬ cation of these colors would occupy too much space to be presented here because their uses are complex. An excellent discussion is pre¬ sented by E. C. Neff in a book on Christian sym¬ bolism. As already stated, the colors of vest¬ ments and of the draperies of the altar, sanctu¬ ary and pulpit were often significant. In the Greek church only two colors were used, red being favored for Lent; and in the Armenian church no colors are apparently given special significance. The five colors, white, red, green, violet, and black, constitute the “Roman se¬ quence’’ in the Roman church. The Anglican church has perpetuated the divine command to Moses in the Sarum liturgy although this use is not universal among its adherents. No attempt will be made to give an exhaustive discussion of the ecclesiastical uses of color but a few examples will be of interest. Fairholt gives the following symbolic significances of various colors in ecclesiasticism: Red: charity, martyrdom for faith. Gold: glory, power. THE LANGUAGE OP COLOR 83 Saffron: the confessors. Green: faith, immortality, contemplation. Pale green: baptism. Blue: hope, love of divine works, sincerity, piety. Pale blue: peace, serene conscience, Christian prudence, love of good works. Violet: penitence in connection with figures of saints. Purple: dignity of justice, royalty. Rose: martyrdom. White: chastity, innocence, purity. Gray: tribulation. In the Roman church it is found that white, as the symbol of purity, has been used on the festi¬ vals of angels, Virgin Mary, Christ, and also of saints, and at matrimonial ceremonies. Red, as the color of blood, has prevailed on the festi¬ vals of martyred saints, and of the Holy Cross. Violet or purple has been the color of penitence in Advent, Lent, etc. Green, the color of hope¬ ful springtime, has been used during such in¬ tervals as from Trinity to Advent Sunday. Black is consistently used on Good Friday, at funerals and during memorial services. These uses have persisted, more or less, for centuries. In the Middle Ages, white was the general Lenten color, not from any direct significance of 84 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR its universally recognized attribute of purity, but from that of screening all colors from view by the use of white coverings and draperies. Blue has been used in the past by priests at the grave, in which case it is emblematic of heaven. White is used very generally at Feasts and at seasons pertaining to the Lord that are not as¬ sociated with suffering. White is used for mourning and red for the marriage service by the Chinese. In China and in some other parts of the Orient, yellow has been a sacred color. It ap¬ pears to be believed by some that, with the ad¬ vent of Christianity, yellow and, to some extent, red and orange were looked upon with disfavor and the use of the colder colors nearer the blue end of the spectrum was encouraged. Doubt¬ less it was thought that these latter colors were symbolic of dignity, purity, and submissiveness. Yellow became the mark of jealousy and shame and other warm colors, notably red, shared oc¬ casionally in this unenviable distinction. These prejudices became so firmly implanted that even at the present time their effects are often dis¬ tinguishable. Such influences are not insignifi¬ cant in their effect upon our present attitude toward colors. Gold and silver, which besides their color pos- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 85 sess brilliancy and luster, play important parts in ecclesiasticism. The cross, glory, aureole, and nimbus are often covered with gold or silver which can readily be interpreted as representing brilliancy, light and sanctity. Sometimes these symbols have appeared in various colors and it is believed by some that these colors had certain meanings. The rose and the lily are conspicuous in re¬ ligion, both having been dedicated to the Virgin Mary. In this office the former is emblematic of love, and the latter of purity. In a few instances, early in history, green has been held a sacred color. The use of blue occurs often in the traditions and paintings of Chris¬ tianity. In these cases it is usually emblematic of fidelity and of divine intelligence. White is very generally used as an emblem of chastity and of allied virtues. Black naturally assumes characteristics opposite to white and therefore symbolizes woe, horror and wickedness. Gray fills an office between black and white, and is therefore associated with penance, sadness, and humility. It is interesting to note the em¬ blematic uses of combinations of these colors many of which are extremely logical. The Trinity has been represented by red, sig¬ nifying divine love; blue, emblematic of truth 86 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR and constancy; and gold or yellow denoting di¬ vine glory. It is interesting to note that yel¬ low, when representing gold, possesses desirable attributes being variously used to signify love, constancy, wisdom, dignity, light, and glory, especially in connection with the great char¬ acters in religions. Otherwise yellow is at¬ tributed with uncomplimentary characteristics. For example, in France in the tenth century the doors of the abodes of felons, traitors and other criminals were painted yellow and Judas was often represented with a yellow robe in old glass paintings signifying inconstancy, jealousy, and deceit. Black, which suggests darkness and gloom re¬ sulting from the absence of light, is a symbol of spiritual darkness. It has been associated with witchcraft or diabolical power from which sig¬ nificance has arisen the name for the mysterious “black art.” Most of the illusions to black are uncomplimentary or disgusting. In certain churches it is said that the old Eng¬ lish or Sarum colors are being revived. Ac¬ cording to one writer, these colors are used as follows in the draperies and vestments: red as the ordinary Sunday color, as a penitential color on Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Easter Even, and Whitsun Even, and also on the same days as THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 87 used in the Roman church; white throughout Eastertide; yellow for confessional feasts; and brown or gray with violet, for penitential sea¬ sons. As already stated the uses of these colors are too extensive and complex to be more than touched upon here. In various monastic orders colors are signifi¬ cant, though naturally the somber colors such as black, brown, gray, and combinations of black and white predominate. The lily is dedicated to the Virgin Mary with consistency and fine senti¬ ment. It also officially belongs to a number of saints. Angels, which in early art were always draped, have been clothed, almost universally, in white, filmy fabric in mythological representa¬ tions. Violet or amethyst, signifying passion and suffering, usually in relation to love and truth, is worn by Magdalene and by the Ma¬ donna after the crucifixion. Sometimes Christ has been represented in a violet mantle after the resurrection. As already shown, yellow or gold, emblematic of the sun, of glory, of fruit¬ fulness, etc., plays a prominent part in the sym¬ bolism of religion and its ceremonies. Yellow in a dingy hue often signifies inconstancy and deceit. These examples are sufficient to indi¬ cate that an exhaustive study of the significance of colors in ecclesiasticism, in representations 88 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR of events which form the foundation of religion, and in its attendant ceremonies, should yield much interesting data. Only a glimpse has been given into the subject but further details can be obtained from treatises on symbolism in religion. THEATRE I N the drama, colors have been endowed some¬ times with emblematic characteristic or have been assumed to possess attributes which sug¬ gest certain events and sentiments or which are of definite emotional value. The theatre has al¬ ways provided a place for addressing the masses through the language of color but development in this direction has been barely perceptible. The reason is two-fold, first, only the faintest rudimentary language exists, and second, the colorist with a broad knowledge of the various aspects of color is not only a rarity but he has not yet found his way into the theatre. It may be that the experimenters in the modern theatre are rising to this opportunity. At any rate there is evidence of attempts being made to tap this source of possibilities. The rhapsodists of Greece, when reciting in a theatrical manner, employed colors appropriate to their subject. The propriety may be ques¬ tioned, nevertheless no harm can result from clothing the actors or their setting with colors which appear to be appropriate because careful consideration and application of color even in the meager light of present knowledge will bring 89 90 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR results fully as commendable as those result¬ ing from accident. It is said that these Greeks, when presenting Homer’s Odyssey, were clothed in purple garments to “signify the sea-wander¬ ings of Ulysses ’ ’; and when acting the Iliad they were clothed in scarlet which was emblematic of the bloody battles characterizing that poem. Who can imagine Mephistopheles garbed in other colors than red and black? Color has been used upon the stage to ac¬ centuate the mood, but relatively few instances have indicated more than a crude or indefinite attempt to use the language of color in correla¬ tion with the sentiment or action. Ofttimes omissions of other refinements closely allied to color in aiding in its expressiveness or in effect¬ ing the desired illusion as a whole have empha¬ sized the crudity of the art. In the simple case of using colored light to produce the illusion of moonlight the almost universal lack of directed- ness of the light, and the consequent absence of definite and single shadows, have defeated the full realization of the results obtainable from the latent emotive power of color. Color has been correlated with the dance but apparently with no more depth of purpose than to appeal to the eye rather than to the intellect. In the wonderful Russian ballet where the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 91 beautiful accordance of setting, action, and music reached a high degree of perfection, it naturally might have been expected that the cre¬ ative geniuses responsible for the production would have used color to the full extent of its power. Although the employment of line and color was conspicuously “modern,” the use of color for its power alone was insignificant and it appeared that the creators either did not believe in the existence of such power or felt incompe¬ tent to employ it. It is possible they wisely re¬ frained from going farther, governed by the principle that experiments are for private view. At any rate it is somewhat disappointing that those combined abilities responsible for the won¬ derful correlations of various arts—setting, ac¬ tion, story, and music—did not mix more of the language of color into the ensemble. It may appear that this statement is born of ungrateful¬ ness and, lest it be so construed, it should be added that it is doubtful if one was not already filled to capacity with the effects of the wonder¬ ful blend of setting, dance, and music. This raises the question whether additional use of the power of colors in such cases would not overtax the ability of the human organism to respond and therefore give rise to a detrimental reaction. This may be true when the visual sense is not 92 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR involved as in listening to music but when it is already in action it appears probable that the employment of colors properly correlated with the primary stimuli should result in heighten¬ ing the emotional effect. In the Russian dances many phases of our strongest emotions were portrayed. Love in many aspects, egotistical, selfish, weeping, pas¬ sionate, spiritual, and joyful, was represented. Also distrust, revenge, shame, terror, folly, hope, victory, and happiness were portrayed. Such a gamut of emotions provides an excellent opportunity to utilize the powers of lighting and of color. This field represents one of great future possibility in employing the language of color in appealing to the intellect and in touch¬ ing the emotional strings. The applications will be obvious to those who possess themselves of even the meager data available regarding the expressiveness of colors of which it is the aim of this book to present a glimpse. The subject of this chapter could be discussed to better advantage at the close of this book, but it has been incorporated here as a more gen¬ erally befitting place in this review. After pe¬ rusing the later chapters the possibilities of more definite uses of colors on the stage should be apparent. PART II SYMBOLISM OF COLOR I T is the aim in this section to record a suffi¬ cient number of symbolic uses of various colors in order that the reader may obtain a general idea of the impressions which various colors have made upon the intellects of the past. An attempt is made to interpret the reasons for the adoption of the various signifi¬ cations, although these are recorded as concisely as possible. Reference should be made to pre¬ ceding chapters in order to obtain a proper perspective because they contain brief discus¬ sions of various sources of our present rudi¬ mentary language of color and of the devious processes through which symbolic uses of colors have passed. The material presented in the following chapters of this section indicates the general character of our present knowledge of the expressiveness of color. The data are recorded as concisely as possible and care has been taken to eliminate repetition by choosing only a few examples of each use of color which appears to have a consistent and fairly well established symbolical meaning. It is believed that brevity of treatment is 95 I 96 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR more conducive to attainment by the reader of a comprehensive view of the expressiveness of color than an extensive and involved treat¬ ment which would aim to prove that which is perhaps incapable of much further proof at the present time. The data which are recorded ap¬ pear to represent generally accepted usages with a few exceptions. Inasmuch as the cor¬ rectness of these significations cannot be ulti¬ mately proved, although extended argument would perhaps more firmly establish the justifi¬ cation of most of them and perhaps would cast some by the wayside, they are presented, with reservation, for what they are worth. This book is a condensed review of the products of thought and research in various directions which have been indulged in for the purpose of gaining an idea of the general impressions of color upon the intellects of mankind in general. The study was prosecuted largely for two rea¬ sons ; first, to learn the possible effects of colors upon the human organism, and second, to strengthen or to destroy the ideas of a single mind regarding these powers of colors by gain¬ ing an idea of their effects upon civilized people in general. By no means is it admitted that the author’s individual interpretations of the pow¬ ers of colors will be cast aside entirely in future THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 97 applications of color, but an individual is justly subject to criticism if be does not consider the impressiveness and expressiveness of colors as recorded by the millions who have gone before. It is recognized that scientific research will doubtless contribute much in the future and possibly render untenable some of the argu¬ ments and conclusions incorporated in this book but instead of awaiting the returns of science it has appeared profitable to review briefly, and perhaps suggestively, the data which are avail¬ able. In the following treatment of the symbolisms of various colors only the simplest, or most common colors will be used as headings for various chapters. The looseness and lack of standardization of color terminology has caused great difficulties and it has been considered ad¬ visable to group various allied colors under a simple color-name. In some cases it has been necessary to interpret the color which is meant and doubtless others may not always agree. In doing so, however, advantage has been taken of intimacy with color terminology in its loose¬ ness and peculiarities as used by the layman, the artist, and others having various degrees of interest in colors. Purple has been included either in the chap- 98 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR ter on the symbolism of red or in that of blue (violet) as appeared appropriate. This color has a just claim for individual treatment but, inasmuch as ofttimes it is called red (as in the case of blood) when it contains but a small blue component and sometimes blue or violet when it contains only a small red component, it has been divided between these two chapters. In¬ cluded under the simple name, yellow, are a vast number of color-names closely allied, such as gold, orange, saffron, citrine, brown, etc. There are many browns, some bordering on red shades, others on yellow shades, and still others are close to black. These have been appor¬ tioned according to judgment. Green is more specific, yet it includes yellow-greens and blue- greens and such shades as olive. Blue is not so often confused as most of the other colors al¬ though violet and some of the bluish-purples are included under this color-name. It is a striking fact that we have few names for the achromatic sensations and a great many for the chromatic sensations. The relative number of names in the two cases are not in the least proportional to the relative number of the two different kinds of sensations which we actually experience. This has the advantage of simplifying the treatment of black, white, and THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 99 gray from the present viewpoint. The three have been treated briefly in separate chapters and some of the common significations of com¬ binations of black and white have been inter¬ spersed. Some of the dark shades of colors have been noted under black and gray. The justification of grouping the data under a few simple color-names is based upon simplicity. The use of the colors red, yellow, green, and blue is based on the distinctiveness of these colors in the spectrum. Purple does not exist in the spectrum but is fully as distinct as any of these four colors. It is entitled to separate treatment but, as already stated, it is used so confusedly and interchangeably with red, violet, and blue that it appeared the simpler and safer plan to incorporate it under red or blue as best suited to the individual case. These points are worthy of consideration if this subject be car¬ ried beyond the confines of this book. Success¬ ful application and interpretation of the ex¬ pressiveness of colors will depend upon a broad acquaintance with the science of color which can be gained only partially through contact with books and theory. Contact with colors themselves in all their relations to the perceiv¬ ing apparatus and to each other is necessary for a broad and intimate acquaintance. RED M ANY symbolic uses of red have often arisen from an association with blood and thus red represents health, tragedy, anger and many attributes more or less allied by this association. Red has symbolized fire, heat, war, cruelty, and hatred, and has signified power and destruction. It has dyed the robes of royalty and martyrdom and the red flag has led many warriors into battle whether repre¬ senting bravery, strength, or blood. The latter signification may share the responsibility for the universal acceptance of red as a danger signal along with the distinctiveness of this color and its relatively high purity in Nature. Some of the emotions, such as anger and shame, are accompanied by visible effects of blood which have given rise to definite significations of red. In its gentler offices, red is emblematic of love and truth, as well as of health and beauty. In such cases apparently it is not the spectral red but is usually a tint resulting from dilution with white and sometimes with the ad¬ dition of violet. The former is a tint of red; the latter is usually a tint of purple, that is, a 100 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 101 rose or pink. Ofttimes the tint is clearly im¬ plied in such significations. Redness is indica¬ tive of the ardent passions as the blush of love and also of bashfulness or of shame. This color is often confused with purple or the latter term is used metonymically for red. In fact, the color of blood is a purple in which red greatly predominates. These pitfalls must be avoided in order not to experience confusion in attempting to analyze the various uses. In the “Ode on the Passions” by Collins we find: Anger with “eyes on fire”; Revenge with “blood-stained sword”; and Cheerfulness “a nymph of healthiest hue.” Spenser has dec¬ orated many vices and virtues with colors. For instance, Faleshood is “clad in scarlet red” and Praise-desire is clothed “In a long purple pall, whose skirt with gold was fretted.” Mid¬ dleton writes of the “bashful rose.” Satan has been clothed with red and black and these colors have symbolized purgatory and evil spirits. On the other hand, the red and white roses in the garland of St. Cecilia ap¬ parently signify love and innocence. Gosse paints Cupid’s lips “more red than any rose.” Aurora or Eos, “the rosy-fingered goddess of the morn,” was the mother of stars, evening breezes, and the morning. She is represented 102 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR with rosy complexion and bright yellow robes. She rises from the streams of Ocean, is adorned with the color of the rose and pearls of dew and is drawn in a chariot by cream-colored horses to bring light to mankind. Sometimes the youthful and gayly-clad Horae or Hours, are represented in her company. In Guido’s “Aurora” the colors are in excellent accord with the succession of colors at sunrise. As an emblem of love and beauty the rose has sometimes been dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Red has been widely used in China at marriage ceremonies. In Greek mythology we find that the Furies sprang into being from the blood of the muti¬ lated Uranus. Ovid described the romance of Pyremus and Tliiebe; the former was the hand¬ somest youth, and the latter the fairest maid, in Babylonia. They had planned a meeting un¬ der a white mulberry tree but through a mis¬ take each committed suicide under this tree. Their blood reached the roots of the tree so that the purplish-red hue mounted to the berries and henceforth the tree lias borne “purple” ber¬ ries. In the Tales of a Wayside Inn by Longfellow, Thor the thunderer, the strongest of gods and- men, and the eldest son of Odin says, THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 103 “The light thou beholdest Stream through the heavens, In flashes of crimson Is but my red beard Blown by the night wind, Affrighting the nations!” The convivial qualities of Bacchus are often touched upon, for example, as in the following by Dryden, “Flushed with a purple grace.” When purple inclines toward redness it has long signified royalty. In this respect it is a regal and pompous color and has been used for the robe of Jupiter and as a distinction of priestly superiority. It has been a symbol of heroic virtue and the Babylonians are said to have clothed their idols with it. It is used in mourning, especially in court mourning and in other affairs of state. In a description of the musical contest be¬ tween Pan and Apollo (the former having had the temerity to compare his music with that of Apollo) Apollo’s “robe of Tyrian purple swept the ground.” Amethyst and violet have symbolized suffer¬ ing, passion, love, and truth. Christ wears it after the resurrection, the Madonna, after the 104 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR crucifixion and, in general, penitents were clad in it. When red is diluted with white, and sometimes with blue, resulting in rose and pink, it symbolizes beauty, love, and hope. Hence the rose is the emblem of the goddess Spes and the Destinies and has been dedicated to the Virgin Mary. To look upon the world “through rose- tinted glasses” is synonymous to a cheerful, hopeful, and confident personality. Red is a “warm” color of great power if such an expression is passable, however, when mixed with sufficient blue it becomes “neutral” and even “cold.” It is the color given to courage and hence was a military color especially in the days when warriors trusted to valor more than to strategy and concealment. The red flag is associated with blood or danger and was the Roman signal for battle, hence “hang out the red flag” is a common phrase especially in early writing. Shakespeare signifies a challenge to battle thus, “Stand for your own; unwind your bloody flag.” The heroes of old, such as Scipio and Han¬ nibal, are said to have worn red shields, indi¬ cating strength, prowess, and courage. In the hands of the anarchist this color denotes de¬ fiance, hence the red flag is a symbol of an ex- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 105 trerne revolutionary party or of anarchy. This color is used as a danger signal in many distinct offices. It is supposed to affect ani¬ mals in various ways, especially exciting the bull to rage. “While Mars, descending from his crimson car, Fans with herce hands the kindling flames of war.” —Haller. The poet sometimes applies purple to the color of blood with greater accuracy than is usual. “Oft came Edward to my side With purple falchion, painted to the hilt In blood of those that had encountered him.” —Shakespeare. “But when the flaming torch was hurled, the sign Of purple fight, as when the trumpet sounds,” etc. —Euripides. A poem inspired by the horror of the Great War by Margaret Widdemer contains, “Ours is a dark Eastertide And a scarlet spring.” Shakespeare, who was a masterful word-col¬ orist, contributes many excellent symbolic uses of color from which the following have been selected: 106 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOE “Thy ambition Thou scarlet sin, robb’d this bewailing land Of noble Buckingham.” “Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, And thus the native hue of resolution Is sicklied o’er with the pale east of thought.” “And let’s be red with mirth.” “I am the very pink of courtesy.” “He is come to ope The purple testament of bleeding war.” “If I prove honey-mouth’d, let my tongue blister, And never to my red-look’d anger be The trumpet any moi’e.” “Beaufort’s red sparkling eyes blab his heart’s malice.” “How bloodily the sun begins to peer Above yon bushy hill! The day looks pale At his distemperature.” “Beauty’s ensign yet Is crimson in thy lips and in thy cheeks And death’s pale flag is not advanced there.” “ ’Tis beauty truly blent, whose red and white Nature’s own sweet and cunning hand laid on.” THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 107 Many other poetical examples of the symbolic use of red, or of colors closely related to it, are available, from which the following few have been selected: “Celestial rosy red, Love’s proper hue.” —Milton. “His (Cupid’s) lips, more red than any rose.” —Gosse. “Would you know where young Love in his beauty reposes, Go—seek for the boy in the Valley of Roses.” —M. A. Brown. “The rosy-finger’d morning fair.” —Spenser. “Morn, Wakes by the circling Hours, with rosy hand Unbarr’d the gates of light.” —Milton. “For me the balm shall bleed, the amber flow, The coral redden, and the ruby glow.” —Pope. “The scarlet honour of your peaceful gown.” —Dryden. “He spoke; the goddess with the charming eyes Glows with celestial red, and thus replies,” —Pope. “His hand did quake And tremble like an aspen green; 108 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR And troubled blood through his pale face was seen To come and go; with tydings from the heart.” —Spenser. “Blooming youth and gay delight Sit on thy cheek confess’d.” —Prior. “In every breathing bloom I find Some pleasing emblem of thy mind, The blushes of the op’ning rose Thy tender modesty disclose.” —Richardson. YELLOW Y ELLOW and orange, their neighboring hues and various tints and shades are warm colors whose most striking characteris¬ tic perhaps is luminosity. The brighter colors are symbolic of light and warmth, and in this sense yellow is also gaudy, gay, lustrous, and enlivening. It is the natural emblematical color for the sun. In China, yellow has been quite extensively employed as a regal and sacred color. Perhaps for lack of euphony it appears often under the guise of golden, saf¬ fron, brown, sallow, tawny, orient, citrine, and many other names. The colors grouped here under yellow are very extensively employed by the poets in many variations of hue, tint, and shade. As a symbol of light and warmth Aurora is clothed in “saffron robes.” “Soon as the white and red mixt finger’d dame Has gilt the mountain with her saffron flame.” —Chapman. “Heaven’s golden-wing’d herald.” —Crashaw. Somewhat akin to this, Spenser arrays 109 110 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR Charity in “yellow robes” and the warmth of the hues allied with yellow is exemplified in,— “Extremes alike in either hue behold, Hot in the golden; in the silvery, cold.” —Shee. In the Ode to Passions, Collins refers to “brown Exercise” and similarly Thomson sings of,— “The rustic youth, brown with meridian toil, Healthful and strong.” In the sense of being glorious and lustrous it is often used thus,— “And Fame, with golden wings aloft doth fly.” —Spenser. Yellow and its allied colors often denote harvest or fruition. “The yellow harvest’s countless seed.” —Byron. “Yellow, mellow, ripened days, Sheltered in a golden coating.” —Will Carleton. Gold has the additional conspicuous quality of brilliancy and metallic luster and often rep¬ resents glory and power. Doubtless the in¬ trinsic value of gold has largely influenced its symbolic use. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 111 The cross is often of gold and the five wounds of crucified Christ sometimes are represented by inserting as many rubies, one in the center of the cross and one at each extremity. Silver is also employed in this respect. The gold and silver are perhaps symbolical of light, bright¬ ness, and sanctity. Yellow or gold has been emblematic of the sun, of marriage and fruitful¬ ness and of God’s goodness. In some repre¬ sentations St. Peter and St. Joseph are clothed in yellow. The glory, aureole, and nimbus usually painted in yellow or gold, represent brilliancy, light, and sanctity. The aureole surrounds the whole body, and the nimbus encircles the head. The glory is a combination of the two. Strictly, only persons of the God head were endowed with the aureole, but the Virgin Mary is invested with it in representations of various events. The glory belongs to the Virgin as well as to God. The nimbus belongs to all saints and holy persons. These symbols began to appear in Christian art about the fifth century and their color in all great painting is golden, sym¬ bolic of light, glory and divine power. In miniatures sometimes these symbols have been painted different colors. It is believed by some that the colors are symbolical, but nobody 112 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR versed in the art and traditions of Christianity has ventured an analysis. Orange or brown in the darker and less beau¬ tiful shades appear to be used sometimes as emblems of distrust or deceit, and yellow is sometimes associated with indecency, morbid¬ ity, decay, cowardice, and indecent sensational¬ ism as in the case of “yellow journalism.” Yellow is used to clothe various malign pas¬ sions. A yellowish complexion often indicates illness and this same color, usually with a green¬ ish tinge expressed or implied, is very generally used as a symbol of jealousy. Examples of the foregoing are: ‘‘The cynosure of jaundiced eyes.” —Shakespeare. “I will possess him of yellowness.” — Idem. “Jealous piques, Which tli’ ancients wisely signified By th’ yellow mantoes of the bride.” —Butler. “And Jalousie That wered of yelw colors a gerlond And had a cuckow sitting on hir hond.” —Chaucer. “0 jealousy, Thou ugliest fiend of hell! thy deadly venom Preys on iny vitals, turns the healthful hue Of my fresh cheek to haggard sallowness, And drinks my spirit up!” —Hannah More, THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 113 ‘‘And jealousy, suffused with jaundice in her eyes, Discolouring all she viewed.” —Dryden. The dingy yellow or brown, such as often dis¬ tinguishes the garments of Judas, signifies, be¬ sides jealousy, deceit and inconstancy. This color has also been used in the past to mark the abodes of traitors and other criminals. “His very hair is of the dissembling colour Something browner than Judas’s.” —Shakespeare. Yellow is also associated with sickness and disease, hence the yellow flag is used as a sani¬ tary signal being displayed on vessels having on board cases of infectious or contagious dis¬ eases. It serves this office on quarantined ships and houses and has indicated hospitals in time of war. In the latter case it assumes the role of protector. Orange apparently has partaken of many of the qualities of the colors related to it and is used in a corresponding manner. Brown, which inclines toward red and black, is more grave. It signifies strength, solidity, vigor and, to some degree, sadness. The “melancholy days” of autumn are painted largely in a brown key. This color, in perhaps 114 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR an extreme application of the preceding, is re¬ garded by some as emblematic of sluggishness. In Nature it represents maturity. GREEN G REEN is employed to signify youth and vigor perhaps through the association of green with the spring of the year. At least green is more impressive in spring because of its newness. It also has been used to express hope and victory, and olive, a green shade, is symbolical of solitude and peace. As com¬ pared with other colors of the spectrum it is relatively neutral and some of its symbolic uses appear to be the result of the prominence of this characteristic. To poets, green is indicative also of cheerfulness, as “cheerful green,” plenty, life, and immortality, and through its association with the spring of life it is widely used as a symbol of inexperience. When green is tinged with yellow it apparently assumes some of the attributes of yellow. It also is used throughout poetry in the same relative abundance as it is found in nature, although the pure symbolic uses do not appear to be as numerous as might be expected perhaps owing to its neutral characteristic. Green as the color of spring is an emblem of hope, victory and plenty. Verdure indicates 115 116 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR life and hence green is emblematic of immor¬ tality. Saturn is crowned with evergreen, and the custom of strewing green foliage upon graves is consistent with this analogy as is the adornment of Poets and Time with fillets of green. This color also signifies Youth, the spring of life. In Ovid, Apollo says to the laurel tree into which Daphne whom he loved was transformed, “And as eternal youth is mine, thou also shalt Be always green and thy leaf know no decay.” This color has also denoted memory and in a few early instances was held to be sacred or a holy color. The poets have used this color ex¬ tensively according to analogy, fancy, and to its use in Nature. In mythological representa¬ tions the hair and garments of Neptune, the Dryades, and the Naiades are dyed with green. It is of interest in passing to note how a color may become woven into the traditions of a people and cherished in the extreme due chiefly to continued association. For example, green means far more to the Irish race than to other civilized peoples at the present time. In liturgy green denotes faith, immortality, resurrection of the just, and gladness of the faithful. In some churches green is used for THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 117 Easter and in mediaeval days was associated with the Feast of the Trinity. In these offices the color perhaps signifies the rejoicing of the faithful. As an ecclesiastical color it prevails in one church from Trinity to Advent Sunday. The following are a few selected examples from the poets: “You are too wise in years, too full of counsel, For my green experience.” —Ford. “My salad days, When I was green in judgment, cold in blood.” —Shakespeare. “The memory be green.” — Idem. “That yon green boy shall have no sun to ripe The bloom that promiseth a mighty fruit.” — Idem. “While virgin Spring, by Eden’s flood, Unfolds her tender mantle green.” —Burns. “Green is indeed the color of lovers.” —Shakespeare. “And with a green and yellow melancholy, She sat like Patience on a monument, Smiling at grief.” — Idem, 118 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR “0, beware, my lord, of jealousy, It is the green-eyed monster, which doth mock The meat it feeds on.” — Idem. “Eternal Spring, with smiling Verdure here Warms the mild air, and crowns the youthful Year.” —Garth. “But he her fears to cease Sent down the meek-eyed Peace; She, crown’d with olive green, came softly sliding Down through the burning sphere.” —Milton. “The wreaths of cheerful May.” —Collins. “Where Peace, with ever-blooming olive, crowns The gate where Honour’s liberal hands effuse Unenvy’d treasures.” —Akenside. “In jealous Pisa’s olive shade!” —Collins. Sometimes green is used to signify illness but doubtless in all cases the word is used for eu¬ phony instead of yellow-green. In cases of this character the tint is usually clearly implied. For instance,— “To look so green and pale.” —Shakespeare. BLUE T HE quality or attribute most striking in blue is coldness and, as is true of other colors, it communicates this property in vary¬ ing degree to all colors which contain blue com¬ ponents. Another conspicuous characteristic is its proximity to black. Many of the symbolic uses of blue apparently have arisen from its property of coldness and from the association of blue with the firmament. From its coldness it is characterized as dignified and soothing; from its shadowy nature it signifies sedateness and melancholy; and doubtless, from being the color of clear sky it has been associated with heaven, hope, constancy, fidelity, serenity, gen¬ erosity, intelligence, and truth. In many re¬ spects it is opposed to orange or yellow, its complementary. In an ancient doctrine the blue of the sky is supposed to be a compound of light and darkness. The expression of “true- blue” for constancy and fidelity is commonly used and perhaps originated with mariners from associating the blue sky with freedom from storms. Hope is “clad in blue” by Spen¬ ser. Minerva is often clothed in blue robes and 119 120 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOE personifications of Poetry have been draped in this hue. In Nature, the blue sky is conspicu¬ ous and has affected some primitive peoples deeply. The association of blue with the heav¬ ens doubtless has been responsible for the sym¬ bolic use of this color for divinity, divine love, and supreme intelligence. In a similar man¬ ner, combined with the belief that “the eye is the window of the soul” blue eyes have been symbolic of intelligence. This color also has been associated with the learned or pedantic and aristocratic as “blue-blooded.” “Some ladies were very blue and well informed.” —Thackeray. Blue is a conspicuous color in many repre¬ sentations of biblical events. Christ, the Vir¬ gin Mary, and St. John have often been clothed in mantles of blue. This color is also promi¬ nent in mythological representations. The veil of Juno, the goddess of air, is blue; Diana or the Moon is clothed in blue and white or sil¬ very robes; and Isis of the Egyptians and her priests have been clad in “pure azure.” Mi¬ nerva, who in Homer’s Odyssey is “azure¬ eyed,” is distinguished by a mantle of blue. She sprang from the brain of Jove and, al¬ though being the goddess of storms and war, THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 121 was also possessed of a fair and thoughtful nature. She was eternally a virgin and god¬ dess of wisdom, generosity, and thought. Hence, “The blue-eyed progeny of Jove.” —Dryden. In his poem, Venus of Milo, E. R. Sill sings, “The tremulous rosy morn is her mouth’s smile, The sky, her laughing azure eyes above.” In liturgy blue is symbolical of hope, love of divine works, Christian prudence, a serene con¬ science, sincerity, divine contemplation, and piety. Blue robes have been worn by priests at the grave and it is believed that the color used in this case is symbolic of heaven. The Levites wore this color as the livery of heaven. The attribute of harmony is sometimes be¬ stowed upon this color. For instance, “Where’er we gaze,—around, above, below, What rainbow tints, what magic charms are found! Rock, river, forest, mountain, all abound, And bluest skies that harmonize the whole.” —Byron. Blue is often associated with coldness and melancholy and with dismal and unpromising prospects. 122 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR “Oh, coward Conscience! how dost thou afflict me! The lights bum blue!” —Shakespeare. “The pale violet’s dejected hue.” —Akenside. Other symbolic uses of this color by the poets are exemplified in the following: “Long, Pity, let the nations view Thy sky-worn robes of tend’rest blue, And eyes of dewy lig’ht.” —Collins. “And heal the harms of thwarting thunder blue.” —Milton. WHITE I T is not surprising to find white used as symbolic of light, purity, chastity, innocence, truth, modesty, and peace. In a somewhat al¬ lied sense, in which the attribute of physical weakness predominates, it is emblematic of femininity, delicacy, and infirmity, which usage doubtless arises from the association of a pale complexion with ill-health, lack of stamina, or a delicate constitution. White is synonymous to unadulterated or unchanged light and its at¬ tributes are obviously quite opposed to those supposed to be possessed by black. To Jupiter, the Roman lord of heaven and of light, white was sacred. White horses drew his chariot and white animals were sacrificed to him by consuls who were clothed in this color. His priests were crowned with white head-gear. The white vestments of priests and of the Pythagoreans were emblematic of peace and purity. The lily has often been used to signify chastity and belongs to St. Antony of Padua, St. Catherine of Siena, St. Casimir, St. Clara, and others. The crucifix entwined with lilies has been bestowed upon St. Nicholas of Tolen- 123 124 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR tino and upon many who especially dedicated themselves to the Virgin Mary. White is worn by the latter in representations of the Assump¬ tion and by Christ after his resurrection. White as the color of purity and joy is used on the festivals of Christ, Mary, the angels, and unmartyred saints and also at marriages. In Anglican churches this is the prevailing color throughout Eastertide. White is often emblematic of humility and when worn by the judiciary symbolizes integ¬ rity. In old Roman paintings, Friendship has been draped in white. Truth has been idealized by a woman holding lilies. Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter of Jupiter and Diana and, according to one version, she sprang from the foam of the sea at the time of the wounding of Uranus. She is therefore called Aphrodite, the “foam born,” by the Greeks. The Hours and the Graces wove robes for her that “reflected the hues and breathed the perfumes of crocus, hyacinth, violet, rose, lily, and narcissus.” Poetry has been personi¬ fied holding white roses and Roman poets clothed their god, Pietas, in white. Spenser writes of the “virgin lilie” and Middleton likens the “holy dew of prayer” to a pearl. Owing to its eminent luminosity, white is used THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 125 to enliven without the aspect of gayety. We also have the white flag of surrender and of peace, the “white feather” of timidity and the white shield of untried manhood. In liturgy white quite naturally symbolizes purity, temperance, innocence, and as a back¬ ground for figures of saints signifies chastity. In China, white is the color used in mourning. Examples of symbolic uses of this color by the poets are, “White-robed innocence.” —Pope. “The snowy wings of Innocence and Love.” —Akenside. “As chaste as unsunn’d snow.” •—Shakespeare. “Now, by my maiden honour, yet as pure As the unsullied lily, I protest.” — Idem. “Dark-wounding Calumny The whitest virtue strikes.” — Idem. “Thou tremblest, and the whiteness on thy cheek Is apter than thy tongue to tell thy errand.” — Idem. “Yea Jupiter! But why this mortal guise, Wooing as if he were a milk-faced boy?” E. R. Sill. 126 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR “White robed truth.” —Milton. “The saintly veil of maiden white.” — Idem. “White as thy fame and as thy honour clear.” —Drtoen. “By the semblance Of their white flags display’d, they bring us peace.” —Shakespeare. “My hands are of your color, but I shame To wear a heart so white.” — Idem. BLACK S might be expected, the symbolic uses of black have been quite opposed to those of white. It has signified woe, gloom, darkness, dread, and death and, in a severer aspect, terror, horror, wickedness, and crime. When used with white, the latter appears to rid it of its baseness or to tone its severeness. In this com¬ bination it has been variously used to symbolize humility, melancholy, resolution, solemnity, secrecy, and prudence. Among civilized people it has been for ages the ensign of woe, mourning, and death. It is the most retiring of colors and in painting it has been used to express solem¬ nity, profundity, and endless extent. The “black sheep” signifies an individual different than the rest and usually in an uncomplimen¬ tary sense. This color is variously applied suggestively as “black tidings,” “black Fri¬ day,” “black aspect,” “black augury,” and “black looks.” The black flag is associated with piracy and with warfare when no quarter is to be given. Spenser clothes Idleness in a “habit black.” It is said that the ancient sculptors executed 127 128 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOE ( statues of Jupiter, the terrible, in black marble and of Jupiter, the mild, in white. Pluto’s chariot was supposed to have been drawn by black horses, and black sheep were sacrificed to him. Odin, a great and severe god in North¬ ern mythology, rode a black horse as Gray says, ‘“Uprose the king- of men with speed And saddled straight his coal-black steed.” Black was the garb of the Harpies and the Furies, the daughters of Night. In mythology, Mors, or Death, is represented with pale face and clad in black garments. Somnus, god of sleep and brother of Death, is draped in black, and statues of him were often made of ebony and black marble. Night, the mother of all these figurative beings, is clad in a black mantle studded with stars, has sable wings, and is sometimes drawn in an ebony chariot. “Eldest Night And Chaos, ancestors of Nature.” —Milton. “Sable-vested Night, eldest of things.” — Idem. “Night with her sullen wings.” “0 thievish night.” — Idem. — Idem. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 129 “Ghostly, grim and ancient Raven, wandering from the Nightly shore, Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night’s Plutonian shore!” —Pope. But night has another aspect; its silent, starry, endless expanse awakens imagination. Who has gazed at the studded sky in the silence of midnight w T ho has not imagined as at no other time? Imagination is another world and the nearly infinitely distant stars, as attracting magnets, seem to draw the imagination far into another world. At no other period of the day is the purely imaginative mood so fostered as at night with its freedom from distractions. It has been stated that ancient poets and painters represented Hesperus, or evening, “as a double investure of light and shade.” As Lucifer and Phosphorus they give him a white horse, and as Hesperus a black one. Black has been associated with witchcraft and from its association with mystery arose the term “black art.” In northern mythology, the white spirits or Elves of Light, according to Bulfinch, were “fair, more brilliant than the sun, and clad in garments of delicate and transparent texture.” They lived in the domain of Freyr, the god of 130 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR the sun, and sported in light. “The black or Night Elves were a different kind of creature. Ugly, long-nosed dwarfs, of a dirty brown color, they appeared only at night. Their language was the echo of solitudes, and their dwelling places subterranean caves and clefts.” Black is often given to Satan symbolizing wickedness and death. Examples of the symbolic use of black by Shakespeare are: “Look’d black upon me; struck me with her tongue, Most serpent-like, upon the very heart.” “Nor customary suits of solemn black.” “Arise, black vengeance, from thy hollow cell.” “How now, you secret, black, and midnight hags?” “News fitted to the night,— Black, fearful, comfortless, and horrible.” “Youth no less becomes The light and careless livery that it wears, Than settled age his sables and his weeds, Importing health and graveness.” “Taking thy part, hath rush’d aside the law, And turned that black word death to banishment.” “Black lust, dishonour, shame, misgoverning.” “And beauty dead, black chaos comes again.” THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 131 “Black is the badge of bell, The hue of dungeons and the scowl of night.” The power of black in poetry is strikingly shown in the following to be equal to its power in painting: “Hence, loathed Melancholy, Of Cerberus and blackest Midnight born, In stygian cave forlorn, ’Mongst horrid shapes, and shrieks, and sights unholy, Find out some uncouth cell, Where brooding Darkness spreads his jealous wings, And the night-raven sings; There, under ebon shades, and low brow’d rocks, As ragged as thy locks, In dark Cimmerian desert ever dwell.” —Milton. Other symbolical uses of black are presented in the following examples: “Not the black gates of Hades are to me More hostile or more hateful, than the man Whose tongue holds no communion with his heart.” —Sydenham. “O’erlaid with black, staid Wisdom’s hue.” —Milton. “There the black gibbet glooms beside the way.” —Goldsmith. “The black and doleful ebonie.” —Spenser. 132 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR * “Black tidings there,—blacker never came to New England.” —Hawthorne. “A great black swamp and evil smell.” —Tennyson. Black is one of the most important pigments to the artist. It combines well with all colors and this characteristic has sometimes led to its symbolical use occasionally in a harmonious sense seemingly inconsistent with other uses if this attribute is not recognized. It harmonizes well with the gayest colors and the representa¬ tion of the goddess Flora in a black mantle is ap¬ propriate in this sense. Gray has beautifully expressed this idea thus: “The hues of bliss more brightly glow, Chasten’d by sabler tints of woe; And blended, form with artful strife, The strength and harmony of life.” GEAY I N many respects the expressiveness of gray partakes partially of the attributes of both black and white and is sometimes a well-defined mean of their characteristics. It is the color of penance, humility, sadness, age and matured judgment. Spenser speaks of Humbleness as ‘‘aged sire, hoary gray” and of Reverence, “cleanly clad in comely sad attire.” In Nature it is ofttimes considered cool, retiring and sug¬ gestive of distance. The skies of winter and of rainy days are often of a grayish or leaden color and the dreariness associated with such bleak periods of “leaden dullness” appears to have been inherited by this color. To Thomson, Winter is “sullen and sad” as he “spreads his latest glooms” and many poets share a similar sentiment regarding this season. The ap¬ proaching night, with its “twilight gray” asso¬ ciated with quietude and a note of sobriety or sadness, has lent its assistance in attaching these attributes to this color. According to their traditions, the Dominicans wore a habit requested by the Virgin Mary. This was composed of black and white, the 133 134 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR former symbolizing mortification and the latter purity. Various monastic orders wear black, gray and brown in different combinations. It is noteworthy that the colors were invariably neutral or nearly so. The Greeks often repre¬ sented Jupiter clothed in the skin of a gray goat. Gray apparently takes a consistent place be¬ tween black and white according to its usage by the poets as might be suggested in these lines by Pope, “If white and black blend, soften and unite A thousand ways, is there no black and white?” It has been used to signify humility, penance, piety, matured judgment, sobriety, fear, and death. As already stated, it appears to as¬ sume attributes similar to those of its compo¬ nents, black and white, even when the latter are unmixed but used simultaneously. As a back¬ ground for paintings of saints it signifies tribu¬ lation. “Let hoary Judgment, sober guest, Bring Candour in her lilied vest.” “Now came still evening on, and twilight gray, Had, in her sober lively, all things clad.” —Milton. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 135 "For all was black, bleak, and gray,— It was not night—-it was not day.” —Byron. "Gray-headed men and grave warriors mixt.” —Milton. "Oh! how unseemly shews in blooming youth Such grey severity.” — Idem. "The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade To paly ashes, thy eye’s windows fall.” —Shakespeare. VARIOUS COLORS I N closing this section, in which it has been the aim to discuss the expression and sym¬ bolism of colors by means of data as definite as obtainable, a few illustrations of the use of light and colors in various combinations will be pre¬ sented. Some of these examples will be selected from the poets who exhibit a wonderfully re¬ fined feeling for color in painting their many vari-colored sketches. They also reveal a highly developed sense of appropriateness in the application of color and a masterly skill in contrasting and in harmonizing colors. The lat¬ ter viewpoint is not of direct interest in the present work but it is of interest in passing. In some of the following examples colors have been used symbolically although more or less vaguely. “Seest how fresh my flowers been spread, Dyed in lily-white and crimson-red, With leaves ingrained in rustic green, Colours meet to cloathe a maiden queen.” —Spenser. “To thee, sweet smiling maid, I bring The beauteous progeny of spring; In every breathing bloom I find 136 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 137 Some pleasing emblem of thy mind. The blushes of that op’ning rose Thy tender modesty disclose. The snow-white lilies of the vale, Diffusing fragrance to the gale, No ostentatious tints assume, Vain of their exquisite perfume; Careless, and sweet, and mild, we see In them a lovely type of thee.” —Richardson. “There is something in the autumn that is native to my blood— Touch of manner, hint of mood; And my heart is like a rhyme With the yellow and the purple and the crimson keeping time.” —W. B. Carman. Ofttimes the word, color, is used suggestively as in the following, “Colouring with astonishment and disdain.” —Jane Austen. “Figures of poetrie Or coloures of rethorik.” —Chaucer. The lamp, lantern and taper are often the symbols of piety, but according to Clement the lamp as the attribute of St. Lucia signifies heavenly wisdom or spiritual light. Fire and flames are sometimes emblematic of zeal or the sufferings of martyrdom. The flaming heart 138 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR most frequently signifies piety and divine love. Isis, the goddess of the rainbow, is represented as the messenger of the gods. In the Library of Congress, Carl Gutherz has painted a pictorial spectrum of light which con¬ sists of idealizations of the seven principal col¬ ors. The significations are not all clear but they are presented here for reference. Violet (akin to purple) is the light of State; indigo, the light of Science; blue, of Truth; green, of Research; yellow, of Creation; orange, of Prog¬ ress ; and red, the light of Poetry. In some representations a glory of angels sur¬ rounds Christ, the Virgin or the Trinity. The Seraphim and Cherubim are symbolized by heads with one to three pairs of wings and painted blue or red. According to Clement, “the Seraph, whose name symbolizes ‘to love’ should be red, and the Cherub, whose name sig¬ nifies ‘to know’ should be blue.” 'White is usually the prevailing color of angels ’ robes. Some artists and writers have noted that the human countenance is a masterpiece of the natural expression of colors. As indicated in the preceding, redness accompanies anger and the ardent passions, the blush signifies bashful¬ ness or shame, yellowness is the result of ill¬ ness, grief, and envy, and blueness is due to THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 139 fear, terror, hate, agony, and death. Whether or not scientific investigation will support all of the foregoing, these ideas are prevalent and have been woven into mythology, art, and lit¬ erature for many centuries. PART III NOMENCLATURE A MONG the various phases of the science of color the most discouraging chaos is found in the state of color terminology. Even among the various sciences interested in color, such as physics, physiology and psychology, the terms which are used for different color qualities are far from being standardized and universally definite. Upon turning to the vocabularies of artists and laymen the terminology is found to be so indefinite and misapplied as to leave one bewildered and quite incapable of determining the exact meaning of many of the terms which are used. This state of affairs is the more dis¬ appointing because the various color quantities or qualities are well established and readily de¬ fined scientifically. Furthermore, the science of color cannot boast even of a rudimentary scheme of notation. To make the meaning clear let us consider music. The nomenclature of sounds is very definite, well established, and almost universally accepted. In order to con¬ nect and to harmonize tones into music, a system of notation—the musical scale—was adopted, thus making printed music a universal 143 144 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR language at least among the more highly civ¬ ilized peoples. This standardization has not reached all parts of the earth, but has spread and taken root in a remarkable manner when compared in this respect to the nomenclature of color. Of course it took many centuries for the terms of the science of tones and of the art of music to reach their present highly standard¬ ized and readily interpretable state, but colors have been used for centuries without more than a rudimentary beginning of a standardization of the nomenclature. It appears not only profitable but necessary to insert at this point a brief discussion of color and of color terminology not only for the purpose of aiding the reader in understand¬ ing clearly other chapters but to spread the propaganda of standardization. The termin¬ ology considered here will be that which has been acceptable to the physicist for many years. This appears justifiable because the terms seem to meet the requirements of other scientists as well as artists and, furthermore, the physics of color is in a higher state of development than other aspects of the subject. Before discussing terminology, the funda¬ mentals of color will be treated briefly. Light rays can be decomposed by a prism or by a dif- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 145 fraction grating into colored rays. Investiga¬ tion has revealed the fact that the radiation from a light-source, such as the sun, consists of disturbances of various wave-lengths (in a hypothetical medium called the ether) some of which, when impinging upon the retina of the eye, are capable of arousing the sensation of color, depending upon the wave-length or fre¬ quency of the vibration. The rays of shortest wave-length (highest frequencies) which are visible produce the sensation of violet and the longest visible wave-lengths (lowest frequen¬ cies) produce the sensation of red. Intermedi¬ ate wave-lengths, from the shorter to the longer, produce respectively the sensations of blue, green, yellow and orange. It will be recognized that the spectrum has been described and that these colors are known as the spectral colors. Under favorable conditions the rainbow is produced in Nature, which in reality is the spec¬ trum of sunlight. Although many different hues are visible in the spectrum besides those represented by the foregoing simple color- names, a large class of colors, namely, the pur¬ ples, has not been mentioned. These do not exist in the spectrum but are the result of the synthesis of the violet or blue and red sensa¬ tions. 146 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR This brings us to the matter of color-vision which will be touched upon briefly here but more elaborately in the chapter on the Psycho-physi¬ ology of Color. The eye is not an analytical in¬ strument but a synthetical one. In other words, a given sensation of light or of color is the in¬ tegral effect of radiation of many wave-lengths except in the case of pure spectral colors. For example, white light is the integral effect of all visible wave-lengths in daylight or, in special cases, is the combined effect of complementary wave-lengths. Another example is the sensa¬ tion of yellow which can be caused in three w'ays: first, by a certain wave-length in the spec¬ trum; second, by a mixture of green and red lights of proper intensities; and third, by the integral effects of various wave-lengths such as are commonly reflected by yellow pigments, in which cases the wave-lengths exciting the sen¬ sation of yellow predominate. These three ways of producing the sensation of yellow are only general classifications because there are many combinations of wave-lengths in the last two whose integral effects result in arousing the sensation of yellow. It is also well known that proper mixtures of red, green, and blue lights, when acting simul¬ taneously upon the retina, will produce a color- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 147 less sensation or white. Many such examples could be presented but these are sufficient at present to show that the sensations of color, even of simple colors, are complex when con¬ sidered from the viewpoint of the stimuli. It is well to bring to attention the difference between spectral colors and the colored lights and pigments ordinarily encountered. Spec¬ tral colors are produced by radiation of single wave-lengths, or nearly so. This is never true of the colors of pigments or of colored lights ordinarily available. Pigments generally re¬ flect rays of many wave-lengths and colored lights usually consist of rays of many wave¬ lengths. Two distinct kinds of color terminology are necessary to meet all requirements. The science of color requires a terminology and no¬ tation based upon the spectral characteristics of colors because spectrum analysis is of funda¬ mental importance. However, from the view¬ point of this book we are concerned chiefly with what the eye sees, so that the actual spectral characteristics will not be considered here. Turning then to colors as the eye sees them, hue is the first important color quality. Ordi¬ nary colors, with the exception of purple (which includes pink, rose and allied colors), have a 148 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR dominant hue which corresponds to a spectral color. Hue is, therefore, that quality of a color which is correlated on the physical side with wave-length or frequency of light waves. In the case of purple, which has no match in the spectrum, the hue of its complementary can be associated with it in scientific data. After matching the given color with its cor¬ responding spectral hue and equating the two in brightness, it is seen that the two colors do not generally appear alike. They now differ in saturation or purity and by mixing a proper amount of white light with the spectral color an apparent match can be obtained. Most pig¬ ments reflect a sufficient range of wave-lengths on either side of the maximum so that the color is diluted with a certain amount of white light. This is also generally true of transparent col¬ ored media or of colored lights. The fraction of white light, which has been added to the spectral hue to produce a match with the color being analyzed, when subtracted from unity gives a measure of the purity of this color. Thus the saturation or purity of a color is de¬ pendent upon the amount of white light associ¬ ated with it. A spectral color is of one hun¬ dred per cent, purity on this basis and white represents the other extreme or zero per cent. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 149 purity as a color. In analyzing a purple by this method a spectral color is mixed with the pur¬ ple to make white and the remaining procedure is obvious. The third quality of a color as considered from the standpoint of what the eye sees is brightness. For purposes of analysis this fac¬ tor can be measured in relative or in absolute units depending upon the requirements. Thus, it is seen that the three qualities of a color are hue, saturation or purity, and brightness. Only two other terms are necessary to com¬ plete a simple color terminology of considera¬ ble effectiveness and descriptive power. If a spectral hue or a pigment be diluted with white it becomes less saturated or of lower purity and is called a tint. For example, the light from a candle flame is a tint of yellow, that is, a yel¬ low of low purity or saturation; a pink is an unsaturated purple; and the blue sky is a tint of blue. In other words, tints of a certain hue are produced by varying the saturation. Shades are produced by reducing the bright¬ ness of a color. This can be accomplished in two ways: first, by decreasing the illumination of a color it becomes a darker shade; second, by mixing a “perfectly black” pigment with a given color, a shade of the latter is produced. 150 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR Thus with the terms, hue, saturation, brightness, tint, and shade, a terminology of very extensive application is available. Many of the indefinite or not widely used terms can be discarded with¬ out sacrificing anything but an undesirable con¬ fusion. Doubtless certain general terms now used in the vocabularies of the artist can be re¬ tained to advantage but most of the require¬ ments of color terminology are well met by the five foregoing terms. At least descriptions of color should be confined as closely as possible to the five terms or similar ones. It appears that these are worthy of adoption because they emanate from the most firmly founded branch of color. Other methods of analyzing color are avail¬ able, notably the method which matches a given color by mixing proper proportions of red, green and blue lights. This method is based upon an experimental fact of color-mixture but is less desirable as a basis for the terminology of color because the results cannot be readily visualized in terms of the appearance of a color. The method of analysis which yields results in terms of hue, saturation, and brightness is more promising because the data are more easily visualized in terms of what the eye actually sees on viewing the colors. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 151 Regarding the notation of color there is little to discuss beyond stating that there is no scien¬ tifically founded notation available at present although commendable schemes have been pro¬ posed. The one which best fits into the termin¬ ology favored by the author makes use of the measurements of hue, saturation and brightness. This scheme of notation which has been advo¬ cated by various persons interested in color, notably Munsell, would perhaps require that the saturation and brightness scales be divided em¬ pirically but referred to certain standards. For instance R®, would represent a red color whose brightness is 6 and whose saturation is 7, both these numbers being stations on em¬ pirical scales. Perhaps ten stations on each scale would be sufficient and in this case the above notation would represent a red color whose brightness was 0.6 of the brightness of a perfect white under equal illumination, the brightness of the white being considered as 10 units. Relative brightness in this case is suffi¬ cient. The wave-length of the dominant hue could be associated with, or substituted for, the letter R, which would indicate the dominant hue specifically. The data so far would be meaningful. A spectral color could be represented by 10 units 152 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOE or complete saturation and in the foregoing case the color would be 0.7 saturated or would have 0.3 white mixed with it. Adherence to the foregoing terminology and notation would in¬ sure against the present chaotic condition. It is doubtless too early to expect the adoption of such scientific notation because scientists must first present data in these terms, but there ap¬ pears no reason for not using the terminology described above or terms akin to these instead of the variety of indefinite terms now in use. The number of different color sensations which we are able to experience has not been de¬ termined even approximately but from various modes of attack this number can be shown to be as large as several hundred thousand. Cer¬ tainly the future cannot depend upon individual color-names for the correct designation of these colors. This emphasizes the need of a sys¬ tematic system of color notation. Chromatic sensations differ from achromatic sensations in that they form a closed series. That is, the former may be placed in a continu¬ ous series, as is commonly done, about the cir¬ cumference of a circle or the periphery of a square. Beginning with red, we can pass through the spectrum to the violet and close the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 153 remaining gap with the purples varying from a violet-purple to a reddish one. The arranging of various colors in certain relations upon geo¬ metrical forms is merely for convenience in vis¬ ualizing the variations and relations of colors which are perceptible to the eye. Both plane and solid geometrical forms have been used, among them being the square, circle, equilateral triangle, pyramid, cone, cylinder, sphere, etc. The use of such forms is highly commendable as an aid in arranging colors in certain sequential relations but it is a mistake to press these geo¬ metrical dimensions and relations too far into the theory of color. Many ingenious adapta¬ tions of solid geometrical forms have been made for providing arrangements of the spectral col¬ ors and all their tints and shades in certain approximate relations which can be visualized as a whole. In order to account for certain physiological and psychological peculiarities it is necessary to modify these figures into some¬ what irregular and asymmetrical forms. Achromatic sensations do not form a closed series. If we begin with white and pass through the grays we finally reach black, but nothing re¬ mains with which to fill the gap from black to white again unless the series of grays be re- 154 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR peated in reversed order. This difference is significant in dealing with colors in many of their uses as touched upon in this treatise. We are able to distinguish fewer spectral hues than achromatic sensations, yet we have a great many more names for the former. If all the tints and shades of colors be included with the perceptibly different hues the number of chro¬ matic sensations that can be experienced is greatly increased. As previously stated, the exact number has not been determined experi¬ mentally but it is possible to compute approxi¬ mate values which mount as high as several hundred thousand. Between white and black it is contended that we can experience more than six hundred differ¬ ent sensations. Psychologists do not agree as to whether or not the colorless sensations differ in quality as well as in intensity. Wundt be¬ lieves they differ only in intensity but some psychologists, notably Titchener, contend that they differ also in quality. The latter contend that a gray can differ from another in two im¬ portant characteristics; it may be lighter (or darker) and it may also be brighter (or duller). It is possible that the latter character¬ istic can be considered merely a physical one possessed by the object and consequently there THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 155 is some question as to the acceptibility of this characteristic as a quality of sensation. Color (in the narrow sense of the term) is accom¬ panied by emotions and by strong sentiments to a much greater extent than neutral grays (mere brightness) but both have their functions in the language of color. It is simpler to discuss each separately and this procedure is therefore ad¬ hered to whenever it is possible. In the foregoing, the discussion has been con¬ fined largely to the science of color nomencla¬ ture for the purpose of defining the terms upon a rigid foundation. Pertinent data concerning color-names and their evolution are found in the chapter on Primitive Language. It is well to consider that chapter as an introduction to the present one. In reflecting upon our color notation it is interesting to select from the great mass of words, which are used to describe or to designate colors, those words which are abstract color-names and to select from these the names which apply directly to the spectral colors. If, in connection with this study, observations will be made on the ability of the average person to describe colors, it will be concluded that many of the difficulties or characteristics of primitive language persist in recognizable form in our present highly developed languages. PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY OF COLOR L IGHT rays which enter the eye stimulate the physiological processes of vision which result in the sensations of brightness and color. Thus it is seen that vision involves the physical stimuli, the physiological processes, and the psychological sensations. It is impos¬ sible to separate completely the physiological and psychological elements; hence this discus¬ sion is presented under the combined term, psy¬ cho-physiology. Visual experiences touch the whole personality and, therefore, the physiolog¬ ical and psychological results of color are more complex than is indicated by the foregoing simple description of the visual process. The effects of visual stimuli can be observed upon the blood pressure, upon muscular, mental, and nervous activity, upon the mood and in various other ways. There is a vast amount of data available upon the physiology and psychology of color-vision but relatively little concerning the effects of color sensations upon the human organism. The latter data are of chief interest to us from the viewpoint of the language of color, however, various color phenomena will be 156 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 157 discussed here because of the complex texture of the subject of this book. Numerous hypotheses of color-vision have been proposed, some differing entirely in princi¬ ple while others are closely related to each other. An extensive discussion of this aspect of color is not contemplated because space does not per¬ mit and because it would be out of place here. However, it appears profitable to discuss this subject by comparing the two hypotheses which have the greatest number of adherents and which have been studied and discussed exten¬ sively. In treating these two theories—for in many aspects they have evolved from the “hypothesis” stage—we are not especially con¬ cerned with the physiological processes in¬ volved but with the main characteristics which aid in clearing the view for a better understand¬ ing of the possibilities of the application of color. Many years ago, Young constructed the three- color theory largely from the facts of color- mixture. It has already been noted that any color can be matched in hue and in brightness by a proper mixture of the three primary colors, namely, red, green, and blue. Young assumed three sets of nerves or processes to exist in the visual apparatus and all color-sensations to be 158 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR due to the integral result of the stimulation of these three primary sensations, namely, red, green, and blue. Later, the great work of Helmholtz supplied this three-color theory with a more extensive experimental foundation. Many data of interest from the viewpoints of the theory and practice of color have been sup¬ plied by such investigators in the field of vision but there are still many questions unanswered. One of the most vulnerable points of the three- color theory of vision has been the lack of ana¬ tomical evidence regarding the three hypothet¬ ical sets of nerves or physiological processes. Hering, who has been the most conspicuous and arduous antagonist of the foregoing theory, constructed an hypothesis of color-vision based largely upon the simple psychological facts of the appearance of colors, especially of the spec¬ trum. From the simplicity of the appearance of white and black, red and green, yellow and blue, he concluded that these represented the primary sensations whose integral effects in any case were responsible for a given color- sensation. It was necessary for him to assume the existence of three chemical processes each of which was responsible for two sensations paired in the preceding statement. The build¬ ing-up of one of the substances was assumed to THE LANGUAGE OP COLOR 159 be responsible for one of the sensations of a given pair and the breaking-down of the sub¬ stance was responsible for the other sensation. Unfortunately here again anatomical evidence of the existence of the three assumed processes is lacking. There is much in favor of the Hering theory especially to those who have an intimate ac¬ quaintance with the appearance of colors. If the spectrum is studied, red appears to be un¬ diluted with any other color, that is, no sug¬ gestion of another color is associated with it. This is considered by a great many persons not to be true of orange or of any of the “tran¬ sitional” spectral colors between red and yel¬ low, however, the latter appears to many per¬ sons to be a simple color unmixed with any other color. In progressing from the yellow toward the short-wave end of the spectrum no simple colors appear until we reach a certain green which appears to be a color in which no other color is suggested. Continuing through the spectrum we meet with another color which is simple in appearance, namely blue. White and black are also considered simple colors and thus the six simple sensations appear to be red, yel¬ low, green, blue, white and black. This argu¬ ment has much in its favor as a basis upon which 160 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR to found an hypothesis of color-vision. One of the most encouraging features of the Hering theory is the possibility that it may separate the brightness and hue phenomena completely and thus simplify many of the unanswered questions concerning vision. In fairness it should be noted that some investigators claim all colors are simple in appearance. The phenomena of contrast has been one of the most conspicuous battle-grounds of the ad¬ herents of these two chief theories. This point is of special interest to us owing to the great in¬ fluence of contrast—both in hue and in bright¬ ness—upon the appearance of colors and there¬ fore upon their appeal to us. It is difficult to pass on without discussing many of the inter¬ esting phenomena of vision which have been dis¬ covered and investigated by adherents to these theories and without presenting some of the main features of other hypotheses worthy of consideration. However, such discussions would lead far afield without adding much of value from the viewpoint of the language of color. Suffice it to state that Young and Helm¬ holtz who builded their hypothesis largely upon a foundation consisting of the facts of color- mixture, might be criticized for not giving the psychological aspect more prominence. Hering THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 161 has injected into color-vision theory the very interesting elements of sensation with greater prominence than his predecessors. Both theo¬ ries contain much to be commended and it will not be surprising if future investigation shows each to be partially correct. We are not concerned here primarily so much with the physiological and psychological phe¬ nomena which actually play a part in color- vision as with the general physiological and psychological effects resulting from the influ¬ ence of color. As already stated these latter data are not plentiful for these fields of the science of color have not been explored to any appreciable extent. Fere studied the effect of colored light upon muscular activity which ef¬ fect was measured dynometrically. In ordi¬ nary light this muscular activity was found to be 23 units on an empirical scale. It increased to 24 units for blue light; to 28 for green light; to 30 for yellow light; and to 35 and 42 units, respectively, for orange and red light. Thus is seen more evidence of the stimulating effect of the “warmer” colors. Pressey, who has studied the effects of red, green, yellow, blue and white light of equal in¬ tensities, found that, after subjecting a person to a given color for five minutes, he could de- 162 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR tect differences in the effects of the various col¬ ors upon tapping activity, memory, mental work, etc. He found subjects with pronounced intolerance for a particular color. The mental processes of one subject might take 20 per cent, more time under the influence of one color or the memory work of another might show marked improvement under a certain colored light. Tapping activity was more uniform with green light, slower with blue light and decidedly quicker under red light. Arithmetical work was strongly improved under red light and in a less marked way by an increase in brightness. Pressey’s work is encouraging from the view¬ point of the possibility of obtaining experi¬ mental data regarding the physiological and psychological influences of colors, for he finds constant differences indicated by the averages of the results from many subjects. Further¬ more, it is well to note a characteristic result of his investigations, which is of great importance in the language of color, namely, the independ¬ ence of such objective results from the sub¬ jective feelings. In other words, the colored lights which are experienced as pleasant do not necessarily produce more favorable conditions for working efficiency than those which are felt as unpleasant. Although this complicates our THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 163 problem by limiting predictions or conclusions, it appears to indicate a very definite and power¬ ful influence of color upon the human organism. It is only natural to expect that, other conditions being equal, many activities would be favored by a “pleasant” color and hindered by an “un¬ pleasant ’ ’ one. This being contrary to the fore¬ going results it follows that the power of colors is by no means feeble in their influences upon the physical and mental activities. In judging the appeal or affective value of color it is well to bear in mind that there are many pitfalls. For example, a colored light is likely to be judged according to the appearances of the familiar objects which it illuminates, whereas an object of this color is not always judged in the same manner because its color is not illuminating other objects either agreeably or disagreeably. For example, let us illuminate an entire scene with green light. It now has the appearance of a monochrome which in itself might be pleasing but suppose a human face ap¬ peared under this green light. The face would appear ghastly and under many circumstances the green light would be condemned. Remove the object which provoked this judgment against the green light and the aversion to green would perhaps disappear. It would be an endless task 164 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR to cite examples which would exemplify all the conditions under which color is viewed and judged, therefore it is most practicable to make a plea for keen analyses of conditions before a judgment is reached. The mental notes gleaned from the careful analyses should accompany any judgments of the effects of colors if progress is to be made. It is quite helpful in any application of color to be acquainted with the chief phenomena of color and, therefore, a few of these will be de¬ scribed briefly. After a color has been viewed for some time and then is suddenly replaced by a neutral gray an outline of the original color is seen on the gray ground, but of a hue approx¬ imately complementary to the original. This phenomenon is called an after-image and is per¬ haps due to fatigue in the visual process. For example, if a bright green object be fixated for a few seconds and the eyes be then suddenly turned toward a neutral gray paper, a pink image of the object will be found to persist. This phenomenon would be explained on the basis of the three-color theory of color-vision by assuming that the “green” process, or set of “nerves,” was fatigued so that on viewing the gray paper, which stimulated the three proc- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 165 esses, red, green, and bine, the “green” process was incapable of responding as fully as the ‘ ‘ red ’ ’ and ‘ ‘ blue ’ ’ processes with the result that there was an excess of red and blue sensations over the green sensation. Consequently, the after-image appeared to be an unsaturated pur¬ ple or pink in color. This phenomenon is quite apparent to the careful observer under many conditions encountered daily. It is well-known that the various colored sen¬ sations do not rise to their full value at equal rates nor do they decay at equal rates. The facts that they do not rise to full value or de¬ cay to zero instantly and that their individual rates differ are of great interest in many cases. These effects are shown by swiftly moving col¬ ored objects. For example, this phenomenon can be demonstrated by placing a red square at the center of a larger blue-green square and moving this combination with a moderate mo¬ tion at an arm’s length under a fairly dim light, keeping the eyes fixated at a point near the middle of the path. The red square appears to shake like jelly because its image lags some¬ what behind its proper place in the visual field. This phenomenon can be readily demonstrated by moving the image of a black and white pat- 166 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR tern over the retina at a certain speed. Fech- ner’s disks strikingly demonstrate this interest¬ ing feature of color-vision. Experiments have shown that the color-sensa¬ tions overshoot their final values immediately after the presentation of the color stimuli. Blue overshoots the most, red next, and of these three, the green sensation is the most sluggish. This order also approximately represents the relative rapidity of the growth and decay of these color-sensations, bine being most rapid and green the slowest. The fact that colors can be mixed, as far as sensation is concerned, by rotating them on disks above a certain critical frequency is ample proof that color-sensations do not instantly rise to full value immediately upon the presentation of the stimuli and do not decay to zero at the instant that the stimuli are removed. The critical frequency at which the colors upon a rotating disk blend in the visual process varies with the hue, saturation, and brightness of the colors. Another interesting fact which is connected with the foregoing is that of adaptation of the visual process to color. In general all sensa¬ tions of brightness tend toward a middle gray and those of color tend toward neutrality. For example, if one works under red light for some THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 167 time the saturation of the color seems to de¬ crease and he becomes less conscious of the color. In a similar manner, colors of very high brightness appear to be less saturated than un¬ der a moderately low illumination. In accord¬ ance with this fact the artist paints a red object, illuminated by intense sunlight, orange or orange-red in color. The greatest phenomenon which overshadows all others in importance in our everyday en¬ counters with colors is that of contrast, for its omnipresence is responsible for most of our en¬ joyment of color. For the sake of analysis, it can be separated into hue and brightness con¬ trasts. Little was known about the practical importance of these phenomena until the elab¬ orate experiments and observations of Chev- reul, the color expert of the famous Gobelins, nearly a century ago. Since that time these aspects of color have been given a great deal of attention by scientists and several laws have been established. The contrast-effect is always in the direction of greatest opposition. For example, white and black, when juxtaposed, mutually influence each other so that the white appears brighter and the black appears darker. If red and green are juxtaposed, the red appears redder than 168 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR when viewed amid neutral surroundings of ap¬ proximately the same brightness and similarly the green appears greener. If a gray patch is surrounded by a certain color, the smaller gray patch no longer appears uncolored hut assumes a tint usually approximately complementary to the surrounding color. This is called an in¬ duced color. For example, if the surrounding color be green, the induced color of the central gray patch is pink. This induced color is most striking when the inducing color is highly sat¬ urated and when the gray is of a brightness about equal to that of the inducing color. This reduces the effect of brightness contrast to a minimum otherwise the brightness contrast may play a conspicuous part and, in some cases, may tend to veil the effect of induced color. The contrast-effects are a function of the nearness of the different colors to each other; that is, the nearer together the greater is the contrast-effect. If the colors are juxtaposed without any dividing line of black or other color the mutual effect of the two colors is greatest. Hue contrast is most evident when the satura¬ tions of the colors are greatest. It has been contended by some observers that the cold col¬ ors, namely, those near the blue end of the spec¬ trum, produce stronger contrast-effects than THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 169 the warmer colors. The author is not convinced that this is true. It is difficult to assign a su¬ periority to any particular part of the spectrum because of the great difficulty in controlling the different variables in actual experiment in order to reach definite conclusions. It would not he surprising to find the warmer colors more ef¬ fective than blue in producing strong contrasts because, as a general rule among the colors or¬ dinarily encountered, the reds and yellows are more saturated than the blues. In this chapter the chief phenomena of color have been briefly discussed. These and many combinations of them are of extreme importance in the use and observation of color. It has been seen that there are many elements to be con¬ sidered from the various viewpoints of physics, physiology, and psychology. The physical as¬ pects are associated with the production of color; the other aspects are found in vision and in the accompanying effects of color upon the human organism. A visual impression is “the starting-point for a whole hierarchy of mental reactions” and its importance is further em¬ phasized by Miinsterberg who states that “each time our perceptions and apperceptions, our feelings and our attention, our imagination and our will are involved.” 170 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR In attempting to analyze the effect or impres¬ sion of color on the human organism, many fac¬ tors must be considered. In fact, this is a prob¬ lem for the trained psychologist. However, there is no reason why any person, with a mod¬ erate understanding of coW and an ability to analyze, cannot add considerable to his own knowledge of the psychological effects of color if he exercises careful and analytical observa¬ tion. Space will not permit an extensive discussion of the psychological aspects involved, however, it appears essential to note two general posi¬ tions which color occupies with respect to con¬ sciousness. In one case it occupies the focus of attention and in the other case it does not although it still is influential. For example, a color arrangement may be so closely studied and the thoughts be so given over to the considera¬ tion of color that the surroundings, especially if they are not unusual as to color, will be quite lacking in an appreciable influence upon the mind. However, in another case the environ¬ ment may be of such a nature that one is pleas¬ antly or unpleasantly conscious of it, especially if the object upon which the attention is fo¬ cussed is not impelling enough to suppress the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOB, 171 influence of the environment. The so-called sub-conscious element must always be consid¬ ered from the viewpoint of analysis, as a more or less dormant power capable at any time of in¬ jecting into the situation unexpected influences which modify the judgment. For example, the warm colors are predominantly stimulating but they may be either agreeable or disagreeable. The cold colors are predominantly restful but they may be either agreeable or disagreeable. Association, appropriateness, etc., determine their agreeableness, but these generally operate through the sub-consciousness. Few persons are familiar with the meanings of various terms that must be used in analyzing and in discussing the psychological effects of color so that it may be profitable to present a few of these as defined by various psychologists. Sensation. A sensation is a simple fact of consciousness which is referred to some definite sense-organ. Yerkes states, “There are three ways of classifying sensations or of arranging them. (1) According to their degree of psy¬ chological likeness. (2) According to the bod¬ ily organs (sense-organs) to which they are re¬ ferred. (3) According to the kind of stimulus which gives rise to them. ’ ’ The first is the most 172 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR valuable for strictly psychological purposes be¬ cause it takes account of the psychological pe¬ culiarities of the things to be classified. Feeling. Feelings are usually classified into four varieties, namely, sense-feelings, emotions, sentiments, and volitions. The qualities given by various psychologists to the feelings are as follows: Wundt Royce Titchener Agreeableness Pleasantness Pleasantness Disagreeableness Unpleasantness Unpleasantness Excitement Restlessness Quiescence Tension Relaxation Quiescence The following properties are given by vari¬ ous psychologists as common to all sensations. Angell Baldwin Munstebberg Titchener Wundt Quality Intensity Quality Intensity Quality Intensity Vividness Quality Intensity Clearness Quality Intensity Value Duration Extensity Duration Duration Affection. An affection is a simple fact of consciousness which pervades the whole body. According to Yerkes “We sense and we feel. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 173 The former variety of experiences yield ns our thousands of qualities of sensation and the lat¬ ter a multitude of simple facts which the psy¬ chologist calls affections.” A prominent dif¬ ference between a sensation and an affection is that the former is associated with a sense-organ and the latter is referred to the body as a whole. Sight, pain, and taste are associated with the sense-organs but affections are not. Feelings such as agreeableness, quiescence, and excite¬ ment exist as a condition of the whole body. Emotion. Psychologists describe emotion as an affective complex. It is more complex than a sense-feeling. When the cognitive aspect dominates an experience is said to be an idea, or a perception but when the affective aspect is predominant the same general experience is called a feeling or an emotion. Emotions are associated with perceptions or memory experi¬ ences and might be considered strong-feelings. The different grades of emotions might be termed mood, weak emotion, strong emotion, and passion. Corresponding to these different grades respectively, we might experience won¬ der, surprise, astonishment, amazement; or an¬ other example might be kindliness, friendliness, liking, love. Sentiment. An emotion which is attached to 174 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR a particular object is called a sentiment. For example, a person may have a sentiment for his alma mater. Sentiments have been vari¬ ously classified as ethical, esthetic, intellectual and religious although opinions may differ re¬ garding this classification. Volition. According to Wundt, an emotion together with its result is a volitional process. A person may be astonished and forthwith he thinks or acts. The combination constitutes a volition. Association. This is perhaps fairly well un¬ derstood but definitions will be incorporated be¬ cause of the great importance of association in the effects of color. Dunlap says: “Associ¬ ation is the organization of experience by virtue of which the various kinds and part of content constitute a whole; it is the functional intercon¬ nection of the objects of experience as we find them; not a force or an activity. The statement of the principles or laws of association is by no means an explanation of anything, but simply a convenient summary of observed facts.” Ac¬ cording to Titchener: “The law of association is that all connections between sensations which are set up by the formation of perceptions and ideas tend to persist, even when the original connections are no longer fulfilled.” Yerkes THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 175 says: “Association means that mental proc¬ esses are related to one another instead of being isolated and relatively independent. They tend to run together without losing their identity; they become associated.” Concerning associations Thorndyke says: “The likelihood that any mental state or act will occur in response to any situation is in pro¬ portion to the frequency, recency, intensity, and resulting satisfaction of its connection with that situation or some part of it and with the total frame of mind in which the situation is felt.” Psychologists attempt to classify associations but it does not appear necessary here to devote the space required for such a discussion. By analyzing his own experiences the reader will be able to discern various types. In presenting these definitions the author does not assume the burden of defending them because psychologists are not in complete agree¬ ment regarding many of these phases of their science. It is believed that the definitions are suf¬ ficiently clear and comprehensive for the pres¬ ent purpose. Surely if the use of these various terms be in accordance with the foregoing brief descriptions a long step will have been taken toward clearness of expression. It is with this hope that the material has been incorporated. COLOR PREFERENCE T HE consideration of color preference must be divided into two parts, namely, the preference of colors influenced as little as pos¬ sible by association, environment, and other factors, and the preference of colors as affected by the ordinary environments of everyday life. Data of the first kind are obtained from experi¬ ments with colors amid neutral and uninterest¬ ing surroundings upon subjects especially in¬ structed to eliminate associations insofar as it is possible and to choose the colors for “color’s sake” alone. Data of the other kind are ob¬ tained by merely observing the colors which are used under various conditions in decoration, in dress, etc., and at the same time obtaining other information which is obviously of consequence. Such data are difficult to analyze notwithstand¬ ing the ease with which they are obtained be¬ cause of the many uncontrolled factors which are influential. However, it is a fact revealed by observation that the warmer tints and shades are used more generally than the colder ones for the decoration of large interior areas. It is 176 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 177 quite possible that this custom has arisen from the desire to counteract, to some degree, the coldness of daylight. Most interiors are considered, unconsciously at least, to afford protection to us and doubtless the use of warmer tints is a natural sequence of the desire to make the interior cheerful. It is to be noted that, in the natural expression of refined taste, tints and shades are more favored than the purer colors. It is true that pure colors are used but only sparingly as compared with tints and shades. In a sense, the limited use of the purer colors can be justified by con¬ sidering that their chief function is one of em¬ phasis. Although not an invariable rule, it is certain that something of an individual’s nature or degree of refinement can be interpreted by observing the colors with which he chooses to surround himself. Closely akin to this pre¬ dominant use of warmer tints and shades in interiors is the widely prevalent idea that arti¬ ficial illuminants in interiors, devoted largely to social purposes, must be of a warm yellowish tinge. Perhaps this habit is the result of a sub¬ conscious association of the light with the cheer¬ fulness and protection afforded by the primeval campfire, but more likely it is merely the insist¬ ence of habit resulting from associating a warm 178 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR yellowish color with all the artificial illuminants of the past. These facts and many others closely related must be considered, but from the viewpoint of the language of color, the preference of color for color’s sake alone is of chief interest. Eventu¬ ally, the view may be extended, but in the pres¬ ent rudimentary stage and with the aim of in¬ terpreting the language of color the discussion and experimentation must be confined chiefly to the effects of color alone as far as possible. In passing it may be observed that Nature employs a relatively small amount of pure color. Even the glorious sunsets are devoid of pure colors, all the beautiful effects arising from ever-chang¬ ing combinations of tints and shades. Many of the beautiful scenes in Nature are painted chiefly with tints and shades, although here and there slight amounts of fairly pure color lend emphasis by contrast. In the fleeting and casual glance of most observers the beauty of Nature’s color is unseen owing to this lack of great areas of pure color. It appears that most persons ordinarily do not observe color unless it is present in relatively large areas and of fairly high purity or unless the contrast is strik¬ ing such as in the case of a yellow or red flower amid a large area of green foliage. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 179 The results of investigations of color prefer¬ ence from the other viewpoint, namely that in which the influence of all other factors besides color itself is minimized, are relatively more definite owing to the relative simplicity of this aspect. That is, when the object is to obtain results that are definite and capable of being quite thoroughly analyzed, laboratory experi¬ ments upon a large number of observers suffice and these are readily controlled. Of course, there always remains the question as to how completely the influences of association, habit, environment, etc., have been eliminated, but the consistency of the results obtained by various careful investigators is a favorable indication that data obtained from such experiments are valuable. Definite data have been obtained for various aspects of the problems of color prefer¬ ence confronting us and the experiments are constantly being extended into the vast un¬ known of the psychology of color. Some of the results will be presented with brief discussions and interpretations. It is recognized that the latter may not always be tenable as new data are unearthed but the intention here is to complete the chain of evidence as it exists at present which points toward a language of color. It has been quite conclusively established that 180 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR fairly pure colors are more highly preferred than colors of lower saturation and of lower luminosity; that is, admixture of white or black (in the case of pigments) lowers the preference of a color. In other words, pure colors, in gen¬ eral, rank higher in the preference order than tints and shades. The rank of tints relatively to shades in general has not been definitely as¬ certained. Bradford, in experimenting with twenty-six university students with a set of fif¬ teen colored papers, found that saturated colors were most preferred and that the admixture of a small percentage of another color lowered the position of the color in the preference order. He also found that the preference order re¬ mained fairly constant for individuals by re¬ peating the same experiments on three observ¬ ers after the lapse of one year. Cohn, the author, and others have also arrived at the con¬ clusion that, in general, pure colors are more highly preferred than tints and shades when other influences are minimized. It will be noted that this conclusion is apparently contradicted by the ordinary usage of color in daily life, but it must be remembered that in the latter case the conditions are complex. Although other data are available the foregoing points are well exemplified in the results of color preference THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 181 experiments on 115 male and 121 female college students, the data having been furnished to the author by Prof. Mabel C. Williams. These Fig. 1. Showing total number of times each color was pre¬ ferred by 115 male students. data were obtained by the method of paired comparisons. Colored papers were compared in pairs upon a neutral background, there being a total of 18 colored papers, comprising a tint, a shade, and a fairly pure color of 6 different 182 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR hues. By this method each of the 18 colors was compared with every other color, the observer recording his choice in the case of each pair. Fig. 2. Showing total number of times each color was pre¬ ferred by 121 female students. Each color therefore came under the subject’s observation 17 times. A summary of the total first choices for the different colors indicates the relative rank of the various colors. The 'results were reduced by the author during NUMBER OF PREFERENCES’ THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 183 which process a few uncertain cases were dis¬ carded. In Fig. 1 are plotted the total num¬ ber of choices of each color by the 115 young Fig. 3. Showing total number of times each color was pre¬ ferred by 115 male and 121 female students. men. Similar results are shown for the 121 young women in Fig. 2, and the total choices —for men and women—are shown in Fig. 3. It will be noted that in the case of the men the pure colors are very definitely preferred to the 184 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR shades and tints as indicated by the peaks. The pure colors (as pure as obtainable by means of pigments) are indicated on the horizontal scale by the initial letters, R, Y, etc.; the tints by a subscript t as R t ; and the shades by the subscript s, as R s . In the case of the young women, Fig. 2, the peaks are not so well defined; however, a similar conclusion is tenable. The yellow shade was the least preferred of all the colors. It will be noted that the tints of yellow and orange so commonly employed in interiors are among the least favored in experiments of color preference where the colors are chosen largely for color’s sake alone. An inspection of the three illustrations will reveal the results more clearly than further dis¬ cussion; however, it is interesting to note the summary presented in the following table. There are many limitations to the application of mathematics to such problems; but it ap¬ pears safe to summarize the total choices of tints, shades, and pure colors for the sake of drawing further conclusions of a general nature. The number of times that tints, shades and pure colors were chosen are given separately for the men and for the women. The total number of choices are also presented. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 185 Summary of Choices Registered for Tints, Shades and Pure Colors Choices by 115 Males Choices by 121 Females Choices by Both Total Average Total Average Total Average Tints . 4906 42.7 5977 49.3 10883 46.0 Shades . 5064 44.0 5378 44.5 10442 44.3 Pure colors.. 7399 64.2 6836 56.5 14235 60.4 A better comparison is obtained by comput¬ ing the average number of choices per observer for each of the three kinds of colors. These are given in the remaining columns. For ex¬ ample, the average number of times tints were more preferred than the other colors, was for men, 42.7, for women, 49.3, and for both com¬ bined, 46, the latter being a simple mean. In each column of average choices the sum should equal 153 because there are 153 different com¬ binations, of two each, obtainable with 18 colors. However, in no case is this true owing to the necessity of discarding a few choices owing to very obvious errors. It is seen that the tints were somewhat more preferred by the women than by the men, but the reverse is true for the purer colors. Shades were about equally pre¬ ferred by the men and by the women. The sum¬ mary of average choices in the last column show 186 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR clearly that the purer colors are most preferred and little difference exists between the tints and shades. This result is in accord with that of others as previously noted. The foregoing represents only one of the many interesting problems of color preference. Another important question to be answered is the relative rank in the preference order of col¬ ors of equal purity as ordinarily determined. From a general experience with color and from observation of the general attitude of many per¬ sons toward colors, the author was led to the conclusion that, for fairly pure colors at least, the colors near the ends of the spectrum are generally more preferred for color’s sake alone than those near the middle. Another viewpoint would be that the more luminous of the spectral colors are less preferred than those of lower reflection factors. Experiments of others indi¬ cated that this conclusion was tenable but no data were available which had been obtained with a large number of colors of approximately the same degree of saturation. Therefore a set of 15 fairly pure colored papers was used, among which were three colors of approxi¬ mately the same saturation but which would be classed as shades, namely, a dull yellow-green, a dull green, and a slate blue-gray. Fifteen ob- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 187 servers were used and they were instructed to choose the colors for ‘ ‘ color’s sake ’ ’ alone. The colored papers, each 4 inches square, were Fig. 4. Showing preference order of fairly saturated colors under daylight illumination, D.; under tungsten lamp illumi¬ nation, T. spread upon a white surface, each color being kept at some distance from the others. These were mixed haphazardly several times while the observer studied them for a few minutes. He then began to pick them out in the order of preference. The mean order of preference for 188 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR the 15 subjects is presented in curve D, Fig. 4, for daylight illumination and in curve T when the colored papers were illuminated by incan¬ descent tungsten lamps. The two observations were made by a given subject at intervals not less than several days apart. It is seen that for these conditions the colors near the middle of the spectrum are less preferred than those at the extremes. A few experiments under the same conditions, except that the white back¬ ground was replaced by black, indicated the same general results although slight differences no doubt would have been observed if sufficient data had been obtained. For pure colors, how¬ ever, it appears that the results would be quite similar with various neutral backgrounds. Inasmuch as the appearances of colors are very much influenced by the illuminant, the two different illuminants were used. It is not sur¬ prising, however, that, with fairly pure colors, the same general results were obtained in these two cases. By using a large number of ob¬ servers and a greater number of colors it would be surprising if the results under the two il¬ luminants did not differ considerably, especially with less saturated colors. Many interesting points remain to be investigated although a few general conclusions can be drawn from the data THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 189 at present available. It will be noted that the author’s results described above are confirmed by the data presented in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. Minor devised an experiment to test the rela¬ tive preference for saturated over unsaturated colors using colored circles one meter in di¬ ameter. He used seven colored gelatine plates, from violet to red, in a projection lantern, thus projecting the large circle of colored light upon a white screen. He used three degrees of sat¬ uration but kept the brightness constant. The reactions were to be immediate without reflec¬ tion or comparison and the judgments were to be expressed in the five following terms: very pleasing, pleasing, indifferent, displeasing, very displeasing. The subject was then questioned regarding associations, feelings, and judgment processes. Saturated colors were in each case found to be more preferred than unsaturated colors. As might be expected the judgment was found to be influenced by the pleasingness of the colors themselves, the bodily conditions, the mental state, and by associations. Somewhat contradictory to these results, Washburn and her students found on compar¬ ing colored papers 5 cm. square with others 25 cm. square that saturated colors were preferred in the smaller area, except saturated red. In 190 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR the larger area, tints and shades were preferred. It is dangerous to draw many conclusions with¬ out a greater amount of data, but it appears plausible that the saturated colors were only preferred in the smaller area when it is con¬ sidered that such is the most common usage of saturated colors by Nature and by mankind. If our tastes have been molded by Nature or are indicated by our artificial environment it is not surprising that even in a laboratory experiment the purer colors would be preferred in the smaller area and the tints and shades in much larger areas. It is well to note that the absolute dimensions are of little moment as compared with the solid angle subtended by the colored object. The latter is determined by the distance from the eye to the object as well as the absolute size of the object in ordinary vision. According to Washburn and Crawford, when colors are fixated for one minute the arousal of associa¬ tions and adaptations may change the affective value. They claim that associations have little influence on saturated colors and what they have is favorable. It appeared from their results that adaptation was favorable to violet, blue and green, unfavorable to yellow and red, and on the whole unfavorable to tints and shades. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 191 Associations were favorable to tints and to shades of violet, green, orange and red. Jastrow, at the World’s Fair in 1893, tested 4500 men and women for color preference and found blue to be preeminently the favorite color for men and red for women. This is confirmed in Figs. 1 and 2. Starch tested 133 persons— 69 men and 64 women—using ten Hering col¬ ors on a white ground including approxima¬ tions to nine spectral colors and a purple. The results indicated that the colors near the ends of the spectrum in general were most preferred. Red and blue ranked highest for both men and women although blue was slightly more pre¬ ferred by the men and red more preferred by the women. Wissler tested the color preference of about 300 men and women with similar results, that is, blue ranked first for men with red next. Red was the favorite for the women. The colors near the middle of the spectrum ranked con¬ siderably lower in the preference order than the colors near the extremes of the spectrum. Yel¬ low ranked lower than all other colors including white although the latter was next to yellow in the preference order. Orange was third from the bottom and green next above it. Thus it 192 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR is seen that insofar as the various investigations have proceeded fairly consistent and therefore reasonably conclusive results have been ob¬ tained in most cases. Unfortunately pure spec¬ tral colors have not been used in such experi¬ ments. This, in brief, is the status of our knowledge of color preference as it exists at present. Many other data could be presented and discussed, but for the sake of brevity many of the contribu¬ tions of other investigators have been omitted although they have been influential in the dis¬ cussion already presented. Discussions of vari¬ ous aspects of the influence of color are pre¬ sented in other chapters. AFFECTIVE VALUE OF COLORS I T is possible for every visual impression to be a cause of a mental reaction although it is obvious that the effectiveness of visual stimuli in this respect is largely dependent upon the state of intellectual development of the individ¬ ual. It seems likely to depend upon the ability of the individual to observe and to react. In dealing with the present subject it is of direct interest only to consider the affective value of colors upon normal individuals of at least aver¬ age mental ability and intellectual development. In many of the previous chapters various sub¬ jects have been treated for the purpose of ob¬ taining a view of the various factors which have been influential in molding our present attitude toward colors. It has been seen that the psy¬ chology of color is indeed complicated not only by the past experiences of the individual but also by the superstitions, habits, and experiences of a long line of ancestors extending far back into the early childhood of the human race. How¬ ever, after presenting brief discussions of many of these factors it appears of interest to discuss the results obtained with normal intellectual 194 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR subjects upon the affective values of colors. Unfortunately the knowledge of the psychology of the affective processes is in a very unsatis¬ factory and unsettled state. The physics of color is well established, but this is not true of the physiology and of the psychology of color. There is a vast amount of data available which bears upon the physiological aspects of color, but many of the experimental results are as yet unreconcilable with each other or with any gen¬ eral theory of color-vision. The psychology of color is even in a more chaotic state, and owing to the meagerness of the data bearing upon this aspect it is almost an unexplored unknown. However, there are data available which are of extreme interest from the viewpoint of the lan¬ guage of color. It is to be expected that there will be very conspicuous differences among individuals be¬ cause each has acquired so many and so varied emotional and sentimental attitudes toward colors. Individual experience and temperament are very important factors which are responsi¬ ble for variations among individuals, however, a general consistency is usually perceptible in psychological experiments with colors provided sufficiently large groups of subjects are used. Many difficulties arise when the attempt is made THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 195 to interpret the experimental results upon the affective values of colors because the affective processes are so little understood and the ex¬ perimental methods are not wholly satisfactory. However, these difficulties will not be considered in presenting data which will be of interest here. The variety of brightness and color sensations which is experienced by the individual depends upon the state of his visual development. He observes what his previous experience has pre¬ pared him to observe. Psychologists state that the affective yalue of a visual sensation is the result of the affective tone of the sensation, of the affective elements of consciousness, and of the sentiments and emotions which are as¬ sociated with the visual experience. For in¬ stance, a certain color may be pleasing because it has an agreeable affective tone but another color may be pleasing because it is accompanied by a pleasant emotion although its affective tone might not be pleasing. It would be advantageous in such studies to separate the effects of hue from those of lumi¬ nosity or brightness, but this is in general very difficult. From a series of neutral grays ex¬ tending from white to black an individual will usually choose certain grays that are agreeable to him. These are usually near the middle of 196 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR the series. In other words, neither white nor black would be chosen as the most agreeable generally. It should be borne in mind that the brightnesses are chosen as most agreeable not for their absolute values but for their values relative to those associated with them. It is also certain that colors are accompanied to a greater extent than grays by sentiments, emo¬ tions, and affective elements of consciousness. The purer colors are, in general, more agree¬ able than the slightly saturated colors, although it is contended by some that green and violet reach their highest degree of agreeableness when not of greatest purity. These conclusions of course are drawn from experiments in which the effects of environment and other external factors are simplified and minimized as far as possible. The discussion of color preference in another chapter is of interest here. The data available are in quite complete agreement that the so-called warm colors, red, orange and yellow, are stimulating or exciting in varying degree from a maximum for red (scarlet) to a less degree for the yellow. Green is fairly neutral in this respect, blue produces a grave mood-reaction and violet a similar one which might be described as solemn. Consider¬ ing the colors in the spectrum it is seen that THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 197 there is a definite variation from red to violet and it is generally agreed that both extremes of the spectrum and combinations of these—the purples—produce fairly neutral or tranquil mood-affections. This is quite in agreement with general experience. It is certain that different colors stimulate various mood-affections especially powerfully in those who possess fine sensibilities. It is of interest to note the description of the affective values given to various colors and as an example the following analysis by N. A. Wells of the effects of color upon himself is presented: Crimson, or deep red with a trace of blue in it, when standing alone, or seen in large quantity always gave him vague impressions of passion, rage, blood, etc. Scarlet, or red with a trace of yellow—the blare of trumpets. Deep orange, the heat of flame; soon excites irritation to a feeling of suffocation. Orange-yellow, warm, glowing, lively. Yellow, joyous, gay, merry. Yellow-green, cheerful, smiling. Green, peaceful, neither sad nor cheerful. Blue-green, sedate, sober. Blue, cool tranquillity. Violet-blue, stern, hard, unyielding, gloom. 198 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR Violet, subduing, serious to the point of mel¬ ancholy. Purple, stately, pompous, impressive. It is certain that few persons would exactly agree in analyzing their mood-reactions to a similar series of colors but there are indications that an approximate agreement would be found quite general. It is interesting to note the in¬ fluence of association with certain colors and to conjecture upon this influence with other colors in the foregoing list. A number of investigators have studied the affective value of colors with large groups of subjects and certain general facts have been established. It appears to be most profitable to present the procedure and results of a number of investigations because a broader view will be thus obtained. Wells lias experimented with large groups of subjects consisting of both men and women. He used the twelve colors whose mood-reactions upon himself have already been presented. The colors were painted with aniline dyes to as full saturation as possible upon white water-color paper. Two-inch squares of these colors were mounted about three inches apart in a horizon¬ tal row upon a large neutral gray background. The latter is preferable to white or black be- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 199 cause it avoids extreme brightness contrasts. Furthermore, such colors are usually of greatest power amid such an environment. The colors were arranged in their spectral order, thus minimizing the effects of simultaneous contrast. The color-chart was hung before the group of subjects and the following list of words was dis¬ played upon a blackboard: quiet exciting depressing peaceful sad solemn loud dignified lively- neutral heavy gloomy somber gay light or airy energetic restful cheerful noisy dainty The subjects were requested to write one of these adjectives (or any other if they so desired) which expressed the feeling or mood suggested by each color. All were cautioned not to em¬ ploy purely subjective descriptions, such as pleasant, unpleasant, agreeable or unagreeable, because it was not so much a question what they liked or disliked as why they liked or disliked. It will be noted that the adjectives in the foregoing list can be classed into three groups of energized, tranquilized, and subdued moods. The replies are classified under these three groups in the following table in which a sum¬ mary of the results with 63 subjects—32 men and 31 women—are presented. 200 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOK Total Number of Replies from 63 Subjects Indicating Three General Types of Mood-Reactions Due to the Twelve Different Colors Exciting Tranquilizing Subduing influence influence influence Crimson 41 0 10 Scarlet 56 0 0 Deep Orange 59 0 0 Orange-yellow 55 6 0 Yellow 53 6 0 Yellow-green 14 39 5 Green 28 32 0 Blue-green 32 23 6 Blue 11 21 30 Yiolet-blu'e 0 17 45 Violet 0 6 54 Purple 3 1 48 The subjects were college students scattered through the various colleges of engineering, science, literature and arts, and agriculture. The results indicated no great sex difference excepting in the blue-green, but seemed to in¬ dicate that the development of color perception is more complete among women than among men. The hues in which red predominates in¬ duce a mood-reaction of an exciting character. This excitation began to appear for a few of the subjects with the purple, increased in strength for crimson, became a maximum in the scarlet and deep-orange, thence diminished until the mood-reaction became one of tranquillity for the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 201 yellow-green. From this point there is a curi¬ ous rise toward excitement which becomes pro¬ nounced in the blue-green and gradually di¬ minishes in passing through the blue and violet- blue. It is interesting to note the contradictory nature of the replies for the middle or tranquil region of the series of colors. It seems that these contradictions furnish evidence that the colors in this region are not of sufficient affec¬ tive energy to induce reactions of a definite character in a large majority of sensibilities. Wells believed that the combined stimulus of all those colors which appeared to be respec¬ tively exciting, tranquilizing, or repressing in affective character, would become cumulative if simultaneously presented. He therefore cut the color-chart vertically into three portions; the first portion containing crimson, scarlet, deep- orange, orange, orange-yellow and yellow; the second portion, yellow-green, green, blue-green and blue; and the third portion, blue-violet, violet and purple. These portions were placed on a blackboard ten feet apart so that when the eye rested upon one group the others were well outside the direct visual field. The same list of words was written upon the blackboard with the following list of qualifying adverbs in antici¬ pation of more powerful mood-reactions which 202 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR might result from each group. The subjects were permitted to use any other qualifying words in describing the mood induced by each group. The additional words were : richly sadly tranquilly daintily sedately gayly impressively cheerfully pompously quietly gorgeously depressingly The results firmly supported the conclusions arrived at in the preceding investigation. It appears from this study “that a given sensory stimulus has, for normal sense-percep¬ tions and under ordinary conditions, an affec¬ tive character which remains constant regard¬ less of any subjective attitude of the sensibili¬ ties toward that stimulus.” For example, the responses to scarlet were gay, noisy, exciting, loud, energetic, etc. All of these indicate that the affective character of scarlet is exciting re¬ gardless of the subjective attitude toward it. Powelson and Washburn studied the effect of verbal suggestion on the affective values of colors with 35 young women for subjects. The ninety Bradley colors were used, each color be¬ ing 2.9 cm. square. These were shown one at a time upon a white background to each subject, who was instructed to record a degree of pleas- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 203 antness or unpleasantness using numbers from one to seven. “Very pleasant” was designated by number one, “indifferent” by 4, and very “unpleasant” by 7. The colors from the 36th to the 54th in the series (the middle eighteen) were presented with an accompanying verbal suggestion as to their affective value. The ex¬ periment was performed twice on each subject several days apart. During the first experiment the verbal suggestions accompanying the middle 18 colors were suggestions of unpleasantness for the first half of the observers and during the second sitting they were suggestions of pleas¬ antness for these observers. The other subjects were treated reversely. The suggestions were of the form of favorable or unfavorable; for example, the words “faded” or “delicate” might be used in the two cases for a given color. Twenty-five subjects gave results indicating a positive effect of suggestion in altering the judgments of affective value and the remaining ten subjects gave indications of a negative in¬ fluence of verbal suggestion, that is, the judg¬ ments of the latter were altered in a direction opposite to the suggestion. From this it may be concluded that direct verbal suggestion re¬ garding the pleasantness or unpleasantness of 204 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR a color has a fairly decided positive effect on the judgments of observers of this type and under the conditions of the experiment. Robbins, Smith and Washburn, using the same series of ninety colors, studied the in¬ fluence of fatigue on the affective sensitiveness to colors. The series was divided into four groups, A, B, C and D, the colors being selected at random for each group, but the colors of each group were always presented to the observer in the same order. Each color was laid on a white ground before the subject and she was asked to judge its pleasantness or unpleasantness, using the numbers from 1 to 7 in expressing the de¬ gree. The entire set of 90 colors was presented twice over at each sitting, the order of the sets being altered systematically. The order of the sets for the first sitting were ABCDBCDA, for the second sitting, BCDACDAB, and so on. It is thus seen that the element of fatigue would enter into two presentations of the series of 90 colors at each sitting because the first group was also the last in the order of presentation. Without entering into the details of the in¬ vestigation the general results will be presented. Eiglity-two young women were used as subjects. Only 31 per cent, stated that they were bored at the end of the long series of 180 judgments. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 205 Five of the 82 stated that they were more in¬ terested at the end than at the beginning. About 35 per cent, of those who reported being bored showed higher affective values toward the end than for the same colors at the beginning and 65 per cent, showed lower values. Thus a difference of 30 per cent, represented the tendency of the affective values to diminish as the result of ennui. Of those who reported equal interest throughout the experiment 36 per cent, gave an average affective value higher at the end than at the first presentation and 56 per cent, a lower value. The difference of 20 per cent, indicates the observers who, notwithstand¬ ing their failure to recognize ennui, showed a decrease in the average degree of pleasantness assigned to the colors at the end of the series. Other interesting analyses may be applied to the results but in general they indicate that, under the conditions of the investigation, affec¬ tive sensibility to colors tends to diminish with ennui produced by a long series of judgments on the affective values of colors and that the decrease in affective sensibility is more closely correlated with the introspective reports of ennui than is the average affective value of the colors. Washburn and Crawford have concluded that 206 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR when colors are gazed upon steadily for one minute the arousal of associations and adapta¬ tion may change the affective value. Their re¬ sults indicated that associations have little in¬ fluence in altering the degree of pleasantness of saturated colors and what they have seems to be favorable. Adaptation is favorable to violet, blue and green; unfavorable to yellow and red. Associations appeared to be favorable to tints and to shades of violet, green, orange, and red. Adaptation was on the whole unfavorable to tints and shades. Geiger, using simple colors, concluded that the cheerfulness of a color was uniformly ex¬ perienced as a quality of the color and not as a feeling of the subject. Bullough investigated the problem of color appreciation and divided it into two parts: (a), the “aspects of color,” that is, their objective qualities; (b), the “perceptive types,” that is, the classification of observers on the basis of the character of the aspects which influence them when viewing colors. He classified the “aspects of color” into four groups, as follows: (1) Objective aspect. The remarks of the subjects refer to the peculiarities of a color such as saturation, delicacy, brightness, muddiness. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 207 (2) Physiological aspect. This is indicated by certain effects on the subjects. (3) Associative aspect. This represents the suggestive power of a color. (4) Character aspect. This includes the ex¬ pression by a color of that which, in the case of a human being would be considered his char¬ acter, mood, or temperament. This group rep¬ resents by far the most complex aspect of color appreciation. The “perceptive types” correspond to the main groups of color aspects and therefore the four terms noted above are also used for these. Bulloughdistinguishes between the “agreeable” and the “beautiful.” When a color is agree¬ able we occupy the center but when it is beauti¬ ful the color occupies the focus of attention. In this plan of distinction the physiological type appears to be the type of lowest esthetic value. To subjects of this type colors are merely agree¬ able. The objective type occupy a position higher in the scale of esthetic values because of the greater importance of the color impression of these cases. Next above this type is that of “fused association” and the character type oc¬ cupies the highest point in the scale of esthetic values. The freedom of this type ‘ ‘ from purely 208 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR personal factors, from accidental memories and irrational associations, and its essentially emo¬ tional tone invest this type with a kind of objec¬ tive reality which is generally characteristic of esthetic experiences, and stamps this form of color appreciation as the esthetic appreciation par excellence.” It appears that the greatest understanding and widest application of a lan¬ guage of color eventually must depend upon the development of this highest type. ATTENTION VALUE OF COLORS Q UITE another aspect of color is found on turning to the attention value. A color may attract attention whether it is pleasing or not and the power of attraction doubtless is, to some extent, proportional to the degree of pleasantness or unpleasantness. Of course, such factors as novelty, unexpectedness, con¬ trast, congruity and others enter into the atten¬ tion value of colors. Much of the data and dis¬ cussions presented throughout this treatise must be correlated and weighed before conclu¬ sions can be reached regarding the attention value of colors because experimental data are very meager. Unusual or incongruous uses of colors doubt¬ less attract the attention of more persons than any innate characteristics of colors. For in¬ stance, a red hat worn by a man would attract attention because of the novelty and incongruity of the use of this color in such a case. This accounts for many of the uses of colors on the stage, in advertising, etc. Contrast both in hue and in brightness plays a very important part in the power of colors in attracting attention. 209 210 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR Few persons are conscious of colors if they do not occupy extensive areas or if the contrast is not very striking. A bright red or yellow flower amid dark green foliage will attract the atten¬ tion of persons who ordinarily would not notice these colors if the great contrast were absent unless the colors occupied a fairly large portion of the visual field. Hue contrast is a very important factor in the attention value and pleasing effect of col¬ ors. If a group of colors be illuminated by an illuminant whose spectrum extends over a narrow range of wave-lengths the beauty of the colors disappears. Under such conditions the colors are of approximately the same hue but differ in brightness. Experiments such as this impress upon one the conclusion that colors which are approximately complementary are likely to be the more striking combinations of colors. Doubtless there is an optimum relation between the brightness contrast and the hue contrast which renders a combination of two colors the most striking. This relation is per¬ haps different for various colors. It appears that the reader may be able to draw his own conclusions regarding the atten¬ tion value of colors after correlating the data presented in other chapters, however, a glimpse THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 211 of the data which are available may aid in guid¬ ing him in his analysis. Therefore examples of the experimental data which have been obtained especially from this viewpoint will be presented. Gale, by using a method of rapid exposure in presenting various colors to his subjects, be¬ lieved that he thus separated the attention value from the artistic value. In other words, he be¬ lieved that attention value is determined by a very short exposure, whereas artistic value can be determined only by a sufficiently long ex¬ posure during which the subject can form a judgment. This appears reasonable and at least the artistic factor is reduced to a mini¬ mum and the attention value is doubtless fairly well determined. He exposed the colors for an instant upon a white background. In the fol¬ lowing table is shown the number of times, N, each color was noticed and also the percentage of the times each color was noticed of the total number of times all colors were noticed. The subjects consisted of nine men and seven women. It is seen that, for the whole group of ob¬ servers, the attention value of red is the highest with black a close second and yellow the lowest. The degrees of purity and the relative bright¬ nesses of the colors are not available but it appears safe to conclude that brightness con- 212 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR Attention Value of Colors Color Men Women Average N % N % % Black . 151 33.5 43 12.2 22.9 Red . 88 19.5 113 32.2 25.9 Orange . 88 19.5 38 10.8 15.2 Yellow . 4 0.8 23 6.5 3.7 Green . 87 19.3 66 18.8 19.1 Blue . 24 5.3 38 10.8 8.1 Purple . 8 1.7 29 8.2 5.0 trast is an important factor in attention value. Both red and black are very low in luminosity as compared with the white background and therefore the brightness contrasts in these two cases were very great. On the other hand, yellow is of high luminosity and the contrast in this case between the color and the white ground would be much less than in the cases of black and red. However, it is hardly possible that brightness alone accounts for the results. It is a matter of every-day experience that among the common colors red always attracts attention quite markedly. In the field of advertising the attention value of colors is important and therefore this field would yield interesting data if records were available. Starch has presented a tabulation of colored advertisements appearing in various THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 213 magazines which showed that 77 per cent, used red; 19 per cent, brown; 8 per cent, blue; 6 per cent, orange; 6 per cent, green; 6 per cent, yel¬ low; and 5 per cent, purple. These data show by the predominant use of red that at least ad¬ vertising men regard it of high attention value. It appears from ordinary observation that red is quite predominantly used in colored displays. The use of red as a universal signal for danger appears to be another wholesale admission of its attention value. Other factors enter into the acceptability of colors for attracting attention. Many colored advertisements are to be viewed under ordinary artificial illuminants which are rich in red and orange rays and poverty-stricken in blue and violet. Thus red does not suffer under artificial light but appears more brilliant and rich in hue than many other colors. On the other hand, blues and violets are robbed of much of their color and appear black, or nearly so, while yellow is very much washed out owing to the fact that the dominant hue of most artificial illuminants is yellow. Starch has presented data which were ob¬ tained for the purpose of showing the power of color contrast. A white card containing 25 words was exposed before a group of per- 214 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR sons for a brief interval. Twenty words were printed in black and tlie remaining five in red were scattered among the rest. Immediately after the exposure each person recorded the words that he had retained in his memory. The following data were obtained with 24 subjects. Black 20 39 1.6 8.2 Red 5 78 3.2 64.2 Number of words exposed. Total noticed by 24 persons. Average number noticed per person.. Percentage noticed per person. It is seen that the novelty or conspicuousness of the red words intermingled with the ordinary black words draws the attention predominantly to the red ones. Many mistakes are made in the employment of colored inks for the purpose of attracting the attention to important words or statements apparently owing to a lack of knowledge of simple facts of color science. For example, in an advertising pamphlet the text was printed predominantly with black ink upon a yellowish tinted paper. Here and there statements to be emphasized were printed with an orange ink. Under ordinary artificial illumination those statements printed with orange ink were largely obliterated owing to the yellowish hue of the illuminant, with the result that a bad choice of THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 215 ink defeated the intended purpose quite com¬ pletely. Thus it is seen that even after the at¬ tention values of various colors have been de¬ termined other factors also must be considered or difficulties are likely to be encountered. It may be of interest here to note briefly certain results on the legibility of various com¬ binations of colored printing reported in Le Courrier du Livre. It appears that the best combination for reading at a considerable dis¬ tance was black type on a yellow ground. The familiar black on white combination ranked sixth with the following combinations interven¬ ing in their order of legibility: green on white, red on white, blue on white, and white on blue. There is some indication that considerable con¬ trast in brightness is desirable but perhaps not extreme contrasts. Of course, various other factors, which cannot be discussed here, enter into the problem of legibility at a distance. This question is beyond the scope of this treatise but this brief comment has appeared of interest. PART IV ESTHETICS I F the language of color ever becomes definite enough and the understanding of it becomes sufficiently universal to encourage its applica¬ tion as an independent means of expression in¬ stead of as an accompaniment to more inter¬ pretable languages as it is used at present, it will not be used alone to express the beautiful but also the disagreeable and the unpleasant. At the present time color is used chiefly to beautify and by its harmonies to appeal to the esthetic instinct. It is true that it is not always employed as a drapery for enriching or beauti¬ fying visual impressions, however, our chief ac¬ quaintance with color is through its use in the arts, both pure and applied. For this reason, we are inclined to relate color and beauty and most of our knowledge of the expressiveness of color gained from this source is, therefore, prejudiced by this natural association; hence in prolonging this discussion of the language of color into the realm of art we must expect to gain whatever information is available from the esthetics and harmony of color. It is well that such is the case and we should hope that the aim 219 220 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR of mankind in artistic creation will continue to be the introduction of the beautiful or idealistic into our environment. To obtain a proper perspective it is necessary to understand what is meant by such terms as art, beauty and esthetic pleasure but in order not to digress too far from the object of this brief treatise only general definitions will be presented. Thus sufficient flexibility will be provided for the reader to introduce his own ideas regarding these matters which involve so much of that which we call taste. Owing to the fact that each individual differs from all other individuals because of the differences in the chains of experiences which make individuals what they are, the matter of taste is variable and indeterminate. Doubtless all persons pos¬ sess esthetic instinct to a slight degree at least, and there are certain general guiding principles of esthetics which all would agree were correct, but when the element of taste is introduced into a problem the latter becomes indeterminate, for no solution can satisfy every individual. If in¬ flexible definitions of art, esthetics, etc., were given, or if they were qualified by discussions, necessarily very extensive, we would find our¬ selves in a situation aptly described by Kipling thus: THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 221 ‘‘They builded a tower to shiver the sky and wrench the stars apart, Till the Devil grunted behind the bricks: ‘It’s striking, but is it art?’ The stone was dropped by the quarry-side, and the idle derrick swung, 'While each man talked of the aims of art, and each in an alien tongue.” Art involves the representation or reproduc¬ tion of Nature, the emotions of the artist, and the coordination of both in such products as music, painting, poetry, sculpture, and architec¬ ture. Its aim is to substitute a better, richer, more complete and harmonious world for an un¬ satisfactory or inadequate reality. It is the re¬ sult of a demand for a fairer creation than that which actually exists, the ideal being one of perfect unity and harmony. Esthetic pleasure is a condition resulting from unity in experience, for if the latter is incomplete it conflicts with other experiences, is discordant, and conse¬ quently is not pleasing. Beauty is a characteristic of varied elements which are unified, complete and harmonious in their effects upon consciousness. According to Paulhan, beauty and art are not equivalent terms though the experiences are often inter¬ mingled. Beauty has objective standards but art is primarily an attitude. In discussing the 222 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR problem of beauty Miinsterberg says: “Corre¬ sponding to man’s three spheres of experience, to the outer world, to other individuals and to his inner personality, there are different forms of esthetic attitudes. Music expresses the har¬ mony of ourselves, as poetry unveils the har¬ mony of mankind, and fine art the harmony of Nature. In literature the three spheres of in¬ fluence find expression as epic, drama, and lyric poetry.” With the aid of the foregoing discus¬ sion, the reader should be able to form fairly definite ideas of the part that color must play in esthetics. We use color very largely for the purpose of obtaining variety which is so essential to a happy existence. Monotony is ever a mono¬ chrome which under continued adaptation be¬ comes colorless. Variety leads us contentedly through a colorful sojourn; monotony condemns us to a colorless existence. It is to satisfy this demand for variety that colors are employed in objects. For the same reason, various colors used harmoniously please more than a single color with the result that we have about us many colors in rugs, paintings, furniture, wall-cover¬ ings, and wearing apparel, which are blended in varying degrees of harmony depending upon the sensibility and skill of those responsible. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 223 It is wrong to consider that such arrangements which give esthetic pleasure are merely beauti¬ ful because beauty is also useful. Many of the accessory parts of architecture, the colors of furnishings, etc., are primarily ornamental, but they are also useful. The truth of this state¬ ment is realized if we pause and imagine all the beauty suddenly eliminated from the world leav¬ ing us to live in an environment consisting of the manifestly useful. It may appear that this is a digression from the subject but these as¬ pects cannot be too strongly emphasized before beginning a discussion of the esthetics of color. These arguments apply equally well to all things capable of providing variety which is so essential in producing esthetic pleasure. Color is one of these. The esthetic significance of color was recog¬ nized many centuries ago. Xenophon, in the Memorabilia, reports a conversation between Socrates and Parrhasius in which the esthetic value of color is shown to have been appre¬ ciated by the early Greeks. Plato also dis¬ cusses the beauty and symbolism of color and reveals his acquaintance with its ability to ex¬ cite emotional responses. Plotinus and other early writers also touched upon color as an ele¬ ment of beauty. However, not until a compara- 224 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR tively recent period has color been discussed sufficiently in connection with esthetic principles to be helpful to any great extent. Allen, Dar¬ win, Fechner and others have tried to account for the esthetic value of color by means of association and various factors which influence the survival of the individual and the species in the evolution of the race. Notwithstanding all that has been written there is only a scanty literature which treats of the esthetics of color apart from the theories of esthetics. In discussing the part that association plays in esthetics Baldwin says: “As an esthetic principle, association is used to explain esthetic value by deriving the pleasure felt in the pres¬ ence of the beautiful or sublime, not directly from the form or constitution of the object as such, nor from the sensation it excites, but from the recall or revival of pleasure previously ex¬ perienced in connection with the same or a re¬ lated object or quality; e. g., red cheeks suggest youth and health, and are beautiful; red hands suggest disagreeable labor, and are ugly. ’ ’ The same idea can be applied in many of our en¬ counters with color. Beauty in color appears to depend upon the taste and intellectual development of the be¬ holder; in fact, upon his state of civilization. THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 225 Primitive beings prefer gaudy and brilliant col¬ ors about them, while intellectual and cultured beings choose the subdued tints and shades. However, there is evidence that our taste for color alone differs little from that of the child and savage. "When the influences of environ¬ ment and association are minimized or elim¬ inated entirely we prefer pure colors more than the tints and shades; that is, the pure colors are most agreeable. This is seen to coincide with the preferences of primitive intellects and in¬ dicates that after all there may be little differ¬ ence between the absolute experiences of human beings. Our use of colors in the decoration of things about us does not coincide with the preferences which we exhibit for colors viewed apart from ordinary environment and in the absence of as¬ sociation. In civilized art, colors are subdued, the tints and shades, rather than the pure colors, occupying the predominating areas. It is only possible to account for this difference by at¬ tributing it to the influences of environment and association. After all, is not the difference be¬ tween the primitive and the highly civilized being represented in their respective abilities or tendencies to connect various experiences by what we term association? If this argument 226 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR is sustained, it is indeed very interesting and important to be able to conclude that the abso¬ lute experiences of color are not greatly dif¬ ferent for beings of all degrees of civilization. Systematic experiments on color preference with primitive beings would be of interest from this viewpoint. Although, in general, pure colors are always more agreeable than slightly saturated colors, it is contended by some that green and violet reach their highest degree of agreeableness when not fully saturated. Field has stated that those colors which are naturally of high lumi¬ nosity have their greatest beauty in their lighter tints, and those which are naturally of low lumi¬ nosity are most beautiful when highly saturated. Experiments do not indicate this to be true, although there appears to be a tendency in this direction as will be seen by the data on color preference presented in another chapter. These data on color preference which have an intimate relation with the esthetic aspect should be considered in connection with the present dis¬ cussion. Color, to be most effective generally, must occupy large areas. In a natural landscape the colors which occupy relatively large areas of the visual field usually have the greatest in- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 227 fluence upon most persons. It is true that small spots of brilliant color usually attract the attention owing to the extreme contrast, how¬ ever, these are usually lost in the general view. Similarly in interior decoration or in a paint¬ ing the general color scheme is particularly influential and lasting in the memory of the beholder. The roving eye may be halted mo¬ mentarily by a relatively small spot of different color but the latter usually will be quickly for¬ gotten as the eye passes on. It serves chiefly as a punctuation mark in enabling the beholder to appreciate the general tone of color. In other words, in the esthetics of color all the colors of the ensemble play parts but these dif¬ fer considerably from each other depending upon the areas involved as well as upon the colors themselves. Therefore esthetic pleasure, in most oases, is the result of the entire ensem¬ ble in which the colors of the predominant areas are most directly influential. Color is seen at the same time as form but form is usually revealed by light and shade to a much greater extent than by color. The gen¬ eral office of color is to supply the drapery. It aids to a relatively slight degree in revealing form, but serves chiefly in imparting an agree¬ able aspect to objects, in augmenting relief to 228 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR some extent, and in many cases in providing the variety so much evidenced in our desire to have patterns in wall coverings, rugs, and other surroundings. The esthetics of color arrangement can be studied experimentally with convincing results, however, this is the work of the trained investi¬ gator. Painters, decorators and others whose work primarily involves the esthetics and har¬ mony of color may contend that such work lies entirely within their province but such is not the case. These artists have the ability to harmonize color in a resulting unity which gives esthetic pleasure but if they attempt to write the formulae by means of which harmonious re¬ sults can be obtained their descriptions often become so involved and swamped in words as to leave the reader bewildered. This is the natural result of attempts to draw conclusions from specific practical cases in which the many fac¬ tors have not been controlled. For this reason many artists contend that, aside from a few general principles of color harmony, the realization of satisfactory color arrangements depends upon an esthetic instinct. The attitude of science is naturally that the facts of esthetics are discoverable. In the presence of knowledge mysteries of yesterday THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 229 become commonplace simplicities to-day, but knowledge consists merely of the orderly sepa¬ ration and coordination of simple facts. It is true that, in order to produce an esthetic ar¬ rangement of colors, a degree of feeling and that which we may call instinct, must be pos¬ sessed by the successful artist. Esthetic in¬ stinct is doubtless an unconscious possession of certain knowledge which it is the aim of science to analyze. There are few analytical data available which shed light upon the problem of the esthetics of color. Like many other problems discussed in this book, this is included in the unexplored region which must be invaded eventually by the psychologist. That the problems can be at¬ tacked successfully by controlled experiments upon a large group of subjects has been shown by the results already obtained in the few scattering experiments. In order to illustrate a case and to present the data which were ob¬ tained, an investigation by Miss Kate Gordon on the esthetics of color arrangement will be discussed. The problem was suggested by one of the many questions which arise in the use of color, this one being as follows: “In massing colors on a canvas is there any general reason for 230 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR placing certain colors near the center and others near the outside'?” She used various symmet¬ rical designs, and it is thus seen that other factors besides color must be contended with, even in controlled experiments. Form is al¬ most always an accompanying factor from which there is no escape. Certain problems of symmetry entered the problem which will not be THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 231 discussed here. In Fig. 5 are shown the designs used in the experiments. Preliminary tests were made with colors arranged as in design, a, in which a central square was surrounded by four rectangular areas, the total area of which equaled that of the central square. One color occupied the central square and another the rectangular areas. This design proved unsatis¬ factory because the figure as a whole was unin¬ teresting and ungraceful and because the cen¬ tral color was disliked on account of its un¬ broken mass. It was necessary to introduce more complexity into the design in order to obtain an unquestioned esthetic relation. The researches of Pierce and of Puffer indi¬ cated that, since colors of different brightness were to be used, a contrast of small and large masses would be desirable. The colors used were highly saturated red, yellow, green and blue and these were illuminated by daylight. The chief designs used are shown in b, c, and d. In b and c it is seen that the outer and inner triangular areas were merely reversed; in d these were of equal areas. In all cases, sets of observations were made with two different col¬ ors, occupying the inner and outer triangles respectively. In the next set the colors were exchanged. Six combinations of colors were 232 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR used, namely, blue-yellow, red-green, blue-red, green-yellow, blue-green, red-yellow. The background was varied from nearly black to a light gray for corresponding complete sets of combinations. In a single set of experi¬ ments four frames were used, two of design b and two of c. These four frames containing only two different colors were presented to each observer simultaneously. Thus for a given case the observer saw blue in the center of de¬ sign b, and yellow in the outer triangles and also in the same design yellow in the center and blue in the outer triangles. The same was true of the other two frames containing design c. After the frames were presented to the ob¬ server the subjects were not restricted in any way in their choice of the most esthetic ar¬ rangement. They were merely asked to re¬ cord the preference order. The subjects were groups of young women (college students) varying in number. It was found that the choice of colors for the central regions seemed to be a function of their brightness and further experiments were con¬ ducted with the two colors of approximately equal brightnesses. Design d was used, thus eliminating the factor of unequal area as well as that of unequal brightness, for the triangles THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 233 in this design were of equal areas. The total number of preferences for designs having red in the center were 72; yellow 59; green 45; blue 28. The preference for the warmer colors in the center was very marked in all combinations of color for these patterns. A summary of the interesting results is as follows: (1) When large and small masses of color appear together it is more agreeable to find the large ones in the periphery of the visual field. (2) Brighter colors are preferred near the center of such figures and darker ones near the periphery, whether the background of the colors is light or dark. (3) In figures where central and peripheral masses are equal in size, and where a light back¬ ground is surrounded by a black frame, a dark color is preferred in the center. (4) There is probably some tendency to pre¬ fer large masses of a favorite color, but this tendency does not prevail over other considera¬ tions. (5) When colors are equated in brightness the color which stands nearer the red end of the spectrum is preferred in the center. Obviously these results are strictly applicable only to the designs used, but their usefulness 234 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR can be extended to some extent with safety. The results are not only interesting in them¬ selves, but also in general as an illustration of the vulnerability of the problem of the esthetics of color. Obviously a great number of experi¬ ments must be performed before the general laws of the esthetics of color are laid bare. The field is inviting to the investigator and is one that promises to yield much of interest. The accumulation of such knowledge does not jeop¬ ardize the usefulness of the artist, for his fine sensibility and creative ability must always be depended upon to supply the beautiful arrange¬ ments of color. However, science is curious, and this curiosity is responsible for much of the progress of mankind. It is hoped that the artist will welcome such investigations because knowledge will do no harm. In the meantime the artist can progress as he has in the past. HARMONY W E enjoy color independently of design or of association with the object upon which it occurs, but usually most of our pleasure derived from color is dependent upon the spa¬ tial relation of various colors viewed simultan¬ eously. When an arrangement of colors is pleasing it is said to be a color-harmony. Why certain combinations of colors are agreeable and others are disagreeable or even shocking to the finer sensibilities is a question which is yet to be answered. It is the aim of this book to contri¬ bute slightly at least toward the answer to this question but the available knowledge of the psy¬ chology of color dwindles almost into insignif¬ icance when it is approached with the purpose of seeking an answer to this and many other questions. There is no doubt that contrasts of hue, of brightness and of areas, as well as sym¬ metry, balance, and arrangement in general are important factors in the appeal of combina¬ tions of color to the human sensibility. Fur¬ thermore, association, environment, training, temperament, and, perhaps, heredity are in¬ fluences of more or less importance. 235 236 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR In most discussions of the harmony of color certain laws of harmony are presented. These are usually the identical, or slightly modified laws which were enunciated by Chevreul, the French chemist, who, in his life of more than one hundred years, contributed much experi¬ mental data of interest in the combination of colors. These laws, however, are meant to be mere guideposts and are not to be taken as distinct boundaries of the different classes of color-harmonies. In fact, a given harmonious arrangement may not be in accordance with any single principle, but is likely to involve more than one. No simple laws of color-har¬ mony can be framed which will be separated by distinct boundary lines. Furthermore, when other factors are considered such as the in¬ definiteness of the nomenclature of color, the indeterminateness of individual taste, and the meagemess of data, it must be concluded that these laws of color-harmony can be viewed at present only as general statements. They will not become more specific until the accumulation of knowledge has made this simplification pos¬ sible and doubtless will never be expressible with exactitude. It is not intended that the foregoing statements should discourage the use of these general laws, or the establishment of THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 237 others as the knowledge of color-liarmony ac¬ cumulates, but they should serve to caution those who take these laws too seriously at present. The difficulty which is met in pressing the use of laws of color harmony too far is exemplified by considering the tastes of the savage and of the civilized being. An arrangement of color which delights the former is likely to be con¬ sidered garish by the latter. On the other hand, the coloring of a Corot, Whistler, or Turner will please the civilized being, but will be found unsatisfactory or uninteresting by the primitive being. A color-harmony must arouse a feeling of completeness. In the foregoing cases the color arrangements may not trans¬ gress the laws of harmony, but still may be un¬ satisfactory, incomplete, or unharmonious de¬ pending upon the taste of the beholder. It may be considered folly to judge the laws of color- harmony enunciated by civilized man by means of the judgment of the savage. However, this illustrates the relation of taste to the problem and, inasmuch as civilized tastes vary so widely, that of the savage may be considered as merely one extreme. Inasmuch as certain phenomena of color, such as the spectrum, figure prominently in discus- 238 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR sions of the harmony of color, it is of interest to consider how far such phenomena which are associated more particularly with the science of color can be depended upon in forming a basis for the laws of color-harmony. The artist does not generally avail himself sufficiently of the aid which science can render, yet when he does attempt to do so he is likely to err owing to a lack of an intimate acquaintance with vari¬ ous related aspects of the subject. Science would attack the subject of color-harmony by initiating a painstaking study of various com¬ binations of color with many human subjects and the experiments would be subjected to all the controls possible. This is investigation. However, when the artist grasps certain phe¬ nomena, such as the sequence of colors in the spectrum, or certain relations such as com¬ plementary colors upon which to base his laws of color-harmony, he is working largely in an opposite direction. He connects his ideas of color-harmony or taste for color-arrangement with these phenomena. In such a procedure he is investigating to some degree, but he is chiefly theorizing. An open mind will consider the harmonious effects of color not to be necessarily related to the sequence of spectral colors and to other facts which are accidental as far as the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 239 human intellect is concerned. If, however, there appears to be a relation between the colors which produce harmonious combinations and the arrangement of the colors in the spectrum, the complementary colors, or any other fact of the science of color, these can then be united as a foundation for laws or theories. The impor¬ tant point is that this relation must be first established by a consensus of opinion of those qualified to pass judgment. Certain relations of this sort appear to be evident and, therefore, the statement of laws based upon them is justifiable. Chevreul divided color-harmonies into two general classes, namely, harmonies of analogous colors and harmonies of contrast, and each of these he sub-divided into three kinds. He used the words “tone” and “scale,” so it appears best to retain them in the statement of these laws, but to explain what he meant by them. The tones of a color (a pigment) designate the different modifications which that col-or, taken at its maximum purity, is capable of receiving from the addition of white (which weakens its tone) and of black (which deepens it). The term, therefore, includes both tints and shades. The word “scale” is applied to the collection of tones of the same color thus modified. The 240 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR pure color is the normal tone of the scale, if this normal tone does not belong to a broken or reduced scale, that is, to a scale all the tones of which are altered with black. The laws of color-harmony as originally enunciated by Chevreul are as follows: Harmonies of Analogy. 1. The harmony of scale, produced by the simultaneous view of different tones of a single scale, more or less approximating. 2. The harmony of hues, produced by the simultaneous view of tones of the same height (degree), or nearly so, belonging to scales more or less approximating. 3. The harmony of dominant hue, produced by the simultaneous view of different colors assorted conformably to the law of contrast, but one of them predominating, as would result from seeing these colors through a tinted glass of this dominant hue. Harmonies of Contrasts. 4. The harmony of contrast of scale, produced by the simultaneous view of two tones of the same scale, very distant from each other. 5. The harmony of contrast of hues, produced by the simultaneous view of tones of different height, each belonging to contiguous scales. 6. The harmony of contrast of colors, pro- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 241 duced by the simultaneous view of colors be¬ longing to scales very far apart, assorted ac¬ cording to the law of contrast: the difference in height of juxtaposed colors may also augment the contrast of colors. It is seen that these laws are only meant to be very general by the looseness of their con¬ struction. Each deals with a specific relation, but the limits of its jurisdiction are not and cannot be accurately defined. Harmonies en¬ countered in practice will be found difficult to analyze exactly in terms of a single law and in the case of more than one law being involved it is impossible to analyze them with accuracy. However, these six laws are extremely useful in practice and in analysis and both science and art owe a debt of gratitude to Chevreul for in¬ jecting a degree of systematic procedure into the arrangement of colors into harmonious combinations. The author refrains from departing from a general discussion of this subject or from the treatment of color-harmony as related to science or to fairly well established laws and principles, because the only remaining procedure would be to expound his own ideas of color-harmony. The latter treatment would merely add one more opinion to those already expressed by 242 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR others who have written upon the same subject. The present need is not for another dissertation upon a single individual’s idea of color-harmony which would include descriptions of specific arrangements of colors. If a description of such arrangements, which were approved by a large majority of persons capable of passing judgment, could be presented it would be a valuable contribution. In fact it would be pos¬ sible from these to construct more specific laws of color-harmony. A general criticism of the writings on this subject is that they represent in most cases largely the ideas of individuals and often these are interwoven with a great amount of very bad theory. It has been the aim throughout this book to remain as close as pos¬ sible to indisputable facts or, at least, to ideas that are generally accepted as sound. If the spectrum be closely observed it will be seen to represent a sequence of hues blending into each other with imperceptible nuances. For this reason it is logical to use it as a por¬ tion of the foundation of laws of color-harmony based on analogy, however, the purples must be accounted for in some manner because they do not exist in the spectrum. This is easily ac¬ complished by bending the spectrum (in the imagination) around the circumference of a THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 243 circle permitting it to occupy, say three fourths of the periphery. The remaining gap between the violet and red is then filled with the purples, the violet-purple being next to the violet and the red-purple adjacent to the red portion of the spectrum. This has been called the color- circle and has formed the basis of many dis¬ cussions of color-harmony. It is seen that any small portion of the circumference is occupied by a sequence of colors differing only slightly in hue. Various solids such as the sphere and modi¬ fications of it have been used to provide places for the tints and shades as well as for the pure colors and these solids have played conspicuous parts in developing rules for color-harmony. Such efforts are very commendable because they rescue the application of color from a condi¬ tion of anarchy and provide at least a systematic procedure for the use of color. It is needless to illustrate these here because they can be found elsewhere. It may be of interest to note that in the case of the color-sphere the equator is in reality the color-circle composed of the spectral hues and the purples; the poles are respectively white and black; the polar axis represents a scale of grays; tints occupy one hemisphere and shades the other. 244 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR If the color-circle be drawn as described above it will be seen that various diameters have, at their ends, colors which are approxi¬ mately complementary. This diagrammatic fact is also incorporated into rules of color-har¬ mony based upon the color-circle or the color- sphere. Incidentally, it is fairly well accepted that complementary colors under certain condi¬ tions are harmonious combinations especially when one color is used sparingly in area relative to the area occupied by the other. In experiments conducted by the author on color preference with a group of subjects with fifteen fairly pure colors, the subjects were asked to pair the colors in the most pleasing combina¬ tions and to indicate their preference order. For example, the colors, which were each four inches square, were spread upon the table and the subject was asked to choose the most agree¬ able pair, completely eliminating, if possible, such factors as association. After the pair was noted the colors were placed again among the others and a second choice was made, no restric¬ tion being made upon the number of times a color could be used in successive combinations. This was continued until each subject had made a list of ten choices in the order of preference. On inspecting these data it was found that about THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 245 fifty per cent, of the chosen combinations were approximately complementary and in very few choices were the two colors closely related in the spectrum or color-circle. Such data will eventually provide a sound basis upon which to construct certain laws of color-harmony, but only meager data are available at present. It is true that our ordinary uses of colors are modi¬ fied by environment, pattern, spatial relation and many other factors so that such data are not directly applicable to practice. However, the conclusions reached from ordinary usage of color are equally open to criticism because of the many uncontrolled factors involved. In fact, we must ultimately take into account the data obtained from both sources and in the meantime hope that critical analysis will be applied to the conditions in all cases which are studied. A large number of color-charts designed as foundations for color-harmony, when used in accordance with certain rules accompanying them, are available to those interested in this aspect of color. Some of these are very com¬ mendable and doubtless have served both the student and artist very well. Most of these are based on the color-circle or on the color-sphere more or less modified. These are simple and 246 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR readily understood because they are based on sequences in hues, tints and shades and upon the complementary colors. Some colorists have gone so far as to apply quantitative formulae to the construction of color-harmonies—a hazard¬ ous and confusing procedure when it is consid¬ ered that there are hundreds of pigments avail¬ able in the market. Many of these schemes contain a great deal of unsound reasoning. For example, Field at¬ tempts to demonstrate the proportional powers of colors numerically and gives formula3 for combining colors harmoniously. These rules are open to criticism from many viewpoints. Colors are not specifically designated when given merely a name such as red. There are many red pigments available and their spectral compositions vary so widely that far different results are obtained when mixed with another color. Furthermore, it should be remembered that pigments when mixed involve the subtrac¬ tive principle of color-mixture but colors when viewed involve, to a degree at least, the additive principle. It is futile to attempt to criticize these various methods. Instead it is recom¬ mended that those interested in the applications of color, study the science of the subject and they will then be able to judge the various pro- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 247 posals for themselves. There is much of value in many of them, but none can be satisfactory unless it conforms to the facts of the science of color-mixture and of various other aspects. The great colorists were well acquainted with the science of color. The writings of Leonardo da Vinci contain many pleas for a greater un¬ derstanding of this aspect of color on the part of those engaged in the artistic use of color. This was recognized by such men centuries ago when the science of color was not well under¬ stood. To-day the physics of color is well de¬ veloped so that colorists now have a great ad¬ vantage over those of past centuries. The atti¬ tude of the experienced and successful colorist is expressed by Mengs as follows: “I know not if lessons on coloring have ever been given, notwithstanding it is a part so principal that it has its rules founded on science and reason. Without such a study it is impossible that youth can acquire a good taste in coloring or under¬ stand harmony.” The author can supplement this from his own small acquaintance with art¬ ists, for those who are interested in and familiar with the science of color make excellent use of this knowledge in their application of color both in painting and in decoration. It is un¬ fortunate that students of color-harmony are 248 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR not more seriously encouraged to study the sci¬ ence by giving them the opportunity to view some of its wonders at the beginning of their career in color. Field and others have proposed that a com¬ bination of colors is harmonious when the col¬ ors are opposed to each other in “equivalent proportions chromatically, or in such propor¬ tions as neutralize their individual activities.” Some have carried this idea so far as to contend that a color-combination is harmonious when the combined sensations of the different colors would produce a neutral gray if they could be summated. A little reflection shows that this is incorrect for most “harmonies of analogy” would thus fail to be harmonies. None who possesses a fair knowdedge of the science of color, will be misled by the many incorrect prem¬ ises found in such writings. Nature is sometimes taken as the standard chart of color-harmonies and incongruities in its color-scheme, as viewed from a particular hypothesis of color-harmony, are excused or explained in some manner. Doubtless our es¬ thetic taste has been greatly influenced by our natural environment but it is unnecessary to believe that Nature’s color-schemes are invari¬ ably faultless. We are sentimental toward Na- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 249 ture and are likely to draw upon sentiment in our defense of these incongruities. This re¬ sults in conclusions which are obviously of doubtful value. On the other hand, as many mistakes are made by a purely superficial analysis of the colors employed. For example, blue and green would not often be chosen as a harmonious combination, nevertheless, this is perhaps the most conspicuous combination of color in Na¬ ture represented by the great juxtaposed areas of blue sky and green vegetation. If the an¬ alysis stopped here Nature would be charged with poor taste. However, the sky is a great many times brighter than the green foliage and it is a tint of blue and often a very light one. Furthermore, this tremendous brightness con¬ trast throws the green of the vegetation into a very dark shade so that the simple statement of blue and green in contrast does not describe the combination adequately. Likewise the pink rose in contrast with its green foliage does not fully describe the combination. The rose petals are found to be colored with a variety of tints and the green leaves are a dark grayish green. Thus it is seen that careful observa¬ tion and description is essential for drawing correct conclusions. 250 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR The analogy of music has been used to a great extent in the discussion of color-harmony. Such terms as tone, key, pitch, quality, and oithers have been borrowed from the termi¬ nology of music. This comparison of color- liarmony with music has been helpful, because of the indefiniteness of the nomenclature of color, but it has also misled some far afield be¬ cause of their failure to recognize that an analogy cannot be pressed too far. For in¬ stance, McDonald attempted to base a system of color-harmony on the musical scale and the laws of the harmony of music. If this could be done it would be mere accident, but Mc¬ Donald would have abandoned the attempt if he had stopped to think that the ear is analytical while the eye is synthetic in its operation. There are many other reasons why such an at¬ tempt was doomed to failure, but this one is so overwhelmingly convincing as to require no other support in condemning such attempts at relating the harmonies of colors and sounds. Two tones struck simultaneously are not synthesized by the ear, but are recognized as two distinct tones; however, two colored lights when mixed are synthesized into one which usually appears far different than either viewed singly. As long as McDonald kept his colors THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 251 separated his scheme might have borne fruit and it is only fair to state that from this viewpoint his attempt is not without merit. Others who have attempted to produce color-music based upon the analogy of colors and sounds have made far worse blunders and have contributed nothing more, in many cases, than chaos to an already abundant supply. Other facts bearing upon this aspect will be brought out later. It has been the aim in this chapter to discuss the question of color-harmony broadly and to indicate its possible relations to the science of color. No attempt has been made to record the author’s ideas of harmony, but rather to point out a few of the pitfalls and to make a plea for a greater use of scientific knowledge and of searching analysis. COLOR PRACTICE I T appears of interest in this discussion of the language of color to touch upon the means for obtaining color and upon some of the principles and results of color-mixture. In the use of color three general methods are avail¬ able, namely, the additive, the subtractive, and the juxtapositional. The first is that involved in the mixture of colored lights as applied upon the stage and in similar cases; the second is that involved in the use of pigments in paint¬ ing, dyeing, and color-painting; and the third may be used with either lights or pigments. The various principles involved in these three methods of color-mixture have been much con¬ fused by many who practice the art of color. The primary colors of the additive method are red, green, and blue; that is, a mixture of these colors in proper proportions will produce white light or lights of a vast variety of domi¬ nant hues. In other words, if lights of these three colors be permitted to illuminate a white paper the resultant color will be white or any dominant hue depending upon the relative in¬ tensities of the three primary components. 252 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 253 For example, red and blue lights when mixed make purple; red and green lights make yellow; blue and green lights make blue-green; and yellow and blue lights make white. The latter case is of interest further because it will be noted that the yellow can be made by mixing red and green so that the yellow-blue mixture which resulted in white is actually composed of the three primary components, red, green, and blue. These are examples of the synthetic process of color-vision. The results of various mixtures of colored lights can only be predicted with certainty when the facts of spectrum analysis and of color-mixture are well known. The primary colored lights which the author finds satisfactory for general purposes are: a red bordering on the orange-red in hue, a green with a yellowish hue, and a blue made by using an ordinary blue glass or transparent dye cor¬ rected with a blue-green glass or dye in order to eliminate the red light which is so commonly transmitted by blue dyes and glasses. The primary colors of the subtractive method are usually considered to be red, yellow and blue, but there appears to be no justification for considering red to be as “primary” as purple. In fact if the artist or dyer depended only upon these colors he would find that he had 254 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR no means of obtaining a rich purple by mix¬ ture, therefore purple, yellow and blue are primaries of greater productibility. In fact the so-called red primary of the artist or color- printer is in reality a purple so that the diffi¬ culty is due to a misnomer rather than to the use of an actual red pigment. If it is considered that the resultant color due to a subtractive mixture of two or more colors is that which is common to all the com¬ ponents of the mixture, the result can be readily predicted through an acquaintance with the spectral characteristics of the components in¬ volved. The principle of the mixture of pig¬ ments can be conveniently demonstrated by superposing colored glasses. In fact, this method is used in practice in obtaining colored lights for use as primaries for the additive method. If purple and yellow glasses be superposed, red results because this color is the only one transmitted by the two glasses. Blue and yellow glasses when superposed transmit green light, and blue and purple glasses when thus combined transmit blue light. These glasses can be considered as representing microscopic flakes of pigments and thus the principles of the mixture of pigments are readily under- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 255 stood. In such cases the incident light pene¬ trates through some of the microscopic flakes and a portion of it finds its way out by reflec¬ tion. While penetrating and emerging it un¬ dergoes various changes in color by these sub¬ tractive processes. However in the mixture of pigments other factors such as body color, transparency, surface color, etc., are involved. The ordinary colors of pigments are the results of the subtractive method; for example, an opaque red object appears red under white light because it has the ability to reflect only the red rays to any appreciable extent. If it is viewed under the illumination from a mercury arc or a blue light it appears black, or nearly so, because no rays are present which it is capable of re¬ flecting to any great degree. It is thus seen that in the subtractive process the tendency is toward black and in the additive process toward white. The juxtapositional method of color-mixture is an averaging additive method. If a few colors occupying small areas be juxtaposed they will appear of a certain uniform color if the eye is at a distance sufficiently great so that the in¬ dividual colors are no longer resolved. A simple demonstration is that of painting one end of a pack of cards one color, say red, 256 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR and the other end green; on reversing alternate cards and viewing one end of the pack at a short distance it will appear yellow. That is, the alternate tine strips of red and green when unresolved by the eye will appear yellow and the apparent brightness will be a mean of the brightnesses of the components. This method is that involved in “impression¬ istic” painting in which, for instance, a yellow color is actually produced by pointilistic appli¬ cation of the various components, namely red, orange, yellow, and green. It is also used in textile manufacture by alternating or systemat¬ ically grouping differently colored threads, in color-photography and elsewhere. The results are often more luminous than when pigments or dyes are intimately mixed to obtain the de¬ sired color for, owing to the lack of high satura¬ tion of many of the available pigments and dyes, a necessary mixture results in the forma¬ tion of a certain amount of gray associated with the resulting dominant hue. In other words, if a brilliant green is desired it is a safer and more satisfactory procedure to use a natural green pigment than to obtain it by a mixture of yellow and blue-green pigments. The most satisfactory colors from the viewpoint of bril¬ liancy are obtained by mixture only when the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 257 hues of the components are closely related to that which it is desired to obtain. Lights of various colors can be obtained by the juxta- positional method though usually not as effi¬ ciently as they would be obtained directly. These various methods find many applications in the practice of both the science and art of color. Certain characteristics of coloring materials should be closely studied. The aniline dyes provide a beautiful array of fairly pure and highly transparent colors. Colored glasses, pigments, dyes, water colors, inks, etc., are valuable tools, all of which have their places in the science and art of color. A broad acquaint¬ ance with these is a great aid to those especially interested in any of the aspects of color. The chief characteristics which should be noted in the consideration of coloring elements are dur¬ ability, depth, body, purity, surface character, transparency, brilliancy, luminosity, richness, and beauty. The method of applying colors to surfaces is also of importance. For example, if a liquid color be applied by means of an air brush, it will often appear quite different (usually much richer) than when applied by means of an ordi¬ nary brush. In the former case when applied 258 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR thickly it will be left with a rougher and more porous surface which deepens its hue and in¬ creases its purity. Many points of this nature are associated with the application of color and the artist in color cannot fail to profit by an intimate knowledge of the laws and principles of the science of color. Doubtless the blending of colors has been a difficult technique for the young colorist to ac¬ quire. Perhaps in no other single aspect of the art of color is a knowledge of the spectral characteristics of pigments and of the science of color-mixture more valuable. If the spectral characters of the pigments are known, approxi¬ mately at least, and the principles of the sub¬ tractive mixture of colors have been thoroughly grasped no discouraging surprises will be en¬ countered. For example, if red and green are blended the result will not be a gradual change from one dominant hue to the other. In this case a muddy color will be found midway be¬ cause the result of mixing red and green pig¬ ments is a gray with perhaps a suggestion of residual color. In blending colors, whose dominant hues are far apart spectrally, it is necessary to use a color between them which con¬ tains components of both colors. For example, in blending red and green pigments, yellow is a THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 259 satisfactory color for use with them at the in¬ definite blended junction. Purple may be used for blending red and violet; white for green and purple; blue-green for green and violet; white for yellow and violet. A study of these suggestions will reveal the principle upon which they are based, that is, the blending color is really a link between the colors which are blended by possessing a color common to the two colors. A valuable aid will be found in the color-circle which has been described in the previous chapter. It would be an endless task to describe the colors resulting from a mixture of pigments. Certainly practice and a knowledge of the spectral characteristics of the colors at hand are better guides than a cumbersome descrip¬ tion of specific cases which at best could not be accurate. Some of the available color-charts are helpful as supplementary guides. The futility of descriptions of the results of mixing pigments is readily exemplified by a few cases. Brown might be said to be produced by mixing an orange-red with black, however, if we examine the many colors that are called brown we find a vast array of them varying greatly in hue. Obviously these are not all produced in the same manner. A bluish-gray can be pro- 260 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR duced by a mixture of black and white tinted by means of a small proportion of a blue pigment. On the other hand, it might be produced by a mixture of various colors without black or white, for example, a proper mixture of purple and bluish-green. Coloring elements such as pigments are the tools of those applying color in the arts. An intimate acquaintance with these tools is essential and is assumed to be possessed by those interested in applying the language of color. The application of color, whether it be in a painting, in decoration, in the lighting of the stage or in the many other places where it has found its way, is successful only when guided by the fine sensibility of the artist. Formulae cannot be written which will guide those who do not have a well developed esthetic sense in ap¬ plying colors to the full extent of their expres¬ siveness. This book and others have aimed to bring to the attention of those who use and enjoy colors, various facts and viewpoints con¬ cerning color, but it must ever remain for the artist to play the music of light—colors—just as it is left to the musician to render music. However, colors should be appreciated by every one possessing the gift of color-vision just as music is appreciated. In the rendering of color THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 261 as of music we must depend upon the artist who possesses a fine sensibility, in which senti¬ ment, judgment, taste, and perception are har¬ monized. Notwithstanding the admission that the artist must be depended upon to play the music of light he can profit as well as others in keeping in close touch with the language of color. The artist has created a portion of the scanty language of color which is available, but the consensus of opinion of the masses (which is un¬ consciously expressed) has established the re¬ mainder. The enlightened artist knows that colors have certain powers of arousing emotions and to analyze these effects is one of his aims for, with this information he is enabled, as Addison says, “to put a virtue into colors, or to find a proper dress for a passion.” COLOR-MUSIC R HETORICALLY, colors may be referred to as the music of light, but in pressing the analogy between sounds and colors too far the promising and well-intended efforts of many persons have ended in an entanglement of ridiculous argument. The nomenclature of color is so lacking in standardization that it has been convenient and even necessary to borrow definite words from the well-standardized ter¬ minology of the science and art of music. The continued use of such terms as tone, key, pitch, harmony, and scale, has misled many to con¬ clude that there is a close affinity between sight and hearing. This conclusion combined with a scanty or superficial knowledge of the science of sounds and of colors has resulted in the formulation of many ideas regarding relations of sounds and colors which have led many others astray. It is not the intention to deny the possible development of color-music, or an art of mobile color, for it appears to the author that in the same number of centuries which were required to bring music to its present stage it is possible for the art of mobile color to evolve 262 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 263 into something definite and full of meaning. The aim in the present chapter is to discuss the errors of the past and possibly to suggest the course to be pursued in order that the pitfalls may be avoided. First let us consider how far it is safe to extend the analogy between sounds and colors. The specific meaning of analogy is a similarity of relations and in Webster’s dictionary is found this illustration: “Learning enlightens the mind because it is to the mind what light is to the eye, enabling it to discover things before hidden. ’ ’ From this it cannot be deduced that light and learning operate in the same manner. Thus it is seen that an analogy includes only a resemblance of relations. If the full import of the limitations of an analogy had been univer¬ sally recognized much confusion regarding sounds and colors would have been avoided. Painting as an art is in the same class with music, but as a science, music is far in advance of the other fine arts. For this reason various terms have been borrowed from the nomencla¬ ture of music for the purpose of describing col¬ ors and their arrangements in various arts. Thus an analogy has been formulated and has gradually outgrown its legitimate boundaries. With this analogy as a background many 264 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR have misapplied a scanty and inaccurate knowl¬ edge of the science of color and of sound with the result that various conclusions regarding color-harmony and 1 ‘color-music” have been built upon untenable assumptions. Unfortu¬ nately, Newton, after his epoch-making experi¬ ment in which he revealed the spectrum of sun¬ light, gave seven color-names to the spectral colors, namely, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. Speculators have as¬ sociated these seven color-names with the seven notes of the musical scale. We are able to see more than a hundred different hues in the whole visible spectrum and it was purely accidental that Newton applied seven names to it. Doubt¬ less he applied these names for no other pur¬ pose than to provide terms for approximately describing or denoting the various spectral regions. Since Newton’s time the name, indigo, has been generally dropped from the series. In fact it is not uncommon to use merely the terms red, yellow, green, and blue as descriptive of the conspicuous spectral colors. When dis¬ cussing color from the viewpoint of color-mix¬ ture it is convenient to use only the names, red, green, and blue. It is quite unsound to relate the seven colors named by Newton to the seven notes of the THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 265 musical scale for various other reasons. A highly important one is the absence of a very conspicuous and appealing color—purple—from this series. Furthermore, it must be recog¬ nized that even our musical scale is arbitrary. Our octave consists of a chromatic scale of twelve notes, the smallest interval being a half¬ tone, but this is not universal. There is no absolute scale and therefore, notwithstanding the present standardization of the musical scale among many peoples, it must be recognized that in developing schemes for color-harmony or for color-music it is dangerous to use a foundation that is not perfectly stable or absolute. The fact that both sounds and colors are as¬ sociated with wave-theories has also been used to add to the confusion; however, there are many reasons why this fact cannot be used in connecting sounds and colors. Sounds are propagated in the form of waves in a material medium but light-waves are only supposed to be transmitted by a medium which is assumed to exist. Furthermore, scientists disclaim any general similarity between sound-waves and light-waves; in fact the two kinds of wave-mo¬ tion are quite different in character. The wave- theories fit beautifully into the analogy if the latter is not pressed too far but are worthless 266 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR in relating sounds and colors fundamentally. A notable difference between tlie sense of bearing and of sight is that the former is analytic and the latter is synthetic in operation. In other words, the ear is able to analyze a mix¬ ture of tones (a chord) into its components, but the eye cannot analyze a mixture of colors. Many examples of the synthetic nature of vision have been presented in preceding chapters. If red and green lights be mixed a yellow sensa¬ tion results; that is, if a pigment reflected only red and green rays it would appear yellow. Failure to consider this great difference be¬ tween these two senses has led many into very unsound theorizing. The affective values of auditory sensations differ very much. For example some very low tones are decidedly unpleasant owing to their intensity or volume and many tones of very high pitch are unpleasant owing to their slight extensity and piercing effect. The affective value of visual sensations also varies consider¬ ably for the different colors but to those who would cling to a relationship between sounds and colors it may be stated that no such un¬ pleasantness is experienced with colors of ex¬ tremely long and short wave-lengths respec¬ tively as in the case of sounds. Colors are THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 267 represented by about one octave, the wave¬ length of the extreme red being about twice that of the extreme violet; however, sounds that are audible to the human ear are represented by many octaves. Various attempts have been made to establish laws of color-harmony on the basis of the har¬ mony of sounds. These efforts have usually in¬ volved the use of the “similarities” described in the foregoing paragraphs; however, there are some of interest because of the more novel modes of attack. In one case the chief thesis appears to be that harmonic relations are built on the basis of notes whose overtones are most alike. For example, the relation of C to F on the musical scale is found to be the closest and this numeric relation is expressed as %. The spectrum is conceived to be analogous to the musical octave with the upper note omitted, that is, from C to B inclusive. By then applying the ratio % to the wave-lengths of the spectral colors it is concluded that the most harmonious combinations of color result. If the facts of color-harmony bear out this mathematical re¬ lation it would be of interest, but even then the relation could be considered not more than an analogy at best. It is difficult to place purple into such a scheme because it does not appear 268 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR in the spectrum, however, this color cannot be overlooked as a factor in color-harmony. There are many reasons, in musical theory, why certain mathematical ratios are fundamentally important, but it is difficult to see why an¬ alogous conditions should prevail in the visible spectrum which is so much shorter in range of wave-lengths than the range of audible sound¬ waves. At this point it may be of interest to note that Helmholtz and others have determined the ratios of the wave-lengths of complementary spectral colors and found no simple relation. Helmholtz found this ratio to vary from 1.2 to 1.34. This variation in musical notation would correspond to the relation of a note and its fourth and to that between a note and its diminished third for the extreme ratios. This is one more fact which condemns any chromatic theory which is founded upon a musical basis. After having been fore-warned of the dangers of extending the analogy between sounds and colors let us consider the analogy somewhat further within legitimate limits because of the possible guidance which it may afford in prose¬ cuting experiments in color-music. Sounds are given significance in speech by the succession of words comprising a phrase or sentence; in THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 269 music by the melody or succession of musical notes or chords. Harmony is due to the co¬ existence of several concords and music results from a succession of tones. We experience great pleasure from harmony (simultaneity) of colors, but will we ever be able to experience pleasure to a comparable degree by melody (succession) of colors? We can enjoy music without harmony, but will we ever be able to en¬ joy colors to a comparable degree without har¬ mony, that is, by melody alone? The question can only be answered after extensive experi¬ ments. Such experiments were not possible on an ex¬ tensive scale until the advent of powerful arti¬ ficial light-sources which may account for the lack of development of melodies of colors. We enjoy to some extent the play of color on a stage setting or as an accompaniment to the dance if the melody is “well rendered.” It need not be discouraging to admit our present inabil¬ ity to interpret completely such a melody of color. Modern music evolved from chaos many centuries ago yet we are still quite ignorant of the philosophy of its representative or allego¬ rical power. The expressiveness of color in painting is perhaps equally as well understood, and in many respects color ranks with music 270 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOE in relation to our understanding. From such a viewpoint we are encouraged to hope and even to expect that some day mankind will be enter¬ tained by the rendition of color-melody in which harmony and rhythm will also be interwoven. It will be necessary to introduce the element of harmony in a manner which will overcome the non-analytic nature of the visual process. The colors which are introduced simultaneously for obtaining harmony must occupy different positions spatially, but the introduction of rhythm should be no more difficult than in the case of music. Whether or not, in the rhythm of color-music, the time-rates will be compa¬ rable in general with those employed in sound- music is a question that cannot be answered at present with any degree of certainty. From various considerations it appears that the rhythmic 'movements of colors must be slower than those which play such an important part in ordinary music. The richness of colors is often heightened when the images of those dif¬ fering considerably in hue are permitted to impinge upon the retina at a moderate rate of succession. When this rate is too rapid the colors blend into a resultant color, but doubt¬ less there is a range of speed which is satisfac- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 271 tory for various color-phrases depending upon the hues and brightnesses. The leading elements in sound-music are rhythm, melody, harmony, tone-quality, and dynamic contrast. In experimenting with color-music these elements must be borne in mind though their relations are likely to be con¬ siderably altered to allow for the fundamental differences between the visual and auditory senses. The normal adult person is able to experience more than 10,000 tones and many simple noises and these auditory sensations possess attributes of quality and intensity. Among the latter is that of extensity, a low tone being large and a high tone being small. It has been stated by certain psychologists that there are many points of resemblance between tones and achromatic sensations and between noises and colors. If the latter resemblance is too close the possibility of the development of color-music would be seriously doubted, but it does not appear that this is true. We need only to consider ordinary music to reach the conclusion that rhythmic experiences are much more agreeable than those which are non-rhythmic. Irregularities must be either avoided or compensated. The human organism 272 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR seems to demand a certain degree of rhythm and it is noteworthy that many natural phe¬ nomena, bodily processes, and human activities are rhythmic. It is possible that these account for our appreciation of psychological rhythm. It should be noted, however, that a sudden turn in a line of a sculpture or painting often affords a pleasant surprise or plays the role of an accent or emphasis. Musical tones vary in their quality and this great diversity enriches the harmony. In the myriad combinations of these qualities exists a variety which, with the aid of the other elements, makes music ever pleasurable. Colors also vary in quality and appear to possess similar possibilities. Will the human organism ever be able to adapt itself to an en¬ joyment of color-music? This is the most im¬ portant question to be solved by experiment. In the preceding, colors and sounds have been considered in parallel and the discussion has been aimed chiefly at the possibility of colors affording sufficient pleasure to encourage the development of color-music—an independent art. It is of interest to digress at this point to discuss the possibility of uniting colors with sound-music in a fundamental manner. Experi¬ ments of this nature have been made and al- THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 273 though the author subscribes heartily to the idea of experiment it is unfortunate that, inten¬ tionally or otherwise, the impression has pre¬ vailed that these were finished products evolved in the minds of certain geniuses who possess a knowledge of the language of color far superior to those who have given years to its study. The aim of this book is to review the available facts of the language of color and to discuss as clearly as possible the relation that such an art must bear to the science of color. It is hoped that this discussion as a whole will point out these rudiments and a general consistency in the expressiveness of the various colors. Be¬ yond this it is impossible to extend the discus¬ sion except for a few suggestions pointing toward the future. In relating color-music and sound-music many points must be borne in mind. Although it is difficult to apply numerical values to the affective values of colors and to tones, it is possible to form an idea of the emotive value of colors in general as compared to music. A per¬ son may experience pleasure at the sight of a single color, a color-harmony, or a sequence of colors, but the degree of pleasure is not com¬ parable with that experienced on listening to a symphony orchestra or even to a piano selec- 274 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR tion. If colors are to compete for favor with music when they are rendered simultaneously it appears likely that the colors must occupy large areas—so large that they provide the “at¬ mosphere.” Colors played on a relatively small surface are conspicuous in their feeble¬ ness when competing with a musical rendition. From experience it appears that this is a very important point to be considered at the present time. It should also be noted that many psycho¬ logical factors must be considered when com¬ bining colors with music. The question arises, does color enhance the power of music? Data are lacking which would settle this question al¬ though from conversation with persons who have witnessed colors accompanying music, one is led to believe that the value of colors in this role is doubtful. However, colors have not been combined with music in the most effective way as indicated in the preceding paragraph and until this is done the combination of colors and music cannot be condemned. Experiments by the author on both small and large scales in¬ dicate that colors can enhance the agreeable¬ ness of music although other factors were usually present so that no definite conclusion can be reached. Both vision and audition are THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 275 stimulated in the case of a dance accompanied by music, but rhythm is the dominant element common to both senses. When music is accom¬ panied by colors this element is also present, but color alone is supposed to be an important factor. In such a case it must still remain an open question whether colors diminish or en¬ hance the power of music. In closing this discussion of colors and music it is of interest to refer to a scientific investi¬ gation bearing upon the subject. Keith has studied the mutual influence of feelings and has presented results of a long series of experi¬ ments with two subjects on the hedonic ranking of various colors, tone-combinations, and sur¬ faces actively or passively touched. Twenty- seven tone-combinations and fourteen of each of the other groups were separately given their values in the conventional scale of seven de¬ grees of pleasantness-unpleasantness, after which the members of each group were com¬ bined in turn with those of the other groups and assigned values under these conditions. The results indicate that combining colors and tones lowers the agreeableness of both and combining colors and passive touch or tones and active touch raises the agreeableness of both in both cases. For the other combinations the results 276 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR were not sufficiently consistent to warrant any conclusions. A few investigations have been performed which would add interesting data if this discussion were broadly extended, but on the whole the data of direct interest are very meager. FINALE W HAT is the future of the language of color? The answer depends upon the degree of progress made in several directions. It cannot be denied that its rudiments exist to¬ day and that there is a general consistency in the interpretations of it by qualified individuals. There appears to be no reason apparent at pres¬ ent why appreciation and understanding of this rudimentary language should not become as prevalent and as definite as that of music. At this point it is well to note that, although music is quite generally appreciated, its representa¬ tive power is only vaguely understood. As compared with music in this respect the lan¬ guage of color is relatively not extremely vague. Color is perhaps as generally liked to-day as music, but in a less definite manner. In order to extend the use of the language of color it is necessary to learn more of its rudiments and to standardize them, if possible, by consistent usage. It is also necessary that a general un¬ derstanding of it be attained by mankind before it can be greatly extended. Finally, it must be determined whether or not the human organism 277 278 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR can adapt itself to an art of mobile color in which color plays the overwhelmingly dominant role. Experiments are the only means of de¬ termining the unanswered questions, hut these experiments should be conducted by those hav¬ ing a wide acquaintance with the many aspects of color. Heretofore color has not played a leading role. Line and form have usually produced a setting in which colors have supplied the dra¬ pery and atmosphere. If color is given the lead¬ ing role will it, with the aid of such factors as rhythm, be able to please mankind in a manner comparable with music? Again we must resort to thoughtful experiment. Colors please us greatly in painting, in decoration, as an accom¬ paniment to the dance, and in many settings. Often it is the mobile color such as is witnessed at sunset or on the stage that appeals most to us. Experiments should prove whether or not mobile color can be made more effective and finally be able to play a dominant role. Some conducted by the author have indicated that a thoughtful rendition of mobile color has the power to please us greatly. It is interesting to inquire as to what a “color-score” of an art of mobile color would be like. It is too early to give much time to THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 279 such speculation but no start can be made in experimenting without first formulating some idea of a simple color-melody. The expressive¬ ness of colors taken individually must be con¬ sidered first. These might then be woven into a simple melody in which rhythm, both in time and in intensity, would be introduced. So far, definite form need not enter, however upon the introduction of harmony it is impossible to es¬ cape from the introduction of form. Colors must be separated in the visual field in order to harmonize them so that this brings up the ques¬ tion of the character and magnitude of the field upon which to play the colors. Tones meet with no such difficulty in sound-music because they can be emitted simultaneously into space. However, the eye, being a synthetical instru¬ ment, makes demands which the ear does not. Many possibilities pertaining to methods of pro¬ ducing colors and of displaying them become apparent to those familiar with the science of color. These have been discussed elsewhere and do not fall within the province of this book. Experiments need not be confined only to mo¬ bile color. An obvious means of evolving an art predominantly of color or an art of mobile color is by using color more definitely and pow T ~ erfully in the many arts in which it is now a 280 THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR conspicuous though subordinate factor. By- basing the uses of color in these augmented roles upon the sound though meager knowledge of its expressiveness which is available to-day, progress will be made toward that possible goal which experiment alone will be able to reveal if it exists. It is unsafe to extend this discussion further because we are approaching the realm of specu¬ lation. Notwithstanding the hint of specula¬ tion that may appear to some in the title of this book, an aim which has been foremost in the author’s mind has been to deal only with facts and to enter the field of speculation only as far as the limits of the province of suggestion. Lest the boundaries of the latter be crossed, the discussion for the present will be closed with a brief resume of the tools available by the futur¬ ist in the highest possible development of the language of color—namely, the art of mobile color. The character of the available material re¬ garding the expressiveness of color has been outlined in this book. Scientific research will doubtless contribute much of interest regarding the emotive values of colors. Experimental re¬ search will reveal the most successful methods of presenting colors in order that their full THE LANGUAGE OF COLOR 281 powers will be exercised. The factors that may be woven into such a possible art are simultane¬ ous and successive contrasts in brightness and in hue, sequences in hue, tints, and shades, rhythm, spatial relations, and many minor fac¬ tors more or less related. Will a mobile-color¬ ist of the future be able to “blend the fair tints, and awake the vocal string” of approbation? BIBLIOGRAPHY The following list includes a number of ref¬ erences which have been mentioned in the text:— Bradford, E. J. G...Amer. J. of Psych. 24, 1913, 545. Chevreul, M. E.Color, 1835. Clement, C. E.Legendary and Mythological Art. Cohn, J.Phil. Stud. 15, 1900, 279. Fairholt .Dictionary of Terms in Art. Gordon, Kate.Psych. Rev. 19, 1912, 352. Hulme.Symbolism in Christian Art. Jastrow .Pop. Sci. Mo. 50, 361. Luckiesh, M.Color and Its Applications, 1915. McDonald, J. D.Sounds and Colors, 1867. Minor, A.Psych. Bui. 7,1910, 247. Miinsterberg, H.General and Applied Psychology. Neff, E. C.Christian Symbolism. Pressey, S. L.Trans. I. E. S. 11, 1916, 643. Raymond, G. S.Sounds and Color. Starch, D.Advertising. Washburn, M. F....Amer. J. of Psych. 22, 1911, 112 and 578; 24, 1913, 267. Wells, N. A.Psych. Bui. 7, 1910, 181. Woodworth, R. S... Psych. Bui, 7, 1910, 325. Owing to the scope of this subject it is out of the question to give a comprehensive bibliog¬ raphy but these references will reveal others. The textbooks of color and the journals and textbooks of psychology will be helpful to those who wish to investigate further the various sci¬ entific aspects of the subject. 282 1 I \ v! *