' Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofaOOgwil_O * ARCHITECTURE, HISTORICAL, THEORETICAL, AND PRACTICAL. PRINTED DY SrOTTlSWOODE AND CO n NEW -STREET .vgt'ARR LONDON Frontispiece. AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE HISTORICAL, THEORETICAL, & PRACTICAL. BY JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A, F.R.S.A. ILLUSTRATED WITH ABOUT SEVENTEEN HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. New Edition, REVISED, PORTIONS REWRITTEN, AND WITH ADDITIONS BY WYATT PAPWORTH, FELLOW OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS. LONDON : LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. AND NEW YORK : 15 EAST 1C" STREET. 1888. Co/V'S PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. An Encyclopaedia of any of the Fine Arts has, from its nature, considerable advantage over one which relates to the sciences generally. In the latter, the continual additions made to the common stock of knowledge frequently effect such a complete revolution in their bases and superstructure, that the esta- blished doctrines of centuries may be swept away by the discoveries of a single day. The arts, on the other hand, are founded upon principles unsus- ceptible of change. Fashion may, indeed — nay, often does — change the prevailing taste of the day, but first principles remain the same ; and as, in a cycle, the planets, after a period of wandering in the heavens, return to the places which they occupied ages before, so, in the arts, after seasons ol extravaganza and bizzareria, a recurrence to sound taste is equally certain. It is unfortunate for the productions of the arts that the majority of those who are constituted their judges are little qualified for the task, either by education or habits ; but on this, as it has been the complaint of every age, it is perhaps useless to dwell. This much may be said, that before any one can with propriety assume the name of architect, he must proceed regularly through some such course as is prescribed in this work. The main object ot its author has been to impart to the student all the knowledge indispensable for the exercise of his profession ; but should the perusal of this encyclopaedia serve to form, guide, or correct the taste even of the mere amateur , the author will not consider that he has laboured in vain. An encyclopedia is necessarily a limited arena for the exhibition of an author’s power ; for although every subject in the department of which it treats must be noticed, none can be discussed so extensively as in a separate work. An attempt to produce a Complete Body of Architecture the author believes to be entirely original. In his celebrated work, L'Art de Bdtir, Rondelet has embodied all that relates to the construction of buildings. Durand, too ( Lemons et Precis d' Architecture), has published some admirable rules on composition and on the graphic portion of the art. Lebrun ( Theorie d' Architecture) has treated on the philosophy of the eauilibrium, if it may be viii PREFACE. bo called, of the orders. The Encyclopedic Methodique contains, under various heads, some invaluable detached essays, many of which, however, suffer from want of the illustrative plates which were originally projected as an appendage to them. All these, with others in the French language, might, indeed, be formed into a valuable text-book for the architect ; but no such attempt has hitherto been made. Neither in Germany nor in Italy has any complete work of the kind appeared. In the English, as in other languages, there are doubtless several valuable treatises on different branches of the art, though not to the same extent as in French. In 1756, Ware (London, folio) published what he called A Complete Body of Architecture. This, though in many respects an useful work, is far behind the wants of the present day. It is eonfined exclusively to Roman and Italian architecture ; but it does not embrace the history even of these branches, nor does it contain a word on the sciences connected with construction. The details, therefore, not being sufficiently carried out, and many essential branches being entirely omitted, the work is not so generally useful as its name would imply. From these authorities, and many others, besides his own resources, the author of this encyclopaedia has endeavoured to compress within the limits of one closely-printed volume all the elementary knowledge indispensable to the student and amateur ; and he even ventures to indulge the belief that it will be found to contain information which the experienced professor may have overlooked. Though, in form, the whole Avork pretends to originality, this pretension is not advanced for the whole of its substance. Not merely all that has long been known, but even the progressive discoveries and improvements of modern times, are usually founded on facts which themselves have little claims to novelty. As a fine art, architecture, though in its applications and changes inexhaustible, is in respect of first principles confined within certain limits ; but the analysis of those principles and their relation to certain types have afforded some views of the subject which, it is believed, will be new even to those who have passed their lives in the study of the art. In those sciences on which the constructive power of the art is based, the author apprehended he would be entitled to more credit by the use of weightier authorities than his own. Accordingly, in the Second Book, he has adopted the algebra of Euler ; and in other parts, the works of writers of established reputation. The use of Rossignol’s geometry may indeed be dis- approved by rigid mathematicians ; but, considering the variety of attainments indispensable to the architectural student, the author was induced to shorten and smooth his path as much as possible, by refraining from burdening his memory with more mathematical knoAvledge than Avas absolutely requisite for Ins particular art. On this account, also, the instruction in algebra is not carried beyond the solution of cubic equations; up to that point it Avas necessary to prepare the learner for a due comprehension of the succeeding inquiries into the method of equilibrating arches and investigating the pres- sures of their different parts. PREFACE. ix In all matters of importance, in which the works of previous writers have been used, the sources have been indicated, so that reference to the originals may be made. Upon the celebrated work of Rondelet above mentioned, on many learned articles in the Encyclopedie Methodique, and on the works o ( Durand and other esteemed authors, large contributions have been levied; but these citations, it will be observed, appear for the first time in an English dress. In that part of the work which treats of the doctrine of arches, the chief materials, it will be seen, have been borrowed from Rondelet, whose views the author has adopted in preference to those he himself gave to the world many years ago, in a work which passed through several editions. Again, in the section on shadows, the author has not used his own treatise on Sciography. In the one case, he is not ashamed to confess his inferiority in so important a branch of the architect’s studies; and in the other, he trusts that matured experience has enabled him to treat the subject in a form likely to be more extensively useful than that of treading in his former steps. The sciences of which an architect should be cognisant are enumerated by Vitruvius at some length in the opening chapter of his first book. They are, perhaps, a little too much swelled, though the Roman in some measure qualifies the extent to which he would have them carried. “For,” he ob- serves, “ in such a variety of matters ” (the different arts and sciences) “ it cannot be supposed that the same person can arrive at excellence in each.” And again : “ That architect is sufficiently educated whose general knowledge enables him to give his opinion on any branch when required to do so. Those unto whom nature hath been so bountiful that they are at once geometricians, astronomers, musicians, and skilled in many other arts, go beyond what is required by the architect, and may be properly called mathematicians in the extended sense of that word.” Py thius, the architect of the temple of Minerva at Priene, differed, however, from the Augustan architect, inasmuch as he considered it absolutely requisite for an architect to have as accurate a know- ledge of all the arts and sciences as is rarely acquired even by a professor devoted exclusively to one. In a work whose object is to compress within a comparatively restricted space so vast a body of information as is implied in an account of what is known of historical, theoretical, and practical architecture, it is of the highest importance to preserve a distinct and precise arrangement of the subjects, so that they may be presented to the reader in consistent order and unity. Without order and method, indeed, the work, though filled with a large and valuable stock of information, would be but an useless mass of knowledge. In treating the subjects in detail, the alphabet has not been made to perform the function of an index, except in the glossary of the technical terms, which partly serves at the same time the purpose of a dictionary, and that of an index to the principal subjects noticed in the work. The following is a synoptical view of its contents, exhibiting its different parts, and the mode in which they arise from and are dependent on each other. [ A List of the Contents was here inserted. 1 X PREFACE. Perfection is not attainable in human labour, and the errors and defects of this work will, doubtless, in due time be pointed out; but as the subject has occupied the author’s mind during a considerable practice, he is inclined to think that these will not be very abundant. He can truly say that he has bestowed upon it all the care and energy in his power ; and he alone is responsible for its errors or defects — the only assistance he has to acknowledge being from his son, Mr. John Sebastian Gwilt, by whom the illustrative drawings were executed. No apology is offered for its appearance, inasmuch as the want of such a book has been felt by every architect at the beginning of his career. Not less is wanted a similar work on Civil Engineering, which the author has pleasure in stating is about to be shortly supplied by his friend, Mr. Edward Cresy. \_This work has since been published^] Without deprecating the anger of the critic, or fearing what may be urged against his work, the author now leaves it to its fate. His attempt has been for the best, and he says with sincerity, “ Si quid novisti rectius istis Candidus imperti ; si non his utere mecum.” September 30, 1842. J. (t. ADVERTISEMENT. GWILT’S ENCYCLOPAEDIA, first published in 1842, has now passed through eight impressions, those of 1867 and 1876 having received extensive revision and many important additions at the hands of Mr. Wyatt Papworth. In this, the ninth impression, besides many requisite amendments and addi- tions throughout the pages, the chapters entitled Materials used in Build- ing and Use of Materials, which constitute a main portion of the work, have been largely revised, parts rewritten and added to in important particu- lars, especially in regard to the details of Fireproof and Sanitary construction, in order to record the results of later theories and the numerous inventions introduced since the previous revision. The section Specifications has been recompiled and enlarged. Several sections of the chapter on Public and Private Buildings have been withdrawn, and some re-inserted in other por- tions of the work : a few added revised. The Lives of eminent Architects have been brought down to date ; as are also the Publications, which have been partly re-arranged in additional classes ; while the Glossary of Terms has been amended where desirable. The Index has been carefully revised to include all new matter. Paternoster Row: June 1888 . CONTENTS BOOK I. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. Sect. 16. Italian . AnTr'T \y ap A l>r’inTI(’PTTT 17. French . . . . Ulvlt* IN Ur AKtlillJCitl UliQi PAGE 18. German . . . . Sect. 1. Wants of Man, and first 19. Spanish and Portuguese Buildings .... 1 20. Russian . 2. Origin and Progress of Building .... 2 3. Different Sorts of Dwellings CHAPTER III. arising from different Occu- pations .... 3 ARCHITECTURE OF BRITAIN. Sect. 1. Early Houses and Architec- ture of the Britons . CHAPTER II. 2. Norman . ARCHITECTURE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 3. Early English 4. Ornamented English . Sect. 1 . Druid i cal and Celtic . 4 5. Florid English or Tudor 2. Pelasgic or Cyclopean . 10 6. Elizabethan 3. Babylonian .... 15 7. James I. to Aune 4. Persepolitan and Persian 19 8. George I 5. Jewish and Phoenician 24 9. George II 6. Indian .... 25 10. George III. 7. Egyptian .... 30 8. Chinese . 43 9. Mexican .... 47 CHAPTER IV. 10. Arabian, Moresque, or Sara- cenic .... 50 POINTED ARCHITECTURE. 11. Grecian .... 57 Sect. 1 . France . . . . 12. Etruscan .... 74 2. Belgium . . . . 13. Roman .... 75 3. Germany . . . 14. Byzantine and Romanesque 107 4. Spain . . . . . 15. (a) Origin of the Pointed 5. Portugal . . . . Arch .... 119 6. Italy . (5) Modiseval Artificers 125 7. Sicily . PAOB 131 152 157 158 162 161 169 175 178 183 197 204 220 223 225 233 242 245 251 255 258 263 CONTEXTS. xu BOOK ir. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS OF CONSTRUCTION. G eometry . Practical Geometry Plane Trigonometry Conic Sections . Descriptive Geometry Mensuration Mechanics and Statics Piers and Vaults Walls and Piers . Beams and Pillars CHAPTER II. MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING. Sect. 1. Stone . ■ . . . . 449 Decay of Stone . . 478 Preservation of Stone . 480 Artificial Stone . . 482 2. Granite .... 484 3. Marble .... 488 4. Timber .... 494 Preservation of Timber . 504 Decay and Dry Rot . .505 6. Iron 508 Steel . . . .512 Corrosion of Iron . .513 6. Lead 515 7. Copper . . . .517 8. Zinc 518 9. Slate 520 10. Brick 522 Tile . . . .528 Terra-cotta . . 530 11. Lime, Sand, Water, Mortar, Concrete, Cement . . 532 12. Glass 545 CHAPTER III. USE OF MATERIALS, OR PRACTICAL BUILDING. Sect. 1 . Poundations and Drains . 548 Sewerage . . .55] Drainage . . 553 PAGE Sect. 2. Bricklaying and Tiling . 558 Fireproof Floors . . 567 Concrete Building . . 569 Paving . . . .572 Terra-cotta . . . 574 3. Masonry .... 578 Columns .... 584 Staircases . . . 587 Stone-cutting . . . 588 Gothic Vaulting . . 607 Marbles . . . .613 4. Carpentry .... 615 Roofs .... 623 Domes .... 646 5. Joinery .... 649 6 Slating .... 676 7. Plumbery . . . .681 Water-closets . . . 686 Traps .... 688 Cisterns and Filters . 690 Copper, Zinc, Brass . 697 8. Glazing .... 700 9. Plastering .... 704 Cements . . . .710 10. Smithery and Ironmongery . 713 Ornamental Metal Work . 718 Gas Fitter . . . 723 Electric Appliances . . 726 11. Foundery .... 728 Testing and Machinery . 730 12. Painting, Gilding, Paper- hanging . . . .732 13. Ventilation of Buildings . 740 14. Warming of Buildings . 746 15. Specifications . . .751 16. Measuring and Estimating 780 CHAPTER IV. MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION. Sect. 1. Drawing in general . . 804 2. Perspective . . .811 3. Shadows .... 824 4. General Principles of Com- position . . . .833 5. Drawings necessary in Com- position . . . .835 6. Working Drawings . . 836 PAGE . 264 . 291 . 296 . 302 . 317 . 330 . 339 . 356 . 392 . 415 Sect. 1. 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8 . 9. 10 . CONTENTS. xiii BOOK nr. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. GRECIAN AND ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. PAGE Sect. 1. Beauty in Architecture . 837 2. The Orders . . . 844 Mouldings . . . 847 3. Tuscan Order . . . 854 4. Doric Order . . . 857 5. Ionic Order . . . 863 6. Corinthian Order . . 869 7. Composite Order . .873 8. Pedestals .... 877 9. Intercolumniations . . 879 10. Arcades and Arches . . 882 11. Orders above Orders . . 892 12. Arcades above Arcades . 896 13. Basements and Attics . . 898 14. Pilasters .... 899 15. Caryatides and Persians . 902 16. Balustrades and Balusters . 903 17. Pediments .... 909 18. Cornices . . . .910 19. Profiles of Doors . .912 20. Windows . . . .915 21. Niches and Statues . . 922 22. Chimney-Pieces . . . 925 23. Staircases .... 927 24. Ceilings .... 931 25. Proportions of Rooms . . 933 CHAPTER II. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. Sect. 1 . General Remarks . . 935 2. Horizontal and Vertical Com- binations of Buildings . 935 3. Subdivisions and Apart- ments of Buildings, and their Points of Support . 938 4. Combination of the Parts in Leading Forms . . 939 5. General Principles of Pro- portion (by E. Cresy) . 942 CHAPTER III. MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. Sect. 1. The Style in general . . 964 2. Periods of the Style . . 967 Sect. 3. Mouldings PAGB 969 4. Piers and Columns . 975 5. Capitals . . . . 977 6. Bases . . . . 979 7. 8. Vaulting Shafts and Ribs . Hood Mouldings and String 980 Courses .... 981 9. Base Courses or Plinths . 982 10. Parapets .... 983 11. Mouldings in Woodwork . 984 12. Windows .... 988 13. Window Jambs and Arch Planes .... 992 14. Circular Windows . 993 15. Tracery of Windows . 994 16. Doorways 997 17. Porches .... 998 IS. Towers and Spires . 1000 CHAPTER IV. MEDIEVAL PROPORTION. Sect. 1. Effect or Use of Numbers . 1005 2. Early Use of Geometry and of a Measure . 1008 3. The Vesica Piseis 1010 4. Modern Investigations 1011 5. Mouldings 1019 6. Principles of Proportion (by E. Cresy) . 1020 CHAPTER V. SPECIAL SUBJECTS. Sect. 1. Theatres .... 1066 2. Hospitals .... 1076 3. Infirmary .... 1079 4. Private Buildings 1080 5. In Towns .... 1081 6. In the Country . 1083 7. Farm-House 1085 8. Cottages .... 1086 9. Town Dwellings L>r the Industrial Classes . 1088 10. Sanitary Aspect of House Construction . 1091 11. Technical School and Col- lege Buildings 1093 xiv CONTENTS. BOOK IV. VALUATION OF PROPERTY. CHAPTER I. PAGIf. VALUATION OF PROPERTY . 1094 CHAPTER II. CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDATIONS . . .1093 CHAPTER III. CALCULATION OF INTEREST . 1101 CHAPTER IV. COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITY TABLES. Observations 1104 Table 1. Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years . 1106 ,, 2. Present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years . . . .1110 Table 3. Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years . . . . 4. Present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Num- ber of Years . 5. The Annuity which One Pound will Purchase for any Number of Years Life Annuity Tables. 6. Showing the Value of an Annuity on One Life ac- cording to the Probabili- ties of Life in London , 6a. Expectation of Life . . 7. Showing the Value of an Annuity on the Joint Continuance of Two Lives, according to the Probabilities of Life in London .... 8. Showing the Value of an Annuity on the longer of Two Lives A List of ARCHITECTS of all Countries, and their PRINCIPAL WORKS 1129 Index to the NAMES therein 1157 A List of PUBLICATIONS relating to Architecture, arranged under Classes 11 GO A GLOSSARY OF TERMS used in ARCHITECTURE and in BUILDING 1201 PAGE 1114 1118 1122 1126 1126 1127 1128 INDEX 1395 to 1413 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OP . AECHITECTUEE. BOOK I. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAP. I. ON THE ORIGIN OP ARCHITECTURE. Sect. I. WANTS OF MAN, AND FIRST BUILDINGS. 1. Protection from the inclemency of the seasons was the ancestor of architecture. Of ttle account at its birth, it rose into light and life with the civilisation of mankind; and. roportionately as security, peace, and good order were established, it became, not less than s sisters, painting and sculpture, one method of transmitting to posterity the degree of nportance to which a nation had attained, and the moral value of that nation amongst the ingdoms of the earth. If the art, however, be considered strictly in respect of its actual tility, its principles are restricted within very narrow limits ; for the mere art, or rather •ience, of construction, has no title to a place among the tine arts. Such is in various agrees to be found among people of savage and uncivilised habits ; and until it is brought ito a system founded upon certain laws of proportion, and upon rules based on a relined lalysis of what is suitable in the highest degree to the end proposed, it can pretend to no ink of a high class. It is only when a nation has arrived at a certain degree of opulence id luxury that architecture can be said to exist in it. Hence it is that architecture, in its • igin, took the varied forms which have impressed it with such singular differences in ifferent countries; differences which, though modified as each country advanced in civil isa- on, were, in each, so stamped, that the type was permanent, being refined only in a higher egree in their most important examples. 2. The ages that have elapsed, and the distance by which we arc separated from the itions among whom the art was first practised, deprive us of the means of examining the lades of difference resulting from climate, productions of the soil, the precise spots upon hicli the earliest societies of man were fixed, with their origin, number, mode of life, and icial institutions ; all of which influenced them in the selection of one form in preference to lother. We may, however, easily trace in the architecture of nations, the types of three stinct states of life, which are clearly discoverable at the present time ; though in some ises the types may be thought doubtful. u HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. Sect. I I. ORIGIN ANT; PROGRKSS OK HUH. DING. 3. Fhe original classes into which mankind were divided were, we may safely assume those of hunters, of shepherds, and of those occupied in agriculture; and the buildings for protection which each would require, must have been characterised by their several occu- pations. The hunter and fisher found all the accommodation they required in the clefts and caverns of rocks; and the indolence which those states of life induced, made them insensible or indifferent to greater comfort than such naturally-formed ha- bitations afforded. We are certain that thus lived such tribes. Jeremiah (chap, xlix. 16.), speaking of the judgment upon Edom, says. “ O thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock, that boldest the height of the hill ;” a text which of late has received ample illustration from tra- vellers, and especially from the labours of Messrs. Leon de Laborde and Linant, in the splendid engravings of the ruins of Petra (_/?p. 1.). To the shepherd, the inhabitant of the plains wandering from one spot to another, as pasture became inadequate to the support of his flocks, another species of dwelling was more ap- propriate ; one which he could remove with him in his wanderings: this was the tent, the type of the architecture of China, whose people were, like all the Tartar races, nwnades or sceniles, that is, shepherds or dwellers in tents. Where a portion of the race fixed its abode for Fij;. I- ruins ok pstp.a. the purposes of agriculture, a very dif- ferent species of dwelling was necessary. Solidity was required as well for the personal comfort of the husbandman as for preserving, from one season to another, the fruits of the earth, upon which he and his family were to exist. Hence, doubtless, the hut, which most authors have assumed to be the type of Grecian architecture. 4. Authors, says the writer in the Enci/c. Methodique, in their search after the origin of architecture, have generally confined their views to a single type, without considering the modification which would be necessary for a mixture of two or more of the states of mankind; for it is evident that any two or three of them may co-exist, a point upon which more will be said in speaking of Egyptian architecture. Hence have arisen the most discordant and contradictory systems, formed without sufficient acquaintance with the customs of different people, their origin, and first state cf existence. 5. The earliest habitations which were constructed after the dispersion of mankind from the plains of Sennaar (for there, certainly, as we shall hereafter see, even without the evidence of Scripture, was a great multitude gathered together), were, of course, proportioned to the means which the spot afforded, and to the nature of the climate to which they were to be adapted. Reeds, canes, the branches, bark, and leaves of trees, clay, and similar materials would be first used. The first houses of the Egyptians and of the people of Palestine were of reeds and canes interwoven. At the present day the same materials serve to form the houses of the Peruvians. According to Pliny (1. vii. ), the first houses of the Greeks were only of clay ; for it was a considerable time before that nation was acquainted with the process of hardening it into bricks. The Abyssinians still build with clay and reeds. Wood, however, offers such facilities of construction, that still, as of old, where it abounds, its adoption prevails. At first, the natural order seems to be that which Vitruvius describes in the first chapter of his second book. “ The first attempt,” says our author “ was the mere erection of a few spars, united together with twigs, and covered with mud. Others built their walls of dried lumps of turf, connected these walls together by means o timbers laid across horizontally, and covered the erections with reeds and boughs, for tin purpose of sheltering themselves from the inclemency of the seasons. Finding, however that flat coverings of this sort would not effectually shelter them in the winter season, the; made their roofs of two inclined planes, meeting each other in a ridge at the summit, th whole of which they covered with clay, and thus carried off the rain.” The same autho Chap. 1. ORIGIN OF ARCHITECTURE. 3 afterwards observes, “ The woods about Pontus furnish such abundance of timber, that they build in the followin'; manner. Two trees are laid level on the earth, right and left, at such distance from each other as will suit the length of the trees which are to cross and connect them. On the extreme ends of these two trees are laid two other trees, transverse- ly : the space which the house will enclose is thus marked out. The four sides being so set out, towers are raised, whose walls consist ot trees laid horizon- tally, hutkept per- pendicularly over each other, the al- ternate layersvok- ing the angles. tie i. KAIU.Y TIMHtiU UMiSTKUCTIUK. The level intel'- stices, which the thickness of the trees alternately leave, is tilled in with chips and mud. On a similar principle they form their roofs, except that gradually reducing the length of the trees which traverse from side to side, they assume a pyramidal form. They are cov ered with houghs, and thus, after a rude fashion of vaulting, their quadrilateral roofs are formed.” The northern parts of Germany, Poland, and Russia still exhibit traces of this method of building, which is also found in Florida, Louisiana, and elsewhere, in various places. See fiq. 2. 6. We shall not, in this place, pursue the discussion on the timber hut, which has certainly, with great appearance of probability, been so often said to contain within it the types of Grecian architecture, but shall, under that head, enlarge further on the subject. Skct. III. DIFFERENT SORTS OF OWED LINGS ARISING FROM DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS. 1 7. The construction of the early habitations of mankind required little skill and as little knowledge. A very restricted number of tools and machines was required. The method of felling timber, which uncivilised nations still use, namely, by fire, might have served all purposes at first. The next step would be the shaping of bard and infrangible stones into 1 cutting tools, as is still the practice in some parts of the continent of America. These, as the metals became known, would be supplanted by tools formed of them. Among the Peruvians, at their invasion by the Spaniards, the only tools in use were the hatchet and the adze ; and we may fairly assume that similar tools were the only ones known at a period of high antiquity. The saw, nails, the hammer, and other instruments of carpentry were unknown. The Greeks, who, as Jacob Bryant says, knew nothing of their own history, ascribe the invention of the instruments necessary for working materials to Dxdalus; but only a few of these were known even in the time of Homer, who confines himself to the hatchet with two edges, the plane, the auger, and the rule. lie particularises neither the square, compasses, nor saw. Neither the Greek word TTpiuv (a saw), nor its equivalent, is to be found in his works. Daedalus is considered, however, by Goguet as a fabulous person altogether, the word meaning, according to him, nothing more than a skilful workman, a meaning which, he observes, did not escape the notice of Pausanias. The surmise is bori c I out by the non-mention of so celebrated a character, if he had ever existed, by Homer, and, afterward", by Herodotus. The industry and perseverance of man, however, in the end, overcame the difficulties of construction. For wood, which was the earliest material, at length were substituted bricks, stone, marble, and the like; and edifices were reared of unparalleled magnificence and solidity. It seems likely, that bricks would have been in use for a considerable period before stone was employed in building. They were, probably, 1 after moulding, merely subjected to the sun’s rays to acquire hardness. These were the materials whereof the Tower of Babel was constructed. These also, at a very remote period, were used bv the Egyptians. 'Idles seem to have been of as high an antiquity as bricks, and to have been used, as in the present day, for covering roofs. 8 The period at which wrought stone was originally used for architectural purposes L« B 2 4 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. quite unknown, as is that in which cement of any kind was first employed as the medium of uniting masonry. They were hoth, doubtless, the invention of that race which we have mentioned as cultivators of land, to whom is due the introduction of architecture, properly so called. To them solid and durable edifices were necessary as soon as they had fixed upon a spot for the settlement of themselves and their families. 9. Chaldasa, Egypt, Phoenicia, and China are the first countries on record in which architecture, worthy the name, made its appearance. They had certainly attained con- siderable proficiency in the art at a very early period ; though it is doubtful, as respects the three first, whether their reputation is not founded rather on the enormous masses of their works, than on beauty and sublimity of form. Strabo mentions many magnificent works which he attributes to Semiramis ; and observes that, besides those in Babylonia, there were monuments of Babylonian industry throughout Asia. He mentions Afitpoi (high altars), and strong walls and battlements to various cities, as also subterranean passages of communication, aqueducts for the conveyance of water under ground, and passages of great length, upwards, by stairs. Bridges are also mentioned by him (lib. xvi. ). Moses has pre- served the names of three cities in Chaldaea which were founded by Nimrod ( Gen. x. 10.). Ashur, we are told, built Nineveh : and (Gen. xix. 4-.) as early as the age of Jacob and Abraham, towns had been established in Palestine. The Chinese attribute to Fold the encircling of cities and towns with walls: and in respect of Egypt, there is no question that in Homer’s time the celebrated city of Thebes had been long in existence. The works in India are of very early date ; and we shall hereafter offer some remarks, when speaking of the extraordinary monument of Stonehenge, tending to prove, as Jacob Bryant supposes, that the earliest buildings of both nations, as well as those of Phoenicia and other countries, were erected by colonies of some great original nation. If the Peruvians and Mexicans, without the aid of carriages and horses, without scaffolding, cranes, and other machines used in building, without even the use of iron, were enabled to raise monuments which are still the wonder of travellers, it would seem that the mechanical arts were not indispensable to the progress of architecture ; but it is much more likely that these were understood at an exceedingly remote period in Asia, and in so high a degree as to have lent their aid in the erection of some of the stupendous works to which we have alluded. 10. The art of working stone, which implies the use of iron and a knowledge of the method of tempering it, was attributed to Athothis, the successor of Menes. It seems, however, possible that the ancients were in possession of some secret for preparing bronze tools which were capable of acting upon stone. Be that as it may, no country could have been called upon earlier than Egypt to adopt stone as a material, for the climate does not favour the growth of timber ; hence stone, marble, and granite were thus forced into use ; and we know that, besides the facility of transport by means of canals, as early as the time of Joseph waggons were in use. (Gen. xlv. 19.) We shall hereafter investigate the hypo- thesis of the architecture of Greece being founded upon types of timber buildings, merely observing here, by the way, that many of the columns and entablatures of Egypt had existence long before the earliest temples of Greece, and therefore that, without recurrence to timber construction, prototypes for Grecian architecture are to be found in the venerable remains of Egypt, where it is quite certain wood was not generally employed as a material, and where the subterranean architecture of the country offers a much more probable origin of the style. CHAP. II. ARCHITECTURE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES. Sect. I. DRUlnlCAr. ANI) CELTIC A RCHITECTU RE. 11. If rudeness, want of finish, and the absence of all appearance ot art, be criteria lor judgment on the age of monuments of antiquity, the wonderful remains of Abury ami Stonehenge must be considered the most ancient that have preserved their form so as to indicate the original plan on which they were constructed. The late Mr. Godfrey Higgins a gentleman of the highest intellectual attainments, in his work on the Celtic Druids (pub- lished 1829), has shown, as we think satisfactorily, that the Druids of the British Isles wert a colony of the first race of people, learned, enlightened, and descendants of the persons whe escaped the deluge on the borders of the Caspian Sea; that they were the earliest occu piers of Greece, Italy, France, and Britain, and arrived in those places by a route near!) Chat. II. DRUIDICAL AND CELTIC. along the forty-fifth parallel of north latitude ; that, in a similar manner, colonies advanced from the same great nation by a southern line through Asia, peopling Syria and Africa, and arriving at last by sea through the Pillars of Hercules at Britain ; that the languages of the western world were the same, and that one system of letters — viz. that of the Irish Druids pervaded the whole, was common to the British Isles and Gaul, to the inhabitants of Italy, Greece, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and Hindostan; and that one of the two alphabets (of the same system) in which the Irish MSS. are written — viz. the Beth-1 uis-nion — came by Gaul through Britain to Ireland ; and that the other — the Bobeloth — came through the Straits of Gibraltar. Jacob Bryant thinks that the works called Cyclopean were executed at a remote age by colonies of some great original nation ; the only difference between his opinion and that of Mr. Higgins being, that the latter calls them Druids, or Celts, from the time of the dispersion above alluded to. 12. The unhewn stones, whose antiquity and purport is the subject of this section, are fjund in Hindostan, where they are denominated “ pandoo koolies,” and are attributed to a fabulous being named Pandoo and his sons. With a similarity of character attesting their common origin, we find them in India, on the shores of the Levant and Mediterranean, in Belgium, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, in France, and on the shores of Britain from the Straits of Dover to the Land’s End in Cornwall, as well as in many of the interior parts of the country. They are classed as follows: — 1. The single stone, pillar, or obelisk. 2. Circles of stones of different number and arrangement. 3. Sacrificial stones. 4. Crom- lechs and cairns. 5. Logan stones. 6. Tolmen or colossal stones. 13 . (1.) S'mgle Stones. — Passages abound in Scripture in which the practice of erecting single stones is recorded. The reader on this point may refer to Gen. xxviii. 18., Judges , ix. 6., 1 Sam vii. 12., 2 Sam. xx. 8., Joshua, xxiv. 27. The single stone might be an emblem of the generative power of Nature, and thence an object of idolatry. That mentioned in the first scriptural reference, which Jacob set up in his journey to visit Laban, his uncle, and which he had used for his pillow, seems, whether from the vision he had while sleeping upon it, or from some other cause, to have become to him an object of singular veneration ; for he set it up, and poured oil upon it, and called it “ Bethel ” (the house of God). It is curious to observe that some pillars in Cornwall, assumed to have been erected by the Phoe- nicians, still retain the appellation Bothel. At first, these stones were of no larger dimen- sion than a man could remove, as in the instance just cited, and that of the Gilgal of Joshua (Josh. iv. 20.) ; but that which was set up under an oak at Shechem (ibid. xxiv. 26.), was a great stone. And here we may notice another singular coincidence, that of the Bothel in Cornwall being set up in a place which, from its proximi y to an oak which was near the spot, was called Bothel-ac ; the last syllable being the Saxon for an oak. It appears from the Scriptures that these single stones were raised on various occasions ; sometimes, as in the case of Jacob’s Bethel and of Samuel’s Ebenezer, to commemorate instances of divine interposition ; sometimes to record a covenant, as in the case of Jacob and Laban ( Gen. xxxi. 48.) ; sometimes, like the Greek stela;, as sepulchral stones, as in the case of Rachel’s grave ( Gen. xxxvi. 20.), 1700 years b.c., according to the usual reckoning. They were occasionally, also, set up to the memory of individuals, as in the instance of Absalom’s pillar and others. The pillars and altars of the patriarchs appear to have been erected in honour of the only true God, Jehovah ; but wherever the Canaanites appeared, they seem to have been the objects of idolatrous worship, and to have been dedicated to Baal or the sun, or the other false deities whose altars Moses ordered the Israelites to destroy. The similarity of pillars of single stones almost at the opposite sides of the earth, leaves no doubt in our mind of their being the work of a people of one common origin widely scattered ; and the hypotheses of Bryant and Higgins sufficiently account for their appearance in places so remote from each other. In consequence, says the latter writer, of some cause, no matter what, the Hive, after the dispersion, casted and sent forth its swarms. One of the largest descended, according to Genesis (x. 2.), from Gomer, went north, and then west, pressed by succeeding swarms, till it arrived at the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, and ulti- mately colonised Britain. Another branch, observes the same author, proceeded through Sarmatia southward to the Euxine (Cimmerian Bosphorus) ; another to Italy, founding the states of the Umbrii and the Cimmerii, at Cuma, near Naples. Till the time of the Romans these different lines of march, like so many sheepwalks, were without any walled cities. Some of the original tribe found their wav into Greece, and between the Carpathian mountains and the Alps into Gaul, scattering a few stragglers as they passed into the beautiful valleys of the latter, where traces of them in Druidical monuments and language are occasionally found. Wherever they settled, if the conjecture is correct, they employed themselves in recovering the lost arts of their ancestors. 14. To the Canaanites of Tyre and Sidon may be chiefly attributed the introduction of these primeval works into Britain. The Tyrians, inhabiting a small slip of barren land, were essentially and necessarily a commercial people, and became the most expert and idventurous sailors of antiquity. It has been supposed that the constancy of the needle to the pole, “ that path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture’s eye hath not seen." o' HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. S-cuv/jL erervy.ro rreXu^iov, ov Ss ewy.U Avdf/ ye triTOtpzyu, ocWa piu vXy,evri. Virgil, too, describes him “ Ipse arduus, alta pulsat sidera.” Famous as lighthouse builders, wherein a round casement in the upper story afforded light to the mariner, the Greeks turned this into a single eye in the forehead of the race, and thus made them a set of mon- sters. Of the race were Trophonius and his brother Agamedes, who, according to Pau- sanias (lib. ix.) contrived the temple at Delphi and the Treasury constructed to Urius. So great was the fame for building of the Cyclopeans that, when the Sybil in Virgil shows /Eneas the place of torment in the shades below, the poet separates it from the regions ol bliss by a Cyclopean wall : — “ Cyclopum cilucta caminis Mccnia conspicio.” rtv/i . lib. vi. v.GIiO ii a r. II PELASGIC OR CYCLOPEAN. 1 1 28. Tlie walls of the city of Mycene arc of the class denominated Cyclopean, thus de- ounced for ruin by Hercules in Seneca : — “ Quid moror ? mains milii helium Mycenis restat, ut Cyclopea liversa manibus mcenia nostris confidant. " Hercules I'urens , act. 4. v. 916. 29. 'Hie gate of the city and the chief tower were particularly ascribed to them( 1’ausanias, ;b. ii. ) Argos had also the reputation of being Cyclopean. But, to return to Mycene, iuripides, we should observe, speaks of its walls as being built after the Phoenician rule ml method : — fl? ru. K uzXcotrm fiance ^onifci zoivovi tccci Tvxoi; v.^otrfjLi^u.. Hercules Furens y v.i)44. Fig. 9. PART OK 30. Fig. 9 is a representation of a portion of the postern gate of the walls of Mvccne, for the purpose of exhibiting to the reader the cha- racter of the masonry employed in it. 31. The walls of Tiryns, probably more ancient than those we have just named, are celebrated by Homer in the words Tipuvba Teixioeaaav, and are said by Apollodorus and Strabo to have been built by workmen whom Praetus brought from Lyeia. The words of Strabo are, Tipurdi opu'pryjpL'p xpT)ao.een traced conveyances for water. To the west of the last-named building was another ■ntirely in ruins : to the east of it are visible the remains of a fine staircase, much resembling | hat first described, and which, therefore, we do not think it necessary to particularise, 'lore than we do the numberless fragments scattered over the whole area, which was equal o nearly thirty English acres 1 The ruins at Q. are of portals. At R and S are tombs ut in the rock, of curious form, but evidently, from their character, the work of those who ■onstructed the enormous pile of building of which we have already inserted a repre- sentation. Between the leading forms of the portals of these ruins, or porticoes, as I.e Bruyn calls them, and those of the structures of Egypt, there is a very striking resemblance. Dn comparison of the two, it is impossible not to be struck with the large crowning hol- owed member, which seems to have been common to the edifices on the banks of the Nile md those on the plain of Merdasht. In both, this member, forming, as it were, an cn- ablature, is ornamented with vertical ribs or leaves, and the large fillet above the hollow qipears equally in each. In the walls of the Persepolitan remains, there is perhaps less real nassiveness than in those which were the works of the Egyptians; but the similarity of appearance between them points to the conjecture that, though neither might have been f mrrowed from the other, they are not many removes from one common parent. The an- 22 Ii I STOIIY OF ARCHITECTURE Book 1. nexccl diagram (fig. 26.) will give the reader some notion of the style of the architecture of ■jif r.w l it,'. 2S. Persepolis. The diagram (fig. 27.) exhibits a specimen of a column and capital. Fig. 28. is a capital from one of the tombs. The walls forming the revetement of the great esplanade are wonderfully perfect ; and appear still capable of re- sisting equally the attacks of time and barbarism. The surface of the platform, generally', is unequal, and was of different levels : the whole seems to have been hewn from the mountain, from whence the marble has been extracted for con- structing the edifices : hence the pave- ments appear masses of marble, than which nothing more durable or beautiful can be conceived. No cement appears to l ave been used, but the stones seem to have been connected by cramps, whose removal, however, has neither deranged the courses from which they have been removed, nor affected their nice fitting to each other ; ,they are, indeed, so well wrought that the joints can scarcely be perceived. 50. No person can look at the style of composition and details of Persepolis without a conviction of some intimate connection between the architects of Persia and those of Egypt. The principles of both are identical ; and without inquiring into the exact date of the monument, whose description we have just left, there is sufficient to convince us that the theory started in respect of the Cyclopean architecture, of the arts travelling in every direction from some central Asiatic point, is fully borne out; and that the Egyp- tian style had its origin in Asia. We are quite aware that conjectures, bearing a semblance of pro- bability, have as- signed the erection of this stupendous palace to Egyptian captives, at a com- paratively late pe- riod, after the con- quest of Egypt by Cambyses ; but we think they are answered by the similarity o arrow-headed characters used therein to those of ancient Babylon, whereof an example i here given {fig. 29. ) from one of the portals of Persepolis. A few miles to the south o Persepolis, tl e hill of Nakshi Ruslan (fig. 30.) presents a number of sculptured tombs Chap. II. PERSEPOLITAN AND PERSIAN. 23 : the highest supposed to be coeval with Perscpolis, and formed for the sepulture of the early kings of Persia; and the lower to have belonged to t lie Parthian Sassanide dynasties. 51«. The early Persians were doubtless indebted to the still earlier Assyrians for the principles on which their art Has based. Persepolis lies eastward of Nineveh ; its remains afford a more intimate acquaintance with the details and construction employed. In hr th places we find the same arrangement of bitssi rilievi against the walls — entrances decorated with gigarrtic winged animals, hearing Inman heads— similarity in ornament and costume — processions like those at Nimroud and Khor-abad. The cuneiform character (see ' fitj. 29.) is now a known language; ami from an inscription found on the third terrace, the structure is a-signed to the time of Darius. Susa, the ancient Shnshan, the winter residence of Cyrus, was explored by Mr. Loftus in 1851 ; and in 1888 by Mons. Dieulafoy, I « ho Iras brought to the museum at the Louvre some fine examples of coloured tile wall works of the time of Darius, me. 521-485. lire plan much resembled that at Persepolis, i ar d both may have been designed by the same architect. 51 1). The present architecture of Persia much resembles that of other Mahometan coun- tries. The city of Ispahan, in its prosperity, is said to have been surrounded by a wall twenty miles in circuit. The houses are generally mean in external appearance; they commonly consist of a large square court, surrounded with rooms of varying dimensions for different uses, the sides of the area being planted with flowers, and refreshed by fountains. Distinct from this is a smaller court, round which are distributed the apartments belonging to the females of the family ; and almost every dwelling lias a garden attached to it. The j interior apartments of the richer classes tire splendidly finished, though simply furnished. Those inhabited by the governor, public officers, and opulent merchants, may almost vie with palaces. Nearly all are constructed with sun-dried bricks, the public edifices only being built with burnt bricks; the roofs, mostly flat, have terraces, whereon the inhabitants 1 sleep during several months of the year. According to Chardin, there were in his time within the walls Ifc'O mosques, 48 colleges, 1802 caravanseras, 273 baths, 12 cemeteries, and 88,000 houses. But the city has since fallen into great ruin. The Shull Meidan, however (Jiffs- 31. tig. 51. 200 , . . * ft SB 3 S3 S3 ffitj E&ffiHffl HHEHHH IffiHHHS'-HHHHHH HEIffiHH IHI2HHS BIfi and 32.), or royal square, is still one of the largest and finest in the world. It is 440 paces in length, and 1 (iO in breadth. On its south side stands the royal mosque, erected by Shah Abbas, in the sixteenth century, and constructed of stone, covered with highly varnished bricks and tiles, whereon are inscribed sentences of the Koran. On another side ot the Meidan is a Mahometan college called the Mcdresse Shah Sultan Hossein. The entrance is through a lofty portico decorated with twisted columns of Tabriz marble, leading through two brazen gates, whose' extremities are of silver, and their whole stir ace sculptured and j embossed with flowers, and verses from the Koran. Advancing into the court, on the right i side is a mosque, whose dome is covered with lacquered tiles, and adorned externally with ] ornaments of pure gold. This, and the minarets that flank it, are n nv falling into decay. The oilier sides of the square are occupied, one, by a lofty and beautiful portico, and the remaining two by small square cells for students, twelve in each front, disposed in two stories. In the city are few hospitals; one stands, however, beside the caravanserai ot Shah Abbas, who erected both at the same time, that the revenue of the latter might support the proper officers of the hospital. That the reader may have a proper idea of one ol these inns ot the 24 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ISook I East, if they may be so called, we have here given the plan of that just above named ( jii/. 33. ). The palaces of the kings are enclosed in a fort of lofty walls, about three miles in cir- cuit ; in general the front room or hall is very open, and the roof supported by carved and gilded columns. The windows glazed with curiously stained glass of a variety of colours ; each has a fountain in front. The palace of Chehel Sitoon or forty pillars, is placed in the middle of an immense square intersected by canals, and planted with trees. Towards the garden is an open saloon whose ceiling is borne by eighteen columns, inlaid with mirrors, and appearing at a dis- tance to consist entirely of glass. The base of each is of mnible, sculptured into four lions, so placed that the shafts stand on them. Mirrors are distributed on the walls in great profusion, and the ceiling is ornamented with gilt flowers. An arched recess leads from the apartment just described into a spacious and splendid hall, whose roof is formed into a variety of domes, decorated with painting and gilding. The walls are partly of white marble, and partly covered with mirrors, and are moreover deco- rated with six large paintings, whose subjects are the battles and royal fetes of Shah Ismael and Shah Abbas the Great. Though of considerable age, the colours are fresh, and the gilding still brilliant. Adjoining the palace is the harem, erected but a few years ago. The bazaars are much celebrated ; they consist of large wide passages, arched, and lighted from above, with buildings or stores on each side. One of these was formerly 600 geo- metrical paces in length, very broad and lofty. From these being adjacent to each other, a person might traverse the whole city sheltered from the weather. In Ispahan, we must not forget to notice that some fine bridges exist, which cross the river Zenderond. Fiff. 35. CARAVANSRRAI OV SHAH A H HAS. Sect. V. JEWISH ANn PHOENICIAN A II C HITECTUK E. 52. We are scarcely justified in giving a section, though short, to the architecture of the Jews, since the only buildings recorded as of that nation are the Temple of Jerusalem con- structed by Solomon, and the house of the forest of Lebanon. The shepherd tribes of Israel, indeed, do not seem to have required such dwellings or temples as would lead them, when they settled in cities, to the adoption of any style very different from that of their neighbours. Whatever monuments are mentioned by them appear to have been rude, and have been already noticed in the section on Druidical and Celtic architecture. When Solomon ascended the throne, anxious to fulfil the wish his father had long entertained oi erecting a fixed temple for the reception of the ark, he was not only obliged to send to Tyre for workmen, but for an architect also. Upon this temple a dissertation has been written by a Spaniard of the name of Villalpanda, wherein he, with consummate simplicity, urges that the orders, instead of being the invention of the Greeks, were the invention of God limself, and that Callimachus most shamefully put forth pretensions to the formation of the Corinthian capital which, he says, had been used centuries before in the temple at Jerusalem. The following account of the temple is from the sixth chapter of the First Book of Kings. Its plan was a parallelogram (taking the cubit at 1 ’824 ft., being the length generally assigned to it) of about 109^ ft. by 36^ ft., being as nearly as may be two thirds of the size of the church of St. Martin's in the Fields. In front was a pronaos, or portico, stretching through the whole front ( 36 ^ ft.) of the temple, and its depth was half its extent. The cell, or main body of the temple, was 54| ft. deep, and the sanctuary beyond 36'| feet, the height of it being equal to its length and breadth. The height of the middle part, or cell, was 54| ft. ; and that of the portico the same as the sanctuary, — that is, 36^ ft., — judging from the height of the columns. In the interior, the body of the temple was surrounded by three tiers of chambers, to which there was an ascent by stairs; and the central part was open to the sky. The ends of the beams of the floors rested on corb.ls of stone, and were not inserted into the walls, which were lined with cedar, carved into Ch A i>. 1 1. JEWISH. — INDIAN. 25 cherubims and palm trees, gilt. In the sanctuary two figures of cherubs were placed, whose wings touched each other in the centre, and extended outwards to the walls. These were 10 cubits high. In the front of the portico were two pillars of brass, which were cast by Hiram, “a widow’s son of the tribe of Naphtali,” whose “father was a man of Tyre" and who “ came to king Solomon and wrought all his work.” These two pillars of brass (1 Kings, vii. 14, 15.) were each 18 cubits high, and their circumference was 12 cubits; hence their diameter was 3 "82 cubits. The chapiters, or capitals, were 5 cubits high ; and one of them was decorated with lilies upon a net-work ground, and the other with pomegranates. From the representation {fig. 34.) here given, the reader must be struck with their resemblance to the columns of Egypt with their lotus leaves, and sometimes net- work. In short, the whole description would almost as well apply to a temple of Egypt as to one at Jerusalem. And this tends, KiK-Si. though slightly it is true, to show that the Phoenician workmen who were employed on the temple worked in the same style as those of Egypt. .53. The house of the forest of Lebanon was larger than the temple, having been 100 cubits in length, by 50 in breadth ; it also had a portico, and from the description seems to have been similar in style. 54. Phoenician Architecture. — That part of the great nation of Asia which settled on the coasts of Palestine, called in scripture Canaanites, or merchants, were afterwards by the Greeks called Phoenicians. Sidon was originally their capital, and Tyre, which after- wards became greater than the parent itself, was at first only a colony. From what we have said in a previous section on the walls of Mycene, it may be fairly presumed that their architecture partook of the Cyclopean style ; but that it was much more highly decorated is extremely probable from the wealth of a people whose merchants were princes, and whose traffickers were the honourable of the earth. Besides the verses of Euripides, which point to the style of Phoenician architecture, we have the authority of Eucian for asserting that it was Egyptian in character. Unfortunately all is surmise ; no monuments of Phoenician architecture exist, and we therefore think it useless to dwell longer on the subject. Sect. VI. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. 55. Whence the countries of India derived their architecture is a question that has occupied abler pens than that which we wield, and a long period has not passed away since the im- pression on our own mind was, that the monuments of India were not so old as those of Egypt. Upon maturer reflection, we are not sure that impression was false ; but if the arts of a country do not change, if the manners and habits of the people have not varied, the admis- sion of the want of high antiquity of the monuments actually in existence will not settle the point. The capitals and columns about Persepolis have a remarkable similarity to some of the Hindoo examples, and seem to indicate a common origin; indeed, it is our opinion, and one which we have not adopted without considerable hesitation, that though the existing buildings of India be comparatively modern, they are in a style older than that of the time of their erection. Sir William Jones, whose opinion seems to have been that the Indian temples and ediflees are not of the highest antiquity, says (3rd Discourse), “ that they prove an early connection be- tween India and Africa. The pyramids of Egypt, the colossal statues de- scribed by Pausanias and others, the Sphinx and the Hermes Canis (which last bears a great resemblance to the Varahavatar, or the incarnation of Vishnu in the form of a boar), indicate the style and mythology of the same indefatigable workmen who formed the vast excavations of Canarah, the various temples and images of Buddha, and the idols which are con- tinually dug up at Gaya or in its vicinity. The letters on many of these monuments appear, as I have before intimated, partly of Indian and partly of Abyssinian or Ethiopic origin ; and all these indubitable facts may in- duce no ill-grounded opinion that Ethiopia and Hindustan were peopled or colonised by the same extraordinary race.” In a previous page {fig. 27. ), the reader will find a Persepolitan column and capital ; we place before him, in fig. 35., an example from the Indra Subba which much resembles it in detail, and at the Nerta Cliabei at Chillambaram are very similar examples. Between the styles of Peisepolis and Egypt a resemblance will be hereafter traced, and to such an extent, that there seems no reasonable doubt of a common origin. The monuments of India may be divided into two classes, the excavatcil and constructed ; the former being that wherein a building has been hollowed, or, as it were, quarried out of the rock; the latter, that built of separate and different sorts of materials, upon a regular plan, as may be seen in those buildings improperly called pagodas, which ornament the enclosures of the sacred edifices, of KifC- 35. A COI.UMN OF Milt INDIIA BUIIHA. ‘16 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book l. "’Iiicli they are component parts. The class first named seems to have interested travellers more than the last, from the apparent difficulty of execution ; hut on this account we are not so sure that they ought to create more astonishment than the constructed temple, except that, according to Daniel ( Axint . lies. vol. i. ), they are hollowed in hard and compact granite. 56. The monuments which belong to the first class are of two sorts ; those actually hollowed out of rocks, and those presenting forms of apparently constructed buildings, but which are. in fact, rocks shaped by human hands into architectural forms. Of the first sort are the eaves of Eleplumta and Ellora ; of the last, the seven large pagodas of Mavalipowram. It will immediately occur to the reader that the shaping of rocks into forms implies art,, if the forms be imposing or well arranged : so, if the hollowing a rock into well-arranged and well -formed chambers be conducted in a way indicating an acquaintance with architectural effect, we are not to assume that a want of taste must be consequent on the first sort merely because it cannot be called constructive architecture. And here we must observe, that we think the writer in the Encyclopedic Mcthodique (art. Arch. Indienne) fails in his reasoning; our notion being simply this, that as far as respects these monuments, if they are worthy to be ranked as works of art, the means by which they were produced have nothing to do with the question. It must, however, be admitted, that what the architect understands by or- donnance, or the composition of a building, and the proper arrangement of its several parts, [joints which so much engaged the attention of the Greeks and Romans, will not be found in Indian architecture as far as our acquaintance with it extends. Conjectures infinite might be placed before the reader on the antiquity of this species of art, but they would be valueless, no certain data, of which we are aware, existing to lead him in the right road ; and we must, therefore, be content with enumerating some of the principal works in this style. The caves at Ellora consist of several apartments ; the plan of that called the Jndra Subba (Jiy. 36.) is here given, to show the species of plan which these places Ktj'. 56 . PZ.AN OK THE I NORA SIBUA. exhibit ; and fig. 37. is a view of a portion of the interior of the same. The group of temples which compose these excavations aie as follow : — Temple of IMagannatha. ft. in. Temple of India. ft. in External width of the excavation - 57 0 Length - - 54 0 Length (interior) - - - 34 0 Width - - 44 0 Width (ditto) . - - 20 0 Height - - 27 0 Height - . - 13 0 Height of columns - - 22 0 Height of the pillars - - 11 0 Another Temple. Temple of Parocona. Length - - - Ill 0 Length internally - - - 35 0 Width - - 22 4 Width - - - 25 0 Height - - 15 0 Height - * 8 0 Temple of Mahadeo. Temple of Adi — Natha. 0 Length . - - f>8 0 Length - - - 45 Width . _ - 17 0 Height * 9 0 Height - • - - 12 0 Temple of Djenonasla. Width Height _ - 11 - 11 0 2 Temple of Itamichouer. Length Height - - - - 90 - 15 0 0 Temple of Domina — Leyma. 'Temple of Kailaga. Length - - - 55 0 0 Width . . - 18 (5 Length - - - 88 Height » “ - 1G 10 Height ' " - 47 0 Chap. II. INDIAN. 27 57. The most celebrated excavated temple is that of Elcphanta {jiff- 38.), near Bombay, of whose interior composition the reader may obtain a faint idea from the subjoined re- presentation {Jiff. 39.). It is 130 ft. long, 110 ft. wide, and 14^ ft. high. The ceiling is Hat, and is apparently sup- ported by four ranks of co- lumns, about 9 ft. high, and of a balustral form. These stand on pedestals, about one third of the height of the columns themselves. A great Pig. as. tkmpik ok KI.KPHANTA. portion of the walls is CO- vered with colossal human figures, forty to fifty in number, in high relief, and distin- guished by a variety of symbols, probably representing the attributes ot the deities that were worshipped, or the actions of the heroes whom they represented. At the end of the cavern there is a dark recess, about 20 ft. square, entered by four doors, each Hanked by gigantic figures. “ These stupendous works, 1 ' says Robertson, “are of such high antiquity, that, as the natives cannot, either from history or tradition, give any information concerning the time in which they were executed, they universally ascribe the formation of them to the power of superior beings. From the extent and grandeur of these sub- terraneous mansions, which intelligent travellers compare to the most celebrated monu- ments of human power and art in any part of the earth, it is manifest that they could not have been formed in that stage of social life where men continue divided into small tribes, unaccustomed to the efforts of persevering industry.” Excavations similar to those we have named are found at Canarah, in the Island o( Salsette, near Bombay. In these there are four stories of galleries, leading in all to three hundred apartments. The front is formed by cutting away one aide of the rock. The principal temple, 34 ft. long, and 40 ft. broad, is entered by a portico of columns. The roof is of the form of a vault, 40 ft. from the ground to its crown, and has the appearance of being supported by thirty pillars, octagonal in plan, whose capitals and bases are formed of elephants, tigers, and horses, ’file walls contain cavities for lamps, and are covered with sculptures of human figures of both sexes, elephants, horses, and lions. An altar, 27 ft. high and 20 ft. in diameter, stands at the further end, and over it is a dome shaped out of the rock. Though the sculptures in these caves are low in rank compared with the works of Greek and Etrurian artists, yet they are certainly in a style superior to the works of the Egyptians ; and we infer from them a favourable opinion of the state of the arts in India at the period of their formation. “ It is worthy of notice,” observes the historian we have just quoted, “that although several of the figures in the caverns at Elcphanta be so different from those now exhibited in the pagodas as objects of veneration, that some learned Europeans 28 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. Fir. 40. P A GOB A OK (JII It. I, A ha\e imagined they represent the rites of a religion more ancient than that now esta- blished in Hindostan ; yet by the Hindoos themselves the caverns are considered as hallowed places of their own worship, and they still resort thither to perform their devotions, and honour the figures there, in the same manner with those in their own pagodas.” Mr. Hunter, who in the year 1784 visited the place, con- siders the figures there as representing deities who are still objects of worship among the Hindoos. One circumstance justifying this opinion is, that several of the most conspicuous personages in the groups at Elephanta are decorated with the zennar , the sacred string or cord peculiar to the order of Brahmins, an . ft M l .ft ! authentic evidence of the distinction of casts having been established in India at the time when these works were finished. 58. The structure of the earliest Indian tem- ples was extremely simple. Pyramidal, and of large 1 jsfa I Aa ,fe. — t |. aj dimensions, they had no light but that which the yffh 'A jm i OL Yj door afforded ; and, indeed, the gloom of the cavern ft! seems to have led them to consider the solemn dark- ness of such a mansion sacred. There are ruins of this sort at Ueogur and at a spot near Tanjore, in the Carnatic. In proportion, however, to the pro- gress of the country in opulence and refinement, their sacred buildings became highly ornamented, and must be considered as monuments exhibiting a high de- gree of civilisation of the people by whom they were erected. Very highly finished pagodas, of great an- tiquity, are found in different parts of Hindostan, and particularly in its southern districts, where they were not subjected to the destructive fury of Mahometan zeal. To assist the reader in forming a notion of the style of the architecture whereof we are treating, we here place before him a diagram (Jig. 40. ) of part of the pagoda at Chidambaram, near Porto Novo, on the Coro- mandel coast ; one which is, on account of its antiquity, held in great veneration. The monument would be perhaps more properly described as a cluster of pagodas, enclosed in a rectangular space 1882 ft. in length, and 986 ft. in width, whose walls are 80 ft. in height, and 7 ft. in thickness, each side being provided with a highly deco- rated frustum of a pyramid over an entrance gateway. 'The large enclosure is subdivided into four subordinate ones, whereof the cen- tral one, surrounded by a colonnade and steps, contains a piscina or basin for purification. That on the southern side forms a cloister enclosing three contiguous temples called Chabei , lighted only by their doors and by lamps. The court on the west is also claustral, having in the middle an open portico, consisting of one hundred columns, whose roof is formed by large blocks of stone. The last is a square court with a temple and piscina, to which is given the name of the Stream of Eternal Joy. To the temple is attached a portico of thirty-six columns, in four parallel ranks, whose cen- tral intercolumniation is twice the width of those at the sides, and in the centre, on a platform, is the statue of the Bull Nundu. It is lighted artificially with lamps, which are kept constantly burn- ing, and is much decorated with sculpture. The central inclosure, on its eastern side, has a temple raised on a platform, in length 224 ft., and in width 64 ft., having a portico in front, consisting of a vast number of columns 30 ft. high; at the end of it a square vestibule is constructed with four portals, one whereof in the middle leads to the sanctuary, named Ncrta Chabei , or Temple of Joy and Eternity, the altar being at the end of it. The temple is much decorated with sculpture, representing the divinities of India. The pilaster Jig. 41. is placed at the sides of the door of the Ncrta Chabei , and is extremely curious; but the most singular object about the building is a chain of Fr. it. pit.AsTEtt m the nr raI ,ite carved out of the rock, attached to the pilasters, and supported at four other points in the face of the rock so as to form festoons. The links are about 3ft. long, and the whole length of the chain is 146 ft. The pyramids Chap. II. INDIAN. 29 above mentioned, which stand over the entrances of the outer enclosure, rise from rectangular bases, and consist of several floors. The passage through them is level with the ground. 59. A very beautiful ex- ample of the Indian pagoda exists at Tanjore, which we Here insert {fig. 42.). 60. One of the largest tem- ples known is that on the small island Seringham, near Trichi- nopoly, on the Coromandel coast. It is situate abouta mile from the western extremity of the island, and is thus described by Sonnerat. It is composed of seven square enclosures, one within the other, the walls These enclosures are 350 ft. distant from one an- other, and each has four large gates with a high tower; which are placed, one in the middle of each side of the enclosure, and opposite to the four cardinal points. The outward wall is near four miles in circumference, and its gateway to the south is ornamented with pillars, several of which are simple stones, 33 ft. long, and nearly 5 ft. in diameter; and those which form the roof are still larger. In the inmost inclosures are the cha- pels. About half a mile to the east of Sering- ham, and nearer to the river Caveri than the Coleroon, is another large pagoda, called Jenibi- kisma, but this has only one enclosure. The extreme veneration in which Seringham is held arises from a belief that it contains that identical image of the god Vishnu which used to be wor- shipped by Brahma. 61. We shall conclude this section with some observations on Choultry (or Inn) at Madurah {fig. 43.). Its effect is quite theatrical, and its perfect symmetry gives it the appearance of a work of great art, and of greater skill in composition than most other I ndian works. Yet an examination of the details, and particularly of the system of corbelling over, destroys the charm which a first glance at it creates. In it, the ornaments which in Grecian architecture are so well applied and balanced, seem more the work of chance than of consideration. We here insert an external view of the temple at this place {fig. 44.). The essential differences between Indian and Egyp- tian architecture, in connection with the sculpture applied to them, have been well given ill the Enci/clopedic Methotliqve, and we shall here subjoin them. In Egypt, the principal forms of the building and its parts preponderate, inasmuch as the hieroglyphics with which they are covered never interfere with the general forms, nor in- jure the effect of the whole ; in India, the principal form is lost in the ornaments which divide and decompose it. In Egypt, that which is essential predominates; in India, you are lost in the multitude of Fij». Vi. P AGO IIA AT TANJOKR. tvhereof are 25 ft. high, and 4 ft. thick. F, c . tr,. 30 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. accessories. In llie Egyptian architecture, even the smallest edifices are grand; in that of India, the infinite subdivision into parts gives an air of littleness to the largest buildings. In Egypt, solidity is carried to the extreme ; in India, there is not the slightest appear- ance of it. Publications on Indian and Eastern Architecture, written by the late James Fergusson and others, are mentioned in the Catalogue of Books. Sect. VII. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. 6‘J. We propose to consider the architecture of Egypt — First, in respect of the physical, political, and moral causes which affected it. Secondly, in respect of its analysis and deve- lopment. Thirdly, and lastly, in respect of the taste, style, and character which it exhibits. 63. I. In our introduction, we have alluded to the three states of life which even in the present day distinguish different nations of the earth — hunters, shepherds, and agri- culturists; in the second class whereof are included those whose subsistence is on the pro- duce of the waters, which was most probably the principal food of the earliest inhabitants of Egypt. Seated on the banks of a river whose name almost implies fertility, they would have been able to live on the supply it afforded for a long period before it was necessary to resort to the labours of agriculture. In such a state of existence nothing appears more pro- bable than that they should have availed themselves of the most obvious shelter which nature afforded against the extremes of heat and cold, namely, the cavern ; which, consisting of tufo and a species of white soft stone, was easily enlarged or formed to meet their wants. Certain it is, that at a very early period the Egyptians were extremely skilful in working stone, an art which at a later time they carried to a perfection which has never been surpassed. As the Tyrians, Sidonians, and other inhabitants of Palestine were, owing to the material which their cedar forests afforded, dexterous in joinery, so the Egyptians received an im- pulse in the style of their works from an abundance of the stone of all sorts which their quarries produced. Subterranean apartments, it will be said, are found in other countries; but they will mostly, India excepted, be found to be the remains of abandoned quarrries, exhibiting no traces of architecture, nor places for dwelling. Egypt, on the contrary, from time immemorial, was accustomed to hollow out rocks for habitation. Pliny (lib. xxxvi. c. 13.) tells us, that the great Labyrinth consisted of immense excavations of this sort. Such were the subterranean chambers of Biban el Melook, those which have in the present day received the name of the Labyrinth, and many others, which were not likely to have been tombs. When the finished and later monuments of a people resemble their first essays, it is easv to recognise the influential causes from which they result. Thus, in Egyptian architecture, every thing points to its origin. Its simplicity, not to say monotony, its extreme solidity, almost heaviness, form its principal characters. Then the want of profile and paucity of members, the small projection of its mouldings, the absence of aper- tures, the enormous diameter of the columns employed, much resembling the pillars left in quarries for support, the pyramidal form of the doors, the omission of roofs and pediments, the ignorance of the arch (which we believe to have been unknown, though we are aware that a late traveller of great intelligence is of a different opinion), — all enable us to recur to the type with which we have set out. Jf we pursue this investigation, we do not discover timber as an element in Egyptian compositions, whilst in Grecian architecture, the types certainly do point to that material. It is not necessary to inquire whether the people had or had not tents or houses in which timber was used for beams or for support, since the character of their architecture is specially influenced by the exclusive use of stone as a material ; and however the form of some of their columns may not seem to bear out the hypothesis (such, for instance, as are shaped into bundles of reeds with imitations of plants in the capitals), all the upper parts are constructed without reference to any other than stone construction. It is, moreover, well known that Egypt was extremely bare of wood, and especially of such as was suited for building. 64. The climate of Egypt was, doubtless, one great cause of the subterranean style, as it must be in the original architecture of every nation. Materials so well adapted to the Construction it induced, furnishing supports incapable of being crushed, and single blocks of stone which dispensed with all carpentry in roofs or coverings, a purity of air and even- ness of temperature which admitted the greatest simplicity of construction from the absence of all necessity to provide against the inclemency of seasons, and which permitted the in- scription of hieroglyphics even on soft stone without the fear of their disappearance, — all these concurred in forming the character of their stupendous edifices, and stimulated them in the development of the art. 65. The monarchical government, certainly the most favourable to the construction of great monuments, appears to have existed in Egypt from time immemorial. The most fllAP. II. EGYPTIAN. 31 important edifices with which history or their ruins have made us acquainted, were raised jnder monarchies ; and we scarcely need cite any other than the ruins of Persepolis, of ivliich an account is given in a previous section, to prove the assertion : these, in point of extent, exceed all that Egypt or Greece produced. Indeed, the latter nation sought beauty jf form rather than immense edifices; and Rome, until its citizens equalled kings in their ivealth, had no monuments worthy to be remembered by tbe historian, or transmitted as riodels to the artist. 66. Not the least important of the causes that combined in the erection of their rnonu- nents was the extraordinary population of Egypt : and though we may not perhaps entirely rely on the wonderful number of twenty thousand cities, which old historians have said were seated within its boundaries, it is past question that tbe country was favourable to the •earing and maintenance of an immense population. As in China at the present day, there ippears in Egypt to have been a redundant population, which was doubtless employed in die public works of the country, in which the workman received no other remuneration dian his food. 67. The Egyptian monarehs appear to have gratified their ambition as much in the pro- vision for their own reception after this life as during their continuance in it. If we except the Memnonium, and what is called the Labyrinth at Memphis, temples and tombs are all that remain of their architectural works. Diodorus says, that the kings of Egypt spent those mormous sums on their sepulchres which other kings expend on palaces. They considered diat the frailty of the body during life ought not to be provided with more than necessary pro. :ection from the seasons, and that the palace was nothing more than an inn, which at their leath the successor would in his turn inhabit, but that the tomb was their eternal dwell, ng, and sacred to themselves alone. Hence they spared no expense in erecting indestruc- :ible edifices for their reception after death. Against the violation of the tomb it seems :o have been a great object with them to provide, and doubts have existed on the minds erf lome whether the body was, after all, deposited in the pyramids, which have been thought ;o be enormous cenotaphs, and that the body was in some subterraneous and neighbouring ;pot. Other writers pretend that the pyramids were not tombs, assigning to them certain nystic or astronomical destinations. There are, however, too many circumstances contra- lictory of such an assumption to allow us to give it the least credit ; and there is little im- •ropriety in calling them sepulchral monuments, whether or not the bodies of the monarehs vere ever deposited in them. The religion of Egypt, though not so fruitful, perhaps, as :hat of Greece in the production of a great number of temples, did not fail to engender an ibundant supply. Tbe priesthood was powerful and the rites unchangeable : a mysterious uithority prevailed in its ceremonies and outward forms. The temples of the country are mpressed with mystery, on which the religion was based. Here, indeed, Secresy was deified n the person of Harpocrates ; and, according to Plutarch ( De hiilc), the sphinx, which deco- -ated the entrances of their temples, signified that mystery and emblem were engrafted on heir theology. Numerous doors closed the succession of apartments in the temples, leaving lie holy place itself to be seen only at a great distance. This was of little extent, con- laining merely a living idol, or the representation of one. The larger portion of the icinple was laid out for the reception of the priests, and disposed in galleries, porticoes, and ,'estibules. With few and unimportant variations, the greatest similarity and uniformity is jbservable in their temples, in plan, in elevation, and in general form, as well as in the letails of their ornaments. In no country was the connection between religion and irehitecture closer than in Egypt, and as the conceptions and execution in architecture are lependent on the other arts, we will here briefly examine the influence which the religion, jf the country had upon them. 68. Painting and sculpture are not only intimately connected with architecture through the jmbellishments they are capable of affording to it, but are handmaids at her service in what depends upon taste, upon the principles of beauty, upon the laws of proportion, upon the pre- servation of character, and in various other respects. Nature, in one sense, is the model upon, which architecture is founded ; not as a subject of imitation, but as presenting for imitation, principles of the harmony, proportion, effect, and beauty, for which the arts generally are indebted to nature. We think it was Madame de Stael who said that architecture was frozen music. Now, though in architecture, as in the other arts, there is no sensible imi- tation of nature, yet by a study of her mode of operating, it may be tempered and modified so as to give it the power of language and the sublimity of poetry. In respect of the con- nection of the art with sculpture, little need be said : in a material light, architecture is but a sculptured production, and its beauty in every country is in an exact ratio with the skill which is exhibited in the use of the chisel. Facts, however, which are worth more than, arguments, prove that as is the state of architecture in a country, so is that of the other arts. Two things prevented the arts of imitation beingcarried beyond a certain point in the country under our consideration ; the first was political, the other religious. The first essays of art are subjects of veneration in all societies ; and when, as in Egypt, all change was for- bidden, and a constant and inviolable respect was entertained for that which had existed be- HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook !. fore, when all its institutions tended to preserve social order as established, and to discourage end forbid all innovation, the duration of a style was doomed to become eternal. Religion, however, alone, was capable of effecting the same object, and of restraining within certain bounds the imitative faculty, by the preservation of types and primitive conventional signs for the hieroglyphic language, which, from the sacred purposes for which it was employed, soon acquired an authority from which no individual would dare to deviate by an improve- ment of the forms under which it had appeared. l’lato observes, that no change took place in painting among the Egyptians ; but that it was the same, neither better nor worse, than it had been ages before his time. iS,Koiruv S' euprjtreis avroBt xa gupMarov eros yeypag- gepa, n rex vircogepa (oux eiros eiweip gvpioarop, a\\' iiptws) tow vvp SeSggiovpyggePUP out( Ti KaWiopa, out' OACTytaj, T(]P avT7)p §e rex^W cpk e ipy cur gcp a. . — De Legilms, lib. ii. 69. Uniformity of plan characterises all their works; they never deviated from the right line and square. “ Les Egyptiens,” observes M. Caylus,“ lie nous ont laisse aucun monu- ment public dont 1’elevation ait ete circulaire.” The uniformity of their elevations is still more striking. Neither division of parts, contrast, nor effect is visible. All this necessarily resulted from the political and religious institutions whereof we have been speaking. 70. II. In analysing the architecture of Egypt, three points offer themselves for consider- ation, — construction, form, and decoration. In construction, if soiidity be a merit, no nation has equalled them. Notwithstanding the continued effect of time upon the edifices of the country, they still seem calculated for a duration equally long as that of the globe itself. The materials employed upon them were well adapted to insure a defiance of all that age could effect against them. The most abundant material is what the ancients called the Thebaic granite. Large quarries of it were seated near the Nile in Upper Egypt, between the first cataract and the town of Assouan, now Syene. The whole of the country to the east, the islands, and the bed of the Nile itself, are of this red granite, whereof were formed the obelisks, colossal statues, and columns of their temples. Blocks of dimensions surprisingly large were obtained from these quarries. Basalt, marble, free- stone, and alabaster were found beyond all limit compared with the purposes for which they were wanted. 71. We have already observed, that Egypt was deficient in timber, and especially that sort proper for building. There are some forests of palm trees on the Lybian side, near Dendera (Tentyra) ; hut the soil is little suited to the growth of timber. Next in quantity to the palm is the acacia ; the olive is rare. With the exception of the palm tree, there is none suited for architectural use. The oak is not to be found ; and that, as well as the fir which the present inhabitants use, is imported from Arabia. Diodorus says, that the early inhabitants used canes and reeds interwoven and plastered with mud for their huts ; hut he confines this practice to the country away from towns, in which, from fragments that have been found, we may infer that brick was the material in most common use. 72. Bricks dried in the sun were employed even on large monuments ; hut it is probable that these were originally faced either with stone or granite. The pyramids described by Pocoeke, called Ktoube el Meuschicli, are composed of bricks, some of which are 13^ in. long, 6h in. wide, and 4 in. thick ; others 15 in. long, 7 in. wide, and 4 A in. thick. They are not united by cement, but in some instances cements ot a bituminous nature were employed and in others a mortar composed of lime or plaster and sand, of which it would seem that this seconil was exceedingly powerful as well as durable. 73. The Egyptians arrived at the highest degree of skill in quarrying and working st me, as well as in afterwards giving it the most perfect polish. In their masonry they placed no reliance on the use of cramps, but rather oil the nice adjustment of the stones to one another, on the avoidance of all false hearings, and the nice balance of all over- hanging weight. Of their mechanical skill the reader will form some idea by reference to volume iii. p. 328. of Wilkinson’s Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, from a representation in a grotto at El Bersheh. A colossus on a sledge is therein pulled along by 172 men, hut none of the mechanical powers seem to he called in to their assistance. ‘• The obelisks,” says Mr. Wilkinson, “ transported from the quarries of Syene to Thebes and Heliopolis, vary' in size from 70 to 93 ft. in length. They are of one single stone ; and the largest in Egypt, which is that at the great temple at Carnac, I calculate to weigh about 297 tons' This was brought about 138 miles from the quarry to where it now stands; and those taken to Heliopolis passed over a space of 800 miles.” 'Iwo colossi (one of them is the vocal IMemnon), each of a single block 4i ft. in height, and contain- ing 1 1,500 cubic feet, are carved from stone not known within several days’ journey of the place ; and at the Memnonium is a colossal statue, which, when entire, weighed 887 tons. We consider, however, the raising of the obelisks a tar greatei test of mechanical skill than the transport of these prodigious weights; hut into the mode they adopted we have no insight from any representations yet discovered. We can scarcely suppose that in the handling of the weights whereof we have spoken, they were unassisted bv the me- chanical powers, although, as we have observed, no representations to warrant the ’onjectuie have been brought to light. Chap. II. EGYPTIAN. 83 Fig. 45. SECTION OF PYRAMID OF CHEOPS. 74. In the construction of the pyramids it is manifest they would serve as their own /— v scaffolds. The oldest monuments of Egypt are tlie / \ pyramids at Geezeh, to the north of Memphis, of / \ which we give a view (Jig. 46.), with a section of / \ the largest of them built by Suphis I., the Cheops / \ of the Greeks (.Jig. 45.). Sir G. Wilkinson supposes / \ them to have been erected 2120 years b.c., Lepsius / \ 3426 b c. ; hut the former admits that, previous to / \ the reign of Osirtasen, 1740 b c., little certainty exists as to dates. '1 fuse pyramids ( fig. 46.) known by the names of Cheops, Chepheren, and Mycerinus, are extraordinary for their rize and the consequent labour besowed upon them; but as works of the art they are of no further importance than being a link in the chain of its history. They are constructed of stone from the neighbouring mountains, and are in steps, of which in the largest there are two hun- dred and three, varying in height from 3 ft. to about 4 and even 5 ft., decreasing in height as they rise towards the summit. Their width diminishes in the same proportion, so that a line drawn from the base to the summit touches the edge of each step. So great a difference exists in the measures given in the descriptions by the several travellers, that we Fi^. 46. pyramids of geezeii. here subjoin those given of the pyramid of Cheops, whilst believing that the careful admeasurements taken by Mr. l’erring are those to be relied upon : — ¥■ Authors. Irrodotus - strabo tiodorus 'andys tellonius .reaves .e liruyn ’rosper Alpinus - Mr Perring, a recent traveller, in respect of the proportions of the great pyramid, has en- jleavoured to prove that the unit of Egyptian measurement is an ell equal to 1 ‘71 3 English vet, and that it is expressed a certain number of times without remainder in a correct neasureinent of the pyramids of Geezeh. Thus, he says, the perpendicular height of the Teat pyramid is exactly 280 of such ells, the base 448 ; and that | base : perpendicular 'eight :: slant height base. Upon the top thereof is a platform 32 ft. square, consisting >f nine large stones, each about a ton in weight, though inferior in that respect to others in he edifice, which vary from 5 ft. to 30 ft. in length, and from 3 ft. to 4 ft. in height. From his platform Dr. Clarke saw the pyramids of Sakkarah to the south, and on the east of them mailer monuments of the same kind nearer to the Nile. lie remarked, moreover, an appear- mce of ruin, which might be traced the whole way from the pyramids of Gizeh to those of saccara, as if the whole had once constituted one great city. The stones of the platform are oft limestone, a little harder and more compact than what in England is called chinch. The iB MWgpyifr. i r — j- pyramidsare built with common mortar cx- 1 . ternally, but no appearance of mortar can 1 -. 77 be discerned in the more perfect parts of Wm\ the masonry. The faces of the pyramid are directed to the four cardinal points. JL\ * V^rnr'~j 7$gl9§ The entrance is in the north front, and * the passage to the central chamber is shown on the preceding section. That in the pyramid of Chepheren (Jig. 47.) is thus described by IJelzoni: — 'The first passage is built of granite, the rest are cut out of the natural sandstone rock which rises above the level of the basis of the Length of base. No. of steps. Height. Authors Length of base. No. Of jj . .. steps He 'S kt - 800 Gr. ft. - 852 Eng. ft. Thevenot • 727 Eng. ft. 208 534 Eng. ft. 000 — . 600 — Niebuhr 757 — - 409 _ 700 — - 039 — Chazelles 751 — - 498 — 300 paces Mail let _ 208 324 — Pococke _ 212 093 Eng. ft. 207 *199 — Belon - 250 7*0 — - Goo — French Engineers _ - 477 — 799 — - 000 _ Perring 767 - - 203 480 — jif l 'K- 4”* KNTUANC* to Tim SECOND PVft yramid. This passage is 104 ft. long, 4 ft. high, and 3 ft. 6 in. wide; descending at an ngle of 26 degrees: at the bottom is a portcullis, beyond which is a horizontal passage 1 ) HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 34 of the same height as the first, and at the distance of 22 ft. it descends in a different direction, leading to some passages below. Hence it re-ascends towards the centre of the pyramid by a gallery 84 ft. long, 6 ft. high, and 3 ft. 6 in. wide, leading to a chamber also cut out of the solid rock. The chamber is 46' ft. in length, 16 feet wide, and 23 ft. 6. in. in height, and contained a sarcophagus of granite 8 ft. long, 3 ft. 6. in. wide, and 2 ft. 3 in. deep in the inside. Returning from the chamber to the bottom of the gallery a passage de- scends at an angle of 26 degrees to the extent of 48 ft. 6 in., when it takes a horizontal direc- tion for a length of 55 ft. ; it then again ascends at the same angle and proceeds to the base of the pyramid, where another entrance is formed from the outside. About the middle of the horizontal passage there is a descent into another chamber, which is 32 ft. long, 10 ft. wide, and 8 ft. 6 in. high. The dimensions of this pyramid, as given by Perring, are a base of 707 ft. and a height of 454 ft. Those of the pyramid of Mycerinus are a base of 354 ft., and a height of 218 ft. The py ramids of Sakkarah, which are as many as twenty in number, vary in form, dimensions, and construction. They extend five miles to the north and south of the village of Sakkarah. Some of them are rounded at the top, and resemble hillocks cased with stone. One pyramid is constructed with steps like that of Cheops ; there are six steps, each 25 ft. high, and 1 1 ft. wide. The height of one in the group is 150 ft. ; another, built also in steps, is supposed to be as high as that of Cheops. The stones used are much decayed, and move crumbling than those of Gizeh ; hence they are considered older. One is formed of unburnt bricks, containing shells, gravel, and chopped straw, and is in a very mouldering state. About 300 paces from the second pyramid stands the gigantic Sphinx (fig- 48), whose length from the fore-part to the tail has been found to be 150 ft. ; the paws extend 50 ft. Belzoni cleared away the sand, and found a temple held between the legs and another in one of its paws. It was excavated by Captain Caviglia in 1816; also in 1 869 to the level on which the paws rest. Ti e journals of 1886-7 describe the new works by I’rof. Maspero in excavating and securing them from being refilled bv the sand. 74a. The antiquity of the Egyptian temples maybe comparatively determined from their size; the larger ones being posterior to the smaller. Since the insight obtained into the meaning of the hieroglyphics, much information has been gained as to their history. Solidity reigns through the w hole of them. The walls by which they are enclosed are sometimes 26 ft. thick, and those of the entrance gate of a temple of Thebes are as much as 53 ft. thick at their base, and are composed of block- of enormous size. The masonry employed is that called by the Greeks empleetum (cpirXeKTov), all filling in of an inferior or rubble work being discarded. They are masses of nicely squared and fitted stones, and are built externally with a slope like the walls of a modern fortification. The columns are absolutely necessary for the support of the ceilings, which consist of large blocks of stone, and are therefore ol few diameters in height. Sometimes they are in a single piece, as at Thebes and Tentyra. The stones of which the ceilings are composed am usually, according to i’ococke, 14 ft. long, and 5j ft. in breadth, but some run much larger. 75. Before adverting to the form and disposition of the Egyptian temple, we think it here necessary to notice the recent discovery of an arch in a tomb at Sakkarah, said to be of the time of Psammeticus II., and of one also at Thebes in the remains of a crude brick pyramid. (See Wilkinson's Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p.263. 321.) That exhibited in the tomb of Saccara, from the vignette given, is clearly nothing but a lining of the rock, and is, if truly represented in the plate, incapable of bearing weight, which is the oltice of an arch. That, however, at Thebes, to which Mr. W. assigns the date of 1500 e. c., with every respect for his great information on the subject, and with much deference to his judgment, not having ourselves seen it, we cannot easily believe to be of such anti- quity. Its appearance is so truly Roman, that we must be permitted to doubt the truth of his conjecture. We are, moreover, fortified in the opinion we entertain by the principles on which the style of Egyptian architecture is founded, which are totally at variance with the use of the arch. We have ventured to transfer this ( fig. 49.) to our pages, that the reader may form a judgment on the subject, as well as ourselves. We will only add, that the reasons assigned hv Mr. W. for the Egyptians not preferring such a mode of con- struction as the arch, because of the difficulty of repairing it when injured, and the con- sequences attending the decay of a single block, are not of any weight with us, because, practically, there is an easy mode of accomplishing such repair. And, again, the argu- ment that the superincumbent weight applied to an arch in such a case as that before Fig. 48. THE SPHINX. Chap. ! I. EGYPTIAN. 35 ARCH AT THKBKS. us will not hold good, inasmuch as the balance on the back of each coui'se would almost pre- serve the opening without any arch at all. 76. The fokm and disposition of the Egyptian temple seem to have been founded on immutable rules The only points wherein they differ from one an- other are in the number of their subdivi- sions and their extent, as the city for which they served was more or less rich. Unlike the temples of the Greeks and Romans, whose parts were governed l,v the adoption of one of the orders, and whose whole, taken in at a single glance, could be measured from any one of its parts, those of Egypt were an assemblage of porticoes, courts, vestibules, galleries, apartments, communicating with each other, and surrounded with walls. Strabo, in bis 1 7th book, thus describes the temples in question. At the entrance of the consecrated spot the ground is paved to the width of 100 ft. (■wAeBpou) or less, and in length three or four times its width, and in some places even more. Phis is called the court (5 popcos, course) ; thus Callimachus uses the words — ’O t0ou.cz iloo; o'jTc; AocuZibo; . Throughout the whole length beyond this on each side of the width are placed sphinxes of lone, 20 cubiis or more distant from one another, one row being on the right, and the other on the left. Beyond the sphinxes is a great vestibule (irpotrvAov), then a further one, and beyond this another. The number, however, of the sphinxes, as of the vestibules, is not. always the same, but varies according to the length and breadth of the course. Beyond the vestibules ( irpoiruAaia ) is the temple (pews), having a very large porch (irpovaos), which is worthy to be recorded. The chapel (c tt/kos) is small, and without a statue ; or, if there he one, it is not of human form, but that of some beast. The porch on each side has a wing (itTepa); these consist of two walls as high as the temple itself, distant from each other at the bottom a little more than the width of the foundations of the temple, then they incline towards each other, rising to the height of 50 or GO cubits. These walls are sculptured with large figures, similar to those which are to be seen in the works of the Etruscans and . ated, as we shall immediately show by the introduction in this place of the plan, section, and elevation of the celebrated temple at Apollinopolis Magna, between Thebes and the first cataract, which, though, as we learn from the deciphering in these days, the hiero- glyphics upon it are not of the time of the Pharaohs, seems admirably calculated to give the reader almost all the information necessary for understanding the subject. This will, moreover, so much more fully explain it than words, that we shall not need to do more than afterwards come to some recital of the details. 77. This edifice, seated near Edfoo, about twenty miles south of Thebes, is one of the largest in Egypt, and is comparatively in good preservation. Its form is rectangular, and its general dimensions 450ft. by 140 ft. (jiff. 50.) In the centre of one of the short sides is the entrance, which consists of two buildings, each 100 It. long, and 32 ft. in width; both pyramidal inform, and lying in the same direction, but separated by a passage doorway at each extremity. This passage conducts us to a qua- ivori I M, I KOPOI.lt MAOt'A *i «• AO. rr am op trmpi.k at a !0 ft. in width, with bangle 140 ft. long, and 120 ft. wide, flanked by twelve columns on each side, and eight tiore on the entrance side, all standing a few feet within the walls, and thus forming a co- lonnade round three sides covered by a fiat roof. A view of a portion of it is given in jit/. 54. \t the further end of the quadrangle (which rises by corded steps) opposite to the en- hance, is a portico extending the whole breadth of the quadrangle, and 45 ft. in lepth. It has three ranks of columns, containing six in each rank, is covered by a flat oof, ami is enclosed by walls on three sides, the fourth, or that opposite the entrance, I) 2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. being open. This is, however, closed breast high by a species of pedestals half inserted in the columns, and in the central intereolumniation a doorway is constructed with piers, over which are a lintel and cornice cut through. From this portico a doorway leads to an inner vestibule, in which are three ranks of four columns each, smaller than those first described, but distributed in the same way. Beyond this, in Cousin’s plan, are sundry apartments, with staircases and passages, whereof the smaller central one was Fig. 51. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OK TEMPLE AT A POLT.ONOPOI.IS. doubtless the cell. Fig. 51. is a longitudinal section. Fig. 52. is the elevation. We may here add, that there is so little difference between the earlier and later speci- mens of Egyptian architecture, that though, as we have hinted, this is of the latter, it will convey a pretty correct know- ledge of all. The general appear- ance of the temple is given i n jig. 53., and a view of the interior i'l fit/. 54. The plan of the Egyptian temple is always uniform, symme- trical, and rectangular. Its most brilliant feature is the great num- ber of columns employed, in which is displayed a prodigality unap- proached by any other nation. This, however, was induced bv the ne- cessity for employing blocks of stone for the ceilings or roofs. The greatest irregularity occurring in any of the plans known, is in that at the island of Philas (see Jig. 55. ), and it is very evident that the cause was the shape of the ground on which it is placed. The in- tercolumniations were very small, rarely exceeding a diameter, or one diameter and a half of the column. We know of no specimens of pe- ripteral temples similar to those of Greece, that is, those in which the cell is surrounded by columns. In the elevations of those of Egypt, the spirit and character of their architecture is more particularly developed. But they are monotonous. The repetition of the same forms is carried to the utmost pitch of tolerance. The pyramidal form prevails in all the combinations, whether in walls, doors, general masses, or details. In considering the principal parts of the eleva- tions, the first feature that presents itself is the column, which we will notice without its attendant base and capital. If it were possible to establish a system relative to their inven- I tion and subsequent perfection, we might easily arrange them in distinct classes, principally as respects their decoration ; but as far as regards general form, the Egyptian column may lx 1 reduced to two varieties, the circular and polygonal. The first are of two sorts. Some ire found quite plain or smooth, but ornamented with hieroglyphics (see Jig. 56 . ). Some TEMPLE UK I'll II. fE. EG Yl’TI A N. 37 ■'i". /i6. coi.uwns. 'll AT. II. re composed with ranges of horizontal circles, and look like an assemblage of bundles of rods tied together at intervals. The only difference among those columns which are circular and plain is in their having hierogly- phics, or not. Of the second sort there are many varieties, of which we here present three specimens (Jiff- 57.). They have the appear- ance of being bound together by hoops, like barrels. These are usually in three rows with four or live divisions in each ; but these arrange- ments seem to have been subject to no certain laws. The species of columns in question is certainly curious, and appears based upon the imitation of stems of trees bound together, so as out of a number to form one strong post. It seems scarcely possible that they could have had their origin in mere whim or caprice. Many polygonal columns are to he found in Egypt. Some square specimens are to be seen in the grottos at Thebes cut out of the rock itself. Simi- ar examples occur at the entrance of the sanctuary of a temple in the same city. Hexa- gonal ones are described by Norden, and l’oeoekt mentions one of a form triangular on the plan. We do not at present remember any fluted specimen, except in the tombs of Beni-Hassan, of which a representation will be given in the section on Grecian architecture. Their character is shortness and thickness. They vary from three to eleven feet in diameter, the last dimension being the largest diameter tic. Hi. that Pococke observed, as in height the tallest was forty feet. Such .vere some of those he measured at Carnak and Luxor, hut this he gives only as an ap- iroximation from the circumstance of so much of them being buried in the earth. 78. Pilasters, properly so called, are not found in Egyptian architecture. The base of he column, when it appears, is extremely simple in its form. Among the representations n Denon’s work is one in which the base is in the shape of an inverted ogee. It belong! o a column of one of the buildings at Tentyrn. 79. In their capitals, the Egyptians exhibited great variety of form. They may, how- ia.ui over, be reduced to three species, — the square, the vase-formed, and the f swelled. The first (Jiff- 58.) is nothing more than a simple abacus, merely I'i //fes4fi\ In placed on the top of the shaft of the column, to which it is not joined by the intervention of any moulding. This abacus is, however, sometimes high enough to admit of a head being sculptured thereon, as in the annexed block. It does not appear, as in Grecian architecture, that in that of Egypt differently proportioned and formed columns had different capitals assigned to them. The notion of imparting expression to architecture by a choice of forms of different nature, and more or less complicated according to the character of an order, was unknown in Egypt. It was an architectural language which the people knew not. The vase-shaped capital (J'ff.59.) n n- 58. capita... ; s variously modified: sometimes it occurs quite plain ; in other cases it is differently decorated, of which we here give two examples. It certainly has all the appear- ance of having afforded the first hint for the bell of the Corinthian capital. The third or swelled capital is also found in many varieties ; but if the form be not founded on that of the hud of a tree, we scarcely Pi K . a#. vAtK and oTiimi iiiAPKD caimtau. know wherein its original type is to be ilsought. Two examples of it are here appended. 80. The entablature, for such (however unlike it be to the same thing in the architecture <>f Greece) we suppose we must call the massive loading placed on the walls and columns of ancient Egypt, is very little subdivided. The Itm/swi? upper part of it, which we may call the cornice, H projects considerably, having a large concave 'w member, in some cases consisting of ornaments — * representing a series of reeds parallel to each Yin. r-u. MfrAiii.Aiun«. other from top to bottom; in other cases in groups of three or six in a group, the intervals between them being sculptured with w ingod globes, as on the portico of the temple at Tentyra, given in Jiff. 60. Sculptures of animals, winged globes, and scarabiei, are the almost constant decorations placed on wlmt may be called the architrave of the Egyptian temple. Of the winged globe, usually found on the centre of it, as also of the great concave cornice, Jiff. 61. is a representation. . .. . We close our observations oil the eor- nice* of the Egyptian temple by request- ing the reader, if he have the smallest HI. UUIHH (loll l»t on the common origin of the nrchi* HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1. sx tectures of Egypt and Persepolis, to refer to Jig. 26., where he will find a precisely similar use of the great cavetto which crowned the buildings of both countries. The writer who, in the Description Abngte des Monvmens de la Haute Egypt , has found that this great curve is borrowed from the bending leaves of the palm tree, has mistaken the elements of decoration for substantial constructive art, and has forgotten that the first object follows long after the latter. But we doubt if he really meant what his words import. The ceilings of Egypt are invariably monotonous. The non-use of the arch, whereon we have touched in a preceding page, and the blocks of stone which the country afforded, allowed little scope for display of varied form. In the colonnades of the country, architraves of stone rest on the columns (see Jig. 54.), on which transversely are placed those which actually form the ceilings, just like the floor boards of a modern economical English building. On them are often found some of the most interesting representations that are in existence : we allude to those of the zodiacal constellations disposed circularly about the centre of the apartments in which 1 1 ley are placed. t hough nothing lias been deduced from these to satisfy us on the date of their continent buildings, they are not the less worthy of further investigation, which, however, it is not our province here to pursue. HI. The gates and portals of the Egyptian temples were either placed, as at Carrak and Luxor (Jigs. 62. and 63.), in masses of masonry, or between columns, as already noticed, in- clined upwards, having generally a reed moulding round them, and the whole crowned with a large cavetto. They were plentifully co- vered with hieroglyphics ; fre- quently fronted by a pair of obe- lisks; and on their sides were placed staircases, of very simple construc- tion, leading to platforms on their summits. It is now difficult to account for the extraordinary la- hour bestowed on these masses of masonry. More than pictorial ef- fect must have been the motive. The reader will, by turning back t.) Jig. 52 , be equally surprised with ourselves when he contem- plates, in the gateway at the Tem- ple of Apollinopolis Magna, such The masses in these are always pv- and bear great resemblance to the ates of modern fortifications. Sometimes they are extremely simple, and do not rise so high as the adjacent buildings which flank them. Their thickness is enormous, some of them extending to the extraordinary depth of fifty feet. 82. Windows were not frequently used. T.T ,''5 When they occur they are long small paral- Fi^. 02. EGYPTIAN PORTAL AT I.UXOR. vast efforts developed on so apparently minor a point. ramidal, V? PORTAL AT CARNAK. Tf lelograms, rarely ornamented, but splayed inside. Many of the apartments were with- out windows at all. 83. We have, in a previous page, alluded to the Pyramids ; to which we here add, that, whatever might have been their purpose, it is certain that the form adopted in them — one other people, was devoted to the purposes of sepulture — was of all architectural formsThat Calculated to ensure durability, and was, moreover, well suited to the views of a nation which took extraordinary means to preserve the body after life, and expended laige sums on their tombs. _ 84. Ornament or Decoration may be considered under two heads, that which con- sists in objects foreign to the forms of the edifices themselves, such as statues, obelisks, Sec. ; and that which is actually affixed to them, such as the carving on the friezes, has- reliefs, &c. _ . . 85. The former of these are remarkable for the size and. beauty of the materials xvheieof they are composed. First for notice are their statues of colossal dimensions, which are mostly, if not always, in a sitting attitude. The two here given (Jig. 64.) are from the Meinnomum. ChlAC. II. EGYPTIAN. They are generally isolated, and placed on simple pedestals. The use of Caryatides, as they are called, perhaps improperly, in Egyptian architecture, if we may judge from remains, does not appear to have been very frequent. In the tomb of Osymandyas, we find, according to Dio- dorus, that there was a peristylium, 400 feet square, supported by animals 1 6 cubits high, each in one stone, instead of columns. The same author (vol. i. f. 56. ed. Wesseling), speaking of Psam- meticus, says, “ Having now obtained the whole kingdom, he built a pro- Fig. t>4 CGT.OSSAL STATUES KHOM THE HEMNONIUM. 1 . • 1 O . l , l pyla-'um, on the east side or the temple, to the God at Memphis ; which temple he encircled with a wall ; and in this propylamm, instead of columns, substituted colossal statues 12 cubits in height.” Statues of sphinxes in allies or avenues were used for ornamenting the dromos of their temples. Of this species of ornament the ruins of Thebes present a magnificent example. They were placed on plinths facing one another, and about ten feet. apart. Examples of lions also occur. The form of the Egyptian obelisks is too well known to need a description here. They have been alleged to be monuments consecrated to the sun. From the situation they often occupy, it is clear they were used neither as gnomons nor solar quadrants. 86. Amongst the ornaments affixed to their buildings, or rather forming a part of them, the most frequent are hieroglyphics and bas-reliefs. The custom of cutting the former upon almost every building was, as we now find, for the pur- pose of record ; but it is nevertheless to be Consi- dered as ornamental in effect. The figures that are sculptured on the walls of the temples arc mostly in low relief, and are destitute of propor- tion ; and, when in groups, are devoid of senti- ment. Painting was another mode of decoration. The grottoes of the Thehaid, and other subter- ranean apartments, abound with pictures, not only of hieroglyphics, but of other subjects. Put the taste of all these, either in drawing, colour- ing, or composition, is not better than that of their sculpture. (See an example in fig. 65.) Yet in both these arts, from the precision with which they are cut and the uniformity of line and pro- vi K . m. muKXTATioN to oaiiua. portion they exhibit, a certain effect is produced which is not altogether displeasing. 87. The nympluca lotus, or water lily, seems to have been the type of much of the orna- ment used for the purpose of decoration. The leaf of the palm tree was another object of imitation, and is constantly found in the capitals of their columns. The use of the palm leaf in this situation may have been derived from a popular notion mentioned by Plutarch, I Si/mposiac. lib. vi. cap. 4.), that the palm tree rose under any weight that was placed upon it, and even in proportion to the degree of depression it experienced. This supposed pe- culiarity is also mentioned by Aldus Gellius (lib. iii. cap. 6.). The reed of the Nile, with its head, enters into some combinations of ornament, and moreover fashioned into bundles, seems to have been the type of some of the species of their columns. In their entablatures and elsewhere, animals of all sorts occasionally find a place as ornaments, even down lo fishes, which occur in a frieze at Assouan ; and, as we have before observed, there are few buildings of importance in which the winged globe does not appear as an orna- ment. 88. Some observations on the taste, style, and character of Egyptian architecture, will conclude this section. If the type was, as we imagine, derived from the early subterranean edifices of the people, whose customs allowed of no change or improvement, we cannot be surprised at the great monotony that exists in all their monuments. The absence of variety in their profiles, by means of projecting and re-entering parts, of the use of the arch, ol the inclined roof, and of all deviation from those shades of different developments, which impart character to a work of art, generated the monotony, the subject of our complaint. It cannot be denied that in those arts which have nature for their model, the artists of Eg) pt never sought excellence in true representation. Now architecture is so allied to the other arts, that the principles by which they were guided in these latter were carried through in 40 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook E the former. It was impossible that the abstract imitation of nature, which constitutes almost the essence of architecture, which is founded upon the most refined observations of the impressions of different objects on our senses, which indicates numberless experiments and successive trials, and which therefore requires the independence of the artist, could he developed in a country where the restrictions of religion and the spirit of routine became the dominant genius of all the arts. In positive imitation, whose existence and principles have been already traced from grottoes and hollowed subterranean apartments, the types of Egyptian architecture were unsusceptible of variety, and very remote from that which characterises invention. The monotony thence resulting was attended by another effect, — that of endeavouring to correct it by a profusion of hieroglyphics. As to the other orna- ments employed, they seem to have flowed from caprice, both in selection and employment, resting on no fixed principles of necessity or fitness, nor subject to any laws but those of chance. The original forms, indeed, of Egyptian architecture, unfounded, like those of Greece, on a construction with timber, would not suggest the use of ornament. Nothing seemed fixed, nothing determined by natural types. We must, however, except some of their columns, which do appear to have been formed with some regard to imitation. 89. In the architecture of Egypt we find great want of proportion, or that suitable ratio which the different parts of a body should bear to each other and to the whole. In all or- ganised beings, their parts so correspond, that, if the size of a single part be known, the whole is known. Nature has thus formed them for the sake of dependence on and aid to each other. In works of art, the nearer we approach a similar formation, the more refined and elegant will be its productions. Solidity is abused in the works of the Egyptians ; the means employed always seem greater than were necessary. This discovers another cause of their monotony. The masses of material which the country produced measured their efforts and conceptions, and their invention was exhausted by a very restricted number of combinations. Their monuments are doubtless admirable for their grandeur and solidity ; hut the preponderance of the latter, when carried beyond certain bounds, becomes clumsi- ness ; art then disappears, and character becomes caricature. Though we think it useful thus to analyse Egyptian art, it must not be supposed that we are insensible to its imposing, and often picturesque, effect. It can never be revived, and our observations upon it must be understood as in comparison with Greek art, which has proved so susceptible of modi- fication that it is not likely to be abandoned in any part of the world where civilisation i has appeared. 90. Though the private dwellings of the Egyptians were not comparable with their pub- lic edifices, they were not altogether devoid of splendour. Examples of them from sculp- tures may be seen in Sir G. Wilkinson’s work above quoted. In ti e towns tiiey of couise varied in size and plan. The streets were narrow and laid out with regularity ; and the mixture, as frequently met with in eastern towns, of large houses with low hovels, appears j to have been avoided. In Thebes, the number of stories were, according to Diodorus, in some cases as much as four and five. Houses of small size were usually connected together, rarely exceeding two stories. They were regular in plan, the rooms usually occupying three { sides of a court-yard, separated by a wall from the street ; or on each side of a long passage from a similar entrance court. The court was sometimes common to several houses. Large mansions were detached, having often different entrances on their several sides, with portals very similar in form to those of their temples. These portals were about 12 or 15 ft. high, and on each side was a smaller door. Entering through the porch, the passage was into an | I open court wherein was a receiving room for visitors, and this was supported by columns, and closed in the lower part by intercolumnal panels. On the opposite side of the court was another aoor, by which the receiving room was entered from the interior. Three doors led from this court to another of larger dimensions, ornamented with trees, communicating on the right and left with the interior parts of the building, and having a back entrance. The arrangement of the interior was the same on each side of the court ; six or more chambers, whose doors faced each other, opened on a corridor supported by columns on the right and left of the area, which was shaded by a double row of trees. A sitting room was placed at the upper end of one of these areas, opposite the door leading to the great court ; and over this and the chambers were the apartments of the upper story. On each side of the sitting-room was a door opening on to the street. Of course there were houses on other plans, which are given by Wilkinson ; but the above conveys a sufficient idea of their general distribution. On the tops of the houses were terraces, serving as well for repose as exercise. The wails and ceilings were richly painted, and the latter were formed into compartments with appropriate borders. Some of their villas were on a very huge scale, and were laid out with spacious gardens, watered by canals communicating with the Nile. 91. We close this section with a list of the principal ancient remains in Egypt (for which we are indebted to the Handbook, 1873, by Sir Gardiner Wilkinson), whose situations are marked on the accompanying map ( ftp. 66 ). At Heliopolis, modern name Matareenh (No. E), a little to the north of Cairo, the obelisk of Osirtasen E, and the remains of walls Chap. II. EGYPTIAN. 41 and houses. Near Cairo, on the Mist bank, the pyramids (fig. 46. ) of Geezeh ( No 2.), Sakkarah and Dashoor. At Mitrahenny, on the east bank ( No. 3.), a colossus of Ramesis II.; the mounds of Memphis, fragments of statues, and remains of buildings. About thirty- eight miles above Cairo, are the mounds of Aphroditopolis (No. 4 ); and on the opposite bank a false pyramid. At seventy-three miles on the west bank is Benisoiuf (No. 5.1, where a road leads to the Fyoom ; a 1, rick pyramid at Ilia- boon (No. 6. ), another at Hawarah and traces of the Labyrinth ; an obelisk of Osiitasen I. at Biggig; with ruins near Lake Moeris, and at Kasr el Kha- roon(No. 8.). Mounds at A boo Girgelt (No. 9.J, from m hence a road to Oxy- rhinchus ( Behnesa ) (No. 10.), where are mounds but no ruins. At Gebel el Tayr is an underground church. Eight miles below Minieh (No. 11.) is Acoris ( 7't/me/i), on the east hank, where is a Gteek Ptolemaic inscription on the cliff’, tombs in the rock with inscriptions on the doors, hieroglyphic tablets, &c. On the east bank, seven miles above Minieh, Kom Ahmar, where are mounds of an old town ; at a short distance beyond is Metahara with sepulchral grottoes. Nine miles further up are the grottoes (fig. 90.) of Beni Hassan (No 12.); and about a mile and a half further on a rock-cut temple of Bubastis or Diana, At Antinoe ( SheyJJi Abaiieh ), some traces of the town, theatre, street', baths, hippodrome, &c., erected by Hadrian. At El Bersheh or El Dayr , a grotto, wherein is a colossus on a sledge. Iler- mopolis magna, on the west bank ( Os/i- inonnayrt') ( No 1 3. ), only tombs. Not far away is Gebel Toona with mummy pits and statues in high relief. At Saeed or Upper Egypt (No. 14.), the mountains recede to the eastward, leaving the river; a little beyond the village of Tel el Amarna, are catacombs, and to the north of which are the remains of a small town, and to the south the ruins of the city, having houses built of crude brick, from which a more correct idea of the ground plans can be obtained than any in the valley of the Nile. To the east are grottoes with sculptures; and on the summit of the hills an ala- baster quarry. At El Ilareib (No. I5.i, the ruins of an old town. At Asyoot (Lycopolis) (No. 16.), are tombs. At Cow ( Antaiopolis), a few stones of the temple close to the river. At S/ny/ili Ifereedee, small caves; and a statue of a man clad in the Roman toga at the base of the mountain cut out of the rock. West of Soo/tiig ( No. 17.), is the old town of Atbribis, where is a ruined temple, with extensive Vi(j. as. MAC OF Till', SILK. 42 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, Book I. scriptions, zodiac, &c. mounds, and rock-cut tombs. Opposite is Ehhmeen (Panopolis) (No. 18.), Greek inscrip- tion of Temple of Pan, and remains of other stone buildings. Exten- sive mounds at Mensheeyali (No. 19) (Ptolemais Hermii); twelve miles south from Girgeh, is Abydus ( Arabat el Matfoon ), where are two temples and many tombs. How ( Diospolis parva), a few mounds Denderali (No. 20.) (Tentyra) has two temples (jigs. 67. and 68.), in- At KuJ't (Coptos), on east side, ruins of the old town, a pillar, and of temples ; and at the village of El Kola, to the north, a small Roman Egyptian temple. Kuos (No. 21.) (Apollinopolis parva), no ruins. At Thebes or Keueh ( Diospolis magna), on the east bank, ; re Carnak and Luxor (No. 22.) (jigs. 62. and 63.); on the west, tom*'S of the kings, private tombs, several temples, colossi of the plain, &c. At Erment (No. 23.) (Hermonthis), a temple and early Christian church. At Tofnees and Asfoon ( No. 24. ) mounds of old towns, Esneh (Latopolis) (No. 25 ) possesses a fine portico (jig. 69.) cleared out in 1842, zodiac, and quay. On the east bank, four miles beyond, is El Knb ( Eileithyins), ruins of a very ancient the temples lately destroyed; grottoes in the mountain; and a short distance up the valley three small tem- ples. Edj'oo ( No. 26. ) ( Apol- linopolis magna), has two tem- ples, one cleared 1864 (jigs. 50. to 54.). At Gebel Silsileh, west and east banks, are the sandstone quarries. At Knn- Ombo (No. 27.) (Ombos) are two temple. s, and a stone gate- way in a crude brick wall on F g. 69. roiiTico at esxeh. the eas f s j(]e 0 p ,j ie inclosure, showing an earlier temple. At Assooan (No. 28.) (Syene), ruins of a small Roman temple, columns, and granite quarries, in one of which is a broken obelisk. Island of Elephanta, opposite to Assooan, is a part of the Nilometer, with Greek inscriptions relating to the rise of the Nile ; a quav, and a granite gateway. At Philaj (No. 29.) temples (Jig. 55.), and ruins. On the Island of Biggeh, opposite Philre, a small ruined temple, tablets, &e. 92. In Nubia, temples at Dabod ( No. 30. ) (Parembole), and at Kalabsheh (No. 31.) (Talmis), apparently thrown down before it was completed. To the north of the last at Iingt el Well;/ a small but interesting rock-cut temple, of the time of Rameses II. A temple at Dendoor (No. 32.); and one rock-cut, of the time of Rameses II., at Gerf Hossnyn (Tutzis), on west bank. At Wady Sibooah (No. 33.), a temple of the same Fig. 68, town Fig. 70. TEMPLE AT IPSAiiBOOL. Fig. 71. TEViri.E AT IPSAMGOOL, period, with an avenue of sphinxes, the adytum rock-cut, the rest built. At Amada ( No 34. ), a temple ot 1 hothmes III.; and nearly opposite, on the east bank, is Dayr, the capital of Nubia, where is a rock-cut temple, of the date of Rameses II. At Aboo Simbci Chap. II. CHINESE. 43 or Ipsambool (No. 35.) two fine temples (figs. 70. and 71.) cut in the rock, of the time of Ilameses II., and the finest out of the Thebes. Above the last named place there are no buildings of importance mentioned by our author. Sect. VIII. CHINESE ARCHITECTURE. 93. In the first chapter, the reader will remember, we have said that in the tent is tube found the type of this architecture; and one which, M. de Pauw justly observed, cannot he mistaken. We are not aware of the utility of a very minute investigation of its style, v\ hicb in this country is of no importance, the decoration of gardens with imitations of its productions being no longer attempted; hut as the object of this work would not he fully attained without some account of it, we propose to consider it, firstly, with respect to its principles, character, and taste ; secondly, with respect to its buildings, their parts, and the method of construction adopted in them. 94. (1 ) To judge of the arts of a people, we ought to he acquainted with the people themselves, the constitution of their minds, their power, their habits, and the connection of the arts with their wants and pleasures. As one mail differs from another, so do these differ among nations. The desire of improving on what has been done before us, no less distin- guishes nations than individuals from each other. Whatever may be the cause, this faculty does not seem to be possessed by the Chinese. Unlike their Indian neighbours, amongst whom appears an exuberance of invention, the arts of imitation in China have been hound in the chains of mechanical skill. Their painters are rather naturalists than artists ; and an European, engaged on the foreground of a landscape, tells us that the criticism by a native artist on his work was confined to the observation that lie had omitted some fibres and sink- ings in some of the leaves of the foliage employed in it. The political and moral subjection of the people seems to have doomed them to remain in that confined circle wherein long habit and repugnance to change have enclosed them. 95. Ill speaking of the principles of Chinese architecture, the word is used in application to those primitive causes which gave birth to it, and which, in every species of architecture, ire the elements of its character and the taste it exhibits. The imitation of the tent, as we tave before observed, is the true origin of their buildings ; and this agrees with our know- | edge of the primitive state of the Chinese, who, like all the Tartar tribes, were nomadic. On this is founded the singular construction of their dwellings, which would stand were he walls destroyed ; inasmuch as, independent of them, their roofs rest upon timber framing, list as though they had surrounded tents with enclosures of masonry. Indeed, from the iccounts of travellers, a Chinese city looks like a large permanent encampment, as well in uspect of its roofs as its extent. If, again, we recur to their concave sloped sides, we can i irrive at no other conclusion ; and though the carpentry of which they are raised has for iges been subjected to these forms, when we consider the natural march of human invention, specially in cases of necessity, we cannot believe that, in a country where the primitive onstruction was of timber, the coverings of dwellings would at once have been so simple i nd so light. Their framing seems as though prepared merely for a canvas covering. Again, we have, if more were wanting, another proof, in the posts employed for the support if their roofs. On them we find resting nothing analogous to the architecture for receiving nil supporting the upper timbers of the carpentry ; on the contrary, the roof projects over i nd beyond the posts or columns, whose upper extremities are hidden by the eaves; thus | uperseding the use of a capital. A canvas covering requires but a slender support : hence i ightness is a leading feature in the edifices of China. The system of carpentry (if such it an be called) thus induced, will he noticed under the second head ; but we must here bserve, that lightness is not at all incompatible with essential solidity of construction ; and • liilst other materials than those which formed tents have been substituted for them, the I irms of the original type have been preserved, making this lightness the more singular, I nasmuch as the slightest analogy between those of the original and the copy is imper- eptible. This change of material prevents in the copy the appearance of solidity, and veins a defect in the style, unless we recur to the type. I 90'. A characteristic quality of Chinese architecture is gaiety of effect. Their coloured >ofs, compared by their poets to the rainbow, — their porticoes, diapered with variegated nits, — the varnish lavished on their buildings, — the keeping of this species of decoration •ith the light forms of the buildings, — all these unite in producing, to eyes accustomed to ontemplate them, a species of pleasure which they would with difficulty relinquish ; and it i ems reasonable that the architecture of Europe must appear cold and monotonous to men hose pleasure in the arts is more dependent on their senses than on their judgment. 97. Taste in art is a quality of vague signification, except amongst those whose lives arc 44 IIISTOin OF A IiCHlTECTU RE. Book I. passed in its practice; neither is this the place to say, upon that subject, more than that, in the application of ornament or decoration to architecture, it must depend on the method of construction. This is not found in that whereof we are writing. With the Chinese, the art of ornamenting a building is an application of capricious finery and patchwork, in which grotesque representations of subjects connected with their mythology often prevail : yet, in this respect, they exhibit a fertility of invention, and produce beautiful abstract combinations quite in character with the general forms. Indeed, the parts of their architecture are in harmony with each other. All is based upon natural principles, and is so adapted to the few and simple wants of a nation whose enormous population alone seems to render it inde- pendent of every other people, that no period can be assigned to the future duration of an architecture which, we apprehend, has existed amongst them from the earliest date of theii dwelling in cities. 98. (2.) Timbfk is the chief material in use among the Chinese; that of which the country produces, the principal is the nan-mo , which, according to some, is a species of cedar; others have placed it among the firs. It is a straight thick tree, and improves with age. De Pauw says that it furnishes sticks from twelve to thirteen feet high, of useful wood ; but Chambers limits it to a smaller size. Respecting its beauty and duration, all travellers agree. Davis (Description of the Empire of China') s..ys that the nan-mo is a kind of cedar, which resists insects and lime, and appears to be exclusively used for imperial dwell- ings and temples. It was an article of impeachment against the minister of Kien-loong, that he had presumed to use this wood in the construction of his private palace. According to Du Halde, the iron-wood, the ly-mo, is as tall as the oaks of Europe, but is less in its trunk, and differs from it in colour, which is darker, and in weight. The author does not tell us whether it is employed for columns. The tsc-lau , also called mo-uang, or king of woods, resembles what we call rosewood ; but its use is confined chiefly to articles of fur- niture. The tchon-tse. or bamboo, grows to a g eat height in China. Though hollow, it, is very hard, and capable of bearing great weight. It is employed. for scaffolding and shells of all kinds ; and the frame- work of their matted houses for theatrical exhibitions is carried up with bamboos in a few hours. It is in universal use. The missionaries inform us that brick has been in use with the nation from the earliest period, and of both species, — burnt and merely dried in the sun. Chambers describes the walls of the houses built of this material as generally eighteen inches thick. He says, the workmen bring up the foundations for three or four courses in solid work ; after which, as the walls rise, the bricks are used in the alternate courses as headers and stretchers on the two faces of them ; so that the headers meet, and thus occupy the whole thickness, leaving a void space between the stretchers : they then carry up another course of stretchers, breaking the vertical joints. Stone and marble are little employed ; not on account of their scarcity, for they are abundant, nor on the score of economy, for they are acquainted with the method of working them, as is proved from their use in public buildings and tombs. Neither can it arise from the difficulty or want of acquaintance with the means of transport ; for we find in their gardens immense blocks introduced for the purposes of ornament ; and in their marble staircases, the steps, whatever the length, are always in a single piece. The fear of earthquakes, moreover, does not appear to have been a motive for their rejection. That is rather to he found in the climate, which, especially in the southern parts, would, from the great heat and moisture, tend to render their houses unwholesome. In the scaffolding they use for the erection of their buildings, security and simplicity are the principal features ; not, however, unmixed with skill. It consists of long poles, so inclined as to make the ascent easy, and is executed without any transverse bearing pieces. 99. The police of architecture among the Chinese is, to an European, a singular feature in its practice ; and we cannot refrain from presenting to the reader the curious restrictions imposed upon every class in their several dwellings. Police, indeed, may be said to govern the arts of China. Its laws detail the magnitude and arrangement permitted for the Ion, or palace of a prince of the first, second, or third degree; for a noble of the imperial family, for a grandee of the empire, for the president of a tribunal, for a mandarin, — for, indeed, all classes. They extend, also, to the regulation of the public buildings of capitals, and other cities, according to their rank in the empire. The richest citizen, unless bearing some office in the state, is compelled to restrict the extent of his house to his exact grade in the country ; and whatever form and comfort he may choose to give to the interior, the exterior of his dwelling towards the street must be in every respect consistent with these laws. According to the primitive laws on this subject, the number of courts, the height of the level of the ground floor, the length of the buildings, and the height of the roofs, were in a progressive ratio from the mere bourgeois to the emperor ; and the limits of each were exactly defined. The ordinary buildings are only a single story high : the climate seems to discountenance many stories. Though Pekin is in the fortieth degree of north latitude, the police obliges the shopkeepers and manufacturers to sleep in the open air under their penthouses in the hottest part of the summer. 100. The leou is a building of several stories. Of this sort are almost all the small palaces Chap. II. CHINESE. 4 6 J I fc fcS-’l f , ; - / [ i - 1 1 r ; ®I built by the emperors in their pleasure gardens. The taste for this class of building at one period prevailed to such an extent that houses were constructed from 150 ft. to 200 ft. in height, flanked hy towers extending to 300 ft. Though the emperors have, generally, aban- doned these enormous buildings, they are still occasionally erected. Most houses of the country are so slightly built as to he incapable of hearing more than one story. Indeed, the necessity for making the most of an area by doubling and tripling its capacity, which exists in the capitals of Europe, does not operate in China. 101. The houses of the Chinese are uniform in their appearance. We here annex the p j j* plan and elevation of one {Jigs. 72. and 73.) ; from which it will he seen that a large portion of the area is occupied hy courts, passages, and gar- dens. Sir W. Chambers describes those of the merchants at Canton as being, generally, a long rectangle on the plan, two stories high, and the apartments divided on the ground floor hy a wide passage, which extends through the whole length. On the side towards the street the shops are placed, beyond which a quadrangular open vestibule leads to the private apartments, which are distributed on the right and left of the passage. There is a salon, usually about 18 ft. or 20 ft. long, and 20 ft. wide, open towards the vestibule, or with a screen of canework to protect it from the sun and rain. At the hack are doors extending from the floor about half way to the ceiling ; the superior part being of trellis work, covered with painted gauze, which gives light to the bedroom. The partition walls are not carried higher than the ground story, and are lined with mats to the height of three feet, above which a painted paper is used. The pavement is of differently coloured stone, or marble squares. The doors are generally rectangular, of wood, and varnished or painted with figures. Sometimes the communication between apart- ments is in the form of an entire circle, which some have compared to the aperture of a bird-cage. The windows are rectangular, and filled in with framework in patterns of squares, parallelograms, polygons, and circles, variously inscribed in or in- tersecting each other. The railwork to the galleries is similarly orna- mented. The compartments of the windows are generally filled in with a transparent oyster shell instead of glass. The upper floor, which oc- cupies the whole breadth of the I house, is divided into several large apartments, which are, occasionally, hy means of tem- porary partitions, converted into rooms for visitors, apart from the family. The sleeping rooms for the people connected with the business are over the shops. The roof stands on wooden columns ; and its extremities, projecting beyond the walls, are usually decorated with the representation of a dragon. 102. In the system of carpentry practised hy the Chinese, the columns and beams look more like the bars of a light cage than the supports and ties of a solid piece of framing, or like a collection of bamboos fastened to one another. The accom- panying diagram {fig. 74.) will convey our meaning to the reader. Their columns vary in their forms and in their proportions from eight to twelve — diameters in height, and are without capitals. They are generally of wood, standing on marble or stone bases, and are occasionally polygonal as well as circular. Some are placed on moulded bases. 103. The palaces are constructed on nearly the same plan. Nothing, say the missionaries of l’ekin, gives a more impressive idea of a palace and the greatness of its inhabitant, whether we consider its extent, symmetry, eleva- tion, and uniformity, or whether we regard it for the splendour and magnifi- cence of its parts, than the palace of the emperor at Pekin. The whole, they say, produced an effect upon them for which they were not prepared. It am, occupies an area of upwards of 3600 ft. from east to west, and above 3000 ft. • nutu. from north to south, without including the three fore-courts. Mr. Harrow, in his Account of Lord Micartney s Embassy, describes it as a vast enclosure of a rectangular form, surrounded hy double walls, having between them ranges of offices, covered hy roofs sloping towards the interior. The included area is occupied by buildings not more than tuo stories high, and forming several quadrangular courts of various sizes, in the centres of which are buildings standing on granite platforms, 5 ft. or 6 ft. high. These arc sur- rounded by columns of wood, which support a projecting roof turned up at the angles. One of these buildings, serving as a hall of audience, stands like the rest on a platform, and F«. -i- 3. EI.BVAl'ION OK A CHINESE HOUSE. gj I 7». 46 HISTORY OI' ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. its projecting roof is supported by a double row of wooden columns, the intervals between which, in each row, are filled with brickwork to the height of 4 ft. ; the part above the wall being filled in with lattice work, covered with transparent paper. The courts are intersected by canals spanned by several marble bridges. The gateways of the quadrangles are adorned with marble columns on pedestals, decorated with dragons. The courts contain sculptured lions 7 ft. or 8 ft. high ; and at the angles of the building, surrounding each area, are square towers, two stories high, crowned with galleries. The reader will find a delineation of this extraordinary building in Cousin’s work, Du Genie de L' Architec- ture, 4to, Paris, 1822, pi. 26. The peristylia of the interior buildings of the palace are built upon a platform of white marble, above which they are raised but a few steps ; but this platform is reached by three flights of marble steps, decorated with vases and other ornaments. 104. It is said that there are 10,000 miao, or idol temples in Pekin and its environs. Some of these are of considerable size, others are more distinguished for their beauty ; there is, however, no sufficient account of them, and we shall therefore proceed to those of Canton, which have been described by Chambers. He says that in this city there are a great num- ber of temples, to which Europeans usually apply the name of pagoda. Some of these are small, and consist of a single chamber ; others stand in a court surrounded by corridors, at the extremity of which the ting, or idols, are placed. The most extensive of these pagodas is at Ho-nang, in the southern suburb of Conan. Its interior area is of the length of 590 ft., its width 250 ft. This area is surrounded by cells for 200 bonzes, having no light but what is obtained from the doors. The entrance to the quadrangle is by a vestibule in the middle of one of the short sides ; and at the angles are buildings 30 ft. square, in which the principal bonzes reside. In the middle of each of the long sides is a rectangular area, surrounded by cells, one containing tbe kitchens and refectories, and the other, hospitals for animals, and a burying ground. The great quadrangle contains three pagodas or pavilions, each 33 ft. square on the plan. They consist each of two stories, the lowest whereof is surrounded bv a peristyle of twenty-four columns. The basement to each is 6 ft. high, to which there is a flight of steps on each side, and the three basements are connected by a broad wall for the purpose of communication between them, with steps descending into the court. The roofs of the peristylia are concave on the exterior ; and the angles, which are curved upwards, are decorated with animals. The sides of the upper story are formed with wooden posts, filled in with open framework. Round the foot on the exterior is a balcony with a rail in front. The roof resembles that of the peristyle, and has its angles similarly ornamented. The buildings are all covered with green varnished tiles. 105. The Chinese towers, which also Europeans call pagodas, are very common in the country. The most celebrated, whereof a diagram is presented here {fig. 75.), is thus described by P. Le Comte. Its form on the plan is octagonal, and 40 ft. in diameter ; so that each side is full 16^ ft. It is sur- rounded by a wall at a distance of 15 ft., bearing, at a moderate height, a roof covered with var- CHINESE TOWER, OR PAGODA. nished tiles, which seems to me out of the body of the tower, forming a gallery below. The tower consists of nine stories, each ornamented with a cornice of 3 ft. at the level of the win- dows, and each with a roof si- milar to that of the gallery, ex- cept that they do not project so much, not being supported by a second wall. They grow smaller as the stories rise. The wall of the ground story is 12 ft. thick, and 8 4 ft. high, and is cased with porcelain, whose lustre the rain and dust have much injured in the course of three centuries. The staircase within is small and inconvenient, the risers being extremely high. Each floor is formed by transverse beams, covered with planks forming a chamber, whose ceiling is decorated with painting. The walls are hollowed for numberless niches, containing idols in bas-relief. The whole work is gilt, and seems of marble or wrought stone ; but the author thinks it of brick, which the Chinese are ex- tremely skilful in moulding with ornaments thereon. The first story is the highest, but the rest are equal in height. “ I counted,” says M. Le Comte, “ 190 steps, of ten full inches each, which make 158 ft. If to this we add the height of the basement, and that of the ninth story, wherein there are no steps, and the covering, we shall find that the whole exceeds a height of 200 ft. The roof is not the least of the beauties which this tower boasts. It consists of a thick mast, whose foot stands on the eighth floor, and rises thirty feet from I k L ii p I ~HAP. II. CHINESE. 47 he outside of the building. It appears enveloped in a large spiral band of iron, clear by several feet from the pole, on whose apex is a gilt globe of extraordinary dimensions. 106. The word tower has been vaguely applied to all these buildings ; but in China here are differences in their application, which are classed under three heads : — 1. Tut, or platforms for astronomical or meteorological observations, or for enjoying the air and land- I .cape. 2. Hou, such as that just described in detail, being edifices of several stories, isolated I ind circular, square and polygonal on the plan, built of different materials in different places. 3. 'Fa, which are sepulchral towers ; these are usually massive, of strange but simple forms, i 107. The Fay-l ou, or triumphal arches of the Chinese, are to be found in every city. They are erected to celebrate particular events. Those at Ning-jio are with a central and wo smaller side openings, and are ornamented with polygonal stone columns, supporting ii n entablature of three or four fascia. 1 . These are usually without mouldings, the last but I hue excepted, which is a species of frieze filled with inscriptions. They are crowned vith roofs of the usual form, having broad projections, whose angles are turned upwards. The apertures are sometimes square, and sometimes circular headed. 10S. China abounds in bridges; but Du liable and the missionaries have made more of hem in their accounts than they appear to deserve. What they have described as a bridge f ninety-one arches between Soo-chowand Hang-chow, was passed by Lord Macartney, and bund to be nothing more than a long causeway. Its highest arch, however, was supposed to ic between 20ft.and 30 it. hieh ; the length about halfamile. Sir George Staunton (vol. ii. . 177.) observed a bridge which appeared to be skilfully constructed. They were acquain'ed nth the use of the arch composed of wedge-shaped voussoirs, perhaps before it was known n Europe. Their great wall is a remarkable monument. In most paits it consists of tin artlien mound retained on each side by walls of brick and masonry, with a terraced plat- brm and a parapet of bricks. Its height is 20 ft. including a parapet of 5 ft. The thickness at the base is 25 ft, and it diminishes to 15 ft. at the platform. Towers, at intervals of about 200 paces, are 40 ft. square at the base, and 30 ft. at the top; their height is about 37 ft. ; some of them, however, are 48 ft. high, and consist of two stores. (See Jig. 76.) In other parts the wall is little better than an earthen parapet with a ditch; in some places only rude stones heaped up. It extends a length of 1500 dies, and is conducted over mountains, valleys, and rivers. Air. W. Simpson, in the Papers | f the Inst, of Brit. Architects 1873-74. carefully describes the important series of the mg tombs, dating 1425-1628. Many works have been published of late on Chinese d Japanese architecture and ornament. Fig. 76. GREAT 1VALL OF CHINA. a IX. M Ii X IC A N A UCH IT KCTIJ II E. 109. The architecture of the people who had possession of America before its discovery II Columbus has a considerable claim upon our attention. When a people appears to have II no means of modelling their ideas through study of the existing monuments of older I ions, nor of preserving any traces of the style of building practised by the race from r ich they originated, their works may be expected to possess some novelty in the mode of I nbination or in the nature of the objects combined ; and, in this point of view, American I hitecture is not without interest. It is, moreover, instructive in pointing out the bent I the human mind when unbiassed by example in the art. Ml 10. North America was found by the Spaniards advanced in agriculture and civilisation, ill more especially so in the valleys of Mexico and Oaxaca. These provinces seem to have III n traversed by different migratory tribes, who left behind them traces of cultivation. It I not cur intention here to discuss the mode of the original peopling of America ; but we p|i‘t, in passing, observe that the vicinity of the continents of Asia and America is such as induce us to remind the reader that one of the swarms, which we mentioned in the ■ tion on Druidical and Celtic Architecture, might have moved in a direction which ulti- I tel y brought them to that which, in modern times, has received the name of the New lurid. The Toultecs appeared in 648, making roads, building cities, and constructing ■ at pyramids, which are yet admired. They knew the use of hieroglyphical paintings, 48 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boo*. I. founded metals, and were able to cut the hardest stone. ( Humboldt, New Spain. ) 1 lie Aztecs appeared in 1 196, and seem to have had a similar origin and language. Their works, though they attest the infancy of art, hear a striking' resemblance to several monuments of the most civilised people. The rigid adherence of the people to the forms, opinions, and customs which habit had rendered familiar to them, is common to all nations under a religious and military despotism. 111. The edifices erected by the Mexicans for religious purposes were solid masses of earth of a pyramidal shape, partly faced with stone. They were called 1'eocallis (Houses of God). That of ancient Mexico, 318 ft. at the base and 121 ft. in height, consisted of five stories ; and, when seen at a distance, so truncated was the pyramid that the monu- ment appeared an enormous cube, with small altars covered by wooden cupolas on the top. The place where these cupolas terminated was elevated 177 ft. above the base of the edifice or the pavement of the enclosure. Hence we may ob- serve that the Teocalli was very similar in form to the ancient mo- nument of Babylon, called the Mausoleum of Belus. The pyra- mids of Teotihuacan (jiff. 77.), which still remain in the Mexican Valley, have their faces within 52 minutes of a degree of the cardi- nal points of the compass. Their lig. /<■ pvr a mi ds op teotihuacan, interior is clay, mixed with small stones. This kernel is covered with a thick wall of porous amygdaloid. Traces are perceived ot a bed of lime, which externally covers the stone. 112. The great pyramid of Cholula (Jig. 78.), the largest and most sacred temple in Mexico, appears, at a distance, like a natural conical hill, wooded, and crowned with a small church ; on approaching it, its pyramidal form becomes distinct, as well as the four stories whereof it consists, though they are covered with vegetation. Humboldt compares it to a square whose base is four times that of the Place Vendome at Paris covered with bricks to a height twice that of the Louvre. The height of it is 177 ft., and the length of a side of the base 1423 ft.. There is a flight of 1 20 steps to the platform. Subjoined is a comparative statement of the Egyptian and Mexican pyramids : — Dimensions. 1” UYl’TIAN. After Per ring. Mexican. Height in feet - Length of base in feet Cheops. 480 7t»4 Chepheren. 454 707 M veer in us. ‘218 85 1 Saccara (of five stories) 150 210 Teotihu- acan. 171 615 Cholula. 172 1355 The Cholula pyramid is constructed with unburnt bricks and clay, in alternate layers. As in other Teocallis, there are cavities of considerable size, intended for sepulchres. In cutting through one side of it to form the present road from Puebla to Mexico, a square chamber was discovered, built of stones, and supported by beams of cypress wood. Two skeletons were found in it and a number of curiously painted and varnished vases. Hum- boldt, on an examination of the ruins, observed an arrangement of the bricks for the purpose of diminishing the pressure on the roof, by the sailing over of the bricks horizontally. I he area on the top contains 3500 square yards, and was occupied by the Temple of Quetzal- coatl, the God of Air, who has yielded his place to the Virgin. By the way, we may here mention that tumuli are found in Virginia, Canada, and Peru, in which there are galleries built of stone communicating with each other by shafts; but these are not surmounted by temples. 113. In the northern part of the inter dancy of Vera Cruz, west from the mouth of the Rio Teeolutla, two leagues distant from the great Indian village of Papantla, we meet with a pyramidal edifice of great antiquity. The pyramid of Papantla remained unknown to the first conquerors. It is seated in the middle of a thick forest, and was only discovered by some hunters about the year 1816. It is constructed of immense blocks of stone laid in mortar; but is not so remarkable for ils size as for its form and the perfection of its finish, being only 80 ft. square at the base, and not quite 60 ft. high. A flight of fifty-seven 'hap. II. MEXICAN. 49 teps leads to the truncated pyramid. Like all the Mexican te-caUis, it is composed of tages, six whereof are still distinguishable, and a seventh appears to be concealed by the egetation with which its sides are covered. The facing of the stories is ornamented cith hieroglyphics, in which serpents and crocodiles, carved in relievo, are discernible. Each story contains a great number of square niches symmetrically distributed. In the irst story twenty-four are on each side ; m the second, twenty ; and in the third, sixteen, il'he number of these niches in the body of the pyramid is 366, and there are twelve in the tairs towards the east. 114. The military intrenchment of Xochiculco, near Tetlama, two leagues south-west .f Cuernavaca, is another remarkable ancient monument. It is an insulated hill, 370 ft. ugh, surrounded with ditches or trenches, and divided by the hand of man into five terraces iovered with masonry. The whole has the appearance of a truncated pyramid, whereof lie four faces are in the cardinal points of the compass. The masonry is of porphyry, very egularly cut, and adorned with hieroglyphics; among which are to be seen a crocodile pouting up water, and men sitting cross-legged after the Asiatic fashion. On the plat- orm, which is very large, is a small square edifice, which was most probably a temple. 115. Though the province of Oaxaca contains no monuments of ancient Aztec architec- ure, which astonish by their colossal dimensions, like the houses of the gods of Choiula, ’apantla, and Teotihuacan, it possesses the ruins of edifices remarkable for their symmetry nd the elegance of their ornaments. The antiquity of them is unknown. In the district if Oaxaca, south of Mexico, stands the palace of Mitla, contracted from Mignitlan, signi- ving, in Aztec, the place if woe. lly the Tzapotec Indians the ruins are called Irabu, or luiva burial, or tomb), alluding to the excavations found beneath the walls. It is conjectured to lave been a palace constructed over the tombs of tlife kings, for retirement, on the death of relation. The tombs of Mitla are three edifices, placed symmetrically in a very romantic ituation. That in the best preservation, and, at the same time, the principal one, is nearly 30 ft. long. A staircase, formed in a pit, leads to a subterranean apartment, 88 ft. in ength, and 26 ft. in width. This, as well as the exterior part of the edifice, is decorated ith fret, and other ornaments of similar character (Jig. 79.). lint the most singular feature in these ruins, as com- pared with other Mexican architecture, was the discovery of six porphyry columns, placed for the support of a ceiling, in the midst of a vast hall. They are almost the only ones which have been found in the new continent, and exhibit strong marks of the infancy of the art, having neither base nor ca- pital. The upper part slightly / nil. ii- — io » j | diminishes. Their total height / p * s 19 ft-. m single blocks of 1 ' porphyry. The ceiling under which they were placed was irined by beams of Savine wood, and three of them are still in good preservation. The oof is of very large slabs. The number of separate buildings was originally five, and hey were disposed with great regularity. The gate, whereof some vestiges are still dis- ernible, led to a court 150 ft. square, which, from the rubbish and remains of subter- Aiiean apartments, it is supposed was surrounded by four oblong edifices. That on the iglit is tolerably preserved, the remains of two columns being still in existence. The prin- ipal building had a terrace, raised between three and four feet above the level of the court, nd serving as a base to the walls it surrounds. In the wall is a niche, with pillars, four or vc feet above the level of the floor. The stone lintel, over the principal door of the hall, > in a single block, 12 ft. long and 3 ft. deep. The excavation is reached by a very wide taircasc, and is in the form of a cross, supported by columns. The two portions of it, hich intersect each other at right angles, are each 82 ft. long by 25 ft wide. The inner ourt is surrounded by three small apartments, having no communication with the nivth, which is behind the niche. The interiors of the apartments are decorated with nuttings of weapons, sacrifices, and trophies. Of windows there are no traces. Humboldt .•as struck with the resemblance of some of the ornaments to those on the Etruscan vases f Lower Italy.' In the neighbourhood of these ruins are the remains of a large pyramid, nd other buildings. 116. In the intendency of Sonora, which lies north-west of the city of Mexico, and in 'e Gulf of California, on the banks of the Itio Gila, are some remarkable ruins, known by ic name of the Casa Grande. They stand in the middle of the vestiges of an ancient Aztec 'ty. The sides are in the direction of the four cardinal points, and are 445 ft from north E 50 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. to south, and 276 ft. from east to west. The materials are unburned brick, symmetrically arranged, but unequal in size. The walls are 4 ft. in thickness. The building was of three stories. The principal edifice was surrounded by a wall with towers in it at intervals. From vestiges which appear, it is supposed the town was supplied with the water of the Rio Gila, by an artificial canal. The plain in the neighbourhood is covered with broken earthen pottery painted in white, red, and blue colours. 117. The capital of Mexico, reconstructed by the Spaniards, is undoubtedly one of the finest cities ever built by Europeans in either hemisphere. Perhaps there scarcely exists a city of the same extent which, for the uniform level of the ground on which it stands, for the regularity and breadth of the streets, and the extent of its great square, can be com- pared to the capital of New Spain. The religious edifices are extensive and greatly decorated, but the architecture is much debased. To the dwellings ornament is sparingly applied ; coloured tiles are used. The stones are a porous amygdaloid called tetzontli, and a porphyry of vitreous feld-spath, without any quartz; these give to the Mexican buildings an air of solidity, and sometimes even of magnificence. The wooden balconies and galleries which disfigure the European cities in both the Indies are discarded; the balustrades and gates are all of Biscay iron ornamented with bronze ; and the houses, instead of roofs, have terraces, like those in Italy and other southern countries. It must, however, be admitted, notwithstanding the progress of the arts there since about 1820, that it is less from the grandeur and beauty of the edifices, than from the breadth and straightness of the streets, and their uniform regularity and extent, drat Mexico commands the admiration of Europeans. Sect. X. ARABIAN, MORESQUE, OR SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. 118. Before the appearance of Mahomet, in the seventh century, and the consequent establishment of I slam ism, the Arabians were by no means celebrated for their skill in architecture. The beautiful country of Happy Yemen, wherein were seated the most ancient and populous of the forty-two cities of Arabia enumerated by Abulfeda, does not appear to have produced what might have been expected from the neighbours of the Egyptians, Syrians, Chaldeans, and Persians. The arts of the surrounding nations seem to have been lost upon them. Though a part of their time and industry was devoted to the management of their cattle, still they were collected into towns, and were employed in the labours of trade and agriculture. The towers of Saana, compared by Abulfeda to Damascus, and the marvellous reservoir of Merab, were constructed by the kings of the Homerites, who, after a sway of two thousand years, became extinguished in 502. The latter, the Meriaba, mentioned by Pliny as having been destroyed by the legions of Au- gustus, was six miles in circumference, and had not revived in the fourteenth century. “ But,” says Gibbon, “the profane lustre of these was eclipsed by the prophetic glories of Medina and Mecca.” Of the ancient architecture of Arabia there are so few examples remaining, that no satisfactory account can he given of it. Excavations, still seen in rocks, are said to be the houses of the people called Thamud ; but the Caaba of Mecca is the only one of the seven temples in which the Arabians worshipped their idols now in existence. It is a quadrangular building, about 36 ft. long, 34 ft. broad, and about 40 ft. high. It is lighted by a door on the east side, and by a window, and the roof is supported by three octangular pillars. Since its adoption by Mahomet, it has been enclosed by the caliphs with a quadrangle, round which are porticoes and apartments for the pil- grims resorting to it. Here were the tombs of the eighty descendants of Mahomet and of his wife ; but, in 1803, they were destroyed by the Wahabees, who, however, respected and spared the Caaba and its enclosures. 119. The extraordinary conquests from the Indus to the Nile, under Omar, the second caliph, who, after a reign of ten years, died in a. n. 644, brought the victorious Moslems in contact with nations then much more civilised than themselves. As their empire extended, their love for the arts and sciences increased. The first mosque built out of the limits of Arabia is supposed to be that which was founded by Omar on the site of the ancient temple at Jerusalem. Under the dynasty of the Ommiades, of which race Omar was a member, the cultivation of architecture was carried on with success. The seat of the empire was removed to Damascus, which was considerably enlarged and improved. Among its numerous splendid buildings was the celebrated mosque founded by Alwalid II. It was he who introduced the lofty minaret, which, though an innovation at the time, seems, in later vears, to have been as necessary a portion of the mosque as the main body of it. Tins caliph made considerable additions to the mosque at Medina, as he also did to that which had been built by Omar on the site of the Temple of Solomon, above mentioned. Hi? generals and governors of provinces seem to have been equally zealous iu the cause of art and the prophet ; witness the mosque built by one of the former on taking Samarcand, am ARABIAN OR SARACENIC. 51 Chap. 1 1. the universal improvement in the provinces under the sway of the latter. Great as were the works just mentioned, the removal of the seat of the empire to the western frontier of Persia, by the second caliph of the dynasty of the Abassides, gave a lustre to Arabian | architecture which almost surpasses belief. Almansor, the brother and successor of Saffah, laid the foundations of Bagdad in the year 145 from the Hejira (a. n. 762), a city which I remained the imperial seat of his posterity during a period of live hundred years. The chosen spot is on the eastern bank of the Tigris, about fifteen miles above Modain ; the double wall was of a circular form ; “ and such,” says Gibbon, “ was the rapid increase of a capital, now dwindled to a provincial town, that the funeral of a popular saint might be attended by eight hundred thousand men and sixty thousand women of Bagdad and the adjacent villages.” The magnificence displayed in the palace of the caliph could only be exceeded by that of the Persian kings ; but the pious and charitable foundation of cisterns and caravanseras along a measured road of seven hundred miles, has never been equalled. 120. About A. n. 660-5, the prudence of the victorious general Akbah had led him to ' the purpose of founding an Arabian colony in the heart of Africa ; and of forming a citadel that might secure, against the accidents of war, the wealth and families of the Saracens. With this view, under the modest title of a caravan station, he planted the coiouy of Cairoan, in the fiftieth year of the Hejira. “ When,” observes Gibbon, “ the wild beasts and serpents were extirpated, when the forest, or rather wilderness, was cleared, the vestiges of a Roman town were discovered in a sandy plain : the vegetable food of Cairoan is brought from afar ; and the scarcity of springs constrains the inhabitants to collect, in cis- terns and reservoirs, a precarious supply of rain water. These obstacles were subdued by the industry of Akbah ; he traced a circumference of three thousand and six hundred paces, which he encompassed with a brick wall ; in the space of five years the governor’s palace was surrounded with a sufficient number of private habitations ; a spacious mosque wav supported by five hundred columns of granite, porphyry, and Numiuian marble.” 121. “ In the West, the Ommiades of Spain,” says the same author, “ supported with equal pomp the title of Commander of the Faithful. Three miles from Cordova, in honour of his faithful Sultana, the third and greatest of the Abdalrahmans constructed the city, j palace, and gardens of Zehra. Twenty-five years, and above three millions sterling, were employed by the founder : his liberal taste invited the artists of Constantinople, the most i skilful sculptors and architects of the age ; and the buildings were sustained by twelve hundred columns of Spanish and African, of Greek and Italian marble. The hall ol audience was incrusted with gold and pearls, and a great bason in the centre was sur- rounded with the curious and costly figures of birds and quadrupeds.” The streets and houses at this place are hollowed out of the rock, which stands 1200 feet above them. 122. Whether we contemplate the materials furnished by Babylon and its neighbour- hood, the dismantled towns of Syria, or the abundant ruins of Egypt, and from Tripoli to the Atlantic, it is curious, as the historian of the western Arabs has remarked, to observe that no people constructed, without recourse to the quarry, so many magnificent edifices. In | Spain, this was most remarkably the case, whereof the reader will be convinced by reference to Murphy’s Arabian Antiquities, and Laborde’s Voyage Pittaresque de l' Kspagne. 126. From the latter half of the eighth century to nearly the middle of the nint/h, the progress of the Arabians in the sciences was wonderful. Their merit, however, in the. art i which it is our province to investigate, was of a class inferior to that of the people who invented and carried into execution, though later, the principles which regulated the stu- pendous monuments of Gothic architecture in Europe. They certainly understood the I science of architecture ; and works on it were written for the benefit of those whose occu- ! pations led them to take an interest in the art. 124. We regret that our limits do not permit us to dwell on the progress in the sciences made by the Arabians, though some of them are intimately connected with our subject. But the information we omit will be much more satisfactorily obtained by the reader con- sulting the pages of the historian of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Our purpose is now to present a concise view of the architecture of the Arabians from I.aborde’s 1 Voyage Pittaresque de I'Espagne (vol. ii. part 1. xliii. et seq.) ; observing, by the way, that, I from our own study of the subject, we are inclined fully to adopt it. In Spain there is a sufficient number of monuments of architecture to class them chronologically, and to j assign an epoch to the different styles they exhibit. Though the species does not resemble ! that which has been denominated Gothic, which is clearly not an imitation, the one and the I other sprung from the same source. The point of departure was the architecture of Byzantium, in which city, after the fall of Italy, a totally new style arose, whose develop- ment in different modes was the basis of all modern architecture. As though the Coliseum ! had furnished the hint, the immense edifices, in the style of the period, were constructed ' with a multiplicity of stories, — they were heavy without, though lightly and richly deco- rated within; the artists employed in their erection seeming to aim at a transference to ; the architecture and sculpture on which they were engaged of the oriental profusion of ornament visible in the stuffs of India, 'i bis Byzantine school produced the I.ombard and HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I 02 Saxon styles in the North, on which we shall enlarge in the section on Gothic architecture; and, in the South, it produced the Arabian, Saracenic, or Moresque style, by whichever name the reader may choose to distinguish it. Both were strongly impregnated with the vices and defects into which the Roman architecture of the period had fallen. For the sake of illustrating what we mean, we refer, as examples, to the Baths of Dioclesian, to that emperor’s palace at Salona, and to the buildings of Justinian and Theodosius, — from all which may be learned the abuses and incongruities which attended the fall, not only of architecture, but of all the other arts. We find in them arches springing from capitals, columns without entablatures, and even zigzag ornaments. But, with all this perversion of taste, the general form of the plans of the edifices altered not : that of the temples more particularly continued unchanged. Some great convulsion was necessary before they could undergo alteration, and such was the introduction of Christianity. Thus, says Saint Isidore, the basilica suffered transformation into the Christian church: — “Ba- silica? olim negotiis plena?, nunc votis pro salute suseeptis.” Of this, in a succeeding page, we shall have more to say. But the change was not confined to the basilica; the palace and domestic dwelling equally partook of the alteration of wants. The Romans, whilst masters of the world, were careless in protecting their cities by walls. Defence was only necessary on their frontiers ; and there, walls and towers were constructed, from which was the first hint for the castle, of which the Roman villa, furtijied , is the type. When, however, Italy was invaded, the fate of war soon caused exterior decoration to be sacrificed to internal comfort and luxury ; and even Rome, under Belisarius, was surrounded by walls and towers. The people, whose prowess made these precautions necessary, soon found the convenience of adopting similar habits and buildings. 125. The Arabians, whose wandering life could scarcely be imagined capable of such a change, ultimately established themselves in Roman castles, and turned the Christian churches, which, at the period, were extremely numerous, into mosques. For some time, the architecture of the Goths, of the Arabians or Moors, was, as respects plan, the same; not less so was the character of the ornaments employed by both nations ; but it was not long before these diverged into styles which possessed each its peculiar beauties. The Christians soon used the pointed arch ; and the style they adopted became slender and tall, whilst that of the Moslems, from the nature of the climate and their peculiar habits, was deficient in elevation, though in the end it acquired a lightness and elegance which it did not at its origin possess. But it is proper, here, to impress on the mind of the reader that Gothic and Arabian architecture have nothing in common between them, except their origin from a common source. It is an error to confound them, or to suppose that the pointed arch is found in any strictly Arabian edifices. That, as far as we can ascertain, did not exist before the eleventh century. It seems to have been a development in the parts of a style which, as it passed into more northern latitudes, became more acute in the roofs, from the necessity of discharging the rain and snow with greater facility. This pointed style spread itself over some parts of India; but, there, none of the examples are older than the fourteenth or fifteenth century. Except in ornamental detail, whereof we append two specimens (Jiffs. 80, 81.) from the Alhambra, the Arabs were not inventive. It is not Mb. XO. PAVEMENT, f IRA. C'HAl-. If. ARABIAN OIt SARACENIC. 53 Fijr.Sl CAPITA I. .. LTCUlzl A -LJC mlikely that their skill in geometry greatly assisted them in the extraordinary combination of lines to be found in their decorations, which nothing can surpass ; nor was it till the time of the Abassides that the Arabians became fully acquainted with what had been done by the Greeks. This knowledge was not confined to them, for there is abundant proof 1. That all the modern arts, as well of the North, as of the West and South, had their origin from the Greek empire at Constantinople, which at that period gave the fashion in them, as did Italy five cen- turies afterwards. 2. That the plans of churches and mosques are traceable to that of the ancient basilica, as in the citadels of the middle ages, and the palaces of the Greek emperors, are to be found the types of the Gothic castle and of the Moresque alcazar. 3. That the Gothic and Saracenic styles attained their several perfection in very different manners as to the. details of their distribution and ornament, and acquired peculiar characters, which in both may be divided into three periods, the last in each being lost in the change that took place in Italy on the revival of the arts. The periods of the Gothic will be noticed under the proper section 126. The first period in the history of Moresque architecture is from the foundation of Islamism to the ninth century, of which the finest example was the Mosque of Cordova in Spain. This was commenced in 770 by Abderahman, and finished by his son and successor, 1 lisham. Its plan is a parallelogram, whose longest side is 620 ft. by 440, formed by a wall and counterforts, both of which are embattled. The height of the wall varies from 35 to lot) ft., and its thickness is 8 ft. The whole of the quadrangular space is internally divided '.to two parts, viz. a court of 210 ft. in depth, the mosque itself covering the remainder ol the area. The mosque consists of nineteen naves (of -a portion of one whereof Jig. 82. is a diagram) formed by seventeen ranks of columns, and a wall pieiced with arches, from south to north, and thirty-two narrower naves from east to west. Each of these naves is about 16 ft. wide from north to south, and about 400 ft. long, their width in the opposite direction being less. Thus the intersection of the naves with each other produces 850 columns, which, with fifty-two columns in the court, form a total of upwards of 900 columns. They are about 18 in. in diameter, the mean height of them is about 1 5 ft., and they are covered with a species of Corinthian and Composite capital, of which there are many varieties. The columns have neither socle nor base, and are connected by arches from one to another. The ceilings are of wood, painted, each range forming, on the outside, a small roof, separated from sik- 82 . MusguE at cokduva. t| lose adjoining by a gutter. The variety of the marbles of the columns produces an effect of richness which all agree is very striking. They were most probably procured from the Roman ruins of the city. It is impossible to pass over the description of this mosque without calling to mind the resemblance it bears in its arrangement to the basilicas at Rome. The reader who has seen St. Agnese and St. Paolo fuori le mura. we are sure, will think with us. After the conquest of Cordova in 1236, this mosque was converted info a cathedral. In 1528. it was much disfigured by modern erections, which were necessary for better adapting it to the service of the Christian religion. These, however, have not so far ruined its ancient effect as to prevent an idea being formed of it when in its splendour. The decorations throughout are in stucco, painted of various colours, decorated with legends, and occasionally gilt like the churches of the Lower Empne. 127. In the second period, the style greatly improved in elegance. It lasted till the close of the thirteenth century, just before which time was founded the royal palace and fortress >f the Alhambra, at Granada (Jig- 83.), perhaps the most perfect model of pure Arabian architecture that has existed. During this period, no traces of the Byzantine style are to be found. An exuberance of well-tempered ornament is seen in their edifices, whose distribution and luxury manifest the highest degree of refinement. Speaking of the interior of the building above mentioned, M. de Laborde says, that it exhibits “ tout ce que la voluptc, la gr; ce, I'industrie peuvent reunir de plus agreable et de plus parfait.” After passing the principal ntrance, you arrive at two oblong courts ; one whereof, celebrated in Arabian history, called the Gourt of the Lions, is in Jig. 84. represented on the following page. This court is UK) ft. long and 50 ft. broad, having 128 columns of white marble. Round these two courts, on the ground floor, are disposed the apartments of the palace. Those for state look out towards the country ; the rest, cooler and more retired, have openings for light under the intci ior porticoes. The whole is on one plane, the walls being placed so as exactly to suit the plateau of the rock ; its entire length is about 2300 ft., and breadth 600 ft. The doors are few and large, and the windows, except on the side where the landscape is most magni- ficent, are chiefly towards the interior. In one of the apartments, the Arabian architect las, in an inscription, given his reason for this adoption, in the following terms: — “ My vindows admit the light, and exclude the view of external objects, lest the beauties of 54 HISTORY OK ARCHITECTURE. Kook 1 nature should divert your attention from the beauties of my work.” The walls are covered with arabesques, apparently cast in moulds, and afterwards joined together. The orna- Fig. 83. PI. AN OP THE A I. II A H MR A. ments are in colours of gold, pink, light blue, and a dusky purple, the first colour being nearest the eye, and the last furthest from it ; the general surface, however, is white. The walls, to the height of four feet, were lined with variously figured and coloured porcelain mosaics, as were the floors. The Arabs of the Spanish caliphate appear to have known some mode of preventing the decay of paint and timber, for the paintings, in which the medium for the colour is not oil, retain the original fresh- ness of their colours, and the woodwork of the ceilings presents no symptoms of decomposition. It has been conjectured that the soundness of the wood through- out has aiisen from the trees being lanced or drained of their sap at the time of felling ; but it may be, that the coating of paint has had some effect in producing the result. Description conveys no notion of this extraordinary edifice : the reader who wishes to obtain one must refer to Murphy’s work, already mentioned. 128. The third period of Arabian architecture is from the end of the thirteenth century to the decline of the Saracen power in Spain. During a portion of this period, it was used by the Spaniards themselves, and like the Gothic, in the northern and middle parts of Europe, was engrafted on the style which crept from Italy into all countries till the Renaissance. During this period were built the castles of Benavento, Penafiel, and Tordesillas ; and the alcazars of Segovia and Seville. The plans continued much the same ; but Greek orna- ments began to appear, with Moresque arches on Corinthian columns. At this time, also, representations of the human figure are to be seen, which, by the laws of Mahomet, were strictly forbidden. There was a charm about this architecture which makes one almost regret that reason and advance in civilisation have extinguished it. 129. We are not to look to the works of the Arabians for the real grandeur which is exhi- bited in the works of Egypt, Greece, or Rome. Brick was the material most used. When .stone was employed, it was covered with a coating of stucco. In their constructive com- binations there is nothing to surprise. The domes which crown their apartments are neither lofty nor large in diameter, neither do they exhibit extraordinary mechanical skill. The Arabian architects seem to have been unacquainted with the science of raising vaults on lofty piers. In the specimen cited at Cordova, the span, from pier to pier is less than 20 ft., which would not have required much skill to vault, yet we find the ceilings of timber. The use of orders was unknown to them ; the antique columns which they intro- duced were employed as they found them, or imitations of them, without an acquaintance with the types from which they were derived, with their principles or proportions. In truth, Fig. 81. COURT OK T1IE IRONS, A I. HAM BRA. | i A P. II ARABIAN Oil SARACENIC. 55 ARABIAN ARCHES. eir columns arc posts. We do not find, in the forms of Arabian art, that character of ginality which can be traced from local causes. The Arabians had spread themselves t in every direction, far from their own country, in which they had never cultivated the ;s ; hence their architecture was founded upon the models before them, which the Byzantine school supplied. Of the forms of their arches, ( \ /\ some whereof are here exhibited {Jig- 85.), the most favourite seems to have been the horse-shoe form. They may be ranged into two classes, — that just named, and the other, that wherein the curve is of contrary flexure, and described from several centres. Both classes are vicious in respect of con- struction, from the impossibility of gaining resistance to rust at the abutments. In masonry, such arches could not be executed on a large scale, brick arches, however, the surface of the cement is so increased, that if it be good, and great re be used in not removing the centres till the cement is set, great variety of form in them iry be hazarded. If the pleasure — perhaps we may say sensuality — of the eye is alone to be nsulted, the Arabians have surpassed all other nations in their architecture. The exquisite es on which their decorations are based, the fantasticness of their forms, to which colour was )st tastefully superadded, are highly seductive. Their works have the air of fairy enchant- jnt, and are only to be compared to that imagination with which the oriental poetry ounds. The variety and profusion wherewith they employed ornament impart to the erior masses of their apartments the appearance of a congeries of painting, incrustation, rsaic, gilding, and foliage ; and this was probably much augmented by the Mahometan v, which excluded the representation of the human figure. If a reason be unnecessary ■ the admission of ornament, nothing could be more satisfactory than the splendour and illiancy that resulted from their combinations. One of their practices, that of introducing lit into their apartments by means of openings in the form of stars, has a magical effect. 130. We have principally confined ourselves, in the foregoing remarks, to the architecture of the Arabians as it is found in Spain, which, it is proper to observe, is only a class of the edifices in the style. There is so close a resemblance be- tween the buildings of that country and those of other places that were, till lately, under the dominion of the Moors, Flg- 87- that, allowing only for difference of climate, we might have left the subject without further illustration, but that we think the re- presentation in figs. 86. and 87. of a Turkish house at Algiers, which we have extracted from Durand’s Purallele des Edifices, may give a better idea of Arabian architecture than a host of words. 131. In Mi ecu, the city of the Prophet, the houses are of stone, and three or four stories in height. The material employed in- dicates solidity of construction. The streets are regular. The uling features are — the balconies covered with blinds; fronts of the houses much orna- •nted ; doors, with steps and small seats on both sides ; roofs terraced, with very gh parapets, opened at intervals by a railing formed of brick, in which holes are left the circulation of the air, at the same time giving an ornamental appearance to the front; lircases narrow and inconvenient ; rooms of good dimensions and well-proportioned, ving, besides the principal windows, an upper tier. Daxnascus, of which a slight view y. 88.) is annexed, has been described as resembling a large camp of conical tents, which, a nearer approach, are found to be small cupolas to the houses. Brick, sun-dried, is the incipal material, and the forms of the roofs mentioned are absolutely necessary to protect ainst the winter rains. Streets generally narrow, houses well supplied with fountains, d containing a large number of houses that may be ranked as palaces. Mosques, many number, but presenting none that are very remarkable. The bazaars and baths of con- erable size and splendour. In Bagdad, there are many large squares. The gates erected the caliphs are still in existence, and are fine specimens of Arabian art. Its walls of ud are 25 ft. in height, but within them are ramparts, carried on arches. In Bussoruh, e most remarkable feature is the mode in which they construct their arches, which is ected without centres. 132. We do not think it necessary to detain the reader on the architecture of Moorish Western Arabia. As in the eastern parts of the ancient empire, the houses usually nsist of a court, whereof some or all of its sides are surrounded by galleries. Narrow oms run generally parallel with the gallery, usually without any opening but the door ELEVATION, HOUSE AT ALO: 56 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 opening on to the gallery. Roofs arc flat or terraced. Walls variously built, often of lime, plaster, and stones, carried up in a sort of casing, which is removed when the work is set From want of good timber, the rooms are narrow. The mosques are by no means worth) of notice. Fez, an ancient Arabian city, contains some lofty and spacious houses. Its streets are narrow, and on their first floors have projections which much interrupt the light. In the centre of each house is an open quadrangle, surrounded by a gallery, communicating with a staircase. Into this gallery the doors of the apartments open. The ceilings are lofty, the floors of brick. All the principal houses are supplied with cisterns in the lowei parts, for furnishing a supply to the baths, a luxury with which also every mosque is pro- vided. In this town there are nearly two hundred caravanseras or inns, three stories high, in each of whose apartments, varying from fifty to one hundred, water is laid on for ablu- tion. The shops, as in Cairo, are very small ; so much so, that the owner can reach all the articles he deals ill without changing his posture. In Tripuli, the houses rarely exceed one story in height; but we must be content with observing that the character is still the same. “ Nec facies omnibus una, nec diversa tamen.” Though the late Sultan built a new palace in the Italian style at Constantinople, the Moslems will not easily relinquish a style inti- Klj;. 89. ENTRANCE TO A RKCHPMON ROOM OF TIIK SKRAoMo. inately allied to their habits and religion, a style whereof fig. 89. the reader. lie is also referred to Jigs. 31, 32, and 33., as exam Persia. will convey some idea tc pies of the same style ir L'llAC i!. G RECIAN. 57 Sect. X I. G II EC IAN ARCHITECTURE. 133. Tin; architecture of Greece is identical with columnar architecture. Writers on he subject have so invariably treated the hut as the type on which it is formed, that, though .re are not thoroughly satisfied of the theory being correct, it would be difficult to wander Voin the path they have trodden. In the section on Egyptian architecture, we have alluded o the tombs at Beni-hassan, and we here present a representation of a portion of them rom a sketch with which we were favoured many years since by the late Sir Charles. Barry ‘Jig. 90. ). The reader will perceive in it the appearance of the Doric column almost in its purity. Wilkinson ( Maimers and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians) is of opinion that the date of these tombs is 1740 a. c., that is, in the time of the first Osirtesen, an antiquity which can he as signed to no example in Greece. These tombs are excavated in a rock, a short dis- tance from the Nile, on its right hank, about forty-eight French leagues south of Cairo. Two of them have architectural fronts like the above plate. The columns are five diameters and a half in height. The num- ber of tbe flutes, which are shallow, is 90, and the capital consists of a simple abacus. There are no indications of a base or plinth. Above tbe architrave, which is plain, there is a projecting ledge of the rock, somewhat re- einbling a cornice, whose soffit is sculptured, apparently in imitation of a series of reeds, laid ransversely and horizontally. There certainly does, in this, appear some reference to nutation of a hut, and the refinement of the Greeks, in after ages, may have so ex- ciided the analogy as in the end to account for all parts of the entablature. The tra- lition doubtless existed long before Vitruvius wrote, who gives us nothing more than the idief of the architects of his time. The point is not, at this time, likely to he answered ati .factorily ; if it could, it might be important, as leading to the solution of some points >f detail, which limit the propriety or impropriety of certain forms in particular situations. Having thus cautioned the reader against implicit faith in the system we are about to levclope, we shall preface it by the opinion, on this subject, of M. Quatremere de Quincy, in authority of great value in everything that relates to the art. Carpentry, says that ■enter, is incontestably the model upon which Greek architecture is founded ; and of the liree models which nature has supplied to the art, this is, beyond doubt, tbe finest and most icrfect of all. And again, he observes, whoever bestows bis attention on the subject, will ■asily perceive tliat, by tbe nature of it, it includes all those parts that are effective for itility and beauty, and that the simplest wooden hut has in it the germ of the most mag- lificent palace. 1 34 . We must here premise that this section is strictly confined to the architecture of Greet c and its colonies. Much confusion has arisen from the want of strict limits to the erm Grecian Architecture, one which has been indiscriminately applied to all buildings in vliich the orders appear. The orders were altered in their profiles, proportions, and details >y the Romans; and though between them and those of the Greeks there is a general rcsem- dance, and their members are generally similar, yet, on a minute examination, great ditler- ■nce will be found. In the former, for instance, the contour of every moulding is a portion if a circle; in the latter, the contours of the mouldings are portions of conic sections. In Roman architecture, we find the dome, which in Greek architecture never occurs. In the atter, the arch is never seen; in the former, it is often an important feature. Indeed, the rohminar style, as used by the Greeks, rendered arches unnecessary ; hence, in all imitation if that style, its introduction produces a discord which no skill can render agreeable to the 'located eye. Attempts have been made by the modern German architects to introduce lie use of the arch with Greek forms ; but they have been all signal failures, and that lecause it is incapable of amalgamation witli the solemn majesty and purity of Greek com- msition. Before such blending can be accomplished with success, the nature of pure Greek ircliitecture must he changed. 1 3.i. Following, then, the authors, ancient and modern, on the origin of the art, we now iroceed to a development of its origin. The first trees or posts which were fixed in the srtli for supporting a co\ er against the elements, were the origin of the isolated columns v Inch afterwards became the supports of porticoes ill temples. Diminishing in diameter 58 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. is they rose in height, the tree indicated the diminution of the column. No type, however i>f base or pedestal is found in trees : hence the ancient Doric is without base. This practice, however, from the premature decay of wood standing immediately on the ground, caused thody politic, and whose vanity caused them to assume the name of AutoxBoucs, from a belief, almost sanctioned by Plato, that their ancestors actually rose from the earth. I low trong the prevailing opinion was of the original superiority of the Athenians, may he gathered from Cicero, in his oration for I'laccus. “ Adsunt,” he says, “ Athenienses, unde liumanitas, doctrina, religio, fruges, jura, leges orte-e, atque in omnes terras distributee putantur : de quorum urbis possessione, propter pulchritudinem, etiam inter decs certamen fuisse proditum est : qiue vetustate ea est, ut ipsa ex sese suos cives genuisse dieatur.” Rut we shall not attempt, here, an early history of Greece ; for which this is not the place, and, if accomplished, would little answer our views. The Greeks exhibited but little skill in their arliest edifices. The temple of Delphi, mentioned by Homer, in the first book of the. Iliad (v. “104. et set). ), which Bryant supposes to have been originally founded by Egyptians, was, as we learn from l’ausanias ( Phocic . c. 5.), a mere hut, covered with laurel branches. Even the celebrated Areopagus was but a sorry structure, as we learn from Vitruvius lib. ii. cap. 1.), who judged of it from its ruins. The fabulous Cadmus — for we cannof lelp following Jacob Bryant in his conjectures upon this personage — has been supposed to have existed about 1519 b. c., to have instructed the Greeks in the worship of the Egyptian and Phoenician deities, and to have taught them various useful arts ; but this arries us so far back, that we should be retracing our steps into Cyclopean architecture, if ive were here to dwell on the period ; and we must leave the reader — as is our own, and as .ve apprehend will be the case with ail who may succeed us — to grope his way out of the darkness as best he may. 137. The earliest writer from whom gleanings can be made to elucidate the architecture of Greece is the father of poets. To Homer we are obliged to recur, little as we approve of the architectural graphic flights in which the poet is wont generally to indulge. Though the Odyssey may not be of so high antiquity as the Iliad, it is, from internal evidence, of reat age, for the poem exhibits a government strictly patriarchal, and it sufficiently proves that the chief buildings of the period were the palaces of princes. We may here, in passing, observe, that in Greece, previous to Homer and Hesiod, the sculptor’s art appears to have been unknown, neither was practised the representation of Gods. The words of Athenagoras (Ley. pro Christ, xiv.) are — At S ’encores p*XP l M4 7ra ’ rrAao-TixP, /rat ypatpuci), /ecu irhpio.vTOTroiriTucq rjoav, ouSe erofj.i(ovro. The altar, which was merely a structure for sacred use, was nothing more than a hearth, whereon the victim was prepared for the meal ; md it was not till long after Homer’s time that a regular priesthood appeared in Greece. In Sparta, the kings performed the office. In Egypt, the dignity was obtained by inherit- ance; as was the case in other places. The Odyssey places the altar in the king’s palace ; md we may reasonably assume that the spot was occasionally, perhaps always, used as the temple. From such premises, it is reasonable to conjecture that until the sacerdotal was separated from the kingly office, the temple, either in Greece or elsewhere, had no existence. It may not be without interest to collect, here, the different passages in the Odyssey, which bear upon the nature and construction of the very earliest buildings of importance. S Between the avAp and the oopas there must have been a distinction. The former, from its .-tymology o.w, must have been a locus subdialis ; and though it is sometimes used ( Iliad, Z. 447.) for the whole palace, such is not generally its meaning in the Odyssey. Theai/Ap was lie place in which the female attendants of Penelope were slain by Telemachus ( Odi/ss. X. 146.), by tying them up with a rope over the SroAos or ceiling. Hence we arrive at the conclusion that this &oA os belonged to the aidouoa or cloister, supposing, as we have done, that the auAp was open at top, and the aiOovaa is described (Iliad, T. 176.) as epiSovrros, that sonorous or echoing, and as circumscribing the open part of the avAri. The SroAos was supported by kwvcs, posts or columns, and in the centre of the auArj stood the fioyos or altar. If our interpretation be correct, the yecroSyai in this arrangement must be the spaces between he columns or posts, or the intercolumniations, as the word is usually translated ; and the mssage in the Odyssey (T. 37.), wherein Telemachus is said to have seen the light on the ■■alls, becomes quite clear. The passage is as follows : — Eury,$ (xoi rotx.oi //.iyoc^u v, y,c/.\c/.t r« fxiffohfjux. 1 ^ Ei'Xcctivou Tt boy.oi , y.ex.i xtovis u^/oir' i^ovra, <1>C£IV0VT O(p0oi\{AOi; . There seems no doubt that the word cuBovaa will bear the interpretation given, and the irrangement is nothing more than that of the hypaethral, and even correspondent with the Egyptian temple, particularly that of the temple at Edfou, described by Denon, and repre- icnted in his plate 34. 138. Before we quit this part of our subject, let us consider the description which 'loner ( 0(li/gs. H. 81.) gives of the house of Aleinous as illustrative of Greek architecture 1 his dwelling, which Ulysses visited, had a brazen threshold, ovSos. It was mj/cp<rinth,” &c. Now, though we regret to damage so elegant and romantic a story, we ist remind those who would willingly trust the authority we have quoted, that Vitruvius aks of matters which occurred so long before his time, that in such an investigation as it before us we must have other authentication than that of the author we quote, and >st especially in the case of the Corinthian capital, whose type may be referred to in a tut loirs ov toniM o2 HISTORY OF ARCH I TECTUIIE. I5ook 1. vast number of the examples of Egyptian capitals, one of which, among many, is seen in fiy. 94. 141. The progress of the art in Greece, whose inhabitants, in tlie opinion of the Egyptian priests in the time of Solon, were so ignorant of all science that they neither understood the mytho- logy of other nations nor their own ( l’lato, in Timceo), cannot he satisfactorily followed between the period assigned to the siege of Troy and the time of Solon and Pisistratus, or about 590 n. c. Rut it is, however, certain that within four centuries after Homer’s time, notwithstanding their originally coarse manners, the Grecians attained i the highest excellence in the arts. Goguet is of opinion the nurture of the art was principally in Asia Minor, in which country, he thinks, ; we must seek for the origin of the Doric and Ionic orders, whilst ■ in Greece Proper the advancement was slow. The Corinthian order I was, however, the last invented, and it seems generally agreed that its invention belongs to ■ the mother country ; but this we shall not stop to discuss here. The Temple of Jupiter, at Olympia, one of the earliest temples of Greece ( Pausanias, Eliac. Pr. c. 10.), was [ built about 630 years before the Christian aera; and after this period were reared I temples at Samos, Priene, Ephesus, and Magnesia, and other places up to that age when, j under the administration of Pericles, the architecture of Greece attained perfection, aid t the highest beauty whereof it is supposed to be susceptible, in the Parthenon (Jiff. 95.) ;| Fw». 91. EGYPTIAN CAP at Athens. The date of the erection of one of the temples of Diana, at Ephesus, was as remote as that of the temple of Jupiter. If Livy had sufficiently our confidence, and we concede that other writers corroborate his statement (lib. i. c. 45.), its date is as ancient as the time when Servius Tullius was king of Rome. Great, however, as were the works which the Grecians executed, the mechanical powers were, if one may judge from Thucy- dides (lib. iv. ), not then compendiously applied for raising weights. 142. The origin of the Doric oruei is a question not easily disposed of. Many provinces of Greece bore the name of Doria ; but a name is often the least satisfactory mode of ac- counting for the birth of the thing which bears it. YY T e have already attempted to account for the parts of this order by a reference to its supposed connection with the hut. Tin writer, in the Encyclopedic Methodique, truly says that if the Doric had an inventor, tliai inventor was a people whose wants were, for a long period, similar, and with whom a style of building prevailed suitable to their habits and climate, though but slowly modified and carried to perfection. At the beginning of this section, vre have, however, sufficiently spoken on this matter. But there are some peculiarities to be noticed with respect to the Doric order, which we think will be better given here than in the third book, where rve propose to treat of the orders more fully ; and these consist in the great differences which are found in its proportions and parts in different examples. For this purpose, several buildings have been arranged in the following table, wherein the first column exhibits the name of the building; the second the height of the column, of the example as a nunie- | Ch > r. 11 . GRECIAN. 63 -ator, and its lower diaineter as a denominator, both in English feet; the third is the quotient of the second, showing the height of the column, expressed in terms of its lowei iiameter ; the fourth column shows the height of the entablature in terms of the diameter lot' the column ; the fifth column gives the distance between the columns in the same perms ; and the sixth shows the height of the capitals also in the same terms : — Example. Height divided by lower Diameier in English Feet. Diameters high. Height of Entablature in Terms of Diameier. Interco- lumniations. Height of Capita! in terms of Diameter. Temple at Corinth - 23*713 5*83 4 065 1*362 *405 Hypaethral Temple at Paestum 28*950 _ 7 00" = 4*134 1*741 1-167 *549 - Enneastyle Temple at Pcestum 21*000 4*85 “ 4*329 M40 1*064 *500 1 Greater Hexastyle Temple at Selinus 32*678 _ 7'49 4*261 2*200 1-490 *490 Temple of Minerva at Syracuse 28*665 6*50 4*410 •486 ' Octastyle Hypaethral Temple at Selinus - 48*585 10*62 4*572 2*038 1*023 *450 Temple of Juno Lucina at Agrigentum 21*156 4 : 59 4C05 *570 | Temple of Concord at Agrigentum 22*062 4 64 ~ 4 753 1-976 1*071 •487 Hexastyle Temple at Psestmn 20*353 _ 4*24 — 4 795 1-917 1*111 •564 Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius at Egina - 17*354 3 22 ~ 5-395 • 1-680 486 Parthenon ----- 34 232 6*15 “ 5 565 1-977 1*275 *459 Temple of Theseus at Athens 18*717 3*30" ~ 5*669 1-964 1 *250 *502 Temple of Minerva at Sunium 19*762 __ ~ 3*34 5S99 1*928 1-472 372 Doric Portico of Augustus at Athens 26*206 _ 4*33 6*042 1-724 1*046 *374 1 Temple of Apollo, Island of Delos - 18*721 _ 3*0 2 6 052 1 900 1 500 *555 i Temple of Jupiter Ncmeus - 33 932 _ 5 22 ~ 6*5.5 1*560 1*348 *383 Portico of Philip of Macedon 19*330 2T6 ~ 6*535 1*867 2*700 *430 143. Casting our eye down the third column of the above table, we find the height of te column in terms of its lower diaineter varying from 4-065 to 6'535. Lord Aberdeen Inquiry inti) the. Principles of Peiiuty in Greek Architecture , 1822) seems to prefer the pro- ortion of the capital to the column, as a test for determining its comparative antiquity ; jut we are not, though it is entitled to great respect, of his opinion, preferring, as we do, i judgment from the height as compared with the diameter to any other criterion ; although must he admitted that it is not an infallible one. The last columns shows what an in- lonstant test the height of the capital exhibits. There is another combination, to which vference ought to be made, — the height of the entablature, which forms the third column If the table, in which it appears that the most massive is about one third the height of the 'hole order, and the lightest is about one fourth, and that these proportions coincide with fie thickest and the thinnest columns. 144. The entasis or swelling, which the Greeks gave to their columns, and first veil- ed by the observations of Mr. Allason, was a refinement introduced probably at a |ite period, though the mere diminution of them was adopted in the earliest times. lie practice is said to have its type in the law which Nature observes in the formation if the trunks of trees. This diminution varies, in a number of examples, from one IVh to one third of the lower diameter ; a mean of sixteen examples gives one fourth. I he mere diminution is not, however, the matter for consideration ; hut the curved jiitlino of the shaft, which is attributed to some refined perception of the Greeks. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE Rook I. h'4 relative to the apparent diminution of objects as their distance from the eye was increased, which Vitruvius imagines it was the object of the entasis to correct. It cannot he denied that in a merely conical shaft there is an appearance of concavity, for which it is difficult to account. The following explanation of this phenomenon, if it may he so called, is given by our esteemed and learned friend, Mr. Narrien, in the Encyc. Metrnpnl. art. Ar- chitecture. “ When,” lie observes, “ we direct the axis of the eye to the middle of a tall column, the organ accommodates itself to the distance of that part of the object, in order to obtain distinctness of vision, and then the oblique pencils of light from the upper and lower parts of the column do not so accurately converge on the retina : hence arises a certain degree of obscurity, which always produces a perception of greater magnitude than would he produced by the same object if seen more distinctly. The same explanation may serve to account for the well-known fact, that the top of an undiminished pilaster appears so much broader than the body of its shaft; to which, in this case, may he added some prejudice, caused by our more frequently contemplating other objects, as trees, which taper towards their upper extremities.” Connected in some measure with the same optical deception is the rule which Vitruvius lays down (book iii. chap. 2.) for making the columns, at the angles of buildings, thicker than those in the middle by one fiftieth part of a diameter, — -a law which we find followed out to a much greater extent in the temples of the Parthenon and of Theseus, at Athens, where the columns at the angles exceed in diameter the intermediate ones by one forty-fourth and one twenty-eighth respectively. Where, however, the columns were viewed against a dark ground, some artists think that a contrary deception of the eye seems to take place. 145. In the investigation of the Doric order, among its more remarkable features are to he noted the longitudinal stria;, called flutes, into which the column is cut ; every two whereof unite, in almost every case, in an edge. Their horizontal section varies in different examples. In some, the flutes are formed by segments of circles; in others, the form ap- proaches that of an ellipsis. The number all round is usually twenty; such being the case at Athens; but at Paestum the exterior order of the great temple has twenty-four, the lower interior order twenty, and the upper interior sixteen only. It has been strangely imagined, by some, that these flutings, which, be it remembered, are applied to the other orders as well as to the Doric, were provided for the reception of the spears of persons visiting the temples. The conjecture is scarcely worth refutation, first, because no situation for the Soup >■ Sour] (place for spears) would have led to their more continual displacement from accident; and secondly, because of the sloping or hemispherical form in the other orders, the toot of the spear must have immediately slid off. Their origin may probably be found in the I polygonal column, whose sides received a greater play of light by being hollowed out, — a refinement which would not be long unperceived by the Greeks. 146. We shall now notice some of the more important Doric edifices, as connected with 1 the later history of the Doric order, which was that most generally used by the European j states of Greece, up to their subjugation by the Romans. The temple of Jupiter l’an- liellenius, at Egina, is probably one of the most ancient in Greece. The story, however, of j Pausanias, that it was built by Aiacus, before the war of Troy, is only useful as showing | us its high antiquity. ( Fig. 96.) The proportions of its columns and entablature are to he A l 1 . II. U It EC I AN. 65 I nd in a preceding page. The sculpture with which this building was decorated is now i Munich. Though, perhaps, not so old as the building itself, it is of an antiquity coeval >| h the Persian invasion. The name of the architect of this temple was Lihon, tf whom i other work is known ; its age is, perhaps, from about COO years before Christ. The ric temple at Corinth, of which five columns, with their architrave, are still inexistence, i i very early specimen of Grecian architecture. The assertion that it was dedicated to nus is unsupported by testimony. 47. The Grecian temples in Sicily were erected at periods which it is not easy to fix ; ; 1 with respect to them, we can only, from circumstances connected with the island, reason < the dates to be assigned to them. The founding of the city of Selinus or Selinuns, on t south-west coast of the island, has usually been attributed to a colony from Megara ; I we are of opinion with the llaron Pisani ( Memnria sidle Metope Selinuntine) that it csted as a Phoenician city long previous to the settlement there by the Megaraans. The ale and forms of the sculpture of the Selinuntine temples seem to bear marks of a r ioter age than is usually allowed to them, that is, 500 b.c. ; they are dated 600 b.c. by f jell & Evans. ( See B. 111.) Of the means and the circumstances under which the triples were raised we are ignorant; but their ruins sufficiently indicate the wealth and pi/er that were employed upon them, as well as a considerably advanced state of the a't. 48. The temple ot Jupiter Olympius, the largest in the island, and one of the most Sipcndous monuments of antiquity, was, as we learn from Diodorus (lib. xiii. p. 82.), ner completed. The Agrigentines were occupied upon it when the city was taken biHamilcar, cir. 247 B.c. Its columns were on such a scale that their Hutes "re sufficiently large to receive the body of a man. The temples of Peace and of (L tcord, in the few vestiges that remain of them, attest the ancient magnificence of the c! of Agrigentum, and are among the most beautiful as well as the best preserved Wains of antiquity. A Corinthian colony established itself at Syracuse, as is said, 750 b ; but no details of the history of the city furnish us with the means of ascertaining *•11 the first temples there were erected. Its riches and magnificence were, however. Sin that, it soon became an object of temptation to the Carthaginians. Its temple of Hjierva is evidently of very remote antiquity. ,49. The great Hyprethral temple at lhestum was probably constructed during the plod that the city was under the power of the Sybarites, who dispossessed its original ii bitants, enjoying, for upwards of two hundred years, the fruits of their usurpation. H ks of Greek art are visible in it, and the antiquity of the Hypnethral temple itself is ci irmed by the example. The city fell into the hands of the Lucanians about 350 years a. I; after which, in about 70 years, it was a municipal town of the Homan empire. The ib wing is perhaps the chronological order of the principal buildings of Sicily and Magna Grcia, viz. Syracuse, Ihcstum, Selinus, Segeste, and Agrigentum. 0. The dates of the edifices at Athens are, without difficulty, accurately fixed. The P lylamm ( fujs. 97 and 98.) was commenced by Mnesicles about 437 u.c., and, at a great V 6 c HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook expense, was completed in five years. It is a specimen of tlie military architecture of t period, and at the same time forms a fine entrance to the Acropolis of Athens. At the rf of its Doric portico the roof of the vestibule was supported within by two rows of Ioi columns, whose bases still remain. By the introduction of these an increased height \i obtained for the roof, the abaci of the Ionic capitals being thus brought level with the t Q Q © © 0 © O O ' O O O O O O 0 © © © © © © QQQQQQOQOQOQQQQ n L_ V- - -t; >./ -• "-•7-. ; ; o O ! ' C oooooooo o o o o o o > o o j 1 OPISTHODOM US @ iraq r o o o 0 1 IS 1 3 OOO OOOOOO o o O r~ - .......... H o O © © o o © I 1 1 I 1 I Soft Fitf 9'J. PI, AN OK THIS PARTHENON.' terior frieze of the building. The Parthenon (Jiffs. 99. and 100.) erected a few years Lit under the superintendence of Ictinus, is xvell known as one of the finest remains of antiqui 1'iH. 100. ELEVATION OK THE PARTHENON. As well as the building last mentioned, it xvas reared at the period when Pericles had management of public affairs, and was xvithout a rival in Athens. Phidias was the su| intendent sculptor employed ; and many of the productions which decorated this magi cent edifice have doubtless become known to the reader in his visits to the British Musei where a large portion of them are now deposited. Nearly coeval with the Propylamm Parthenon, or perhaps a little earlier, is the temple of Theseus ( fig. 101.), which was is supposed, erected to receive the ashes of the national hero, when removed from Sc) to Athens. The ruins of the architectural monuments of this city attest that the boa; power and opulence of Greece was not an idle tale. Pericles, indeed, was charged by enemies with having brought disgrace upon the Athenians by removing the public t HI ' 7 5 HAT I I GRECIAN. res of Greece from Delos, and lavishing them in gilding their city, and ornamenting it with statues and temples that cost a thousand talents, as a proud and vain woman tricks herself out with jewels ( Plu- tarch’s Life of Pericles.) The temple of Minerva, at Sunium, was probably by Ictinus ; but one of the happiest efforts of this architect was the temple of Apollo Epicurius, in Arca- dia, still nearly entire. The peculiarities found in it we will shortly detail. The front has six columns, and instead of thirteen in each Hank (theusual - . - — number) there are fifteen. In the interior, buttresses on each Fig. tot tempi. e op tkkseus. side, to the number of six, Te- rn inwards from the walls of the cell, each ending in semicircular pilasters of the Ionic order, icse seem to have been brought up for the facility of supporting the roof, which was of ne. With the exception of the temple of Minerva at Tegea, its reputation for beauty was ■h, that it surpassed, if that he a true test, all other buildings in Peloponnesus. Itssitu- on is about three or four miles from the ruins of Phigaiia, on an elevated part of Mount tylus, commanding a splendid landscape, which is terminated by the sea in the distance. 1151. About 370 B.c., Epaminondas restored the Messenians to independence, and built i: city of Messene. The ruins still extant prove that the art at that period had not ma- t ially declined. Its walls, in many parts, are entire, and exhibit a fine example of Grecian itary architecture in their towers and gates. At no distant time from the age in ques- ; the portico of Philip of Macedon, at least his name is inscribed on it, shows that the ric order bad undergone a great change in its proportions. This portico must have been cted about 338 b.c., and after it the Ionic order seems to have been more favoured and tivated. The last example of the Doric is perhaps the portico of Augustus, at Athens. 53. Before proceeding to the investigation of the Ionic order, it may here, perhaps, be veil to speak of the proportions between the length and breadth of temples, as compared h the rules given by Vitruvius (book iv. chap. 4.), that the length of a temple shall be dihle its breadth, and the cell itself in length one fourth part more than the breadth, in- i’ ling the wall in which the doors are placed. Though in the Greek examples these p portions are approximated, an exact conformity with the rule is not observed in any. The b ;th, for instance, of the temple of Jupiter, at Selinus, is to the breadth as 2’05 to 1 ; in t temple of Theseus, as 2 3 to 1 ; and from the mean of six examples of the Doric order, cted in Greece and Sicily, is 2 ’21 to 1. If the flanks be regulated in length by making number of intercolumniations exactly double those in front, it will be immediately seen the proportions of Vitruvius are obtained on a line passing through the axes of the unns. But as in most of the Greek temples the central intercolumniation in front is cr than the rest, the length of the temple would necessarily be less than twice the width, be earlier specimens of the Doric order the length is certainly, as above mentioned in temple of Jupiter at Selinus, very nearly in accordance with the rule; but in order to iteract the effect of the central intercolumniation being wider, the number of columns, ad of intercolumniations on the flank, is made exactly double those in front. In later examples, however, as in the temples of Theseus and the Parthenon, and some rs, the number of intercolumniations on the flank was made double the number of inns in the front, whence the number of columns on the flanks was double the number lose in front and one more ; so that the proportion became nearly in the ratio of 2 ’3 to 1 . simplicity which flowed from these arrangements in the Grecian temples was such it seems little more than arithmetical architecture, — so symmetrical that from the three r the diameter of the eolumn, the width of the intercolumniation, and the number of inns in front, all the other parts might be found. < 3. The Ionic order, at first chiefly confined to the states of Asia Minor, appears to have coeval with the Doric order. The most ancient example of it on record is the temple ino, at Samos. Herodotus (Euterpe) says, it was one of the most stupendous edifices ed by the Greeks. In the Ionian Antiquities (2d edit. vol. i. c. 5.) is to be found an unt of its ruins. It was erected about 540 years b.c., by llhatcus and Theodorus, two os of the island. The oetastyle temple of Bacchus, at Tcos, in whose praise Vitruvius lavish, shows by its ruins that the old master of our art was well capable of appre- ig the beauties of an edifice. Ilermogenes, of Alabanda, was its architect, and he s to have been the promoter of a great change in the taste of bis day. Vitruvius !• 2 ci; 68 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I, (lil). iv. c. 6.) tells us that Ilermogcnes, “after having prepared a large quantity of marble for a Doric temple, changed his mind, and, with the materials collected, made it of the Ionic order, in honour of Bacchus.” We are bound, however, to observe upon this, that the story is not confirmed by any other writer. It is probable that this splendid building was raised after the Persian invasion; for, according to Strabo (lib. xiv.), all the sacrci edifices of the Ionian cities, Ephesus excepted, were destroyed by Xerxes. Besides thi> octastyle temple, those of Apollo Didymaius, near Miletus, built about 376 li.c., and of Minerva Polias, at Priene, dedicated by Alexander of Macedon, are the chief temples o this order of much fame in the colonies. We shall therefore confine our remaining re marks to the three Ionic temples at Athens, and shall, as in the Doric order, subjoin .t synoptical view of their detail. Example. Height divided bv lower Diameter, in English Feet. Diameters high. Height of Entablature in terms of Diameter. Interco- lumniations. Height of Capital in terms of Diameter. Diameter, lower Pinm, being 1-000. Temple on the Ilyssus 14 094 1 783 8 241 2-2G5 2 090 C-G10 •850 Temple of Minerva Polias - 2 -V3S7 27sG 9 119 2-287 3-500 0-700 *833 Temple of Erectheus 21025 _ 2 317 9337 • 2 000 0-773 ■81 G now been stated as not completed in b.c. 409, at which time a committee was appointe report on its condition. Fergusson , ‘On the Erechtheum, read at the Royal Institul British Architects, 1875-76, and 1878-79. 156. In the bases applied to the order in the Athenian buildings there are two tori,' a scotia or trochihis between them, a fillet below and above the scotia separating it f the tori. The lower fillet generally coincides with a vertical line let fall from the extr 1 projection of the upper torus. In the temple on the Ilyssusthe lon er fillet projects al ' half the distance between the hollow of the scotia and the extremity of the inferior tc Die height of the two tori and scotia are nearly equal, and a bead is placed on the u| r 154. We here see that the Ionic column varies in height from eight diameters and nearl a quarter to nearly nine and a half, and the upper diameter in width between and T 8 !j The dissimilarity of the capitals renders it impossible to compare them. The mean heigl of the entablature is about a fourth of the height of the whole order. The height of tl Grecian Ionic cornice may be generally considered as two-ninths of the whole entablatur 155. The age of the double temple of Minerva Polias (Jg. 102.) and Erectheus li IA1*. II GRECIAN. G9 irus for tlie reception of the shaft of the column. The temples of Ereetheus and that on ie llyssus have the lower tori of their bases uncut, whilst the upper ones are fluted hori- Intally. In that of Minerva Polias, the upper torus is sculptured with a guilloche. The jse just described is usually denominated the Attic Rase, though also used in the lonies. The bases, however, of the temples of Minerva Polias at Priene, and of Apollo idymaeus near Miletus, are very differently formed. 157. The Volute, the great distinguishing feature of the order, varies considerably in e different examples. In the edifices on the llyssus and at Priene, as well as in that of polio Didymams, the volute has only one channel between the revolutions of the spiral ; lilst in those of Ereetheus and Minerva Polias, at Athens, each volute is furnished with o distinct spirals and channels. In the temple on the llyssus, the capital is terminated a tie helow the eye of the volute ; in the others it reaches below the volutes, and is de- rated with honeysuckle flowers and foliage. The number of flutes, which on the plan e usually elliptical, is twenty-four, and they are separated by fillets from each other. In 'me examples they descend into the apophyge of the shaft. 1158. The tomb of Theron, at Agrigentum, in which Ionic columns and capitals are owned with a Doric entablature, has, hy some, been quoted as an example of the Ionic iler ; hut we do not believe it to be of any antiquity, and, if it were, it is so anomalous Specimen that it would be useless to pursue any inquiry into its foundation. 159. In the antx or pilasters of this order, as well as of the Doric, their capitals differ profile from the columns, and are never decorated with volutes. Their breadth is usually is than a diameter of the column, and they are not diminished. 160. The highest degree of refinement of Greek architecture is exhibited in its examples the Corinthian order, whose distinguishing feature is its capital. We have, in a pre- ling page (139), given Vitruvius’s account of its origin ; but we much doubt whether dlimachus was its inventor. 161. The capitals of Egyptian columns are so close upon the invention, that we ap- prehend it was only a step or two in advance of what had previ- ously been done. The palm leaf, lotus flower, and even volutes, had been used in similar situations in Egypt, and the contour of the lotus flower itself bears no small resemblance to the bell of the Corinthian capital. 162. We are inclined to assign the period of the latter part of the Peloponnesian war as that in which the order first came into use. We find from Pausanias ( Arcad . c. 45.) that Scopas, the celebrated architect of Paros, rebuilt the temple of Minerva at Tega;a, which was destroyed hy fire about 400 years b.c., and that, according to that author, it was the largest and most beautiful edifice in the Peloponnesus. The cell, which was hypasthral, was surrounded by two ranks of Doric columns, which were surmounted hy others of the Corinthian order. The peristyle of this temple was Ionic. 163. The delicacy of formation of this order has, doubtless, subjected its examples to earlier destruction and decay than have attended the other orders : hence our knowledge of it is almost confined to the examples we meet of it in the Tower of the Winds, and the Choragic monument of Lysicrates (fip. 103.), both at Athens; the former whereof can scarcely be considered Corinthian, and the latter not very strictly so. It was erected about 330 years b.c., as appears from the inscription on the frieze. These Choragic buildings, usually of small dimensions, were erected in honour of those who, as choragi or leaders of the chorus in the musical games, were honoured with the prize, which was a tripod. "1 he following are the proportions observed in the Choragic monument of I.y I 10.1. CIIOrtAUIC »IONl! MICNT OK 11 LViticuATua. sicrates : — Height of columns in English feet . Height of columns in terms of lower diameter Height of capital in terms of lower diameter Upper diameter of shaft in terms of the lower diameter Height of the architrave in terms of the lower diameter . Height of the frieze in terms of the lower diameter Height of cornice in terms of the lower diameter Total height of entablature in terms of the lower diameter 1 >m which it appears that the entablature is less than a fifth of the total height of the cr. 'Flic intercolumniations are 2*200 diameters. The base is little different from that ild in the Ionic order. 6*1. In the ornaments applied for the decoration of the sacred edifices of the Greeks, 1 1 037 1C*31K 1"2 it; 0833 0 8 r ,() 0 483 0*833 ;o HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I they Imitated the real and symbolical objects used in their worship. Tims, at the tempi of Apollo at Teos, the lyre, tripod, and griffin occur; in the Temple of the Winds a Athens, the winds are personified on the walls; the Choragic monument of Lysicrates ex hibits the consequences of a contempt of music; on the temple of Victory, at the entrar.i': of the Acropolis, was recorded, on the very spot, the assault and repulsion of the Amazons the Lapithaj are vanquished again in the temple of Theseus, the founder of the city ; am lastly, in the Parthenon is brought before the eye, on a belt round the cell of the temple the Panathenaie procession, which, issuing from the door of the cell, biennially perambulate! the edifice, whilst its pediment perpetuates the contest between Neptune and Minerva fo; the honour of naming the city, and calls to remembrance the words of Cicero, “ Ue quorum, ( Atheniensium,) “ urbis possessione, propter pulehritudinem etiam inter deos certamei fuisse proditum est,” &e. In the capitals of the Corinthian examples just noticed the leave; are those of the olive, a tree sacred to the tutelary goddess of Athens, and on that account a well as its beauty of form and simplicity adopted by a people whose consistency in art ha; never been excelled. 1 65. Besides the method of supporting an entablature by means of columns, the em- ployment of figures was adopted, as in the temples of Erectheus and Minerva Polias before mentioned (see Jiff. 102.). They were called Caryatides ; and their origin, according to tin account of it by Vitruvius (lib. i. c. 1.), was that Carya, a city' of Peloponnesus, having as- 1 sisted the Persians against the Grecian states, the latter, when the country was freed from I their invaders, turned their arms against the Caryans, captured their city, put the males ti I the sword, and led the women into captivity'. The architects of the time, to perpetuate the I ignominy of the people, substituted statues of these women for columns in their porticoes j faithfully copying their ornaments and drapery. It is, however, certain that the origii i of their application for architectural purposes is of far higher antiquity than the invasion o I Greece by the Persians, and in the above account Vitruvius is not corroborated by any ! other writer. Herodotus ( Polymnia ), indeed, observes that some of the states whom lu j enumerates sent the required offering of ^alt and water to Xerxes ; but no mention is madi I of Carya, whose conduct, if punished in such an extraordinary manner, would have been toe I curious a matter to have been passed over in silence. Whether the use of statues to perform j the office of columns travelled into Greece from India or from Egypt, we will not pretem j to determine. Both, however, will furnish examples of their application. In the latte; country we find them employed in the tomb of King Osymandyas ( Diodorus , tom. i. f. 56. I Wesseling). Diodorus also, speaking of Psammeticus, says that having obtained the whoh j kingdom, he built a propykeum on the east side of the temple to the god at Memphis [ which temple he encircled with a wall ; and in this propylaeum, instead of columns, substi I tuted colossal statues ( koAottovs inroeTi.cras') twelve cubits in height. 166. The application of statues and representations of animals is a prominent feature in tli ; architecture of Egypt, whereof the temple at Ipsambool is a striking example, though ii that the figures do not absolutely carry the entablature (see Jig. 71.). In India many in- stances of this use of statues occur, as in the excavations of the temple near Vellori I described by Sir C. Mallet (Asiat. lies. vol. vi.), wherein heads of lions, elephants, anil imaginary animals apparently support the roof of the cave of Jugnath Subba ; and all Elephanta, where colossal statues are ranged along the sides as high as the underside of tin entablature (see Jig. 39.). But as the settlement of the claims of either of these countrie I to the invention is not our object, we shall proceed to consider how they obtained ii Greece the name that has been applied to them long before the period of which Vitruvie; speaks. 167. K apva, the nut tree (Nux jug/ans), which Plutarch (Sympos. lib. ii.) says receivei its name from its effect (/capos, sopor) on the senses, was that into which Bacchus, after eo habitation with her, transformed Carya, one of the three daughters of Dion, king of Laconia by his wife Iphitea. The other daughters, Orphe and Eyco, were turned into stones fot having too closely watched their sister’s intercourse with the lover. Diana, from whon the Lacedemonians learnt this story, was on that account, as well perhaps as the excellent' of the fruit of the tree, therefore worshipped by them under the name of Diana Caryatis (Servius, note on 8th Eel. of Virgil, edit. Burman.) Another account, however, not at al affecting the hypothesis, is given of the name of Diana Caryatis in one of the old commen i tutors of Statius (Barlhius, lib. iv. v. 225.). It is as follows. Some virgins threatenec with danger whilst celebrating the rites of the goddess, took refuge under the branches o a nut tree (Kapva), in honour and perpetuation whereof they raised a temple to Dian Caryatis. If this, however, be an allusion to the famous interposition of Aristomenes n protecting some Spartan virgins taken by his soldiers, it is not quite borne out by th words of Diodorus. Salmasius (Exercit. Pliniance. f. 603. et seq.) says, that Diana wa worshipped at Carya, near Sparta, under the name of Diana Caryatis; and that at her tempi and statue the Lacedemonian virgins had an anniversary festival, with dancing, according ti the custom of the country. 168. But to return more closely to the subject, we will give the words of Pausanias (Laco jai>. II, GRECIAN. 71 :*■) on the temple to the goddess at Carya. “ The third turning to the right leads to Carya, d the sanctuary of Diana ; for the neighbourhood of Carya is sacred to that goddess and •r nymphs. The statue of Diana Carvatis is in the open air; and in this place the Lace- monian virgins celebrate an anniversary festival with the old custom of the dance.” uhnius on the passage in question, after reference to Hesychius, says, “ Caryatides etiarn cuntur Lacaenaa saltantes, sinistra ansata:, uti solebant Caryatides puelhe in honorem ianai. " 1G9. From the circumstances above mentioned, we think it may be fairly concluded that e statues called Caryatides were originally applied to or used about the temples of Diana , d that instead of representing captives or persons in a state of ignominy, they were in ; ct representations of the virgins engaged in the worship of that goddess. It is probabla at after their first introduction other figures, in buildings appropriated to other divinities, ere gradually employed ; as in the Pandroseum (attached to the temple of Minerva l’olias), for instance, where they may be representations of the virgins called Canephorat, who assisted in the l’anathenaie procession. Fig. 101. is a representation of one of those used in the Pan- droseum (see also Jig. 102.); and Jig. 105. is from the Townley col- lection, now in the British Museum. Piranesi conjectured that this last, with others, supported the entablature of an ancient Roman building restored by him from some fragments found near the spot where they were discovered, which is rather more than a mile beyond the Capo di Bove, near Rome. Four of the statues were found ; and on one of the three, purchased by Cardinal Albani, >he following inscription was found: — KPITHN KAI N1KOAAOS EflOIOTN ; showing that it was the work of Greek artists. 170. The republican spirit of Greece tended to repress all ap- pearance of luxury in their private dwellings. The people seem to have thrown all their power into the splendour and magnificence of teir temples; and it was not till a late period that their houses received much attention, .xcept in the open courts of them, it is difficult to conceive any application of the orders, t is ceitain that they frequently consisted of more than one story ; but beyond this all is anjecture. In the time of Demosthenes ( O' at. adv. Ai istocratem ) the private houses had egun to be increased in extent ; and the description of them by Vitruvius, who knew .thens well, proves that they were then erected on an extent implying vast luxury. 171. Within the last few years discoveries have been made at Athens, which would lead s to the belief that it was the practice of the Greeks to paint in party colours every portion |f their temples, and that in violently contrasted colours. This has received the name of | olychrome architecture. It is rather strange that no ancient writer has spoken of the prac- ice, and the only way to account for the omission is by supposing it to have been so com- on that no one thought of mentioning it. I'roin late investigations (Inst, of Brit, rehitects, Trans, i., 1836.), it appears that many parts of the Parthenon were painted r gilt. Thus the coffers of the ceiling were painted, and its frieze ornamented with | fret in colours. The whole building, says M. Schaubert, as well as other temples, as thickly painted, in the metopse, in the pediment, on the drapery of the figures, n the capitals, and on all the mouldings. So that, as he says, with great simplicitv. ith its mouldings and carvings variously coloured, the simple Doric temple of heseus was in effect richer than the most gorgeous example of Corinthian ; and it would e worth the trouble to restore with accuracy a polychrome temple. From M. Quast MitlheiUnujen iiher Alt und Neu Athen, Berlin, 1834), we learn that the colour was not used i a fluid state merely for the purpose of staining the marble, but in a thick coat, so that no material was completely covered ; and that in the temple of Theseus this is more raceable f! |an m any other. Though the colours, that of blue smalt more especially, ave left but a grey crust, yet their original tone is still apparent. In this building deep lues and reds are the predominant colours, so as to relieve one another. The corona was eep blue, and the gutta: of a brown red; the foliage of the cymatium was alternately reaked with blue and red, the ground being green, which colour is applied to the small aves on some of the lesser mouldings. Some of the coffers are coloured of a red inclining > purple, on which the ornament is given ; others exhibit a blue ground, with red stars, lie architrave of the portico was a bright red ; the figures in the frieze were painted in leir proper natural colours : traces of the colour show that the walls were green. It as not discovered that in the columns more than the arrises of the flutes were painted, though the echinus was We do not doubt the accuracy of MM. Semper and Quast" h r writers on the same subject, but after all it is possible that all this painting may have’ .eu executed at .a period much later than that of the buildings themselves. ° 172. I he most .indent theatres of Greece were constructed in a temporary manner* but e little security from accident they afforded to a large concourse of persons soon made the reeks more cautious for their security, and led to edifices of stone, which, in the end, ex- ig. 104. Fig. 10.‘>. - o HISTORY OF ARCIII FIXTURE. Book I. needed in magnitude all their other buildings. Their form on the plan (see fig. 1UG. ) was r»Mier more than a semicircle, and consisted of two parts; the ai scena, and icoiAor, ciivca. The scena was at first merely a partition for the actors reaching quite across the stage, dressed with boughs and leaves, but in after times was very differently and more expensively constructed. It bad three principal gates, two on the sides and one in the centre ; at which last the principal characters entered. The whole scene was divided into several parts, whereof the most remarkable were — the Ppov reiov, brontaium, under the Hour, where were deposited vessels full of stones and other materials for imitating the sound of thunder; the emcncpvLov, episcenium, a place on the top of the scene, in which were placed the machines for changing the various figures and prospects ; the irapaoKpvmv, parascenium. which served the actors as a dressing room ; the irpooKpviov, proscenium, or stage, on which the performers acted ; the opxvaTpa, orchestra, was the part in which the performers danced and sang, in the middle whereof was the Aoyetov or dvpeAp, pu/pitum ; the vnooniivm, hyposcenium, was a partition under the pulpitum, where the music was placed ; the KoiAov, cavea, xvas for the reception of the spectators, and consisted of two or three divisions of several seats, each rising above one another, the lowest division being appropriated to persons of rank and magistrates, the middle one to the commonalty, and the upper one to t lie women. Round the cavea porticoes were erected for shelter in rainy weather, the theatre of the Greeks having no roof or covering. The theatre was always dedicated to llacchus and Venus, the deities of sports and pleasures ; to the former, indeed, it is said they owe their origin : hence, the plays acted in them were called Aiovvoicaca, D'mnysiaca, as belonging to Aiurvons, or Bacchus. Every citizen shared by right in the public diver- sion and public debate; the theatre was therefore open to the whole community. 1 73. The Athenian ayopa I, or fora, were numerous ; but the two most celebrated were the old and new forum. The old forum was in the Ceramicus within the city. The assemblies of the people were held in it, but its principal use was as a market, in which to every trade was assigned a particular portion. 174. The supply of water at Athens was chiefly from wells, aqueducts being scarcely known there before the time of the Romans. Some of these wells were dug at the public expense, others by private persons. 175. The first gymnasia are said to have been erected in Laccdemonia, but were after- wards much improved and extended, and became common throughout Greece. The gym- nasium consisted of a number of buildings united in one enclosure, whereto large num- bers resorted for different purposes. I n it the philosophers, rhetoricians, and professors of all the other sciences, delivered their lectures ; in it also the wrestlers and dancers practised and exercised ; all which, from its space, they were enabled to do without interfering with one another. The chief parts (Jig. 107.), following Vitruvius (lib. v. cap. 11.), are — a, the ■«- panvAiov, peristylium, which included thcotpaipiar^piov, sphccristerium, and iruAaicrTpa, palestra ; ], 2, 3, are the irroat, portions, with i: b, c^eSpai, exhcdrcc, where probably the scholars used to meet ; 4, 4, is the double portico looking to the south; c, eippSawv, ephocbcum, where tbc GRECIAN. 73 Cmr. II. ipliebi or youths exercised, or, as some say, where those that designed to exercise met and igrecd what kind of exercise they should contend in, and what should he the victor’s re- ward ; n, is the coryceum ; e, the KoviaT-ypiov, conisterinm, where the dust was kept for sprinkling those that had been anointed ; r is the cold bath ( friyida lavatiu) ; c, the eAaio- Otaiov, elaotkesium , or place foi anointing those that were about to wrestle ; h, the friyidarium, oi cold chamber ; i, passage to the propiyneum, or furnace ; L, the propigneum ; ai, the arched s«- datio, for sweating ; n, the laco- nicum ; o, the hot bath ( culida luvutio); 5, 7, the two porticoes described as out of the palustra, of which 7 forms the xystus, and 6 a double portico ; a a, the mur- gines, or semitcE of the xystus, to separate the spectators from the wrestlers ; b b, the middle part excavated two steps, c e, down ; Q Q, gardens ; d d, walks ; e e, sta- tiones for seats ; it it, £mrra, xysta, sometimes called 7repi5pOjUi5es, for walking or exercises; s, the sta- dium, with raised seats round it. 176. The roofs of the edifices of Athens vary from 14i to 15i degrees in inclination, a subject which will he hereafter fully con- sidered, when we come to investi- gate the principles of constructing roofs. In Rome, as will hereafter be seen, the inclination is much more. There is nothing to war. rant us in a belief that the arch was known to the Greeks till after the age of Alexander. Indeed, the want of a name for it in a language so geneidlly copious as the Greek, suffices to show that they were unacquainted with it. t was most probably in much earlier use in Italy. The words AoAos, atpis, and ipaAt?, are ot used in a sense that signifies an arch until after the reign of the above-named mo- arch ; nor is any description extant from which may be conceived the construction of an rch on scientific principles. 177. From the time of Pericles to that of Alexander, all the arts, and most especially int of architecture, seem to have attained a high state of perfection. Every moral and hysical cause had concurred in so advancing them. 15ut perfection, when once reached i the works of man, is only the commencement of their falling away from it. Liberty, ie love of country, ambition in every department of life, had made Athens the focus ol the ts and sciences : the defeat of the Persians at Marathon and other celebrated victories id brought peace to the whole of the states of Greece. In the space of time preceding ie Peloponnesian war, there seems to have been, as it were, an explosion of every species of dent, and it was at this period that they set about rebuilding the temples and other edifices (at the Persians had thrown down, of which a wise policy had preserved the ruins, so that ie contemplation of desolation and misfortune afforded them an eloquent reminiscence of ie peril in which they continually stood. It was indeed only after the flight of the ge- eral of Xerxes, and the victory gained by Themistocles, that a general restoration of their lonumcnts and the rebuilding of Athens were set about. These were the true trophies of ie battle of Salamis. About 335 years n.e. Alexander became master of Greece. F'ired ith every species of glory, and jealous of leaving to posterity monuments that should bo nworthy of his greatness and fame, or other than proofs of the refinement of his taste, iis prince gave a new impulse to genius by the exclusive choice that he made of the ost skilful artists, and by the liberal rewards lie bestowed upon them. The sacking of orinth by the Romans in less than two centuries (about 146 u.c.) was the first disaster at the fine arts encountered in Greece; their overthrow there was soon afterwards colli- ded by the country becoming a Roman province. At the former occurrence Polybius 74 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boon I. (cited l>y StraLo) says, that during the plunder the Woman soldiers were seen casting their dice on the celebrated picture of Bacchus by Aristides. Juvenal well describes such a scene ( Satire xi. 100.) : — Tunc rudis et Graias mirari nescius artes, Urliilius eversis, praedarum in parte rcperta Wagnonim artificCun frangehat pocula miles. l’he well-known story of the consul Mummius shows either that the higher ranks among the Roman citizens were not very much enlightened on the arts, or that he was a singular blockhead. We have now arrived at the period at which Greece was despoiled and Rome enriched, and must pursue the history of the art among the Romans ; incidental to which a short digression will be necessary on Etruscan architecture. Sect. XII. ETK U SC A N A lit 1 1 IT EOT U R E. 178. The inhabitants of Etruria, a country of Italy, now called Tuscany, are supposed to have been a colony from Greece. They certainly may have been a swarm from the original hive (see Druidical, Celtic, 13.; and Cyclopean Architecture, 32.) that passed through Greece in their way to Italy. The few remains of their buildings still existing show, from their construction, that they are coeval with the walls of Tiryns, Mycente (Jigs. 9. and 10.), and other works of a very early age ; and it is our own opinion that the wandering from that great central nation, of which we have already so much spoken, was as likely to conduct the Etrurians at once to the spot on which they settled, as to bring them through Greece to the place of their settlement. It is equally our opinion that, so far from the country whereof we now treat having received their arts from the Greeks, it is quite as possible, and even likely, that the Greeks may have received their arts from the Etruscans. The history of Etruria, if we consult the different writers who have mentioned it, is such a mass of contradiction and obscurity, that there is no sure guide for us. It seems to be a moving picture of constant emigration and re-emigration between the inhabitants of Greece and Italy. The only point upon which we can surely rest is, that there were many ancient relations between the two countries, and that in after times the dominion of the Etruscans extended to that part of Italy which, when it became occupied by Grecian colonies, took the name of Magna Gracia. The continual intercourse between the two countries lessens our surprise at the great similarity in their mythology, in their religious tenets, and in their early works of art. We are quite aware that the learned Lanzi was of opinion ( Sagyio di Lingua Etrusca), that the Etruscans were not the most ancient people of Italy. We are not about to dispute that point. He draws his conclusion from language ; we draw our own from a comparison of the masonry employed in both nations, from the remains whereof we should, if there be a difference, assign the earliest date to that of Hetruria. This, to be sure, leaves open the question whether the country was preoccupied ; one which, for our purpose, it is not ne- cessary to settle. We have Winkelman and Guarnacei on our side, who from medals and coins arrived at the belief that among the Etruscans the arts were more advanced at a very early age than among the Greeks; and Dr. Clarke’s reasoning tends to prove for them a Phoenician origin. 179. Great solidity of construction is the prominent feature in Etruscan architecture. Their cities were surrounded by walls consisting of enormous blocks of stone, and usually very high. Remains of them are still to be seen at Volterra (Jig. 108.), Cortona, Fiesole ( Jig. 109.), &c. “ Moenibus,” says Al- berti (De Re JEdific. lib. vii. c. 2.) “ ve- terum prasertim populi Etruria? quad- ratum eumdemque vastissiinum lapidem probavere.” In the walls of Cortona some of the stones are upwards of 22 Roman feet in length, and from 5 to 6 ft. high, and in them neither cramps nor cement appear to have been employed. The walls of Volterra are built after the same gigantic fashion. In the earliest specimens of walling, the blocks of stone were of an irregular polygonal form, and so dis- posed as tliat all their sides were in close contact with one another. Of this species is the wall at Cora, near Velletri. The gates were very simple, and built of stones of an oblong square form. The gate of Herc.ules, at Volterra, is an arch consisting of nineteen stones ; a Thai-. 11. ROMAN. 7 h circumstance which, if its antiquity be allowed to be only of a moderately remote period, would go far to disprove all Lanzi’s reasoning, for, as we have noticed in the preceding ar- ticle, the arch was unknown in Greece till after the time of Alexander. According to Goi'l | (Museum Etruscum), vestiges of theatres have been discovered among the ruins of some of their cities. That they were acquainted with the method of conducting theatrical represent- ' ations is evident from Livy, who mentions an occasion on which comedians were brought from Etruria to Rome, whose inhabitants at the time in question were only accustomed to the games of the circus. The gladiatorial sports, which were afterwards so much the delight ol the Romans, were also borrowed from the same people. They constructed their temple? peripterally ; the pediments of them were decorated with statues, quadriga;, and bassi rilievi, in terra cotta, many whereof were remaining in the time of Vitruvius and Pliny. Though it is supposed that the Etruscans made use of wood in the entablatures of their temples, it is not to be inferred that at even the earliest period they were unacquainted with the use of stone for their architraves and lintels, as is sufficiently proved in the Piscina of Volterra. 180. The Romans, until the conquest of Greece, borrowed the taste of their architecture from Etruria. Even to the time of Augustus, the species called Tuscan was to be seen by the side of the acclimatised temple of the Greeks. 181. The atrium or court, in private houses, seems to have been an invention of the Etruscans. Festus derives its name from its having been first used at Atria, in Etruria : “ Dictum Atrium quia id genus edificii priinum Atria; in Etruria sit institutum.” We shall, however, allude in the next section to Etruscan architecture as connected with Roman ; merely adding here, that in about a year after the death of Alexander the nation fell under the dominion of the Romans. Sect. XIII. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 182. The Romans can scarcely be said to have had an original architecture; they had rather a modification of that of the Greeks. Their first instruction in the art was received from the Etruscans, which was probably not until the time of the Tarquins, when their edifices began to lie constructed up >n fixed principles, and to receive appropriate decoration. In the time of the first Tarquir., who was a native of Etruria, much had been done to- wards the improvement of Rome. lie brought from his native country a taste for that grandeur and solidity which prevailed in the Etruscan works. After many victories he had the honour of a triumph, and applied the wealth he had acquired from the conquered I cities to building a circus, for which a situation was chosen in the valley which reached from the Aventine to the Palatine Hill. Under his reign the city was fortified, cleansed, and beautified. The walls were built of hewn stone, and the low grounds about the Forum drained, which prepared the way for the second Tarquin to construct that Cloaca Maxima, which was reckoned among the wonders of the world. The Forum was surrounded with galleries by him ; and his reign was further distinguished by the erection of temples, schools for both sexes, and halls for the administration of public justice. This, according to the best chronologies, must have been upwards of 610 years b. c. Servius Tullius enlarged the city, and among his other works continued those of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which had been commenced by his predecessor ; but the operations of both were eclipsed by monuments, for which the Romans were indebted to Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh king of Rome. Under him the Circus was completed, and the most effective methods taken to finish the Cloaca Maxima. This work, on which neither labour nor expense was spared to make the work everlasting, is of wrought stone, and its height and breadth are so considerable, that a cart loaded with hay could pass through it. Hills and rocks were cut through for the purpose of passing the filth of the city into the Tiber. Pliny calls the Cloacae, “operum omnium dictu maximum, suffossis montibus, atque urbe pensili, sub lerque navigata.” The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was not finished till after the ex- pulsion of the kings, 508 b. c. ; but under Tarquinius Superbus it was considerably ad- vanced. In the third consulship of Poplicola, the temple was consecrated. As the name, which was changed, imports, this temple stood on the Mons Capitolinus, and embraced, ac- cording to Plutarch, four acres of ground. It was twice afterwards destroyed, and twice rebuilt on the same foundations. Vespasian, at a late period, rebuilt it ; and upon the destruction of this last by fire, Domitian raised the most splendid of all, in which the gilding alone cost 12,000 talents. It is impossible now to trace the architecture of the Romans through its various steps between the time of the last king, 508 h. c., and the sub- i ingation of Greece by that people in the year 145 b. c., a period of 363 years. The 76 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. disputes in which they were continually engaged left them little leisure for the arts of peace ; yet the few monuments with which we are acquainted show a power and skill that mark them as an extraordinary race. Thus in the year 397 a. c., on the occasion of the siege of Veii, the prodigy, as it was supposed, of the lake of Alba overflowing, when there was little water in the neighbouring rivers, springs, and marshes, induced the au- thorities to make an emissarium, or outlet for the superfluous water, which subsists to this day. The water of the lake Albano, which runs along Castel Gondolfo, still passes through it. A few years after this event an opportunity was afforded, which, with more care on the part of the authorities, might have considerably improved it, after its demolition by Brennus. This event occurred 389 a. c., and was nearly the occasion of the population being removed to Veii altogether, a place which offered them a spot fortified by art and nature, good houses ready built, a wholesome air, and a fruitful territory. The eloquence, however, of Camillus prevailed over their despondency. Eivy (h. vi.) observes, that in the rebuilding, the state furnished tiles, and the people were allowed to take stone and other materials wherever they could find them, giving security to finish their houses within the year. But the haste with which they went to work caused many encroach- ments on each other’s soil. Every one raised his house where he found a vacant space ; so that in many cases they built over the common sewers, which before ran under the streets. So little taste for regularity and beauty was observed, that the city, when rebuilt, was even less regular than in the time of Romulus; and though in the time of Augustus, when Rome had become the capital of the world, the temples, palaces, and private houses were more magnificent than before, yet these decorations could not rectify the fault of the plan. Though perhaps not strictly within our own province, we may here mention the temple built in honour of Juno Moneta, in consequence of a vow of L. Furius Camillus when before the Volsci. This was one of the temples on the Capitoline hill. The epithet above mentioned was given to the queen of the gods, a short time before the taking of Rome by the Gauls. It was pretended that from the temple of Juno a voice had proceeded, ac- companied with an earthquake, and that the voice had admonished the Romans to avert the evils that threatened them by sacrificing a sow with pig. She was hence called Moneta (from monere). The temple of Juno Moneta becoming afterwards a public mint, the medals stamped in it for the current coin took the name of Moneta (money). This temple was erected ahout345 years b.c., on the spot where the house of Marcus Manlius had stood. 183. In the time that Appius Claudius was censor, about 309 u. c., the earliest paved road was made by the Romans. It. was first carried to Capua, and afterwards continued to Brundusium, a length altogether of 350 miles. Statius calls it regina viarum. l’aved with the hardest stone, it remains entire to the present day. Its breadth is about 1-1 ft. ; the stones of which it is composed vary in size, but so admirably was it put together that they are like one stone. Its bed is on two strata ; the first of rough stones cemented with mortar, and the second of gravel, the thickness altogether being about 3 ft. To the same Appius Claudius belongs the honour of having raised the first aqueduct. The water with which it supplied the city was collected from the neighbourhood of Frascati, about 100 ft. above the level of Rome. The Romans at this time were fast advancing in the arts and sciences ; for in about nineteen years afterwards we find Eapirius, after his victory over the Sainnites, built a temple to Quirinus out of a portion of its spoils. Upon this temple was fixed ( I’ling, b. vii. c. 60.) the first sun-dial that Rome ever saw. For a long while the Romans marked only the rising and setting of the sun ; they afterwards observed, but in a rude clumsy manner, the hour of noon. When the sun’s rays appeared between the rostra and the house appointed for the reception of the ambassadors, a herald of one of the consuls proclaimed with a loud voice that it was mid-day. With the aid of the dial they now marked the hours of the day, as they soon after did those of the night by the aid of the clepsydra or water-clock. The materials for carrying on the investigation are so scanty, and moreover, as in the case of Grecian architecture, without examples whereon we can reason, that we will not detain the reader with further speculations, but at once proceed to that period (145 a.c.) when Greece was reduced to a Roman province. Art, in the strict application of that word, was not properly understood by the victorious Romans ; and a barrenness appears to have clung about that whereof we treat, even with all the advantages that Rome possessed. It may be supposed that the impulse given to the arts would have been imme- diate ; but, like the waves generated by the ocean storm, a succession of them was necessary before the billows would approach the coast. Perhaps, though it be only conjectural, the first effect was visible in the temple reared to Minerva at Rome, out of the spoils of the Mithridatic war, by Pompey the Great, about sixty years b.c., after a triumph unparalleled perhaps in the history of the world ; after the conclusion of a war of thirty years’ duration, in which upwards of two millions of his fellow-creatures had been slain and vanquished; after 846 ships had been sunk or taken, and 1538 towns and fortresses had been reduced to the power of the empire, and all the countries between the lake Mreotis and the Red Sea had been subdued. It is to be regretted that no remains of this temple exist. The inscription ( Pliu. lib. vii. c. 26 ) was as follows : — Chap II. ROMAN. 77 CN . rOMPF.IIIS . CN . F . MAGNUS . IMP . BEI.I.O . XXX . ANNORUM . CONEECTO . PI SIS . FUGATIS . OCCIJilS . IN . DEDITIONEM . ACCEI'IIS HOM1NUM . CENTIES . V1CIES . SEMES . CENl'ENIS . LXXXIII . M . DEritF.SSIS . AUT . CAPX . NAVIBUS . DCCCXI.Vt OPPIDIS . CASTEI.l.IS . SIDXXXVIII IN . F1DE3I . RECEITIS . TERRIS . A . 3IAEOTI . I.ACU . AD . RUBRU.M . 31 A RE SUBACTIS . VOTU3I . MERITO . 3IINERVAE 184. The villas of the Romans at this period were of considerable extent; the statuea of Greece had been acquired for their decoration, and every luxury in the way of decora- tion that the age could afford had been poured into them from the plentiful supply that Greek art afforded. To such an extreme was carried the determination to possess everv thing that talent could supply, that we find Cicero was in the habit of employing two architects, Chrysippus and Cluatius (ad Atticum, lib. iii. epist. 29. and lib. xii. epist. 18.); the first certainly, the last probably a Greek. Their extent would scarcely be credited bill for the corroboration we have of it in some of their ruins. 185. Until the time of Pompey no permanent theatre existed in Rome: the ancient dis- cipline requiring that the theatre should continue no longer than the shows lasted. The most splendid temporary theatre was that of M. iEmilius Seaurus, who, when adile, erected one capable of containing 80,000 persons, which was decorated, from all accounts, with sin- gular magnificence and at an amazing cost. History (Plin. xxxvi. !5.) records an extra- ordinary instance of mechanical skill, in the theatre erected by Curio, one of Crcsar’s par- tisans, at the funeral exhibition in honour of his father. Two large theatres of timber were constructed back to back, and on one side so connected with hinges and machinery for the purpose, that when the theatrical exhibitions had closed they were wheeled or slung round so as to form an amphitheatre, wherein, in the afternoon, shows of gladiators were given. Returning, however, to the theatre erected by Pompey, which, to avoid the animadversion of the censors, he dedicated as a temple to Venus : the plan ( Pliny , vii. 3.) was taken from that at Mitylene, but so enlarged as to be capable of containing 40,000 persons. Round it was a portico for shelter in case of bad weather : a curia or senate house was attached to it with a basilica or hall for the administration of jus- tice. The statues of male and female persons celebrated for their lives and characters were selected and placed in it by Atticus, for his attention to which Cicero ( Epist. ail Attir. iv. 9.) was commissioned by Pompey to convey his thanks. The temple of Venus, which was attached to avoid the breach of the laws committed, was so contrived that the seats of the theatre served as steps to the temple ; a contrivance which also served to escape the reproach of encountering so vast an expense for mere luxury, for the temple was so placed that those who visited the theatre might seem at the same time to come for the purpose of worshipping the goddess. At the solemnity of its dedication the people were entertained with the most magnificent shows that had ever been exhibited in Rome. We cannot prolong the account of this edifice by detailing them, — indeed that would be forei"'n to our purpose; but we may add, that such a building presents to us a genuine idea of the vast grandeur and wealth of those principal subjects of Rome, who from their own private revenues could rear such magnificent buildings, and provide for the entertainment of the people shows to which all the quarters of the globe contributed, and which no monarch now on earth could afford to exhibit. This theatre was finished about 54 B.c. 186. In the year 45 b.c. Rome witnessed a triumph not less extraordinary than that we have just recorded, — that of Julius Ciesar on his return from Utica. From the commence- ment of the civil war that had raged he had found no leisure for celebrating the triumphs which induced the people to create him dictator for ten years, and to place his statue in the Capitol opposite to that of Jupiter, with the globe of the earth under his feet, and the in- scription “ To Caesar the Demi-God.” We need scarcely remind our readers that his first triumph was over the Gauls ; that this was followed by that over Ptolemy and Egypt ; the third over Pharnaces and Pontus ; and the fourth over Juba. The triumph recorded these appropriately ; hut we leave that — merely observing, by the way, that the fruit of his victories amounted to 65,000 talents and 2822 crowns of gold, weighing together 20,4 14 Roman pounds, — to state that on this occasion the Circus was enlarged, a lake sunk for the exhibition of Egyptian and Tyrian galleys, and that in the same year he dedicated a temple to Venus Genetrix, and opened his new forum. Warriors are not often inclined to call in the aid of the arts, except for commemorating their own actions. Not so with Ctesar. In the ye ir 44 b.c., after his triumph over the sons of Pompey, we once more find him engaged in the arts of peace. A temple to Clemency was elected by him, in which his statue was placed near to that of the goddess, and joining hands with her. In the next year lie laid 78 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook !. the foundations of what at the time were considered two magnificent edifices far the orna- ment of the city : a temple to Venus, which for grandeur it is supposed would have sur- passed every example of that kind in the world; and a theatre of very gigantic dimensions, — both which were afterwards completed by Augustus. But the projects he conceived were only equalled by those of Alexander. He began the rebuilding and repair of many towns in Italy ; the drainage of the Pontine marshes, the malaria of which is the curse of Rome to the present day ; the formation of a new bed for the Tiber from Rome to the sea, for the purpose of improving the navigation of that river ; the formation of a port at Ostia for the reception of first-rate ships; a causeway over the Apennines from the Adriatic to Rome; the rebuilding of Corinth and Carthage, whither colonies had been sent by him, a scheme afterwards perfected by Augustus; a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth to avoid the navigation round the Peloponnesus ; and lastly, the formation of an exact geographical map of the Roman empire, with the roads marked thereon, and the distances of the towns from each other. Such was Caesar, whom to eidogise would be impertinent. 187. Augustus deprived the Romans of their liberty, and in return for the deprivation consoled them with all the gratification the arts could supply. The victorious Romans had known little of the arts in their highest state of refinement, and the degraded Greeks were constrained to neglect them. They were in a state of barrenness during a portion of the last age of the Roman republic; nor did they exhibit any signs of fruitfulness until C.'csar had established the empire on the ruins of the expiring republic, and his successor, giving peace to the universe, closed the temple of Janus, and opened that of the arts. By him skilful artists, pupils of the great masters, were invited from Greece, where, though languishing, they were yet silently working without fame or encouragement. Some who had been led into slavery, like Rachel of old, carried their gods with them — the gods of the arts. Encouraged by the rising taste of their masters, they now began to develop the powers they possessed, and their productions became necessary to the gratification of the people. Thus it was that our art, among the others, born and reared in Greece, made Italy its adopted country, and there shone with undiminished splendour, though perhaps less happy and less durable. Though the exotic might have lost some beauties in the soil to which it was transplanted, the stock possessed such extraordinary vigour that grafts from it still continue to be propagated in every quarter of the globe. 188. The Greek architects who settled in Italy executed works of surprising beauty: they raised up pupils, and founded a school. It must be conceded that it was more an imitative than an original school, wherein it was necessary to engraft Roman taste which was modified by different habits and climate, on Greek art. And here we cannot refrain from an observation or two upon the practice in these days of comparing Greek and Roman architecture. Each was suitable to the nation that used it ; the forms of Greek columns, their intercoluminations, the inclination of the pediment, were necessarily changed in a country lying between four and five degrees further north from the equator. But the su- perficial writers, whose knowledge occasionally appears to instruct the world, never take these matters into their consideration ; and we regret, indeed, to admit that in this country the philosophy of the art is little understood by the public, from the professors being ge- nerally too much engaged in its practice to afford them leisure for diffusing the knowledge they possess. 189. The Romans were trained to arms from their cradle; and that they were very averse to the cultivation of the arts by their youth, the passage in the JEneAd (b. vi. v. 847.), which has been so often quoted, is a sufficient proof : — Excudent alii spirantia mollius a?ra Credo equidem ; vivos ducent e marmore vultus. ****** Tu repere imperio populos, Romane, memento ; Use tibi erunt artes. 190. They were at all times anxious to subjugate for their own purposes those nations that successfully cultivated the arts ; a motive which, joined to the desire of aggrandisement, induced them at a very early period to carry their arms against the Etruscans, who were in a far higher state of cultivation than themselves. This was also one motive to their con- duct in Sicily and Asia Minor; whence, as well as from Greece, they drew supplies of artists for Rome, instead of employing their own citizens. Though in Rome architecture lost in simplicity, it gained in magnificence. It there took deeper root than the other arts, from its affording, by the dimensions of its monuments, more splendour to the character of so dominating a nation. Its forms are more susceptible of real grandeur than those of the other arts, which are put in juxtaposition with nature herself; and hence they were more in keeping with the politics of the people. The patronage of the fine arts by Augustus lias never before or since been equalled. They followed his good fortune, they dwelt in the palace, and sat on the throne with him. Ilis boast was not a vain one, when he asserted that he found his capital built of brick and left it of marble. By him was reared in the capital in question the temple and forum of Mars the Avenger: the temple of Jupiter Chap. II. IlOM AN. 79 Tonans, on the Capitol; that of Apollo Palatine, with public libraries; the portico and basilica of Caius and Lucius; the porticoes of Livia and Octavia ; and tlie theatre of Mar- jell us. “ 'l'he example,” says Gibbon, “ of the sovereign was imitated by his ministers and generals ; and his friend* Agrippa left behind him the immortal monument of the Pan- theon.” 191. Under Tiberius and Caligula architecture seems to have been in a state of languor, nor do we know of any thing in the reign of Claudius the fifth Ca;sar, save the completion of one of the finest aqueducts of Rome, that of Aqua Claudia, whose length is 98 miles, in more than seven whereof the water passes over arches raised more than 100 ft. from the sur- face of the ground. Nero’s reign, though his taste bordered more on show than intrinsic beauty, was on the whole favourable to architecture. Much could not be expected of a man who covered with gilding a statue of Alexander, and decapitated fine statues for the purpose of substituting his oxvn head for that of the original. The colossal statues of him- self which he caused to be sculptured indicate a mind prone to vice and excess. The same taste for exaggeration was carried into his buildings. His prodigality in every way was inexhaustible; he seems rather to have left monuments of expenditure than of taste. A •palace, which from its extraordinary richness has been called the Domus Aurea, was erected for him by his architects Severus and Celer, than xvhich nothing could he more brilliant nor gorgeous ; beyond it no pomp of decoration could be conceived. In the midst of so much wealth the only object of contempt was its possessor. The reader may form some notion of it when told ( Plin. lib. xxxvi.) that in finishing a part of it Otho laid out a sum equivalent to near 404,000/. sterling. 192. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius scarcely reigned It was reserved for Vespasian and his son Titus, to astonish the world by masses of architecture such as it may be predicted will never again be reared. The Coliseum (Ji : ,s. 110. and 129.), named, according to some from its gigantic dimensions, to others from its proximity to a colossal statue of Nero, was commenced by the father and finished by the son. According to Lepsius, the seats held 87,000 persons. Fon- tana says it was capable of con- taining 109,000, who could view the sports in the arena. This we think an exaggeration. Taking the clear length at G15 feet, and breadth at .510 feet, we have an area of 246,840 sup. feet, whence deducting 98,842 for the arena, the remainder is 207,498. Now supposing this surface covered with petsons standing upright, each occupying only 2 :i85 sup. feet, we have but 87,0 0, and in the circuit of the upper portico and parts relied upon by Fontana, 22,000 could not be placed. Hence the estimate of Lepsius seems worthy of confidence. The reader will, from the above description, identify the structure mentioned by Martial : — Omnis Carsareo ced U labor ampbitlieatro, Unum pro cunctis fama loquatur opus. “ Riennio post ac menses novem amphitheatri perfecto opere,” is the expression of Yictot in respect to the time employed in its construction. Though the monument itself be astonishing, still more so is it that such a mass should have taken only two years and nine months in building, even with all the means that the emperors had under their power. We shall reserve a more particular description of it. (See p. 94. and 95.) In spite of the ravages of time, and the hands, ancient and modern, which have despoiled it for its materials, enough still remains completely to exhibit the original plan, and to enable the spectator to form a perfect idea of the immense mass. The Baths of Titus xvere another of the wonders of the age. The remains of them are not so perfect as others, hut they are still majestic. Besides the edifices erected by Vespasian and his son, they made it a part of their duty to take measures for the preservation of those which existed, and were in need of repair and restoration. 193. The last Caesar, Domitian, was of a disposition too wicked to be of service to his country : his reign was, fortunately for it, but short. In the year 98, on the death of Ncrva, Trajan became master of the empire. lie had served against the Jews under Vespasian and Titus, and probably acquired from them and their example u great taste for archi- tecture, in which he shed a lustre upon the country as great as his splendid victories over the Persians and Dacians gained for it in the field. Of his works, which, as Gibbon says, bear the stamp of his genius, his bridge over the Danube must have been a surprising eilbrt. According to Dio Cassius, this bridge .vas coi structed with twenty stone piers in 80 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book l, the river, 150 ft. high anil GO feet wide, bearing arches of 170 ft. span. It was destroyed hy Hadrian, 1 1 is successor : some say out of envy ; blit the plea was, that it served the bar- barians as an inlet to the empire, as much as it facilitated the passage of its troops to keep them in subjection. His triumphal arches, his column (fig. 111.), and forum, and other works, attest the vigour and beauty of the art under tha reign of Trajan. The forum was a quadrangle sur- rounded by a lofty portico, into which the entrance was through four triumphal arches, and in the centre was the column. Apollodorus was his principal architect, hy whom was erected the column above mentioned, which was not only the chef-d’oeuvre of the age, but has never been surpassed. It is 115 ft. high with the cap, 132 ft. with the figure, marking the height of the hill levellid to form the forum. “ The public monuments with which Ha Irian adorned every province of the empire were executed not only by his orders, hut under his immediate inspection. He was himself an aitist; and he loved the arts, as they conduced to the glory of the monarch. They were encouraged by the Antonines, as they contributed to the happiness of the people. But if they were the first,, they were not the only architects of their dominions. Their example was universally imitated bv their principal subjects, who were not afiaid of declaring to the world that they had spirit to conceive and wealth to accomplish the noblest undertakings. Scarcely had the proud struc- ture of the Coliseum been dedicated at Rome, before edifices of a smaller scale indeed, but of the same design and materials, were erected for the u e and at the expense of the cities of Capua and Verona. The insciiption of the stupendous bridge at Alcantara attests that it was thiown over the Tagus by the contribution of a few Lusitanian communities. When Pliny was entrusted with the government of Bithyniaand Pontus, provinces by no means the richest or most con- siderable of the empire, he found the cities within his jurisdiction striving with each other in every useful and ornamental work that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, or the gratitude ol' their citizens. It was the duty of the proconsul to supply their deficiencies, to direct their taste, and sometimes to moderate their emulation. The opulent senator, of Rome and the provinces esteemed it an honour, and almost an obligation, to adorn the splendour of their age and country ; and the influence of fashion very frequently supplied the want of taste or generosity. Among a crowd of these private benefactors, we select Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, who lived in the age of the Antonines. Whatever might be the motive of his conduct, bis magnificence woidd have been worthy of the greatest kings.” We make no apology for so long a quotation from the historian of the Decline and Fall, whose ex- pressions are so suitable to our purpose. The family of Herod was highly descended ; but bis grandfather had suffered by the hands of justice; and Julius Atticus, his father, must have died in poverty, but for the discovery of an immense treasure in an old house, the only piece of his patrimony that remained. By the law this would have been the property of the emperor, to whom Julius gave immediate information. Nerva the Just, who was then on the throne, refused to accept it, desiring him to keep it and use it. The cautious Athenian hesitatingly replied, that the treasure was too large for a subject, and that he knew not how to use it. The emperor replied, “ Abuse it then, for ’tis your own.” lie seems really to have followed the monarch’s bidding, for he expended the greatest part of it in the service of the public. This man’s son, Herodes, had acquired the prefecture of the free cities of Asia, among which the town of Troas being ill supplied with water, he ob- tained from the munificence of Hadrian a sum equivalent to 100,000/. sterling for con- structing a new aqueduct. The work on execution amounted to double the estimate ; and on the officers of the revenue complaining, Atticus charged himself with the whole of the additional expense. Some considerable ruins still preserve the fame of his taste and muni- ficence. 'The Stadium which he erected at Athens was 600 ft. in length, entirely of white marble, and capable of receiving the whole body of the people. To the memory of his wife, Rcgilla, he dedicated a theatre, in which no wood except cedar was employed. He restored the Odeum to its ancient beauty ana magnificence. His boundless liberality was not, however, confined within the city of Athens. “ The most splendid ornaments,” says Gibbon, “ bestowed on the temple of Neptune in the Isthmus, a theatre at Corinth, a stadium at Delphi, a bath at Thermopylae, and an aqueduct at Canusium in Italy, were insufficient to exhaust his treasures. The people of Epirus, Thessaly, Euboea, Beeotia, and Peloponnesus experienced his favours, and many inscriptions of the cities of Greece and Asia gratefully stvle Herodes Atticus their patron and benefactor." :kah. ii. ROMAN. 81 | 194. Architecture was still practised with success under the Antonines, the successors of Iadrian, among whom Marcus Aurelius was a great patron of the arts. On these history Id most instructs us, that the effect of the individual character of the sovereign, and the general and leading circumstances of his reign, are so influential as to enable us from the two last to estimate the prosperity of the lirst. 195. The rapidity with which after the time of Commodus, that most unworthy son of worthy father, the emperors succeeded each other, was as unfavourable for the arts as for heir country. A little stand was made against their rapid decline, under Septimius jieverus, whose triumphal arch still remains as a link in the chain of their decay, and perhaps the first. It is difficult to conceive how in so short a period from the time of Marcus Aurelius, not thirty years, sculpture had so lost ground. In the arch commonly ailed that of the Goldsmiths, the form and character of good architecture is entirely bliterated. Its profiles are vicious, and its ornaments debased and overcharged. 196. The art was somewhat resuscitated under Alexander Severus. but it was fastfollow- ng the fate of the empire in the West, and had become almost lifeless under Valerian ltd his son Gallienus, whose arch is an index to its state in his reign. The number of com- etitors for the purple, and the incursions of the barbarians, were felt. Aurelian and rrobus suspended its total annihilation ; but their reigns were unfortunately too short to o it substantial service. The extraordinary structures at Baal bee and l’almyra have been Inferred, on the authority of a fragment of John of Antioch, surnamed Malala, to the age f Antoninus Pius; but we are inclined to think the style places them a little later than hat period. ISaalbec. or, as its Syrian meaning imports, the City of Baal, or the Sun, is tuate at the north-eastern extremity of the valley of Becat or lleka, near that place F iiriroi -J -w n. s n a K u c iffi l-'iK. lie. ■ TITR TRUPT.K AT BAAT. here the two I.cbanons unite, about fifty miles to the north-west of Damascus. The st traveller who described it with accuracy was Maundrell, in his Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, in 1697. It has, however, been since visited, as well as Palmyra, by Messrs. Wood and Dawkins, in 1751, and by M. Volney at a later period. The principal building, the temple, is of a rectangular form, and is seated in the centre of the western ex- tremity of a large quadrangular enclosure, two of whose sides were parallel to those of the temple; and parallel to its front was the third. To this was attached an hexagonal court, serving as a vestibule, in front of which was the grand en- trance portico. The length of the quadrangle is about 360 ft. and breadth about 350 ft. ( See Jhj. 112.) The temple, marked A, is, in round numbers, 300 ft. in length, and 100 ft. in breadth ; it was diptcrid, and had ten columns in front d nineteen on the sides. That the reader may form -oine idea of the style, which was the last degree debased, and would not justify by any utility the extending this ac- n«. iia. 82 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook L count, we have in fir/. 1 12. given the sketch of a circular temple standing near the above. Of Einesa, the other celebrated Ccelo-Svrian city, not a vestige remains. 197. Of Tadrnor, or Palmyra, denoting both in Syriac as well as Latin a multitude of palm-trees, Solomon was said to have been the original founder. It lies considerably to the east of Baalbec, and upwards of 200 miles from the nearest coast of Syria. Situate between the Roman and Parthian monarchies, it was suffered to observe a humble neu- trality until after the victories of Trajan; when, sinking into the bosom of Rome, it flourished more than 150 years in the subordinate though humble rank of a colony. “ It was during that peaceful period,” observes Gibbon, “ if we may judge from a few remain- ing inscriptions, that the wealthy Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and porticoes, whose ruins, scattered over an extent of several miles, have deserved the curiosity of our travellers.” The ruins of it were discovered by some English travellers towards the end of the 17th century, and were more lately visited bv the Messrs. Dawkins and Wood, already mentioned. The power of Zenobia, who wished to shake off the sub- jection to Rome, was insufficient to withstand the forces of Aurelian, and Palmyra fell into his hands about the year 2157. A slight sketch of the ruins ( fig. 114.) is here given. The style of architecture is almost the same as that of Baal - bee ; and, like that, so vitiated in almost every profile, that we do not think it necessary longer to dwell upon it, although great the extent of its ruins. In the same way, we must pass over those of Djerash, which were visited by Mr. Barry, and of other considerable cities, though some are said to con- tain examples in a better and purer FIr. 1M. ruins oy pai.mvra. style. 1 98. The reign of Dioelesian was extended, and was illustrious from his military exploits. It was also remarkable for the wisdom he displayed in dividing with others the discharge of duties he could not himself perform ; as well as, finally, by his abdication and retirement to Spalatro. Architecture was, however, too far sunk for him to raise it ; and, though mo- numents of great grandeur were reared by him in Rome and his native town of Salona, they were degenerated by innovation and a profusion of ornaments which sometimes proved dis- astrous to those beneath, upon whom they occasionally fell, but the taste for which, among the Romans, had increased by their intercourse with the East. At a period when no sculptor existed in Rome, this monarch raised the celebrated baths there which bear his name. His palace at Spalatro (Jiff. 1 1 5. ) covered between nine and ten English acres. Its form was quad- rangular, flanked with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were 600 ft., and the other 700 ft. in length. It was constructed of stone little inferior to marble. Four streets, intersecting each other at right angles, divided the several parts of the edifice; and the approach to the principal apartment was from a stately entrance, still called the golden gate. By compar- ing the present remains with the Treatise by Vitruvius, there appears a coincidence in the practice here with the precepts of that author. The building consisted of only one story, and the rooms were lighted from above. Towards the south-west was a portico upwards of 500 ft. long, ornamented with painting and sculpture. We do not think it necessary to follow up further the decay of the arts in the West; it is sufficient to add that the fifth century witnessed the contemporaneous fall of them and of Rome itself. 1 99. Towards the year 330, the seat of the Roman empire was removed to Constantinople, where the reign of Constantine, though brilliant, was unsuccessful in restoring the arts, upon which religious as well as political causes had begun to act. 'The establishment of Christianity had less effect on architecture than on her sister arts. The new species of worship could be performed as well in the old as in temples of a new form, or the old columns might be employed in new edifices, in which, indeed, they were eminently ser- viceable ; but statues of the gods were no longer wanted, and the sculptor’s art was aban- doned. The removal, however, of the government to the Bosphorus retarded the decline of the empire in the East. Byzantium, on whose foundations was placed the city of Con- stantinople, owed its origin to a colony of Megarians ; and little was it to be imagined that its disasters would have closed in so glorious a termination as occurred to it. The ancient city still continued to possess some splendid productions of the schools of Asia Minor, which it almost touched, and in common with which it enjoyed the arts. Constantine profited by the circumstance, restored the monuments, and transported thither the best examples of sculpture. 200. Architecture was called in by the emperor to aid him in affording security, conveni- ence, and pleasure to the inhabitants of the new metropolis. Vast walls surrounded the city; superb porticoes, squares of every kind, aqueducts, baths, theatres, hippodromes, obelisks, C’*AP If. ROMAN. 83 r \*j r- L, V T-- 7 -T— H 1 1 I_U-i M* 1 i K *i ; u— ^ r^r-ri L ±-I-4 — TUT T,T " T +T i tH ►"—I : I 7-1 ..JL-I M a i ih I "S KJ> r _ frTTT-1-rTTTTTT-tjf Tjt-TTTTTT|- JTTTt; L-J LJ U CJ LJ LJ ”1 .-I J isnjo < ]" a V | e e 1 L ?Tb 6 & e e 6 0 0 tr £M 1 I A _ JQ_ j -fj t? e t ©1 e • n_. E tJ tTff' r f?| T | $ L _ Kin- |I5. PAI.ACK VIP III. Cr.KMAN A r APAl.Aritn. ; triumplial arciies, stately am! magnificent temples, were provided for the public. Schools of architecture, which none hut persons of good birth were allowed to enter, were esta- [ blislied. with professors and prizes for the meritorious. From all this care, one might have supposed a plentiful harvest would have been reaped. Hut, alas ! with all the expense, with all the fine marbles that were employed, with the bronze and gold lavished on the I construction and decoration of the edifices erected, the art was not re-established on its true principles. Everything was rich ; but, notwithstanding the exaggerated praises of the ignorant writers of the day, every thing was deficient in real beauty, Richness of material will never compensate for want of elegance in form. “ The buildings of the new I city,” observes Gibbon, “ were executed by such artificers as the reign of Constantine could afford , but they were decorated by the hands of the most celebrated masters of the age of 1 Pericles and Alexander. To revive the genius of Phidias and Lysippus surpassed, indeed the power of a Roman emperor ; but the immortal productions which they bad bequeathed to posterity were exposed without defence to the rapacious vanity of a despot. By bis G 2 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Bocx L 8 ! commands the cities of Greece and Asia were despoiled of their most valuable ornaments. The trophies of memorable wars, the objects of religious veneration, the most finished statues of the gods and heroes, of the sages and poets of ancient times, contributed to the splendid triumph of Constantinople, and gave occasion to the remark of the historian Cedrenus, who observes, with some enthusiasm, that nothing seemed wanting except the souls of the illustrious men whom those admirable monuments were intended to represent.” 201. In Rome, the triumphal arch erected in honour of Constantine presents, to this day, an example of the barbarous and tasteless spirit of the age. It is nothing less than an incongruous mixture, in sculpture and architecture, of two periods remote from each other. Hut, discordant as the styles are, the absurdity of placing on it part of the triumphs ol Trajan, whose arch was robbed for the occasion, is still greater. Not only was Trajan’s arch despoiled of its has reliefs, but the columns and capitals, which the architect, from ignorance, scarcely knew how to put together, were stolen for the occasion. We have used the term ignorance of the architect, who, (if the monument were not standing, the fact could scarcely be credited. I with the finest models before his eyes, placed modiilions with dentils in the cornice, and has used the same parts in his impost. 202. The partition of the empire at the death of Constantine was injurious as well to the arts as to the empire; and at its reunion by Constantius in 353, he exhibited but little soli- citude about their prosperity. On a visit of thirty days to Rome, he presented the city with the obelisk that now stands in front of the Basilica of S. Giovanni Laterano. It had been intended by Constantine for his new city ; and, after being brought down the Nile from the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, was conveyed to the banks of the l iber instead of those of the Bosphorus. After being landed about three miles from the city, it was first elevated in the Circus Maximus. This piece of granite is about 118 ft. in length. 203. Julian’s name is in bad odour with the Christian world; but he ought, neverthe- less, to have justice rendered to him for his administration of the affairs of the empire, his love of freedom, and bis patronage of the arts. This emperor, at Constantinople, con- structed some porticoes and improved the port ; and, even at so remote a spot as Paris, there still remain the ruins of a palace and baths of his construction ; a circumstance which should make his memory an object of respect, perhaps veneration, to the inhabitants of that city. 204. Under Valentinian and Vaiens the arts received little attention, though the former manifested some care for them. Gratian was entitled to a sort of negative praise for leaving the empire of the West to his brother Valentinian II., and that of the East to Theo- dosius; who, after the death of the former, held the sway of the whole empire, patronising architecture, and erecting many large edifices in Constantinople. After this the empire was lastingly divided. On the death of Theodosius, Arcadius succeeded him in the East, and in the West Honorius, under whom, whilst he was ingloriously enjoying the pleasures and luxuries of his palace at Ravenna, Alaric, king of the Visigoths, entered and pillaged Rome in the year 4 it). Honorius raised or repaired several of the Basilicas at Rome; among them that of S. Paolo fuori le Mura; and, in honour of the two emperors, a triumphal arch was erected in the city in 406, but of this no remains are in existence. 205. After this time, for sixty years the empire of the West was in a state of distraction. Nine princes filled the throne during that period, on and off' the stage, rather like actors than monarchs. But the extinction of the Roman name could be no longer protracted. In 455, Genseric, king of the Vandals, gave up Rome for pillage to his soldiers for the space of three days, and some years after, his example was followed by liieimer. In 476, the Roman empire in the West was annihilated. 206. We have thus, in this and the preceding section, shortly traced the history of Roman architecture from its dawn among the Etruscans to the close of the regal power in Rome; and from that period to the time of its culmination under Augustus, an age of great splen- dour in the art, comparable even with the best days of Athens, if allowance be made for the respective habits of the nations and the climates under which they were placed. From the zenith we have followed it in its setting under Dioclesian, and after that through its crepusculum, which, in 476, was succeeded by total darkness; a darkness, however, not without meteors and coruscations which occasionally enabled us to enlighten the reader in the journey he has undertaken with us. The revolutions, however, of empires, like those of the globe on its axis, bring other dawns : such is the case with the arts, which follow those revolutions; and we shall hereafter have to record another dawn of them, which, like the light of our great luminary, had its day-spring in the east, whence came the architects of Venice and Pisa. But, before we approach that period, it will be necessary to take a cur- sory glance at those monuments of Rome and other places under its dominion, in which the ruins alone attest the extraordinary power and magnificence of that State, and to examine the details of their construction as respects what simply presents itself to the eye. 207. We now, therefore, proceed to a view, 1. Of the. religious buildings of the Ro- mans in quadrangular and circular temples; 2. Of their public buildings in fora, triumphal arches, bridges, aqueducts, theatres, amphitheatres, and baths and circi ; 3. Of their private ClUF II. ROMAN. 85 houses and tombs; confining ourselves to those ruins in the city, and occasionally the pro- vinces, which best illustrate ihe subject. 208. Temples — 1. The quadrangular Roman temple partook very much of its Greek, or perhaps Etruscan, original ; though occasionally, as in the Temple of Peace, there is a very considerable deviation from the type. But the excepiions to the general rule are very few indeed in number. The most beautiful temple of the Corinthian order that perhaps ever existed in the world was the (formerly so called) Temple of Jupiter Stator, in the Campo Vaccino or more propel ly the I'orum at Rome, and now designated the Temple of the Dioscuri or of Castor and Pollux, in consequence of recent excavations. It was an octastyle peript,ral temple, with eleven columns in Hank, and the cell occupied eight columns on each side. No Greek work could surpass in elegance and beauty the piofile of the Corinthian order employed in this edifice. The capital, whether considered as to design or execution, is unparalleled. At the same time it must be admitted that it bears every mark of the improvements that had been effected through the medium of Greek artists. Three columns with their entablature remain; these are 47’6'5 ft. high, the lower diameter being 4-84 ; so that the columns are 9'8 diameters high. The height of the entablature is a small fraction less than one quarter the height of the column. The inter- columniations are, as nearly as possible, T5 diameter of the column; whence the size of the temple will be easily determined. 209. At the loot of the Ca itol stands the Corinthian Temple of Jupiter Tonans (so called), aKo called Temple of Saturn, but now of Vespasian, of which, as of the last, only three columns remain. This was an hexastyle peripteral (except on the side towards the rock) temple, 115 ft. long and 92 ft. wide, measured from outside to outside of column. The columns are 47'08 ft. high, and their lower diameter is 4 60 ft. ; their height, there- fore, in terms of the diameter, is very nearly 10j diameters. The height of the entablature is 9 77 fi ., or not quite one fifth of the height of the column. The intercolumniations are C.56 diameter. There is a tale in Suetonius, that Augustus had bells suspended round this temple on the occasion of his dreaming that the god complained of a falling off in the number of his worshippeis. Its style is inferior to the one above described, yet it is not without beauty, though the coinice is, as compared with it, deficient in effect. (The de- scription of the different species of temples mentioned by Vitruvius is giten in the Glossaky, s. v. Temple.) 210. Flic Temple of Mars Ultor was one of those erected by Augustus. Its profile ex- hibiis a fine and bold example of the Corinthian order. Its whole length was about 116 ft., and its breadth about 78 ft. The cornice of the entablature is wanting. The intercolumni- alions are about lj diameter. 211. In the Campo Vaccino are the remains of a Corinthian temple, built by M. Aurelius in honour of Antoninus, his predecessor, an 1 Faustina, the wife of M. Aurelius, about the middle of the 2nd century, in a high style of art, and is considered the last pure building in Rome It was prostylos and hexastvlos; the columns are 46'10ft. high; the entablature lT03ft ; diameter of the columns 4 85 ft.; and the intercolumniations, except the centre one, which is wider than the others, are 1^ diameter of the columns; the columns are 9J diameters high, and the entablature rather less than one fourth that height; the frieze is ornamented with griffins and candelabra. It is not our intend n to desciibe more thin the principal temples, with their parts, hut to afford to the reader in this place a general view cf the art ; we shall therefore merely mention those of the Maison Carree at Nismes, and the little edifice at Trevi, which last is erected in a very vitiated style : both are of the Corinthian order, and quadrangular in form. 2 1 2. Rome is very poor in examples of Ionic temples, the only two remaining being that of Fortuna Vnilis and that of Concord; the first not very pure in its detail, and the latter in the very worst style. The Temple of Fortuna Virilis is of the species called prostyle and tetrastyle; that is, with four columns in front and set on on the sides, whereof the cell occupies four intercolumniations. The height of the columns is 27 35 ft. ; the lower . diameter of the columns 3T 1 ft. ; and the Height of the entablature 6'78 ft. A peculiarity has been noticed in this example of the different centres of the ornamented members being ranged so as to liill with exactness over the axes of the columns. 213. The (formerly so called) Temple of Concord, now of Saturn, or the JErarium, which is a restoration of a former temple, is probably of the age of Constantine, and scarcely deserves the notice here taken of it, except as a connecting l.nk in the chain of ar . It was hexastyle and peripteral. The eight columns which remain are of red and white granite of different diameters. The bases are Attic, and without plinths, except those of the angular columns. The capitals are inelegant and clumsily sculptured. The linotildings of the architrave have been chiselled away to form a plane surface for containing the inscription. IModillions and dentils are nut with in the cornice, and the frieze in the interior was sculptured. The height of the columns is 42 86 ft . , and their lower diameter I 48 ft. ; so that they are about ‘if, diameters high. Tue height of the entablature is 7'2 ft. or about one sixili of the height of the toluiti.i. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook L 86 21 4. The circular temples of Rome and its neighbourhood will next be mentioned. Two of them, that of Vesta at Rome and of the Sybil at Tivoli, of the Corinthian order, are oi considerable antiquity. Their cells are cylindrical, and are supposed to have been covered with domes resting on the walls, though that is by no means certain. The Temple of Vesta is raised on three steps, whilst that of the Sybil is raised on a circular basement about live feet high. Roth the eelhe are encircled about with a colonnade of the Corinthian order. The capitals of the Temple of the Sybil are extraordinary as pieces of effective art The leaves of the capital, instead of being ujiptiquees to the bell, as in other examples, arc in this cut into it, and impart a magical appearance to it. The tout ensemble of this temple seems to have been conceived with an eye to its situation, and the order seems calculated only for the spot on which it stands (see Jiff. 116.). The circular Temple of Bacchus is of a late date. In its exterior there is nothing to remark, except that it has lost a portico at its entrance which originally belonged to it. It consists of a central cir- cular cell, if such it may be called, surrounded by a circular aisle, the former being separated from the latter by twelve pairs of double columns, coupled in the direction of the radii of the plan ; from which columns arches spring, carrying a cylindrical wall 39-56 ft. diameter, covered with a hemispherical dome 65 ’6 ft. high from the pavement. The aisle or corridor is 14*75 ft. wide, surrounding the double colonnade, from which to the exterior wall is a semicircular vault, whose sofite is 32 ft. high from the pavement. Of the foimer so called Temple of Minerva Medica, now considered to be a Hall or Nymphaeum belonging to the great Thermo; of the 3rd century, of the time of Decius, little more than half of it is s anding. It was 1 10 ft. in diameter; but the intirior was formed into ten plane- faces, each having a semi circular recess towards the interior. A hemispherical brick dome was 1 13 ft. from the pavement. A semicircular wing, covered hy a hemisphei icallr formed vault, stood on each side of the building, but they are now in ruins. Fiy. i 1 7- shows the ruin as it was in 1816, from a memorandum we then made. A rectan- gular vestibule with font Corinthian columns formed Fig. 117. Chaf. II. ROMAN. 87 tlie entrance, and was surmounted by a pediment roof. The temple now stands in a private garden. 215. We have reserved for the last example of a circular temple the celebrated Pantheon, supposed to have formed at one time a portion of the baths of Agrippa, and erected about b e. 27. The body of the temple was probably erected in the time of the republic with simple large niches, as in Jigs. 118. and 1 19. ; the left side shows it as originally buil f , and the right side as now standing ; the portico was probably erected by M. Aurelius Antoninus, cir. A.n. 1 66, atrd com- pleted by Septimius Severus, a.d. 292, at which time the columns were acided to the niches, and other alterations made, as seen on the right half of the plan and section. The interior is circular and about 139 ft. diameter, measuring from irs-de to inside of the columns, which fire about 33 ft. high. At a height of 75 ft. from the ground in the interior springs the hemispherical di me, which ha< five horizontal ranks of caissons or panels, the top of the dome being terminated by what is technically termed an eye, or circular opening, about 27 ft. diameter. All that is found in the temple is of the Corinthian order. 216. Fig. 120. is an elevation of the Pantheon, with the portico of the Parthenon below it, for the purpose of comparing the relative sizes of the porticoes of the two buildings. The portico, it will be seen, is octastyle, and projects 62 ft. from the circum- ference of the circular part of the edifice. The shafts of the columns are plain, and the portico is sur- mounted by a pediment similar to that on the wall of the building. The columns are 47 '03 ft. high, and their lower diameter 4 7!) ft. The entablature is 10-22 ft., or nearly, not quite a fifth of the height of the column. The profile of the order is bold and well conceived, and the execution in a good style. It has been stripped of its ornaments, many whereof were bronze, by the cupidity of the pos- sessors of power at various times. Though the present interior is com- paratively modern, we think it right to give the following particulars of the order : — The columns are 34 -67 ft. high, the lower diameter being 3-64 ft. The shafts are fluted, anil have what are called cablings up one third of their height. It will be seen on inspection of the plan that these columns are placed in front of the great niches. We are not aware that the circumstance whereto we are jjtoitt to advert has been heretofore noticed, and we give the result of our calculation in round numbers only, as an approximation to the truth. The rules for lighting apartments will form the subject of a future section. W e shall here merely observe, that the contents of the building, measuring round the inner convexity of the columns, and not calculating the niches, is about 1,787,300 cubic feet, and that the area of the eye of the dome is about 32 square ft., from which it follows that 2226 cubic II. ol space ill this building are lighted by I foot superficial of light. 1'lic building is neither gloomy nor fir- tit- HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, Rook 1. (16 dark : on the contrary a pleasant l'ght is diffused throughout, and darkness is not found in any corner of it. This is a subject well worthy of consideration, and one wnico we uro- pose hereafter to turn to practical account. Fig. 120. PORTICO OK PARTHENON. 21 7. ’Hie Temple of Peace has been reserved by us to close the notices of the Roman tem- ples, because of its deviation from the general form of other Greek and Roman temples, which in the quadrangular species are so formed on one general plan that ab uno clisce onuies is the expression applicable to them. The Jigs. 121. and 122. represent the plan and section of this building. The former will be seen to have been rectangular, with a porch extending along the whole breadth of the building in front. This was vaulted, the summit in- teriorly being 35 ft. high ; and in front were seven semicircular-headed apertures serving as entrances. The length of the temple outside, not including the depth of the porch, was 294 ft. ; depth of the porch 30 ft. ; width of the building 197 ft. The temple was longitudinally divided 0 into three nearly equal parts, whereof the central one was a rectangular sa 'one of the whole length of the temple, whose breadth was one third of its length. The roof of this was a vault with three groins, formed by the intersection of semicylindi ical vaults at right angles to the cell- pavement was about 116 It., ami We shall not however pursue the PT.AN OK THK. T i TANTTNE. The height of the vaulting from the to have been decorated with sunk panels. Chap. II. ROMAN. fry verbal description of ibis edifice, which will he much better understood by an inspection of the diagrams. We will only add, that although the columns in the interior are entirely gone, and the building is in a sad state of dilapidation, enough has been discovered to prove that the restoration here submitted to the reader is not very far from the truth. In many cases the restorations of l’alladio, whose works it is the fashion amongst half-instructed archi- tects and still less informed amateurs to decry, are not to be wholly relied on in his capacity of antiquary, anil certainly must not be taken for granted ; but his restoration of this temple cannot widely differ from the truth. It ap- pears to have been founded by Claudius, and finished by Vespasian after the jumpiest of Judea, and seems to have been the depository of the spoils of the tern pie at Jerusalem. It is uncertain by what accident in the reign of Commodus it was destroyed, but it is conjectured it was restored during his reign. It may not be here altogether out of place to notice that the temple in question seems in some measure to have furnished the hint for the nave of the Italian Dtioino with its side aisles. It was hut in the addition of the transepts and choir, whose type is indicated even in the basilica: of the first Christians, that a variation is to be seen. If the cross, however, be not sufficiently apparent in the basilica, it cannot be mistaken in the churches hut little later. ‘J18. Fora. — 2. The Forum of the Romans is described generally in Vitruvius ( Rook vi. chap. 1.). He directs that it should be a large rectangular area, whose breadth is to be about two thirds of its length. The basilica or court of justice, serving also as an exchange for the merchants, is to be attached to it. The forum in a Roman city was the arena on which business, politics, and pleasure were equally transacted, discussed, and enjoyed. Among the Greeks it was called the ayupa , signifying a place in which the citizens were collected. It is here to be observed, that the fora of the Romans were of two sorts : Fora Cirilia and Fora Venal ia ; the former whereof were designed as well with the object of ornamenting the cities in which they were erected, as for admitting a site for the public courts of justice, and other public buildings ; the latter were intended to provide for the necessities and conveniences of the inhabitants, and no doubt bore a resemblance to our markets. The great Foruin at Rome was seated between the Palatine and Capitolino lulls Its boundary has of late years been more satisfactorily traced, by the exten- sive excavations which have laid bare the pavements and other details of the original buildings erected around it. The theories of Bunsen, Becker, Uver, 'and Canina, are arranged and explained by the late Mr. A. Ashpitel, in the paper read by him at the Inst, of Brit. Architect-, 18.57. The explorations since 1870 are to some extent shown in Burn's Home ami tie Campugna, 1871; and in Taylor & Cresy, Antiquities Home, new edit. fol. 1874. Photographs of a large size have likewise been pub- lished. not only of the existing ruins but of the discoveries. The Forum of New a is said to have been 887 ft. long and 184 ft. wide. At one end were five arched entrances, and at the other the Temple of Nerva. The Forum of Trajan, built by the emperor whose name it bears, was erected from the foreign spoils taken by him in his wars. The coverings of its edifices were all of brass, and the porticoes and their columns constructed in an exceedingly splendid style of execution. Ammianus Marcellinus {Hist. lib. x v i. ) describes, with much force, the delight of Constantins on contemplating it when lie made his triumphal entry into Rome. The representations make its length 11.50 ft., and its mean breadth about 470 ft. In it was the emperor’s magnificent column ( fig. 111.), at one end was the Temple of Trajan, and at the other his Triumphal Arch. This Forum contained the celebrated and splendid Basilica Ulpiana. The other example we shall mention was at Fano, and we mention it because it contained a basilica by Vitruvius him- self lie describes the portico of the Temple of Augustus as joining that side of the basilica which was furthest from the centre of the Forum, and a temple of Jupiter as standing at the opposite end. lie goes on to describe the Treasury, Prison, and Curia, as placed on the longer sides of the For uin exteriorly to the shops which surrounded the area. The commentators on Vitruvius have been at considerable pains te make out the plan of the basilica of this building from the verbal description of it by the author, perhaps none of them with greater success than old Daniel Iiarharu. ‘2 10. But no words convey the description of a place so well as a diagram of the object under consideration; and as there exists at Pompeii a forum so perfect, that all the rules given by our great master are exemplified in it, we here place the plan ( fig. 1 ‘28. ) of the forum there before the reader, so that he may have a complete notion of the arrangement. Filtering from the gate of I lereulaneum. the principal street leads to its north-west coiner. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I yo whence the access to it is by a flight of steps downwards, through an arch in a brick wall, still paitiallv covered with stucco. It has been conjectured with probability, that the en- trances to it were occasionally closed, from the remains of iron gates having been found at some of them. A smaller passage occurs to the right of the arch just mentioned, and a fountain attached to the wall between them. A is supposed to have been a temple of Venus; 15, a public granary; C, a temple of Jupiter; D, probably a Senaculum, or council chamber ; K, a temple to Mercury ; F, a Chalcidicum ; G G, curia?; H, treasury j 1. triumphal arch ; K, artcostyle portico with ambulatory above. arches ; their earliest examples being extremely simple and plain. A plain arch with a statue of the victor and his trophies on the summit, was for a long period the only method practised. The arch by degrees expanded in after times, the style became enriched, and the whole was at length loaded with a profusion of every sort of ornament. Latterly they were a rect- angular mass (see fig. 124. of the arch of Constantine), penetrated by three arches, a central and two smaller side ones. The upper part consisted of a very high attic, frequently covered with inscriptions and has reliefs, statues, triumphal cars and ornaments of that kind. The keystones were sometimes decorated with figures of victory. Of the triumphal arches that remain there are three classes: — lirst, those consisting of a single arch, as the arch of Trajan at Ancona, and Titus at Rome; second, those in which there are two arches, as in the example at Verona ; third, those with three arches, whereof the central was tire prin- cipal one, and those at the sides much smaller, as the arches of Constantine, Septiinius Sever us, &c. The most ancient of the remaining arches is that of Augustus at Rimini. It was erected on the occasion of his repairing the Flaminian way from that town to Rome. The erection of these triumphal arches afforded the means of gratifying the extraordinary vanity of the people with whom they originated. Many of them are in very bad taste; a remark that applies even to the Arch of Titus, which was erected before the arts had more than begun to droop. (See Jigs, in Book III.) The orders applied to them are unnecessary to be described in detail, because inapplicable except under precisely similar circumstances.. 221. Bridges. — There is perhaps no single point in the history of architecture by which the civilisation of a people is so easily recognised as by that of their bridges. Latterly, in this country, the division of science as well as labour has so changed, that it seems almost necessary to refer to other works for knowledge on this subject ; but as this is one in which architecture in all its branches must be considered, we shall here, as in the other sections of this work relating to the point in question, treat it in such manner as to give the reader some notion of the subject. The history of the bridges in every nation is connected with local causes, which have great influence on their construction; and though in other respects a nation may in the arts have attained a high pitch of excellence, yet it is possible that in bridge building their progress may be very limited as respects science. The niatlci Cnur. 1 1 ROMAN. 9l will depend entirely on tlie nature of the country. In our view of Grecian Architecture this subject has not been even mentioned, and it is nearly certain that Greece boasts no Kif{. 112 f. PI. AN AND VIEW OK TJIE AUCH OK CONST A NTI NR. bridge whose date is anterior to its occupation by the Romans. Rut, independent of its want of acquaintance with the arch, the circumstance may be accounted for by the country not being intersected by any river of magnitude. Those to which one might be inclined to attach the name of river, are rather mountain torrents than sheets of water rolling their streams down to the ocean. A single arch in most cases would be all that was necessary to connect opposite banks, and the rocks themselves would form abutments for the single urcli that was to connect them, without danger of failure. 222. I n I taly, however, a country watered by many and considerable rivers, the study of the architecture of bridges was indispensable, as well for the accommodation of the cities with which it abounded, as for the service of the constant military expeditions of the restless and craving people who inhabited its surface. From its very earliest foundation, no city in the world would sooner have been placed in the predicament of requiring bridges than Rome herself; besides which, skill was required in their construction over a river like the Tiber, rapid and liable to be swelled by sudden floods. The earliest bridges of the Romans were of timber : such was that which joined the Janiculum to the Mons Aventinus, called the Pons Sublicius from the snblicic, stakes ( I.iv. i. c. 32. ), whereof it was composed. 1 1 is not here our intention to enumerate the ancient bridges of Rome; but the ruins of those which have come under our observation exhibit skill and science not inferior to the most extraordinary ex- amples which modern art can exhibit; witness the Rons Narniensis on the Flaminian wav near Narni, about sixty miles from Rome. It was built by Augustus, and at the present day there remains, as though standing to mock modern science, an arch of a span of 150 ft., whose intrados is 100 ft. above the level of the river below. Hut of the works of this kind executed by the Romans we know of none, either in ancient or modern times, that is comparable with that erected by Trajan over the Danube, whose piers from their foun elution were 150 ft. in height, and the span of whose arches was 170 ft., and to the number of twenty. The bridge was GO ft. in width. This work, whose existence is scarcely credible, putting in the background all that of which in the present day it is our habit to boast, is reputed to have been destroyed by Hadrian, the successor of its founder, iimlcr a pretence that if the barbarians became masters of it, it might serve them as well HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. tor making incursions on the empire, as for the empire in repressing those incursions. But other less creditable motives have been attributed to Hadrian for its destruction, one of them the envy he had of the name of its founder. There are still partial remains of an ancient Roman bridge over the Tagus near Alcantara. This consisted of six arches, each 30 ft. span, extending altogether 800 ft. in length, and some of them 200 ft. high above the river. \Y'e do not, in closing our brief view of the bridges of the Romans, more than mention the extraordinary temporary bridge which Ca?sar threw over the Rhine. 223. Aqueducts. — It is obvious that of all the requisites for a city, the supply of wholesome water is only equalled by that of discharging it, which latter we have before seen was well provided for in the Eternal City. 'The aqueducts by which the Romans supplied their cities with this necessary element, are among the largest and most mag- nificent of their works. Their ruins alone, without other testimony, supply the means of estimating their extraordinary power, skill, and industry. They are works which sink into nothingness all other remnants of antiquity, not even excluding the amphitheatres, which we shall soon have to notice, because they were for the comfort, not the pastime, of the people. The earliest aqueduct was that of Appius Claudius,, which we have above noticed as constructed in the 4-1 2d vear of the city. It conveyed the Aqua Appia to Rome, from a distance of between seven and eight miles, by a d„eep subterraneous channel upwards of eleven miles in length. We shall here digress for a moment, by observing that upon the discovery of good water at a distance from the city at a much higher level than the service therein indicated, it was the practice to supply by means of a channel raised at any height as the case needed, through a stone-formed trough raised on the tops of arches as the course of it required over valleys, and otherwise became necessary from the nature of the face of the country, such a quantity as the source would afford. Hence the arcades raised to carry this simple trough of supply were often of stupendous height, and their length was no less surprising. In the present day, the power of steam has afforded other means of supplying a great city with water; but we much question whether the supply afforded by all the concealed pipes of this vast metropolis can compete in refreshment and general utility to its inhabitants with those at the present day poured into Rome, without becoming a burthen to the respective inhabitants, and this principally from the means which their predecessors provided. 224. The aqueduct of Quintus Martius, erected 312 years before Christ, is among the most extraordinary of the Roman aqueducts. Commencing at a spring thirty-three miles distant from Rome, it made a circuit of three miles, and then, after being conveyed through a vault or tunnel of 16 ft. in diameter, continued for thirty-eight miles along a series of arcades 70 ft. in height. It was formed with three distinct channels, one above the other, conveying the water from three different sources. In the upper one was the Aqua Julia, in the next the Aqua Tequila, and in the lowest the Aqua JMartia. The Aqua Virginia was constructed by Agrippa, and in its course passed through a tunnel 800 paces in length. The Aqua Claudia, begun by Nero, and finished by Claudius, of which Jig. 125. shows several arches, conveyed water to Rome from a distance of thirty-eight miles ; thirty miles of this length was subterraneous, and seven miles on arcades, and it still affords a supply of water to the city. The Anio was conveyed to Rome by two different channels: the first was car- ried over a length of forty-three miles, and the latter of sixty-three, whereof six miles and a half formed a continued series of arches, many of them upwards of 100 ft. in height above the ground on which they stood. At the beginning of the reign of Nerva, there were nine great aqueducts at Rome. That emperor, under the superintendence of Julius Frontinus, constructed five others, and at a later period there were as many as twenty. According to Frontinus (de AquaMuctibus) the nine earlier aqueducts supplied 14,018 quinaria daily, which are equal to 27,743,100 'cubic ft. ; and it has been computed that when all the aqueducts were in delivery, the surprising quantity of 50,000,000 of cubic ft. of water was afforded to the inhabitants of Rome, so that, reckoning the popula- tion atone million, which it probably never exceeded, 50 cubic ft. of water were allowed for the consumption of each inhabitant. More magnificent Roman aqueducts are, however, to he found in the provinces than those that supplied the city. That of -Metz,. whereof many of the arcades remain, is one of the most remarkable ; extending across the Moselle, a river of considerable breadth where it crosses it, it conveyed the water of the Gorse to the city of Metz. From the reservoir in which the water was received, it was conducted through subterranean channels of hewn stone, so spacious that in them a man might stand upright. 'The arches appear to have been about fifty in number, and about 50 ft. in height. Those in the middle of the river have been swept away by the ice, those at the extremities re- maining entire. In a still more perfect state than that at Metz is the aqueduct of Segov ia. WW“ H fF T 4 Fig. I Vo. A HU A Cl. ALT Chap. II. ROMAS'. 9.) of which one hundred and fifty of the arches remain, all formed of large blocks unconnected by cement, in two ranks of arcades one above the other. 92.5. It has been conjectured that the causes for not carrying these aqueducts in straight lines were first to avoid excessive height, where low grounds were crossed, and, secondly, to diminish the velocity of the water, so that it might not be delivered to tbe city in a turbid state. Along the line of an aqueduct, according to Montfaujon, at certain intervals, re- servoirs called Castilla were formed, in which the water might deposit its silt; these were round lowers of masonry raised of course as high as the aqueduct itself, and sometimes highly ornamented. The same author observes that below the general bed of the channel, pits were sunk for the reception and deposit of the earthy particles which the water contained. Vitruvius directs the channels to be covered over to protect the water from the sun’s rays, and (lib. viii. chap. 7.) he moreover directs that when water-pipes are passed across a valley, a venter should be formed, which is a subterranean reservoir wherein the water may- be collected, and by which its expansion may be diminished, so that the hydrostatical pressure will not burst the joints. He also recommends that open vertical pipes should be raised for the escape of the air which accompanies the water, a practice which the mo- derns have found it necessary to adopt wherever it is necessary to bend pipes upwards, and thus permit the escape of air, which would impede, and even stop altogether, the movement of the water in them. (Some additional details are given in the Glossary.) 226. Theatres. — The earliest stone theatre of Rome, as we have before stated (18.5.), was that of 1’ompey ; but it must be recollected that as there are notices in history of this theatre having been more than once consumed by fire, there can be little doubt that a portion, probably the seats and scenes, were of wood. The second theatre of stone was raised by Julius Crcsar, after which Augustus reared one in honour of Mareellus, the son of his sister. The scanty ruins of this last enable one to do little more than trace its elevation, and from their curve to compute its extent. There was no essential difference between the form of the Roman and Greek Theatre, of which latter we have given a diagram in fiy. 106. We nevertheless think it right here to present the reader with one of the Roman Theatre fig- 126.), as nearly as it can be made out from the description of Vitruvius. (Rook v. Chap. 6. “ The form of a theatre,” according to that author, “ is to be adjusted so, that from the centre of the dimension allotted to the base of the perimeter, a circle is to be described, in which are inscribed, at equal distances from each other, four equi- lateral triangles whose points must touch the circumference of the cir- cle.” — “ Of these tri- angles the side of that which is nearest the scene determines the face of it, in that part where it cuts the cir- cumference of the circle. A line drawn parallel to it through the centre Thus the pulpitum be- I comes more spacious and convenient that that of the Greeks, because our actors remain | chiefly on the scena. In the orchestra are assigned seats to the senators: the height of its \ pulpitum must not exceed 5 ft., so that the spectators in the orchestra may have a clear view of the motions of the actors. The portions between tbe staircases ( cunei ) of the theatre are | to be so divided that the vertices of the triangles, that touch the circumference, may point to the directions of the ascents and steps between the cunei on the lirst pracinctiun or story. 1 Above these the steps are placed alternately and form the upper cunei in the middle of those below. The angles thus pointing to staircases will be seven in number, and the remaining live will indicate certain points on the scene. That in the centre, for instance, is the situ- I ation for the royal door, those on the right and left the doors of the guests, and those at the extremities the points at which the road diverges. The seats ( grathts ) for the spectators ! are not to be less than 20 in. in height nor more than 22. Their width is not to be more than 2.t ft. nor less than 2 ft." Resides the theatres named, that of Cornelius li t’ bus, built by him in honour of Augustus, was on a scale of considerable magnificence. i will separate the pulpitum of the proscenium from the orchestra. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. 94 ‘227. The large theatre at Pompeii, as was frequently the case, was formed upon the slope of a hill, the corridor being the highest part, whence the audience descended to their seats, and staircases were saved. The grarlus at this theatre were about 1 ft. 3 in. high, and 2 ft. 4 in. wide, and from a part which is divided and numbered off, 1 ft. 3^ in. appear to have been allotted to each spectator. There still remain some of the iron rings, for the reception of the masts from which the velarium or awning was suspended. 228. Amphitheatres. — The amphitheatre was unknown to the Greeks. At an early period, however, in Rome, human beings were compelled to fight for the amusement of spectators. The taste for such spectacles increased with its indulgence; bat it was nevertheless not „ until the time of the em- fjffljftrtlftfaMit'ir ii I, perors, that buildings were erected solely for exhibi- tion of gladiatorial shows. The principal amphithe- atres, of which remains still exist, are one at Alba, a small city of Latium ; another near the Tiber at Otricoli ; one of brick near the banks of the Ga- rigliano ; one at l’uzzuoli, wherein parts of the ar- FiK. I *<47. AMPHITMKATKIC AT POI.A 1 1 r* *i 1 cades and caves for wild beasts still remain; one at Capua; another at Verona; a very fine one at Pola in I stria ( fig. 127.). In France, Arles, Saintes, Autun, Nismes, and Nice possessed amphitheatres. In short, wherever the Romans went, they erected those extraordinary monuments of their power and skill. But all that we have enumerated were far surpassed by the Coliseum, which has been already briefly mentioned by us at page 79. The form of this building on the plan is an el 1 ipse, whose transverse exterior axis is 615 ft. and its conjugate 510 ft., covering therefore nearly six English acres of ground. The whole mass is placed on an ascent of six stages, which encircle its whole circumference. In the centre is the arena, a name which it received from being strewed with sand, the transverse and conjugate axes whereof are 281 and 176 ft. respectively. Round the arena was a wall on which was the pailium or fence ; and immediately behind this wall all round was a row of cells in which the beasts were placed preparatory to their entrance into the arena. In the rear of the cells was a corridor from which vaults radiated in directions perpendicular or nearly so to the curve of the ellipse, and serving to support the first mceuiunum or interior range of seats. In some of these vaults were steps leading to the podium ; others were merely passages between the first corridor and the next towards the interior. The second corridor was lighted by apertures cut through its vault to the praicinctio which separated the first and second horizontal division of the seats. In rear of the second corridor, vaults again radiated, in some whereof were steps leading to the second division of the seats, and in others were galleries which led from the corridor to the double arcade, surrounding the whole edifice. The description will be better comprehended by reference to Jigs. 128. and 129., in tile latter whereof a portion of the exterior side is removed, to exhibit the section. 229. About the whole exterior of the building, there are three orders of columns rising above each other, and one of pilasters crowning the whole. The columns are of equal diameter, and are filled in between with eighty arcades in each story. The arches of these arcades have all archivolt mouldings round them. Four of the arcades in the lower tier were reserved for the admission of distinguished personages, the remainder for the populace: these last were called vomitoria, serving both for ingress and egress to and from the places of the spectators, by means of steps under the vaults that supported the seats. The piers which support the arches are 7 ft. 4. in. wide ; on each is a half column projecting from the general face of the wall. The opening between the piers is 17 ft. 3 T g in. Impost mouldings are placed at the springing of the arches, and encircle the building except where interrupted by the columns and openings. The lower order resembles the Doric, except that the frieze is without triglyphs and the cornice without mutules. Desgodetz makes the height of the columns 27 ‘63 ft., and their lower diameter 2 91 ft. Their diminution is very small. The height of the entablature is 6'64 ft., and the height, therefore, of the whole order above the pavement is 34-27 ft. The second order is Ionic, and stands on a dado 6 ft. high, broken under the columns to receive their projection from the wall. The columns are 25*73 ft. high. The volutes of the capitals are without ornament; the eye being merely marked by a circle. The entablature is 6-64 ft. high, and its subdivisions are like that in the order below. There are neither modillions nor dentils in the cornice. The height of the whole order is 38‘37 ft. The third order is Corinthian, standing on a dado 6-39 ft. high. The columns are 25 ‘.58 ft. high, the entablature 6\59 ft., and the height of the entire order, including the dado, is 38 ‘57 ft. Chat. 1 1 ROMAN. 95 The upper story is decorated with a series of Corinthian pilasters on suhplinths 2 79 ft. high, placed on a dado of the height of 7 ft. The height of the pilasters, widen ale hot diminished, is 28 ft., and the height of their entablature is 7 ‘27 ft. The frieze and archi- trave are broken vertically in each interpilaster over three corbels, on which it is supposed, i running through the back part of the cornice, poles were placed for holding the velarium , which was occasionally stretched over the building to protect the spectators from the sun or rain. The whole height of the tirade above the steps was 162 ft. The columns project rather more from the walls than their semidiameter; and the faces of the walls are not in the same vertical plane, but recede from it towards the interior of the building. The widths of the piers vary in the different stories, being respectively from the lower part upwards as 8 "71, 8-38, and 7 ’28 ft. Retween the pilasters, in the fourth order, are square windows. The velarium was attached to the poles round the circumference with a fall towards the interior, so that the rain was delivered into the arena. The following has been supposed as a method of spreading the velarium, of which I’ontana gives a representation, but no de- scription. To a cable placed round and made fast on the edge of the podium, and follow- ing its curve, strong ropes were attached in the direction (on the plan) of the radiating walls. These ropes passed through pullies in the pules, 240 in number, at the top of the building, which rested on the corbels above mentioned, and thus raised the velarium to the required height. It would follow the inclination of the seats, and the cloth, of whatever fabric or materials it might be, being formed in gores equal on the outer edges to the distance of the masts frotr. each other, might move on the radiating ropes by rings attached to the edges of 96 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook i. each gore, so as to be moved backwards and forwards by persons stationed on tbe parapet. Marine soldiers were employed for this purpose. Tbe velarium was sometimes of silk, but more usually yellow or brown woollen cloth. Nero once had a purple velarium stretched across tbe building, representing tbe heavens with stars of gold on it, and a design em- broidered thereon of tbe Chariot of tbe Sun. o.90. It has been conjectured bv some Roman antiquaries that the arena was boarded; and, from the changes that could be made on it in a very short period, the conjecture ii highly probable. Domitian covered it with water for the purpose of exhibiting marine shows and naval fights. Sometimes it was changed into the representation of a forest with wild beasts roaming about. These alterations were effected by means of machines called pcrjmata. In particular parts of the building, pipes were provided for tbe distribution of perfumes, which it was a common practice to sprinkle in showers ; but, on particularly great occasions, the perfumes were allowed to flow down tbe steps or gradus of the amphi- theatre. 23 I. The conjecture relative to the boarded floor of tbe arena has been corroborated by tbe discoveries made while the French had possession of Rome. They excavated the arena, and found vaults and passages under its whole area. It is much to be regretted that these inquiries were not carried on, owing to an accumulation of waters, for which no drainage having been provided, they became unwholesome from stagnancy, and it therefore was necessary once more to close it again by obvious means. Great care was bestowed on the drainage of this edifice, which was encircled by a large sewer for tbe reception of the water of the interior drains, that were all conducted into it. Another drain, 30 inches wide, was carried round under the second corridor, into which are conveyed the water from the perpendicular conduits and that from the third corridor, whose drain is 3 ft. in depth and 17 inches in width. The sides of these drains are lined with tiles. Another drain runs on the outer side of the third corridor, and is of the same size as tbe last named.. Other drains communicate with these towards tbe arena is various directions. 23 ‘2. Paoli thinks that amphitheatres were first used by the Etruscans, and by them introduced into Rome; that the people in question first exhibited their games in narrow valleys, and that the spectators were ranged around on the sides of the hills; that when these sports were exhibited in cities, an arena was dug into tbe level ground, and the earth thrown out was formed into seats ; and that when the community became rich enough, or the games came to be held in greater esteem, the amphitheatre was enclosed with a wall, and the seats formed of wood or stone. It certainly appears to us that Paoli’s conjecture is reasonable, and that Etruscan buildings or formations were the original tvpe. 23f!. The amphitheatre at Nismes was capable of containing 1 7,000 persons : it was 433 ft. long and 333 ft. broad ; it is two stories in height with an attic, and is the most perfect specimen in existence after that at Verona, upon whose age antiquaries are divided in opinion, some maintain’ng that it was Guilt in the time of Augustus and others as late as the time of Maximian ; it is 508 ft long and 403 ft broad ; and in far better preservation than the Colosseum. Its exterior wall has three stories of Tuscan pilasters on the face of the wall ; between these pilasters are arcades of semicircular-headed apertures. Mallei says this edifice would seat 2-2,000 spectators. But in this there must be some mistake. 234. Baths. — Publius Victor say's that the city of Rome contained public and private baths to the amazing number of 850. Some of these we know, from their ruins, were buildings of great extent and magnificence. They were all constructed, we mean the public ones, on plans very similar; and, in order to a description of them, we give in Jig. 130. a restored plan of the baths of Caracalla, at Rome. Those of Titus and Dioclesian may also be traced ; the chief others being those of Agrippa, Nero, and Domitian. The baths of Antoninus Caracalla are thus described by Eustace (vol. i. p. 226.): “ Repassing the Aventine Hill, we came to the baths of Antoninus Caracalla, that occupy part of its de- clivity, and a considerable portion of the plain between it, Mons Cadiolus and Mons Cadius. No monument of ancient architecture is calculated to inspire such an exalted idea of Roman magnificence as the ruins of their thermae, or baths. Many remain in a greater or less degree of preservation ; such as those of Titus, Dioclesian, and Caracalla. lo give the untravelled reader some notion of these prodigious piles, I will confine my observations to the latter, as the greatest in extent and as the best preserved ; for, though it be entirely stripped of its pillars, statues, and ornaments, both internal and external, yet its walls still stand, and its constituent parts and principal apartments are evidently distin- guishable. The length of the thermae was 1840 ft., its breadth 1476. At each end were two temples; one to Apollo, and another to Esculapius, as the tutelary deities ( genii tvtc- l"res ) of a place sacred to the improvement of the mind and the care of tbe body. The two other temples were dedicated to the two protecting divinities of the Antonine family, Hercules and Bacchus. In the principal building were, in tbe first place, a grand circular vestibule, with four halls on each side, for cold, tepid, warm, and steam baths : in the centre was an immense square for exercise, when the weather was unfavourable to it in the Chap. II. ROMAN. y 7 i i j mfi Fi«. 1.10 BATHS OB CARACAIXA. >pen air ; beyond it a great hall, where 1600 marble seats were placed for the convenience jf the bathers; at each end of this hall were libraries. This building terminated on both ddes in a court surrounded with porticoes, with a spacious odeum for music, and in the middle a spacious basin for swimming. Round this edifice were walks shaded by rows of trees, particularly the plane ; and in its front extended a gymnasium for running, wrestling, ic. in fine weather. The whole was bounded by a vast portico, opening into exedrte, or spacious halls, where the poets declaimed and philosophers gave lectures to their auditors. 1'his immense fabric was adorned within and without with pillars, stucco work, paintings, uid statues. The stucco and paintings, though faintly indeed, are yet in many places per- jeptible. Pillars have been dug up, and some still remain amidst the ruins ; while the I’arnesian bull and the famous Hercules, found in one of these halls, announce the multi- dicity and beauty of the statues which adorned the thermae of Caraealla. The flues and l eservoirs of water still remain. The height of the pile was proportioned to its extent, and till appears very -considerable, even though the ground he raised at least 1 2 ft. above its indent level. It is now changed into gardens and vineyards; its high massive walls form eparations, and its limy ruins, spread over the surface, burn the soil and check its natural ertility.” 235. Returning to the plan of the baths in question, we have now to explain that the ircular apartment, lettered A, was called the solar cell. It was 111 ft. in diameter, and lontained the different labra of the baths. This solar cell, Spartianus says, could not be quailed by the best architects of that age. The dome was lined with brass, of which ma- jerial also were the lattices to the windows. B, the apodytenum , or undressing room. a xi/ttus, or apartment for exercise in unfavourable weather. D contained the piscina, >r large reservoir for swimming. E, vestibule for spectators and the dresses of the bathers. entrance vestibule of the therma?, having libraries on each side. G G, rooms wherein he athleta? prepared for their exercises. 11, a court, having a piscina for bathing in the entre. I, epliel>eiiin, place of exercise for the youth. K K, the elaotherium, or apartment for nointing the bathers with oil. L L, vestibules. HI, lacnnicum, an apartment so called, as t is said, from the name of the stove by which it was heated, and from the custom of the udutio, or sweating, having originated in Laconia. N, cnldarium, or hot water hath, which vas most frequented. O, tepirlurium, or tepid water bath. V,friath. Q, exedrat for seats for the use of the philosophers and their scholars. W, rooms for Malversation. R It, exedrat, or large recesses for the use of the philosophers. V, conisterium, i r place where, after anointing, the wrestlers were sprinkled with dust. 236. We have just given the common explanation to the word laconicum; but it is right he reader should know that its true meaning is in some doubt. Galiani considers it a great i hamber wherein the people underwent sweating. To this Cameron adds, “ I for myself iold it certain that the apartment for this purpose has been by some authors improperly ermed ; the laconicum is nothing more than a little cupola which covered an aperture in t lie pavement of the hot bath, through which the vivid flame of the hypocaustum, or 'irnnce, passed and heated the apartment at pleasure. Without this means,” continues that i uthor, “ the hot bath would not have had a greater heat than the other chambers, thi- ll HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. temperature of which was milder. I have been induced to form this opinion, not only from the ancient paintings found in the baths of Titus, but also by the authority of Vitru- vius, who says that tire hot bath ( concamerata sudatio ) had within it, in one of the corners, or rather ends, the laconicum. Now, if the laconicum was in the corner of the hot hath, it is clear that it is not the bath itself, but merely a part of it ; and if, as others have thought, it was the hot bath itself, to what purpose served the concamerata sudatio?” 237. The baths and thermae of the Romans, like the gymnasia of the Greeks, were highly ornamented with bassi relievi, statues, and paintings. The basins were of marble, and the beautiful mosaic pavements were only equalled by the decorations of the vaults and cupolas. Nothing more strongly proves the magnificence and luxury of the ancient Romans than the ruins of the baths still to be seen in Rome. Agrippa decorated his baths with encaustic paintings, and covered the walls of the caldarium with slabs of marble, in which small paintings were inserted. All these luxuries were introduced under the em- perors ; and the mere act of bathing, as described by Seneca in the instance of Scipio Africanus, appears to have been almost lost in the effeminacy of the later practice. The splendour of the places may be judged of by calling to the remembrance of the reader that the celebrated statue of the Laocoon was one of the decorations of the baths of Titus, and that of the Farnese Hercules of the baths of Caracalla. 238. We have, in the section on Aqueducts (224.), stated the extraordinary quantity of water with which the city was supplied by them, and there can be no doubt that the baths caused a very great consumption of that necessary article of life. After the removal of the empire to Constantinople, we hear of no thermic being erected ; and it is probable that at that period many of those in the city fell into decay. The aqueducts by which they were supplied were, moreover, injured by the incursions of invaders, another cause of the destruc- tion of the baths. Remains of Roman baths have been discovered in this country, for descriptions whereof the reader is referred to the ArchaoUtgia. 239. We shall conclude our observations on the Roman baths by the mention of some curious paintings in the baths of Titus, very similar in their features to those found in places on the walls of Pompeii ; we allude to representations of slender twisted columns, broken entablatures, and curvilinear pediments, columns standing on corbels attached to the walls, a profusion of sculpture, with fantastic animal figures and foliage, and many other estravaganzas, which found imitators after the restoration of the arts, and, in some cases, with great success. 240. Circi. — The circus of the Greeks was nothing more than a plain, or race course; from its length called Srafiiov (stadium) ; as also Ki pi. 395, exhibited great talent in arms, and is desirous to extend the benefit of his influence to the arts, in which be did much for e empire. His sons, Arcadius in the city of Constantinople, and Honorius at Rome, .■re incapable of doing them any service, though by them was raised the famous Theodosian lumn at the first named city, which was surrounded with bassi relievi, after the fashion that erected long before in honour of Trajan at Rome. The ascent of Theodosius II. the throne promised as well for the empire as for the arts. lie called architecture to 1 aid for embellishing the cities of the empire. Under him, in 413, Constantinople was sur- tinded with a new wall ; some extensive baths, anti a magnificent palace for the two sisters Puleheria were erected. In 447, an earthquake nearly destroyed the city, which was so mirably restored under this emperor that he might with propriety have been called its load founder. Except some trifling matters under Anastasius 1 1., and Justin bis successor, tie was done till Justinian, the nephew of the last named, ascended the throne of the East, in 7. By him the celebrated architect Anthemius was invited to Constantinople. Through 2 genius of this artist, aided by his colleague Isidorus of Miletus, on the ruins of the incipal church of the city, which, dedicated to Saint Sophia or the Eternal Wisdom, had eii twice destroyed by fire, was raised so splendid an edifice, that Justinian is said on its mpletion to have exclaimed, as Gibbon observes, “with devout vanity : ” “ Glory be to God, io hath thought me worthy to accomplish so great a work. I have vanquished thee, O lomon.” We shall make no apology for giving the description in the words of the itorian we have just quoted; a representation of the building being appended in Jiys. 9. and 140. “ But the pride of the Roman Solomon, before twenty years had elapsed, was humbled by an earthquake, which overthrew the eastern part of the dome. Its splendour was restored by the perseverance of the same prince ; and in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, Justinian celebrated the second dedication of a temple, which remains, alter twelve centuries, a stately monument of his fame. The architecture of St. Sophia, which is now converted into the principal mosque, has been imi- tated by the Turkish sultans, and that venerable pile continues to excite the fond admiration of the Greeks, and the more rational curiosity of European travellers. The eye of the spectator is disappointed by an irregular prospect of half domes and shelving roofs : the western front, the principal approach, is destitute of simplicity and magnificence ; and the scale of dimensions has Ijeen much surpassed by several of the Latin cathedrals. But the architect who first erected an aerial cupola is entitled to the praise of bold design and skilful execution. The dome of St. Sophia, illuminated by four and twenty windows, is formed with so small a curve, that the >th is only one-sixth of its diameter; the measure of that diameter is 106 ft. 1\ in. 108 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook. I W , , , , , 50 100 i50 HO. CHURCH OK &AMA soKJUA. iU'A Al'lUN AND SECTION. and the lot ty centre, where a crescent has supplanted the cross, rises to the perpendicular height of 182 ft. above the pavement. The circle which encompasses the. dome lightly [ reposes on four strong arches, and their weight is firmly supported by four massy piles” (piers), “‘whose strength is assisted on the northern and southern sides by four columns of Egyptian granite. A Greek cross inscribed in a quadrangle represents the form of the j edifice; the exact breadth from b. to b. is 231 ft., and 268 ft. from a. to a., or the extreme length; the width under the dome from c. to c. is 109“6 ft. The vestibule opened into the vcirt/ie. v or exterior portico. That portico was the humble station of the penitents. The nave or body of the church was filled by the congregation of the faithful; , hut the two sexes were prudently distinguished, and the upper and lower galleries were allotted for the more private devotion of the women. Beyond the northern and southern ( piles” (piers), “a balustrade, terminated on either side by the thrones of the emperor and the patriarch, divided the nave from the choir ; and the space, as far as the steps of the | altar, was occupied by the clergy and singers. The altar itself, a name which insensibly became familiar to Christian ears, was placed in the eastern recess, artificially built in the form of a demi-cylinder, and this sanctuary communicated by several doors with the sacristy, the vestry, the baptistery, and the contiguous buildings, subservient either to the pomp of worship or the private use of the ecclesiastical ministers.” We should be fearful of thus continuing the quotation, but that we prefer the language of Gibbon to our own ; beyond which, the practical knowledge the rest of the description discloses is not unworthy the scientific architect, and the subject is the type of the great modern cathedrals, that of St. Paul, in London, among the rest. “ The memory,” he continues, “ of past calamities in- spired Justinian with a wise resolution, that no wood, except for the doors, should be admitted into the new edifice; and the choice of the materials was applied to the strength, the light- ness, or the splendour of the respective parts. The solid piles” (piers) “which sustained the cupola were composed of huge blocks of freestone, hewn into squares and triangles, fortified by circles of iron, and firmly cemented by the infusion of lead and quicklime; but the weight of the cupola was diminished by the levity of its substance, which consists either of pumice-stone that floats in the water, or of bricks from the Isle of Rhodes, five 1 times less ponderous than the ordinary sort. The whole frame of the edifice was con- structed of brick ; but those base materials were concealed by a crust of marble ; and the inside of St. Sophia, the cupola, the two larger and the six smaller semi-domes, the walls, the hundred columns, and the pavement, delight even the eyes of barbarians with a rich and variegated picture.” Various presents of marbles and mosaics, amongst which latter were seen representations of Christ, the Virgin, and saints, added to the magnificence of the edifice, and the precious metals in their purity imparted splendour to the scene. Before the building was four feet out of the ground its cost had amounted to a sum equivalent h | 200,000/. sterling, and the total cost of it when finished may, at the lowest computation, lit I reckoned as exceeding one million. In Constantinople alone, the emueror dedicated twenty- ,]|AP. BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE. 109 ve churches to Christ, the Virgin, and favourite saints. These were highly decorated, and nposing situations were found for them. That of the Holy Apostles at Constantinople, nd of St.John at Ephesus, appear to have had the church of St. Sophia for their types ; ut in them the altar was placed under the centre of the dome, at the junction of four orticoes, expressing the figure of the cross. “ The pious munificence of the emperor was iffused over the Holy Land; and if reason,” says Gibbon, “should condemn the monas- jnes of both sexes, which were built or restored by Justinian, yet. charity must applaud ie wells which he sank, and the hospitals which he founded, for the relief of the wearv ilgriins." “ Almost every saint in the calendar acquired the honour of a temple; almost very city of the empire obtained the solid advantages of bridges, hospitals, and aqueducts ; ■ ut the severe liberality of the monarch disdained to indulge his subjects in the popular usury of baths and theatres.” He restored the Byzantine palace ; hut selfishness, as re- pected his own comfort, could not be laid to his charge: witness the costly palace he erected >r the infamous Theodora, and the munificent gifts, equal to 180,000/. sterling, which e bestowed upon Antioch for its restoration after an earthquake. His care was not united to the peaceful enjoyment of life by the empire over which he presided; for the forti- cations of Europe and Asia were multiplied by Justinian from Belgrade to the Euxine, om the conflux of the Save to the mouth of the Danube ; a chain of above fourscore forti- ed places was extended along the banks of the great river, and many military stations ap- eared to extend beyond the Danube, the pride of the Roman name. We might consider- bly extend the catalogue of the extraordinary works of Justinian; but our object is a eneral view, not a history of the works of this extraordinary person, of whom, applying the erses architecturally, it might truly be said — Si Pergama dextra Defendi possent: etiam hac defensa t'niasent ; — nd by whom, if architecture could again have been restored, such a consummation would ave been accomplished. 27 ‘2. In 565 .lustin succeeded to the throne of the East, after whose reign nothing oc- ii rs to prevent our proceeding to the Western part of the empire, except the notice neces- :iry to be taken of Leo the Isaurian, who ordered the statues in the different churches to e broken in pieces, and the paintings which decorated them to be destroyed. Under him iavenna was lost to the Eastern empire, and under his predecessors Mahomet appeared ; nd in his successors originated the Saracenic architecture described in a previous section, t was under Justin, in 571, that the prophet, as he is called, was born, and was in 632 ucceeded by Abubekr. 273. We now return to the empire in the West, whose ruin, in 476, drew after it that of lie arts, which had grievously degenerated since the fourth century, at which period their tcadtnee was strongly marked. But we must digress a little by supplying a chasm in the istory of our art relative to the ancient basilica; of Rome, the undoubted types of the omparatively modern cathedrals of Europe; and within the city of Rome we shall find inple materials for tracing the origin whereof we speak. 274. The severe laws against the Christians which Severus had passed expired with his uthority, and the persecuted race, between a. n. 21 1 and 249, enjoyed a calm, during which ley had been permitted to erect and consecrate convenient edifices for the purposes of re- gions worship, and to purchase lands even at Rome for the use of the community. Under Jioclesian, however, in many places the churches were demolished, though in some situations icy were only shut up. This emperor, as if desirous of committing to other hands the ork of persecution he had planned by his edicts, no sooner published them, than he divested imself, by abdication, of the imperial purple. 27.5. Under Constantine, in the beginning of the fourth century, the Christians began gain to breathe ; and though that emperor’s religion, even to the period of his death, is in- >1 veil in some doubt, it is certain that his opinion, as far as we can judge from his acts, as much inclined towards Christianity. Out of the seven principal churches, or basilica 1 , f Rome, namely, Sta. Croce di Gierusalemme, S. Giovanni I.aterano, S. Lorenzo fuori le Iura, S. l’aolo, S. Pietro, S. Sebastiano, and Sta. Maria Maggiore, all but the last were umded by Constantine himself. The ancient basilica, which derived its name from aaiKtvs (a king), and oikos (a house), was that part of the palace wherein justice was hninistered to the people. The building for this purpose retained its name long after ■e extinction of the kingly office, and was in use with the Romans as well as the Grecians, itruvius does not, however, give us any specific difference between those erected by one r the other of those people. In lib. v. c. 1. he gives us the details of its form and ar- ingement, for which the reader is referred to his work. The name of basilica was after- ards transferred to the lirst buildings for Christian worship ; not because, as some have apposed, the first Christian emperors used the ancient basilica; for the celebration of their i-ligious rites, but more probably with reference to the idea of sovereignty which the reli- ion exercised, though we do not assort that such conclusion is to be necessarily drawn. Fig. 112. INTERIOR OF BA SI MCA OF ST. PAUL. its general effect may be better understood. The latter shows how admirably it was adapted to the reception of an extremely numerous congregation. The numberless columns which the ancient buildings readily supplied were put in requisition for constructing these basilica 1 , whereof, adopting the buildings of the same name as the type, they proportioned the eleva- tion to the extent of the plans, and, in some cases, decorated them with the richest ornaments. 1 instead of always connecting the columns together by architraves on their summit, which might not be at hand, arches were spanned from one to the other, on which walls were carried up to bear the roofing. Though the practice of vaulting large areas did not appear till a con- siderable time after the building of the first Christian basilica?, it must be recollected that the Temple of Peace at Rome had previously exhibited a specimen of the profound know- ledge of the Romans in the practice of vaulting : in that example, groined vaults of very large dimensions were borne on entablatures and columns. Nor does this knowledge appear to have been lost in almost the last stage of decline of Roman architecture under the emperor Dioclesian. In the baths of this emperor are to be seen not only groined vaults in three HO HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boon 1 There can be no doubt that the most ancient Christian basilica' were expressly constructed for the purpose of religion, and their architectural details clearly point to the epoch in which they were erected. These new temples of religion borrowed, nevertheless, as well in their whole as in their details, so much from the ancient basilica?, that it is not surprising they should have retained their name. We here place before the reader (Jig. 14 1 . ) a plan of the ancient basilica of S. Taolo fitori le IVlura, and (fig. 142.) an interior view of it, whereby Chaf. I i. BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE. Ill divisions, whose span is nearly 70 ft., but at the back of each springer a buttress, precisely of the nature of a Hying buttress, is contrived to counteract the thrusts of the vaulting. 276. In recording the annihilation of the arts on the invasion of Odoacer, at the end of the fifth and during the course of the sixth century, historians have imputed it to the Gothic nations, qualifying by this name the barbarous style which then degraded the pro- ductions of the arts. Correct they are as to the epoch of their ruin, which coincided truly enough with the empire of the Goths; but to this nation they are unjust in attributing the introduction of a barbarous style. 277. History informs us, that as soon as the princes of the Goths and Ostrogoths had fixed themselves in Italy, they displayed the greatest anxiety to make the arts again Hourish, anil but for a number of adverse circumstances they would have succeeded. Indeed, the people whom the Romans designated as barbarous, were inhabitants of the countries to the north and east of Italy, who actually acquired that dominion and power which the others lost. Instructed at first by their defeats, they ultimately acquired the arts of those who originally conquered them. Thus the Gauls, the Germans, the Pannonians, and Illyrians, had, from their submission to the Roman people, acquired quite as great a love for the arts as the Romans themselves. For instance, at Nismes, the birthplace of Antoninus Pius, the arts were in a state of high cultivation; in short, there were schools as good out of as in Italy itself. 278. Odoacer, son of Edicon, the chief of a Gothic tribe, after obtaining possession of Rome in 476, preserved Italy from invasion for six years; and there is little doubt that one of his objects was the preservation of the arts. He was, however, stabbed by the hand, or at least the command, of his rival and successor, Theodoric, in 498. Theodoric, the son of Theodemir, had been educated at Constantinople, and though personally he neglected the cultivation of science and art, he was very far from insensible to the advantages thev conferred on a country. From the Alps to the extremity of Calabria, the right of conquest iad placed Theodoric on the throne. As respects what he did for the arts, no better record of his fame could exist than the volume of public Epistles composed by Cassiodorus, in the royal name. “ The reputation of Theodoric,” says Gibbon, “ may repose with confidence on the visible peace and prosperity of a reign of thirty-three years ; the unanimous esteem of bis own times, and the memory of his wisdom and courage, his justice and humanity, which was deeply impressed on the minds of the Goths and Italians.” The residence of Theodoric was at Ravenna chiefly, occasionally at Verona ; but in the seventh year of his reign he visited the capital of the Old World, Where, during a residence of six months, he proved that one at least of the Gothic kings was anxious to preserve the monuments of the nations he had subdued. Royal edicts were framed to prevent the abuses, neglect, or depredations of the Icitizens upon works of art; and an architect, the annual sum of two hundred pounds of gold, twenty-five thousand tiles, and the receipt of customs from the Lucrine port, were assigned for the ordinary repairs of the public buildings Similar care was bestowed on the works of sculpture. Besides the capitals, Pavia, Spoleto, Naples, and the rest of the Italian cities, acquired under his reign the useful or splendid decorations of churches, aqueducts, baths, porticoes, and palaces. His architects were Aloysius for Rome, and Daniel for Ravenna, his instructions to whom manifest his care for the art ; and under him Cassiodorus, for fifty-seven years minister of the Ostrogoth kings, was for a long period the tutelary genius of the arts. The death of Theodoric occurred in 526 ; his mausoleum is still in existence at Ravenna, being now called Sta. Maria della Rotunda. That city jeontains also the church of St. Apollinaris, which shows that at this period very little, if any, change had been made in the arrangement of large churches on the plan of the basilica. I The front of the convent of the Franciscan friars in the same town, which is reputed to be the entrance to the palace, bears considerable resemblance to the Porta Aurea of Dioclesian, at Spalatro. These buildings are all in a heavy debased Roman style, and we are quite at ia loss to understand the passage quoted by Tirabosehi, from Cassiodorus, who therein gives a particular description of the very great lightness and elegance of columns; thus — “ Quid dicamus columnarum junccain proceritatem ? Moles il las sublimissimas fabricarum quasi quibusdam erectis liastilibus contineri et substantial qunlitate concavis canalibus excavates, ut magis ipsas testimes fuissc transfuses ; alias ceris judices factum, quod metallis durissimis videas expolitum.” (Lib. vii. Var. 15.) We know no examples of the period that bear out these assertions of Cassiodorus; on the contrary, what is known of this period indicates it totally different style. 279. If the successors of Theodoric had succeeded to his talents as well as his throne, nd if they had lieen assisted by ministers like Cassiodorus, the arts and letters of Italv Imight have recovered; but. after the retirement of that minister, from the succession of \ iiiges, towards 538, the arts were completely extinct. In 549-7, Rome was taken and plundered by Totila ; and afterwards, in 553, this ill-fated city was again united to the Eastern empire by the talents of Iielisarius and Norses. -80. l'rom the year 568 up to the conquest of Italy by Charlemagne, in 774, the country vas overrun by the Lombards, a people who quickly attained a high degree of civilization. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 12 t-.nd were much given to the practice of architecture. Mallei, Muratori, and Tiraboscbi have clearly proved that neither the Goths nor the Lombards introduced any particular stvle, hut employed the architects whom they found in Italy. Fig I'll!, is the west end ot the church of St. Michael, at Pavia, a work executed under the Lombards, and, therefore, h re inserted as an example of style. The anxiety, however, of the Lombards to preserve the arts was not sufficient to prevent their increasing decay, which daily became more apparent. Not more than the Goths do they deserve the reproach for their treatment of and indiffer- ence to them. Besides fortifications and citadels for defence, they built palaces, baths, ana temples, not only at Pavia, the seat of their empire, but at Turin, Milan, Spoleto, and Benevento. Hospitals under them began to he founded. The Queen Theodelinda, in particular, signalised her pious zeal in founding one at Monza, near Milan, her favourite residence, and endowing it in a most liberal manner. 281. In the eighth century the influence of the popes on the fine arts began to be felt. John VI. and Gregory 1 1 1., at the commencement of the eighth century, showed great soli- citude in their behalf. During this age the popes gained great temporal advantages, and their revenues enabled them to treat those advantages so as to do great good for Italy. In the ninth century Adrian I. signalised himself in this passion to such an extent, that Ni- cholas V. placed on his monument the in- scription, — Iiestituit mores, mcenia, templa, Domes. His works were many and admirable. Among those of great use, he constructed porticoes from the city to San Paolo and S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura. 282. Before we advance to the age of Charlemagne, it will be necessary to notice the church of St. Vitalis, at Ravenna, which we have reserved for this place on account of the singularity of its construction. It was erected, as is usually believed, under the reign of Justinian, in the sixth century. See figx- 144. and 145. The exterior walls are formed in a regular octagon, whose diameter is 128 ft. Within this octagon is another concentric one, 54 ft. in diameter, from the eight piers whereof (55 ft. in height) a hemispherical vault is gathered over, and over this is a timber conical roof. The peculiarity exhibited in the con- struction of the cupola is, that the spandrels are tv- >*■»• pijis or *t. vip«u». ntnvM. filled in with earthen vases; and that round the Cmaf. II. BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE. 1 1 H exterior of its base semicircular beaded windows are introduced, each of which is subdivided into two apertures of similar forms. Between every two piers hemicylindrical recesses are formed, each covered by a semidome, whose vertex is 48 ft. from the pavement, and each of them contains two windows subdivided into three spaces by two columns of the Corin- thian order, supporting semicircular-headed arches. Between the piers and the external walls are two corridors, which surround the whole building, in two stories, one above the other, each covered by hemicylindrical vaulting. The upper corridor above the vault is covered with a sloping or leanto roof. We have before noticed the introduction of vases in the spandrels at the Circus of Caracalla ; and we cannot help being struck with the similarity of construction in the instance above cited. It fully bears out the observation of iVIbller ( Dcnkmahlcr dee Dcutschen Ban/mnst), “ that, though beauty of proportion seems to have been unappreciated in these ages, and architecture was confined within a servile imi- tation of the earlier forms, the art of compounding cement, the proper selection of build- ing materials, and an intimate acquaintance with the principles of solid construction with which the ancients were so conversant, were fully understood.” 283. The a-ra of Charlemagne, which opened after the middle of the eighth century and continued into the early part of the ninth, gave rise to many grand edifices dedicated to Christianity. This extraordinary man, rising to extensive dominion, did much towards re- storing the arts and civilisation. “ Meanwhile, in the south-east,” says an intelligent anonymous writer, “ the decrepid Grecian empire, itself maintaining but a sickly existence, had nevertheless continued so far to stretch a protecting wing over them [the arts] that they never had there equally approached extinction. It seems probable that Charlemagne drew thence the architect and artisans who were capable of designing and building such a church as the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, in Germany.” “ If Charlemagne,” says Gibbon, “ had fixed in Italy the seat of the Western empire, his genius would have aspired to re- store, rather than violate, the works of the CYcsars ; but as policy confined the French monarch to the forests of Germany, his taste could be gratified only by destruction, and the new palace and church of Aix-la-Chapelle were decorated with the marbles of Ravenna and Rome.” The fact is, that the Byzantine or Romanesque style continued, with various degrees of beauty, over the Continent, and in this country, till it was superseded by the in- troduction of the pointed style. Miiller, from whom we extract fig. 146. which represents the portico of the Convent of Borsch, situate about two and a half German miles from Darmstadt, considers it as all that remains of the first church built in the time of Charle- Itnagne. The same learned author observes, that, on comparison with each other of the lancient churches of Germany, two leading differences are discoverable in their styles, of which all others are grades or combinations. The first , or earliest, whose origin is from the I South, is, though in its later period much degenerated, of a highly finished character, listinguished by forms and decorations resembling those of Roman buildings, by (lat roofs, |l>y hemicylindrical vaults, and by great solidity of construction. The second and later stv ie •till preserves the semicircular forms ; but the high pitched roof, more adapted to the seasons 1 114 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook 1 of a northern climate, begins to be substituted for the flat roof of the South, as at the ca- thedral of Worms on the west side, the western tower of the church at Gelnhausen, and in many other examples. 284. We are now approaching a period in which more light can be thrown on our sub- ject than on that we have just quitted. In the ninth century, on, as it is said, the designs of a Greek artist, rose the cathedral of St. Mark at Venice, the largest of the Italian churches in the Byzantine style. Its plan is that of a Greek cross, whose arms are vaulted hemicy- liudrically, and, meeting in the centre of the building, terminate in four semicircular arches on the four sides of a square, about 42 ft. in length in each direction. From the anterior angles of the piers, pentleiifives gather over, as in St. Sophia, at Constantinople, and form a circle wherefrom rises a cylindrical wall or drum in which windows for lighting the interior are introduced. From this drum, the principal dome, which is hemispherical, springs. Longitudinally and transversely the church is separated by ranks of columns supporting semicircular arches. The aisles of the nave and choir, and those of the transepts, intersect each other in four places about the centre of the cross, over which intersections are small domes ; so that on the roof are four smaller and one larger dome. In the exterior front towards the Piazza San Marco, the facade consists of two stories, in the centre of the lower one whereof is a large semieircularly arched entrance, on each side of which are two other smaller arched entrances of the same form. These have all plain archivolts springing from the upper of two orders of columns. On each Hank of the fagade is a smaller open arcade springing at each extremity from an upper of two orders of insulated columns. A gallery with a balustrade extends round the exterior of the church, in front whereof, in the centre, are the four famous bronze horses which once belonged to the arch of Nero. The second story towards the Piazza San Marco consists of a central semicircular aperture, with two blank semicircular arches on each side, not quite so high and wide. These five divisions are all crowned by canopy pediments of curves of contrary flexures, and ornamented with foliage. Between each two arches and at the angles a turret is introduced consisting of three stories of columns, and terminated by a pinnacle. The building has been considerably altered since its first construction; and, indeed, the ornaments last named point to a later age than the rest of the edifice, the general character of which has, nevertheless, been pre- served. There is considerable similarity of plan between this church and that of St. Soprna. 285. Very much partaking the character of composition of St. Mark, but dissimilar in Chap. 1 1. BYZANTINE AND ROMANESQUE. 1 15 general plan, is the church of St. Anthony at Padua, which has six domes over the nave, transepts, centre, and choir. It is, moreover, distinguished by two slender towers or minarets, which impart to it the air of a Saracenic edifice. 286. The Italian architecture in the Byzantine or Romanesque style preserved a very different sort of character from that of the same date in Germany and other parts of Europe. Thus, — taking the cathedrals of Pisa and Worms, whose respective periods of construction are very close together, — the former is separated into its nave and aisles by columns with Corinthian capitals, reminding one very much of the early Christian basilica ; in the latter, the separation of the nave from the aisles is by square piers. The cathedral at Pisa, with its baptistery, campanile, and the campo santo or cemetery, are a group of buildings of more curiosity than any four edifices in the world, and the more so from being so strongly marked with the distinguishing features of the Byzantine and Romanesque styles. The cathedral (fig. 147.), whose architect was Buschetto of Dulichio, a Greek, was built in the beginning in the 11th cen- tury. It consists of a nave, with two aisles on each side of it, transepts, and choir. Its bases, capitals, cornices, and other parts were fragments of antiquity collected from dif- ferent places, and here with great skill brought together by Buschetto. The plan of the church is a Latin cross; its length from the interior face of the wall to the back of the recess is 31 1 ft., the width of the nave and four side aisles 106 ft. 6 in., the length of the transept 237 ft. 4 in., and its width, with its side aisles, 58 ft. The centre nave is 4 1 ft. wide, and has twenty- four Corinthian columns, twelve on each side, all of marble, 24 ft. 10 in. high, and full 2 ft. 3 in. in diameter. From the capitals of these columns arches spring, and over them is another order of columns, smaller and more nu- merous, from the circumstance of one being inserted over the centre of an intcrcolumniation below, and from their accompanying two openings under arches nearly equal to the width of such intercolumniations. These form an upper gallery, or triforium , anciently appropriated to the use of females. The four aisles have also isolated columns of the Corinthian order, bat smaller, and raised on high plinths, in order to make them range with the others. The tra.’.septs have each a nave and two side aisles, with isolated columns, the same size as those of the other. The soffit of the great nave and of the transepts is of wood, gilt, but the smaller ones are groined. The height of the great nave is 91 ft., that of the transepts about 84 ft., and that of the aisles, 35 ft. In the centre nave are four piers, on which rest four large irehes, supporting an elliptical cupola. The church is lighted by windows above the second order of the interior. The edifice is surrounded by steps. The extreme width of the western front, measured above the plinth moulding, is 1 1 6 ft., and the height from the pave- ment to the apex of the roof is 112 ft. 3 in. The facade has five stories, the first whereof consists of seven arches, supported by six Corinthian columns and two pilasters, the middle irch being larger than the others : the second has twenty-one arches, supported by twenty ■oluinns and two pilasters ; the third is singular, from the facade contracting where the two aisles finish, and forming two lateral inclined planes, whence in the middle are columns with arches on them as below. The columns which are in the two inclined planes gradually liminish in height ; the fifth story is the same, and forms a triangular pediment, the columns ind arches as they approach the angles becoming more diminutive. The two exterior sides lave two orders of pilasters, one over the other. The roof of the nave is supported, externally, asilic;e, in imitation whereof they were doubtless built, is in the addition of the transepts, >y which a cruciform plan was given to these edifices. The style of the building in Ijuestion is much lighter than most of the buildings of the period, lint, whatever the taste HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. Mb' and style, the architect of it was a very skilful mechanic. One of his epitaphs, at l’isa, we subjoin, in proof of what we have stated. Quod vix mille bourn possent juga juncta movere. Et quod vix potuit per mare ferre ratis, Busehetti nisu, quod erat miraliile visu, Dena puellarum turba levavit onus. "87 I n Germany, the 10th and 1 1th centuries afford some edifices very important in the history of the art. Such are the cathedrals of Spire, Worms, Mayence, and others, still in existence to testify their extraordinary solidity and magnificence. In that country, as IVIbller remarks, there was a great disparity between its several provinces, as respected their degrees of civilisation. On the banks of the Rhine, and in the south, cities were established when those parts became subject to the Romans, and there the arts of peace and the Christian religion took root, and flourished ; whilst, in the north and east, paganism was still in existence. Christianity, indeed, and civilisation gradually and generally extended from the southern and western parts. The clergy, we know from history, themselves directed the building of churches and convents. The buildings, therefore, of these parts are of great importance in the history of architecture. The leading forms of these churches, as well as of those that were built about the same period in France and England, are founded upon the ancient basilica? ; that is, they were long parallelograms with side aisles, and transepts which represent the arms of the cross, over whose intersection with the nave there is frequently a louvre. The choir and chancel terminate semicircularly on the plan. The semicircle prevails in the vaultings and over openings. The nave is lofty, frequently covered with groined vaulting, sometimes with flat timber covering; the gables are of small inclination. In the upper parts small short columns are frequently introduced. The prevailing feature in the ex- terior is horizontality, by which it is distinguished from the style which came into use in the 13th century. The profiles of the mouldings are, almost without exception, of Roman origin ; the impost mouldings under the arches are, in this respect, peculiarly striking ; and among the parts the Attic base constantly appears. The Roman basilicas were always covered with flat horizontal ceilings ; those of the churches we are speaking of are mostly vaulted. Hence the necessity of substituting pillars or piers for the insulated columns, which had only to carry wooden roofs. There are, however, a few churches remaining, which preserve the ancient type, as a church at ltatisbon, and the conventual churches of Paulinzell and Schwarzach. Fig. 148. shows the plan, and Jig. 149. a sketch of one bay in a PEAK OK CATHEDRAL AT WORMS. Fig MS. longitudinal section of the north side of the nave of the cathedral at Worms, which was commenced in the year 996, and conse- crated in 1016. It is one of the most ancient of the German churches, and one of the most instructive. On our examination of it, recently, we were astonished at its state of preservation. The plan, it will be seen, is strongly distinguished by the cross; the square piers are alternately decorated with half columns ; ami the chancel, at the east end, terminates with a semicircle. The western end of the church, which is octagonal, seems to be more modern than the rest, inasmuch as the pointed arch appears in it. Fig. 150. is a view of the edifice. 288. Parts of the cathedral at Mentz are more ancient than any part of that at Worms ; hence it may be studied with advan- tage, as containing a view of the styles of several centuries. The south-eastern gate of the cathedral is given by Mbllerin his work (Elate VI.). 289. Whittington, a highly talented author, of whom the world was deprived at a very early age ( Historical Survey of the Eccle- siastical Antiquities of France , 4to. Loud. 1809), observes, that the buildings in France of the 9th and- 10th centuries were iini- WnUM>. Chap. II. BYZANTINE AND IiOMA N ESQUE. 117 tated from the works of Charle- magne ; but that his feeble suc- cessors, deficient both in riches and power, were unable to equal them in magnitude or beauty of materials. During a large por- tion of the 9th century the country was a scene of conster- nation and bloodshed. The most celebrated, and almost the only foundation of consequence which took place during this dreary period, was the abbey of Clugny. It was built, about 910, by Berno, abbot of Balme, with the assistance of William, Duke of Aquitaine and Au- vergne. But there is little doubt that the present church was built in the following cen- tury. During the lltli century, the French, relieved from their disordered state, hastened to re- build and repair their ecclesias- tical structures, and their various cities and provinces vied with each other in displays of enthusiastic devotion. Robert the l’ious, by his example, encouraged the zeal of his clergy and people ; and the science of architecture revived with majesty and effect from its fallen state. Morard, the abbot of St. Germain des Pres, was enabled by this monarch to rebuild the church of his con- vent on a larger scale. St. Genevieve wss also restored, and a cloister added to it, by his order. He, moreover, made preparations for erecting a cathedral at Paris in a style of as great magnificence as the times would allow. At Orleans, the place of his na- tivity, he built the churches of Notre Dame de bonnes nouvelles, St. Peter, and St. Aignan, which last was consecrated in 1029. But our space does not allow an enumeration of all the works undertaken during his reign. About this time, the cathedral of Chartres was rebuilt by Fulbert, its bishop, whose great reputation, in France and the rest of Europe, enabled him to execute it in a manner till then unknown in his country. Canute, the king of England, and Richard, Duke of Normandy, were among the princes who assisted him with contributions. 1 1 is successor, Thierri or Theodoric, completed the building. The northern part was afterwards erected in 1060, at the expense of Jean Cormier, a native of Chartres, and physician to the king. The length of the church is 420 ft., its height 108 ft., and the nave 48 ft. wide. The transepts extend 210 ft. The abbey church of Cluny, which succeeded that above mentioned, was one of the largest and most interesting of the ecclesiastical monuments of France. It was begun in the commencement of the 1 1th century, by the abbot Odi'o, and finished by his successor Hugh, in 1069. The ceremony of its dedication did not, however, take place till many years after. The style of architecture in France, in the lltli, was the same as in the preceding centuries ; hut the churches were larger and more solidly constructed. The oldest buildings of France, with some exceptions, are traceable to this acra ; such are the veneiable fabrics of St. Germain des Pres at Paris, St. Benigne at Dijon, those of Chartres, La Charite sur Loire (Cluny was destroyed 1789), and others ; these all remain to illustrate the history of the arts at this period. But as we have said before, and cannot too often repeat, the style which prevailed was no more than a debased and feeble attempt to imitate the ancient architecture of Rome, and its best examples are not, in style even, equal to those of the art in its lowest state under the reign of Dioclesian ; indeed the investigation is only important as being one of the means by which we can arrive at a just conclusion on the state of ci\ ilisa- tionat different periods. Mores fabricai loquuntur is an expression of Cassiodortis, so true, that to prove it would indeed be lighting the sun with a candle ; and we must not trille with the patience of the reader. 290. 'The Saxon churches of England, to which and its more modern architecture our succeeding chapter will be entirely devoted, were very inferior in every respect to the Norman churches of France; and these latter differed materially from those in the neigh- bourhood of Paris, and further to the south. The Norman churches were larger in some examples ; but they were more rude in design and execution. The abbey church of St. Stephen, raised at Caen by William the Conqueror, and that founded by his Queen Matilda in the same city in honour of the Holy Trinity, are the chief examples of the peculiar manner of building introduced by the Norman prelates into England at the end HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ISoon 1. I 18 of the 1 1 tli century ; after which, as we shall presently see, a new and extraordinary style made its appearance in Europe, a style whereof jig. 151. will, on inspection, sufficiently give a general notion to the reader. ‘291. llefore leaving the subject of this section, we must fall back again upon Italy to notice two or three works intimately connected with this period of the art. IVc here more particularly allude to the celebrated baptistry and campanile of l'isa, a city which seems to have been a great nursing mother to our art, no less than to those of painting and sculpture. The Campo Santo of that city, of which, from the number of examples to be noticed, we regret we shall be unable to give but a short account, belongs to the next period, and must be noticed after them. ‘292. Dioti Salvi, whose birthplace even is unknown, commenced, in 1 152, the baptistery of Pisa ( fig. 152.), and after eight years completed it It is close to the cathedral of the place, and though on the wall of the inner gallery there be an in- scription, cut in the character of the middle ages, “ a. n. 1278, yKdificata Furr de novo,” and it may be con- sistent with truth that the edi- fice was ornamented by John of Pisa, there is nothing to invalidate the belief that the building stands on the foundations originally set out, and that for its principal fea- tures it is indebted to the architect whose name we have mentioned. It is 100 ft. in diameter within the walls, which are 8 ft. G in. thick. The covering is a double brick dome, the inner one conical, the outer hemispherical. The former is a frustum of a pyramid of twelve sides. Its upper extremity forms a horizontal polygon, finished with a small parabolic cupola, showing twelve small marble ribs on the exterior. The outer vault terminates above, at the base of the small cupola, which stands like a lantern over the aperture. From the pavement, the height of the cupola is 102 ft. The entrance is by a decorated doorway, from the sill of which the general pavement ***• ***• baptistery op pis*. J s sunk three steps round the build- ing ; the space between the steps and the wall having been provided for the accommodation of the persons assembled to view the ceremony of baptism. An aisle or corridor is con- tinued round its interior circumference, being formed by eight granite columns and four piers, from which ate turned semicircular arches, which support an upper gallery ; and above the arches are twelve piers, bearing the semicircular arches which support the pyramidal C'lAV. II. POINTED ARCH. 119 dome. On tlie exterior are txvo orders of Corinthian columns engaged in the wall, which support semicircular arches. In the upper order the columns are more numerous, inas- much as each arch below bears two columns above it. Over every two arches of the upper order is a sharp pediment, separated by a pinnacle from the adjoining ones ; and above tha pediments a horizontal cornice encircles the building. Above the second story a division in the compartments occurs, which embraces three of the lower arches ; the separation being effected by piers triangular on the plan, crowned by pinnacles. Between these piers, semicircular headed small windows are introduced, over each of which is a small circular window, and thereover sharp pediments. Above these the convex surface of the dome springs up, and is divided by twelve ribs, truncated below the vertex, and ornamented with crockets. Between these ribs are a species of dormer windows, one between every two ribs, ornamented with columns, and surmounted each by three small pointed pediments. The total height is about 179 ft. The cupola is covered with lead and tiles; the rest of the edifice is marble. 293. The extraordinary campanile, or bell tower, near the cathedral at Pisa, was built about 1 174. It is celebrated from the circumstance of its overhanging upwards of thirteen feet, a peculiarity observable in many other Italian towers, but in none to so great an extent as in this. There can he no doubt whatever that the defect has arisen from bad foundation and that the failure exhibited itself long before the building was completed ; because, on one side, at a certain height, the columns are higher than on the other; thus showing an en- deavour on the part of the builders to bring back the upper part of the tower to as vertical a direction as was practicable, and recover the situation of the centre of gravity. The tower is cylindrical, 50 ft. in diameter, and 180 ft. high. It consists of eight stories of columns, in each of which they bear semicircular arches, forming open galleries round the story. The roof is flat, and the upper story contains some bells. The last of the group of buildings in Pisa is the Campo Santo, which, from its style and date (1278), is only men- tioned here out of its place in order to leave this interesting spot without necessity for further | recurrence to it. It is the public burying place of the city, and, whether from the remains on its walls of the earliest examples of Giotto, and Cimabue, the beauty of its proportions, or the sculpture that remains about, is unparalleled in interest to the artist.. It is a quadrangle, 403 ft. in length, 117 ft. in width, and is surrounded by a corridor 32 ft. in breadth. This corridor is roofed, forming a sort of cloister with semicircular-headed windows, which were at first simple apertures extending down to the pavement, but they have been subsequently divided into smaller apertures by columns, which, from the springing of the arches, branch out into tracery of elegant design. The interior part of the quadrangle is open to the sky. Some of the arches above mentioned were completed as' late as the year 14C4. The style of the transition to pointed art will be noticed in the sect'on on Pointed Architecture at the end of Book I. Sect. XV. (a) OR1CIN OF THE POINTED ARCH. 291. About the end ot the 12th and the beginning of the 13th century, a most singular ! and important change took place in the architecture of Europe. The flat southern roof, says Mdller, was superseded by the high pitched northern covering of the ecclesiastical edifices, and its introduction brought with it the use of the pointed arch, which was sub- j sinuted for the semicircular one : a necessary consequence, for the roof and vaults being i thus raised, the character of the whole could not be preserved without changing the entire arrangement of the combination of forms. But we have great doubts on Mdiler’s hypo- thesis ; it will, indeed, be hereafter seen we have a different belief on the origin of the pointed arch. Before we at all enter upon the edifices of the period, we think it will he better to put the reader in possession of the different hypotheses in which various writers have in- dulged, relative to the introduction or invention of the pointed arch ; and though we attach very little importance to the discovery, if it could now be clearly established, we are, as our work would be incomplete without the notice, compelled to submit them for the reader’s consideration. 295. 1. Some have derived this style from the holy groves of the early Celts. — But we can see no ground for this hypothesis, for it was only in the 14th and 15th centuries that ribs between the groins (which have been compared to the small branches of trees) were intro- duced ; hence it is rather difficult to trace the similarity which its supporters contend for. 295. 2. That the style originated from huts made with twigs and branches of tri es intertwined. An hypothesis fancifully conceived and exhibited to the world by Sir James Ilall, in 1 some very interesting plates attached to his work. Mdller properly observes upon this theory of twigs, that it is only in the buildings of the 15th and 16th centuries that the supposed imitation of twigs appears. J 20 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. 297. 0. From the framed construction of timber buildings. — This is an hypothesis which it would he loss of time to examine, inasmuch as all the forms and details undoubtedly arise from the vault and arch; and a close examination of the buildings of the 13th century proves that the ancient ecclesiastical style involves the scientific construction of stone vaulting, all timber construction being limited. to the framing of the roof. 298. - 1 . From the imitation of the aspiring lines of the pyramids of Egypt. — This hypo- thesis is the fancy of Murphy, the ingenious and useful editor of a work on the convent of Ratalha, in Portugal, and also of some of the finest edifices of the Moors in Spain. The fol- lowing is the reasoning of the author : — The pyramids of the Egyptians are tombs ; the dead are buried in churches, and on their towers pyramidal forms are placed ; consequently, the pyramids of the towers indicate that there are graves in the churches ; and as the pyra- midal form constitutes the essence of the pointed arch style, and the pyramids of the towers are imitations of the Egyptian pyramids, the pointed arch is derived from the latter. The reader, we are sure, will not require from us any examination of the series of syllogisms here enumerated. 200. 5. From the intersection of semicircular arches which recurs in late instances of the Ro- manesque style. — 'i bis was the hypothesis of the late Ur. Milner, a Catholic bishop of great learning and most amiable bearing, and a person so intimately acquainted with the subject on which he wrote, that we regret his reasons for the conjecture are not satisfactory to us, albeit the combination (fig. 153.) whereof he speaks is, in the Romanesque style, of frequent occurrence. The venerable prelate seems to have lost sight of a principle familiar to every artist — that in all art the details of a style are subordinate to and dependent on the masses, and that the converse never occurs ; how, then, could the leading features of a style so universal have had their origin in an accidental and unessential decoration, like that of the theory in question? None of the above hypotheses are satisfactory ; and Muller well observes, that the solution of the question, whether the pointed style be- longs to one nation exclusively, is attended with great difficulties. And it may he said that the problem for solution is not, who invented the pointed arch, but, in what way its prevalence in the 13th century is to he accounted for. 300. We are not of opinion that it is of much importance that this vex ata queestio should he settled; and that it will now satisfactorily be done, we consider very much out of the limits of probability. Rut we suppose that the reader will be inclined to ask for our own bias on the subject ; and, as we are bound to answer such a question, the reply is, that we are of the faith of the Rev. Mr. Whittington, to whose work we have before referred, that the pointed arch was of Eastern extraction, and that it was imported by the first crusaders into the West. “ All eastern buildings,” says that ingenious writer, “as far back as they go (and we cannot tell how far), have pointed arches, and are in the same style; is it not fair to suppose that some of these are older than the 12th century, or that the same style existed before that time? Is it at all probable that the dark ages of the West should have given a mode of architecture to the East?” Lord Aberdeen, whose taste and learning in matters of this nature well qualified him for the posthumous introduction to the public of the author we are using, observes, in his preface to Whittington’s work, that, “ if we could discover in any one country a gradual alteration of this style [the Romanesque], beginning with the form of the arch, and progressively extending to the whole of the ornaments and general design ; — after which, if we could trace the new fashion slowly making its way, and by de- grees adopted by the other nations of Europe ; — the supposition of Mr. Walpole [that it arose from what was conceived to be an improvement in the corrupt specimens of Roman taste then exhibited, and was afterwards gradually carried to perfection] would be greatly confirmed. Nothing, however, of this is the case. We find the Gothic [pointed] style, notwithstanding the richness and variety it afterwards assumed, appearing at once with all its distinctive marks and features, not among one people, but, very nearly at the same period of time, received and practised throughout Christendom. How will it be possible to account for this general and contemporary adoption of the style, but by a supposition that the taste and knowledge of all on this subject were drawn from a common source? and where can we look for this source but to the East, which, during the crusades, attracted a portion of the population, and, in st great degree, occupied the attention, of the different states of Europe?” This was an opinion of Sir Christopher Wren, at least greatly so, his leaning being rather to deducing the origin of the style from the Moors in Spain. It is the fashion of modern half-educated critics to place little reliance on such authorities as Wren. We have, from ex- perience, learned to venerate them. The noble author whom we have been quoting proceeds by stating that “ the result receives confirmation from the circumstance of there being no specimen of Gothic [pointed] architecture erected in the West before the period in ques- tion.” Exception, however, is to be made for the rare occurrence of a very few examples, ;hap. ir. POINTED ARCH. !2j vhose construction may perhaps be placed higher than the 1 2th century, and the cause of whose ■xistence may he satisfactorily explained. “ It may he sufficient here to observe, that no leople versed in the science of architecture could long remain ignorant of the pointed form if the arch, the most simple and easy in construction, as it might he raised without a centre >y the gradual projection of. stones placed in horizontal courses ; and, whether produced by ccident or necessity, we may reasonably expect to meet with it occasionally in their works.” t is certain that, though neglected in their general practice, the ancients were acquainted vith this mode of building • and the occurrence of an arch merely pointed and unaccom- lanied with any other characteristic of the style, is no better evidence of the prevalence of jothic ( pointed ) architecture, than that the appearance of Corinthian capitals in Romanesque mildings must give them the right to he called classical edifices. It is not easy to answer lie question, — In what part of the East are we able to point to buildings constructed in he pointed style, of a date anterior to those erected in the West? A little reflection, mwever, will solve the difficulty ; and here we must again trespass on the author we have o copiously used, though our limits will not allow us to follow him in his own words. It - s manifest that the frequent wars and revolutions of the East entailed the same fate on vorks of art and utility as attended the princes and chiefs of the states subverted. Thus lie number of architectural examples, and especially those of early date, was greatly di- ninished. Again, the people of the East with whom xve are best acquainted, in a great neasure sacrificed their less durable mode of building to that which they found established ly the Greeks. Thus, the church of Santa Sophia was a model, after the conquest of Con- tantinople, for all the mosques that were erected, with the addition occasionally of minarets nore or less lofty, as the piety and magnificence of the sultans might dictate. Previously o the conquest of the metropolis of the East, such a practice was prevalent, and in the ities of the empire many Christian edifices were adapted to the purposes of Mohammedan worship. Yet, notwithstanding these causes, which form an impediment to full information ! >n the state of the early architecture of the East, there is an abundance of facts to give 'reliability to our notion, except in the eyes of those who view the subject through the (ledium of prejudice and established system ; at least so we opine. ."501. “ If a line,” says our author, “ be drawn from the north of the Euxine, through Constantinople to Egypt, we shall discover in every country to the eastward of this boun- ary frequent examples of the pointed arch, accompanied with the slender proportions of Jothic [pointed] architecture; in Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, Persia; from the neigli- ourhood of the Caspian, through the wilds of Tartary ; in the various kingdoms, and hroughout the whole extent of India, and even to the furthest limits of China. It is true hat we are unable, for the most part, to ascertain the precise date of these buildings ; hut his in reality is not very important, it being sufficient to state the fact of their comparative iniquity, which, joined to the vast diffusion of the style, appears adequate to justify c ur occlusion. Seeing, then, the universal prevalence of this mode in the East, which is satis- uctorily accounted for by the extensive revolutions and conquests effected by Eastern arriors in that part of the world, it can scarcely appear requisite to discuss the probability fits having been introduced from the West, or, still less, further to refute the notions of nose who refer the origin of the style [as some have very ignorantly done] to the in- action of English artists. Had it been adopted from the practice of the West, such a leculiarity of taste and knowledge must have been imparted by some general communi- ation : this has only occurred atone period, during which no building of the species in ucstion existed in Europe. The inhabitants of the West could not convey a knowledge hicli they did not possess ; but, as it became pretty general amongst them shortly after in epoch alluded to, it is reasonable to infer that they acquired it from those nations they re said to have instructed. On the whole, it is probable that the origin of the Gothic yle, notwithstanding the occasional imitation of a corrupt and degraded species of Roman rclntecture, is sufficiently indicated by the lofty and slender proportions, by the minute arts, and the fantastic ornaments of Oriental taste.” 302. Mdller, a writer for whose opinions we entertain the highest respect, is not, owever, of opinion that the pointed arch originated with the Arabs; and he observes that scrutiny of their buildings will exhibit nothing that bears upon the Gothic, or pointed, 'yle. He says that their arches are in the shape of a horseshoe; that the columns are >w, that they stand single, and are not connected in groups ; that the windows are small, > fie roofs flat, and that the prevalent general forms are horizontal : that, in the ancient hurdles of the 13th century, the arches are pointed, the pillars high and composed of several oluinns, windows large, and roofs and gables high, lint at the end of his argument he admits hat the solution of the question, “which of the European nations first introduced or im- i roved the pointed style is not so easy, for we find this style of building almost con- .•mporary in all parts of Europe.” Now, though we are not about to use the argument fhich is not always valid, post hue ergo propter hoc, we must observe, that the introduction of he pointed arch immediately after the first Crusade, and not before, is a most singular peurrence ; and we are inclined to give it the same force as that used by old Bishop HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. I ‘.'2 Latimer on tlie subject of tlie Goodwin Sands and Tenterden steeple. One of the points of Moller’s reasoning we do not think at ail fortunate ; it is that on the forms of tlie Moresque arches. Now, it must immediately occur to the reader that one of the forms (as O at the side), and that a common one, is to be found in their arches, that of contrary flexure ; a form in the architecture of this country in the time of the Tudors univer- sally adopted, though, it must be allowed, much flattened in the application^ Another point seems to have been altogether overlooked by Moller, namely, the practice of diapering the walls, whereof an instance occurs in Westminster Abbey ; and one which has a very strong affinity to the practice of the Moors, who left no space unornamented. The higher-pitched gables of the northern roofs, we admit, fostered the discovery, by the intro- duction of forms from necessity, which were admirably calculated to carry out to their ex- treme limits the principles of which the Crusaders had acquiredsome notion for practice on their return to their respective countries. As to the objection that the Arabs had no original architecture, it is admitted. They must, however, have had that of the tent, whose form in- verted would give all that is sought. These observations we do not throw out as partisans ; the hypothesis adopted by us is sanctioned, in addition to the learned author upon whom we have drawn so much, by Warburton, and T. Warton, and Sir Christopher Wren; and though none of th se had the opportunity of basing their opinions upon the labours of the recent travellers whom we have been able to use, we do not think, upon this mooted ques- tion, either of them would be reduced to the necessity of retiacting what he has respectively written. 303. In glancing over the many writers on the subject, it is amusing to see the difference of opinion that exists. For instance, twenty are of opinion that it originated in Germany; fourteen, that it was of Eastern or Saracenic origin; six, that it arose from the hint sug- gested bv the intersection of the Notman arches; four, that it was the invention of the Goths and Lombards; and three, that its origin was in Italy. Sprung, however, from whatever place, it appears to have given in every sense an independence to the art not before belonging to it, and to have introduced principles of far greater freedom, in respect of the ratio of points of support to the whole mass, than were previously exhibited or probably known. Those who may feel desirous of consulting these views in detail, will find notices of sixty-six theories in the fifth volume of Britton’s Architectural Antiquities. Only two of these theories attempt to account for the introduction of the pointed arch on the ground of usefulness; one was put forward by Dr. Whewcll as regarded vaulting; the other by Dr. Young and Mr. Weir, who urged that the use of the pointed arch was originally due to a discovery of its diminishing lateral pressure. Mr. Sharpe has advocated the same view. 'These theories will also be found in Ramee, Manuel de VHistuire Generate de V Architecture, 1843, ii., 238, 248. 303a. Michelet ( Histoire de F ranee') observes, “ Or, lors de l’apparition de l’ogive en Occi- dent ves 1200, Innocent III est le dernier rayon de cctte puissance universelle, le pouvoir tie l’Eglise Catholique s’alfaiblit. La tentative des ordres des mendiants, des peres preeheurs est infructueuse. Le pouvoir des pretres tombe dans la main des laiques. I.a puissance da droit canonique, de ce robuste auxiliaire de l’Eglise, s’eflace en France devant ces iois sages faites par le pieux Roi St. Louis, et ses etablissements immortels servent de code nouveau a ses snjets. En Angleterre le Roi Jean-sans-terie donne, en 1215,1a grande Charte. En Allemagne, au commencement du treizieme siecle, parait le Sachsenspiegel. Au milieu du quatorzieme, ou le regne de l’ogive est a son apogee, l’Empereur Charles IV donne la Bulle d’or. Au treizieme siecle se terminent les Croisades qui mirent le Pape au dessus des pouvoirs temporels. Ces guerres saintes avaient fait prevaloir l’autorite de l’Eveque de Rome. Mais au treizieme siecle l’activite des peoples chrt t ens avait pritune autre direction, et ils finirent par secouer toute espece de domination. ” It is impossible, in naming the pontificate of Innocent III., to refrain from noticing that it was an epoch, in which such men appeared on the scene as St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Dominic, St. Francis of Assisi, John Gerson, author of the Imitation of Jesus Christ,” a composition that has been oftener printed than any other work ; and in literature and the arts, about the same period, are to be found the names of Dante, Robert de Lusarches, Etienne de Bonncveil, Pierre de Montereau, Lapo or Jacopo, besides a host of others. 304. The foregoing remarks comprise a resume of the early views on this subject, but we must not orrrit to mention those held by the learned writer, Mr. James Fergusson, who observes that Dr. Whewell, in his Nates on German Churches, has very distinctly stated the question of such inquiries : — “ These only tend to show how the form itself, as an arch, may have been suggested, not how the use of it must have become universal ” (see also 2 99). Fergusson then ( Builder Journal, 1849, p. 290, 303, 317), treating the history of the pointed arch succinctly by certain facts, brings forward four sets of pointed arches. I., the ancient buildings extending down to the period of the Roman empire; II., the decline of the Roman influence, extending to the present day, in the countries of the East to which these two classes of arches are confined ; III., the arch appearing in the south of France alone, in the age of Charlemagne, extending to the lltli century, when it was superseded by the POINTED AUCII. 123 Chap. 1 1. round arch style ; and IV , the true Gothic pointed arch, prevailing almost universally over the whole of Europe till the time of the Reformation, in the 16th century. In the East, “arches still are more frequently constructed by placing the stones horizontally than ill a ra- diating position.” The history of the subject will never be correctly understood till we take both kinds into account, for the second almost certainly arose out of the first. The first example put forth bv him is from the third pyramid at Gizeh, in the roof of the sepulchral chamber (jig. 1 54), consisting Fig. 1?4. I'VIIAMlll AT GIZKIL CAMI’BELl.’S TOMB. only of two stones, showing how early the curvilinear form, with a point in the centre, was used, and consequently how familiar it must have been to the architects of all ages. Another early form is here given from the tomb called “ Campbell’s Tomb,” Jig. 155. the pyramids at Meide, in Ethiopia, dating about 1000 to 805 years b.c., at all events being of a period anterior to the age of the Greek and Roman influence, were discovered by Mr. Hoskins. Here, stone arches show both circular and pointed forms (Jig- 156); and Mr. Layard discovered, at Nimroud, drains with pointed vaults of the same age as those at Meriie. A tumulus near Smyrna, in Asia Minor, presents an example almost a counter- part of that from the third pyramid ; a gateway, near Missolonghi, is formed by the courses if masonry projecting beyond one another till they meet in the centre. Other examples are •een in the torn!) of the Atridse at Mycenae ( Jigs. 1 4 and 1 6, tomb called treasury of Alreus) ; in a city gateway at Arpino, in Italy ; in an aqueduct at Tusculum; and in a gateway at Assos, in Asia Mi- nor (Jig 157). This is known from the character of its Fig. 10G. PYRAMID AT ME ROE. Fig. 157. GATEWAY AT ASSOS. masonry and other circumstances to belong to the best period of Greek art, in fact to be •oeval, or nearly so, with the Parthenon. These examples explain all the peculiarities of his mode of construction. 305. V ith the appearance of Rome, this form entirely disappears from the countries to Much her influence extended, and is supplanted so completely by the circular radiating >nn, that not a single instance is probably known of a pointed arch of any form or mode I construction during the period of the ltoman supremacy. The moment, however, that I er power declined, the pointed form reappears in Asia, its native scat ; and we recur to he very few that remain in Syria anil Western Asia for examples. The first of these are i the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, built by Constantine the Great, "d now known as the Mosque of Omar. Its arches are throughout pointed, but so unidly as to be scarcely observable at first sight. Fergusson also states the reasons for is inability to give other specimens; and describes the cathedral of Ani, in Armenia, (see I o Donaldson, in the Civil Engineer , Srr. Journal , 1843, p. 183) which is built with pointed relies throughout, and contains an inscription proving that it was finished in the vear 1010: " quotes M. Texier’s assertion ( Descr. de VArmenie, fol. I 842) that “ it results that, at a time hen the pointed arch was altogether unknown, and never had been used, in Europe, uildinggwere being constructed in the pointed arch style in the centre of Armenia.” At liarbekr, Mr. Fergusson continues, “ there is an extremely remarkable building, now con- ‘rted into a mosque ; the Armenians call it, with much plausibility, the palace of Tigranes; te friezes and cornices are executed according to the principles of Roman art of the 4 th ntury, nevertheless the pointed arch is found everywhere mixed with the an hitccturc, as it were currently practised in the country." The palace at Modain, the ancient Ctcsiphon. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. 124 a building of the 6th century, is remarkable for the gigantic portal which has not a pointed but an elliptical arch. The pointed arch, however, was employed in Mesopotamia long before it was known in Europe. 306. In the Roman empire, the aqueducts that supplied Constantinople with water, which were commenced under Constantine immediately after the founding of the city, hut com- pleted under Valens, a.d 364 and 378, exhibit pointed arches, generally in the lowest story, and always in the oldest part, as near Pyrgos — “ I would have no hesitation,” hesavs, “ in asserting the general use of the pointed arch by the Mahomedansfrom the earliest years of their existence to the present hour. The Arabs, it must be recollected, when thev left their deserts to subdue the world, were warriors and not architects ; they consequently em- ployed the natives of the conquered countries to erect their mosques ; yet, with scarcely a single exception, all their edifices are built with pointed arches. They are used in the oldest part of the mosque of Amrou, at Old Cairo ; this portion was bu ilt in the twenty- first year of the Hegira, a.d. 643. Except the two mosques of Amrou, in Egypt. I do not know of any erections of the Saracens anterior to the end of the 7th century. The pointed arch is used throughout the mosque erected by the Calif Walid at Jerusalem, in the year 87, or about a n. 705. The gieat mosque at Damascus is of the same age; and from that period to the present time there is no difficulty. In Sicily, too, which the Saracens occupied for two centuries preceding 1037, they used the pointed arch in all the monuments they have left there. In Spain, however, although pointed arches occur in the baths at Gerons, at Barcelona, and other places in the north, whose date is tolerably well ascertained to be of the 9th or 10th centuries, as a general rule the Moors usid the round or horseshoe arch (see Jig. 85), almost universally in their erections in that c untry. One other example that should he noted, occurs at the celebrated mosque of Kootub, at Delhi. When the Pathans conquered India, in the beginning of the 13th century, they brought with them their own style of architecture. This building, carried out by the Hindoos, was com- menced about the year 1230, and completed in about ten years. The principal arch, 22 feet span and about 40 feet high, though of the pure equilateral Gothic form, is erected with horiz >ntal courses to nearly the summit, when courses of stone are placed on their ends, as done in the aqueduct at Tusculum, before mentioned. 307. “With the Western styles, the first seiies to be noticed is that found in the south of France, cimprised to the south of the Loire and the north of the Garonne, extending from the Gulf of Nice to the shores of the Bay of Biscay ; being, in date, from about the age of Charlemagne till the middle or end of the 1 1th century, when it was superseded by the round arch styles. This assertion may startle some readers, but it would long ago have been received as well established facts, had it not been for the preconceived opinion that no pointed such existed in Europe anterior to the 12th century. One of the best known examples is that of the cathedral at Avignon, where the porch and general ditails of the church are so nearly classical, that they are usually ascribed to the age of Charlemagne, and even earlier. At Vaison are two well- Fig. 158. known churches, so classical also, th.it they are often called Roman temples ; both are roofed with wagon vaults of a pointed form, and must certainly date before the middle of the 12th century, when Vaison was destroyed and deserted ; they are pro- bably of the 9th or 10th centuries. The same remark appli s to the churches at Per- ries, Souillac (Jig. 158 ), Moissac, Carcassone, and many other churches of that age, all of which are covered with pointed vaults, but of a form extremely different from the true Gothic vaults of the 13th and 16th cen- turies.” The chapel in the castle of Bodies in Lorraine is given by Mr. Fergusson in his Handbook, as explaining most of the peculiarities of the style. The original building was founded by the Count of Anjou in the year 962, and the western tower certainly b. longs to him. The nave is either a part of the original edifice, or was erected by his son, F'oulques Neira, 992 and 1040. The supposition that it belongs to the latter receives con- firmation from its singularly Eastern aspect, and the fact that this Count three times visited the Holy Land, and died there in the year above quoted. Tire churches of Moissac, Souillac, and St. Frond at Perigueux, with several others, arc still more eastern in their appearance. This latter building, of which ('ll A P. II POINTED ARCH. 125 we give a plan {fig- 159), was co. nmenci'd in the year 984, and was completed in 1047, on the type of, if not copied from, the cathedral of St. Mark, at Venice. A section is given in fig. 160, exhibiting the use of the pointed arches in con- struction only. The choir at Loches was erected between the years 1140 and 1180, and is in the late and elegant Norman style universal in that country, just anterior to the introduction of the true pointed style, which was timidly effected in the north of France about the year 1 150, being mixed with round arches in all the great cathedrals and churches erected between 110 and 1200, at which date the style may be said to have been perfected in all its essential peculiarities. 207«. *• In England it was in every respect above twenty- five years later The first really authentic example ot its use is in Canterbury Cathedral after tlie fire in 1175, and was apparently in- troduced by William of Sens; nearly half a century passed before it can be said to have entirely superseded the Norman arch. In Germany, the intro- duction was somewhat later, and we know of no authentic specimen of pure Gothic anterior to the commencement of the 12th century, and even then nearly half a century elapsed before it Fig. 159. FLAK OF ST. FROND, rERIOUEU.X. entirely superseded the round arch style. During the whole ol the first half of that century, we find round arches mixed up with the pointed ones which were then coming into fashion.” 207 h. These views were combated by Mr. E. Sharpe, as noticed in the Huilder, p. 217, especially as to the first named works being considered as arches at all ; and a question arose at the Institute of British Architects, as to the age of the French buildings named; T. a is- actions, 1860—61, p. 2 1 1, &c., and 1 15. Mr. Street, in his Brick Aichitecture in Italy , states, (p. 258) that — “ The Italians ignored, as much as possible, the clear exhibition of the pointed arch, and, even when they did use it, [A not unfrequently intro- due. d it in such a way as to show their con- tempt for it as a feature of construction; employing it often only for ornament, and never hesitating to construct it in so faulty a manner, that it required to be held together with iron rods from the very first day of its erection. This fault they found it absolutely necessary to commit, because they scarcely ever brought themselves to allow theuse of the buttress.” • (5) MKlUvKVA I. ARTIFICERS. 208. In considering the question of the origin of pointed architecture, those who have hitherto been supposed to have devised the pointed arch itself must not be neglected : and to these persons we are indebted for the gigantic masses of exquisitely decorated composition, to lie seen in the structures which they designed and erected. These men are imagined to have belonged to a corporation or guild having authority over all countries, or to a guild in each country, having authority only in its own nation. This so-called confraternity has been known as the Freemasons. In the following account of them we shall much abridge '.lie two papers read before the Royal Institute of British Architects, and given in ST. FIIOND, I'ERIUCEUN, TRANSVERSE SECTION. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 1*26 Book l the Tian.-acfovs of that society, 1860 and 1861. Before doing so, however, it will lie necessary to introduce a few preliminary remarks on the state of architecture previous to the period when the so-called body of Freemasons is said to have arisen. 209. i'he pontificate, towards the end of the 10th century, of a Benedictine monk, named Gerbert, afterwards known under the name of Sylvester II., and whose life, if Platina ( Lii es of the Po/ es) may be relied on, was not of the most virtuous character, seems to have induced an extraordinary change in the arts. Gerbert was a native of Auvergne, and, under Arabian masters at Cordova and Granada, applied himself to, and became a great proficient in, mathematical learning. He afterwards appears to have settled at Rheims, and to have there planted a school which threw out many ramifications. The scholars of the period were confined to the clergy, and the sciences, having no tendency to injure the Church, were zealously cultivated by its members. 309a. In the 1 1th century, architecture, considered as an art, was little more than a bar- barous imitation of that of ancient Rome, and in it, all that appears tasteful was, perhaps, more attributable to the symmetry flowing from an acquaintance with geometry, than the result of fine feeling in those that exercised it. It was adapted to religious monuments, with great modifications ; but the materials and resources at hand, no less than the taste of those engaged in it, had considerable influence on the developments it was doomed to undergo. The sculptures of the period were borrowed largely from the ancients, and among them are often to be found centaurs and other fabulous animals of antiquity. 309 h. In the 12th century, the Elements of Euclid became a text book, and though this country was then behind the Continent, as respected the art of architecture, there is good reason for believing it was by no means so in regard to proficiency in mathematics, inas- much as the Benedictine monk, Adelard of Bath, is known to have been highly distinguished for his acquirements in them. 310. The crusades bad made the people of Europe acquainted with the East, and in the 12th century the result of the knowledge thus acquired was manifest in France, England, and Germany ; it could, however, scarcely be expected that the art would emerge otherwise than slowly under the hands of the churchmen, who were the principal practitioners, as it is generally supposed; but there were undoubtedly professional men, as they may be called, in the 12th century, who undertook the management of work, as we shall notice presently ; and it is well authenticated (De Beka, De Episcopis Ultiaject.) that, in 1099, a certain Bishop of Utrecht was killed by the father of a young freemason, from whom the prelate had extracted the mystery (arcanum magisterium) of laying the foundations of a church. The period at which arose the celebrated Confraternite dec pouts, founded by St. Benezet, is known to have been towards the latter end of the 12th or the beginning of the 1 ‘ith century. The association of Freemasons had, however, its types at a period extremely remote. Among the Romans, and still earlier, among even the Greeks, existed corporations (if they may be so called) of artificers and others; such were Numa’s Collegia Fahrorum and Col- legia Artificum, who made regulations for their own governance. These collegia were much in favour with the later Roman emperors, for in the third and fourth centuries we find that architects, painters, and sculptors, and many of the useful artificers, were free from taxation. The downfall, however, of the eastern and western empires, involved them in one common ruin, though it did not actually extinguish them. 311. The idea of the early establishment of a superintending body of co-workers such as the Freemasons are said to have been, appears to have originated in the assumption, that as the monuments of the 13th century bear so great a resemblance to each other, no other probable cause could be assigned for their similarity, than the influence of some powerful association of operators. Allowance, however, must, in many cases, be made for the materials at hand in different localities, which, it is hardly necessary to observe, in- fluence style in architecture most perceptibly. Another point too often forgotten in tiiis inquiry, is the gradual progression of the art, and the long transitional periods between each phase of pointed architecture. Some writers on the Freemasons have imagined that the concealment of their modes of arranging arch stones was the chief object of t heir association, and there can be no doubt that the whole science of construction was studied and taught in the lodges. Others have ti ought that they inclined to Manicheism, of which the sects were numberless : but we think they had enough to engage their attention, without 'discussing whether all things were effected by the combinat on or repulsion of the good and the bad; or that men had a double soul, good and evil ; or that their bodies were formed, the upper half by God, and the lower half by the devil. Some have considered that though the Freemasons, as a body, were not hostile to the Church, they were inveterate enemies of the clergy and more particularly of the monks. This may be abundantly seen in the ridicule and grotesque lampoons bestowed on them in the sculptures of the 13th century. As an instance of the extreme length to which the ridicule of the priests was then carried, there is at Strasburg the representation of an ass saying mass and served by other animals as acolytes : and this work must have been done under the eyes of the monks themselves ! MEDI/EVAL ARTIFICERS. 127 7hap. II. 312. The remarks by the present editor, Or i the Superintendents of English Buildings in he Middle Ages contains the first classified account of the official situations of persons I ngaged, with some general idea of their duties. This list includes the terms: — I, Vrchitect ; 2, Ingeniator ; 3, Supervisor; 4, Surveyor; 5, Overseer; 6, Master of the Works ; 7, Keeper of the Works; 8, Keeper of the Fabric; 9, Director; 10, Clerk of the forks; 11, Devizor; 12, Master mason ; and 13, Freemason and mason, or inferior work- tan. It will be impossible here to give more than a brief outline. To commence with [he freemasons: — In 1077, Ilobertus, cementarius, was employed at St. Albans, and for is skill and labour, in which he is stated to have excelled all the masons of his time, he ad granted to him and his heirs, certain lands and a house in the town. In I 113, Arnold, . lay brother of Croyland Abbey, is designated “of the art of masonry a most scientific paster.” William of Sens, employed at Canterbury, was a layman and was called “ magis- er”; the history of his work has been preserved to us in the well written account by the ronk Gervase, who details the burning and rebuilding of that cathedral. A number of hosen cementarii were assembled at St. Albans in 1230, of whom the chief, magister Hugo | e Guldclif, proved to be a “ deceitful but clever workman. ” Very many other names of basons are noticed, but these cannot all be here given. In 1217, a writer uses the syno- ( yms maszun for cementarius ; artificer is a word also used in the same century ; marmot arius, r marbler ; and latum us or lathomus , stone-cutter, also occur. In 1360, a mason dc fraunche ere ou de grosse pere is named in the Statutes; while it is not until 1396 that the terms lathomos vocatos ffremaceons,” and “ lathomos vocatos ligiers,” are used to designate the lasons who were called free( stone )masons, and the masons called layers or setters. In the iibric rolls of Exeter cathedral, the term simeutarius is used before, and the term fremasnn fter, the above-named period of 1396. Thus the derivation of the term freemason, from a roestone worker, appears more probable than the many fanciful origins of it so often quoted. iVliat becomes then of the “travelling bodies of freemasons” who are said to have erected all he great buildings of Europe ? Did they ever exist ? The earliest mention of them appears > have been promulgated by Aubrey, some time before 1686, who cited Sir William Dug- ale as haring told him “many years since, that about Henry Ill’s time (1216-72), lie Pope gave a hull or patents to a company of Italian freemasons to travel up and down Ivor all Europe to build churches. From them are derived the fraternity of Adopted lasons.” No evidence has been adduced in support of this statement; searches have been liade in the Vatican library without success. Wren’s Pareutulia gives an account of these lersonages to the same purport, though somewhat enlarged, (par. 401), and this has been uoted as an authority. From a careful comparison of circumstances, Dugdale’s in- irmation to Aubrey most probably referred to the “ Letters of Indulgence ” of Pope Nicho- jis III., in 1278, and to others by his successors as late as the 14th century, granted to the |)dge of masons working at Strasburg cathedral, as also noticed on page 131 herein. 313. Concerning the Fratrcs Ponds, or the Confraternite des pouts, already referred to, car. 310), much has been written during the last one hundred years asserting that this rotherhood had been founded for the express purpose of travelling far and wide to build ridges. Even as regards France, only a notice is found of such a troop having been linued by St. llenezet, for building the bridge at Avignon, and that of St. Esprit, jver the Rhone, during the 12th and Nth centuries, ( 1 1 78 1188 and 1265-1309). In bigland no such companies are found recorded ; but wherever a bridge was built, a chapel ipears to have been founded, to which a priest was attached to pray for the soul of the ■under, to receive passage money, and sometimes to pray with the passenger for the safe ■rmination of his journey. Two instances only, of an early date, have been put forward ' so called fraternities of masons ; the first is that Godfrey de Lucy, bishop of Winchester, ■rmed in 1202. a confraternity for repairing his church during the live years ensuing. Such,” says Milner, “was probably the origin of the Society of Freemasons.” The cond, as asserted by Anderson, (Const'tutions of the Free and Accepted Masons, 1738), but it since authenticated, is that the register of William Molart or Molash, prior of Can- rhury cathedral, records that a respectable lodge of freemasons was held in that city in 129, under the patronage of Henry Chichele, the archbishop, at which were present liomas Stapylton, master, the warden, fifteen fellowcrafts, and three entered apprentices. does not then appear to have been known that each cathedral establishment possessed a L-rmanent staff of officers, with certain workpeople, and “took on” additional hands wlien- er the edifice was to receive additions, or to be rebuilt. The monarch also had an office r carrying out the repairs and re-buildings at the palaces and royal bouses. A guild of 'axons was undoubtedly in existence in London, in 1375, 49th Edward III , and in 1376 l o companies of masons and of freemasons were in existence. The Masons’ Company of pndon was incorp irated in 1411, and Stow says “ they were formerly called freemasons.” ■lie masons, during the 17th and IStli centuries, often became designers or architects, witness Nicholas Stone, George Dance the elder, Sir Robert Taylor, and others. I 314. At this date of 1375, some writers have placed the origin of that wonderful society, [used, as they urge, by the masons combining and agreeing on certain signs and tokens bv HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Cook I. 128 which they might know one another ; engaging to assist each other against the then common custom of impressment by the monarch ; and further, not to work unless free and on their own terms, especially as the monarch would not pay them as highly as did his subjects. All this appears probable, but there is no sufficient authority for it. The workpeople had at times, as at Stratford-on-Avon, in 1353, special protection until the edifice was completed. 315. But previous to 1375, the date above mentioned, the Statutes at l arge afford much valuable information, hitherto unquoted, on the subject of the manners and customs of workpeople. In 1349, the Statute 23rd Edward III. relates that “ great part of the people and especially of workmen and servants late died of the pestilence, whereby many demand excessive wages and will not work ;” the hours of labour were settled at the same time, because “diverse artificers and labourers, retained to work and serve, waste much part of the day (the manner of doing so is described) and deserve not their wages.” Their wages were settled in the year following; while in 1 360-1, a Statute declares that “carpenters and masons and all other labourers shall take from henceforth wages by the day and not by the week, nor in any other manner,” and continues “that all alliances and covines of masons and carpenters, and congregations, chapters, ordinances and oaths, betwixt them made or to be made, shall he from henceforth void and wholly annulled,”— with other details. This im- portant Act was enforced by many others, and by the well-known Statute of 3rd Henry VI , 1425, passed at the “special request of the Commons,” again putting down all chapters and congregations held by masons. In 1436-7, 15th Henry VI., the “masters, wardens, and people of the guilds, fraternities, and other companies incorporate, dwelling in divers parts of the realm,” were warned not to “ make among themselves unlawful and unreasonable ordinances, for their singular profit and common damage to the people” — their letters patent were to be brought to the justices and others for their approval. Many later Statutes were passed; but they were all at length superseded by the well known Statute of 5th Elizabeth, 1562-3, which continued in force until so late as 1813, when such portion was repealed as forbade exercise of trades by persons not having served, and as regulated the mode of binding apprentices &c., but at the same time the customs and privileges of cities and boroughs were saved. It is certain, from all these observations, that there were fellowships or guilds of masons existing before the middle of the 14th century; hut whether the one in London had any communication with those guilds existing in the other corporate towns, or whether there was a supreme guild which led to a systematic Working, is still without elucidation. It has been asserted for years, on the faith of certain manu- script “ Constitutions,” that a company of Freemasons, formerly existing at York, held a charter of incorporation from King Athelstan, dated in 926, under which they claimed authority over the companies throughout Eng and. As noticed hereafter (jar. 322a), it is distinctly proved that the Grand Ledge of Masons of Germany was nut established until so late as 1 452. 316. These guilds or companies had legendary histories, as had probably most of the other building trades. That which belonged to the stonemasons was accepted by the Society of Free and Accepted Masons, when it was established or reestablished in 1722 ; this last has descended as a highly respected charitable and friendly society to the present day. Of such histories or “ constitutions,” besides at least six in manuscript, dating about 1646-60, them are two others in the British Museum. The earliest one is presumed to date about the latter part of the 14th century, and has the form of a poem in about 575 lines, entitled Con- st tutiuns of Geometry; it was first noticed by Mr. Halliwell, and edited by him in 1840. The other manuscript, dating about 1500, has been printed nearly in facsimile by Mr. M. Cooke. They were all undoubtedly compiled for the use of a body of working masons; they refer to yearly assemblies, to a lodge as a workshop, taking apprentices, workmanship, moral conduct, punishment of offenders, and observance of their “ articles and points,” or bye-laws as they may be termed. No references are made to secret signs or to masonic marks; as regards the latter, a few remarks will be offered subsequently. 317. The masons when about to set to work, had a lodge or workshop provided for them, and sometimes had to make it for themselves ; this shed or building also served them oc- casionally as a residence, or place for eating their meals, as often occurs at the present day. This lodge is noted in an early account as being covered with thatch, while in a much later one it is to be “properly tiled,” an expression still in use by the modern society, when the door of their place of meeting is closed. This lodge is adverted to in the manuscripts above mentioned, as also in the Fabric Rolls of Y’ork Minster, published in Browne’s Hi: lory of York Cathedral , 1858-47, and separately by the Surtees Society, in 1859. These records elucidate many interesting points connected with works and workpeople ; and causes us to regret that the example set in printing them has not yet led other Deans and Chapters to do the like, or to allow them to be published They show that there was a continuous line of master masons from 1347, the date of the earliest document, who were didy sworn to the office, had a fixed salary, a residence, and if becoming blind (which appeals to have been, and is still, very often a result of employment in masonry), or compelled by bodily infirmity to give up the direction of the works, he was pensioned, and sometimes he was bound not ll I in I I is Mi* [||ls I I' "ll III I Is I l '(i llttll p ! P 1 h Mi |N (fiiAr. IF. INI E D I IE V A L A RTI FI C E R S. 129 to undertake duties elsewhere while engaged at the cathedral. The master mason was often succeeded by his junior or assistant; in one instance a fight took place in conse- quence of a master mason, who was a stranger to the place, having been appointed to the office. Gowns or robes, the latter sometimes lined with fur, were provided for the master, and tunics for his men, as well as gloves (at l|d. each) to the masons and carpenters ; also j aprons and clogs, and occasional potations and remuneration for extra work. This officer in the king’s household had a livery, as probably had the carpenter and other officers. 918. It is necessary to mention that the trades, from a very early period, appear to have kept themselves to their distinct handicrafts; thus, while the monasteries had masons and carpenters, and a plumber and his boy, at hand, yet the glazier, hell-founder, painter or decorator, smith, and some others, were residents in the town or some adjoining city. Only in a few of the monasteries were the monks able to perform some of these duties them- j selves. In Italy, however, talented youths were received and educated at such establish- ments, and became lay brethren, as much for their own safety as out of gratitude to their masters ; the devotion of their time and talents in ornamenting the sacred edifices, has led I persons to urge that ecclesiastical buildings were designed, erected, and decorated, by clerical | hands. 819. We will now proceed to notice very succinctly the other official titles. As far as the design of the building was concerned, that labour appears to have been left to the master mason, whatever interest the monarch, the bishop, the abbot, or the prior, may have displayed in giving instructions as to their wishes; no doubt clever men then, as now, in- terfered with their architects and induced them to follow special orders, whether correct in taste or otherwise. I he term “Architect” has rarely been found in the middle ages; i perhaps to a certain extent the word “ ingeniator,” so early as 1199, may have taken i ts place. ‘‘ Supervisor” occurs constantly, soon after the Conquest, and has been translated “ surveyor,” and sometimes “ overseer ; ” it. is not always clear what is to be understood by the term ; whether actually a “ designer ” and professional man, as held by some persons in the celebrated example of William of Wykeham, at Windsor Castle ; or merely as a “director,” seeing to the orders of others being carried out : as we hold was the position of Wykeham, acting for the monarch, the design being attributable to the master mason. Numerous examples are given in the paper from which we are quoting; and it likewise contains a searching enquiry into Wykeham’s professional capacity, with what result we (must beg the reader to judge for himself. The “ Magister Operum ” or “master of the works ” was an important officer in many monastic establishments ; at Croyland, for instance, |ie was the first of the six greater officers, and to his superintendence was submitted the construction, reparation, beautifying, and enlarging, of all the buildings belonging to the monastery. The sacrist often held this office, and many names are known, more especially l hat of Alan de Walsingham, at Ely monastery, whose history and labours deserve atten- iion. In the agreement made at York, in 1867, it was arranged that the plumber I vas to work with his own hand wherever he should be required by the “ master of the iibrie ;" if his services were not required, he might obtain leave of absence from the chap- i er, or from the “ master of the work,” but to return when required by the said master. At he same period there appears to have been a “keeper of the fabric ” who was to settle the mount of the day’s work for the plumber and his servants, and to pay salaries. As the master of the work,” the “keeper of the works,” and the “ master mason,” are all mentioned t one document of the same period, they cannot be considered as one person. The house- old of the monarch, as before noticed, comprised an office for carrying out works at the tyal palaces. The earliest list yet found is of the reign of Edward I V. (1461 83) ; in it ie “clerk of the works,” who is placed first, has a fee of two shillings per day, or 8 61. 10s. or annum, a clerk at sixpence per day, four shillings per day for riding expenses, and venty pence for boat hire. The next officer in the list is the comptroller, then follow the 'erk of the engrossment of the pay- book, the purveyor with an allowance for his horse, the •epor of the store-house, the clerk of the check, the clerk of the comptrollements, the car- liter, the plumber, the mason (in this list is omitted), the joiner, the glazier, the surveyor the mines, who has also 86/. 10s. per annum, and lastly, the duvi/.or of building, who has e same amount. It would appear from a passage in the Ordinances published by the iciety of Antiquaries, 1790, that this clerk of the works was first instituted by Edward I., and the livery for that officer is known to have been given as early as 1391. Similar ts occur later; in Elizabeth's reign, the title becomes that of surveyor and paymaster, or rveyor and clerk ; in one of 1610, containing the household of prince Ilenry, Inigo Jones “surveyor of the works;” Mr. Smith, “paymaster and overseer ;” and Edward Carter, lerk of the works.” Jones was subsequently “surveyor” of the king’s works; and nliain, Sir C. Wren (who received the fee of 4 SI. 12s. Cd . ), and others, were styled . iirvi yor-gencral.” This royal establishment eventually became the Hoard of Works, then • Office of Works, and is now known as the Commission of Public Works It was this • x iMKXf k -KMXXEi. I <-> g-/-^ t -— a Iig. 1112. AIASONS’ MACKS OX STONES. mintain them originally to have been, a and b, are from the interior and exterior of the ave of Gloucester cathedral, c, Malmesbury abbey church, d, Furness abbey, e, Rol- lers in France, f, St. Radigonde. g, Cologne cathedral ; and h, Roman altars at Rising- pm: these are all from Mr. G. Godwin’s paper in the Arclircologia, vol. xxx. i, from egovia cathedral ; It, Tarragona cathedral ; and /, Veruela cathedral ; are given, with many j hers, by Mr. G. E. Street in his Gothic Ardiilecture of Spain. Numerous examples are ]iven in the Freemasons' Monthly Magazine, & c. new series, 1 862, and in the Builder Journal r 1863. Rerhaps the fact of their occurrence, as in the present day, is simply due to their ring the marks or signs by which each mason recognises the particular stone for the irrect workmanship of which he is answerable. On large works a list is kept of them r lire foreman, and any new man having a mark similar to one already on the list, has to ake a distinctive difference. An eminent practical mason assured us that from the aracter of the mark he could tell at once the kind ot stone on which it was made. }( A general history of Rointeo Architecture is placed at page 233; the Practice ok I riiNTEi) Architecture is placed in Book 1 1 1., together with much relative information : d illustration in Riuncii’I.ks ok Proportion, in the same Book. Fig. 161 Tbit lodge was Sect. XVI. ITAI.1AN ARCHITECTURE. I 323. The commencement of a new era in architecture first dawned in Florence, and then f >n spread its meridian light over Italy and the rest of Europe. The French have well plied the term reinsurance to its commencement. It is with us denominated that of the • iral of the arts. The Florentines had at an early period, according to Villani, de- ■ mined to erect in their city a monument which should surpass all that had bet re pea red ; in 1294 Arnolfo di I.apo (according to Vasari), but Arnolfo di Cambio da die f according to Mnlini), bad so prepared his plans that the first stone was laid Sept. , 1296, and the name of Sta. Maria del Fiore was then given to it. The works were pped 1310 on the death of Arnolfo. In 1321 Giotto was cnpomacstro, who, dying K 2 132 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. IioOK I. 133G, his design for the campanile was carried out by Taddeo Gaddi, who died 1366. In 1355 Francisco Talenti, as capomaestro, was ordered to make a model to show how the chapels in the rear were to he disposed correct without any defect. On June 1 f>, 135 7, the foundations of a new and larger church were begun by Talenti. Andrea Orcagna, I’ucozzo, Taddeo Gaddi and other architects of talent were consulted in turn, and in 1376 the last of the four arches was completed ; the central tribune with its five chapels were completed 1407 ; and in 1421 the armatures (centering?) of the last tribune were taken down ( The Times, May 12, 188“). This edifice, though commenced before the revival of the art', is one of particular interest and instruction in the history of archi- tecture, and one wherein is found a preparation for changing the style then prevalent into one sanctioned by the ancient principles of the art. Fig. 163. shows the plan, and Jig. 164 the half section and half elevation of it. The walls are a'rnost entirely cased with marble. The whole length of it is 454 feet ; from the pavement to the summit of the cross is nearly 387 feet ; the transept is nearly 334 feet long ; the height of the nave 153 feet, and that of the side aisles 96 In 1407 Brunelleschi was consulted with others as to the dome, but was not appointed until 1420; he nearly completed the drum at his death in 1446. The church was consecrated March 25, 1436, and the works ceased in 1474. The facade, destroyed in 1588, was rebuilt from a design by E. de Fabris, and unveiled in May 1886. The revival of architecture is so connected with the life of Brunelleschi, that a few passages in the latter will assist us in giving information on the former. He was born in 1377, and was intended by his father, I.ippo Lippi, a notary of Florence, to succeed him in his own profession ; but tire inclina'ion of the youth being bent towards the arts, the parent with reluctance placed him with a goldsmith, an occu- pation then so connected with sculpture that the greatest artists of the time applied themselves to the chasing and casting ornaments in the. precious metals. Brunelleschi became skilful as a sculptor, but determined to devote himself to architecture, in which the field was then unoceupfied. In company with Donatello he therefore visited Rome, and applied himself with ardour to the study of the ruins in the Eternal City, where he first began to meditate upon the scheme of uniting by a grand cupola the four arms of the Duomo at Florence. During his residence he settled in his mind the proper .ions of the orders of architecture from the classic examples which the city afforded, and studied the science of construction as practised by the ancients ; from them he learnt that perfect accordance which always exists between what is useful and what is beautiful, both ol which are reciprocally subordinate to each other. Here he discovered the principles of that nice equilibrium, equally requisite for the beauty no less than for the solidity ot an edifice. He returned to Florence in 1407. In this year the citizens convoked an assembly of architects and engineers to deliberate upon some plan for finishing the Duomo. To this assembly Brunelleschi was invited, and gave his advice for raising the base drum or ahic story upon which the cupola should be placed. It is not im- portant here to detail the jealousies of rivals which impeded his project; nor, when the hat. JI. ITALIAN. 133 Fi”. lfil. HALF ELEVATION AND IIAI.K SECTION OP SANTA MARIA DEL FIORE. jmmission was at length confided to him, the disgraceful assignment to him of Lorenzo liberti as a colleague, whose incapacity for such a task our architect soon made manifest, (lice it to say, that before his death he had the satisfaction to see the cupola finished, th the exception of the exterior of the drum under the cupola; for whose decoration, as 11 as for the lantern with which he proposed to crown the edifice, he left designs, which, wcver, were lost. One of the directions he left on his death particularly insisted upon bp necessity of following the model he had prepared for the lantern, and that it was es- ilitial that it should he constructed of large blocks of marble so as to prevent the cupola I m opening; an advice which experience has since proved in other cases to be far from Mind. This cupola is octagonal on the plan, as will be seen by reference to the figures, i I is 138 feet (j inches in diameter, and from the cornice of the drum to the eye of the one of the height of 1 33 feet 3 inches. Before it nothing had appeared with which it Wild he fairly put in comparison. The domes of St. Mark and that at l’isa are far below l In grandeur and simplicity of construction. In size it only yields to St. Peter's at line, for which it is probable it served as a model to Michael Angelo ; for in both, the inner ill outer cupolas are connected in one arch at their springing. It is moreover well J own that Buonarroti’s admiration of it was so great that he used to say that to imitate i vas indeed difficult, to surpass it impossible. Vasari’s testimony of it shall close our i omit of this magnificent structure: — “ Se puo dir certo che gli antichi, non andarono > I tanlo alto con lor fabriche, ne si messono a un risico tanto grande, che eglino volessino iinbattere col cielo, come par veramente ch’ ella combatta, veggendosi ella estollere in I t’ altezza che i monti intorno a Fiorenza paiono simili a lei. E nel vero pare, che il < lo ne abbia invidia poielie di continuo le saette tutto il giorno la pcrcuotono." It might I supposed that such a work was sufficient to occupy the whole of Brunelleschi's time; I no: the Duke Filippo Maria engaged him on the fortifications at Milan, besides which J34 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook [, he was employed on several other military works; a proof of the great diversity of talent lie possessed. It is, therefore, from the extensive employ lie enjoyed, not only in Florence, hut in many other parts of Italy, quite certain that he infused anew tastointo its buildings, and that he is justly entitled to the title of the Restorer of Architecture in Europe. II<* died, and was buried in the church he had raised in 1444. He left a number of scholars, among whom Luca l'ancelli and Michelozzo were perhaps the ablest. These pupils spread throughout Italy the effects of the vast change that had been thus begun ; a taste for archi- tecture was excited ; its true principles became known ; and in a short space of time, as if the matter had been one of arrangement between them, the illustrious house of Medici, the dukes of Milan, and the princes and nobility of the country contended who should most patronise its professors. The learned began to expound to artists the books of Vitruvius, the only writer among the ancients whose works on that subject have come down to us. .‘>24. Leo Battista Alberti, of the ancient and illustrious family of the Alberti of Florence, succeeded Brunelleschi in carrying on the great change of which we have been speaking, and was, indeed, a great contributor to the art, not only by his literary labours on architecture, in which he displays profound erudition, knowledge of construction, and an intimate acquaintance with the works of the ancients, but also by the distribution, ele- gance, grace, and variety, which his designs exhibit. 1 1 is book, De Re Edificatorid, is the foundation of all that has been since written on the art, and deserves careful perusal by every one who studies for the purpose of practice. We shall here present a short account of it, which, in imitation of Vitruvius, he divided into ten books. 325. 'The first book treats on the origin anil utility of architecture ; the choice of the soil and situation for placing buildings; the preparation, measurement, and suitable divi- sion according to their nature, of the edifices to be erected; of columns and pilasters; of the different kinds of roofs, doors, and windows, their number and size; of the different sorts of staircases and their landings ; of the sewage or drains, and of suitable situations for them respectively. In the second book the subjects are, the choice of materials; the pre- cautions to be taken before beginning a building ; the models, of whatever description, that should be made ; the choice of workmen ; the trees fit for use, and the season in which they should be felled ; the methods for preventing rot, and susceptibility of lire ; of stone in its varieties; the different sorts of bricks, tiles, lime, sand, and mortar. The third book treats of construction ; foundations according to the varieties of soil ; encroachments ; the carrying up and bond of masonry ; rough and rubble work ; on the different sorts of masonry ; on the inlaying and facing of walls ; on beams, joists, and the method of strengthening them ; on foors, arches, and vaults ; the covering of roofs, pavements, and the season for beginning and completing certain works. The fourth book is confined to the phi- losophy of the art, showing the causes which influence mankind in the adoption of modes of building according to the climate, the soil, and the habits or government of a people. It, however, treats of the proper position of a city ; of the size to be given to it ; of the form of the walls; of the customs and ceremonies of the ancients as applied to this point; of fortifications, bastions or towers, gates and ramparts; bridges, both of timber and stone; sewers, ports, harbours, and squares requisite in a city. The fifth book contains in- structions for the erection of palaces for peaceable, and castles for absolute princes; for the houses required by a republic; large and small religious edifices; academies, public schools, hospitals, and palaces for senators. In it are given some hints on military ami naval architecture, on farm buildings, and country houses. In the sixth book Alberti treats on architectural ornament, columns, and the method of adjusting their proportions. After some observations on the principles of beauty, on taste, and on the mode of im- proving it, he enters shortly on the history of architecture. These are followed by several chapters on the doctrine of mechanics, machines, the method of raising and working columns, polishing them, imitations in stucco and incrustation in thin layers, and matters of that nature. The seventh book continues the discussion on ornaments in architecture, but chiefly in respect of columns, showing the edifices in which the use of them is suitable: and, in imitation of Vitruvius in his directions relative to temples, our author dilates on buildings for ecclesiastical purposes. Tie shows what sorts of columns and pilasters are best suited to them, how far the employment of statues is proper, and how they should be sculptured. The eighth book is on roads and their decorations, tombs, pyramids, columns, ' altars, epitaphs, &c. In it he turns to the subjects of streets, cities, ornaments appropriate to gates, ports, arches, bridges, crossways, markets, public squares, walks, porticoes, theatres, amphitheatres, circi, libraries, colleges, baths, &c. ; and the style in which public buildings should be constructed and decorated. The ninth book is a continuation of the preceding one ; but in this he speaks in addition of the appropriate decoration of royal palaces, and of the ornaments respectively suitable to city and country dwellings, and of the paintings and sculpture that should be employed in them. In the tenth and last book the principal sub- ject is the finding a supply of water for buildings both in town and country, and it closes with some useful hints on the aid of architecture to domestic economy. This truly great | man constructed many works in different cities of Italy, some of which still remain to Chap II. ITALIAN. 136 attest liis skill. We are not to examine them with the eye of an architect flourishing even half a century later, though under that category they do him honour, but with the eye of an artist of his own day, and we shall then find our veneration for his memory cannot tie too strongly expressed. In Florence he finished the Ruccellai palace, and built the choir of the Annunziata. At Mantua he built a church of singular beauty, consisting of a simple nave, crowned with a vault decorated with caissons, which rivals the works of the ancients. The additions he made to the church of St. Francesco at Rimini, a pointed church, though not in the same style, because it then came into disrepute, show an extraordinary aptitude for overcoming the most difficult and repulsive subjects with which an architect has to deal, and that work alone would stamp him as a man of genius. On his other acquirements it is not within our province to dwell ; we shall merely sum them up by saying that he was poet, painter, sculptor, philosopher, mathematician, and antiquary. Such was Alberti, in whom was concentrated more refinement and learning than have hardly since appeared in a single individual of our species. The time of his death is not accurately known ; some place it at the end of the fifteenth, and others at the beginning of the sixteenth century. 326. About the time that Alberti was engaged on the practice and literature of the art, a very extraordinary volume, written by a member of the Colonna family, was published by Aldus, at Venice, in 1499, folio. Its title is as follows: — Polypliili Hypnerotomach ia , opus italicd lingua conscriptum ; ubi humana omnia non nisi somnium esse docet. This work desenes to be better known than we fear its rarity will ever permit. With the singularity of the plan, it unites the advantage of placing before the reader many elevated and elegant ideas, and, under the veil of a fable, of inculcating precepts of the greatest utility to artists j and those that love the art. The testimony of Felibien in favour of this work runs so fa- j vourahly, that we must transcribe it: — “ Sans prejudice,” says that author, “ du grand profit qu’on peut tirer de la lecture de Vitruve, et de l’etude qu’on doit faire de ses principes et de ses regies, il ne faut pas moins examiner les tableaux curieux de plusieurs superbes edifices, monumens ou jardins, que [’imagination riante et feconde de l’auteur du Songe a mis sous les yeux de ses lecteurs. ” When it is recollected that the manuscripts of Vitruvius were extremely rare, and that when Colonna wrote (1467) that author had not been translated, — when we reflect that in his descriptions he rears edifices as magnificent and regular as those which Vitruvius presents to us, we cannot withhold our surprise at the genius and pene- tration of the author. With him architecture appears in all her majesty. Pyramids, obelisks, mausolea, colossal statues, circi, hippodromi, amphitheatres, temples, aqueducts, baths, fountains, noble palaces, delicious gardens, all in the purest taste and of the most perfect proportion, attend in her train, and administer to the pomp with which the author attires her. With him all these ideal productions of the art were not merely the result of an ardent imagination, but were the fruit of an intimate acquaintance with its rules, which I he explains to his reader, and inspires him at the same time with a taste for the subject of his pages. lie often breaks out against the gross ignorance of the architects of his day, I and endeavours to inculcate in them the sound principles of the art. lie demonstrates that it is not enough that an edifice possesses stability and solidity, but that it must be impressed with a character suitable to the purpose for which it is destined ; that it is not enough that it be well decorated, but that the ornaments used arise from necessity, or at the least from utility. Architecture thus treated in fiction was much more pleasantly studied than it would have been by mere application to the dry rules of Vitruvius. The impression made by the work was increased by the poetic glow with which the precepts : were delivered; the allegories it contained warmed the imaginations of a people easily excited, and Italy soon saw realised what Polyphilus had seen in a dream. This work is decorated with wood engravings of singular beauty, in which the details and accessories are strictly classical; it is written with great spirit and elegance, and we are not amazed at the magical effect which, with the accompaniment of Alberti’s book above mentioned, it every where produced. 327. The Italian school, which ultimately appropriated and adapted the ancient Roman orders and their details to comparatively modern habits, was for a long while engrafted on or amalgamated with what is, called Gothic. We here (Jig. 165.) place before the reader an instance of this, in the celebrated Loggia at Florence, designed by Orgagna. The same feeling appears, indeed, in what Brunelleschi did in his Duomo, and in many other buildings in Florence, in Pisa, Sienna, and other cities. Brunelleschi doubtless made a strong effort to emancipate himself altogether from the mixture of two discordant styles, and in some mea- : sure succeeded. Still there continued, as is evident in the Ricardi, Strozzi, and other palaces in Florence, a lingering love for the mixture, which the architects had great apparent diffi- Jculty in shaking off - . It is, however, extraordinary that with all this lingering love for the ancient style, in which there was much littleness, when the architects of this period came to the crowning members of their edifices, they placed on them such massive and finely composed cornices that the other parts are quite lost; and in this member it is evident tliev were influenced by those feelings of unity and breadth that gave so much value to the best ! works of the ancients. 136 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. Fig. 1(»5. LOGGIA OK OllGAGNA. 328. Tlie revival of the arts in Italy was vastly assisted by the commerce and riches o( the country; and with the decay of that commerce, nearly 300 years afterwards, their palmy days were no more: from that time they have never thriven in the country that gave them birth. It is our intention, in this view of Italian architecture, to consider it under the three schools which reigned in Italy — 1. The Florentine; 2. The Roman; 3. The Venetian. , 329. 1. Florentine School. — Climate and the habits of a people are the principal agents in creating real style in architecture; but these are in a great measure controlled, or it is perhaps more correct to say modified, by the materials which a country sup;) lies. Often, indeed, these latter restrict the architect, and influence the lightness or massiveness of the style he adopts. The quarries of Tuscany furnish very large blocks of stone, lying so close to the surface that they are without other difficulty than that of carriage obtained, and removed to the spots where they are wanted. This is probably a circumstance which will account for the solidity, monotony, and solemnity which are such commanding features in the Florentine school ; and which, if we may judge from the colossal ruins still exist- ing, similarly prevailed in the buildings of ancient Etruria. In later times another cause contributed to the continuation of the practice, and that was the necessity of affording places of defence for the upper ranks of society in a state where insurrection continually occurred. Thus the palaces of the Medici, of the I'itti, of the Strozzi, and of other families, served almost equally for fortresses as for palaces. The style seems to have interdicted the use of columns in the facades, and on this account the stupendous cornices that were used seem actually necessary for the purpose of imparting grandeur to the composition. In the best and most celebrated examples of their palaces, such as the Strozzi, i’andolfini, and others in Florence, and the Picolomini palace at Sienna, the cornices are proportioned to the whole height of the building considered as an order, notwithstanding the horizontal subdivisions and small interposed cornices that are practised between the base and the crowning member. The CllAf. II. ITALIAN. 137 courts of these palaces are usually surrounded by columns or arcades, and their interior is scarcely ever indicated by the external distribution. From among the extraordinary palaces vith which Florence abounds, we place before the reader the exquisite facade of the Pan- iollin: palace, the design whereof (Jig. 16G.) is attributed to the divine ltatlaelle d Urbino. n it almost all the requisites of street architecture are displayed. It is an example i cherein the principles of that style are so admirably developed, as to induce us to recom- neud it, in conjunction with the fayade of the Farnese palace hereafter given, to the Liberate study of the young architect. 330. Without further allusion to the double cupola of the Duomo, already noticed, he first of its species, and the prototype of that of St. Peter’s at Rome afterwards reared >y Michael Angelo, the principles and character of the Florentine school are not so nanifest in its churches as in its palaces. These nevertheless possess great interest ; for hey were the bases on which those of the Roman school were formed, as well as of those xamples which, with different degrees of purity, were afterwards erected in many of the ■apitals of Europe. Besides the plan of the Duomo, those of St. Michele, Sta. Maddelina, it. l’ancrazio, St. Lorenzo, and St. Spirito, are the key to all excellence in modern art, as espects real church architecture. It is unfortunate that of this school few of the. churches tave been finished, so that their fafades are generally imperfect. The interior was pro- >erly, with them, a matter to be first considered and brought to perfection. ! 33 i. Amongst the many extraordinary architects of the Florentine school, whereof a i ist will hereafter be given, was Bartolomeo Ammanati, whose bridge, “ della Sa/itissima Trinita," sufficiently proves that the greatness of the Florentine school does not alone lepend on its palaces and churches. This, one of the most beautiful examples, as well ; or design as constructive science, in which was obtained for the waters of the Arno a laximuin of waterway, combined with a beauty of form inappreciable through graphic leans, still strides the river of Florence, to attest the consummate skill of Ammanati. flic bridge in question consists of three arches : the middle one is 96 ft. span, and each of the tilers 86 ft. ; the width of the piers is 2G ft. 9 in., and the breadth of the bridge between lie parapets is 33 ft. The arches are very slightly pointed, the cusp being hidden by the ams 1 heads sculptured on the keystones ; their rise above the springing is very little, ence they have been mistaken by some writers for cycloidal arches. Alfonso and Giulio ’arigi, who assisted in constructing the work, left an account of the mode in which it was al l ied on, and the manuscript is still preserved in the Florentine Library. More recently, description of this bridge has been published by Ferroni, under the title of “Della vein urva degli Arclii del Ponte della Santissima Trinita di Firenze.” The l’itti palace had cen begun in the time of Brunelleschi, in 1435, for Luca l’itti, a wealthy citizen of Florence. 1 (cmaining long unfinished, it was at last sold to Eleonora, wife of Cosmo I., who pur- liased the adjoining ground, and planted the Boboli Gardens. About the middle of the Gth century, Nieolo Bracciani, surnamed Tribolo, made designs for finishing the building; nil was succeeded by Bernardo Buontalenti. After him came our Ammanati, who left tlier designs for finishing, which was accomplished by Alfonso and Giulio Parigi. It is ow the residence of the grand duke, and has served as a model for imitation to many modern rchitects, though there is in it much to condemn. The details, however, and proportions I the orders used in it by Ammanati, are very beautiful. This architect died in 1586, at lie age of seventy-five. lie was a pupil of liaccio Bandinelli, and during his life composed large work, entitled La Cilia, which contained designs for all the fabrics belonging to I regular and well-arranged city, beginning with the gates, then proceeding to the palaces 'j I the prince and magistrates, the churches, the fountains, the squares, the loggia for the 1.58 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I merchants, the bridges, theatres, &c. This work appears to have been lost, the last possessor of it known having been the prince Ferdinand of Tuscany. Though in the higher re- finement of finished details the Florentine school did not reach the extreme elegance of the Roman and Venetian schools, yet for bold imposing masses of architecture we think no city presents such a collection of highly picturesque architectural examples as Florence. The l’itti palace indeed, just mentioned, is more imposing by its broad parts than almost any other building with which we are acquainted, though it becomes poor when translated into French, as at the Luxembourg. 332. So late as 1-454, we find in the Strozzi and other palaces semicircular-headed win- dows, wherein are half columns at the sides, and a column in the middle, resembling those in the Byzantine or Romanesque edifices. The two apertures thus formed are crowned bv semicircular heads, which are circumscribed by the outer semicircle, and the spandrel formed by the three curves is occupied by a patera. 333. The period of the Florentine school, which must be taken as commencing with Brunelleschi, includes the names of Michelozzo, Leo Battista Alberti, Pollaiuolo (who ob- tained the soubriquet of Chronaca, from his constant recital of his travels), the architect of the Strozzi palace, ltaft’aelle Sanzio, Benedetto da Majano, Baccio d’Agnolo, Baccio Bandinelli, Buontalenti, Ammanati, and others: it extends from a. n. 1400 to a. n. KiOO. The works of Michael Angelo, though a Florentine, do not belong to this school ; neither do those of San Gallo and some others, who have been improperly classed as Florentine architects. 334. 2. Roman School. — Though the city of Rome, during the period of the rise and progress of the Roman school of architecture, was not altogether free from insurrectionary troubles, its palatial style is far less massive than that of F lorence. None of its buildings present the fortress-like appearance of those in the last-named city. Indeed, the Roman palaces, from their grace and lightness, indicate, on the part of the people, habits of a much more pacific nature, and an advancing state of the art, arising from a more intimate ac- quaintance with the models of antiquity which were on every side. The introduction of columns becomes a favourite and pleasing feature, and great care and study appear to have been constantly bestowed on the facades of their buildings; so much so, indeed, in many, that they are but masks to indifferent interiors. In them the entrance becomes a principal object ; and though in a great number of cases the abuses which enter into its compo- sition are manifold, yet the general effect is usually successful. The courts in these palaces are most frequently surrounded with arcades, whence a staircase of considerable dimensions leads to the sala or principal room of the palace. The general character is that of grandeur, but devoid altogether of the severity which so strongly marks the Florentine school. The noblest example of a palace in the world is that of the l’arnese family at Rome, to which we shall afterwards have occasion to return. 335. Bramante, born in 1444 at some place, but which is still in doubt, in the duchy of IJrbino, must be considered the founder of the Roman school. Though educated as a painter under F’ra Bartolomeo, and likely to have ranked in that occupation as a master of no ordinary powers, his great love of architecture induced him at an early period to quit painting as a profession. In Lombardy he wandered from city to city for the purpose of obtaining employment as an architect, but there is no evidence that his exertions in that part of Italy were rewarded with great success. The dry style which afterwards cha- racterised his works has been said to have had its origin in his protracted stay at Milan, "bile the works of the Duomo were carrying on there under Bernardino di Trevi, a builder of such skill as to have gained the esteem of Leonardo da Vinci. Be this as it may, it was in tins city his determination to follow our art became irrevocable. From Milan he went straightway to Rome; where, however, he was obliged to make himself known by some works in his first profession of a painter in the church of St. Giovanni Laterano. Naturally of hospitable and social disposition, and a lover of expense and luxury, so intense was his ardour to become great in the art he adopted that he refrained from all society, holding commerce only with the monuments of antiquity by which he was surrounded, studying with the utmost diligence, and drawing them for his future ap- plication of the principles upon which they were founded. He even extended his researches to Naples, losing no opportunity of noting all the ruins from which instruction in his art could be drawn. Oraffa (Cardinal of Naples), who had remarked his zeal, gave him his first commission in Rome, which was the construction of the cloister of the Convent della Race ; and this, from the intelligence and speed with which he executed the task, brought him at once into repute. At this period Rome could boast but of few architects, and those that were established there were of small account. The Florentine school seems to have sprung in the most decided manner from the habits of the people and the massiveness of their materials, modified by some knowledge of the buildings of the ancients : that of Rome seems to have been founded upon the principle of making the ancient architecture of Rome suit the more modern habits of a very different people, though living on the same spot. To explain more immediately our meaning, we cite the small circular clmpel Chap. II. ITALIAN. 1519 of St. Pietro in Montorio, wherein we find a jump at once in the adaptation of the circular peripteral temple of the Homans to the purpose of Christian ceremonies. And again, it is impossible to look at the Palazzo della Cancelleria without being struck hy the base- i ment and two orders, which would be suggested by a contemplation of the Colisseum, though afterwards the Homan architects had the good sense to see that the orders of architecture placed against the walls of a building where the use was not required by the interior distribution was a tasteless and useless application of them. The architect of the Palazzo Farnese only uses them for the decorations of bis windows. In this respect we l hope good sense is once more returning to this country ; and that the absurd practice in almost every case of calling in the orders to aid the effect of a facade, will be abandoned for the better plan of obtaining an imposing effect from the simplicity and arrangement of the necessary parts. We must, however, return to Hramante, whose other employment we pass over to come to bis great work, — one which, after the continued labour upon it of his successor Michael Angelo, seems to have exhibited the great canons of art; one which has regulated all the modern cathedrals of Europe, for they are, in fact, but repetitions of it; and one, therefore, which requires a lengthened notice in this place, as intimately connected with the rapid progress of the Homan school. The ancient Basilica of St. Peter had become so ruinous that Pope Nicholas V.,a man who delighted in magnificent undertakings, a lover of architecture, and of more than ordinary genius, bad conceived the project of rebuilding it, and under the designs of Bernardo Hosellini bad actually seen a portion of the design rise from the ground before his death. The project seemed then to he forgotten and abandoned, until Michael Angelo Buonarroti, seeking a place for the erection of the mausoleum of Julius II., upon which he was engaged, thought that the tribune of Hosellini’s projected new basilica would be well suited for its reception, and Accordingly proposed it to the pontiff. Julius, pleased with the suggestion, immediately sent for San Gallo and Bramante to examine into it. In these cases, one project generally suggests another, and the rearing a new St. Peter's became a fixed object in the mind of Julius 1 1. The tribune of Nicholas V. was no longer thought of, except as a space to j be included within the new works. He consulted several architects upon the subject; but j the fact is, that the only real competition lay between Giuliano di San Gallo and Bra- mante. The last was the successful artist ; and from a great number of projects the pope st last chose that upon which St. Peter’s was afterwards commenced. The real design of Bramante can scarcely be traced in the basilica of the Vatican as executed. The changes it was doomed to undergo before completion, more than perhaps any other building was ever subjected to, have been drawn into a history by the Jesuit Bonanni. When Bramante | died, his designs, if indeed he made any, were dispersed ; and for what we do know of them we are indebted to Haffaelle, who took much pains in collecting the ideas of our architect, , us they afterwards appeared in Serlio’s Treatise on Architecture. The original plan of Bramante was simple, grand, and in its parts harmonious, and would doubtless have been effective, far beyond the edifice as executed. It has been well observed by Q. de Quincy, in his Life of Bramante, “ Le Saint Pierre d’aujourd’hui parait moins grand qu’il lie l'est en elfet. I.e Saint Pierre de Bramante aurait certainement ete plus grand encore en apparence qu’en realite.” There would moreover have been an accordance between i the interior and exterior. The peristyle was to have three ranks of columns in depth, which would have necessarily had unequal intercolumniations. The cupola was rather that of the Pantheon, ornamented exteriorly with an order of columns. Bramante carried his imitation even to the steps round the springing of that monument. From the medals of the design struck about the period, it seems that the facade was to have been decorated at its extremities with two campanili; but the authority of a medal may be doubtful. The idea, therefore, which is said to have originated with Michael Angelo, of placing the dome of the Pantheon upon the vaulting of the Temple of Peace emanated from Bramante, though the honour of actually carrying such a project into execution belongs to Michael Angelo da Buonarroti. It is not, however, probable that if Bra- mante had lived he could have strictly executed the design he produced ; for it has been well proved that the piers which carry the dome would not have been sufficiently sub- stant al for the weight to be placed upon them, inasmuch as Bramante’s cupola would have been much heavier than that executed by Michael Angelo, and that architect con- j sidered it necessary to make his piers three times as thick as the former had proposed 1 for his cupola. Bramante’s general design having been adopted by Julius II., was inime- ! diately commenced with a boldness and promptitude of which few but such men as Julius and Bramante were capable. One half of the ancient basilica was taken down ; and on the j 18th of April, 1506, the first stone of the new fabric was laid by the pope in the pier of the I dome, commonly called that of Sta. Veronica. The four piers soon rose; the centres were prepared for connecting them by vaults, which were actually turned. 'The weight and j thrust of the vaults, however, bent the piers, and cracks and fissures made their ap- | pcarance in every direction. Thus, without more than their own weight, much less , that '>f the cupola, the works threatened ruin. The great haste used in carrying on the HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I 140 works had doubtless much contributed to this catastrophe. Diamante in the meantime dv mg, Rafl'aelle, Giocondo, and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards lialdazzare Peruzzi and Antonio San Gallo, were engaged on the edifice, and severally used the proper means for remedying the defects that had arisen, and for fortifying the great piers of the dome. To do this, as well as to push forward its completion, Michael Angelo was employed ; and the rest of that great man’s life was chiefly devoted to carrying on, under bis own designs, the works of the fabric. From the death of Bramante in 1513 to 1546, when Antonio San Gallo died, the architects above named, all of whose names are almost sacred, had been more or less employed upon it. It was during this period that Branrante’s original plan of a Latin was changed into a Greek cross by Peruzzi. The works had at this time become tlie source of much jobbing ; every body that had any emp'ovment on them seemed bent on providing for himself, when Michael Angelo consented, for he was far from desirous of being employed, to superintend the future progress of the fabric. The first use made of bis au- thority by Michael Angelo was that of discharging all the agents and employes of the place ; be may be said to have again driven the money-lenders out of the temple. That he might have more moral power over this worthless race, he set the example of declining to receive the salary of 600 crowns attached to bis appointment as architect, and gratuitously super- intended the works during the period of seventeen years, — a disinterestedness that afterwards found a parallel in one of the greatest architects that this or any other country ever saw : we need scarcely mention the name of Inigo Jones. Michael Angelo began by undoing what his predecessor San Gallo bad executed; and after having accomplished that, bia whole powers were directed towards carrying on the structure to such a point that no change could possibly be made in his plans ; so that after having strengthened the great piers, vaulted the naves, and carried up the exterior pedestal of the cupola, at the death of Paul III. in 1549 the form of these parts of the basilica was unchangeably fixed. Under Julius II I., the successor of Paul, the intrigues which had always been carried on against Michael Angelo were renewed. lie was accused of having contrived the arrange- ment without sufficient light, and of having changed every thing his predecessors had done. Thus proceeded this great work ; but notwithstanding the severe trials he had to undergo from the envy of his contemporaries, — rivals be could not encounter, — Buonarroti steadily pursued fiis course. He felt that bis own destiny and that of the fabric were identical ; and, notwithstanding all the disgusting treatment to which be was exposed, determined to stand to his post while life remained. Writing to Vasari, he says, “ F’or me to leave this place would be the cause of ruin to the church of St. Peter, which would be a lamentable occurrence, and a greater sin. As I hope to establish it beyond the possibility of changing the design, I could first wish to accomplish that end ; if I do not already commit a crime, by disappointing the many cormorants who are in daily expectation of getting rid of me.” And in another letter to Messer 1 ionardo Buonarrotti, in reply to the pressing instance of the grand duke to have him at Florence, he says, “ I would prefer death to being in disgrace with the duke. In ail my affairs 1 have endeavoured to adhere to the truth ; and if I have delayed coming to Florence as I promised, the promise should have been construed with this condition, that I would not depart hence until the fabric ol St. Peter’s was so far advanced as to prevent its being spoiled by others, and my design altered ; nor to leave opportunity for those thieves to return and plunder, as has been their custom, and as is still their hope. Thus placed by Divine Providence, I have exerted myself to prevent those evils. As yet, however, 1 have not been able to succeed in ad- vancing the building to that point which I desire, from want of money and men ; and being old, without any one about me to whose care 1 could leave the work, as I serve for the love of God, in whom is all my hope, I cannot abandon it.” At this period, with the letter, to which we have not done sufficient justice in the translation, it is impossible not to sympathise, nor to be unaffected by the simple and unbending honesty of this honour to the race of man, in- dependent of all our admiration of his stupendous power as an artist. At the age of eighty- seven, the pedestal being then ready for the reception of the cupola, he made a small model in clay for that important feature of his work, which was afterwards, to a scale, ac- curately under his direction, executed in wood ; but deficiency in the funds prevented the progress of the building. To the height of upwards of 28 ft. above the exterior attic the cupola is in one solid vault, whose diameter is near 139 ft. at its springing, at which place its thickness is near 10 It. exclusive of the ribs. As the inner and outer vaults are not con- centric, the interval between them increases as they rise. Where they receive the lantern they are 10 ft. 7 in. apart. The construction of this dome proves the profundity of the architect’s knowledge as a scientific builder to have equalled his superiority as an architect. 3:16. After the death of Michael Angelo, this cupola with its lantern was rigorously ex- ecuted, upon the model he bad left, by Jacopo della l’orta and Domenico Fontana. His intentions were religiously respected, in the completion of the fabric, until the time of Pino Ligorio, whom Pius IV. deprived of his situation for attempting to swerve from the model and substitute his own work. 337. Between the foundation of the church by Bramante, and its entire completion by Ciiaf. II. ITALIAN. 141 Carlo Mnderna, as seen in jirjs. 167. and 168., a century bad elapsed , but during that century n K . io: architectural as well as graphical and plastic taste had undergone great changes; and though the first was still far from the vicious point to which Borromini carried it, the great principles of order and authority, as founded on the models of antiquity, were passed away, and no longer occupied the attention of the architect. The spirit of innovation, too often mistaken for genius, had made such inroads, that regularity of plan, simplicity of form, 142 HISTORY OF architecture. Rook I. and the happy union of taste with common sense had altogether disappeared. The part added to the edifice by Maderno appears in the plan in a darker tint, by which it is seen that he added three arcades to the nave, in which the same ordonnance is continued, 328. Respecting the alteration in, or rather addition to the plan, it is, and is likelv to continue, a moot point, whether this change by Maderno has injured the effect of the church. “ There are,” says De Quincy, “in the method of judging of works of archi- tecture, so many different points of view from which they may be judged, that it is cj n ite possible to approve of even contrary things.” We are not ourselves disposed to censure the application of Maderno, though it cannot be denied that the symmetry of the fabric was in some measure destroyed by it. It is possible that the constant habit of seeing cathedrals with a prolonged nave, before we first saw St. Peter’s, may have disposed 11 s to look leniently at a point which so many better judges than ourselves have condemned. Michael Angelo’s plan was, doubtless, one of great simplicity and unity. According to his intention, the cupola was the principal feature, the four arms of its cross being accessaries which would not interfere with or lessen the effect of its grandeur, whose points of view could not be much varied. On the other hand, the edifice, enlarged according to the first project of Bramante, has acquired an immensity of volume, which, observes the author before quoted, one would be now sorry to see it deprived of. “ Ce sont deux grandeurs misuses sans etre rivulets.” In its exterior, however, it must be admitted that the pro- longation of the nave has not improved the effect ; and that arose from the necessity of strictly conforming to the forms that existed. It is manifest that the number of divisions which resulted from the mixtilinear plan of Michael Angelo would not well sort with the extended mass which the nave created. It was absolutely necessary that it should be conformable with what had been completed ; and the effect of this was lessening the elevation of the cupola in an almost fatal manner. The facade of entrance cannot in any way be defended ; and it is much to be regretted that the fine entrance designed by the great master was lost to the world. 339. St. Paul’s is, perhaps, the only great instance in Europe wherein the design was made and wholly carried into execution by the same architect. Works of this nature usually exceed the span of man’s life. St. Peter’s was altogether a century and a half in building. The change of architects is not the least inconvenience of such a state of things; for during so long a period such a change of taste arises that the fashion and style of an art are from accident scarcely the same at its commencement and end. Thus the church of the Vatican, which was begun by Bramante in a comparatively pure style, was, in the end, defaced by the vicious bizarreries of Borromini. It was fortunate Micnael Angelo, so Ear foreseeing accidents of this nature, had fixed unchangeably the main features of his com- position. 340. That the first idea of this stupendous fabric owes its origin to Bramante cannot be disputed ; but its greatness, as conceived by him, is confined to the boast of placing the cupola of the Pantheon upon the vaulting of the Temple of Peace. The sketch of it given by Serlio is nothing like the cupola which was executed. On the other hand, what was executed by Michael Angelo was scarcely new after what Brunelleschi had accomplished at Sta. Maria del Fiore. This, however, was a chef d’oeuvre of construction; that of St. Peter’s was a chef d’ceuvre of construction and architecture combined. What was new in it was, that it was the loftiest and largest of all works, ancient or modern, uniting in its vast volume the greatest beauties of proportion to simplicity and unity of form ; to mag- nificence and richness of decoration a symmetry which gives harmony to the whole, con- sidered by itself, and not less so when considered in relation to the mass of which it is rue crown. The great superiority of this cupola over all others is visible in another point or view, which we shall more particularly notice in the account of St. Paul’s in a sub- sequent page : it is, that the same masonry serves for the exterior as well as the interior, whereby an immense additional effect is gained in surveying it from the inside. All is fair ; there is no masking, as in other cupolas that followed it. 34 1. Whatever opinions may be formed on the other works of Michael Angelo, no difference can exist respecting the cupola of St. Peter’s. “ Si tout,” observes De Quincy, “ ce qui avait etc fait et pense, ou projete avant lui, en ce genre, ne pent lui disputer le prix de l’invention et de 1’originalite, et ne peut servir qu’a marquer la hauteur de son genie, il nous semble que les nombreuses coupoles elevecs dans toute 1’Europe depuis lui et d’apres lui, ne doivent se considerer encore que corame autant d’echelons, propres a faire mieux sentir et mesurer sa superiorite.” The bungling of Carlo Maderno at St. Peter’s is much to be regretted. The arches he added to the nave are smaller in dimensions than those which had been brought up immediately adjoining the piers of the cupola; and, what is still more unpardonable, the part which he added to the nave is not in a continued line with the other work, but inclines above 3 ft. to the north: in other words, the church is not straight, and that to such an extent as to strike every educated eye His taste, moreover, was exceedingly bad. II. ITALIAN. 143 ,342. In the principal churches of Rome there is great similarity of plan ; they usually •onsist of a nave and side aisles, in which latter, chapels are ranged along the sides. The eparation of the nave and aisles is effected by arcades. The transepts are not much •xtended, and over the intersection of them with the nave and choir a cupola generally rises. Hie chapels of the Virgin and of the Holy Sacrament are commonly in the transepts ; r.d the great altar is at the end of the choir, which usually terminates semicircularly on he plan. Unlike those of the Florentine school, the interiors of the Roman churches ire decorated to excess. Pictures, mosaics, and marbles of every variety line the walls. A profusion of gilding imparts to them a richness of tone, and the architectural details ire often in the highest state of enrichment. They are, indeed, temples worthy of the vorship of the Deity. Yet, with all this magnificence, the fayades are often mean ; and I'lien a display of architecture is exhibited in them, it is produced by abuses of the worst •lass. They are generally mere masks ; for between the architecture of these false fronts md that of the interior there is no architectural connection. In very many instances the ides of the churches are actually hidden by adjacent buildings, so that they are altogether inseen ; a circumstance which may have conduced to the repetition of the abuse. Faulty, mwever, as these edifices are, to them is Europe indebted as models, which have in nodern times been more purified. We have not space to enumerate or criticise the lunches with which Rome abounds. St. Carlo on the Corso, by Onorio Lunghi, is a fine example of them, and gives a fair notion of the general distribution we have described. Those of a later date, especially those by Borromini, may be considered as iiultces reruiu ntamlarum in architecture; and though we are, perhaps, from the cupidity of upholsterers md house decorators, likely to be doomed to sit in rooms stuffed with the absurdities of he taste prevalent in the time of Louis XV., we can hardly conceive it necessary in these lays to recommend the student’s abhorrence of such freaks of plan and elevation as are to >e found in the church of St. Carlo alle quattro F’ontane, by that architect. 343. The palaces of Rome are among the finest architectural works in Europe; and of hose in Rome, as we have before observed, none equals the F’arnese, whose fayade is ;iven in fig. 169. “ Ce vaste palais Farnese, qui a tout prendre, pour la grandeur Fig 169. KAHNF.SH PA I.ACU. le la masse, la regularite de son ensemble, et l’excellence de son architecture, a fcnvi tisqu’ici, dans 1’opinion des artistes, le premier rang entre tons les palais qu’on renomine,” s the general description of it by De Quincy, upon whom we have drawn largely, and must ontinue to do so. This edifice, by San Gallo, forms a quadrangle of 256 ft. bv 135 ft. t is constructed of brick, with the exception of the dressings of the doors and windows, he quoins of the fronts, and the entablature and loggia in the Strada Giulia, which are of ravertine stone. Of the same stone, beautifully wrought, is the interior of the court. 1'lie building consists of three stories, including that on theground, which, in the elevations ir facades, are separated by impost cornices. The only break in its symmetry and sim- ilicity occurs in the loggia, placed in the centre of the first story, which connects the i vindows on each side of it by four columns. Oil the ground story the windows are decorated vith square-headed dressings of extremely simple design ; in the next story they arc flanked I >y columns, whose entablatures are crowned alternately with triangular and circular icdiments ; and in the third story are circular-headed windows, crowned throughout with riangular pediments. The taste in which these last is composed is not so good as the ext, though they were probably the work of Michael Angelo, of whose cornice to the edifice Vasari observes, “ E stupendissimo il corniccione maggiore del mcdcsimo palazzo nellj HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE Rook I 1-M facciata dinan/.i, non si potendo alcima cosa ne pi u bulla ne pin magnified desiderare." The facade towards the Strada Giulia is different from the other fronts in the centre only, wherein there are three stories of arcades to the loggia, each of whose piers are decorated with columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders in the respective stories as they rise, and these in form and dimensions correspond with the three ranks of arcades towards the court. It appears probable that this central arrangement was not in the original design of San Gallo, hut introduced when the third story was completed. Magnificent as from its simplicity and symmetry is the exterior of this palace, which, as De Quincy observes, “ est tin edifice ton jours digne d’etre lesejour d’un prince,” yet does it not exceed the beauty of the interior. The quadrangle of the court is 88 ft. square between the columns of the arcades, and is composed with three stories, in which the central arrangement above mentioned towards the Strada Giulia is repeated on the two lower stories, over the upper whereof is a solid wall pierced in the windows. The piers of the lower arcade are orna- mented with Doric columns, whose entablature is charged with triglyphs in its frieze, and its metopte are sculptured with various symbols. The imposts of the piers are very finely profiled, so as to form the entablatures when continued over the columns of the entrance vestibule. In the Ionic arcade, over this, the frieze of the order is decorated with a series of festoons. The distribution of the different apartments and passage is well contrived. All about the building is on a scale of great grandeur. Though long unoccupied, and a large portion of its internal ornaments has disappeared, it still com- mands our admiration in the Carracci Gallery, which has continued to serve as a model for all subsequent works of the kind. The architecture of the Farnese palace, more especially as respects the arcades of its court, is the most perfect adaptation of ancient ar- rangement to more modern habits that has ever been designed. We here allude more particularly to the arcades, upon whose piers orders of columns are introduced. This species of composition, heavier, doubtless, less elegant, yet more solid than simple colon- nades, is, on the last account, preferable to them, where several stories rise above one another. The idea was, certainly, conceived from the practice in the ancient theatres and amphitheatres ; and in its application at the Farnese palace rivals in beauty all that antiquity makes us in its remains acquainted with. San Gallo, its architect, died in 154G. 3-14. It would he impossible here to enumerate the palaces with which Rome abounds ; hut we must mention another, that of St. Giovanni Laterano, by Domenico Fontana, as a very beautiful specimen of the palatial style. Milizia censures the detail of this edifice, and there is some truth in his observations in that respect ; but the composition is so simple and grand, and the cornice crowns it with so much majesty, that the detail is forgotten in the general effect, and its architect well deserves the rank of a great artist. 345. The villas, Ocelli cl' Italia, as they have been called, round the suburbs of Rome, are in a style far lighter than the palaces whereof we have just been speaking. They are the original models of the modern country bouses of this island, and exhibit great skill in their plans and elegance in their facades. Generally they rose from the riches and taste ol a few cardinals, who studded the environs of the Eternal City with some of the fairest gems of the art. AIM. Percier and Fontaine published a collection of them at Paris, from which we extract the Villa Pia ( fig. 170.). It was designed by Pirro Ligorio, a Neapolitan V1L1.A ClIAl'. I I. ITALIAN. 145 architect, who died in 1580 and is thus described by the authors whose view of it we have borrowed. “ It was built," say they, “in imitation of the houses of the ancients, which Ligorio had particularly studied. This clever artist, who to his talent as an architect joined the information of a learned antiquary, here threw into a small space every thing ;hat could contribute to render it a delightful dwelling. In the midst of verdant thickets, rnd in the centre of an amphitheatre of flowers, he constructed an open lodge, decorated with stuccoes and agreeable pictures. The lodge is raised upon a base, bathed by the water jf a basin, enclosed with marbles, fountains, statues, and vases. Two flights of steps, ivhich lead to landings sheltered by walls ornamented with niches and seats of marble, oiler rrotection from the sun’s rays by the trees that rise above them. Two porticoes, whose nterior walls are covered with stuccoes, lead on each side to a court paved in mosaic work. This is enclosed by a wall, round which seats are disposed. Here is a fountain spouting jp from the centre of a vase of precious marble. At the end of the court facing the lodge in open vestibule, supported by columns, fronts the ground floor cf the principal pavilion ; ind is decorated with mosaics, stuccoes, and bassi-relievi of beautiful design. The apartments m the first floor are ornamented with fine pictures. Finally, from the summit of a small ower, which rises above the building, the view extends over the gardens of the Vatican, and he plains through which the Tiber takes its course, and the splendid edifices of Rome.” For further information on the Roman villas, we refer the reader to the work we have [uoted. 846. The Roman school of architecture, founded by Bramante, includes San Gallo, luonarroti, Sansovino, Peruzzi, Vignola (whose extraordinary palace at Caprarola de- erves the study of every architect), and many others. It ends with Domenico Fontana he period of its duration being from 1470 to 1607, or little more than 130 years. 347. Before we proceed to the Venetian school, it will, however, be proper to notice wo architects, whose works tended to change much for the worse the architecture of heir time ; we mean Borromini and Bernini, though the latter was certainly purer in his aste than the former. Borromini, whose example in his art was followed throughout ■lurope, and who, even in the present day, has his returning admirers, was the father of all todern abuses in architecture ; and the reader must on no account confound his works with hose of the Roman school, which had ceased nearly half a century before the native of jlissona had begun to practise. lie inverted the whole system of Greek and Roman rchitecture, without replacing it by a substitute. He saw that its leading forms, sprung om a primitive type, were, by an imitation more or less rigorous, subjected to the prin- ■iples of the model from which its order and arrangement emanated. He formed the reject of annihilating all idea of a model, all principles of imitation, all plea for order and roportion. For the restriction in the art resultant from the happy fiction, or perhaps ■ality of a type, one whose tendency was to restrain it within the bounds of reason, lie Libstituted the anarchy of imagination and fancy, and an unlimited flight into all species of tipriee. Undulating flexibility supplanted all regularity of form ; contours of the most rotesque description succeeded to right lines ; the severe architrave and entablature were lent to keep up the strange delusion ; all species of curves were adopted in his operations, nd the angles of his buildings were perplexed with an infinite number of breaks. What lakes this pretended system of novelty more absurd is (and we are glad to have the oppor- [inity here of observing that the remarks we are making are applicable to the present Lshionable folly of decorating rooms a la L.nuis XIV. and XV.), that its only novelty was he disorder it introduced, for Borromini did not invent a single form. He was not scru- iulous in retaining all the parts which were indicated by imitating the type ; he decom- l ised some, transposed others, and usually employed each member in a situation directly se reverse of its proper place, and, indeed, just where it never would be naturally placed, bus, for example, to a part or ornament naturally weak, he would assign the office of lipporting some great weight ; whilst to one actually capable of receiving a great load, he ould assign no office whatever. With him every thing seems todiave gone by contraries; lid to give truth the appearance of fiction, and the converse, seems to have been his greatest light. Out of all this arose a constant necessity for contrivance, which marked Borromini . a skilful constructor, in which respect he attained to an extraordinary degree of intelli- L-nce. It seems, however, not improbable that one of his great objects in studying con- I ruction was, that he might have greater facility in carrying his curious conceits into kecution ; for it may be taken almost as an axiom in architecture, so great is the relation L-tween them, that simple forms and solid construction are almost inseparable ; and it is ily necessary to have recourse to extraordinary expedients in construction when our pro- ictions result from an unrestrained imagination. Further notice of this architect is not Lcessary ; one of his most celebrated works is the restoration of the church of St. iovanni Laterano, — after St. Peter’s, the greatest in Rome. His purest work is the lurch of St. Agncse; whilst that of St. Carlo alle quattro fontane, which we have herc- il'ore noticed, is the most bizarre. Borromini died in 1667. 348. Bernini, the other artist whom we have mentioned, was equally painter, sculptor, L Hfc II I STO It V OF A RCM I'l'KCTU RE. IIook 1. and architect ; his principal work is the colonnade in front of St. Peter’s. lie was, notwith- standing the abuses to be found in bis works, a man of great talent. In their general arrangement his buildings are good and harmonious; his profiles are graceful ; his orna- ments, though sometimes profuse, are usually elegant. Bernini, however, was no cheek upon the pernicious character of his cotemporary Borromini ; instead, indeed, of relieving architecture of some of her abuses, he encumbered her with fresh ones. He was also fond of broken pediments, and of placing them in improper situations. He employed undulations, projections innumerable, and intermixtures of right lines with curves; for beautiful simplicity he substituted elegant fancy; and is to be imitated or admired by the student no farther than he followed nature and reason. II e made some designs for the Louvre at Paris, which are exceedingly good. 1 1 is death occurred in 1680. 349. 3. The Venetian School is characterised by its lightness and elegance; by the con- venient distribution it displays : and by the abundant, perhaps exuberant, use of columns, pilasters, and arcades, which enter into its composition. Like its sister school of painting, its address is more to the senses than is the case with those we have just quitted. We have already given an account of the church of St. Mark, in the 12th century; from which period, as the republic rose into importance by its arms and commerce, its arts were destined to an equally brilliant career. The possession in its provinces of some fine monu- ments of antiquity, as well as its early acquaintance with Greece, would, of course, work beneficially for the advancement of its architecture. That species of luxury, the natural result of a desire on the part of individuals to perpetuate their names through the medium of their habitations, though not productive of works on a grand or monumental scale, leads, in a democracy (as were the states of Venice), to a very general display of moderately splendid and elegant palaces. Hence the extraordinary number of specimens of the building art supplied by the Venetian school. 350. San Micheli, who was born in 1484, may, with propriety, be called its founder. Having visited Rome at the early age of sixteen for the purpose of studying its ancient monuments of art, and having in that city found much employment, he, after many years of absence, returned to his native country. The mode in which he combined pure and beautiful architecture with the requisites called for in fortifications may be seen displayed to great advantage at Verona, in which city the Porta dell Pulllo is an instance of his wonderful ingenuity and taste. But his most admired works are his palaces at Verona ; though, perhaps, that of the Grimani family at Venice is his most magnificent production. The general style of composition, very different from that of the palaces of Florence ann Rome, is marked bv the use of a basement of rustic work, wherefrom an order rises, often with arched windows, in which he greatly delighted, and these were connected with the order after the manner of an arcade, the whole being crowned with the proper entablature. As an example, we give, in fiy. 171., the facade of the Pompei palace at Verona. The genius id Fin. 171 . PO.MPKI PAI.ACK, VfcS'iNA. San Micheli was of the very highest order ; his works are as conspicuous for excellent con- struction as they are for convenience, unity, harmony, and simplicity, which threw into shade the minor abuses occasionally found in them. If he had no other testimony, it would be sufficient to say, that for bis talents he was held in great esteem by Michael Angelo; and our advice to the student would be to study his works with diligence. San Micheli devoted himself with great ardour to tiie practice of military architecture; and though the invention was not for a long time afterwards assigned to him, he was the author of the Chip. II. ITALIAN. 147 svstem used by Vatiban and his school, who. for a long period, deprived him of the credit of it. Before him all the ramparts of a fortification were round or square. He introduced a new method, inventing the triangular and pentangular bastion, with plain fossfs, flanks, and square bases, which doubled the support ; he moreover not only flanked the curtain, hut all the fosse to the next bastion, the covered way, and glacis. The mystery of this art consisted in defending every part of the inclosure by the flank of a bastion ; hence, making it round or square, the front of it, that is, the space which remains in the triangle, which was before undefended, was by San Micheli provided against. We cannot, however, further proceed on this subject, which belongs to military, which at that period was intimately connected with civil architecture. The Porta did Pallin at Verona has been mentioned ; thatcity, however, contains another gate of great architectural merit by this master, the Porta Nnova, a square edifice, supported within bv a number of piers of stone, with enclosures or apartments for the guards, artillery, &c. The proportions, as a whole, are pleasing ; it is of the Doric order, devoid of all extraneous ornament, solid, strong, and suitable to the purposes of the building. Except in the middle gate and the architectural parts, the work is rusticated. The exterior facade stands on a wall, with two large pyra- midal pilasters of marble rising from the bottom of the fosse ; at the top are two round enclosures approaching almost to towers. In the interior, to the two gates near the angles are two corresponding long passages, vaulted, leading to a number of subterraneous galleries and rooms. For beauty, however, we do not think this gate so beautiful as that of del Pallio, which we here give {Jig. 172.). But the gem of this great master is the little circular Fife- 172 . PORTA OKI. PAI.I. HI, VERONA. chapel at San Bernardino, whose beauty, we think, has scarcely ever been surpassed, and which exhibits, in a striking degree, the early perfection of the Venetian school. It was not finished under San Micheli, and blemishes are to be found in it ; it is nevertheless an exqui- site production, and, in a surprisingly small space, exhibits a refinement which elsewhere we .carcely know equalled. The works which he designed surpass, we believe, in number hose of all the masters of Italy, Palladio, perhaps, excepted. He gave a tone to his art n the Venetian states, which endured for a considerable period. His death occurred in 1549 . 351 Contemporary with San Micheli, was another extraordinary genius of this school, >orn at Florence, — Jacopo Tatti by name, but more usually called Sansovino, from the •ountry of his master, Andrea Contucei di Monte Sansovino. Such was the respect for his artist in Venice, his adopted city, that at a moment when it became necessary to raise »v means of taxation a large sum on the citizens, the senate made a special exemption in favour of him and Titian. The Homan school might lay claim ,to him, if the works he executed at Home, and not bis style, would justify it ; but that is so marked, so tinctured vith the system of arcades with orders, its distinguishing feature, that an inspection of us works will immediately satisfy even a superficial observer. He was a great master of i .is art ; and though be does not in so great a degree appear to have profited by the ex- mplcs of antiquity as the architect last named, he has left behind buildings, which, for neturesque effect, leave him little inferior in our rating. He was the architect of the ibrary of St. Mark at Venice, a portion whereof is given in fig. 173. ; a building ol loblc design, notwithstanding the improprieties with which it is replete. It consists of wo orders; the lower one of highly ornamented Doric, and the upper one Ionic and very rnceful in effect. Of both these orders, as will be seen in the figure, the entablatures are f inordinate comparative height. The upper one was expressly so set out for the purpose f exhibiting the beautiful sculptures with which it is decorated. The cornice is crowned ith n balustrade, on whose piers statues were placed by the ablest scholars of Sansovino, i portico Occupies the ground floor, which is raised three steps from the level of the Ki/za. This portico consists of twenty-one arcades, whose piers are decorated with duinns. In the interior are arches corresponding to the external ones, sixteen whereof, ith their internal apartments, are appropriated for shops. Opposite the centre arch is a •agniliccnt staircase leading to the hall, beyond which is the library of St. Mark. The I4H HISTORY OT ARCHITECTURE. Book I. faults of this building, which are very many, are lost in its grace and elegance, and it is perhaps the chef d’ceuvre of the master. Whilst Sansovino was engaged on it he propounded an archi- tectural problem, which re- minds us very much of the egg of Columbus : “ How can the exact half of a metope be so contrived as to stand on the external angle of the Doric frieze ? ” The solution, clumsy as that of the navigator with his egg, practised in this build- ing, is, however, a bungling absurdity ; namely, that of lengthening the frieze just so much as is necessary to make out the deficiency. Sansovino was invited to pass into France, where he gave some designs, which tended to the advance- ment of the art in that coun- try. On his return he built the Zecca, or mint, one of his finest works. Another of his extraordinary productions is the palace of the Comari, on the Grand Canal at San Maurizio. The church of San Fantino, among the finest of Venice, is also by him ; as is that of San Martino and many others. Jacopo was fertile in invention: his architecture was full of grace and elegance; but he was deficient in a thorough knowledge of construction, which, in the library of St. Mark, brought him into disgrace, of which, from all accounts, the builders ought to have .suffered the principal share. He continually introduced the orders, and especially the Doric and Composite. The members of his entablatures were much sculptured ; but his ornaments were extremely suitable and correct. In statues and bassi relievi he greatly indulged, thereby adding considerably to the effect and majesty of his buildings. Seamozzi mentions a work by him on the construction of floors, and particularly describes a method adopted by him for preventing dust falling through the joints of the boards. The work has been lost. Sansovino died in 1570. 352. After such artists as San Micheli and Sansovino, it would have seemed to an ordinary mind difficult to have invented new forms, or rather so to have modified the old ones as to be original. Andrea Palladio, however, not only knew how to be original, but to leave his works as models for the countries of Europe, in which the style which bears his name has had no rival ; so true is it, in all the arts, that there is always room to be found for a man on whom nature has bestowed the faculty of seeing, feeling, and thinking for himself. In the case of the architect something more than genius is necessary: it is requisite that cir- cumstances should exist by which his art may be developed, or, in other words, that what he is capable of producing may at the time be suitable to the wants of society. Such circumstances existed for a long period in Italy, where, up to the time at which we are arrived, the rich and great had been contending with the governments which should be the greatest patrons of the art. Hence sprung the multitude of extraordinary works in the country named, which still point out the greatness in art at which it had arrived, when it was one of the really necessary arts. Neither in the Venetian states, nor at the time when he rose into reputation, which was about the middle of the sixteenth century, had Pallad io that opportunity of signalising himself which had occurred to many former masters. Venice had risen into power and wealth by its arms and commerce; was the natural protcctrix of the art; and although the works she required were not on scales of the grandest dimensions, yet those which her citizens required kept pace in luxury with the increasing wealth of the families by whom they were required. This was the career open to the genius of Palladio. Architecture in these states was not called upon to furnish churches of colossal dimensions, nor palaces for sovereigns, nor immense public monu- ments left for posterity to finish. The political state of the country, very luckily fot his talents, furnished a numerous class of citizens who contended which should procure tor himself the aid of this great man in rearing a villa or palace, and which might serve the Cu\r. II. ITALIAN. Mu double purpose of a present dwelling for, and a future memorial of, Ills family, — a passion tliat coiered the hanks of the Brcnta with edifices which, of their class, form a complete school of civil architecture. 353. The taste of Palladio was tempered by the care he bestowed on accommodating ex- terior beauty to interior convenience, and by suiting the art to the wants of persons with moderate means, through the medium of greatness without great dimensions, and richness of effect without great outlay. In the imitation, or rather appropriation, of the architecture of the ancients, none of his predecessors of any of the schools had so luckily hit on that just medium of exactness vithout pedantry, of severity without harshness, of liberty without licentiousness, which have since made the architecture of ancient Greece popular, and so modified it as to be practicable and convenient in all countries. We here speak, of course, of the elements, and not the combinations, of Greek art, and of it changed by a passage through an intermediate state during the existence of the Roman empire. No architect can consider himself thoroughly educated who has not studied the works of Palladio. “ De fait,” says De Quincy, in his Life of this architect, “ il n’est point d’architecte qui, apres avoir forme ou reforme son style sur les grands modeles de l’art des anciens, et des premiers maitres de l’ltalie moderne, lie se croie pas oblige d’aller encore etudier dans la patrie et les oeuvres de Palladio, un genre duplications plus usuelles, et plus en rapport avec l’etat de nos moeu rs ; c’est-a-dire, le secret d’accommoder tour-a-tour, et nosbesoins aux plaisirs d'une belle architecture, et I’agrement de celle-ci aux sujetions que de nouveaux besoins lui imposent.” It was from the peculiar properties of Palladio's taste and style, suited a.-, they are to more moderate fortunes, that they found in England a second native country (if such an expression may be allowed), where Inigo Jones, Wren, Gibbs, Taylor, Cham- bers, and many others, have naturalised the plans, facades, distribution, and details which were originally planted in the provinces of the Venetian republic. Indeed, the style of Palladio could not be prevented from spreading through Europe, as a mean between the severe use of ancient forms and the licentious style of those who reject all rules whatever. The buildings by him exhibit great good sense, simple means of accom- plishing the end, a satisfactory agreement between the demands of necessity and pleasure, and such an harmony between them that it is hard to determine which has submitted to the other. The interior distribution of his palaces and villas in respect of plan would, without considerable modification, be but ill suited to modern habits. We give, in fig. 174. (see next paye), apian and elevation of the Villa Capra, one of his most celebrated works of that class. Convenience changes as the mode of life varies ; indeed, except in a private build- ing of large extent, the large quadrangular court of the houses of Italy is here unknown. Palladio’s plans, however, were convenient to those for whom they were executed ; and in that way they must be judged. With his eyes constantly turned to the practice and detail of the ancients, he acquired a bold, simple, and agreeable style ; and. his churches excepted, the beauties of the master are to be sought in his facades, and the quadrangles of his palaces. Pedestals, either with panels or raisings, were always avoided by him ; his architraves were rarely sculptured ; and the upper ornaments of his entablatures were always carefully centred above each other. II is doors, windows, and niches are composed with great simplicity; and pediments, when used, are unbroken. In the members of his cornices he never lost sight of the character of the order employed, and was extremely particular in duly adjusting its profiles. He, however, did not scruple to vary the proportions of an order according to the nature of the building to which it was applied; and in the propor- tions of his churches and apartments he seems to have delighted, as afterwards did Sir Christopher Wren, in arithmetical, geometrical, and harmonic proportions. Though ex- tremely partial to the use of the Ionic order, yet the others were not unfrequently used bv him. His Corinthian capital is not to be praised; it is profiled very clumsily, and ought not to be followed. The domes which he erected are almost invariably hemispherical. It is not to be supposed that his buildings are perfect, though they approach perfection; but it is more than probable that many of the abuses we see in them arose either from want of sufficient superintendence, the number he designed being very great, or that they were introduced after his death. This, we think, may be safely assumed, because the instructions in his work on architecture are very peremptory on the subject of abuses. So well based upon the practice of the ancients does the style of our master appear to be, that it is, with but few modifications, suited to all nations, and just such as the ancients themselves would have adopted. “ Les fermes,” observes Le Grand in his parallele, “ que dirigeait Palladio et qu’il couvrait de tuiles on d’un chaume rustique, l'emportent de beaucoup sur les palais somptueux de Borromini, ou sur les riches et bizarres productions de Guarino Guarini.” Certain, indeed, it is that simplicity, unity, and style are more powerful means of producing grandeur, than great volume or large masses unskilfully handled. A fine in- stance of this is seen in the facade of the Tliiene palace at Vicenza, fiij. 175. ( See next paqe. ) 3.54. The number of palaces and villas with which Palladio enriched the Venetian and Vicentine territories is almost incredible: the variety of plan and elevation in them seems as inexhaustible as their number. To the buildings above referred to may be added the 150 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boob L Fiji. 175. ELEVATION AND SECTION OF PALAZZO TIIIENK. Chap. II. ITALIAN. 151 I Carita at Venice, which is a lovely specimen of his style. His grandest church is that Del lledentore at Venice. Generally in the facades of his churches there are abuses, whereof it is i 'scarcely credible he would have been guilty: such are the two half pediments in the church we have just mentioned. The theatre built upon the ancient model for the Olympic Academy at Vicenza gained great reputation for him. Palladio died in 1580. 355. The last architect of the Venetian school who obtained celebrity was Vincenzo Scamozzi. The son of an architect, and born in a country which had become the nursery of the art, his powers were exhibited at an early age. Like Palladio and other great masters, he selected for his principal guides the antiquities of the Eternal City, and the rrecepts of Vitruvius, whose work at that period was considered of high importance, as in truth it really was. There is no doubt that Scamozzi was much indebted to the works of Palladio, although he affected occasionally to decry them ; but, in opposition to l)c Quincy, we think that his style is more founded on that of San A I icheli or Sansovino. This is, however, of little importance ; for his natural talents were of a very high order. At a very early period of his career, so great was his reputation that he was employed by the canons of San Salvadore in opening the lantern to the cupola of their church ; a task in i which it appears that he acquitted himself with great ability. Tor the upper order of the Procurazie Nuove at Venice he has often been unjustly reproached, because he did not confine himself to two stories, so as to complete the design of Sansovino. The design of Scamozzi, had it been continued in the Piazza San Marco, would have placed in the hack iground every other piazza in Europe. The two lower stories of the Procurazie Nuove iare similar in design to the Library of S. Marco ; and it is greatly to be regretted that Scamozzi was so much otherwise occupied that he had not the opportunity of watching the whole of its execution, which would have extended to thirty arcades, whose whole length would have been 426 feet. Scamozzi only superintended the first thirteeen ; the three built by Sansovino excepted, the rest were trusted to the care of builders rather than artists, and, from the little attention bestowed upon preserving the profiles, exhibit a neg- ligence which indicates a decline in the arts at Venice. Scamozzi is placed in the first rank as an architect by his design for the cathedral at Saltzburg, whither he was invited by the archbishop of the see. This church, which was not completed till after his death in 1616, is 454 ft. long, and 329 ft. wide, being in the form of a Latin cross on the plan, over whose centre a cupola rises. The distribution of the interior is with a nave and two side aisles; the former whereof is 64 ft. wide, and 107 ft. high. Scamozzi’s employment was very extended, and his country has to lament it ; for fewer commissions would have insured greater perfection in their execution, which, in those that exist, is often unworthy of the name of the master. Scamozzi published a work on the art, which will be found in our list of authors at the end of this work. Lie died in 1616. 356. Besides Giovanni da Ponte and Alessandro Vittoria, the Venetian school contains file- names of few more than those we have named : they appear to have commanded the whole of the employ of the states and neighbourhood of Venice for a period of about 110 years, ending in 1616. When, however, it no longer continued to grow and flourish in its native oil, its scions, grafted throughout Europe, spreading their branches in every country, orospered wherever they appeared. On the former of the two architects just named, a few Observations are necessary. lie died in 1597, at the age of eighty-five years. Principally Occupied in the reparation and re-establishment of the buildings of the city that had fallen into decay, he was nevertheless engaged on some considerable works; among which was fhe great hall of the arsenal at Venice, 986 feet long, and the more celebrated work of the liialto Bridge, whence he obtained the sobriquet Da Ponte , and for the execution whereoi |ue competed with Palladio and Scamozzi. The span of the single arch of which the work onsists is about 72 ft., and the thickness of the arch stones about 4 ft. 4 in. It is seg- mental, and the height from the level of the water is about 22 ft. 9 in. The width of the bridge is equal to the span of the arch, and this width is divided longitudinally into five divisions, that is, into three streets or passages, and two rows of shops. The middle street >r pissage is 21 ft. 8 in. wide, and the two side ones near I 1 ft. The number of shops on t is twenty-four. The last work of Da Ponte was the construction of the prisons away rom the ducal palace. This edifice is a quadrilateral building, with a portico of seven arcades A story rises out of it pierced by seven great windows decorated with pediments, old it is joined to the palace by the bridge so well known under the name of II Ponte (lei Sosjiiri. The work was not carried to completion during Giovanni’s life, but was finished by his nephew Contino. In his church on the Grand Canal, constructed for the nuns of Santa Croce, there is little merit except that of solidity ; indeed, he does not appear to have possessed much taste, as may be inferred from the two ranks of columns in the hall of lie arsenal above mentioned, which cannot be said to belong to any of the species of co- jlumns usually employed. The solid character of the great prison is appropriate, and more i n consonance with the rules of the art. 152 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hons l Sect. XVII. FRENCH ARCHITECTURE. 357. The architecture of Europe from the middle of the sixteenth century was founded on that of Italy. Of its value, the French and the English neem to have a stronger per- ception than the rest of the nations. We shall therefore now consider the architecture of France: that of England from a much earlier date will be separately considered in the succeeding chapter. l’hilibert Delorme was among the first of the architects of France who promoted a taste for good architecture ; and though in some respects he may have been surpassed by other artists of his time, in others, whether connected with theory or practice, he has left his rivals a great distance behind him. Although he might not have had the purity of detail of Jean Bullant, nor the richness of invention and execution of P. Lescot, he has acquired by his talent in construction a reputation which has survived his buildings. The Queen Catherine of IVIedieis having resolved upon the construction of a palace at Paris, which should far surpass all that had previously been done in France, resolved upon placing it on a spot then occupied by some tile kilns (Tuileries) in the faubourg St. Honore, and committed the design and erection to Delorme. It is, however, contended by some that Jean liullant was joined with him in the commission. If that was really the case, it is probable that the labours of the latter were confined to details of ornament and execution, rather than to the general design and disposition. What, if it was so, belonged to each is not now to he discovered ; but the genius of Delorme has survived all the revolutions the celebrated building in question has undergone. Catherine seems not to have been satisfied with the works ; for she appears to have begun another palace on the site of the Hotel Soissons, that of the present Halle au Bleds, and to have entrusted this to the care of Jean Bullant. That of the Tuileries was in the end continued by Henri IV.; enlarged by Louis XIII. on the same line, after the designs of Du Cerceau.with two main bodies and two composite pavilions; all which were in the time of Louis XIV. afterwards brought together by the designs of I.eveau and Dorbay. In the centre pavilion all that now remains of Delorme’s work is the lower order of Ionic columns. This morsel of Delorme exhibits a good Ionic profile in the order, and is one of his best works. Generally speaking, the profiles of this master, which Chambrai has admitted into his Purallele, make one ac- knowledge the justice of that author’s observation, that he had “ un peu trop vu les plus belles choses de Rome, avec des yeux encore preoccupes du style Gothique. Le talent de cet architecte consistait principalement dans la conduite d’un b„ timent, et de vrai il ctait plus consomme en la connaissance et la coupe des pierres que dans la composition dcs ordres ; aussi en a-t-il ecrit plus utilement et bien plus au long.” Delorme was the author of two works on architecture: one, Un Truitt ' complete de V Art de Batir, on architecture generally; the other, Nouvelles Inventions pour bien batir et a petits frais. The last relates more especially to a practice in carpentry, which, on the Continent, has been put into execution with great success, its principle being still constantly applied. The method of carpentry invented by Delorme, and which still goes in France by his name, consists in substituting for the ordinary system of framing and rafters, curved ribs, in two thicknesses, of any sort of timber, three or four feet long, and one foot wide, of an inch in thickness, and which are connected in section and tie according to the form of the curve, whether pointed, semicircular, or segmental. These arches, in order to he strong and solid, should he fixed at their feet on plates of timber framed together, lying very level on the external walls; and the planks which are to form the principal curve are to be placed accurately upright on their ends, in which situation they may be kept by braces morticed into them at con- venient distances, and retained in their places by wedges, for it is essential to the strength of this species of carpentry that it should be kept in a vertical position. In this country the species of carpentry just mentioned has never been practised to the extent it deserves. Delorme died in 1570. With him was cotemporary Jean Bullant, whose name has been just mentioned, and who, whilst San Gallo was occupied on the Palazzo Farnese, was raising the Chateau d’Ecouen, in which the prelude to good taste is manifest, and in whose details are exhibited the work of an architect very far advanced above his time, and capable of raising the art to a much higher pitch of excellence than it enjoyed, had not the habits of the nation restrained him in his useful course. A considerable portion of the facade of the Tuileries towards the Carousel is suspected to have been the work of Bullant ; hut the eh ,teau of Ecouen, built, or rather begun, about 15-tO, for the constable Montmorency, was almost the first step to the establishment of pure architecture in France, and its architect may fairly be named the Inigo Jones of the French 358. By the wars in Italy under Charles VI 1 1., Louis XII., and Francis I., the French had become intimately acquainted with the architecture of Italy, and the taste of the monarch last named induced him to bring from that country some of their most celebrated artists; so that in France there was almost a colony of them. Among them, fortunately Chap. II. FRENCH. 153 for I lie quicker working of good taste, was the celebrated Vignola, who resided in France many years ; a circumstance which may, with some probability, account for the high esteem in which that great master’s profiles have always been held, and indeed in which they are still held there, though, generally speaking, the French have invariably been more attached in their practice to the Venetian than to the Roman school. Serlio, another Italian archi- tect of note, was employed in the country by Francis, and actually died at Fontainebleau. At the period whereof we are now treating there appears to have been a number of able artists; for to Delorme and Bullant must be added Lescot, who, with Jean Gougeon as his sculptor, was many years employed upon the building usually called the Vienx Louvre, to distinguish it from the subsequent additions which have quadrupled the original project of Lescot. To judge of the works of the French architects of this period, a relative, and not an abstract view, must be taken of them ; relative, we mean, to the general cultivation of the arts when any individual artist appears. In this respect Lescot’s works at the Louvre are entitled to the greatest praise ; and from the examples he as well as Bullant and Gougeon afforded, it might have been expected that pure architecture would have proceeded with- out check until it reached a point as high as that to which it had been carried in Italy. Such was not, however, to be the case. Mary de Medicis, during her regency, having de- termined on building the Luxembourg palace, was anxious to have it designed in the style of the palaces of Florence, her native city. Jacques de Brosse, her architect, was therefore compelled to adopt the character required : his prototype seems to have been the Pitti palace, and his version of it is a failure. The gigantic palaces of Florence well enough bear out against the rustic and embossed work employed upon them ; but when their scale is re- duced, the employment of massive parts requires great caution. The palace, however, of the Luxembourg became a model for the fashion of the day, and produced an intermediate style, which lasted many years in France, and arrested the arrival at perfection whereof the above work of Bullant and others had opened a fair prospect. De Brosse was an able artist, and his design for the facade of St. Gervais of three orders is, under the circumstances, entitled to our praise. This architect acquired much honour by the aqueduct of Arcueil, the com- pletion whereof, in 1624, it is supposed he did not long survive. 359. Under Louis XIV. the art remained for the most part in the intermediate state just noticed; and yet that monarch and his minister Colbert lost, no opportunity of em- bellishing the kingdom with its productions. He employed Bernini to make designs for the palace of the Louvre ; and for that purpose induced the artist to visit France, where he was received with the highest respect. He left a design for a fa 9 ade of the building in question, which, though in a corrupt style, exhibits nevertheless marks of grandeur and magnificence which would have been worthy of the monarch. Bernini, disgusted, as he alleged, with the workmen of Paris, departed from the country without leaving any ex- ample of his architectural powers. That he did so France has no reason to lament, since it gave Perrault the opportunity of ornamenting the capital with one of the most splendid monu- ments of the art which Europe can boast. To Perrault is the credit due of having given an impulse to French architecture it has never lost, and of having changed the heavy style of his time into the light and agreeable forms of the Venetian school. The beauties of the fumade of the Louvre {fig- 176.) are so many and great that its defects are forgotten. The 154 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. proportions are so exquisite, that the eye cannot rest on the coupled columns and the arcli of the principal gate rising into the story of the colonnade. The original profession ol l’errault was that of medicine, which, however, he only exercised for the benefit of Ids friends and the poor ; hence the design he made with others in competition for the above work having been successful, he was associated for its execution with Louis le Veau, the king’s principal architect. From the variety of sciences in which Perrault excelled, it is not probable that the assistance of a practical architect was actually necessary ; indeed the four volumes which he published under the title Essais de Physique, and the collection ol machines for raising and removing great weights, which he also published, show that he was, without assistance, quite competent to the charge which was committed to him with others. He built the observatory at Paris, possessing an originality of character which Milizia says is very conformable to its purpose. But however suitable it may have been considered at the time of its erection, and it cannot be denied there is a fine masculine character about it, it is for its purpose in the present age altogether ill adapted for the ob- jects of astronomy. Perrault died in 1688. Cotemporary with him was Le Merrier, the architect of the church de l’Oratoire, in the Rue St. Honore. Le Merrier died, however, in 1660; eight and twenty years, therefore, before the decease of Perrault. Among the architects whose practice was exceedingly extended was Jules Hardouin Mansart, the architect of Versailles, and the especial favourite of Louis XIV. He was principally em- ployed between the years 1675 and his death in 1708. His ability, as Milizia observes, was not equal to the size of his edifices; though it is hardly fair for that author to have made such an observation on the architect of the cupola of the Invalides at Paris. Of this church and dome De Quincy has most truly stated, that though nothing that can be called classic is to be noticed about it, yet it contains nothing in dissonance with the principles of the art. It is a whole in which richness and elegance are combined; in which lightness and solidity are well balanced ; in which unity is not injured by variety ; and whose general effect silences the critic, however he may be disposed to find fault. In Versailles, the taste which we have above noticed as introduced bv De Brosse is prevalent ; but the interior of the chapel displays to great advantage the great genius of Mansart, and shows that he was not incapable of the most refined elegance. .860. Jacques Ange Gabriel was the relation and worthy pupil of Mansart. The colon- nades to the Garde Meuble in the Place Louis X V. ( now the Place de la Concorde) exhibit a style which, with the exception only of Perrault’s facade of the Louvre, not all the patronage of Louis XI V. was capable of eliciting. To Gabriel almost, if not perhaps as much as to Perrault, the nation is under a debt of gratitude for the confirmation of good taste in France. He has been accused of pirating the Louvre; but reflection and com- parison will show that there is no real ground for such an accusation. The difference be- tween the two works is extremely wide. The basement of Perrault is a wall pierced with windows ; that of Gabriel is an arcade : in the upper stories the columns are not coupled, which is the case at the Louvre. From these circumstances alone the character of the two works is so different, that it is quite unnecessary to enter into other detail. Architecture in France at this period, the commencement of the eighteenth century, was in a palmy state, and has never before or since risen to higher excellence ; though the French are still, from the superior method of cultivating the art there, and the great encouragement it re- ceives, the first architects in Europe. The great extent of the Place Louis XV. (744 ft. long, and 522 broad) is injurious to the effect of the Garde Meuble, which, as the reader will recollect, is rather two palaces than one. Its basement is perhaps, speaking without reference to the vast area in front of it, too high, and the intercolumniations too wide, for the order ( Corinthian) employed ; but it is easier to find fault than to do equally well ; and we cannot leave the subject without a declaration that we never pass away from its beauties without a wish to return and contemplate their extreme elegance. They are to us of that class to which Cicero’s expression may be well applied : “ pernoctant nobiscum, peregri- nantur.” Gabriel died in 1 742. Antoine, the architect of the Mint at Paris, was another of the choice spi.its of the period : he continued the refined style whereof we are speaking; Olid though the age of Louis XV. was not destined to witness the erection of such stupendous edifices as that of Louis le Grand, it displayed a purer and far better taste. This architect was the first who employed in his country the Grecian Doric, which had then become known, though not perfectly, by the work of Le Roy. Antoine used it at L' Hospice de la Charite ; and De Quincy cites it as a circumstance which called forth the approbation of people of taste, and observes that the attemp t would have attracted more followers, if, instead of exciting the emulation of architects in the study of it and its judicious application to monuments, to which the character of the order is suitable, fashion had not applied it to the most vulgar and insignificant purposes. Antoine lived into the present century, having died in 1801, at the age of 68. 861. Louis XV., during a dangerous illness at Metz, is reported to have made a vow which led to the erection of the celebrated church of St. Genevieve, or, as it has since been called, the Pantheon; the largest modern church in France, and second to none in simplicity, HAT. II. FRENCH. 1S£ egancc, and variety. Another cause may, however, wiili as much probability, be assigned ; e inadequacy of accommodation for the religious wants of the population, and especially that appertaining to the patroness Saint of Paris. Many projects had been presented He. 177. PI. AN 07 PANTIIKON, PARIS. Ml.hv A I ■'(.> AM> IKCriON I>r fAMIII.I'N, PARI.. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. 1 56 for the purpose, but that of Soufflot received the preference. This talented artist, who was born in 1713, at Irancy near Auxerre, after passing some time in Italy, had been settled al I.vons, and there met with considerable and deserved employment. In that city the great hospital had deservedly brought him into notice, for his knowledge in providing against the miseries of mankind, not less than had his beautiful theatre for providing for its pleasures. The plan (Jig. 1 77. ) of the Pantheon (so it is now usually called) is a species of Greek cross, l'he interior is divided transversely into two equal parts on each side, and a central one much larger, by isolated columns, instead of the plans previously in use of arcades decorated with pilasters. It is however, strictly, in its internal as well as external character, to be classed as belonging to the Venetian school. Its west front and transverse section are given in fig. 178. l'he light effect, which is so striking in the interior, produced by the employment of columns instead of the old system of arcades, is extremely pleasing, though, as has often been truly urged, they have no office to perform. Objections, moreover, have been taken to the wide intercolumniations of the portico, and to some other parts, which here it is unnecessary to particularise. It is, notwithstanding all that has been written against it, most certainly entitled to take the fourth place of the modern great churches in Europe; which are, Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence, St. Peter’s at Rome, St. Paul’s at London, and then the church in question. Its gieatest fault is instability about the piers of the cupola, — the old fault, from which not one is altogether free, and one which gave Soufflot so much uneasiness that it is said to have hastened his death. This failure was afterwards rectified by his celebrated pupil Rondelet, who, with consummate skill, imparted perfect and lasting security to the edifice. 362. We ought perhaps before to have mentioned the name of Servandoni, as eminently influencing, in his day, the taste of Paris, which, as the world knows, is that of France. A Florentine by birth, and a scholar of the celebrated Pannini. he, in 1731, exhibited a model for the fa 9 ade of St. Sulpice ; and after a year’s probation before the public, it was adopted. On an extended front of 196 ft. he succeeded in imparting to it, as a whole, an air of great majesty, and of giving to the church a porch of vast extent without injury to the general effect. Servandoni was very extensively employed: his style was that of the Venetian school ; and his death occurred in 1766. 363. To write an history of the modern architecture of France, and at the same time to do its professors justice, would require a much larger volume than that under our pen: we profess to give no more than a bird’s-eye view of it, so as to bring the reader generally acquainted with its progress; and it is not without much regret that we propose closing our account of it in the person of Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in 1818, at the age of eighty-one; an architect whose veneration for the works of Palladio was so unbounded, that for the study of them exclusively he performed a second journey into Italy : a strange infatuation in a man of great acquirements, if the opinions of some of our anonymous critics are of any value. When Gondouin was employed, the heavy style of Louis XIV. had passed away, and the suitable and elegant style of the Venetian school had been adopted. The pupils of Blonde], among whom he was eminent, were stimulated by the patronage of the whole capital ; and even in the present day, so far capable are its inhabitants of appre- ciating the merits of an architect, regret as we may to record it, that it is from that circum stance alone likely to maintain its superiority over all others in Europe. The most celebrated work of Gondouin is the Ecole de Medecine, whose amphitheatre for lectures, capable of holding 1200 persons, is a model for all buildings of its class, without at all entering on the great merits of the other parts of the building. Fie was one of those upon whom the effects of the French Revolution fell with particular force, though, upon the re-establish- ment of order, he in some measure recovered his station in society. He was entrusted with the erection of the column in the Place Vendome, but merely as respected its preparation for the sculpture. 364. In Paris is to be found some of the most beautiful street architecture in Europe. That of Rome and Florence is certainly of a very high class, and exhibits some examples w hich will probably never be equalled. These, moreover, have associations attached lo them which spread a charm over their existence of which it is not easy to divest one’s self and which, perhaps, contain some of the ingredients which enter into our high admiration of them. But, on a great and general scale, the most beautiful street architecture in Europe is to be found in Paris; and so great in this respect do we consider that city, that we are certain the education of an architect is far from complete if he be not intimately acquainted with the examples it affords. In that, as in most of the cities of Europe., the requirements of the shopkeeper interfere with the first principles of the art; but in this the violation of the rules of sound building, so as to connect them with his accommodation, are less felt by the critical observer than elsewhere. The spirit which seems to actuate the French nation is to produce works which may properly be called monumental ; in this country, the government has never applied itself to a single work worthy of that epithet. The prin- cipal care of an English minister seems to be that of keeping his place as long as the nation will endure him. Commerce and politics are the only subjects which such a personage Chap. IT. GERMAN. 157 seems to think worthy his attention, and the sciences have only been patronised by the (government in proportion to their bearing on those two absorbing points. But we .shall perhaps revert to this in the following chapter. Sect. XVIII. GERMAN ARCHITECTURE. 365. No country exhibits more early, beautiful, or interesting specimens of Romanesque md pointed architecture, than Germany. The Rhine, and the southern parts of it which were under the sway of the Romans, are those, as we have already observed, in which these are principally to be found. Their history, however, has, sufficiently for general purposes, been traced under the sections of Byzantine or Romanesque and Pointed Architecture. The revival of the arts in Italy, as it did in other nations, here equally brought n the styles of the Italian schools, which, as elsewhere throughout Europe, have lasted to ■ he present period ; and will certainly endure until some general change in the habits of I ts different nations renders necessary or justifies some other style as a worthy successor to :hem. On this to speculate were a waste of time; though there be some, and those men of :alent, who contemplate a millennium of architecture, by making every thing in style de- pendent on the new materials (cast-iron for instance) which it is now the practice to employ, md often, it must be conceded, most usefully. Whilst the pointed style lasted in Europe, Italy was occasionally indebted to the Germans for an architect. Thus, notwithstanding the denial of Milizia, Lapo, a German architect, was employed in the early stages of construction if Santa Maria del Fiore ; and it is well authenticated that Zamodia a German, Annex of l'riburg, and Ulric of Ulm, were employed on the cathedral at Milan. Franchetti ( Storiu ; Descrizione del Duomo di Milano , 4to. Milan, 1821) asserts, that the first of these was .ngaged on it about 1391, the period of the golden age of pointed architecture in Germany; md the reputation of the Germans in this respect was at that time so great, that John md Simon of Cologne were actually carried into Spain for the purpose of designing and carrying into execution the cathedral at Burgos. It is at this period difficult to assign lie cause of the nation so completely dropping astern, to use a nautical phrase, in the fine ■rts, and more particularly architecture. It was most probably the result of their political -•ondition, and the consequent relative position they occupied in the affairs of Europe. But, whatever the cause, it is, in fact, most certain, that from the revival of the arts in Italy .intil near the end of the 18th century, Germany furnishes the names of few, if any, architects who are known beyond the limits of the country. Italy during the time in question seems ;.o have repaid the nation for the early assistance received from them. At Fulda and Vienna, Carlo Fontana was extensively engaged ; Guarini on the church of Santa Anna at Prague ; jSeamozzi on the cathedral at Salzburg; Andrew Pozzo, who died at Vienna in 1709, was here employed on several of the churches : Martinelli of Lucca was another of the number that were solicited to decorate the country with their works. Fischers, indeed, was a na- tive ; but his works, and especially his palace at Schdnbrun, begun in 1696 for the Emperor jloseph, though not altogether without merit, is but a repetition of the extravagances of the school of Borromini ; and equally so was the palace built by the same artist for Prince Eugene at Vienna, in 1711. (j Essai d' Architecture Historiijue, I.eipsig, 1725.) Pietro Cart, who built the bridge at Nuremberg, Neuman, Bott, and Eosander of Prussia, are the inly native architects of the period recorded by Milizia. 366. But it was not only from Italy that the Germans drew their architects: France contributed a supply to the country in the persons of Blondel, who was there much em- ployed towards the end of the 17th century ; Robert de Cotte and Boffrand in the first part if that following. It is therefore, from what has been stated, impossible to give any independent account of the architecture of Germany. The Germans had none. Whoso were their architects, they were the followers of a style which contemporaneously existed in France and Italy even down to the bizarreries of that which prevailed in the time of Louis XV.; and it is a very curious fact, that whilst Germany was seeking the aid of Architects from France and Italy, England could boast of professors of the art whose fame will endure while printing remains to spread knowledge amongst mankind. During the last century, Germany appears to have risen in this respect from its slumber, and to have 'produced some men of considerable architectural abilities. Of these was Carl Gotthard Langhans who was born in 1732, and built the celebrated Brandenburg gate at Berlin, which, though formed much on the model of the Propylea at Athens, and therefore on the score of originality not entitled to that praise which has been so unsparingly exhausted upon it, proves that a vast change had begun in Germany as respected matters of taste in nr- HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. I. 18 chitecture. Copies prove sad poverty of imagination on the part of the artist copying ; and all, therefore, that can he said in favour of such an expedient as that under consideration is, that better forms being submitted in this example to the Germans, it created a dawn ot taste to which they had long been strangers. The inaccurate work of Le Roy, which had preceded that of Stuart and ltevett on the antiquities of Athens, was the means through which I.anghans wrought and tried his successful experiment. In France, as we have already observed, Antoine bad tried the employment of the Grecian Doric at Paris, hut without the impression produced by Langhans. This architect died at Berlin in 1808, and is, perhaps, entitled to be considered as the father of good architecture in Germany, where he met the highest patronage and encouragement. Knoblesdorfl', who died in 175:1. had, it must be allowed, prepared in some measure the change which was effected ; but neither he nor his successor are known in the world of art beyond the confines of their own country. The names of Boumann, Goutard, Naumann, and others of much merit occur to us ; but the examples which they have left are not of the class that justify specimens for presentation to the reader in a general work of this nature. None of them rise so high as to be put in competition with the examples of the French school; and from the circumstance of the principal works of Germany at Munich, Berlin, &c. having been executed by artists still living, we feel precluded here from allusion to them; because, ii' we were to enter on an examination of them, we must detail their defects as well as their beauties. An extraordinary species of bigotry has laid hold on some in relation to them, which time will temper; and the world, as it always does, will ultimately come to a right judgment of the rank they are entitled to occupy as works of art. In the other branches of the arts the Germans are tising fast; but there is withal an affectation of the works of the middle ages in their productions, which, impressed as they are with great beauties, are not sufficiently pure to prognosticate the establishment of schools which will sweep all V'fore them, as did those of Italy. Sect. XIX. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE ARCHITECTURE. 367. What has been said in the preceding section on the architecture of Germany Is equally applicable to that of Spain and Portugal, whose architects were educated, if not In the schools of Italy, yet on the principles that guided them. Still, the pre-eminence in architecture on the revival of the arts must be given to these countries over the con- temporaneous buildings erected in Germany, and more especially to those of Spain. Under Ferdinand and Isabella, both greatly attached to the fine arts, the pointed style pave way to the architecture then in esteem in Italy ; and Juan de Olotzaga, a native of Biscay, is, we believe, entitled to the merit of having first introduced it about 1400 in the design for the cathedral of Huesca in Aragon. Pedro de Gumiel is supposed to have been the architect of Santa Engracia at Zarigossa, 1476-1517, but is known as the artist who designed the college of S. Ildefonso at Alcala, a splendid building in a mixed and impure style, commenced March 14, 1498. In this the orders were employed. The edifice consists of three courts - the first Doric, with an arcade and two orders above, in the lower whereof the Doric was repeated, and the upper was Ionic; the second court has thirtt-two Composite columns, with arcades ; and the third is designed with thirty- six Ionic columns, beyond which is the theatre. The church is of the Ionic order, and contains the monument of Cardinal Ximenes, the founder, considered one of the finest in Spain. The names of Juan, Alonso, and Fra Juan d’Escobedo continue in their works the history of the art in Spain, wherein a style between the pointed and Italian prevailed during the gre iter pari of the reign of Charles V. Juan Gil de Hontanon, at the end of the l5lh century, appears in Spain as an architect of much celebrity. He made a design for the cathedral at Salamanca, which was submitted to the judgment of four of the then most eminent architects of the country— Alonso de Covarrubias. the architect of the church at Toledo; Mae tro Filippo of that of Seville; with Juan di Badajoz of that of Burgos. This cathedral at Salamanca is 378 ft. long, and has a nave and two series of aisles on each side. The nave is 130 ft. high, and 50 ft. wide. Rodrigo Gil de Hontanon, Min of the above-named architect, had the execution of this church, which was commenced in 1513. Juan Gil de Hontanon commenced 1522-25 the cathedral of Segovia, very similar to that of Salamanca, except that it is more simple, and in a purer style. It is equal in si/e and grandeur to those of Toledo and Seville. Between 1560 and 1577 it was continued by Rodrigo Gil; then carried on by Francisco Campo Aguero, who died in 1660 ; to whom succeeded F. Biadero, who died in 1678. Re-peeting Hontanon, Don Antonio Ponz oberves, in the 10th volume of his Travels in Spain, that he must have been a clever architect, and well acquainted with the Greek and 'h \ p. 1 1. SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE. 159 Homan styles which in his time were beginning to revive ; blit that, like many other artists. ie was obliged in some measure to humour the taste of those who employed him : he herefore adopted the Gothic style, without the ornaments and details. The efforts of the i chitects of t i is period were not confined altogether to church building; for in 1552 I’edro de Uria constructed a bridge at Almaraz over the Tagus, which may vie with the nost extraordinary works of that class. Two large pointed arches form the bridge, which s 580 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, and 134 ft. high. The opening of one of the arches is 150 ft., hat of the other 1 19 ft. The piers are lofty towers, that in the centre standing on a high ock. An inscription gives the date of erection 1552, and imports that it was constructed it the expense of the city of Placentia. 368. Alonso de Covarrubias, the architect ot the church of Toledo, seems to have usel in it a Gothic sort of style, though when he flourished the Roman orders had become known and used. This Alonso was in considerable employ, as was his assistant, Diego Siloe, who built the church at Granada, with the monastery and church of San Girolamo in that city. This cathedral has a nave and two aisles ; and in it the Corinthian order, :hough defective in height, is used. The cupola is well designed. Roth Siloe and his master loaded their buildings with sculptures to excess, from a seeming notion that beauty uid richness were the same or inseparable. Alonzo Rerruguette was another architect of :he 16th century who was deservedly employed. He went to Italy in 1500, there to mrsue his studies in the arts of painting and sculpture as well as architecture, and was it Florence when Michael Angelo and Leonardo da Vinci exhibited their cartoons. He was the architect of Charles V. ; and it is supposed that he designed the palace at Madrid, begun by Henry II., continued by Henry III., and splendidly rebuilt by Charles V., but no longer in existence. Rerruguette erected the gate of San Martino, ivliich is the principal one at Toledo. It is of the Doric order, with the royal arms on he exterior, and a statue of Santa Leocadia in the interior. There are great simplicity md elegance in the composition of this work. The palace of Alcala, the residence of the irehbishop of Toledo, is attributed to him ; a building not wanting in magnificence, hough defective in its detail. A great portion of the cathedral of Cuenca is said to he >y Rerruguttte ; but not the facade, which was creeled in 1699 by Josef de Arroyo, at;a ifterwards continued by Luis Arriaga. There is considerable effect about the cloister, vhieh is well and ingeniously decorated. This architect, it is thought, had some part in the Pardo, which vras rebuilt in 1547 ; where are still allowed to remain, — notwithstanding the idditions by Philip II. of the miserable eastern and western facades — the porticoes of Ionic olumns, with their low stone arches. Though the windows are greatly too far apart, am! oo smell in the lower story, the stairs d fficult. of ascent, yet, upon the whole, the edifice s not ill arranged or executed. At the period whereof we here speak there was a pro- ligious passion among the Spaniards for large screens and altars in the churches ; in thesi lie taste of Rerruguette was most conspicuous. In the use of the orders, which lie fully inderstood, he was remarkably fond ot employing them over one another. The cathedral u Seville was principally rebuilt by Fernan Ruiz, who was much engaged in the city, md especially on enlarging or raising the well known tower called “ La Giralda.” This .ingular edifice was begun in the 1 1 tli century, the original idea of it being given by the ircliiKCt Geber, a native of Seville, to whom the invention of algebra is attributed; and dso the design of two other similar towers, one in Morocco, and the other at R .l ata. The tower ol which we are now speaking was at first 250 ft. high, and 50 ft. wide, and was without diminution as it rose. The walls are 8 ft. thick of squared stones from the level of the pavement; the rest for 87 ft. is of brick. In the centre of this tower is \ ■mailer one, the interval between the two towers being 23 ft. , which serves for the ascent — me so convenient that two persons abreast can mount it on horseback. T he central tower does not diminish ; but as the edifice rises in height the walls gather over, so as to allow the passage of only one person. Upon the Moors of Seville negotiating their surrender, nne of the conditions of it was, that this tower should not he destroyed; to which Don Alfonso, the eldest son of the king, answered, that if a portion of it were touched, not it man in Seville should survive. In the earthquake of 1395 it was partially injured, nnd remained in the state of misfortune that then occurred until 1568, when, by the authorities, Fernan Ruiz received the commission to raise it 100 ft. higher. This height he divided into three parts, crowning it with a small cupola or lantern : the liist division of his addition is ot equal thickness with the tower on a plinth, whence six pilasters rise on each la^ade, between which are five windows, over which is an entablature surmounted by balustrades; the -econd division is lower, with the same ornament; and the third is mtagonal with pilasters, over which the cupola rises, crowned with a bronze statue ot Faith, vulgarly called “ La Giralda.” Ruiz by this work augmented his fame ; and not- w thblunding the earthquakes w hich have since occurred, it has, fortunately enough, been preserved. We have, liowev-r, to apologise to our readers for this, which is anecdote, and ii. 4 qni'c in order to be placed here, because paitly connected with a period we have long since left. l’ietorially speaking, the tower of •* I.a Giralda ” is a splendid object, and the 160 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. apology was, perhaps, unnecessary. The age of Charles V. in Spain was Augustan for its architecture. By his mandate the palace was raised at Granada, a work of Machuca, another architect of this period. The principal fatjade is rustic, with three large gates, and eight Doric columns on pedestals sculptured with historical bassi-rilievi. The second story is Ionia with eight columns, over which are pilasters. The internal vestibule is on a circular plan, with a portico and gallery on columns of the same order. Milizia, from whom we have extracted all our notices on the architecture of Spain in this age, regrets- that the arches spring from the columns. Though we cannot commend such a practice, we should be sorry, in certain cases, to see a veto put upon it, because the practice is occasionally compatible with fine effect. 369. Towards the end of the sixteenth century appears in Spain an artist, by name Domingo Teotocopuli, by birth a Grecian, and a disciple of Tiziano Vecelli. He became, under his master, a good painter; but is known in Spain rather as a celebrated architect in his day. At Madrid, and in Toledo, he executed many works of merit; but his grand work was the church and monastery of the Beruardine monks of San Djmingo di Silos, in which he employed his talents in architecture, painting, and sculpture, the whole being from his hand. 370. Garzia d’Emere and Bnrtolome
  • f Philip IV. and Charles II. The college, the seminary, and the royal palace occupy the est of the building. In 1773, many additions were made to the buildings about the Es- iii rial for the Infants Don Antonio and Don Gabriele, by Villaneuva, an Italian architect, and by them the palace was much improved. Juan de He’rera, who died in 1597, besides i is employment at the building just described, contributed greatly to the advancement of lie art by the execution of the many commissions with which he was entrusted. Thebridge >f Segovia, at Madrid, is by him ; as is the royal pleasure-house at Aranjuez, begun under Philip II. and finished by Charles III., — a work which, though far from pure, exhibits treat architectural ability. His successor at the Eseurial was Francesco de Mora, by whom, at Madrid, is the Palace de los Consejos, the most splendid edifice which that apital can boast Instead of a central doorway, it has two at its flanks, of the Doric |nder, with appropriate decorations. In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the great square of Madrid was erected after the designs of Juan Gomez de Mora, and is ad- mirable for its grandeur and symmetry. This architect built at Alcala the church and ol lege of the Jesuits, which, Milizia says, is a magnificent and well-proportioned edifice, t is of two orders, and the material employed in the facade is granite. The royal convent if the Augustins, at Madrid, is also attributed to him. 372. Early in the eighteenth century Felipe Ivara, or Juvara, a native of Messina, ■ ad very great employ, we might almost say throughout Europe. He became the pupil f Fontana, and afterwards, on his \isiting Spain, seems to have established a school there, le built the facade of the royal palace of S. Ildefonso, looking towards the gardens, tar.i died in 1735, at Madrid, whither he had been invited by Philip V. to rebuild the alace, which had been consumed by fire. The work was afterwards entrusted to Sacchetti, pupil of Ivara. It is on a very large scale, and was most solidly constructed. 373. We have thought it necessary to give the above succinct account of the architect ore ■ f Spain, which did not, however, produce, ufter the revival of the arts in Europe, any 'orks, except in respect of dimensions, comparable with those of Italy. The abuses in :iem are almost universally carried to an extent scarcely credible ; it is, therefore, useless p refer the reader or student to them as models. It almost seems as if from Italy pure irchileci ere had not had time to spread itself before it became tinctured with the corrup- ons of Borromini ; which, not only in Spain and Portugal, but throughout Germany, and ■ en France, were diffused with incredible rapidity. IJaguno and (Van- Bermudez, \''>ticiu$ ilr. Ins / hr/uitectoii , ,yc , dr Espuna, ■! vols. '1 1 o. , Madrid, 1829. G. E. Street, Smite recount of Gothic Architecture in Spain, 8to., 1865. M HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. 162 Sect. XX. RUSSIAN ARCHITECTURE. 374 . We scarcely know whether we are justified in making a short section with this heading, inasmuch as there is not known to us, up to the end of the eighteenth century, the name of a single Russian architect. English, French, Italian, and German artists have been employed in the decoration of the city of Petersburg, though we believe that tlse nation is now beginning to produce persons capable of conducting their public works. Russia has received all its improvement from abroad, and has used every exertion to com- municate it to an uncivilised people. 375. The ecclesiastical architecture of Russia is of course coeval with the introduction of Christianity into the country, which was not earlier than the time of Vladimir the Great, although the Princess Olga had been baptized at Constantinople as early as the year 9G4. Vladimir, to display his zeal in behalf of Christianity, had a church, supposed to be the first built by him, erected at Cherson ; a year after which the church of St. Basil, which, as well as the first named, was of timber, was erected under his command. This prince also built a church at Kief, where, it is said, there were already at the time 500 churches. After Vladimir, Prince Yaroslaf appears to have bestowed great attention on the erection of ecclesiastical edifices. At Kief he founded a church, dedicated to St. Sophia, and at No- vogorod another to the same saint : these partly exist in the present day. By him also were reared the convents of St. George and St. Irene. The celebrated convent of Petchorsky, at Kief, was erected in 1075, subsequent to which period the Russian metro- politans continued subject to those of Constantinople till the capture of that city by Mahomet the Second. Between this last capital and Kief the bonds of amity of their rulers were drawn closer by many intermarriages; but in the year 1 124 a fire desolated the latter city, which must have risen into great importance, inasmuch as 600 churches and monasteries were destroyed in the conflagration. Afterwards, again, in the civil war under Y'isaslaf, Kief was taken and fired; a calamity to which it was again subject at the same period that Constantinople was taken by the Venetians. After this Kief never again recovered its ancient magnificence. lull 54, at which period Moscow is first mentioned in history, it was but an insignificant village. It received great additions under Daniel of Moscow; and in 1 304, under John Danielowitz, it became the capital of the empire. On the 4th of August, 1326, the first stone was laid of a church in the Kremlin there in honour of the Assumption of the Virgin. The palace of the Kremlin was a timber structure until the reign of Demetri Donskoi, when it was reconstructed ofstone. On the capture of Constantinople by Mahomet the Second, the Russian church ceased to be dependent on that of Constantinople. The palace of the Kremlin, known by the name of the granite palace, rose in 1487; and, in twelve years afterwards, the Belvedere palace was raised. Ivan IV., whose sway was of extended duration, was a great patron of the arts; his decease took place circa 1584. He renewed the laws relative to the paintings in the new churches, whence arises their so close resemblance to each other that it is difficult to judge of the epochs of their execution. The celebrated clock tower Ivan Valiki. at the Kremlin, was erected by the Czar Boris, in 1600, at which time Moscow contained 400 churches, whereof 35 stood in the Kremlin alone. After the time of Peter the Great, a change of style was introduced, ( 1696-1725). 376. The Church of the Assumption above mentioned, as respects the plan, is an oblong square divided ; the vaulting whereof is supported by six columns in the interior. Though at the first glance it be not perceived, the arrangement of the cupolas soon points to the form of a Greek cross. In the earlier churches the plan was a square, with a porch in front of it ; but, in the Church of the Assumption, the porch is a portion of the church, the arches of the cupolas being placed in the same way as if the church were of the ancient form. The six columns just mentioned divide the church into four parts, — from east to west, and then from north to south. At the eastern sides are three apsides, divided by the width of a column, the middle one being of larger dimensions than the other two; an arrangement which prevails in most of the Greek churches. The apsides contain altars, which are frequent, except in the small chapels. The altar in the Greek church is not exposed to public view ; it is concealed or covered by the iconostasis (image-bearer), a very large screen, which, from occupying the whole width of the church, divides it into two parts. This screen has a central principal and two side smaller doors ; behind which latter, on each side, stands a second and smaller iconostasis, of the width only of the smaller apsis, but whose plan with three doors and an altar behind is similar to the great one. This was the distribution in the early churches ; but, in the more modern ones, there are, at nearly the extremity of the edifice, three distinct iconostases. The place for the choristers is on each side in front of the iconostasis, between its principal and side doors. The principal cupola rises in front of the iconostasis; and, in cathedral churches, at the foot of the apsis on the left a canopy is placed tor the emperor, opposite whereto is one for the metropolitan. 1 Ciiap. II. RUSSIAN. 163 ['here is generally one principal and four subordinate cupolas round it, which stand on the four feet of the Greek cross. The iconostasis is a principal object in every church. It is jsually in four or five horizontal compartments, each containing an unequal number of [pictures of saints painted on tablets or long square panels, whose places are fixed with great irecision. In the first story, if we may so call it, are the three doors ; the centre one, being n two foldings, is decorated with the subject of the Annunciation, accompanied with the toads of the four Evangelists or their emblems. To the right of the door is a picture of Christ, and of the Madonna on the left. To the right of the Christ is the saint or festival if the church, after which the doors are inserted. Above the doors, on the left hand, is ilaced a Greek cross ; on the right hand the cross of Moses, — as symbols of the Old and New Testaments. The paintings are all on a ground of gold. In the middle of the second ■tory is Christ on a throne ; on the right Saint John the Baptist ; on the left the Madonna ivithout Child; then, on each side, two archangels and six apostles. In the third story or horizontal compartment, the Madonna is introduced with the Infant on her knees, sur- rounded on each side by the prophets. In the fourth story is painted God the Father on ji throne, with the Infant Jesus, surrounded on each side by patriarchs of the church. Occasionally a fifth story appears, upon which is painted the history or Passion of our Saviour. Paintings on a gold ground abound in the other parts of the church. The xteriors of these churches are extremely simple; cornices or other horizontal crownings re not to found, but the coverings follow the cylindrical forms of the arches to which they ire the extradoses, and are variously painted. The Russian churches built in the eleventh entury, which from the number of their cupolas resemble, and indeed were imitated from hose of the East, give a peculiar effect to the architecture. The forms of these cupolas re varied, but they generally stand on an octagonal tambour; some are hemispherical, nthers in curves of contrary flexure, and a number of other figures. 377. The type of the Russian church, which is on plan a Greek cross, is to be found in [ianta Sophia at Constantinople. After the disputes between the Iconoclasts and Iconolaters, •hich, at the close of the seventh century, ended in the separation of the Eastern and Vestern churches, sculpture of statues disappeared from the Greek church, statues of angels xcepted. Again, at this period, the altars on the side of the principal one were established, jot, as in the Catholic churches, at the extremities of the transepts; their place is always in niche or apsis. This arrangement is found in the churches of the eleventh, twelfth, and lirteenth centuries, at Bari, Trani, Malfetta, Otranto, & c., while the Greek worship existed; nd a similar disposition is even seen at Palermo and other places where the worship has een Catholic. In the Catholic churches a sacristy, for the use of the priests in robing, c., is always provided on the side of the church ; in the Greek church, however, the priests die themselves behind the iconostasis on the left of the altar, another altar being placed on le right for the consecration of the elements ; and this arrangement exists in the present day. 'lie Greek church has no gynaiceum, or separate place for the women. — For the above we re indebted to the researches of M. Hallmann, an ingenious architect of Hanover. 378. It is in Saint Petersburg principally that we are to look for edifices which deserve petition. The foundation of the city was laid in 1703, by the Czar Peter, when he con- | meted a fort on an island in the Neva for defence against the Swedes. Buildings, both ;ublic and private, were soon erected ; and the nobility and merchants being induced to ■ttle there, the place quickly assumed the appearance of a considerable city. In the reigns of atherine the Second and Alexander it reached a degree of great magnificence, from which has not declined, but has rather advanced. Magnitude, rather than beauty of form, marks |ie public buildings of the city. The church of our I.ady of Kazan is of great dimensions : r which, and its fifty-six granite columns with bronze capitals, it has obtained more cele- ity than it will acquire for the beauty of its composition. Some of the palaces in the ty are of colossal dimensions ; that of Michailoff, built by Paul, is said to have cost ten illions of rubles. It was under the reign of Peter the Great that the great change took ace in the national character of Russian church architecture by the introduction of the assieal orders. The bulbous cupola, though at this period not entirely laid aside, fell into limparative disuse, being replaced by a green painted dome of which the Italian form was lie model. The tasteless custom of painting the exteriors of buildings with bright and in- mgruous colours was retained; and, though well enough suited to the barbaric structures the Muscovite czars, it ill accorded with the purer style of Italy. It is unnecessary hir- er to detain the reader by any observations on the churches of the modern capital. In ■int of style or of history, they possess little or no interest for an English reader. To rose who wish to become better acquainted with the architecture of Russia, we recommend reference to Geissler’s Tableaux Pittoresriues tie.* Mceurs, S*c. that I/usses, Tartarcs, Monijoles , ant es Xations de l' Empire Rnsse; to I.yalPs Character of the Jlussianr, & c., 4 to, 1823 ; id Iiieard de Montferrand's L'Eglise tie S. Isaac, fol. 184.7. The essay by the late Hallmann above noticed, was printed in the Transactions of the Institute of British rchitccLs, 1842. M > W54 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boo* r. CHAP. III. A RCII I T KCTUHE OF BRITAIN. Sect. I. EARLY HOUSES AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE BRITONS. 3”9. On the invasion of Britain by Julius Caisar, in the year 55 b. c., the inhabitants dwelt in houses resembling those of Gaul ; and in Kent, and other southern parts of the island, their houses were more substantial and convenient than those in the north. Caves or earth houses seem to have been their original shelter ; to which had preceded the wicker enclosure, whose sides were inerusted with clay. These were thatched with straw. The wooden houses of the ancient Gauls and Britons were circular, with high tapering roofs, at whose summit was an aperture for the admission of light and emission of smoke. These, where the edifices were grander than ordinary, were placed upon foundations of stone. There is no instruction to be derived from pursuing this subject further. That the arts at the period in question scarcely existed, is quite certain ; and Caractacus may, when carried prisoner to Rome, have well expressed surprise that the Romans, who had such magnificent palaces of their own, should envy the wretched cabins of the Britons. :!80. If the Britons were so uninformed in architecture as to be satisfied with such structures for their dwellings as we have named, it will hardly be contended that they were the builders of so stupendous a fabric as Stonehenge. On this subject we have already stated our opinion in Chap. II. From the distant period at which we believe this and similar edifices to have been erected up to that of which we are speaking many cen- turies must have elapsed, during which the mechanical knowledge which was employed in their erection might have been lost, and indeed must have been, from the condition of the inhabitants, of which mention has been made. 381. The Romans, after their invasion of the island, soon formed settlements and planted colonies ; and it is not difficult to imagine the change which took place in its architecture. The first Roman colony was at Camalodunum. ’This, when it was afterwards destroyed by tlie Britons in the great revolt under Boadicea, appears to have been a large and well- built town, adorned with statues, temples, theatres, and other public edifices. ( Tacit. Annul, lib. xiv. c. 33.) In the account given of the prodigies said to have happened at this place, and to have announced its approaching fall, it is mentioned that the statue of Victory fell down without any visible violence ; in the hall of public business, the confused murmurs of strangers were perceived, and dismal bowlings were heard in the theatre. At Camalodunum the temple of Claudius was large enough to contain the whole garrison, who, after the destruction of the town, took refuge in it ; and so strong was it, that they were enabled to hold out therein against the whole British army for a period of two days. London, however, exhibited a more striking example of the rapid progress of Roman architecture in Britain. At the time of the first Roman invasion it was little more than a British town or enclosed forest ; and there seems to be ground for supposing that at the time of the second invasion, under Claudius, it was not much improved. But when, about sixteen years afterwards, it came into the possession of the Romans, it became a rich, po- pulous, and beautiful city. Not only did the Romans raise a vast number of solid and magnificent structures for their own accommodation, but they taught the arts to the Britons, and thus civilised them. Agricola, of all the Roman governors, took means for that pur- pose. That they might become less and less attached to a roaming and unsettled life, and accustomed to a more agreeable mode of living, he took all opportunities of rendering them assistance in erecting houses and temples, and other public buildings. He did all in his power to excite an emulation amongst them ; so that at last they were not content without structures for ornament and pleasure, such as baths, porticoes, galleries, banqueting houses, &c. l'Yom this time (a. n. 80) up “ to the middle of the fourth century,” says Ilenry ( Hist, nf Eny'and), “ architecture, and all the arts immediately connected with it, greatly flourished in this island ; and the same taste for erecting solid, convenient, and beautiful buildings which had long prevailed in Italy, was introduced into Britain. Every Roman colony and free city (of which there was a great number in this country) was a little Rome, encompassed with strong walls, adorned with temples, palaces, courts, halls, basilica?, baths, markets, aqueducts, and many other fine buildings both for use and ornament The country every where abounded with well-built villages, towns, forts, and stations ; and the whoie was defended by that high and strong wall, with its manv towers and castles, which reached from the mouth of the river Tyne on the east to the Solway Firth on the west. Chac. 111. A N G I.O-SAXON. 165 lliis spirit of building, which was introduced and encouraged by the Romans, so much unproved the taste and increased the number of the British builders, that in the third century this island was famous for the great number and excellence of its architects and artificers. When the Emperor Constantius, father of Constantine the Great, rebuilt the city of Autun in Gaul, a. i>. 296, he was chiefly furnished with workmen from Britain, which (says Eumenius) very much abounded with the best artificers. It was about the end of the third century that in Britain, as well as all the other provinces of the Western empire, architecture began to decline. It may have been that the building of Constanti- nople drew off the best artists ; or that the time left for the peaceful culture of the arts may have been broken in upon by the irruptions of invaders from the north. According to the Venerable Bede (Hint. Ecclts., lib. i. c. 12.), the Britons had become so ignorant of the art before the final departure of the Romans that they, from want of masons, repaired the wall between the Forth and Clyde with sods instead of stone. Henry observes, however, on this, that “ we cannot lay much stress on this testimony ; because it does not refer to the provincial Britons, but to those who lived beyond the Wall of Severus, where the Roman arts never much prevailed ; and because the true reason of their repairing that wall with turf, and not with stone, was that it had been originally built in that manner. Besides, we are told by the same writer, in the same place, that the provincial Britons, some time after this, with the assistance of one Roman legion, built a wall of solid stone, 8 ft. thick and 12 ft. high, from sea to sea.” S82. The departure of the Romans, and that of the fine arts which they had introduced, were occurrences of almost the same date. We must, however, recollect that architecture was beginning to decline at Rome itself before the departure in question. The inhabitants of the country who remained after the Romans were gone had not the skill nor courage to defend the works with which the Romans had pro- vided them ; and their towns and cities, therefore, were seized by invaders, who plundered and de- stroyed them, throwing down the noble structures with which the art and in- dustry of the Romans had adorned the country. The vestiges of Roman architec- ture still remaining in Bri- tain are pretty numerous ; but scarcely any of them are of sufficient interest to be considered as studies of Roman architecture. Even in its best days, nobody would study the works of art m the colonies in preference to those in the parent state. We have here (fit]. 179.) inserted a representation of a small portion of the Roman wall at Leicester, as an example of the construction. Temples, baths, and villas of the time have, moreover, been brought to light not unfrequently. 3H:i. The ariival of the Saxons in this country, A. n. 449, soon extinguished the very little that remained of the arts in the island. This people were totally ignorant of art ; like the other nations of Germany, they had been accustomed to lire in wretched hovels formed out of the earth, or built of wood, and covered with reeds, straw, or the branches of trees. It was not indeed, until 200 years after their arrival that stone was employed by them for their buildings. Their cathedrals were built of timber. The Venerable Bede says there was a time when not a stone church existed in all the land ; the custom being to build them of wood. Finan, the second bishop of Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, built a church in that island, a. i>. 652, for a cathedral, which yet was not of stone, but of wood, and covered with reeds; and so it continued till Eadbert, the successor of St. Cuthbert, and seventh bishop of Lindisfarne, took away the reeds, and covered it all over, both roof and walls, with sheets of lead. Of similar materials was the original cathedral at York, a church of stone being a very rare production, and usually dignified with some special historical record. Bede, for instance, says of I’aulinus, the first bishop of York, that he built a church of stone in the city of Lincoln, whose walls were standing when he wrote, though the roof had fallen down. Scotland, at the beginning of the eighth century, does not seem to have had a single church of stone. Naitan, king of the l’iets, in his letter to Ceolfred, abbot of Wcrcmouth, a. n. 710, inlreats that some masons may be sent him to build a church of stone in his kingdom, in imitation of the Romuns, 166 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. 38-1. We here think it necessary to notice that we have thought proper, under this chapter, to preserve the periods, or rather styles of the periods of architecture, according to their ordinary arrangement in English works, namely, the Anglo-Saxon and Norman, in distinct sections. It is a matter of little importance to the reader how he acquires his knowledge, so that his author do not unnecessarily prolong the acquisition of it. Though, therefore, the Anglo-Saxon and Norman architecture are neither of them anything more than Romanesque or Byzantine, to which we have appropriated rather a long section, we have here separated them into two distinct periods. 385. About the end of the seventh century masonry, as well as some other arts con- nected with it, was once more restored to England, by the exertions of Wilfred, bishop of York, and afterwards of Hexham, and of Benedict Biscop, the founder of the abbey of Were- mouth. The former, who was an indefatigable builder, and one of the most munificent prelates of the seventh century, erected edifices, which were the admiration of the age, at Ripon, York, and Hexham. The cathedral of the latter place obtained great celebrity. Eddius, speaking of it ( Vita Wifridi). says, that Wilfrid “ having obtained a plot of ground at the place from Queen Etheldreda, he there founded a very magnificent church, and dedi- cated it to the blessed apostle St. Andrew. The plan of this holy structure appears to have been inspired by the spirit of God; a genius, therefore, superior to mine is wanting to de- scribe it properly. Large and strong were the subterraneous buildings, and constructed of the finest polished stones. How magnificent is the superstructure, with its lofty roof rest- ing on many pillars, its long and lofty walls, its sublime towers, and winding stairs! ' To sum all up, tiiere is not on this side of the Alps so great and beautiful a work.” Biscop was a zealous cotemporary and companion of Wilfrid, and had also a great love for the arts. He travelled into Italy no less than six times, chiefly for the purpose of collect- ing books and works of art, and of endeavouring to induce workmen to come over to Eng- land. An estate of some extent having been obtained by him from Ecgfrid, king of Northumberland, near the mouth of the river Were, he founded a monastery there in 674. Relative to this monastery of Weremouth, thus writes Bede : — “ About a year after laying the foundations, Benedict passed over into France, and there collected a number of masons, whom he brought over with him to build the church of his monastery of stone, after the Homan manner, whereof he was a vast admirer. Such was his love for the apostle Peter, to whom the church was to be dedicated, that he stimulated the workmen so as to have mass celebrated in it but a little more than a year from its foundation. When the work was well advanced, he sent agents into France for the purpose of procuring, if possible, glass manufacturers, who at that time were not to be found in England, and of bringing them over to glaze the windows of his monastery and church. His agents were successful, having induced several artisans to accompany them. These not only executed the work assigned to them by Benedict, but gave instructions to the English in the art of making glass for windows, lamps, and other uses.” 386. The Bishop Wilfrid, as we learn from William of Malmesbury, with the assistance of the artificers that had been brought over, effected great reparations in the cathedral at York, which was in a decayed and ruinous state. He restored the roof, and covered it with lead, cleansed and whited the walls, and put glass into the windows; for, before he had introduced the glass makers, the windows of private dwellings as well as churches were filled with linen cloth, or with wooden lattices. It will be observed that the improve- ments we here mention were introduced by the bishops Wilfrid and Biscop towards the end of the seventh century ; but, from our ancient historians, it would appear that, in the eighth and ninth centuries, stone buildings were rarely met with, and, when erected, were objects of great admiration. The historian Henry observes, that “ when Alfred, towards the end of the ninth century, formed the design of rebuilding his ruined cities, churches, and monasteries, and of adorning his buildings with more magnificent structures, he was obliged to bring many of his artificers from foreign countries. Of these (as we are told by his friend Asser) he had an almost innumerable multitude, collected from different na- tions; many of them the most excellent in their several arts. Nor is it the least praise of this illustrious prince, that he was the greatest builder and the best architect of the age in which lie flourished.” His historian, who was an eyewitness of his works, speaks in the following strain of admiration of the number of his buildings, “ What shall I say of the towns and cities which he repaired, and of others which he built from the foundation?” Henry continues, — “ Some of his buildings were also magnificent for that age, and of a new and singular construction ; particularly the monastery of Aithelingay. The church, however, was built only of wood ; audit seems probable that Alfred’s buildings were, in general, more remarkable for their number and utility than for their grandeur; for there is suf- ficient evidence that, long after his time, almost all the houses in England, and the far greatest part of the monasteries and churches, were very mean buildings, constructed of wood and covered with thatch. Edgar the Peaceable, who flourished after the middle of the tenth century, observed (see William Malms, lib. ii. p. 32.), that, at his accession to the throne all the monasteries of England were in a ruinous condition, and consisted only Chap. I IT. ANGLO SAXON. 167 of rotten boards.” The taste, however, of the Anglo-Saxons was not indulged in mag- nificent buildings ; and the incursions of the Danes, who destroyed wherever they came, together with the unsettled state of the country, may account for their revenues being ex- pended on mean and inconvenient houses. 387. Under the circumstances mentioned, it may be safely inferred that the art was not in a very flourishing state in the other parts of the island. Indeed, the ancient Britons, after retiring to the mountains of Wales, appear to have lost it altogether ; and, as the Honourable Dailies Barrington ( Archtnologia ) has thought, it is very probable that few, if any, stone buildings existed in Wales previous to the time of Edward I. The chief palace, called the White Palace, of the kings of Wales, was constructed with white wands, whose bark was peeled off, whence its name was derived ; and the price or penalty, by the laws of the country, for destroying the king’s hall or palace, with its adjacent dormitory, kitchen, : chapel, granary, bakehouse, storehouse, stable, and doghouse, was five pounds and eighty pence, equal, in quantity of silver, to sixteen pounds of our money, or 160/. The castles appear also to have been built of timber ; for the vassals, upon whom fell the labour of building them, were required to bring with them no other tool than an axe. 388. Neither do the arts of building appear to have been better understood in Scotland at the former part of the period whereof we are speaking. The church built at Lindis- farne by its second bishop, Finan, in 652, was of wood, — more Scotorum ; and it has already been mentioned that, for the stone church which Naitan, king of the l’icts, built in 710, he was under the necessity of procuring his masons from Northumberland. In Scotland, there are still to be seen some stone buildings of very high antiquity, which Dr. Henry seems inclined to attribute to this period ; we, however, are inclined to place them in an age far anterior, later (but not much so) than Stonehenge. We have never seen them, and there- fore form our opinion from the description given in Gordon’s Itinerorium Septenirioua/e. These buildings are all circular, though of two different kinds, so different from each other that they seem to be the works of different ages and of different nations. The four prin- cipal ones are in a valley, called Glenbeg. Of a different period, too, we consider the circular towers which are found as well in Scotland as in Ireland. It is true that in both countries these are found in the neighbourhood of churches ; but that does not the more i convince us that tiiey were connected with them. 389. Ducarel, in his Norman Antiquities, enumerates some of the churches in England Among them are those of Stukely in Buckingham- shire, Barfreston (Jig. 1 80. ) in Kent, and Avington in Berkshire. Other exam- ples may be cited as at Waltham Abbey, the tran- sept arches at Southwell, Nottinghamshire; the nave of the abbey church at St. Alban’s, Herts; tower at Glapham, Beds, &c. The Anglo-Saxon asra, though it, perhaps, properly com- prised the time between A. i). 600 to A. l). 1066; that is from the conversion of the Saxons to the Nor- man conquest, is not known with any thing approaching to certainty, from the reign of Edgar in 980 to the last- named event ; immediately previous to which Edward the Confessor had, during his lifetime, completed Westminster Abbey in a style then prevalent in Nor- mandy, and with a magni- ficence far exceeding any other then extant. No less than eighteen of the larger monasteries, all of them Be- nedictine, had been founded by the Saxon kings in Pic. i*o. HlKKI'SrroN CllUllCIf. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE Hook I. 1 08 Fig. 1S1 their successive icigns; and it is evident that the churches attached to them were the most decorated parts, as respected their architecture. The six principal of these were, St. Germain’s, in Cornwall; Col* Chester, in Essex ; Tewkes- bury, in Gloucestershire ; St. Frideswide and St. Alban’s, already mentioned ; and Glas- tonbury, in Somersetshire. King selects the western por- tion of Tewkesbury as the grandest in England for effect and extent. The characteris- tics of Anglo- Saxon Architec- ture are detailed in the follow- ing paragraph. 390. Arches. — Always se- micircular, often plain ; some- times decorated with a variety of mouldings on the solite as well as on the face, the former being often entirely occupied by them. They are found double, triple, or quadruple, each springing from two columns, and generally cased with a different moulding, which is frequently double, thus making six or eight concentric circles of them ; and as each of them projects beyond that under it, a moulding is placed under them, generally the same as that used upon the face. (See Jig. 181.) Columns .- — Single, cylindrical, hexagonal or octagonal, on square plinths ; very few diameters in height. Shafts often ornamented with spiral or iluted carving, with lo- zenge, herring-bone, zigzag, or hatched work. ( Fig. 189. ) Capitals Indented with fissures of different lengths and forms, and in different directions. The divisions thus formed are variously sloped off, or hollowed out towards the top. (See the two exam- ples, Jig. 183., from the conventual church at Ely.) Occasionally the capitals have rude imitations of some member of a Grecian order, as in the crypt at Lastringham in Yorkshire, where volutes are used. ( Fig. 184.) In their ornaments much variety is dis- played, but the opposite ones are mostly alike. Windows. — Semicircular-headed, extremely narrow in proportion to their height, being sometimes not more than six or eight inches wide to a height of more than three feet, and splayed or bevelled off on the inside through the whole thickness of the wall. Walls.— Of very great thickness, and Masonry of solid construction. Ceilings and Hoofs. In crypts, as at Y ork, Winchester, and a few other without any buttresses externally. — Almost always open timbering. places, vaulting is to be found. Ornaments, except in capitals, in arches and on shafts of columns are very sparingly employed. (See Norman Ornaments also, in the following section on Norman Architecture, par. 397.) Plans. — Rectangular and parallelogrammic ; being usually divided into a body and chancel, separated by an ornamented arch The chancel sometimes of canal, and sometimes of less breadth (ban Chap. 11a. NORMAN. 163 lie nave, and terminated towards the east in a semicircle. In larger churches, there s a nave and two side aisles, the latter being divided from the former by ranks of co- umns ; but no transepts appear till towards the latter part of the period. “ W! e- her,” observes Mr. Millers, in his account of Ely Cathedral, whose system we adopt, 1 4 their churches were ever higher than one tier of arches and a range of windows Above (as at Ely), may be questioned. Richard, prior of Hexham, speaks of three stories, which implies another tier of arches ; but if he is rightly so understood, this seems an ex- ception from a general rule, for the church at Hexham is spoken of by all writers who ! nention it, as the glory of Saxon churches in the seventh century. Afterwards, about 970, k considerable change took place ; transepts carne into general use, with a square tower at j he intersection, rising but little above the roof, and chiefly ustd as a lantern to give light I o that part of the church. Towers were also erected at the west end : the use of them coincides with the introduction of bells, at least of large and heavy ones.” The churches bf this period were of small dimensions, and the comparative sizes of the Saxon and the Nor- man churches which followed is almost a criterion of their age. 391. King (Muuinientu Antiqua, vol. iv. p. ‘24 0. ) gives three acras of the Saxon sty’e, From Egbert, 598, to the Norman conquest. It lias been questioned by antiquaries •vhethcr any Saxon remains actually exist in this country; but, admitting their arguments, vvhich are founded on references to records — no mean authorities, — it must be recollected hat, on their own showing, some of these trench so close upon the period of the Conquest is to show that the Saxon style might have prevailed in them, for the general change of >tyle in any art is not effected in a day. If we look for examples coeval with the Saxons themselves, and without controversy to be attributed to them, they will, perhaps, be found inly in crypts and baptismal fonts; for many churches were rebuilt by the Normans, who left these parts untouched. The principal characteristics of the style now called Anglo-Saxon, are a debased copy of Roman details, comprising long and short masonry, the absence of buttresses, semicircular and triangular arches, rude balustres in the w indow ipenings, hammer dressed work and unchiselled sculptures. Also the occas'onal use of t rude round staircase to the west of the tower. A list of portions of about one hundred tnd forty buildings is given by Godwin, in English Archawloyist’s Handbook, 1867. The ■astles of Roman or Saxon foundation were, Richborough, in Kent ; Castletown, in Derbyshire; Porchester, in Hampshire; Pevensey, in Sussex ; Castor, in Norfolk ; Burgh, n Suffolk; Chesterford, in Essex; Corfe, Dorset; Exeter Castle gateway; Dover, in "\eni ; and Bccston, in Cheshire. (See also Proportion in Architecture, Book III.) Sect. II. NORMAN ARCHITECTURE. 392. Prom the landing of William in 1066, architecture received an impulse, indicated i various styles, which lasted till the time of the Tudors ; when, as we shall hereafter see, gave way to one altogether different. That called the Norman style, which continued om 1066 to nearly 1200, comprised the reigns of William I., William IE, Henry I., tephen, Henry II., and Richard 1. 'file twelfth century exhibited a rage for building |i Britain more violent than has been since seen. The vast and general improvements that ere introduced into fabrics and churches in the first years of this century are thus de- ribed by a contemporary writer ( Orderic. Vital. Hist. Eccles., lib. x. p.788.): — “The ithedrals, and abundance of churches, newly built in all parts of the country, the great ; lumber of splendid cloisters and monasteries, and other residences for monks, that were icre raised, sufficiently prove the happiness of England under the reign of Henry I. iVace and prosperity were enjoyed by the religious of all orders, who lent their whole power > increase the magnificence and splendour of divine worship. The ardent zeal of the faithful rompted them to rebuild their houses, and especially their churches, in a more suitable '.inner. Thus the ancient edifices raised in the days of Edgar, Edward, and other Chris- an kings, were taken down, and others of greater magnitude, beauty, and more elegant orkmanship, were reared in their stead to the glory of God.” As an example of the fervour I ith which these objects were carried into effect, we cite the following instance, quoting loin Dr. Henry, upon whom we have drawn, and shall draw, rather largely. 44 When Jollied, ■ hot of Croyland, resolved to rebuild the church of his monastery in a most magnificent fanner (*.n. 1 106), he obtained from the archbishops of Canterbury and York a bull dis- easing with the third part of all penances for sin to those who contributed any tiling ■ wards the building of that church. This bull was directed not only to the king and j ople of England, but to the kings of France and Scotland, and to all other kings, earls, jirons, archbisnops, bishops, abbots, priors, rectors, presbyters, and clerks, and to all true Ttevers in Christ, rich and poor, in all Christian kingdoms. To make the best use of 170 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. this bull, he sent two of his most eloquent monks to proclaim it over all France and Flan- ders ; two other monks into Scotland ; two into Denmark and Norway ; two into Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland; and others into different parts of England. By this means (says the historian) the wonderful benefits granted to the contributors to the building of this church were published to the very ends of the earth ; and great heaps of treasure, and masses of yellow metal, flowed in from all countries upon the venerable abbot Jofifred, and encouraged him to lay the foundations of his church. Having spent about four years in collecting mountains of different kinds of marble from quarries, both at home and abroad, together with great quantities of lime, iron, brass, and other materials for building, he fixed a day for the great ceremony of laying the foundation, which he contrived to make a very effectual mean of raising the superstructure; for on the long-expected day, the feast o( the holy virgins Felicitas and Perpetua, an immense multitude of earls, barons, and knights, with their ladies and families, of abbots, priors, monks, nuns, clerks, and persons of all ranks, arrived at Croyland to assist at this ceremony. The pious abbot Joff'red began by saying certain prayers, and shedding a Hood of tears on the foundation. Then each of the earls, barons, knights, with their ladies, sons, and daughters, the abbots, clerks, and others, laid a stone, and upon it deposited a sum of money, a grant of lands, tithes, or patronages, or a promise of stone, liine, wood, labour, or carriages for building the church. After this the abbot entertained the whole company, amounting to five thousand persons, to dinner. To tins entertainment they were well entitled; for the money and grants of different kinds which they had deposited on the foundation stones were alone sufficient to have raised a very noble fabric.” This spirit extended throughout the island ; for, in Scotland, David 1. raised thirteen abbeys and priories, some of them on a scale of considerable magnificence, besides several cathedrals and other churches. 393. I'he common people of the country, and the burgesses in the towns, were not much better lodged than in the previous age ; their condition, indeed, was not improved. In London, towards the end of the twelfth century, the houses were still built of timber, and covered with reeds or straw. The palaces, however, or rather castles, of the Anglo- Norman kings, nobility, and prelates, were on a very superior construction. William of Malmesbury says that the Anglo-Saxon nobility squandered their ample means in low and mean dwellings ; but that the French and Norman barons lived at less expense, though dwelling in large and magnificent palaces. The fact is, that among these latter the rage for erecting fortified castles was quite as great as that of erecting ecclesiastical buildings among the prelates. I'he system became necessary, and was induced as well by the pre- vious habits of the country they had left, as by their situation in the island. Surrounded by vassals whom they held in subjection, and whom they depressed and plundered in every way, they were so detested by them that deep fosses and lofty walls were necessary for their security. The Conqueror himself, aware that the want of fortified places had no less assisted his conquest than it might his expulsion, resolved to guard against such a contin- gency by the strong castles which he placed within the royal demesnes. Matthew l’aris observes that William excelled all bis predecessors in the erection of castles, in executing which he harassed his subjects and vassals. So much was the practice a matter of course, that the moment one of the nobility had the grant of an estate from the crown, a castle was built upon it for his defence and residence; and this spirit was not likely to be diminished by the disputes relative to the succession in the following reigns. William Rufus, accord- ing to the statement of Henry Knighton, was as much addicted to the erection of royal castles and palaces as his father, as the castles of Dover, Windsor, Norwich, and others sufficiently prove ; and it is certain that no monarch before him erected so many and noble edifices. Henry I. followed in his taste; but in the reign of Stephen, 1135 to 1154, says the author of the Saxon Chronicle, every one who had the ability built a castle, and the whole kingdom was covered with them, no fewer than 1 1 15 having been raised from their foundations in the short space of nineteen years; so that the expression is by no means stronger than is justified by the fact. 394. It will he proper here to give the reader some concise general description of these structures, which served for residence and defence. T he situation chosen for a castle was usually on an eminence near a river. Its figure on the plan was often of great extent, and irregular in form ; and it was surrounded bv a deep and broad ditch, called the font, which could be filled with water. An outwork, called a barbican, which was a strong and lofty wall, with turrets upon it, and designed for the defence of the great gate and draw- bridge, was placed before the latter. Within the ditch, towards the main building, was placed its wall, about 8 or 10 ft. thick, and from 20 to 30 ft. high, with a parapet and embrasures, called crennels, on the top. At proper intervals above the wall square towers were raised, two or three stories in height, wherein were lodged some of the principal officers of the proprietor of the castle, besides their service for other purposes ; and, on the inside, were apartments for the common servants or retainers, granaries, storehouses, and other necessary offices. On the top of the wall, and on the flat roofs of the towers, the defenders were placed in the event of a siege; and thence they discharged arrows, darts, Chap. III. N OHM AN. 171 and stones on their assailants. The great gate was placed in some part of the wall flanked with a tower on each side, with rooms over the entrance, which was closed with massive oak folding doors, frequently plated with iron, and an iron grate, or portcullis, which, hy machinery, was lowered from above. Within this exterior wall, or ballium, was, m the more extensive castles, the outer ballium, which was a large open space or court, wherein a church or cl.apel was usually placed. Within the outer ballium was another ditch, with wall, gate, and towers, inclosing the inner ballium or court, in which was erected the large tower, or keep. It was a large fabric, some four or five stories high, whose enormously thick walls were pierced with very small apertures, serving barely as windows to the gloomy apartments upon which they opened. This great tower was the dwelling of the owner of the castle; and in it was also lodged the constable, or governor. It was provided with underground dismal apartments for the confinement of prisoners, whence the whole build- ing received the appellation of dungeon. In the keep was also the great hall, in which the friends and retainers of the owner were entertained. At one end of the great halls of castles, palaces, and monasteries, a low platform was raised a little above the rest of the floor, called the dais, on which stood the principal table whereat persons of higher rank were placed. The varieties which occurred in the arrangement and distribution of castles were, of course, many, as circumstances varied ; but the most magnificent were erected nearly on the plan we have just described, as may be gathered as well from their ruins as from an account by Matthew Paris of the taking of Bedford Castle by Henry III., a.d. 1224. This castle, we learn from him, was taken by four assaults. In the first was taken the bar- bican ; in the second, the outer ballium ; in the third attack, the miners threw down the wall by the old tower, where, through a chink, at great risk, they possessed themselves of the inner ballium ; on the fourth assault, the miners fired the tower, which thereby became so injured and split that the enemy thereon surrendered. The keeps of which we have spoken are such extraordinary edifices, that we think it right to place before the reader, the following table of some of the principal ones ol the .Norman xra, as given in Duna- way's Discourses upon Architecture. Internal Square, or Oblong. Names. Length. Breadth. Height. Division of Rooms. Dates and Founders. Tower of London _ 110 ft. 96 ft. — ft. By semicircular arches. William the Conqueror. Porchester . 115 05 — Four floors. Canterbury - 88 80 50 Two walls continued from the base to the top. Rochester - 75 72 104 By semicircular arches. Gundulph ( Bishop). Dover . — — 92 Colchester . 140 102 — Three large rooms on each floor. Norwich . 110 02 70 Roger Bigod. Ludlow - — — IK) Four stories. Roger de Laci. lledingham . 02 55 1U0 Three tiers above base- ment. Guildford _ 42 47 Oxford . - - - - . Robert D'Oiley. Bamborougl - - - - - 1070. Richmond . - - - Vault supported by a 1100. single octangular pil- lar. Newcastle upon Tyne 82 02 54 By internal arches and 1080. Robert, son of door cases in Nor- William 1. man style. Corfe * - 72 00 80 Round, or Polygonal. Arundel . -1 69 57 Roof open in the centre, 1070. Rog^r Montgo- straight buttresses. meri. Conisbnrgh • - 23 diameter. 'Three floors, two of 1070. W de Warren. them state apart- ments. \ ork - 64 45 - Four segments of 1008. V illiam the Con- circles queror. Tunbridge - - 64 50 — Berkeley - - - - - Circular, flanked by 1120 Rob. Fitzharding. lour small towers. Lincoln - - - — - 1080. William the Con- queror. Oxford • - - . - Polygon, flanked by three square towers. V\ iiulftor - . 00 85 — ..... Rebuilt l>y Kdw. III. 1 Durham “ “ 03 Gl — Heightened ill 1830. Gundulph is said to have introduced the architectural ornaments of the Norman lyle into the interior as well as on the exterior of castles. The use of battlements, loop- 172 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book L holes, ami open galleries, or machicolations, was certainly, as our author above quoted marks, known to the Romans. Troes contra, defendere saxis Perque cavas densi tela intorquere fenestras. JEn. 1. ix. . r >33. The architects and artificers by whom the Norman works were planned and executed were men of great science and skill, and the names of several have most deservedly obtained a place in history. Gervase of Canterbury records that William of Sens, the architect of Arch- bishop Lanfranc in building his cathedral, was an artist of great talents ; and that he not only made a complete model of the cathedral upon which he was employed, but of all the details of sculpture necessary for its execution, besides inventing machines for loading and unloading the vessels, and conveying the heavy materials, many whereof were brought from Normandy. Of Walter of Coventry, another architect of the age, Matthew Paris speaks in the highest terms, saying that “so excellent an architect had never yet appeared, and pro- bably never would appear in the world.” Dr. Henry on this very properly observes, “ That this encomium was undoubtedly too high ; but it is impossible to view the remains of many magnificent fabrics, both sacred and civil, that were erected in this period, without admiring the genius of the architects by whom they were planned, and the dexterity of the workmen by whom they were execute I.” (See par. 321 et seq.) 396'. Of the twenty-two English cathedrals, fifteen retain parts of Norman erection, whose dates are pretty well ascertained ; and by them the Norman manner was progressively brought to perfection in England. We subjoin the following enumeration of Norm m bishops, who were either patrons of the art, or are supposed to have practised it themselves. A. D. Bishop. Works. 1 050 to 1 080 Aldred, Bishop of Worcester. St. Peter’s, Gloucester. 1077 to 1 107 Gunduiph, of Rochester. Rochester, Canterburv, and Peterborough. 1080 to 1108 Maurice, of London. William de Carilepho. Old St. Paul’s Cathedral. 1003 to 1 133 Cathedral of Durham, but completed by Ra- nulph Flambard. 1080 to 1100 Lanfranc, of Canterbury. 1 107 to 1 140 Roger, ol Salisbury. Cathedral at Old Sarum. 1 115 to 1125 Ernulf, of Rochester. Completed Gundulf’s works at Rochester. 1123 to 1147 Alexander, ol Lincoln. Rebuilt his cathedral. 1129 to 1 100 Ilenry of Blois, Bishop of Winchester. Conventual churches of St. Cross and Rum- sey, in Hampshire. 1158 to 1131 Roger, Archbishop of York. MEM Of Norman architecture the principal characteristics are subjoined in the following sub- section. (See also Book III., chap, iii.) 397. Arches — Generally semicircular, as in the nave of Gloucester, here given {fig. 185.). Of larger opening than the Saxon, and their ornaments less minute ; often bound- ed by a single moulding, though sometimes by more than one ; occasionally with- out any moulding at all ; the soffitt always plain. In the second story, two smaller equal arches under one larger, with a column of moderate size, or even comparatively slender, be- tween them. In the third story {see fig. 186.), gene- rally three together, the centre one higher and broader than the others, and opened for a window ; but the whole three only oc- cupy a space equal to that ARCII FROM NAVE OF GJ.OCC1CSTKR ■ ol the lower arch. Arches of entrance are profusely decorated (fig- 187., from Ely) with mouldings, foliage, wreaths, masks, figures of men and animals in relief, and all the fancies of the wildest imagination, in which every thing that is extravagant, grotesque, ludicrous, nay, even grossly indecent, is to be found. Before the end of the period — and we may almost say early in it — it exhibits examples of pointed arches. They are, how- ever, sparingly introduced : one or more tiers appear in the up- per stories of a building, whilst all the lower ones are circular. Sometimes they are intro- ' Jans Chaf. III. NORMAN. 173 duced alternately, sometimes we find one capriciously inserted between several round ones these are, for the most part, obtusely pointed, though occasionally they are the reverse. They are always wide, stand on heavy columns, or are decorated with mouldings, or both. The approaches to the pointed style were not strongly marked, but they were indicated; for the pointed style cannot be pro- nounced to have commenced until the sharp-pointed arch sprung from a slender column graced with a capital of carved foliage, and this it is not safe to place earlier than the reign of John. The arch which rises more than a semicircle does not very often occur ; but it must be mentioned as exhibit- ing one of the varieties of the period. Columns. - — These are of very large diameter relative to their heights and intervals. Their shafts are circular, hexa- gonal, and sometimes octago- nal, on the plan ; tinted, lo- zenged, reticulated, and other- wise sculptured. Sometimes they are square on the plan, and then accompanied by por- tions of columns or pilasters applied to them. Sometimes four columns are connected together, with or without an- gular pieces. 'They are much higher in proportion to their diameters than the Saxon co- lumns heretofore described ; and though their capitals are not unfrequently quite plain, Fig. 187. prior's rrtra kch «t b>.,. they are more commonly deco- rated with a species of volute, r with plants, flowers, leaves, shells, animals, &c. The bases stand on a strong plinth, dapted on its plan to receive the combined and varied forms of the columns. Windows, are ill narrow, and semicircular-headed ; but they are higher, and often ingroupsof two or three jgether. Ceilings, usually, if not always, of timber, except in crypts, in which they are suited with stone, with groins mostly plain, yet sometimes ornamented on the edge, but uni- crsally without tracery. The White Tower of London, however, exhibits an example of a ■litre aisle covered with vaulting. Our belief is, and in it we are corroborated by the Rev. Ir. Dallaway, whose judgment we bold in no small esteem, that there is no instance of a enuine Anglo-Norman building which was intended to be covered with a stone roof or riling. This is not only indicated by the detail, but by the circumstance of the walls •ing insufficient (thick as they are) in solidity to resist the thrust. Peterborough, Ely, t. Peter’s, Northampton, Steyning, Romsey, &c. are calculated and constructed to receive ooden roofs only. Walls, are of extraordinary thickness, with but few buttresses, and nose of small projection; flat, broad, and usually without ornament. Ornaments. — Among pese must be first named the ranges of arches and pilasters which had nothing to support, ready incidentally mentioned, and which were intended to fill up void spaces, internally . well as externally, for the purpose of breaking up large masses of surface; they are cry common on the inside of north and south walls, sometimes intersecting each other so to produce those compartments that are alleged to have given rise to the pointed arch, tie mouldings of the Saxon period continued much in use, and we ought, perhaps, to jive given some of them, as belonging to the preceding section ; and, indeed, should have i done, if, in the Norman style, they had not increased in number and variety, and bad it also been employed in profusion about the ornamental arches just named, especially in Imspicuous places on the outside, as in the west front especially. 'The most usual orna- rnts (Jit/. 188.) were, 1. 'The chevron, or zins of the learned labours of Mr. Fergusson, of which we have so largely availed our- jlves in the above-named section; besides those of Thomas Rickman, of Mr. Sharpe, and other ardent enquirers on this and kindred subjects. 401. During the reign of Henry III. alone, no less a number than 157 abbeys, priories, id other religious houses were founded in England. Several of our cathedrals and con- ntual churches in a great part belong to this period, in which the lancet or sharp-pointed cli first appeared in the buildings of this country, though on the Continent it was used •arly a century earlier. The great wealth of the clergy, added to the zeal of the laity, rnished ample funds for the erection of the magnificent structures projected ; but it was ith extreme difficulty that workmen could be procured to execute them. With the popes was, of course, an object that churches should be erected and convents endowed. On the bject of the employment of Freemasons we have already expressed our views (par. 30.3, '«/.), therefore we cannot coincide with Wren, Parentulia, in stating that they ranged im one nation to another, their government was regular, and they made a camp of its; a surveyor governed in chief; every tenth man was called a warden, and over, iked each nine. “Those who have seen the account in records of the charge of the irics of some of our cathedrals, near 400 years old, cannot but have a great esteem for •ir economy, and admire how soon they erected such lofty structures.” It was in the 176 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 15 jix 1 course of tills period tliat sculpture was first made extensively available for arcbitecturai decoration. The cathedral, conventual, and other churches built in Britain, began to be ornamented on the outside with statues of various dimensions in basso and alto rilievo. They were not equal in execution to those of France, which have also had the additional good fortune to have been better preserved, from their exposure to seasons less inclement and to an atmosphere unimpregnated with the smoke of coal. 402. Great improvements seem to have taken place in the castles of the time ; thev still continued to serve for the dwelling and defence of the prelates and barons of the country The plans of them were generally similar to those already described ; but it must still be conceded that the inhabitants and owners of them sacrificed their convenience to their security, which seems to have been the chief concern in the construction of their castles, whose apartments were gloomy, whose bed-chambers were few and small, whose passages id dark. The plan, however, as Mr. Dallaway observes, “ which allowed of enlarged dimensions, and greater regularity and beauty in the architecture of the towers, owes its introduction into Eng- land to King Edward 1. We may, indeed consider his reign as the epoch of the grand style of accommodation and magnificence combined in castle architecture. Wi ten engaged in the Crusades, lie surveyed with satisfaction the supe- rior form and strength of the castles in the Levant and in the Holy Land.” Of the five castles erected by him in Wales, Caernarvon {fig. 189. ), Conway {fig. 190 , showing the suspension bridge, and the railway bridge beyond it), Harlech, and Beaumaris still retain traces of their an- cient magnificence; but that of Aberystwith has scarcely a feature left. Caernarvon Castle consisted of two distinct parts : one military, and sidted to the reception of a garrison; the other palatial. The ground plan was oblong, unequally divided intoa lower and an upper ward. Of the towers, which are all polygonal, tl'.e largest, from some tradition called the Eagle Tower, lias threesmall angular turrets rising from it; the others having but one of the same description. “ Llie enclosing walls,’’ conti- nues Mr. Dallaway, “are seven feet thick, with aluies and para- pets pierced frequently with aeilkt holes. A great singularity is observable in the extreme height both of the great entrance gate and that which is called the Queen’s. Leland observes of the portcullises at Pembroke, that they were composed ex solido ferro. In confirmation of the opinion that the royal founder adopted the form of such gates of entrance from the East, similar ones are almost universal in the castles, mosques, and palaces of the Saracens, which he had so fre- quently seen during the Crusades. The tower of entrance from the town of Caernarvon is still perfect, and is the most handsome structure of that age in the kingdom. It is at least 100 ft. high; and the gateway, of very remarkable depth, is formed by a succession of ribbed arches, sharply pointed. The grooves for three portcullises may be discovered ; and above them are circular perforations, through which missile weapons and molten lead might be discharged upon the assailants. In the lower or palatial division of the castle stand a large polygonal tower of four stories, which was appropriated to Queen Eleanor, and in which her ill-fated son was born, and another which was occupied by the king, of a circular shape externally, but square towards the court. The apartments in the last mentioned are larger, and lighted by windows with square heads, and intersected with carved mullions. There is a singular contrivance in the battlements, each of which had an excavation for the archers to stand in, pointing their arrows through the slits; and, a curious stratagem, the carved figures of soldiers with helmets, apparently looking over the parapet. This device is repeated at Chepstow.” The ornamental character ol the architecture at Caernarvon and Conway is rattier ecclesiastical, or conventual, tlun military. At Conway, as has been well observed by an anonymous author, “ what is •Chap. III. EARLY ENGLISH. 177 FiB. W1 CAFR-PIIILLY CASTLE. j ailed tlie Queen’s Oriel is remarkable for the fancy, luxuriance, and elegance of tbe work- manship. Nor is the contrivance of the little terraced garden below, considering the history of the times, a matter of small curiosity, where, though all the sur- rounding country were hostile, fresh air might be safely enjoyed ; and the commanding view of the singularly beautiful landscape around, from both that little herbary or garden, and the bay window or oriel, is so managed as to leave no doubt of its purpose.” 403. The model of Conway Castle has little resemblance to that we have just left. It resembles rather the fortresses of the last Greek emperors, or of the chieftains of the north ol Italy. The towers are mostly cir- cular, as are their turrets, with a ingle slender one rising from each; and machicolations, not seen at Caernarvon, are in- roduced. The greater part of the castles of Wales and Scotland for the defence of the marches were built in the reign of Ed- ward I. On the subjugation of the former country, and its partition into lordships among Edward’s follow- ers, many castles were reared upon lU. 192. TREFOIL AND CINQUEFOIL HEADS. tllG ^dlGl'cll jolclll of jose he had erected, though varying in dimensions l id situation, according to the means of defence pro- osed to be secured to their founders and possessors. Ye may here observe, that in the castle at Conway l.dward I. erected a hall 129 ft. by 31, and 22 ft. igh, which is formed to suit the curvature of the >ck ; and that from that period no residence of bnsequence, either for the nobility or feudal lords, was erected with- out one, varying, however, of course, in their minuter parts, according to circumstances, and in degree of mag- nificence. 404. Caer- Chil- ly Castle, in Gla- morganshire (Jit/. 191.), was another f the castles of this period. It was the strong-hold of the De Spencers in the reign of ie second Edward. Its vallations and remains are very extensive. The hall was much rger than that at Conway. 405 . The characteristics of this style are, that the arches are sharply (lancet) pointed, and lofty in proportion to their span. In the upper tiers two or more are comprehended under one, finished in trefoil or cinquefoil heads (Jit/. 192.) instead of points, the separating columns being very slender. Columns on which the arches rest (fig. 193.) are very slender in proportion to their height, and usually consist of a central shaft sur- rounded by several smaller ones (fig. 194.). The base- takes the general form of the cluster, and the capital (fig. 195.) is frequently decorated with foliage very elegantly composed. The windows are long, narrow, and lancet shaped, whence some writers have called this style the cArirAt o» cui.i xN. Lunctt Gothic. They are divided bv one plain inullion, N Fig. 193. COLUMNS OF WESTMINSTER AllltKY. J 7H HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I, or in upper tiers by two at most, finished at the top with some simple ornament, as a lozenge or a trefoil. They have commonly small marble shafts on each side, both internally and ex- ternally ; two, three, or more together at the east or west end, and tier above tier. Root's are high pitched and the ceilings vaulted, exhibiting the first examples of arches with cross springers only, which in a short period diverged into manv more, rising from the capitals of the columns, and almost overspreading the whole surface of the vaulting. The longitudinal horizontal line which reigned along the apex of the vaultwas decorated with bosses of flowers, figures, and other fancies. Walls much reduced in thickness from those of the preceding pe- riod: they are, however, externally strengthened with buttresses, which, as it were, lean against them for the purpose of counteracting the thrust exerted by the stone vaults which form the ceilings, and which the walls and piers by their own gravity could not resist. The buttresses are moreover aided in their office by the pinnacles, adorned with crockets at tlieii angles, and crowned with finial flowers, by which they are surmounted. The ornaments now become numerous, but they are simple and elegant. The mouldings are not so much varied as in the Norman style, and are generally, perhaps universally, formed of some combination of leaves and flowers, used not only in the circumference of arches, especially of windows, but the columns or pilasters are completely laid down with them. Trefoils, quatrefoils, cinquefoils, roses, mullets, bosses, paterae, & c. in the spandrils, or above the keystones of the arches and elsewhere. The ornamental pinnacles on shrines, tombs, &c. are extremely high and acute, sometimes with and sometimes without niches under them. In east and west fronts the niches are filled with statues of the size of life and larger, and are crowned with trefoil, &c. heads, or extremely acute pediments, formed by the meeting of two straight lines instead of arcs. All these ornaments are more sparingly introduced into large entire edifices than in smaller buildings or added parts. 'The plans are generally similar to those of the second period ; but that important feature the tower now begins to rise to a great height, and lanterns and lofty spires are frequent accompaniments to the structure. It will naturally occur to the reader, that in the transition from the second to the third style, the architects left one extreme for another, though it has been contended that the latter has its germ in the former. However that may be, the period of which we are now speaking was undoubtedly the parent of the succeeding styles, and that by no very forced or unnatural relationship. (See Book III. Chap. 3.) 406. The principal examples of the early English style in the cathedral churches of England are to be seen at Oxford, in the chapter-house. Lincoln, in the nave and arches beyond the transept. York, in the north and south transept. At Durham, in the additional transept. Weds, the tower and the whole western front. Carlisle, the choir. Ely, the presbytery. Worcester, the transept and choir. Salisbury, the whole cathedral ; the only unmixed example. At Rochester, the choir and transept. “ It is well worthy of observa- tion,” says Mr. Dallaway, “ that though the ground plans of sacred edifices are, generally speaking, similar and systematic, yet in no single instance which occurs to my memory do we find an exact and unvaried copy of any building which preceded it in any part of the structure. A striking analogy or resemblance may occur, but that rarely.” 407. The examples of conventual architecture of this period, to which we beg to refer' the reader, are those of Lanercost, in Cumberland ; Rivaulx, Yorkshire ; Westminster Abbey. At Fountains, the choir and east end ; Tinterne Abbey, in Monmouthshire ; Netley, Hamp- shire ; Whitby, in Yorkshire; Valle Cruets, in Denbighshire; Ripon Minster and the south transept of Beverley Minster, in Yorkshire ; Milton Abbey, Dorsetshire ; part of the nave of St. Alban's ; Tynemouth and Brinkbourn, Northumberland ; Vale Royal, in Cheshire; and the eastern fa 9 ade of Howden, in Yorkshire. 408. Among the examples of parochial churches in this style are Grantham, in Lincoln- shire, whose tower is 180 ft. high ; Attclborough, in Norfolk ; Hiyham Ferrars, in North- amptonshire ; St. Michael, Coventry ; Truro, in Cornwall ; Witney, in Oxfordshire; Strat- ford upon Avon, in Warwickshire ; St. Peter Mancroft, Norwich ; Boston, Lincolnshire, remarkable for its lantern tower rising 262 ft. from the ground, and perhaps almost belonging to the succeeding period; St. Mary, Edmund's Bury, Suffolk ; Maidstone, ill Kent; and Ludlow, in Shropshire. Sect. IV. ORNAMENTED ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. 409. The fourth period in the architecture of Britain is that which Mr.Miilers calls the Ornamented English Style, which begins about 1300 and lasts till 1460, and comprises, therefore, the latter portion of the reign of Edward I., and the reigns of Edward II.. Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V., and Henry VI. Chap. III. ORNAMENTED ENGLISH. 17!) from 1300 to 1400, which they call that of the Transition Style or pure Gothic, and from 1400 to 14G0, called the Decorated Gothic; but the change between the latest examples of the first and the earliest of the last is marked by such nice and almost imperceptible . distinctions, that it is next to impossible to mark their boundaries with precision ; and we have therefore preferred adhering, as we have in the other ages of the art, to the arrange- ment adopted by Mr. Millers. In the early part of the period the change, or rather pro- gress, was extremely slow, and marked by little variation, and, indeed, until 1400, the | style can scarcely be said to have been perfected ; but after that time, it rapidly attained all the improvement whereof it was susceptible, and so proceeded till about 14G0; after which, as we shall hereafter see, it assumed an exuberance of ornament, beyond which as j it was impossible to advance, it was in a predicament from which no change could be effected but by its total abandonment. 411. Notwithstanding the wars of the rival houses of York and Lancaster, which occu- pied a considerable portion of the interval whereof we are speaking, and deluged, as the , reader will recollect, our land with the blood of the bravest of men, the art did not appear , to suffer ; a circumstance apparently extraordinary, but satisfactorily accounted for by the zeal of both the contending parties for the religion they in common professed. True it it. that the taste for founding and building monasteries and churches was not so universal as iin the period last described ; the decline, however, of that taste might in some measure have arisen not only from the unhappy state of the country just alluded to, but also from the doubts raised in the minds of many persons of all ranks by Wiekliffe and his followers as to the merit attached to those pious and expensive works. “ It cannot,” says Henry, “be denied that the style of sacred architecture commonly called Gothic continued to be greatly improved, and in the course of this period was brought to the highest perfection.” To account in some measure for this, it must be recollected that during the civil wars the superior ecclesiastics were confined to their cloisters, as few of them had taken an active Ipart in the dispute which agitated the realm ; and, indeed, some of the finest structures now remaining were reared from the accumulation of wealth amassed by instigating the noble land affluent to contribute to churches built under their own inspection. The choir at Gloucester, a most beautiful example, was completed during these turbulent times by Abbot Sebroke, together with the arcade that supports the magnificent tower of that cathedral. 412. During this period the efforts of painting and sculpture were superadded to those of architecture ; and to these must be joined the enchanting effects produced by expanded windows glowing with the richest colours that stained glass could bestow on them. To filter into a history of the rise, progress, and perfection of this art, would here be out of place. A separate work would be required to trace it from its introduction in this country is connected with our art in the reign of Henry III., to that point when it reached its 'enith in the fifteenth century. Dallaway observes, with much truth, that it is a vidgar rrror to suppose the art was ever lost, inasmuch as we had eminent professors of it in the •eign of Charles I. 413. In military architecture, from the reign of Edward III. to the close of the con- ention between the houses of York and Lancaster, many improvements were effected. tVithin that period a great number of the castellated edifices of which the country could jioast were erected or renewed. Their style is marked by turrets and hanging galleries over the salient angles and gateways, of great variety in design. In the fortress at Am- Dcrley, in Sussex, built by William Kede, Bishop of Chichester, about 1370. and one of he ablest geometricians of the age, the ground plan is nearly a parallelogram with four large towers at the angles, not projecting externally, but inserted into the side walls. Of I his atra is also, at Swansea Castle, the lofty perforated parapet or arcade, through which I he water was conveyed from the roof. Upon this plan Henry Gower, Bishop of St. David’s, in 133.5, improved, in his magnificent castellated palace at Llanphey Court. 414. From the circumstance of the circuit of many of the castles encompassing several • iicres of ground, the base court was proportionably spacious ; hence the hulls and other ijtate apartments were lighted by windows, smaller, but similar inform to those used in » | hurches. The rest of the apartments were unavoidably incommodious, defence being the thief consideration. In the castles and palaces of the period, the halls, which formed a principal feature in them, require some notice. The earliest whereof mention is made was hat built by William Rufus in his palace at Westminster. Hugh Lupus erected one at phester, and one was executed for Robert Consul at Bristol. Others we find erected by lenrv I. at Woodstock and Beaumont in Oxford ; probably of rude construction, and 1 tivided into two aisles by piers of arcades or timber posts. In the following century, i hen castles began to be constantly inhabited, and space became requisite for holding the umerous feudal dependents on various occasions, the size of the hall was of course in- reased, and internal architecture and characteristic ornaments were applied to it. At the pper end, where the high table was placed, the floor was elevated, forming a haul /ms or ail, a little above the general level of the floor. The example afforded by Edward 111. at ISO HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE Book I. W indsor was followed during his own and the succeeding reign. The halls of Westminster and Eltham were rebuilt by Richard II. ; Kenilworth by John of Gaunt ; Dartington, in Devonshire, by Holland Duke of Exeter. Crosby Hall, in London, was finished by the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. We here subjoin the dimensions of some >f the principal halls in castles and palaces before the end of the fifteenth century, ranged in order of their size, as partly revised : — • Length Breadth Height in teet. in feet. in feet. Westminster ( 1397) - 238-9 67 to 68 SO Durham Castle - 3 GO, now 180 50 36 London, Guildhall - .. 153 50 GO (Wren’s roof) Conway (roof laid on stone ribs) - 129 31 22 Bristol (divided by upright beams of timber 108 50 — Eltham Palace - 101-3 36 3 54 Chester - - 99 45 — Raby Castle - SO 36 — Kenilworth Castle (1 300) - 88-8 45 32 ’.3 walla Swansea - - - - 88 30 — Leicester Castle Hall (oak pillars) - 78 51 24 Spoffbrth - - - - 76 36 — Dartington (1476) - - 70 40 44 Caerphilly - - - - 70 30 17 walls Crosby Place (1 476-70) - 69 17 38'6 Mayfield Hall (stone ribs) - - 68 38 — Goodrich Castle - 65 28 — Warwick Castle - 62 35 25 Berkeley Castle - 61 32 — Second one at Swansea - 58 33 — 415. Generally, in respect of plan, the internal arrangement of these halls was very similar. The high table, as we have observed, was elevated on a platform above the level of the floor, and was reserved for the lord and his family, with the superior guests. Round the walls separate tables and benches were distributed for the officers of the household and dependents. The centre was occupied by the great open fire-place, directly over which in the roof was placed a turret, denominated a louvre, for conveying away the smoke. At Bolton Castle we find the chimneys in the walls ; but, perhaps, those at Conway ami Kenilworth are earlier proof of the alteration. The roofs with which some of these halls are spanned exhibit mechanical and artistic skill of the first order. The thrust, by the simplest means, is thrown comparatively low down in the best examples, so as to lessen the horizontal effect against the walls, and thus dispense with considerable solidity in the buttresses. Fig. 196. is a section of the celebrated Hall of Westminster, by which our observation will be better understood. These roofs were framed of oak or ches- nut. Whether, when of the latter, it was imported from Portugal and Castile, is a question that has been discussed, but not determined, by antiquaries. Large stone corbels and projecting consoles were attached to the side walls, and were disposed in bays called severeys between each window. Upon their ends, demi-angels were generally carved, clasping a large escocliion to their breasts. Near to the high table, a projecting or bay window, termed an oriel, was introduced. It was fully glazed, frequently containing stained glass of the arms of the family and its alliances. Here was the standing cupboard which contained the plain and parcel-gilt plate. The rere-dos was a sort of framed canopy hung with tapestry, and fixed behind the sovereign or chieftain. The walls were generally lined to about a third of their height with panelled oak or strained suits of tapestry. It was during this a?ra that privy chambers, parlours, and bowers found their way into the castle. Adjoining to, or nearly connected with the hall, a spacious room, generally with a bay window, looking on to the quadrangle, was planned as a receiving-room for the guests, as well before dinner as after. This was decorated with the richest tapestry and cushions embroidered by the ladies, and was distinguished by the name of the presence or privy- chamber. The females of the family had another similar apartment, in which their time was passed in domestic occupations and amusements. This last room was called my lady's bower or parlour, and here she received her visitors. Bay windows were never used in outer walls, and seldom others, excepting those of the narrowest shape. 416. The dawn of improvement in our domestic architecture opened in the latter part of the period, during which also brick cameverymuch into use inEngland as a building material. “ Michael de la Pole,” as we learn from Leland’s Itinerary, “ marchant of Hull, came Into such high favour with King Richard II. that he got many privileges for the towne. And in hys tyme the toune was wonderfully augmented yn building, and was enclosyd with ditches, and the waul begun ; and in continuance endid, and made all of brike, as most part of the houses at that time was. In the waul be four principal gates of brike.” After Chap. III. ORNAMENTED ENGLISH. 181 ! enumerating twenty-five towers, “ M. de la Pole,” we find from Leland, “ buildid a goodlie iliouse of brike, against the west end of St. IVIarye’s eburebe, lyke a palace, with goodlv lorcharde and garden at large, also three houses besides, every on of which hath a tower of brik.” (/tin. vol. i. p. 57.) This was the first instance of so large an application of brick ill England. 417. One of the most important parts of the castle was the great gateway of entrance, in which were combined, at the same time, the chief elements of architectural beauty and inilitary defence. It usually occupied the central part of the screen wall, which had the aspect whence the castle could be most conveniently approached. Two or more lofty towers flanked either side, the whole being deeply corbelled; a mode of building brought by the Arabs into Europe, and afterwards adopted by the Lombards and Normans. The corbel is a projecting stone, the back part whereof, which lies in the wall, being balanced by the | superincumbent mass, it is capable of supporting a parapet projecting beyond the face of the wall rising from the horizontal course laid immediately on the corbels, between which the said horizontal course was pierced for the purpose of enabling the besieged to drop missiles or molten metal on the heads of the assailants. The corbel is often carved with the head of a giant or monster, which thus seems attached to the walls. In John of Gaunt's entrance gateway at Lancaster, the arch is defended by overhanging corbels with pierced apertures | between them, and on either side are two light watch-towers crested with battlements. 418. Of the military architecture of this time, a perfect idea may be obtained from the two remarkable towers of Warwick Castle ( ji. Bridewell and Blackfriars, London, for the reception of the emperor Charles V. 7. St. James’s, Westminster. 8. Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, the jointure of the divorced Queen Catharine of Arragon. 9. Sheriff Hutton, Yorkshire, given for the residence of Henry Duke of Richmond, the king's natural son. 10. King’s Langley, Herts. It was natural that the courtiers of such a monarch should vie with each other in erect- ing sumptuous houses in the provinces where they were seated. Wolsey, besides the progress he had made, at the time of his fall, in his colleges at Christchurch, Oxford, and Ipswich, bad completed Hampton Court, and rebuilt tbe episcopal residences of York House (afterwards Whitehall), and Esher in Surrey. Edward Stafford, Duke of Buck- ingham, in his palace at Thornbury, Gloucestershire, almost rivalled the cardinal, and perhaps might have done so entirely if be had not been hurried to the scaflbld before his mansion was completed. Grimsthovpe, in Lincolnshire, rose under tbe orders of the Duke of Suffolk (Charles Brandon). The Duke of Norfolk and his accomplished son, the Earl of Surrey, were, as appears from the descriptions of Kenninghall, Norfolk, and Mount Surrey, near Norwich, magnificent in the mansions they required for their occupation. We shall merely add the following list (which might, if it were necessary, be much augmented) of some other mansions of note. They are — -1. Haddon Hall, Derbyshire. 2. Cow- dray, Sussex, destroyed by fire in 1793. 3. Hewer Castle, Kent. 4. Gosfield Hall, Essex, perfect. 5. Hengreave Hall, Suffolk, perfect, and whereof a beautiful work has been published by John Gage, Esq. (now ltookwode), a descendant of its ancient possessors. 6. Layer Marney, Essex, now in ruins. 7. Raglan Castle, Monmouthshire, in ruins. 8. Hunsdon House, Herts, rebuilt. 9. South Wingfield, Derbyshire, dilapidated. 10. Hill Hall, Essex, built by Sir Thomas Smyth, in 1542. 1 1. Wolterton (see fiy. 199.) Chav. III. FLORID ENGLISH OR TUDOR STYLE. 185 in East Barsliam, Norfolk, in ruins. 12. Harlaxton, Lincolnshire, perfect. 13. West- wood, Worcestershire, perfect. Fitf. 1 119. W0J.TERTON HOUSE. 427. In a very curious tract, entitled, “ A Dyetorie or Regiment of Health,” by Andrew Boorde, of Physike Doctor, 8vo., first printed in 1547, tlie following directions are given how a man should build his house or mansion ; from which it appears that there were certain leading points for the guidance of the architect, founded, of course, they were ou the habits of the time. “ Make,” says our friend Andrew, “the hall of such fashion that the parlor be annexed to the head of the hall, and the buttyre and pantrye at the lower elide thereof ; the cellar under the pantrye sett somewhat at a base ; the kechyn sett some- i what at a base from the buttrye and pantrye ; coming with an entrie within, by the wall of the buttrie ; the pastrie house and the larder annexed to the kechyn. Then divyde the logginges by the circuit of the quadrivial courte, and let the gatehouse be opposite, or against the hall doore ; not directly, but the hall doore standyng abase of the gatehouse, in the middle of the front enteringe into the place. Let the prevye chamber be annexed to the great chamber of estate, with other chambers necessary for the buildinge ; so that many of the chambers may have a prospecte into the chapell.” Some of the principal in- novations in the early 'Tudor style, were the introduction of gatehouses, bay windows, and quadrangular areas, matters rather incompatible with buildings constructed for defence. The materials of these palaces and mansions were of freestone and brick, according to the facility I with which from the situation tliev could be procured. Sometimes, indeed often, these inaterials were mixed Moulded brickwork and terra cotta were introduced for ornamental parts by Trevigi and Holbein towards the end of the period, or, perhaps strictly speaking, at the end of it. 'The brickwork was occasionally plastered and pointed as at Nonsuch. At Layer Marney and other places, bricks of two colours highly glazed were used for variegating the surface, and were formed into lozenges. The chimney shafts seem to have exhausted invention in the twisted and diapered patterns into which they were wrought, and decorated with heads and capitals and cognizances of the founders. 'The gateways were prominent features in these edifices, and the most expensive ornaments were lavished on them 'That at Whitehall, designed by Holbein, was constructed with differently coloured Iglazed bricks over which were appended four large circular medallions of busts, still preserved at Hatfield I’everil. Herts. This gateway contained several apartments, among which not the least remarkable was the study wherein Holbein chiefly received his sitters. The ga> • ways at Hampton Court and Woolterton were very similar to this. 4J8. VV e will here digress a little on the bay window which, as generally understood, was simply a projecting window between two buttresses (whence its name, as occupying a hay of the building), and almost universally placed at the end of the room It was invented i bout a century before the Tudor age, in which it usually consisted on the plan of right ingles intersected by circles, as in the buildings at Windsor by Henry VI II., and at I hornbury Castle. When placed at the end of a great hall, it extended in height from the floor " the ceiling, and was very simple and regular in its form. In a IMS. at the I lerald’s College • lating to an entertainment given at Richmond by Henry VII., the following passage Kvins, and may he taken as descriptive of one of the purposes to which it was applied. ' Agaynst that his grace had supped: the hall was dressed and goodlic to he scene, and a '' h euphoord sett thcrcup in a have window of I X or X stages and haunccs of bight, untiv.cd and fulfilled with plate of gold, silver, and legiltc.” Carved wainscot ling in 186 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. panels, generally of oak, lined the lower part of the halls with greater unity of design and execution than heretofore ; and it now found its way into parlours and presence chambers with every variety of cyphers, cognizances, chimeras, and mottoes, which in the castles of France about the age of Francis 1. were called Boisseries. Of these some curious speci- mens still remain in the hall and chambers of the dilapidated mansion of the Lords de La Warre at llalnaere in Suffolk. The area or court was quadrangular, and besides the great staircase near the hall, there were generally hexangular towers containing others: indeed, tney were usually to be found in each angle of the great court, rising above the parapets, imparting a pleasant and picturesque effect to the mass of building, and grouping well with the lofty and ornamented chimneys of which we have above spoken. 429. It is melancholy to reflect upon the dis- appearance of these mansions which were once the ornaments of the provinces, and now one by one falling fast away by the joint operation of what is called repair and by decay. Most of their remains have been removed to raise or to be in- corporated with other buildings for which they might have well been spared. 430. The characteristics of the style are arches, universally flat, and wide in proportion to their height (_/?”. 200. ). Windows, much more open than in the last period, flatter at the top, and divided in the upper part by transoms, which are almost con- stantly crowned with embattled work in miniature. The ceilings or vaultings spread out into such a variety of parts, that the whole surface appears covered with a web of delicate sculpture or embroidery thrown over it ; and from different intersections of this ribbed work, clusters of pen- riant ornaments hang down, as Mr. Millers ob- serves, like “ stalactites in caverns.” The Jiv- ing buttresses are equally ornamented, and the external surfaces of the walls are one mass of deli- cate sculpture. The ornaments, as may be de- duced from the above particulars, are lavish and profuse in the highest degree. Fretwork, figures of men and animals, niches and taber- nacles, accompanied with canopies, pedestals, and traceries of the most exquisite workmanship, carried this style to the summit of splendour; and all these combined, had, perhaps, no small share in producing the extinction it was doomed to undergo. (See Book 111. Chap. 3.) 431. Scotland boasts of many fine specimens of ecclesiastical architecture. The abbeys of Melrose and Kelso, founded by David L, as well of those of Drvbiirgh and Jedhu gh, all in Roxburghshire, prove that the art advanced to as great perfection north of the Tweed, as it did in England. Roslin chapel, erected by Sir William St. Clair, for richness and variety of ornamental carvings cannot he exceeded; its plan is without parallel in ativ other specimen of the fifteenth century. Holvrood chapel was finished in 1440 by James II.. and is a beautiful example; the flying buttresses are more ornamented than any even in England. 432. Examples of the Florid Gothic or Tudor style are to he seen at the cathedral churches — of Gloucester, in the chapel of Onr Lady; at Oxford, in the roof of the choir; at Ely, in Alcock’s chapel; at Cett Thorough, in Our Lady’s chapel, and at Hereford, in the north porch. In conventual churches, at Windsor, St. George’s chapel ; at Cambridge, King’s College chapel ; at Westminster, King Henry Vll.’s chapel; at Great Malvern, in Worcestershire, the tower and choir ; at Christ Church, Oxford, the roof of the choir, and at Evesham Abbey, in Worcestershire, the campanile and gateway. 433. For parochial churches, we are unable to refer the reader to a complete specimen, in all its parts, of the Tudor style. The pulpit and screen at Dartmouth in Devonshire, are worthy of notice, and Edyngdon Church, Wilts, for its transitional features. 434. This section will he closed by a tabular view of the promoters, dates of erection, and dimensions, of the different cathedrals of England, arranged from the best modern authorities, such as The Cuthedruls of England, by John Britton ; Worcester and Lincoln, by C. Wild; Carlisle, by R. W. Billings; Canterbury, by W. Woolnoth ; which are the best architectural illustrations of these structuri s ; Prof. Willis’s Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral, 1845, must be referred to l>v all students; while Murray’s Handbooks to the English and Welsh Cathedrals, besides the careful historical information contained in Fig. ‘200. TUDOR ARCH, ST. oeoror’s C1IAPKI.. Chap. III. ENGLISH CATHEDRALS. 187 them, are profusely illustrated with woodcuts of exterior and interior views, tombs, shrines, and other interesting details. The Journals of the two Archaeological Societies also con- tain carefully prepared accounts of many of these structures. (All inside dimensions.) BRISTOL— Conventual Church, Augustinian (Holy Trinity). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Tower. Abbots. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H L. B. H. L. B. PI. 1142-70 Robert Fitzharding 1306 ~| Edmund Knowle, 1341 J John Snow and others Destroyed 16 cent 100 43 — s. 1 18- 43 J^JAjolin Newland J D i D J — — N. groined 30£ 29 1 22 1515-26 Robert Elliot — — s. Vault. See founded 1541 . The chapter house and vestibule, 1155-70, isnow 42 fc. by 25 ft. The Elder Lady chattel dates 1 l‘JG-1215, and the roof, I2S3-94. The st ills were put up by It. Elliot. The internal lenitth is 173 ft., the breadth 118 ft. The chapter house rebuilt 1833 by Mr. Pope; 1855, choir rearranged and sedilia restored by T. S. Pope ; tower arches rebuilt about 18G5 by J. Poster ; nave building 1875 by G. E. Street, K.A. CANTERBURY — Cathedral Church, Benedictine (Christ Church). D. tes and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. To« ers. L. B. PI. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. PI. 1070 Archb. Lanfranc Andcrvpt. 1093' Archb. Anselm with 4 ) Ernulph | . ■ Conrad | P n ° rS * J I’lie second church (destroyed by fire, 1174) 1109 and crypt 163x83 6. 1123-36 Archb. W. Corboyl Restored the church after a fire, 1130. 1175) ■Archb. Richard 189 38 71 and retro- and aisles. 148J 31J 70) 1 184 ^ choir. Upper. 1304 Henry de Estria, prior — Stoneenclosure 14ft. high. 1376' ,0 S. Sudbury, W. Courtenay and T. Arundel, Arch Its. Lower “ Chichele” 141 1 T. Chillenden, prior 221 72 78 — 127) 33 78 s vv. 157 144 9-68 T. Goldstone 1. prior — Lady chape) 1472 VV. Selling, prior 4 1500 W. Morion, Archb. J* — — C Coinpletd 1492 T. Goldslone 11 .prior I — — — 35 35 233.1 1840 — — — — l N.W. re- built - i 57 See founded G 'I . The original Norman structure of Archbishop Lanfranc, 1070-86, was rebuilt alter the canonisation of Thomas a Backet. The architects of the new choir were William of Sens, 1175-78, and VVilliam the Englishman, 1179-84 The chapter house, dating 12!i4 and 1391-1411, is 87 ft. long by 35 It. wide and 52 ft. high The cloisters are 134 ft square. This cathedral forms a double cross, and has a 1 lofty c»ypt. At the eastern end and projecting beyond the general line of the plan is I lie “ corona ” or “ Beckers crown,” of the shape of about three fourths of acircle. The internal length is 514 ft. and breadth 143 It. ii in. Uestoratious 1820-48 by G. Austin, and later by H. G. Austin. CARLISLE — Cathedral Church, Augustinian Canons (S. Mary). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Towers. Bishops. L. B. H. L. B. PI. L. B. 11. L. B. IP. I.. B. II 1062 ) 1130/ J ~ l 37 ^]52 4 135 Origin- ally. ( Aisles and arcade of choir. Included South. Piers of centre. 1353 4 Gilbert de Wclton Upper part . 136 y ~ ( 134 7;j 1 * 31 j 134 14] - 1 13) 2242 1395 J Thomas de Appleby Completed. Rebuilt 1400-19 William Stiickland — — — n. restored above roof - - 128 See found* d 1133. The cast w Indow, of lain Decorated work 32 ft wide, Is perhaps the most beautiful in tin- World : M-e Billings's Cailislr Cnthntynl. the rr-fi-ctorv is 79 ft. long anil 27 It. wide. The nurni.il length Is 205 ft, and breadth 131 ft. G in. Restorations 1853-57 by Ewan Christian. 188 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. CHESTER — Conventual Church, Benedictine (S. Werburgh). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Tower. | _ L. 15. H. L. B. H. L. 15. H. L. B. H. L. U. H. 1128 j- 1211 cir. 1 Ranulf, earl of Chester f Partly. Completed. 92 321 70 117 now. Transepts dissimilar. 39 22 N. Completed. l f 145 78 32£ 1320 J \ 1435 1492 1537 Simon Ripley, abbot \ — Oldham, do. J John Birehcnshaw, abbot Upper parts. W. front < and clcar- v. story. — — S. now St. Oswald’s ch. 78| 77 _ - - 127 Finished. See founded 1541. The chapter house was built, cir. 1128, by Earl Ranulf. The refectory, iv>w the King’s School ; other remains of the monastery. The internal length is 348 ft. G in. and breadth 130 ft. Restoia- tion of the choir, 1644, by R. C. Hussey ; 1855, Lady chapel ; 18G8, by Sir G G. Scott. CHICHESTER — Cathedral Church, Secular Canons (S. Peter). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transept. Towers. Bishops. L. B. H. L. B. H L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. Ralph, 3rd bishop First church partly burnt, 1114, and restored by him. Consecrated 1148. 1 1 80 c rr ■ i T r 1204/ Stflrnd IL 17*26 62 105 ft 59 26 Included. — 1223-44 Ralpli de Neville — Retro-choir. Two outer of nave. 1.9 341 _ north. I an - T Gilbert de S. Leofard I.iOo J 1305-26 John de Langton / — Lady chapel. — Detached at — — — — W. end. l 32 32 120 13291 S. and Central 107. 1380/ window. Spire 271 1 507-36 Robert Sherborne Upper part of choir, stalls, and decorations of S transept. See founded 707. The church founded by bishop Seffrid II. upon that of bishop Ralph. There are four aisles to the nave. The external length is 411 ft. 3 in. ; internal length 380 ft. and breadth 129 ft. Restora tions 1847-56 by R C. Carpenter; since 1859 by W. Slater. The central tower fell March 21, 1861, anti rebuilt by Sir G. G. Scott, and W. Slater. DURHAM — Cathedral Church, Benedictine (S. Cutlibert). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transept. Towers. Bibhops. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. 11. l. b. n. L. B. 11. 1093-5 William de Carileph — Rebuilt and — ■ l Vool' Ralph Flambard 11-0 J 205 ^ 77 175 77 71 Included. East or Nine 12^7 / Richard Roore — — - 1 Altars. 1 29.4 34 — W. - 14ii 14561 172 33. j — C. rebuilt 1480 J 34 33 2i7 See founded 635. The chapel of the Nine Altars was begun about 1230, forming a sort of transept at tin end of the choir. This cathedral is remarkable from the pillars of its nave, which are curioush striated 1 lie Galilee or Lady chapel, at the west end, begun by Hugh de Pudsey (1153-95), 48 ft. by 76 ft. 6 in., am finished bv Bishop Langley (14(;6-37). The chapter house dates 1133-43. The cloisters erected by Bisho| 1 Skirlaw, 1388-1405-37, are about 146 ft. square; the dormitory is now the new library. The internal length i 420 It and breadth 172 ft. Repairs were made 1778-1800 by James Wyatt, and since 1859 by Sir G. G. Scott Chap. III. ENGLISH CATHEDRALS. 189 ELY — ■ Cathedral Church, Benedictine (S. Etlieldreda and S. Peter). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts Tower. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. 11. L. B. H. L. B. 11. 1082 Simeon, abbot, foundations j 1 107 Richard, abbot 203 30* * 73 — — 1781 73 — S. W. Trans - - 120 1189 } GeofIV y Riddell, bishop — — - I C. of Wfront - - 215 1229-54 Hugh de Norwood,') bishop J 1322-28 “ 123 7 J| 70 — = ! Octagon. 71A - 6o| clear. 1328-42 Simon Monlacute, bishop — — - j Lantern. 30 30 142 1321 49 John Wisbeach, prior 1337 Jolinde Ilotham, bishop z Lady chapel W. portion ‘ ' = i Inside Outside 170 See founded 1108. The octagon tower and choir stalls were designed by Alan de Walsingham, a monk, 1322-42 ; and perhaps the Lady chapel 1321-49, which is without aisles, and is internally 100 ft. long, 46 ft. wide, and 60 ft. high to its vaulting. The Galilee chapel, at the western end, by Bishop Eustace, 1198-1215, is 40 ft. long. The chantries, are Bishop Alcock’s 1486-1500, and Bishop West’s 1515-53. The exterior length is 565 ft. from the west front to the east face of buttresses ; the internal length is 517 ft. and breadth 178 ft. 6 in. Restorations from 1830 by John Bacon, clerk of the works ; and 1852 by Sir G. G. Scott. EXETER — Cathedral Church, Benedictine (S. Peter). Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Towers. L. B. H L. Ii. H. L. 11. H. L. B. H. 28 28 145 to transepts. Lady chapel and — completed. 139 29 98 J formed cut I of the commenced towers. 121 72 Gl 132 14 35 — 148 14 35 — Dates and Founders. Bishops. 1136J* William Warclwast 1 280 } ^ a ^ cr Bronescomb 129?} Peter 1 / ^ a ^ er Stapeldon 13‘>7 ) l'So'9/ J°' in Grand : son Nave. L. li. H. 72 See fou ruled 1050. The general plan of the church is that designed by Bishop Quivil. The west front * celebrated for the display of a series of statues of kings, warriors, saints, and apostles, guardians as it I ere of the entrance, arranged in three rows. The lower part of the chapter house dates from about Bishop ; rewer’s time ( 1224-11) ; the upper part is by Bi'hop Lucy (1420-55) ; the ceiling richly decorated by Bishop 1 or he (1405-78). The cloisters, which are only perfect on one side, are by Bishop Brantyngham, 1370-94. he “ Fabric Roils” of this Cathedral are interesting records. The internal length is 378 ft. 5 in. and the feadth 130 ft. The Lady chapel was restored, 1822, by John Kendall. GLOUCESTER — Church of Benedictines, Mitred Abp.ey ( S. Peter). Transepts. Tower. L. B. II. L. B. 11. S. 53 35 78 W. 53 35 78 — 20 iWJ 176 to leads. Date, ami Founders. Abbots. JOSS’) 1 l. ’pit sir* 6 lu- lls.* 1 100 • Serlo 12-12 J 1318 .1 Thokey 329-37 J. Wygemore 1337') Adam de Stanton and 1351/ — llorton 120-37 — Morwent 150 57 — Scalrroke 180 071 -{ W front and two bays Upper part 155 35 86 and stalls. Aisles. L. B. U. W. 180 21 39 S. 180 22 4( HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. 1 90 See founded 1541. The chapter house (Norman) is 72 ft. lone, 34 9. wide, and 3 ft. C in. high. Tile Lady chapel was commenced by Abbot Hanley, 1457-72, and finished by Abbot W. Farley, 1472-98. Tiic cloisters are the most perfect and beautiful of any in England, and are unusually placed, being on the north side. They were commenced by Abbot Horton, 1351-77, and completed by Abbot Froucester, 1381-1112; in them isa monk’s lavatory, and the “carols.” The internal length is 406 ft. and breadth 141 ft. Restorations were commenced 1853 by F. S. Waller, who published a work on the cathedral in 1856. HEREFORD — Cathedral Church, Secular Canons (The Virgin and S. Ethelbert) Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Tower. Bishops. L. B. H. L. B H. L. B. H. L. B. FI, L. B. H. I079'| Robert de Losinga f 74 1^0 TO 97 33 70 130 H i — w. 1 17 53- 1096 L and s 38 111.) Reynelm orReinbelm [ 145 former Iv Cir. 11901 Cir. 1220 j 1260 1282 n 1 287 > Giles de Braose Richard de Sxvinefield > and - I - ) Vestibule & Ladychapel Clerestory and vaulting — F. 109 - I C. Upper | part. 1920 Adam de Orleton — — — J — 31 141 43 exter- • M92"l ^ i a li . > Edmund Audley 1 J Chantry. — — 1 nally Spe founded 680. The Lady chapel is 93 ft. by 31 ft. The octagonal chapter house, 1330, with a central pillar. ^0 ft. diam., was taken down by Bishop Egerton, 1724-46. The great west towor, 130 ft. high, fell 1786, and destroyed a great portion of the nave and aisles, which were then shortened about 15 ft. The length between the external faces of the buttresses is 344 ft. ; the internal length 325 ft., the breadth 109 ft. at les>er transepts and 1 47 ft. at larger ones. Restorations 1786 by James Wyatt ; from 1841 by L. N. Cottingham and his son j from 1858 by Sir G. G. Scott. LICHFIELD — Cathedral Church, Secular Canons (The Virgin and S. Chad). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts Tower. C.r. L. B. H L. B. H. L. B. H. I.. B. It. L- B. 11. 1200 1220 1240 — Lower part 3 W. bays. " ( - 1 S. - - 149 28 - N. - - W. Spires 195 1250 1 39 64} 60 W. front 78 - - 1275 N. aisle 12£ S aisle 13 0 _J 1 C. Spire - - 1 1 1 i and 138 = 294.} 1 325 — 137 28 67 Incl uded See founded 656. The church is \ery uniform, having been, like Salisbury and Exeter, built on one plan . “ A dated record would render this cathedral one of the most valuable for the history of the development of styles:” Professor Willis. The polygonal apse is a special feature of this cathedral, and is unique in England ; the triple spires is another feature The arches in the triforia show the dog-tooth mouldin'; in great perfection. The Lady chapel by Bishop W. Langton, 1296-1321. The chapter house, cir. 1240, is an elongated octacon, 40 ft. 3 in by 27 ft. 5 in., with a central pillar. The internal length is 371 ft. and breadth 149 ft. Restorations since 1860 by Sir G. G. Scott. LONDON— Oi.n Cathedral Church (St. Paul). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aides. Transept. 'Power. 1087 Bishops. ) Mauritius r L. B. H. L. B. H. I,. B FI. L. B. H. L. B. H. to ! 1123 \ . / J Richard de Beaumes } [ Eustace de Fauconberge 280 5;! 93 o9 Includ d. 280 ® 93 r C. 47 285 1222-40 1255-83 and f Roger de Bileye 255 j’i 10 IJ 40 J Lady Chapel Included. ) Spire 1315 204 Burnt 1561 Chap. I II. ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. 191 See founded 604. The chapter house was built 1332, and was octangular, 32 ft. 6 in. diam., and placed in the cloisters, 91 ft. square, erected by Henry de Winghara, 1260. Inigo J ones commenced the restora- tions 1633, and added in 1636 the beautiful Corinthian portico at the western end. The Church was burnt 1666, and was taken down 1675. Dugdale’s History of St. Paul's has numerous plates by Hollar. The external length was about 590 ft. and of the transepts 290 ft. ; the breadth across the nave 104 ft. ; these dimensions are obtained from Longman’s Three Cathedrals of St. Paul, 8vo., 1873. The lengths in the above table are approximate only, arising chiefly from the error of 690 ft. as given by Dugdale for the length. The dimensions of the present edifice are given in paragraphs 470-474. LINCOLN — Cathedral Church (S. Mary). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Towers. Bishops. L. 11. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. 112:1-48 Alexander Vaulting j 17D 44 72 E. and E side 1 186) Hugh de Grenoble or 158 40 72 Included, j ol VV. trans. and VV. side as high as second tier of 1200 J S. Hugh of Lincoln windows. Compl. W i 1203-9 William of Blois — — ; i trans. and P, alilee. < 222 66 74 1209-35 Hugh of Wells 213 4 ]j , SO and upper part _ of VV. front. One story of C tower. 1235-53 Robert Grostete hof 1 982 f Presbytery or Angel — W. Trans. 12801 c # . / Oliver Sutton 1 C. Upper part. 1300 J ( ) \V. south 53 — 270 1342-47 Thomas Bell — — - end and its circular i window. 1438 William Alnwick j \V. front 173 ft. and «3 ft high, and window. large W. VV. Upper ( 1450 — - — — part. - - 180 See founded 634. The plan is a double or Lorraine cross. The architect of S. Hugh's work is said to e Geoffry de N oiers. The chapter house, cir. 1 3th century, is a decagon with a central pillar, 60 ft. diam. id 40 ft. high. The central spire was blown down in 1547 ; the others were removed in 1808. The alilee porch on W. side of the S.W. transept is later than S. Hugh's work. The fayade is decorated ith statues and sculpture, like Wells and Exeter. The cloisters were built by Bishop Sutton and are ;ry slight. There is a curious “ stone beam” over the vaulting and between the west towers. Total ternal length 482 ft. and breadth 222 ft. at west transepts. The west front was restored about 1862. MANCHESTER — Coli.eciate Church ( The Virgin, S. Denis of France, and S. George of England). Oates and Founders. 1424) John Huntingdon, 1st 1458 / warden 1490 James Stanlev, bishop f I L 1518 18 70 Nave. Choir. Aisles. L. B. II. L. II. II. I,. B. II. 81 25.) - ! 8 1 16 — ) — 57 ) inclusive of aisles. 1 1 A crypt under it. 88 29 - I 188 18^ — 1 10 inclusive of aisles and chapels. | LadyCbapel or Cheiham Chapel. Transept. I>. B. II. North, now St. James’s Chantry. 1C 17 — L. II. Ii. vv. Rebuilt 27 27 137 [Parish church ; mado collegiate 1422 ; sec founded 1847. Lady chapel 16 ft. square. St. John Baptist Derby chapel, cir. 1800, 80 ft. by 26 ft., and the chapter house 22 ft. by 13 ft. (1 in., having an unequal ■tidal end, are both by Bishop Stanley. Jesus’ chapel, by Boxwith, a merchant, 1506, is 35 ft. bv 2ft ft. e Tr.ifTord chapel, 1806, is 27 ft. by 21 ft. 6 in. ; St. George’s chapel, adjoining the last, 1508, is 25 ft by .o- o.u.. ...... , ... .. re The Strangeways chapel, 1808, Is 68 ft. by 22 ft. crnal length, 215 ft. and breadth 112 ft. ; externally, J. 1’. Holden. Tower rebuilt by him, but not a copy.’ It. 6 in. ; and the lllbby porch, 1620, is 13 ft. square. Oldham chapel, 1618, Is 16 ft. by 12 It. The internal ft. and 130 ft. Restored and portions rebuilt by J. P. c later restorations have been carried on by J. S. Orowtber. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Bock I. 192 NORWICH — Cathedral Church, Benedictine (Holy Trinity). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Bishops. L. B. H. I.. B. H. L. B. H. 1 096 1 tt i it* iioj j Herbert cie Losin S a | — 00 if) CO Included. 200 to screen 1121) , 1 145 J Evernrd j 250 to tower - T0 »70 20 ‘ ’ — — 1 ‘TO / "^ olm Oxford — Resto red. — 1356-69 Thomas Percy — — — 1426-36 William Alnwick ) W. front 83 - — — • — 1446-72 Vaulting. 1472-99 — Clerestory and vaulting — Transept. Tower. L. 15. H. I 803oi73 L. 15. H. - - HO - 4'J ext. Spire - - HO and 169 = 309 See founder! ' 30 and again 073. liefore 1272 die cathedral was so dilapidated as to render it necessary to be rebuilt. The cloisters commenced by Bishop Walpole in 1227, were completed by Bishop Alnwick in 1430; they are the most spacious in England, being about 170 ft. square audit ft. 0 in. wide. The Lady chapel was destroyed. The external length is 411 ft. G in. and breadth 191 It. ; the internal length is 4C4 ft. and breadth 1X0 ft. The length from the west door to apse is 333 ft. 7 in. OXFORD — Piuory Church of Auoustinian Canons (S. Frideswide, or Christ Church). Dates and Founders. Na\ e Choir. Aisles. T ransept Tower and Spire. I. B. li. I,. B. 11 L. 15 11. I.. B. H L. B. 11 1 150-80 Canutus, prior 68 53 37 J Included. 10221 43.) 1250 — Lady Chapel. — - f Inside - 20 145 1 325 — Latin chapel — — — 1528 Cardinal Wolsey Itoof. Roof of Choir. — — See founded 1543. Tc is the smallest cathedral in England. The chapter house (Early English), oblong in form 54 ft. ty 21 ft., may be compared with those of Lincoln, Salisbury, and Chester, belong. ng to far wealthier communities. Wolsey destroyed the west front and the greater i art of the nave '1 hree sides nf tli*-* small cloister (M ft. wide) remain Interna 1 length 154 ft. (it was 202 fc. when complete) and breadth 102 ft. Interior restorations, 185G, by It. W. Billing. PETERBOROUGH — Conventual Church, Benedictine (SS. Peter, Paul, and Andrew). Dates and Founders. Nave. Clioir. Aisles. Transepts. Towers. Abbots. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. 11 18 '(John of Seez and 1133/ Martin of Bee 1155 /William de Water- 1177/ ville Portion 119 79 78 Z { f. aisles Transepts 185 57 71 C. Lower part Benedict 226 33 73| — 226 13 71 vv. trails. 1200-37 w. front w. porch Remain of Lady chapel — Lantern of C Tower 124 1438) — Ashion& Robert 1528/ Kirton — — E. aisle or iiewbuilding W. spires 153 Edward Blore from 1332 ; and from 1359 by G. G. Scott, It. A., to hi, death, 1378. rebuilt by John L. Pearson, It. A., 1885-0. The central tower w.ts 'hap. III. E N G L I S II ARCHITECTURE. 103 RIPON — Cor. i, eg i ate Chukch (by James I.); (S. Wilfrid). Dates and Founders. — Wilfrid 1151-81 Roger, Archb. of York 1215-55 Walter Gray 1288-1300 1317-40 1454-59 1 500-20 1880 William He Melton, Archb. of York Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Towers. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L B. H. Crypt. 169^8788 w. front ? Part N. side. Included. 132 36n- 33 s- - - 110 (Spires now removed were 110 ft. higher.) — E. part — — — 101 67 79 Included- — Removed Sc Perpend, work substi- tuted. Choir screen 2 bays or. S. side. — E. side S. transept. E. and S. sides of C. rebuilt. — Roof restd — — See founded 1876. The chapter house, 34 ft. 8 in., 29 ft. wide, by 18 ft. 8 in. high, with an apsidal end, y Archb. Roger, but the two central pillars and vaulting are later. The crypt under it is perhaps the riginal church of Archb. Thomas of Bayeux, 1070-1100. The I.ady chapel, 1482, is over it, a most itisual position; it is now the library. Melton extended the church eastward to twice its former ngth (.mat east window, 2a ft. by 51 feet high, dates at the end of .4th century. The crypt under the ■ntre tower is 1 1 ft. a in. by 7 tt. 8 in., and 9 ft. 4 in. high; it is dedicated to the Holy Trinity. The t-mal length is 270 It. 5 in. and breadth 132 ft. In 1829 the nave was new roofed and ceiled ; and from '>• the choir groined in wood and other restorations by Sir G. G. Scott. ROCHESTER— C athedral Church, Benedictine ( S. Andrew). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Tower. Bishops. I.. B. II. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. 11. L. B. H. 077-80 Gundulf, commenced 128 55 — North 95 1 130 John vv. front 1200 New roof New roof — oon r _ / William de IIoo, sacrist ^ and prior _ | j ,,0 *3* : 14 Lady clipl Included. V 02 ^ - *■ 29 Central - - 156 ir. 1350 W.122J29 - 7* it «-* I 1 Chapel St. M.irv. sev fi (led 604. Thecrtpt ( Marly English) is one ol the best i f the class. 'Pbe walls of “ Gundull ’» •icr, 21 ft. square and 95 ft high, are (3 ft. thick, t ho entrance is supposed to have been from the top Bishop hrnulf’s work 1114-21, the wett front (tier haps), dormitory, refectory and chapter house alone naln : the door to the 1 it ter is of Decorated work and remarkable The chapel of M. Mary is 45 ft. •i0 ft. 1 he; Internal length is dpi It. 6 in. and breadth 122 ft. 3 in. Restorations 1825-30. by L. N tdiigham, and of late years by Sir G. G Scott. SALISBURY — Cathedrae Church, Secui.au Canons (S. Mary) Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. AMes. j Transepts. Tower. Bishops. L. B. 11. L. B. 11. 1.. B. II. L. B. II. I.. B. II. J Richard Poore ( 1220) | 191 81 — — - - 207 out. 50$ - |j'29-46 Robert Bingham 140 78 8 1 - 16‘ 38 J|M6-5ti William of York . E. 1 15 44 «! ' >6 62 (Jiles of Bridport — — [W.20H 67 81 HllO-75 Robert de Wyvil — — — l Spire - - 40.) -«* founded 70ft. This is tin* moot uniform of tin? cathedrals ; the original nl in Riven by IlJihop Poore < »rried iint by hi* surcessors. Eilat de Dereham was ebik of the woiki for tin- first twenty years, and ertus for the following twenty. Tfio great regularity of tin* masonry is a distinctive peculiarity of f English work. According to the account rendered to Henry III., It appeared that 40.0(0 marks i:i«. lr/.) had up 10 1 25R been expended on the fabric* ThechnpU r house Is in octagon 6 m ft. dlum. I VI ft high, with a central shaft; tltis with the cloisters, 1*2 ft. square, were commenced by llinhop la \Syle (1-203.70 , and completed by Ilislmji K. de Wlrkhniupton (l270-*4). Tho latter were • I I h " by Mr. Clutton f >r Bishop Dmlion. The sculptures In the former were painted, I K%9 # by Mr. Hudson, and have been explained bv W Purges, l b e stone spire Is described lit II II, ih.lv. Tho n*l Ifngth is 4 HO ft., the breadth 230 ft. The Interna! length Is 4ft0 ft., and breadth 200 0. The west t« 112 It long. Sir U Wren effected some repairs. Kestorallons, 17*2-91, by James Wind. O 194 HISTORY OT ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. WELLS — Cathedral Church (S. Andrew). Dates and Founders. Bishops. 1148-66 Robert 1 174-96 Reginald Fitz Jocelin 1206—42 Jocelyn of Wells 1309-29 John de Drok« nsford 1366-86 John Harewell 1407— 24 Nicholas Biibwi'h Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Tower. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. He 3 w. arches 1G1 GS 1 ,3- < i 135 67 To roof. Included. w. front am'. o arches. 103 69 73 0 com plot d | And Lady Included "t chapel. 47 33 - - 131 - - - 15Si — — — — S. W. Tippet — — — N.W. 23 125 See founded 909, and with Bath 1030. Though one of the smallest cathedrals, it is a very extraordinary example. Its western fayuie is decorated with six rows of sculpture in a very perfect state, and somewhat similar to Exeter and Lincoln. The subjects are angels, subjects from the Old and New Testaments, kings, hi-hops, and warriors, amounting to over 300 : they have been explained by C. R. Cockerell, in his Iconography. The original plan seems to have been cariied out to its completion. The chapel or room under the chapter house and the curious staircase, were completed about 1X86, by Bishop Burnell; and the chapter house, octagon, 52 ft, 6 in. wide and 42 ft. high, with a central pillar, by Bishop William de la March, 1293-1302: see figs. 1275-7. The east walk of the cloisters, 163 ft., and library, date 1407-24 ; the west 166 ft. and part of the south, date 1443-64, and completed for 130 ft. more, soon after by Thomas Henry, Treasurer. The support of the central tower is assisted by an inverted arch as at Salisbury. The internal length is 385 ft. and the breadth 135 ft. The west front is 147£ ft. long. Restorations, 1842, by C. 11. Cockerell, and later by B. Ferrey. A INC HESTER — Cathedral Church, Benedictine (S. Mary). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts Tower. Bishops. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. 11, 1079-98 Walkclin — — — 20« 78 (Fig. 1266.) 50 48 138J 1 204 j' Godfre y de Luc y E. adi itions. — — 1320 1345-66 William tie Edingdon Commenced 155 86 78 Lady chapel 54 28 - Included. i - — 1.366 ) William de Wykeliam f 1404 $ (Eigs. 1302-4.) j 1404-47 Cardinal Beaufort ( 210 to choir 264 3” 78 Included. - 13 40 — 1447-86 William Waynflete 1 500-28 Richard Fox Completed 118 ft. long -{ Completed. P reshy tery Sc beyond. 1 — See founded 648 The west front was originally the work of Bishop Edingdon. The nave, which was “ transformed ” (Prof. Willis) by Wykehnm is, with Ely and Canterbury, probably the longest in the world, S. Peter’s at Rome excepted. The Cloisters are 180 ft. by 174 It. The exterior of the choir is of the finest Gothic of the fitteenth century. The choir as at Gloucester, is under the tower. The chantries nf Waynflete and Beaufort are fine examples. The crypt is an interesting example, and more so now that the chalk, 4 ft. deep, filled in about 400 years since, has been removed, 1886-7. There is no chapter house. The external length is 557 ft. 9 in. ; the internal 1 ngth is 525 ft , the breadth 208 ft. The stone screen and the episcopal throne are l>y Garbett. The west front restored i860. WORCESTER — Cathedral Church, Benedictine (S. Mary). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. 'lower. ! Bishops. 1.. B. H. L. It 11 L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. 11. 1804 S. Wolfs tan Crypt. ^1004 j William de Blois -{ CM O “ -f- 0 L, ec - 3 E. 120 25 - Included — ( T. Cobham and Henry 1377 J Wakefield 170 78 68 172 - - Included. W.128 32GGJ 1372 W. de Lynn — — — — - 44 100 I'jgr j' Henry Wakefield Nave vaulting and altera- tions at W. end. — — Chap. 1 1 1. ELIZABETH A N. 195 See founded 680. The chapter house is circular (sometimes called a decngon) 55 ft. diam., 45 ft* high, with a plain central pillar. The cloisters (Perpendicular) about 120 ft. square, were erected in the time of Bishop Lynn. They were restored I860. The refectory, now the King’s School, 120 ft. by 38 ft., is still perfect. The external length is 405 ft. ; the internal length 388 ft. and the breadth 128 ft. Restorations since 1857 by It. E. Perkins. YORK — Cathedral Church, Secular Canons (S. Peter the Apostle). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Towers. | 1 Archbishops. I.. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. 1215-55 Walter Gray _ S.223 ^ 94 1228-56 John le Romeyn (treas.) •205 *^93 Completed. — — N. - - 91A C tower. 1285-°6 John le Romain 1355 John de Tlioresby — 220 - )4 4 47 _ _ 1361-73 John de Thoresby -1 Lady chapel 64 94 102$ Presbytery. — — 1373J Alex. de Neville 1400/ Thomas Arundel — 116 101 — — 1405 — — - 1 C. recased. 44 42 198 1 420 JohnBemningham(treas.) W. front. — 1432 — — * — S.W. 1457 — — — ~ I N.W. 32 32 172 See founded 622 or 626. The octagonal chapter house, 57 ft. diam. and 67 ft. 10 in. high, was, perhaps, erected at the same time as the nave ; it has no central pillar. The choir and crypts were rebuilt on a larger scale, 1 154-81. by Archb. Roger ; some parts are earlier. The aisles surrounding the church in every part are of similar dimensions and were built at same time. The open central tower is 188 ft. high from the floor. The Rose window in the S. transept is the finest in England, it is 22 ft. 6 in. diam. The five lancet fights, dating 1250, In the N. transept are each 5 ft. 7in. wide and 54 ft. high. The church was consecrated July 3, 1472. The “ Fabric Rolls” of this cathedral are valuable records of building operations. The external length i* 518 ft. The internal length is 486 ft. and the breadth 223 ft. The choir roof was burnt 1*29, and restored by Sir R. Smirke ; the nave roof burnt 1840, and restored by S. Smirke. 'The S. transept was restored 1875, by G. E. Street. WESTMINSTER — Abbey Church, Benedictine (S. Peter). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. \V. Towers. 1209 1 Kin 8 I,enr y IH - L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. 11. — 156 38 101 (fig. 1278) — 189 77 105)3 824 38 78 N — 1272 \ King Edward I. 1307 / (live bays) , 41 , f King Henry V. and 95 1014 — - 16i - — - - 122.) 1509 I Edward IV. l_(-ix bavs and towers) 136 - - — - 16 J - — 171:1-35 Additions to west front and towers, by Sir ( Wren and others. - - 1 02 \ TIW King Henry VII.’* Chapel. IOO ft long, 3. ft. wide, and 66 It. with aisles, and 54 ft high (figs 1325-6). " •Sec founded 1510, annulled in 1560. The flying buttrcHScs of Henry VII. ’a chapel are among the most ix- uitl fully decorated in England. Tho triforla of the- church are lighted from a range of windows • xternully, each conabiting of three circle*. Inscribed within a triangle. Tho chapter house, an octagon "t 5m ft in diameter, is of the wimo date a* tho choir; tho two Hidi*s of the cloiHtcr, which is 135 ft. by 1 tl ft., date as tho western part of the nave. Portions of the “ Fabric Rolls” have boon printed in Scott, '*vun>j\ «v-i lf |M*,3, •„» 1 1 I edition. Tie* total length Inh'rna’ly i (vn as 4H9 ft and 51 1 ft. 6 in. Tl iien-l.iiM i r. • from NimI*-’ /// /y, t lime ** corn tr«l " ill A«'l rmriim /fatori/ are mualler. Tl O out hh • f t he chapel win restored 1800-22 by Thomas Gayfero, mason, under James Wyatt, K.A. ; the building :• nemliy by KUward Blurc, and by Sir U. G. Scott, R.A., 1848-62. 1 .nter by J. L. Pearson, K A. o 2 19G HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. BATH— A bbfy Church, Benfdictink (SS. Peter and Paul). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. C. Tower. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B, H. 1195 Bishop Oliver King, but 74 150:1 not roofed 143 78 75 - 76 — 123 - - 40 30 168 1572) Bishop Peter Chapiran, to l Bishop Montague, and General Repairs, &c. 1616 others 1 535 Prior Birde’s chapel See founded 070, and with Wells 1050. Considered to be the last buildingin the Perpendicular period, of great magnitude. Edward Leycestre, master of the works, succeeded 1537 by John Mutton, freemason. It has 52 large sized windows. Its internal length is 218 ft. and breadth 74 ft. Interior remodelled 1835 by G. P. Manners, and restored 1868-71 by Sir G. G. Scott, R.A. S. ALBAN’S — Abbey Church, Benedictine (S. Alban). Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Nave. Transepts. C. Tower. 1077 ) Abbot Paul (east part of 1078J nave) 1195 Abbot John de Celia f to 1235J & W. de Trumpington ( 1260 eir. John de Hertford 1290cir. Roger de Nortone 1308 John de Marynes 1326 / Hugh de Eversdone L. B. H. 275£ 77J 67 3 w. portals and w. end of nave. L. B. H. 70 H 654 Sanctuary. 93J 35 67 Lady ch 56 23 314 L. B. II. 2754 15 - apel and aut 44 ^ 24 44 20 /4 L. B. H. 1751 32 g e-chapel. L. B. II. 45 47 - outs. 1431 ins. 102 Founded 793. See founded 1877. Abbot John de Whethamstede, 1420-40 and 1451-G4, altered the ground story windows north side of nave and choir, added the large windows in nave and transepts, and the watching loft. The internal length is 520 ft. 8) in. Outside length, 550 ft. from plinth of buttress of east wall of Lady chapel to plinth of west porch. Restoration was commenced 1870 to the tower, &c., by Sir G. G. Scott (died 1878). The west front and part of south transept were pulled down and rebuilt 1S84-7 by direction of Sir E. Becket Denison, now Lord Grimtliorpe. TRURO — Cathedral Church (S. Mary) — Dates and Founders. Nave. Choir. Aisles. Transepts. Tower. L. B. H L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. May 20,1879,' to Nov. 1, 1887. , Bishop Benson > and Bishop Wilkinson 130 ®® 70 112 f 9 70 Nave. 95 fjj 30 Choir. 112 28 110 27 70 Choir. - 22 70 15 15 - 10 30 out C. to be 225 vV. 24 205 Clock tower - - 135 See founded 1884. South of south choir aisle is a second aisle 7 ft. wide, and south of this is the old aisle of the parish church (Early English and Decorated periods). This is 76 ft. long, 17 ft. wide, and 29 ft. high. A western tower has been added to this aisle, and forms a feature in connection with the south transept. The external length is 284 ft., 73 ft. across the nave and aisles, and 117 ft. across tran- septs. The internal length is 276 1't. by 110 ft. The architect is John L. Pearson, R.A. At present, Nov. 1887, are erected only the choir, the great transepts and aisles, the east transept, the baptistery, two nave bays up to the triforium, the clock tower at south transept, and the central tower, including the first stage of the lantern with temporary roof. Chap. III. ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. 197 SOUTHWELL — Collegiate Church, Secular Canons ( S. Mary the Virgin). Dates and Founders. Nave. Clioir. Aisles. Transepts. Towers. L. B. H u. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. L. B. H. 1110 150| *$48 vfc N. porcli. — - 16 - 123 28 J • C. Towers. - - 105 1230 4 ... T7 , r- 1- , to 1250 ) F,,le Ear, y En S ,1!>h — 114 28J 48 — — 2 west 99 Spire 50 Early Decorated 1270-85 Cloister to chapter house — 1291 Chapter house, 321 ft. dia- to 1 300 J J meter, and vestibule. 1 335-40 Organ Screen 145 ) Large windows and west window. See founded 1886. Repairs carried on steadily since about 1856 by John G-regory and his labourers. From 1875 the roofing, restoration of the west spires and of the chapter house, were completed under Mr. Ewan Cnristian, who (1886) has commenced the stalls and restoration of the screens ; and the flooring of stone and marble. The perfect condition of this structure, erected of magnesian limestone similar to that of Bolsover Moor, attracted the attention of the Commissioners in their Report on Stone for the Houses of Parliament, fol., 1839. Its internal length is 306 ft. It was reopened February 2, 1888. N E W C A S T L E - O N - T V N E — LIVERPOOL — Sect. VI. ELIZABETHAN ARCHITECTURE OR LATE TUDOR STYLE. 4 36. Tire revival of the arts in Laly has furnished the subject of Chap. II Sect. XVI. It commenced, as we have there s en, with its author Brunelleschi, who died in 1444 ; and it was not till nearly a century afterwards that its influence began to he felt in this country. The accession of Queen Elizabeth took place in 1558. 437. Whilst the art here, though always, as respected its advancing slate, much behind that of the Continent, was patronised by the clergy, it flourished vigorously ; hut when that body was scattered hv the dissolution of the religious houses, no one remained to foster it ; and though Henry VIII. delighted in spectacle , and a gorgeous display of his wealth, he was far too great a sensualist to he capable of being trained to refinement in the arts. There is in England no general pervading love of the arts, as among all classes on the Continent. The Elizabethan, or ns some have, perhaps more properly, called it, the last Tudor style, is an imperfectly understood adaptation of Italian forms to the habits of its day in this country. It is full of redundant and unmeaning ornament, creating a restless feeling in the mind of the spectator, whi h, in the cinque-cento work, the renaissance of Italy, was in some degree atoned for by excellence of design, by exquisite execution of the subject, and by a refinement in the forms which some of the first artists the world ever l saw gave to its productions. In Italy, the orders almost instantaneously rose in their 198 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. proper proportions, soor. leaving nothing to be desired ; but in England they were for a long time engrafted on Gothic plans and forms. 438. The work of Andrew Borde has been before mentioned; but the earliest publication in England relative to practical architecture was, “ The first and chiefe Grounds of Archi- tecture used in all the ancient and famous Monyments with a farther and more ample Discourse uppon the same than ha, hitherto been set forihe by any other. By John Shute, paynter and archi ecte.” “ Printed by John Marshe, fol., 1563.” This John Shute had been sent by Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, to Italy, probably with the intention of afterwards emplo\ ing him upon the works which he was projecting. His work, though republished in 1579 and 1584, is now so rare that only two copies are known to exist, one of which is in the library of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and the other in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. From this and many other circumstances, it is easy to discover that domestic architecture under Elizabeth had assumed a mere scientific character. Indeed, there is ample evidence that no building was now under- taken without the previous arrangement of a digested and regulated plan ; for early in the reign of this sovereign the treatises of Lotnazzo and many others were translated into English ; and in the construction of the palatial houses of the aristocracy, the architects had begun to act upon a system. The principal deviation from the plans of the earlier Tudor houses was in the bay windows, parapets, and porticoes, whereof the two latter were intensely carved with all the forms that the most fantastic and grotesque imagination could supply. The exteriors of these porticoes were covered with carved entablatures, figures, and armorial bearings and devices. The galleries were lofty, wide, and generally more than a hundred feet in length ; and the staircases were spacious and magnificent, often occupying a considerable portion of the mansion. Elizabeth herself does not appear to have set, during the passion of the period for architecture, any example to her subjects. She might have thought her father had done sufficient in building palaces; but, however, be that as it may, she encouraged the nobles of her court in great expenditure on their residences. With the exception of the royal gallery at Windsor, she herself did actually nothing ; whilst on Kenilworth alone, Lord Leicester is supposed to have expended no less a sum than 60,000/., an almost royal sum of money. 4.39. Before proceeding further, it becomes our duty here to notice a peculiar construction which prevailed in the large manor houses of the provinces, and more especially in the counties of Salop, Chester, and Stafford, the memory of many whereof, though several are still to be seen, is chiefly preserved in engravings ; — we allude to those of timber frame- work in places where the supply of stone or brick, or both, was scanty. The carved pendants, and the barge-boards of the roofs and gables, which had, however, made their appearance at a rather earlier period, were executed in oak or chesnut with much beauty of design, and often with a singularly pleasing effect. The timbered style reached its zenith in the reign of Elizabeth, and is thus illustrated in Harrison’s description of England : — “ Of the curiousnesse of these piles I speake not, sith our workmen are grown generallie to such an excellence of devise in the frames now made, that they fane passe the finest of the olde.” And, again : “ It is a worlde to see how divers men being bent to buildinge, and having a delectable view in spending of their goodes by that trade, duo dailie imagine new devises of their owne to guide their workmen withall, and those more curious and excellent than the former.” ( p 336.) The fashion was no less prevalent in cities and towns than in the country ; for in them we find that timber-framed houses abounded, and that they also were highly ornamented with carvings, and exhibited in their street fronts an exuberance of extremely grotesque figures performing the office of corbels. The fashion was imported from the Continent, which supplies numberless examples, especially in the cities of Rouen, Bruges, Ulm, Louvain, Antwerp, Brussels, Nurem- berg, and Strasburg, very far surpassing any that this country can boast. We have, however, sufficient r. mains of them in England to prove that the wealthy burgess affected an ornamental display in the exterior of his dwelling, rivalling that of the aris- tocracy, aird wanting neither elegance nor elaborate finishing, whilst it was productive of a highly picturesque effect in the street architecture of the day. “This manner,” says Dallaway, “was certainly much better suited to the painter’s eye than to comfortable habitation ; for the houses were lofty enough to admit of many stories and subdivisions, and being generally placed in narrow streets were full of low and gloomy apartments, overhanging each other, notwithstanding that they had fronts, which with the projecting windows and the interstices were filled for nearly the whole space with glass.” Fig. 201 is a representation of Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire, built circa 1550-59, partly rebuilt 1602. 440. A better ide i of the architecture of this age cannot be obtained than by a notice of the principal architects who have furnished materials for the foregoing observations ; for this purpose we shall refer to Walpole’s Anecdotes A folio book of drawings, belonging to the Earl of Warwick in the time of Walpole, enabled him to bring to the knowledge of the world, and pi rpetuate the memory of, an artist of no mean powers, whose name, till that author’s time, was almost buried in oblivion, and of HAP. III. ELIZABETHAN. 199 • horn little is still known, though his work contains memoranda relating to manv of hie principal edifices erected during the reigns of Elizabeth, and James, her successor. Illis name was John Thorpe; and at the sale of the library of the lion. Charles Greville in 1810, the IMS. in question came into the possession of the late Sir John Soane, Professor of Architecture to the Royal Academy. It is a folio, consisting ot .’SO pages, wherein the plans, often without a scale, are nevertheless accurately executed. Several of the subjects were merely designs for proposed mansions. 'The elevations are neatly drawn and shadowed. The general form of the plans is that of three sides of a piadrangle, the portico in the centre being an open arcade finished by a turreted cupola. When the quadrangles are perfect, they are. for convenience, surrounded by an open •nridor. The windows, especially in the principal front, are large and lofty, and mostly alternated with bows or projecting divisions, and always so at the flanks. Great efforts vere made by Thorpe to group the chimneys, which were embellislud with Roman Doric olumns, and other conceits. Portions of the volume have been engraved by Mr. C. J. Richardson in the first part of his Architectural Remains of the Reiyns if Elizabeth and I'amei /., fol. 1888-40. Amongst the contents of Thorpe’s volume (which has been col- lated for this edition, 1866), are: — Outlines of a “jambe mould,” “ muniell,” “ rayle mo. for tayre,” “ corbell table,” paiapets, &c. ; and the five Orders, with rules for drawing them. Page 19, ‘JO. Plan and elevation, “ Buck hurst bowse, Sussex.” Built, 1565, by Thomas Sackville, Eail of Dorset, Lord High Treasurer to Queen Elizabeth. The front ex- tends 280 ft. The courtyard is 100 ft. by 80 ft , and the hall 80 ft. by 50 ft. 24. “ja front or a garden svde for a noble man,” dated 1600 ' 87, 88, 50. “ The way how to drawe any ground plot into the order of perspective,” with descriptions, the front being parallel with the spectator. ; 39, 40. Plan, with a courtyaul in front. “ Sr Geo. Moores bowse.” ! 44. Plan. “Cannons, my La: Lakes bowse.” 48. Plan. •• Copthail, lOfo. 8 yncli. i bis cort should be 83 (or 88) fo. square.” Built fur Sir 'Thomas Heneage. The gallery was 168 ft. long, 22 ft. high, and 22 ft. wide. 43. Elevation. “ NVoollerton. Sir Eraunc. Wdloughby,” Nottinghamshire, which has the inscription, “ Inc/wata, 1580-1588.” Mr. Dallaway notices that the tomb of Hubert Smithson, in Wollaton church, calls him “architector and surveyor unto the most worthy house of Wollaton, with divers others of great account. <)l>. 1614,’ which would appear to invalidate Thorpe’s claim ; Smithson was probably 'Thorpe’s pupil and successor. 'The property now belongs to Lord Middleton. (SceJfjr. 208. ) 54. Plan, rough. “ Sr Jo. Bagnall." A gallery 60 ft. long. •7, 58. Two plans. “ liurghley juxta Stamford.” Built, 1578-80, for William Cecil, I.ord Treasurer. (See 105.) I 67, 68. Two plans. “Thornton Collcdg, Sr Vincent Skynncrs.” A gallery 113 ft. long, and 25 ft. » ide. 200 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. 69. Plan of Ilcnrv VII. ’s Chapel. “ Capella ista II. 7 mi impensis 14.000 lb. adiecit ipse Ao 1502.” 77, 78, Plan. Chateau de Madrid. Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, now pulled down. 88, 89, Plan and elevation. Old Somerset House. 93. Plan. “ Sr Walter Coap at Kensington, pfected p me J. T.” Holland House, finished in 1607, and added to hy Inigo Jones and N. Stone. 94. Plan. ‘‘Sr George Co] pin,” Hertfordshire, cir. 1608 (?) 109. Plan. “A London house, La Darby, ehannell row” (?) 105, 106. Plan. “ Duke of Buckingham at Burghhy,”or Burley-on-the-Hill. (See 57.) 113, 114. Plan. “ Wymbleton. An howse standing on the edge of an hie hill.” Built, 1 588, for SirTho. Cecil. Fuller says it was “a daring structure, nearly equal to Nonesuch.” 123, 124, 127, 128. Plans. “ Queene mother’s howse, fabor St. Jarmihs, alia Paree, altered p Jo. Thorpe.” 136. Plan. “ London howse of 3 bredthes of ordy tenemts.” Supposed design for Sir Fulke Greville’s (Lord Brooke) house, near Gray’s Inn. 139, 140. Plan. “ Kerby whereof I layd ye first stone, Ao 1570,” Northampton- shire, for Lord Chancellor Hatton. 150. Plan. “ Richmt. Lodge, Stifles ” (?). ( Robert Stickles ’) 151. Plan. “Sr Pcival Hart,” Lullingstone, Kent. Fig- 202. LoKGFORI) CASTLE. 155-158. Plan and elevation. “ Longford Castle, Wiltshire (fig. 202). A diagram of the Tiinity is drawn in the middle of the triangular court. Built for Sir Thomas Gorges and his wife, the Marchioness Dowager of Northampton, in 1591 ; now the Earl of Radnor’s. 1'he plan differs from that given ( 1766) in Britton’s Arch. Antiq. 153. Plan. “ Mounsier Jamnret in Paris, his howse, 1600. 164. Plan. “ Gyddye Hall, 84 fo. square,” Essex. Altered for Sir Anthony Coke. 167, 168. Plan. “St. Jar min’s howse, V leagues from Paris, Ao 1600.” 203, 204. Plan. “ Audley end and later, “ Audley End in Essex, seat of Lord Suffolk.” now the property of Lord Bruybrooke. Thorpe’s part was completed about 1616. 215, 216. Threeplans. Greek cross. Lyveden.co. Northam. (?). Built by Sir T. Tresham. 225. Two plans. “Mr. Tayler at Potter’s barr, 1596.” 232. Plan, H shape, with a courtyard, “ 94 fo. square,” and a gatLdrouse. “This plot drawne after 8 fo. 8 inclie, p Jo. Thorpe,” (? his own drawing). 234. Two elevations. “ Heddington Jo Chenyes,” (? Toddington, co Bedford). 239, 240. Two plans. “ Sr Walt. Covert, Sussex,” at Slaugham, near Horsham. 267,272. Two plans. “Ampthill old howse, enlardged p J. Thorpe.” “Duke of Bedford ” (?). It was the residence of Queen Catherine, first wife of Henry ATI I. 265, 266. Plan and elevation. “ for Mr. Willm Powell,” or Howell ; of timber. Amongst the general designs, which are chiefly plans, are, page 21, “ Sir Jo. Danvers, Chelsey ; ” 28, “Sr Wm. Ruffden ” (?) ; 31, “Mr. Johnson ye Druggyst ; ” 43, “Sir Walter Rawley — Sir James ; ” 45, “ Sir Tho Dorrell. Lincolne shire ; ” 46, and half eleva- tion, “ Godstone; ” 59, two plans, “ Sr George Set. Poole; ” 62, a long-fronted house at “ Higate ; ” 65, “ Sr James (?) Clifton’s howse ; ” 121, “ Mr. Keyes ; ” 132, “ Mr. Den- man ; ” 147, 148, and elevation, “ Sr William Haseridge ; ” 176, “ Mr. Panton;” 182, Holdenby banquetg at 16 fo ; ” 185, “ Mr. Folte” (?) ; 187, “ Air. W. Fitwilliams; ” 199, Sr Hen. Nevile ; ” 201,202, “Jo. Clanricard ; ” 205, “Sr Tho. Holt, 12ptej" anil 253, “ Hatfield lodge.” 275-278, has a gallery 160 ft. long and about 25 ft. wide; 146' Chap. III. ELIZABETHAN. 201 is designed within a circle ; and 161, on a triangle with a hexagon interior court ; 155 is also a triangular plan, as named. Many of these designs might probably be identified, but it would entail much labour. 441. Walpole, upon Thorpe’s Compositions, observes, that the taste of this master’s man- sions was that “ bastard style which intervened between Gothic and Grecian architecture, or which, perhaps, was the style that had been invented for the houses of the nobility when they first ventured, on the settlement of the kingdom after the termination of the quarrel between the Iloses, to abandon their fortified dungeons, and consult convenience and mag- i nificence.” The same author continues, “ Thorpe’s ornaments on the balustrades, porches, and outsides of windows are barbarous and ungraceful, and some of his vast windows advance outwards in a sharp angle ; but there is judgment in his disposition of apartments snd offices, and he allots more ample space for halls, staircases, and chambers of state. He appears, also, to have resided at Paris, and even seems to have been employed there." Among the designs he made is that of a whimsical edifice, designed for himself, forming on the plan the initial letters of his name l^f, which are joined by a corridor, the (] being the situation of the offices, and the “T being skilfully distributed into large and small apartments. The epigraph to the design is as follows: — (pages 30 and 50) “ Thes 2 Letters I and T ioyncd together as you see Is ment a dwelling liowse for mee John Thorpe.” Walpole truly observes of this volume, that “ it is a very valuable record of the maguifi cence of our ancestors, and preserves memorials of many sumptuous buildings of which no i other monument remains.” We ought, perhaps, to have suffered our account of Thorpe to have been preceded by those of others, but the conspicuous rank he holds in the list of English architects of this period induced us to place him before another, for a little time his predecessor in the works of the country. We allude to the name of Robert Adams, who translated Ubaldini’s account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada from the Italian into Latin ; a feat which we fear but few architects of the present day would easily accomplish, such is the fall of education for artists, notwithstanding all the boasts of march of intellect. This translation appeared in 4to., 1589. He was surveyor of the queen’s buildings, and appears to have been a man of considerable ability. 1 1 is place of sepulture was in an aisle on the north side of the old church at Greenwich, with this inscription, ” Egregio Viro, Roberto Adams, operum regiorum supervisor! architecture, peritissimo, oh. 1595. Simon Basil, operationum regiarum contrarotulator, hoc posuit monumentum 1601." Fig. ‘ 204 . ?» 111,1c schools at jxkokd. (fig 201. ), of which the hint might have been taken from the Campanile of Santa Cliiara al Naples, and of the quadrangles of Merton and Wadham colleges. He was the first in this country who introduced the classical orders in series above each other. He evidently bor- rowed the practice from Philibert Delorme, who had done the same thing at the Chateau d Anet, near Paris, one of the victim edifices of the Revolution. We apprehend any argument to prove the absurdity of such conceits is unnecessary. 4 4.5. Many of the grandest works of what is termed the Elizabethan, or, in truth, the 202 HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE. Book 442. Bernard Adamsand Lawrence Bradshaw were also eminent among the architects of the period under onr consideration ; but we must notice more particularly Gerard Chrismas, who was associated with Bernard Jansen in the erection of Northampton, after- wards Suffolk, and now Northumberland House, not strictly belonging in time, though in style, to the reign of Elizabeth. Both of these architects are considered to have been much employed. In the balustrade and on the street front were the letters H. N. and C. JE„ which tio doubt stood for Henric. Howard. Northampton. Comes -Edificavit. Yet C. JE. has been supposed to denote “ Chrismas iEdificavit.” Such letters were repeated, a practice then much in vogue, for there are many examples of inscriptions of letters en- closed within the balustrade, as if within lines, and pierced so that the skv seen through them renders them distinct from almost every point of view. Bernard Jansen was probably the architect first employed at the splendid mansion of Audley Inn in Essex, fi r Thomas Howard, Earl of Suffolk; and, besides the association with Chrismas above mentioned, was joined with Moses Glover in completing Northumberland House, and was probably the architect who finished Sion House in Middlesex, for Ilenry Earl of Northumberland, who had at the time expended 9000/. in the work. “id:?. Robert and Huntingdon Smithson, father and son, were engaged on Wollaton Hall ( fiy. 208. at the foot of the preceding page), in Nottinghamshire, as also at Bolsover in Derbyshire. The former died in 1614, at the age of seventy-nine, and the latter in 1648, but very possibly John Thorpe was consulted in this splendid work, for among his designs, as the reader will recollect, are some for Wollaton. 414. Thomas Holt, a native of York, was the architect of the public schools at Oxford ELIZABETHAN. 203 AP. I II. i Tudor style, were not completed before the middle of the reign of James I. ; so that it i he said to have been practised until the days of Inigo Jones, in whose early works it i t he traced. “ This fashion,” says Dallaway, “ of building enormous houses was ex- t led to that period, and even to the civil war. Audley Inn, Hatfield, Charlton, Wins, 3 particularly Wollaton, are those in which the best architecture of that age may he 5 i. Others of the nobility, deserting their baronial residences, indulged themselves in a r Iship in point of extent and grandeur of their country-houses, which was, of course, flawed by opulent merchants, the founders of new families Sir Baptist Hiekes, the i r’ s mercer (afterwards ennobled ), built Campden House, Gloucestershire, which was s celv inferior to Hatfield, afterwards burnt down. There is scarcely a county in i dand which cannot boast of having once contained similar edifices ; a very few are stil i ibited ; others may be traced by their ruins, or remembered by the oldest villagers, who L confirm the tradition ; and the sites, at least, of others are pointed out by descriptions as 1 ing existed within the memory of man.” I 46. The following is a list of some of the principal palatial houses finished before 1G00. ( lers of the reign of Elizabeth’s successors will hereafter be noticed. Of so many of t n are the names of the architects undetermined, though many are assigned to those we I e already mentioned, that we shall not attempt to assign a column to the artists in q stion, for fear of misleading our readers. Name. Date. Comity. Founder. Present State jtledge - 1 560 Cambridge- Lord North - - - Taken down asing house 1560 Hants Marquis of Winton In ruins elston 1587-92 Somerset - Sir J. Harington - Rebuilt orhambury 1565-68 Herts Sir N. Bacon In ruins uckhurst 1 560-67 Sussex Lord Buckliurst - Destroyed nowle - 157-0 Kent Lord BuckhurA - Perfect enshurst- 1 570-85 Kent Sir FI. Sydney Perfect enilworth 1 57 1-75 Warwick Earl of Leicester - In ruins unsdou - 1575 Warwick - Lord Hunsdon Rebuilt anstead - 1576 Essex Earl of Leicester - Destroyed urlcigh - 1575-80 Lincoln Lord Burleigh Perfect sterlev - 1577 Middlesex - Sir Thomas Gresham Rebuilt nngleat - 1567-78 Wilts Sir J. Thynne Perfect, oke Pogis 1580 Bucks Earl of Huntingdon Rebuilt uddington 1580 Beds Lord Cheyney Destroyed lieubalds 1570—50 Herts Lord Burleigh Destroyed imhledon 1588 Surrey Sir T. Cecil Rebuilt estwood 1590 Worcester - Sir J. Packington - Perfect ardwick Hall- 1590-97 Derby Countess of Shrewsbury In ruins 17. Relative to Osterlcy, in the above table, a curious anecdote has been preserved by I ler. in his Worthies of Middlesex. Queen Elizabeth, when visiting its magnificent a (chant, the owner, observed to him that the court ought to have been divided by a wall. I immediately collected so many artificers, that before the queen had risen the next mining, says the historian, a wall had been actually erected. IlH. Many of these houses possessed terraces of imposing grandeur, which were con- 'd bv broad or double flights of steps, with balustrades, whereof, if we may judge from Stanley’s print of Wimbledon, the seat of Sir Edward Cecil, it was a very fine example, following extracts from the parliamentary survey of it in 1649 will convey some m of its extent. “ The scite of this manor-house being placed on the side slip]) of a grownde, renders it to stand of that height, that betwixt the basis of the brick wall of tl lower court, and the hall door of the sayd manor-house, there are five several ascents, .ting of three score and ten stepps, which are distinguished in a very graceful manner, platforms were composed of Flanders brick, and the stepps of freestone, very well iglit. On the ground floor was a room called the stone gallery, 108 foot long, pillared arched " itli gray marble.” The ceiling of the hall “ was of fret or parge work, in the lie whereof was fixed one well-wrought landskip, and round the same, in convenient nets, seven other pictures in frames, as ornaments to the whole roome; the floor was nek and white marble.” '). As we have above observed, the Elizabethan style is a mixture of Gothic and Italian, characterised by orders very inaccurately and rudely profiled ; by arcades whose openings dten extravagantly wide, their height not unfrequently running up into the entabla- The columns on the piers are almost universally on pedestals, and arc often banded ■unes of circular or square blocks at intervals of their height ; when square, thev are 'antly decorated with prismatic raisings, in imitation of precious stones, a species of 204 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ISooK ornament which is of very frequent recurrence. Nothing like unbroken cntablatur appear ; all is frittered away into small parts, especially in scrolls for the reception of i •'■options, which, at their extremities, are voluted and curled up, like so many pieces scorched leather. All these e centricities are so concentrati in their sepulchral monumenl that no better insight into tl leading principles of the sty can be afforded than an examp from Westminster Abbey, he, given in the monument of Quei Elizabeth herself ( Jig. 20.5. In this it will be seen that tl taste is cumbrous and confused and to add to the anomalies, tl figures were coloured, and tl different sorts of marbles ai alabasters of numberless line The general composition consis in a large altar tomb under ;; open arcade, with a rich and con plicated entablature. The ci I limns are usually of black < white marble, of the Doric i Corinthian order. Small pyr; midal figures, whose sides wci richly veneered with various! coloured pieces, disposed in 01 namented squares or circles su] porting globes, are of continu; occurrence. Armorial bearing in their various colours were ii traduced to excess. When tl monument is placed against wall, which is more usually tl case, the plan was accoinmodaU to it, and the alcove with i Fig. 205. uuekn blizabbi'h's monument. columns universally retainer Among the best examples ai those of Thomas Rateliffe Earl of Sussex at Boreham in Essex, to cost 1500/., and of I countess in Westminster Abbey; of Robert Dudley Earl of Leicester at Warwick; ai of Henry Carey Lord Hunsdon in Westminster Abbey. 450. It seems droll in this age, when throughout Europe the principles of good taste architecture are so well understood, that fashion, induced by the cupidity and ignorance upholsterers and decorators, — the curses of the art. — should again sanction an adoption the barbarous forms and unmeaning puerilities which it might be supposed Jones and Wry bad, by their example, consigned to a merited oblivion. We fear our warning voice |vi do little to suppress the rage till its cycle is completed. We have, in the prolongation the subject, sacrificed our own feelings to the rage in the present day for designs of th class, and have assigned to it a far longer description than it deserves. The wretclu cockney imitations of it perpetrated for retired shopkeepers in the insignificant villas of t : suburbs of the metropolis, and occasionally for the amusement of country gentlemen little more distant, as well as the use of what is called Gothic, appear to us in no oth light than mockeries of a style which is repudiated by the manners of the nineteenth centur The style called Elizabethan we consider quite as unworthy of imitation as would be tl adoption in the present day of the model of the ships of war, with their unwieldly and to heavy poops, which encountered the Armada, in preference to the beautiful and compa form of a well -mou lded modern frigate. i Sf.ct. VII. JAM ns I. TO ANNE. 451 . The first of the reigns that heads this section has, in some measure, been anticipal in our notice of Elizabethan architecture, which it was impossible to keep altogether dislin I A l*. III. JAMES I. TO ANNE. £05 I .in the following reign. The angular and circular bay windows now disappeared entirely, d were supplanted by large square ones, of very large dimensions in their height, equally divided by transoms, and placed in lengthened rows, so as to form leading tures in the several stories of the building. Battlements were now entirely omitted, d the general effect of the pile became one of massive solidity, broken by a square turret tier than those at the angles. The houses built in the reign of James I. are deficient in • picturesque beauty found in those of his predecessors. Many of them were finished bv ; architects named in the last section, and they were on a larger scale than even those of j age of Elizabeth. Atidley Inn in 1616, Hatfield in 16 11, and Charlton House in iltshire for Sir Henry Knevett, were, perhaps, the best specimens. The house at mpden, Gloucestershire, built by Sir Baptist Hickes, and which was burned down during .•civil wars, consisted of four fronts, the principal one being towards the garden, upon the >und terrace ; at each angle was a lateral projection of some feet, with spacious bay ndows ; in the centre a portico, with a series of the columns of the five orders (as in the mols at Oxford), and an open corridor. The parapet was finished with pediments of a iricious taste, and the chimneys were twisted pillars with Corinthian capitals. A very • lacious dome issued from the roof, which was regularly illuminated for the direction ■ travellers during the night. This immense building was enriched with friezes and ublatures, most profusely sculptured ; it is reported to have been erected at the expense i 29,000/., and to have occupied, with its offices, a site of eight acres.” 152. The use of the orders became more general. In Glamorganshire, at Beaupre stle (1600), which has a front and porch of the Doric order, we find a composition in- i ding that just named, the Ionic and the Corinthian, wherein the capitals and columns . accurately designed and executed. The following table exhibits some of the principal I ises of the period : — House. Date. County. Founder. Present State. Architect. olland House - 1607 Middlesex - Sir Walter Cope - Perfect J. Thorpe (?) amshill - 1607-12 Hants Edward Lord Zouche - do. Uncertain istle Ashbv 1625-35 Northmptn. Herbert Lord Compton do. do. miner Hill 1624 Kent Earl of Clanricarde do. J. Thorpe (?) larlton 1615 (?) Wilts Sir Henrv Knevet Restored Uncertain aifield 1607-12 Herts Robert Earl of Salisburt Perfect do. uigford Castle - 1591-1612 Wilts Sir T. Gorges do. do. •tuple Newsham 1612-19 Yorkshiie - Sir Arthur Ingram do. do. larlton, Great - 1607-12 Kent Sir Adam Newton do. do. plsover - 1607-18 Derby Sir Charles Cavendish j Dilapi- dated 1 Huntingdon ' Smithson alley Inn 1610-16 Essex T. Earl of Suffolk Perfect B. Jansen O 00 X co u> to ( J. Thorpe (?), ollaton - Notts Sir Francis Willoughby do. R. and H. ( Smithson 53. Under James, the pride and magnificence of the aristocracy was as equally dis- | yed in the sumptuous monuments erected to the memory of the departed as in their s olv palaces ; and we can scarcely point to a county in England whose parish churches i not attest the fact by the gorgeous tombs that exist in villages where the mansions of t se thus commemorated have not long since passed from the memory of man. A year’s r tal of an estate, and that frequently under testamentary direction, was often squandered i he sepulchral monument of the deceased lord of a manor. 54. In the reign of James I. properly commences the career of Inigo Jones, to which v hasten with delight, as indicating the dawn of true architecture (for the Gothic had irre- t vably passed away) in England. It resembles the arrival of a traveller at an oasis in the o rt, after a parching and toilsome journey. “ Jones, if a table of fame,” says Walpole, ‘ ke that in the Tatler, were to be formed for men of real and indisputable genius in e ry country, would save England from the disgrace of not having her representative ■ ing the arts. She adopted Holbein and Vandvck, she borrowed Rubens, she produced I /o J ues Vitruvius drew up his grammar, Palladio showed him the practice, Home d I'laycd a theatre worthy his emulation, and King Charles was ready to encourage, t'l'loy, and reward his talents. This is the history of Inigo Jones as a genius.” Gene- < jy speaking, we are not admirers of Walpole, who often sacrificed truth to fancy, and the f n tcr of an artist to a prettily-turned period ; hence we are disinclined to concur in bis t .cisms without many qualifications; but in this case he has so well expressed our own HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 20G Rook 1. feelings, that we regret we cannot add force to the observations in which we so fully concur. 455. Inigo Jones was the son of a clothworker, and was born about 1572. From tin- most probable accounts he appears to have been apprenticed to a joiner, in which state lie was, from some accounts, discovered by the Earl of Arundel, from others by William Earl of Pembroke, and by one or other of these noblemen sent to Italy, rather, however, accord- ing to Walpole, to study the art of painting, than that of architecture, for the former of which, the author named says, Nature appears not to have fitted him, inasmuch as “ he dropped the pencil, and conceived Whitehall.” But our own belief is, that though he might have after- wards been patronised by both the noblemen above mentioned, he owed this part of he education to neither of them ; for, considering that at his first visit to Italy, before 1605 Lord Pembroke was but just of age, and that Lord Arundel was somewhat younger there is no great probability that either of them thus assisted him in his studies on tin Continent. 456. Of his employment as an architect nothing can be traced previous to the visit . This design (engraved for the first time in Longman's The Three Cathedrals, 87 t) was wholly departed from by Wren, in execution. 408. Much trouble was experienced in removing the immense ruins of the old church, for ie de-truction whereof recourse washed to many expedients. On the north side, the fouudu ons are placed upon a stratum of hard pot earth about 0 feet in thickness, hut not more he reign of Charles II. “ The length of his life enriched the reigns of several princes and lisgraced the last of them.” (At the advanced age of 86 he was removed by George I. from lie office of Surveyor General. ) “ A variety of knowledge proclaims the universality, a mul- iplicity of works the abundance, St. Paul's the greatness, of Sir Christopher’s genius. The noblest temple, the largest palace, the most stupendous hospital, in such a kingdom as lliritain, are all works of the same hand. He restored London and recorded its fall.” As lie boast of England is the Cathedral Church of St. Paul, it will be necessary to dwell a ittle on a description of it. 467. l he larger portion of this cathedral stands on part of the site of the old one, as town by the annexed diagram (Jig. 212.), which also exhibits their comparative sizes. It is Fig. lilt. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1. 212 than 4 ft. thick on the south side ; and upon this stratum, from the experience of the old church having firmly rested, the architect wisely determined to place the new one. The work was commenced on the western side, driving eastward to the extremity of the site ; at which, on the northern side, a pit was discovered whence the hard pot earth had been extracted, and the vacuity so made filled up with loose rubbish. The length of this hole in the direction of the foundation was not more than 6 or 7 ft., and from the fear of piles, if driven, becoming rotten, the surveyor determined to excavate through the sand, and to build up from the stratum solid for a depth of 40 ft. The pit sunk here was 18 ft. wide; in this he built up a pier, 10ft. square, till it rose to within 15 ft. of the present surface. At this level he introduced an arch from the pier to the main foundation, and or this arch the north-eastern quoin of the choir is founded. 469. On the 2ist of June, 1675, the first stone was laid ; and, within ten years, the wa'r.s of the choir and its side aisles, and the north and south circular porticoes, were finished ; the piers of the dome also were brought up to the same height. The son of the architect laid the last stone in 1710. This was the highest stone on the top of the lantern. ’Thus the whole edifice was finished in thirty-five years, under the remarkable circumstances of having only one architect, one master mason (Mr. Strong), and the see being occupied the whole time by one bishop. Doctor Henry Compton. The master builder’s name was Jennings. 470. The plan of St. Paul’s is a Latin cross, and bears a general resemblance to that of St. Peter’s. A rectangular parallelogram, 480 ft. from east to west (measuring from the top of the steps of the western portico to the exterior of the eastern wall of the choir), is crossed by another parallelogram, whose extremities form the transepts, 250 ft. in length from north to south. At the eastern end of the first parallelogram is a hemicylindrical recess, containing the altar, and extending 20 ft. further eastward ; so that the whole length is 500 ft., exclusive of the flight of steps. At the north and south ends of the transepts are porticoes, segmental on the plan, and projecting 20 ft. The centre of the intersection of the parallelograms is 280 ft. from the western front. The width of each parallelogram is 125 ft. At the western end of the edifice, on the north and south extremities, are towers whose western faces are in the same plane as the general front, but whose northern and southern faces respectively project about 27 ft. from the walls of the aisles of the nave ; so that the whole width of the western front is about 180 ft. In the re-entering angles on each side, between the towers and the main building, are two chapels, each 50 ft. long and 20 ft. broad, open to the aisles of the nave at their western end Externally two orders reign round the building. 'The lower one Corinthian, standing on a basement 10 ft. above the level of the ground, on the western side, where a flight of steps extending the whole breadth of the front, exclusive of the towers, leads to the level of the church. The height of this order, including the entablature, is 50 ft. ; and that of the second order, which is composite, is one fifth less, or 40 ft. ; making the total height 100 ft. from the ground to the top of the second entablature. The portico of the western front is formed with the two orders above mentioned, the lower story consisting of twelve coupled columns, and the upper one of eight ; which last is surmounted by a pediment, whose tympanum is sculp- tured with the subject of the Conversion of St. Paul, in pretty high relief. Half of the western elevation, and the half transverse section, is given in fig 213. At the northern and southern ends of the transepts the lower order is continued into porticoes of six fluted columns, standing, in plan, on the segment of a circle, and crowned with a semi-dome abut- ting against the ends of the transepts. 471. The porch of the western front is 50ft. long and 20ft. wide; the great doorway, being in the centre of it, leads to a vestibule 50 ft. square, at whose angles are four piers connected at top by semicircular arches, under which are placed detached coupled columns m front of the piers. The body of the church is divided into a nave and two side aisles, decorated with pilasters supporting semicircular arches ; and on each side of the porch and vestibule is a passage which leads directly to the corresponding aisles. The choir is similarly disposed, with its central division and side aisles. 472. The entrances from the transepts lead into vestibules 25 ft. deep, and the whole breadth of the transept in length, each communicating with the centre by a central passage and its aisles formed between two massive piers and the walls at the intersections of the transepts with the choir and nave. The eight piers are joined by arches springing from one to the other so as to form an octagon at their springing points, and the angles between the arches, instead of rising vertically, sail over as they rise and form pendentives, which lead, at their top, into a circle on the plan. Above this a wall rises in the form of a trun- cated cone, which, at the height of 168 ft. from the pavement, terminates in a horizontal cornice, from which the interior dome springs. Its diameter is 100 ft., and it is 60 ft. in height, in the form of a paraboloid. Its thickness is 18 in., and it is constructed of brick- work. From the haunches of this dome, 200 ft. above the pavement of the church, another cone of brickwork commences, 85 ft. high, and 94 ft. diameter at the bottom. This cone is pierced with apertures, as well for the purpose of diminishing its weight as for distri- buting light between it and the outer dome. At the top it is gathered into a dome, in the flll ' 11 ■'* [i I'M* Chj p. III. JAMES I. TO ANNE 213 urm of a hyperboloid, pierced near the vertex with an aperture 12 ft. in diameter. Tl.e op of this cone is 285 ft. from the pavement, and carries a lantern 55 ft. high, terminating n a dome, whereon a ball and cross is raised. The last-named cone is provided with orbels, sufficient in number to receive the hammer beams of the external dome, which is ■f oak, and its base 220 ft. from the pavement, its summit being level with the top of the one. In form, it is nearly hemispherical, and generated by radii 57 ft. in length, whose entres are in a horizontal diameter, passing through its base. The cone and the interior ome are restrained in their lateral thrust on the supports by four tiers of strong iron hains, placed in grooves prepared for their reception, and run with lead. The lowest f these is inserted in the masonry round their common base, and the other three at different eights on the exterior of the cone. Externally the intervals of the columns and pilasters re occupied by windows and niches, with horizontal and semicircular heads, and crowned ith pediments. In the lower order, excepting modillions under the corona, the entabla- ure is quite plain, and there are also console modillions in the upper order. The edifice, l three directions, is terminated with pediment roofs; and at the extremities, on each of hose faces, are acroteria, supporting statues 25 ft. above the roof of the edifice. Over the itersection of the nave and transepts for the external work, and for a height of 25 ft. above ic roof of the church, a cylindrical wall rises, whose diameter is I4G ft. Between it and ic lower conical wall is a space, but at intervals they are connected by cross walls. This vlinder is quite plain, but perforated by two courses of rectangular apertures. On it ands a peristyle of thirty columns of the Corinthian order, 40 ft. high, including bases nd capitals, with a plain entablature crowned by a balustrade. In this peristyle, every mrth intercolumniation is filled up solid, with a niche, and connection is provided between and the wall of the lower cone. Vertically over the base of that cone, above the eristyle, rises another cylindrical wall, appearing above the balustrade. It is ornamented iih pilasters, between which are a tier of rectangular windows above, and one of blanks l"W. On this wall the external dome is posited. As will be seen by reference to the •ft inn, the lantern which we have before noticed receives no support from it. It is mere y naim ntal, differing entirely in that respect from the dome of St. Peter's. 473. The towers in the western front arc 220 ft. high, terminating in open lanterns, '»ered with domes formed by curves of contrary flexure, and not very purely composed, ongli perhaps in character with the general facade. The total height to the top of the is. from the pavement outside is 401 ft., but usually slated as 305 If. 214 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book t. 474. T1 e interior of the nave and choir are each designed with three arches longitu- dinally springing from piers, strengthened, as well as decorated, on their inner faces, by an entablature, whose cornice reigns throughout the nave and church. Above this entabla- ture, and breaking with it over each pilaster, is a tall attic from projections on which spring semicircular arches which are formed into arcs doubleau.v. Between the last, pen- dentives are formed, terminated by horizontal cornices. Small cupolas, of less height than their semi-diameter, are formed above these cornices. In the upright plane space on the walls above the main arches of the nave, choir, and transepts, a clerestory is obtained over the Attic order, whose form is generated by the rising of the pendentives. The inner dome is plastered on the under side, and painted by Sir James Thornhill, with subjects relating to the history of St. Paul. 475. For external elegance, we know no church in Europe which exhibits a cupola comparable with that of St. Paul’s, though in its connection with the church by an order higher than that below it there is a violation of the laws of the art. The cost of the church was 736,752/., exclusive of the stone and iron enclosures round it, which cost 1 1,202/. more; in all 747.954/. About nine-tenths of that sum were raised by a tax on coals im- ported into London. As compared with St. Peter’s, we subjoin a few of the principal di- mensions of the two churches. Direction of Measure. Si. Peter’s in En- glish Feet. St. Paul’s in En- glish Feet. Excess of the former ill Feet. Length within 669 500 169 Breadth at entrance 226 100 126 Principal facade 395 180 215 Breadth at the cross 442 223 219 Cupola, clear diameter 1 39 108 31 Cupola, height of, with lantern 432 330 102 Church in height 146 110 36 476. If we suppose sections to be made through the transepts of the four principal churches of Europe, we have their relative sizes in the following ratio : — St. Peter’s, Rome - Santa Maria del Fiore, at Florence St. Paul’s, London St. Genevieve (Pantheon), Paris - - 1-0000 - -5358 - -41 66 - -3303 477. Notwithstanding its imposing effect as a whole, and the exhibition in its construc- tion of a mechanical skill of the very highest order ; notwithstanding, also, the abstract beauty of the greater number of its parts, it is our duty to observe that many egregious abuses are displayed in the fabric of St. Paul’s, the first and greatest whereof is the great waste of interior effect as compared with the total section employed. If we suppose, as before, sections from north to south to be made through the transepts of the four prin- cipal churches, the following table will exhibit the proportion of their clear internal to their external areas : — St. Peter’s, Rome - Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence St. Paul’s, London St. Genevieve (Pantheon), Paris - 8,325 : I0,f)00 - 8,855 : 10,000 - 6,865 : 10,000 - 6,746 : 10,000 Whence it is seen how highly in this respect the Duomo of Florence ranks above the others. The defect of St. Paul’s in this respect is mainly induced by the false dome ; and though we may admire the ingenuity that provided for carrying a stone lantern on the top of a truncated cone, deceitfully appearing, as it does, to stand on the dome from which it rises, we cannot help regretting that it afforded the opportunity of giving the building a cupola, liable to the early attack of time, and perhaps that, more to be dreaded, of fire. 478. In the skill required for raising a building on a minimum of foundation, Sir Chris- topher Wren appears to have surpassed, at least, those who preceded him. In similarly or nearly so formed buildings, some criterion of the comparative skill employed in their construction may be drawn from comparing the ratio between the area of the whole plan, and that of the sum of the areas of the horizontal sections of the whole of the piers, walls, and pillars, which serve to support the superincumbent mass. The similarity of thr. four churches already compared affords, therefore, a criterion of their respective merits in this respect. Wc hardly need say that one of the first qualifications of an architect is to produce the greatest effect by the smallest means. The subjoined table is placed before tlif reader as a comparison of the four churches in reference to the point in question. JAMES I. TO ANNE. 215 Fin- 214 BT. PAVI.'S. SECTION WITH BUTTRESSES. veil a transverse section of the nave and its side aisles. From this it will be seen that the lormous expense of the second or upper order all round the church was incurred for no her purpose than that of concealing the flying buttresses that are used to counteract the rusts of the vaults of the nave, choir, and transepts, — an abuse that admits of no apology, is an architectural fraud. We do not think it necessary to descend into minor defects id abuses, such as vaulting the church from an Attic order, the multiplicity of breaks, ■ d want of repose ; the general disappearance of tie and connection, the piercing, as actised, the piers of the cupola, and mitering the arehivolts of its great arches, and the ic, because we think all these are more than counterbalanced by the beauties of the edi- c. We cannot, however, leave the subject without observing that not the least of its crits is its freedom from any material settlement tending to bring on premature dilapida- >n. Its chief failures are over the easternmost arch of the nave, and in the north transept, r the remedy whereof (the latter) the architect left written instructions. There are also me unimportant failures in the haunches of most of the flying buttresses, which are arcely worth notice. 480. 'I'he wretchedly naked appearance of the interior of this cathedral is a disgrace ithcr to the architect nor to the country, but to the clergy, Terrick, bishop of London, id Potter, archbishop of Canterbury, who lefused to sanction its decoration with pictures, atuitously proffered by artists of the highest reputation ; and this after the cupola itself d been decorated. The colour of the sculpture is of no use in heightening the effect of e interior. ■181. I'he Purnitaliu contains a description of the manner ill which the walls of the old |Map. III. Church. Whole Area in English Feet. Area of Points of .Support. 1 Ratio. St. Peter’s at Rome 227,069 59,208 1 : 0-261 Sta. Maria del Fiore, Florence 84,802 17,020 l : o-2oi St. Paul's, London 84,025 14,21 1 l : otto St. Genevieve (Pantheon), Paris 60,287 9,269 1 : 0154 |,'lie merit, therefore, shown in the construction of the above edifices wiil be nearly as 15. 7, 20, 26, or inversely proportional to the numbers in the last column. 479- We must here mention one of the most unpardonable defects, or rather abuses, which this church exhibits, and which must be learnt from reference to Jig. 214. Therein is 216 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 cathedral were destroyed, and those of the present one raised ; which should be read b> all those engaged in the practice of architecture. 482. Wren, having lived to see the completion of St. Paul’s, was, as before stated, dis- placed from the office of surveyor of Crown buildings to make room for an incompetent pretender, named Benson. Pope, in the Dnnciad, has left a record of the job, in the lines — While Wren with sorrow to the grave descends, Cay dies unpensioned with a hundred friends. Wren died at the ageof 91 years, and was buried under the fabric, “with four words,” says Walpole, “ that comprehended his merit and his fame.” “SI QU/EItAS MONUMENTUM CIRCUMSPICE.” 483. It will be impossible, consistently with our space, to describe the works of Sir Chris- topher Wren. One upon which his fame is as justly founded as upon St. Paul's itself, it St. Stephen’s Church in Wallbrook, in which, on a plot of ground 801 ft. by 59\ ft., lie has contrived a structure whose elegance is not surpassed by any one we know to have been raised under similar restrictions. The church in question is divided longitudinally into five aisles by four ranks of Corinthian columns standing on pedestals ; the places ol four columns near the centre being unoccupied ; the surrounding central columns form the angles of an octagon, 4.5 ft. diameter, on which arches are turned, and above which, by means of pendentives, the circular base of a dome is formed, which is in the shape of a seg- ment of a sphere, with a lantern thereon. The ceiling of the middle aisle from east to west is vaulted in groins. The rest of the ceiling is horizontal. The interior of St. James's, Westminster, is another beautiful example of the master, though recently underrated by an ignorant critic. 484. One of the peculiarities remarkable about Wren’s period is the investment of the form of the Gothic spire with a clothing of Italian architecture, by which the modern steeple was produced If any example could reconcile us to such a practice, it might he found in that of Bow Church, another of Wren’s works, which rises to the height of 197 ft. from the ground, the sides of the square from which it rises being 32 ft. <> it:. There are in the leading proportions of this tower and spire, some extraordinary examples in relative heights as compared with widihs sesquialterally, which would almost lead one to suppose that, in this respect, our architect was somewhat superstitious. 485. In St. Dunstan in the East, Wren attempted Gothic, and it is the least offensive of his productions in that style. It is an elegant composition, but wants the claim to ori- ginality. St. Nicholas, Newcastle, and the High Church, Edinburgh, arc its prototypes. 486. The Monument of London is original, notwithstanding columns of this sort had been previously erected. Its total expense was 8856/., and it was commenced in 1G71, completed in 1677. The height is 202 ft. ; hence it is loftier than any of the historical co- lumns of the ancients. The pedestal is about 21 ft. square, standing on a plinth 6 ft. wider. The lower diameter of the column on the upper part of the base is 15 ft., and the shaft incloses a staircase of black marble, consisting of 345 steps. It was fluted after the work was carried up. The quantity of Portland stone whereof it is composed is ‘.8,196 cubic feet. The Antonine column at Rome is 1 63 1, and that of Trajan 132 ft. high. That erected by Arcadius at Constantinople, when perfect, was of the same height as that last mentioned. The structure of which we are speaking loses much by its situation, which has neither been improved nor deteriorated by the streets consequent on the rebuilding of London Bridge: and though it cannot compete with the Trajan column in point of in- trinsic beauty, it is, nevertheless, an exquisite and well-proportioned work, and seems much better calculated with propriety to record the object of its erection, than the other is to lie the monument of a hero. In these days, it is singular to see that no other mode than the erection of a column could be found to record the glorious actions of a Nelson. Such was the poverty of taste that marked the decision of the committee to whom that object was most improperly entrusted. 487. Among the works of Wren not to be passed without notice is the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge. It is one of his finest productions, and one with which lie himself was well satisfied. It consists of two orders ; a Doric arcade below, open to a basement supported by columns, which liasa flat ceiling, exceedingly convenient as an ambula- tory, and itself simple and well proportioned. The principal story is decorated with three- quarter columns of the Ionic order, well proportioned. From their volutes, festoons are pendent, and the key-stones of the windows are carved into cherubs’ heads, &c. This is the elevation towards Nevill’s Court ; that towards the garden has three Doric doors below, but above is without columns or pilasters in the upper stories. Without ornament, it is not the less graceful and imposing. The interior, as a single room, is designed with great grandeur and propriety. 488. We cannct further in detail continue an account of the works of this extra- ordinary architect, hut shall now proceed to submit a list of his principal works, together with a catalogue of those of his principal churches whose estimates exceeded flic cost of 5000 L Cii a r. Ill, JAMES 1. TO ANNE. 017 Key’ll n. Completed. Palace at Greenwich, for Charles II. - - 16G3 Theatre at Oxford - - - 1668 1669 'Hie Monument . - - 1671 1677 Temple Bar - - - 1670 1672 St. Paul’s Cathedral - - - 1 675 1710 Library at Trinity College, Cambridge - - 1679 Campanile at Christ Church, Ox ford - - 1681 1682 Ashmolean Library - - - 1682 Palace at Winchester - - - 1683 Unhnishe d. College of Physicians - - . 1689 College at Chelsea - - - - 1690 Palace at Hampton Court - - - - 1690 1694 lowers of Westminster Abbey - - - 1696 Greenwich Hospital - - - 1698 1703 Churches : — l ime of erection Cost. Allhallows the Great - - - 1697 5,641/. 9s. Allhallows, Lombard Street - - 1691 8,058 15 6 St. Andrew Wardrobe - - - 1692 7,060 16 1 1 St. Andrew, Holborn - - - 1687 9,000 0 0 St. Antholin - - - 1682 5,685 5 10 St. Bride - - - - 1680 1 1,4:10 5 1 1 Christ Church, Newgate Street - - - 1687 11,778 9 6 St. Clement Dane’s - - - 1680-82 8,786 17 0 St. Dionis Backchurch - - - 167*1-84 5,737 10 8 St. Edmund the King - - - 1690 5,207 1 1 0 St. Lawrence Jewry - - - 1677 1 1,870 1 9 St. James, Garlick Hill - - - 1683 3,357 10 8 St. James, Westminster - - circa 1689 8,500 0 0 St. Michael Koval - - - - 1694 7,555 7 9 St. Martin’s, Ludgate - - - 1684 5,378 9 7 St. Margaret, Lothbury - - . 1690 5,340 8 1 St. Alary, Somerset - - - 1695 6,579 18 1 St. Mary, Aldermanbury - - - 1677 5,237 3 6 St. Mary le Bow - - - 1673 8,071 18 1 The steeple - - - 1680 1,388 8 7 St. Nicholas, Coleabbey - - - 1677 5,042 6 1 1 St. Olave Jewry - - - 1673 5,580 4 10 St. Peter, Cornhill - - - - 1681 5,647 8 2 St. Swithin’s, Cannon Street - - _ 1679 4,687 4 6 St. Magnus, London Bridge - - - 1676 9,579 18 10 489. We must here close our accou nt of V ren. 'I’hose of our readers who desir e furtl Information on the life and works of this truly great man will do well to consult the rarentulia, or Memoirs of the Family of the Wrens, compiled by his son, and published by his jrandson Stephen Wren. l'ol. Lond. 1750. 400. Among the architects of Wren’s time, there was a triad of amateurs who would lave done honour to any nation as professors of the art. The first of these was Henry Udrich, I).D., Dean of Christ Church, Oxford, who died in 1710. He was attached to the Venetian school, as we may see in the three sides of l’eckwater quadrangle, and the garden 1 out of Corpus Christi College, a facade which for correct taste is not surpassed by any dilice in Oxford. The second of these amateurs was Dr. Clarke, one of the Lords of the \dmiralty in the reign of Queen Anne. This distinguished amateur sat for Oxford in ifteen sessions. The Library of Worcester College, to which he bequeathed his valuable rchitcctural collection of books and jVISS., was from his design. He built the library at luist Church. The third was Sir James Burrough, Master of Cains College, Cambridge; •v whom, in 1703, the chapel of Clare Hall in that University was beautifully designed ltd executed. *191. We now approach the works of a man who, whatever some have thought of them, ms a stronger claim on our notice as an inventor than any of his predecessors. It itist he anticipated that we allude to Sir John Vanbrugh. Upon no other artist has ' a I pole delivered criticisms more unworthy of himself, nor is there anyone of whose enius lie had less capacity to appreciate the powers. The singular mind of Vanbrugh as distracted by control : his buildings are the result of a combination of forms mid anti- ipation of effects, originating solely from himself; effects which none before had seen lor 218 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Kook I. contemplated. As a wit, he was inferior to none that levelled its shafts at him, and hence his novel compositions in architecture became among the professed critics of the day so much the more an object of derision, as, in their puny notions, his only assailable point. Attacked from party feeling, the public allowed itself to be biassed by epigrams and smart verses from the pens of Pope and Swift ; and when the former, in his fourth epistle, in allu- sion to Vanbrugh’s works, exclaims, — “ I,o ! what huge heaps of littleness around, The whole a laboured quarry above ground,” — he little thought he was leaving to posterity a record of his consummate ignorance of art, and of his total insensibility to grandeur, m all that relates to composition in architecture. 492. The opinion of Sir Joshua Reynolds first enlightened the public upon the thitherto condemned works of this extraordinary architect. “ I pretend,” says Reynolds, in his fifth discourse, “ to no skill in architecture. I judge now of the art merely as a painter. When 1 speak of Vanbrugh, I speak of him merely on our art. To speak, then, of Vanbrugh in the language of a painter, he had originality of invention, he understood light ana shadow, and had great skill in composition. To support his principal object, he produced his second and third groups of masses ; he perfectly understood in his art what is most dif- ficult in ours, the conduct of the backgrounds by which the design and invention is (are) set off to the greatest advantage. What the background is in painting is the real ground upon which the building is erected; and as no architect took greater care that his work should not appear crude and hard, — that is, that it did not abruptly start out of the ground, without expectation or preparation, — this is the tribute which a painter owes to an architect who composes like a painter.” The testimony of I\Ir. Payne Knight, a person of a taste highly refined and cultivated, in his Principles of Taste, is another eulogium on the works of this master. And again we have the concurrence therein of another able writer on these subjects, who, though frequently at variance in opinion with Mr. Knight, thus expresses himself in his Essay on the Picturesque, vol. ii. p. 21 1. : “ Sir J. Reynolds is, I believe, the first who has done justice to the architecture of Vanbrugh, by showing it was not a mere fantastic style, without any otlver object than that of singularity, but that he worked on the principles of painting, and that he has produced the most painter-like effects. It is very probable that the ridicule thrown on Vanbrugh’s buildings, by some of the wittiest men of the age he lived in, may have in no slight degree prevented his excellencies from being attended to ; for what has been the subject of ridicule will seldom become the object of study or imitation. It appears to me, that at Blenheim, Vanbrugh conceived and executed a very bold and difficult design, that of uniting in one building the beauty and magnificence of the Grecian architecture, the picturesqueness of the Gothic, and the mas- sive grandeur of a castle ; and that, in spite of many faults, for which he was very justly reproached, he has formed, in a style truly his own, and a well-combined whole, a mansion worthy of a great prince and warrior. “ plis first point appears to have been massiveness, as the foundation of grandeur : then, to prevent the mass from being a lump, he has made Fi e . SIS. n.AN OV HLB.VII Rl M. JAMES I. TO ANNE. 919 III. irious bold projections of various heights, which seem as foregrounds to the main build- T - and, lastly, having been probably struck with a variety of outline against the sky in I an’v Gothic and other ancient buildings, he has raised on the top of that part where the antin'*' roof begins in any house of the Italian style, a number of decorations of various iaracters. These, if not new in themselves, have, at least, been applied and combined him in' a new and peculiar manner, and the union of them gives a surprising splendour id magnificence, as well as variety, to the summit of that princely edifice. The study, lerefore, not the imitation, might be extremely serviceable to artists of genius and dis- rnment.” . . , 493. Vanbrugh’s principal work was Blenheim (whereof we give, in Jigs. 915. and 216., Fig. 216. HI.KVATION OF HLKNJIKIM. lie plan and principal elevation), a monument of the victories of Marlborough raised by a Tateful nation. Its length on the north front from one wing to the other is 348 ft. The eternal dimensions of the library are 130 by 32 ft. The hall is perhaps small compared nth the apartments to which it leads, being only 53 ft. by 44. and 60 ft. high. 494. The execution of his design for Castle Howard, in Yorkshire, was commenced in 702, and, witli the exception of the west wing, was completed by him. The design possesses such greater simplicity than that of Blenheim There is a portico in the centre, and a upola of considerable height and magnitude. The galleries, or wings, are flanked by lavilions. The living apartments are small ; but for the comfort and convenience of the muse, as an habitation, many improvements have been made since the time of Vanbrugh 495. At Eastbury, in Dorsetshire, he built a spacious mansion for Mr. Doddington. ['he front of it, with the offices, extended 370 ft. We regret to say that it was taken down >y the first Earl Temple, about the middle of the last century. 496. King’s Weston, near Bristol, erected for the Honourable Edward Southwell. A eautifui feature in the house is the grouping of the chimneys, in which practice no artist as surpassed, nor perhaps equalled, him. This house is not, however, a favourable spe- imen of our architect’s powers. 497. In the front which he executed to Grimsthorpe, in Lincolnshire, he indulged him- elf in an imitation of Blenheim and Castle Howard. The hall here is of noble dimen- ions, being I 10 ft. in length, and 40 ft in height, surmounted by a cupola. 498. Charles Howard, the third Earl of Carlisle, Deputy Earl Marshal in 1 703, appointed • anbrugh, Clareneeux king of arms, over the heads of all the heralds, who remonstrated, ithout effect, against the appointment. The cause of such an extraordinary promotion is opposed to have had its origin in the Earl’s satisfaction with the works at Castle Howard, t was, however, altogether unjustifiable, for Vanbrugh was, from all accounts, totally ig. ; orant of heraldry. He held the situations of surveyor of the works at Greenwich 1 1 us- ual, comptroller general of the works, and surveyor of the gardens and waters. Though erliaps out of place in a history of architecture, we cannot resist the opportunity of men- oning that our artist was a dramatist of genius. The Relapse, The Provoked Wife, The onfederacy, and Aisop, according to Walpole, will outlast his edifices. He died at V hitehall, March 26. 1 726. Vanbrugh can hardly be said to have left a legitimate fol- iwer ; he formed no school. Archer, indeed, attempted to follow him, and seems the only nc of his time that could appreciate the merit of his master. But he was too far behind im to justify our pausing in the history of the progress of British architecture to say more lan that his best works are Ileythrop, and a temple at Wrest. St. Philip’s Church at lirmingham is also by him. “ A chef d’oeuvre of his absurdity,” says Dnllaway, “was the lurch of St. John’s, Westminster, with four belfries,” a building which has not inaptly been kcncd to an elephant on his back, with his four legs sprawling in the air. 220 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. licVK l Sect. VIII. GEORGE I. 499. Though the example of Wren was highly beneficial to his art, he does not seem to have been anxious to propagate his doctrines by precepts, for he had but one pupil who deserves a lengthened notice. That pupil was Nicholas Hawksmoor, who, at the age of eighteen, became the disciple of Sir Christopher, “ under whom,” says Walpole, “during life, and on his own account after his master’s death, he was concerned in erecting many public edifices. Had he erected no other than the church of St. Mary Woolnoth, Lom- bard Street, his name would have deserved with gratitude the remembrance of all lovers of the art. This church has recently (on the opening of King William Street) been unfor- tunately disfigured on its southern side by some incompetent bungler on whom the patron- age of the churchwarden lucklessly fell. Such is the fate of our public buildings in this country. The skill displayed by Hawksmoor in the distribution and design of St. Mary Woolnoth is not more than rivalled by the best productions of his master and instructor. We here give, in Jiijs. 217. and 2 1 8., a half section, elevation, and plan of it. It was commenced in 1716, and finished in 1719. Not until lately was it seen to advantage. Lombard Street, in which one side still stands, was narrow, and its northern eleva- tion, the only one till lately pro- perly seen, required, from its as- pect, the boldest form of detail to give it expression, because of its being constantly in shade, and therefore experiencing no play of light except such as is re- flected. This is composed with three large semicircular rusti- cated niches, each standing on a lofty rusticated pedestal, relieved with blank recesses, which are repeated in the intervals The whole rests on a basement, whose openings, of course, correspond to those above. The niches in the recesses are de- corated with Doric columns on pedestals, and the top of the entablature of the order is level with the springing of each niche head running through on each side, so as to form an im- post. The front is crowned with a block cornice, continued round the building, and the cen- tral part of the northern front is surmounted by a balustrade. We are not prepared to maintain that the whole of the details are in the purest taste; but the masses are so extremely picturesque, and so adapted to the circumstances of the aspect and situation, that their faults are forgotten. Not so the interior, which needs no apology. It is a combination of proportions, whose beauty cannot be surpassed in any similar example. The plan is nearly a square, whose north-west and south-west angles are truncated at angles of forty-five degrees, for the introduction of stairs. ’Flic leading lines are an inscribed square whose sides are equal to two thirds of the internal width, the remaining sixth on each side being assigned to the intercolumniations between the columns and the pilasters on the in- ternal walls. The columns, twelve in number, are placed within the sides of the inscribed septare, and at the angles are coupled at intervals of one diameter. The order is Corinthian ; the columns are fluted, and crowned by an enriched entablature one quarter of their height. The space thus enclosed by the columns continues in a clerestory above, pierced on the four sides by semicircular windows, whose diameters are equal to one of the wide interco- lumniations below. The height of this, including its entablature, is one half that of the lower order; thus, with its pedestal, making the total height of the central part of the below between the niches. MAP III. GEORGE L 221 arch, equal to Its extreme width. A sesquialteral proportion is thus obtained in section well as plan. The eastern end is recessed square tor an altar piece, and arched with a micircular ceiling enriched with caissons. The galleries are admirably contrived, and in way interfere with the general effect, nor destroy the elegance and simplicity of the •sign. The ceilings throughout are horizontal, and planned in compartments, whose rts are enriched. As regards construction, there is a very unnecessary expenditure of aterials, the ratio of the superficies to the points of support being 1:0-263. Hawksmoor is not so happy in the church of St. George’s, Bloomsbury, in which he has really made ing George I. the head of the church by placing him on the top of the steeple, which we ust, with Walpole, term a master-stroke of absurdity. But many parts of the building e highly deserving the attention of the student ; and if the commissioners for new churches these days had been content with fewer churches constructed solidly, like this, instead many of the pasteboard monstrosities they have sanctioned, the country, instead of re- etting they ever existed, which will at no very remote period be the case, would have red them a deep debt of gratitude. The only gratification we have on this point is, that century, and even less, will close the existence of a large portion of them. Hawksmoor as deputy surveyor of Chelsea College and clerk of the works at Greenwich, and in that ist was continued by William, Anne, and George I., at Kensington, Whitehall, and St. unes’s. Under the last named he was first surveyor of all the new churches and of West- nister Abbey, from the death of Sir Christopher Wren. He was the architect of the inches of Christ Church, Spitalfields, St. George, Middlesex, and St. Anne, Limehouse ; built some part of All Souls, Oxford, particularly the new quadrangle completed in 173d, d was sole architect of the new quadrangle at Queen’s. At Blenheim and Castle oward he was associated with Vanbrugh, and at the last-named place was employed on e mausoleum. Among his private works was Easton Neston. in Northamptonshire, and e restoration to perpendicularity, by means of some ingenious machinery, of the western >nt of Beverley Minster. He gave a design for the Uadcliff'e Library at Oxford, and of stately front for Brazenose. Ilis death occurred on the 25th of March, 1736, at the e of seventy- five. 500. Those acquainted with the condition of the country will be prepared to expect that e arts were not much patronised by George I. The works executed during his reign ■re rather the result of the momentum that had been imparted previous to his accession an of his care for them ; and it is a consolation that the examples left by Inigo Jones had effect that has in this country never been entirely obliterated, though in the time of jorge 111., such was the result of fashionable patronage and misguided taste, that the lamses had nearly consummated a revolution. That reign, however, involved this country so many disasters that we are not surprised at such an episode. 501. After the death of Hawksmoor, succeeded to public patronage the favourite architect a period extending from 1720 to his death in 1754, whose name was James Gibbs, a live of Aberdeen, where he first drew breath in 1683. Though he had no claims to the rank exalted genius, he ought not to have been the object of the flippant criticism of Walpole, lose qualifications and judgment were not of such an order as to make him more than a •asaut eossip. He certainly had not sufficient discernment properly to estimate the talent qilayed in Gibbs’s works. Every critic knows how easily phrases may be turned and titheses pointed against an artist whom he is determined to set at nought; of which we ve before had an instance in the case of Sir John Vanbrugh; and «e shall not here t ther dilate upon the practice. We will merely observe, that on the appearance of arv rk of art the majority of the contemporary artists are usually its best judges, and that in icty-nine cases out of a hundred the public afterwards sanction their decision ; and we |ll add, in the words of old Hooker, that “the most eertaine token of evident goodnesse is, the general! perswasion of all men doe so account it;” and again, “although wee know t the cause, yet this much wee may know, that some necessarie cause there is, whenso- • -r the judgement of all m n generally or for the most part runiie one and the same way." e do not, therefore, think it useful in respect of an artist of any considerable talent to l>eat a criticism more injurious to the writer than to him of whom it was written. 102. The church of St. Martin’s in the Fields is the most esteemed work of our archi- 1 t. It was finished in I 72C, as appears from the inscription on the frieze, at the cost of : 017/. !)i. 3 d. The length of it, including the portico, is twice its width, one third where- i westward, is occupied by the portico and vestibule. The portico is hexastyle, of the 1 rinthian order, and surmounted by a pediment, in whose tympanum the royal arms are lilptured. The intcreolumniations are of two diameters and a half, and the projection of 1 portico of two. Its sides are flanked by anta- in their junction with the main building, i ; diameter and a half distant from the receiving pilaster. The north and south eleva- • us are in two stories, separated by a fascia, with rusticated windows in each. Between t windows the walls are decorated with pilasters of the same dimensions as the columns i the portico, four diameters apart ; but at the cast and west cuds these elevations i marked by insulated columns coupled with antic. lire flanks are connected with the po o HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook I. prevailing lines in the portico by columns placed op the walls, recessed for the pur- pose, and coupled with antic, whereby a play of light is produced, which imparts great effect to the other parts. The interior is divided into three unequal portions by a range on each side of four Corinthian columns, and two pilasters placed on pedestals, raised tc the height of the pewing. From their insulated entablatures rises an elliptical ceiling, covering what may be called the nave. This ceiling is formed by arcs doubleaux, be- tween which the vault is transversely pierced in the spaces above the intercolumniations by semicircular arches springing from the top of the entablature of each column. Over what may be called the aisles, from the entablatures of the columns, semi-circular arches are turned and received northward and southward on consoles attached to the walls, and by their junction with the longitudinal arches from column to column pendentives arc evolved, and thereby are generated small flat domes over the galleries. The altar is recessed from the nave in a large niche formed by two quadrants of circles, whose radius is less than one fourth of the whole width of the niche. It is vaulted semi-ellipticalR. Galleries are introduced on the north, south, and west sides of the church. On the two former sides they extend from the walls to the columns, against which the continuity of their mouldings is broken. The interior is highly decorated, perhaps a little too theatri- cally for the sombre habits of this country ; but its effect is, on the whole, extremely light and beautiful. The tower and spire are, as in all the English churches of the Italian style, a sad blemish ; but the taste of the day compelled their use, and we regret that the clergy still persist in considering them requisites. The length from the front upper step to the east wall (inclusive) is 159 ft. 6 in., and the breadth from north to south 79 ft. 4 in. The total area of the church is 12,669 ft., whereof the points of support occupy 2803 ft. The ratio, therefore, of the former to the latter is a 1 : CP220, from which we may infer that the edifice exhibits no very extraordinary constructive skill. The span of the roof (Jig. 696.), which is of the common king-post form, is 38ft. Gibbs, unlike Wren, does not appear to have been guided in his leading proportions of this work by a series of ratios. The only point in which we perceive an approximation to such a system is in the length from the plinths of the columns of the portico, being just double the width of the church measured at the same level. The portico is well designed, and hitherto has not been equalled in London. 503. In the church of St Mary le Strand, Gibbs was not so successful. There is no portion of its space on which the eye rests with pleasure. It is cut up into littlenesses, which, though not individually offensive, destroy all repose or notion of mass in the fabric. He built the new church at Derby, and executed some works at King’s College, Cam- bridge, which last were not calculated to raise his reputation ; but in the senate house of that university, he was more successful. In the Radcliffe Library at Oxford, his fame was maintained. It was completed in 1747, and thereon he was complimented with the degree of Master of Arts. This library is on the plan circular in general form, and rises in the centre of an oblong square, 370 ft. long, by 110 in width. Its cupola is 100 ft. in dia- meter, and 140 ft. high. It possesses no features of striking beauty, and yet is a most valuable addition to the distant view of Oxford, from whatever point of view it is seen. The interior is pleasing, and the disposition good. The books are arranged in two circular galleries, round a large central area. A description of this celebrated building was pub- lished with plans and sections, fob 1747. Gibbs was the architect also of St. Bartholo- mew’s Hospital. In 1728, he published a large folio volume of designs, including several of his works. Hs. 219 •LAN VANSTKD HOUSE. Chat. I II. GEORGE II. 22:? 504. Some works of considerable importance were erected during the reign of George I., jy a countryman of the last-named architect, Colin Campbell, who is, however, more isteemed for three volumes he published of the principal buildings in England, under the lame of the Vitruvius Brilannicus. Of this work Lord Burlington was the original pro- ector and patron. Afterwards, in 1767 and 1771, it was continued in two volumes, undei lie superintendence of Wolfe and Gandon, two architects of considerable reputation. Campbell's talents were not of a very high order, though Mereworth, in Kent, an imitation jf the Villa Capra, built for Mildmay Earl of Westmorland, and Wansted House, in Essex, built in 1715, and pulled down in 1815, the latter especially, entitle him to be con- Jdered an artist of merit. Foreigners, whilst this last was in existence, always preferred t to any other of the great mansions of the country. Gilpin says of it, “ Of all great louses, it best answers the united purposes of grandeur and convenience. The plan is ■imple and magnificent. The front extends 260 ft. A hall and saloon occupy the body of he house, forming the centre of each front. From these run two sets of chambers. Nu- lling can exceed their convenience. They communicate in one grand suite, and yet each, >y the addition of a back stair, becomes a separate apartment. It is difficult to say whe- :her we are better pleased with the grandeur and elegance without, or with the simplicity ind contrivance within. Dimensions: Great hall, 51 ft. by 86 ; ball room, 75 by 27 ; saloon, 30ft. square.” As the building no longer exists, we give, in Jigs. 219. and 220., a Fig. 220. BI.RVATION OF WANSTKAD HOUSE. round plan and elevation of it. The towers at the angles were never executed. Campbell assurveyor of the works of Greenwich Hospital, and died in 1734. 505. The church at Greenwich, and a very large mansion at Blackheath for Sir Gregory ’age, in the latter whereof much is said to have been borrowed from Houghton, but which as many years since disappeared, were, about 1718, erected bv John James, of whom very ttle more is known than these works, and, in London, the churches of St. George, Hanover quare, and St. Luke’s, Middlesex, the latter whereof has a fluted obelisk for a steeple. >'e ought, besides, to mention that he is generally stated to have been employed hy the Poke of Chandos, at Canons, in Middlesex, another building no longer in existence, and lowing the frail tenure upon which an architect’s reputation and fame is held. At the Jtter place, however, it may be questioned whether the remark strictly applies, inasmuch as ic architect, whoever he may have been, appears to have set taste and expanse equal lv at L fiance. Sect. IX. GEOROE II. |506. We do not altogether agree with Walpole in the observation that architecture mined all her rights during this reign, though there is no doubt that the splendid (for the |oc) publications of 1’alladio, Jones, and examples of the antique recalled the taste of ixtsnud their patrons the public. Men of genius were doubtless found to support the s by their practice, and some high-minded patrons to encourage them in their labours. Before," observes Walpole, “the glorious close of a reign that carried our arms and tones beyond where Roman eagles ever flew, ardour for the nrts had led our travellers explore whatever beauties of Grecian or Latin skill still subsisted in provinces once f’jected to Home, and the fine additions, in consequence of those researches, have estu- jxhed the throne of architecture ill Britain while itself languishes in Rome.” 07 Among the earliest of the architects of this reign was Thomas Ripley, a native of rkshire. at whom l’ope sneers in the lines — 2 24 HISTORY OR ARCHITECTURE. Hook I “ Who builds a bridge that never drove a pile ? Should ltipley venture, all the world would smile.” Imit. Horace, Ep. ii. S. 18G. Ripley, it must be confessed, failed at the Admiralty, which was afterwards veiled l>v Mr. Adam’s beautiful skreeu since cruelly “cheated of its fair proportions” by the late architect to that Board, in order to make two coach entrances, which might, with the exercise of a little ingenuity, have been managed without defacing the design. It is difficult, now, to decide the exact share that Ripley had in the house for Lord Orford, at Houghton, for which Campbell appears to have furnished the original design. Walpole, whom we may presume to have known something about the matter, says they were much improved by Ripley. He published them in two volumes, folio, 1755 — 60. It is to be regretted that scarcely a single line of Hope, in matters of taste relative to the artists of his day, is of the smallest worth, so much did party and politics direct the shafts of the poet’s malice. The plain truth is, that Ripley was the rival of Kent, the favourite of Lord Burlington, whose patronage it was absolutely necessary to enjoy before he could ensure the smiles of Pope. Ripley was comptroller of the Board of Works, and died in 1758. 508. Henry Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, an amateur of this reign, cannot pass unnoticed in the History of its Architecture. He much improved Wilton, where he huilt the Pal- ladia!! Bridge; and it is highly honourable to his memory that, owing to his exertions, the qualifications of Labelye for building Westminster Bridge were acknowledged in opposition to Hawksmoor and Batty Langley, the latter of whom was an ignorant pretender. 01 this bridge Earl Henry laid the first stone in 1739, and the last in 1747. His works, besides those at Wilton, were, the new lodge in Richmond Park, the Countess of Suffolk’s house at Marble Hill, Twickenham, and the Water House at Lord Orford’s Park at Houghton. He died in 1751. 509. Before advancing our history another step, we have to notice another noble- man, whom to enrol among the number of her artists is an honour to England ; and in speaking of Richard Boyle, the third Earl of Burlington and fourth Earl of Ossory, we so entirely agree in Walpole’s eulogy of him, that we shall not apologise for tran- scribing it from that author’s pages : — “ Never was protection and great wealth more generously and judiciously diffused than by this great person, who had every quality of a genius and an artist, except envy. Though his own designs were more chaste and classic than Kent’s, be entertained him in his house till his death, and was more studious to extend his friend’s fame than his own.” Again, he continues, “ Nor was his munificence confined to himself and his own houses and gardens. He spent great sums in contributing to public works, and was known to ehuse that the expense should fall on himself, rather than that his country should be deprived of some beautiful edifices. His enthusiasm for the works of Inigo Jones was so active that he repaired the church of Covent Garden, because it was the production of that great master, and purchased a gateway at Beaufort Gardens, in Chelsea, and transported the identical stones to Chiswick with religious attachment. With the same zeal for pure architecture, he assisted Kent in publishing the designs for Whitehall, and gave a beautiful edition of the ‘ Antique Baths, from the Drawings of Palladio,’ whose papers he procured with great cost. Besides his works on his own estate, at Lonsborough, in Yorkshire, he new-fronted his house in Piccadilly, built by his fatner, and added the great colonnade within the court.” This liberal-minded nobleman gave the credit of this design to Kent, though, as Kent did not return from Italy before 1729, it is certain that architect could have had little to do with it. His villa at Chiswick, now that of the Duke of Devonshire, was an original design, and not, as is generally supposed, an imitation of Palladio’s Villa Capra at Vicenza. It was, however, too much in the Italian taste to be suitable to an English climate or to English comforts ; hence its great external beauty extracted from Lord Chesterfield the well-known verses — “ Possessed of one great house of state, Without one room to sleep or eat. How well you build let fiatt’ry tell. And all mankind how ill you dwell.” Lord Hervey also sported his little wit upon this little bijou, which its subsequent additions have not much improved, saying “ that it was too small to inhabit, and too large to hang one’s watch in.” 510. The dormitory of Westminster School, ruined by a late dean, and the Assembly Rooms at York, are beautiful examples of the great powers of Lord Burlington ; but the house for Lord Harrington at Petersham, the Duke of Richmond’s at Whitehall (pulled down), and General Wade’s house in Great Burlington Street were not well planned, the latter especially, on which it was said by Lord Chesterfield, on account of its beautiful front, that “as the general could not live in it to bis ease, he had better take a house ovei against it, and look at it.” The Earl of Burlington was born in 1695, and died in 175d. 51 1. William Kent, a native of Yorkshire, where he was born in 1685, if he did not ad- vance the art, was at least far from retarding or checking any progress it seemed hi el* jlAP. III. GEORGE III. 225 o make. Kent was a painter as well as an architect, though as the former very inferior to he latter ; and to these aecomplishmen’s must he added those of a gardener, for he was .10 father of modern picturesque gardening. Kent’s greatest, and, out of many, also his vst work, was Holkham, in Norfolk, for the Earl of Leicester. The designs were pub. ished in 1761, bv Matthew Brettingham, who had been engaged on the building, pparently as resident architect, as explained in the edition of 1773. The noble hall of his building, terminated by a vast flight of steps, produces an effect unequalled by any- hing similar to it in England. During, and, indeed, previous to, Kent’s coming so much nto employment, a great passion seems to have existed with the architects for ill-shaped, nd, perhaps, almost grotesque, urns and globes, on every part where there was a resting- • lace far them. Kent not unfiequently disfigured his works in this way, but more specially so at the beginning of his career. The pile of building in Margaret Street part of which has been removed for additions to the new parliament houses), now con- fining the law courts, a house at Esher for Mr. Pelham, the Horse Guards, and other uildings, which it is needless here to particularise, were erected under the designs of Kent, ipoti whom unbounded liberality and patronage were bestowed by Lord Burlington during he iife of this artist, which terminated in 1748. 512. About 1733 appeared, we believe, the last of the stone churches with steeples, hich the practice of Wren had made common in this country ; this was the church of it. Giles’s in the Fields, erected by Henry Flitcroft. The interior is decorated with Ionic olumns resting on stone piers. The exterior has a rusticated basement, the windows f the galleries have semicircular heads, and the whole is surmounted by a modillion prnice. The steeple is 165 feet high, consisting of a square tower, the upper part deco- ded with Doric pilasters ; above, it is formed into an octagon on the plan, the sides being rnamented with three quarter Ionic columns supporting a balustrade and vases. Above is rises an octangvdar spire. Besides this, Flitcroft erected the church of St. Clave, outhwark, and the almost entire rebuilding of Woburn Abbey was from the designs and iperintendence of that master, who died in 1769. 513. During the reign under our- consideration, the city of Bath may be said to have most arisen from the designs of Wood, who built Prior Park for Mr. Allen, the friend of ope, and Buckland was erected by him for Sir John Throckmorton. Wood died in 1754, o him and to his scholars Bath is indebted for the designs of Queen Square, the Parades, e Circus, the Crescent, the New Assembly Room, & c. The buildings of this city possess rious degrees of merit, but nothing so extraordinary as to call for more than the mere itice of them. We are by no means, for instance, disposed to agree with Mitford, who ckons the crescent of Bath among “ the finest modern buildings at this day existing in e world 1 ” Sect. X. G EO ICG E III. 514. Though the works of the architects about to follow, belong partially to the ceding reign, they are only properly to be noticed under that of George 1 1 1. Without engtheued account of them, we commence with the mention of the name of Carr of York, in was much employed in the northern counties, where he built several noble residences, rticularly that for Mr. Lascelles, afterwards Lord Harewood, and a mausoleum in York- : re for the late Marquis of Rockingham. Paine was engaged at Worksop Manor, War- • ur Castle, and Thorndon ; and II iorne, whose county sessions-house and prison at arwick exhibit considerable genius, was a promising artist, prematurely cut off. His 'ent was not confined to the Italian style, as may be learnt from reference to the church ■ l etbury in Gloucestershire, and a triangular tower in the Duke of Norfolk’s park at lundel. 1)15. At anearly part of the reign of George III., architecture was cultivated and prae- i d here with great success by Robert Taylor, afterwards knighted. Ilis best compositions • re designed with a breadth and intimate knowledge of the art, that prove him to have I n abundantly acquainted with its principles. That he was not always successful, the • igs of the Bank, now removed, were a proof. Of his works sufficient would remain to i roboratc our opinion, if only what is now the Pelican Office in Lombard Street existed. believe it was originally built for Sir Charles Asgill, and ruined by the directors of the . lienn when they took to the place. There are, however, also to attest the ability of Sir I licit Taylor, Sir Charles Asgill's villa at Richmond, and his own house in Spring Gardens. • er his visit to Italy he commenced his practice in sculpture, in which branch of the arts I has left monuments in Westminster Abbey and elsewhere; but he afterwards devoted I uelf to architecture alone. Among his works were a dwelling house for Sir P. Taylor, Q IIISTOKY or ARCHITECTURE. Hook I. 226 near Portsaown Ilill, a house in Piccadilly for the Duke of Grafton, a mansion in Herts for Lord Howe; Stone Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn; Ely House, Dover Street, a very clever composition; Sir John Boyd’s at Danson, near Shooter’s Hill; the beautiful bridge at Henley on Thames, and Lord Grimstone’s at Gorhamhury. He had for some time a seat at the Board of Works, was surveyor to the Admiralty, the Bank, and other public bodies. His reputation was unbounded, and met with reward from the public. Sir Robert Taylor died in 1788 at the age of seventy-four. 516. Cotemporary with the last-named artist, was one to whom the nation is indebted foi first bringing it to an intimate acquaintance with the works of Greece, to which he first led the way. The reader will, of course, anticipate us in the name of James Stuart, who began his career as a painter. After some time passed in Greece, he, in conjunction with Nicholas Kevett, about the year 1762, published the well-known Antiquities of Athens , from which he acquired the soubriquet of Athenian. The public taste was purified by a corrected knowledge of the buildings of Greece, especially in respect of the form, composition, and arrangement of ornament ; but we doubt whether mischief was not for a time induced by it, from the absurd attempt, afterwards, to adapt, without discrimination, the pure Greek porticoes of the temples of Greece to public and private buildings in this country, often with buildings with which they have no more natural relation than the interior arrange- ment of a church has with that of a theatre. The architects of our own time seem, however, at last to be aware of the impossibility of applying with success the forms of Grecian temples to English habitations ; and a better system has been returned to, that of applying to every object a character suitable to the purposes of its destination. We consider Stuart’s best work the house, in St. James’s Square, which he built for Lord Anson. Among other works, he executed Belvedere, in Kent, for Lord Eardley ; a house for Mrs. Montague, in I’ortman Square ; the chapel and infirmary of Greenwich Hospital ; and some parts of the interior of Lord Spencer’s house, in St. James’s Place. Stuart died in 1788, at the age of seventy-five. Ilis cullahoratenr , Revett, shared with him a portion of the patronage of the public. He survived him till 1804, when he died at the advanced age of eighty-two years, lie was employed on the eastern and western porticoes of Lord De Spencer’s house at West W ycombe, and on some temples. For Sir Lionel Hyde he built the church of Ayot St. Lawrence, Herts, the front whereto is a Doric portico crowned with a low Grecian pediment, and on each side an Ionic colonnade connects the centre with an elegant cenotaph. He also built a portico to the eastern fiont of Standlinch, in Wiltshire, for Mr. Dawkins. 517. The chasteness and purity which the two last-named architects had, with soma success, endeavoured to introduce into the buildings of England, and in which their zeal had enlisted many artists, had to contend against the opposite and vicious taste of Robot Adam, a fashionable architect, whose eye had been ruined by the corruptions of the worst period of Roman ait. It can be scarcely believed, the ornaments of Diocletian’s palace at SpaLtro should have loaded our dwellings contemporaneously with the use among the more refined few of the exquisite exemplars of Greece, and even of Rome, in its better days. Yet such is the fact ; the depraved compositions of Adam were not only tolerated, hut had their admirers. It is not to be supposed that the works of a man who was content to draw his supplies from so vitiated a source will here require a lengthened notice. Yet had he his happy moments ; and that we may do him strict justice, we not only mention, but present to the reader, in figs. 221. and 222., the ground plan and elevation of Kedlesfone, in Derbyshire, which he erected for Lord Scarsdale. The detail of this is, indeed, not exactly what it ought to have been ; hut the whole is magnificently conceived, and worthy of any master. Adam died at the age of ninety-four, in 1792; and, besides the Adelpht, in the Strand, which he erected on speculation, he was engaged at Luton Park, in Bedford- shire, for the Earl of Bute ; at Caenwood, near Hampstead, for Lord Mansfield ; at Shel- burne House, in Berkeley Square, now Lord Lansdowne's, well planned, but ill designed, a meagre affair; the disgraceful gateway at Sion, near Brentford; and on part of the Register Office at Edinburgh. None, however, would now do credit to a mere tyro in the art except the first named. Chap, fll GEORGE III, 227 Fig- 222. PI.AN OK K RDl.ESTONR. 518. Previous to tlie accession of George III. it had been considered by bis tutors leeessary to complete bis education by the study requisite to give him some acquaintance vith the art. We venerate the memory of that monarch as an honest good man, but are ompelled to say that the experiment of inoculating him with a taste for it was unsuccess- d, for during bis reign all the bizareries introduced by Adam received no cheek, and eeing that Adam and Bute were both from the north, we are rather surprised that his ducation was not in this respect committed to the former instead of Sir William Chambers, ■ horn, as one of the first architects of the day, it is incumbent upon us now to introduce. V"e believe that whatever was done to forward the arts, owes a large portion of its effect i that celebrated man ; and it is probable, with the worthy motives that actuated the lonareh, and the direction of his taste by that individual, much more would have been ■complished, but for the heavy and disastrous wars which occurred during his reign, and ic load of debt with which it became burthened. The works of Chambers are found in most every part of England, and even extended to Ireland; but we intend here chiefly to ■strict ourselves to a short account of Somerset House, his largest work, in which, though lere be many faults, so well did he understand his art, that it is a matter of no ordinary dhcuity, and indeed requires hypercriticism, to find anything offensive to good taste in the ptail. 519. This work was commenced in 1 776, and stands on an area of 500 ft. in depth, and )0 ft. in width. The general interior distribution consists of a quadrangular court, 113 ft. in length, and 210 ft. in width, with a street or wide way running from north to •nth, on its eastern and western sides. The general termination towards the river is a rrace, 50 ft. wide, whose level is 50 ft. above that of the river, and this occupies the whole ngtli of the facade in that direction. The front towards the Strand is only 135 ft. long. is composed with a rustic basement, supporting ten Corinthian columns on pedestals, owned by an attic, extending over the three central intercolumniations, flanked by a dustrade on each side. The order embraces two stories. Nine large arches are assigned the basement, whereof the three central ones are open for the purpose of affording an "trance to the great court. On each side of them, these arches are occupied by win- "»’s of the Doric order, decorated with pilasters, entablatures, and pediments. The kev ones are carved in alto-relievo, with nine colossal masks, representing the ocean, and the ght principal rivers of Great Britain. The three open arches of entrance before nien- •ned lead to a vestibule, which connects the Strand with the large quadrangular court, ■1 serves also ns the access to those parts of the building, till lately occupied by the Royal ademy, (183C) and on the eastern side (lately to the Royal Society and) to the Society Antiquaries, the entrances thereto are within the vestibule. This is decorated with lumns of the Doric order, whose entablature supports a vaulted ceiling. We insert a Iuced woodcut ( Jig. 223) of Malton’s view of this “magnificent Doric arcade leading to great court, which conveys to the spectator a more ample idea than words can possibly nisli, of this piece of grand and picturesque scenery." The front of this pile of HISTORY OP ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1. 228 building towards the quadrangle, is 200 ft. in extent, being much more than the length of that towards the Strand ; the style, however, ol its decoration is correspondent with it, the principal variation being in the use of pilasters instead of columns, and in the doors and windows. Tne front next the Thames is ornamented in a similar manner to that already described It was originally intended that the extent of the terrace should have beet, 1,100 ft. This last is supported by a lofty arcade, decorated towards the ends with coupled Tuscan columns, whose cornice is continued along the whole terrace. The edifce was at the time the subject of much severe criticism, and particularly from the pen of a silly en- graver of the name of Williams, under the name of Antony Pasquin ; but the censures he passed on it, the author being as innocent of the slightest knowledge of the art as most of the writing architectural critics of the present day, were without foundation, and have lor.g since been forgotten. At the time, however, they received a judicious reply from the pen of tlie late Mr. John 15. Papworth, which deservedly found a place in our edition of the work by Sir W. Chambers, yet to be noticed. 5 20. Malton, in his London and West- minster, fol. 1792-7, gives several care- fully drawn views of this noble edifice, the design of which he describes as be- ing at that time (1796), “ far from complete, and little progress has been made in the build- j ing since the com- mencement of the I present war ; the exigencies of go- vernment having di- verted to other uses the sum of 25,0C0/. which for several I years had been an- \ nually voted for its continuance.” Since ■ FiS- 223. E.M-HAKCS VESTIBULE, SOS.EUSET HOUSE. tll at period the rivCT j frontage has been completed at the east end, by the additions in 1831, under Sir II. Stnirke, i for King’s College : while new offices were skilfully added on the western side, during I the years 1852-56, by James Pennethorne. 521. In the year 1759, Sir W. Chambers published a Treatise on the Decorative Tart of I Civil Architecture, in folio ; a second edition appeared in 1768 ; and a third, with some ad- I ditional plates, in 1791. Two others have since been published, in 1825. This work, as I far its it goes, still continues to be a sort of text-book for the student; and much of it has 1 been adopted for that portion of this volume, entitled “ Practice of Architecture ” Cham- I bers held the office of surveyor-general in the Board of Works, and to him much is | owing for the assistance he rendered in establishing tire lloyal Academy of Aits, in 1768, 1 to which institution he was treasurer. He died in 1796. He had many pupils, several of | whom we shall name. 522. Robert Mylne, the descendant of a race of master masons and architects in Scot- I land, designed Blackfriars Bridge, having been the successful competitor, a preference he | obtained while yet unknown and abroad. It was built between the years 1760 and 1768, 1 at an expense of 152,840/., a sum which was said to be somewhat less than his estimate. He was voted an annual salary of 300/. and a percentage on the money laid out ; but to 1 obtain his commission of 5 per cent, he had a long struggle with the city authorities, his claims not being allowed until 1776. This bridge was pulled down in 1865. At the time when the designs were under consideration, a long controversy arose on the questions of the taste exhibited, and safety in employing elliptic, in place of semicircular, arches, which had been up to that time used in England for bridges. He was surveyor to the dean and chapter of St. Paul’s, London, and is said to have placed in that building, over the entrance to the ClI VI'. III. GEORGE III. 229 choir, the memorial tablet with the celebrated inscription (jour. '182) to the memory of W ren, lately removed. He was appointed, in 1762, engineer to the New Iliver Company ; and dying in 1811, was buried in the crypt of the cathedral, near to the grave of Sir C. Wren. 523. George Dance, being nominated, in 1733, by the corporation of the city of London, to the office of clerk of the City Works, and appointed thereto in December 1735, de- signed St. Luke’s Church, Old-Street; St. Leonard’s Church, Shoreditch, a bold example of the Doric order; and the Mansion House, or official residence of the Lord Mayor for the time being, during the years 1739-53, at a cost of about 42,63 9/. This editice has | received many alterations, including the removal of the lofty attics in front and rear, which has tended much to deprive the structure of a large share of dignity. Its confined and low situation gives the building an appearance of heaviness , it would be free from this, if placed on an elevated spot, or in an area proportionate to its magnitude. It is substantially built of Cortland stone, the material used in most of the erections of this period. The finely | designed sculpture in the pediment, above the six columns of the Corinthian order, was well ’ executed by Mr., afterwards Sir Robert, Taylor. Many other buildings in and about the city are attributed to Dance, who died in 1768, and was succeeded in office by his son George Dance, another of the first four architect members of the Royal Academy He designed Newgate prison, with the Sessions House, &c. It was completed in 1778, at a j cost of upwards of 130,000/. ; besides being suhsequen ly repaired under his directions, Fig 224. XKWGATE l'lilSOjr. J after the riots of 1780, when it suffered greatly from fire. This edifice ( fig. 224.) has become a chief example of the theory of the observation to “ apply to every object a cha- racter suitable to the purposes of its destination” {j-aye 224.). The walls, which are con- structed of Portland stone, without apertures, or any other ornaments than rouMi rustic work and niches, are 50 ft. in height. The principal front is 300 ft. in leno-th. Dance also designed St. Luke’s Hospital for Lunatics, Old Street, built in the years 1782-1784, at a cost of about 40,000/. It is of brick, with a few plain stone dressings, three stories in height ; the spaces between the centre and ends are formed into long°galleries for the females on the western side, for the males on the eastern. The simple grandeur of the de- sign of the facade, the length of which is 493 ft., produces a very agreeable effect of propriety upon the mind. He rearranged the south front of Guildhall in a style of archi- tecture neither Gothic nor Grecian, the capabilities of which his pupil, John, afterwards Sir John, Soane, largely availed himself in after life. He also designed the elegant council chamber attached; together with many country residences for the wealthy citizens and others; and dying in 1825, was buried in the crypt of St. Paul’s. Upon the resignation by him of his city appointment in 1816, he was succeeded therein by his other pupil, William Mountague. 52s. Henry Holland, in 1763, designed Claremont House, near Esher, for Lord Clive; formed, 1788-90, Carlton House into a palace for the Prince of Wales, afterwards George l IV.; designed, in 1791, Drury Lane Theatre; the fa£ade of the East India House, I.eadenhall Street; the original ‘ Pavilion ’ at Brighton, about 1800; improvements at Woburn Abbey for the Duke of Bedford; and 1785, the vestibule, with its charming p irtico in the Grecian style, to Melbourne, now Dover House, Whitehall, for the Duke ;reed to Gandon’s desire to have Corinthian columns to this portico, the additional propor- jn in height of which was to make up for the great fall in the ground from the front, where e Ionic is used. This portico entrance he joined with the front by a circular wall withn ( damns, so that the two orders should not clash ; the present three quarter Ionic columns this circular wall o.i the one side, and those to the archway on the other side, are the ditions by a later hand when the building was adapted for the Bank of Ireland, which is possessed it since 1802. Gandon subsequently added the western portico for the Com- ons’ House. A much larger work by him was the edifice for the Four ( Law) Courts, he foundation stone was laid March 3, 1786, and was first used at the end of 1796, but e whole was not completed until 1802. The frontage extends along the river quay, and eludes, on the east side, the Offices of Records, designed in 1776 by Thomas Co iley, bom Gandon succeeded. The whole extent of ground was but 432 ft , 291 ft. of which ing occupied by the offices, left but 140 ft. square for the plan of the Courts, and this d subsequently to be lessened in depth by the portico being set back, to appease the ire a Right Honourable gentleman whose opini m had been overlooked. This centre hiding consists of a moderate sized central hall, 64 ft in diameter, with a dome which tins exterioily a marked feature of the design, and one of the most conspicuous objects the city. This central hall gives access to the four courts. For the same city, he signed Carlisle Bridge and the Inns of Court, but resigned the control over the latter itiee to his pupil, H. A. Baker. He retired in 1808 to his country house near Lucan, d died there as late as 1823, in the eighty second year of his age. 527. James Wyatt, born about 1743 or 1746, accompanied, at an early age. Lord Bagot Rome, and applied himself to the study of the ancient monuments in that city and at mice. After a i absence of six years, returning to London, he was employed to design • l’antheon Theatre in Oxfo.d Street, consisting of rooms for public assemblies, &c. lis was opened in January 1772, and its completion (fig. 228, which shows the interior as anged fir the Handel festival, in May 1784), spreading his fame both far and wide, he is eagerly sought after to superintend numerous public aid private buildings in Great ilain and Ireland Walpole, writing to Mann, in 1771, says of it: — “ The new winter inelagh in Oxford Road is almost finished It amazed me, myself. Imagine Balbec in its glory I The pillars are of artificial giallo antico. The ceilings, even of the passages, -■ o! the most beautiful stuccos in the best taste of grotesque. The ceilings of the ball mis and the panels painted like Raphael’s loggias in the Vatican. A dome like the Fan- con glazed. It is to cost fifty thousand pounds.” Part only of the Oxford Street front, tli the side entrance in Poland Street, now exist of this work, for the interior was gutted fire soon after its erection Fig 730 shows the framing of a dome nearly the same as that this edifice. The drawings he brought home the knowledge he possessed of the arts in icral, and his polished ma mers, secured lor him a host of patrons, and he became tin 232 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 1’ouK I, chief architect of the day. Those critics, amateur or otherwise, who do not choose to mala allowances for the state of the knowledge of the arts at the period under notice, hold Wvatt u p to the execration of the present generation, for his alterations and restorations of our ancient buildings. Yet, for King George 1)1., he restored parts i ( Windsor Castle, to the entire satisfaction of all the connoisseurs of his day, keeping to the ori- ginal style of the edi- fice. i r as nearly so us the few studies of the style permitted. 1 1 is Gothic palace at Kciv has been pulled down; ana the western front of the Houses of I’ar- liament was burnt down; both unregret, ted. But his houses, villas, and mansions, are amongst the most convenient and taste- ful in the country ; his Fig. 228. INTERIOR OF THE PANTIIEOX, LON1ION. . . . ' ! own residence in Port- land Place, near I.angham Church, is a good type. Elines has elaborately commented upon tiie peculiarities of Ardbraccan H ouse, n.ar Navan, in Ireland, designed for the Bishop of Meath, as affording the moderate accommodation for a small family, or all the require- ments of an Irish ordination, where hospitality has to be afforded to all comers. 528. James Wyatt was among the earliest architects to employ every style of architecture in his designs, yielding all individuality to the passing whims of clients. Among his other buildings usually noticed are Lee Priory, Kent; and Castle Coote, in Ireland, for Viscount Belmont, which for grandeur of effect and judicious arrangement, deserves much commen- dation. The apartments are upon a moderate scale and well disposed, and the whole designed after a Greek model, in which style lie also designed Bowden Park. Wiltshire, for Barnard Dickenson, Esq. (Jic/s. 229 and 230). Another of his large works is Ashridge, situ- ate in the counties of Buckingham and Hertford, for the Earl of Bridge- water ; it is a very extensive and highly decorated mansion designed in the media val castellated style. Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, for W. Beck- ford, Esq., was also another of his edifices in the same style. I he exterior measureir ents are 2'0 ft. from east to west, and 312 ft. from north to south; fhe centre tower being 276 ft. high from the fl oor to the top of the pinnacles. 1 1 is restorations of our mediaeval buildings included that of I 'enry V 1 1 th’s charel at Westminster Abbey, Thomas Gay- fere being the intelligent master mason employed. As so many of his later works belong to the present century, no more will Ire said here of this influential architect, except that he succeeded Sir W. Chen hers as surveyor-general to the Board of Works ; that for one year he filled the pre- sidential chair of the Royal Academy ; and that, as before stated, he died in 1813, aged sixty-seven, in consequence of the overturning of his chariot near Marlborough. 52!>. Ibis architect must conclude our general view of the history of art in this countr)' to tire end of the reisni of Georsre I 1 I Fiff. 229. PLAX OF ISOWOEX PARR. POINTED. 233 ciiap. iv. POINTED ARCHITECTURE. 530. The history of the pointed styles on the continent of Europe is a matter which nay be treated in various ways; but the limit within which this portion of our labour is estricted, in order to render it concordant with the space allotted to other subjects, obliges he choice of the headings France, Belgium, Germany, Spain, and Italy, with as near an vuproach to a chronological arrangement of the buildings that will serve for examples, as he looseness of annalists and the differences in chronicles will permit. This sequence will give the reader a general view of the subject, which will enable him to understand the rregularity of the progress of pointed art in those countries in comparison with the gradual ransition and uniform character which are so generally observable in England ; and will irepare him for his own particular study of the characteristics of the schools; these are as numerous as the provinces, almost as numerous as the cities, in the countries to which we -efer. He may observe in the following notices several examples of difficulties as to dates ; the periods assigned to our examples have been determined by authors who, being natives. may be supposed to have given as much time and learning to the chronology, as English critics have dedicated to the style, of the respective countries. France. 531. The schools of pointed architecture were confined to certain portions of the country. They arose in the He de- France, Champagne, Picardy, Burgundy and Bourbon, Maine ai.d Anjou, and Normandy, here named in the order in which, before the middle of the 13th century, the new style was adopted. This did not develope itself until a late period in Bretagne, where a character, which corresponds (in the opinion of M. Viollet le Due) as much to that of England as to that of Maine and Normandy, was always preserved. The style of the royal domain hardly penetrated into Guienne before 1370 ; and even its official appearance after 1247 at Carcassonne did not procure for it an influence in Auvergne and Piovence ; they can hardly be said to have ever adopted Gothic architecture. Indeed, the latter district did not belong to France until 1481, and almost passed at once from degenerated romanesque traditions to renaissance art, exhibiting scarcely any mark of the influence of northern Gothic. 532. With regard to ecclesiastical architecture in the south of France, it may be said that the buildin s having arches that are positively pointed, date principally in the 14th and two subsequent centuries, as the cathedrals at Alby and Itliodez, the bell-tower at Mende, and the font of the church of St. Maurice at Vienne. In the south, where the climate resembles that of Italy in not requiring high-pitched roofs, the pointed arch seems a foreign element ; it is there in body, but not in spirit. The architecture is just as bef. re; the pillars are few and thick; the capitals are square, ar.d have large leaves or scrolls ; the ornaments are either barbarous or are imitated from classic works ; the towers are lew and massive; and the fronts always have a pediment of steeper rake than any antique example can show, under which is a doorway having a round arch, or else one so slightly pointed that the point is only detected by a careful eye. 533. Until the middle of the 12th century (a few cases earlier may be exceptional), rhe semicircular arch appears to l are been almost exclusively employed; but immediately ifterwards, the style roniano-nyirul or style rowan de transition , exhibits the pointed arch, rocket capitals, and groined vaulting with diagonal ribs, on a crowd of civil and ecclesias- tical buildings. There are purely romanesque churches, where the small openings hare ■emicircular heads; the four great arches carrying the pendentives of the central lantern >r dome, as hasalready been noticed (par. 307 ), being pointed. In the centre of Fiance there are churches that are altogether romanesque in plan, in style of decoration, and in lorrn of pillars, that have none but pointed openings, proving that a thoroughly defined irchitectural system had been slowly constituted, which the architects of the 13th century merely rendered in re homogeneous and more perfect ; these buildings are romanesque, f style depends upon plan, capitals, and form of mouldings; they aie printed, if it iepends upon the form of the arch 531. Amongst the structures which date in the 12th century may be named St. Pierre- cz-Bitry, with three circular windows in its apse; St. Martin at Guise, having a square- •nded choir like Notre Dame at Conchy; and St. Etienne near Pierrefonds ; the cathe- Iral at Tulle; St. Julien at Brioude; St. Nectaire, St. Symphoi ien, and St Genes at Thiers ; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne ; with the churches at Mozat, Noirlac, and St. \mand, all being situate in Auvergne; St. Martin at Laon ; St. Pierre at L’Assant; St. Pierre at Soissrns ; and the churches at Bran ne and Coucy-le Chateau. Buildings in HISTORY or ARCHITECTURE. JIjOK I. 234 which the pointed arch seems perfectly secondary to its rival, are the portal of the cathe- dral at Bayeux and the churches at Conchy, Civray, Senlis, and Vezelay, with those of St. Remi at Reims, and of Notre Dame at Chartres, Noyon, and Poitiers. 535. The churches which have domical coverings deserve a short notice They are the cathedral at Cahors, St. Front (figs. 159 and 160), and St. Etienne de la Cite, both at Perigueux, the cathedral at Puy, and the churches at Souillac (fig . 158.), Angouleine, Lc Koulet, and Loches, with the fourteen-sided church at Rieux-Merinville. 536. A French critic of considerable repute thinks that necessity, facility, and solidity in construction, and a gift of varying the decoration, alone prompted the use of the pointed arch in the south-east of France, where are buildings showing that arch in their lower poitions, while the upper parts have semicircular work of the same age. It theref re appears that if the architects in the southern provinces were the first to make the pointed arch, they were also the last to adopt the systematic and absolute use of it ; and the usual classi- fications of the pointed styles cannot serve as perfect indexes to the period of the employ- ment of the subdivisions that have been made, although it might have been supposed that the spirit of methodical order which has eminently distinguished the French nation since 1790 would have shown itself in an analysis of the architecture of their country The Comite Historique des Arts et Monuments, has issued the following table as in some sort authoritative: — Architecture with the round arch. Architecture with the round and pointed arch. Architecture with pointed arches. f.rst rEiuon. From the fourth to the eleventh century .... Eleventh, and first half of the twelfth, century . SECOND PERIOD. Second half of the twelfth century THIRD PERIOD. Thirteenth century Style Latin. Stjle Roman. f Style Romano-ogival or 1 Roman de transit oil. ( Style ogival printaire or 1 en lancette f Style ogival secondaire or rayonnant. Style ogiral tertiaire or flamboyant. Fourteenth century Fifteenth and early part of sixteenth l century, till 1480 (De Caumont), j pure, afterwards transition . ( 537. But this list is not universally used, and in reading the works ofany French author on mediaeval architecture, it is necessary to ascertain whether he has followed it, or the table propounded by M. De Caumont as here given (with Mr. Poynter’s parallel of English periods) : — In France. Romanesque 9.50 to 1050 Tiansition 1050 to 1150 Primary ( Gothique ) 1 150 to 1250 Secondary (ra/onnanf ) — First Epoch 1250 to 1300 Second Epoch 1300 to 1400 A. D. 1000 1100 1200 1300 In England. | Anglo-Saxon 970 to 1066 Norman 1066 to 1189 Transition 1189 to 1199 Early English — First Epoch ( lancet ) 1 199 to 1245 Second Epoch 1245 to 1307 Decorated English 1307 to 1377 English or Tudor Tertiary (flamboyant ') — t 1 400 j Perpendicular First Epoch i400 to 1460 j 1509 j 1377 to ... . Second Epoch 1460 to ... . 1 For the chateau, M. de Caumont also proposed the subjoined classification: — 1st class. Fifth to tenth century: Primitive Roman. 2nd „ Tenth and eleventh centuries: F’irst secondary. 3rd ,, End of eleventh and twelfth cen- tury: First tert ary. 4th „ Thirteenth century : Primitive pointed. 5th class. Fourteenth and first half of fit- tenth century : Secondary and tertiary pointed. 6th „ Second half of fifteenth and six- teenth century: Quater- nary pointed. 538. Before entering into the consideration of the style ogival, it will be desirable to explain that ogive, also written augive, designated originally a diagonal band in groined vaulting formed bv the intersection either of barrel vaults or of keel vaults, to both of which the terms route en croisee d ogives, or route d' ogives, were applicable. As equivalent POINTED. 235 HAP. IV’. o a pointed arch, ogive is merely the popular confirmation of an error committed by the Ignorance of some writers in the present century. 539. Heavy roofs, having few ribs with great width of plain inlrados, and carried bv masses of walling, with small openings, are characteristic of Romanesque work. Its successor was exactly the reverse : . the subdivision of rooting into a col- lection of light ribs with no marked intrados, the growth of the engaged or disengaged pillars into the lines of the vaulting, and the carriage of the weight of the ribs by buttresses that form the resisting points of walls which are merelv frames to windows, are distinctive features of the Gothic architecture of the 13th century, with the addition of the pointed arch which had previously been employed in ways that tended to the dvVelopement of the : style ogival priniaire As an exam- ple of the transitional character of the style in this period, the two bays, fig £31. from the cathedral in Paris, and fig. 232. from the church of the abbey at St. Denis, may be compared as having been executed respectively at the beginning and end of the period. The sculptors do not seem to have studied nature beyond exhibiting the costume of their period; and if they chose models at all for the r foliage, these were furnished by indigenous plants. The great attention paid in the 1 1 tli century to ancient literature is clearly responsible for the centaurs and other fabulous creatures then used for IS. r.,t. KOT11E DAME, 1’AllIS. ornament _ ] n manner) the deVO- Fig. 232 . ST. DliXIS. ion of the 12th century to the sciences is expressed by the zodiacal signs and emblems pf the seasons sculptured on the portals and choirs of churches built in that and the succeed- ing century. The door- ways at Amiens, Autun, Avallon, Notre Dame in Paris, St. Denis, and Vezelay, with the choir of the church at Issoirc, supply curious examples of this new branch ol decoration. This conti- nuation of details, origi- nally belonging to the 12th century, suggests the remark that the edi- fices constructed by the Gothic school, at the commencement of the 13th century, do not possess features so dis- tinct as to furnish nl- ways a means of dis- tinguishing them from those belonging to the period of transition— a remark which may be applied to the two exam- ples of domestic archi- tecture at C'audebcc, which form fig. 233. II.' ai m me. ‘236 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. 640. Out of the largo number of masterpieces in architecture in the 13th century may be selected the cathedrals at Lisieux, Lyon, and Narbonne, executed in the early part of that period; Bordeaux and Chalons-sur- Sabne belong to the year 1250; and Coutances dates in the last half of that century. Great part of the cathedrals at Bonrgcs, Dijon, Laon, Nantes, Nevers, Senlis, and Sens; the choir and aisles at Auxerre; the choir and chapels, with the upper part of the nave, at Bayeux ; the nave and choir at Seez; the ch inches at Ourscamp, St. Denis, St. Jean aux-Bois, and St. Maximin ; those cf St. Pierre at Avalon, and of St. Victor at Maiseilles ; the Ste. Chapr He at Paris ; the choir of the church at St. Nazaire at Carcassonne; the nave and most of the choir of that of St. Pierre at Lisieux ; the chapels, aisles, and choir of that of St. Julien at Mans ; the choir ot that of St. Nicaise at Rouen ; and the Hotel-Dieu at Louvres, were constructed in the course of this period. 54 1. The cathedrals wlrch are usually taken as affording standards of the style are Chartres, Beauvais, Reims, Paris, Amiens, and Itouen, of which Reims is perhaps more consistent than Amiens. They are univer- sally considered to be two of the finest examples of the style in the world. The former, which was begun 1 212, but not quite finished till 1430, is in the form of a Latin cross on the plan (Jit/. 234.); its length from east to west is 492 ft., and its breadth, measured to the extremities of the arms of the transepts, is 190 ft. The width of the transepts is 98 ft., and the towers, 270 ft. from the ground, are still impel feet, because their open spires have never been erected 542. The cathedral of Amiens, begun 1220 by Robert de Luzarches, but continued and completed, 1269, by Thomas and Itegnault de Cormont, except the west front that was not finished until the end of the 14th century, is 4 44 ft. long and 84 ft. wide (./?ycd towards he end of the reign of Francis I. In ■ is category may be ranged the churches II st. Patrice, St. Godard, St. Andre- ^ le In- Cite St. Nit las. St. Sever, and the 1 1 lit f at portal of the cathedral at Kouen . hiffi ic church at I’rou ; and the churches ! St. Kticnne-du- Mont and of St ICus- •che at Paris. The lutter has the 240 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, Rook I. general forms of a Gothic building with renaissance details, and as its side entrance was constructed at the same time as the fine flamboyant side entrance to the cathedral at Beau- sais, it is clear that the arch i- - - tectural revolution was not si- multaneously effective in all parts of the country. 5.50. As specimens of civil architecture of the period, may he named the town halls at St. Quentin, Compiegne, and Noy- on ; with two of the finest ex- amples of the art of this period, tlie Palais de Justice and the Hotel de Bourgtheroulde, at Rouen. The first was begun in 1499 and finished in 150S. The plot on which this beauti- ful work stands, includin'; the court-yard, is about three- fifths of an English acre, and the arrangement of its plan is given, that is, of the ancient part of the building, in fig. 245. It is thus described by Dawson Turner : — “ The palace forms three sides of a quadrangle” (two of them only are ancient). “ The fourth is occupied I y an embattled wall and an elaborate gateway. The building was erected about the beginning of the sixteenth century; and with all its faults ” ( we are not aware what they are) “it is a fire adaptation of Gothic architec- ture to civil purposes.” “ The windows in the body of the Fig. 244. chateau ue fontaine le iienri, sear caen. building take flattened elliptic heads, and they are divided by one mullion and one transom. The mouldings are highly Fig 245. PLAK OF TUB palais HE JUSTICE, ROUEN. wrought, and enriched with foliage. Thelucarne” ( dormer) “ windows are of a different design, and form the most characteristic feature of the front; they are pointed, and enriched with HAP. IV. POINTED. 241 UP* ullions and tracery, and are placed within triple canopies of nearly the same form, flanked • square pillars, terminating in tall crocketed pinnacles, some of them fronted with open ches, crowned with statues. The roof, as is usual in French and Flemish buildings of is date, is of a very high pitch, and harmonises well with the proportions of the building, a oriel, or rather tower, of enriched workmanship projects into the court, and varies the evations” (an object the designer never once thought about, inasmuch as in all mediaeval hidings, the first consideration was convenience, and then the skill to make convenience reeable to the eye — an invaluable rule to the architect). “ On the left hand side of the I urt, a wide flight of steps leads to the Salle des Procureurs" (marked A on the plan), “ a 'ace originally designed as an exchange for the merchants of the city ” (serf qua:re), “ who d previously been in the habit of assembling for that purpose in the Cathedral.” Its inensions are 13.5 ft. long, by 57 ft. 3 in. wide. The room B is now the Cuur d' Assises ; e ceiling is of oak, and is arranged in compartments with a profusion of carving and gilt naments. The original bosses of the ceiling are gone, as are also the doors which were riched with sculpture, and the original chimney-piece. Round the room are gnomic itences, admonishing the judges, jurors, witnesses, and suiters of their duties.” The sement story of the salle is, or used to be, occupied as a prison. The southern and eastern ;ades of this elegant edifice have lately (1856) been restored under the direction of M. regoire, who probably superintended the internal decorations. 551. Fig. 246 is a portion of the south front of the building. The ellipse seems almost have superseded the pointed arch in the leading forms, over which the crocketed labels drips, in curves of contrary flexure, flow with surprising elegance. It is only in the c-arnes we find the pointed arch ; and there it is almost subdued by the surrounding ac- [ssories. The connection of the lucarnes with the turrets of the faqade by means of flying ttresses is most beautiful, and no less ingenious in the contrivance: their height from » « . j o • the ground to the top of the finials, is 78 ft. 6 in. The octan- gular turrets at the end of the salle next the Hue St. I.o, con- tain a very pretty exam, pie of pene- tration over the heads of the pointed arch. In the story above the base- ment, as also in the lu- carnes, the soffites of the windows are rounded at the angles, or, as the French call it, have coussinets ar- li. i, as usual in the style, those in the principal story being, besides, slightly segmental. In tracery ofthe parapet it is singular to find the quatrefoils centered throughout with what died the Tudor rose. The arches rising above the parapet, which are crocketed and rntrary flexure, have statues substituted for finials. The richness of the ornamentation of whole is such that we know no other example, except that of the Hotel de Bourgthe- de in the same city that can vie with it. The woodcut, fig. <24:1, is a section of the sulk. roof presents little for remark. It is bold and simple, and seems scarcely in harmony tlie rest ofthe place. It is impossible to form an adequate notion of this splendid mnent from the figures here given, owing to the necessary smallness of the si ale. sc who are desirous of thoroughly understanding its details will be gratified by refer- to the plates of it in Britton’s Normandy. rt. 1'here is no city where the style of the period whereof we arc treating can be r studied than Rouen. 1 1 possesses, both in secular as well as ecclesiastical architecture, R 1 *. 216 . ELEVATION OF TIIE SOUTH FHONT. CALAIS I,E JUSTICE, ROUEN. b( 242 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. Fig. 247. SECTION OF HALL, PALAIS DE JUSTICE, ROUEN. all that the student can desire. The Hotel de Bourgtherouldo, in the Place de la Pncelle, is about the same age as the Palais de Justice we have just described, or perhaps three or four years later in the finish- ing. In some respects it is more elaborate in the ornaments and the abundance of sculpture. The entire front is divided into bays by slend.r buttresses or pilasters, the spaces between them being filled with bassi- rilievi , every inch of space, indeed, in the building has been ornamented. This building still remains in a most degraded condition. j Belgium. 55:5. The table of styles given at the commencenmnt of the preceding section applies to the progress of art in this portion of the history. The first appearance of the pointed arch is fixed in the first quarter of the 12th century, by Schayes, L' Architec- ture en Uelgique , 1850— 53, who notices that the semicircular arch did not disappear until the middle of the 13th, and that only ecclesiastical edi- fices can be adduced as examples of the style de transition. Tile choir aisles were continued round tl e clievet, in the churches of Ste. Gu- dttle at Bruxelles, St. Quentin at Tournai, and Paineleat Audenaerde, while Notre Dame de la Chapclle at Bruxelles exhibits annulated ribs to the vaulting. The division of the doorway by a post is due to this period ; as are gargoyles in decoration; and the introduction, in Flanders, of hi iekwork. 554. The chief structures are the tower of St. Pierre at Ypres; St. Sauveur at Bruges, 111(5-27, the earliest piece of mediaeval brickwork in Belgium; St. Nicolas, and St. Jacques, at Gaud or Ghent ; the abbey church at Afflighem, 1 122-44 ; and the Chapelle du Saint- Sang at Bruges, 1 150, despite the de- g 15 corations added since the 15th cen- tury, and the facade reconstructed 1824, being one chapel over another ( fiy. 248. ), with a peculiarly shaped tower which is also double, one portion being circular in plan upon a corbel, the other being square in plan at base and attached to it. Probably St. Quentin at Totunai, and St. Martin at Saint Trond, are later. It is remarkable that the blank arcade formed by crossed ! semicircular arches does not occur in Belgium 555. Amongst the chief struc- tures in the style de transition which were erected during the 13th cen- tury, are Notre Dame at Pure- monde, 1218-24, which resembles the church of the Apostles at Cologne, and :s the first instance of a true cupola in Belgium; the church at Lisseweghe, about 1250; and the Abbey at Villers, which, although in ruins, is a perfect type of the style in the choir and transepts, and moreover retains more of the dependent original buildings than any other establishment in the country; the brewery dates 1197, and the church about 1225 ; the triforium range of windows to the choir are superposed circles, an idea repeated in the end walls of the transepts; the three-aisled nave has a third triforium and is the most perfect type of the early part of the style ogival priniaire existing in Belgium, except that of Ste. Panicle; the Hying buttresses are remarkable works; the cloister belongs to the 14th and 15th centuries. The chevet, 1220, of Ste. Gudule, and Fig. 248. CIIAl'ELLE DU SA1NT-SANG, BRUGES. JltAl’. I V. POINTED. 243 , ¥19. CIU’IICII OF THE OOJIIX1CANS, OA.ND. lie contemporaneous clioir, with the transepts of Notre Damede la Cliapelle at Bruxelles; the .Madeleine, about 1 ‘250, at Tournai; the choir, 1221, of St. Martin at Ypres, remarkable or the branches of foliage along the strings; the crypt, 1228, of St. Bavon at Gand, which ras the last (except one hereafter noticed) that was constructed in the kingdom; Ste. damede, built 1235-9, by A. de Bincho, at Audenaei de, which is iid to he ‘Me type le plus curieux qu’il soit possible de tn river le ce style; "and St. Jacques at Tournai, which has one triforium >vcr another, and exhibits in the tower a pointed trefoiled arch vith columns to support the cusps; are also transitional. 556. The chapel of the castle at Vianden, was about 50 ft. King and 3 6 ft. wide ; its plan was a decagon with one side open- ing to the castle and another to a pentagonal choir; divided Into three portions by columns engaged in square piers ; the centre was a hexagonal pit over the dungeons so that the prisoners ould hear prayers without leaving their cells; it is now in ruins. 557. To the style nyhal prinaii e belong the choir and lower art of the nave of the cathedral of St. Paul at Liege ; the lioir and chief part of the transepts of Ste. Gudule at Bruxelles, 250-80; great part of Notre Dame at Tongres ; the church fig. 249, width between the piers is 53 ft.) of the Dominicans t Gand, 1240-75, with a single nave covered by wooden ceiling fiy. 250. ), on curves of 60 ft. radius; (both cuts from the Gentle- um's Mayazine for 1862), that of the Dominicans at Louvain, 230-50, or later; the three-aisled naves and the transepts of St. lartin at Ypres, 1254-66, with one of the few rose windows, xisting in Belgium, over the porch to the south transept; the itoir of St. Leonard at Leau ; Notre Dame at Dinant; Ste. Wal- urge at Fumes; the abbey and hospital culled La Byloque at and, *■ with an oaken roof not ceiled where spiders have never come,” and with a remark- tie brick gable to the refectory; the brick tower of Notre Dame at Bruges, 1230-97, iid to have been about 420 ft. high, including the spire, till 1818, when 50 ft. were •movid; the choir of the cathedral tit tournai, 197 ft. long, 121 ft. wide, at.d 108 (inside) in height, remarkable for its tiled arches and for the means adopted to t rengthm the r pillars ; as well as the choir St. Bavon at Gand, begun 1275 and not Tiished in the 13th century, with its oppo- charstories connected by iron ties. In c Netherlands there are a great number of g« churches which have a singular identity appearance in the interior, and at the ne time a manifest peculiarity of charac- . This appears to be due to the cmploy- nt of plain, well-proportioned cylindrical lifts for their piers; the style in other re- fects being an elegant Gothic. The prin- ' al examples are Notre Dame, and the < hcdral at Malines; St. Paul at Liege; . tre Dame des Victoires, La Cliapelle, fjl Ste Gudule, at Bruxelles; St. Jacques, tithe Dominicans, at Antwerp ; St. Michel I 'iand; and I'urnes near Bruges. 58. file sti/lenyivnl erondaire was chiefly * >1 lyed by the ecclesiastics in finishing » icturcsor in commencing others conceived o so large a scale that their supet structure l> mgs to a later period. The chief edifices 0 lie style are the five-aisled church of St. J t at Ilois-le-duc, curious for the revolting 1 I enily of the huge statues to the but- I es of the choir — it was commenced 1280, but evidently was finished in the latter half of I 1 15th century ; the five aisled choir of St. Sulpiee at Diest ; the church of the Grand- i in inage at Louvain, commenced 1305, noticed for the manner in which the twelve |li rs that divide it into three aisles have been strengthened by iron bars; the contempora- I i s church of the Beg u inage at Diest ; the church at Aerschot, built 1331-7 bv J. I i art ; and, finest of all, Notre Dame at liny, begun 1311, witlia splendid rose window. It 2 Fig. VSO. CIIUKCU or TUB DOMINICANS, CAM'. 244 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE Book I. To these may be added the cathedral at Saint Romhaut, begun about 1345-50; the nave and southern aisle of Ste. Gudule at Bruxelles; the front of the cathedral at Tournai ; and Ste. Croix at ! iege, the only church in Belgium, since the destruction of that at Lubes, that lias the three aisles of equal height, and from which the architect is reported to have fled rather than superintend the striking of the centering to the vaulting, which in the nave is corbelled out from the pillars. 559. Some of the finest structures belonging to the style ogival tertiaire are ; great part of Notre Dame at Hal, 1341-1409; the porch and towers, completed 14.39, to St. Martin at Courtrai, 1390-1439; Ste. Walburge at Audenaerde, rebuilt, except the choir, 1414-1515, with a tower 295 ft. high, by J. van den Eecken; Notre Dame at Anvers, the only five- aisled church (except that at Saint-Hubert) in the country, which is really seven-aisled in plan in the nave (the choir belongs to the preceding century, and the completion of the tower, commenced 1422-3, by J. Appelmans, with the cupola and the Lady -chapel, to the first half of the 16th century); St Gommaire at Lierre, begun 1425, and not less than 250 feet long, with a high tower, finished 1455, but altered 1702; the porch and tower of St Martin at Ypres, 1434, by M. Utenhove; the chevet of the cathe- dral at Sain t-Rombaut, with 320ft. of its tower, 1452— 1 513, which was to have been 6C0 ft. high, according to the preserved design; Ste. Wandru at Mons, which was build- ing 1450 (with aisles 1525, and nave 1580-9, by J. de Thuin and his son), and is supposed to have been designed by the architect of St. Pierre at Louvain, which was building 1433 with l iter nave, the design and stone model for the intended colossal triple-towered facade is preserved in the town-hall ; St. Michel at Gand, 1440-1515; Notre Dame at Malines about 1475-1550; the contemporaneous Notre Dame du Sablon at Bruxelles; the upper church at Anderlielit, 1470-82; St. Jacques at Anvers, 1429-1560, with a tower, 1491, by T. de Coffermaker ; and the tower, 272 ft. high, of St. Bavon, 1461-1534, by J. Stassins, with that of St. Nicolas, 1406, by T. de Steenhoukebelde, both at Gand. 560. As works of the 15th century must be named, the great entrance and its two towers, with other portions, to Ste. Gudule at Bruxelles; the tower and eastern part of Notre Dame at Tongres; the brick tower of St. Jean at Bois-le-duc; and the tower cf the church at Aerschot, said to have carried a spire 488 ft. high, that was replaced, 1575, by the present spire, which attains about 320 ft. In the same style are the five-aisled abbey church (see Notre Dame at Antwerp) at Saint Hubert, about 1526-64; the brick spire, 1524, of Notre Dame at Bruges, which is said to have been 422 ft. high, but lessened, 1818, bv 50ft.; the upper part of the nave, the chapels, and the vaidting of the cathedral of St. Paul at Liege, 1528-9; the nave of St. Bavon at Gand, 1533-53, with an iron railing as triforium, and having the clearstories tied together by iron bars; St. Jacques at Liege, 1513—18, the best specimen of the style ; with its rivals, St. Martin in the same city, finished, 1542, by P. de Rickel ; the brick church at Hoogstraeten, 1534-46; and the church of the Dominicans at Anvers, 1540—71. The cloisters of St. Paul, St. Barthe- lemi, and St. Jean-en-Isle at Liege are rather later than that of St. Servais at Maestricht. 561. In the 13th century commences that long series of splendid civil edifices which Belgium possesses in greater number than any other country of its size — viz., the belfrys, the markets, the town-halls, and the club-houses. The most remarkable of the beffrois are at Tournai (the oldest), Gand (the original drawing is preserved) 1315-37, Ypres, Bruges, Lierre (1369—1411), Nieuport (1480), and Alost (1487). The enormous halle, now hotel de ville, at Ypres, was commenced 1200, hut not completed till 1230 in the right wing, 1285 in the left wing, and 1342 at the back; the water halle at Bruges was destroyed 1789, but another, which was attached to it, remains, with a tower, 1284-91, by the priest Simon de Geneve; the halle-au.v-draps at Louvain was commenced, 1317, by J. S'evens, A. Hare, and G. Ilaes (supposed officers), and was given, 1424, to the University that, 1 680, added the second story. The halle , now boucherie, at Diest. dates 1 346, and the halle au.v drops at Gand, 1424, the last in the pointed style. The boucherie at I pres belongs to the 13th century ; that at Anvers 1501-3. 562. The hdtel-de ville at Alost has the right flank, built in the year 1200, remaining; that at Bruges, commenced 1377, wi ll its rich ceiling, 1398, was the only edifice of its class raised during the 14th century ; that at Bruxelles was begun on the left or east side, 1401-2, by J. van Thienen, the tower was completed, 1448-55, by J. van Ruysbroek, the right side was commenced 1454 ; that at Louvain was erected 1448-59, by M. de Layens, and is unparalleled in any city ; that at Mons was built 1458 ; the old part of that at Gand was begun, 1481, by E. Polleyt; that at Audenaerde was erected, 1527 - 30 , by II. van Pede, and 1528- a painter and a sculptor were sent from that town to copy, tor the use ot the architect, the two chimney-pieces and the parapet of that at Courtrai, built 1526-7; and even that at Lean deserves attention. We refer our readers to the end ol Book III. for some further remarks on these very important buildings. 563. The maison des poissonniers and the maison des hoteliers at Gand date in the first part of the 16th century. The poorter's logie (now (leole des heaux-arts) at Bruges was erected at the end of the 15th century, or a little later. The maison du roi at Bruxelles, Chat. IV. POINTED. 21 5 rebuilt 1514-23, by A. D ami II. van Mansdale, D. de Wagemaker, L. van Bendeghem, and H. van Pede, was much injured, 1695 ; and the Hotel lu Franc at Bruges dates 1521—3. The siren (prison) at Anvers was built 1520. The episcopal palace at Liege .lates 1508-40. 564. According to a tradition preserved at Ypres, the I timber of which, the wooden houses of the 15th and 16th ! centuries was built, was procured from Norway ; some of these dwellings remain in Anvers and Ypres. Two stone houses of the 13th century exist at Gand, and a couple | more dating 1250-1300 at Ypres. One of the 14th is in the Place du Vendredi at Gand, and many brick dwel- lings of the 15th and 16th may still be seen at Anvers, Vth, Bruges, Gand. Malines, Tournai (.fig- 251.), Ypres, &c. l'he Porte de Hal at Bruxelles, 1381 ; the Porte de Diest at Louvain ( 1526) ; the Pont du Broel at Courtrai; the Pont des I rons at Tournai (1290-1300), with the keeps of the chateaux at Sichem and Terheyden close the list of re- markable works of ancient pointed art in this country, with notice of the Chapelle de la Vierge attached, 164 9, to jthe southern or right side of Ste. Gudule at Brussels to balance the chapel, built 1533—7, on the left side. Germany. 565. In accordance with the opinion now usually adopted, that Gothic art was received into the north of Europe from France, but that it was altered during the process of natu- alisation, the usual division of the styles accords with th it ised in France. But the periods do not altogether match, nasmuch as while examples of pure first-pointed work iccur in the cathedrals at Paris and elsewhere, 1 163-1212, lie German instances are, like those of Belgium, not earlier ban 1225. It is hardly possible, however, to refute the loeumeatary evidence for some buildings being very much n advance of contemporaneous structures in England and France as to style. I his seems o be admitted by Dr. Whewell, whose valuable Architectural Notes on German churches , 1842, bird edition, condenses into a few lines the account of the chief peculiarities of detail in the wo classes which he observed in that country. He first suggested the fact that English and lerman architects, beginning from the same point — the Romanesque, and arriving at the nine result — the cnm/ile'e Gothic , or decorated period, with geometrical tracery, made the ransition each through a separate' style ; one of these being decidedly Gothic ; the other, vhieh lie calls early German, rather Romanesque than Gothic. They have in common their lender shafts, clustered and banded, their pointed arches, and their mode of vaulting; but e do not commonly find, in the interior of the transition churches of Germany, the circular luster of shafts, the arches moulded into a broad and deep mass of small rolls with deep ollows between, the circular abacus with its rounded upper edge, the simple lancet-headed •indows, tall and narrow, and the peculiar line of open flowers which is used so pro- iisedly in all early English work. Nor do we observe, on the outside, the dripstone to [ic window, the moulded or shafted window-sides or jambs, the projecting buttress with Is chamfered edge and triangular head, or the pyramidal pinnacles of our early cathedrals. Faulting shafts spring from a corbel, or more usually, from an end hooked into the wall ; |ie arch is often a square-edged opening with no mouldings, though sometimes a rebated Ige, sometimes a roll, is seen ; the triforium is, in a large district, meant for use as a illcry by the bachelors; the fan-shaped window, a foiled horse-shoe arch; and arch ouldings with three bands, or two bands and a roll at the apex. The difference between ' rly English and early German work is less obvious. The resemblance obtains not only the general forms of the members and parts, but in the details also — the canopies, bases, oliles of mouldings, &c. The latter style, however, has double planes of tracery — i.e . , o frames of tracery, one behind the other, in the same opening. After this general incidence, the styles seem again to diverge, the later Gothic of Germany being quite Iferent from the contemporaneous or corresponding styles of England, France, and the etherlands ; these again apparently being independent of each other. Nevertheless, German author would inscribe at the head of this section the following table: — Fig.251 HOUSK AT TOURNAI. I, rly . . Friiehgerinani cher sty l Jccorated • • A usyebi detyermitn i sc her styl ■ite . . S/uictycniianisiher styl . Thirteenth century. Fourteenth century. Fifteenth century and later. 566. The earliest truly pointed buildings seem to be, the church of St. Mary at Treves, 246 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1, 1227-44, said to resemble in plan the church at Braine near Soissons ; the choir of St, Afra at Meissen, 1235 ; and the nave of St. Elizabeth at Marburg. 1253-83, which pro- bably was the first in- stance of tlie practice of erecting the nave and aisles uniform in height that is so com- mon in Germany ( fiij. 252) The church of the Minorites at Co- logne was consecrated 1260, and is said to have been built at overtimes by thi workmen of the ca- thedral. 56 7. The cathedral at Cologne, begun 1248, is held to owe much of the plan to that at Amiens, and of the decoration to the Ste. Chapclle at Baris. The abbey of Alton- burg is said to be in- debted for i s style to Cologne cathedral; the choir at Meissen to that at Naumburg, and Cal mar to Stras- Flg. 252. SECTION OF THE CUUECIl OF SAINT ELIZABETH, MAKBU1IG, ^ • tile cIlUl'cllCS i t Greenberg, Nienburg an der Saale, and Wetter, with St. Mary at Frankenbergand at Mar- burg to that of St. Eliz dietli at Marburg. In the 14th century, the five-aisled church j at Kuttenberg was indebted to Prague cathedral ; the choir of the church of St. Mary at l Bamberg to Cologne cathedral, and (for windows) to the church at Oppenheim ; and the churches of St. Mary at Rostock and Wismarto Schwerin cathedral. In the 15th century the church at Steier borrowed from Vienna cathedral ; St. Mary at Bernburg from St. Nicholas at Zerbst and St. Maurice at Halle; Freiberg cathedral and St. Mary at Zwickau from St. Nicholas at Zerbst; and the church at Elten from St. A'gund at Emmerich. These cases of imitation may be deserving of attention. 568. The general character of the work of the first period is very much that of the French buildings of the style : but where the German work is plain, it is much plainer than the French; and where decorated, much richer. Its reminiscences of romanesquef art are more obvious in the profiles of mouldings, while the carved work in capitals iri almost an exaggeration of the crispness of the French woi k. 569. Amongst the remarkable buildings erected in the 13th century may be named the old parish church at Ratisbon, with many romanesque details,, 1250 - 63 or 1290- 1300, a difference li- nearly half a century, which occurs in tin dates given l.y eminent writers to the whole, or to parts, of many Ger- man edifices. The very remarkable cathedral (Jiu. 253), at Ilulher- stadt has the lower part of the west front older than the rest of the edifice, which dates 1235-1491 ; its section (.fig- 254.) is here given as being an instance of elegant proportions that enforce admira- tion. The beautiful church at Oppenheim, dedicated to St. Catherine, is a Latin crosr on its plan. The chancel is five sides of an octagon. As in many of the churches <>l Germany, it has a second chancel for the canons at the western extremity, terminating in three sides of ail octagon. The entrances are on the north and south sides of the tran- septs. From a IMS. chronicle of the chinch, uuoted by Moller, it is ascertained that the F'e. 253. l'LAX OF CATHEDRAL, 11A1.1SEKSTADT Chap. IV. POINTED. 247 Fig. 254. SECTION OF CATHEDRAL, IIALBKUSTADT. nave and eastern clianccl were begun in 1262, and finished in 1317. The western chancel, now a ruin, was consecrated 1439. The total length of the church, including the two i chancels, is 268 ft. ; whereof the western chancel, whose breadth is 46 ft., occupies 92 ft. The nave is 102 ft. in length, and its breadth 86, that breadth comprising the two side aisles which are separated from the nave by clustered columns; the aisles have small chapels. The transept is 102 ft. long, a d 31 ft. broad. In the western front, at the ex- tremity of the nave, are two towers, standing on square bases, each of four storys, a. cl crowned by an octagonal spire. Over the in- tersection of the transepts with the nave stands an octagonal tower. This building was erected for Richard of Cornwall, em- peror of Germany, and has 1 itely been re- stored. The church at YVimpfen-im- l hal, 1262-78, is recoided as built by a Parisian opere francigeno ; ” the choir of Meissen cathedral 1274; the simple church of the Do- minicans at Ratisbon 1274-77 ; and the choir of the cathedral in the same city, 1275-80. 5 70. The western portal of Strashurg cathedral was begun 1277 by Erwin von Steinbach, an architect before mentioncdfpoc. 322u) who died 1318, leaving unfinished part of the second story, which was completed by his son Johann, who died 1339 ; the third story is an addition. The cathedral was carried on under other architects till 1439, since which nothing has been done towards its com- pletion. Among the examples of pointed architecture, this is the most stupendous. There is a similarity of stvle between it and the cathedrals of Paris and Reims, except that the ornaments are more minute. The plan is a Latin cross, whose eastern end terminates in- teriorly in a semicircle, but on the exterior in a straight line. Thehngth of the church is 324 ft., that of the transept 150 ft. ; the height of the vault of the nave is 98 ft. The nave has one aisle on each side of it. On the north-west angle of the edifice, rises the pire, whose height has been very variously represented; the correct height is 466 ft., being 'renter than that of any church in Europe except that of St. Nicholas at Hamburgh, vliich is 4T2 ft. To a certain height the tower s square and solid, being formed b\ one of the ertical divisions of the western facade. Above the olid part, the tower rises to a certain height octangu- u ly, open on all sides, and flanked by four sets of >pcn spiral staircases, which are continued to the me whence the principal tower rises conically in seven tories or steps, crowned at the summit with a species >f lantern. John Hiiltz, sen., Heckler, and John (Iiiltz, jun. continued this fine tower, which was only iuished in 1439. In the interior of the church, near me of the large piers of the transept, is a statue of the rcliitect Erwin, in the attitude of leaning over the i.dustrades of the upper corridor, and looking at _ he opposite piers. The minster at Freiburg-im- ireisg.iu, is remarkable as being almost the only arge Gothic church in Germany which is finished, nd lias escaped destruction. It was begun 1152, as opears in the romanesque transepts with their exter- al turrets ; the nave, west front, the tower 380 ft. high, kilfully changed from square to octagon, with open fire, and rich porch below it, date 1236-72; the lioir (sec Jig. 255.) belongs to the year 1513. The ansiti m, which in France dates 1250, is seen in ic west front, 1287, of the cathedral at Agratn, where e choir dates 1305—19, with a later nave. 571 . In the second period elegance and richness re sought; the latter was obtained, but the former is lost in a manner which may easiest be expressed cuia to be an addition as an after thought 1 If. M. in the statement that everything Decoration is spread on the work: witness the 248 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1225-40; the church at Friedeherg, 1328 ; St. Lambert at Muenster, 1335-75 ; the choir in St. Mary at Wismar, 1339-54; the five-aisled choir in Prague cathedral, 1343-85; the choir in the cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle, 1353; and St. Mary at Nuremberg, 1354-61, by G. and F. Ruprecht. To the end of this century belongs the pentagonal church at Kirchheim-im-Ilies, with the convent's choir in the western portion. 573. The plan of the cathedral at Cologne ( fig. 2 56.), exhibits a symmetry not surpassed by the buildings of ancient Greece and Rome. A church erected on the site of this cathedral in the time of Charlemagne was destroyed by fire in 1248, at which time Conrad filled the archiepiscopal throne of the city Before file had destroyed the former cathedral, this I'ig. 257 prelate had resolved on the erection of a new church, so that in the year following the destruction of the old edifice, measures had been so far taken, that the first stow crockets and capitals which are only single leaves glued to their places instead of the freelj growing foliage of the previous period. 5 72. In the 14th century occurred the construction of the nave at Meissen cathedral, 1312-42; the tower and choir of St. Elizabeth at Kaschau, 132i; St. Mary at Prenzlau, Chap. IV. POINTED. 249 lot the new fabric was laid with great solemnity on the 14th of August, being the eve of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin. Collections were made throughout Europe for ,'arrying on the works, and the wealth of Cologne itself seems to have favoured the hope hat its founder had expressed of their continuation. The misfortunes of the times soon, however, began to banish the flattering expectation, that the works would be continued to he completion of the building. The archbishops of Cologne dissipated their treasures in | unprofitable wars, and ultimately abandoned the city altogether, for a residence at Bonn. ! The works do not, however, appear to have been interrupted, though they proceeded but Nlowly. On the 27th of September, in the year 1322, seventy-four years after the first itone had been laid, the choir was consecrated. The works were not long continued with activity, for about 1370 the zeal of the faithful was very much damped by finding that great abuses had crept intc tne disposal of the funds. The nave and southern tower ■ontinued rising, though slowly. In 1437, the latter had been raised to the third story, and the bells were moved to it. In the beginning of the 16th century, the lave was brought up to the height of the capitals of the aisles, and the vaulting of the north aisle was commenced; the northern tower was carried on to the cor- esponding height ; and everything seemed to indicate a steady prosecution of the work, hough the age was fast approaching in which the style was to be forgotten. The window's n the north aisle were decorated, though not in strict accordance with the style, yet with some of the finest specimens of painted glass that Europe can boast, a work executed under the patronage of the archbishop Hermann von Hesse, of the chapter, of the city, and of many noble families who are, by their armorial bearings, recorded in these windows. But with these works the further progress of the building was entirely stopped, about 1509. Fig. 257 exhibits the south elevation of the cathedral, in which the darker parts show the executed work. If the reader reflect on the dimensions of this church, whose length is upwards of 500 ft., and width witli the aisles 280 ft. ; the length of whose transepts is 290 ft. and more ; that the roofs are more than 200 ft. high, and the towers when finished would ave been more than 500 ft. on bases 100 ft. wide ; he may easily imagine, that, notwith- standing all the industry and activity of a very large number of workmen, the works of a structure planned on so gigantic a scale, could not proceed otherwise than slowly, especially is the stone is all wrought. The stone of which it is built is from two places on the Ilhinc, Koenigswinter and Unckel-Bruch, opposite the Seven Mountains, from both of which the ransport was facilitated by the water carriage afforded by the Rhine. The foundations of he southern tower are known to be laid at least 44 ft. below the surface. 574. To King Frederick William III. is due the merit of rescuing it from the state of a (lined fragment. During his reign nearly 50,000 /. were laid out upon it, chiefly in repairs ; tnd in that of his successor, Frederick William IV., 225,000 1., more than half of which was ontributed by the King, the rest by public subscription. In 1842 he laid the foundation >f the transept. The choir is now finished. The late architect, Zwirner, estimated the ■ost of completing the whole at 750,000/. In September, 1848, the nave, aisles, and tran- jpts were consecrated and thrown open ; the magnificent south portal was finished 1859, at i cost of 100,000/. The north portal, more simple in detail, is also completed ; both arc from ^winter’s designs. The iron central spire and iron roof of the nave were added 1860-62, nd the whole, except the towers, nearly finished 1865. The faulty stone, from the Dra- Ihenfels, on the exterior, has been replaced by another of a sounder texture, of volcanic irigin, brought from Andernach and Treves. I lie height of the towers when finished will be 1 4 2 ft., equal to the length of the church, whose kreadth, 231 ft., corresponds with that of the able at the west end. The choir is 16 I ft. high. ! 575. The cathedral at Ulm {.fig- 258.) is | notlier of the many celebrated cathedrals of lennany : it was commenced in 1377, and ontinued. the tower excepted, to 1494. It is bout 416 ft. long, 166 ft. wide, and, including he thickness of the vaulting, 141 ft. high. ic piety of the citizens of Ulm moved them |o the erection of this structure, towards which i 'ey would not accept any contribution from jmign princes or cities; neither would they rcept any remission of taxes nor indulgences om the pope. The whole height of the tower j' !16 ft. 9 in. ; it was stopped 1492 because he two pillars under it. on the side next the "dy of the church, gave way. Had it been finished according to the original design (still h existence), it would have been 491 It. The exterior length is 455 ft. ; interior, 39 1 ft. I be nave and choir are partlv built of brick. The nave is 116 ft. high, and has twelve Tig. 208. VIM CATHEDRAL. 250 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boox r. Fig. 259. RAT1SE0N CATIIE1JRAL. Clustered columns bearing lancet pier-arches, without a triforium, flanked by double aisles on slender shafts. The main support of the roof is derived from huge external buttresses. This building does not preserve the regularity of form for which the cathedral at Cologne is conspicuous, but the composition, as a whole, is exceedingly beautiful. 57 6. Ratisbon cathedral is another line work, of about the same period (_/n 7 . 259). It was begun by Andreas Egl, 1275, but left unfinished in the beginning of the 16th century. The west front is in the decorated style of the 15th century, with a triangular portal throwing out a pier in front so as to form a double arch n ay. The church is 533 ft long, and 120 ft. high. The transeptal plan is only seen in the clearstory. At Vienna, the cathedral of St. Stephen’s exhibits another exquisite example of the style. 577. The history of the collegiate church of St. Victor at Xanten lias been tolerably clearly writ- ten. It is a five-aisled edifice without transepts, with a romanesque tower dated 1213. The choir was commenced 1263, the sacristy in 1356, by J. von Mainz, who designed, 1368—70, the east part of the north aisle. The buttresses and vault- ing were added 1417-37 : a cessation of the work then occurred till 1487, although we find the names of the master-masons T. Moer, ‘archila- picida,’ 1455 ; Id. Blankenbyl, 1470-4 ; and G. von Lohmar, 148.3-7, as busy upon the nave; its windows were completed 1487 ; the south side 1492 ; its vaulting 1500; its buttresses 1508 ; the great window between the towers 1519, and the north tower, 1525, were designed by Johann von Langeberg of Cologne, 1492-1522; the sacristy and the chapter-house were designed, 1528, by Ger win from Wesel ; and the chapter-house with cloisters was completed, 1550, by H. Maess. 578. In the third period there seemed to be a natural and at first healthy revulsion ; but it ended in being spiky, a term which is more justifiable than prismatic. Every thing that could be curved was bent or twisted; the most tortuous forms of the flamboyant system are common with truncated ends forming stump tracery ; interpenetration abounds ; and as a last resource of invention, dead branches intertwined take the places of mouldings and of foliage. So that in the decline ai d fall of German pointed art, there was as markedly national a character as in that of the French or the English contemporaneous forms. 579. Amongst the structures of the 15th century (ex- cepting St. Mary at Esslingen, which will be hereafter mentioned) were St. Catherine at Brandenburg, 1401. by II. Brunsbergh, with nave and aisles of equal height ; the choir of St. Mary at Coblentz, 1404—31, by Johar.n von _ Spey; the church of St. John at Werfen, 1412; that at II mm\ Weissenfels, commenced 1415 by Johann Iieinhard ; the 1111 ' M , 1 |||| | |' I choir of St. Remold at Dortmund, 1421-50, by Rozier ; St. I JIHlit. Ja L1PI1I itR Mary at Ingoldstadt, 1425, with nave and aisles of equal height, by H. Schnellmeier and C. Glaetzel; St. Lau- rence at Nuremberg, enlarged 1403, with a choir and aisles of equal height, 1439 or 1459-77, by C. Heinzelmann ol Ulm, and Johann Bauer of Ochsenfurt, on the plans of C. lioritzer of Ratisbon ; St. Nicolas at Zerbst, 1446-81, with a nave and aisles of equal height, and with a clievet having nine sides externally, by Johann Kuemelke and Ins ___ __ r sen Matthias; the south-west tower of St. Elizabeth at 1 8 BIB li Breslau, 1452— 86, with a wooden spire erected in the latter 1 111 ' ^11 Iff year, by F. Frobel, ‘ zimmermann ; ’ the church of the I llli || hospital at Cues before 1458 ; the nave and choir of the 1 HH church at Freiburg an der Unstrut, 1499, by P. von Weis- R /- senfels; the nave of the church of St. Ulrie and St. A fra * at Augsburg, 1467— 99 ; the brick cathedral at Munich, with nave and aisles of equal height, 1468-91, by G. Gankofl’en ; the choir of the minster ( /?< 7 . 260) at Freiburg im- Breisgau, 1471-1513, by Johann Niesenberger; and the cathedral at Freiberg, 1484—1500. ;e at Noerdlingcn, with its three naves of equal height and Fig. 260. cnont OF MINSTER, FliEUJUJtO-lM-BJ!EISGAU. 580. The church of St. Geor; ClIAP. ]V. POINTED. 251 length, anti a tower 28:i ft. high, is extremely curious, because so many of its architects were .tgaged at other places. The names are preserved of Johann Felber, 1427-35, of Ulm, who milt the outer church at Waiblingen, completed i488; C. Heinzelmann of Ulm, likewise ■ngaged at Waibli.igen as well as at Landau, and, 14 59-77, with Johann Hauer von Oclisenfurt at the choir of St. Laurence at Nuremberg, designed by C. ltoritzer ; N. i Kseller and his son of the same name, 1454-59. both of whom were engaged at the church , if St. George at Dinkelsbueld, 1450, as well as at Augsburg and liothenburg ; C. Hoeflich nnd Johann von Salzdorf, 1457; W. Kreglinger, of Wurtzburg ; and S. Weyrer, \\ ho finished. 1495-1505, the vaulting. 581. This passage from one building to another seems to have commenced in Germany j hiring the 14th and 15th centuries. We find 13. Engelberger at Heilbronn, 1480, Ulm 1494, and Augsburg 1502-12; 11. Brunsbergh, of Stettin, 1401, at Brandenburg, Danzig, bud Prenzlau ; Paul von Brandenburg at Brandenburg, 1484, and Neuruppin, 1488 ; P. 1 \ rler at Colin, 1360, and Prague, 1385; HI. Bceblinger at Esslingen, ls82, Frankfurt, 483, and Ulm 1492 ; Johann, 1430, at Landshut, Hall, Salzburg, Getting and Straubing. It is remarkable that in nearly half the cases (and the rest are doubtful) where the name of m architect is recorded, be seems to have come from another town to that in which the building he designed is erected. ! 582. Fiy. 261 is a house attached to the ra.th-ha.us at Munster, and much resembling it in style; the house dates late in the 15th century, or early in that of the 16th. We gi'e a house in the A 1 1 - markt-platz at Cologne ( fiy. 262.) for its very late date in appearance, but being entirely free from any trace of transition from 11th century work in detail, it is easily attributed to the early part of the 12th century. 583. Amongst the struc- tures erected about the year 1500 may be named St. Anne at Annaberg, 1499— 1525; St. Katherine at Ess- lingen, by M. Boeblinger, who finished the church of St. Mary (left 1482, by his father Johann) ; the latter building was stopped 1321, and recommenced 1406; it has the vaulting-ribs of the three equally high naves carried uninterruptedly to the ground ; the tower, com- menced 1440, is considered to be the finest in Germany ; the choir of St. Ulrich and St. A fra at Augsburg begun 1501 ; the tower of St. Ki- iian at Heilbronn, 1507-29, by Johann Schemer ; the church at Pirna, 1502-46 ; the church with nave and aisles of equal height at Luedinghausen, 1507-58 ; the alterations and vaulting of the romanesque church at St. Matthias near Treves. 1513, by J. von Wittlich ; the parish church at Schnee- p- Mu '"" S " L AT [ 5 , ,;_40 ; the nave and Fl|? - mi - “ OUSK AT c01 - 0O!iK - j >rch of the cathedral at Merseburg, 1500-40; the church at Anspach with three western ewers. 1530-50; St. Mary at Halle an der Saale, completed 1530-54. by N. Hoffmann, with ur towers belonging to two earlier churches on the site ; and the vaulting of the time nnd Rectory at Gina, 1582-93, by Piper. The church at Frciidenstndt. 1601-8; and St. J forge at Goblentz 1618, are specimens of the znpfstil, its the German Gothicists designate h>rk ol the 17th century, whatever may be its parentage. Spain. ' I. 1 he medi eval aichitect.irc of Spain and Portugal will on 'htical division exists. It will be necessary to remember that ly be divided because the the districts of Aragon 252 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. Asturias, Biscay, and North Galicia were never conquered by the Moors; that the cities of Burgos, Leon, Santiago, Segovia, Tarragona, Toledo, and Zamora, were freed from them in the lltli century ; Lerida and Zaragoza in the 12th ; Seville and Valencia in the middle of the LIth ; and Granada on the 2nd January, 1492 ; that much French influence existed; and that the roinanesque buildings of Spain show a large reminiscence of the churches iu Northern Italy. But the remarkable similarity between Germany and Spain, in the progress of Goiliic art, cannot be attributed to the employment of one or two foreigners. As in Germany, the late romanesque style was retained longer than in Fiance; and in b >th countries the phase which is termed lancet or early pointed in England and France did not constitute the transition from their roinanesque into their decided and well- developed geometrical Gothic. 585. Stone was the usual material employed for ecclesiastical buildings in the really Gothic or even renaissance style. The romanesque and the neo-classic builders em- ployed granite or some of the semi-marbles which the country throughout possesses ; where the Moresque traditions of art prevailed, rubble work with brick binding courses and quoins are seen ; and the distinctive feature of Spanish brickwork consists in the formation of patterns by recesses and projections in total negligence of terra-cotta or moulded bricks. The diapering of some plastering should be noticed. Few examples of domestic archi- tecture of any importance occur. The window with two or more arches carried on shafts, and forming the ajimez or aximez of modern builders, is almost universal. 586. Referring to the classification of structures by centuries for examples of the larger works of civil architecture, we regret that little attention has been given to the \ery in- teresting class of military buildings, whether fortified houses, peel towers, or small castles, which have escaped demolition. The destruction caused by the generals of Napoleon I. has been followed by the results of the Carlist war of succession, and of the suppression of the monastic establishments; but Spain still possesses one characteristic in construction in the great width. of many of the naves. Thus, the church of the dominicans at Raima is 95 ft. wide clear span between the walls ; the cathedral at Gerona 73 ft. ; that at Coria 70 ft. 8 ins. ; that at Toulouse 63 ft., while the churches of Perpignan and Zamora are 60 ft. The width between the centres of the columns of the nave at Palma cathedral is 71ft.; Manresa collegiate church and Valladolid cathedral ^classic) 60 ft.; while Milan cathedral, one of the largest out of Spain, is but 63 ft. 587. Some pure examples of romanesque art date after 1175, such as a church at Bcne- vento and the cathedral at Lugo ; but the period of transition to pointed art must be placed much earlier. Thus the cathedral and St. Vicente at Avila, occupying in erection nearly the whole of the 12th century ; the old cathedral, cloister, and chapter-house at Salamanca about 1100— 1175 ; the cathedral at Zamora 1125-75; that at Tudela ten years later; and the cistercian abbey at Veruela 1146— 51, lead to such works as the cathedral (except the choir, 1 103-23) at Siguenza ; the cistercian nunnery of Sta. Maria el Real de las Iluelgas, near Burgos, 1180-7; and the eastern portion of the cathedral at Lugo. The cathedral at Tarragona has a positively ro- manesque apse (perhaps 1 1 30-50), while the rest of the building is early pointed, and may date 1 175-1250. The westfront( /zp.263) is partly middle pointed work. Tire central portion, dating in style late in the 14th century, although commenced about 1278, stands between the original ends of the aisles, apparently executed as above mentioned. The incomplete false gable might countenance the idea that a foreigner, possibly a German, had been em- ployed ; but in 137 5 Bernardo de Vallfagona was the architect directing native sculptors. 588. The cathedrals, commenced, perhaps, 1 220 at Burgos, 1227 at Toledo, and 1235 at Leon, are in the advanced pointed style of the 13th century, while the cathedral and cloisters at Lerida, 1203-78, might belong, like the earliest parts of the cathedral at Valencia, 1262, to the previous periods It will not perhaps be ever possible to find documents that will contradict the assertion that the present system of placing the officiating choir in fixed stalls in the nave of the cathedrals was introduced at a late date ; but these who hold that it was a very early system may appeal to the plans of the cathedrals, at Tudela, 1135; Toledo, 1227; and Barcelona, 1298. 'The plans of those at Lerida and Tarragona are very similar to that at 'Tudela (Jig. 264, part of the plan given in Mr Street’s Gothic Arch, in Sj ai/i), which affords a good example of a building arranged accord- Fi£ 263. cathedral, taukagona. ?HAP. IV. POINTED. 253 ng to Spanisn peculiarities: if the eapilla mayor or chancel ever contained the choir, the ransept must have keen blocked lip. 589. Amongst the works erected during the 13th century, there are so many which ■xliibit lomanesque work that this period might be said to be merely transitional, as llustrated in the church of S. Pedro at Olite; the large church of the cistercian monastery >f Sta. Maria de Val de Dios, 218, near Villaviciosa ; and be bridge 1230, repaired 1449 :t Orense in two sections, that icarest the city having three irches, each 30' ft. 8 ins. span ; he other, 1213 ft. 6 ins. long, md 16 ft. 6 ins. wide, having even at dies, one of them being !2 ft. 8 ins. wide, and another 43 ft. 6 ins. span, and 124 ft. > ins. high. Other works to >e noticed are the cathedral, ■ommenced 1199, hut con- inued very slowly until 1258, it Leon ; it is dated 1230-40 >y Mr. Street, in his work ibove mentioned, who notices hat its construction, in a first- tointed style, was continued i util 1303, that it failed, and jhat the outside or jamb-lights f the clearstory and triforium rere filled with masonry, and hat the south transept was estroyed for reconstruction bout 1860: the fine cathedral. 248-84, at Badajoz ; and he parish church (not a cathedral) at Figueras near Gerona. 590. The succeeding great division of Gothic art is much more distinctly marked and aore uniform throughout Spain, whilst at the same time it is even less national and eculiar. There are very considerable remains of 14th century works, though, perhaps, no ue grand and entire example. They are all extremely simitar in style, and more allied in ■cling and detail to German middle-pointed than to French. Two features deserve .cord — first, the reproduction of the octagonal steeple, which was a most favourite type of te romanesque builders; and secondly, the introduction of that grand innovation upon Id precedents, the gieat unbroken naves groined in stone and lighted fiom windows high p in the walls. Fig. 26 1. fLAN OF CATHEDRAL, TUDELA. 591. As an example of the difficulty of classifying the buildings, it may be observed that •bile the date of 1400 is usually given to the church at Huesca, ascribed to Juan de llotzaga, it is probable that his name might be attached only to the great portal that is rmanesque, and cannot weii be dated later than 1290 — 1300. It is pretty clear that it is I most all a work of the 14th century. The unusually good example of middle-pointed ork afforded by the cloisters to the cathedral at Burgos should date 1280—1350 accord- ig to Mr. Street, rather than 1379-90, which is the period at which they are said to ave been executed. The same author states that the round arches on clustered shafts of te porch or cloister on the south side of the church of S. Vicente at Avila might be sup- >sed to be not later than the 13th century, were it not that a careful comparison of the ■tail with other known detail proves pretty clearly that they cannot be earlier than about ie middle of the 14th century. 592. To the first half of the 14th century are due the west front of the cathedral at arr tgona; the cloisters of the abbey at Veruela ; the east end, 131 2— 46 (decidedly late idole- pointed details) of the cathedral at Gerona; the hieronymite monastery of San artoloine, 1330, at I.upiana by Diego Martinez, now private property ; and the church of hi Justo and San Pastor, 1345, at Barcelona, which is an unbroken chamber 138 ft. by ’ ft. 9 in., and 69 ft. high. The widening. 1298-1329, of the cathedral, built 1058, at i celona, seems to have been begun in a first-pointed style, and to have been cou- nted byJayme Fa lire, 1318-88, i.i a second-pointed style ; the vaulting was finished 14 18. 593. Among the works dating in the middle of the 14th century, earlier or lutcr, is the "ircli of Sta. Matia de los Iteyes, commonly called Sta. Maria del Pino, at Barcelona, deli some date 1329-1413, but others 1380—1413. This latter date is possibly that of its wer by Guillermo Abiell ; the church Mr. Street considers must have been consecrated 254 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I. in 1353, not 1453 as stated by Parcerisa. We may also notice at Barcelona tlie church of Sta. Maria del Mar, begun 1328, and finished 1383 according to Parcerisa, but 11N3 according to another authority; the two-storied cloister of the collegiate chuich of Sta. Anna ; and the crypt or panteon of Sta. Eulalia, 1339, in the cathedral. 594. During the latter half of the 14th century, mention is made of the chapter house 1358, and north transept and cimborio , 1350-1400, to the cathedral, and the gate called the pun-la de Serranos, 1349-81, at Valencia; the casa consi'tarial, 1369-78, with a new south foot, 1832, at Barcelona; the collegiate church of Sta Maria de la Seo, 1328-1416 with another church apparently of the same date, but rather later detail, dedicated to Sta. Maria del Carmen, and 47 ft. wide, at Manresa ; and the tower, called E! Micalete, of the cathedral at Valencia. The tower is he:e mentioned as having been designed, 1381, and carried up to some height, by Juan Franc and N. Atnoros before 1414, when Pedro Balaguer was sent to Lerida, Narbonne, and other places to find the most suitable ter- mination that had yet been designed ; it seems to have been completed 1428, and perhaps should be considered as belonging to the next century ; as well as the celebrated hierony- mite monastery, dated 1389-1413, now a barrack and parish chuich at Guadalupe near Logrosan, by Juan Alonso; the cathedral, 1353-1462, but altered 1521, at Murcia; and the cathedral, commenced 1,397 at Pamplona, wheie geometrical traceries occur between flamboyant ones, all having somewhat of late middle-pointed character, though the date and the detail class them with the third pointed style. 595. To the first half of the 15th century may be ascribed the cloisters, 1390-1448, of the cathedral at Barcelona; the university, or rather les escuelas, 1415-33, at Salamanca, by Al. Rod. Carpintero ; the dominican church of San Pablo, 1415-35. at Burgos, by Juan Rodriguez, now a cavalry barrack; the arcaded patio or couit-yard, 1436, three stories in height, of the casa de la Diputacinn at Batcelona, modernised 1597-1620; the nave, 1417-58, or later, of the cathedral at Gerona by Guillermo Boffiy (with details of late 14th century character) ; the hala dels (leaps, 1444, afterwards Pulacio de la Re.ina and the re- sidence of the captains-general at Barcelona (the four fronts modernised, 1844); and the towers and spires, 1442-56, by Juan de Colonia, to the cathedral at Burgos. To tlie ce.Aurv itself belong great parts of the cathedral at Seville, (Jig. 265.), commenced 1401, Fig. 2G5. CATHEDRAL, SEVILLE. and attributed either to Alfonso Martinez, architect to the chapter in 1386, or to Pedro Garcia, who held that post 1421. In 1462, Juan Norman was directing the Works; but in 1472, they had progressed so slowly that he was superannuated, and his place was supplied by three other artists. Their disputes were referred to an umpire, Jimoit, who became sole architect till 1502. The cimborio was completed 1507, and fell 1511, but was replaced by the present termination, 1519. The works by Diego de Riuno, 1522, will be men- tioned at the end of this notice. The capilla real was completed about 1560, and the chapter-house about 1530 596. To the latter half of the 15th century are due the erection of the casa de monedu, 1455, at Segovia ; the Castillo de la Mota, 1440-79, at Medina del Canrpo, by Fernando de Carreno; the church, 1442-88, attributed to Juan and Simon de Colonia, to the dominican monastery of San Pablo at Valladolid; the cathedral, begun 1442, at l’lasencia, whose capilla mayor, 1498, was designed by Juan de Alava ; the Carthusian nunnery, 1454-88, at Miraflores, near Burgos, said to have been designed by Juan de Colonia ; the cloisters, Chap. IV POINTED 25.5 1472, of the monastery at Lupiana ; the hleronymite monastery of Sta. Maria del Parral at Segovia, commenced about 1-4.59 by Juan Gallego, and finished 147.5, but the tribune of the rorn pulled down because too low, and rebuilt 1494 by Juan de Iluesga; the franciscan monastery of San Juan de los Iteyes, finished 1476, and next in architectural importance to tiie ca.hedral at Toledo ; the greater part of the cathedral commenced 1471 at Astorga, in the very latest kind of Gothic, with much of the detail, especially on the exterior, re- naissance in character ; parts of the cathedral at Burgos, about 1487, such as the range of chapels at the eastern end of the cloisters and of the church, inclusive of the tomb of the constable Pedro Fernandez de Velasco, which is quite flamboyant, and probably executed by Simon de Culonia ; and the casa del Ayunlamiento, 1496, at Pulencia ; with that, 1499, at Vail idolid. 597. Transitional work is observable in the palace, 1461, of Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, duque del Infantado, at Guadalajara ; the Doric columns on the ground floor of the two- storied patio seem to have been inserted 1570 ; another transitional building is the dominicau college of San Gregorio, 1488-96, at Valladolid, by Macias Carpintero, which has been furnished with sashed windows to render it suitable for the residence of the governor of tho province. The octagonal cimboriu, 1505-20, of the cathedral at Zaragoza has detail that s very renaissance in character; the cathedral, commenced 1513 at Sa'amanca by the cele- brated architect Juan Gil de Hontanon, is a splendid example of florid Gothic with a leaning .o renaissance work ; the first service was performed 1560 : and the same tendency is seen In the culegio mayor de Santiago el Zcbedeo or del Arzobispo, 1521, at Salamanca, and its .•hapel by Pedro de Ibarra, which are Gothic, with details verging in character upon its .•loister by Ibarra, which is entirely renaissance. 598. For works of the 16th century, it will only be necessary to notice the bridge calhd li epuntte del Obispo, and the church of San Andres now the Colegiata, 1500, at Baeza ; the yltsia magistral de San Justo y San Pastor, 1497-1509, at Alcala de Henares, by Pedro oumiel ; the torro nveva or bellry in the plaza de San Felipe, 1504, at Zaragoza, designed H 5 ft. high (made 295 in 1749) by Gabriel Gombao and Juan Sarinena, with the Jew luce de Gali, and the Moors Ezmcl Ballabar and Momferriz, erected by Gombao, who, in- entionally, after the first 9 ft. from the ground, g tve it so much inclination for 100 ft. as to nake it incline 8 ft. 9 ins. to the south, the rest being upright ; the chapel and two of the our cloisters, 1504, to the hospital general at Santiago, by Henrique de Egas ; the cloister i. fished, 1.507, of the cathedral at Siguenza ; the cloisters, 1509, of the cathedral at liadajoz; the church of San Benito 1499-1524, at Valladolid, by Juan de Arandia; the aulting, completed 1515, to the cathedral at Iluesca; the cathedral commenced at Segovia, .5-22, by Juan Gil de Ilontahon (who died 1531). and continued, partly under his son llodrigo, till 1593, which, as may be imagined, is consequently the last really Gothic work n the country ; the church (of the latest Gothic), begun 1524, to the doir.inican raonas- ery of San Esteban at Salamanca, by Juan de Alava, who succeeded Juan Gil at talamanca, 1531-37; the removal, 1524, of the cloisters of the old cathedral to the site of jtie new one at Segovia, by Juan de Campero ; the viaduct, 322 ft. long, and 138 fc. high, kith five arches, 1523-38, to the dominican monastery and church of San Pablo, of the ame date, at Cuenca, by Francisco de Euna ; and the Gothic parish church, 1515— 55, at i udela de Duero. 599. The next change to be indicated would be the expiration of the renaissance style uring the ptriod in which some of the preceding examples were executed. But the well uthenticated date, 1576, of the church of Sta. Maria Madalena at Valladolid, by Rodrigo cn in many houses at Braceiano, at Corneto, Frascati, at Galera, and at Lucca ; also the building lied Ea Quarquouia at Pistoia. with two houses of nilar date, nearly opposite; and in the third cloister of Fl *’ '■ monastery of Sta. Scolastica at Subiaco. The bouse in Jig 270, known at Viterbo ns ; “ pnlnzzetlo,” belongs to the 12th century, and is here given for comparison with er examples. The sketch of a house belonging to the 13th, or perhaps even to the 12th s 2 Fig 269. HOUSE AT VENICE. HOUSE AT VUE It 111) HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I 260 century, at Pisa ( fig. 271), exhibits the local peculiarity of three stories, composed really, or in appearance, by three piers and two arches. This is common. A fourth story sometimes shows its windows under the arches ; but generally is an independent addition Fig. 271- HOUSE AT riSA. ELEVATION OF THE PALAZZO EDOXSIONOIII, SIENA Fig. 273. floor of the nave to the design. At the level of each floor are put-log holes for the wooden cantilevers of the balconies, perhaps more properly the tettoje or pent-house roofs, which will be noticed in the examples from San Gimignano. The palazzo Buonsig- nori at the end of the via di San Pietro at Siena belongs to the brickwork of the 13th century; the facade is about 56 ft. long, and consists, on each upper floor, of seven bays, four of which are given in fiii 7 272. A fountain in the piazza Carlano at Viterbo might serve as a type of several others designed in this century. 615. To the end of the 13tn and early part of the 14th centu- ries belongs the cathedral at Or- vieto, one of the most interesting examples of Italian Gothic, and an instance of the use, internally as well as externally, of alternate courses of colour, which in this case is produced by black basaltic lava and vellowish-grey limestone. Although tlie first stone was laid 1290 for the execution of a design by L. Maitani, who had just com- pleted the front of the duomo at Siena and built this cathedral ( fig. 273.) before bis death, 1330 , the works were in band till the end of the 16th century. A list of thirty- three architects has been preserved. The building is 278 ft. long by 103 ft. wide, and 115 ft. high to the plain ceiling, made 1828 , which rests on piers 62 fr. high. These piers are fronted by statues of the apostles, 9 ft. 6 in. high, on pedestals ELEVATION OF THE CATHEDRAL, 0RV1ET0. . , _ .. ■ 7 - . , flip that are 5 ft. 6 in. high above tne which is made of Apennine red marble that lias inlaid fleurs-de-lis Chap. IV. POINTED. ‘261 before the e'noir. The windows have coloured glass in the upper parts, but diaphanous alabaster below it. 616. To the same period belong the church of Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, at Rome, the only pointed edifice which we can name in that metropolis ; and the principal examples of pointed art in Florence, such asthr church of Sta. Maria Novella, 1278-1357 ; the church of Sta. Croce, 1294, used 1320, but not consecrated till 1442 ; the cathedral, 1294, consecrated 1436, with the campanile, designed 1332, by Giotto; the church of San Ercolano, by Bevignate, 1297-1335, at Perugia, with that of Sta. Giuliana, 1292, outside that city; the ictagona] baptistery called San Giovanni Rotondo, 1337, and portions of the church of San Francesco, 1294, at Pistoia ; and the (then altered) brick and stone church of San Fermo Maggiore, at Verona. In the first half of the 14th century, the Italian artists exhibited heir ideas of Gothic work in the chapel of Sta. Maria dell’Arena, 1303, at Padua; the ilterations, 1308--20, of the interior of the cathedral at Lucca; the cathedral, 1312, at Prato, which has the effect of a northern late pointed structure ; the fine cathedral, 1325-48, ind the church of San Secondo, at Asti; and the church of San Martino, 1332, at Pisa, vhich is a fair specimen of common late Italian Gothic. 617. The large number of tombs and monuments of this and the next period, with pointed trches, renders difficult any choice of single examples among them ; those of the Scaligeri, it Verona, especially that of Mastino II., 1351, contain a history in themselves. 618. To the latter half of the 14th century may be attributed the marble fron.t, in grey :nd yellow courses, by Matteo da Campione, (a very fine example) before 1396 to the brick athedral with particularly good detail, more than usually Gothic, built 1290-1390, at VIonza; the palazzo della comunita, 1294-1385; and the palazzo pretorio, 1357-77, at Pistoia, which have been highly praised as fine specimens of very perfect Italian Gothic; he cathedral, 1315-1415, at Sarzana ; and 1340 to 1369-1 423, the upper portion or sala del nnsiglio of the ducal palace at Venice, although another authority considers that the work if this period was the loggia towards the canal and twelve columns on the piazzetta. 619. The general design of the existing cathedral at Milan is also of this period, although xtreme doubt exists as to the date of the commencement of the work. But the statements re clear that the capitals of the great piers were being prepared, 1394-5, and that the •iers themselves were being erected 1401. The records of the wardens of the church are eficient until 1337 ; in that year an official paper speaks of the building which “ multis etro temporibus initiata est et quae nunc fabricatur.” Chronicles and an inscription concur i fixing March 15, 1386, as the date of commencement ; but Simone da Orsenigo, probably n eye-witness of the facts to which he is evidence, stated that the work was begun May 23, 285, but was destroyed, and that the existing structure was commenced May 7, 1387. lie ras employed as one of the architects at least as early as December 6, in that year. So hat the date, 1336-87, usually given, as in the previous editions of this book, is possible the eriod of attempts to begin the work, and explains the phrase “ multis temporibus.” The athedral has been much praised as an example of northern art modifying itself to suit the ruthern climate under the hands of a German or, at all events, of a foreigner rather than f a native ; but facts seem to destroy this imputed credit. The official list of the “ in- egneri,” as the chief artists who laboured at the duomo were called, shows the earliest mpioyinent of foreigners in the case of Nicolas Bonaventure, of Paris, from July 6, 1388, II Ins dismissal, July 31, 1391; and the same evidence seems to divide the merit of the lrliest direction of the works between Marco and Jacopo, both of Campione, a village etween the lakes of Lugano and Como. The first name in the records of 1387 is that f Marco, supposed to be the Marco da Frisone who was buried July 8, 1390, with great onours ; Jacopo occurs March 20, 1388. having apparently been engaged from 1378 as re of the architects to the church of the Certosa, near Pavia; he died 1398. 620. The official notes of the disputes that were constantly arising between the cpntem- iraneous '* ingcgneri-generali ” and their subordinates, and the foreign artists, even record c fact that the Italian combatants disagreed on the great question of proportioning the nlding by the foreign system of squares, or by the native theory of triangles. If there ■ any merit in a work that was so dearly the offspring of many minds, much of it must due to the wardens, who seem to have ordered the execution of little that was not re- mmended by the majority of their artists, or, in case of an equal division, by an umpire reputation from some other city. From 1430, the names of Filippo Brunellesco and x or seven other artists precede the notice, 1483, of Johann von Griitz, who appears to i*e been invited for the purpose of constructing the central tiburio or lantern. As usual, foreigner’s work was condemned; and April 13, 1490, Giovanni Antonio Omodeo leinrieli von Gmiindcn, employed so early as from Dec. II, 1391, to May 31, 1392, was nfused with Omodeo by M. Millin, whence the repute of Heinrich as “ Zamodia”), began s long rule over the other artists, which lasted until August 27, 1522, by executing e present work. It is needless to give the names of his colleagues and successors until ■ appointment of Carlo Amati, 1806. under whom the completion of the works, including c three pointed windows of the front, was resumed, and of his successor P. Pestagalli, 1 8 13. 262 HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I. 651. The cathedral {fin. 274,) is constructed of white marble. The plan is a Latin cross, the transepts extending but little beyond the walls of the church. From west to cast its length is 490 ft. and its extreme breadth 295 ft. The length of the five- aisled nave is 279 ft. and its width 1 97 ft. The transepts are three-aisled. The eastern end of the church is ter- minated by three sides of a nonagon. The architecture of the doors and windows of the western front is of the Italian or Roman style, and was executed about 1658. for the fi r-t three bays of the nave were an addi- tion in front of the original faijadc, and were not vaulted until 1651-69. About 1790 the wardens deter- mined to make the front Gothic, keeping the doors and windows hy Ricchini, from designs hy Pellegrini, on account of the richness of their workmanship ; its apex is 170 ft. from the pavement. The central but- tresses are 195 ft high. The central tower, 1762-72, by F. Croce, rises to the height of 400 ft., being in general form similar to those which appear in the western facade. All the turrets, but- tresses, and pinnacles are surmounted with statues. The roof is covered entirely with blocks of marble fitted together with great exactness. 622. The only town in Italy which lias preserved so many as twelve of the me- dieval domestic towers of great height, is San Gimignano ; it possesses, also, several houses that were erected in the 13th and 14th centuries. The casa Ruonaccorsi, with a single opening on the ground-lloor, is a corner house and is attributed to the earlier period ; the casa Boni is next to it, and belongs to the later time ; they are shown in fig. 275, which is too small to express the bandings of red and white brickwork, and the stucco border to the extrados of each arch ; the penthouse roofs, here restored, were suppressed in the 14th century. The village of Coccaglio, between Bergamo and Brescia, is said to contain some valuable remains of domestic architec- ture. 'l he Venetian palaces of this and the following century have been so efficiently illustrated of late years, that it becomes unnecessary to describe their appearance. 623. Many architects have been engaged upon the marble cathedral at Como; from 1 396, when L. de’ Spazi was employed, down to the last century. The cupola or dome was completed about 1732, by Juvara. The three doors are in the richest Lombard style, and hence the rest ot the facade {fig. 276.) has been called early Italian Gothic; but it was designed, 1460, by Luccbino da Milano, and completed between 1487 and 1526 by f. Rodaiio, of Maroggio, whose design for other parts was altered, perhaps not improved, by C. Solaro. The other sides of the exterior are renaissance work by Rodario, who added the canopies for the statues of the two Plinys, in the west front. The transepts and choir internally are renaissance ; but the nave and aisles are Italian Gothic. 624 Amongst the structures produced in the 15th century, may be named the church (f Sta. Maria della Grazie, 1399-1406, about six miles from Mantua; the beautiful cathedral, 1 440. at Prato ; the equally fine church of Sta. Anastasia, at Verona, which has been called the noblest ot the distinctively Italian pointed churches in the north of Italy ; that of San Bernardino, 1452, also at Verona; and the cathedral, 1467, at Vicenza. The church of San Agostino, at Bergamo ; the highly interesting, because perfectly untouched, castle at Fig. 275. ELEVATION OF HOUSE, SAN Chap. IV. POINTED. 263 Bracciano ; tlie facade and cortile of the palace of Cardinal Vitellesehi, now the hotel lalazzaccio, at Corneto ; the west front of the church of Sta. Maria in Strada, a most laborate work in brick and erra-cotta, and the church of lie dominicans, at Monza ; all lclong to the last period of Italian Gothic. The nave of the •hurchof Sta. Maria delle Grazie, it Milan, is pointed, and dated 1465, while the transepts and .hoir are thirty years later, and ire renaissance work. The diurch of Sta. Maria Mag- riore, at Citta del Castello, be- ongs to the 15th, but was linished in the 16th, century. The .■liurch of San Agostino, at An- ■ona, is transitional ; like that it Montenegro, 1450 ; and that >f the Madonna di Monte Luce, it Perugia. The last idea of Gothic art absorbed by the new .tyle, is seen in the Colleone ihapel, 1475 ; and in the church if Sta Maria Maggiore, at Bergamo, where the sacristy, 1430, offers one of the earliest lated examples of the modern tyle. There is scarcely a street n Citta della Pieve without mmerous cases of pointed door- vays and windows walled up Ii A 27s. elevatiok of cathedral, como. 0 suit the return to what are commonly, but incorrectly, called classical notions. 625. Such are the chief structures in the northern half of Italy, of which a critic so uglily esteemed as Professor Willis does not hesitate to affirm that, “there is in fact no genuine Gothic building.” The same author observes that, “ it is curious enough that in he Neapolitan territory, in Naples especially, many specimens or rather fragments, of good jotliic buildings are to be found which were executed under the Angevine dynasty, 1266- 435 ; with this exception I do not believe that a single unmixed Gothic church is to be found 1 Italy.” Others follow his judgment, and accept, as specimens of imitative Gothic art, edi- ces which they themselves describe as impure and heterogeneous, and impressed with the tamp of classical, romanesque, byzantine, and Saracenic influences. To this praise of the hurches may be added that of two or three palazzi at Naples; the eampanili at Amalfi, and 'el etri ; the castles at Andria, Castellamare, and Teano, some houses of the 14th and loth enturies, at Aquila, Popoli, and Solmone, with the aqueduct at the latter place; and the lonastery of Sta. Catherina, at Galatino. 626. The cathedral at Trani must he regarded as falling within the ban under which the tructures termed “ Gothic,” in Sicily, are regarded by the purist in archaeology. The ointed byzantine style, which is called Siculo- Norman, lasted until 1282 ; it was transi- onal in the sense of receiving greater enrichment of a Greek character, until the end of le 14th century; and although further change began in the 15th century, taste did not ike any decided direction until the establishment of renaissance art. Mr. Gaily Knight, ho investigated the indications presented in the great work published by Messrs. Hittorff ud Zanth, says that “ various novelties were attempted ; sometimes the forms were circular, nnetimes square, and sometimes elliptic. Amongst other novelties, the pointed style of ie north was introduced, with its projecting mouldings and a little of its tracery; but later Sicily than anywhere else ; and though something of its true spirit is caught in the re- mstructions of Maniaees, in Syracuse, yet in Sicily, it always appears an exotic.” These i ts seem, to Mr. freeman, to prove incontestably that the pointed style of Sicily, of that irtion of western Christendom in which the systematic use of the pointed arch first occurred, not Gothic even in the sense of being the most distant transition. A few churches and daces at Palermo, Syracuse, and Taormina, of the 14th century; and in the same cities, till Girgcnti anil Messina, of the 15th century, would be nearly all that could be named 1 important examples before the renaissance was employed. The date, 1592, however, >pears to be that of the elliptic arches, groined roof, and flamboyant parapet at the entrance 1 the church of Sta. Maria della Catena, at Palermo. 627-873. We here, with regret, leave the subject, because we have already trespassed yond the limits prescribed. 264 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book tl BOOK II. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAP. I. MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS OF CONSTRUCTION. Sect. I. GEOMETRY. 874. Geometry is that science which treats of the relations and properties of the boun- daries of either body or space. We do not consider it would be useful here to notice the history of the science; neither is it necessary to enter into the reasons which have induced ns to adopt the system of Rossignol, from whom we extract this section, otherwise than to state that we hope to conduct the student by a simpler and more intelligible method to those results with which he must be acquainted. The limits of body or space are surfaces, and the boundaries of surfaces are lines, and the terminations of lines are points. Bounded spaces are usually called solids, whether occupied by body or not ; the subject, therefore, is naturally divided into three parts, — lines, surfaces, and solids; and these have two varieties, dependent on their being straight or curved. 875. Geometrical inquiry is conducted in the form of propositions, problems, and demon- strations, being always the result of compari. g equal parts or measures. Now, the parts compared may be either lines or angles, or both ; hence, the nature of each method should be separately considered, and then the united power of both employed to facilitate the demonstration of propositions. But the reader must first understand these Definitions. 1. A solid is that which has length, breadth, and thickness. A slab of marble, for instance, is a solid, since it is long, broad, and thick. 2. A surface is that which has length and breadth, without thickness. A leaf of paper, though not in strictness, inasmuch as it has thickness, may convey the idea of a surface. 3. A line is that which has length, but neither breadth nor thickness. As in the case of a surface, it is difficult to convey the strict notion of a line, yet an infinitely thin line, as a hair, may convey the idea of a line : a thread drawn tight, a straight line. 4 . A point is that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. 5 . If a line be carried about a point A, so that its other extremity passes from B to C, from C to D, &c. (Jiff- 223.), the point B, in its revolution, will describe a curve BCDFGLB. This curve line is called the circumference of a circle. The circle is the space enclosed by this circumference. The point A, which, in the formation of the circle is at rest, is called the centre. The right lines AC, AD, AF, &c. drawn from the centre to the circumference, are called radii. A diameter is a right line which passes through the centre, and is terminated both ways by the circumference. The line DAL, for example, is a diameter. An arc is a part of a circumference, as FG. 6. The circumference of a circle is divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; each degree is divided into 60 parts, called minutes, and each minute into 60 parts, called seconds. 7. Two right lines drawn from the same point, and diverging from each other, form an opening which is called an angle. An angle is commonly expressed by three letters, and it is usual to place in the middle that letter which marks the point whence the lines diverge; thus, we say the angle BAC or DAF (fig. 224.), and not the angle ABC or ACB. 8. The magnitude of an angle does not depend on the lines by which it is formed, but upon their distance from each other. Flow far soever the lines AB, AC are continued, the angle remains the same. One angle is greater than another when the lines of equal length by which it is formed are more distant. Thus the angle BAL (fig. 223.) is greater than the angle CAB, because the lines AB, AL are more distant from each other or include a greater arc than the lines AC, AB. If the legs of a pair of compasses be a little separated, an angle is formed ; if they be opened wider, the angle becomes greater ; if they be brought nearer, the angle becomes less. Fig. 223. Fig. 224. Fig. 225. GKOM etry. 265 Chap. I. ! 9. If the point of a pair of compasses be applied to the point G (fig- 225.), and a cir- cumference NRB be described, the arc NR contained within the two lines GL, GM will measure the magnitude of the angle LGM. If the arc NR, for example, be an arc of 40 degrees, the angle LGM is an angle of 40 degrees. 0. There are three kinds of angles (fig. 226.): a right angle (I), which is an angle of 90 degrees ; an obtuse angle (II), which contains more than 90 degrees ; and an acute angle i (HI), which contains less than 90 degrees, ji 1. One line is perpendicular to another when the two angles it makes with that other line are equal: thus, the line CD (fig. 227.) is perpendicular to the line AB, if the angles CD A, CDB contain an equal number of degrees. I 2. Two lines are parallel when all perpendiculars drawn from one to the other are equal ; thus, the lines FG, AB (fig. 228.) are pa- rallel, if all the perpendiculars cd, cd , &c. are equal. 1 3. A triangle is a surface enclosed by three j right lines, called sides (fig. 229.). An equilateral triangle (I) is that which has three sides equal ; an isosceles triangle has only two of its sides equal (II) ; a scalene triangle (III) has its three sides unequal. 1. A quadrilateral figure is a surface enclosed by four right lines, which are called its sides. >. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral figure, which has its opposite sides parallel ; thus. F d d id d d d (Id A c c c a c c c c b Fid. 229. . Fig. 230. if the side BC (fig. 230.) is parallel to the side AD, and the side AB to the side DC, the quadrilateral figure ABCD is called a parallelogram. A rectangle is a quadrilateral figure all the angles whereof are right angles, as ABCD (fig. 231.). |. A square is a quadrilateral figure whose sides are i all equal and its angles right angles (fig. 232.). . A trapezium is any quadrilateral figure not. a Fig. 231. Fig. 232. i parallelogram. . Those figures are equal which enclose an equal space; thus, a circle and a triangle are equal, if the space included within the circumference of the ! circle be equal to that contained in the triangle. Those figures are identical which arc equal in all their parts ; that is, which have all their angles equal and their sides equal, and enclose equal spaces, as BAC, EDG (fig. 233. ). It is manifest that two figures are identical which, being placed I one upon the other, perfectly coincide, for in that case they must be equal in all their parts. It must be ob- i served, that a line merely so expressed always denotes a right I line. Axiom. Two right lines cannot enclose a space; that category requires at least three Ip. U g necessary (Dcfin. 5.) to form the circle BCDFGLB, when i revolving the point 15 is upon the point C, the whole line .' must be upon the line AC; otherwise two right lines would e osc n space, which is impossible: wherefore the radius AC is j d to the radius A B. In like manner it may be proved that • rad:: AB, A F, AG, Ac. are all equal to A 15, and arc there- •' equal among themselves. <■ Prop. 11. On a given line to describe an equilateral tri- THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 266 Eet AB (fig. 2:5 ). ) be the given line upon which it is required to describe a triangl* Fig. l l7»b whose three sides shall be equal. From the point A, with the radius AB, describe the cir- cumference BCD, and from the point B, with the radius BA, de- scribe the circumference ACF; and from the point C, where these two circumferences cut each other, draw the two right lines CA, CB. Then ACB is an equilateral triangle. For the line AC is equal to the line AB, because these two lines are radii of the same circle BCD ; and the line BC is equal to the line AB, because these two lines (Prop. 1.) are radii of the same circle ACF. Wherefore the lines AC and BC, being each equal to the line AB, are equal to one another, and all the three sides of the triangle ACB are equal; that is, the triangle is equilateral. 878. Prop. III. Triangles which have two sides and the angle subtended or contained b’j them equal are identical. In the two triangles BAC, FDG (fig. 236.), if the side DF be equal to the side AB, and the side DG equal to the side AC, and also the angle at D equal to the angle at A, the two triangles are identical. Suppose the triangle FDG placed upon the triangle BAC in such manner that the side DF fall exactly upon the side equal to it, AB. Since the angle D is equal to the angle A, the side DG must fall upon the side equal to it, AC; also the point F will be found upon the point B, and the point G upon the point C: consequently the line FG must fall wholly upon the line BC, otherwise two right lines would enclose a space, which is im- possible. Wherefore the three sides of the triangle FDG coincide Fig. 23& in all points with the three sides of the triangle BAC, and the two triangles have their sides and angles equal, and enclose an equal space ; that is (Defin. 20.), they are identical. 879. Prop. IV. In an isosceles triangle the angles at the base are equal. Let the triangle BAC (fig. 287.) have its sides AB, AC equal, the angles B and C at the base are also equal. Conceive the angle A to be bisected by the right line AD. In the triangles BAD, DAC the sides AB, AC are, by sup- position, equal ; the side AD is common to the two triangles, and the angles at A are supposed equal. These two triangles, therefore, have two sides, and the angle contained by them equal. Hence, they are identical (Prop. 3), or have all their parts equal : whence the angles B and C must be equal. 880. Prop. V. Triangles which have their three sides equal are identical. In the two triangles ACB, FDG (fig. 238.), let the side AC be equal to the side FD, the side CB equal to the side DG, and the side AB to the side FG; these two triangles are identical. Let the two triangles be so joined that the side FG shall coincide with the side AB (fig. 239.), and draw the right line CD. Since in the triangle CAD the side AC is equal to the side AD, Fig. 238. Fig. 239. the triangle is isoceles ; whence (Defin. 13.) the angles m and n at the base are equal. Since in the triangle CBD the side BC is equal to the side BD, the triangle is iso. sceles; whence (Detin. 13.) the angles r and s at the base are equal. Because the angle m is equal to the angle n, and the angle r equal to the angle s, the whole angle C is equal to the whole angle D. Lastly, because in the two triangles ACB, ADB the side AC is equal to the side AD and the side CB equal to the side DB, also the angle C equal to the angle D, these two triangles have two sides, and the contained angle equal, and are therefore (Prop. 3.) identical. 881. Prop. VI. To divide a right, line into two equal parts. Let the right line which it is required to divide into two equal parts be AB (fig. 240.). Upon AB draw (Prop. 2.) the equi- lateral triangle ADB, and on the other side of the same line Fig. 2)0. ,?. I. GEOMETRY. 267 draw the equilateral triangle AFB, draw also the right line DF; AC is equal to 1 the two larger triangles DAF, DBF the sides DA, DB are equal, because they the sides of an equilateral triangle; the sides AF, BF are equal for the same reason ; the side DF is common to the two triangles. These two triangles, then, have their sides d, and consequently (Prop. 5.) are identical, or have all their parts equal; where- the two angles at D are equal. .gain, in the two smaller triangles ADC, CDB the side DA is made equal to the DB, and the side DC is common to the two triangles; also the two angles at D are d Thus these two triangles have two sides and the contained angle equal ; they are efore (Prop. :l.) identical, and AC is equal to CB ; that is, AB is bisected. 32. Puor. VII. From a yiven point out of a right line to draw a perpendicular to that ,et C (Jig. 241.) be the point from which it is required lo draw a perpendicular to the it line A B. rom the point C describe an arc of a circle which shall cut line AB in two points F and G. Ihen bisect the line FG, to D, the point of division, draw the line CD : this line is icndicular to the line AB. Draw the lines CF, CG. t the triangles FCD, DCG the sides CF, CG are equal, be- lt- (Prop. 1.) they are radii of the same circle; the sides FD are equal, because FG is bisected; and the side CD is com- These two triangles, then, having the three sides equal, are identical ( Prop. 5.). L'nce ( Defin. 20.) the angle CDA is equal to the angle CDB, and consequently (Defin. the line CD is perpendicular to the line AB. 33. Prop. \ III. From a given point in a right line to raise a perpendicular upoji that rom the point C (Jig. 242.), let it be required to raise a perpendicular upon the right AB. l AB take at pleasure CF equal to CG ; upon the line I’G ribe an equilateral triangle l’DG, and draw the line CD; this will be perpendicular to AB. i the triangles FDC, CDG the sides DF, DG are equal, be- :e they are the sides of an equilateral triangle; the sides FC, are equal by construction ; and the side DC is common, se two triangles, then, having the three sides equal, are (Prop, identical. Therefore (Defin. 20.) the angle DCA is equal to the angle DCB, and •equently (Defin. II.) the line CD is perpendicular to the line AB. -•I. Prop. IX. The diameter of a circle divides the circumference into two ei/uo right angles. J j rom the point C as a centre describe at pleasure a circum- nce NGLMN. he line NCL. being a diameter, divides the circumference ‘p. 0 ) into two equal parts. The arc NGL is therefore the circumference, which contains ( Defin. 0. ) 180, or twice 90 degrees. Therefore angles 1)CF, A CF, which, taken together, are measured by the arc NGL, arc twice grees that is ( Defin. 10.), are equal to two right angles. •'i. l’anr. XL rl line drawn prrpendicularlg to another right line makes right .inghs Ft*. M4. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 268 If the line Cl) (fiy. 245.) be perpendicular to the line AB, the angle CDA is a rigtr angle, and also the angle CDB. For the line CD, meeting the line AB, forms with it two angles, which are together (Prop. 10. ) equal to two right angles ; and these two angles are equal, because CD is perpendicular to AB. Wherefore each angle is a right angle. 887. Prop. XII. If two lines cut each other , the vertical or opposite angles are equal. Let the lines AD, BE, (fiy. -'46.) cut eacli oilier at the point C; the angles ACB, PCD, which are called vertical or opposite angles, are equal. From the point C, as a centre, describe at pleasure a circumference NGLMN. Since the line NCL is a diameter, the arc NGL is (Prop. 9.) half the circumference: therefore the arcs NGL, GLiVI are equal. From these two arcs take away the common part GL, there will remain the arc NG equal to the arc LM. Consequently the angles ACB, FCD, which are measured by these two arcs, are also equal. 888. Prop. XIII. If a line he perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, it is also per- pendicular to the other. Let AB, CD (fig. 247.) be two parallel lines- if the line FG makes right angles with CD, it will also make right angles with AB. Take at pleasure GC equal to GD ; at the points C and D raise the perpendiculars CA, DB, and draw the lines GA, GB. In the two triangles ACG, BDG, because the line AB is pa- rallel to the line CD, the perpendiculars CA, DB are necessarily equal, as appears from the definition of parallel lines ( Defin. 12.); the lines CG, DG are equal by construction; and the angles C and D are right angles. The two triangles ACG, BDG have then two sides and the contained angle equal, they are therefore ( Prop. 8. ) identical. Whence the side G A is equal to the side GB, and the angle m equal to the angle h. Again, in the triangles AGF, FGB the side GA is equal to the side GB, as has been proved, and the side GF is common. Moreover, the angle r is equal to the angle s; lor if from the two right angles FGC, FGD be taken away the equal angles m and n, there will remain the equal angles r and s. The triangles AGF, FGB have then two sides and the contained angle equal; they are therefore (Prop. 3.) identical. Wherefore the angles GFA, GFB are equal, and consequently are right angles. 889. Prop. XIV. Tf one line he perpendicular to two other lines, these two lines are parallel. Let the line FG (fig. 248.) make right angles with the lines AB and CD ; these two lines are parallel. If the line AB be not parallel to the line CD, another line, as NH, may be drawn through the point F, parallel to the line CD. But this is impossible; for if the line NH were parallel to the line CD, the line FG making right angles with CD would also (Prop. 13.) make right angles with Nil; which cannot be, because, by supposition, it makes right angles with AB. 890. Prop. XV. The opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel. (1 . - c In the rectangle ABCD (fig. 249.) the side BC is parallel to — — the side AI), and the side AB parallel to the side DC. Produce each of the sides both ways. The line AB is perpendicular to the two lines BC, AD; the two lines BC, AD are therefore (Prop. 14.) parallel. In like manner, the line AD is perpendicular to the two lines AB, DC; the two lines AB, DC are therefore (Prop. 14.) parallel. A j 891. Prop. XVI. The opposite sides of a rectangle are equal. Fig. 219 . In the rectangle ABCD (see fig. 249.) the side AB is equal to the side DC, and the side BC equal to the side AD. For, since the side BC is parallel to the side AD, the perpendiculars AB, DC are (Defin. 12.) equal; and since the side AB is parallel to the side DC, the perpendiculars BC, AD are equal. 892. Prop. XVII. A right line falling upon parallel lines makes the alternate angles equal. Let the line FG (fig. 250.) cut the parallels AB, GD; the angles AFG, FGD, which are called alternate angles, are equal. From the point G draw GL perpendicular to the line AB, and from the point F draw FM perpendicular to the line GD. Since the line GL is perpendicular to AB, it is also (Prop. 13.) perpendicular to the A F li a l> n Fig. 245. Fig. 216 . P p. I. GEOMETRY. 2(19 dlel line GD Whence the quadrilateral figure GLF!\I is a rectangle, its four angles lg right angles. n the triangles GEE, FMG the sides LF, G1I are equal, because they are opposite !s of the same rectangle; the sides LG, [ are equal for the same reason ; and the : FG is common. The two triangles ,F, FMG have then the three sides equal, consequently (Prop. 5.) are identical, erefore the angle LFG opposite to the : LG is equal to the angle FGM oppo- to the side FM. lemark. In identical triangles the equal Fig. 250. Fig. 251. les are always opposite to equal sides, as by this proposition appears. 93. Prop. XVIII. If one right line falling upon two others makes the alternate angles il, these two lines are parallel. ,et the alternate angles AFG, FGD {Jig. 251.) he equal; the lines AB, GD are illel. f the line AB is not parallel to the line GD, another line, as NH, may he drawn nigh the point F parallel to GD. But this is impossible; for if the line NH were illel to the line GD, the angle FGD would be (Prop. 17.) equal to the angle NFG, e these two angles would he alternate angles between two illel lines; which cannot be, because, by supposition, the angle D is equal to the angle AFG. 34. Prop. XIX. If one right line falls upon two parallel right , it makes the interior angle equal to the exterior. et the line FG {Jig. 252.) meet the parallel lines BA, DC, interior argle r is equal to the exterior angle 2 . Produce lines BA, DC. 'he angle r (Prop. 17.) is equal to the angle s, because these alternate angles, made by a right line falling upon two illel lines, and the angles s and 2 are (Prop. 12.) equal, be- ie they are vertical or opposite angles ; therefore the angle r is equal to the angle 2 . 9.5. Prop. XX. If one right line falling upon two other right lines makes the internal e equal to the external, those two lines are parallel. et the internal angle r {Jig. 2.53.) be equal to the external e 2 , the lines BA, DC are parallel. he angle r is equal to the angle 2 by supposition, and the e 2 . (Prop. 12.) is equal to the angle s, because they are isite angles. The alternate angles r, s are therefore equal, consequently (Prop. 18.) the lines BA, DC are parallel. Mi. Prop. XXL Through a given point to draw a line parallel given line. et G be the point through which it is required to draw a line llel to the given line M F. rom any point G ( Jig. 2.54.) describe, at pleasure, the arc FN ; from the point F, in •h the arc I'N cuts the line M F. with the distance GF describe the arc GM meeting line MF in M; then make FL .. .. d to GM, and draw the line GL; line is parallel to the line M F. •raw the line G F. he arcs GM I f. arc equal by tmction ; therefore the alternate es r, », which arc measured by e area (Defin. 9.), arc equal; and cquently (Prop. 18.) the lines . M F are parallel. Prop. XXII. The three angles of a triangle taken together arc equal to two right Fig. 252. Fig. 255. 1 the triangle BA( {Jig. 25.5.), the three angles B, A, C are together equal to two right lea. roduce the side BC both ways; through the point A draw a line FG parallel to BC; from the point A, as a centre, describe any circumference LMN. lie angle II ( Prop. 17.) is equal to the angle x, because these are alternate angles made 1 right line filling upon two pnrnllcl lines. For the same reason the angle C is equal lie angle y. '"came LAN is a diameter, the arc LMN is half the circumference; therefore the e angles x, A, y, which are measured by this arc, are together equal to two right angle* 270 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1. Fig. 2o7 Rut tlio angle x is equal to the alternate angle B, anil the angle y to the alternate angle C. Therefore, substituting B for x, and C for y, the three angles B, A, C are together equal to two right angles. Corollary. Hence, if two angles of any triangle be known, the third is also found; since the third angle is that which the other two taken together want of two right angles. 898. Prop. XXIII. If two triangles have two angles equal, they have also the third angle equal. In the two triangles BAC, FDG ( Jig . 256.), if the angle B is equal to the angle F, and the angle A equal to the angle D, the angle C will also be equal to the angle G. Since the angle C (Corol. to Prop. 22.) is that which the angles B and A together want of two right angles; and since the angle G is that which F and D together want of two right angles ; the angles B and A being equal to the angles F and D, the angle C must be equal to the angle G. 899. Prop. XXIV. The exterior angle of any triangle is equal to the two interior and opposite angles taken together. In the triangle BAC (.fig. 257.) produce one of the sides BC ; the angle A CD, which is called exterior, is equal to the two interior and opposite angles B and A taken together. The line AC meeting the line BD forms with it two angles, which are together ( Prop. 10.) equal to two right angles; the angle ACB is therefore that which the angle ACD wants of two right angles. But the angle ACB is (Corol. to Prop. 22.) also that which the angles B and A together want of two right angles. Wherefore the angle ACD is equal to the two angles B and A taken together. 900. Prop. XXV. Triangles which have two angles and the side which lies between them equal are identical. In the two triangles BAC, FDG (fig. 258.), if the angle F is equal to the angle B, the angle G equal to the angle C, and the side FG equal to the side 15C, these two triangles are identical. Conceive the triangle FDG placed upon the triangle BAC in such a manner that the side FG shall fall exactly upon the equal side BC. Since the angle F is equal to the angle B, the side FD must fall upon the side BA ; and since the angle G is equal to the angle C, the side GD must fall upon the side CA. Thus the three sides of the triangle FDG will be exactly placed upon the three sides of the triangle BAC; and consequently the two tri- angles (Prop. 5.) are identical. 901. Prop. XXVI. If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides opposite to angles are also equal. A Conceive the angle A (fig. 259. ) to be bisected by the line AD. In the triangles BAD, DAC the angle B is equal to the angle C by supposition, and the angles at A are also equal. These two triangles have their two angles equal ; the third angle will therefore (Prop. 23.) be equal ; whence the angles at D are equal. Moreover, the side AD is common to the two triangles. These two triangles, therefore, having two angles and the sid which lies between them equal, are (Prop. 25.) identical, to the side AC. 902. Prop. XXVII. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal. In the parallelogram A BCD (fig. 260.), the side AB is equal to the side DC, and the side BC equal to the side AD. Draw the line B D, which is called the diagonal. Because BC is parallel to AD, the alternate angles m and n are equal. In like manner, because AB is parallel to DC, the alternate angles r and s are equal. Also, the side BD is common to the two triangles BAD, BCD. These two triangles have then two angles and the side which lies between them equal, and are therefore ( Prop. 3. ) identical. Wherefore the side A B op- posite to the angle n is (Prop. 26.) equal to the side DC opposite to the angle m ; and the side BC opposite to the angles is equal to the side AD opposite to the equal anale r those D Fig. SW9. Wherefore the side AB is equal Chap. I. GEOMETRY. 271 Corollary. Hence, the diagonal bisects the parallelogram; for the triangles BAD, BCD, having the three sides equal, are identical. 903. Prop. XXVIII. Parallelograms which are between the same parallels, and have the same base, are equal. Let the two parallelograms ABCD, AFGD {fig. 261.), be between the same parallels BG, AM, and upon the same base AD; the space enclosed within the parallelogram ABCD is equal to the space en- closed within the parallelogram AFGD. In the two triangles BAF, CDG the side BA of the former triangle is equal to the side CD of the latter, because they are opposite sides of the same parallelogram. For the same reason, the side FA is equal to the side GD. Moreover, BC is equal to AD, because they are opposite sides of the same parallelogram. For the same reason, AD is equal to FG. BC is therefore equal to FG. If to both these CF be added, BF will be equal to CG. Whence the two triangles BAF, CDG, having the three sides equal, are (Prop. 5.) identical, and con- sequently have equal surfaces. If from these two equal surfaces be taken the small triangle CL F, which is common, there will remain the trapezium ABCL, equal to the trapezium LFGD. To these two trapezia add the triangle ALD, and the parallelogram ABCD will be equal to the paral- lelogram AFGD. 904. Prop. XXIX. If a triangle and a parallelogram are upon the same base, and between the same parallels, the triangle is equal to half the paral- lelogram. Let the parallelogram ABCD {fig. 262.) and the triangle A FD be upon the same base A D, and between the same pa- rallels BG, AL; the triangle Al’D is half the parallelogram ABCD. Draw DG parallel to AF. Because the parallelogram AFGD is bisected by the diagonal FD (Prop. 27. Corol.), the triangle AFD is half the paral- lelogram AFGD. But the parallelogram AFGD is equal to the parallelogram ABCD, because these two parallelograms are upon the same base, and between the same parallels; therefore the triangle AFD is equal to half the parallelogram ABCD. 905. Prop. XXX. Parallelograms which are between the same parallels, and have equal bases, are equal. Let the two parallelograms ABCD, LFGM {fig. 263.) be between the same parallels BG, AM, and have the equal bases AD, LM ; these two parallelograms are equal. Draw the lines AF, DG. Because AD is equal to LM, and LM to FG, AD is equal to FG; and they are parallel by construction. Also AF and DG are parallel; for if DG be not parallel to AF, another line may be drawn parallel to it; whence FG will become greater or less than AD. AF and DG are therefore parallel, and AFGD a parallelo- gram. Now the parallelogram ABCD is (Prop. 28.) equal to the parallelogram AFGD, because these two parallelograms are between the same parallels, and have the same base AD. And the parallelogram AFGD is equal to the parallelogram LFGM, because these two parallelograms are between the same parallels, and have the same base FG. The parallelogram ABCD is therefore equal to the parallelogram LFGM. 906. Prop. XXXI. Triangles which arc between the same parallels, and have equal bases, are equal. Let the two triangles ABD, LFM (see fig. to preceding Proposition) be between the same >arallels BG, AM, and upon the equal bases AI), LM ; these two triangles are equal. Draw DC parallel to All, and MG parallel to LF. The two parallelograms ABCD, LFGM are equal (Prop. 30.), because they are between he same parallels, and have equal bases. But the triangle A 151) is (Prop. 29.) one half of he parallelogram ABCD, and the triangle LFM is one half of the parallelogram LFGM ; hese two triangles are therefore equal. 907. I’aop. XXXII. In aright-angled triangle, the square of the hgpntenuse, or side •intending the right angle, is equal to the squares of the sides which contain the right ingle. In the triangle BAC (fig. 264.), let the angle A be a right angle. Upon the hypo- inuse BC describe the square BDFC; upon the side All describe the square AI.MB, ml upon the side AC the squnre ARNC; the square BDFC is equal to the two squares VLMB. ARNC taken together. '! C F o A O L M Fig. 2G3. 272 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book [L Draw the right lines MC, AD, and draw AG parallel to BD. Because the square or parallelogram MLAB and the triangle MCB are between the same parallels LC, MB, and nave the same base MB, the triangle MCB is (Prop. 29.) equal to hall the square ALMB. Again, because the rectangle or parallelogram DGPB and the triangle DAB are between the same parallels GA and DB, and have the same base DB, the triangle DAB is (Prop. 29.) equal to half the rectangle DGBP. Further, since the side MB of the triangle MBC and the side AB of the triangle ABD are sides of the same square, they are (Defin. 17.) equal. Also, since the side BC of the first triangle and the side BD of the second triangle are sides of the same square, they are equal. And because the angle MBC of the first triangle is composed of a right angle and the angle x, and the angle ABD of the second triangle is composed of a right angle and the same angle x, therefore these two angles, contained between the equal sides MB, BC and AB, BD, are equal. Wherefore the two triangles MBC, ABD, having two sides and the contained angle equal, are (Prop. 3.) identical, and consequently equal. But the triangle MBC is half the square MLAB, and the triangle ABD is half the rectangle BDGP ; the square and the rectangle are therefore equal. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the square ARNC and the rectangle CFGP are equal. Wherefore it follows that the whole square BDF'C is equal to the two squares MLAB, ARNC taken together. 1 , CIRCLES. 908. Definitions. — 1. A right line (Jig. Prop. 33. A B) terminated both ways by the circumference of a circle is called a chord. 2. A line (fig. Prop. 39. AB) which meets the circumference in one point only is called a tangent ; and the point T is called the point of contact. 3. An angle (Jig. Prop. 33. ABD) which has its vertex in the circumference of a circle is called an angle in the circle. 4. A part of a circle confined between two radii ( fig. Prop. 34. A CBF A) is called a sector. 5. A part of a circle (Jig. Prop. 35. AGBDA) terminated by a chord is called a segment of a circle. 909. Prop. XXXIII. To draw the circumference of a circle through three given points. Let there be three given points, A, B, D (fg. 265.), through which it is required to draw the circumference of a circle. Draw the right lines AB, BD, and bisect them : from the points of the division F, G, raise the perpendiculars BC, GC ; and at the point C with the radius CA describe the circumference of a circle; this circumference will pass through the points B and D. Draw the lines CA, CB, CD. In the triangles CFA, CFB the side F'A is equal to the side FB hv construction, the side FC is common, and the two angles at F are right angles. These two triangles, then, have two sides and the angle contained by them equal ; they are therefore (Prop. 3.) identical. Consequently the side CB is equal to the side CA. For the same reason, the triangles CGB, CGD are also identical. Wherefore the side CD is equal to the side CB, and consequently equal to CA. And since the right lines CB, CD are equal to the right line CA, it is manifest (Prop. I.) that the circumference which passes through the point A must also pass through the Doint D. 910. Prop. XXXIV. If a radius bisect a chord, it is perpendicular to that chord. If the radius CF (fig. 2 66.) bisect the chord AB, the angles JDA, CDB are right angles. Draw the radii CA, CB. In the triangles CDA, CDB the sides CA, CB, being radii, are equal (Prop. 1.), the sides AD, DB are equal by supposition, and the side CD is common. These two triangles, having the three sides equal, are therefore (Prop. 5.) identical. Wherefore the angles CDA, CDB are equal, and consequently (Prop. 10.) are right angles. Corollary. The two angles at C are also (Prop. 5.) equal. Hence it appears, that any angle ACB may be bisected by describing from its vertex C as the centre with any radius A Can arc AFB ; bisect- ing the chord of that arc AB; and then drawing from the point of division D the right line CD ; for it may then be shown, as in the proposition, that the triangles A CD, DCB are identical, and consequently the angles at C equal. Chap I GEOMETRY. 273 Fir. 268. Fig. 2G9. 911. P hoi'. XXXV. To find the centre of a circle. Let the circle of which it is required to find the centre be AGBF. Draw any chord AH /iff. 267.) ; bisect it, and from the point of divi- u ion D raise a perpendicular EG : this line will iass through the centre, and consequently, if it ic bisected, the point of division will be the entre. If the centre of the circle be not in the line FG, it must be somewhere out of it ; for in- tance, at the point L. But this is impossible, or if the point L were the centre, the right line .11 would be a radius ; and since this line bisects he chord AB, it is (Prop. 34.) perpendicular to AB ; which cannot be, since CD is per- ,endicular to AB. 912. Prop. XXXVI. To find the centre of an arc of a circle. I,ct ABDF be the arc of which it is required to find the centre. Draw any two chords \B, DF {fig. 268); bisect them, and from the points of division raise the perpendiculars >IC, LC ; the point C, in which these two perpendiculars cut each other, is the centre f the arc. For (Prop. 35.) the perpendicular MC and the perpendicular LC both pass through he centre of the same circle ; this centre must therefore be the point C, which is the only mint common to the two perpendiculars. 913. Prop. XXXVII. If three equal lines meet in the same point within a circle, and are trminated, they are radii of that circle. The lines CA, CB, CD ( fig. 269.), drawn from the same point within a circle, and terminated by it, being equal, the point C i the centre of the circle. Draw the lines AB, BD; bisect them, nd let the points of division be F, G ; and draw the lines CF, :g. In the triangles CFA, CFB, the sides CA, CB are equal by opposition, the sides F’A, FB are equal by construction, and ic side CF is common. These two triangles, then, have the iree sides equal ; they are therefore (Prop. 5.) identical. Wherefore the two angles at ’ are equal, and the line FC (Defin. 11.) is perpendicular to the chord AB. And since ns perpendicular bisects the chord AB, it must (Prop. 35.) pass through the centre of the rcle. In like manner, it may be demonstrated that the line GC also passes through the ‘litre. AVhereforc the point C is the centre of the circle, and CA, CB, CD are radii. 914. Prop. XXXVIII. If the radius of a circle be perpendicular to a chord, the radius sects both the chord and the arc of the chord. Let the radius CF be perpendicular to the chord AB {fig. 270.) ; the right line AD is |ual to the right line 1)15, and the arc AF equal to the arc FB. >raw the right lines CA, CB. In the large triangle ACB, the side CA (Prop. 1.) is equal to ie side CB, because they are radii of the same circle. The angle is (Prop. 4.) therefore equal to the angle B. The angles at Dare gilt angles, and therefore equal ; and the angles at C are conse- icntly (Prop. 23.) equal. Also the side CA is equal to the side B, and the side CD is common. These two triangles, then, having o sides and the angle contained by them equal, are (Prop. 3.) Fir. 270. entical, whence the side Al) is equal to the side DB. Again, since the angles ACF, CF are equal, the arcs AB, BF, which measure these angles, are also equal. The chord 15 and the are A FB are therefore bisected by the radius CF. 915. Prop. XXXIX. A right line perpendicular to the extremity of a radius is a tangent the circle. Let the line AI5 (fig. 271.) pass through the extremity of the lius CT in such a manner that the angles CTA, CTB shall be ght angles ; this line A 15 touches the circumference in only one unt 'I'. If AB touch the circumference in any other point, let be I), and draw the line CD. In the right-angled triangle CTI) the square of the hypothe- se Cl) is equal to the two squares of CT and TD taken together, ie square of Cl) is therefore greater than the square of CT, and iscquently the line Cl) is greater than the line CT, which is a lius. Therefore the point 1) is out of the circumference. And in like manner it maybe own that every point in the line A 15 is out of the circumference, except T; AI5 is there - e a tangent to the circle. Corollary. It follows, therefore, that a perpendicular is the shortest line that can be T FIr. 271. 274 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook IT T |) drawn from any point to a given line ; since the perpendicular CT is shorter than any other line which can he drawn from the point C to the line AH. 9! 6. Piioi*. XI.. If a right line be drawn touching a circumference, a radius'/draivn to the point of contact will be perpendicular to the tangent. Let the line AB (.fig- 272.) touch the circumference of a circle A in a point T, the radius CT is perpendicular to the tangent AH. For all other lines drawn from the point C to the line AH must pass out of the circle to arrive at this line. The line CT is there- fore the shortest which can be drawn from the point C to the line AH, and consequently (Corol. to Prop. 39.) is perpendicular to the line AH. 917. Prop. XL I. The angle formed by a tangent and chord is measured by half the arc of that chord. Let BTA (fig. 273.) be a tangent and TD a chord drawn from the point of contact T; the angle ATD is measured by half the arc TFD, and the angle BTD is measured by half the arc TGD. Draw the radius CT to the point of contact, and the radius CF perpendicular to the chord TD. The radius CF' being perpendicular to the chord TD (Prop. 38.) bisects the arc TFD. TF is therefore half the arc TFD. In the triangle CML the angle M being a right angle, the two remaining angles are (Prop. 22.) equal to a right angle. Where- fore the angle C is that which the angle L wants of a right angle. On the other side, since the radius CT is perpendicular to the tan- gent HA, the angle ATD is also that which the angle L wants of a right angle. The angle A TD is therefore equal to the angle C. But the angle C is measured by the arc TF, consequently the angle A TD is also measured by the arc TF, which is half of TF'D. The angle BTD must therefore be measured by half the arc 1 CD since these two halves of arcs make up half the circumference. b 918. Prop. XLII. An angle at the circumference if a circle is measured by half the arc by which it is subtended. Let CTD {fig. 274.) be the angle at the circumference; it has for its measure half the arc CF'D by which it is sub- tended. Suppose a tangent passing through the point T. The three angles at T are measured by half the circumference (Prop. 22.), but the angle ATD is measured (Prop. 41.) by half the arc TD, and the angle BTC by half the arc TC; conse- quently the angle CTD must be measured by half the arc CF'D, since these three halves o arcs make up half the circumference. 919. Prop. XL11L The angle at the centre of a circle is double of the angle at the rir cumference. Let the angle at the circumference ADR (fig. 27 5.) and the angle at the centre ACH be both subtended by the same arc AB, the angle ACB is d mble of the angle ADB. For the angle ACB is measured by the arc AB, and the angle ADB is (Prop. 42. ) measured by half the same arc AB ; the angle AC B is therefore double of the angle ADB. 920. Prop. XLIV. Upon a given line, to describe a segment gf a circle containing a given angle. Let AH (fig. 276.) be the given line and G the given angle, it is required to draw sari a circumference of a circle through the points A and B that the angle D shall be equal l the angle G For this purpose draw the lines AL, BL in such manner that the angles A and B shall be equal to the angle G : at the extremities of LA, LB raise the perpendiculars AC, BC; and from the point C in which these two perpendiculars cut each other, with the radius CA or CB describe the circum- ference ADB; the angle D will be equal to the angle G. The angle LAB, formed by the tangent AL and the chord AB, is (Prop. 41.) measured by half the arc AFB ; and the angle D at the circumference is also measured (Prop. 42. ) by half the arc AFB ; the angle D is therefore equal to the angle LAB. But the angle-LAB is made equal to the angle G to the angle G. 921. Prop. XLV. In every triangle the greater side is opposite to the greater angle, an the greater angle to the greater side. In the triangle ABC (Jig . 277.), if the side AH be greater than the side AC, tie an/; Fir. 27fi. the angle D is therefore equ Chav. I. GEOMETRY. 275 C opposite to the side A 15 will be greater than the angle 15 opposite to the side AC. Draw the circumference of a circle through the three points A, C, B. Since the chord AB is greater than the chord AC, it is manifest that the arc AD 15 is greater than the arc AFC; and consequently the angle at the circumference C, which is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc AD 15, is greater than the angle at the circumference B, which is measured by half the arc AFC. Again, if the angle C is greater than the angle B, the side A B opposite to the angle C will be greater than the side AC opposite to the angle 15. The angle C is measured (Prop. 41?.) by half the arc A 1)15, and the angle 15 by half the arc A FC. But the angle C is greater than the angle 15 ; the arc A 1) 15 is therefore greater than the arc AFC, and consequently the chord A 15 is greater than the chord AC. 9th?. Prof. XLVI. Two parallel chords intercept equal urcs. If the two chords AB, CD {Jig- 278.) are parallel, the arcs AC, BD are equal. Draw the right line BC. because the lines AB, CD are parallel, the alternate angles ABC, BCD are (Prop. 17.) equal. But the angle at the circumference BCD is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc AC ; and the angle at the circumference BCD is measured by half the arc BD; the arcs AC, BD are therefore equal. 92.5. Piior. XLVII. If a tangent and chord be parallel to each other, they i/iterci pt equal arcs. Let the tangent FG {Jig- 279.) be parallel to the chord A 15 ; the arc TA will be equal to the arc TB. Draw the right line TA. Because the lines FG, A 15 are parallel, the alternate angles FT A, TAB are (Prop. 17.) equal. But the angle FT A, formed by a tangent and a chord, is measured (Prop. 41.) by half the arc TA, and the angle at the circumference TAB is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc TB. The halves of the arcs TA, TB, and consequently the arcs themselves, are therefore equal. 924. Prop. XL VI 1 1. The angle formed by the intersection of two chords is measured by half the two arcs intercepted by the two chords. Let the two chords AB, DF (fig. 280.) cut each other at the point C, the angle FCB rr A CD is measured by half the two arcs FB, AD. Draw AG parallel to DF. Because the lines AG, DF are parallel, the interior and exterior ingles GAB, FCB are (Prop. 19.) equal. But the angle at the •ireunjfcrence GAB is measured (Prop. 42. ) by half the arc 4 ■ FB. The angle FCB is therefore also measured by half the arc 5 FB. Because the chords AG, DF are parallel, the arcs GF, AD are I Prop. 46.) equal : AD may therefore be substituted in the room Fig. i 80 . ,1 GF’; wherefore the angle FCB is measured by half the arcs AD, FB. 925. Pkop. XLIX. The angle formed by two secants is measured by half the difference of he two intercepted arcs. Let the angle CAB (fig. 281.) be formed by the two secants icasured by half the difference of the two arcs GD, CB, intcr- cpted by the two secants. Draw I)F parallel to AC. Because the lines AC, 1)F are parallel, the interior and exterior ngles CAB, FDB are(Prop. 19.) equal. But the angle FI)B is icasured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc FB ; the angle GAB is lereforc also measured by half the arc FB. Because tl chords GC, DF arc parallel, the arcs GI), CF are Prop. 46.) equal ; the arc F15 is therefore the difference of the rc GI) and the arc Cl’B. Where the angle A has for its mea- ire half the difference of the arcs GI), CFB. 926. Pkop. L. The angle fanned ly two tangents is measured by half the difference of th ■ Vi intercepted arcs. I-et the angle CAB (fig. 282.) be formed by the two tangents AC, AB ; this angle is isttred by half the difference of the two arcs OLD, GFD. Draw DF parallel to AC. Bemuse the lines AC, DF arc parallel, the interior and exterior angles CAB, FDB are Prop. 19.) equal. But the angle FDB, formed by the tangent l)Ii and the chord DF, is “■aiured (Prop. 41.) by half the arc FD. Therefore the angle CAB is also measured by id the arc FL). AC, AB, this angle is A 276 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook !I Becruse the tangent AC and the chord UF are parallel, the inter- cepted ares GF Gl) are (Prop. 47.) equal. The arc FD is there- fore the difference between the arc GLDandthe arc GFD. There- fore the angle CAB, which is mea- sured by half the arc FD, is also / measured by half the difference of the arcs GLD, GFD. Corollary. In the same wiy it may be demonstrated that the angle formed by a tangwu ATC (fig. 283.) and a secant ADB is measured by half the difference of the two inter- cepted arcs. 927. Prop. LI. To raise a perpendicular at the extremity of a given line. At the extremity A {fig. 284.) of the given line All let it be required to raise a per- pendicular. D From any point C taken above the line AB describe a circum- / ference passing through the point A and cutting the line AB in any / other point, as G. Draw the diameter DG and the right line AD; ' this line AD will be perpendicular to the line AB. \ Tlie angle DAG at the circumference is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc DFG, which is half the circumference, because DCG is a diameter. The angle DAG is therefore measured by one fourth fir. 284. part of the circumference, and consequently (Defin. 10.) is a right angle, whence the lim AD is (Prop. 11.) perpendicular to the line AB. Corollary. Hence it follows that the angle at the circumference which is subtendcc by a diameter must be a right angle. 928. Prop. LI I. From any point without a circle to draw a tangent to that circle. From the point A ( fig. 285.) let it be required to, draw a tangent to the circle DTB. Draw from the centre C any right line CA ; bisect this right line, and from the point of division B, as a centre, de- scribe the arc CTA. Lastly, from the point A, and through the point T, in which the two arcs cut each other, draw the right line AT ; this right line AT will be a tangent to the circle DTB. Draw the radius CT. The angle CTA at the circumference, being subtended by the diameter CA, is (Corol. to Prop. 51.) a right angle; therefore the line TA is perpendi eular to the extremity of the radius CT, and consequently (Prop. 40.) is a tangent to tli circle DTB. SURFACES. 929. Definitions. — 1 . A mathematical point has neither length, breadth, nor thiciu«w>| The physical jioint, now for consideration, has a supposed length and breadth exceed ingly small. 2. A physical line is a series of physical points, and consequently its breadth is equal t> that, of the physical points whereof it is composed. 3. Since physical lines are composed of points, as numbers are composed of units, point may be called the units of lines. 4. As to multiply one number by another is to take or repeat the first number as man; times as there are units in the second; so to multiply one line by another is to take o repeat the first line as many times as there are units, that is, physical points, in t'l second. 930. Prop. LI 1 1. The surface of a rectangle is equal to the •product of its two sides. Let the rectangle be ABCD (fig. 286.). If the physical line AB be multiplied by the physical line AD, the pro- duct will be the surface ABCD. If as many physical lines equal to AB as there are physical points in the line AD be raised perpendicularly upon AD, these lines AB, ah, See. will fill up the whole surface of the rectangle ABCD. Wherefore the surface ABCD is equal to the line AB taken as many times as there are physical points in the lir AD ; that is, (Defin. 4.) equal to the line AB multiplied by the line AD. 931 . Prop. LI V. 1 'he surface of a triangle is equal to half the product of its altitude and bast If from the vertex of any angle A (fig. 287.) of the triangle BAC be drawn AD, pei Ii b b h Abb b h h c a a u o l> Fitf. £86. Chat. I. GEOMETRY 277 Fig. 288. pendicalar to the opposite side 15C, this perpendicular is called the height, and the side BC the base of the triangle. Now the surface of the triangle is equal to half the product of the height AD and the base BC'. Produce BC both ways; through the point A draw EG parallel to BC, and raise the two perpendiculars BF, CG. Because the rectangle BFGC and the triangle BAC are , between the same parallels, and have the same bases, the tri- angle is (Prop. 29.) half the rectangle. But the surface of the rectangle is equal (Prop. 53.) to the product of BE and BC. Wherefore the surface of the triangle is equal to half the product of BE and BC, that is, of DA and GC. 932. Pnor. LV. To measure the surface of any rectilineal figure. Let ABCDFA (jig- 288. ) be the rectilineal figure, whereof it is required to find the surface. ; Divide the whole figure into triangles by drawing the lines CA, CF. Then, drawing a perpendicular from the point B to the side CA, multiply these two lines ; the half of their pro- duct will (Prop. 54.) give the surface of the triangle ABC. In the same manner let the surfaces of the remaining triangles b; ACF, FCD be found. These three surfaces added together will give the whole surface of the figure ABCDFA. 9.33. Prof. LVI. The area of a circle is equal to half the pro- j dvd of its radius and circumference. If the radius of the circle C (fig. 289.) be multiplied by its circumference, the half of the product will give the surface of the circle. Two physical points being manifestly not sufficient to make a curve line, this must re- quire at least three. If, therefore, all the physical points of a circumference be taken two by two, these will compose a great number of small right lines. From the extremities L, M of one of these small right lines if two radii LC MC be drawn, a small triangle LCM will be formed, the surface of which will be equal to half the product of its height ; that is, the radius | and its base. To find the surface of all the small triangles whereof the circle is com- posed, multiply the height, that is, the radius, by all the bases, that is, by the circumference, and take the half of the product ; whence the area or j surface of the circle will be equal to half the product of the radius and | circumference. 934. Prop. LVI I. To draw a triangle equal to a given circle. Let it he required to form a triangle the surface of which shall be equal to that of the circle AGEDA (fig. 290.). At the extremity of any ra- dius CA of the circle, raise a perpendicular AB equal to the circumference AG ED, and draw the right line CB. The sur- face of the triangle BCA will be equal to that of the circle | AGEDA. The surface of the circle is equal (Prop. 56.) to half the product of the radius CA and the circumference, or the line AB. The surface of the triangle is also equal (Prop. .54.) to half the product of its height CA, or radius, and its base BA, or circumference. There- fore the surface of the triangle is equal to that of the circle. PROPORTION. 935. Dr ; initions. — 1 . The ratio of one quantity to another is the number of t iir.es which the first contains the second ; thus the ratio of 12 to 3 is four, because 12 contains 3 four times ; or, more universally, ratio is the comparative magnitude of one quan- tity with respect to another. 2. Four quantities are proportional, or in geometrical proportion, or two quantities are said to have the same ratio with two others, when the first contains or is contained in the second, exactly the same number of times which the third contains or is contained in the foui th ; thus, the four numbers 6, 3, 8, 4 are proportionals, because 6 contains 3 us hi ny times as 8 contains 4, and 3 is contained in 6 as many times as 4 is contained in 8, that ix, twice; which is thus expressed : 6 is to 3 as 8 to 4 ; or 3 is to 6 as 4 to 8. 'INI. Prop. LVIII Parallelograms which arc between the same parallels are to one an- ather as their bases. 2T8 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. Let the two parallelograms A BCD, FGLM ( fie/. 291.) be between the same parallels BE, AM, tl ie surface of the parallelogram A BCD eonta.ns the surf.ee of the parallelogram FGLIVI as many times exactly as the base AD contains the b.ise FM. Sup- pose, for example, that tile base AD is triple of the base I’M ; in this case the surface ABCD will also be triple of the surface FGLM. Divide the base AD into three parts, each of which is equal to the base I'M, and draw from the points of divi- Fifj.S'Ji. sion the lines NP, IiS parallel to the side A B. Flic parallelograms ABPN, FGLM being between tbe same parallels and having equal bases, the parallelogram ABPN is (Prop. 30.) equal to the parallelogram FGLM. For the same reason, the parallelograms N’PSIt, 1LSCD are also equal to the parallelogram FGLM. The parallelogram ABCD is therefore composed of three parallelograms, each of which is equal to the parallelogram FGLM. Consequently the parallelogram ABCD is triple of the parallelogram FGLM. 937. Prop. L1X. Triangles which are between the same parallels are to one another as their b ses. Let the two triangles ABC, DFG (Jig. 292.) be between the same parallels LF, AG, the surface of the triangle ABC contains the surface of the triangle DFG as many times as the base AC contains the base DG. Suppose, for example, that the base AC is triple of the base DG, in this case the surface ABC will be triple of the surface DFG. Divide the base AC into three equal parts, AN, NR, RC, each of which is equal to the base DG, and draw the right lines BN, BR. Fte-W*. The triangles ABN, DFG being between the same parallels and having equal bases, the triangle ABN is (Prop. 31.) equal to the triangle DFG. For the same reason, the triangles NBR, IiBC are each equal to the triangle DFG. The triangle ABC is there- fore composed of three triangles, each of which is equal to the triangle DI G. Wherefore the triangle ABC is triple of the triangle DFG. 938. Phot. LX. If a line be drawn in a triangle parallel to one of its sides, it will cut the other two sides proportionally. In the triangle BAC (fig. 293.), if the line DF be parallel to the side BC, it will cut the other two sides in such manner that the segment A 1) will be to the a segment I)B as the segmentAF is to the segment FC. Suppose, for instance, the segment AI) to be triple of the segment I)B, the seg- ment AF will be triple of the segment FC. Draw the diagonals DC, FB. The triangles AFD, DFB are between the same parallels, as will be easily conceived by supposing a line drawn through the point F parallel to the side AB. Th ese two triangles are therefore to one another (Prop. 59.) as their bases; and since the base AD is triple of the base DB, the triangle AFD will be triple of the triangle DFB. _ Again, the triangles BFD, I'DC are between the same parallels DF, BC, and upon the same base I)F. 1 liese two triangles are therefore (Prop. 31.) equal ; and since the triangle AFD is triple of the triangle DFB, it will also be triple of the triangle FDC. Lastly, the triangles ADF, FDC are between the same parallels, as will be easily con- ceived by supposing a line drawn through the point D parallel to the side AC. These two triangles are therefore to one another (Prop. 59.) as their bases; and since the triangle ADF is triple of the triangle FDC, the base AF will be triple of the base FC. 939. Prop. LX I. Equiangular triangles have~their homologous sides proportional. In the two triangles ABC, CDF (fig. 294.), if the angle A be G equal to the angle C, the angle B equal to the angle I), and the angle C equal to the angle F; the side AC, for example, opposite to the angle B is to the side CF opposite to the angle D as the side AI5 opposite to the angle C is to the side CD opposite to the angle F. Place the two triangles so that the sides AC, CF shall form one right line, and produce the sides AB, I'D till they meet in G. The interior and exterior angles GAF, DCF being equal, the lines GA, DC are (Prop. 20.) parallel. In like manner, the alter- nate angies GFA, liCA on the same sides being equal, the lines GF, BC are (Prop. 20.) parallel. Wherefore the quadrilateral figure BG 1)C is a parallelogram, and consequently its opposite sides are equal. In the triangle GAF the line BC, being parallel to the side 'hap. I. GEOMETRY. 279 7 G, cuts (Prop. 60.) the other two sides proportionally; that is, AC is to CF as AB is o BG, or its equal CD. 940. Prop. LX II. Triangles the sides of which are proportional are equiangular. In the two triangles BAC, FDG (fig- 295.), if the ide All is to the side DF as the side 11C is to the side G and as the side AC to the side DG, these two tri- ngles have their angles equal. Let the side A II be supposed triple of the side DF ; he side AC must be triple of the side DG, and the side ,3C triple of the side FG. If the triangle FDG be not equiangular with the tri- angle I1AC, another triangle may be formed equiangular ritli it; for example, FLG. But this is impossible; or if the two triangles IIAC, FLG were equiangular, their sides -would be (Prop. 61.) uoportional ; and BC being triple of FG, AB would be triple of LF. But AB is triple >f DF; whence LF would be equal to DF. For the same reason, LG would be equal o DG. Thus, the two triangles FLG, FDG, having their three sides equal, would be Prop. 5.) identical; which is absurd, since their angles are unequal. 941. Prop. LX II I. Triangles which have an angle in one equal to an angle in the other, aid the sides about these angles proportional, are equiangular. If in the two triangles JBAC, NMP {fig. 296.) the angle A be equal to the angle M, ind the side AB be to the side MN as the side AC is o the side MP, the two triangles are equiangular. If A11 be triple of ININ, AC must be triple of MP. Now, if the angle MNP, for example, is not equal to lie angle ABC, another angle may be made, as MNU, which shall be equal to it. But this is impossible; for lie two triangles BAC, NMR, having two angles equal, would be equiangular, and consequently (Prop. 61.) would have their sides proportional ; wherefore, AB jeing triple of MN, AC would be triple of MIt, which ,-annot be, since AC is triple of MP. 942. Prop. LX IV. A right line which bisects any angle of a triangle divides the side opposite to the bisected angle into two segments, which are proportioned to the two other sides. In the triangle BAC, let the angle BAC be bisected by the right line AI), making the angle r equal to the angle s. The segment 13 D is to the segment DC as the side BA to the side AC. Produce the side BA, and draw CF parallel to DA. The lines DA, CF being parallel, the interior and exterior angles •, F are (Prop. 19.) equal, and the alternate angles s, C are (Prop. 17.) also equal. And since the angle r is equal to the angle s, the angle F will also be equal to the angle C; and consequently the side AF is equal to the side AC. In the triangle BFC, the line AD being parallel to the side FC; JbD (Prop. 60.) will be to DC as 1IA is to AF, or its equal AC. 9 lb. Prop. LXV. 'To find a fourth proportional to three given lines. Fiir. 2 !) 7 . Let the three lines be A, B, C {Jig. 298.), it is required to find a fourth line D, such that the line A shall be to the line 15 as the line C is to A t.,e line I). B Form any angle RFG, make FM equal to the line 1 A, MG equal to the line 1>, and l’N equal to the line u C; draw the right line MN, and through the point G lraw GL parallel to MN; NL will be the fourth pro- portional required. In the triangle FLG the line NM, being parallel to the side LG, cuts the other two sides (Prop. 60.) propor- fik.*98. uonally. Wherefore FM is to MG as FN is to NL; that is, A is to B as C is to D. 944. Prop. LX VI. To find a third proportioned to two given lines. Let the two lines be A, 13 {Jig. 299.), it is required to find a third line C, such that the line A shall be to the line 1! as the line B is to the line C. Form any angle LFG, make FM equal to the line A, MG equal to the line B, and FN equal to the line B ; draw the right line MN, and through the point G draw (■I. parallel to MN ; NL will be the third proportional required In the triangle FLG the line NM, being parallel to the side I.G, cuts the other two A_ Fl||. 299. A 230 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. i‘— — 1 u— C * 1 A B J x 1) 1 * — c y A B x d Fig. 301. And the rectangle rectangle y is therefore also triple of sides (Prop. 60 .) proportionally. Wherefore I’M is to MG as FN is to NL; that is, A is to B as B is to C. 94.5. Prop. LXYII. If four lines be proportional, the rectangle or product of the extreme t is equal to the rectangle or product of the means. Let the line A be to the line B as the line C is to the line D {fig. 300.) ; the rectangh formed by the lines A and D is equal to the rectangles formed by the lines B and C Let the four lines meet in a common point, forming at that point four right angles; and draw the lines parallel to them to complete the rectangles x, y, z. If the line A be triple of the line B, the line C will be triple of the line U. The rectangles or parallelograms x, z being between the same parallels, are to one another as their bases. Since the base A is triple of the base B, the rectangle x is triple of the rectangle z. In like manner, the rectangles or parallelograms y , z, being between the same parallels, are to one another as their bases : since the base C is triple of the base U, the rectangle y is therefore triple of the rectangle z. Where- fore, the rectangle x being triple of the rectangle z, and the rectangle y being triple of the same rectangle z, these two rectangles x and y are equal to one another. 946. Prop. LXVIII. Four lines which have the rectangle or product of the extremes equal to the rectangle or product of the means are proportional. Let the four lines A, B, C, U (fig. 301.) be such that the rectangle of A and D is equal to the rectangle of B and C, the line A will be to the line B as the line C to the line D. Let the four lines meet in a common point, forming at that point four right angles, and complete the rectangles x, y, z. If the line A be triple of the line B, the line C will be triple of the line D. 'Hie rectangles x and z, being between the same parallels, are to one another as their bases : since the base A is triple of the base B, the rectangle x will be therefore triple of the rectangle z. y is, by supposition, equal to the rectangle x ; the the rectangle s. But the rectangles y, z, being between the same parallels, are to one another as their bases. Hence, since the rectangle y is triple of the rectangle z, the base C is also triple of the base D. 947. Prop. LXIX. If four lines be proportional, they are also proportional alternately. If the line A is to the line B as the line C to the line D (fig. 302.), A they will be in proportion alternately ; that is, the line A will be to the line C as the line B to the line D. B Because the line A is to the line B as the line C is to the line D c — - the rectangle of the extremes A and D is equal to the rectangle of the means B and C ; whence it follows (Prop. 68.) that the line A is to the line C as the line B is to the line D. Otherwise, — Suppose the line A to be triple of the line B, the line C will be triple ol the line U. Hence, instead of saying A is to B as C to D, we may say three times B is to B as three times D is to D. Now it is manifest that three times B is to three times 1) as B is to 1). Therefore the line A (which is equal to three times B) is to the line C (which is equal to three times I)) as the line B is to the line D. 948. Prop. LXX. If four lines be proportional, they will be proportional by composi- tion. Let the line A be to the line B as the line C is to the line D (fig. 303.), they will he proportional by composition ; that is, the line A joined to the line B .vill be to the line B as the line C joined to the line D is to the line D. If the line A contain the line B. for example, three times, and the line C contain the line U three times ; the line A joined to the line B will contain the line B four times, and the line C joined to the line D will contain the line D four times. Therefore the line A joined to the line 15 is to the line B as the line C joined to the line 1) is to the line D. 949. Prop. LXX I. If four lines be proportional, they will be also proportional by division. A — If the line A is to the line B as the line C is to the line D (fig. 304.), n they will be proportional by division ; that is, the line A wanting the c line B is to the line B as the line C wanting the line D is to the line D. n If the line A contain the line B, for example, three times, and the line C contain the line 1) three times, the line A wanting the line B will con- Fig. 50‘2 A B C D Fig. 503. Fig. 504. tain the line B only twice ; and the line C wanting the line U will also contain the Hue P '.hap. I. GEOMETRY. 281 Fig. 306. FB opposite to the wiee. Therefore t lie line A wanting the line B is to the line B .is the line C wanting the ine D is to the line O. 950. Prop. LX X il. If three lines be proportional, the first is to the third as the square nj he first is to the square of the second. If the line CD is to the line cd as the line cd is to a third line x (fir/. 305.), the line CD s to the line x as the square of the line CD is to the square of the ine cd. 'Fake CF equal to the line x, and draw the perpendicular i’B. Since the line CD is to the line cd as the line cd is to the line CF, lie rectangle of the extremes CF, CD, or CL is equal (Prop. 67.) o the rectangle of the means, that is, to the square of cd. Again, the square of CD and the rectangle of the lines CF, C'L, ieing between the same parallels, are to one another (Prop. 58.) as heir bases. Therefore CD is tc CF, or x, as the square of CD is "j the rectangle of CF and CL, or to its equal the square of cd. 951. Prop. LXXIII. If two chords in a circle cut each other, the rectangle of the seg- inits of one is equal to the rectangle of the segments of the other Let the two chords AB, CD (fig. 306.) in the circle cut each other in the point F, the ectangle of AF, FB is equal to the rectangle of CF, FD. Draw 4 n he two right lines AC, DB. Because in the triangles CAI-’, BDF he angles at the circumference A and D are both measured (Prop. 2.) by half the arc C15, they are equal. Because the angles C and 5 are both measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc AD, these angles re also equal. And the angles at 1*’ are equal, because they are rtical. These two triangles are therefore equiangular, and conse- uently (Prop. 61.) their sides are proportional. Wherefore the de AF 1 opposite to the angle C is to the side FD opposite to the ngle B as the side CF opposite to the angle A is to the side ngle D. Therefore (l J rop. 69.) the rectangle of the extremes AF’, FB is equal to the ■dangle of the means CF’, FD. 952. Prop. LXXIY. To find a mean proportional between tiro given lines. Let there be two lines A, C (Jig. 307.), it is required to find a third line B, such that ic line A shall be to the line B as the line B is to the ne C. Place the lines A and C in such manner that they shall irm one right line DGL, and bisect this right line in the )int F. p’rom the point F, as a centre, describe the cir- unference of a circle DMLN ; then, at the point G, where le two lines are joined, raise the perpendicular GIVI ; GM is mean proportional sought between the lines A and C. roduce MG to N. Because the chords DIj, MN cut each other at the point G, the rectangle of the seg- ents DG, GL is (Prop. 73.) equal to the rectangle of the segments MG, ON. Because the radius 1<’L is perpendicular to the chord MN, P L (Prop. 38.) bisects MN ; ■refore GN is equal to GM. Lastly, because the rectangle of the extremes DG, GL is equal to the rectangle of the cans GM, GN, or its equal GM, DG is to GM as GM is to GL. Therefore GM is a can proportional between DG and GP-, that is, between the lines A and C. 953. 1’ilOP. LXXV. The bases and altitudes of equal triangles are in reciprocal or inverse tin. Bet the two triangles ABC, DI’G (fig. 308.) be equal ; the base AC will be to the base G. as the perpendicular FM to the perpendicular BL; that the i ases and altitudes are in reciprocal or inverse ratio. The triangle ABC (F’rop. 54.) is half the product or rect- rle of the base AC and tbe altitude BIj. Again, the tri- te D P’G is (Prop. 54.) half the product or rectangle of the se DG and tbe altitude P M. The two triangles being ual, the two rectangles, which are double of tbe triangles, 11 therefore also be equal. Again, because the rectangle of the extremes; AC, BI, is ual to the rectangle of the means DG, FM ; AC (l’rop. Pig. 308. .) is to DG as P M is to BL. '<54. Prop. LXXVI. Triangles the bases and altitudes whereof are in. reciprocal or inverse 'io are r /ual. In the two triangles ABC, DP’G (fig. 309.), if the base AC be to the base DG as the rncndicular FM to the perpendicular 11L, the surfaces of the two triangles are equal. Fig. 307. 282 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II Fig. 300. F g. 310. Because AC is to DG as FM is to B E, the product or rectangle of the extremes AC, BE is (I’rop. 67.) equal to the product or rectangle of the means DG, FiVI. The halves (Corol. to Prop. 27.) of these two rectangles, namely, triangles ABC, I)FG, are therefore equal. 955. Prop. LXXVIT. Two secants drawn from the same point to a circle are in the inverse ratio of the parts which lie out of the circle. Let the two secants be CA, CB ( fig. 5 1 0. ) ; CA is to CB as Cl) is to CF. Draw the right lines FB, DA. In the triangles CDA, CFB the angles at the circumference A and B, being both measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc I'D, are equal, and the angle C is common to the two triangles. These two triangles are there- f ire ( Prop. 23. ) equiangular and (Prop. 61.) have their sides proportional. Wherefore the side CA of the first triangle is to the side CB of the second triangle as the side CD of the first triangle is t > the side CF of the second triangle. 956. Prop. EX XVII I. The tangent to a circle is a mean proportional between the secant and the part of the secant which lies out of the circle. In the circle ABD, CB {fig. 311 .) being secant, and CA tangent, CB is to CA as CA is t ) CD. Draw the right lines AB, AD. The triangles CAB, CDA have the angle C common to both. Also the angle B is measured (Prop. 42.) by half the arc AF1); and the angle CAD formed by the tangent AC and the chord AD is measured (Prop. 41.) by half the same arc AFD. The two triangles CAB, CDA, having their two angles equal, are (Prop. 23.), equiangular, and con- sequently (Prop. 61.) have their sides proportional. Hence the side CB of the greater triangle opposite to the angle CAB is to the side CA of the smaller triangle opposite to the angle D as the side CA of the greater triangle opposite to the angle B is to the side CD of the smaller triangle opposite to the angle A. F Corollary. From this proposition is suggested a new method of finding a mean proportional between two given lines. Take CB equal to one of the given lines, and CD equal to the other ; bisect DB ; from the point of division, as a centre, describe the circumference DAB ; and draw the tangent CA. This tangent is a mean proportional between CB and CD, as appears from thp proposition. 957. Prop. LX XIX. To cut a given, line in extrene and mean ratio. Let it be required to divide the line CA (fig. 312.) in extreme and mean ralio: that is, to divide it in such a manner th it the whole line s’ all be to the greater part as the greater part is to the less. At the extremity A of the line CA raise a perpendicular AG equal to half the line CA ; from the point G, as a centre, with the radius GA, describe the circumference ADB; diaw the line CB through the centre, and take CF tqual to CD; the line CA will be divided at the point F in extreme and mean ratio. Because (Prop. 78.) CB is to CA as CA is to CD, by division, ( Prop. 71 ) C B wanting CA or its equal DB is to CA, as CA wanting CD or its equal CF is to-CD; that is, C’D or CF is to CA as FA is to C 1) or CF ; or, inversely, CA is to C F as CF' is to FA, or the line AC is cut in extreme and mean ratio. Fig 312. SIMILAR FIGURES. 958. Definitions. 1. Figures are similar which are composed of an equal physical points disposed in the same manner. 1 luis, c n the figures A15CDF, abcdf(fig. 313.) are similar, if R F every point of the first figure has its corresponding — point placed in the same manner in the second. Hence it follows, that if the first figure is, for example, three times greater than the second, the points of which it is composed are three times greater than those of the second figure. 2. In similar figures, those lines are said to be homologous number of c d F Fig. 313 111 Miiuiai ugui'ja, muat w j which are composed of an equal number of corresponding points. IhaF. I. GEOMETRY. 283 Fig. 311. Fig. 315 is to the surface a as the Fig. 31 G. 959. Prop. LX XX. In similar figures the homologous sides are proportional. Let the similar figures be ABCDF, abcilfi ( fig . 314.), and the homologous lines CA, ra, F, cf ; CA is to CF as ca to cf. c Since the lines CA, ca are homologous, they are composed f an equal number of corresponding points ; as are also the omologous lines CF, cf. If, for instance, the line CA is imposed of 40 equal points, and the line CF of 30, the ne ca will necessarily be composed of 40 points, and the line ’ of 30 ; and it is manifest that 40 is to 30 as 40 to 30. therefore CA is to CF as ca to cf. 960. Prop. LXXXI. The circumferences of circles are as their radii. The circumference DCB {fig. 315.) is to the radius AB as the circumference deb is to le radius ab. All circles are similar figures, that is, are composed of an jual number of points disposed in the same manner. They ive therefore (Prop. 80.) their homologous lines proper' inal. Therefore the circumference DCB is to the radius B as the circumference deb is to the radius ab. 961. Prop. LX XXI I. Similar figures are to each other as t squares of their homologous sides. Let the two similar figures be A, a {fig. 316.) Upon the nnologous sides CD, cd form the squares B, b. The surface uare B is to the square b. Since the figures A, a are similar, they are composed of an equal number of cor- sponding points; and since the homologous sides CD, cd are com- sed of an equal number of points, the squares drawn upon these lines b are also composed of an equal number of points. If it be supposed that the surface A is composed of 1000 points d the square B of 400 points, the surface A will be also composed of 00 points and the square b of 400. Now it is manifest that 1000 to 400 as 1000 to 400. t herefore the surface A is to the square B the surface a is to the square b ; and, alternately (Prop. 69.), the sur- e A is to the surface a as the square B to the square b. Cokoli.ary. It follows that if any three similar figures be formed upon the three sides a right angled triangle, the figure upon the hypothenuse will be equal to the other two on together ; for these three figures will be as the squares of their sides ; therefore, since • square of the hypothenuse is equal to the two squares of the other sides, the figure med upon the hypothenuse will also be equal to the two other similar figures formed on the other sides. 962. Prop. LXXXIII. Circles are to each other as the squares of their radii. Let two circles DCB, deb {fig. 317.) be drawn, flic surface contained within the circumference DCB is to ■ surface contained within the circumference deb as the lare formed upon the radius AB to the square formed upon radius ab. The two circles, being similar figures, are composed of an al number of corresponding points, and the radii AB,«li 1 ng composed of an equal number of points, the squares of se radii will also be composed of an equal number of points. Fig. 317 . >pose, for example, that the greater circle DCB is composed of 800 points, and the are of the greater radius A15 of 300 points, the smaller circle deb will also be composed o 4X) points, and the square of the smaller radius of 300. Now it is manifest that 800 is t ;>)0 as 800 to 300. Therefore the greater circle DCB is to the square of its radius AB a he smaller circle deb is to the square of its radius ab; and, alternately, the greater circle is t he lesser circle as the greater square is to the lesser square. ’■ Prop. LX XXIV. Similar triangles are equiangular. f the two triangles ABC, abc {fig. 318.) be composed of an equal number of points d nixed in the same manner, they are equiangular. or. since the triangles ABC, abc are similar figures, they h ■ their sides (Prop. 80.) proportional ; they are therefore ( >p. 62.) equiangular. 4 Prop. LXXXV. liquiangujar triangles are similar I the triangles ABC, abc are equiangular, they are also ar. See fig. 318. the triangle ABC were not similar to the triangle abc, cr triangle might be formed upon the line AC; for example, ADC, which shot Fig. 318. lar to the triangle ubc. Now, the triangle ADC, being similar to the trial I be ubcx THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. 284 B D - L' will also (Prop. 84.) be equiangular to abc ; which is impcssible, since the triangle ABC is supposed equiangular to abc. 965. Prop. LX XX VI. If four lines are proportional, their squares are also proportional. If the line A I? be to the line AC as the line AD is to the line AF ( Jig . .319,), the square of the line AB will he to the square of the line AC A- as the square of the line AD is to the square of the line A F. With the lines AB and AD form an angle BAD; with the lines AC and AF form another angle CAF enual to the angle BAD, and draw the right lines BD, CF. Because AB is to AC as AD to AF, and the con- tained angles are equal, the two triangles BAD, CAF have their sides about equal angles proportional ; they are therefore (Prop. 63.) equiangular, and consequently (Prop. 85.) similar : whence they are to one another (Prop. 82.) a? the squares of their homologous sides. If, then, the triangle BAD be a third part of the triangle CAF, the square of the side AB will be a third part of the square of the side AC, and the square of the side AD will be a third part of the square of the side AF. Wherefore these four squares will be proportional. 966. Prop. LX XX VII. Similar rectilineal figures may he divided into an equal number of similar triangles. Let the similar figures he ABCDF, abedf and draw the homologous lines CA, ca, CF, if; these two figures will be divided into an equal number of similar triangles. The triangles BCA, hca {fig. 320.), being composed of an equal number of corresponding points, are similar. The triangles AC F, acf and the triangles FC Y),fal are also, for the same reason, similar. Wherefore the similar figures ABCDF, abedf are divided into an equal number of similar triangles. 967. Prop. LXXXVIII. Similar figures are equiangular. The similar figures ABCDI’, abedf {see fig. preced. Prop.) have their angles equal. Draw the homologous lines CA, ca, CF’, cf. The triangles BCA, hca are similar, and con- sequently equiangular. Therefore the angle B is equal to the angle b, the angle BAG to the angle bac, and the angle BCA to the angle bca. The triangles ACF, acf, F CD, fed are also equiangular, because they are similar. Therefore all the angles of the similar figures ABCDF, abedf are equal. 968. I 5 rop. LXXX1X. Equiangular figures the sides of which are proportional are similar. If the figures ABCDF , abedf {fig. 321.) have their angles equal and their sides propor- tional, they are similar. Draw the right lines CA, ca, CF ,cf. The triangles C B A, eba, have two sides proportional and the contained angle equal ; they are therefore (Prop. 63.) equiangular, and consequently (Prop. 85.) similar. The lines CA, ca are therefore (Prop. 80.) proportional. The triangles CAF, caf have two sides proportional and a i' the contained angle equal ; for if from the equal angles Fig- 321. BAF, baf be taken the equal angles B A C, bac, there will remain the equal angles CAF, caf. These two triangles are therefore equiangular, and consequently similar. In the same manner it may btr proved that the triangles CF’D, cfd are similar. The two figures ABCDF, abedf are then composed of an equal number of similar triangles, that is, they are composed of an equal number of points disposed in the sair-c manner, or are similar. 969. Definitions. — I . A plane is a surface, such that if a right line applied toil touch it in two points it will touch it in every other point. The surface of a fluid at rest, or of a well-polished table, may be considered as a plane. 2. A right line is perpendicular to a plane if it make right angles with all lines which can be drawn from any point in that plane. Thus BA {fig. 322.) is perpendicular to the plane ^,-c MLGF’PN, because it makes right angles with the lines AM, \j F AL, AG, & c. drawn from the point A. if'" ' j 3 Let A 11 {jig. 323.) be the common intersection of two planes, Fik.312. Ch A ?. I. GEUM£TI!Y. 285 f : \ \ \! \j B V!\ \ 1 M Fig. s: 15 n j c A Fig. 3*3. If two right lines LINI, FG be drawn, in these two planes, perpendicular to the line AB, these will form four an- , K gles at the point C, which are called the inclinations of the two planes, or the angles formed by the two planes. 4 If the line AB (fig. 324.) revolve about itself, with- out changing its place, the line AC, which makes an acute angle with AB, will describe in the revolution a concave surface LAC; and the line AD, which makes an obtuse angle with A I!, will describe in the revolution a convex surface MAD. 5. But the line AF (.fig- Dcfin. 2.), which makes a right angle with AB, will de- scribe in the revolution a surface which will be neither con- cave nor convex, but plane : and the line AB will be perpendi- cular to the plane MLGFPN, because it will make right angles with the lines AM, AL, AG, Sec. drawn from the point A in that plane. 6. Two planes are parallel when all perpendiculars drawn from one to the other are equal. S eefig. 325., wherein AB, CD arc equal between the surfaces LM, FG. 970. Prop. XC. A perpendicular is the shortest line which can he awn from any point to a plane. From the point B (fig. 326.), let the right line BA be drawn rpendieular to the plane DF; any other line, as BC, will be longer than the line BA. pon the plane draw the right line AC. Because the line BA is perpendicular to the plane DF, the angle B AC is a right angle, he square of BC is therefore (Prop. 32.) equal to the squares u 1?A and AC taken together. Consequently the square of BC greater than the square of BA, and the line BC longer than e line BA. 971. Prop. XCI. A perpendicular measures the distance of any nit from a plane. file distance of one point from another is measured by a right ic, because it is the shortest line which can be drawn from one int to another. So the distance from a point to a line is measured a perpendicular, because this line is the shortest which can be drawn from the point the line. In like manner, the distance from a point to a plane must be measured by icrpendicular drawn from that point to the plane, because this is the shortest line which i be drawn from the point to the plane. 972. Prop. XCI I. The common intersection of two planes is a right line. Let the two planes ALBMA, AFBGA (fig. 327.) intersect each other; the line which common to both is a right line. Draw a right line from the point l to the point B. Because the right line AB touches the two planes in the points jand B, it will touch them (Defin. 1.) in all other points ; this line refore, is common to the two planes. Wherefore the common ersection of the two planes is a right line. 973. Prop. XCIII. If three points, nut in a right line, are com- n to two planes, these two planes are one and the same plane. Bet two planes be supposed to be placed upon one another, in such nuer that the three points A, B, C shall be common to the two nes; ail their other points will also be common, and the two planes will be one and | same plane. The point D, for example, is common to both planes. Draw the right | sAB, CD iccau'-e the right line AB (fig. 328.) touches the two planes in the points A and B, it to.icli them (Dcfin. 1.) in every other point; it will therefore cli them in the point F. The point F is therefore common to i. wo planes. Wain, because the right line CD touches the two planes in the p ts C and I, it will touch them in the point D; therefore the it D is common to the two planes. The same may be shown ermng every other point. Wherefore the two planes coincide II points, or are one ami the same plane. h 1’iiop. X Cl V. If a ri:/ht line he pi rpendieular to two right lines which rut each other, ill be perpendicular to the phn e of these right lines. F i \ \ \ \ A V \ i ° M Fig. 327. fig, 3*8. 286 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I L Fi K . 320. Let the line \B (fig. 329.; make right angles with the lines AC, AD, it will be purport dieular to the plane which passes through these lines. b If the line AB were not perpendicular to the FDCG, another plane might be made to pass through the point A, to which the AB would he perpendicular. But this is impossible ; for, since the angles BAC, BAD are right angles, this other plane (Defin. 2.) must pass through the points C, D; it would therefore (Prop. 93.) he the same with the plane FDCG, since these two planes would have three common poults A, C, D. 973. Prop. XCV. From a given point in a plane to raise a perpen- dicular to that plane. Let it he required to raise a perpendicular from the point A (Jig. 330.) in the plane LM Form a rectangle CDFG, divide it into two rectangles, having a common section AB, and place these rectangles upon the plane LM in such a manner that the bases of the two rect- angles AC, AG shall be in the plane LAI, and form any angle with each othir; the line AB shall he perpendicular to the plane LAI. The line AB makes right angles with the two lines AC, AG, which, by supposition, are in the plane LAI; it is therefore ( Pr\ p. 9 1.) perpendicular to the plane LAI. 97 6. Prop. XCV I. If two planes cut each other ut right angles, and a right line he drawn in one of the planes perpendicu'ar to their common intersection, it will l>e perpendicular to the other plane. Let the two planes AFBG, ALB.M (fig- 331.), cut each other at right angles; if the line LC be perpendicular to their common intersection, it is also per- pendicular to the plane AFBG. Draw CG perpendicular to AB. Because the lines CL, CG are perpendicular to the common in- tersection AB, the angle LCG (Defin. 3.) is the angle of inclination of the two planes. Since the iwo planes cut each other perpendi- cularly, the angle of inclination LCG is therefore a right angle. And because the line LC is perpendicular to the two lines CA, C'G in the plane ABFG, it is (Prop. 94.) perpendicular to the plane AFBG. 977. Prop. XCVII. If one plane meet another plane, it makes angles with that other plane, which are together equal to two right angles. Let the plane ALBAI (Jig. 332.) meet the plane AFBG ; these planes will make with each other two angles, which will together be equal to two right angles. L Through any point C draw the lines FG, LAI perpendicular to the line AB. The line CL makes with the line FG two angles together equal to two right angles. But these two angles are (Defin. 3.) the angles of inclination of the two planes. Therefore the two planes make angles with each other, which are together equal to two right angles. Cokoli.a rv. It may be demonstrated in the same manner that planes which intersect each other have their vertical angles equal, that parallel planes have their alternate angles equal, &c. 978. Prop. XCVIII. If tuo jdunes he paiallel to each other, a right line , which is perpendicular to one of the planes, will be also perpendicular to the other. ^ Let the two planes LAI, FG (fig. 333.) be parallel. If the line BA i/ be perpendicular to the plane FG, it will also he perpendicular to the v plane LM. From any point C in the plane LAI draw CD perpen- dicular to the plane FG, and draw BC, AD. Because the lines BA, CD are perpendicular to the plane FG, the angles A, D are right angles. Because the planes LAI, FG are parallel, the perpendiculars AB, F' s DC (Defin. 6.) are equal ; whence it follows that the lines BC, AD are parallel. The line BA, being at right angles to the line AD, will also (Prop. 13.) he at right angles to the parallel line BC. The line BA is therefore perpendicular to the line BC. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the line BA is at right angles to all other lines which can he drawn from the point B in the plane LAI. Wherefore (Defin. 2.) the line BA is perpendicular to the plane LAI. A Ah i\ ,-U Fifj. 352. — ,f --k' ’u'c, Fi fi. 333. Ch*p. I. GEOMETRY. 287 ve before observed, is that which has length. .a — /~\- 970. Definitions. — 1. A solid, as we breadth, and thickness. 2. A polyhedron is a solid terminated by plane surfaces. 3. A prism is a solid terminated by two identic;, plane bases parallel to each other, and by surfaces which are parallelo- grams. {Fig. 334.) 4. A parullelopiped is a prism the bases of which are parallelo- grams. ( Fig. 335.) 5. A cube is a solid terminated by six square surfaces : a die, for example, is a cube. ( Fig. 336.) 6. If right lines be raised from every point in the perimeter of Fl '- any rectilineal figure, and meet in one common point, these lines together with the rectilineal figure inclose a solid which is called a pyramid. ( Fiy . 337.) 7. A cylinder is a solid terminated by two planes, which are equal and parallel cir- cles, and by a convex surface ; or it is a solid formed by the revolution of a pa- rallelogram about one of its sides. (Fiy. 338.) S. If right lines be raised from every point in the circumference of a circle, and meet in one common point, these lines t ogether with the circle inclose a solid, which is called a cone. (Fig. 339.) 9. A semicircle revolving about its diame- ter forms a solid, which is called a sphere. ( Fig. 340. ) 10. If from the vertex of a solid a perpen- dicular be let fall upon the opposite plane, this perpendicular is called the altitude of the solid. In the pyramids A CD, Acd ( fiy. 34 1 . ), A 13, ab are their respective altitudes. 11 . A A A A / // \\ / /- A Fig. 336. Fi.u. 337. Fig. 35.S. Fig. 311. Solids are said to be equal, if they inclose an equal space : thus a cone and a pyramid are equal solids if the space inclosed within the cone be equal to the space inclosed within tlie pyramid. 12. Similar solids are such as consist of an equal number of physical points disposed in the same manner. Thus (in the fig. Defin. 10.) the larger pyramid ACD and the smaller pyramid Acd aie jnilar solids if every point in the larger pyramid has a point corresponding to it in the aller pyramid. A hundred musket balls, and the same number of cannon balls, disposed the same manner, form two similar solids 9H0. Prop. XCIX. The solid content of a cube is equal to the product of one of its sides 'ce multiplied by itself. Let the lines All, AI) (fig. 342.) be equal. Let the line AD, drawn perpendicular to 3, be supposed to move through the whole length of AB; when it ives at BC, and coincides with it, it will have formed the square DABC, I will have been multiplied by the line AI3. Next let the line AE be drawn equal to AD, and perpendicular to the ne DABC; suppose the plane DABC to move perpendicularly through tj whole length of the line A E , when it arrives at the plane JVIEGL, 1 coincides with it, it will have formed the cube AELC, and will have n multiplied by the line A E. Icnce it appears, that to form the cube AELC, it is necessary, first, to multiply the side ) by the side AB equal to Al) ; and then to multiply the product, that is, the square t| AC, by the side AE equal to Al); that is, it is \ i cssary to multiply AD by A 1), and to multiply the pro- ijt again by Al) ■1. Prop. C. Similar solids have their homologous lines pro- I tonal. -et the two solids A, a (fiy. 343.) be similar; and let their inlogous lines be A13, ub, BG, by AB will be to 13G at g! by. '..-cause the solids A, a are similar, every point in the solid ^ J43 ' uua a point corresponding to it, and disposed in the same Fig. 312. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. 288 manner. In the solid a. Thus, if the line All is composed of 20 physical points, and i l, e line 15G of 10, the line ab will be composed of 20 corresponding points, and the line hr of 10. Now it is evident that 20 is to 10 as 20 is to 10 -. therefore All is to RG as ab to b'q. 982. Prop. Cl. Similar solids are equiangular. Let the solids (see fig. to preced. Prop.) A, a be similar ; their corresponding angles are equal. Because the solids A, a are similar, the surfaces RAF, baf are composed of an equal number of points disposed in the same manner. These surfaces are therefore similar figures, and consequently (Prop. 88.) equiangular. The angles B, A, Fare therefore equal to the angles b, a, f. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the other cor- respondent angles are equal. 988. Pnor. CII. Solids which have their angles equal and their sides proportional art similar. If the solids A, a (Jig. 344.) have their angles equal and their sides proportional, they are similar. For if the solids A, a were not similar, another solid might be formed upon the line BF similar to the solid a. But this is im- possible; for, in order to form this other solid, some angle or some side of the solid A must be increased or diminished ; and then this new solid would not have all its angles equal and all its sides proportional to those of the solid a, that is (Prop. 100, 101.), would not be similar. 984. Pnor. CIII. Similar solids are to one another as the cubes of their homologous sides. Let A , a (see fig. to preced. Prop.) be two similar solids, the solid A contains the solid a as many times as the cube formed upon the side BF contains the cube formed upon the side bf. Because the solid A is similar to the solid a , every point in the solid A has its cor- responding point in the solid a. From whence it follows, that if the side BF is composed, for example, of 50 points, the side bf will also be composed of 50 points : and conse- quently the cubes formed upon the sides BF’, bf will be composed of an equal number of points. Let it then be supposed that the solid A is composed of 4000 points, and the cube of the side BF of 5000 points ; the solid A must be composed of 4000 points, and the cube of the side bf of 5000 points. Now it is evident that 4000 is to 5000 as 4000 to 5000. Wherefore the solid A is to the cube of BF as the solid a to the cube of bf ; and, alter- nately, the solid A is to the solid a as the cube of BF to the cube of bf. Corollary. It may be demonstrated in the same manner that the spheres A, a ( fig. 345.), which are similar solids, are to one another as the cubes of their radii AB, ab. 985. Pnor. CIV. The solid content of a perpendicular prism is equal to the product of its base and height. The solid content of the perpendicular prism A BCD (fig. 346.) is equal to the product of its base AD, and height AB Fig. 3-15 Fig. 54G. If the lower base AD be supposed to move perpendicularly along the height AB till it coincides with the upper base BC, it will have formed the prism ABCD. Now the base AD will have been repeated as many times as there are physical points in the height All. Therefore the solid content of the prism ABCD is equal to the product of the base mul- ti [died by the height. Corollary. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that the solid content of the perpendicular cylinder ABCD is equal to the product of its base AD and height AB. 986. Prop. CV. The solid content oj' an inclined prism is equal to the product oj its base and height. Let the inclined prism be CP (fig. 347.), it is equal to the product of its base Ilf and its height CD. Conceive the base NB of the perpendicular prism NA, and the base RP of tbe inclined prism PC, to move on in tbe same time parallel to themselves; when they have reached the points A and C, each of them will have been taken over again the same number of times. But the base NB will have been taken over again (Prop. 104.) as many times as there are physical points in the height CD. The base ItP will therefore have been taken over again as many times as there are physical points in CD. Consequently the solid content of the inclined prism CP is equal to the product of it> base RP and the height CD. AP. T. GEOMETRY. 289 F .';S. )87. Prof. CVL In a pyramid, a section parallel In the base is similar to the base. Let the section a! be parallel to the base Cl) 348.) ; this section is a figure similar the base. Draw AD perpendicular to the base CD; draw also be. BE, be. Because the planes cd CD are parallel ; A B, being perpendicular to plane CD, will also (Prop. 98.) be perpendicular to the plane erf: cnce the triangles Abe, ABC, having the angles b, B right angles, 1 the angle A common, are equiangular. Therefore (Prop. 61.) Ah 0 AB as be to BC, and as Ac to AC. [n like manner it may be proved that A b is to AB as be to 1, and as Ae to AE. Consequently if A b be one third part of AB, , will be one third part of BC, be the same of BE, Ac of AC, and Ae AE. Again, in the two triangles cAe, CAE, there are about the angle A, common to both, t sides proportional; they are therefore (Prop. 63.) equiangular, and consequently •op. 61.) have their other sides proportional. Therefore ce will be proportional to " I'he two triangles ebe, CBE, having their sides proportional, are therefore (Prop. S9.1 ilar. The same may be demonstrated concerning all the other triangles which form th<> ies erf, CD. Therefore the section erf is similar to the base CD. Ie.mark. If the perpendicular AB fall out of the base; by drawing lines from the its b, B, it may be demonstrated in the same manner that the section is similar to the 88. Prop. CVII. In a pyramid, sections parallel to the base are to one another as the. ires of their heights. ,et CD cil (Jig. 349.) be parallel sections. From the vertex A draw a perpendicular to the plane CD : the plane erf is to the plane CD as the square of height A b is to the square of the height AB. Draw BC, be. he line AB, being perpendicular to the plane CD, will also (Prop, be perpendicular to the parallel plane erf : whence the angle Abe right angle, and also the angle ABC. Moreover, the angle at A ■ iinmon to the two triangles A be, ABC ; these two triangles, there- are equiangular. Therefore (Prop. 61.) the side cb is to the side as the side A b is to the side AB ; and consequently the square of to the square of CB as the square of A b to the square of AB. he planes erf, CD, being (Prop. 106.) similar figures, are to one her (Prop. 82.) as the squares of the homologous lines cb, CB ; are therefore also as the squares of the heights Aft, A B. o holla ry. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that in a cone the sections llel to the base are to one another as the squares of the heights or perpendicular dis- cs from the vertex. 9. Prop. C VI 1 1. Pyramids of the same height are to one another as their bases. t A, F (Jig. 3.50.) be two pyramids. If the perpendicular AB he equal to the perpen- 1 lar FG, the pyramid A is to the pyramid F he base CD to the base EM. Supposing, sample, the base CD to be triple of the base the pyramid A will be triple of the py- d F. wo sections erf, In,, being taken at equal i i its A ft, F g, the section cd is (Prop. 107.) e base CD as the square of the height A ft e square of the height AB ; and the section to the base LM as the square of the F g to the square of the height FG.’ because the heights are equal, AB to FG, and A ft to F g, the section cd is to the base is the section Im to the base EM ; and, alternately, the section cd is to the section Im as use CD is to the base LM. But the base CD is triple of the base EM, therefore '•ction cd is also triple of the section Im. cause the heights A F, FG are equal, it is manifest tha* the two pyramids are com- I of an equal number of physical surfaces placed one upon mother. Now it may be mstrated in the same manner that every surface or section of the pyramid A is triple • corresponding surface or section of the pyramid F. Therefore the whole pyramid triple of the whole pyramid F. uol.t.A ky. Pyramids of the same height and equal bases are equal, since they are to anther as their bases. ) I’ll op. (IX. /I pyramid whose base is that of a cube and whose vertex is at the centre cube is rgutd to a third part of the product of its height ami base. u Fig. : 290 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 L I'ig. 351 . Fig. M2. Let the cube AM and the pyramid C (fig. 351.) have the same base AD, and let the ver- tex of the pyramid be at the centre of the cube C ; this pyramid is equal to a third part of the product of its height and base. Conceive right lines drawn from the centre of the cube to its eight angles A, B, D, F, N, G, L, M, the cube will be divided into six equal pyramids, each of which has one surface of the cube for its base, and half the height of the cube for its height; for example, the pyramid CABDF. Three of these pyramids will therefore be equal to half the cube. Now the solid content of half the cube is (Prop. 99.) equal to the product of the base and half the height. Each pyramid, therefore, will be equal to one third part of the product of the base, and half the height of the cube; that is, the whole height of the pyramid. 991 . Prop. CX. The solid content of a pyramid is equal to a third part of the product of its height and base. Let RPS (Jig- 352.') be a pyramid, its solid content is equal to a third part of the pro- duct of its height and its base RS. Form a cube the height of which BL is double of the height of the pyramid RPS. A pyramid the base of which is that of this cube and the vertex of which is C, the centre of the cube, will be equal to a third part of the product of its base and height. The pyramids C and P have the same height ; they are there- fore (Corol. to Prop. 108.) to one another as their bases. If the base A FDB is double of the base 11S, the pyramid C will there- fore be double of the pyramid P. But the pyramid C is equal to a third part of the product of its height and base. The pyramid P will therefore be equal to a third part of the product of the same height, and half the base AFDB, or, which is the same thing, the whole base RS. 992. Prop. CXI. The solid content of a cone is equal to the third part of the product of its height and base. For the base of a cone may be considered as a polygon composed of exceedingly small sides, and consequently the cone may be considered as a pyramid having a great number of exceedingly small surfaces; whence its solid contents will be equal (Prop. 110.) to one third part of the product of its height and base. 993. Puor. CXII. The solid content of a cone is a third part of the solid content of a cylinder described about it. Let the cone BAC and the cylinder BDFC (fig. 353.) have the same height and base, the cone is a third part of the cylinder. For the cylinder is equal to the product of its height and base, and the cone is equal to a third part of this product. Therefore the cone is a third part of the cylinder. 994. Prop. CXIII. The solid content of a sphere is equal to a third part of the product of its radius and surface. Two points not being sufficient to make a curve line, three points will not be sufficient to make a curve surface. If, therefore, all the physical points which compose the surface of the sphere C (fig. 354.) be taken three by three, the whole surface will be divided into exceedingly small plane surfaces; and radii being drawn to each of these points, the sphere will be divided into small pyramids, which have their vertex at the centre, and have plane bases. The solid contents of all these small pyramids will be equal (Pro)) 110.) to a third part of the product of the height and bases. Therefore the solid content of the whole sphere will be equal to a third part of the product of the height and all the bases, that is, of its radius and surface. 995. Prop. CXIV. The surface of a sphere is equal to four of its great circles. If a plane bisect a sphere, the section will pass through the centre, and it is called a great circle of the sphere. Let A BCD {fig. 355.) be a square ; describe the fourth part of the circumference of a circle BLD ; draw the diagonal AC, through G, the right line FM, parallel to Al), and the right line AL. In the triangle ABC, on account of the equal sides AB, BC, the angles v A and C are (Prop. 4.) equal; therefore, since the angle B is a right angle, the angles A and C are each half a right angle. Again, in the triangle A EG, because the angle F is a right angle, and the angle A half a right angle, the angle G is also half a right angle; therefore (Prop. 2G.) AF is equal to FG. I-'ig. 363. Fig. 364. Kit;. 3i»$. HAP. I. GEOMETRY. 291 Tlie radius AL is equal to the radius AD : but AD is equal to FM ; therefore AL is [ual to FM. In the rectangular triangle AI'E the square of the hypothenuse AL is equal (Prop. 32.) the two squares of AF and FL taken together. Instead of AL put its equal FM, and stead of AF put its equal l'G ; and the square of FM will be equal to the two squares FG and FL taken together. Conceive the square A BCD to revolve about the line AB. In the revolution the square ill describe a cylinder, the quadrant a hemisphere, and the triangle ABC an inverted me the vertex whereof will be in A. Also the line FM will form a circular section of a Under, the line FL will form a circular section of a hemisphere, and the line l'G a cir- llar section of a cone. These circular sections, or circles, are to each other (Prop. 83.) as the squares of their dii ; therefore, since the square of the radius I'M is equal to the squares of the radii FL id FG, the circular section of the cylinder will be equal to the circular sections of the unisphere and cone. In the same manner it may be demonstrated that all the other sections or circular sor- es whereof the cylinder is composed are equal to the corresponding sections or surfaces the hemisphere and cone. Therefore the cylinder is equal to the misphere and cone taken together: but the cone (Prop. 112.) is ual to a third part of the cylinder ; the hemisphere is therefore ual to the remaining two thirds of the cylinder ; and consequently e hemisphere is double of the cone. The cone BSC ( fig . 356.) is hop. 111.) equal to a third part of the product of the radius and se BC, which is a great circle of the sphere : the hemisphere ALD therefore equal to a third part of the product of the radius and o of its great circles ; and consequently the whole sphere is equal a third part of the product of the radius and four of its great circles. Lastly, since the sphere is equal (Prop. 113.) to a third part of .• product of the radius and surface of the sphere, and also to a third part of the pro- mt of the radius and four of its great circles, the surface of the sphere is equal to fuur its great circles. Sect. 1 1 . PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 996. Practical Geometry is the art of accurately delineating on a plane surface nuy me ligure. It is the most simple species of geometrical drawing, and the most generally - ful ; for the surfaces of buildings and other objects are more frequently plane than rved, and they must be drawn with truth, and of the required proportions, before they can properly executed, unless in cases where the extreme simplicity of the form renders improbable that mistakes should arise. It has been defined as the art which directs • mechanical processes for finding the position of points, lines, surfaces, and planes, th the description of such figures on diagrams as can be intelligibly understood by de- ition, according to given dimensions and positions of lines, points, &c. No part of a building or drawing can be laid down or understood without the assistance ■ practical geometry, nor can any mechanical employment in the building department be ■ iducted without some assistance from this branch of the science. Cases frequently occur ! airing a knowledge of very complex problems, as in masonry, carpentry, and joinery ; 1 1 these will be given in other parts of this work. Die demonstration of most of the following problems will be found in the preceding •lion; we therefore refer the reader back to it for definitions, and for the proof jf me enunciations which will follow. PROBLEMS. ’97. Problem I. 7b bisect a line. A B ; that is, to rliviile it into two itjuul parts. From the two centres A and B (fiy. 357.) with any equal radii describe arcs of circles i .-meeting each other in C and I), and draw the line CD. This will bisect the given I -■ in the point E. ms. I’rob. II. To bisect an angle BAC. I rom the centre A (Jiy. 358.) with any radius describe an arc cutting of! the equal I AD, AE; and from the two centres I), E, with the same radius describe arcs m- i wctiiig in F, then draw A F, and it will bisect the angle A, as required. *99. Riiou. 111. situ yiven paint C in a tine AB to erect ti perpendicular • 292 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. From the given point C {fig. 359.) with any radius cut off any equa parts CD. CR n Fi». lit. F A\ \ F, 7 of the given line ; and from the two centres D and E with any one radius de- scribe arcs intersecting in F. Then join CF, and it will be the perpendicular re- quired. Otherwise — When the given point C is near the end of the line. From any point D {fig. 3(30.) assumed above the line as a centre, through the given point C describe a circle cutting the given line at E, and through E and the centre D draw the diameter EDF ; then join CF, and it will be the perpendicular required. 1000. Prob. IV. From a given point A to let foil a perpendicular on a line BC. From the given point A {fig. 361.) as a centre with any convenient radius describe an * arc cutting the given line at two (joints D and E ; and from the two centres 1) and E with any radius describe two arcs intersecting at F; then draw Al'', and it will be the perpendicular to BC required. Otherwise — When the given point is nearly opposite the end of the line. From any point U in the given line BC {fig. 362.) as a centre, describe the arc of a circle through the given point A cutting BC in E ; and from the centre E with the radius EA describe another arc cutting the former in F; then draw A G F, which will b< the perpendicular to BC required. 1001. Prob. V. At a given point A, in a line AB, to make an angle equal to a given angle C. From the centres A and C {fig- 363.) with any radius describe the arcs UE, FG ; then with F as a centre, and radius DE, de- scribe an arc cutting FG in G ; through G draw the line AG, which will form the angle required. 1002. Prob. VI. Through a given point C to draw a line parallel to a given line AB. / -r Fig. 360. Fi£ 361. F Li Fig. 363. Take any point d in AB {fig. 364.) ; upon el and C, with the distance C d, describe two arcs, eC and dfi cutting AB in e and d. Make df equal to eC ; and through /’draw Cf, and it will be the line required. Case II. Whitt the parallel is to be drawn at a given distance from AB From any two points c and d in the line AB, with a radius equal to the given distant describe the arcs e and/; draw the line CB to touch those arcs without cutting them, ail it will be parallel to AB, as required. 1003. Prob. VII. To divide a line AB into any proposed number of equal parts. Draw any other line AC {fig. 365.), forming any angle with the given line AB ; on the latter set oft’ as many of any equal parts AD, DE, EF, FC as those into which the line AB is to be divided; join BC, and parallel thereto draw the other lines l'G, EH, DI ; then these will divide AB, as required. 1004. Prob. VIII. To find a third proportional to two other lines AB, AC. Eet the two given lines be placed to form any angle at A (fig. 366.), and in AB tak AD equal to AC; join BC, and draw 1)E parallel to it; then AE will he the tliii proportional sought. IAP. I. PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 293 1005. Prob. IX. Tu find a fourth proportional to three /inis AH, AC, AD. Let two of the lines AK, {fig. 367.), be so placed A_ — to form any angle at A, , a 1 set out AD on AB; join A and parallel to it draw A c then AE will he the rth proportional required, i 006. Prob. X. To find a proportional between two ■s AB, BC. Place AB, BC {fig- 368.) Fig. 367. led together in one straight line AC, which bisect in the point O; then wit? tre O and radius or OC describe semicircle ADC, meet which erect perpendicular BD, ich will be the in proportional be- en AB and BC ght. 007. Prob. XI. To l the centre of a le. draw any chord A B Fig. 368. Fig. 369. Fig. 370. \ Fig. 371. Fig. 372. . 369.), and bisect perpendicularly with the line CD, which bisected in O will be the tre required. 008. Prob. XII. To describe the circumference of a circle through three points A, B, C. ’rom the middle point B {fig. 370.) draw the chords BA, BC to the two other points, bisect these chords perpendicularly by lines meeting in O, which will be the centre ; n the centre O, with the distance of any one of the points, as OA, describe a circle, it will pass through the two other points B C, as required. 009. Prob. XIII. To draw a tangent to a le through a given point A. \ hen the given point A {fig. 371.) is in the umferenee of the circle, join A and the 'tre O, and perpendicular thereto draw C, which will be the tangent required, f the given point A {fig. 372.) be out of circle, draw AO to the centre O, on ch, as a diameter, describe a semicircle cutting the given circumference in D, through ch draw BA DC, which will be the tangent required. 010. Prob. XIV. To draw an equilateral gle on a given line AB. •rom the centres A and B {fig. 373.) the distance AB describe arcs inter- ng in C ; draw AC, BC, and ABC will he equilateral triangle. 011. Prob. X V. 'To mahe a triangle w ith e given lines AB, AC, BC. V'ith the centre A and distance AC {fig. ) describe an arc; with the centre B and distance BC describe another arc cutting former in C; draw AC, BC, and ABC will be the triangle required. 012. I’rob. XVI. To make a square on a o t n line A B. tai.se AD, I!C {fig. 375.) each perpendi- ir and equal to AB, and join DC; then CD will he the square sought. 013. Prob. XVII. Tu inscribe a circle in n triangle ABC. ’'sect the angles at A and 15 with the two Fig. 373. Fig. 371. Fig. 37 D, which will be Fig. 376. the centre of the AI), BI) {fig. 376.); from the intersection _ ‘v, di aw tile perpendiculars DE, DI 4 , I)G, and they will be the radii of the circle re- red. 01 1 1 rob. X \ III, To describe n circle about tt given triangle A I1C. 294 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. f- v y I 1 H Fig. 380 Bisect any two sides with two of the perpendiculars DE, DF, DG (Jiff. 3 77.), and J> will be the centre of the circle. 1015. F it OH. XIX. To inscribe an equilateral triangle in a given circle. Through the centre C draw any diameter AB (Jig. 378.); from the point B as a centre, with the radius BC of the given circle, describe an arc DCE ; join AD, AE, DE, and ADE is the equilateral triangle sought. 10 1 6. Phob XX. To inscribe a square in a given circle. ( Half A B, BC, Sfc. forms an octagon.') Draw two diameters AC, BD (Jig. 379.) crossing at right angles in the centre E; then join the four extremities A, B, C, D with .right lines, and these will form the inscribed square A BCD. 1017. Prob. XXI. To describe a square about a given circle. Draw two diameters AC, BD crossing at right angles in the centre E (Jig. 380.) ; then through the four extremities of these draw FG, IH pa- rallel to AC, and FI, GH parallel to BD, and they will form the square FGHI. 1018. Prob. XXII. To inscribe a circle in a given square. Bisect the two sides FG, FI in the points B and A (see Jig. 380.); then through these two points draw AC paiallel to FG or IH, and BD parallel to FI or GH. Then the point of intersection E will be the centre, and the four lines EA, E B, EC, ED radii of the inscribed circle. 1019. Prob. XXIII. To cut a given line in extreme and mean rutio. Let AB he the given line to be divided in extreme anti mean ratio (Jig. 381.); that is, so that the whole line may be to the greater part as the greater part is to the less part. Draw BC perpendicular to A B, and equal to half AB; join AC, and with the centre C and distance CB describe the circle BDF; then with A as a centre and distance AD describe the arc 1)E. Then AB will be divided in E in extreme and mean ratio, or so that AB is to AE as AE is to EB. 1020. Prob. XXIV. To inscribe an isosceles triangle in a given circle that shall have each uj the angles at the base double the angle at the vertex. Draw any diameter AB of the given circle (Jig. 382.), and divide the radius CB in the point D in extreme and mean ratio (by the last problem) ; from the point B apply the chords BE, BF, each equal to the greater part CD ; then join AE, AF, EF ; and AEF will be triangle required. 1021. Prob. XXV. To inscribe a regular pen- tagon in a given circle. (Half AD, fyc. is a decagon.) Inscribe the isosceles triangle AB (Jig. 383.) having each of the angles ABC, ACB double the angle BAG (Prob. 24.); then bisect the two arcs ADB, AEC, in the points D, E ; and draw the chords AD, DB, AE, EC; then ADBCE will be the inscribed regular pentagon required. 1022. Prob. XXVI. To inscribe a regular hexagon in a circle, a dodecagon.) Apply the radius of the given circle AO as a chord (Jig. 384.) quite round the circum- ference, and it will form the points thereon of the regular hexagon ABCDEF. 1023. Prob. XXVII. 'To describe a re- gular pentagon or hexagon about a circle. In the given circle inscribe a regular polygon of the same name or number of sides as ABCDE (Jig. 385.) by one of the foregoing problems ; then to all its angu- lar points draw (Prob. 13.) tangents, and these will by their intersections form the circumscribing polygon required. Fig. 383. ( Half A B, §r. form Chap. I. PRACTICAL GEOME ERY. 295 Fig. 387 Fig. 5Sn. 1024. Prob. X XVI IF. To inscribe a circle in a regular polygon. Bisect any two sides of the polygon by the perpendiculars GO, FO (fig. 3 e 6. ), and heir intersection O will be the centre of the inscribed circle, and OG or OF will be tbe dins. 1025. Prob. XXIX. To describe a circle about a regular polygon. Bisect any two of the angles C and D with the lines CO. 1)0 (fig. 387.), then their nlersection O will be tbe centre of the cir- umscribing circle; and OC or OD will be he radius. 1026. Prob. XXX. To make a triangle qual to a given quadrilateral ABCD. Draw the diagonal AC ( fig. 388.), and arullel to it DE, meeting BA produced at S, and join CE; then will the triangle CEB ie equal to the given quadrilateral ABCD. 1027. Prob. XXXI. To make a triangle equal to a given pentagon ABCDE. Draw DA and DB, and also EF, CG parallel to them (fig. 389.), meeting AB pro- luced at F and G ; then draw DF and [)G, so shall the triangle DF’G be equal to he given pentagon ABCDE. 1028. Prob. XXXII. To make a rect- tngle equal to a given triangle ABC. Bisect the base AB in D (fig 390.), then aise DE and BF perpendicular to AB, and aeeting CF parallel to AB at E and F. 'hen DF will be tbe rectangle equal to he given triangle ABC. 1029. Prob. XXXIII. To make a square equal to a given rectangle ABCD. Produce one side AB till BE be equal to tbe other side BC (fig. 391.). On AE as a iameter describe a circle meeting BC pro- uced at F, then will BF' be the side of he square BFGH equal to the given rect- ngle BD, as required. 1030. Prob. XXXIV. To draw a cate- ary, c C d (fig. 392.) A catenary is a curve formed by a flexible ord or chain suspended by its two extremi- ies. Let c, d , in the line A B (fig. 392.) be the two points of suspension, and from them n , c\ A 11 BE Fig. 391. et the cord or chain be hung so as to touch the point C the __ urvc may be traced on the paper. 1031. Prob. XXXV. To draw a cycloid. Any points b (fig. 393.) in the circumference of a circle oiled along a right line AB till such point is again in contact ■nth the said line, generate a cycloid. Let BC be tbe circle, hen AB is equal to the semi-circumference of such circle, nd any chords at whose extremities b, lines ab, ab, equal to ie lengths of arcs they cut off, drawn parallel to AB, will jrnish the necessary points for forming the curve. 1032. Prob XXXVI. To draw a diagonal scale. Let it he of feet, tenths and hundredth parts of a lany times as necessary, the number of feet by equal 'stances. Divide AG into ten equal parts. On AB iise the perpendiculars BD, GG, and AC, and set oil’ n AC ten equal divisions of any convenient length, uough which draw horizontal lines. Then, from the oint G in DC to the first tenth part from G to A in 1 V draw a diagonal, and parallel thereto the other ag rnals required. The intersections of these diago- >L with the horizontal lines give hundredth parts of foot, inasmuch as each tenth is divided by tbe diago- ds into ten equal parts in descending. iven depth. P’rom this the foot. Fig 594. Set off on AB (fig. 39-1.) as »'!*. 394 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IL 290 ' Se:t. III. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 1 OSS. Plane Trigonometry is that branch of mathematics whose object is the investigation and calculation of the sides and angles of plane triangles. It is of the greatest importance to the architect in almost every part of his practice; but the elements will be sufficient for his use, without pursuing it into those more abstruse subdivisions which are essential in the more abstract relations which connect it with geodisic operations. 1034. We have already observed tnat every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, and that each degree is subdivided into 60 minutes, these minutes each into 60 seconds, and so on. Hence a semicircle contains 180 degrees, and a quadrant 90 degrees. 1035. The measure of an angle is that arc of a circle contained between those two lines which form the angle, the angular point being the centre, and such angle is estimated by the number of degrees contained in the arc. Thus, a right angle whose measure is a quadrant or quarter of the circle is one of 90 degrees (Prop. 22. Geometry); and the sum of the three angles of every triangle, or two right angles, is equal to 180 degrees. Hence in a right-angled triangle, one of the acute angles being taken from 90 degrees, the other acute angle is known; and the sum of two angles in a triangle taken from 180 degrees leaves the third angle ; or either angle taken from 180 degrees leaves the sum of the other two angles. 1036. It is usual to mark the figure which denotes degrees with a small 0 : thus, 60° means 60 degrees; minutes are marked thus hence, 45' means 45 minutes; seconds are marked thus ", 49" meaning 49 seconds ; and an additional comma issuperadded for thirds, and so on. Thus, 58° 14' 25" is read 58 degrees, 14 minutes, 25 seconds. 1087. The complement of an arc is the quantity it wants of 90 degrees. Thus, AD {Jig. 395.) being a quadrant, BD is the com- plement of the arc AB, and, reciprocally, AB is the complement of BD. Hence, if an arc AB contain 50 degrees, its complement BD will be 40. 1038. The supplement of an arc is that which it wants of 180 degrees. Thus, ADE being a semicircle, BDE is the supplement of the arc AB, which arc, reciprocally, is the supplement of BDE. Thus, if AB be an arc of 50 degrees, then its supplement BDE will be 130 degrees. 1039. The line drawn from one extremity of an arc perpendicu- lar to a diameter passing through its other extremity is called a nine or right sine. Thus, BF is the sine of the arc AB, or of the arc BDE. Hence the sine (BF) is half the chord (BG) of the double arc (BAG). 1040. That part of the diameter intercepted between the arc and its sine is called the versed sine of an arc. Thus, AI’ is the versed sine of the arc AB, and EF the versed sine of the arc EDB. 1041. The tangent of an arc is a line which touches one end of the arc, continued froir, thence to meet a line drawn from the centre, through the other extremity, which last line is called the secant of the arc. Thus, AH is the tangent and CH the secant of the arc AB. So El is the tangent and Cl the secant of the supplemental arc BDE, The latter tangent and secant are equal to the former ; but, from being drawn in a direction opposite or contrary to the former, they are denominated negative. 1042. The cosine of an arc is the right sine of the complement of that arc. Thus BF, the sine of AI3, is the cosine of BD. 1 043. The cotangent of an arc is the tangent of that arc’s complement. Thus AII, which : is the tangent of AB, is the cotangent of BD. 1044. The cosecant of an arc is the secant of its complement. Thus CII, which is the secant of A B, is the cosecant of B D. 1045. From the above definitions follow some remarkable properties. I. That an arc and its supplement have the same sine, tangent, and secant ; but the two latter, that is. the tangent and the secant, are accounted negative when the arc exceeds a qua- drant, or 90 degrees. II. When the arc is 0, or nothing, the secant then becomes the radius CA, which is the least it can he. As the arc increases from 0, the sines, tangents, and secants all increase, till the arc becomes a whole quadrant AD; and theu the sine is the greatest it can be, being equal to the radius of the circle; under which circumstance the tangent and secant are infinite. III. In every arc AB, the versed sine AF, and the cosine BKor CF, are together equal to the radius of the circle. The radius CA, the tangent AH, and the secant CH, form a right-angled triangle CAH. Again, the radius, sine, and cosine form another right-angled triangle CBF or CBK. So also the radius, 'hap. I. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 29' otangent, and cosecant form a right-angled triangle CDL. re similar to each other. 10-16. The sine, tangent, or secant of an angle is the ne, tangent, or secant of the arc by which the angle is leasured, or of the degrees. &c. in the same arc or angle, 'he method of constructing the scales of chords, sines, mgents, and secants engraved on mathematical instru- lents is shown in the annexed figure. 1047. A trigonometrical canon (fig. 396.) is a table herein is given the length of the sine, tangent, and cant to every degree and minute of the quadrant, jmpared with the radius, which is expressed by unity 1 with any number of ciphers. The logarithms, more- ver, of these sines, tangents, and secants, are tabulated, so at trigonometrial calculations are performed by only dddion and subtraction. Tables of this sort are pub- shed separately, and we suppose the reader to be pro- d-d with them. 1048. Problem I. To compute the natural sine and cosine 'a given arc. The semiperiphery of a circle whose radius is 1 is town to be 3-141592653589793, &c. : we have then the llowing proportion : — As the number of degrees or minutes in the semicircle Is to the degrees or minutes in the proposed arc, So is 3-14159265, &c. to the length of the said arc. All these right-angled triangles ow the length of the arc being denoted by the letter a , and its sine and cosine by s and c, cse two will be expressed by the two following series, viz. — S = “ ~ 2 ^ + 2.3.4.5 ~ 2.3.4.5.C.7 + &C- = a_ 6 +l!o-55iO + &C - , a 2 a ‘ • „ C = 1 ~ T + T 3 A ~ 2^4X6 + &c - . a 2 a A a 6 c = 1 ~ 2 + 24“720 + 6iC - Example 1. Let it be required to find the sine and cosine of one minute. The number minutes in 180 degrees being 10800, it will be, first, as 10800 : 1 : ; 3 • 1 4159265. Ate. : >029088820866.5 = the length of an arc of one minute. Hence, in this case, — a = -0002908882 and = -000000000004 The difference is s = -0002908882, the sine of one minute. Also from 1. take ^a- = 0 '000000042307 9, &c. leaves c= "9999999577, the cosine of one minute. Example 2. For the sine and cosine of 5 degrees : — Here 180° 1 5° 1 .3-14159265, &c. 1 -08726646 = a, the length of 5 degrees- Hence a = -08726646 -F = •0001 1076 + = -00000004 These collected give s= -08715574, the sine of 5 degrees. And for the cosine 1=1- — ^2= -00380771 + &a* = -00000241 These collected give c = -99619470, the cosine of 5 degrees. f n the same way we find the sines and cosines of other arcs may be computed. The f iter the arc the slower the series will converge ; so that more terms must be taken to i i.e the calculation exact. Having, however, the sine, the cosine may be found from it I the property of the right-angled triangle CUE, viz. the cosine C F= IJ F-, < ■ yi - 5't. There are other methods of constructing tables, but we think it unnecessary t mention them ; our sole object being here merely to give a notion of the mode by • ich such tables are formed. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. i'98 KM9. Rrob. II. To confute the tangents and secants. Having, by the foregoing problem, found the sines and cosines, the tangents and secants are easily found from the principles of similar triangles. In the arc AB (Jig. 395.), where BF is the sine, CF or BK the cosine, All the tangent, CH the secant, DL the cotangent, and CL the cosecant, the radius being CA or CB or CD ; the three similar triangles CFB, CAII, CDL, give the following proportions: — I. CF : FB : : CA : All, by which we find that the tangent is a fourth proportional to the cosine, sine, and radius. II. CF : CB:: CA : CH, by which we find that the secant is a third proportional to the cosine and radius. III. BF : l'C::CD : DL, by which we find that the cotangent is a fourth proportional to the sine, cosine, and radius. IV. BF : BC::CD : CL, by which we find that the cosecant is a third proportional to the sine and radius. Observation 1. There are therefore three methods of resolving triangles, or the cases of trigonometry; viz. geometrical construction, arithmetical computation, and instrumental operation. The method of carrying out the first and the last does not need explanation : the method is obvious. The second method, from its superior accuracy in practice, is that whereof we propose to treat in this place. Observations. Every triangle has six parts, viz. three sides and three angles. And in all cases of trigonometry, three parts must be given to find the other three. And of the three parts so given, one at least must be a side ; because, with the same angles, the sides may be greater or less in any proportion. Observations. All the cases in trigonometry are comprised in three varieties only; viz. 1st. When a side and its opposite angle are given. 2d. When two sides and the con. tained angle are given. 3d. When the three sides are given. More than these three varieties there cannot possibly be ; and for each of them we shall give a separate theorem. 1050. Theorem I. llhen a side and its opposite angle are two of the given parts. Then - — the sides of the triangle have the same proportion to each other as the sines of their opposite angles have. That is, As any one side Is to the sine of its opposite angle, So is any other side To the sine of its opposite angle. For let ABC (fig. 397.) be the proposed triangle, having AB the greatest side, and BC tne least. Take AD as a radius equal to BC, and let fall the perpendiculars 1)E, CF, which will evidently be the sines of the angles A and B, to the radius AD or BC. Now the triangles ADE, ACF are equiangular ; they therefore have their like sides proportional, namely, AC : CF:: AD or BC : DE, that is, the sine AC is to a the sine of its opposite angle B as the side BC is to the sine of its opposite angle A. Note 1. In practice, when an angle is sought, the proportion is to he begun with a side opposite a given angle ; and to find a side, we must begin with the angle opposite the given side. Note 2. By the above rule, an angle, when found, is ambiguous ; that is, it is not certain whether it be acute or obtuse, unless it come out a right angle, or its magnitude be such as ; to remove the ambiguity ; inasmuch as the sine answers to two angles, which are supple- ments to each other ; and hence the geometrical construction forms two triangles with the same parts, as in an example which will follow: and if there be no restriction or limitation included in the question, either result may be adopted. The degrees in a table answer- ing to the sine is the acute angle ; but if the angle be obtuse, the degrees must be sub- tracted from 180 degrees, and the remainder will be the obtuse angle. When a given angle is obtuse, or is one of 90 degrees, no ambiguity can occur, because neither of the other angles can then be obtuse, and the geometrical construction will only form one triangle. Example 1. In the plane triangle ABC, Let AB be 345 feet, BC 232 feet, L A 37 20' : Required the other parts. First, to the angles at C and B (fig- 398.) Kig. .>y& Chap. L PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 299 As the side BC = 232 - - Log. 2'365488 To sine opp. L A= 37° 20' - - 9-782796 So side Ali =345 - - 2-537819 To sine opp. L C = 115° 36' or 64° 24' = 9955127 Add Z.A= 37 20 37 20 The sum =152 56 101 44 Taken from 180 00 180 00 Leaves L B 27 04 78 16 It is to be observed here that the second and third logarithms are added (that is, the I numbers are multiplied), and from the sum the first logarithm is subtracted (that is, divi- sion by the first number), which leaves the remainder 9-955127, which, by the table of ines, is found to be that of the angle 115° 36', or 64° 24'. To find the side AC. As sine L A = 37° 20' - Log. 9-782796 To opp. side BC = 232 - 2-365488 So sine L B _ f 27 04 9-658037 l 78 16 9-990829 To opp. side A C = 174-04 - 2-240729 Or 374-56 - 2-573521 Example 2. In the plane triangle ABC, Let A B = 365 yai ds, / A = 57° 12' L B = 24 4.5 Herein two angles are given , whose sum is 81° 57'. Therefore 180° — 81° As sine L C = 98° 3' - Log. 9-9956993 Is to A B = 365 - 2-5622929 So sine / B = 24° 45' 9-6218612 To side AC = 154-33 = 2-1884548 To find the side BC. As sine L B = 24° 45' - Log. 9-6218612 Is to AC = 154-33 - 2TS84548 So sin. L A = 57° 12' 9-9245721 309-86 = 2-4911657 To side BC 1051. Theorem II. W/ien two sides and their contained angle are given. The given angle is first to be subtracted from 180° or two right angles, and the remainder ill be the sum of the other two angles. Divide this remainder by 2, which will give the alf sum of the said unknown angles ; and using the following ratio, we have — . As the sum of the two given sides Is to their difference, So is the tangent of half the sum of their opposite angles To the tangent of half the difference of the same angles. Now the half sum of any two quantities increased by their half difference gives the renter, and diminished by it gives the less. If, therefore, the half difference of the angles rove found be added to their half sum, it will give the greater angle, and subtracting it will ave the lesser angle. All the angles thus become known, and the unknown side is then •und by the former theorem. For let ABC {fig. 399.) be the proposed triangle, having the two given sides AC, BC, icluding the given angle C. With the centre C and radius tv A, the less of these two sides, describe a semicircle, meeting e other side of BC produced in E, and the unknown side AB i G. Join AE, CG, and draw DF parallel to AE. Now j E is the sum of the given sides AC, CB, or of EC, CB ; and ! I) |s the difference of these given sides. The external angle ( E is equal to the sum of the two internal or given angles \ 1!, C BA ; but the angle A DE at the circumference is equal • half the angle ACE at the centre ; wherefore the same angle ADE is equal to half e sum of the given angles CAB, CBA. Also the external angle AGC of the triangle P’L is equal to the sum of the two internal angles GCB, GBC, or the angle GCB is i " I t° tfio difference of the two angles AGC, GBC; but the angle CAB is equal to said angle AGC, these being opposite to the equal sides AC, CG ; and the angle DA B Hie circumference is equal to half the angle DCG at the centre. Therefore the angle ! ' B is equal to half the difference of the two given angles CAB, CBA, of which it has I 1 " shown that ADE or CD A is the half sum. l-ig. 3 :»‘J. 300 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. Now the angle DAE in a semicircle, is a right angle, or AE is perpendicular to AD; and DF, parallel to AE, is also perpendicular to AD: therefore AE is the tangent of CD A the half sum ; and DF, the tangent of DAB, the half difference of the angles to the same radius AD, by the definition of a tangent. But the tangents AE, DF being parallel, it will he as BE : BD;; AE : I)F ; that is, as the sum of the sides is to the difference of the sides, so is the tangent of half the sum of the opposite angles to the tangent of half their difference. It is to he observed, that in the third term of the proportion the cotangent of half the given angle may he used instead of the tangent of the half sum of the unknown angles. c Example. In the plane triangle ABC (fig. 400.), Let AB = 345 ft. L A = 37 J 20'. A l-:g. 100. Now, the side AB being 345 The side AC 174-07 From Take L A 180° 00' 37 20 Their sum is 519 07 Their difference 170-93 Sum of C and B Half sum of do. 142 40 71 20 As the sum of the sides A B, AC = 519-07 To difference of sides AB, AC= 170-93 So tang, half sum Ls C and B =71° 20' To tang, half diff. Ls C and B = 44 16' - Log. 2-715226 2-232818 10-471298 9-988890 These added, give L C =115 36' And subtracted give L B = 27 4' By the former theorem : — As sine L C 115° 36', or 64° 24' To its opposite side AB 345 So sine L A 37° 20' To its opposite side BC 232 Log. 9-955126 2-537819 9-782796 2-365488 1052. Theorem III. When the three sides of a triangle are given. Let fall a perpendicular from the greatest angle on the opposite side, or base, dividing it into two segments, and the whole triangle into two right-angled triangles, the propor- tion will he — As the base or sum of the segments Is to the sum of the other two sides, So is the difference of those sides To the difference of the segments of the base. Then take half the difference of these segments, and add it to the half sum, or the half base, for the greater segment ; and for the lesser segment subtract it. Thus, in each of the two right-angled triangles there will he known two sides and the angle opposite to one of them, whence, by the first theorem, the other angles will be found. For the rectangle under the sum and difference of the two sides is equal to the rectangle under the sum and difference of the two segments. Therefore, forming the sides of these rectangles into a proportion, their sums and differences will he found proportional. Example. In the plane triangle ABC (fig. 401.), Let AB = 345 ft. AC = 232 ft. BC= 174-07. Letting fall the perpendicular CP, Base AB : AC + BC:: AC-BC That is, 345 406-07 : : 57-93 1 Its half is The half base is The sum of these is And their difference AP-BP; 68-18 = AP-BP 34-09 172-50 206-59= A P 138-41 = BP c A ' P « Ft*. 401. Tl on, in the triangle A PC right-angled at P, As the side AC =232 To sine opp. L P = 90° So is side AP =206 "59 To sine opp. L A CP = 62° 56' Which subtracted from = 90 0 Leaves L A = 27 04 Log. 2-365488 10-000000 2-315109 9.949621 Chap. I. PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. SOI Again, in the triangle BPC, right-an; As the side BC To sine opp. L P So is side BP To sine opp L BCP Which taken from Leaves the L B ARo the angle A CP Added to the angle BCP Gives the whole angle ACB ;led at P, = 174-07 = 90° 00' = 13S-41 = 52° 40' 90 00 37 20 = 62 56 = 52 40 = 115 36 Log. 2-440724 1 0-000000 2-141136 9-900412 So that the three angles are as follow, viz. L A 27 4' ; L B 37° 20' ; L C 1 15° 36. 1053. Theorem IV. If the triangle be right-angled, any unknown part may be found bi/ tlm following proportion : — As radius Is to either leg of the triangle, So is tangent ot its adjacent angle To the other leg ; And so is secant of the same angle To the hypothenuse. For A B being the given leg in the right-angled triangle ABC, from the entre A with any assumed radius Al) describe an arc DE, and draw DF perpendicular to AB, or parallel to BC. Now, from the definitions, ) F is the tangent and AF the secant of the arc DE, or of the angle A, vhich is measured by that are to the radius AD. Then, because of the larallels BC, DF, we have AD : AB;;DF : BC, and :;AF : AC, which s the same as the theorem expresses in words. Note. Radius is equal to the sine of 90°, or the tangent of 45°, and is xpressed by 1 in a table of natural sines, or by 10 in logarithmic sines. Example 1. In the right-angled triangle ABC, Let the leg AB =162 L A =53° 7' 48" t> B Fig. 402. As radius To leg AB So tang. To leg BC So secant L L A = tang. 45° = 162 - = 53° 7' 48" = 216 - = 53° 7' 48" = 270 - - I.og. 10-000000 2-209515 10-124937 2-334452 10.221848 2-431363 Fig. 405. To hypothenuse AC Note. There is another mode for right-angled triangles, which is as follows: — ABC being such a triangle, make a leg AB radius; or, in other words, from the centre withdistance AB describe an arc BF. It is evident that the other g BC will represent the tangent and the hypothenuse AC the se- nt of the arc BF or of the angle A. In like manner, if BC be taken for radius, the other leg AB repre- nts the tangent, and the hypothenuse AC the secant of the arc BG ■ angle C. If the hypothenuse be made radius, then each leg will represent e sine of its opposite angle; namely, the leg AB the sine of the |c AE or angle C, and the leg BC the sine of the arc CD or igle A. I'hen the general rule for all such cases is, that the sides of the triangle bear to each her the same proportion as the parts which they represent. This method is called akiitg every side radius. 1071. If two sides of a right-angled triangle are given to find the third side, that may be in nd by the property of the squares of the sides (Geom. Prop. 32. ; viz. That the square the hypothenuse or longest side is equal to both the squares of the two other sides getherj. Thus, if the longest side be sought, it is equal to the square root of the sum of e squares of the two shorter sides; and to find one of the shorter sides, subtract one uarc from the other, and extract the square root of the remainder. 1055. The application of the foregoing theorems in the cases of measuring heights and stances will be obvious. It is, however, to be observed, that where we have to find the noth ol inaccessible lines, we must employ a line or base which can be measured, and, by ms of angles, which will be furnished by the use of instruments, calculate the lengths of 1 other lines. 302 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II, Sec r. I V. CONIC SECTIONS. 1 056. The conic sections, in geometry, are those lines formed by the intersections of a plan' with the surface of a cone, and which assume different forms and acquire different properties according to the several directions of such plane in respect of the axis of the cone. Their species are five in number. 1057. Definitions — 1 . A plane passing through the vertex of a cone meeting the plane of the base or of the base produced is called the directing plane. The plane VRX {Jig. 404.) is the directing plane, 2. The line in which the directing plane meets the plane of the base or the plane of the base produced is called the di- recirix. The line IiX is the directrix. 3. If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to the directing plane, the section is called a conic section, as AMR or A HI (Jig. 405.) 4. If the plane of a conic section be cut by another plane at right angles passing along the axis of the cone, the common section of the two planes is called the line of the axis. 5. The point or points in which the line of the axis is cut by the conic surface is or are called the vertex or vertices of the conic section. Thus the points A and R (figs. 404. and 405.) are both vertices, as is the point A or vertex (fig. 406.). 6. If the line of the axis be cut in two points by the conic surface, or by the surfaces of the two opposite cones, the portion of the line thus intercepted is called the primary axis. The line AR (Jigs. 404. and 405.) and AH (fig. 406.) is called the primary axis. 7. If a straight line be drawn in a conic section perpendicular to the line of the axis so as to meet the curve, such straight line is called an ordinate, as l J M in the above figures. 8. The abscissa of an ordinate is that portion of the line of axis contained between the vertex and an ordinate to that line of axis. Thus in figs. 404, 405, and 406. the parts AP, RP of the abscissas AP RP. 9 If the primary axis be bisected, the bisecting point is called the centre of the conic section. 10. If the directrix fall without the base of the cone, the section made by the cutting plane is called an ellipse. Thus, in fig. 404., the section AMR is an ellipse. It is evident that, since the plane of section will cut every straight line drawn from thu vertex of the cone to any point in the circumference of the base, every straight line drawn within the figure will be limited by the conic surface. Hence the axis, the ordinates, and abscissas will be terminated by the curve. 11. If the directrix fall within the base of the cone, the section made by the cutting plane is called an hyperbola. Hence it is evident, that since the directing plane passes alike through both cones, the plane of section will cut each of them, and there- fore two sections will be formed. And as every straight line on the surface of the cone and on the same side of the directing plane cannot meet the cutting plane, neither figure can be enclosed. 12. If the directrix touch the curve forming the base of the cone, the section made by the cutting plane is a parabola OF THE ELLIPSIS. 1058. The primary axis of . an ellipsis is called the major axis, as AR (fig. 407.); and a straight line DE drawn through its centre perpendicular to it, and terminated at each extremity by the curve, is called the minor axis. 1059. A straight line VQ drawn through the centre and ter- minated at each extremity by the curve is called a diameter. Hence the two axes are also diameters. Fia. 107. Thap. I. CONIC SECTIONS. 303 1060. The extremities of a diameter which terminate in the curve are called the vertices ( that diameter. Thus the points V and Q are the vertices of the diameter VQ. 1061. A straight line drawn from any point of a diameter parallel to a tangent at either xtremity of the diameter to meet the curves is called an ordinate to the two abscissas, hus PM, being parallel to a tangent at V, is an ordinate to the two abscissas VP, PQ. 1062. If a diameter be drawn through the centre parallel to a tangent at the extremity f another diameter, these two diameters are called conjugate diameters. Thus VQ, and IS are conjugate diameters. 1063. A third proportional to any diameter and its conjugate is called the parameter or itus rectum. 106-1. The points in the axis where the ordinate is equal to the semi-parameter are died the foci. 106.5. Theorem I. In the ellipsis the squares of the ordinates of an axis are to each other the rectangles of their abscissas. Let AVB (Jig. 408.) be a plane passing through the axis of the cone, and A Ell anther section of the cone perpendicular to the plane of the former ; 11 the axis of the elliptic section, and PM, III ordinates perpen- cular to it , then it will be PM® : HI®:: AP x pb : ah x iib. ir through the ordinates PM, III draw the circular sections ML. MIN parallel to the base of the cone, having KL, MN for icir diameters, to which PM, III are ordinates as well as to the is of the ellipse. Now, in the similar triangles A PL, AIIN, AP : PL:: AH : HN, nd in BI’K, BUM, BP : PK::BH : HM. iking the rectangles of the corresponding terms, AP X BP : PL X PK::AI1 X BII : HN X IIM. \ the property of the circle, PL x PK = PM® and IIN x HM= H I®. Therefore, AP X BP : PM®:: AI1 x HB : III®, or PM® : Hi®:: AP x bp : All x HB. Coroll. 1. If C be the centre of the figure, AP x PB=CA®— CP®, and All x I1B = A®— t’H®. Therefore PM® : HI®: : C A®- CP® : C A®- CH®. For AP = CA-CP, and PB = A + CP: consequently AP x PB=( CA— CP) (CA + CP)= CA® — CP® ; and in the in- manner it is evident that AH x HB = (CA+ CH )(CA— CII ]= CA®— CH®. Coroll. 2. If the point P coincide with the middle point C of the semi-major axis, M will become equal to CE, and CP will vanish ; we shall therefore have PM® : 1H®::CA®-CP® : ca®-CH® Now ce® : ni«::CA® : c A®— CH®, or ca®x iii®=cE2(CA®-cii«). 1066 . Theorem II. In every ellipsis the square of the major axis is to the square of the Oir axis as the rectangle of the abscissas is to the square of their ordinate. Li t AB (fig. 409.) be the major axis, HE the minor axis, C the centre, I’M and III • imates to the axis AB ; then will ca® : CE*:: AP x pb : pm*. r since by Tlicor. I., I’M®: III-';: AP I’ll: All x II B ; and if \ 1 point II Ik- in the centre, then All and IIB become each equal i < A, and III becomes equal to CE ; therefore 1 n PM® : CE®:: AP x pb : CA«; And, alternately. CA* : CE®” AP x PB:: PM®. Coroll. 1. Hence, if we divide the two first terms of the analogy by AC, it will be '• : : : A P X PB : PM 1 . But by the definition of parameter, A It ; DE::I)E : pn- i i- ter, nr ( A ; CE:.'2CE : parameter ~ ' *' . Therefore ' !’ is the parameter, which I u» call P ; then a B : P::Ai*x pb ; pm 1 . ■■roll 2 Hence CA* : CE* : : CA’- CP* : I’M’. For CA’— l'P 3 » (CA — CP) < \ r CP)-(AP X PB). ...oil. 3 lienee, also, Ml; P::C’A*-CI" : I’M*. 304 THEORY OF ARCHITECT!' HE. Kook II. 1067. Theorem III. In every ellipsis, the square of the minor axis is to the square of tht major axis as the difference of the squares of half the minor axis ami the distance of an ordinate from the centre on the minor axis to the square of that ordinate. Draw MQ (fg. 410.) parallel to AB, meeting CE in Q; then A will CE 2 : CA 2 : : CE 2 — CQ 2 : QM 2 ; For by Cor. 2 . Tlieor. II., CA 2 ; CA 2 -CP 2 ::CE 2 : PM 2 ; Therefore, by division, C A 2 : CP-::CE 2 : CE 2 — PM 2 . Therefore, since CQ=PM and CP=QM ; CA 2 : QM 2 :;CE 2 : CE 2 — CQ. 2 . Coroll. 1 . If a circle be described on each axis as a diameter, one being inscribed within the ellipse, and the other circumscribed about it, then an ordinate in the circle will be to the corresponding ordinate in the ellipsis as the axis belonging to this ordinate is to the axis belonging to the other ; that is, CA : CE : : PG : PM, and CE : C A : \pg '. p M ; and since CA 2 ; CE 2 :: AP x PB : PM 2 , and because AP x PB = PG 2 ; CA 2 : CE 2 :: PC 2 : PM 2 , or CA : CE::PG : PM. In the same manner it may be shown that CE : CA \'.pg />M, or, alternately, C A : CE : :pM : pg ; therefore, by equality, PG : PM ; :y>M : pg, or PG : Cp : : CP : pg: therefore G 7 G is a continued straight line. Coroll. 2. Hence, also, as the ellipsis and circle are made up of the same number o ( corresponding ordinates, which are all in the same proportion as the two axes, it follows that the area of the whole circle and of the ellipsis, as also of any like parts of them, arc in the same ratio, or as the square of the diameter to the rectangle of the two axes; that is, the area of the two circles and of the ellipsis are as the square of each axis and the rectangle of the two ; and therefore the ellipsis is a mean proportional between the twe circles. Coroll. 3. Draw MQ parallel to GC, meeting ED in Q; then will QM = CG = CA; and let 11 be the point where QM cuts AB; then, because QMGC is a parallelogram. QM is equal to CG = CE; and therefore, since QM is equal to CA, half the major axi: and 11 M = CE, half the minor axis Qlt is the difference of the two semi-axes, and hence we have a method of describing the ellipsis. This is the principle of the trammel, so frii known among workmen. If we conceive it to move in the line DE, and the point R in the line AB, while tin point M is carried from A, towards E, B, D, until it return to A, the point M will in it progress describe the curve of an ellipsis. 1068. Theorem IV. The square of the distance of the foci from the centre of an ellipsis i equal to the difference of the square of the semi-axes. Let AB (fig. 412.) be the major axis, C the centre, F the focus, and EG the semi-para meter; then will CE 2 =CA 2 — CF 2 . For draw CE perpendicular to A B, and join FE. By Cor. 2 . Th. II., CA 2 : CE 2 ::CA 2 — CF 2 : EG 2 , and the parameter FG is a third proportional to CA, CE; therefore CA 2 : CE 2 ::CE 2 : FG 2 , and as in the two ana- logies the first, second, and fourth terms are identical, the third terms are equal ; consequently CE 2 = C A 2 — C F 2 . Coroll. 1 . Hence CF 2 = CA 2 — CE 2 . Coroll. 2 . The two semi-axes and the distance of the focus from the centre are the side of a right-angled triangle CFE, and the distance FE from the focus to the extremity t the minor axis is equal to CA or CB, or to half the major axis. Coroil. 3. The minor axis CE is a mean proportional between the two segments of th axis on each side of the focus. For CE 2 = CA 2 — CF 2 = (CA + CF) x (CA — CF). 1069. Theorem V. In an ellipsis, the sum of the lines drawn from the foci to any point > the curve is equal to the major axis. Let the points F, f (fig. 413.) be the two foci, and M a point in the curve ; join I'M and/'M, then will AB = 2CA=FM + J"S\. By Cor. 2 . Th. II., CA 2 : CE 2 ::CA 2 -CP 2 : PM 2 , But by Th. IV., CE 2 = C A 2 — CF 2 ; Therefore CA 2 : CA 2 - CF 2 : : CA 2 - CP 2 : PM 2 ; And by taking the rectangle of the extremes and means, and dividing the equation. I' CA 2 , tlie result is — Kir. 4 12. G Fip. 410. CONIC SECTIONS. 305 PM 2 =CA 2 - ■«-— CF. + ^. And because FP 2 =(CF- CP) 2 = CF 2 -2CF. CP+ CP 2 , And since FM 2 = I?M 2 + FP 2 . Therefore FM 2 = CA 2 — 2CF . CP + CF 2 ■ CP 2 CA 2 ‘ CF CP j xtraeting the root from each number, FM = C A — . CA + CF. CP C A 2 5 therefore the SJin cf In the same manner it may be shown that FM = ese is FM +/'M= 2CA. Coroll. 1. A line drawn from a focus to a point in the curve is called a radius vector, and e difference between either radius vector and half the major axis is equal to half the (Terence between the radius vectors. For, since /M=CA — therefore, by transposition, CF . CP CA CA : CA— /M. CF . CP Because — is a fourth proportional to CA, CF’, CP; therefore CA ic I Coroll. 2. K;:CP : CA— /M. Coroll.. - !. Hence the difference between the major axis and one of the radius vectors gives p other radius vector. For, since FM + Mjf=2CA ; Therefore F M = 2 C A — My. Coroll. 4. Hence is derived the common method of describing an ellipsis mechanically, a thread or by points, thus : — Find the foci Fy (fig. 414.), and in the axis AB assume y point G ; then with the radius A G from the point F as a h e h itre describe two arcs IT, H, one on each side of the axis ; and tli the same radius from the point f describe two other arcs h, one on each side of the major axis Again, with the distance 11 from the point y describe two arcs, one on each side of the axis, ersecting the arcs IIH in the points HIT ; and with the same 11 h ius from the pointy describe two other arcs, one on each side of Fia ’ 414 ' axis, intersecting the arcs described at h, h in the point h, h. In this manner we may 1 as many points as we please ; and a sufficient number being found, the curve will be ined by tracing it through all the points so determined. 1070. Theorem VI. The square of half the major axis is to the square of half the minor s ns the difference of the squares of the distances of any two ordinates ) in the centre to the difference of the squares of the ordinates them- •es. I.c-t PM and III (fig. 415.') be ordinates to the major axis AB; 1 .w MN parallel to AB, meeting FII in the point N ; then will I = IIN, and MN= PH, and the property to be demonstrated is I is expressed — CA 2 : CE 2 ::CP 2 -CH 2 : ITI 2 - TIN 2 1 by producing HI to meet the curve in the point K, and making CQ=CP, the pro- | tv to be proved will be CA 2 : CE 2 : : PIT x ITQ : KN. f CA 2 ; CE 2 ::CA 2 — CP 2 ; PM 2 , ^ CA 2 : CE 2 ::CA 2 -CTI 2 : HI 2 . CA 2 — CII 2 : CA 2 — CII 2 CA 2 — CII 2 And, since we have above, CA 2 — CII 2 Therefore, by equality, CA 2 : CE 2 ::CP 2 — CTI 2 : HI 2 — TIN 2 ; But since CP 2 -CH 2 = (CF-CH)(CP+ CTI) = PIT x QII, And since III 2 -IIN 2 =(HI-HN)(HI+ ITN) = NI x KN, Therefore CA 2 : CE 2 ; : PI I x TIQ : NIxNK. oroll. 1. Hence half the major axis is to half the minor axis, or the major axis is to t tie ■r axis, as the difference of the squares of any two ordinates from the centre is to the ingle of the two parts of the double ordinate, which is the greatest made of the sum difference of the two semiordinates. I’or KN = IIK + HN=III + UN, which is tho By Cor. 2. Theor. II. Therefore But, by division, Alternately, CA 2 — CP 2 ;:III 2 : CP 2 — CH 2 :: Hi 2 III 2 :: CP 2 - CII 2 lll 2 ::CA 2 : CE 2 , PM 2 or IINT HI 2 - TIN*. HI 2 — HN 2 ; ■ ( ili ( » • of the two ordinates, and NT = II I — II N, which is the difference of the two ordinates, oroll. j. Hence, because CP-’ — CTI 2 = (CP — CII)(CP + C1I), and since 1 1 1 2 — 1 1 N 2 — — HN)(III + I IN), and because CP- CII PH and III-IIN = NI; theiefora : CE-::(CP ^ CH)PII : (ill t HN)N1. X 306 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1. Fig. 4)6. 1071. Theorf.m VII. In the ellipsis, half the major axis is a mean proportional between the distance of the centre and an ordinate, and the distance between the centre avd the intersection of a tangent to the vertex of that or- dinate. To the major axis draw the ordinates PM (fig. 416.) and HI, and the minor axis CE. Draw MN perpendicular to HI. Through the two points I,M, draw MT, IT, meeting the major axis produced in T ; then will CT : CA : : C A : CP. For, By Cor. 1. Theor.VI., CE"- : CA 3 : :(IH + FIN)IN : (PC+CH)HP; By Cor. 2. Th. II., CE°- : CA°-::PM2 ; C A' 2 — CP- ; Therefore, by equality, PM 2 : CA' 2 — CP 2 : :(IIl + IIN) IN : (PC + CH)HP. By similar triangles, 1NM, 1VIPT ; IN : NM or PH : : PM : PT or CT- CP Therefore, taking the rectangles of the extremes and means of the two last equations, am throwing out the common factors, they will be converted to the equation PM( C T - C P)( C P + C H) = ( C A 2 - CP 2 )(I H + II N). But when III and PM coincide, HI and HN will become equal to PM, and CII wil become equal to CP ; therefore, substituting in the equation 2CP for CP + PH, and 2 ID for III + HN, and throwing out the common factors and the common terms, we have CT. CI’ = CA' 2 or CT : CA::CA : CP. Coroll. 1. Since CT is always a third proportional to CP and CA, if the points P, A, F remain fixed, the point T will he the same; and therefore the tangents which are draw: from the point M, which is the intersection of PQ. and the curve, will meet in the point '1 in every ellipsis described on the same axis AB. Coroll. 2. When the outer ellipsis AQ.B, by enlarging, becomes a circle, draw Q.T per pendicular to CQ, and joining TM, then TM will be a tangent to the ellipsis at M. Coroll. 3. Hence, if it were required to draw a tangent from a given point Tin the pro longation of the major axis to the ellipsis AEB, it will be found thus : — On AB descril' the semicircle AQB. Draw a tangent TQ, to the circle, and draw the ordinate PQ intei seeting the curve AEB of the ellipsis in the point M ; join TM ; then TM is the tangei required. This method of drawing a tangent is extremely useful in practice. 1072. Theorem VIII. Four perpendiculars to the major axis intercepted by it and a tai gent will be proportionals when the first and last have one of their extremities in the vertices, the second in the point of contact, and the third in the centre. Let the four perpendiculars be AD, PM, CE, BF, of which AD and BF' have their extremities in the vertices A and B, the second in the point of contact M, and the third in the centre C ; T then will AD : PM::CE : BF. For, by Theor. VII., TC : AC:: AC : CP; By division, TC-AC : CA-CP: That is, TA : AP::TC : CB. By composition, TA : TA+ AP;;TC Therefore TA ; TP::TC : TB. "But by the similar triangles TAD, TPM, TCE, and TBF, the sides TA, TP, TC, a TB are proportionals to the four perpendiculars AD, PM, CE, and BF; therefore AD : PM::CE : BF. Coroll. 1. If AM and CF be joined, the triangles TAM and TCF will be similar. For by similar triangles, the sides TD, TM, TE, TF are in the same proportion 3s t sides TA, TP, TC, TB. Therefore TD : TM : : TE Alternately, TD ; TE : : TM . TF Hence TD : TE : : TA ; TC ; Therefore, by equality, TA ; TM;:TC : TF Coroll. 2. The triangles APM and CBF are similar; For By division, That is, Alternately, Consequently, Therefore, by equality, AP Coroll. 3. If AF' be drawn cutting PM in I, then will PI be equal to the half of IB :TC: ACorCB; TC+ CB: Fig. 417 TF; TA : : TP : : TC : TB. TP : : TP- TA: : TB : TB TP : : AP:: : TB : CB. TP : TB:: AP : CB: but TP : : TB:: : I’M . BF: AP : : PM: : CB : BF. but TAD is similar to TCE; TC; but TPM is similar to TBF ■ 'hap I. CONIC SUCTIONS. 307 A F P N C Fig. 1 IS. For, since AP : PM:;CB : BF, and, by the similar triangles API, ABF, Al> : PI::AB : BF ; Therefore PM : PI;:CB : AB. hit CB is the half of AB ; therefore, also, PI is the half of PM. I07S. Theore.m IX. If two lines lie drau-n from the foci of an ellipse to any point in true, these two lines will make equal angles with a tangent passing through that point. Let TM (fg- 418.) he a tangent touching the curve a the point M, and let F, f he the two foci; join M. /INI, then will the angle FMT he equal to the igle /M li. For draw the ordinate PM, and draw li parallel to I’M, then will the triangles TFM and fit he similar ; and hy Cor. Theor. VII., CA : CP: : CT : CA ; By Cor. 2. Theor. V., CA : CP::CF : CA-FM; Therefore, hy equality, CT : CF::CA : CA— FM. By division and composition, CT — CF : CT + CF : : FM : 2CA— FM ; That is, TF : Tf ; : F M : / M. By the similar triangles TFM, T/R; TF : T/: : FM :/R. tlierefore appears that f M is equal to f R, therefore the angle /MR is equal to the gle/IiM : hut because FM and/R are parallel lines, the angle FMT is equal to the igle/RM ; therefore Tie angle FMT is equal to the angle/MR. Coroll. 1. Hence a line drawn perpendicular to a tangent through the point of contact 11 bisect tlie angle FM/, or the opposite angle DMG. For let MN he perpendicular the tangent TR. Then, because the angle NMT and NMR are right angles, they are ual to one another ; and since the angles FMT and /MR are also equal to one another, l* remaining angles NMF and NM/ are equal to one another. Again, because the oppo- e angles FMN and IMG are equal to one another, and the opposite angle /MN and VI D are equal to one another ; therefore the straight line MI, which is the line MN pro- ced, will also bisect the angle DMG. Coroll. 2. The tangent will bisect the angle formed by one of the radius vectors, and the olongation of the other. For prolong FM to G. Then, because the angles RMN and MI are right angles, they are equal to one another; and because the angles NM/ and ID are equal to one another, the remaining angles RMG and RM/ are equal to one other. Scholium. Hence we have an easy method of drawing a tangent to any given point M in curve, or of drawing a perpendicular through a given point in the curve, which "is the ual mode of drawing the joints for masonic arches. Thus, in order to draw the line IM rpcndicular to the curve : produce FM to G, and/M to D, and draw MI bisecting the le DMG ; then IM will be perpendicular to the tangent TR, and consr juently to the rve. As in optics the angle of incidence is always found equal to the angle >f reflection, it nears that the foundation of that law follows from this theorem ; for rays of light issuing m one focus, and meeting the curve in any point, will he reflected into lines drawn from •se points to the other focus: thus the ray/M is reflected into MF : and this is the son why the points F / are called foci, or burning points. In like manner, a sound in i focus is reflected in the other focus. 1074. Theorem X. Every parallelogram which has its sides parallel to two conjugate meters and circumscribes an ellipsis is equal to the rectangle of the two ax es. I.et CM and Cl ( fg. 419.) be two semi conjugate diame- Complete the parallelogram Cl DM. Produce CA MI) to meet in T, and let AT meet 1)1 in t. Draw and PM ordinates to the axis, and draw half the minor CK. Produce DM to K, and draw CK perpendicular 1)K then will the parallelogram CIDM he equal to the ingle, who ■ sides are CA and CE ; or four times the riK.-na. angle CIDM will he equal to the rectangle made of the two a::es AB and GE. By Cor. Theor. VII., Therefore By the similar triangles Ctl, TCM, By equality, therefore, By the similar triangles Cl II, TMI Therefore, hy equality, Consequently But by Theor. VII., I'herefore, since ( T CPs I’T. fCA : CT ::CP : CA, l Ct : CA: : CA : CIl ; C t : CT: : CP : CII. Ct : CT: :CI : TM ; ci : TM ::CP : CII. ci : TM : : CI! : l’T; CD : PT ::CP : CII. CP > < PT = CIP CP > c CT = CA'- ; CP-' i CP .PT- CA/ THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II 308 CP. PT = CA- — CP - ; CH°-= CA-— CP-, CP-= CA' 2 — CH 2 . CA- x HI 2 = CE-(CA-’ — CH-), CA«x FII 2 = CE- x CPH CA : CP::CE CA : CP: : CT CE : HI : : CT : HI. CA ; CA. JLln And, by transposition, Hence, by equality, Or, by transposition, But by Cor. 2. Theor. I., And substituting CP- for its equal CA2-CHS, we have Therefore But again, by Theor. VII., By equality, therefore, But by tlie similar triangles IIIC, KCT, III : CI::CK : CT ; Therefore CE : CI::CK : CA : Consequently CE x CA=CI x CK. The ellipsis is of so frequent occurrence in architectural works, that an acquaintance with all the properties of the curve, and the modes of describing it, is of great importance to the architect. Excepting the circle, which may be called an ellipsis in which the two foci coincide, it is the most generally employed curve in architecture. 1075. Problem I. To describe an ellipsis. Let two pins at E and F {fig. 420.) be fixed in a plane within a string whose ends are made fast at C. If the point C be drawn equally tight while it is moved forward in the plane till it returns to the place from which it commenced, it will describe an ellipsis. 1076. Prob. II. The tiro diameters AB and ED of an ellipse being given in position and magnitude, to describe the curve through points. Let the two diameters cut each other at C (fig. 421.). Draw A F and BG parallel to ED. Divide AC and AF each into the same number of equal parts, and draw lines, as in the figure, through the points of division; viz. those from the line A F to the point D, and the lines through AC to the point E; then through the points of intersection of the corresponding lines draw the curve A D, and in the same manner find the curve 151) ; then ADB will be the semi-ellipsis. It is evident that the same method also extends to a circle by making CD equal to CA; (fig. 422.) ; and it appears that the two lines forming any point of the curve to be drawn will make a right angle with each other. For these lines terminate at the ex- tremities of the diameter ED, and the point of concourse being in the curve, the angle made by them must be a right angle ; that is, the angle E A D, or E/iD, or Ei'D. or EAD, is a right angle: and from this property we have the following method of drawing the segment of a circle through points found in the curve. Thus, let AB be the chord, and CD be the versed sine of an arc of a circle, to describe tlw arc. Through D draw HI (fig. 423.) parallel to AB; join AD and DB ; draw AH per- pendicular to AD, and BI perpendicular to BD; divide AC and FID each into the same number of equal parts, and join the corresponding points ; divide AF into the same number of equal parts, and through the points of di- vision draw lines to D, and through the corresponding points where these lines meet the former draw a curve AD. In the same manner the other half BD may be drawn. 1077. Plica. III. A diameter KH of an ellipsis being given, and an ordinate DL, M find the limits of the other conjugate diameter. Bisect KH in I (fig. 424.), through I draw EA parallel to DL, ar.d draw DC and KB 1 perpendicular to EA; from the point L with the distance K describe an arc cutting EA at F ; join LF, and produce LF to C; make IE and I A each equal to L C ; then will EA be a diameter conjugate to KIL 1078. Prob. IV. A diameter KH and, an ordinate DL of an ellipsis being given, to describe the. curve. (fig- 424.) Find the limits E and A of the other conjugate diameter by the pi eceding construction. Produce KB to q, and make Kry equal to 1A or IE, and through the centre 1 of the curve and the point q, draw the straight line MN. Then, suppose the straight line K 15 q to be an inflexible rod, having the point If marked upon it. Move the rod round, so that the point q on the rod may be in the lint MN, while the point B is in the line EA : then, at any instant of the motion, the plat' 1 Fig. 122. It 1 F 2 3 D G I 'mmi c Fi*. 423. Fig. 421. HAP. I. CONIC SECTIONS. 309 each other, the K f the p jint K un the plane whereon the figure is to he drawn may be marked ; the points us found will be in the curve. Instead of a rod. a slip of paper may be used, and in some ises a rod with adjustible points to slide in a cross groove, and a sliding head for a pencil convenient; and such an instrument is called a trammel. When the diameters KH and EA (.Jig. 425.) are at right an raight line Kg coincides with the diameter KH, and consequently le line MN, on which the point q of the inflexible line K q moves, ill also fall upon the diameter KH. Therefore in this case no- ting more is required to find the limits of the other diameter, tan to take the half diameters IK, KH of the given diameters, id from the extremity L with that distance describe an arc itting the unlimited diameter in the point F; then drawing Fi S . 425 . F, and producing it to q. and making IE and 1A each equal to the axis CD make El equal to EH, and on the axis AB ke EF equal to EG. Then, having the major axis AB, and minor axis FG, the ellipsis FIG II may be described, and when drawn, it will be filar to the given ellipsis ADBC. 081. Piiob. VII. Through any given point p, within the curve of a given ellipsis to critic another ellipsis which shall be similar ami concentric to the given one. Let C (Jig. 428.) be its centre. Draw the straight line CpP, cutting the curve of the n ellipsis in P. In such curve take any other number of u mts Q, It, S, Sec., and join QC, ItC, SC, &c. ; join PQ and «• pq parallel thereto cutting qC at 17 : join PR and draw pr allel to Pli, cutting RC at r; join PS and draw ps parallel to cutting SC in s. The whole being completed, and the curve , /, 1 / drawn through the points p, q, r, s, & c., the figure will similar and concentric to the given ellipse P, S, T, U ; or when points at the extremities for one half of the curve have been wn, the other half may be found by producing the diameter to the opposite side, and king the part produced equal to the other part. l f tso. Pkob. VIII. About a given rectangle ABCI) to describe an ellipsis which shall ' its major and minor a rcs respectively parallel ta the sides of the rectangle anil its centre in points of intersection of the two diagonals. Ih'.cit tin sides AD Hid A B (Jig. 429.) of the rectangle respectively at I. and O mm u Ki«. I** 310 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1. through L draw GII parallel to AB cutting the opposite side BC of the rectangle in ill, and through the point O draw K1 parallel to AD or BC cutting the opposite side DC in N. In NK or NK produced, make NQ equal to NC, and join CQ; draw QR parallel to GH cutting CB or CB produced in R; make EH and EG each equal to QC, as also El and EK each equal to PC ; then will GTI be the major axis and KI the minor axis of the ellipsis required. The demonstration of this method, in which the line QK has nothing to do with the construction, is as follows : — By the similar triangles CPM and CQR, we have CP : CM::CQ : CR. But because RIP is equal to A1C=EN, and since CR is equal to RQ=EM, And, by construction, since PC is equal to El or EK, and QC is equal to EG or Eli, El : EN::EH : EM, or, alternately, El : EH : : E N : ERI. But EN is equal to MC, and EM equal to NC ; Whence El : EH::RIC : CN. But since the wholes are as the halves, we shall have KI : GH : : BC : CD. This problem is useful in its application to architecture about domes and pendentives, as well as in the construction of spheroidal ceilings and other details. OF THE HYPERBOLA. 1 083. The direction of a plane cutting a cone, which produces the form called the hyper- bola, has been already described ; its most useful properties will form the subject of the following theorems, which we shall preface with a few definitions : — 1 . The primary axis of an hyperbola is called the transverse axis. 2. A straight line drawn through the centre of an hyperbola and terminated at each extremity by the opposite curves is called a diameter. 3. The extremities of a diameter terminated by the two opposite curves are called the vertices of that diameter. 4. A straight line drawn from any point of a diameter to meet the curve parallel to a tangent at the extremity of that diameter is called an ordinate to the two abscissas. 5. A straight line which is bisected at right angles by the transverse axis in its centre, and which is a fourth proportional to the mean of the two abscissas, their ordinate, and the transverse axis, is called the conjugate axis. 6. A straight line which is a third proportional to the transverse and conjugate axis is called the latus rectum or parameter. ■ 7. The two points in the transverse axis cut by ordinates which are equal to the semi-parameter are cal ed the foci. 1084. I heorem I. In the hyperbola the squares of the ordinates of the transverse axis are to each other as the rectangles of their abscissas. Let QVN {fig. 430.) be a section of the cone passing along the axis VD, the line of section of the directing plane, H 13 the line of axis of the cutting plane, the directing and cutting plane being perpendi- cular to the plane QVN. Let the cone he cut by two planes perpen- dicular to the axis passing through the two points P, H, meeting the plane of section in the lines PM, HI, which are ordinates to the circles and to the figure of the section, of the same time. By the similar triangles APL and AHNj AP : PL:: AH : HN; And by the similar triangles BPK and BILQ, BP : PK:;BH : HQ. Therefore, taking the rectangles of the corresponding terms, AP x BP ; l’L x PK :: All * BII : HN x IIQ. But in the circle, PL x PK= PM 2 , and IIN x HQ=HI 2 ; Therefore AP x BP : PM 2 :: AH x BFI : Hi 2 , Or, alternately, PA'I 2 : HI 4 .:: AP : PB ; AH : BFI. 1085. Theorem II. In the hyperbola, as the square of the transverse axis is to the square o f the conjugate axis, so is the rectangle of the abscissas to the square of their ordinate. Let AB {Jig. 431.) be the transverse axis, GE the conjugate axis, C being the centre of the opposite curves; also let HI and PRI be or- dinates as before ; then will AB 2 : GE 2 ::PA x PB : PM 2 . Or CA 2 : CE 2 : : PA x PB : PRI 2 . By Theor. 1., PA x PB : HA x FIB: :PM 2 : III 2 ; Alternately, PA x PB : PRI 2 : ; II A x FIB : : HI 2 . But ' II A X HB : HI 2 :: AB 2 : GE 2 ; Therefore AB 2 ; GE 2 ;;1’A x PB : PRI 2 . Fig. 430. Fi t . ■HAP. T. CONIC SECTIONS. SI 1 Fig. 432 / Curoll. Hence AB 2 : GE 2 : : C P 2 - CA 2 : PM 2 (Jig. 432.). For let the cutting plane ' the opposite hyperbola intersect two circles parallel to the base in II and PM, and let the cone be cut by another plane parallel to the ise, passing through the centre C of the transverse axis, and let mn e the diameter of the circle made by such plane. Then A Cm, APK are similar, and AC : Cm” AP : PK. And as BC«, BPL are similar, BC : C n ”BP : PL. irrefore, taking the rectangles of the corresponding terms, BC X AC : On X Cm” BP x AP : PL X PK. But BC = AC ; Cm x Cn — Ct 2 ; and PL xPK = PM 2 . Therefore AC 2 : Ct 2 : : AP x BP : PM 2 . Though Ct is not in the same plane, it is what is usually called the mi-conjugate axis, and it agrees with what has been demonstrated the first part of this proposition. 1086. Theorem III. In the hyperbola, the square of the semi- ’ jugate axis is to the square of the semi-transverse axis as the sum ' the squares of the semi-conjugate axis and of the ordinate parallel to it is to the square oj the seissas. Let AB {.fig. 433.) be the transverse axis, GE the conjugate, C the cen- j of the figure, and PM an ordinate, then will GE 2 : AB 2 ::CE 2 + PM 2 : CP 2 . For, by Theor. II., CE 2 : CA 2 ”PM 2 : CP 2 -CA 2 , And, by composition, CE 2 : CA 2 ”CE 2 +PM 2 : CP 2 . This demonstration may be also applied to what are called conjugate perbolas. 1087. Theorem IV. In the hyperbola, the square of the distance of the us from the centre is equal to the sum of the squares of the semi-axes. Let AB {fig. 434.) lie the transverse axis, CE the semi-conjugate. In B, produced within the curve each way, let F be one focus; and f the ler, and let FG be the semi-parameter then CF 2 =CA 2 + CE 2 . For, by Theor. I., CA 2 : CE 2 ”FA x FB : FG 2 ; But, by property of parameter, C A 2 : CE 2 ”CE 2 : FG 2 . Therefore CE 2 = AF x FB = CF- CA ; And, by transposition, CF 2 = CA 2 + CE 2 . Coroll. 1. The two semi-axes, and the distance of the focus from the centre, are the sides a right-angled triangle CEA, of which the distance AE the distance of the focus from the centre. Coroll. 2. The conjugate axis CEis a mean proportional ween FA and FB, or between f B and /A, for CE 2 = 2 — CA=(CF+ CA) x (CF— CA)=BF x AF. 1088. Theorem V. The difference of the radius vectors qual to the transverse axis. (fig. 435.) That is, /M-FM=AB = 2CA = 2CB. For C A 2 : CE 2 ; ; CP 2 - C A 2 : PM 2 ; And CE 2 = CF 2 — CA 2 . Therefore CA 2 : CF 2 - CA 2 : : CP 2 - CA 2 : PM 2 . id by taking the rectangle of the extremes and means, and iding by CA 2 , Fig. 43.1. PM«= CPxCl’2 C.V-’ -CF 2 -CP 2 + CA 2 ; But \i.d FP 2 = (CP— CF) 2 = CP 2 = 2CP x CF + CF 2 , FM* = PM*+ FP 2 . Fig. 431. Fltf. herefore FM-'= -2CP x CF+ CA 2 . each side of this eipration is a complete square. Therefore, extracting the root of each number, In the same manner we find FM = cp>cr (A -CA. /M = C CA- + CA And, subtracting the upper equation from the lower, fM.— FM = 2CA. 1 orull. I. Hence is derived the common method of describing the hyperbolic curve hanically. Thus: — In the transverse axis AB produced {fig. 435.), take the foci F, f, any point I in the straight line AB so produced. Then, with the ratlii A I, BI, and the 312 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 centre F, f describe arcs intersecting each other ; call the points of intersection E, then E « ill be a point in the curve ; with the same distances another point on the other side of the axis may he found. In like manner, by taking any other points I, we may find two more points, one on each side of the axis, and thus continue till a sufficient number of points he found to describe the curve by hand. By the same process, we may also de- . scribe the opposite hyperbolas. Coroll. 2. Because — is a fourth proportional to CA, CF CP, CA : C F : ; C P : CA + FM. 1089. Theorem V I. As the square of the semi-transverse axis is to the square of the semi-conjugate, so is the difference of the squares of any two obscissas to the difference of the squares of their ordinates. CA- : CE 2 ::CP 2 -CA 2 : PAH {fig. 436.), CA« : CE*::CH9-CA3 : HR CH 2 -CA 2 : CP- — CA 2 His ; PJI5 0 r HN°-; II., By Theor Therefore, by equality, And, by division, CH 2 -CA 2 : CH 2 -CP 2 :: HI* : HI 2 — HN 2 ; Fig. Alternately, CH 2 -CA 2 : HI 2 ::Cir- CP 2 ; HI 2 — I IN 2 . But CH 3 -CA-' : : HI* ::CA 3 : CE 3 Therefore CA 2 : CE 2 : : CH 2 -CP 2 : HI 2 — HN 2 . C+ - 'I A Coroll. 1. If III be produced to K, and CQ, he made equal to CP, then will CII- — CP 2 — (CH + CP)(CH — CP) = (CP+ CH)PH ; and HI 2 - I-IN 2 = (H1 + HN)(I-II- HN) = (III + HN)NI. Therefore the analogy resulting becomes CA 2 : CE-::(CP+ CH)PH : (HI + HN)NI. So that the square of the transverse axis is to the square of the conjugate, or the square ol the semi-transverse is to the square of the semi-conjugate, as the rectangle of the sum and difference of the two ordinates from the centre is to the rectangle of the sum and differ- ence of these ordinates. 1090. Theorem VII. If a tangent and an ordinate be drawn from any point in an hyper- bola to meet the transverse axis, the semi-transverse axis will be a mean proportional between the distances of the two intersections from the centre. For {fig. 437.) CE 3 : C AH : (IH + HN)IN: : (PC + CH)HP , And by Theor. I., CE 2 : CA 2 :: PM 2 : CP--CA 2 ; By equality, PM 2 : CP 2 - CA 2 :: (III + II N) IN : (PC + CH)HP ; And by similar triangles I NM, MPT, IN : NM or PII:: PM : PT or CP-CT. Therefore, taking the rectangles of the extremes and means of the two last equations, and neglecting the common factors, it will he PM(CP — CT)( CP + CH)=(CP 2 — CA 2 )(IH + HN) ; hut when IH and PM coincide, I FI and HN each become equal to PM, and CH equal to CP: therefore in the equation substitute 2CPfor CP + CH, and 2PM / for IH+ HN, and neglecting the common factors and common terms, / the result is CT.CP=CA 2 , or CT : CA::CA : CP. Coroll. Since CT is always a third proportional to CP, CA ; suppose Fic.RV. the points P and A to remain constant, the point T will also remain constant; therefore all the tangents will meet in the point T which are drawn from the ex- tremity of the ordinate M of every hyperbola described on the same axis A B. 1091. Theorem VIII. Four perpendiculars to the transverse axis in- tercepted by it and a tangent, will be proportionals when the first and last lave one of their extremities in each vertex, the second in the point of con- tact, and the third in the centre. Let the four perpendiculars he AD, PM, CE, BF {fig. 438.), whereof AD and BF have their extremities in the vertices A and B, and the second in the point of contact M of the tangent and the curve, and the third in the centre C. Then will AD : PM:;CE : BF. For, by Theor. VII., CT : CA : : C A : CP, And, by division, CA— CT : CP— CA : ; CT : CA or CB ; That is, AT : AP::CT : CB ; By composition, AT : AT+ AP::CT : CT+ CB. Therefore AT : TP::CT : BT. VI Bv. F. 1 / / \ CONIC SECTIONS. 313 ii* r. 1. iut bv the similar triangles TAD, TPM, TCE, and TBF, the sides AT, PT, CT, l id BT are proportional to the tour perpendiculars AD, PM, CE, BF. Therefore AI): PM::CE : BF. nki Fig. 439. 1092. Theorem IX. The tuo radius vectors meeting the curve in the same point will !;««/ angles with a tangent passing through that point. {Fig. 439.) Fur, by Theor. VII., CA ; CP::CT ; CA ; | Bv Cor. 2. Theor. V., CA : CP::CF : CA+ FM; Bv equality, CT : CF:: CA : CA h FM ; ; Bv division and composition, CF— CT : CF + CT:: FM : 2CA + FM ; That is, FT : /T::FM :/R; ! And by the similar triangles TFM, T/R, FT : /T::FM : / R. herefore < /'K is equal to J"Sl ; consequently the angle /'RM is equal the angle / M R : and because /R is parallel to /M, the angle MT is equal to the angle /RM ; therefore the angle FMT is Lual to the angle f RIM. 1093. Pkobi.km 1. To describe an hyperbola by means of the end ! a ruler moveable on a pin F ( Jig 440.) fixed in a plane, with one / of a string fixed to a point E in the same plane, and the other ex- | mity of the string fastened to the other end C of the ruler, the point of the ruler being moved towards G in that plane. While the ruler is moving, a point D being made to slide > ig the edge of the ruler, kept close to the string so as to keep each of the parts C I), E of the string stretched, the point D will describe ■ curve of an hyperbola. If the end of the ruler at F ( fig. 441.) be made liveable about the point E, and the string be fixed F and to the end C of the ruler, as before, another rve may be described in the same manner, which is lied the opposite hyperbola : the points E and F, iut which the ruler is made to revolve, are the foci. There are ina .y occasions in which the use of this nic section occurs in architectural details. For nance, the profiles of many of the Grecian mould- 's are hyperbolic ; and in conical roofs the forms by intersections such that the student should be II acquainted with the methods of describing it. Ill'l l. Pauli. II. (riven the diameter A B, the ab- ort BC, and the double ordinate DE in position and i/nitude, to describe the hyperbola. ( Fig. 442.) Through B draw FG parallel to DE, and draw DF and EG parallel to A B. Divide DF and 1)C each into the same number of equal parts, it. ! from the points of division in BF draw lines to B, also from points of division in DC draw straight lines to A ; then lough the points of intersection found by the lines drawn "ugh the corresponding points draw the curve DB. In like oner the curve EB may be drawn so that DBE will form curve on each side of the diameter A B. If the point A he i.idered a-, the vertex, the opposite hyperbola II A I may be vribed in the same manner, and thus the two curves formed by ‘ ting the opposite cones by the same plane will lie found. By theorists, the hyperbola has been considered a proper figure quilibrium for an arch whose office is to support a load which rciitest at the middle of the arch, and diminishes towards the I menu. I Ins, however, is matter of consideration for another part of this work. Fill. 111. or THE PARAKOI.A. 1095. Dr.riMTiom, — 1. 'Die parameter of the axis of a parabola is a third proportional to the abscissa and its ordinate. The fuctis is that point in the axis where the ordinate is equal to the semi-parameter. Ihe diameter is a line within the curve terminated thereby, and is parallel to Ilia axis. I An ordinate In any diameter is a line contained by the curve and that diameter paral- lel ton l.ingcnt at the extremity of the diameter. 314 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. Fig. -143. 1006. Theorem I. In the parabola, the abscissas are proportional to the squares of their ordinates. Let QVN {Jig. 443.) be a section of the cone passing along the axis, and let the direc- trix RX pass through the point Q perpendicular to QN, and let the parabolic section be ADI meeting the base QIND of the cone in the line DI, and the diameter QN in the point H ; also let KML be a section of the cone parallel to the base QIN intersecting the plane VQN in tne line KL, and the section ADI in PM. Let P be the point of concourse of the three planes QVN, KML, A HI, and let II be the point of concourse of the three planes QVN, KML, AHI; then, because the planes VRX and ADI are parallel, and the plane VQN is perpendicular to the plane VRX, the plane ADI is also perpendicular to the plane VQN. Again, because the plane QIN is perpendicular to the plane QVN, and the plane KML is parallel to the plane QIN, the plane KML is perpendicular to the plane QVN; therefore the common sections PM and HI are per- pendicular to the plane VQN ; and because the plane KML is pa- rallel to the plane QIN; and these two planes are intersected by the plane QVN, their common sections KL and QN are parallel. Also, since PM and HI are each perpendicular to the plane QVN, and since KL is the common section of the planes QVN, KML, and QN in the common section of the planes QVN, QIN ; therefore PM and III are perpendicular respectively to KL and QN. Consequently AP ; AH:: PM 2 : IIP 2 . For, by the similar triangles APL, AIIN, AP : AH:: PL : HN, Or AP : AH::KP X PL : KP x IIN. But, by the circle KML, KP x PL=PM 2 , And, by the circle QIN, Therefore KPxHN = Therefore, by substitution. AP ; AH;: PM 2 : HI 2 . Coroll. By the definition of the parameter, which we shall call P, AP : PM:: PM : P = ^-f, And Px AP= PM 2 , or Px AH=HR Therefore P : PM :;PM : AP, or P ; HI ; : HI : AIL 1097. Theorem II. As the parameter of the axis is to the sum of any two ordinates , so >• the difference of these ordinates to the difference of their abscissas. That is, P : IL I + PM : : H I - PM : A II - A P. QII x HN=HR But QII = KP, = LI U. For since by Cor.Theor. I. p_PM* 1 — AP, 1 _ AH ’ Multiplying the first of these equations by AP and the second by API, P X AP= PM-, Px ALI = HIS. Fig. 4 It they become Subtract the corresponding numbers of the first equation, and P ( AH — AP) = HI 4 — PM 4 . But the difference of two squares is equal to a rectangle under the sum and difference ol their sides. And His — PM 4 = (HI + PM) (HI-PM). Therefore P (AH — AP) - (HI + PM) (HI-PM). Consequently P : HI + PM " HI - PM : AH - AP ; Or, by drawing KM parallel to AII, we have GK=PM+III, and KI = HI — PM; anil since PH = AH — AP ; P : GK"KI : PH, or KM. Coroll. Hence, because P x KM = GK x KI ; And since HI 4 =P x AH ; Therefore, by multiplication, KM x HI 2 =GK x KI x AH, or ALI : KM "HI 4 : GK x KI. So that any diameter MK is as the rectangle of the segments GK, KI of the double ordinate GI. From this a simple method has been used of finding points in the curve, so as to describe it. lv " fP 1098. Theorem III. The distance between the vertex of the curve and Fig. ns. the focus is equal to one fourth of the parameter. Let LG {fig. 445.) be a double ordinate passing through the focus, then LG is d' 1 parameter. For by the definition of parameter AF : FG:: FG : P = 2FG Therefore 2 A F = F G = L G ; Consequently AF = 2 LG. AP. I. CONIC SECTIONS. 315 1099. Theorem IV. The radius vector is equal to the sum of the distances between the focus l the vertex, and between the ordinate and the vertex. ( Fig . 44G.) That is, FM = AP+AF. For FP= AP— AF ; Therefore FP 2 = AP-’-^AP x AF+ AF-’. But, by Cor. Theor. II., PM - — P x AP = 4AF x AP. Therefore, by addition, FP- + PM a = AP- + 2AF x AP + AFC But bv the right-angled tringles, FP 2 + PM‘-=FM- ; And therefore FM°- = AP°- + 2AFx AP + AF*. Hence, extracting the roots, FM = AP + AF = 2 AF + FP ; Or by making AG = AF, FM = GP. L'oroll. 1. If through the point G (fig. 447.) the line GQ be drawn perpendicular to ■ axis, it is called the directrix of the parabola. By the property shown in this theorem, it appears that if any line QM be drawn parallel the axis, and if I'M be joined, the straight line FM is equal to QM ; for QM is equal GP. Coroll. 2. Hence, also, the curve is easily described by points. Take AG equal to AF, q. 447.), and draw a number of lines M, M perpendicular to the axis AP ; then with the tances GP, GP, &c. as radii, and from F i centre, describe arcs on each side of AP, ting the lines MM, MM, &c. at MM,&c. ; n tlirough all the points M, M, M, &c. ,w a curve, which will be a parabola. 100. Theorem V. If a tangent be drawn m the vertex of an ordinate to meet the axis duced, the subtangent PT (fg. 448.) will ■i/ual to twice the distance of the ordinate m the vertex. If MT be a tangent at M, the extremity of the ordinate PM ; then the sub-tangent PT qual to twice AP. For draw MK parallel to All, Then, by Theor. 1 1., KM : KI : : G K : : P ; And as MKI, TPM are similar, KM : K I : : PT : PM. Therefore, by equality, P : PM;;GK ; PT ; And by Cor. Theor. I., P : PM:: PM : AP. Therefore, by equality, AP : PT”PM : GK. I t when the ordinates HI and PM coincide, MT will become a tangent, and OK will omc equal to twice PM. Therefore AP : PT”PM : 2PM, or PT=2 AP. OOOO G O O 00 'll aT FiK- 4 17. ■ rom this property is obtained an easy and accurate method of drawing a tangent to any it of the curve of a parabola. Thus, let it be re- red to draw a tangent to any point M in the curve, iduce PA to T (Jig. 449.), and draw MP perpendi- ir to PT, meeting AP in the point P. Make AT al to AP, and join MT, which will be the tangent i aired. 101. Theorem VI. The radius vector is equal to 1 distance between the focus and the intersection of a n ut at the vertex of an ordinate and the axis pro- ' d. ’reduce l’A to T (fig. 450.), and let MT be a tangent at M ; then will l'T = FM. For FT = A F + A T ; But, by last theorem, A P = AT; 'Therefore FT= A F + A P. But, by Theorem 1 1 1., FM = A F+ A P ; Therefore, by equality, FM = FT. oroll. I. If MN be drawn perpendicular to MT to meet the axis in N, then will - 1-M = FT. For draw PH perpendicular to MT, and it also bisects MT, because =■ FT j and since II F and MN are parallel, and MT is bisected in II, the line TN will 1 be bisected in F. It therefore follows that FN=FM=FT. oroll. 2. The subnormal l’N is a constant quantity, and it is equal to half the para- 1 r, or to 2AF. For since TMN is a right angle, Therefore 2AI’ or TP : PM” PM ; l’N. But. by the definition of parameter, A P : PM ;; PM ; 1’ ; Therefore l’N = JP 316 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook II. Coroll. 3. The tangent of the vertex All is a mean proportional between AF and A I’. For since FFIT is a right angle, therefore AII is a mean proportional between A F and AT; and since AT=AP, AH is a mean proportional between AF and AP. Also FII is a mean proportional between F'A and FT, or between F'A and FM. Coroll. 4. The tangent makes equal angles with FM and the axis AP, as well as with FC and CL 1102. Theorem VII. Aline parallel to the axis, intercepted by a double ordinate and a tangent at the vertex of that ordinate, will be divided by the curve in the same ratio us the line itself divides the double ordinate. Let QM (Jig. 451.) be the double ordinate, MT the tangent, AP the axis, GK the intercepted line divided by the curve in the point I ; then will GI : IK;;MK ; KQ, For by similar triangles MKG, MPT ; MK ; KG ;; PM ; PT, or SAP; By the definition of parameter, P ; PM : : PM : 2A P ; Therefore, by equality, P ; MK;:PM : KG ; And again, by equality, PM ; MK;:2AP ; KG ; And by division, MK ; KQ;;GI ; IK. 1 103. Problem I. To describe a parabola. If a thread, equal in length to the leg BC ( fig. 452.) of a right angle or square, be fixed to the end C, and the other end of the thread be fixed to a point F in a plane, then if the square be moved in that plane so that the leg AB may slide along the straight line GH, and the point D be always kept close to the edge BC of the square, and the two parts FD and DC of the string kept stretched, the point D will describe a curve on the plane, which will be a parabola. 1104. Prob. II. Given the double ordinate DE and the abscissa BC in position an, l magnitude, to describe a parabola. Through B (Jigs. 453, 454.) draw FG parallel to DE,and DF and EG parallel to Cl) Divide DC and D F each into the same num- ber of equal parts. From the points of division in DF draw lines to B. Through the points of divi- sion in DC draw lines parallel to BC, and through the points of intersection of the corresponding lines draw a curve, and complete the other half in the same manner ; then will DBE be the complete curve of the parabola. The less BC is in proportion to CD, the nearer the curve will approach to the arc of a circle, as in fig. 422. ; and hence we may describe the curve for diminishing the shaft of a column, or draw a flat segment of a circle. 1105. Prob. III. The same parts being given, to describe the parabola by the intersection of straight lines. Produce CB to F (fig. 455.), and make BF equal to BC. Join FD and FE. Divide DF and FE in the same proportion, or into the same number of equal parts. Let the divisions be numbered from D to F, and from F to E, and join every two corresponding points by a straight line ; then the intersection of all the straight lines will form the parabola required. 1 iOS. Pros. IV. To draw a straight line from a given point in the curve of a parabola, u hich shall be a tangent to the curve at that point. Let DC (fig. 456.) be the double or- dinate, cB the abscissa to the parabolic curve DBC, and let it be required to draw a tangent from the point e in the curve. Draw ef parallel to DC, cutting Fig. 456 . BC in f: produce cB to g, and make B g equal to B f, and join ge, then will ge he the tangent required. In the same manner DH will be found to be a tangent at D. If fK be drawn perpendicular to the tangent rye, then will eK be also perpendicular to the curve, and in the proper direction for a joint in the masonry of a parabolic arch. Fig. 455. ’hap. I. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 317 1107. The uses of the parabolic curve in architecture are many. The theorists say that : is the curve of equilibrium for an arch which has to sustain a load uniformly diffused over :s length, and that therefore it should be included in the depth of lintels and flat arches; and hat it is nearly the best form for suspension and other bridges, and for roofs. It is also con- idered the best form for beams of equal strength. It may be here also remarked, that il ; the curve described by a projectile, and that it is the form in which a jet of water is elivered from an orifice made in the side of a reservoir. So is it the best curve for the eflection of light to be thrown to a distance. In construction it occurs in the intersection f conic surfaces by planes parallel to the side of the cone, and is a form of great beauty jr the profiles of mouldings, in which manner it was much used in Grecian buildings. general method, op determining and describing the species of conic sections. 1108. In a conic section, let there be given the abscissa A I? (fir. 4,77.), an ordinate I?C. nd a tangent CD to the curve at the ex- reinity of the ordinate to determine the pecies of the conic section, and to de- cribe the figure. Draw AI) parallel to I? C, and join AC Nos. 1. and 2.). Bisect AC in E, and roduce DE and AB, so as to meet in F ■hen DE is not parallel to AB; then in he case where DE will meet AB or AB roduced in F, the point F will be the entre of an ellipsis or hyperbola. In this ase produce AF to G, and make FG qual to FA ; then if the ordinate BC nd the centre be upon the same side of le apex A, the curve to which the given arts belong is an ellipsis ; but if they e on different sides of it, the curve is i hyperbola. When the line DE (No. ) is parallel to AB, the figure is a parabola. 1109. In a conic section, the abscissa AB (fig- 458.), an ordinate BC, and a point D in ie curve being given, to determine the species of the curve, and thence to describe it. Draw CG parallel to AB (Nos. 1. and 2.), and AG parallel to BC. Join Al), and oduce it to meet CG in c. Divide the ordinate CB in f in the same proportion as G is divided, then will Cf : f B : ; Ce ; cG. Join Y)f and produce it or /'D to meet A B BA in h ; then if the points D and It fall upon opposite sides of the ordinate BC, the irve is an ellipsis; but if D and h fall upon the same side of the ordinate BC, the curve ill be an hyperbola. If Yif (No. 3.) be parallel to A B, the curve will be a parabola. the case of the ellipsis and hyperbola, A h is a diameter; and therefore we have a dia- vter and ordinate to describe the curve. Sect A'. n ESC R I IT I V E C E0 M ET R V. 1110. The term Descriptive Geometry, first used by IMonge and other French geometers xpress that part of the science of geometry which consists in the application of geometrical fes to the representation of the figures and the various relations of the forms of bodies, ording to certain conventional methods, differs from common perspective by the design j representation being so made that the exact distance between the different points of the ly represented can always be found ; and thus the mathematical relations arising from i form and position may be deduced from the representation. Among the English writers ‘ practical architecture, it has usually received the name of projection, from the circum- ’ nee of the different points and lines of the body being projected on the plane of re- I sent.ition ; for, in descriptive geometry, points in space are represented by their ortho- Mphieal projection on two planes at right angles to each other, called the planes of projec- ts , one of which planes is usually supposed to be horizontal, in which case the other is ver- i il, the projections being called horizontal or vertical, according as they are on one or i or of these planes. 'll. In this system, a point in space is represented by drawing a perpendicular from it t lach of the planes of projection; the point whereon the perpendicular falls is the THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. 318 projection of the proposed point. Then, as points in space are the boundaries of lines, so their projections similarly form lines, by whose means their projection is obtained ; and bv the projections of points lying in curves of any description, the projections of those curves are obtained. 1112. For obvious reasons, surfaces cannot be similarly represented ; but if we suppose the surface to be represented, covered by a system of lines, according to some determinate law, then these lines projected on each of the two planes will, by their boundaries, enable us to project the surface in a rigorous and satisfactory manner. 1113. There are, however, some surfaces which may be more simply represented ; for a plane is completely defined by the straight lines in which it intersects the two planes of projection, which iines are called the traces of the plane. So a sphere is completely defined by the two projections of its centre and the great circle which limits the projections of its points. So also a cylinder is defined by its intersection (or trace) with one of the planes of projection and by the two projections of one of its ends ; and a cone by its intersection with one of the planes of projection and the twp projections of its summit. 1 1 Ur. Monge, before mentioned, Hachette, Vallee, and Leroi, are the most systematic writers on this subject, whose immediate application to architecture, and to the mechanical arts, and most especially to engineering, is very extensive ; in consequence, indeed, of which it is considered of so much importance in France, as to form one of the principal departments of study in the Polytechnic School of Paris. A sufficient general idea of it for the architec- tural student may be obtained in a small work of Le Croix, entitled, Complement ties Elemens tie Geometrie. In the following pages, and occasionally in other parts of this work, we shall detail all those points of it which are connected more immediately with our subject, inasmuch as we do not think it necessary to involve the reader in a mass of scientific matter connected therewith, which we are certain he would never find necessary in the practice of the art whereon we are engaged. 1115. In order to comprehend the method of tracing geometrically the projections of all sorts of objects, we must observe, — I. That the visible faces only of solids are to be expressed. 1 1. That the surfaces which enclose solids are of two sorts, rectilinear and curved. These, however, may be divided into three classes, — 1st. Those included by plane surfaces, as prisms, pyramids, and, generally, similar sorts of figures used in building. 2d. Those included by surfaces whereof some are plane and others with a simple curvature, as cylinders, cones, or parts of them, and the voussoirs of arches. 3d. Solids enclosed by one or several surfaces of double flexure, as the sphere, spheroids, and the voussoirs of arches on circular planes. 1116. First class , or solids with plane surfaces. — The plane surfaces by which these solids are bounded form at their junction edges or arrisses, which may be represented by right lines. I 1 17. And it is useful to observe in respect of solids that there are three sorts of angles formed by them. First, those arising from the meeting of the lines which bound the faces of a solid. Second, those which result from the concurrence of several faces whose edges unite and form the summit of an angle: thus a solid angle is composed of as many plane angles as there are planes uniting at the point, recollecting however that their number must he at least three. Third , the angles of the planes, which is that formed by two of the faces of a solid. A cube enclosed by six square equal planes comprises twelve rectilineal edges or arrisses and eight solid angles. 1118. Pyramids are solids standing on any polygonal bases, their planes or faces being triangular and meeting in a point at the top, where they form a solid angle. 1119. Prisms, like pyramids, may be placed on all sorts of polygonal bases, but they rise on every side of the base in parallelograms instead of triangles, thus having throughout similar form and thickness. 1120. Though, strictly speaking, pyramids and prisms are polyhedrons, the latter term is only applied to those solids whose faces forming polygons may each be considered as the base of a separate pyramid. 1121. In all solids with plane surfaces the arrisses terminate in solid angles formed by several of these surfaces, which unite with one another; whence, in order to find the pro- jection of the right lines which represent those arrisses, all that we require to know is the position of the solid angles where they meet ; and as a solid angle is generally composed of several plane angles, a single solid angle will determine the extremity of all the arrisses by which it is formed. I I 22. Second class : solids terminated hy plane and curved surfaces. — Some of these, as cones for instance, exhibit merely a point and two surfaces, one curved and the other flat. The meeting of these surfaces forms a circular or elliptical arris common to both. 1 he projection of an entire cone requires several points for the curvature which forms its base, but a single point only is necessary to determine its summit. This solid may be considereu as a pyramid with an elliptic or circular base ; and to facilitate its projection a polygon is inscribed in the ellipsis or circle, which serves as its base. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 319 •. L 23. If the cone is truncated or cut oft', polygons may in like manner be inscribed in urves which produce the sections. 24. Cylinders may be considered as prisms whose bases are formed by circles, es, or other curves, and their projections may be obtained in a similar manner : that inscribing polygons in the curves which form their bases. 25. Third class : solids whose surfaces have a double curvature A solid of this sort be enclosed in a single surface, as a sphere or spheroid. 2(3. As these bodies present neither angles nor lines, they can only be represented by pparent curve which seems to bound their superficies. This curve may be determined ngents parallel to a line drawn from the centre of the solid perpendicularly to the of projection. 27. If these solids are truncated or cut by planes, we must, after having traced the s which represent them entire, inscribe polygons in each curve produced by the sec- in order to proceed as directed for cones and cylinders. 28. To obtain a clear notion of the combination of several pieces, as, for instance, of a , we must imagine the bodies themselves annihilated, and that nothing remains but rrisses or edges which form the extremes of the surfaces of the voussoirs. The whole ihlage of material lines which would result from this consideration being considered parent would project upon a plane perpendicular to the rays of light, traces defining esc edges that we have supposed material, some foreshortened, and others of the same These will form the outlines of the vault, whence follow the subjoined remarks. That in order, on a plane, to obtain the projection of a right line representing the arris of any solid body, we must on such plane let fall verticals from each of its extremities. That if the arris be parallel to the plane of the drawing, the line which represents its projection is the same size as the original. I. That if it be oblique, its representation will be shorter than the original line. That perpendiculars by means of which the projection is made being parallel to each other, the line projected cannot be longer than the line it represents. That in order to represent an arris or edge perpendicular to the plane of projection, a mere point marks it because it coincides in the length with the perpendiculars of projection. [. That the measure of the obliquity of an arris or edge will be found by verticals let fall from its extremities. In conducting all the operations relative to projections, they are referable to tw o ■s, w hereof one is horizontal and the other vertical. PROJECTION OF RIGHT LINES. 30. The projection of a line All (Jiff- 459.) perpendicular to a horizontal plane is ex- ■cd on Midi plane by a point K, and by the lines ah, a h', equal to the original on vol- planes, whatever their direction. 31. An inclined line ( I) (Jig. 4(30.) is represented on an horizontal or n vertical plane I. c tl , shorter than the line itself, except on a vertical plane, parallel to its projection, if horizontal plane e' de, are pyramids and prisms, partaking of the tetrahedron and cube; of the former, ■ vouch as their sides above the base are formed by triangles which approach each other i- together to form the solid angle which is the summit of the pyramid ; of the latter, I ause their faces, which rise above the base, are formed by rectangles or parallelograms ' ich preserve the same distance from each other, but differ, from their rising on a poly- ]■ i.il base and being undetermined as to height. 157. This species may be regular or irregular, they may have their axes perpendicular " nclincd, they may be truncated or cut in a direction either parallel or inclined to their b •«. 158 The dcvelopement of a pyramid or right prism, whose base and height arc given, i' ot attended with difficulty. The operation is by raising on each side of the base a triangle i" d in height to the inclined face, as in the pyramidal figures 487. and 488., ai d a o angle equal to the perpendicular height if it be a prism. DEVEI.OPEMENT OF AN OBLIQUE PVRA.MII>. I ‘>9. If the pyramid be oblique, as in fig. 489., wherein the length of the sides of each "gle can only be represented by foreshortening them in a vertical or horizontal pro. >n, a third operation is necessary, and that is founded on a principle common to all I" ' lions ; viz. that the length of an inclined line projected or foreshortened on a plane, !• mis upon the difference of the jierpendieitlnr elongation of its extremities from the plane , Y 2 324 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II, whence in all cases a rectangular triangle, whose vertical and horizontal projections give two sides, the third, which is the hgpothenuse, joining them, will express the length of' the, foresfun tentd line 11 GO. In tlie application of this rule to the oblique pyramid of fig. 489., the position of the point P (Jig. 490.) must be shown on the plan or horizontal projection answering to the apex of the pyramid, and from this point perpendicular to the face CD on the same side the perpendicular PG must be drawn. Then from the point P as a centre describe the arcs Mb, Ce, which will transfer upon PG the horizontal projections of the inclined arrisses AP, EP, and DP; and raising the perpendicular PS equal to the height of the apex P of the pyramid above the plane of projection, draw the lines Sa, S b, Sc, which will give the real lengths of all the edges or arrisses of the pyramid. 1161. We may then obtain the triangles which form the developement of this pyramid, by describing from C as a centre with the radius Sc, the arc ig, and from the point I) another arc intersecting the other in F. Drawing the lines CF, DF, the triangles CFU will be the developement of the side DC. To obtain that answering to BC, from the points F and C with S b and Be as radii, describe arcs intersecting in B' and draw B'Fand CB': the triangle FCB' will be the developement of the face answering to the side Be. 1162. We shall find the triangle FA'B, by using the lengths SA and BA to find the points B' and F, which will determine the triangle corresponding to the face AB, and lastly the triangles FDE' and FE'A" corresponding to the faces DE, AE by using the lengths S b, DE and SA, AE. The whole developement AEDE'A'T, A'B, CBA being bent on the lines B FcF, CD, DF, and EF will form the inclined figure represented in jig. 489. 1163. If this pyramid be truncated by the plane inn, parallel to the base, the contour resulting from the section may be traced on the developement by producing Pm from F to a, and drawing the lines ah, be, cd, de and ea" parallel to A'B', B'C, CD, DE' and E'A ". 1164. But if the plane of the section be perpendicular to the axis, as mo, from the point F with a radius equal to l’o describe an arc of a circle, in which inscribe the polygon ab"c ’d'e"a". Then the polygon oqmq'o' is the plane of the section induced by the line mo. DEVELOPMENT OF IlIGHT AND OBLIQUE PRISMS. 1 165. In a right prism, the faces being all perpendicular to the bases which terminate the solid, the developements are rectangles, consisting of all these faces joined together am 1 enclosed by two parallel right lines equal to the contours of the bases. 1 1 66. When a prism is inclined, the faces form different angles with the lines of the contours of the bases, whence results a developement whose extremities are terminated by lines forming portions of polygons. 1167. We must first begin by tracing the profile of the prism parallel to its degree of inclination (Jig. 491.). Having drawn the line Ce, which represents the inclined axis of the prism in the direction of its length, and the lines AD, bd, to show the surfaces by which it is terminated, describe on such axis the polygon which forms the plane of the prism h, i, h, l, m perpendicular to the axis. Producing the sides kl, hn parallel to the axis ; to meet the lines AD, bd, they will give the four arrisses of the prism, answering to the angles h, n, h, l ; and the line Cc which loses itself in the axis will give the arrisses im. 1 168. It must be observed, that in this profile the sides of the polygon h, i, k, l, m give the width of the faces round the prism, and the lines A b, Cc, Dd their length. From tins profile follows the horizontal projection (Jig. 492.) wherein the lengthened polygons repro 7.!ap. i. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 325 ent the bases of the prism. In order to obtain the developeinent of this inclined prism, o that being bent up it may form the figure, from the middle of Cc,fg. 491. a perpendicular , p, 7 must be raised, produced to /, /, Jig. 493. ; on this line must be transferred the ridths of the faces shown by the polygon h, i, It, 1, m, n, of Jig. 491. in /, /;, i, h, n, m, l', •q, 493. : through these points parallel to the axis, lines are to be drawn, upon which 7 D f Jig. 491. must be laid from l to E, from k to D, and from l to E ',Jig. 493. ; pC,Jig. 491., lust be laid from i to C, and from m to F in Jig. 493. o A, Jig. 491., is to be laid from h to 15 and from n to A, Jig. 493., which will give the contour of the developement of the upper part by drawing the lines ED, DC15, BA, AFE', 777 . 492. To obtain the contour of the base, qd of Jig. 491. must be transferred from l to q, from k ) d and from l to e', Jig. 493. pc from Jig. 491. from i to c and from m to f {Jig. 493.) ; lastly, ob of Jig. 491. must be transferred from h to b and from n to a ( Jig. 493.) and drawing tne lines ed, bed, ba , and afe, the contour will be obtained. 1 169. The developement wi 1 he completed by drawing on the faces 13 A and ba, elongated llygons similar to ABCDEF and ubedef of Jig. 491. and of the same size. DEVEI.OPEMENT OF RICHT AND OBLIQUE CYLINDERS. 1 170. Cylinders may be considered as prisms whose bases are formed by polygons of an finite number of sides. Thus, graphically, the developement of a right cylinder is ob- i ned, by a rectangle of the same height, having in its other direction the circumference of e circle which serves as its base measured by a greater or less number of equal parts. 1171. But if the cylinder is oblique ( Jig . 494.), we must take the same measures as for tnorism, and consider the inclination of it. Having described centrally on its axis the 1 ■ or ellipsis which forms its perpendicular thickness in respect of the axis, the circum- 1 e should be divided into an even number of equal parts, as, for instance, twelve, '*'• n ' n g from the diameter and drawing from the points of division the parallels to the 1 I A, hi, th, dl, cm, fm, GO, which will give the projection of the bases and the general dev ipement. 1 !. For the projection of the bases on nn horizontal plane, it is necessary that from the oints where the parallels meet the line of the base HO, indefinite perpendiculars * 1 "’ 1 he let fill, and after having drawn the line II' O', parallel to 1IO, upon these per- pen -ulars above and below the parallel must be transferred the size of the ordinates of 326 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IL the circle or ellipsis traced on the axis of the cylinder, that is, pi and p] 0 to i'l , and f'10 : q2 and q9 in h! 2 and k'q, Sec. In order to avoid unnecessary repetition, the Jigs. 494, 495, 496. are similarly figured, and will by inspection indicate the corresponding lines. 1 175. In the last figure the line E'E' is the approximate developement of the circum- ference of the circles which follow the section DE perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, divided into 12 equal parts, jig. 494. For which purpose there have been transferred upon tliis line on each side of the point I), six of the divisions of the circle, and through these points have been drawn an equal number of indefinite parallels to the lines traced upon the cylinder in fig. 494. : then taking the point D' as correspondent to U, the length of these lines is determined by transferring to each of them their relative dimensions, measured from DE in AG for the superior surface of the cylinder, and from HE to IIO for the base. 1174. In respect of the two elliptical surfaces which terminate this solid, what has been above stated, on the manner of describing a curve by means of ordinates, will render further explanation on that point needless. DEVELOPEMENT OF RIGHT AND OBLIQUE CONES. 1175. The reasoning which has been used in respect of cylinders and prisms, is ap- plicable to cones and pyramids. 1176. In right pyramids, with regular and symmetrical bases, the edges or arrisses from the base to the apex are equal, and the sides of the polygon on which they stand being equal, their developement must be composed of similar isosceles triangles, which in their | union will form throughout, part of a regular polygon, inscribed in a circle whose inclined sides will be the radii. Thus, in considering the base of the cone A B (fig. 497.) as a FI- 4 'j'j regain- polygon of an infinite number of sides, its developement becomes a sector of a circle A"\i"W"C" (fig. 498.) whose radius is equal to the side AC of the cone, and tin arc equal to the circumference of the circle which is its base. 1 1 77. Upon this may be traced the developement of the curves which would result hon the cone cut according to the lines HI, EF, and GH, which are the ellipsis - 1 ^ and the hyperbola. For this purpose the circumference of the base of the cone i divided into equal parts ; from each point lines must be drawn to the centre C, represent ,, in this case the apex of the cone. Having transferred, by means of ParaHels to 1 1 HI divisions of the semi-circumference AFB of the plan upon the line AB . forming the ^ of the vertical projection of the cone (fig. 497.) to the points 1 2, F3 , and 4 , which, u cause of the uniformity of the curvature of the circle will also represent the plan marked 8, 7F', 6, and 5; from the summit C in the elevation of toe ^con , th C'U C'2' C'F C'3', C'4' are to be drawn, cutting the plans DI, EF, and GH of the ell of the parabola, and of the hyperbola; then bv the assistance of i. figures may be drawn on the plan, the first in Dp Ip ; the second in 1 L , 11 H 78." To obtain the points of the circumference of the ellipse upon th e deveiopemen (Jig. 498.), from the points n, o,p, q, r of the line Dl(fig. 49 .), < law p.na L for the purpose of transferring their heights upon C B' at the points 1, 2, 3,4 o 1 — .... purpose of transferring their neigius upon ~ C V'' • 'and in the saw transfer C'D upon the developement, in C n , C ^ , G p , q » . > '£h* order below, C"n"", C"o"", C"p"", C 'q'"', C"r . and Cl from C ml and I . Chap. I. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY 127 :urve passing through these points will be the developement cf the circumference of the ellipse indicated in Jig. 497. by the right line DI, which is its great axis. 1179. For the parabola (Jig. 499.) on the side C'A' (Jig. 497.), draw Ig and ah ; then ransfer C E on the developement in C"E C <7 from C" to b"‘ and b"" ; C'h, from C" to i ' and a""; and through the points F", a'", b'", E", b"", a"", F' ', trace a curve, which .vill be the developement of the parabola shown in jig. 497. by the line Eh. 1 1 SO. For the hyperbola, having drawn through the points m and i, the parallels me, if, ransfer C'G from C" to G", and from C" to G" of the developement, C'e from C" to m ' ind m"", C'/from C"to i'" and i "'; and after having transferred 3H' and Gil" of the plan o the circumference of the developement, from 3 to H ", and from 6 to II"", by the aid of he points H ", i", m"', G" and H"", i"", in"", G'", draw two curves, of which each will be he developement of one half of the hyperbola represented by the right lines GH and H'H", igs. 497. and 500., and by Jig. 501. 1181. The mode of finding the developement of an oblique cone, shown m Jigs. 502, 503, Fig. 501. Fig. 505. 94, .505. differs, as follows, from the preceding. 1. From the position of the apex C upon le plan 503., determined by a vertical let fall from such apex in Jig. 502. 2. Because the ne DI of this figure, being parallel to the base, gives for the plan a circle instead of an lipsis. 3. Because in finding the lengthened extent of the right lines drawn from the »cx of the cone to the circumference of the base, divided into equal parts, Jig. 504. is intro- luced to bring them together in order to avoid confusion, these lines being all of a different ze on account of the obliquity of the cone. In this figure the line CC' shows the perpen- cular height of the apex of the cone above the plan ; so that by transfei ring from each side ic projections of these lines taken on the plan from the point C to the circumference, we • all have GA", Cl, C2, CF", C3, C4, CB', on one side, and CA', C8, C7, CF, C 6, C 5, and li on the other; lastly, from the point C drawing lines to all these points, they will give the Iges or arrisses of the inscribed pyramid, by which the developement in Jig. 505. is obtained, iving obtained the point C" representing the apex, a line is to be drawn through it equal CA" (fig. 504.) ; then with one of the divisions of the base taken on the plan, such as 1, it must be laid from the point A of the developement of the section ; then taking C'l fig. 504., describe from the point C" another arc which will cross the former, and will terminc the point 1 of the developement. Continuing the operations with the constant '-'th Al and the different lengths C2, CF', C.3, &c., taken from Jig. 504. and transferred C"2, C"F, < 3, Ac. of the developement, the necessary points will be obtained for tracing c curve B"AB"', representing the contour of the oblique base of the cone. 1 1 82. We obtain the developement of the circle shown by the line DI of fig. 502. parallel that of the base AB, by drawing another line I'D D 'I" (fig. 504.) at the same distance »n the summit C, cutting all the oblique lines that have served for the preceding de- lopcmcnt; and on one side, CD", C n, Co, (.']>, Cq, Cr, Cl", must be carried to Jig. 505., on C" to I)", n, o, ;i, q, r, and on the other from C"to n, o, ji, q, r, and I"", on Jig. 505. *e curve line passing through these points will be the developement of this circle. I 18:1. To trace upon the developement the parabola and hyperbola shown by the lines ! , G:i of fig. 502., from the points Eta, Gmi draw parallels to the base AB, which, "isferred to fig. 504., will indicate upon corresponding lines the real distance of these mts from the apex C, which are to be laid in Jig. 505. from C" to E, b, a, b and a for THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 328 Book II, die parabola; and from C" to G, m, i on one side, and on the otl. ;r to G, m, i, for the hyperbola. Each of these is represented in Jigs. 506. and 507. DEVELOPEMENT OF BODIES OR SOLIDS WHOSE SURFACES HAVE A DOUBLE CURVATURE. 1 1 84. The developement of the sphere and other bodies whose surface has a double flexure would be impossible, unless we considered them as consisting of a great number of plane faces or of simple curvatures, as the cylinder and the cone. Thus a sphere or spheroid may be considered, ■ — I. As a polyhedron of a great number of plane faces formed by truncated pyramids whose base is a polygon, as Jig. 508. II. By truncated cones, forming zones, as in Jig. 509. III. By parts of cylinders cut in gores, forming flat sides that diminish in width, shown by fig. 510. 1 1 85. In reducing the sphere or spheroid to a polyhedron with flat faces, the develope- ment may be accomplished in two ways, which differ only by the manner in which the faces are developed. 1186. Tire most simple me- thod of dividing the sphere to reduce it to a polyhedron is that of parallel circles crossed by others perpendicular to them, and intersecting in two opposite points, as in the com- mon geographical globes. If, instead of the circle, the poly- gons are supposed of the same number of sides, a polyhedron will be the result, similar to that represented by Jig. 508., whose half A DB shows the geo- metrical elevation, and AEB the plan of it. F,g ’ 5C)9 ' Fl "' il0 ‘ 1137. For the developement, produce Al, 12, 23, so as to meet the produced axis Cl’ in order to obtain the summits P, q, r, D of the truncated pyramids which form the semi-poly- hedron ADB ; then from the points 1’, <7, r, with the radii PA, Pi, q\, <72, r2, r3 and I);!, describe the indefinite arcs AB', 15', 15 ", 2 f, 2 f", 3 g', and 3 g, upon which, after having transferred the divisions of the demi-polvgons AEB, le6"', 2e'5'", 3e", 4", from all the transferred points, as A, 4', 5', 6', 7', 8', 9', B', for each truncated pyramid draw lines to the summits PgrD, and other lines which will form inscribed polygons in each of the arcs AH', 15', 15 ', &c. These lines will represent for each band or zone the faces of the truncated pyramids whereof they are part. 1188. We may arrive at the same developement by raising upon the middle of each side of the polygon AEB indefinite perpendiculars, upon which must be laid the height of the faces of the elevation in 1,2, 3, 4 ; through which points draw parallels to the base, upon which transfer the widths of each of the faces taken on the plan, whereby trapezia will be formed, and triangles similar to those found in the first developement, but ranged in another manner. This last developement, which is called in gores, is more suitable for geographical globes ; the other method, for the formation of the centres, moulds, and the like, of spherical vaults. 1189. The developement of the sphere by conic zones (Jig. 509 ) is obtained by the same process as that by truncated pyramids, the only difference being, that the develope- ment of the arrisscs AB', 15', 2 f', iig, are arcs of circles described from the summits of cones, instead of being polygons. 1 1 90. The developement of the sphere reduced to portions of cylinders cut in gores (Jig. 510.) is conducted in the second manner, but instead of joining with lines the points //, i, /;, d, (Jig. 508.) they must be united by a curve. This last method is useful in drawing the caissons or pannels in spherical or spheroidal vaults. OF THE ANGLES OF PLANES OIt SURFACES BY WHICH SOLIDS ARE BOUNDED. 1191. In considering the formation of solids, we have already noticed three sorts of angles, viz. plane angles, solid angles, and the angles of planes. The two first have been Fig. 508. TAP. I. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY. 329 •ated of in the preceding sections, and we have now to speak of the third, which must t be confounded with plane angles. Of these last, we have explained that they are med by the lines or arrisses which bound the faces of a solid ; but the angles ot planes, lereof we aie about to speak, are those formed by the meeting of two surfaces joining in edge. 1192. The inclination of one plane ALDE to another ALCB (Jig. 511.) is measured two perpendiculars FG, FH raised upon each of these planes nn the same point F of the line or arris AL formed by their ion. 1 1 93. It is to be observed, that this angle is the greatest of all i-.e formed by lines drawn from the point F upon these two ines ; for the lines FG, FH being perpendicular to AL, common both the planes, they will be the shortest that can be drawn from j point F to the sides ED, BC, which we suppose parallel to I. ; thus their distance GH will be throughout the same, whilst -■ lines FI, FK will be so much the longer as they extend beyond • perpendiculars FG, FH, and we shall always have KI equal to GH, and conse- entlv the angle IFK so much smaller than GFH as it is more distant. 1 1 94. Thus, let a rectangular surface be folded perpendicularly to one of its sides so that j contours of the parts separated by the fold may fall exactly on each other. If we raise e of them, so as to move it on the fold as on a hinge, and so as to make it form all degrees angles, we shall see that each of the central extremities of the moveable part is always in )lane perpendicular to the part that is fixed. 1 1 95. This property of lines moving in a perpendicular plane, furnishes a simple method finding the angles of planes of all sorts of solids whose vertical and horizontal projec- ts or whose dcvelopements are known. 1 1 96. Thus, in order to find the angles formed by the tetrahedron or pyramid on a tri- gular base (Jig. 477.), we must for the angles of the base with the sides, let fall from • angles ABC perpendiculars to the sides ac, cl, and ah, which meet at the centre of the -c in D. It is manifest from what has just been said on this subject, that if the three angles are made to move, their angles at the summit A, B, C will not be the vertical mes shown by the lines AD, DB, DC, and that they will meet at the extremity of the tical, passing through the intersection of these planes at the point D. Thus we obtain each side a rectangular triangle, wherein two sides are known, namely, for the side cl, ■ hypothenu.se cd, and the side eD. Thus raising from the point D an indefinite per- ldicular, if from the point e with cB for a radius an arc is described cutting the pcr- ldicular in d, and the line de be drawn, the angle de D will be that sought, and will be • same for the three sides if the polyhedron be regular ; otherwise, if it is not, the •ration must be repeated for each. I 97. These angles may be obtained with great accuracy by taking de, or its equal cB, the whole sine; then de cD::sine : sine 19° 28', whose complement 70' 32' will, if polyhedron be regular, be the angle sought. In this case, all the sides being equal, 1 each being capable of serving as base, the angles throughout are equal. In respect be cube (Jigs. 479. and 483.) whose faces are composed of equal squares, and whose I i s are all right angles, it is evident that no other angles can enter into their com- •ition with each other. I 98. To obtain the angle formed by the faces of the octahedron (Jig. 480.) from the fits C and 1) : with a distance equal to a vertical dropped upon the base of one of the Ingles of its devclopement (Jig. 484.), describe arcs crossing each other in F ; and the 1 lie Cl 1) will be equal to that formed by the faces of the polyhedron, and will be found trigonometry to be 70° 32'. In the dodecahedron (Jig. 481.), the angle formed by the ’ will be found by drawing upon its projection the lines DA, and producing the side l.o E, determined by an arc made from the point D with a radius equal to BA. The i lie sought will be found to be 108 degrees. 199. lor the icosahedron (Jig. 482.), draw the parallels A a, HI, Cc, and after having die Ic parallel and equal to BC, with a radius equal thereto, describe an arc cutting in i |ie parallel drawn from the point A ; the angle ale will be equal to that formed by the • of the polygon, which by trigonometry is found to be 108 degrees, as in the dodcca :|ron. I no. For the pyramid with a quadrangular base (Jig. 487.) the angle of each face with H base is equal to FAB or PBA, because this figure, which represents its vertical pro- • I are equal and iaucelca, will be perpendicular to the line I’C, representing one of the n| e» which are formed. Then from the point D with a radius equal to DF, and r. o 330 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. from the point C with a radius equal to the diagonal AD (of the square representing the square of the base) describe arcs intersecting each other. The angle EDO will be the angle sought. We may suppose it taken along the line 15C traced in /if/. 487. 1 202. In order to obtain the angles formed by the faces of an oblique pyramid (fig. 48!).), through some point q of the axis draw the perpendicular mo, showing the base oqmq'o' of the right pyramid nipo, whose developement is shown in Jig. 490., by the portion of the polygon a, b ' , c", e", d", a F. 1203. By means of this base and the part developed, proceeding as we have already ex- plained for the right pyramid, we shall find the angles formed by the meeting of the faces, and they will differ but little from those of the little polygon oqmq'o'. 1204. In respect to the angles formed by the faces inclined to the base, that of the face answering to the side De of the base is expressed by the angle A DP of the vertical projec- tion, fig. 489. 1205. As to the other faces, for instance, that which corresponds to the side AE of the base (Jig. 490.), through any point g draw gf perpendicular to it, meeting the line A F, show- ing the projection of one of the sides of the inclined face ; upon the developement of this face, expressed by A"E'F, raise at the same distance from the point E' another perpen- dicular g'm', which will give the prolongation of the line shown on the base by Af. If we transfer A "m of the developement upon Am, which expresses the inclination of the arris represented by this line, we shall have the perpendicular height mf of the point m above the base, which, being transferred from Jin" upon a perpendicular to gf, we shall have the two sides of a triangle whose hypothenuse gm" will give m"gf, the angle sought. 1 206. In the oblique prism (Jig. 491.), the angles of the faces are indicated by the plane of the section perpendicular to the axis, represented by the polygon hiklmn. 1207. Those of the sides perpendicular to the plan of the inclination of the axis are expressed by the angles Dr/4, Aid of the profile in the figure last named. 1208. In order to obtain the angles formed with the other sides, for instance CcDd ami CcAb, draw the perpendiculars csbt, whose projection in plan are indicated by s"c' and bt', then upon fc, drawn aside, raise a perpendicular c"c'" equal to cs of the profile, fig. 491. Through the point c'" draw a line parallel to fc, upon which, having transferred c's' of the projection in plan (fig. 492.), draw the hypothenuse s"c", and it will give the angle s"e"J formed by the face CcDd with the inferior base. 1209. To obtain the angles of the face CcAb, raise upon F4", drawn on one side, a per- pendicular b"t"', equal to bt (fig. 492.), and drawing as before a parallel to b" through the point t'", transfer bt' of fig. 492. to t'"t" ; and drawing t"b", the angle t'b"Y is that required. 1210. As the bases of this prism are parallel, these faces necessarily form the same angles with the superior base. 121 1. An acquaintance with the angles of planes is of the greatest utility in the prepara- tion of stone, as will be seen in chap. iii.,and a thorough acquaintance with it will well repay the architectural student for the labour he may bestow on the subject. Sect. VI. MENSURATION. 1212. The area of a plane figure is the measure of its surface or of the space contained within its extremities or boundaries, without regard to thickness. Ibis area, or the content of the plane figure, is estimated by the number of small squares it contains, the sides o each whereof may be an inch, a foot, a yard, or any other fixed quantity. Hence the area is said to consist of so many square inches, feet, yards, &c., as the case may be. 1213. Thus if the rectangle to be measured be ABCD (fig. 512.), and the small square E, whose side we will suppose to be one inch, be the measuring 0 4 unit proposed ; then, as often as such small square is contained in the rectangle, so many square inches are said to be contained in the rectangle. tlere it will be seen by inspection that the number is 12 ; that the side DC or AB, which is 4 times the length of the measuring unit, multiplied by the number of times 3, which the length of the measuring unit is contained in AD or BC, will give 12 for the product. 1214. Problem I. To find the area of a parallelogram, whether it be a square, a rectangle, a rhombus, or a rhomboid. Multiply the length by the perpendicular breadth or height, and the product will be the area. n _J 0 Fig.M* ir. T. MENSURATION. 331 Example I. Required the area of a parallelogram whose length is 12-25 feet, and height 8-5 feet. 12-25 x 8-5 = 104 125 feet, or 104 feet 1| inches. Example 2. Required the content of a piece of land in the form of a rhombus whose length is 6-20 chains, and perpendicular height 5 - 45. Recollecting that 1 0 square chains are equal to a square acre, we have, 6-20 x 5-45 = 33-79 and ^kjrp = S-379 acres, which are equal to 3 acres, 1 rood, 20 T 6 4j perches. Example 3. Required the number of square yards in a rhomboid whose length is 37 feet, and breadth 5 feet 3 inches ( = 5 -25 feet). Recollecting that 9 square feet are equal to 1 square yard, then we have 37 x 5-25 = 194-25, and = 21-584 yards. 115. Problem II. To find the area of a triangle. .ule 1. Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and take half the product for the area. Or multiply either of these dimensions by half the other. The truth of this rule is evident, because all triangles are equal to one half of a parallelogram of equal base and altitude. (See Geometry, 90t.) Example 1. To find the area of a triangle whose base is 625 feet, and its perpendicular height 520 feet. Here, 625 x 260 = 162500 feet, the area of the triangle, ule 2. When two sides and their contained angle are given : multiply the two given sides together, and take half their product ; then say, as radius is to the sine of the given angle, so is half that product to the area of the triangle. Or multiply that half product by the natural sine of the said angle for the area. This rule is founded on proofs which will be found in Sect. III., on which it is unnecessary here to say more. Example. Required the area of a triangle whose sides are 30 and 40 feet respectively, and their contained angles 28° 57'. By natural numbers : — First, \ x 40 x 30 = 600. Then, 1 : 600: : -484046 (sin. 28° 57') : 290-4276. By logarithms : — Sin. 28° 57' = 9-684887 Log. of 600 = 2-778151 2-463038=290-4276, as above. ule 3. When the three sides are given, take half the sum of the three sides added to- gether. Then subtract each side severally from such half sum, by which three re- mainders will be obtained. Multiply such half sum and the three remainders together, and extract the square root of the last product, which is the area of the triangle. This rule is founded on one of the theorems in Trigonometry to be found in the section relating to that subject. Example. Required the area of a triangle whose three sides are 20, 30, and 40. 20 + 30 + 40 = 90, whose half sum is 45. 45—20 = 25, first remainder; 45 — 30=15, second remainder; 45 — 40=5, third remainder. Then, 45 x 25 x 15 x 5 = 84375, whose root is 290-4737, area required. I •>. Problem III. To find the area of a trapezoid. Id together the parallel sides, multiply their sum by the perpendicular breadth or dis- tance between them, and half the product is the area. (See Geometry, 932.) Example 1 Required the area of a trapezoid whose parallel sides are 750 and 1225, and their vertical distance from each other 1540. 1225 + 750 x 770= 1520750, the area. Example 2. Required the area of any quadrangular ligure (fig. 513.) wherein A P is 110 feet, A 155280 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 330' 1226. Problem XIII. To find the area of an ellipsis. Rule. Multiply the longest and shortest diameter together, and their product by -7854, which will give the area required. This rule is founded on Theorem 3. Cor 2. in Conic Sections. (1098, 1100.) Example. Required the area of an ellipse whose two axes are 70 and 50. Here 70 x 50 x -7854 = 2748 -9. 1227. Problem XIV. To find the area of any elliptic segment. Rule. Find the area of a circular segment having the same height and the same vertical axis or diameter ; then, as the said vertical axis is to the other axis (parallel to the base of the segment), so is the area of the circular segment first found to the area of the elliptic segment sought. This rule is founded on the theorem alluded to in the previous problem. Or, divide the height of the segment by the vertical axis of the ellipse; and find in the table of circular segments appended to Prol). 12. (1224.) the circular segment which has the above quotient for its versed sine ; then multiply together this segment and the two axes of the ellipse for the area. Example. Required the area of an elliptic segment whose height is 20, the vertical axis being 70, and the parallel axis 50. Here 204-70= -2857142, the quotient or versed sine to which in the table answers the segment -285714. Then -285714 x 70 x 50 = 648-342, the area required. 1228. Problem XV. To find the area of a parabola or its segment. Rule. Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and take two thirds of the pro- duct for the area. This rule is founded on the properties of the curve already described in conic sections, by which it is known that every parabola is ^ of its circumscribing parallelogram. (See 1097.) Example. Required the area of a parabola whose height is 2 and its base 12. Here 2 x 12 = 24, and ^ of 24= 16 is the area required. MEN-SU RATION OF SOLIDS. 1229. The measure of every solid body is the capacity or content of that body, con- sidered under the threefold dimensions of length, breadth, and thickness, and the measure of a solid is called its solidity, capacity, or content. Solids are measured by units which are cubes, whose sides are inches, feet, yards, & c. Whence the solidity of a body is said to be of so many cubic inches, feet, yards, &c. as will occupy its capacity or space, or another of equal magnitude. 1230. The smallest solid measure in use with the architect is the cubic inch, from which other cubes are taken by cubing the linear proportions, thus, — 1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot; 27 cubic feet = l cubic yard. 1231. Problem I. To find the superficies of a prism. Multiply the perimeter of one end of the prism by its height, and the product will be the surface of its sides. To this, if wanted, add the area of the two ends of the prism. Or, compute the areas of the sides and ends separately, and add them together. Example 1. Required the surface of a cube whose sides are 20 feet. Here we have six sides ; therefore 20 x 20 < 6 = 2400 feet, the area required. Example 2. Required the surface of a triangular prism whose length is 20 feet and each side of its end or base 18 inches. Here we have, for the area of the base, 1 \5 2 — -75 2 = (2-25— -5625 = ) 1 -6875 s for the perpendicular of triangle of base ; and vT -6875 = 1 -299, which multiplied by 1-5 = 1 "948 gives the area of the two bases ; then, 3 x 20 x 1 -5 + 1 "948 = 91 -948 is the area required. Example 3. Required the convex surface of a round prism or cylinder whose length is 20 feet and the diameter of whose base is 2 feet. Here, 2 x 3-1416 = 6-2832, and 3-1416 x 20 = 125 664, the convex surface required. 1232. Problem II. To find the surface of a pyramid or cone. Rule. Multiply the perimeter of the base by the length of the slant side, and half the product will be the surface of the sides or the sum of the areas of all the sides, or of the areas of the triangles whereof it consists. To this sum add the area of the end or base. Example 1. Required the surface of the slant sides of a triangular pyramid whose slant height is 20 feet and each side of the base 3 feet. Here, 20 x 3 (the perimeter) x 3 4-2 = 90 feet, the surface required. MENSURATION. 337 i/tr. I. Example 2. Required the convex surface of a cone or circular pyramid whose slant height is 50 feet and the diameter of its base 8J, feet. Here, 8'5 x 31416 x 50-p2 = 667'5, the convex surface required. 233. Problem III. To find the surface of the frustum of a pyramid or cone, being the lower I t sphere the top is ad off by a plane parallel to the base. Rule. Add together the perimeters of the two ends and multiply their sum by the slant height. One half of the product is the surface sought. This is manifest, because the sides of the solid are trapezoids, having the opposite sides parallel. Example 1. Required the surface of the frustum of a square pyramid whose slant height is 10 feet, each side of the base being 3 feet 4 inches and each side of the top 2 feet 2 inches. Here, 3 feet 4 inches x 4=13 feet 4 inches, and 2 feet 2 inches x 4 = 8 feet 8 inches; and 13 feet 4 inches + 8 feet 8 inches = 22. Then 22 -f 2 x 10 = 110 feet, the surface required. Example 2. Required the convex surface of the frustum of a cone whose slant height is 12| feet and the circumference of the two ends 6 and 8-4 feet. Iere, 6 4-8'4 = 14'4 ; and 14-4 x 1 2'5 4-2 = 1804-2 = 90, the convex surface required. 234. Problem IV. To find the solid content of any prism or cylinder. Rule. Find the area of the base according to its figure, and multiply it by the length of the prism or cylinder for the solid content. This rule is founded on Prop. 99. (Geometry, 980.). Let the rectangular parallelopipedon be the solid to be measured, the small cube P (fig. 51 8.) being the measuring unit, its side being 1 inch, 1 foot, &c. Let also the length and breadth of the base A BCD, and also let the height AH, be divided into spaces equal to the side of the base of the cube P ; for instance, here, in the length 3 and in the breadth 2, making 3 times 2 or 6 squares in the base AC each equal to the base of the cube P. It is manifest that the paral- lelopipedon will contain the cube P as many times as the base AC contains the base of the cube, repeated as often as the height All contains the height of the cube. Or, in other words, the contents of a parallelopipedon is found by multiplying the area of the base by the altitude of the solid. And because all prisms and cylin- ders are equal to parallelopipedons of equal bases and altitudes, the rule is general for all such solids whatever the figure of their base. Example 1. Required the solid content of a cube whose side is 24 inches. Here, 24 x 24 x 24 = 13824 cubic inches. Example 2. Required the solidity of a triangular prism whose length is 10 feet and the three sides of its triangular end are 3, 4, and 5 feet. Here, because ( Prop. 32. Geometry, 907.) 3 2 +4 i = 5-, it follows that the angle con- tained by the sides 3 and 4 is a right angle. Therefore ^ x 10 = 60 cubic feet, the content required. Example 3. Required the content of a cylinder whose length is 20 feet and its diameter 5 feet 6 inches. Here, 5-5 x 5'5 x -7854 = 23-75835, area of base ; and 23 '75835 x 20 = 47'5167, content of cylinder required. 235. Problem V. To find the content of any pyramid or cone. Rile, hind the area of the base and multiply that area by the perpendicular height. One third of the product is the content. This rule is founded on Prop. 110 (Geometry, 991.) Example 1. Required the solidity of the square pyramid, the sides of whose base are 30, and its perpendicular height 25. Here, 1 x 25 = 7500, content required. Example 2. Required the content of a triangular pyramid whose perpendicular height i. 30 and oach side of the base 3. Here, — , .^ + ' l = 8 = 4'5, half sum of the sides; and 4 -5 - 3 = 1 -5, one of the three equal remainders. (See Trigonometry, 1052.) but s/4'5 x 1'5 x 1*5 x P5 x 304-3 =3 - 8971 17 x 10, or 38 - 97117, the solidity required. i Example 3. Required the content of a pentagonal pyramid whose height is 12 Icet and each side of its bate 2 feet. Here, 1 '7204774 (tabular area, I’rob. 6. 1 2 1 8.) x 4 (square of side) = 6'Kri 1 1IU96 area of base ; and 6'8819096 x 12 = 82'5829152. 1 hen 1 ^ = *27'527G38 1, content required. m THEORY Ob' ARCHI TECTURE Book T I. Example 4 Required the content of a cone whose height is 10J feet and the circum- ference of its base 9 feet. Here, -07958 (Prob. 9. 1222.) x 81 = 6-44598 area of base, And 3-5 being ) of 10.) feet, 6'44598 x 3-5 = 22-56093 is the content required. 1236. Problem VE To find the solidity tf the frustum of a cone or pyramid. Add together the areas of the ends and the mean proportional between them. Then taking one third of that sum for a mean area and multiplying it by the per- pendicular height or length of the frustum, we shall have its content. This rule depends upon Prop. 110. ^ Geometry, 991.). It may be otherwise expressed when the ends of the frustum are circles or regul;;; polygons In respect of the last, square one side of each polygon, and also multiply one side by the other; add the three products together, and multiply their sum by the tabular area for the polygon. Take one third of the product for the mean area, which multiply by the length, and we have the product required. When the case of the frustum of a com* is to be treated, the ends being circles, square the diameter or the circumference at each end, and multiply the same two dimensions together. Take the sum of the three pro- ducts, and multiply it by the proper tabular number, that is, by -7854, when the diameters are used, and -07958 when the circumferences are used, and, taking one third of the pro- duct, multiply it by the length for the content required. Example 1. Required the content of the frustum of a pyramid the sides of whose greater ends are 15 inches, and those of the lesser ends 6 inches, and its altitude 24 feet. Here, -5 x -5 = -25, area of the lesser end, and 1 -25 x 1 -25 = 1 -5625, area of the greater end : The mean proportional therefore x/-2 5 x 1 -5625 = '625. , • - 25 +- 625 + 1-5625 2-4375 Again, 3 — =-3- •8125, mean area, and -8125 x 24 (altitude) = 1 9‘5 feet, content required. Example 2. Required the content of a conic frustum whose altitude is 18 feet, its I greatest diameter 8, and its least diameter 4. Here, 64 (area gr. diam. ) + 1 6 (less, diam.) -1- (8 x 4) = 1 1 2, sum of the products and ’ 7*54 x^l 1 2 x i s = 507 . 7888; conte nt required. Example 3. Required the content of a pentagonal, frustum whose height is 5 feet, each side of the base 18 inches, and each side of the upper end 6 inches. Here, 1 -5 s + 1 -5 2 + (1 -5 x -5) = 2-5625, sum of the products ; , , t'7204774 ( tab. area) x 2 5G25 (sum of products) x 5 . . 1 but, — 5 — — 3 1 ^- = 9-31925, content required 1237. Problem VII. To find the surface of a sphere or any segment of one. Rule 1. Multiply the circumference of the sphere by its diameter, and the product wil be the surface thereof. This and the rules in the following problems depend 01 Props. 113. and 114. (Geometry, 994, 995.), to which the reader is referred. Rule 2. Square the diameter, and multiply that square by 3-1416 for the surface. Rule 3. Square the circumference, then either multiply that square by the dccin - •3183, or divide it by 3-1416 for the surface. Remark. For the surface of a segment or frustum, multiply the whole circumferuiu of the sphere by the height of the part required. Example 1 . Required the convex superficies of a sphere whose diameter is 7 air circumference 22. Here, 22 x 7 = 1 54, the superficies required. Example 2. Required the superficies of a sphere whose diameter is 24 inches. Here, 24 x 24 x 3"1 41 6 = 1809"561 6 is the superficies required. Example 3. Required the convex superficies of a segment of a sphere whose axis 1 42 inches and the height of the segment 9 inches. Here, I : 3"1416;;42 : 131-9472, the circumference of the sphere; but 131 -9472 x 9 = 1187-5248, the superficies required. Example 4. Required the convex surface of a spherical zone whose breadth or hciy is 2 feet and which forms part of a sphere whose diameter is 1 2) feet. Here, 1 ; 3-1416: 112-5 : 39"27, the circumference of i.he sphere whore the zone is a part ; and 39-27 x 2 = 78-54, the area required. 1238. Problem VIII., To find the solidity of a sphere or globe. Rule I. Multiply the surface by the diameter, and take one sixth of the product fur ll content. Rule 2. Take the cube of the diameter and multiply it by the decimal -5236 fur tl> content. Example. Required the content of a sphere whose axis is 12. Here 12 x 12 x 12 x -5236 = 904-7808, content required. AP. I. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 339 1339. Problem IX. To find, the solidity of a spherical segment. llule 1. From thrice the diameter of the sphere subtract double the height of the segment, and multiply the remainder by the square of the height. This product multiplied by -3236 will give the content. Hule 2. To thrice the square of the radius add the square of its height, multiply the sum thus found by the height, and the product thereof by "5236 for the content. Example 1. Required the solidity of a segment of a sphere whose height is 9, the diameter of its base being 20. Here, 3 times the square of the radius of the base =300 ; and the square of its height =81, and 300 + 81=381 ; but 381 x 9=3429, which multiplied by ’5236 = 1795 ’4244, the solidity required. Example 2. Required the solidity of a spherical segment whose height is 2 feet and the diameter of the sphere 8 feet. Here, 8 x 3 — 4 = 20, which multiplied by 4 = 80; and 80 x "5236 = 41 '888, the solidity required. It is manifest that the difference between two segments in which the zone of a sphere is luded will give the solidity of the zone. That is, where for instance the zone is in- ded in a segment lying above the diameter, first consider the whole as the segment of a ere terminated by the vertex and find its solidity ; from which subtract the upper part segment between the upper surface of the zone and the vertex of the sphere, and the erence is the solidity of the zone. fhe general rule to find the solidity of a frustum or zone of a sphere is : to the sum of squares of the radii of the two ends add one third of the square of their distance, or the adth of the zone, and this sum multiplied by the said breadth, and that product again by 708, is the solidity. Sect. VII. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 210. It is our intention in this section to address ourselves to the consideration of •hanics and statics as applicable more immediately to architecture. The former is the uce of forces, and the effects they produce when applied to machines in the motion of ies. The latter is the science of weight, especially when considered in a state of ilibrium. 241. The centre of motion is a fixed point about which a body moves, the axis being fixed line about which it moves. - 12. The centre of gravity is a certain point, upon which a body being freely suspended, li body will rest in any position. 213. So that weight and power, when opposed to each other, signify the body to be ved, and the body that moves it, or the patient and agent The power is the agent which ves or endeavours to move the patient or weight, whilst by the word equilibrium is nit an equality of action or force between two or more powers or weights acting against li other, and which by destroying each othei’s effects cause it to remain at rest. PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES. 2 14. If a body I) suspended by a thread is drawn out of its vertical direction by horizontal thread DE {fiy. 519.), such power neither increases nor diminishes the eflbrt 340 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook 1 1. of the weight of the body ; but it may be easily imagined that the first thread, by being in the direction AD, will, besides the weight itself, have to sustain the effort of the power that draws it out of the vertical A 13. 1245. If the direction of the horizontal force be prolonged till it meets the vertical, which would he in the first thread if it were not drawn away by the second, we shall have triangle A L)B, whose sides will express the proportion of the weight to the forces of the (wo threads in the case of equilibrium being established'; that is, supposing AB to express the weight, AD will express the effort of the thread attached to the point A, and 13D that of the horizontal power which pulls the body away from the vertical AB. 1246. These different forces may also be found by transferring to the vertical DII (fig-5i 9. ) any length of line DF to represent the weight of the body. If from the point F the parallels FI, FG be drawn in the direction of the threads, their forces will be indicated by the lines ID, DG, so that the three sides of the triangle DGF, similar to the triangle ADB, will express the proportion of the weight to the two forces applied to the threads. 1 247. Suppose the weight to be 30 lbs. : if from a scale of equal parts we set up 30 of those parts from D to F (fig- 519.), we shall find DG equal to 21, or the pounds of force of the horizontal line DE, and 35 for the oblique power ID. 1248. If the weight, instead of 30 lbs., were 100, we should find the value of the forces DG and ID by the proportions of 30 : 21 ; ; 100 : x, where x expresses the force DG. The value resulting from this proportion is x =— -gg— = 70. The second proportion 30 : 35 : : 1 00 : y, where ^ represents the effort ID, whose value will be y = \ 164366. 1249. If the angle ADH formed by AD and DH be known, the same results may be obtained by taking DF for the radius, in which case IF = DG becomes the tangent, in this instance, of 35 degrees, and ID the secant; whence D F ; D I ; IF:: radius : tang. 35 : sec. 35. If ID be taken for the radius, we have ID : IF : FD;: radius : tang. 35 : sin. 35. 1250. We have here to observe, that in conducting the operation above mentioned a figure DIFG has been formed, which is called the parallelogram of the forces, because the j diagonal DF always expresses a compounded force, which will place in equilibrio the two j others FI, FG, represented by the two contiguous sides IF, FG. 1251. Instead of two forces which draw, we may suppose two others which act by posh- ing from E to D (fig- 522.) and from A to D. If we take the vertical DF to express the weight, and we draw as before the parallels FG and FI in the e G direction of theforces, the sides GD and DI of the parallelogram DGFI (fig. 5 1 9.) will express the forces with which the powers act relatively to DF to support the body : thus FI = GD the weight and two powers which support it will, in case of equi- librium, be represented by the three sides of a rectangular tri- angle DFI; so that if the weight be designated by IT, the power which pushes from G to D by E, and that which acts from I to D by P, we shall have the proportion II : E ; P ; : DF : FI : ID, wherein, if we take DF for radius, it will be as radius is to the tangent of the angle FDI and to its secant. As a body in suspension is drawn away from the vertical line in which it hangs by a power higher than the body ( fig. 520.), it follows that the oblique forces AB and BC each support, independent of any lateral efforts, a part of the weight of the body. In order to find the proportion of these parts to the total weight, take any distance BD on a vertical raised from the centre of the body B to express the weight, and complete the parallelo- gram DEBF, whose sides E13, BF will express the oblique forces of the powers A and C. These lines, being considered as the diagonals of the rectangular parallelograms LEI II. BHF’JVI, may each be resolved into two forces, whereof one of them, vertical, sustains (lie body, and the other, horizontal, draws it away from the verticals AO, CQ. Hence IB will express the vertical force, or that part of the weight sustained by the power EB, and DU that sustained by the other power BF: as these two forces act in the same direction, when added together their sum will represent the weight DB. In short, IB being equal to HD, it follows that BII+ BI=BI+ ID. J252. As to the horizontal forces indicated by the lines LB and BM, as they arc equal and opposite they destroy one another. 1253. It follows, from what has hcen said, that all oblique forces may be resolved into two others, one of which shall be vertical and the other horizontal, by taking their direction for the diagonal of a rectangular parallelogram. 1254. In respect of their ratio and value, those may be easily found by means of a scale if the diagram be drawn with accuracy ; or by trigonometry', it we Know the angle? Fig. on. tAP. I. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 311 Fifl- 523. BD, DBC, which AB and BC form with the vertical BD, by taking successively tor i iris the diagonals B D, BE, and BF. 1255. In the accompanying diagram, the weight, instead of being suspended by strings ing by tension, is sustained by forces which are supposed to by pushing. But as this arrangement makes no alteration the system of forces, we may apply to this figure all that has jn said with respect to the preceding one. The only differ- is, that the parallelogram of the forces is below the ight instead of being above it. Thus ID+IB = BD ex- sses the sum of the vertical forces which support the weight, 1 MB and BL the horizontal forces which counteract each ler. 1256. In the two preceding figures the direction of the forces ich act by tension or compression in supporting the weight m an acute angle. In those represented in fig. 521. and the ore at the side (524.), these directions make an obtuse angle ; ence it follows that in fig. 521. the force C which draws the weight out of the vertical , instead of tending to support the weight B, increases its ict by its tendency to act in the same direction. In order to ertain the amount of this effect upon BD in figs. 521. and 1., which represents the vertical action of the weight, describe parallelogram BAD F, for the purpose of determining the ique forces BA, BF, and then take these sides for the diago- s of the two rectangles LAIB, BHFM, whose sides BI, BII 1 express the vertical forces, and LB, BM the horizontal s. 257. It must be observed that in fig. 521. the force AB ing upwards renders its vertical effect greater than the weight a quantity ID, which serves as a compensation to the part I, that the other force BF adds to the weight by drawing inwards. Similarly, the vertical effect of the force BE (fig. . ) exceeds the expression BD of the weight by a quantity DI, ounterpoise the effect BII of the other power BF, which acts downwards; so that in i cases we have BD only for the vertical effect of the weight. As to the horizontal cts LB and BM, they being equal- and in oppo- direetions in both figures, of course counteract 1) other. 258. For the same reason that a force can be re- ed into two others, those two others may be re- ed into one, by making that one the diagonal of a allelogram whose forces are represented by two tiguous sides. It is clear, then, that whatever number of forces which affect any point, they be reduced into a single one. It is only neces- to discover the results of the forces two by two to combine these results similarly two by two, we come to the principal ones, which may be ul- itely reduced to one, as we have seen above. By a process we shall find that PY (fig. 525.) is result of the forces PA, PB, PC, PD, which ■t the point P. 1 his method of resolving forces is often of great utility in the science of building, lie purpose ot providing a force to resist several others acting in different directions but ting in one point. OF THE PROPERTIES OF T1IE LEVER. 0. Ihe li ver is an inflexible rod, bar, or beam serving to raise weights, whilst it is mrted at a point by a fulcrum, or prop, which is the centre of motion. To render the oiutrations relative to it easier and simpler, it is supposed to be void of gravity or lit. Ihe different positions in which the power applied to it, and the weight to be . led, may be applied in respect of the fulcrum, have given rise to the distinction of sorts of levers. 1 hat represented ill fig. 526., in which the fulcrum () is between the power applied ud the weight Q. 1. 1 hut represented in fig 527., in which the weight (I is placed between the fulcrum 342 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II O and the power P, wherein it is to be remarked that the weight and the power act ii contrary directions. III. That represented in fig. 528., wherein the power P is placed between the weigh and the fulcrum, in which case the power and the weight act in contrary directions. 1261. In considering the fulcrum of t >ese three sorts of levers, we must notice, as third species of power introduced for creating an equilibrium between the others, 1st That in which the directions of the weight and of the powers concur in the point R {fig. 5 29.). 2d, That in which they are parallel. 1262. In the first case, if from the point R ( figs . 529. and 530.) we draw parallel to these directions O m R«, the ratio of these three forces, that is, the power, the weight, and the fulcrum, will be as the three sides of the triangle OmR, or its equal On Ii ; thus we shall have P 1 Q : R:;mR : Rft : OR; and as the sides of a triangle are as the sines of their opposite angles, by taking OR as the radius we shall have P I Qllsin. ORn : sin. ORm. And if from the point O two perpendiculars be let fall, Oil Of, on the directions RQ, RP Sin. ORn : sin. ORn;:: Od : Of; from which two proportions we obtain P 1 Q : : Od : Of; whence P x Of =Qx Od. R This last expression gives equal products, which are called the momenta, moments, or quai tities of motion of the force in respect of the fulcrum O. This property is the same forth straight as for the angular levers {figs. 529. and 530.). As this proportion exists, howevc large the angles raRO and ORn of the directions RQ, RP in respect to 110, it follows till when it becomes nothing, these directions become parallel without the proportion bein changed ; whence is derived the following general theorem, found in all works on mechanic) — If two forces applied to a straight or angular lever are in equilibrio, they are in an inver ratio to the perpendiculars let fall from the fulcrum on their lines of direction : or in other word In order that two forces applied to a straight or angular lever may be hi equilibrio, their moment in respect of the fulcrum must be equal. 1 263. Since, in order to place the lever in equilibrio, it is sufficient to obtain equal m menta, it follows that if we could go on increasing or diminishing the force, we might pla> it at any distance we please from the fulcrum, or load it without destroying the equilibriun This results from the formula P x O f— Q x Od, m # whence we have Of= ~ Hence the distance Of is easily found, to which by applying the known force P, it may counterpoise the weight Q applied at the distance Od. In respect of the other points, we have only to know the perpendiculars Of and Od, for Oa and Ob, which are the arms of the real levers, are deduced from the triangles O/T, O da, to which they belong. 1264. Suppose two levers {figs. 531, 532.), whereof ABC D E n K . 631. Mfi.iS*. ’map. 1. MECHANICS AND STATICS. r?4H ne is straight and the other angular, and that the weight Q, is 100 pounds, the arm DE of ae lever 6 feet; its momentum wili be 600. Then if we wish to ascertain at what distance )/"a weight of 60 pounds must be placed so that it may be in equilibrio with the first, we aall have Of — - X p— = ^{j 0 = 1 0 feet, the distance sought. 1265. Reciprocally, to find the effect of a force P placed at the point C of the other arm f the lever at a known distance from the fulcrum, and marked Of, in order to counter- oise Q placed at the distance Of, we have the formula P = * ; and if we apply this jrmula to the numbers taken in the preceding example, the question will be, to find a irce which placed at the distance of 10 feet from the fulcrum may be in equilibrio with a eight of ICO pounds at the end of the arm of a lever of 6 feet. We must in using the rmula divide 600 by 10, and the quotient 60 will indicate the effect with which the force ught to act. If, instead of placing it in C, it is at 13, 12 feet from the fulcrum, the force ould be which gives 50 ; and lastly, if we have to place it at a point 15 feet from the ilcrum, the force would be 6 ^° = 40. Thus, in changing the situation of the force to a oint more or less distant from the fulcrum, we must divide the momentum of the weight hich is to be supported by the distance from the fulcrum taken perpendicularly to its irection. OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY. 1266. The centre of gravity of a body is a certain point within it on which the body, if eely suspended, will rest in any position ; whilst in other positions it will descend to the .west place to which it can get. Not only do whole bodies tend by their weight to assume a irtical direction, but also all the parts whereof they consist ; so that if we suspend any body, hatever be its form, by means of a string, it will assume such a position that the thread roduced to the internal part of the body will form an axis round which all the parts will main in equilibrium. Every time that the point of suspension of a body is changed, the rection of the thread produced exhibits a new axis of equilibrium. But it is to be re- irkcd, that all these axes intersect each other in the same point situate in the centre of the ass of the body, supposing it composed of homogeneous parts but sometimes out of the ass of the body, as in the case of bodies much curved, this point is the centre of gravity. 1267. It is therefore easy to perceive that for a body to be in a state of rest its centre of avity must be supported by a vertical force equal to the resultant of all the forces that Icct it, but acting in a contrary direction. So in figs. 520. and 523., the weight supported the forces AB and BC which draw or push, will be equally supported by a vertical i ce represented by the diagonal DB of the parallelogram which expresses the resultant of e forces. 1 26 K. An acquaintance with the method of finding centres of gravity is indispensable in 'imating the resistances, strains, and degree of stability of any part of an edifice. There isc cases in which we may cast aside all consideration of the form of a body, especially i when it acts by weight, and suppose the whole figure collected in the centre of gravity, e may also, for the sake of simplifying operations, substitute a force for a weight. OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF FINES. 1269. A straight line may be conceived to be composed of an infinite number of points, ually heavy, ranged in the same direction. After this definition, it is evident that if it suspended by the middle, the two parts, being composed of the same number of equal nits placed at equal distances from the point of suspension, will be necessarily in equi- .riurn ; whence it follows that the centre of gravity of a right line is in the middle of its igth. 1 270. The points in a curve line not being in the same direction, the centre of its volume mot be the same as its centre of gravity ; that is to say, that a curve suspended by the ddlc cannot be supported in equilibrio but in two opposite situations; one when the inches of the curve are downwards, and the other when n y are upwards, so that the curve may be in a vertical - -^ r me. ^ — >■ — X 1271. If the curve is the arc of a circle ADB ( fig. 533.), is easy to see that from the uniformity of its curvature, its itre of gravity will be found in the right line DC drawn ;n the centre C to the middle I) ; moreover, if we draw ■ chord AB, the centre of gravity will be found between ■ points I) and E. I 2 '2. Let us suppose that through all the points of the line B lie drawn, terminated on each side by the curve; and let us Fig. 433. 0 DE parallels to the chord imagine that each of these THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 314 lines at its extremities bears corresponding points of the curve; then the line DE will he loaded with all these weights ; and as the portions of the curve which answer to each parallel AB go on increasing as they approach D, the centre of gravity G will be nearer the point 1) than to the point E. 1273. To determine the position of this point upon the radius CD which divides the arc into two equal parts, we must use the following proportion : the length of the arc ABD is to the chord AB, as the radius CD is to the fourth term .r, whose value is — That is, in order to obtain upon the radius DC the distance CG of the centre of gravity from the centre of the arc of the circle, the chord AB must he multiplied by the radius CD and divided by the length of the arc ABD 1274. When the circumference of the circle is entire, the axes of equilibrium being diameters, it is manifest that their intersection gives the centre of the curve as the centre of gravity. It is the same with all entire and symmetrical curves which have a centre, and with all combinations of right lines which form regular and symmetrical polygons. Fig. 534. Fir. 535. Fig. 536. OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SURFACES. 1275. In order that a centre of gravity may be assigned to a surface, we must, as in the case of lines, imagine them to be material, that is, consisting of solid, homogeneous, and heavy particles. 1276. In all plane smooth surfaces, the centre of gra- vity is the same as that of the volume of space ; thus the centre of gravity G (fiys. 534, 535, 536.), of a square of a rectangle, or of a parallelogram, is determined by the intersections of its diagonals AD, BC. The centre of gravity of a regu- lar polygon, composed of an equal or unequal number of sides, is the same as that of a circle within which it may be in- scribed. 1277. In order to find the centre of gravity of any triangle, bisect each of the sides, and from the points of bisection draw lines to the opposite angles ; the point of intersection with each other of these lines will be the centre of gravity sought ; for in the supposi- tion that the surface of the triangle is composed of lines parallel to its sides, the lines AE, BE, and CD (Jig. 537.) will be the axes of equilibrium, whose intersection at G gives the centre of gravity. We shall moreover find that this point is at one third of the distance from the base of each of the axes ; so that, in fact, it is only necessary to draw a line from the point of bi- section of one of the sides to the opposite angle, and to divide it into three equal parts, whereof that nearest the base determines the centre of gravity of the triangle. 1273. To find the centre of gravity of any irregular rectilinear surface, such as the pentagon, Jig. 538., let it be divided into the three triangles, AED, ABC, ADC 'Jig. 5SS.), and by the preceding rule determine their centres of gravity F, G, FI. Then draw the two lines NO, OP, which form a right angle surrounding the polygon. Multiply the area of each triangle by the distance of its centre of gravity on the line ON, indicated by F Gy, HA, and divide the sum of these products by the entire area of the pentagon, and this will give a mean distance through which an indefinite line IK parallel to ON is to he drawn. Conducting a similar operation in respect of the line OP, we obtain a new mean distance for drawing another line LQ parallel to OP, which will intersect tho first in the point M, the centre of gravity of the pentagon. The centre of gravity of a sector of a circle AEBC (Jig. 539.) must be upon the radius CE which divides the arc into two equal parts. To determine from the centre C at I MECHANICS AND STATICS. 345 ChAF. I. Fig. 510. iwliat distance the point G is to be placed, we must multiply twice the radius CE by the ;hord A 13, and divide the product by thrice the length of the arc AEB. The quotient s the distance CG from the centre C of the circle of the centre of gravity of the sector, i ) 279. To find the centre of E gravity of the crown portion of m arch DAEBF (fig. 5 40.) omprised between two concen- ric axes, we must — 1. Find the centre of gravity if the greater sector AEBC, uid that of the smaller one DFG. ! 2. Multiply the area of each pf these sectors by the distance if their respective centres of gravity from the common centre C. i :i. Subtract the smaller product from the greater, .and divide the remainder by the area Lf DAEBF; the quotient will give the distance of the centre of gravity G from the centre C. 1280. To determine the centre of gravity of the segment AEB ; subtract the product of lie area of the triangle ABC (fy. 541.) multiplied by the distance of its centre of gravity |rom the centre C, from the product of the area of the sector, f y the distance of its centre of gravity from the same point C, ml divide the remainder by the area AEB ; the quotient ex- presses the distance of the centre of gravity G of the segment pom the centre C, which is to be set out on the radius, and jv hich divides the segment into two equal parts. It would, from want of space, be inconvenient to give the strict icinonstrations of the above rules ; nor, indeed, is it absolutely ■ecessary for the architectural student. Those who wish to 'Uisue the subject au fond, will, of course, consult more abstruse works on the matter. .Vo will merely observe, that whatever the figure whose centre of gravity is sought, it s only necessary to divide it into triangles, sectors, or segments, and proceed as above ■escribed for the pentagon,^. 538. c Fig. 541. OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF SOI, IDS. 1281. It is supposed in the following considerations, that solids are composed of homo- geneous particles whose weight in every part is uniform. They are here arranged under wo heads, regular and irregular. 1282. Regular solids are considered as composed of elements of the same figure as their kise, placed one upon the other, so that all their centres of gravity are in a vertical line, Inch we shall call the right axis. Thus parallelepipeds, prisms, cylinders, pyramids, ones, conoids, spheres, and spheroids have a right axis, whereon their centre of gravity is jund. 1283. In parallelopipeds, prisms, cylinders, spheres, spheroids, the centre of gravity is i the middle of the right axis, because of the similarity and symmetry of their parts |ually distant from that point. 1281. In pyramids and cones (Jigs. 542, 543.), which diminish gradually from the base i the apex, the centre of gravity is at he distance of one fourth of the axis s ointbeba.se. ,f;\ I 1285. In paraboloids, which diminish //■ \\ / j \ Ks on account of their curvature, the ■ nlre of gravity is at the height of one third the axis above the base. Io find the centre of a pyramid or of | truncated cone (figs. 542, 543.), we uist first multiply the cube of the entire >ne or pyramid by the distance of its Icntre of gravity from the vertex. 2. subtract from this product that of the , rl MS It which is cut olf, by the dis- Luce of its centre of gravity from the " x. 3. Divide this remainder by the lube of the truncated pyramid or cone; P'c quotient will be the distance of the •lie or pyramid from its apex. U r W.U / 7 ! * Fig. .W. Fig. 513 centre of gravity G of the part of the truncated 34 6 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. 1286. The centre of gravity of a hemisphere is at the distance of three eighths of the radius from the centre. 1287. The centre of gravity of the segment of a sphere (Jig- 544.) is found by the following proportion : as thrice the radius less the thickness of the segment is to the diameter less three quarters the thickness of the segment, so is that thickness to a fourth term which expresses the distance from the vertex to the centre of gravity, set off on the radius which serves as the axis. 1288. Thus, making r= the radius, e= the thickness of the segment, and x = the distance sought, we have, according to La Caille, — 3 r — e . 2 r — ^ \ .e . x, whence x = Suppose the radius to be 7 feet, the thickness of the segment 3 feet, we shall have — x = - which gives x = 1 +|| = 1 +23, equal the distance of the centre of gravity from its vertex on the radius. 1289. To find the centre of gravity of the zone of a sphere (Jig. 545.), the same sort of operation is gone through as for truncated cones and pyramids ; that is, after having found the centre of gravity of the segment cut off, and that in which the zone is comprised, multiply the cube of each by the distance of its centre of gravity from the apex A, and subtract- ing the smaller from the larger product, divide the remainder by the cube of the zone. Thus, supposing, as before, the radius AC = 7, the thickness of the zone = 2, and that of the segment cut off = 1 4, we shall find the distance from the vertex of the centre of gravity of this last by the formula x = which in this case gives x = 4 ~~^(oy ^ ~) 3 ' X ’ an( ^ pursuing the investigation, we have = which will be the distance of the centre of gravity from the vertex A. That of the centre of gravity of the segment in which the zone is comprised will, according to the same for- 3x1^— mula, be x = — 473x7^3 — -*> which gives x = 2 + for the distance of the centre of gravity from the same point A. 1290. The methods of finding the solidities of the bodies involved in the above inves tigation are to be found in the preceding section, on Mensuration. OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF IRREGULAR SOLIOS. 1291. As all species of solids, whatever their form, are susceptible of division intc pyramids, as we have seen in the preceding observations, it follows that their centres 0! gravity may be found by following out the instruc- tions already given. Instead of two lines at right angles to each other, let us suppose two vertical planes N AC, CEF (fig. 546.), between which the solid G is placed. Carrying to each of those planes the momenta of their pyramids, that is, the products of their solidity, and the distances of their centres of gravity, divide the sum of these products for each plane by the whole solidity of the body, the quotient will express the distance of two other planes BKL, DHM, parallel to those first named. Their inter- section will give a line IP, or an axis of equilibrium, upon which the centre of gravity of the solid will be found. To determine the point G, imagine a third plane N O F perpendicular to the pre- ceding ones, that is, horizontal ; upon which let the solid be supposed to stand. In respect of this plane let the momenta of the pyramids be found by also multiplying their solidity by the dis- tance of their centres of gravity. Lastly, dividing the sum of these products by the solidity of the en- tire body, the quotient gives on the axis the dis- tance PG of this third plane from the centre of gravity of the irregular solid. Mechanically, where two of the surfaces of a body are parallel, the mode of finding the centre of gravity is simple. Thus, if the body be hung up by any point A (figs. 547, 548.), and a plumb line AB be suspended from the same point, it will pass through Fig. S47. f« . h*. 'hap. 1. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 347 lie centre of gravity, because that centre is not in the lowest point till it fall in the plumb ne. Mark the line AB upon it ; then hang the body up by any other point D, with a lumb line DE, which will also pass through the centre of gravity, for the same reason as efore. Therefore the centre of gravity will he at C, where the lines cross each other. 1 SS2. We have, perhaps, pursued this subject a little further than its practical utility in rchitecture renders necessary; but cases may occur in which the student will find our ex- ;nded observations of service. OF THE INCLINED PLANE. 1293. That a solid may remain in a perfect state of rest, the plane on which it stands tust be perpendicular to the direction of its gravity ; that is, level or horizontal, and the ver- cal let fall from its centre of gravity must not fall out of its base. 1294. When the plane is not horizontal, solids placed on it tend to slide down or to verturn. 1295. As the surfaces of bodies are more or less rough, when the direction of the centre f gravity does not fall without their base, they slide down a plane in proportion to their Highness and the plane’s inclination. 1296. Thus a cube of hard freestone, whose surfaces are nicely wrought, does not slide own a plane whose inclination is less than thirty degrees ; and with polished marbles the iclination is not more than fifteen degrees. 1297. When a solid is placed on an inclined plane, if the direction of the centre of ravity falls without its base, it overturns if its surfaces are right surfaces, and if its surface - convex it rolls down the plane. 1298. A body with plane surfaces may remain at rest after having once overturned if the irface upon which it falls is sufficiently extended to prevent its centre of gravity falling ithin the base, and the inclination be not so great as to allow of its sliding on. 1299. Solids whose surfaces are curved can only stand upon a perfectly horizontal plane, ecause one of the species, as the sphere, rests only on a point, and the other, as cylinders ad cones, upon a line ; so that for their continuing at rest, it is necessary that the vertical t fall from their centre of gravity should pass through the point of contact with and be rpendicular to the plane. Hence, the moment the plane ceases to be horizontal the ireetion of the centre of gravity falls out of the point or line of contact which serves as the ise of the solid, and the body will begin to roll ; and when the plane on which they thus )11 is of any extent they roll with an accelerated velocity, equal to that which they would quire in falling directly from the vertical height of the inclined plane from the point hence they first began to roll. I 300. To find the force which is necessary to support a convex body upon an inclined ane, we must consider the point of contact F (Jigs. 5 49, 550.) as the fulcrum of an an- p Pi*. 549. Fig. 550. ilar lever, whose arms are expressed by the perpendiculars drawn from the fulcrum to the ruction of the force CP and the weight CD, which in the case of Jig. 549., where the force hich draws the body is parallel to the plane, P : N::FC : FD. ow as the rectangular triangle CFD is always similar to the triangle OSH, which forms « plane inclined by the vertical SO and the horizontal line Oil, the proportion will stand fullows : — p : N::OS : sn. tnc first case, to obtain an equilibrium, the force must be to the weight of the body as the "jht OS of the inclined pin u V to its length SI I. 1 ; 01. In the case where the force is horizontal ( fig. 550.) we have, similarly, — P : N:: FA : FD, and p : N::OS : OH. ibis last case, then, the force must be to the weight of the solid in proportion to the height 348 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II, OS of the inclined plane to its base OH. In the lirst case the pressure of the solid on the plane is expressed by Oil, and in the second by SH : hence we have — P : N : F: : OS : SH : OH, and P : N : F::OS : SH : OH. In the first, case it must be observed, that the effect of the force being parallel to the in- dined plane, it neither increases nor diminishes the pressure upon that plane; and this is the most favourable case for keeping a body in equilibrio on an inclined plane. In the second case, the direction forming an acute angle with the plane uselessly augments the load or weight. Whilst the direction of the force forms an obtuse angle with the in- clination of the plane, by sustaining a portion of the weight, it diminishes the load on the plane, but requires a greater force. 1302. 'The force necessary to sustain upon an inclined plane a body whose base is formed by a plane surface depends, as we have already observed, on the roughness of the surfaces, as well of the inclined plane as of the base of the body ; and it is only to be dis- covered by experiment. 1303. Of all the means that have been employed to estimate the value of the resistance, known under the name of friction, the simplest, and that which seems to give the truest results, is to consider the inclination of the plane upon which a body, the direction of whose centre of gravity does not fall out of the base, remains in equilibrio, as a horizontal plane ; after which the degrees of inclination may begin to be reckoned, by which we find that a body which does not begin to slide till the plane’s inclination exceeds 30 degrees, being placed on an inclined plane of 45, will not require a greater force to sustain it than a convex body of the same weight on an inclined plane of 1 5 degrees. 1 304. All that has been said on the force necessary to retain a body upon an inclined plane, is applicable to solids supported by two planes, considering that the second acts as a force to counterpoise the first, in a direction perpendicular to the second plane. 1305. When the directions of three forces, PG, Q.G, GR, meet in the same point G {Jig. 55 1.), it follows, from the preceding observations on the parallelogram of forces, that to be in equilibrium their proportion will be ex- pressed by the three sides of a triangle formed by perpendiculars to their directions ; whence it follows, that if through the centre of gravity G of a solid, supported by two planes or by some other point of its vertical direction, lines be drawn perpendicular to the directions of the forces, if equilibrium exist, so will the following proportion, viz. P ; Q, : R:;BA : BC : AC. 1306. Lastly, considering that in all sorts of tri- angles the sides will between each other be as the sines A of their opposite angles, we shall have P : Q. : R : : sin. BC A : sin. BAG : sin. ABC ; and as the angle BCA is equal to the angle CAD, and CBA to BAE, we shall have P sin. BAC : sin. BAE ; that is, that the weight is represented by the sine of the angle formed by the two inclined planes, and that the pressures upon each of these planes are reci- procally proportional to the sines of the angles which they form with the horizon. Fig. 551. Q : il: : sin. CAD : THE WHEEL AND AXLE. 1307. The wheel and axle, sometimes called the axis in peritrochio, is a ma- chine consisting of a cylinder C and a wheel B {Jig. 552.) having the same axis. the two extremities of which are pivots on which the wheel turns. The power is applied at the circumference of the wheel, generally in the direction of a tangent by means of a cord wrapped about the cylinder in order to overcome the resistance or elevate the weight. Here the cord by which the power P acts is applied at the circumference of the wheel, while that of the weight W is applied round the axle or another small wheel attached to the larger, and having the same axis or centre C. Thus BA is a lever moveable about the point C, the power P always acting at the distance BC, and the weight W at the distance C A. Therefore P : W : : CA : CB. That is, the weight and power will be in equilibrio when the power P is to the weight W reciprocally as the radii of the circles where they act, or as the radius of the axle CA, where the weight hangs, to the radius of the wheel CB, where the power acts ; or, as before, P : W : : CA : CB. 1308. If the wheel be put in motion, the spaces moved through being as the eircuin EIr. 552. I. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 149 Fig. 553. erences, or as the radii, the velocity of W will be to the velocity of P as CA to CB ; that is, the weight is moved as much slower as it is heavier than the power. Hence, what is ;ained in power is lost in time ; a property common to machines and engines of every class. 1309. If the power do not act at right angles to the radius CB, but obliquely, draw JD perpendicular to the direction of the power, then, from the nature of the lever, ? : w ; : CA : CD. 1310. It is to the mechanical power of the wheel and axle that belong all turning or yheel machines of different radii; thus, in the roller turning on the axis or spindle CE {Jiff. 553.) by the handle CBD, the power pplied at B is to the weight W on the roller, as he radius of ihe roller is to the radius CB of the landle. The same rule applies to all cranes, apstans, windlasses, &c. ; the power always being o the weight as is the radius or lever at which he weight acts to that at which the power acts; o that they are always in the reciprocal ratio f their velocities. To the same principle are eferable the gimlet and auger for boring holes. 1311. The above observations imply that the ords sustaining the weights are of no sensible liekness. If they are of considerable thickness, r if there be several folds of them over one an- ther on the roller or barrel, we must measure to the middle of the outermost rope for .e radius of the roller, or to the radius of the roller must be added half the thickness of the, ord where there is but one fold. 1312 The power of the wheel and axle possesses considerable advantages in point o( invenience over the simple lever. A weight can be raised but a little way bv a simple ver, whereas by the continued turning of the wheel and axle a weight may be raised to ly height and from anv depth. 1313. By increasing the number of wheels, moreover, the power may be increased to any (tent, making the less always irn greater wheels, by means what is called tooth and pinion ork, wherein the teeth of one rcutnference work in the mnds or pinions of another to irn the wheel. In case, here, an equilibrium, the power is the weight as the continual roduct of the radii of all the ties to that of all the wheels, a if the power P {Jiff. 5.54. ) rn the wheel Q, and this turn le small wheel or axle It, and iis turn the wheel S, and this irn the axle T, and this turn ic wheel V, and this turn the le X, which raises the weight then p : W:;CB . de . [G : AC . BD . EF. And in Fl * jie same proportion is the velocity of \V slower than that of P. Thus, if each wheel to its axle as 10 to 1, then P ; \V 111 ') ; ] 0'\ or as 1 to 1000. Hence a power of one •und will balance a weight of 1000 pounds; but when put in motion, the power will 'ove 10(H) times faster than the weight. l:!ll. We do not think it necessary to give examples of the different machines for raising eights used in the construction of buildings : they are not many, and will be hereafter tmed and described. OF THE Pl/LLEY. I 1315. A pulley is a small wheel, usually made of wood or brass, turning about a metal xis, and enclosed in a frame, or case, called its liloch, which admits of a rope to pass freelv ver the circumference of the pulley, wherein there is usually a concave groove to prevent ic rope slipping out of its place. The pulley is said to be fixed or moveable as its block fixed or rises and falls with the weight. An assemblage of several pulleys is called a stem of pulleys, of which some are in a fixed block and the rest in a moveable one. ’Ilfi. ll a power sustain a weight by means of a fixed pulley* the power and weight are 3.50 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. equal. For if through the centre C ( fig. 555.) of the pulley we draw the horizontal diameter AB ; then will A B represent a lever of the first kind, its prop being the fixed centre C, from which the points A and B, where the power and weight act, being equally distant, the power P is conse- quently equal to the weight W. 1317. Hence, if the pulley be put in motion, the power P will de- scend as fast as the weight W ascends : so that the power is not in- creased by the use of the fixed pulley, even though the rope go over several of them. It is, nevertheless, of great service in the raising of weights, both by changing the direction of the force, for the convenience of acting, and by enabling a person to raise a weight to any height without moving from his place, and also by permitting a great num- ber of persons to exert, at the same time, their force on the rope at P, which they could not do to the weight itself, as is evident in raising the weight, or monkey, as it is called, of a pile-driver, also on many other oc- casions. 1318. When a pulley is moveable the power necessary to sustain a Fig. 555 . weight is equal to the half of such weight. For in this case AB {Jig. 556.) may be con* sidered as a lever of the second kind, the weight being at C, the power acting the prop or fixed point at B. Then, because P ; W::CB ; AB and CB have P = 1 W or W=2P. 1319. From which it is manifest that when the pulley is put in mo- tion the velocity of the power is double that of the weight, inasmuch as the point P descends twice as fast as the point C and the weight W rises. It is, moreover, evident that the fixed pulley F makes no differ- ence in the point P, but merely changes the motion of it in an op- posite direction. 1320. We may hence ascertain the effect of a combination or system of any number of fixed and moveable pulleys, and we shall thereby find iiy. that every cord going over a moveable pulley doubles the powers, for s ? each end of the rope bears an equal share of the weight, whilst each rope fixed to a pulley only increases the power by unity. In Jig. 557. P =£W, and in Jig. 558., P = '« at A, and = AB, we 10+ iv - | 6 OF THE WEDGE. Fi*. ,V*H. 1321. The wedge is a body in the form of a half rectangular prism, in practice usually of wood or metal. AF or BG ( Jig. 559.) is the breadth of its back, CE its height, CG, CB its sides, and its end. G15C, is the terminating surface of two equally inclined planes GCE, BCE. 1322. When a wedge is in equilibrio, the power acting on the back is to the force acting at right angles to either side as the breadth of the back AB (Jig. 560.) is to the length of the side AC or BC. For three forces which sustain each other in equilibrio are as the corresponding sides of a tri- angle drawn perpendicular to the directions in which they act. But AB is perpendicular to the force Chap. I. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 351 acting on the back to drive the wedge forward, and the sides AC, BC are perpendicular to the forces acting on them, the three forces are therefore as All, AC, 13 C. Thus, the force on the back, its effect perpendicularly to AC, and its effect parallel to A 13, are as the three lines AB, AC, and DC, which are perpendicular to them. Hence the thinner the wedge the greater its effect to split any body or to overcome a resistance against the sides of the wedge. 1323. We are, however, to recollect that the resistance or the forces in question are relative to one side only of the wedge ; for if those against both sides are to be reckoned, we can take only half the back AD, or else we must take double the line AC or DC. In the wedge the friction is very great, and at least equal to the force to be overcome, inas- much as it retains any position to which it is driven, whence the resistance is doubled by the friction. But on the other hand, the wedge has considerable advantage over all the other powers, because of the force of the blow with which the back is struck, a force vastly greater than the dead weight or pressure employed in other machines. On this account it is capable of producing effects vastly superior to those of any other power, such as splitting rocks, raising the largest and heaviest bodies by the simple blow of a mallet ; objects which could never be accomplished by any simple pressure whereof in practice application could j be made. or THE SCREW. 1313-!. The screw is a cord wound in a spiral direction round the periphery of a cylinder, and is therefore a species of inclined plane, whose length is to its height as the circumfer- ence of the cylinder is to the distance between two consecutive threads of the screw. It is one of the six mechanical powers used in pressing or squeezing bodies close, and is J occasionally used in raising weights. 1 325. The screw, then, being an inclined plane or half wedge, the force of a power applied in turning it round is to the force with which it presses upwards or downwards, without estimating friction, as the distance between two threads is to the circumference where the power is applied. For considering it as an inclined plane whose height is the distance between two threads, and its base the circumference of the screw ; the force in the horizontal direction being to that in the vertical one as the lines perpendicular to them, namely, as the height of the plane or distance between two threads, is to the base of the plane or circumference of the screw ; the power, therefore, is to the pressure as the distance of two threads is to the circumference. But in the application of the screw a handle or lever is used, by means whereof the gain in power is increased in the proportion of the radius of the screw to the radius of the power, that is, the length of the handle, or as their circumferences. Consequently the power is to the pressure as the distance of the threads I is to the circumference described by the power. The screw being put in motion, the power is then to the weight which would keep it in equilibrio as the velocity of the latter is to that I of the former ; and hence their momenta are equal, and produced by multiplying each weight or power by its own velocity. 1326. Thus it is a general property of all the mechanical powers, that the momentum of 1 a power is equal to that of the weight which would keep it in equilibrio, or that each of j them is proportional to its velocity. 1 327. From the foregoing observations, we may be easily led to compute the force exerted | by any machine whose action is exerted through the means of the screw. In Jig. 561., representing a press driven by a screw whose threads are each one quarter of an inch apart, let it be turned by a handle or lever 4 feet long from | A to B. Then supposing the natural force of a man, by which he can lift, pull, or draw, to be 1 50 pounds, and that it be required to ascertain with what force the screw will press on the board at D when the man turns with his I whole force the handle at A and B ; we have AB, the dia- I meter of the power, 4 feet or 48 inches ; its circumference, therefore, 48 x 3'1 41 6, or 1501 nearly ; and the distance of , tue threads being one quarter of an inch, the power is to tlie pressure as 1 to 603J. But the power is equal to 150 pounds; therefore, as 1 : 603,1 150 : 90480, and the pres- sure therefore at D is equal to a weight of 90480 pounds, independent of friction. I 128 . In the endless screw AB (Jig. 562.), turned by a handle AC of 20 inches radius, the threads oi the screw are at a distance of half an inch ; and the screw turns a toothed vhei I E whose pinion I. acts in turning upon another wheel F, and the pinion M of this i l ist wheel acts upon a third wheel (», to the pinion or barrel whereof is hung the weight \V. j It we would know what weight can be raised through the means of this combination by a | >:i winking the handle C, supposing the diameters of the wheels to be 18 inches, and I '*1 ll| c pinions and barrel 2 inches, the teeth and pinions being all similar in size; we 352 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. have 20 x 3'1416 x 2= 125'664, the circumference of B the power; and 125’664 to or 251 "328 to 1, is the force of the screw alone. Again, 18 : 2 or 9:1, being the proportion of the wheels to the pinions, and there- being three of them, 9 3 : 1 or 729 : 1 is the power gained by the wheels. 1329. Consequently 251 ‘328 x 729 to 1 , or 18321 to 1 nearly, is the ratio of the power to the weight arising from the joint advantage of the screw and the wheels. The power, however, is 1 50 pounds ; there- fore 150 x 183218^ or 27482716 pounds is the weight the man can sustain, equal to 12269 tons. 1330. It must be observed, that the power has to overcome not only the weight, but at the same time the friction undergone by the screw, which in some cases is so great as to he equal to the weight itself; for it is sometimes sufficient to sustain the weight when the power is taken off. or FRICTION. Fig. />62. ffilfiie 1331. Though in a preceding page we have slightly touched on the effect of friction, it is to be kept in mind that the foregoing observations and rules have assumed the mechanical powers to be without weight and friction. This is far from the fact ; and, however theoretically true all that has hitherto been advanced, very great allowances must be made in practice when power is applied to mechanical purposes, in which a great portion of their effect is lost by friction, inertia, &c. The word friction, properly meaning the act of one body rubbing on another, is in mechanics used to denote the degree of retardation or obstruction to motion which arises from one surface rubbing against another. A heavy body placed upon another is not in a state of equilibrium between all the forces which act upon it, otherwise it could be moved by the application of the smallest force in a direction oai® parallel to the plane. This want of equilibrium results from unbalanced force occasioned by the friction on a level surface. Now if a new force of equal magnitude be applied to counterpoise such unbalanced force, the body will obey the smallest impulse in such direc- tion, and the force thus employed will exactly measure the retarding force of friction. It has been well observed, that friction destroys, but never generates motion ; being therein un- like gravity or the other forces, which, though they may retard motion in one direction, always accelerate it in the opposite. Thus the law of friction violates the law of con- tinuity, and cannot be accurately expressed by any geometrical line, nor by any algebraic formula. The author (Playfair, Outlines of Natural Philosophy) just quoted, continues : “ Though friction destroys motion and generates none, it is of essential use in mechanics. It is the cause of stability in the structure of machines, and it is necessary to the exertion of the force of animals. A nail or screw or a bolt could give no firmness to the parts of a machine, or of any other structure, without friction. Animals could not walk, or exert their force anyhow, without the support which it affords. Nothing could have any stability, but in the lowest possible situation ; and an arch, which could sustain the greatest load when properly distributed, might be thrown down by the weight of a single ounce, if not placed with mathematical exactness at the very point which it ought to occupy.” 1332. Many authors have applied themselves to the subject of friction, but the most satis- factory results have attended the investigations of the celebrated Coulomb in its application to practical mechanics ; and it is to that author we are indebted for the few following suc- cinct observations. I. In the friction of wood upon wood in the direction of the fibres after remaining in contact for one or two minutes, tbe following mean results were obtained : — Oak against oak Oak against fir - Fir against fir - Elm against elm - 0 .,,^ = friction in parts of the weight. ^0 = ditto. 178 = ditto. , = ditto. When oak rubbed upon oak, and the surfaces in contact were reduced to the smallest pos I I i slide dimensions, the friction was V- 36’ 2-40’ 2'40‘ i HhIkii L'hap. I. MECHANICS AND STATICS. 353 13-33. When the friction was across the grain, or at right angles to the direction of the ibres, oak against oak was The ratios above given are constant quantities, and not lependent upon the velocities, excepting in the case of elm, when the pressures are very mall, for then the friction is sensibly increased by the velocity. 1334. (II. ) Friction is found to increase with the time of contact. It was ascertained that vhen wood moved upon wood in the direction of the fibres, the friction gradually increased, nd reached its maximum in 8 or 10 seconds. When across the grain of the wood, it took longer time to reach its maximum. 1335. (III.) For illustration of the friction of metals upon metals after a certain time of est, the subjoined experiments were made with two flat i tilers of iron, 4 feet long and 3 nches wide, attached to the fixed plank of the apparatus used for the investigation. Four tlier rulers, two of iron and two of brass, 15 inches long and 18 lines wide, were also used, file angles of each of the rulers were rounded off, and the rubbing surfaces of the rulers fere 45 square inches. With iron upon iron and a pressure of 53 lbs., the friction in parts of the pressure was J.j. — — 453 lbs., — — ! Willi iron upon brass and a pressure o r 52 lbs., the friction in parts of the pressure was 42 ' _ 452 lbs., J . 4 1 1336. In these experiments each set gives nearly the same result, though the second ressures are nearly nine times the first ; from which we learn that, in metals, friction is in- ependent of the extent of the rubbing surfaces. Coulomb, moreover, found that the friction i independent of the velocities. The ratio of 4 to 1 between the pressure of friction, in lie case of iron moving upon brass, is only to be considered accurate when the surfaces are ew and very large. When they are very small the ratio varies from 4 to 1 to 6 to 1 ; but iis last ratio is not reached unless the friction has been continued more than an hour, when le iron and brass have taken the highest polish whereof they are susceptible, free of all ratches. 1337. IV. In the friction of oak upon oak, when greased with tallow, which was renewed 1 every experiment, some days were required for obtaining, when the surfaces were consi- irable, the maximum of friction or adhesion. It was nearly similar to that without grease, metimes rather greater. For iron or copper with tallow, during rest, the increase is not considerable as with oak. At first the friction was -,' T of the weight, besides a small force a pound for every 30 square inches independent of the weight. The friction after some ne changes to -j' 3 or Olive oil alters the condition of the friction to and old soft grease about 1338. V. In the case of friction of bodies, oak upon oak for instance, in motion in the rection of its fibres, the friction was nearly constant in all degrees of velocity, though with ge surfaces it appeared to increase with the velocities ; but when the touching surfaces re very small compared with the pressures, the friction diminished or the velocities in- based. For a pressure of 100 to 4000 pounds on a square foot, the friction is about J.< Isides for each square foot a resistance of Impounds, exclusive of pressure increasing a tie with the velocity, occasioned perhaps by a down on the surface. If the surface bo •y small the friction is lessened. When the narrow surface was cross-grained, the friction is invariably In the case of oak on fir, the friction was of fir on fir, J ; of elm on 1 a, 1 L, but varying according to the extent of surface ; for iron or copper on wood, which I s at first doubled by increasing the velocity to a foot in a second, but on a continuance ■ the operation for some hours it again diminished. For iron on iron, — : on copper. — 1 : 0 3*5o 7 11 7 4 is ’ > er long attrition, I. in all velocities. Upon the whole, in the case of most machines, J of 1 : pressure may be considered a fair estimate of the friction. 1 1339. In the experiments to ascertain the friction of axles, Coulomb used a simple pulley, ‘here the friction of the axis and that of the rigidity of the rope produce a joint resistance. lh guaiacum moving upon iron, the friction was jL or ^ of the weight in all velocities t(|:lusive of the rigidity of the rope; the mean was or, with a small weight, a little ||atcr. In the cases of axles of iron on copper, ^ or the velocity is small ; the friction I ng always somewhat less than for plane surfaces. With grease, the friction was about 1| With an axis of green oak or elm, and a pulley of guaiacum, the friction with tallow t ; 2 ' s ; without, T ' 7 ; with a pulley of elm, the quantities in question became and An «js of box with a pulley of guaiacum gave and with an elm pulley, and jj,. An •h of iron and a pulley of guaiacum gave, with tallow, j u . The velocity had but small A A 354 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book H effect on the rigidity of ropes, except in slightly increasing the resistance when the pressure was small. 1340. The friction and rigidity of ropes was supposed by Amontons and Desaguliers to vary as the diameter as the curvature and as the tension. By Coulomb the power of the diameter expressing the rigidity was found generally to be 1 7 or 1 • 8 , never less than 1 1, and that a constant quantity must be supposed as added to the weight. Wet ropes, if small, are more flexible than such as are dry, and tarred ones stiffer by about one sixth, and in cold weather somewhat more. After rest, the stiffness of ropes increases. A rope of three strands, each having two yarns 1 2| lines in circumference, whose weight was 1 25 grains, being bent upon an axis 4 inches in diameter, required a constant force of one pound ( French) and of the weight to overcome its rigidity. The same rope tarred, required one lifth of a pound and one fiftieth of the weight. When the strands were of fine yarns, the cir- cumference 20 lines, and the weight 347 grains, the rigidity was equal to half a pound and -- of the weight to move it. With strands of 10 yarns, and a circumference of 28 lines, and a weight of 680 grains to 6 inches, the rigidity of the untarred rope was 2 lbs. and — ! of the weight, and the tarred rope of 3-3 lbs. and ■ )-- of the weight. Expert. I O OO J o 0*1 ments which confirmed the above were made on a roller moving on a horizontal plane, while a rope was coiled completely round it, whence an allowance must be made for the friction of the roller on the plane, which varies as its weight and inversely as its diameter. With a roller of guaiacum or lignum vita;, 3 '6' inches in diameter, moving on oak, it was of the weight ; for a roller of elm, 3 more. 1341. This subject has, we conceive, been pursued as far as is necessary for the architect ; seeing that his further investigation of it, should necessity arise, may be accomplished by reference to the works of Amontons, Bulfinger, Parent, Euler, Bossut, and Coulomb, upon whom we have drawn for the information here given. We shall therefore con- clude these remarks by subjoining some of the practical results which experiments on animal power afford, extracted from the celebrated Dr. Thomas Y'oung’s Natural Philoso- phy, vol. ii. 1342. In comparing the values of the force of moving powers, it is usual to assume an unit, which is considered as the mean effect of the labour of an active man working to the greatest advantage; this on a moderate calculation will be found sufficient to raise 10 lbs. to the height of 10 feet in one second for 10 hours in a day ; or 100 lbs. 1 foot in a second, that is 36,000 feet in a day, or 3,600,000 lbs. 1 foot in a day. The following exhibits a tabular view of the immediate force of men, without deduction for friction. Such a day’s work is the measuring unit in the third column of the table. Operative. Force. Continuance. A man weighing 133 lbs. French ascended 62 feet French by steps in 34 seconds, but was com- pletely exhausted. Amontons. - 2-8 34 sec. A sawyer made 200 strokes of 1 8 French inches each in 145 seconds, with a force of 25 lbs. French. He could not have continued more than 3 mi- nutes. Amontons. - - - 6-0 145 sec. A man can raise 60 French lbs. 1 French foot in 1 second for 8 hours a day. Bernouil/i. 0-C9 8 hours A man of ordinary strength can turn a winch with a force of 30 lbs., and with a velocity of 3,j feet in 1 second for 10 hours a day. Desaguliers. 1 -05 1 0 hours Two men working at a windlass, with handles at right angles, can raise 70 lbs. more easily than 1 can raise 30 lbs. Desaguliers. - - - 1-22 A man can exert a force of 40 lbs. for a whole day with the assistance of a fly, when the motion is pretty quick, at about 4 or 5 feet in a second. Desaguliers. But it appears doubtful whether the force is 40 or 20 lbs. - 2-00 For a short time, a man may exert a force of 80 lbs. with a fly when the motion is pretty quick. De- saguliers. - 3 00 1 sec. A man going up stairs ascends 14 metres (35 ’43 feet) in 1 minute. Coulomb. ... 1 -182 1 min. f I 1 I! ( the nciguts at which they act, it follows that a parallelepiped will slide whenever the force which is necessary to overturn it is greater than THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 358 Book II 'FiR. SG4. that necessary to make it slide, and, reciprocally, it will be overt? .led when less force ii necessary to produce that effect than to make it slide. 1366. II. When the parallelopiped is placed on an inclined plane, it will slide so long as the vertical QS drawn from its centre of gravity does not fall without the base All. Hence, to ascertain whether a parallelopiped AllCl) with a rectangular base (fig. 564.) will slide down or overturn ; from tlie point B we must raise the perpendicular BE : if it pass out of the centre of gravity, it will slide ; if, on the contrary, the line BE passes within, it will overturn. 1367. If the surfaces of stones were infinitely smooth, as they are supposed to be in the application of the principles of mechanics, they would begin to slide the moment the plane upon which they are placed ceases to be perfectly horizontal ; but as their surfaces are full of little inequalities which catch one another in their positions, liondelet found, by re- peated experiments, that even those whose surfaces are wrought in the best manner do not begin to slide upon the best worked planes of similar stone to the solids until such planes are inclined at angles varying from 28 to 36 degrees. This difficulty of moving one stone upon another increases as the roughness of their surfaces, and, till a certain point, as their weight: for it is manifest, 1st, That the rougher their surfaces, the greater are the in- equalities which catch one another. 2d. That the greater their weight, the greater is the effort necessary to disengage them ; but as these inequalities are susceptible of being broken up or bruised, the maximum of force wanting to overcome the friction must he equal to that which produces this effect, whatever the weight of the stone. 3d. That this proportion is rather as the hardness than the weight of the stone. 1368. In experiments on the sliding of hard stones of different sizes which weighed from 2 to 60 lbs., our author found that the friction which was more than half the weight for the smaller was reduced to a third for the larger. He remarked that after each experi- ment made with the larger stones a sort of dust was disengaged by the friction. In soft stones this dust facilitated the sliding. 1369. These circumstances, which would have considerable influence on stones of a great weight, were of little importance in the experiments which will be cited, the object being to verify upon hard stones, whose mass was small, the result of operations which the theory was expected to confirm. By many experiments very carefully made upon hard freestone well wrought and squared, it was found, 1st, That they did not begin to slide upon a plane of the same material equally well wrought until it was inclinen alittlemore than 30 degrees. 2d. That to drag upon such stone a parallelopiped of the same material, a little more than half its weight was required. Thus, to drag upon a level plane a paiallelopiped 6 in. long, 4 in. wide, and 2 in. thick, weighing 4 lbs. 1 1 oz., (the measures and weights are French, as throughout*), it was necessary to employ a weight equal to 2 lbs. 7 oz. and 4 drs. 3d. That the size of the rubbing surface is of no consequence, since exactly the same force is necessary to move this parallelopiped upon a face of two in. wide as upon one of 4. 1370. Taking then into consideration that by the principles of mechanics it is proved, that to raise a perfectly smooth body, or one which is round upon an homogeneous plane inclined at an angle of 30 degrees, a power must be employed parallel to the plane winch acts with a force rather greater than half its weight, we may conclude that it requires as much force to drag a parallelopiped of freestone upon an horizontal plane of the same material as to cause the motion up an inclined plane of 30 degrees of a round or infinitely polished body. 1371. From these considerations in applying the principles of mechanics to arches composed of freestone well wrought, a plane inclined at 30 degrees might be considered as one upon which the voussoirs would be sustained, or, in other words, equivalent to an horizontal plane. 1372. We shall here submit another experiment, which tends to establish such an hypo- thesis. If a parallelopiped C ( fig. 565.) of this stone be placed between two others, BD, RS, whose masses are each double, upon a plane of the same stone, the parallelopiped C is sus- tained by the friction alone of the vertical surfaces that touch it. This effect is a consequence of our hypothesis ; for, the inequalities of the surfaces of bodies being stopped by one ano- ther, the parallelopiped C, before it can fall, must push aside the two others, BD, RS, by making them slide along the horizontal plane of the same material, and for that purpose a force must be employed equal to doub.c the weight sustained. Fig. -3G6. * The Paris pound = 7561 Troy grains. Ounce = 472*5625. Dram or gros = 59 *0703. Grain = 08204. And as the English avoirdupois pound = 7^00 Troy grains, it contains 8538 Paris grain* The Paris foot of 12 inches = 12 7077 English inches. 1 lie Paris line — one-tw#*h'th of the loot. Chap. I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 359 1373. If to this experiment the principles of mechanics he applied, considering the plane of 30 degrees inclination as a horizontal plane, the vertical faces ED FR may be considered as inclined planes of 60 degrees. On this hypothesis it may he demonstrated by mechanics, that to sustain a body between two planes forming an angle of 60 degrees ( Jig. 566.1, the resist- ance of each of these planes must be to half the weight sustained as II D is to DG, as the radius is to the sine of 30 degrees, or as 1 is to 2. EQUILIBRIUM OF ARCHES. 1374. The resistance of each parallelopiped represented hy the prism ABDE (.fig. 565.) being equal to half their weight, it follows that the weight to be sustained by the two prisms should equal one quarter of the two parallelepipeds taken together, or the half of one, which is confirmed by the experiment. This agreement between theory and practice deter- mined Rondelet to apply the hypothesis to models of vaults composed of voussoirs and wedges disunited, made of freestone, with the utmost exactness, the joints and surfaces nicely wrought, as the parallelopipeds in the preceding example. 1375. The first model was of a semicircular arch 9 inches diameter, comprised between two concentric semi-circumferences of circles 21 lines ipart. It was divided into 9 equal voussoirs. This arch was 17 lines leep, and was carried on piers 2 inches and 7 lines thick. It was found, by gradually diminishing the piers, which were at first 2 inches and 10 ines thick, that the thickness first named was the least which could be issigned to resist tne thrust of the voussoirs. 1376. The model in question is represented in Jig. 567., whereon ,ve have to observe, — 1st. That the first voussoir, I, being placed >n a level joint, not only sustains itself, but is able to resist by riction an effort equal to one half of its weight. 2d. That the second oussoir, M, being upon a joint inclined 20 degrees, will also, through riction, sustain itself; and that, moreover, these two voussoirs would esist, previous to giving way on the joint AB, an horizontal effort equal o one half of their weight. 3d. That the third voussoir, N, standing in a joint inclined at 40 degrees, would slide if it were not retained iv a power PN acting in an opposite direction. 4th. That taking, acc- ording to our hypothesis, an inclined plane of 30 degrees, whereon he stones would remain in equilibrium as an horizontal one, the in- lined point of 40 degrees may he considered as an inclined plane of Fig. .567. 0 degrees, supposing the surfaces infinitely smooth. 5th. That the effort of the liori- ontal power which holds this voussoir in equilibrium upon its joints will be to its weight s the sine of 10 degrees is to its cosine, as we have, in the section on Mechanics, pre- iously shown. (1255 et seq.) 1377. The model of the vault whereon we are speaking being but 9 inches, or IDS ines in diameter, by 21 lines for the depth of the voussoirs, that is, the width between the wo concentric circumferences, its entire superficies will be 1257 square lines, which, divided ■y 9, gives for each voussoir 473 square lines. Then, letting the weight of each voussoir e expressed by its superficies, and calling P the horizontal power, we have P 1 473;: sin. 10 ; cosin. 10' J ; Or, P ; 473:: 17365 ; 98481 ; which gives P = 83 T 4 0 . 'lie fourth voussoir, being placed upon a bed inclined at 60 degrees, will be considered as ’muling on a plane inclined only at 30 degrees, which gives, calling Q. the horizontal ower which keeps it on its joint, — Q. : 473;:sin. 30° : cosin. 30°. Or, o ; 473:: 50000 : 86603=273-$,. 1 378. The half-keystones, being placed on a joint inclined 80 degrees, are to be considered s standing on an inclined plane of 50, the area of the half key which represents its eight being 236 J. If we call It the horizontal power which sustains it on its joint, we Hall have the proportion It ; 256j : : sin. 50 : cosin. 50 ; or, It ; 236J : : 76604 : 64279; which gives 11 = 281$,. 1379. Wishing to ascertain if the sum of these horizontal efforts, which were necessary > keep on tin ir joints the two voussoirs N, (), and the half-keystone, was capable of irusting away the first voussoir upon its horizontal joint A B, the half arch was laid down pon a level place of the same stone without piers, and it was proved that to make it give uy an horizontal dibit of more than 16 ounces was required, whilst only 10 were necc*- Fig. .067. 560 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IL «arv to sustain the half-keystone and the two voussoirs N, O. The two halves of the arches united bore a weight of 5 lbs. 2 oz. before the first voussoirs gave way. 1380. To find the effect of each of these voussoirs when the arch is raised upon its piers, let fall from the centres of gravity N, O, S of these voussoirs the perpendiculars N», O o, Ss, in order to obtain the arms of the levers of the powers P, Q., R, which keep them in their places, tending at the same time to overturn upon the fulcrum T the pier which carries the half arch, and we have their effort — P x N/i + Q, x O o + R x Ss. The height of the pier being 195 lines, we have N« = 244-94 Oo = 256'26 and Ss = 260\50, whence we have The effort P x Nrc = 83-4 x 244-94, which gives 20427-996 Q, x Oo = 273-3 x256-26 70035-858 II X Ss =281 -9 X 260-50 ........ 73434-950 Total effort in respect of the fulcrum, 163898-804 1381. The pier resists this effort, 1st, by its weight or area multiplied by the arm of the lever determined by the distance T u from the fulcrum T to the perpendicular let fall from the centre of gravity G upon the base of the pier. 2d. By the weight of the half arch multiplied by the arm of its lever VY r determined by the vertical L\’ let fall from the centre of gravity L, and which becomes in respect of the common fulcrum T = Tt or VB — BY, in order to distinguish BY, which indicates the distance of the centre of gravity of the half arch (and which is supposed known because it may be found by the rules given in 1275. etseq.) from the width VB that the pier ought to have to resist the effort of the half arch sought. In order to find it, let P, the effort of the arch above found, be 163898-804. Let the height of the pier —a The width sought — x The weight of the half arch =b The part BY of its arm oflever =c 1 382. The area of the pier which represents its weight multiplied by the arm of tho lever will be ax x * = That of the half arch multiplied by its arm of lever will he shown by VB + BY, where .r + c will be bx+bc, whence the equation P = 2P- + bx + bc, which we have to solve. Now first we have + 6x = P — be. Multiplying all the terms by - 1 , V>x ip-lbc • • , ■ , • • , , 1 - ,& J a \ x- + — + — , an expression in which x is raised to to eliminate x 2 , we have J the second power; but as x 2 4-— is not a perfect square, that is to say, it wants the square of half the known quantity - which multiplies the second term ; by adding this square, which is to each side of the equation, we have x 2 + — + _* = - l~ 2bc . -p _*. The 1 a- x a a z a a £ first member by this means having become a perfect square whose root is a + -, we shall have x + - + . /'l p ~' 2b ? +- , which becomes, by transferring - to the other side of the a V a n v i a equation, x— in which x being only in the first member of the equa- tion, its value is determined from the known quantities on the other side. Substituting, then, the values of the known quantities, we have 163898-804 X2— 2128x2x 121 2128 2128 _ 2 1 ‘28 195 + 195 X 195 195’ which gives x = 28] lines instead of 2 inches and 5 lines, which was assigned to the piers that they might a little exceed equilibrium in their stability. Proof of the above Method by another Method of estimating Friction. 1 383. A proof of the truth of the hypothesis in the preceding section is to be found in the method proposed by Bossut in his Treatise on Mechanics. Let the voussoir N (jig- 568.) standing on an inclined plane be sustained by a power Q acting horizontally. From the Fig. 608 . 'hap. I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 861 centre of gravity let fall the vertical Nn, which may be taken to express the weight of the voussoir. This weight may he resolved into two forces, whereof one, Nc, is parallel to the joint, and the other Na is perpendicular to it. In the same manner the power Q expressed by QN in its direction may be resolved into two forces, whereof N f will be parallel to the joint and the other N d perpendicular to it. Producing the line from the joint HG, drawing the horizontal line GI and letting fall the vertical HI, consider the line HG as an inclined plane whose height is HI and base IG. Then the force Nc with which the voussoir will descend will be to the weight as the height III of the inclined plane is to its length H G. Calling p the weight of the voussoir, we 1IG then have N c=p x -jyy, and the force Na which presses against the plane as the base of the plane I G is to its length, which gives the force Na =/> x yy,. 1384. Considering, in the same way, the two forces of the power Q which retain the voussoir on the inclined plane, we shall find the parallel force N/= Q x y. yj, and the per- pendicular force Nd = Qx yy.. The force resulting from the two forces Na, Nc/, which IG II press against the joint, will tie expressed by p x ]f G + Q x Ci yj ; and as the voussoir only begins to slide upon a plane whose inclination is greater than 30 degrees, the friction will be to the pressure as the sine of 30 degrees is to its cosine, or nearly as 500 is to 8CG, or £*!jj of its expression. Calling this ratio n, we shall, to express the friction, have p IG , „ ir, \ (, P x GH + H x GU J x ». As the friction prevents the voussoir sliding on its joint, in a state of equilibrium, we shall have the force N f equal to the force Nc, less the friction; from which results the equation — n IG HI f IG _ 1H X ^ x HG P x HG ~ \.P x GH ^ x HG/ x "■ All the terms of which equation having the common divisor IIG, it becomes — - Q x IG=p x HI— (px I G — Q x I II) x n ; md, bringing the quantities multiplied by Q to the same side of the equation, we have Qx IG + (Qx IH)x»i =p xHI — (pxIG)xre; which becomes Qx (IG + n x I II =p x (HI — n x IG) ; whence results Q =p x jGi’wxIH’ ls the formula for each voussoir, substituting the values for the expression. 1385. Thus for the third voussoir N (Jiff. 56 7.) placed on an inclined plane of 40 dc- jrees, HI which represents the sine of the inclination will be 643, and its cosine repre- sented by IG, 766, the expression of the friction n will be or 45 nearly. The weight of lie voussoir expressed by its area will be 473, which several values being substituted n the formula, we have Q = 473 x 643 x 7 66. 766 + x 643 ’ vhich gives Q=83 - 6, the expression of the horizontal force P, which will keep the voussoir S' in equilibrium on its joint instead of 83 '4, which was the result of the operation in the (receding subsection. 1386. The same formula Q =p x j G-f”xlH S lves f° r the voussoir M on an inclined joint >f 60 degrees, whose sine III is 866 and cosine IG500, Q=473 x — — * jt)0 = 273-4; 5 00 + ^ x 866 ’ instead of 273 '3, which was the result of the operation in the preceding section. 1387* For the half-keystone, the sine III, being of 80 degrees, will be expressed by »85, and its cosine IG by 174; the half-keystone by 236.J, and the friction by 985 — U x 174 The formula now will be Q — 236j x ~gs r >’ g‘ vus Q= 282-2, instead f 28 1 ^ found by the other method. These slight differences may arise from sup- ircssiug the two last ligures of the sines, and some remainders of fractions which have been icglocted. Multiplying these values of the powers which keep the voussoirs in equilibrium pon their beds by the several arms of the levers, as in the preceding calculations, their lergy will be as follows : — For the voussoir N, 83-6 x 244-94= 20476-98 — 0, 273-4 x 256-26 = 7006148 — S, 282-2x 260-50= 73313 10 For the total force in respect of the fulcrum T= 163851 -56. A liich i* the value of p, and being substituted for it in the foriuulu y/lp-ihc b a ne is vertical and the other horizontal : thus the compound force KA is hut the result of the vertical force 4 A, and the horizontal force 4K. 4. That the vertical force of each voussoir diminishes from T to G, where, for the key- stone CD, it becomes nothing, whilst the horizontal forces continually increase in an in- verse ratio ; so that the voussoir II N, which is in the middle, has its vertical and horizontal forces equal. 5. That in semi-circular arches whose extradosses are of equal height from their in- rad osses, the circumference passing through the centre of gravity of the voussoirs may epresent the sum of all the compound forces with which the voussoirs act upon one mother in sustaining themselves, acting only by their gravity. 6. That if from the points T and G the vertical TF and horizontal GF be draw n meet- ng in the point F, the line TF will represent the sum of the vertical forces which assist the tabilitv of the pier, and FG the sum of the horizontal forces which tend to overthrow it. 7. That if through the point K the horizontal line IKL be drawn between the parallels FT and CO, the part IK will represent the sum of the horizontal forces of the lower part AIINI5 of the vault, and KL those of the upper part IICDN. 8. The lower voussoirs between T and K being counterpoised by their vertical forces, he part of the arch AI1N11 will have a tendency to fail inwards, turning on the point 15, vhilst the voussoirs between K and G being counterpoised by their horizontal forces, the part I CDN of the arch will re-act upon the lower part by its tendency to turn upon the point A. 9. The horizontal forces of the upper part of the arch shown by KL acting from L awards K, and those of the lower part shown by 1 K opposite in direction to the former, hat is, from I to K, being directly opposed, would counterpoise each other if they were qual, and the arch would have no thrust ; but as they are always unequal, it is the dif- erence of the forces which occasions the thrust, and which acts in the direction of the trongest power. 10. If we imagine the width 150 of a semi-arch constantly to diminish, its height emaining the same, the sum of the horizontal forces will diminish in the same ratio, so that hen the points 15 and O are common, the horizontal force being annihilated, nothing emains but the vertical force, which would act only on the pier, and tend to its stability, lirust vanishing, because, instead of an arch, it would, in fact, be nothing more than a con- inued pier. 1 I. If, on the contrary, the height OD diminishes, the width 150 remaining the same, ic curve 15 and D would, at last, vanish into the right line 150, and the arch would ecome a straight one. In this case, the vertical forces which give stability to the pier eing destroyed, all that remains for sustaining the arch are the horizontal forces which will ct with the whole weight of the arch ; whence this species of arches must be such as xcrt most thrust, and circular arches hold a middle place between those which have no irust, and flat arches, whose thrust is infinite, if the stones whereof they are formed could ide freely on one another, and their joints were perpendicular to their lower surfaces, as in ther arches. 12 . The inconveniences which result from making the joints of flat arches concentric ave been before noticed. If the stones could slide freely on one another, as they only act i a false direction, their forces could never either balance or destroy one another. 13. A vast number of experiments made by Rondelet, upon fifty-four models of arches of iferent forms and extradosses, divided into an equal and unequal number of voussoirs, lowed that the voussoirs acted rather as levers than as wedges, or as bodies tending to ide upon one another. I 4. As long as the piers are too weak to resist the thrust of the voussoirs, many of them lite as one mass, tending to overturn them on a point opposite to the parts where the joints >cn. 15 . Arches whose voussoirs are of even number exert more thrust than those which are 'unequal number, that is, which have a keystone. If>. In those divided into uneven numbers and of unequal size, the larger the keystone ie less is their thrust, so that the case of the greatest thrust is when a joint is made at the rtex, as in the case of arches whose voussoirs are divided into equal numbers. 17. A semicircular arch divided into four equal parts has more thrust than one divided to nine equal voussoirs. 18. Arches including more than a semicircle have less thrust tliun those of a similar ■ in, the intradosses and extradosses being of similar forms. 1 9. Thrust does not increase as the thickness of an arch increases ; so that, Cala is paiiLuu • arch of double the thickness has not double the thrust. 36 4 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II 20. A semicircular arch whose extrados is equally distant throughout from, or, in other words, concentric with, tire intrados, when divided into four equal parts, will only stand when its depth is less than the eigh- teenth part of its diameter, even supposing the abutments immoveable. 21. Whenever, in an arch of voussoirs of equal depth, a right line can he drawn from its outer fulcrum to the centre of the extrados of the keystone {fig. 572.~), fracture does not occur in the middle of the haunches if the piers are of the same thickness as the lower part of the arch. 22. Arches whose thickness or depth diminishes as they rise to the vertex have less thrust than those whose thickness is equal throughout. 23. Semicircular and segmental arches whose extrados is an hori- zontal line have less thrust than others. 24. As long as the piers in the models were too weak to resist the thrust, it was possible to keep them in their places by a weight equal to double the difference between the thrust and resistance of one pier, acting by a string suspended passing through the joints in the middle of the haunches, or by a weight equal to that difference placed above each middle joint of the arches, as in fig. 5 72. From these experiments and many others, a formula has been deduced to determine the thickness of piers of cylindrical arches of all species whose voussoirs are of equal depth, whatever their forms ; und to this we shall now introduce the reader. i i fin i i Fig. 572. Method. 1391. Having described the mean circumference G -T {figs. 573,574.), hum the points G and T draw the tangents to the curve meeting in the point F. From this point draw the secan. FO cutting it in the point K. This point is the place of the greatest effort, and of the consequent failure, if tlie thickness of the piers is too weak to resist the thrust. 1392. Through the point K, between the parallels TF and GO, draw the horizontal line IKL, which will represent the sum of the horizontal forces as will the vertical TF express the vertical forces ; the mean circumference GET will express the com- pound forces. 1393. The arches having an equal thickness throughout, the part IK of the horizontal line multiplied by the thickness of the arch will ex- press the horizontal effect of the lower part of either arch, and K I, multiplied by the same thickness will express that of the upper part. These two forces acting in opposite directions will partly destroy each other; thus transferring IK from K to m, the difference in L multiplied by the thickness of the vault will be the expression of the thrust. This force acting at the point K in the horizontal direction KH, the arm of the lever is determined by the perpendicular I'll raised from the fulcrum P of the lever to the direction of the thrust, so that its effort will be ex- pressed by m L x AB x PII. This will be resisted — 1 . By its weight represented by the surface EP x PR multiplied by the arm of the lever PS, determined by a vertical let fall from the centre of gravity Q, which gives for the resistance of die pier the expression EP x PR x PS. 2. By the sum of the vertical efforts of the upper part of each arch, represented by MK* AH acting at the point K, the arm of their lever in respect of the fulcrum P of the pier being K 1 1. 3. By the sum of the vertical efforts of the lower part represented by I I’ multiplied by AB acting on the point T has for the arm of its lever TE. Hence, if equilibrium exist, wLITaB x PII - PETPR x PSh-MK x AB x KH + IT x AB x TE. But as in this equation neither PR ( = BE) nor PS nor KH not TE is known, we must resort to an algebraic equation for greater convenience, in which The effect of the thrust in the expression wiL x AB =p The height of the pier PE - =u E 1 1 = T I = K L = K V =d PH - - - - - - -n The sum of the forces of the lower part ITx AB = u The part iK of the horizontal 1KL - - — e TB equal to half the'thickness of the arch - =e The arm of the le\er KH - - - —c * x That of TE - - - - - — x — e Thus the first equation becomes pa + pd= + in (c x x) + n (a- — e\ Or pa x.pd — -HE- + mx + me + vx — ne. Transferring the unknown quantities to the second side of the equation, we shall have ■ + mx + nx + —pa + pd + ne — me. Multiply all the terms by 2, and divide by a, in order to get rid of x ? , and we have •l{m+n)x _c , ^ _j_ "pil+'iuc — ime . Making m + n = b, and adding to each member -A for the purpose of extractin': "the root of the first member, M r i 2 , i hx . b- o , ‘Inil+'lne — lmc b- e have x 2 + — + = 2p + - — - + —5. Extracting the root, x ■ And lastly, x ■= \/' 2p + * _ t/ 2p + 2 ?"l+ 2 "e-lwc + b 2 . a ' a a 1 1 b a a 1394. This last equation is a formula for finding the thickness of all sorts of arches whose voussoirs are of equal depth, which we will now apply to Jig. 5 73. The model was 36 inches and 3 lines in span. The arch consisted of two concentric circles, and it was divided into four equal parts, a vertical joint being in the middle, the two others being inclined at angles of 45 degrees. The piers whereon it was placed were 40 inches and 4 lines high, and on a very exact measurement the values were as follow : — PE (a in the formula) was - 40 '333 El I = TI = KL= KV (d in the formula) - 13-876 ML x AB ( p in the formula) representing the thrust or 8-127 x 3 24-381 2 p - -- -- -- - 48-762 2pr/=48-762 x 13-876 - 676-621 2MK x AB x KH represented by 2 me (=5" 749 x 3 x 4-249) - 73-282 2 ne, which is ITx A B x A B ( = 13 -876 x 3 x 3) - . 124 -824 6=»»-*-i* = (MK + IT) x AB ( — 19-625 x 3) ... 58-875 a = EP, the height of the pier being 40-333, ^ will be ^^3 or 1 -459 ft 2 U2 Substituting these values in the formula x=\s ‘2g ? /!(/+ Qj ie — Qwc * b l 2*128 b we have x =v/ 48-762 + 67fr6il+lV4-S24— 73-232 40 331 + 2-128-1-459; kbit'll gives i = 5-8, or 5 inches 9+ lines for the thickness of the piers to resist the thrust of he arch, supposing it to be perfectly executed. But, from the imperfection of the execution >f the model, it was found that the piers required for resisting the thrust a thickness ol > inches and 3 lines. 1395. When the piers of the model were made 7* inches thick the arch on its central oint was found capable of supporting a weight of three pounds, being equal to an ad- iition of 8 superficial inches beyond that of the upper parts of the arch which are the ause of the thrust, and this makes the value of ‘2p in the formula 56 "762 instead of 48-762, x=\/ 56'762 + 787 fi ”1+ 124*828 — 8(1 '438 + 2-4.30- L55; from ind changes the equation to „ = ^ -1 40 143 jvhich we should obtain x 7-366 inches, or 7 inches 3^ lines, exhibiting a singular agree- nent between theory and practice. Rondelet gives another method of investigating the ’receding problem, of which we do not think it necessary to say more than that it grees with that just exhibited so singularly that the result is the same. It is dependent m the places of the centres of gravity, and therefore not so readily applicable in practice as hat wliieh has been just given. Second Experiment. j 1396. Fig. 567., in a preceding page, is the model of an arch in freestone, which has been feline considered. It is divided into nine equal voussoirs, whose depth to the cxti-.idos it tl lines, and whose interior diameter is 9 inches. 366 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IT, 1397. Having drawn the lines heretofore described, we shall find in Lx A B express’d in the formula by p = 2C>-~ x 21, which gives ... And for 2 p - EH = TI = KL = KV, expressed by d, will be Hence 2 pd .... 2 ne, which is twice the vertical effort of the lower part of the arch, multiplied by t AB, will be 45 -6 x 21 x 21, which gives - - - 2 me, which indicated twice the vertical effort of the upper part, multiplied by i K, will be 18-9 x 21 x 2 x 8-4, which gives - ... «, which represents the height of the piers, being 1 95, and b = m + n = 64 *5 x 21 =1 354 "5, a wiU bccome 'iSr And all these values being substituted in the formula, will give x = \/ 1 1 21 -40 + - + 2 - c ~ - c(i7 !>2 : + 48-163- 694 = 28 62 lines, instead of 28^, before found. Geometrical Application of the foregoing. 1398. Let the mean curve TKG of the arch (whatever its form) be traced as in figs. 573, 574., the secant FO perpendicularly to the curve of the arch, and through the point K, where the secant cuts the mean curve, having drawn the horizontal line IKL, and raised from the point B a vertical line meeting the horizontal IKE in the point i, make Km equal to iK, and set the part j«L from B to h, and then the double thickness of the arch from B to n. Let hit be divided into two equal parts at the point d, from which as a centre with a radius equal to half/ia, describe the semi-circumference of a circle which will cut in E the horizontal line BA prolonged. The part BE will indicate the thickness to be given to the piers of the arches to enable them to resist the thrust. 1399. The truth of the method above given depends upon the graphic solution of t ie following problem: To find the side BE of a square which shall be equal to a given sur- face wL x 2e ; an expression which is equivalent to 2 p, and we have already seen that x = \'2p was a limit near enough ; hence we may conclude that the thickness BE obtained by the geometrical method will be sufficiently near in all cases. Experiments on surmounted Arches. 1400. The interior curve of fig. 574. is that of a semi-ellipsis 81 lines high ; it is divided into four parts bv an upright joint in the crown and two others towards the middle of the haunches determined by the secant FO, perpendicular to the interior part of the curve. Having traced the mean circumference GKT, the horizontal IKL, and the vertical B/, we shell find KL - IK - iK IT - .... The effect of the thrust indicated by KL — ;K=wL will be 1 9^ x 9, which gives for the expression p of the formula - 2 p therefore .... d being 66-5, 2 pd will be 351 x 66"5, which gives m, which is KM x AB, will be 19 x 9, which gives c, that is, i K, being 1 7^ lines, we have 2me = 1 71 x 17^x2, which gives .... The height of the piers a - b, which expresses the sum of the vertical efforts m + n. will be equal to MK+ IT x AB or 19 + 66.J x 9, which gives t , b 7G95 . . . . Hence -= j 2 g-, which gives ... And gives .... Substituting these values in the formula, x= s/ 2 p + 2 / )rf ~ 2 " lc + k _ & We have the equation x = y/ 351 + 23341 j y, Q 589S ^ + 41 *1 1 — 6 -4 1 = 1 6 - 77 36? £1? 1'i 66 .!, 19 175-5 351 -0 23341 -5 171 0 5899-50 120 00 769-50 6-41 4111 570-70 1121 -40 45-60 5113-584 20109-60 6667-92 6-94 f'nAI\ I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 367 The model of this arch would not however stand lines, or a little more than 16^ lines, on piers less than 1 7 lines thick. In taking the root of double the thrust the result is 18-J lines, as it is also by the geo- I aietrical method. Application to the Pointed Arch. 1401. The model which fiy. 575. represents was of the same height and width as the last, and the voussoirs were all of equal thickness. Having laid down all the lines on the figure as before, we shall find /K of the formula to be r =y/ 2p + *l* -2 vie b 2 b . — — + - — - wherein KL - m L IT, represented by d, MK .... AB .... mL x AB, represented by p in the formula, will be 14x9 and 2 p 2pd will be 252 x 63, which gives m, which is KM x AB or 23 x 9, 2m = 414, 2mc = 414 x 20 The height of the pier, represented by a, being 1 20, we have 4, or FT x AB, will be 86 x 9 = 774 ; whence - = l'i = 6'45, and v = 41-60. Substituting 7 a 12 u 1 a £ c these values in the formula x = v/252 + 63 -8 + 41 -6 —6.45 = 12-46 lines for the thickness of the pier. In taking the square root of double the thrust the thickness comes out 15‘88 lines, as it does by the geometrical method. Experiments showed that the least thickness of piers upon which the model would stand was 14 lines. Application to a surmounted Catenarean Arch. 1402. The lines are all as in the preceding examples (fiy. 576.). The whole arch acts on the pier in the direction FT, which is resolved into the two forces I f and Tm, and the formula, as before, is x = V X 2 p + %- b -\ |th us having found Bm = 22j, we have the value of p = 22J x 9 = 201 ; uid 2p = 4 02. 1 40:!. This model was of the same dimensions as the preceding : which represents T/'x AB, will be 769-5; — will be 6-11, and - 41-11 These values substituted in the formula give x = ^402 + 41-11 —6-41 =14-64 lines. 1404. Experiment determined that the pier ought not to be less han 16 lines, and the geometrical method made it 20-05. The following table shows the experiments on six different models. Form of Arch. Thickness of the Piers. By the formula. By experiment. Geometrically. Lines. Lines. Lines. The pointed 12-46 14-00 15-88 The catenary 14-64 1 5 00 20-05 1 ’ilie cycloid 14 "66 15-00 1 7 -24 l The parabolic 15-85 16-50 21 SO The elliptic 16-77 17 00 18-75 I The cassinoid 19-62 21 00 20-79 368 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1, This table shows that, in practice, for surmounted arches, the limit x= •J'-tp, or the thick- ness obtained for the construction by graphical means is more than sufficient, since it gives results greater than those that the experiments require, excepting only in the cassinoid ; hut even in the case of that curve the graphical construction comes nearer to experiment than the result of the first formula. 1 405. It is moreover to be observed, that the pointed is the most advantageous form for surmounted arches composed of arcs of circles. We have had occasion to speak, in our First Book, of the boldness and elegance exhibited in this species of arches by the architects of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries; we shall merely add in this place that where roofs are required to be fire-proof, there is no form so advantageously capable of adoption as the pointed arch, nor one in which solidity and economy are so much united. 1 406. Next to the pointed arch for such purpose comes the catenary (the graphical method of describing which will be found under its head, in the Glossary at the end of the work), and this is more especially useful when we consider that' the voussoirs may all be of equal thickness. Application of the Method to surbased Arches, or those whose Rise is less than the Haf Spun. 1407. For the purpose of arriving at just conclusions relative to surbased arches, three models were made of the same thicknesses and diameters, with a rise of 35 lines, and in form elliptical, cassinoidal, and cycloidal. We however do not think it necessary, from the similarity of application of the rules, to give more than one example, which is that of a semi-ellipse ( Jig . 577.), in which, as before, the formula is . / _ 2 prl—tmc A 2 b *= v/ ^ + V + ^-i- The lines described in tbe foregoing examples being drawn, we have K L = 45 "5 fK = 8-5. IT, represented by d in the formula, - - = 24 '84 MK - - = 14-66 niL x AB representing the thrust (37 x 9) gives the value of p - - - - = 338-00 2p therefore - = 666-00 TI, represented by d, being 24 - 84, we have ttpd - 7ii, which is KM x AB, will be 14-66 x 9, which gives c, representing fK, being 8-5, 2;»c - - - b, which expresses the sum of the vertical efforts m + ti (39 '5 x 9) - , • , , b 355-5 . a, being always 1 20, - = -jjq- is - ip Lastly, ^ - Substituting these values in the formula, we have a-= ^^™*=****" 8-76 12J 4- 8 -76 — 2-96 =25 ’22 lines, or a little less than 251 lines. 1408. In the model it was found that a thickness of 26 lines was necessary for the pier, and tlie lower voussoirs were connected with it by a cementing medium. Without which precaution the thickness of a pier required was little more than one tenth of the opening. Taking the square root of double the thrust, that is, of 666, we have 25 '81, about the same dimension that the graphical construction gives. The experiments, as well as the applica- tion of the rules, require the following remarks for the use of the practical architect. 1 409. I. The cassinoid, of the three curves just mentioned, is that which includes the greatest area, but it causes the greatest thrust. When the distance between the intrados and the extrados is equal in all parts, it will only stand, supposing the piers immoveable, as long as its thickness is less than one ninth part of the opening 1410. II. The cycloid, which includes the smallest area, exerts the least thrust, but it can be usefully employed only when the proportion of the width to the height is as 22 to 7 in surbased arches, and in surmounted arches as 14 to 11. The smallest thickness with which these arches can be executed, so as to be capable of standing of themselves, is a little more than one eighteenth of the opening, as in the case of semicircular arches. 1411. III. The ellipsis, whose curvature is a mean between the first and second, serves equally well for all conditions of height, though it exerts more thrust than the last-men- tioned and less than the cassinoid. 1412. It is here necessary to remark, that too thin an arch, whose voussoirs are equal m depth, may fall, even supposing the abutments immoveable, and especially when surbased; 'hap. I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 369 ecause, when once the parts are displaced, the force of the superior parts may lift up the over parts without disturbing the abutments. Raking Arches. 1413. Let ACA '(.fig- 578. ) be the model of a raking arch of the same diameter and lickness as the preceding example, the voussoirs of equal lickness, and the piers of different heights, the lowest being ) inches or 120 lines in height, and the other 14$ inches or 74 lines. The tangent at the summit is supposed parallel i the raking lines that connect the springing. 1414 This arch being composed of two different ones, ie mean circumference on each must be traced, and each is its separate set of lines, as in the preceding examples ; e horizontal line KL of the smaller arch is produced to eet the mean circumference of the other in S, and the in- rior line of its pier in g. 1415. The part KLS represents the horizontal force of e part of the arch KGS, common to the two semi-arches ; that if a joint be supposed at S, the part LK represents e effort acting against the lower part of the smaller arch, id LS that against the lower part of the larger arch, hese parts resist the respective efforts as follows : the tall arch with the force represented by a'K, and the eater one with the force represented by gS. But as gS greater than LS, transfer LS from g to f to obtain the difference fS, which will show iw much LS must be increased to resist the effort of the larger half arch ; that is, the ort of the smaller one should be equal to L/; but as this last requires for sustaining if that the larger one should act against it with an effort equal to KL, this will be e difference of the opposite effort, which causes the thrust against the lower part of > smaller arch and the pier from whence it springs. Hence, transferring f L from L 7, taking the half of ig and transferring it from L to h, the part AK multiplied by the ickness AB will be the expression for the thrust represented by p in the formula Vo . Vpd -~mc b- b r a a? a aving found /iK=30jand AB = 9, we have for the value of p SOJ x 9 = 2741, and for it of 2/i — 549, cl which represents IT, being 29|, 2pd=\6l95! i . In 2 me ; m, which repre its M K x A B, will be 1 2^ x 9 = 1 11 , and 2 m = 222. c, which represents iK, being 8, we have 2»nc = 222 x 8 = 1776. 'Hie height of the pier represented by a being 174, we have 2pd—2mc 16195 $ — 1776 a ~ 174 - = 82-81 The vertical effort represented by b, or TF x A B, will be 41 1 x 9 = 375, and - = 2-15 - = 4-64 bstituting these values in the formula, we have r — J 549 + 82-81 + 4-64 — 2-16 = 23-08 for the thickness of the greater pier from which the smaller semi-arch springs. For the half of the greater arch, having produced the horizontal line IK'L', make K'r equal to VL', and bisect rL' in t; the line K ’t represents the effort of the smaller against the greater arch, which resists it with a force shown by j'K'; thus making KVy' equal to i'K, the effort of the thrust will be indicated by H't x AB, whose value p in the formula will be 20 x 9 = 1 80, and 2 p - - - - = 360 il, which is TI, being 69ij, 2 \pd will - - =25080 In 2mc, m being 26 x 9 = 234, and c being 23,1, 2 me =10842 a, the height of the smaller pier w . \lpd-2mc 2.7080-1H842 , • , , V\ e have = ^ , which becomes b, which is TF x A B, will be 953 x 9 b ... . ... i bi |:JJ = 7-175, and a 120 118-65 861 51 -43 litiiting these values in the formula, we have • *60 tils 0.7 +51 ’48— 7'175= 15-855 lines for the thickness of the smallci pier B B 370 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. Taking the square root of double the thrust, we should have for the larger pier 23 '44 lines, and for the smaller one 19 lines. In the geometrical operation, for the larger pier make B« equal to h K and Bn equal to 2AB ; then upon un as a diameter describe a semicircle cutting the horizontal line BA produced in E. BE will be the thickness of the pier, and will be found to be 23^ lines. For the smaller pier make BV equal to q't and B 'n equal to 2A'B. Then the semicircumference described upon un as a diameter will give 19 lines for the thickness. 1416. By the experiments on the model 22 lines was found to be the thickness necessary for the larger pier, and 18 lines for the smaller oi.e. Arch with a level Extrados. P S R Fig. 579. 1417. The model of arch fig. 579. is of the same opening as the last, but with a level extrados, serving as the floor of an upper story. The thickness of the keystone is 9 lines. To find the place of fracture or of the greatest effort ; having raised from the point B the vertical BF till it meets the line of the extrados, draw the secant FO cutting the interior circumference at the point K, and through this point draw the horizontal IKL and the vertical HKM The part CDKF will be that which causes the thrust, and its effort is represented by KL, which will be found - - - = 35-14 FH = IK, which is c in the formula, will be - = 18'86 The arch or circumference KD of 10° 36' - = 38-28 The arch KB - - - = 46-57 The arch DKB - - - = 84-85 KH, represented by d, - - — 22 The vertical HKM - - - = 63 The height of the pier, represented by a in the formula, = 183 The area of the upper voussoir FKCD = 667‘44 ; but as the load of the haunches is borne by the inferior voussoir, we must subtract the triangle 1 ; KFI= --~g- ^ = 207-46. The remainder 459-98 multiplied by KE and divided by the arc KD, that is, = 422-24, represents the effort of the upper part. 1418. That of the lower part, represented by FBK ^ < is 6,11 which becomes 263-67. The difference of the two efforts = 158 -57 will express the thrust or p of the formula, and we have 2y? = 317 - 14. 1 41 9. The piers being supposed to be continued up to the line EC of the extrados will be greater than the arm of the lever of the thrust which acts at the point K. Thus the ex- pression of the arm of the lever, instead of being a + d, as in the preceding examples, will be c lvd 3 1 7 ■ 1 4 X 2-2 a —d, and the sign of must be changed. In numbers, — jgg — = 38 -1 2 ; therefore, in the formula, + becomes —38-12. 1420. In the preceding examples, 2»ic, which represented double the vertical effort of the superior voussoir multiplied by the arm of its lever, becomes nothing, because it is comprised in the addition made to the lower voussoir ; so that the formula now is / °rx I h- b x— \d 2 p—L +■£--. fc, then, which always expresses the vertical effort of the half arch, is therefore 1111-05XG3 -- o, or — -=824-94; and for- we have - 2 ,ts- = 4-5, and =20-25. 84 85 a loJ cA Substituting these values in the last formula, we shall have A* x = a/319-14-38-12 + 20-25 -4-5 = 12-88 lines. Experiment gives 14 lines as the least thickness that can be relied on. To find the thickness by the geometrical method, make K m equal to IK and B h equal to I m L, Bn to double CD, and upon nh as a diameter describe the semicircumference cutting ] the horizontal line OB produced in A : then BA = 17] lines is the thickness sought. 1421. Rondelet proves the preceding results by using the centres of gravity, and make: the result of the operation 12-74 instead of 12-80, as first found. But the difficulty of finding the centres of gravity of the different parts is troublesome; and with such a concurrence of results we do not think it necessary to enter into the detail of the opera- tion. PIERS AND VAULTS. 371 Chap. I. A different Application of the preceding Example. 1 -122. The model ( fig- 580. ) is an arch similar to that of the pre- ceding example, having a story above it formed by two walls, whose height is 100, and the whole covered by a timber roof. The object of the investigation is to ascertain what change may be made in the thickness of the piers which are strengthened in their resistance by the additional weight upon them. 1423. The simplest method of proceeding is to consider the upper walls as prolongations of the piers. 1 424. In the model the walls were made of plaster, and their weight was thus reduced to of what they would have been if of the stone used for the models hitherto described. The roof weighed 12 ounces. We shall therefore have that 100, which in stone would have represented the weight of the walls, from the difference in I weight of the plaster, reduced to 75. In respect of the roof, which weighed 12 ounces, having found by experiment that it was equal to an area of 576 lines of the stone, both being reduced to equal thicknesses, wc have 12 ounces, equal to an area of 13-82 whose half o' 91 must be added to that of the vertical efforts represented by 5 in Changing these terms into - and the formula becomes b , 6 a and . / 0 2 pd hd n X = V 2p — + . r a av a The height of the piers or a in the formula=183 +75 =258. p does not change its value, therefore 2 p (as in the preceding example) = 265 ‘86. r/, the difference between the height of the pier and the arm of the lever, will = 7 I Ience, ^ = 3 ^* lr ‘ = 77 -28. h, becomes 750-69 + 691 = 1441-69. And " = Id miff) 258 = 5-58. Again, - =31 -22. Substituting these values in the formula, we shall have x = s/265 -86 - 77-28 + 31 -22 — 5 ’58 = 9 1 5. In the model a thickness of 1 1 lines was found sufficient to resist the thrust, and taking Jt he root of double the thrust the result is 13 lines. 1425. I5y the geometrical method, given in the last, taking from the result 17i lines, Ait-re found, the value of \ that is, 5 -58, the remainder 1 1 ij ines is the thickness sought. I 426. It may be here observed, that in carrying up the vails above, if they are set back from the vertical III’ n hf the model required their thickness to be only 6 ines, because this species of false bearing, if indeed it an be so called, increases the resistance of the piers. TTiis was a practice constantly resorted to in Gothic architecture, as well as that of springing pointed arches 1,1,1 corbels, for the purpose of avoiding extra thickness In the wails or piers. \ Ano'l- r Application of the Principle!! to a differently const meted Arch. I 127. The model (fig. 581.) represents an arch of I I Oii .soirs whereof 10 are with crosscttcs or elbows, which ive them a hearing on the adjoining horizontal courses; ie eleventh being the keystone. ’The opening is 9 inches r los lines, ns in the preceding examples. I 1 Having drawn the lines HE, EC, the secant FO, nd the hori/outa! line 1KI., independent of the live •arses above the line EC of the extrados, we hive u n 2 TIIKOKY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 372 KL = 30-7.3 I K = 23 -27 OC= B F - 78-00 The arc KD = 32-70 The arc KB = 52-15 KG = 33-59 a, the height of the pier, =198 -00. The area KFCL of the upper part of the arch will be 1223-10, from which subtraction that of the triangle FKG, which is 590-82, the remainder 832-28 being multiplied by 30-73 and divided by 32-7 makes the effort of this part 782-44. 1429. The area of the lower part is 697 -95, to which adding the triangle FKG = 390-82, we have 1088-77, which multiplied by 23-27 aud divided by 52-1,5, gives 485-82 for its effort. The expression of the thrust, represented by p in the formula, / 2pd b^ b • x=V 2/> — — + -.j — o> being equal to the difference of these two efforts, will be 296'62, and twice/) - - =593-24 J representing KG, being - = 33-59 we have 2pd = 1 9926-93, and - =100-64 b, representing the sum of the efforts of the semi arch, will be —‘* -=1762-03 b* = 79-21 a~ 198 — 8 ' 9 an< ‘ at Substituting these values in the formula, we have the equation x= a/593-24-100-64 + 79-21 -8-9 = 15-01. By taking double the square root of the thrust the result is 23 -91, a thickness evidently too great, because the sum of the vertical efforts, which are therein neglected, is con- siderable. 1430. The geometrical method gives 19 lines. The least thickness of the piers from actual experiment was 16 lines. 1431. Rondelet gives a proof of the method by means of the centres of gravity, as in some of the preceding examples, from which he obtains a result of only 13-26 for the thick- ness of the piers. Consideration of an Arch whose Voussuirs increase towards the Springing. 1432. The model (fig. 582.) has an extrados of segmental form not concentric with its intrados, so that its thickness increases from the crown to the springing. The opening is the same as before, namely, 9 inches, or 108 lines. The thickness at the vertex is 4 lines, towards the middle of the haunches 7 2 lines, and at the springing 1 4) lines. The centre of the line of the extrados is one sixth part of the chord AO below the centre of the intrados ; so that The radius DN = 68'05 KI. = 38 18 I K = 1 5-82 (See 1390, obs. 22, and 1441). The arc BK = KC = 42'43 1433. The area KIIDC of the upper part of the arch is 258-75> that of the lower part BAHK 486-5 ; hence the effort of the upper • 258 '75x38" 18 part is represented by the expression- ■ =232-47. 42-43 1434. The half segment ABe being supposed to be united to the pier; BellK, whose area is 1 78, is the only part that can balance the 1 78 x 1 5’82 r upper effort; its expression will be — - = 66-24 The difference of the two efforts 166-23 will be the expression of the thrust represented by p in the formula ,=v/ 2 p + '2pd -‘Irnc b 2 ; t- 5-2 Thus 2 p - IB = KL, indicated by d, Which makes the value of 2 pd The vertical effort of the upper part indicated by m = ‘ 42 . 43 and for *2pm The value of c being 15-82, we have 2 me 258*75 x 1 582 332-46 38-18 12693 92 96 30 192 60 8046 .50 Chav. f. PIERS AND VAULTS. 37:5 The height of the piers being still 120, we have 2pd-2mc 12693 92 — 3046'5 a ~ 120 which indicates the vertical effort of the half arch repre- sented by FB, will be 84^5 “ b 473 48 n~ 129 and a Tlicse values being substituted in the formula, will give 8'J ■:-.!> 473-48 3-95 1.5 -50 x = V332-46 + 80-39 + 15-56 -3-95 = 1 6’74 lines. 1 4.35. The smallest thickness of pier that would support the arch in the model was 17^ lines. 1436. With the geometrical method, instead of the double of CD, make B/t double the mean thickness HK, and Bn equal to raL, and on nh as a diameter describe the semicir- cumference cutting OB produced in E ; then EB = 18^ lines will be the thickness sought. 1437. If the pier is continued up to the point e where the thickness of the arch is dis- engaged from the pier, the height of the pier represented in the formula by a will be 151 -5 instead of 120, and the difference b, instead of being ~ 4 — , will be only — * = 277-46. 1438. d, expressed by le, will be 6 -5, all the other values remaining the same as in the preceding article, the equation is x= s/332-46 -5-71 + 4-2=16-21. 1439. Using the method by means of the centres of gravity, Rondelet found the result for the thickness of the piers to be 15 84. So that there is no great variation in the dif- ferent results. 1440. In the preceding examples arches have been considered rather as arcades standing on piers than as vaults supported by walls of a certain length. We are now about to con- sider them in this last respect, and as serving to cover the space enclosed by the walls. In respect of cylindrical arches supported by parallel walls, it is manifest that the re- sistance they present has no relation to their length ; for if we suppose the length of the vault divided into an infinite number of pieces, as C, D, E, &e. ( fig. 584. No. 2.), we shall find for each of these pieces the same thickness of pier, so that all the piers together would form a wall of the same thickness. For this reason the surfaces only of the arches and piers have been hitherto considered, that is, as profiles or sections of an arch of any given length. Consequently it may be said that the thickness of wall found for the profile in the section of an arch would serve for the arch continued in length infinitely, supposing such walls isolated and not terminated or rather filled by other walls at their ends. When cylindrical walls are terminated by walls at their extremities, after the manner of gable ends, it is not difficult to imagine that the less distant these walls are the more they add stability to those of the arch. In this case may be applied a rule which we shall hereaftei mention more at length under the following section on Walls. 1441. If in any of the examples {fig. .582. for instance) I’ll be produced indefinitely to the right, and from R on the line so produced the length of the wall supporting the arch be set out, and if from the extremity of such line another be drawn, as TB produced through B, indefinitely towards a, and B« be made equal to the thickness of the pier first found, a vertical line let fall from a will determine the thickness sought. When arches are connected with these cross walls, the effect of the thrust may be much diminished if they are not very distant. If there be any openings in the walls, double tbe length of them must be added to that of the wall as well as of any that may be introduced in the gable wall. 1442. Fig. 583. represents the mode in which an arch fails when the piers are not of sufficient strength to resist •be thrust: they open on the lower part of the summit at DM and on the upper part of the haunches at IIN ; from which we may infer that the thrust of an arch may be destroyed by cramping the under side of the voussoirs near the summit and the upper side of those towards the middle of the haunches ; and this method is greatly preferable to chains or iron bars on the extrados, because these have no effect in prevent. ng a failure on the underside. Chains at tbe springing will not prevent failure in arches whose voussoirs are of equal depth but that too small, inasmuch is there is no counteraction from them against the bulging Fir. 6H3 37 4 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook 1 1. that takes place at the haunches, like a hoop loaded when its ends are fixed. The most advantageous position for achaintooppo.se the effort of an arch is to let it pass through the point K where the efforts meet. PC is the tangent before failure, and O the centre; 11 being the inner point of the pier. OF COMPOUND VAULTING. F i : G ! ■ No. 3. t r n : n; ___ ___ \i l | No. 2. K S 0 N | 1 1 ■ Fig. 584. i 443. M. Frezior, in speaking of the thrust of this sort of arches, proposes, in order to find the thickness of the piers which will support them, to find by the ordinary manner the thickness suitable to each part of the cylin- drical arch BN, BK (No. 3. fig. 584.) by which the groin is formed, making BE the thickness suitable to the arch BN, and BF that which the arch BK requires ; the pier BEHF would thus be able to resist the thrust of the quarter arch OKBN. Ac- cording to this method we should find the bay of a groined arch 9 inches opening would not require piers more than 21 lines square and 1 20 lines high ; but experience proves that a similar arch will scarcely stand with piers 44 lines square, the area of whose bases are four times greater than that proposed by M. Frezier. Method f>r groined Vaulting. 1444. The model in this case (see the last figure) is 9 inches in the opening, vous- soirs equally thick, being 9 lines, standing upon four piers 10 inches or 120 lines high. 1445. The groin is formed by two cy- lindrical arches of the same diameter crossing at right angles, as represented in No. 3. of the figure. The four portions of the vault being similar, the calculation for one pier will be sufficient. 1446. On the profile No. 1. of the figure describe the mean circumference TKG, draw the tangents FT and FG, and the secant FOand the horizontal line IKL. Draw the vertical B/, and NG and KI on the plan (No. 3.) equal to KL 1447. In the foregoing examples for arches and cylindrical vaulting there has been no necessity to consider more than the surface of the profiles, which are constantly the same throughout their length ; but the species of vault of which we are now treating being composed of triangular gores whose profile changes at every point, we shall be obliged to use the cubes instead of the areas of squares, and to substitute surfaces for lines. Thus in viewing the triangular part KBO, the sum of the horizontal efforts of the upper part of this portion of the vault, represented in the profile by KL, will be represented in plan by the trapezium KILO. 1448. The sum of those of the lower part i K in the profile is represented in plan by BIL. The thrust is expressed by the difference of the area of the trapezium and of the triangle multiplied by the thickness of the vault; thus, KBaud KO of the plan being 54, the superficies of the triangle BK O will be 54 x 27 = 1458 ; the part BK of the plan being equal to IL, and B t to rlC of the profile = 12-£,, the area of the triangle BIL, indicating the sum of the horizontal efforts of the upper part, will be 12^ x 6:?j = 79^j. 1449. We obtain the area of the trapezium KILO by subtracting that of the small triangle BIL from the greater triangle BKO, that is, 73{, from 1458 ; the remainder 1378-jt, gives the horizontal effort of the upper part ; lastly, subtracting 79-^ from 1378,1,, the remainder 1298-^, will be the expression of the thrust whose value is found by multi- plying 1298-p, by 9 = 11683|, which is the p of the formula. b v/2; 2/>r/- -2 me b 2 : + ‘ Letting a always stand for the height, and cl for TI of the profile, the arm of the lever of tlie thrust will, as before, b c a + d, and its algebraic expression be pa+pd. 1 450. The pier resists this effort by its cube multiplied by the arm of its lever. If the lines K 15 and () B of the triangle BKO, (which represents the projection of that part of the vault for which we are calculating) be produced, it will be seen that the base of the pier to resist the thrust will be represented by the opposite triangle BUT, which is rectangular and isosceles ; therefore, letting x represent its side BF, the area of the triangle will be expressed b) the Chap. I. PIE US AND VAULTS. 37 5 height of the pier being a, its cube will be n -^. The arm of the lever of this pier will be determined by the distance of the vertical let fall from its centre of gravity on the line HF= |, which gives for the pier’s resistance -2£_. 1451. This resistance will be increased by the vertical effort of each part of the vault multiplied by the arm of its lever. That of the upper part will be expressed by its cube multiplied by the vertical KM, and the product divided by the mean arc KG. The cube of this part will be equal to the mean area; that is, the arc KG multiplied by the thickness of the vault. 1452. To obtain the mean area, multiply KG less KM by the length GO taken on the plan. The length of the arc KG being 46 and KM 17}, we shall have KG— KM = 28|: GO being 54, the mean area will be 28|x 54 = 1558. This area multiplied by 9, the thickness of the vault, makes the cube of the upper part 140244, which multiplied by KM = 17} and divided by the arc KG = 46, makes 5226} the value of the vertical effort of the part of the arch m in the formula ; and the arm of its lever is IK + ill. 1453. IK being =c and 111=3’, its expression will be mx + me. The vertical effort of the lower part will be represented by its cube multiplied by TI, and the product divided by the length of the arc TK. This cube will be found by multiplying the mean area by the thickness of the vault. The area being equal to the arc TK — Tlx GO, that is, 46 — 41-^ x 54 = 250} for the mean area and 250} x 9 =2256} for the cube of the lower part of the vault. This cube multiplied by TI and divided by the arc TK gives 41 5 15 — 1 Ai = 2028? for the value of 6 J the vertical effort of the part n of the formula. And it is to be observed, that this effort acting against the point 13, the arm BF of the lever will be .r and its expression nx. 1454. Bringing together all these algebraic values we obtain the equation pa+pt/=~ mx + mc + nx-, and making m + n, which multiplies x = b, we have pa + pd= n -^.~ + bx + me. Transferring me to the other side of the equation, we have pa + pd—mc = ~ + bx. Lastly, multiplying all the terms of the equation by for the purpose of eliminating a- 3 , we shall have instead of the preceding formula 6p + = x 3 + which is an equation of the third degree, whose second term is wanting. For more easily resolving this equa- tion, let us find the value of 6p + — and tliat of by which x is multiplied in the •a-cond part of the equation. p being 11683}, 6p will be - - - = 70069* d being 4I T ^, 6pd will be .... = 2899124} m being 52261}, Gmc - - - - - = 537593} llms J = " = 1 9679-fl, and 6p + - =897/9}, which we will call c 49}, which, multiplied by the vertical axis, which in this case is equal to the radius or >3, gives for the area of one eighth part of the sphere 31 181, and for its cube 31 18} x 21 — 65688J. 1490. I lie diameter B b being 108, an eighth part of the circumference of the great circle ' ill be 42}, which, multiplied by the radius 54, gives for the area 2291}, and for its cube 91} x 18=41240}; taking the smaller of these cubes from the greater, the difference I t 17}} will be that of this eighth part of the vaidt, which must be multiplied by B/'= p{. al 'd the product 1430203}$, divided by the mean arc TKG = 91}; the quotient 15558 1 x presses the vertical effort of the eighth part of the vault, represented by b in the formula. hence 3 -05 Bj SKO •’ v,a ‘ being 2-51, we shall have for the value of It 2-78 and /t‘i=7'72. iubstituting the values thus found in the formula x='/f+ p -!'-”‘ c +h*- h , we have x = a/42 + 7 -92 +7 -72 — 2-78= a/57 ’64 — 2 '78 = 4 -72. |’ v using the method of the centres of gravity, Rondelet found the result rather less than i it just found. • llll. The result of all these calculations induces the following facts: — I. That for a 385 T 1 1 e o r y o F A R C 1 1 1 TE c t u re. Book I [. semicircular cylindrical vault, whose length is equal to its diameter, the area of the two parallel walls is 4698. I l. That that of the four square piers supporting a groined arch is 70,36. III. That of the four walls of the coved vault, the area should he 34 25§. IV. That that of the spherical vault is 1238-1. 1492. In respect of the opening of these vaults, which is the same for all the examples, t..king the area of the circular wall for the spherical vault at 1, That of the walls of the coved vault will be a little less than 3. That of the cylindrical vault - - less than 4. That of the groined arch - - less than 6. But if we look to the space that each of these vaults occupies in respect of walls and points of support, we shall find that in equal areas the walls of the cylindrical vault will be | of such spact . Those of the coved vaulting less than - - ^ of such space. The piers of the groined arch a little more than - \ — The circular wall for spherical vault a little more than -fa — So that, if we suppose the space occupied by each of these vaults to be 400, The walls of the cylindrical vaulting will be 115 Those for the coved vault - - 91 The piers for the groined arch - 60 The circular wall for the spherical vault - 48 Which figures therefore show the relative proportions of the points of support necessary in each case. 1493. It is a remarkable circumstance that by the formula the coved and spherical vaults give to the walls a less thickness than that of the arch. But although experiment has verified the formula, we cannot be supposed to recommend that they should be made of less thickness in practice ; but we see that, if of the same thickness, considerable open- ings may be used in them. Irregular as well as regular compound vaults being only an assemblage of the parts of more simple ones, if what has already been said be well under- stood, and the examples given have been worked out by the student, he will not be much at a loss in determining the efforts of all sorts of vaults. On' hie aphf.sive Bowes of Mortar and Pi.aster upon Stones and Bricks. 1494. The power of mortar and plaster will of course be in proportion to the surface o f the joints, compared with the masses of stone, brick, or rubble. Thus a voussoir of wrought stone, one foot cube, may be connected with the adjoining voussoirs by four joints, each of 1 foot area, in all 4 feet. But if instead of this voussoir three pieces of rough stone or rubble be substituted instead of 4 feet area of joints, we shall have 8. Lastly, if bricks be employed instead of rubble, we shall want 27 to form the same mass, which gives for the developement of the joints 13 feet. Thus, representing the force which connects the voussoirs in wrought stone by 4, that representing the joints of the rough stones will be 8, and that for bricks 13 : whence we may infer that arches built with rough stones will have less thrust than those in wrought stone, and those in bricks more than three times less. From experiments made by Rondelet, he found that at the end of six months some species of mortar showed a capability of uniting bricks with sufficient force to overcome the efforts of thrust in a vault segmental to § of a semicircle, 15 feet diameter and 4 inches thick, the extrados being 4 inches concentrically above the intrados, Blaster united a vaulted arch of 18 feet opening, of the same form and thickness. This force is, moreover, greater in arches whose voussoirs increase from the keystone to the springing, and that in proportion to the thickness at the haunches, where fracture takes place; so that whatever the diameter and form of the arch, the strength of good mortar at the end of six months, if tiie arches are well constructed, is capable of suppressing the thrust as long as the thickness, taken at the middle of the haunches, is stronger than the tenth part of those laid in mortar, and one twelfth of those laid in plaster. Here we have to observe, that arches laid in plaster, as long as they are kept dry and sheltered from the changes of the sea ion, preserve their strength, but, on the contrary, they lose all their stability in seven or eight years, whilst those cemented in mortar endure for ages. 1495. The small quantity of mortar or of plaster used in vaults constructed of wrought stone, in which the joints are often little more than run, ought to make an architect cautious of depending merely on the cementing medium for uniting the voussoirs. There are other means which he may employ in cases of doubt, such as dowels and cramps, means which were much employed by the Romans in their construction ; and these are far better than the chains and ties of iron introduced by the moderns. 1495«. Rondelet has stated that hard stones laid dry, commenced slipping at an angle of 30°; and with mortar fresh laid, at angles of 34° anrt 36°; with soft stones, oil mortar fresh laid, at 45°, when the centre of giavity did not fall without the base. m Chat. I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 383 Barlow’s edition of Tredgold’s work, from 3 4° to 36°, is repeated. G. Rennie, in some careful experiments at London Bridge, found that dressed voussoirs commenced sliding, without mortar, at an angle of 33° 30'; and, with mor ar fresh laid, at 95° 30'. 1496. Well may it be said that the thrust of an arch is the constant dread of an architect; but it depends entirely on the method employed in the construction. It is only dangerous where the precautions indicated in the foregoing examples have had no atten- tion paid to them. It has been seen that the least fracture in too thin an arch of equally deep voussoirs may cause its ruin ; and we shall here add, that this defect is more dangerous in arches wherein the number of joints is many, such as those constructed in brick ; for when they are laid in mortar they are too often rather heaped together than well fitted to each other. 1497. Whatever materials are used in the construction of vaults, the great object is to prevent separation, which, if it occur, must be immediately met by measures for making the resistance of the lower parts capable of counterbalancing the effort of the upper parts. Those fractures which occur in cylindrical arches are the most dangerous, because they take place in straight lines which run along parallel to the walls bearing them. To avoid the consequences of such failures, it is well to fill up the haunches to the height where the fracture is usually to be found, as in K, K', K", K " {Jig. 59 0. ) and diminish the thickness towards the key. 1498. Rondelet found, and so indeed did Couplet before him, that the least thickness which an arch of equal voussoirs ought to have, to be capable of stand- ing, was one fiftieth part of the radius. But as the bricks and stone employed in the construction of arches are never so perfectly formed as the theory sup- poses, the least thickness which can be used for cy- lindrical arches from 9 to 15 feet radius is 4 Jr inches at the vertex if the lower course be laid with a course jof brick on edge or two courses flatwise, and 5 inches when the material used is not a very hard stone, in- creasing the thickness from the keystone to the point where the extrados leaves the walls or piers. But if the haunches are filled up to the point N {fig. 590.), it will he found that for the pointed arch in the figure the thickness need not be more than the T J 13 of the jradius, and for the semicircular arch, -J. For arches whose height is less than their opening or that are seg- mental the thickness should be \ part of the versed sine ; i practice also applicable to Gothic vaults and semi- ircular cylindrical arches, to which for vaults cemented ■vith plaster one line should be added for each foot in ength, or ^ part of the chord subtended by the ex- rados. With vaults executed in mortar g ‘ s may be i titled, the thickness of the arch increasing till it reaches the point N, where the arch becomes letached from the haunches, and where it should be once and a half the thickness of the key. t was in this way the arches throughout the Pantheon at Paris were regulated, and a very imilar sort of expedient is practised in the dome of the Pantheon at Rome. A like I iminution at the keystone may be used in groined, coved, and spherical vaults. 1199. tor vaultings of large openings, Rondelet (and we fully concur with him) thinks wrought stone preferable to brick or rubble stone, because it has the advantage of being uible to less settlement and stands more independent of any cementitious medium em- ployed. It is indeed true that this cannot connect wrought stone so powerfully as it does nibble; but in the former we can employ cramps and dowells at the joints, which are useful In doubtful cases to prevent derangement of the parts. In many Roman ruins the surfaces f the voussoirs were embossed and hollowed at the joints, for the purpose of preventing icir sliding upon each other ; and expedients of the same nature are frequently found in bothic ruins. 1499u. The figure 590. is one that has been found to perplex students, as it is herein iven without much explanation of it. In Uondelct’s work it is engraved for the purpose | elucidating certain tables of thicknesses of the keystones, the parts KN, and the piers, k ready reference in designing arched constructions. As a proper understanding of the Hive system is of immense importance to the effective carrying out of buildings, we pend an explanation from Rondelet, but in a much abridged foiiu. 384 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. 14995. Having laid down the half of the curve required, draw II 4, forming an angle of 45° with the vertical B 6; place on this line from B to 4 the thickness shown in the table (in Ids work) for a cylindrical vault Y, of the diameter and tnickness required, and describe the quarter circle 1,4, 6 ; draw the chord C"B, prolonged to meet the circle at 4 ; then through the point in which it (the chord) will l e cut, as 4 ; draw a line parallel to B 6 : then 4c will represent the thickness required for the wall of the vault. For instance, if in the segmental vault X, its chord C B, be prolonged, it will cut the circle at 3 ; through 3 draw the vertical 8 b, and it will be the thickness to be given to the wall for such a vault. When the thickness at the key, and towards the middle of the extrados, is required either stronger or weaker than those indicated in the tables, then, if the portion of the extradossed line be of an equal thickness, take the square root of the double thickness of this portion, multiplied by m L ; place it from B to 4, and describe the quarter of the circle 1, 4, 6. which will determine, by the length of the chord prolonged beyond the point B, the thickness of the wall pier. 1499c. 'I'ake a vault of 30ft. span; the extrados being half on a level and half of an equal thickness, which it is intended to make only 6 in. thick at the key. instead of 10 in., as indicated in the tables. The radius being 15 ft., we have KL = = 106, and i K = 99 15 - 10 - 6 =4-4, which gives »/L = 6 - 2, which multiplied by 1 foot, or double the thickness of the keystone, will give 6-2, the square foot of which is 2’49, or a trifle under 2 ft. 6 in., instead of 2 ft. 8 in. and 9 lines, marked in the tables. This measure of 2 T 4 5 ^ ft., or 2 ft. 6 in., is to be placed from B to 4, and the quarter circle and chord line drawn according to the rise of the arch. 1499tf. The geometrical method of drawing it will be to place the double of the thickness of the vault from B to v, and ml. from B to h, and describing on nk, as a diameter, a semicircle which shall cut the horizontal BO, giving the thickness to be pi. iced from B to 4 on the choid line ; the remainder of the operation will be as above described. 1499e. If the thickness CD and KN of an extrados portion of a vault, be not the same as indicated in the tables, the sum of the thick- nesses intended to be given is to be placed from 11 to n, and mL from B to h, and then the process goes on as above described. The letters also refer to the preceding diagrams. 1499/. These observations, however, do not apply to fit/. 590., for it will he observed that the arches therein shown are not of equal thick- ness. On drawing out these arches, according to the directions given (1436, and/.?. 582.), for an extrados which increases towards the spring- ing (fi'J- 590a ), we find that the chord lines are not properly drawn ; that the thicknesses of the walls vary ; and that the two arches W and X, which are less in height than the semicir- cular arch Y r , are treated in the same manner as Y, instead of the line BF being drawn a , a tangent to the curve as directed (1398, and jjg. /j73.) ; this would have caused the walls to be of a less thickness the more the arch was de- Fig. 500u. pressed, and therefore would evidently have been wrong in principle. Construction of Domes. 1499.9. From the Remarks on Theatres, 1 809, by Samuel Ware, we extract the portion relating to tlie now little studied subject of construction of domes. “ It may with proprie y be asked,” be writes, “ and it is a question of much importance, what are the properties in the construction of a dome, by which its vaulting may have that extreme tenuity, by W1,cl its lateral thrust becomes so extremely small in comparison with cylindrical vaulting, v n e the stone furthest from the supports may be of extraordinary gravity, compared wit i any other part of the vaulting, or it and any part below it contiguous may be wholly oniittc and yet the equilibrium of the dome be not affected.” Csai\ I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 385 1 499 / 1 . “ In analysing a dome, it will be found that it is nothing more than rib-vaulting j carried to its maximum, that it consists of as many ribs as there are vertical sections to be made in the dome, or is composed wholly of ribs abutting against each other, in direct I opposition, by which the force of eacli is destroyed. In the ceilings of King’s College i Chapel, Cambridge, and Ilenry VII.’s Chapel, London, this most admirable invention is 'exemplified. The author ventures an hypothesis, that, in an equilibrated dome, the thick- ness of the vaulting will decrease from the vertex to the springing, and assigns the following | reason theoretically, and the Gothic vaulting practically, in confirmation. 1499t. “The parts of a circular wall compose a horizontal arch; but the whole gravity ; of each part is resisted by the bed on which it rests, therefore the parts cannot be in mutual lopposition: and, although the paits are posited like those of an arch, a circular wall has I not the properties of one. In a semi-spherical dome the first course answeis this descrip- tion, no part gravitating in the direction of its radius. When the beds are oblique on which the parts of the wall rest, each course may then be called an oblique arch, as it then assumes the property of an arcii, by having a double action, the one at right angles to, or on the bed, and the other in the direction of theradius; and if this arch be of equal thick- ness throughout, and has an equal inclination to the horizon, it will be an arch of equili- bration. All the courses in a dome are oblique arches of equilibration, of various inclinations, between the horizontal line at the springing, and the perpendicular at its vertex. 1499/. “ A dome is comprised of as many vertical arches as there are diameters, and as many oblique arches as there are chords. The actions of the parts of a vertical arch are eccentric, an oblique arch concentric ; consequently they will be in opposition, and the greater force will lose power equal to that of the Lss. An oblique arch hears the same relation to a dome as a vonssoir does to an arch ; when the vertical arches are not in equi- libration, the action is upon the whole oblique arch, not upon the voussoirs separately ; although a whole course or oblique arch (which must be the case, or no part of it, admit- ting that each course in itself is similar and equal throughout) be thrust outwards by the inequilibration of the vertical arches ; the incumbent oblique arches will descend perpen- dicularly, keeping the same congruity of their own parts. 1499L “ As the voussoirs of each oblique arcii are in equilibration, no one can approach learer to the centre of the dome than another, unless the other voussoirs squeeze or crush, which, in investigations of subjects of this nature, are always assumed perfectly rigid ; herefure, in their po-ition in the dome, they have obtained their concentration. Hence ve obtain the essential distinction between an arch and a dome, that no part 'of the latter ■an fall inwardly. Since no part of a dome can fall inwards, it resembles an arch resting m the centre on which it has been constructed, and the resistance which the vertical arch neets with from that centre is similar to the opposition of the oblique arches to the vertical irches. If this deduction be just, the mechanician will be able to describe the extrados of quilibration to a dome and its abutment wall, with the same facility as he may to an arch uid its abutment piers.” 1199/. Pasley has likewise stated that “ as soon as any course is completed all round, he stones or bricks composing it form a circular arch like that of a cone, which cannot >v any means fall inwards. Hence there is an important difference between the dome and be common arcii, which latter cannot stand at all without its centering, unless the whole urve be completed, and when finished, the crown or upper segment tends to overset the munches or lower segments. The dome, on the contrary, is perfectly strong, and is a com- • lcte arch without its upper segment; and thus, as the pressure acts differently, there is less train upon the haunches and abutments of a dome, than on those of a common arch of the a ne curve. Hence a sufficient dome may be constructed with much thinner materials than uld Ire proper for a common arch of the same section. The dome of St. Paul's Cathe- Iral i, tiers a fine specimen of this kind of work.” It lias been described ill par. 472. 1 499m. 1 he Pantheon, at Paris, lias a dome formed of three portions. The first, or in- rior one, is a regular hemisphere of about 66 ft. 9 iin. span, with a circular opening at op of about ;il ft. 4^- in. in diameter. It is built of cot stones, varying from 18i in. thick i t bottom, to 10 ^ in. at top. Thus the thickness is only about ^rd part of the span. The Intermediate dome is a catenarian curve having a span of about 70 ft. with a rise of 50 ft. ; i nd it has to support considerable weight at top. It lias four large openings in its sides to j ive light, about 37 ft. high by 31 ft. wide, arched at top in a somewhat parabolic form, he outer dome lias an external diameter of 78 ft. Its height is not stated, but it appears 1 fie a moderately pointed Gothic arch had it been continued, without forming an opening t top for the sides of a lantern, which it was intended to support. The thickness of the lone at bottom is about 28 in. and 14 in. at top. A great part of the surface is only half be above thickness, as the dome is laid out internally in piers, supporting three tiers of n-hcd recesses, or niches, of less substance, and showing like the panels in joiners’ work. See figs. 177 and 178. ) 1499/1. l’artington, in the Jirilish Cycbptrdia , 1835, expresses the opinion that “ the '■ight of the dome may force out its lower parts, if it rises in a direction too nearly ver- 386 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IT. tical ; ami supposing its form to be spherical, and its thickness equal, it will require to be confined by a hoop or chain as soon as the span becomes eleven fourteenths of the whole diameter. But if the thickness of the dome be diminished as it rises, it will not require to be bound so high. Thus, if the increase of thickness in descending begins at about 30° from the summit, and be continued until at about 60°, the dome becomes little more than twice as thick as at first, the equilibrium will be so far secure. At this distance it would be proper to employ either a chain or some external pressure to prove the stability, since the weight itself would require to he increased without limit, if it were the only source of pressure on the lower parts. The dome of the Pantheon, at Rome, is nearly circular, and its lower parts are so much thicker than its upper parts, as to afford a suffi cient resistance to their pressure ; they are supported by walls of great thickness, and furnished with many projections, which answer the purpose of abutments and buttresses.” 14999. Keeping to the theory of the dome, we must avoid noticing its history, beyond pointing out the papers which have of late years treated on the subject. These are pub- lished in the Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects. The first was by J. Fergusson, On the Architectural Splendour of the City of Beejapnre , November 1854; the discussion in December following, when J. W. Papworth detail d his interesting and novel theory, to be presently noticed ; and two papers by T. H. Lewis, Some Remarks on Domes, June 18,57 ; and On the Construction of Domes , May 1859, in which, however, great care must be taken by the reader to separate the arch from the dome constructions, as in our opinion they are treated therein as of one principle. The question of a Gothic dome was much discussed without a solution in the journals of the period named. Domes and pendentives are illustrated in Fergusson’s Handbook of Architecture. The very in- teresting paper O" the Mathematical Theory of Domes, by E. B. Denison, QC., read at the Institute on 6th February, 1871, should be consulted by all students on this difficult subject: as well as the papers by E. W. Tarn, M. A., printed in the Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal of March 1868 and February 1870. 1499/t. On the occasion referred to, Mr. Papworth asserted that a dome u-as not an arch, and that domes were not governed by the same laws as vaults. He then entered into cal- culations on the causes of the stability of domes, showing that in domes of great thickness the upper half of each gore was only about one-third in weight of the lower half, and ad- duced the possibility of loading the crown to a certain extent. Id? produced a series of drawings of domes, constructed upon principles which ought theoretically, if they were arches, to lead to their failure, but which had nevertheless proved perfectly sound ; his views being fortified by Mr. Fergusson’s concurrence as to the absence of examples of failure where the bases were stable. He then alluded to the following arguments of others, and explained his reasons for not agreeing with them. Such as, that lhe dome of the Pan- theon, at Rome, had been built on the principle of a bridge, i.e. of an arch; that it was impossible to plan a large dome without great thickness of walls, i.e. greater than suffi- cient to bear the weight and its consequences ; that it was necessary for the exterior of a dome to stand Hush with the wall of the building to which it belonged; that it was de- sirable to append heavy corbelling to the inside of the wall to counteract the thrust of the dome, with special reference to some circular tambours, of which he exhibit d sketches ; to the supposed un- necessarily great weight on the top of some examples: and to the supposed beauty of principle exhibited in the dome of Sta. Maria, at Florence, which he character- ised as a piece of octagonal vaulting and not a dome. He also explained that domes which had failed had not been supported on a stable foundation ; that he saw great beauty in the idea of forming an < ye in so large a dome as that of the Gol Goomuz, at Beejapore, where the centre of the curve on each side of the section was in the edge of the eye ; that ihe outer face of the spring- ing of the dome might l e within the inside of the square enclosing wall of the building; that if the principles of vaulting were applied, the wagon-headed section of the Gol Goomuz dome would not he expected, theoretically, to stand ; and concluded by some observations in expla- nation of his illustrations, as to the requisite thickness of domes. All writers, so far as he bad seen, considered the dome as a case of vaulting on principles deduced from their experiments on arches, which was a mode repudiated by him. H 997 . 1'he causes of the stability of domes, as thus put forward for the first time, by Mr. Papworth, are the following: — Let the plan (fig. 5905.). of a semicircular dome be divided, say, into twelve or more equal parts, and the section (fig. 590c.), say, into nine or more. Give a thickness Figs. 5906 and 590c. -HAP. I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 387 v an inner line for stone or brickwork. Then it will be at once perceived that the lower lock K has to support a mass L of less dimensions as to horizontal length ; that the lock L supports a still less mass M ; that M supports a much less mass N ; and that N ipports a mass of but a small length in comparison with K, whilst in breadth it dimi- ishes from a few feet to nothing at the apex. If the dimensions of a dome were worked ut, sav of 50 fr. internal diameter, and of 4 ft. in thickness, it would be found that the lock K would be about 413^ ft. cube; L 368^ ft. cube; M 274^ ft. cube ; N 146^ It. ube ; and the half block O 22i ft. cube. The fact has to be remembered, that all domes re built in courses of stones which are bonded one into the other, forming circular rings; nd that even if a dome be cut down into four quarters, each quarter will stand of itself. 1499r, Rankine, Appled Mechanics , 1858, points out that the tendency of a dome , spread at its base is resisted by the stability of a cylindrical wall, or of a series of nttresses surrounding the base of the domes, or by the tenacity of a metal hoop encircling le base of the dome. The conditions of stability of a dome are ascertained by him in the illowing manner. Let fig. 59 Od. represent aver- o cal section of a dome springing fiom a cylindri- i! wall BB. The shell of the dome is supposed > be thin as compared with its external and in- rnal dimensions. Let the centre of the crown the dome, (), be taken as origin of coordinates; t x be the depth of any circular joint in the icll, iuch asCC; and y the radius of that jont ,et i be the angle of inclination of the shell at C i the horizon, and ds the length of an elementary c of the vertical section of the dome, such as Fi &- 5 ;l °4- D, whose vertical height is another rib, a b, is introduced, which on plan iduces the form of a star of four points. The forms of these thus inserted ribs result in curves of the lines on the plan in the space to be vaulted. As many radii are drawn 390 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I ], from the angles of the plan as there are ribs intended, until they mutually intersect each other. The curvatures of the ribs will be elongated as they recede from the primitive arch, till they reach the centre on the place where the groins cross, and where of course the elongated curve is a maximum The ribs thus form, when they are of the same curvature, portions of an inveited conoid. 1499z. In the next example ( Jig. 59 0/t. ), the primitive arches are unequal in height, the arch A being higher than B The plan remains the same as in that immediately preceding; hut from the inequality of height, a d, c b, must be joined by curved lines, determined on. one side by the point a where e a intersects the longer arch. A curved summit rib, as well longitudinally as transversely, may occur with equal or unequal heights of primitive arches (as in Jig 590t. ) ; but the stellar form on the plan still remains, though did'erei.tlv modified, with the same, or a less or greater, number of ribs on the plan (Jig. 59 Ok.). 15 v truncating, as it were, the summit ribs, level or otherwise, with the tops of the primitive arches, and introducing cn the plan a polygon or a circle touching quadrants inscribed in the square, we obtain, by means of the rising colloidal quadrants, figures which perform the office of a key- stone. In this, as we have above observed, the con- struction of the work is totally diffeient from rib vaulting, inasmuch as each course, in rising, supports the next, after the manner of a dome, and is not de- pendent on ribs for carrying the filling-in pieces. Hence the distinction between fanwork and radiating rib work so judiciously made by Mr. Willis. 1499aa. The sixth example (Jig. 5991.) has pri- mitive arches of different heights, forming an irre- gular star on plan, that is to say, the points are of different angles. The figure will scarcely need ex- planation after what has been already said in relation tv) the subject 1 499W). A polygonal space may be vaulted in three different ways. First, by a central column serving for the reception of the ribs of the vault, the column or pillar performing in such case the office of a wall, as in the chapter-houses of Worcester, Salisbury, Wells, and Lincoln. This mode evidently admits of the largest space being covered, on account of the subdivision of the whole area by means of the central pillar. The second mode is by a pendent for the reception of the arches, as in the Lady Chapel at Caudebec, (given in the section Masonry). This mode is necessarily re- stricted in practice to small spans, on account of the limits attached to the power of materials ; albeit in theory its range is as extensive as the former. The last method is by at Fig. 590 m. Fig. 590 ti. once vaulting the space from wall to wall, as in fig. 590m., like the vaulting to the kitchen of the monastery of Durham Cathidral, or. Jig. 590n., similar to the chapter-house at fork, of which, the upper part being of wood, Ware quaintly observes, “ The people of Yorkshire fondly admire and justly boast of their cathedral and chapter-house. The principle of vaulting at the chapter-house may be admired and imagined in sione; not so the vault of the nave ; it is manifestly one of those sham productions which cheat where there is no merit in deceiving.” The principle, as Ware justly observes, is perfectly masonic, and might be easily carried out with stone ribs and panel stones, it being nothing more than an extension of that exhibited in the third example of simple groining (Jig. 590 /. ) above given; and the same remark apolus to the Durham kitchen. 1499cc We propose to offer explanations of the nature of the vaulting at King’s College Chapel at Cambridge, and the silly story related by Walpole of Sir Christopher Wren, saying, “that if any man would show him wnere to place the first stone he would 1AP. I. PIERS AND VAULTS. 391 gage to build another” (vault like it). The vault of the chapel in question is vided into oblong severies, whose shorter sides are placed longitudinally (fig. 590o. ) must he evident that the curves of the verted quadrants must intersect each other evious tu the whole quadrant of the circle ing completed. Hence these intei sections rni a curved summit line lowest against e windows or smaller sides of the oblong. 1 is summit line of the vaulting of the lilding in the direction of its length ms a series of curves, though from the gle under which it is seen it is scarcely per- ptible. Mr. Ware says, “ It is observable, the construction of this vault, that theprin- de of using freestone for the ribs, and tufa ■ the panels, has not been followed ; hut e whole vault has been got out of the same ■scription of stone, and with an uniform face, and the panels worked afterwards, and re- ived to a tenuity hardly credible except from measurement. The artists of this building ight he trusted in the decoration of a vault with what is now called tracery ; they knew >w to render it the chief support, and what was the superfluous stone to he taken awav : ery part has a place, not only proper, hut necessary ; and in the ribs which adorn the ult we may in vain look for false positions. This is the ocular music which affords liversal pleasure.” 1499tW. We now return to the consideration of two more modes of simple vaulting. In ngland, the summit ribs of the vault are almost always found running longitudinally and msversely in the various examples. In Germany the summit ribs are more frequently nitted than introduced. Thus in the example fig. 5901 , the scheme is merely a square agonally placed within the severy, subdivided into four parts and connected with the base- hits of the groins by ribs not parallel to the alternate sides of the inserted square. This, iwever, sometimes occurs in English buildings, as in themonument of Archbishop Stratford, Canteibury Catl edral ; though in that the central portion is not domical. It is to he marked that the intersecting arches are not of equal height, otherwise the arrangement uld not occur. 1499ee. In the example fig. 59P/>, the arrangement mpletely assumes what Mr. Willis calls the stellai form, ere in the soffit a star of six points is the figure on tich the projection depend-, the points radiating from e angles of an hexagon, and thus forming a cluster of . We have also lozenge-headed compartments in our rly vaulting, hut they are never so symmetrically ranged in stars throughout.” I4H9(/1 From the simple lines or principles above veil, it is easy to perceive through what numberless ramifications of form they may be i ried. Another form is that called hexpartite vaulting, where the ribs spring from the gles, and two others from a shaft placed in the middle of each long side, thus making divisions. This is a step beyond the quadripartite groining shown in fig. 590fi. Ex- tples of hexpartite vaulting are scarce in England, hut it may he seen in the chapel of lilaise in Westminster Abbey, the choir of Canterbury Cathedral, and in many parts of ncoln Minster. H99 per square foot „ Good ditto, J ,, Used at Edinburgh Gas Works, of fire per square foot 150 21. Brickwork. — Brick piers 9 inches square, 2 feet 3 inches high, made of good sound Cowley stocks, set in cement, and proved two days afterwards : — Cwt. Toni. Cut. inch - 31 58 18 „ - 8-75 16 12 ,, 90 0 83 0 - 140 0 - 157 0 and iron stone, 396 0 - 400 0 Cracked ?t Broke at Brick flat, compressed quarter of an inch - - - 25 tons 30 tons Brick on edge, did not compress - - - - 30 „ 35 „ 1502m. I\Ir. L. Clarke’s experiments for the woiks at the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges, on brickwork in cubes, shoxved that — 9 inches, cemented. No. 1 or best quality, set between deal boards, weighing 54 lbs., crushed with 1 9 tons I 8 cwt. 2 qrs. 22 lbs. = 551 ’3 lbs. per square inch. 9 inches, No. 1, set in cement, weighing 53 lbs , crushed with 22 tons 3 cwt. Oqrs. 17 lbs. - - =612 7 lbs. „ » 397 Chap. I. WALLS AND PIERS. 9 inches, No. 3, set in cement, weighing 52 lbs., crushed with 1 6 tons 8 cwt 2 cj rs. 8 lbs. = 454 3 lbs. per square inch. 9 I inches, No. 4, set in cement, weighing 55| lbs., crushed with 21 tons 14 cwt. 1 qr. 17 lbs. = 568 '5 lbs. ,, „ 9 inches, No. 4, set between hoards, weighing 54jlbs. crushed with 15tons2cwt. 0 qrs. !2lbs. - - = 417'Olbs. „ „ Mean = 521 '0 lbs. „ „ The three last cubes continued to support the weight, although cracked in all directions; they fell to pieces when the load was removed. All began to show irregular cracks a con- siderable time before it gave way. The average weight supported by these bricks was ! 33-5 tons per square foot, equal to a column 583 - G9 feet high of such brickwork. (Fair- burn, Apjilicatiun , &c., page 192 ) 1502n. To crush a mass of solid brickwork 1 foot square, requires 300,000 lbs. avoir- dupois, or 134 tons 1~ cwt. 1502o. Besides compression, stone is subject to detrusion and a transverse strain, as when used in a lintel. Of these strengths in stone little is officially known, but we are perfectly aware of the danger of using any kind of stone for beams where there is much chance of serious or of irregular pressures. Its weakness in respect to this strain is manifest from all experimental evidence concerning it. Gauthey states the value of a constant S, for hard limestone = 78 lbs ; for soft limestone = 69 lbs. Hodgkinson, taking the power of resisting a crushing force as = 1000, notices — Tensile strain Transverse strain. Black marble - - - - - 143 and 101 Italian marble - - - 85 „ 106 Rochdale flagstone - - - - 104 „ 9 9 Yorkshire flag - - - 0 „ 9 -5 Mean Common bricks, S = 64 lbs. (Barlow. ) ~ ■ - 104 „ 10-0 1502/). The danger above noticed is so great, that it becomes essentially necessary in all rough rubble work to insert over an opening either an iron or timber lintel, or a brick or stone arch, to carry the superincumbent weight, and thus prevent any pressure upon the stone. This must be done more especially when beams or lintels of soft stone arc used ; the harder stones, as Portland, may in ashlar work support themselves without much danger. In rubble masonry, the stone arch may be shown without hesitation in the face of the work ; and also in domestic architecture, the brick arch may exhibit itself in the face- work if thought desirable. Portland stone has been constantly used to extend over a comparatively wide opening. All blocks set upon it should have a clear bed along the middle of its length. Thus cills to windows should always be set with clear beds, or, as the new work settles, they are certain to be broken. Lintels over even small openings worked in Bath or some of the softer stones, are very likely to crack across by very slight settlements, especially when supported in their length by a mullion or small pier, as is often introduced. We need hardly add that where impact or collision is likely to occur, no lintel of stone should be used. 1502/. Marble mantles may sometimes be seen to have become bent by their own weight. Beams of marble have been employed in Grecian temples as much as 18 feet in the clear in the pro iyhea at Athens ; and marble beams 2 feet wide and 13 inches deep were hollowed out, leaving 4| inches thickness at the sides and 3| inches at thebott mi ; these beams were about 13 fiet in the clear in the north portico of the temple at Basste near Phigaleia. 1592r. The cohesive power of stone is seldom tested. The subject of crushing weights, or the compression of timber and metals, will be treated in a subsequent section ( 1631 e. et seq.); and the strength of some other materials will be given in the chapter Materials. Oe tiie Stability of Walls. 1503. In the construction of edifices there are three degrees of stability assignable to walls. I. One of undoubted stability ; II. A mean between the last; and the III. The least thickness which they ought to possess. 1504. The first case is that in which from many examples we find the thickness equal to me eighth part of the height: a mean stability is obtained when the thickness is one tenth part nl the height ; and the minimum of stability when one twelfth of its height. We are, lowcver, to recollect that in most buildings one wall becomes connected with another, so hat stability may be obtained by considering them otherwise than as independent walls. 1505. That some idea may be formed of the difference between a wall entirely isolated md one connected with one or two others at right angles, we here give figs. 591, 592, :| td 593. It is obvious that in the first case (fig. 59 1 .)■ a wall acted upon by the horizontal orce MN, will have no resistance but from the breadth of its base; that in the second 398 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ISook I I iyj Fig. 592. ease ( fiq. 592.) the wall GF is opposed to the force MN. so that only the triangle of i; 111 F can be detached ; lastly, in Jig. 593. the force MN would only be effective against Fig. 593 the triangle CGH, which would, of course, be greater in proportion to the increased dis- tance of the walls CD, HI. 1506. In the first case, the unequal settlement of the soil or of the construction may produce the effect of the force MN. The wall will fall on the occurrence of an horizontal disunion between the parts. 1507. In the second case the disunion must take place obliquely, which will require a greater effort of the power MN. 1508. In the third case, in order to overturn the wall, there must be three fractures through the effort of MN, requiring a much more considerable force than in the second case. 1509. We may easily conceive that the resistance of a wall standing between two others will be greater or less as the walls CD, HI are more or less distant; so that, in an extreme approximation to one another, the fracture would be impossible, and, in the opposite case, the rnt. rmediate wall approaches the case of an isolated wall. 1510 Walls enclosing a space are in the preceding predicament, because they mutually tend to sustain one another at their extremities ; hence their thickness should increase as their length increases. 1511. The result of a vast number of experiments by Rondelet. whose work we are still using, will be detailed in the following observations and calculations. 1512. Let ABCD (Jig. 594.) be the face of one of the walls for enclosing a rectangular WALLS AND PIERS. 399 Chap. I. space, EFGII (fig. 595.). Draw the diagonal BD, and about I! make I>' a very simple experiment. Take, for instance, a sheet of paper, which would not easily L made to stand while extended to its full length, but the moment it is bent into the form a cylinder it acquires a stability, though its thickness be not a thousandth part of its eight. 1525. But as walls must have a certain thickness to acquire stability, inasmuch as iev are composed of particles susceptible of separation, we may consider a circular en- osure as a regular polygon of twelve sides, and determine its thickness by the preceding ■ocess. Or, to render the operation more simple, find the thickness of a straight wall hose length is equal to one half the radius. 1526. Suppose, for example, a circular space of 56 ft. diameter and 18 ft. high, and e thickness of the wall be required. Describe the rectangle A BCD Ifiy. 594.), whose ise is equal to half the radius, that is, 14 ft., and whose height AB is 18 ft. ; then, awing tlie diagonal BD, make B formed by four ranks of columns connected by arcades., which carried the walls whereon the roof rested; the centre nave 73| ft. (French) wide, and 93 ft. 10 in. high. The walls of it are erected on columns 31 ft. 9 in. high, and their thickness is a little less than 3 ft., that is, only X part of their height. 1535. At Hadrian’s Villa the most lofty walls, still standing, were but sixteen times their thickness in height, and 51 It. 9 in. long. The walls were the enclosures ol large halls with only a single story, but assisted at their ends by cross walls. And we i may therefore conclude that if the walls of the basilica above mentioned were not kept in their places by the carpentry of the great roof they woidd not be safe. It is curious that this supposition, under the theory, was proved by the fire which destroyed the church of St. Paolo in 1 823. The wails which form the nave of the church of Santa Sabina are raised on columns I altogether 52 ft. high ; they are 145 ft. long, and somewhat less than 2 ft., that is, x part of their height, in thickness. They are, therefore, not in a condition of stability without tin aid of the roof. In comparing, however, the thickness of these walls with the height only 1 I of the side aisles, in the basilica of St. Paolo the thickness is Jj, and at Santa Sabina ^ 3 . In | I the other basilicas or churches with columns, the least thickness of wall is ^ of greater pro- I portion unconnected with the nave, as at Santa Maria Maggiore, Santa Maria in Trastevere 1 St. Chrysogono, St. Pietro in Vincolo, in Rome ; St. Lorenzo and St. Spirito, in Florence : ] St. Filippo Neri, at Naples; St. Giuseppe and St. Dominico, at Palermo. 1 53(1. We must take into account, moreover, that the thickness of walls depends as mucl j on the manner in which they are constructed, as on their height and the weight with which ! I they are loaded. A wall of rough or squared stone 1 2 inches thick, wherein all the stone. 1 I run right through the walls in one piece, is sometimes stronger than one of 18 or 20 incite. 1 I in thickness, in which the depth of the stones is not more than half or a third of the thick I ness, and the inner part filled in with rubble in a bad careless way. We are also to reeollec I that stability more than strength is ofttimes the safeguard of a building; for it is certain I that a wall of hard stone 4 inches thick would be stronger than would be necessary ti bear a load equal to four or five stories, where a thickness of 18 inches is used ; and yet i ] is manifest that s.ueh a wall would be very unstable, because of the narrowness of the base I 1537. From an examination which Ilondelet made of 280 buildings in France and Italy I ancient as well as modern, he found that in those covered with roofs of two inclined side and constructed in framed carpentry, with and without ceilings, and so trussed as not t act at all horizontally upon the walls, the least thickness in brick or rough stones wa of the width in the clear. 1538. In private houses, divided into several stories by floors, it was observed, generally j that the exterior walls ran from 15 to 24 inches, party walls 16 to 20 inches, and pai tition walls 12 to 18 inches. 1539. In buildings on a larger scale, exterior walls 2 to 3 feet thick, party wall 20 to 24 inches, partition walls 15 to 20 inches. 1540. In palaces and buildings of great importance, whose ground floors are vaultei I the exterior walls varied from 4 to 9 feet, and the partition walls from 2 to 6 feet. I many of the examples which underwent examination, the thicknesses of the walls an points of support were not always well proportioned to their position, to the space the enclosed, nor to the loads they bore. In some, great voids occur, and considerable loads wei supplied with but slender walls and points of support ; and in others, very thick walls ei i closed very small spaces, and strong points of support had but little to carry. 1541. For the purpose of establishing some method which in a sure and simple mamrj would determine the thickness of walls in buildings which are not arched, we have coi sidored, says Ilondelet, that the tie-beams of the trusses of cai pentry whereof the roc are composed, being always placed in the direction of the width, as well as the girders ai leading timbers of floors, serve rather to steady and connect the opposite walls ; but, e<> sidering the elasticity and flexibility of timber, it is found that they strain the walls whu support them in proportion to the widths of the spaces enclosed, whence it becomes oft the better plan to determine the thickness of the walls from the width and height of t apartments requisite. Hence the following rules. First Rule. 1542. In buildings covered with a simple roof, if the walls are insulated througlid their height up to the under side of the tie-beams of the trusses, being as shown in fig- (it Having drawn the diagonal II U and thereon made R b and Dd, equal to the twelfth p of the height AR, then through the points b anil ’ 40 1 ft. 7 in. 2 lines, for the thickness sought. 1545. If the walls supporting the rout' were stiffened by extra means, such as lower roofs at an intermediate height, as in churches with a nave and side aisles, we may make Be in the diagonal B 1) (Jig. 60 5.) equal to one twelfth of the height above the springing of the side roofs, and ef a twenty-fourth part of that height below it, and draw through the point f a ifne LZ ”it A'iSrfTi Ar r gH 1 r *— « •» «* Fig. 604. Second Example. 1546. Fig. 605. is a section of St Paolo fuorl le muni, near Rome, as it was in 1816. it ' / equal ; then from nmnt ^ i..*-*-: — r..n .• > i- . . V . 1 1 • . . » iwcmy-iourm t tf, P r t -, / i! ettin f fal1 a verticiJ 'ine/tlie lVorizontoT'l'ine ' R . figurir^folLI i W, “ bG 3 U ’ tI,C Wie same calculation being applied to the walls of the nave of Santa Sabina It D 2 404 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. (Rome), whose height of nave is 51 ft. 2 in, and width 42 ft. 2 in., with a height cf left, of wall above the side aisles, gives 21 in. 4 lines, and they are actually a little less than 24 in. 1549. In the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, the width is 52 ft. 7.j in., and 56 ft. 6 in. and 4 lines high, to the ceiling under the roof. The height of the wall above the side aisles is 19 ft. 8 fn., and the calculation requires the thickness of the walls to be 26J in. instead of 28} in., their actual thickness. 1550. In the church of St. Lorenzo, at Florence, the internal width of the nave is 37 ft. 9 in., and the height 69 ft. to the wooden ceiling ; from the side aisles the wall is 18 ft. high. The result of the calculation is 21 in., and the actual execution 21 in. and 6 lines. 1551. The church of Santo Spirito, in the same city, which has a wooden ceiling sus- pended to the trusses of the roof, is 76 ft. high and 37 ft. 4 in. wide in the nave the walls rise 19 ft. above the side aisles. From an application of the rule the thickness should be 21 in. 3 lines, and their thickness is 221, in. 1552. In the church of St. 1’hilippo Neri, at Naples, the calculation requires a thickness of 21 in., their actual thickness being 22,1 in. 1 553. In the churches here cited, the external walls are much thicker ; which was ne. cessary, from the lower roofs being applied as leantoes, and hence having a tendency, in case of defective framing of them, to thrust out the external walls. Thus, in the church of St. Paolo, the walls are 7 ft. thick, their height 40 ft. ; 3 ft. 4 in. only being the thickness required by the rule. A resistance is thus given capable of assisting the walls of the aisles, which are raised on isolated columns, and one which they require. 1554. In the church of Santa Sabina, the exterior wall, which is 26 ft. high, is, as the rule indicates, 26 in. thick ; but the nave is flanked with a single aisle only on each side, and the walls of the nave are thicker in proportion to the height, and are not so high. For at St. Paolo the thickness of the walls is only 3, of the interior width, whilst at Santa Sabina it is r ! T . At San Lorenzo and San Spirito the introduction of the side chapels atfoi ds great assistance to the external walls. Second Rule. For the Thickness of JVulls of Houses of more than one Star;/. 1555. As in the preceding case, the rules which Rondelet gives are the result of ob- servations on a vast number of buildings that have been executed, so that the method proposed is founded on practice as well as on theory. 1556. In ordinary houses, wherein the height of the floors rarely exceeds 12 to 1 5 ft., in order to apportion the proper thickness to the interior or partition walls, we must lie guided by the widths of the spaces they separate, and the number of floors they have to carry. With respect to the external walls, their thickness will depend on the depth and height ol the building. Thus a single house, as the phrase is, that is, only one set of apartments in depth, requires thicker external walls than a double house, that is, more than one apartment in depth, of the same sort and height ; because the stability is in the inverse ratio of the width. 1557. Let us take the first of the two cases {fig. 606.), whose depth is 24 ft. and height to the under side of the roof 36 ft. A dd to 24 ft. the half of the height, 1 8, and take part of the sum 42, that is, 21 in., for the least thickness of each of the external walls above the set-off on the ground floor. For a mean stability add an inch, and for one still more solid add two inches. 1558. In the case of a double house {fig. 607.) with a depth of 42 ft., and of the same I height as the preceding example, add half the height to the width of the building; that is, 21 to 18, and ^ of the sum =19:1 is the thickness of the walls. To determine the thickness of the partition walls, add to their distance from each other the height of the story, and take of the sum. Thus, to find the thickness of the wall IK, which divides the space LM into two parts and is 32 ft., add the height of the story, which we will take at 10 ft-, making in all 42 ft., and take 3 ' g or 14 in. Half an inch may be added for each story above the ground floor. Thus, where three stories occur above the ground floor, the thickness in T. "WALLS AND PIERS. 405 le lower one would be 15j in., a thick- ess which is well calculated for bricks id stone, whose hardness is of a mean escription. 1559. For the wall A B, which divides re space between the external walls, qual to 35 ft., add to it the height, hich is 10 ft., and s of 45, the sum of le two ; that is, 15 in. is the thickness squired for the wall, if only to be car- ed up a single story ; but if through lore, then add half an inch, as before, ir each story above the ground floor, or the spaces NO, PQ, RS, in this id the preceding figure, the repetition the operation will give their thick- esses. 1560. To illustrate what has been said, r/. 608. is introduced to the reader, being ic plan of a house in the Rue d' Enfer, near the Luxembourg, known as the Hotel Vendoire, nit by Le Blond. It is (riven by D’ A viler in his Coitra d' Architecture. The building is ft. deep on the right side and 47 ft. in the middle, and is 33 ft. high from the pavement the entablature. Hence, to obtain the thickness of the walls on the line FF, take the m of the height and width = = 40ft., whose twenty-fourth part is 20 in. The ilding being one of solidity, let 2 in. be added, and we obtain 22 in. instead of 2 ft., which their actual thickness. For the thickness of the interior wall, which crosses the building the direction of its length, the space between the exterior walls being 42 ft. and the ight of each story 14 ft., the thickness of this wall should be =18 in. 8 lines, instead 18 in., which the architect assigned to it. 1561. By the same mode of operation, we shall find that the thickness of the wall R, aarating the salon, which is 22 ft. wide, from the dining-room, which is 18 ft. wide and ft. high, should be 1 8 in. and 6 lines instead of 1 8 inches ; but as the exterior walls, which of wrought stone, are 2 ft. thick, and their stability greater than the rule requires, the tcrior will be found to have the requisite stability without any addition to their thickness. I 162. We shall conclude the observations under this head, by reference to a house built by dladio for the brothers Mocen’go, of Venice, to be found in his works, and here given ( fig. '•'■). Most of the buildings of this master are vaulted below ; but the one in question is not that predicament. The width and height of the principal rooms is 16 ft., and they are pa rated by others only 8 ft. wide, so that the width which each wall separates is 25.J ft., I their thickness consequently should be ■' , ^J |I, = 13 in. 10 lines. The walls, as executed, 406 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I ! Generally the formula t = *1 will lie a usefu in which t = thickness, h and l respectively the hy the height and length, and n a constant deti the tables for dwelling-houses, the constant mull And hut for the interference in committee Oxfordshire (Mr. Henley), for what scientific multiplier for public buildings would have been \\ hen h is less than — ’ the constants are 27, Of the Stnbil'ty of Piers i are 14 in. in thickness. The exterior walls being 24 ft. high, and the depth ol the building 46 ft. Their thickness by the rule should be 1 in. : they are 1 8 in. On passing the Metropolitan Build- ing Act in 1855, previous to which the thicknesses of walls depended on buildings falling within certain classes or rates, we had the satisfaction of advising the Government to adopt the thicknesses of walls now directed to be used. These are based upon rules deduced from sec- tions 1512rf seq. Inasmuch, however, as it was thought that builders might he liable to mistakes in extracting the square root of the sum of the squares of the heights and lengths of walls, tables were inserted in the Act to meet all cases. 1 guide in adjusting the thickness of walls. height and length, il the diagonal formed irmined by the nature of the building. In iplier ( n ) used was 22 ; for warehouses, 20 . of the present Right Hon. Member lor reasons it is difficult to say, the constant 18 . 23, and 20 respectively. r Points of Support. 1563. Let A BCD ( fig. 610.) be a pier with a square base whose resistance is requiret in respect of a power at M acting to overturn it horizontally in the direction MA, or obliquely in that of NA upon the point D. Considering the solid reduced to a plane passing through G, the centre of gravity of the pier, and the point 1), that upon which the power is supposed to cause it to turn, let fall from G the vertical cutting the base in I, to which we will suppose the weight of the pier suspended, and then supposing the pier removed, we only have to consider the angular lever BDIor H DI, whose arms are determined by perpendiculars drawn from the fulcrum D, in one direction vertical with the weight, and in the other perpendicular to the direction of the power acting upon the pier, according to the theory of the lever explained in a previous section. 1564. The direction of the weight R being always represented by a vertical let fall fro the centre of gravity, the arm of its lever ID never changes, whatever the direction of tl power and the height at which it is applied, whilst the arm of the lever of the power vari as its position and direction. That there may be equilibrium between the effort of d power and the resistance of the pier, in the first case, when the power M acts in an hoi zontal direction, we have M : R::ID : DB, whence M x DB = R x ID and M = I -|*p l If the direction of the power be oblique, as NA in the case of an equilibrium, N : R;;I I DII ; hence N x DH = R x I D and N = • 1565. Applying this in an example, let the height of the pier be 1 2 ft., its width 4 ft. , a its thickness 1 ft. The weight R of the pier may be represented by its cube, and is the fore 12x4x1 =48. The arm of its lever ID will be 2, and we will take the horizon power M represented by DB at 1 2 ; with these values we shall have M : 48 : : 2 ; 12; hei 4.Q y 2 M x 12 = 48 x 2 and M = E£- =8. That is, the effort of the horizontal power M should be equal to the weight of 8 c> feet of the materials whereof the pier is composed, to be in equilibrium. 1566. In respect of the oblique power which acts in the direction NA, supposing I 48x2 . = 7j, we have N ; 48;;2 : 7J, whence N x 7 i = 4 8 x 2 , therefore N = — — = 133 , whilst •f ir. i. WALLS AND PIERS. 407 ression of tlic horizontal power M was only 8 ft. ; but it must be observed, that the arm be lever is 12, whilst that of the power N is but 71 ft. ; but 1 3J x 71 = 8 x 12 = 96, ch is also equal to the resistance of the pier expressed by 12 x 4 x 2 = 96 It is more- essential to observe, that, considering the power NA as the result of two others, MA FA, the first acting horizontally from M against A, tends to overthrow the pier ; whilst second, acting vertically in the direction FA, partly modifies this effect by increasing the stance of the pier. 567. Suppose the power NA to make an angle of 5.6 degrees with the vertical A F, of 37 degrees with the horizontal line AM ; then NA : FA : MA::rad. : sin. 37 deg. : sin. 53 deg. ;:6 : 10 : 8 . fence, NA being found =13|, we have 6 : 10 : 8 : : 1 3J : 8 : IO 5 . r'hence it is evident that, from this resolution of the power NA, the resistance of pier is increased by the effort of the power FA = 8 , which, acting on the point A in the ction FA, will make the arm of its lever Cl) = 4, whence its effort =8 x 4 = 32. 568. The resistance of the pier, being thus found =96, becomes by the effort of the er FA =96 + 32 = 128. 569. The effort of the horizontal power M being 102, and the arm of its lever being ivs 12 , its effort 128 will be equal to the resistance of the pier, which proves that in resolution we have, as before, the effbit and the resistance equal. The application of proposition is extremely useful in valuing exactly the effects of parts of buildings :h become stable by means of oblique and lateral thrusts. 570. If it be required to know what should be the increased width of the pier to coun- oise the vertical effort FA, its expression must be divided by ID, that is, 8 x 2 , which s4 for this increased length, and for the expression of its resistance (12 + 4) x 4 x 2 28, as above. >71. If the effort of the power he known, and the thickness of a pier or wall wh; se lit is known be sought so as to resist it, let the power and parts of the pier be repin- ed by different letters, as follows. Calling the power ;>, the height of the pier of this equation being divisible by d, we have p = x x 5 ; and as the second term is led by 2 , we obtain 2p = x x x or x- ; that is, a square whose area = 2;>, and of which x le side or root, or x= */2p, a formula which in all cases expresses the thickness to be n to the pier CD to resist a power M acting on its upper extremity in the horizontal ction M A. >72. In this formula, the height of the pier need not be known to find the value of a-, mse this height, being common to the pier and the arm of the lever of the power, does alter the result ; for the cube of the pier, which represents its weight, increases or di- ixhes in the same ratio as the lever. Thus, if the height of the pier be 12 , 15, or 24 ft., hickness will nevertheless be the same. sample. — If the horizontal power expressed by p in the formula x= V2p he 8 , vie ■ x — i/I 6 = 4 for the thickness of the pier. Whilst the power acting at the extremity lie pier remains the same, the thickness is sufficient, whatever the height of the pier, is lot a height of 12 ft. the effort of the power will be 8 x 12 = 96, and the resistance 1 x 2=96. If the pier he 15 ft. high, its resistance will be 15 x 4 x 2 = 120 , and the t of the power 8 x 15 = 120 . Lastly, if the height be 24 ft., the resistance will he 4x2 = 1 92, and the effort of the power 8 x 24 = 1 92. ><:i. Il the point on which the horizontal force acts is lower than the wall or pier, the trencc may be represented by f; and then p x (d—f) = d x x x J ; Which becomes 2pd— 2pf = dx- and 2p — i ^—x I ; Lastly x = \/ 2p — Suppose /> = 9. /= 6 and d= 12 , formula becomes x = \/ 18 — v/9 = 3, which is the thickness sought. 57 1 . When the power NA is oblique, the thickness may be equally well found by the of lever 1 ) 11 , by resolving it into two forces, as before. I bus, in the case of the oblique er p= IHj, calling / its arm of lever 71, we shall have p x which will become V'/ 2 d whence x ■■ / vf\ in which, substituting the known values, we have x = ^ zxiajxtj v a u nee x b. v / l 6 — I, the thickness soutrht of the pier. 403 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II 1575 In resolving tlie oblique effort NA into two forces, whereof one MA tends to overturn the pier by acting in an horizontal direction, and the other /A to strengthen it bv acting vertically, as before observed ; let us represent the horizontal effort MA by p- its arm of lever, equal to the height of the pier, by d ; the vertical effort /A by n ; the arm of lever of the last-named effort, being the thickness sought, will be x ; from which we ha>e the equation + nx, or L 2p= x 2 4- 2 — . '2 1 ft 1576. As the second member of this equation is not a perfect square, let there he added to each side the term wanting, that is, the square the half of the quantity which multiplied x in the second term, whence 2/1+ =.T- + - + -. 1 577. The second member, by this addition, having become a square whose root is x + ” ’ d we shall have x + ~ 2 p + ’A and lastly x=^/ 2 p + will be the general formula for finding the thickness x. Application of the Formula. 1578. Let p = 10j, n = 8, d— 12. Substituting these values in the formula, it will become *= v/10|x2 + &,-£ = v/2 1 J + * -§ = v/2lT P| = 4. 1579. If, for proof, we wish to calculate the expression of the resistance, by placing in the equation of equilibrium 2pd = dx x n. r, the valuesof the quantities p, d, and x, abovefound, we shall have 10§xl2=12x4x2 + 8 = l 28, as was previously found for F A. 1 580. From the preceding rules, it appears that all the effects whose tendency is to destroy an edifice, arise from weight acting in an inverse ratio to the obstacles with which it meets. When heavy bodies are merely laid on one another, the result of their efforts is a simple pressure, capable of producing settlement or fracture of the parts acted upon. 1581. Foundations whose bases are spread over a much greater extent than the walls imposed upon them, are more susceptible of settlement than of crushing or fracture. But isolated points of support in the upper parts, which sometimes carry great weights on a small superficies, are susceptible both of settlement and crushing, whilst the weight they have to sustain is greater than the force of the materials whereof they are formed ; which renders the knowledge of the strength of materials an object of consequence in construction. Till of late years it was not thought necessary to pay much attention to this branch of construction, because most species of stone are more than sufficiently hard for the greatest number of cases. Thus, the abundant thickness which the ancients generally gave to all the parts of their buildings, proves that with them this was not a subject of consideration; and the more remotely we go into antiquity, the more massive is the construction found to be. At last, experience taught the architect to make his buildings less heavy. Columns, which among the Egyptians were only 5 or 6 diameters high, were carried to 9 diameters by the Greeks in the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Romans made their columns still higher, and imparted greater general lightness to their buildings. It was under the reign of Constantine, towards the end of the empire, that builders without taste carried their boldness in light construction to an extraordinary degree, as in the ancient basilic® of St. Peter’s at Rome and St. Paolo fuori le mura. Later, however, churches of a different character, and of still greater lightness, were introduced by the Gothic architects. 1582. The invention and general use of domes created a very great load upon the sup- porting piers; and the earlier architects, fearful of the mass to be carried, gave their piers an area of base much greater than was required by the load supported, and the nature of the stone used to support it. They, moreover, in this respect, did little more than imitate one another. The piers were constructed in form and dimensions suited rather to the arrangement and decoration of the building that was designed, than to a due apportion- ment of the size and weight to the load to be borne ; so that their difference from one another is in every respect very considerable. The piers bearing the dome of St. Peter’s at Rome are loaded with a weight of 14 '964 tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section. The piers bearing the dome of St. Paul’s at London are loaded with a weight of 1 7 ’705 tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section. The piers bearing the dome of the Hospital of Invalids at Paris are loaded with a weight of 13 - 598 tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section. The piers bearing the dome of the Pantheon (St. Genevieve) at Paris are loaded with a weight of 26 '934 tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section. The columns of St. Paolo fuori le mura, near Rome, are loaded with a weight of 184-3 tons for every superficial foot of their horizontal section. 409 iap. I. WALLS AND PIERS. the church cf St. Merv, the piers of the tower are loaded with upwards of 27 tons to • superficial foot. With such a discrepancy, it is difficult to say, without a most per- t knowledge of the stone employed, what should he the exact weight per foot. The ne of the Hospital of the Invalids seems to exhibit a maximum of pier in relation to weight, and that of the Pantreon at Paris a minimum. The weakest sandstones ■ted in building) will hear a compression of 120 tons per foot, while ordinary building >nes range from 140 to 500 tons per square foot ; granites and traps 700 or 800 tons r square foot ( Building Construction, 187 9, part .‘1, p. 8). Slones in some form of arches, aiuing walls, &c„ are more liable to he crushed by reason of the pressure be ng con- itrated upon certain points; and walls wherein different qualities of stone are used ■ subjected to strains by reason of inferior stones decaying, leaving their duty to be een by others of belter quality. Settlement-, in a wall bring on strains not expected. Ratio of the Points of Support in a Building to its total Superficies. 1583. In the pages immediately preceding, we have, with Iiondelet for our guide, plained the principles whereon depend the stabilities of walls and points of support, witli ■ir application to different sorts of buildings. Not any point relating to construction is more importance to the architect Without a knowledge of it, and the mode of n generating new styles from it, he is nothing more than a pleasing draughtsman the best, whose elevations and sections may be very captivating, but who must be con- it to take rank in about the same degree as the portrait painter does in comparison with m who paints history. We subjoin a table of great instruction, showing the ratio of the •hits of support to the total superficies covered in some of the principal buildings of urupe. It exhibits also the comparative sizes of the different buildings named in it. ,BLE SHOWING THE RATIO OF TIIE WaLLS AND PoiNTS OF SUPPORT OF THE PRINCIPAL Edifices of Europe to the total Area which they occupy. Names of Edifices. Total Area of the Build- ing in English superficial feet. Total Area of the Points of Support in English superficial feet. Ratio in Thousandths of the Points of Support to the total Area. The Pantheon at Rome ... 34,328 7,954 0-232 Temple of Peace at Rome ... 67,123 8,571 0-127 ireat temple at Paistum ... 1 5,353 2,649 0-172 Indent temple, Galuzzo, at Rome 9,206 2,167 0-235 Temple of Concord, Girgenti, Sicily 6,849 1,330 0194 Temple of Juno Lucina, Sicily 6,821 1,1 10 0-163 cntral building of the baths of Caracalla 275,503 48,91 1 0-176 'cntral building of the baths of Diocletian 351,6:1 6 58,797 0 167 Temple of Claudius at Rome, now church of S. Stefano ----- 36,72 6 2,051 0 056 VIosque of S. Sophia at Constantinople 1 03,200 22,567 0-217 iasilica of S. Paolo fuore le mura (Rome), IS] 6 106,513 12,655 0-118 )uoino of S. Maria del fiore at Florence 84,802 1 7,030 0-201 I'.mmo of S. Maria del fiore at Milan 125,853 21,635 0-169 it- Peter's at Rome, as executed 227,069 59,308 0-261 it Peter s at Rome, as projected by Bramante 213,610 46,879 0-219 hurch of S. Vitale at Ravenna 7,276 1,142 0-157 Lurch of S. Pietro a \ incola, Rome - 21,520 3,353 0 155 h ircli of S. Sabino — destroyed 15,139 1,543 o-ioo Lurch of S. Domenico, Palermo 34,144 4,988 0-146 hurcli of S. Giuseppe, Palermo 26,046 3,61 1 01 >9 hurch of S. Filippo Neri, Naples 22,826 2,944 0129 Lurch of St. Paul's, London 84,025 1 4,31 1 0170 liurcli of Notre Dame, Paris 67.343 8,784 0140 Intel of the Invalids, Paris - 29,003 7,790 0-268 hurcli of S. Sul pice, Paris - 60,760 9,127 0-151 huieh of S. Genevieve, Paris 60,287 9,269 0154 L "iff be manifest, that as these points of support are diminished in area, in r > ci ol the mass, so is a greater degree of skill exhibited in the work. From the fol- I mg table, it will be seen that, in seventeen celebrated medieval edifices, the ratio of « ir points of support to their whole areas varies from ’1 16 to -‘238, nearly double. It is i nun to observe the high rank borne in this table by Henry V Il.’s chapel ; generally, . ! wcnis to have increased with greater experience : — 410 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. TABI.E OF POINTS OF SIJFPOkT. Building. Century. Part of Century. Ratio of Points of Support to their whole areas. Henry VII. ’s Chapel 1(3 First 0-116 Freiburg Dorn ... 13 Second 0-133 Notre Dame, Paris 13 Second 0-140 King’s College Chapel, Cambridge 1.5 Second 01.52 Milan Duoino 14 Second 0-169 York Cathedral - 13 Second 0-174 Westminster Abbey 13 Second 0-178 Temnle Church - PS Second 0 18.5 Elv Cathedral ... 1 2 Second 0188 Gloucester Cathedial 1 1 Second 0188 Salisbury Cathedral PS First 01 90 Florence Duoino 15 First 0-201 Lincoln Cathedral 12 Second 0-202 Worcester Cathedral PS First 0-208 Marburg Dom - 14 Second 0-218 Canterbury Cathedral 1 2 Second 0-225 j Norwich Cathedral 12 First 0238 15831). Led by Le Brun ( Theorie de V Architecture, &c. fol. Paris, !807.\ we were many years ago induced to inquire into the doctrine of voids and solids in the Greek and Roman temples, and though we soon discovered that that author had committed manifest errors in his mode of applying his theory, there could be no doubt that if its principles were properly carried out, they would coincide with the best examples both ancient and modern. The study we have subsequently bestowed upon it has not, we regret, from various pressing occu- pations, received from us all the atten- tion necessary to reduce the examples within such bounds as to make the matter subject to certain laws, though we think an approximation has been effected towards it. 1583c. It is to be lamented that, among the many and able writers on Gothic architecture, details, more than principles, seem to have occupied their minds. The origin of the pointed arch seems to have entirely absorbed the at- tention of a large proportion of them, whilst others have been mainly content with discussions on the peculiarities of style at the different periods, and watch- ing with anxiety the periods of transition from one to another Foliage, mouldings, and the like, have had charms for others; all, however, have neglected to besiov a thought upon the grand system of equilibrium by which such stupendous edifices were poised, and out ol which system a key is to be extracted to the detail that enters into them. It is, however, to be hoped that abler hands than ours will henceforth be stimulated to the work, such being abundant in the profession whereof we place ourselves as the humblest of its members. Fig. 610a. 1583d. As on the horizontal projec- tion or plan of a building, the ratio of the points of support have been above considered, so in the vertical projection or section of a building may the ratio of the solids to tbevoius be compared, as well as the ratio of the solids to the whole area. In Jitj. C10a. the sha c WALLS AND PIERS. 411 ip. I. : s represent the solids, which therefore give boundaries of the voids. Worcester Cathe- is the example shown. In this mode of viewing a structure, as also in that of the ii its of support, there is a minimum to which art is confined, and in both cases fot J ous reasons there are some dependent on the nature of the materials, and others on laws of statics. Though there may be found some exceptions to the enunciation as a ■ral rule, it may be safely assumed that in those buildings, as in the case of the points i upport, wherein the ratios of the solids to the voids in section are the least, the ait i only as respects construction, but also in point of magnificence in effect, is most ad- ageously displa\ed. In every edifice like a cathedral, the greater the space over which I eve can range, whether horizontally or vettically, the more imposing is its effect on the tator, provided the solids be not so lessened as to induce a sensation of danger. 583e. The subjoined table contains, with the exception of Notre Dame de Paris, the ■, e buildings as those already cited. It will be seen that the latios of the solids to the i s varies from -472 to PI 18, a little less than half to a little more than a whole. But t their sections we compare the ratios of the solids to the whole area, there results a set , umbers varying from 321 to "528, and that nearly following the order of the ratios of 1 points of support. TABLE OF VERTICAL SOLIDS AND VOIDS. Building. Century. Part of Century. Ratio of Solids to Area. Ratio of Solids to Voids. lisbury Cathedral _ 13 First 0-321 0-172 arburg Dom - 14 Second 0-335 0-503 jrwich Cathedral - 12 First 0-376 0-603 orcester Cathedral - 13 First 0-388 0 6:13 ilan Duomo - 14 Second 0-393 0-648 mple Church - - 13 Second 0-395 0 648 oucester Cathedral - 14 Second 0-403 0-674 ng’s College Chapel - 15 Second 0-41 9 0-722 ■rk Cathedral - 13 Second 0-421 0729 estminster Abbey - 13 Second 0 440 0-980 nry VII.’s Chapel - 16 First 0-457 0-648 eiburg Dom - 13 Second 0-478 0-916 uterbury Cathedral - 12 Second 0 496 0-904 y Cathedral 12 Second 0-498 1000 icoln Cathedral - 12 Second 0-499 1 -ooo irence Duomo - - 15 First 0-528 1-118 ugh the coincidence between the ratios of increase, in the points of support, does not quite concurrently with the ratios of the solids and the areas in comparing the cathe- s of the different centuries, yet sufficient appears to show an intimate connection he- rn them. Where the discrepancy occuts, the points of support seem inversely set out. l, for instance, will be seen in Ely Cathedral, wherein, though the ratio of the solids to voids in section is as high as l (or ratio of equality), that of the points of support is as as Off 82, so that the space, or airiness, which is lost in the former, is compensated by latter. Generally speaking, however, the points of support diminish as the orna- t of the style increases. Thus, in Norwich Cathedral (the nave), of the early part of welltli century, the ratio of the points of support is 0'238, that of the solids to tin sbeing0'603; while at Salisbury (latter part of the thirteenth century) the ratio ol mints of support is only 0 - 190, and that of the solids to the voids, 0 472. om the foregoing examination, there can scarcely exist a doubt that the first and Rad- ioes of these fabrics were based upon a geometrical calculation of extremely simple re, but most rigidly adhered to. Thus, taking a single bay in the nave, say, from e to centre, and ascertaining the area, that has only to be multiplied by the ratio, to the superficies necessary for the points of support, which, as the tables indicate, were nished a, experience taught they might be. These matters then being adjusted, and g as they might, the system of ornamentation was applied altogether subsidiary to the and paramount consideration of stability. H i/'. A very ingenious writer and skilful architect (Mr. Sam. Ware), some years ago, great trouble to deduce the stability of the buildings in question, from the genen 1 of the walls and vaulting containing within them some hidden catenarian curve. If were the case, which can hardly be admitted, in as much as a chain for such purpose t be made to bang in all of them, it is quite certain this property was unknown to who erected them. Dr. Ilooke was the first who gave the hint that the figure of a ile cord, or chain, suspended fioin two points, was a proper form for an arch. 412 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. Pressure of Earth against Walls. 1.584. It is not our intention to pursue this brancli of the practice of walling to any extent, the determination of the thickness of walls in this predicament being more useful, perhaps, to the engineer titan to the architect. We shall therefore be contented with hut a concise mention of it, Rondelet has (with, as we consider, great judgment) adopted the theory of Belidor, in his Science r/es lnyenieurs , and we shall follow him. Without the slightest disrespect to later authors, we know from our own practice that walls of revete- ment may he built, with security, of much less thickness than either the theories of Belidor or, latterly, of modern writers require. We entirely leave out of the question the ruhs of Dr. Hutton in his Mathematics, as absurd and incomprehensible. (Dobson, Art of Building, 1849, preface, writes, “ from neglecting to take Into consideration the friction of the earth against the hack of the wall, the rules given by many writers are inapplicable to practice; ” and to Gwilt’s observation on Dr. Hutton he says, “ Dr. Hutton’s formulas are strictly correct, and only require the correction for friction to make them agree with modern practice.”) The fact is that, in carrying up walls to sustain a hank of earth, the earth must he carefully rammed down, layer by layer, as the wal* is carried up, so as to prevent the weight of the earth, in a triangular section pressing upon the wall, which is the foundation of all the theory on the subject If this precaution be taken, the thickness resulting from the following investigations will he more than sufficient 1585. Earth left to itself takes a slope proportionate to its consistence; hut for our purpose it will sufficiently exhibit the nature of the investigation, to consider the substance pressing against the yvall as dry sand or pounded freestone, which will arrange itself in a slope of about 55j° with the vertical plane, and therefore of 34| u with an horizontal plane, as Rondelet found to be the case when experimenting on the above materials in a box, one of whose sides was removable. Ordinarily, 45° is taken as the mean slope into which earths recently thrown up will arrange themselves. 1586. Belidor, in order to form an estimate for the thrust or pressure into which we a re inquiring, divides the triangle EDI* {fig- 611.) representing the mass of earth which creates the thrust, by parallels to its base ED, forming slices or sections of equal thickness and similar form ; whence it follows, that, taking the first triangle aYb as unity, the second slice will he 3, the third 5, the fourth 7, and so on in a pro- gression whose difference is 2. 1587. Each of these sections being supposed to slide upon an inclined plane parallel to ED, so as to act upon the face FD, if we multiply them by the mean height at which they collectively act, the sum of the products will give the total effort tending to overturn the wall ; hut as this sum is equal to the prodfict of the whole triangle by the height determined by a line drawn from its centre of gravity parallel to the base, this last w ill he the method followed, as much less complicated than that which Belidor adopts, independent of some of that authors suppositions not being rigorously correct. 1588. Tk.e box in which the experiment was tried by Rondelet was 16^ in. (French) long, 1 2 in. wide, and 17jin. high in the clear. As the slope which the pounded free- stone took when unsupported in front formed an angle with the horizon of 34| u , the height AE is 1 li, so that the part acting against the front, or that side of the box yvhere would hi the wall, is represented by the triangle EDF. 1589. To find by calculation the value of the force, and the thickness which should he given to the opposed side, we must first find the area of the triangle EDF= g =93 s > but as the specific gravity (or equal mass) of the pounded stone is only {;j of that of the stone or other species of yvall which is to resist the effort, it will he reduced to 73j x p — This mass being supposed to slide upon the plane ED, its effort to its weight will e as AE is to ED- -111 : 20, or 81 x =45 -9, which must he considered as the oblique power qr passing through the centre of gravity of the mass, and acting at the ext-iemi ) <» the lever ik. To ascertain the length of the lever, upon whose length depends thetuc ness of the side which is unknown, we have the similar triangles qsr, qho, and kio, w i ose sides arc proportional : whence qs sr‘. \qh \ ho ; and as ko = hk — ho , we have qr . qs .. 1 4 ho : ik. Whence, The three sides of the triangle qsr are known from the position of the angle q at the centre of giavity of the great triangle EFD, whence each of the sides of the small tnang 1 equal to one third of those of the larger one, to which it is correspondent. ,p. I. WALLS AND PIERS. 413 Tims, making the side t/r = a, . (js = b, rs = e, The unknown side sli=x, hk =fi The pressure 45 '9 found =p. The height DF = d. We have b c'.'.b + x =ho , and hk—ho wii, be f — bc+cx o obtain ik, we have the proportion alb'. ; f — bc : ik. .'hence ik = /if— hr — cz ; so tliat the pressure p x ik is represented by p (^’~ '—hc — cx t resistance expressed by must equilibrate. Thus the equation becomes or or easier solution, make and ^ = 2 n, and ition of the second degree, which makes x= */2in + u 2 —n, iroblems of this sort. eturning to the values of the known quantities, in which ), to which 0 2 pcx fLpitif — be ). X ml ad we have x- + 2m = 2m, an which is a general formula , .f~ c m =l‘ b *—d pc n= , becomes n = ad a = Gl b = 5 1 c=‘H becomes m — 45 '9 x 45 9 x 3 p 7 5 f=‘l p — 45f 3 r /=14 -3? ■55 ®i + 1 1 a - = 2 -28 and n? = 5 '20. = 1 2'70 and 2m = 25 '4 ; rom the above, then, the formula x= 2 m + n 2 —n becomes x = V' 25 '4 + 5 '20 — 2 '28 = , a result which was confirmed by the experiment, inasmuch as a facing of the thick- of 3J inches was found necessary to resist the pressure of pounded freestone. By dor’s method, the thickness comes out 4-$, inches ; but it has been observed that its ication is not strictly correct. In the foregoing experiment, the triangular part only ic material in the box was filled with the pounded stone, the lower part being supposed aterial which could not communicate pressure. But if the whole of the box had been 1 with the same material, the requisite thickness would have been found to be 5\ inches car the pressure. i 90. In applying the preceding formula to this case, we must first find the area of the ;zium B li 1) F (Jig- 612.), h will be found 1 95^ ; n iplying this by to re- the retaining wall and naterial to the same spe- gravity, we have 1 69i. mass being supposed to upon the inclined plane its eflort parallel to that e will be 1 951 x r* J = r i=p. Having found in ast formula that r/s is re- nted by b = 6 03, sr by •76, qr by a = 8‘40, /= , di * 17 S ; the thickness ie retaining wall becomes ~x\ m=pb X ^ will be- fic.gis. % substituting the values ll-.'i_4 7(s S4uxl7 5 u “ 29 ' 52 a,,d 2»» = 59 -04. n =£ becomes i’'J l ' x X ,L^ = 3'l, and n* « XT lave x= s/ 59-04 + q-fjl * 6 93 ’ Fit Substituting these values in the formula x= sf 2m + n 1 —n, we 1 I = 5 -2, a result very confirmatory of the theory. 'il. In an experiment made on common dry earth, reduced to a powder, which took a of 4t, 50', its specific gravity being only \ of that of the retaining side, it was found the thickness necessary was 3 inches -fa. * l ls common, in practice, to strengthen walls for the retention of earth with piers cuunterforli, by which the wall acquires additional rtain intervals, which are called THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 414 strength ; but after what we have said in the beginning of this article, on the dependenc I that is to be placed rather on well ramming down each layer of earth at the back of tli wa'l, supposing it to be of ordinary thickness, we do not think it necessary to enter upo any calculation relative to their employment. It is clear their use tends to diminish tli j requisite thickness of the wall, and we would rather recommend the student to apply liin self to the knowledge of what has been done, than to trust to calculation for stability I though we think the theory ought to be known by him. Pressure or Force of Wind against Wat.ls, &c. 1592a. Air rushes into a void with the velocity a heavy body would acquire bv fallin ' in a homogeneous atmosphere. Air is 840 times lighter than water. The atniospher supports water at 39 ft. ; homogeneous atmosphere, therefore, is 33 x 840 = 27,720 ft. . heavy body falling one foot acquires a velocity of eight feet per second. Velocities are a 1 the square roots of their heights. Therefore to find the velocity corresponding to any give I height, expressed in feet per second, multiply the square root of the height in feet by 8[ l For air we have V = a/ 27,720 — 166,493 x 8 = 1332 feet per second: this, therefore, i g the velocity with which common air would rush into a void: or 79 920 feet per minute some say 80,880 feet. (Telford’s Memorandum JBooh). Some authors say that the weigh or pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the weight of a volume of water 34 ft. in height or 14 7 lbs. per square inch at a mean temperature; for air and all (?) kinds of gases art ■ rendered lighter by the application of heat, because the particles of the mass are repellet I from each other, or rarefied, and occupy a greater space. 15926. The force with which air strikes against a mooing surface, or with which the '<{ wind strikes against a quiescent surface, is nearly as the square of the velocity. If /3 be tin angle of incidence ; 8 the surface struck in square feet; and u the velocity of the wind ii i feet per second ; then if f equals the force in pounds avoirdupois, either of the two follow ‘ ing approximations may be used, viz. ,/=*— ^ ; or, f= -0022S8ir5sin-/8. The firs is the easiest in operation, requiring only two lines of short division, viz., by 40 and b 11. If the incidence be perpendicular, sin 2 0 = 1 , and these become = ■0922R8tr5 ( Gregory). The force or pressure per square foot in lbs., is as the square of the velocit multiplied by '012288. 1592c. Impulse or the Wind on a Square Foot. Velocity in Feet Per Second. Impulse in lbs. Velocity in Feet Per Second. Impulse in lbs. Velocity in Feet Per Seco d. Impulse in lbs. 10 0 229 60 8-234 no 27-675 14-67 0-492 66 01 9-963 117-36 81-499 20 0-915 70 1 1-207 120 32-926 30 2-059 73-35 12-300 130 38-654 36'67 3 075 80 14-638 140 44-830 40 3-660 90 18-526 146-70 49-200 44-01 4 4-79 100 22-872 1.50 51-462 50 5-718 1 59 :d. The resistance of a sphere is stated not to exc eed one-fourth of that of it greatest circle Tredgold, Carpentry, and Iron, has minutely examined the effect of t'l above forces, and the principle of forming the necessary resistance to them in the construe tion of walls and roofs. See Hurricanes. Where the roofs of buildings, as in the country are exposed to rude gusts and storms, it is necessary to increase the weight of the ridges hips and flashings. 1592e. The utmost power of the wind in England is said to he 90 miles per hour, 0 40 lbs. per sq uare foot. Tredgold takes the force at 5 7j lbs. per square foot. Dr. Nichoi of the Glasgow Observatory, records 55 lbs. per square foot, or \382 lbs per square inch as the greatest pressure of wind ever observed in Britain (Rankine, Civil Eng. 538) During tbe extremely heavy gale of January 16, 1866, the pressure in London was recordet as 33 lbs. per square foot ; at Liverpool it was 30 4 lbs. The velocity of the wind on tin south co 1 st of England, during January 1 1, when it uprooted old elm trees, averaged 6\ miles an hour; later in the day it was 90 miles ; the latter impetus is equal to the 40 lbs per square foot, above mentioned. 1592/ Wind exercises a tendency to overthrow a building upon the external edge op posite to the line of its advance, equivalent to the surface of the face receiving the impul sion multiplied by the force of the wind, and by a lever which on the average may be taker to be equal to half the height of the building. To secure the stability of the latter, in ’’ha i'. I. BEAMS AND PILLARS. 415 /eight multiplied by a lever equal to half the base must exceed the sum of the elements of lie wind’s action. 1592(7. To determine the pressure of wind in pounds per square foot, equal to the stn- lilitv of a square stalk, multiply the weight of the stalk in pounds, by twice its width in eet'at the ba'e, and divide the product by the square of its height in feet, and by the sum if its top and bott >m breadths in feet. Let w — weight of stalk in pounds = 90,000 p = pressure of wind in pounds per square foot equal to stability of stalk h = height of stalk in feet = 50 feet 6 = breadth of stalk at base in feet = 4 feet c = breadth of stalk at top in feet = 2 feet Then m x 2 ) = P = 48 pounds per square foot. If the stalk be circular, then, to letermine the pressure of wind, proceed as before, but replace the breadths by the dia- neter. and multiply the result by 2. Campin, Engineers’ Pucltet Remembrancer, 186.3. Sf.ct. X. BEAMS AND PILLARS. liy.'i. ibe woods used for the purposes of carpentry merit our attention from their importance fur the purpose of constructing solid and durable edifices. They are often unployed to carry great weights, and to resist great strains. Under these circumstances, :heir strength and dimensions should be propoitioned to the strains they have to resist. For building purposes, oak and fir are the two sorts of timber in most common use. Stone has, doubtless, the advantage over wood : it resists the changes of moisture and lryness, and is less susceptible of alteration in the mass ; hence it ensures a stability which telongs not to timber. The fragility of timber is, however, less than that of stone, and its aciliiy of transport is far greater. The greatest inconvenience attending the use of imber, is its great susceptibility of ignition. This has led to expedients for another naterial, and it has become greatly superseded by iron. 1594. Oak is one of the best woods that can be employed in carpentry. It has all the equisite properties; such as size, strength, and stiffness. Oaks are to be found ca| able of iirnishing pieces 60 to 80 ft. long, and 2 ft. square. In common practice, beams rarely xeeed 56 to 40 ft. in length, by 2 ft. square. 1595. In regard to its durability, oak is preferable to all other trees that furnish equal engths and scantlings : it is heavier, better resists the action of the air upon it, as well as hat of moisture and immersion in the earth. It is a saying relating to the oak, that it rows for a century, lasts perfect for a century, and takes a century to perish. When cut t a proper season, used dry, and protected from the weather, it lasts from 500 to 600 cars. Oak, like other trees, varies in weight, durability, strength, and density, according 0 the soil in which it grows. The last is always in an inverse proportion to the slowness •f its growth ; trees which grow slowest being invariably the hardest ai d the heaviest. 1596. From the experiments made upon oak and other sorts of wood, it is found that heir strength is proportional to their density and weight; that of two pieces of the same pecies of wood, of the same dimensions, the heavier is generally the stronger. 1597. The weight of wood will vary in the same tree; usually the heaviest portions are He lower ones, from which upwards a diminution of weight is found to occur. In full- rown trees, however, this difference does not occur. The oak of France is heavier than nit of England; the specific gravity of the former varying from 1000 to 1054, whilst the itter, in the expei intents of Barlow, varies from 770 to 920. The weight, therefore, of i English cube foot of French oak is about 58 English pounds. Timber may be said > be well seasoned when it has lost about a sixth part of its weight. 1598. In carpentry, timber acts with an absolute and with a relative strength. For istance, that called the absolute strength is measured by the effort that must be exerted ■ break a piece of wood by pulling it in the direction of the fibres. The relative strength 1 a piece ol wood depends upon its position. Thus a piece of wood placed horizontally a two points of support at its extremities, is easier broken, and with a less effort, than if was inclined or upright. It is found that a smaller effort is necessary to break the piece • it increases in length, and that this effort docs not decrease strictly in the inverse ratio I the length, when the thicknesses arc- equal For instance, a piece 8 ft. long, and 6 in. pnre, placed horizontally, bears a little more than double of another, of the same depth id thickness, 16 ft. long, placed in the same way. In respect of the absolute force, the iff. reuee docs not vary in the same way with respect to the length. The following are rperiments by Rondelct, to ascertain the absolute force, the specimen of oak being of I I specific gravity, and a cube foot, therefore, weighing 49Jj lbs. 416 THEORY OF ARCHITECT U R F,. Book IL Cohesive Force of Pieces drawn in the Direction of their Length. First experiment. A small rod of oak 00888 in. (=1 French line) square, and 014 in. in length, broke with a weight of - - 115 lbs. avoirdupois Another specimen of the same wood, and of similar dimensions, broke with - - - - - 105, 8 3 Another specimen ..... 110-A, The mean weight, therefore, was, in round numbers, 1 10 lbs. A rod of the same wood as the former, 0477 inch ( = 2 French lines) square, and 2-14 inches long, broke with a weight of - 459.^1bs.avcird p< is Another specimen - - - - - 418 Another specimen ..... 451?, The mean weight, therefore, was 436 lbs. for an area -^jjj in. ( = 4 square lines French, or 110 lbs. for each, French line = 0-0888 in. English). 1599. Without a recital of all the experiments, we will only add, that after increasing the thickness and length of the rods in the several trials, the absolute strength of oak was found to be llOlbs. for every of an inch area ( = 1 French line superficial). The Strength of Wood in an upright Position. 1600. If timber were not flexible, a piece of wood placed upright as a post, should bear the weights last found, whatever its height ; but experience shows that when a post is higher than six or seven times the width of its base, it bends under a similar weight before crushing or compressing, and that a piece of the height of 100 diameters of its base is incapable of bearing the smallest weight. The proportion in which the strength decreases as the height increases, is difficult to determine, on account of the different results of the experiments. Rondelet, however, found, after a great number, that when a piece of oak was too short to bend, the force necessary to crush or compress it was about 49 '72 lbs. for every jgS|g of a square inch of its base, and that for fir the weight was about 564 6 lbs. Cubes of each of these woods, on trial, lost height by compression, without disunion o the fibres ; those of oak more than a third, and those of fir one half. 1601. A piece of fir or oak diminishes in strength the moment it begins to bend, so tha the mean strength of oak, which is 47 -52 lbs. for a cube of an inch, is reduced ti 2 '16 lbs. for a piece of the same wood, whose height is 72 times the width of its base From many experiments, Rondelet deduced the following progression : — For a cube, whose height is 1 , the strength = 1 12 —5 24 ’’ - =1 36, — = * 48, _ 60, — =,1, 7 o _ i* Tlius, for a cube of oak, whose base is 1 "066 in. area ( = 1 square in. French) placed upright, that is, with its fibres in a vertical direction, its mean strength is ex- pressed by 144* x 47'52 = 6842 lbs. From a mean of these experiments, the result was (by experiment) in lbs. avoirdupois ... 6853 For a rod of the same oak, whose section was of the same area by 12-792 in. high ( = 12 French in.), the weight borne or mean strength is 1 44 x = 5702 lbs. From a mean of three experiments, the result was ... 5735 For a rod 25-584 (=24 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x ' = 3421 lbs. - 3144 For a rod 38-376 ( = 36 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x ^^ = 2281 lbs. - 2336 For a rod 51-160 ( = 48 French) in; high, the strength is 144 x ^^ = 1140 lbs. For a rod 63'960 ( = 60 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x ^qj^ = 570 lbs. For a rod 76-752 ( = 72 French) in. high, the strength is 144 x = 285 lbs. For a cube of fir, whose sides are 1 -0 66 in. area ( = 1 square in. French), placed as before, with the fibres in a vertical direction, we have 144 x 56-16=8087 lbs. - 8089 * The French inch, consisting of 144 lines. BEAMS AND PILLARS. 417 r. I. a square rod, whose base was 1 -066 in. area ( = ] square in. French), 12-792 in. high, we have 144 * = 6739 lbs. - - - - 6863 a rod 25-584 ( = 24 French) m. high, 1 44 x ^^=4043 !bs. - - 3703 a rod 38-376 ( = 36 French) in. high, 144 x -^ = 2696 lbs. - - 2881 a rod 51-160 ( = 43 French) in. high, 144 x 5f ^p = 1348 lbs. Cfi. 1 <7 a rod 63-960 ( = 60 French) in. high, 144 x — ^ = 674 lbs. a rod 76-752 ( = 72 French) in. high, 1 44 + = 337 lbs. 'he rule by Ilondelet above given was that also adopted by MM. Perronet, Lam. die, and Girard. In the analytical treatise of the last-named, some experiments are vn, which lead us to think it not very far from the truth. From the experiments, more— -, we learn, that the moment a post begins to bend, it loses strength, and that it is not lent, in practice, to reduce its diameter or side to less than one tenth of its height. G02. In calculating the resistance of a post after the rate of only 10-80 for every 1-066 irticial line English ( = 1 line super. French), which is much less than one quarter of weight under which it would be crushed, we shall find that a square post whose sides 1 -066 ft. ( = 1 ft. French) containing 22104-576 English lines ( = 20736 French), would aiu a weight of 238729 lbs. or 106 tons. Yet as there may be a great many circum- ces, in practice, which may double or triple the load, it is never safe to trust to a post width of whose base is less than a tenth part of its height, to the extent of 5 lbs. per 16 line; in one whose height is fifteen times the width of the base, 4 lbs. for the same mrtion ; and when twenty times, not more than 3 lbs. Horizontal Pieces of Timber. 603. In all the experiments on timber lying horizontally, as respects its length, and sup- ,ed at the ends, it is found that, in pieces of equal depth, their strength diminishes in lortion to the bearing between the points of support. In pieces of equal length between supports, the strength is as their width and the squares of their depths. We here con- ic M. llondelet’s experiments. 604. A rod of oak 2-132 in. (2 in. French) square, and 25 - 584 in. (24 in. French) long, ke under a weight of 2488 -32 lbs., whilst another of the same dimensions, but 1 9-188 in. in. French) bore 3353-40; whence it appears that the relative strength of these two i was in the inverse ratio of their length. The proportion is 19-188 ; 25 '584 2488-32 ; 7 '76, instead of 3353-40 lbs., the actual weight in the experiment. ’ 05. In another rod of the same wood, 2132 in. wide and 3-198 deep, and 25"584 in. ring, it broke with a weight of 5532lbs. In the preceding first-mentioned experiment •as found that a rod of 2-132 in. square, with a bearing 25\584 in. bore 2488 '32 lbs. qiosing the strength of the rods to be exactly as the squares of their heights, we should e 4-54 (2-132D ; 10-23 (3 198') :: 2488 -32 : 5598-7 lbs. ^ which the second rod should e borne, instead of 5532 lbs. There are numberless considerations which account for the •repancy, but it is one too small to make us dissatisfied with the theory. 606. In a third experiment on the same sort of wood, the dimension of 3-198 in. being flatwise, and the 2- 132 in. deptlnvise, the bearing or distance between the supports ig the same as before, it broke with a weight of 3573 lbs. : whence it follows that the ngth of pieces of wood of the same depth is proportional to their width. Thus, coni- ng the piece 2-132 in. square, which bore 2488 lbs., we ought to have 2-132 ; 3198 188-32 : 3624-48, instead of 3573 lbs. 97. From a great number of experiments and calculations made for the purpose of mg the proportion of the absolute strength of oak, to that which it has when lying /.ontally between two points of support, the most simple method is to multiply the ! of the piece in section by half the absolute strength, and to divide the product by the her of times its depth is contained in the length between the points of support. >08. Thus, in the experiments made by lielidor on rods of oak 3 French ( = 3’198 lish) ft. long, and 1 French ( = 1-066 in. English') in. square, the meun weight ■r which they broke was 200-96 lbs. avoirdupois. Now, as the absolute strength of is from 98 to 110 lbs. for every in. '( = 1 French line), the mean strength will be I mil 52 lbs. for its half, and the rule will become (144 lines, being =1 French in.) I " Id "207 "30 llis.f instead of 200 96 lbs. ,(, 9. Ihrcc other rods, 2 French in. square (21 32 Eng.), nnd of the same length he- ' u the supports, broke with a mean weight of 1711 '8 lbs. By the rule t ”,| | l* | hxDi<. , t T , " 1 88 lbs. avoirdupois. Without further mention of the experiments of Ilelidor, we 4 1 8 Book II, THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. may observe, that those of Parent and others give results which confirm the rule. The experiments, however, of Buffon, having been made on a larger scale, show that the strength of pieces of timber of the same size, lying horizontally, does not diminish exactly in the pr>- portion of their length, as the theory whereon the rule is founded would indicate. It be- comes, therefore, proper to modify it in some respects. 1610. Buflfon’s experiments show that a beam as long again as another of the same dimensions will not bear half the weight that the shorter one does. Thus — A beam, 7 '462 ft. long, and 5 '330 in. square, broke with a weight of - 12495'OG lbs. avoirdupois Another, 14'924 ft. long, of the same dimensions, broke with a weight of - 5819.04 A third, 29-848 ft. long, of the same dimensions, bore before breaking ..... 21 12-43 By the rule, the results should have been, for the 7"462 ft. beam 12495-60 for that of 14-924 - 6247-80 for that of 29-848 - 3123-90 Whence it appears, that owing to the elasticity of the timber, the strength of the pieces, instead of forming a decreasing geometrical progression, whose exponent is the same, forms one in which it is variable. The forces in question may be represented by the ordinates of a species of catenarian curve. 1611. In respect, then, of the diminution of the strength of wood, it is not only pro- portioned to the length and size, but is, moreover, modified in proportion to its absolute or primitive force and its flexibility ; so that timber exactly of the same quality would give results following the same law, so as to form ordinates of a curve, exhibiting neither inflection nor undulation in its outline: thus in pieces whose scantlings and lengths form a regular progression, the defects can only be caused by a difference in their primitive strength ; and as this strength varies in pieces taken from the same tree, it becomes im- possible to establish a rule whose results shall always agree with experiment ; hut by taking a mean primitive strength, we may obtain results sufficiently accurate for practice. For this purpose, the rule that nearest, agrees with experiment is — 1st. To subtract from the primitive strength one third of the quantity which expresses the number of times that the depth is contained in the length of the piece of timber. 2d. To multiply the remainder thus obtained by the square of the length. 3d. To divide the product by the number expressing the relation of the depth to the length. Hence calling the primitive strength - - - = n — the number of times that the depth is contained in the length = b — the depth of the piece - - - =4 — the length - - - - —l I) n The general formula will be, “ 3 X — _ _ b 5 3* 1612. Suppose the primitive strength a = 64-36 for each 1-136 square line (. = I hue French), we shall find for a beam 5'330 in. square, by 19488 ft. long, or 230-256 inches, that the proportion of the depth to the length = ”^330° = 43 -2 = b. 1613. The vertical depth beit g 5'330or 63’960 lines. d~ will be 4089-88; substituting . 64-36x4089 88 4089-88 , e have — — =4067 99, instead ol a x d- — r-> w these values in the formula , , .. „ b 3 ’ ii'2 3 4120-20, the mean result of t.10 beams of the same scantlings in the experiments of Buffon. 1614. Mr. Gwilt lias stated that the. world generally, the architect and engineer especially, are indebted to Billion, from whom certain tables have emanated, which were the result of laborious experiments and deserved much consideration. These several tables have been omitted in this edition of tire Encyclopaedia, us having been superwdetl by the more recent and scientific investigations in England of Robison, Young, Bevuu, Rennie, Tredgold, Barlow, Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, Laslett, with others, from some of whose treatises passages have been adopted herein. The results of their more modern investigations have been to benefit both ihe architect and engineer, by bringing the aid of mathematical investigations, to found upon their experiments safe and general rules for practice. ' II A 1*. I. BEAMS AND PILLARS. 419 Of the Strength of Timbers in an Inclined Position. 1622. If we suppose the vertical piece AB (jig. 61 3«.) to bee me inclined to the base, s B D, the action of a vertical force at D will tend to cause the piece to bend, and thereby :» lose much of its power of resistance to a force acting in the inction of its length. Suppose the radius AB or BD to epresent the vertical force acting at D on the piece BD then, y the ••resolution of forces,” it can be resolved into two rices, one acting in the direction of its length, and the other cting at rightangles to its le gth. The former will he repre- ; nted by the line Y)f or the veifeal force multiplied by the me of the angle D BC ; while the lalter, at right ang'es to B D, • ill act at D, tending to bend the piece BD about its base B, nd will be repiesented by the line B f\ or the vertical force nultiplieil bv the cosine of the angle DBC. The piece is upposed to be fixed firmly at B, and may be considered as a earn fixed at one end and strained at the other by the force epresented by B/' tending to break it about the end B. Whtn the piece comes into the ■rizontal position, as BC, the vertical foice acting at C will cease to produce any strain i the direction of i:s length, and the transverse stiain will be represented by the line BC AB acting at C, and straining the piece about its fixed end B. 1623. Example. Let A B be a piece of Riga tir 20 feet long, the scantling being 0 inches by G inches. First take it in the upright position AB, then (from far. 16316) ic breaking weight W in tons of an oak pillar when the load acts vertically down A B is 1 -hbd 3 1 8 x 6 3 w= : = 1L24 tons. 4tf-'+-5P 14U + 200 id the strength of a pillar of Riga fir being (par. 1631c.) five-sixths that of oak, we ive W = 9 "37 tons for Riga fir, 1624. If we now place the piece in the horizontal position, as BC, the strain upon it om the load W, at C will be entirely transverse, and the breaking weight can be found am the formula (1C29.) is considered Deflection of pillars, and Detruswn ( 163bi.). The subject IV. TORSION (1631.r.) closes this section. 162 3 r/. Timber is permanently injured if more than even J of the breaking weight is placed on it. Buffon allowed which is now the custom, for the safe load. Fairbairn states that for bridges and warehouses, cast iron girders should not be loaded with more than J or ^ of the breaking weight in the middle. For ordinary purposes, J for cast iron is allowed lor the permanent load ( Barlow). A little more than | can be allowed for wrought iron beams, as that material, from its extensile capability, does not suddenly give way ( Warr) ; but they should never be loaded with more than jtth (Fairbairn). Girders, especially those of cast iron, which are liable to be less strong than intended from irregu- larity in easting and cooling, should be proved before use to a little more than the extent of the safe load ; this proof, however, should never exceed the half of the breaking weight, as the metal would be thoroughly weakened. 1 redgold observes that a load of | ot the breaking weight causes deflection to increase with time, and finally to produce a permanent set. r l be Board of Trade limits the woiking strain to 5 tons, or 11,200 lbs. per square inch, on any part of a wrought iron structure. 1628e. Of all the circumstances tending to invalidate theoretical calculations, the sun is about the worst. Mr. Clark writes, about the Britannia tubular bridge: “Although the tubes offer so effectual a resistance to deflection by heavy weights and gales of wind, they are nevertheless extremely sensitive to changes of temperature, so much so that half an hour’s sunshine has a much greater effect than is produced by the heaviest trains or the most violent storm. They are, in fact, in a state of perpetual motion, and alter three months’ close observation, during which their motions were recorded by a self-registering instrument, they were observed never to he at rest for an hour. The same may almost he ' said of the large bridges over the doik passages. The sun heats the top flange, whilst the j wind, alter sweeping along the water, impinges on the bottom flange, keeping it cool and causing it to contract, whilst the top flange is being expanded by the sun, so putting a camber on the bridge much exceeding the deflection caused by the heaviest working load. At the Mersev Docks the top flanges of the bridges are painted white, to assist in meeting I the difficulty.” Transverse Strain. 1628p. The strength of beams in general is directly as the breadth, directly as the square of the depth, and inversely as the length ; thus 131 ’ ‘ ^ ut a certa ' n supposed quantity must, however, he added to express the specific strength of any material, a quantity only obtained by experiments on that material. This supposed quantity is re- presented bv S. We then obtain x depth x S _ b rea ki n g weight. Therefore, in experiments, a simple transposition of the quantities evolves the value of S; thus - U1 ^ br *xdt lie pth * ' = vv *'* c ' 1 S then becomes a constant. As regards the usual term of a cast-iron girder, using C as a constant for a signification in a girder, similar to that of S in a beam, the formula arra . r '^ section x r h pth * <- ■ _ {j rea k; n g weight. The values of S length ° and C are only applicable to a beam or girder of a similar sectional form to that horn Chap. I. BEAMS AND PILLARS. 421 which the value was derived, since this constant expresses file specific strength of that form of section. 1628/r. Another formula for estimating the strength of beams rests on the knowledge of the resistance (or r) offered hv any material to fracture by a tensile or crushing force, and the depth of the neutral axis (or n) of this area in the beam ; the latter, of course, cannot be calculated, except from experiment. The rule is ^^engLh^* 1 * = breaking weight. See Resistance, in Glossary. 1628r. Table of the Transverse Strength of Timber: 1 Inch Square, 1 Foot Long. Name. Specific Gravity. Warr. Value of S of others. Barlow. Tredgold Hurst. 1 Mol , e , s - | woith. 1«65. Value of S. Va'ue of S. Value of S. Value of S. ll>s. lb<. Urn lhs. Ash, English •7 GO 506 518 6 75 6 56 56 0 67 2 Beech, „ - •6<>G 390 - - - 677 ., Amer. White - •711 345 „ „ Red - •775 435 - 519 - - 448 504 Poplar - 327 Birch, Common - •711 482 - 607 Elm, English •579 2C0 .595 338 540 336 336 ., American - - - - - 631-5 611 Oak, English •829 424 - 400 710 „ „ “ 470 400 560 560 ,, „ " - - - - - 5.57 ,, African ■988 630 869-5 „ Adriatic 461 448 „ Amer. White ■779 433 ., Red •952 422 653-5 „ Canadian - 588 „ Dantz’c •720 377 - 486 ., Memel •727 416 4 44 ,. Riga 711 | Pine, Amer. White •482 307 „ „ Red • e 7G 382 467 447 „ - 448 4 18 „ ., Yellow •508 300 358-5 - - 658 „ Pitch ■740 432 629 541 560 560 „ Dantzic •649 356 „ Memel •601 334 - 577 545 „ Riga *6.54 346 - 376 530 386 »« », - 359 Fir, Spruce •503 336 •i „ American - •772 260 _ _ _ 570 ,, Mar Forest •698 308 - 381 315 f 415 1 408 „ Scotch 582 „ New England _ _ _ _ 367 i« Yellow 336 Deal, Christiania •689 400 - 521 686 Larch - • -505 256 - 280 557 336 336 „ Amer. Tamarac •433 230 Walnut - - - _ _ _ 500 Spanish Chesnut 610 Mahogany, Nassau •668 430 673*5 ,, Honduras 637 ■■ Spanish _ - . - _ _ _ 425 1 cak ... •729 527 890 717 Poon ... 740 590 Morn • _ _ _ 691 Sabicu ... _ _ 854-25 Green-heart - - . _ 1,079-5 Cowrie .... • • i 610 j 422 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 1 628C The results of Barlow, Nelson, Moore, Denison, and some others, are collected in the above table, w hich gives a mean of the whole ( Warr); Barlow's values arc aTo noted separately, being those usually supplied in the Handbooks; and obtained by Barlow’s for- Ix BW inula,—- — jy- = S, from experiments on a projecting beam or arm; or from the formula - * = S, when a beam supported at the ends is under trial. A measurable set is produced by a straining force very much less than that to which the material will be likely to be exposed in practice. Without having this principle in mind, the differences between the actual breaking weight and the permanent set weight of son e writers will be misun- derstood. The practical man, however, will use one third or some other proportion of these values, as noticed in pur. 1C28 d. (See another Table, par. 1680s ). 1628/. Table of the Transverse Strength of Metals: 1 Inch Square, 1 Foot Long. Name. Barlow. Tredgold* (Safe Weights); and others. Hurst. Mol-s- WOl til. Breaking; Weight. One-third for set. Breaking Weight. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 11)-. Wrought iron, good English 8550? 2850 *952 2800 3024 ,, „ 2048*1 „ ,, best Derbyshire and ) Staffordshire - J ( 1700 Dobson. ,, „ Scotch hot blast j to ( 1900) *2290 Cast iron ----- 7644 2548 *850 2016 2016 2000 Brass, cast - - - *890 896 896 Lead, cast - - - - * i 96 Tin, cast ----- - - *372 Zinc, cast ----- *74 6 784 728 1628m. Fairbairn’s experiments on cast irons obtained from the principal iron-works, and made into bars 1 inch square and 5 feet long, proved that the longer beams are weaker than the shorter in a greater proportion than their respective lengths ; that the strength does not increase quite so rapidly as the square of the depth; that the deflection of a beam is pro- portional to the force or load; and that a set occurs with a small portion of the breaking weight. Spec. Grav. In 59 experiments, the strongest; Ponkev 1 - No. 3, cold blast - - - ‘ j 7 ' 122 In 59, experiments, the weakest ; Plaskynas- ) ton, No. 2, hot blast Mean value 440 lbs., affording for the specific strength, S = 1980 lbs., or.— '884 tons. For the rule including n, a comparison of two specimens gave n = 2'63. 1628h. Morries Stirling has considerably strengthened cast iron by adding a portion of malleable cast iron. Four experiments, by Hodgkinson, gave the following results : — No. 2 quality (20 per cent, scrap), bars 9 ft. long, 2 ins. square - S = 2248 No. 3 „ ( 15 per cent, scrap), „ „ ,, - S = 16S2 No. 2 „ „ „ „ bars 4 ft. 6 ins. long, 1 in. square S = 2803 No. 3 „ „ „ ,, „ „ „ „ - S=1996 Ilis irons are also stronger under compression and tension. 6-916 Break. Wt. 578 lbs. 357 lbs. Ulc. deflect. 1 -74, hard. 1 -36, soft. Tensile power, No. 2 - No. 3 - 1 1 -50 tons. I Compressive power, No. 2 - 54'62 tons. 10-47 „ | „ „ No. 3 - 64-41 „ 1628o. Hodgkinson also found the average breaking weight in pounds of a bar of cast iron, 1 inch square and 4 feet 6 inches long between the supports, to be as follows: — Average of 21 samples of hot blast iron - 445-5714 pounds Average of 21 samples of cold blast iron - - - 456'9090 pounds The superior transverse strength of cold blast iron equals nearly 2£ per cent. R. Stephen- son experimented, in 1846 and 1847, on bars of different kinds of cast iron, 1 inch square and 3 feet bearing. The results are given in tlie Civil Engineer, 1850, pp. 194-9. Shates of Beams and Girders. 1628/). “ Calculation affords the following shapes for iron beams, as being enabled to do the most work with the least expenditure of substance. Beams supported at one end: L Chap. I. REAMS AND PILLARS. 423 Fig. G136. I f the load be terminal and the depth constant, the form of the beam in breadth should be wedge-shaped, the breadth increasing as the length of the beam (the latter measured from the loaded end). II. If the breadth be constant, the square of the depth must vary as the length, or the vertical section will be a parabola. III. When both breadth and depth vary, the section should present a cubical parabola. IV. When the beam supports only its own weight, it should be a double parabola, that is, the upper as well as the lower sur- face should be of a parabolic form, the depth being as the square of the length. V. When a beam is loaded evenly along its surface, the upper surface being horizontal, the lower one should be a straight line meeting the upper surface at the outer end, and forming a trian- gular vertical section; the depth at the point of support being determined by the length of the beam and the load to be sustained. VI. If an additional terminal load be addetfto such a beam, the under surface should be of a hyperbolic curvature. VI I. And in a flanged beam, the lower flange should describe a parabolic curve (as in example IV.). I6287. “ Seims supported at both ends. I. A beam loaded at any one point, as scale beams and the like, should have a parabolic vertical section each way from the loaded point, A A , fig. 6136. II. In flanged beams, the - - — lines may be nearly straight, and approacli the straight lines more as the flanges are [, I thinner. III. Abeam loaded uniformly along the whole of its length, should have an elliptic outline for the upper surface, the lower one being straight. This form applies to girders for bridges and other purposes where the load may be spread. IV. With thin flanges, a beam so circumstanced should be of a parabolic figure. V. If a flanged beam have its upper and lower sides level, and be loaded uniformly from end to end, the sides of the lower flange should have a parabolic curvature.” (Gregory.) VI. In the case of example III., Fairbairn observes that the greatest strength will be attained, while the breadth and depth is allowed to be diminished towards the ends. This diminution should take place in curved lines which are strictly parabolic. The most convenient way of doing this is by preserving a horizontal level in the bottom flange, diminishing its width, as well as the height of the girder, as fly. 6 1 3c. Thus the spaces 66 should be square on plan for the bearings on the wall, &c., and equal to the width of the bottom flange at the centre ; the intermediate length I to be curved to the form pre- scribed. The width of the bottom flange is to be reduced near the ends to one half of its size in the middle, and the total depth of the girder reduced at the ends in the same pro- portion. At the middle of the bearing, a flange may be cast on to connect the upper and lower flanges, and this will give additional stiffness to the girder. 1628c. Gregory further remarks on this subject : when the depth of the beam is uniform, and (VII.) the whole load is collected in one point (as A, fly. 613d.) the sides of the beam should be straight lines, the breadth at the ends, R, being half that where the load is applied. VIII. When the load is uniformly distributed (flfl- 613c.) the sides should be portions of a circle, the Fig. G13c. Fig. G13btained by dividing a diameter ab. Jig. 6 13 A., into three equal parts ac, cd, rib, and irawing the lines ce and df at right-angles to ab ; the points aebf being joined, the figure i s that of tlie strongest beam that can be cut out of a cylinder. The strength of a square icam, fg. 6I3g., cut from the same cylinder, is to the strength of the strongest beam nearly as 101 to 110, although the square beam would contain more timber nearly in the ratio of 5 to 4'714. The stitfest beam is to the strongest as G-9'7877 to 1, as regards Lower of bearing a load ; but as 1 '04382 to 1 as regards amount of deflection, in equal engths between the supports. i 1628ii\ Buffon, during his extensive series of experiments on oak timber, from 20 to 28 I’eet in length, and from 4 inches to 8 inches square in section, found that the heart-wood much was densest was also strongest, and the side on which the beam was laid also affected | lie strength ; for when the annual layers were horizontal, and the strength 7, the layers I aid vertically gave a strength of 8. He also found that beams which had each supported, I without breaking, a load of 9,000 lbs. during one day, broke at the end of five or six jnonths with a weight of 6,000 lhs., that is to say, they were unable to carry for six months wo-thirds of the weight they bore for one day. Transverse Sections. 1G28x. The transverse section of a cast iron girder previous to Hodgkinson’s experiments S ~? was that of Tredgold, consisting of equal flanges at top and bottom, as A, fg.6\Si; and that of Lillie and Fairbairn, in 1825, with a single flange, as B; Hodgkinson deduced a section of greatest strength having areas of flanges as 6 to 1, as C. Taking this form as unity, the ratios will stand : — - For Hodgkinson and Fairbairn, as - - - 1 : '754 For Hodgkinson and Tredgold, as - - - 1 : '619 For Fairbairn and Tredgold, as - - - - 1 : -820 (Fairbairn, Application, &c. p. 25 : Tredgold, Cast Iron, 1824, p. 55, describes the advantages of his own form of section.) lG28y. Ilodgkinson’s complete section for a cast iron girder is shown in fg. 61.3 /. Its chief principle is, that the bottom flange must contain six times the area of the top flange. The several dimensions are taken thus : — I. For the . depth, the total dimension 1). II. For the bottom flange, the width B, and for the two thicknesses, one is taken at the centre bb ; the other b at the end. III. For the top flange, the width T, and for the two thicknesses, one is taken the centre It, the other t at the end. In this manner the dimensions of the flanges are < --T ...> quite independent of the thickness of the rib. IV. For the rib <. 6--— •» the two dimensions r and rr are measured as continued to the extreme top and bottom surfaces of the girder, with the same view of making these dimensions independent of those of the flanges, and promoting exactness in defining the entire section. Hodgkinson’s complex rule for obtaining the weight a girder will carry, is 6 d 3 — (6 — 6, 3 ) d 3 = W. Here W = tons, or b eaking weight ; 1 feet, or length between supports ; d whole depth ; ii,g flaws in it, renders futile all calculations of strength. 1-9 I Iodgkinson gradually varied the form of section of girder in his experiments until "idihs and depths of the flanges were as follows; — Top flange 2'33 inches wide, 0'31 426 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Cook TT inch deep; bottom flange G‘67 inches wide, 0 66 inch deep; the areas being ’720 and 4 4 inches. The rib was '266 inch thick, and the total depth 5| inches. The constant oi C was found to be 514 for cwts., or 26 for tons. (Warr.) 1629a. It will scarcely be within our province to describe all the forms of sections, and the results of the experiments made by Fairbairn in obtaining his box beam or plate girder in wrought iron, but it is to be noted that all the cylindrical tubes broke by extension at the rivets before the tube could fail by compression. Fairbairn in his Application of Can and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes, edit. 1857-8, p. 80, notices that although the pluh girder be inferior in strength to the box beam, it has nevertheless other valuable properties to recommend it. On comparing the strength of these separate beams, weight for weight, it will be found that the box beam is as 100 : 9:!. The plate beam is in some respects superior to the box beam; it is of more simple construction, less expensive, and more durable, from the circumstance that the vertical pla'.e is thicker than the side plates of the box beam. It is also easier of access to all its parts for the purposes of cleaning, & c. 16295. Fairbairn has formed a comparison between a wrought iron and a cast iron girder fo a span of 30 feet. The plate girder, fig. 613/i, would be 31 feet 6 inches in length, and would be composed of plates 22 inches deep and^ths thick ; with angle iron « 7} > §ths thick, riveted on both sides at the bottom of the plate, and ;nr angle iron | inch thick at the top, the width over the top being inches, and the bottom 5| inches. The breaking weight of this beam, taking the constant at 75, would be “-j- = W; or ~ 36 (r~~ = 27-5 tons in the middle, or 55 tons distributed equally over the surface. In the edition of 1857-8, the angle irons are described as 3 inches by 3 inches, 1 inch thick for the bottom, and 4 inches by 4 inches, 4 inch thick at the top ; it would, therefore, be 8j inches over at the top, and about 6l inches at the bottom. Now a cast iron girder of the best form and strongest section and calculated to support the same load, would weigh about 2 tons, the plate beam about 18 cwts., 01 less than one half. To secure uniformity of strength in a rectangular box beam, the top is required to be about twice the sectional area of the bottom ; hence resulted the use u cells in that portion. 1629c. Fig. 613/. is a. plate beam having a single plate for the vertical web, while eacl of the flanges consists of a flat bar and a pair of angle irons riveted to each other and ti the vertical web. Fig. 613m. is a box beam, in which there are two vertical webs. Fig. 613«. is a plate girder of greater dimensions than fig. 613/ ; the flanges contain more than one layer of flat bars, and the web, which consists of plates with their largest dimensions vertical, is stiffened by vertical T iron ribs at the joints of those plates, as shown in the plan or horizontal section Uttered A. The pieces should abut closely and truly against each other, having end surfaces made exactly perpendicular to the axis of the Fl s- etot. Fig. 6t5>». Fig. 6fpn. beam. The thickness of the web is seldom made less than |ths inch, and except for tn largest beams, this is in general more than sufficient to resist the shearing stress. Above eat of the points of support, the vertical ribs must be placed either closer or made larger, s that they may be jointly capable of safely bearing as pillars the entire share of the lou which rests on that point of support. A pair of vertical T iron ribs riveted back to bat through the web plates fas A, fig . 613a.) may be held to act as a pillar of cross-shaped sectioi 1629 d. The rib or web of a plate beam, as fig. 613Z, having little or nothing to do wit the pressure directly, has been replaced in some cases by simple upright struts or diagoa braces between the flanges, which in cast iron girders are in one casting, but experience Ik proved this not altogether politic, particularly in cast iron. Flodgkinson remarked tin such beams were weaker than those with a solid rib. Rankine observes that transver ribs or feathers on cast iron beams are to be avoided, as forming lodgments for air bubble and as tending to cause cracks in cooling. Open work in the vertical web is also to 1 avoided, partly for the same reasons, and partly because it too much diminishes the resist anee to distortion by the shearing action of the load. 36 29c. “ Where the span renders it impracticable to roll a beam in one piece,” Fairbain page 91, notices that “convenient weights might be rolled into sections of the proper tori ^and being united by properly proportioned covering plates at top and bottom, and 1 HAP. I. BEAMS AND PILLARS. 427 --- 8 -- > e joints (par. 1630y.), and all the riveting he well executed, the beam will be equal in rengtli to one ” of an entire length. “ I his construction may be carried to a c pan of 40 to ) leet. In practice it is found necessary to confine the use of cells to spans exceeding >0 or 150 feet : within these limits the same objects are most economically obtained by e use of thicker plates” (page 215). “ The more marly the bottom approximates to a lid homogeneous mass, the better it is calculated to resist a tensile strain” (see pages 248 256 for full instructions as to riveting plates; and Kirkaldy, Experiments, Sgc., page IS, for comparison of strength). As the bending moment of the load on a girder diminishes >m ti e middle towards the ends, and the shearing force from the ends towaids the iddle, it follows that the transverse sections of the bottom plates may be diminished am the middle towards the ends, and that of the vertical web from the ends towards the iddle, so as to make the resistance to bending and shearing respectively vary according the same law. Consequently, towards the centre of a girder for a large span, the 1 1 tom plate is usually increased by additional plates to secure the requisite strength in e sectional area, giving the underside of the plate a bellied form. C. Graham Smith, rnught Iron Girder Work, deserves attentive perusal by the student. It is printed in the itish Architect, for June 1877, pages 382 to 385. ] 1629/; The results of various testings of a new manufacture of girder patented about 166 by Messrs. Phillips are here recorded. A double weight in a cast iron girder is re- tired to give equal strength with one of wrought iron. A riveted plate girder is not always jlaptable for general purposes. The new system consists in riveting plates to the top and bottom flanges of rolled iron beams, and so strengthening them as to obtain results apparently disparaging to ordinary plate girders. The experiments noticed here in an abridged form were on a patent girder of 22 lbs per foot run, with a web plate, as A, Jig. 613o., and 20 feet bearing, as compared with a riveted plate girder of 9 in depth; it gave a breaking weight of 7 tons and a safe loud of 4 tons ; the formula for the break- _ ( ing weight of an ordinary plate girder would give 3^ tons. t - ^ " //7 -1 * W' ien two of the 8-inch rolled girders were riveted together ' • ^1 with a plate on the top, as B, the metal being about 40 lbs. per foot run, the girder was found to resist 20 tons, even then not breaking, but becoming twisted. An ordinary riveted plate girder of 40 lbs. per foot run, with a web of 12 inches, with double angle irons of 3 inches by 3 inches and ^ inch thick, would break with a strain of 9 tons. A simple web ' ' • -a — > v £CZ S ~.....\ plate girder, with angle irons top and bottom (fig. 6137,'.), Fig. 613a. gives C = 60: a plate on top and bottom in addition (Jig 613/.) esC = 75; and a box beam (Jig. 613m.) gives C = 80. The rolled girders made by the nterley Company give C = 57 to 88. The example A gives C = 210; and the example 300. Other experiments are required fully to prove the superiority of the new system r the beams and girders of the old sections. The details of the above testings are given i he Builder, p. 148; Mechanics’ Magazine, p. 129; Engineering, p. 139; &c., ail for the hr 1866. Condition of Breaking Weight in the Middle. B A SOT,/. I ' H VARIOUS FORMS IN USE FOR BEAMS, OIRPERS, AND IRONS. K. \ pplicatinn to the manufacturer selected must be made for any special lengths and ngths of rolled iron joists and girders, riveted and compound, Ac. The former can 1 ihtaiued from 3 inches deep by 1 | inches up to 22 inches deep by 8 inches, being from ct to 36 feet in length, with top and bottom flanges of usual proportions. The latter he obtained of the same lengths. One manufacturer advertises the following makes. — led girders up to 19;j inches deep and to 38 feet long. Zore’s patent girders up to m ties deep and to 34 feet long. Channel iron to 12 inches wide and to 32 feet long. :le iron to 12j united inches and to 30 feet long. Tee iron to 12 united inches and o feet long. Mitch and sandwich plates to 14 inches wide and to 36 feet long. Riveted i'-rs made up from stock to all sections. Bulb tees up to 10 inches deep. Rounds inches. Squares to 5 inches. Flats to 14 inches. Chequered plates up to 8 feet by he opinion is gaining ground that most of the constants in use for calculating the ngth of beams aie too high. A comparison of Trcdgold, Barlow, and Clark, will show 428 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II a difference of something approaching 100 per cent.: Tredgold the highest, Clark th lowest, and Barlow about midway. Mew sets of experiments are desirable, especially fo large scantlings. From 1866 I). Kirkaldy has made a number of experiments on full size timbers, and of late years Mr. Lanza has made some a.t the Massachusetts Institute His results show that the ordinary formula require revision. For instance, a sprue bean 12 inches by 2 inches and 15 feet long broke with a central load of 5894 lbs. Accoruin: to Tredgold’s formula, it ought to have carried a load of 8928 lbs. before breaking. Thi result was corroborated by other tests, and the general conclusion arrived at is tha*, wherea we have been accustomed to use as a constant in the familiar formula W = c b d 1 4 cwt. fo fir or pine beams (in fact, in one of his examples 530 lbs. is used), we ought really to use constant of not more than 2^ cwt. The more thoroughly large size specimens, whether n wood or iron, are tested, the more will our knowledge of their strength be increased, am we shall he less dependent upon theories. (J. Slater, 1887). As an instance, put forwari so long since as 1871-72 by Captain (now Colonel) Seddon from experiments by D. Kir kaldy on (1) white Riga tir, and (2) red Dantzic fir, v/here each piece was 20 feet long— White Riga fir was 13 inches square=169 square inches area. Ultimate stress 331,260 lbs. = 1960 lbs. per squ ire inch. or 1 47*88 tons= 126-04 tons per square foot. Gave way at knots 2 feet 9 inches from centre. Deflection ‘642. Ked Dantzic fir wa3 13-5 by 13-2 = 178 square inches area. Ultimate stress 309,120 lbs. = 1742 lbs. per squr,reiuch. or 133-00 tons= 112-02 tons per square foot. Gave way at knot 0 9 off centre. Deflection -548 only. Transactions , Royal Institute of British Architects, 1871-72, pp. 156-164, Strictly speaking, the law that the breaking weight depended on the variations of stres: was known belore 1849, when it was shown that cast iron bars broke with half the static;! breaking weight when subjected to continued repetitions of load. Subsequently Sir W. Fairbairn carried out an experiment on a riveted girder subjected to continual loadin» and unloading for a period of two or three years. It broke with two-fifths of the static:! breaking load, and after repairing, with one-third the statical breaking weight, after ovti one million changes of load in each case. The statical breaking stress was not, as com monly assumed, the exact measure of the structural value of a material. (Prof. Unwin ill Builder , 1887, p. 741). 16296 ... t I l I l 16291. Gregory’s work also states an arbitrary formula given by Mr. Dines, which he utid to be tolerably correct in ali cases where the length of the girder did not exceed 2 5 ■t ; its depth in the centre not greater than 20 inches; the breadth of the bottom flange ■t less than one-third, or more than half, the depth ; the thickness of the metal not less an 2Lth of the depth. Then — - Up [bd°-(b-b 1 )df] = W lbs. | “ [bd 2 -(b-b t )d*]=W cwts. y [6 d 1 — ( 6 — 5 2 )rf 2 2 ] = W tons. ere 6 entire breadth of bottom flange; b 2 thickness of the vertical part; d depth of mle girder ; d 2 depth without the lower flange, all in inches ; l length in feet. 1629m. Llurst, Handbook, notices that the area of the top flange should be 1 of that of c bottom flange when the load is on the top ; and J when the load is on the bottom flange ; olcsworth, Formulae, has | for the latter ; he notes that if the depth of the girder be i of •span, then a4 17 = \V tons, the weight being distributed. When the depth is -1, 2d = w tons, the weight being distributed. The depth at the ends may equal — . Ap- >\imate rules for these girders have been given in the Pocket-book for 1865, as lx P = d x n, P, l -~ = a. Here l feet ; P tons distributed ; d depth of girder; a area of bottom nge, both in inches. 1629k. For E, Wrought iron tube or beam, or box-beam : — «r/O = 80 .... I ad C = 6-6G ... . , .. I . . : — = W tons. — — = W tons, when d is more than r~ l melies I l lect 14 ■re a area of the bottom flange; C coefficient determined for this particular form of tube, the table given by Fairbairn (pp. 116-17), a area of the whole cross section, the cou- nt C — i 78 Ions, for a tube having the top flange = T42 thick, twice the area of the ttomone; the tube being 9'6 inches square, and 17 •5 feet long between the supports, eh a beam deflected I '76 inches with a breaking weight of 7,148 lbs. 1629o. Hurst states it is usual to camber a riveted girder, so that on receiving the per- '•ent load it may become nearly horizontal. If tlw required rise or camber equals e in middle in inches, d being in inches and l in feet, we have -K=e. For girders uni- mly loaded anti of uniform section throughout the length, K = - OI8. When the section • Iso made to vary so that the girder will be of equal strength throughout, K= •021. ilesworth notes the area of top flange as al l8; llurst says al- 75. If the depth of girder be of the span, then W 1 ;>•;!« tons ; if then W = 1 6a tons. The rivets to , inch and inch in diameter, placed 3 inches apart in the top and 4 inches apart in bottom flange. 430 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II 1629 p. For F, Wrought- iron p'ate girder: a d 0—1500 l inches W cwts.: area of the top flange being ± greater than the bottom flange, and the thickness of the web about i or i of the depth of the beam. ad C l inches = W tons, in which case C — 75 for deep plates, as 22 inches; cr = 60 for less depth, as 7 inches. ad C.= 6-25 l feet =w 8 s d 8 sd than that of the bottom flange, multiply the latter area by l"2. The average sectional area of a theoretically proportioned flanged girder may be taken at §rds of the central sectional area. To find the sectional areas of eh her flange at any point along the whole W.r length of the girder, the formula is -—-{l-x) = a, excluding rivet holes in bottom flange. Here W weight per foot run in tons; x lesser segment imo which the span is divided; l — x greater segment; s and d as before. To find the sectional area at any length of the Vfx web, the formula is — ~ = a square inches. Here x is the distance from the centre; Wand s as before. The vertical strain, at the centre of the beam, when one-half of the girder is fully loaded, is equal to 1 of the fully loaded beam, that is |W x l. At the ends or pillars, the vertical strain is greatest, and is equal tu|W x l. The strain at the centre, when the load is uniformly distributed, is obtained from the formula 7^7 = s. Here W distributed load in J b d tons; l length in feet; d depth in feet ; s strain in tons of compression in the top flange and tension in the bottom flange. Hall' the load collected at the centre of a girder being equal tv l to the load distributed, the above formula becomes — =s. 4 d At any other point, ratios of strain will be as the square of half the span to the square of the segments into which a given point divides the span. The approximate sirain at the centre, per square inch, on any beam, may be obtained from the formula — =s. Here W distributed load in tons; l length in terms of the depth ; a sectional area in square inches ; and s strain in tons per square inch. To find the sectional area of a flange for a plate girder fixed at one end and flee W x • • • . at the other the formula is , — a , exclusive of rivet holes in the top flange; W weight in d s tons at the end of the girder; x length in feet from loaded end to the point where the sec- tional areas are required; d depth in feet ; s safe strain per square inch in tons. When the load is uniformly distributed, using the same notations as before, except that W in tons is W .r 2 , . . , r \ the load per foot run, the formula is :r —r = a. {Engineer's, Architect's, §v., Packet- book, 1865.) 162 Or. adC-- 6 _ l feet WT 7 ? For G, Rolled irons or bars W tons. Here a area of bottom flange includes to above the upper part of the swelling for flange, as b c ( fiq 613r/.); or to the whole of the angle in plate girder F. A railway bur is often useful in country places; the intricate formula for the strength of the various parts will be fuunu in 1 Barlow ; and in the Engineer's ffc., Puchet-booh for 1861. "T Fig. 613^. 1620s. For H, Tee irons, or Rolled "J" irons a d C=4 l feet = W tons. tons, when d is more than — , and the area of the top flange is T75 of the bottom flange. Here a area of bottom flange in inches ; some calculators deduct the rivet holes from its total width. For depths under 12 inches, the width of the top flange should be half the depth; and when over 12 inches, one-third. With the latter proportion, leathers or stiffening pieces should be used to supply the deficiency in lateral stiffness occasioned by the reduced width ot flange {par. 16‘J9c. ). The usual thickness of web for all depths under 3 feet is § inch. Fairbairn ( Tubular Bridges, p. 247) discovered that the top flange should have an area double that of the lower one to give the strongest form of wrought iron beam, a contrary principle to that obtained in cast iron. 162 9q. To find the area of either of the flanges at the centre of a girder supported at Wl both ends, the formula is 7 — , = cr. Here W represents live and dead loads uniformly distributed in tons; l span in feet; d depth in inches; and s sale strain per square inch of metal on the flange, in tons. Therefore, say 7 — = 45 square 0 J 8 xs=ax 8-83 sect, area 1 inches, excluding rivet holes in the bottom flange. This formula is ti e equivalent of W=\veietit per foot runxZ* ,, , . . , = with a weight of say 340 lbs. Hodgkimon experi- ;nted on two bars 4 feet 3 inches long, the flange 4 inches wide, rib 1-jL inch deep, with hickness of metal of about y inch. One bar was tried with the flange uppermost, the ler bar with the flange downwards. The former broke with ewt., the latter with ;wt. Experiments on three girders of this shape, the web being 2 inches high and nch thick, the flange 2 inches wide by j inch thick, and 24 inches long, were made by ioper of Drury Lane. lie stated that the gain in strength over a flitch 0 2 inches by nch was 25 per cent. ; the loss in stiffness being 30 per cent. The strength arising from 2 accumulation of the quantity submitted to tensile action ars out an adequate result, or 580 times its own weight, instead 40.), as 0 2 inches by ^ inch, and 0 0 2 inches by j inch each, iced inch apart, showing over them an increase of strength nearly 50 per cert. In using this form of section, it makes difference whether the load be placed wholly on the to]) of e vertical web, or on the lower flange ; the result obtained in :lier case was the same. — Builder, 1845, vol. iii. p. 593. The suits of some other experiments on this useful form of iron Fig. 615r. The formula ad C=G W tons is e given in the Engineer's Pncltet -book for 1861, ]). 205. * ....... — . t •o applicable to the trough-shaped section, as N (fly. 613r.), as to the inverted Tee or shape M, taking the two vertical ribs to be equivalent to one rib of the same depth and wide the thickness. The thickness of the horizontal and vertical parts of these gi.d rs ould be equal, or nearly equal, so as to obtain as near an equality in cooling as possil le. 1629« For K, Mixed beans; Flitch be ims and double flitch beams : — I'liC'C beams arc mposed of an iron plate (cast or wrought) placed betwen two pieces of iir timber, '■ 613s., or of a plate placed on each side of the solid timber am, fly- 613 1. Tlie-e plates again may have a table cr nge, as in the case of the single plate; or of a half flange, as the case of the plates on each side of the beam. All these ould be bolted, or otherwise secured together, to render m as homogeneous as possible. Hurst gives the formula ~ t (Ci + 30t) = W in cwts. Here t breadth of the one, or Fig. 61."/. o, wrought iron flitches ; b breadth of wood, both in inches ; C, coefficient = 4 teak, 3 oak, ■ fir, and 2’0 elm. Fairbairn considersthat “ the addition of the timber on each side of the ite gives increased stillness, and renders it less liable to warp under strain. It is called a idwich beam.” He states this beam “to he weak, comparing the results with those of j' simple plate girder; and its elasticity, although considerable, is nevertheless so imper- t as to render it inadmissible for the support of great loads, whether proceeding from a pd weight, or one in motion over its surface. With riveted angles or flanges, the timbers , each side might have been useful in preventing lateral flexure, but they would not have litributed, in any great degree, to the vertical bearing powers of the beam.” ( Application , ) P* 284-5.) Rolled flat irons can now be obtained about 13 to 14 inches deep, from I'icli to an inch in width, up to 30 feet in length, and for special cases somewhat longer. 1629a. 1 he method of trussing a beam is explained in Caiipentiiv ( par . 2021, et seq.'). r, -0ut. The formula: for finding the strength for examples IV. and V.,flg. 675., are— = h ; i — WZ . 8(f v. /•*+ 1( . — *• Here l length in feet ; d depth in feet — both measured from the points ntcrsectiou of the stay, tension rod, and top beam ; W load in tons uniformly dis- ■uted; h horizontal thrust on beam in tons ; and s strain on inclined pait of tension roil 'oiis. When the truss has more than one stay, h, I, and d will represent the same ; and j ensile sh ain on the horizontal portion of the rod. The strain on the inclined tie rod I be — 2- + jfld 2 — s ; n the number of times that the horizontal distance between the i and the nearest stay is contained in l. If any load be placed on the middle, the s' rain 1 1 'll be doubled. If any load he placed on each of the stays, then l will represent the fiance of each loaded stay from the nearest pier; d depth as before; h horizontal list on the part next the pier ; s tension on each of the inclined ties. Then -'f- = h ; and W*=i, To resist the strains of the inclined tie rods with safety, allow an inch of "I'onal area in the tie rod for every 5 tons of strain. The stay, being in compression, find lie calculated as a column capable of supporting the load if in the middle, or one If if distributed. The beam, though in compression, should be capable of supporting the 432 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II load between the stays, as a beam exposed to transverse strain, according to the rules before given. Tie rods, when exposed to great strains, are not generally of much value, because the iron str tches. 1629-r. Mr. Cubitt experimented on an equal flanged cast iron girder, 27 feet long, 10 inches deep, and 4 inches broad across tbe flanges; the rods were I inch diameter. When the ends of the rods were placed above the beam, it was found to be weaker than having no rod at all. When the fastening was made at the upper end of the girder, and giving u distance to the rod of inches below the girder instead of an inch, an increased stillness was obtained of above a ton (Warr, p. 259). Some experiments are recorded in tlu Builder, 1857, on two beams of Dantzie timber, each 28 feet long, 14 inches square, with and without a tie rod. Barlow records an expeiiment (p. 158) on four beams, two beir.g trussed similarly to the figure on plate xxxix. of Nicholson’s Carpenters' New Guide. Mr. Cooper’s experiments on trussed beams are given in the Builder , 1845, p. 612. l'oi Trellis girders, another mode of trussing a beam, Fairbairn, p. 129, uses the same formula as for the plate girder F, but with the constant 60. For this, the student is referred to th< Application 8fc. of Iron, enlarged edition, 1864. Other conditions than that of the Weight in the Midille. 1629y. find the ultimate strength of a beam (section A or B), when a weight is placed somewhere between the middle and the end. Rule— Multiply twice the length of the longer end, A, fig. 613a, by twice the length of the shorter end B, and divide the the whole length C, which will give the effec- to be used as the divisor for the calculation under the conditions of the beam: — Thus say 13-33 effective la long ill irst puts it as, product by tire length of strength a beam is — length ; and (£/)- x W (S = ‘2i-18 cast iron) X'lxO 2 13-38 = 13,762-64 lbs. weight. ' prodiu t of two lengths Irom each end. 1629c. Barlow (p 39—40) has stated a case where a beam has to support two equal weights between the points of support, l'F', as at D and E, Example 1. fig. G 1 then since IC = iC = AU, and W = W, the general expression becomes UD-w b AC_A V — ■ ■ n ~h -: x W =f And if we suppose further ID = /E, then it becomes simply 1D.W=/. 1 „ i A A W't D E | J A C JW A IT V l Fig. Glow. Now, if both weights act at the centre, it appears from the preceding investigation, that ^Ii. (2\V) = \ If. YV= IC . W =f. Whence the strain in the two cases will be to each other as ID to IC ; and hence the following practical deduction: — When a beam is loaded with a weight, and that weight is appended to an inflexible bar, or bearing, as DE, in Ex. 2, the strain upon the beam will vary as the distance ID, or a? tbe difference between tbe length of the beam and the length of tbe bearing; for the bearing DE being inflexible, the strains will be exerted in the points D and E, exactly in the same manner as if the bearing was removed, and half the weight bung on at each < I these p hits. This remark may be worth tbe consideration of practical men in various architectural constructions. Fie. also puts the case of a beam, which, instead of being fixed at each end, merely rests on two props, and extends beyond them on each side equal to half tilt ir distance, as Ex. 3 : if the weights W W were suspended from these latter points, each equal to one-fourth of the weight W, then this would be double of that which would he necessary to produce the fracture in the common case; for, dividing the weight W into four equal parts, we may conceive two of these parts employed in producing the strain or fracture at E, and one of each of the other parts as acting in opposition to W and W , ■'cud by these means tending to produce the fractures at F and F'. This is the case which has been erroneously confounded with a former one (fixed at each end), hut the dis’inetion between them is .sufficiently obvious; because here the tension of the fibres, i- the places where the strains are excited, are all equal; whereas in the former the middle one was double of each of the other two. 1630. Experiments are recorded in the Civil Engineer Journal , 1849, xi, page 44, on para’lel bars of cast iron, 4 feet 8^ inches long and 4 inches square, placed on two I. BEAMS AND PILLARS. 433 ts CC (fig 613k\). Weights were placed at each end at equal distances from pports, and the weights being gradually ;cd, the bar broke simultaneously through !. On another trial, a bar broke only point F, being a little nearer to the This was considered a sufficient proof portion of the metal might be removed he middle of the bar without diminish- lateral strength, and that by adding this tbout the points EE, the lateral strength be increased. Fig. 613u>. Various Problems. 1 a 1. When a beam (as sections A and B), with the ends supported, is to be cal- 1 to support a permanent weight in the middle, the formulae for obtaining the a and depth are ^ eet .^! bs = b, and W — d". W weight to be supported, S safe v5“3u^ S— 3 b , or J of the ultimate strength of an inch bar; b and d in inches. When a similar beam for obtaining the breadth and depth had the ends fixed, the i W formula for the breadth is g 3 & [ . 5 =* &. When a similar beam projects from a wall, and is loaded at the ends, the formula ' de P th 15 S fsh rn = d - When a similar beam has to support a load placed at some distance from the uj • 613«), the effective length must first be ob ained by the rule, par. 1629y. Then inula for the depth is ( = d 2 . find the diagonal of a uniform square cast iron beam, to support a given strain in ection of that diagonal, when the strain does not exceed the elastic force of the al (Tredgold): — When the beam is supported at the ends, and loaded in the middle, the formula is 1W ■212 fur cast iror, ^ diagonal in inches. W x B x A When a similar beam has not the strain in the middle of the length — — .-= y diagonal in inches. Here A and B refer to fig. 613k. Vi. To obtain dimensions , Sfc. of beams and girders : — To lind the depth of a beam, the length, breadth, and weight being given. For A and B. \/ 1 leet ^ lh . t = d inches. I f no breadth or depth be given, let n = any / W number, then \/ n 1 ^ eet ^ bj - = d, and 6 = nth part of d. , _ 2 /l W not excepdinc tlie elastic force , • , ,, — . ‘ " j n v (HSOor SW)Jll- 73X'62S) ’ lh To find the breadth of a beam, the depth, length, and weight being given. For _ , / feet V Iba. , . , p. _ /W A and B, js — = b inches, tor D, ^5 = 6. The proportion between the breadth and depth which will afford the best result is 6 ; 10 depth, in timber. The formula for the least breadth a beam for a given bearing should have, is ^ dil , c ^ x0 . 0 r = breadth. Po find the length, the weight, depth, and breadth being given : — ror A and B, w =/. I’o find he constant S, the length, depth, breadth and breaking weight per foot in length, inch square, being given, For A and B, — ' — ■ Ji~~~ = S. To find the area of the bottom flange, the length, load, and depth being given. 1 l feet permanent load In ton» dlitilbilled . , ,, _ ,, , , D, 1,,, a a inches, ror E, tension = 2 load t- hcam, or tension not more than 5 tons per square inch. Po find the multiple of depth and area of the bottom flange , the length and load being ri'cn. For 2> girder, l F«=r/ < a. 1 o find the area of the top flange. For E girder, bottom + i. I ■ find the area of the side plates. For E girder, j area of bottom. TlCMSIOjr. ITC. r v. The neutral axis. A timber beam supported at the ends and pressed down in ‘lillii by a weight, will have its lower fibres extended, while the upper fibres are THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. IIdok I 43 1 pushed together. Since there are these two strains, there will be some line or point tne depth which is labouring under neither t he one nor the other ; this is the neutral ax The further the fibres are from the neutral line, the more they will resist deflection fn the load. It might he inferred that the material should be placed so far above and Eli the neutral line as other circumstances will allow, in order tiiat they may be in a posit! to exercise the greatest power. The most simple application of these viexvs is shown I.aves’s girder (described in CAitPF.NTitv ). “As cast iron resists fracture about six tin more powerfully under compression than under tension, it is useless to give as much at of material in the upper or compressed, as in the lower or extended, flange of a cast ir beam.” Hodgkinson ( Experimental Researches, 1 846, p. 484-94) states that the positi of the neutral axis in east iron rectangular beams, at the time of fracture, is situated about ^ of the whole depth of the beam beloxv its upper surface. The sectional area oft top flange of a east iron girder must be rather more than i of the bottom flange, to ke the position of the neutral axis at | of the depth. In sudden f.actures it was from 1 ti of the depth. 1630//. Tredgold, Iron, 1st edit. 1822, p. 53, considered the line of neutral axis in til section to be in the middle of the depth. He notices the curious fact put forth l)u Hamel, who cut beams one-third, one-half, and two-thirds through, and found t w i girts to be borne — by the uncut beam 45 lbs. ; and by those cut 51 lbs., 48 lbs. a 42 lbs. respectively which would indicate that less than half the fibres were engaged in r sisting extension, although it does not prove that two-thirds of the thickness contribut nothing to the strength, as Robison imagines. Barlow found that in a rectangular be of fir. the neutral axis was about five-eighths of the depth, as shown by the section of fn 1 1 r re. Warr gives for east iron, the value of n or neutral axis 2'63 ; n = 6 when the 1 may come in the middle. Attention should be given to the highly valuable paper by s Astronomer Royal (Prof. Airy), On the Strains in the Interior of Brums ami Tubs Brirlges, read in 1862 before the British Association at Cambridge. It is given in r Athenaeum for October 11 ; and its further elucidation in the last edition (1864) Fairbairn’s Application of Cast Iron , §-c. 1630e. Deflection. The deflection of a beam supported at the ends and loaded in middle, is directly as the cube of the length, inversely as the cube of the depth, and versely as the breadth; therefore, b readth xdeptli 3 ' = ddketion. Beams have been said I ear considerable deflection without any injury to the elasticity of the material. Bui and Tredgold considered the elasticity to remain perfect until one-third of the break weight is laid on. Hodgkinson was perhaps the first who practically showed that i cast iron beam, a d^nd part of the breaking weight caused a visible set after that wei was removed ; while another beam took a visible set with ghth part of its breaking weig He found the / emnnent set in cast iron beams to be as the square of the load applied, also found that cast iion beams bore two-thirds, and even mire, of their bieakin; wei for long periods, without any indication of failing. Gregory {Mechanics for Practical I 4th edit. 1862) considers that, though the above rule may be correct lor beams about 5 I in length, it does not apply when they are much longer. Thomas Cubitt found by experiments that, when the length became about 20 feet, the set was only as the weig and that with larger beams the set was still less. Fairbairn found the impropriety adopting any rule founded on elastic limits, since it was evident that, while the elasticity a bar is injured as soon as a weight was applied, the particles or fibres take up fi positions until the antagonistic forces in the beam are brought nearly to equality, w one-third or two-thirds of the breaking weight will affect the subsequent deflection of beam. 16306 For a rectangular beam of cast iron supported at both ends and loaded in themit / 2 f ee t 02 to the extent of its elastic force, ^ j-— ^— = deflection. For similar beams, loaded formly, multiply by -025 in place of '02. (Tredgold). It has been stated that ultimate strength of a girder of the usual proportions may be approximately ascertai from its deflection under proof, on the assumption that a load equal to half the break weight will cause a deflection of of its length (Dobson). The proportion of greatest depth of a beam to the span is so regulated, that the proportion of the grea deflection to the span shall not exceed a limit xvhich experience has shown to be consis with convenience. That proportion, from various examples, appears to be for the work load , — from ^ to 7 J i5?5 ; for the proof load, = from to gij (Rankine). 1630.9. Mr Dines, when superintending upwards of two hundred experiments for Cubitt, on cast-iron girders (as section ID) whose dimensions are limited, found that " the load in the centre is taken as 3ths of the breaking weight, the following formula be used {(l depth in centre ; l length in feet) : — I. When the top and bottom flanges BEAMS AND PILLARS. 435 I. fZ , and the girder parallel, or equal depth throughout, jg— = deflection. II. When the 5 S are not equal, and the girder is not parallel, = deflection. III. When the beam P o top flange, and the deptli varies, 3( j^ = deflection (Gregory). 3C h. The formulae given by Hurst, Handbook, Sfc. for finding deflection, which occur Stiffness of be mis, are, I. When supported at the ends and loaded in the middle, i 1 w u - = deflection inches. Srnr5Si = deflection inches. II. For cylinders, - 24rf4 or diarn . inehe If the beam be fixed at one end and loaded at the other, the deflection= 16 times the net. IV. If fixed at one end and uniformly loaded, 6 times. V. If supported at both VI. If fixed at both ends and loaded in the middle, jth. He gives the following : — Taei.e of the Relative Stiif.ngth of Bodies to Resist Deflection = C. Taught iron - •067 Baltic oak - 1-120 Ash - 1176 ast iron - •112 Yellow fir - 1-120 Beech - 1 -434 eak •851 Memel fir - 1 -008 Elm - 1 -904 nglish oak 1 -344 Red pine - - 1-232 Mahogany - 1 -300 anadian oak 1 -008 Yellow pine - 1-254 I. The deflection of a rectangular beam is to a cylindrical one, as 1 to 17. IX. When leflection is taken as XtU of an inch per foot in length (which is considerid to be safe proof of J of the breaking weight) then for a beam supported at both ends and il/z'nw t! J b(PC T , r 2//, rf 3 r. » I- w , . C id in the middle, ^ = b ; = < i ; b -%? = W ; = / ; = C; 5 or 2C for j'j. XI. For cylinders, yi ; ;/iWC = diameter. - i To — , hot - W O (P A XI. For an uniform load iths, as before. 50/. The modulus of elasticity, or resistance of materials to stretching, is the term i to the ratio of the force of restitution to the force of compression. It is the measure >e elastic force of any substance. By means of it, the comparative stiffness of bodies be ascertained. Thus from the following table it will be perceived that a piece of cast is 10 7 times as still' as a piece of oak of equal dimensions and bearing. Resilience, ughness of bodies, is strength and flexibility combined ; hence any material or body h hears the greatest load, and bends the most at the time of fracture, is the toughest, modulus is estimated by supposing the material to present a square unit of surface, by any weight or force to be extended to double, or compressed into one-half the inal length ; such a weight will represent the modulus. e of the Modulus of Elasticity; with the toiition of it (limiting the Cohesion OF THE MaTEIUAL, Oil) WHICH WOULD TeAU THEM A.SUNDE11 LENGTHWISE. Leslie. Bf.van. ale Feet. Part. 6,040,000 or IGSth Fir, bottom, 25 1 Feet. ak • 4,150 000 „ 144th years old - J 7,400,000 i-ccb 4,180,000 „ 107th Petersburg!) Deal 6.000,000 Im - 5,680,000 „ 146th Yew - 2,220,000 emcl Fir 8,292.( 00 „ 205th Stones, Sfc. hrisuama Deal. 8,118,000 „ 146th Dinton - - - 2,409,000 arcli 5,096,000 „ 121st Ketton - 1,600,000 Jetternoe ... 635,000 Br.v»v. Reigate .... 621,000 Feet. 9. 1 50,000 11.840,000 Yorkshire paving - Portland stone 1.320.000 1.570.000 ellow Pine Slate, Leicester 7,800,000 inland Deal 6 000,000 Glass-tubes ... 4.440,000 oak • 4,780.000 Ice - 6,000,000 iahogany 7 500,000 White marble ... 2,150,000 >ry Galt • 5,100,000 Metals. alt - 4.350,000 Steel .... 9,300,090 incolns. Bog Oak - 1,710,000 Bar iron ... 9,000.000 ancc*wn cannot bear more than one-sixth of its load, without being permanently altered, hese data apply only where the material is permanently at rest ; if motion or accidental crease of burden happens, the above rules and numbers are considerably modified. As isticity in material varies as much as its strength, and does not follow the same rules as hesion, it is advisable to make experiments in each particular case where important ructures are to depend upon the smallest quantity of material. (Overman). 1630o. Impact or Collision. A second force, after direct pressure, is that of impact, says lirbairn, involving a proposition on which mathematicians are not agreed. For practical irposes, we may suppose a heavy case equal to 2,240 lbs. or one ton, falling from a height 6 feet upon the floor. According to the laws of gravity, a body falling from a state of rest tains an increase of velocity in a second of time equal to 3 'J fret and during that period Is through a space of 16 T ' 0 feet. This accelerated velocity is as the square roots of the dis- nci s ; and a falling hodv having acquired a velocity of 8'05 feet in tire tirst foot of its scent, and 6 feet being the height from which a weight of one ton is supposed to fall, we ve s/6 x 8'05 = 2'449 x 8 05 = 19'714 for the velocity in a descent of 6 feet. Then f7 X 4 x £240 = 44.159 lbs. or nearly 20 tons, as the momentum with which the body impinges : the floor. In the present state of our knowledge, this momentum may probably be taken the measure of the force of impact. — “ On the effects of impact, the deflections produced ' the striking body on wrought iron are nearly as the velocity of impact, and those on cast rn greater in proportion to the velocity. The experiments and investigations made for the jmmissionerson Railway Structuresare extremely valuable. Their results showed that '‘the rwer of resisting impact increases with the permanent load upon the beam; the greater c weight at rest upon the beam, the greater must be the momentum of a striking body order to break it. This is satisfactory, as it diminishes the risk from falling weights in arehonses ; the more nearly the weight upon the doors approaches the point at which inger begins, the greater is their power of resisting sudden impacts. Comparing the ean results of the experiments on bars not loaded, “ we find that the transverse is to the u active strength as 2685 3744, or as 1 .' 1 39. Similarly, when the bar is loaded with i lbs. in the centre, the transverse is to the impactive strength as 2685 4546, or as 1 1 '69 ; and when 391 lbs. is spread uniformly over the bar, the transverse is to the im- ictive strength as 2685 : 5699, or as 11 2'12.” — (Fairbairn, p. 228). 1630/r. Tensile strength is that power of resistance which bodies oppose to a s' paration of 'vtr parts when force is applied to tear asunder, in the direction of their lengths, the ires or particles of which they are composed. Tredgold's assertions of the principles have en combated by Gregory, to whose work we must refer the student for the reasons iie vcs. If apiece of No. 10 iron wire bears a tension of 2.000 lbs. before it breaks ten ires will bear ten times 2,(K40 lbs. If the sections of 50 wires of this number, form the mtents ot one square inch, then it will beat a stress of 50 x 2000 lbs. before it is torn •under, provided the wires are so arranged that each will carry its full weight. But it >es not follow that a bur of wrought iron of one square inch will carry an equal weight, it even if the iron be of the same quality. If a solid iron rod of one square inch will ■ rry 50,000 lb*., it does not follow that a rod of 10 square inches in section will cairy ten men as much. When welded together, the capacity for resistance appears to be weakened, his observation applies to almost every kind of material, and varies only in degree. The hies of cohesion are generally computed to the tearing of the material, bill our calcula ms should never go beyond the excess of elasticity, for fear of injuring the material. Berman ) lb hy If the strain upon a rod or strut be greatest on any one side, that side must 'tain the whole force or break. This consideration is of great practical moment in ’ 1 mating the value of all kinds of ties, as king and queen posts, fk c. — (Trcdgold). Ibhti r. I he formula for the strength of tie-rods, suspension bars. &c. is (' tons x area ■ cl ion in inches W ions a quarter to be taken for safe weight — or (lbs. x area ol rtion in i’nlies W Ins (' being obtained Irom one of the columns in Tables I and II. 438 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II If the weight to lie sustained be given, and the sectional dimensions of the bar be required, divide the weight given by one third or one-quarter of the cohesive strength, mil the square root of the quotient will he the side of the square. If the section be rectangular, the quotient must be divided by the breadth. Table I., of the Absolute Cohesive Poweii (or Breaking Weight) of Metals: Sectional area, 1 inch square, 1 foot in length. METALS. Cohesive Cohesive MF.TALS. Cohesive Cohosh e Rennie, 1817, and others. Power. Power. Rennie, 1817, and others. Power. Power. lbs. Toms. lbs. Bar Iron, Swedish - . 65, no 29-20 Bars, Cast, Blistered, Rolled, > 104,598 ,, ,, ,, rolled - 72 (!f»4 and Forged - ] R f 41,251 ,, . Shear, boiled, 1 118.468 »» »* t 48,933 2070 and Forged - Bessemer’s, Uol- 1 ,, Russian - - 59.470 1 111,460 R 49,504 led and Forged i ’» *» ” t 59.090 ,, ,, Bessemer’s, Cast 1 6.3,024 ,, ,, English 65 872 2 Iff 3 Ingots- j „ ,, Mean strength,- R - 27 00 ,, ,, Bessemer’s. Ham- 1 152,912 „ ,, Charcoal, 11 - 03 020 mered or Rolled „ „ Lancashire, R [ 53,775 00.1 10 ,, „ Spring, Ham mered or Rolled 1 72,529 „ - 04,200 Homogeneous Metal: — „ ,, Low Moor, R 52.490 Bars, Rolled - _ 9 n ,647 ,, ,, crosswise ( 60,075 ... 93 nf)0 I 00.390 ,, Forged - _ 89,724 „ „ Welsh - 1 0 255 Puddled Steel : — ,, „ Staffordshire, - R f 50,715 6 -',231 Bars, Rolled and Forged - - f 6 ',768 t 7 1 ,4-1(4 ,, „ Lanarkshire, - R 1 5 1 .<27 G4.795 ’» »» »* 90,' 00 94,752 Biidge Iron, Yorkshire, - R crosswise 49.930 43 910 Plates Cast Steel - ^ 75,594 1 90,280 Staffordshire. t - 47,000 f 09,082 crosswise 44.385 ' l 97,160 Rivet Iron, Low Moor f R 59,740 „ „ had - K2,9'0 and Staffordshire, $ „ ,, soft - - 85,40 1 Bushe 1 d Iron from Tumi ngs 55,87^ Homogeneous Metal, First Scrap, Hammered - - 53 420 Quality ... _ 90.280 Angle Iron, various Districts - f 50,056 01.200 ,, ,, crosswise - ,, Second Quality - - 97,150 72,40X Strap „ „ f 4 1 ,3>6 ,, „ crosswise . 73,5*0 55,937 Puddled Steel . Plates: — (Riuik'ne - } 102^593 ,, Yorkshire - - 1 52.000 58.487 „ ,, crosswise - - K 67,0*0 [ 8 ,305 „ Bessemer, rolled. M 70.000 ( - 93,' 00 - - 72,013 Iron, Cast ... . 17,028 7.87 ,, ., boiler- It 68.319 _ . 19,488 „ Staffordshire- - f 40,404 50,990 ,, ,, horizontal C, 1 9,090 1 8 050 ,, „ crosswise ( i 44,704 G : ,, Mar Forest . i. 7,323 tion, ) foot=*578 lbs. - ) 6,400 „ Scotch . I, 7,110 1 in.circumf.= 046 lbs. T „ Men. el - L 9,540 Ditto, Cables - It 5, GOO 1630L Tlie tt' sile strength of cast iron was long very mu h overrated when Tredgold ,'iniated it at 20 tons. Captain Brown, however, put it at 726 tons; G. Rennie ( I’hii. 'mil. 1818) obttiined 8-52 and 8'66 tons; Barlow conjectured at least 10 tons from eorctical principles ; Hodgkinson made the following experiments more recently ; Name and Quality of Iron. Hot Blast Iron. Cold Blast Iron. Carron, No. 2 - - No. 3 J Devon (Slot. ). No. 3 j BulTery, No. I Coed Talon ( N. Wales) No. 2 Weight, IBs. Mean. Tons cu t. 13,892 ] 12,993 L ... r „-_, nl 13,629 [ ® 16,840 } 18,671 J 17, 755 = 7 1«A 21,9»7 9 15j 1 3,434 6 0" 16,279 1 17,074 j 16,676 = 7 9 Mean 7 4? Weight, lbs. Mean. Tonscwt. 16,772 1 16,594 J 16,683 = 7 9 13,984) 1 4,4 1 7 J 14,200 = 6 7 17.466 7 16 19,610 ) 18,100 J 18,355 = 8 4 Mean 7 14 ! Low Moor, (Yorkshire,) No. 3, bore 6^ tons. A mixture of irons, a mean of four experiments, gave 7 tons 7\ ewt. — 1 I630>i The mean of several experiments on the ultimate cohesive strength of a wruuyht |>» bur, ] inch square section, was: — No 11 experiments by Captain Brown, gave - - 56,000 lbs. =25 ’00 tons. No. 9 ,, by Telford, „ - - - 65,520 „ =29 25 „ No. 10 „ by Brunei, „ - - - 6«,992 „ =30-80 „ No. 4 „ by Barlow, „ - - - 56,560 „ =25-25 „ Mean 6P768 lbs. = 27 - 5”5 tons. No 3 experiments by Brunei, on hammered iron, gave 30 4, 32-3, and 30 - 8 tons respectively. S, vc nl experiments by Cnbitt, gave ... 58,952 lbs. =26 tons 6-3 ewt. Breaking Weight. Twin, ■a 25? 2 Angle irons „ „ „ 63,715 37,•., 1840, cxxx. page 419. Warr says, “It is 1 ly probable that none of Hodgkinson’s values would agree with the most careful trial i any similar woods.” See 1.50 'id, tt seq. .630 y. The power of resistance to compression of cast-iron was heretofore very much i rrated. It has now been well ascertained by experiment that a force of 93,00;) lbs. i in an inch square will crush it; and that it will bear 13,300 lbs. upon an inch square v bout permanent alteration. Table of the Comfression of a Cast Iron Bar (as a pillar), 10 feet long and 1 inch square. Compression per Ton. Total Compression. Total Per- manent Set. Compression per Ton. Total Compression. Total Per- manent Set. Inch. I ch. Inch. Tons. Inch. Inch. Inch. •020330 •020338 •000510 9 •022374 •201373 •024254 •021038 ■042077 •002452 11 •022567 •248237 •032023 •021618 •064855 •004340 13 •025014 •299187 •043318 •021594 •107872 •009188 15 •023539 353092 •0609 15 •021950 •153654 •015243 17 •024805 •421695 •086298 ’ lOz. I It dgkinson’s experiments in 1851 on the ultimate strength of cast iton, the pieces b g placed in an iron box or frame, gave a mean in 81 trials of 107,750 lbs. per square u , or 48 tons 2 cwt. ; and the crushing force to the tensile, as 6'507 to 1. llennic's f. ul.itions gave only 40 tons per square inch for the lowest estimate. Table of the Crushing of Cubes of Iron. Materials. Crushing Weight. Crushing weight. Materials. Square inch. Square inch. ube of J inch side lbs. lbs. Ib«. it>?. t cast iron . . 1 ,439 92,138 Cubes of J inch sidp 9,773 156,368 ditto, 2 heights 2,1 16 1.35,424 Horizontal casting 10 1 14 161.824 ditto, 3 or more 1,758 112,524 Vertical casting . 1 1,1 10 177,760 ( Overman) Directly cast, not cut from a 1 219,490 hen of j inch side : — larger piece . . • • / a«t copper. , . . 7,318 Same iron, but twice tnel ed, 4 ast tin .... ast lend .... 966 483 once in the cupola, and ( once in the reverberatory ( 262,675 ( Rennie) furnace, and cast in cube J ( Rennie) 442 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 1631. Hodgkinson, “considering the pillar as having two functions, one to support and the other to resist flexure, it follows that when the material is incompressible (supposing such to exist), or when the pressure necessary to break the pillar is very small on account of the greatness of its length compared wi.li its lateral dimensions, then the strength of the whole .ransverse section of the pillar will be employed in resisting flexure ; when the breaking pres- sure is one halt of what would be required to crush the material, one-half only of the strength may be considered as available for resistance to flexure, whilst the other half is employed to resist crushing; and when, through the shortness of the pillar, the breaking pressure is so great as to be nearly equal to the crushing force, we may consider that no part of the strength of the pillar is applied to resist flexure.” Thus he assumed that, the real breaking weight would be equal to the breaking weight as obtained for the long columns, multiplied by the force requisite to crush it without flexure; and divided bv the same two quantities added together, minus the pressure which it would support as flexible, without being W c_ weakened by crushing. The formula thus found for calculating the strength was vi'-pe. 4 Here W breaking weight of long pillars, and c crushing force of the iron. (Warr ami Gregory.) 1631«. Euler, treating on the strength of pillars purely on theoretical grounds, showed that the strength varied as the fourth power of the diameter, and inversely as the square of the length of the pillar. The strength of similar pillars increases as the square of ilr ir diameter; and as the area is as the square of the diameter, the strength increases as the area of the pillar (Warr.) 16316. The strength of a pillar or a column, or the power of resistance to compressive force, is obtained by the law that the resistance to crushing is as the cube of the thickness multiplied by the width, and this divided by the square of the length. Therefore in columns of equal length and thickness, the resistance is as their width ; and in equal lengths and widths, it is as the cube of the thickness. If the width and thickness he equal, or if the pillar be square, the resistance is inversely as the square of its length. I«. The formula for a rectangular pillar of oak. is Hint 3 4d-+bl- = w lbs. R = = 3,960. 16. ,, „ cast iron. is R bd 3 4'5I For an angle iron of unequal ribs, greater = 6, lesser = h, then ^(b'^+h 2 )' For b- For H iron, breadth of flanges — b, their joint area=B, area of - . , * A web = A, then - j., 4 + R . (Rankine, who follows out the subject further.) 1631 /u Stanr.heims of cast iron arc recommended to he used in lieu of cast iron columns. The form shown in fig. 613.r. is generally considered as the best for use; the flanges which divide the length into three equal parts, are found to add considerably to the strength of the casting in resisting the tende- cy of its load to produce deflection from the vertical position. Ilodgkin- son’s experiments show that while cait iron is the better material for a pillar whose length does not exceed ‘J6 times the diameter, wrought iron is the better material when the length exceeds that limit. For pillars with hinged ends, about 13 times is the limit, hut these results are roughly appioxiinate only. In order to stiffen wrought iron struts, they are made of various forms in cross section, such as angle iron, X iron, double X iron, channel iron, &c. The cross is a very convenient lorm as in cast iron ; it is generally built by riveting bars of simple forms together. Thus it may be made up of X irons riveted back to back, or four angle irons riveted back to back ; or by one flat bar, two narrower flat bars, E4 Jig 61 oar and four angle irons, all riveted together, as Jig. Gltiy., and as used for the strut diagonals of the War- ren girders in the Crumlin viaduct. The stillest form for a wrought iron strut is that of a cell or built tube, J L r ii 1 r , u Fig. 613y. Fig. 614a. Fig. 614t>. fig. 6I4a„ which may he cylindrical, rectangular, or triangular, as fig. 6116. When a wrought iron strut is considered as hinged at the end, that is generally effected by it' abutting at each end against a cylindrical pin, by which it is connected with some otliei piece of the frame-work, in the manner already described for tie-bars. To fix its ends in direction, as it seldom has large abutting faces, it is in general necessary to fasten it to the adjoining pieces of the structure by several bolts or rivets. 1631/. Cast iron, from its great resistance to crushing, is peculiarly well suited for struts, especially those of moderate length. The best form containing a given quantity of metal is that of a hollow cylinder ( fig. 614c ) ; the thickness of metal is seld >m less than ^ of the diameter. I. The formula for the cylinder has already been given; 11. for a cast iron strut 80,000 of a cross shape ( fig. 614c/.) the whole width being d, then j'q. 31 — W lbs. per square inch 80,000 of sectional area. III. For a hollow square (fig. 61 4e. ) d = diagonal, 1+ - = W, as before, 800 < 1 - 80/00 IV. For a hollow cylinder ( fur 614/!), traverses, a notch should he cut in the timber perpendicular to the bolt, to receive the I pressure of the washer equally, or notched to receive a bevelled washer of cast iron, on side of which fits the wood, and the other fits the axis of the bolt. Toksion. 1631.r. Torsion, or the resistance of bodies to being twisted, is found : I. When a body is fastened at one end and a force is applied at the other. II When the force at one ere isgreater than at the other end. III. When the forces at the ends are in opposite directio, is andaie so applied as to twist the body. As this fact chiefly, if not entiiely, concerns machinery in motion, we refer the student for more specific details to Warr, Dynamics, p. 269, who give a table of “ modulus of torsion ’’ of various timbers and metals, derived from experiment made by Bevan, in Phil. Tians. 1829. p. 128. Approximate formulae are given by Hurst:— I. When the shaft is circular, y/^=d. And C ^ 3 = W. II. When the shaft is square 4 vv 1 = 8. Here d diameter inches ; W weight pounds permanently sustained by the shaft ■iC ^ l length of lever in feet, at the end of which W acts ; s side in inches ; and C, cast steel 590 wrought iron 335 ; cast iron 330 ; gun metal 170 , brass 150 ; copper 135 ; lead 34. 1631y. In the Artizan for 1857 and 1858 is an instructive Enquiry into the Strength «, Drams and Girders, by S. Hughes, deserving attention. The chief authorities for the data contained in that article, and also in this section, are quoted herein. Chap. I. BEAMS AND PILLARS. 447 1632. Working Strength of Materials. S'fe loads in lbs. per square inch. Tension. Pressure. Shearing. Wrought-iron bars - 10,400 10,400 7,800 ,, plates - 10,000 10,000 7,500 Drawn iron wire - 13.200 — — 1 Cast iron ------ 3,600 10,000 2.700 Soft steel, unhardened - 17,700 17.700 13,200 ,, hardened and tempered 35,400 35,400 26,600 Steel wire ------ 27,300 — — 1 Timber, Ash a - 1,700 940 — b - — 510 — ,, Oak a - 1,660 940 100 b - — 510 — „ Beech a - 1,700 940 85 b - - - — 510 — „ Pine a - 1,000 620 55 b — 310 — , Good brickwork ----- — 140 — Ordinary — 85 — | Stone ------ — 200 — a, Stress parallel to the fibres ; b, ditto perpendicular to the fibres. The above values of the safe load may be taken for structures subject to travelling loads. When subject to dead loads, these values may, in the case of iron and steel, be multiplied by G. S. Clarke, Graphic Strains, 4to, 1880, p. 138. 1632a. Table of Strength of various Timbers. The primitive horizontal or transverse strength of oak is taken at 1000; its supporting or primitive vertical strength at 807 ; and its cohesive cr absolute strength at 1821 ; being deduced from pieces 19'188 lines English square. The relative strengths of other woods are given : — Species o£ Wood. Primitive hor zontal Strength. Primitive vertical Strength. Absolute cohesive Strength. Species of Wood. Primitive horizontal Strength. Primitive vertical Strength. Absolute cohesive Strength. Acacia (yellow) 780 1228 1560 Fir 918 851 1250 Ash 1072 1112 1800 Oak 1000 807 1821 Beech - 1032 986 2480 Pine-tree - 882 804 1141 Birch - 853 861 1980 Poplar 586 680 940 Cedar - 627 720 1740 Service-tree 965 981 1642 Cherry-tree - 961 986 1912 Sycamore- 900 968 1564 Chestnut 957 950 1944 Yew-tree - 1037 1375 2287 Elm 1077 1075 1980 Walnut - 900 753 1120 STEEL. 1633. Steel is now largely superseding wrought iron in all uses to which the latter material was usually applied. Nearly every section of |_, T> and C as welt as rolled ’ists I. are now made in steel to specification. Railway metals or rails have been made 1 steel for some years. Plates, sheets, and bars for every purpose of bridge girder, oof, and boiler making, are now commonly in use, as also for cylindrical and octan ular damns which have to carry great weights; also for ship armour and gun mounts. 'i eel is most useful when bulk and weight is a consideration ; the constructional cost, I' 1 “ rule, ctin be brought down almost to that of iron ; the price per ton is more, but loss r' , 'ght is required. The kind mostly used is called mild steel , containing about 018 per "ft. "f carbon, bearing a tensilo stress 30 to 3.3 tons per square inch with the fibre, and P to 30 Hcro thickness of the strip. All the tests are made upon sample strips of from 0',' 5 to U square inches in sectional area, cut from the plate, bar, or angle iron, the strips bein; generally of the same thickness throughout, parallel for a length of 8 or 10 iuches in th centre, and being wide at the ends where held in the machine. 1635. Table of Safe Distributed Loads on Rolled Iron Joists I, and on Steki Joists I, at about a Quarter Breaking, Weight. Depth. Width. Weight per Foot. Bearing in Feet. 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 ins ins. lbs. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons 3 if 5 08 0-6 0 5 04 3 3 10 19 1-4 HI 10 0 8 4 3 12 31 2 5 1-9 1-5 1-3 1-2 IT 5 H 23 76 60 4 4 4-0 3'5 30 25 6 5 29 1H5 8-8 6-8 5-9 4-9 43 38 10 5 36 24-0 18-0 14-8 12-0 10 6 9-0 8-2 7'3 6-7 6-2 5'7 5-3 16 6 62 61 8 45 0 350 300 26-0 23T 206 18-3 16 8 15 4 14-2 13-2 12-Sj Steel Joists. (Moreland.) (A. D. Dawnay.) 3 3 10 2-7 1-9 15 4 3 12 4-5 33 2-7 2'2 1 9 L7 5 23 lit) 8 2 6 3 5'5 46 4T 3 6 6 5 28 16-3 1 2 3 9-8 81 7T 6T 5 5 4-9 4*5 10 5 37 26« 2H4 18-0 15 3 13 4 11-8 10-7 9 7 9-0 8-2 7-6 16 6 63 — ■ — — 446 38-2 34m 29-8 26' 5 213 22-3 20 6 19T 171 This table affords an approximate view of the relative strength of joists of the tv materials. — 1 887. C«Ar. II. STONE. 449 CHAP. IT. MATERIALS USED IN BUILDING. Skct. I. STONE. 1636. It is almost superfluous to say that the choice of stone for a building intended to >e durable is of the very highest importance. “ In modern Europe,” it has been observed, ‘ and particularly in Great Britain, there is scarcely a public building, of recent date, which vill be in existence a thousand years hence. Many of the most splendid works of modern architecture are hastening to decay in what may be justly called the infancy of their exist- ence, if compared with the dates of public buildings that remain in Italy, in Greece, in Egypt, and the East.” 1 637. The various sorts of stone take their names either from the places where they are quarried or from the substances which principally enter into their composition. The term “ Freestone,” which is used in a very arbitrary way, is, as its name implies, that sort which can be wrought with the mallet and chisel, or cut with the saw, an operation which cannot >e performed upon granite, whose hardness requires it to be dressed with pointed tools of iifferent weights and sizes. It includes the two great general divisions of Limestone and Sandstone. The limestone of Portland is that which has for many years past been chiefly lsed in the metropolis. Latterly, other sorts have found their way in from the provinces ; md though, from many circumstances, we do not think it likely that Portland stone, from ts facility of transport and other causes, will be altogether superseded, there is no doubt hat its use is on the wane from the introduction of provincial sorts. 1638. We shall proceed, after some preliminary observations, to give, from the Report ddressed in 1839 to the Commissioners of Woods and Forests on the occasion of select- ng the stone for building the new Houses of Parliament, a view of the principal sorts of tone found and used in the island. A new edition was printed in 184 5. 1639. The qualities requisite for a building stone are hardness, tenacity, and com- ■actness. It is not the hardest stone which has always the greatest tenacity or toughness, • r limestone, though much softer, is not so easily broken as glass. 1640. The decay and destruction of stone are accelerated by nearly the same causes as hose which destroy rocks themselves on the surface of the globe. Such causes are of two inds : those of decomposition and those of disintegration. The former affects a chemical nange in the stone itself, the latter a mechanical division and separation of the parts, 'he effects of the chemical and mechanical causes of the decomposition of stone in uildings are much modified, according to their situation, as in the town or country. i n populous and smoky towns the state of the atmosphere accelerates decomposition more ■an in those placed in the open country, (par. 1667.) 1641. « As regards the sandstones that are usually employed for building purposes, and ; tiich are generally composed of either quartz or siliceous grains, cemented by siliceous, gillaceous, calcareous or other matter, their decomposition is effected according to the iture of the cementing substance, the grains being comparatively indestructible. With spect to limestones composed of carbonate of lime, or the carbonates of lime and mag- da, either nearly pure or mixed with variable proportions of foreign matter, their composition depends, under similar circumstances, upon the mode in which their com- ment parts are aggregated, those which are most crystalline being found to be the most liable, while those which partake least of that character suffer most from exposure to mnspheric influences. 1649. “The varieties of limestones termed Oolites (or Roestones) being composed of I iforrn bodies cemented by calcareous matter of a varied character, will of necessity (Ter unequal decomposition, unless such oviform bodies and the cement be equally ’hcrent and of the same chemical composition. The limestones which are usually termed ’•lit/,' fiom being chiefly formed of either broken or perfect fossil shells cemented by areous matter, suffer decomposition in an unequal manner, in consequence of the shells, ■neb, being for the most part crystalline, offer the greatest amount of resistance to the composing effects of the atmosphere. 1 6 13. “ .Sandstones, from the mode of their formations, are very frequently laminated, (1 G 450 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boor. II. more especially when micaceous, the plates of mica being generally deposited in planes parallel to their beds. Hence, if such stone be placed in buildings with the planes of lamination in a vertical position, it will decompose in flakes, according to the thickness of the laminae ; whereas, if it be placed so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, that is. most commonly upon its natural bed, the amount of decomposition will be comparatively immaterial. 1644. “ Limestones, such at least as are usually employed for building purposes, are not liable to the kind of lamination observable in sandstones ; nevertheless, varieties exist, especially those commonly termed shelly, which have a coarse laminated structure, generally parallel to the planes of their beds, and therefore the same precaution in placing such stone in buildings so that the planes of lamination be horizontal, is as necessary as with the sandstones above noticed. 1645. “ The chemical action of the atmosphere produces a change in the entire matter of the limestones, and in the cementing substance of the sandstones acccording to the amount of surface exposed to it. The mechanical action due to atmospheric causes occa- sions either a removal or a disruption of the exposed particles, the former by means of powerful winds and driving rains, and the latter by the congelation of water forced into or absorbed by the external portions of the stone. These effects are reciprocal, chemical action rendering the stone liable to be more easily affected by mechanical action, which latter, by constantly presenting new surfaces, accelerates the disintegrating effects of the former. 1 646. “ Buildings in this climate are generally found to suffer the greatest amount of decomposition on their southern, south-western, and western fronts, arising doubtless from the prevalence of winds and rains from those quarters ; hence it is desirable that stones of great durability should at least be employed in fronts with such aspects. 1647. “ Buildings situated in the country appear to possess a great advantage over those in populous and smoky towns, owing to lichens, with which they almost invariably become covered in such situations, and which, when firmly established over their entire surface, seem to exercise a protective influence against the ordinary causes of the decomposition of the stone upon which they grow. 1648. “ As an instance of the difference in degree of durability in the same material subjected to the effects of the atmosphere in town and country, we may notice the several frusta of columns and other blocks of stone that were quarried at the time of the erection of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, and which are now lying in the island of Portland, near the quarries from whence they were obtained. These blocks are invariably found to be covered with lichens, and although they have been exposed to all the vicissitudes of a marine atmosphere for more than 150 years, they still exhibit, beneath the lichens, their original forms, even to the marks of the chisel employed upon them, whilst the stone which was taken from the same quarries (selected, no doubt, with equal, if not greater, care than the blocks alluded to) and placed in the cathedral itself, is, in those parts which are exposed to the south and south-west winds, found in some instances to be fast mouldering away. Colour is of more importance in the selection of a stone for a building to be situated in a populous and smoky town, than for one to be placed in an open country, where all edifices usually become covered, as before stated, with lichens; for although in such towns those, fronts which are not exposed to the prevailing winds and rains will soon become blackened', the remainder of the building will constantly exhibit a tint depending upon the natural colour of the material employed. 1649. “ Before we proceed to adduce a few examples of the present condition of the various buildings we have examined, we would wish to observe that those which are highly decorated, such as the churches of the Norman and pointed styles of architecture, afford a more severe test of the durability of any given stone, all other circumstances being equal, than the more simple and less decorated buildings, such as the castles of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, inasmuch as the material employed in the former class of buildings is worked into more disadvantageous forms than in the latter, as regards exposure to the effects of the weather ; and we would further observe, that buildings in a state of rum, from being deprived of their ordinary protection of rooting, glazing of windows, &c., con- stitute an equally severe test of the durability of the stone employed in them. 1650. “As examples of the degree of durability of various building stones in particular localities, the following may be enumerated. Of the sandstone buildings which we ex- amined, we may notice the remains of Ecclestone Abbey, of the thirteenth century, near Barnard Castle, constructed of a stone closely resembling that of the Stenton quarry in tin vicinity, as exhibiting the mouldings and other decorations, even to the dog’s-tooth orna- ment, in excellent condition. The circular keep of Barnard, apparently also built ot the same material, is in fine preservation. Tintern Abbey may also be noticed as a sandstone * We must take leave to question tins statement ; as, for instance, in St. Paul’s Cathedral we find tie northern front peculiarly black, whilst the south front and south-western angle are comparatively white t ills we have always considered to have arisen from the more constant action of the sun’s rays upon them. I 1 I i I <1 ft (f I w Hit ' tlii Cil Apt II. STONE. 45 1 edifice that has to a considerable extent resisted decomposition ; for although it is decayed in some parts, it is nearly perfect in others. Some portions of Whitby Abbey are likewise in a perfect state, whilst others are fast yielding to the effects of the atmosphere. The older portions of Ripon Cathedral, constructed of sandstone, are in a fair state of preserv- ation. Rivaulx Abbey is another good example of an ancient sandstone building in a fair condition. The Norman keep of Richmond Castle in Yorkshire affords an instance of a moderately hard sandstone which has well resisted decomposition. 1651. “ As examples of sandstone buildings of more recent date in a good state of preserv- ation, we may mention Hardwicke Hall, Haddon Hall, and all the buildings of Craig- leith Stone in Edinburgh and its vicinity. Of sandstone edifices in an advanced state of decomposition we may enumerate Durham Cathedral, the churches at Newcastle upon Tyne, Carlisle Cathedral, Kirkstall Abbey, and Fountains Abbey. The sandstone churches of Derby are also extremely decomposed ; and the church of St. Peter at Shaftesbury is in such a state of decay that some portions of the building are only prevented from falling by means of iron ties. 1 652. “ As an example of an edifice constructed of a calciferous variety of sandstone, we I may notice Tisbury Church, which is in unequal condition, the mouldings and other enrich- ments being in a perfect state, whilst the ashler, apparently selected with less care, is fast mouldering away. 1653. “ The choir of Southwell Church, of the twelfth century, may be mentioned as affording an instance of the durability of a magnesio-caleiferous sandstone, resembling that rf Mansfield, after long exposure to the influences of the atmosphere. 1654. “ Of buildings constructed of magnesian limestone we may mention the Norman rortions of Southweil Church, built of stone similar to that of Bolsover Moor, and which are hroughout in a perfect state, the mouldings and carved enrichments being as sharp as ■hen first executed. The keep of Koningsburgh Castle, built of a magnesian limestone -oin the vicinity, is also in a perfect state, although the joints of the masonry are open in onsequence of the decomposition and disappearance of the mortar formerly within them, 'he church at Hemmingborough, of the fifteenth century, constructed of a material re- Lmbling the stone from Huddlestone, does not exhibit any appearance of decay. T ickhill hurch, of the fifteenth century, built of a similar material, is in a fair state of preservation, huddlestone Hall, of the sixteenth century, constructed of the stone of the immediate cinity, is also in good condition. Roche Abbey, of the thirteenth century, in which one from the immediate neighbourhood has been employed, exhibits generally a fair state preservation, although some portions have yielded to the effects of the atmosphere. 1655. “ As examples of magnesian limestone buildings in a more advanced state of ray, we may notice the churches at York, and a large portion of the Minster, Howden lurch, Doncaster Old Church, and others in that part of the country, many of which are I much decomposed that the mouldings, carvings, and other architectural decorations are en entirely effaced. 1 656. “ We may here remark, that, as far as our observations extend, in proportion as the ■nc employed in magnesian limestone buildings is crystalline, so does it appear to have isted the decomposing effects of the atmosphere ; a conclusion in accordance with the inion of Professor Daniell, who has stated to us that from the results of experiments, is of opinion 1 the nearer the magnesian limestones approach to equivalent proportions carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, the more crystalline and better they are in ■ ry respect.’ 657. “ Of buildings constructed of oolitic and other limestones, we may notice the church ■ Hyland Abbey, of the twelfth century, especially the west front, built of stone from the i Mediate vicinity, as being in an almost perfect state of preservation. Sandysfoot Castle, i i Weymouth, constructed of Portland oolite in the time of Henry VIII., is an example ‘ hat mateiial in excellent condition; a few decomposed stones used in the interior (and ' i h urc exceptions to this fact) being from another oolite in the immediate vicinity of t castle. Row and Arrow Castle, and the neighbouring ruins of a church of the four- t lull century, in the Island of Portland, also afford instances of the Portland oolite in I ret condition. The new church in the island, built in 1766, of the variety of the Port- 1 I! stone termed roach , is in an excellent state throughout, even to the preservation of the n ks of the chisel. x tl b l b 41 ■H. ■' Many buildings constructed of a material similar to the oolite of Ancaster, as Newark and Grantham Churches, and other edifices in various parts of I.incoln- . have scarcely yielded to the effects of atmospheric influences. Windrush Church, i mI an oolite from the neighbouring quarry, is in excellent condition, whilst the Abbey ■eh ot Hath, constructed of the oolite in the vicinity of that city, has suffered tnueii ■ decomposition ; ns is also the case with the cathedral, and the churches of St. Nicholas u. Michael in Gloucester, erected of a stone from the oolitic rocks of the neighbour- ■ !>. •• 1 lie churches of Stamford, Kctton, Colley Weston, Kettering, and other places i, u 2 h< 452 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. in tliat part of the country, attest the durability of the Shelley oolite, termed Barnacle Bag, with the exception of those portions of some of them for which the stone has been ill- selected. The excellent condition of those parts which remain of Glastonbury Abbey show the value of a shelly limestone similar to that of Doulting, whilst the stone employed in Wells Cathedral, apparently of the same kind and not selected with equal care, is in parts decomposed. The mansion, the church, and the remains of the abbey at Montacute, a 3 also many other buildings in that vicinity, constructed of the limestone of Ham Hill, are in excellent condition. In Salisbury Cathedral, built of stone from Chilmark, we have evidence of the general durability of a siliciferous limestone ; for, although the west front has somewhat yielded to the effects of the atmosphere, the excellent condition of the build- ing generally is most striking. 16G0. “ In the public buildings of Oxford, we have a marked instance both of decom- position and durability in the materials employed; for whilst a shelly oolite, similar to that of Taynton, which is employed in the more ancient parts of the cathedral, in Merton College Chapel, &c., and commonly for the plinths, string-courses, and exposed portions 01 the other edifices in that city, is generally in a good state of preservation, a calcareous stone from Heddington, employed in nearly the whole of the colleges, churches, and other public i buildings, is in such a deplorable state of decay, as in some instances to have caused i all traces of architectural decoration to disappear, and the ashler itself to be in many places ' deeply disintegrated. 1661. “In Spofforth Castle we have a striking example of the unequal decomposition of two materials, a magnesian limestone and a sandstone ; the former employed in the i decorated parts, and the latter for the ashler or plain facing of the walls. Although the -J magnesian limestone has been equally exposed with the sandstone to the decomposing -i effects of the atmosphere, it has remained as perfect in form as when first employed, while jt the sandstone has suffered considerably from the effects of decomposition. 1 G6 2. “ In Chepstow Castle, a magnesian limestone in fine preservation, and a red sand- stone in an advanced state of decomposition, may be observed, both having been exposed to j the same conditions as parts of the same archways; and in Bristol Cathedral there is a 1 curious instance of the effects arising from the intermixture of very different materials, j a yellow limestone and a red sandstone, which have been indiscriminately employod both ( for the plain and decorated parts of the building; not only is the appearance in this case unsightly, but the architectural effect of the edifice is also much impaired by the unequal decomposition of the two materials, the limestone having suffered much less from decay ] than the sandstone. 16C3. “ Judging, therefore from the evidence afforded by buildings of various dates i there would appear to be many varieties of sandstone and limestone employed for building, 1 purposes which successfully resist the destructive effects of atmospheric influences J amongst these the sandstones of Stenton, Whitby, Tintern, Rivaulx, and Cragleith, tin magnesio-calciferous sandstones of Mansfield, the calciferous sandstone of Tisbury, tin j crystalline magnesian limestones, or Dolomites of Bolsover, Huddlestone and Roche Abbey 1 the oolites of Byland, Portland, and Ancaster, the Shelly oolites and limestones of Barnacl and Ham Hill, and the siliciferous limestone of Chilmark appear to be amongst the mcs f I durable. To these, which may all be considered as desirable building materials, we are inclines J to add the sandstones of Darley Dale, Humbie, Longannet, and Crowbank, the magnesia; J limestones of Robin Hood’s Well, and the oolite of Ketton, although some of them m.v | not have the evidence of ancient buildings in their favour.” The Report upon which w I have drawn so largely, and from which we shall extract still larger drafts, then proceeds t j close by a preference to limestones on account “ of their more general uniformity of tin’ their comparatively homogeneous structure, and the facility and economy of their con ; version to building purposes,” of which it prefers the crystalline ; on which account, and it J combination with a close approach to the equivalent proportions of carbonate of lime am carbonate of magnesia, for uniformity in structure, facility and economy in conversion, a» for advantage of colour, the parties to the Report prefer the magnesian limestone o 1 dolomite of Bolsover Moor and its neighbourhood. The Report deserves every comment I ation ; upon he whole it has been well done, and is the first scientific step the government | this country has ever taken in respect of practical architecture. It, moreover, only cost tl I moderate sum of £l,40(), including the many collections of specimens deposited in vatic institutions for reference. 1664. The following table presents a synoptical, and, to the architect, important view the relative value, in every respect, of the principal species of stone which the various pr vinces of England affoid for building purposes. it is taken from the Report s > mm quoted, the list of stones being cons durably abridged. We should direct attention the fact that facilities of conveyance have greatly modified the cost of each stone in Lor.doJ It will he well also to notice the valuable “ Quarry Returns” of building and other stom the produce of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Inland, published in d Memoiis "f the Geological Survey of Great Britain, &c., and edited by Rob.rt Hunt, bee Part II. for 1858, but published in I860. Chap. [I STONE 453 SANDSTONES. a $ tf.ES C cl Jf Jf Ill 1 QuarTy, and Proprietor of Component Tarts Colour. ~ o ^ Where used. where situated. Quarry. of Stone. a- a v ''5 s a. ■5 C A G. n “ c c s- a. lb. oz s. d Aberoarne Sir B. Hall Quartz and si- Dark U',7 If l to if 4 if/., or 1 5 Old churche and New- Bart. liceous grains bluish tons, in 5s pel and moden bridge, near moderately grey. thick- ton buildings ii Newport, fine, with ar- nesses vicinity ; new Monmouth- gillo-siliceous ol 5 leet Docks at New shire cement ; mi- port and Car- c&ceous, and with remains of fossil plants did. Ball Cross . Siliceous grains Ferrugi- At Chatsworth with argillo- nous and BakewelL siliceous ce- brow n ment ; occa- striped. sionally mica- and ceous, ferru- zoned in ginous. deeper tints. Bareadoes, Duke of Fine and coarse Light 14G 12 1 to 10 1 Off. to _ _ Tintern Abbey. Tintern, Beaufort. qr.artz, and greyish tons, Is. Monmouth- other siliceous brown. thickest shire. grains, with bed 10 to argillo-sili- ceous cement, ferruginous spots, and plates of mica. 12 It. Binnie, Up- Earl of Bu- Fine quartz grains, with Brownish 140 1 Bands 14 1 s. Id. to 2 9 New club-house hall, and in chauan. grey. to 18 ft. 2s. for to in Prince’s Linlithgow- argillo-sili- thick (3 largest 3 8 Street, Edm- shire. ceous cement, in nuin- blocks. burgh, and micaceous, her). numerous pri- chiefly in vate houses planes of beds. there and in Glasgow. Bolton’s Messrs. El- Moderately fine Warm 126 11 100 ft. 10//. to 1 9 Whitby Abbey, Ql AR1IY, gie and siliceous light cube ; u. to New Univer- Aislabv, Lawson, grains, with brown. top beds 2 1 sity Library at York»hire. as execu- argillo-sili- for Cambridge, tors 01 the ceous cement, house Scarborough late Mr. plates of mica, build- and Bridling- Noble, of and spots of ing, ton Piers, York. carbon disse- bottom Sheerness and minuted. beds lor St. Katha- docks. rine’s Docks, Beds 3 to 8 ft. thick. &c. Bramley Lari of Car- Quartz grains Light 142 ?, Up to 13 _ In numerous Kali. (Old digun. (often coarse), lerru- tons. bridges, Quarry), and decorn- ginous waterworks, near laeds, posed felspar, brown. &c. Yorkshire. with argillo- si liceous ce- ment. Mica rare. Small * ferruginous spots dissemi* nated. Calverlry, John Ward, Line siliceous Varie- 113 1 70 or 80 ill. to 1 2 Upper part of I unbridge Esq., Iftol- grains, w ith a gated ft., and G«/. to new church at V* clh.Kent. wood slightly cal- browns. upwards 1 4 Tunbridge Park, careous ce- to 6(H). Wells ; Ca- Bromley, ment. Beds to tholic Chapel, Kent. 34 rt. the Calverlev Hotel. r.ew Market House, and Victoria Nr- tional School, and about l< 0 houses. Ac., at Tunbridge Wells and its 1 l 1 vicinity. 454 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. SANDSTONES — continued. Name of Quarry, and wheie situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Stone. Colour. m i Weight of Block, and the Thickness procurable. 1 Rs Price per Cubic Ecot, delivered in London. Where used. Craicleith, Craigleitli Hill, near Edinburgh. W. R. Ram- say, Esq., of Barn- ton. Fine quartz grains, with a siliceous ce- ment, slightly calcareous, oc- casional plates of mica. Whitish grey. lb. oz. 145 14 Any prac- ticable length and breadth, from 0 in. to 10 ft. thick. 9 d. to 2s. Gd., accord- ing to quality. s. ,1. 1 10J to 3 74 Used exten- sively in public buildings in Edinburgh ; the College (1580), Regis- try ( 1774 ), courts of law, Custom House, Royal Exchange, National Mo- nument, and numerous churches, and now using for repairs at Blackfriars Bridge. Crawbank, Borrow- stones, Linlithgow- shire. Duke of Ha- milton. Fine quartzose grains, with an argillo-si- liceous ce- ment, some- what ferru- ginous ; disse- minated mica. Light fer- ruginous brown. 129 2 5 ft. thick, 6 ft. broad ; 10 ft. long. 1.9. for blocks of not more than 5 cubic ft. 2 2 A Roman bridge (A. D. 140.), old church of Kinneil, of the twelfth cen- tury. DUFFJELI) Hank, Duf- field, Derby- shire. Mrs. Stra- than. Quartz grains of moderate size, and decom- posed felspar, with an ar- gillo-siliceous cement, ferru- ginous spots, and occasion- ally plates of mica. Light brown with dark brown and purplish tints. 132 14 150 ft. ; thickest beds about 4 ft. ; half the depth brown, half white. Is. Id. the white stone, 9rf. the brown stone St. Mary’s Bridge, Re- porter Office, Mechanics’ Lecture Mall, and Bishop Ryder’s Church now building (Derby) ; also Duflieid Bridge and chimney shafts to Grammar School, Bir- mingham. Duke’sQdau- H 1 ICS, llolt Stanwell Bridge, Derbyshire. Duke of Devon- shire. Quartz grains, generally coarse, with decomposed felspar, and an argillo-sili- ceous cement ; ferruginous spots. Red, va- ried with green, brown, and grey. 144 8 Id. 2 8 Penitentiary at Millbank, and the filling in parts of Wa- terloo Bridge, London. Ellat^d Edge, near Hali- fax, York- shire. Fine quartz grains, with an argillo-sili- ceous cement, micaceous in planes of beds. Light grey brown. 153 4 Gatherley Moor, near Richmond, Yorkshire. John War- ton, Esq. Gis- borough. Quartz grains of moderate size, and an argillo- siliceous ce- ment ; ferru- ginous spots and plates of mica. Cream. 135 13 1 to 3 tons, a bed 12 ft. deep. 8 d. for the 12 ft. bed. 2 1 Aste Hall near Richmond, and Caterick bridges over the Swale; Purse bridge over the Tees ; Skelton Castle, Dar- lington Town Hall, Lock- burn Hall, and numerous modern build- ings. Chap. II. STONE. 45 > SANDSTONES — cun (in tied. Name of Quarry, and where situated. Proprietor of Quarry . Component Parts of btone. Colour. Gatton, Gat- ton, Surrey. Lord Mon- son. Fine siliceous grains, with a calcareo-si- liceous ce- ment, contain- ing green sili- cate of iron and plates of mica. Greenish light brown. Glammis, Forfarshire. Earl of Strath- more’s trustees. Siliceous grains of moderate size ; cement slightly cal- careous ; mica abundant in planes of beds. Purple grey. llrnnov, near Newcastle, Northum- berland. Mrs. Be- wick, near Newcastle upon Tyne. Coarse quartz grains, and de- composed fel- spar, with an argillo-sili- cecus cement, ferruginous spots. Light brown ochre. loi.LIVGTON, Stafford- shire. Sir J. Gib- bons, Bart., near Staines, Middle- sex. Quartz grains of moderate size, with an argil- lo-siliceous ce- ment ; plates of mica. Light brown- ish grey. Ii %iniF, llurnbie, I -inllthgow- thlre. Earl of IIopC- toun. Fine quartz grains, with siliceous ce- ment ; slightly calcareous : mica chiefly in planes of beds. Pale grey and light brown. •Nr.ANMFT, ir Kin- cardine, In Perthshire. Trustee* of lat*- Ix>rd Keith. Fine quartz grains, with siliceous ce- ment, contain- ing oxide of iron ; a few plates of mica. Light fer- rugin- ous brown. Weight of a Cubic Foot in its ordinary State. U.- t * ° ^ i; B ^*5 Price | per Cubic Foot j at the Quarry. | Pnce per Cubic Foot, delivered | in London. 1 Where used. | lb. OZ. s. d. s. d. 103 I 35 to GO ft. cube, from 4 to 10 ft. long. 1 4 to 1 6 Hampton Court and Windsori Castle, &c. ; many churches in Surrey ; Town Hall and Almshouse Establishment at Croydon ; and several modern build- ings in the pa-j rish of Gatton. 1G1 2 Any prac- ticable size ; thickest bed 6 ft. 0 7 to 1 0 about 19.v. per ton. Glammis Castle 1 and Inver- 1 quharity | Castle, sup- 1 posed of the tenth century;! Cortachy 1 Castle ; and in modern! buildings ; Lendertis 1 House, &c. i 130 11 Beds 4 to 12 ft. thick. 0 6 to 0 10 1 8 to 2 0 Church at Hed- don, steeple,! 1761 ; Norman chancel ; co- lumns of por- tico to theatre, and Grey Mo- nument at Newcastle ; and nearly all the buildings, ancient and modern, in and about Newcastle. ' 133 1 30 to 40 ft. square, and K ft. thick. 0 7 to 1 0 2 G Trentham Hall, Drayton Ma- nor, Heath- house, and various public and private buildings in Staffordshire ; Town Hall, Derby; Mear Hall, Che- shire, &c. White MO 3 grey 135 13 90 cubic ft. and up- wards, if re- quired ; thickest bed 8 ft. 1 0 to 1 10 2 6 to 3 2 Newliston House, Kirk- liston; Dun- das Castle j additions to the Royal In- stitution; front of Surgeons’ Hall, spire of Tron Church, and various other public buildings in Edinburgh ; also in Glas- gow. 131 11 4 to 5 tons ; thickest beds 5 It. 0 ft to 2 G 1 8 to 3 6 Staadt House, Amsterdam ; Exchange, Edinburgh ; Ttillo Mare ( as’ Ir, 1'. illi shire; and part of a street io Perth. 45G THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE, Book II SANDSTONES — continued. Name of Quarry, and where situated Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Stone. Colour. Weight of a Cubic Foot in its ordinary btate. Weight of Block, and the Thickness procurable. Price per Cubic Foot at the Quarry. Price per Cubic Fool, delivered in London. Where U6td. lb. oz. s. d. s. d. Munlochy, 111 Koss-shire. JohnMathe- son, Esq., of Ben- netsfield. Fine siliceous grains, with an argillo-sili- ceous cement ; micaceous. Red and variega- ted. 160 9 Of large size ; beds 21 to d ft. thick. 0 5 to 0 54 Cathedral Church of Ross at Fort- rose, a d. 1124. Inverness Old Bridge, Crom well Court, ike. Mylnepield, or Kingoo- dii:, near Dundee, in Perthshire. ( James Mylne, Esq. Fine siliceous grains, with a calcareo-argil- lo-siliceous cement ; mica- ceous in planes of beds. Purplish grey. 160 0 Any prac- ticable size. 0 9 to 1 5 Old steeple oi Dundee, 12th century, well preserved ; Royal Asylum of Dundee, &c.; Bell Rock Lighthouse, Royal Asylum of Perth, Kin- fauns Castle, Castle Hunt- ley, &.C. &C. Park Spring, near Leeds, Yorkshire. Earl of Car- digan. Fine quartz grains, and de- composed fel- spar, with an argiilo-sili- ceous cement ; mica chiefly in planes of beds. Light fer- rugin- ous brown. 151 1 10 to 12 ft. long ; thickest bed 2 ft. 4 in. 0 7 2 1* to 2 5 Commercial buildings at Leeds, from the old quarry, which is of ex- actly similar stone to that of this quarry. Pensher, near lloughton- le- Spring, Durham. Marquess of London- derry. Coarse quartz grains, with an argillo-sili- ceous cement ; plates of mica. Pale whitish brown. 134 5 Any prac- ticable size ; thickest bed 20 ft. 0 8J 1 7 Pensher Cha- pel ; Scotch Church, Sun- derland; Sun- derland Pier, Seaham Har- bour, Victoria Bridge, on the Wear, &c. Pyotdykes, near Dun- dee, Forfar- shire. Alexander Clayhills, Esq , In- neigow- rie. Siliceous grains of moderate size, with a calcareo-argil- lo-siliceous cement j mica- ceous. Purplish grey. 162 8 Thickest bed 3 to 4 ft. 0 10 to 1 2 2 1 to 2 5 Extensively for the wo r ks at Dundee Har- bour, &c. 1 Scotgatb Head, Hud- dersfield, Yorkshire. The free- holders of On ley. Quartz grains, of moderate size, with an argillo-sili- ceous cement ; mica in planes of beds, and occasional specks of car- bon. Light. greenish grey. 158 0 Thickest bed 3 ft. G in. 0 8 I 2 York Castle; Bath Hotel, at Huddersfield. Stancliff, or Da RLE Y Dale, near Bakewell, Derbyshire. A. H. Heath- cote, Esq., Black- well. Quartz grains of moderate size, and decom- posed felspar, with an argil- lo-siliceous cement, ferru- ginous spots, and plates of mica. Light fer- rugin- ous brown. 148 3 Of very large size. 1 5 3 3 Abbey in Darby Dale, Stanclilf Hall, Birming- ham; Gram- mar School, Birmingham ; and Notting- ham Railway Station Houses. Stfnton, near Barnard Castle, Dur- ham. Duke of Cleve- land. Fine quartz grains, and de- composed fel- spar. with an argillo-sili- ceous cement, ferruginous specks, and some plates of mica. Ferrugin- ous light brown. 142 8 15 to 20 ft. long, 2 ft. to 8 ft. in thick- ness. 0 64 1 5 The Round Keep of Bar- nard Castle, Joint Stock Bank, and MarketHouse, Barnard Cas- tle. STONE. Kxr. II. - 1.37 SANDSTONES — continued. 3 • £ « 0 >» 0 1 - . 2-0 ■§£ - NalQt of ” s 52 6 S § Qoarry, and i here situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Stone. Colour. §£ £ 2 ~|d Where used. •C O-- C 3 0.3 lb. oz. s. d. 5. (/. i’hitby Com- Mrs. Helen Siliceous grains Light 1 2G 11 40x25 ft. 0 10 1 8 Some parts of pany’s Noble, of moderate brown. Whitby Ah- Aislabv, York. size, with an bey ; New Li- near Whit- argillo-sili- * 123 2 brary at Cam- by. York- ceous cement ; bridge; Hatlis shire. some plates of and Town mica and spots Hall at Whit- ot carbon dis- by ; cemeterv seminated. at Highgate; 1 1 ungcr ford Market, &c. Vhitby Com- Robert Cary „ Pale, to _ _ Arncliffe, 0 nj 1 91 Grosmont Ab- pany’s Eg- Elwes, dark 15x10x9 bey and TON QUAR- Esq., brown. Prod- Bridge; Egton ries, being Arnclifft Great Bil- dams. Bridge ; Lon- lings. 10x8x8 don and Bir- Jultan North- - - . * i‘J7 14 Lease mingham Park, Prod - ampton- Rigge, Railway ; dams, and Lease Rigge, shire. 10x0x5 \\ hitby and Pickering near Whit- by. Railway. hitby Com- Charles . 134 13 21x9x3J 1 1 1 11 Parts of Whitbv pany’s Saunders, Abbey, and a .Sneaton, Esq., portion of the near \\ hit- Sneaton parapet of old bjr. Castle. Blacklriars Bridge, Lon- don. hitby Com- R. W. Skel- - - * 131 11 G ft. by 4 0 10 1 8 Lewisham pa ny’s New- ton. Esq., ft. ami Church. ion Dale, near Pick 18 in. near Whit- by. ering. LIMESTONES. Name of Qilarnr, and h*-T# Jtuaud. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Slone. Colour. a • £ C rt li* Vu, TJ u a *4 0 0 *0^ ^ HZi Price per Cubic Foot nt the Quarry. Price per Cubic Foot, delivered in London. Where used. lb. oz. s. d. s. d. fr, near V xml niter, Devonshire. Lord Rolle. Chiefly carbo- nate of lime, friable, and with partial indurations. Light tint of brown. 131 12 6 to 7 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, and 2 ft. thick. In the churches of the vicinity, St. Peter s Church, Exe- ter, in ex- posed parts ; Colyton Church. Char- mouth, &C.&C. II. MARK, n*ar Salls- m-y, Wilt- hire. Earl of Pem- broke. Carbonate of llinc, with a moderate pro- portion of sili- ca, and occa- sional grains of silicate of Iron. Light green- ish brown. 153 7 10 cwt. to 3 tons. Several Led 8 ; thickest bed about 3 ft. 1 6 to 2 0 4 10 to 5 4 Salisbury Cathe- dral, Wilton Abbey, and many other ancient ami modern build- ings in the vi cinity. • PTOW Vooo, near Vlrki- 1 vorth, Drr- >y«..lro. Philip Gall, Esq., II. niton Hall, near Wirks- worth. 1 Compact carbo- nate of lime, with cncrinal fragments abundant. W.irm light grey. 158 7 100 feet cube ; beds vary in thick- ness from 3 to in ft. 3 0 to 4 0 1 10 to 5 10 At Chatsworth, Belvolr Castle, Trentlmm Hall, Drayton Manor, Bir- mingham Grammar School, &c. • From my own experiment*. 458 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I) LIMESTONES — continued. Name cf Quarry, and wnere situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Stone. Colour. Weight of a Cubic Foot in its ordinary State. *5 | •S A Price per Cubic Foot at the Quarry. Trice per Cubic Foot, delivered in London. Where u*d. lb. OZ. s . d. s. d. Seacombe, near Corfe Castle, Dor- setshire. William John Bankes, Esq. Semi-compact carbonate of lime, with fragments ct shells. Light brown. 151 0 The larg- est 6 to 8 ft., by to 3 ft. by 3 to 4 ft. 1 2* 1 9* Lighthouse ai Margate; the Clockhouse, Dover Pier prison at Win- chester ; at the West India Docks, forty years since , lighthouse now building on the Isle ol Wight, & c. Sutton, near Bridgend, G1 miorgan- slure. The Crown, and others. Compact-carbo- nate of lime, highly crys- talline. Very light cream. 13G 0 6 tons, and up- wards ; thickest bed 12ft. Dun raven Cas- tle, Ogmond Abbey, St.l) - nats Corty, Neath Abbey, and very an- cient buildings in the adjoin- ing counties. Totter n hoe, near Dun- stable, Bed- fordshire. James Jaly Wing. Calcareous and argillaceous matter in about equal portions ; structure fine. Greenish white. 116 8 40 cubic ft. or up- wards ; 5 to 6 ft. long. 1 3 2 5 Dunstable Prio- ry Curch, Lu- ton, and many other churches in Bedford- shire and Hertfordshire; Woburn Ah- 1 bey, Fonthill House, Ash- ridge, Sec, MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES. 1 Name of Quarry, and where situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Crmporent Parts of Stone. Colour. Weight of a Cubic Foot in its ordinary State. Weight of Block, and the Thickness procurable. Price per Cubic Foot at the Quarry. Price per Cubic Foot, delivered in London. Where used. I lb. oz. s. d. s. d. Bolsover, near Ches- terfield, Derbyshire. Earl Bath- urst. Chiefij carbo- nate of lime and carbonate of magnesia ; semi-crystal- line. Light yel- lowish brown. 151 11 AC ft. cube, in beds from 8 in. to 2 ft. thick. 0 10 2 0 Southwell Church, and numerous buildings in the vicinity. 1 Brodsworth, near Don- caster, Yorkshire. Lord Ren- dlesham. Chiefly carbo- nate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, with sub- ooli- tic grains ; fri- able. Li glit brown tint. 133 10 Thickest bed 3 ft. 6 in. Doncaster Old! Church and Mansion- house, Brock- lesby Ilall, &c. Cadeby, near Doncaster, Yorkshire. Sir Joseph Copley, Bart. Chiefly carbo- nate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, with sub-ooli- tic and irregu- larly formed oolitic grains ; friable. Cream. I2G 9 Central beds (the best) 4 ft. thick. 1 1 10 Day and Mar- tin’s, in High Hoi born ; almshouses at Edgware, ,p. II. STONE. 459 MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES — continued. Came of irTt, and re situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of 6 tone. Colour. Weight of a Cubic Foot in its ordinary State. Weight of Block, and the Thickness procurable. Price per Cubic Foot at the Quarry. Price per Cubic | Foot, delivered in London. Where ilsoI . lb. () Z. s. d. s. d. >DLE- one, near lerburne, orkshire. Oliver Gas- coigne, Esq., near Abber- ford. Chiefly carbo- nate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, semi - crystal- line. Whitish cream. 137 13 50 to 250 cubic ft. Beds have been met with 4ft. thick. 2 0 3 0 York Minster, Selby Cathe- dral, Huddle- stone Hall, Sherburne Church, West- minster Hall, Galeforth Hall, &c. KDAW ig, near raster, kshirc. Sir Edward Vavasour, Bart. Chiefly carbon- ate of lime and carbonate of magnesia. Dark cream . Beds irre- gular, from a few in- ches to 3 feet. York Minster, and probably most of the churches in York ; also for the late restor- ations of York Minster. he Abbf.v, •irBawtry, jrAahire. Earl of Scar- borough. Chiefly carbon- ate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, with occasional den- dritic spots of iron or man- ganese, semi- crystalline. Whitish cream. 139 2 8 or 10 tons, thickest bed will work 2ft. Gin. 0 8 to 1 6 2 4 2 11£ Roche Abbey Church, 'Pick- hill Castle, and Church and Bridge, Sand- beck Hall, Selby Hall, two churches at Retford, Baw- try Church, and numerous churches in Y'orkshire and Lincolnshire. vse, near draster, rktbire. r iinlurn Moor). Thomas Per- rutt, Esq. Chiefly carbon- ate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, slightly crys- talline. Light yel- lowish brown. 127 8 Largest obtained 8*0x30 X30. n 7 2 IJ HullOldChurch, RiponMiuster,) St. Mary’s | Church and. the minster at Beverley, thei minster andse-l veral churchesl at York, and al new church ati Appleby, ini Lincolnshire. of Proprl'-for of Quarry. Component Porta of Stone. Colour. Weight of a Cubic Foot In its ordinary State. Weight of Block, and the Thickness procurable. Price per Cubic Foot at the Quarry. Price per Cubic Foot, delivered in London. Where used. 1 1 II). oz. s. d. S. d. Itei, ! M.-i- L Lin- • hire. Mrs. Myers, Cruritnam. Fine oolitic grains, ce- mented by compact, and often crystal- line, carbonate of lime. Cream. 139 4 3 to 5 tons, beds, 18 inches. 0 9 to 1 5 2 7 Wollaton Hall, Belvoir Castle, Belton House, and numerous mansions and churches in Lincolnshire. | ■If* l| near fa Ih.irnp- tjill 1. Mr. John Martin, UfTord, near. SUm. ford. Carbonato of lime, compact and oolitic, with shells, often In frag- ments, coarsely planes of beds. Light whitish blown. 130 12 Up to 30 ft, beds, 0 to 18 In. 1 0 2 3 Burleigh House, 1 Peterborough j ( ’..i hetli al, Croyland Ab- bey, and tho greater pro- portion of churches lo Lincolnshire and Cam- bridgeshire. 460 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 OOLITIC STONES — continued. Name of Quarry, and whore situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Stone. Colour. 3 esci *S~3 f r ft S' U o •5 u- -a hi « o C C3 § a S. 5 If ft. 3 v ^■5 ft, Price per Cubic Foot, delivered in London. Where used. Bath Lodge Hill, Combe Down, near Bath, So- mersetshire. W. V. .Ton- kins, Esq., Combe Grove House, Bath. Chiefly carbon- ate of lime, in oolitic grains. Cream. 11). oz. 116 00 12 to 96 ft cube. Thick- est bed, 4i ft. s. d. 0 6 s. d. Restoration o Henry VII. chapel, twent years sine* Kennet an , Avon Cana i and othe works. Bath Bayn- ton Quarry, Box, near Chippenham Thomas Strong, of Box, near Chippen- ham. Chiefly carbon- ate of lime, in moderatelyfine oolitic grains, withfragments of shells (wea- ther bed). Cream. 123 00 Up to 10 tons. Thick- est bed, 5 ft. 0 7 1 11 Laycock Abbei Longleat, lit wood, soul front of Wii ton Housi Windsor Cas tie, & c. Bath ( Drewe’s Quarry), Monkton Farleigh, near Bath. Wade Brown, Esq., Monkton Farleigh. Chiefly carbon- ate of lime, in oolitic grains of moderate size. Cream. 122 10 120 to 1 2b ft. Se- veral beds, the deepest about 4 ft. 2 in. thick. 0 0 1 10 Buckingham New Palace St. James' Square, Bath. Cranmore, near Doult ing, Wilt- shire. Carbonate of lime, with a few oolitic grains, and an abundance of small shells, commonly in fragments, often crystal- line. Light brown. 131 1 Of large size. The thickest beds will work 20 in. 0 7 Cathedral < Wells, Glas tonbury At ) bey, &c. IIaydor, near Grantham, Lincoln- shire. John Archer Iloublon, Esq , near Bisnop’s Stortiord. Carbonate of lime, with ooli- tic grains, often crystalline. Brownish cream. 133 7 14 ft. x 3 ft. X '1 ft. 0 8 2 4 Lincoln Cathf dral, Boato Church, Gran tham Churcl Newark Church, an most of tli 1 churches ' the neighbor hood, anil the lower pa:, of Lincoln shire ; Culver iji thorpe Hous | Belvoir Castl- &c. Ketton, in Rutland- shire, near Stamford. LordNorth- wick. Oolitic grains of moderate size, slightly ce- mented by car- bonate of lime. Dark cream colour. 128 5 Up to 100 ft., beds vary very much : one 3 ft. 6 in. thick, called rag. 1 9 3 4 Cambridge, Be ford, Bury SI ,1 Edmund's, Stamford, Loi 2 don, many of tli ancient a: ; modern buib « ings at Cai 1 bridge ; also i * the moder works of P | terborough | and Kly ( I thedral, ami | St. Duns tan New Churn in London. Portland (Trade Quarry), Inland of Portland, 1 Messrs. Wes- ton. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with a few fragments of shells Whitish brown. Any prac- ticable size. l n 2 3 ft. «, 111 HAP. II STONE. '161 OOLITIC STONES — continued. Name of Quarry, and /here situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Stone. Colour. 19 C rt ff. III O o Weight of Block, and the Thickness procurable. Z*. i 3 s! 0.0 Price per Cubic Fool, delivered in London. Where used. lb. oz. s. d. f d. ORTLAND (King Bar- row East End Quar- : v) adjoining \V kycropt. Island of Portland. Messrs. Wes- ton. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with a few fragments of shells. Whitish brown. Any prac- ticable size. i 4 2 3 Various public buildings in London. ORTLAND ( Vbrk- Stkeet Quarry), Island of Portland. Messrs. Wes- tou. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with a few fragments of shells. Whitish brown. J34 10 top bed. Any prac- ticable size. 1 4* 2 3 Various public buildings in London. ORTLAND (Castle’s Quarry), hland of Portland. Messrs. Wes- ton. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with a few fragments of shells. Whitish brown. * Any prac- ticable size. l 4j 2 3 Various public buildings in London. >RTI.\ND ( Waycroft Quarries), l-land of Portland. The Crown, on lease to Messrs. Stewards and Co. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with dissemi- nated frag- ments of shells. Whitish brown. 135 8 top bed. Any prac- ticable size. 1 4J 2 3 Goldsmiths’ Hall, Reform Club House, and other pub- lic buildings in London. • RTLAND Maggott Quarry ). The Crown, on lease to Messrs. Stewards and Co. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with fragments of shells. Whitish brown. “ * Any prac- ticable size. 1 4} 2 2 Various public buildings in London. > RTLAND (•osling’h Quarry). Messrs. Stewards and Co. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with fragments of shells. Whitish brown. 1*20 13 Roach Any prac- ticable size. : 4* 2 3 Several public buildings in London. > RTLAND Crock Qua mi y |B:v brb). Messrs. Stewards and Co. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, withnumerous fragments of shells. Whitish brown. 147 10 best bed. 145 9 carf. Any prac- ticable size. 1 4} 2 3 St. Paul’s Ca- thedral, and se- veral churches' in London,. 1 built dining the reign ol Queen Anne. 'RTL \ND ?ROVR Quarry, HcdCroft). Messrs. Stewards and Co. Oolitic carbon- ate of lime, with a few fragments of shells. Whitish brown. “ Any prac- ticable size. i n 2 0 St. Paul’s Cathe- dral, and many) churches in London, on Queen Anne's reign. Of th<- Portland vtonos, It In to he observed generally, that the dirt bed is full ol fossil roots, trunks, and branches of trees. In the position of tneir former growth. The top cap is a white, hard, and closely compacted limestone. The skill 1 cap is Irregular in texture, and Is a well-compacted limestone. The roach beds are always incorporated with the freestone beds, that invariably lie below them, and arc full of cavities formed by the moulds of shells and the like. The top bed I* the best stone, the bottom one ill cemented, and will not stand the weather. A middle or ettrf bed occurs only In the southernmost quarries on the east dill ; it is soft to the north, and hard to the south. The good workable stone In the east cliff quarries I* generally less in depth than in the ««mr bed In the west cliff quarries, but the east clifT stone Is harder, more especially to the south of the Islnu I. The stone, even In the same quarries, varies considerably. That which contains flints will not stand the weather. The bottom bed on the west cliff is not a durable stone, though *old as a good stone In the London market. The best stone is in the north* raitem nart of the Island ; the worst In the xouth- western part. The annual consumption of (he whole of the quarries in the Island Is equal to an area of one acre of the good workable • ' nr. or aliout 24,000 tons. The entire area unworked is about 2000 acres. There are 56 qusrrb-s In th*- Island, and about '240 qur.rrymen employed, of which number Messrs. Stewards employ utuully about I3i. (See Subu'Ctlou 1C bty. ct aiq.) 462 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boor I OOLITIC STONES — continued. Name of Quarry, and where situated. Proprietor of Quarry. Component Parts of Stone. Colour. ca c £ r; 1H tS Weight of Block, and le Thickness procurable. Trice ?r Cubic Foot t the Quarry. ice per Cubic >ot, delivered in London. Where used. 6 © ** P-ii. lb. oz. s. d. s. d. Taynton, or Teynton, near Bur- ford, Oxon. Lord Dyne- vor. Carbonate of lime, partly oolitic ana friable, with very small fragments of shells, irregu- larly lami- nated. Streaky brown. 135 15 Any prac- ticable size. Thick- est bed, about 7 ft. 0 10 to 1 0 2 4 Blenheim, Corn bury Park Barrington Park, the in terior of St Paul’s ant many other churches ii London and Oxford, and ih| variousbridge in Oxford shire. Wass, neat Thirsk, Yorkshire. Martin Sta- pleton, Esq. Compact car- bonate of lime, with oolitic grains and an argillo - calca- reous cement ; carbon disse- minated. Brown. 141 11 soft. 162 8 hard. Beds va- riable, about 1G in. West front and alargepropor tion of Belaud Abbey. Windrush, near Bur- ford, Glou- cestershire. Lord Shel- burne. Fine oolitic grains, with calcareous ce- ment, and a few fragment; of shells. Cream. 118 2 soft. 135 15 hard. 5 to 40 ft. Thickest bed, 2 ft. G in. 0 8 2 7 Windrush Church, Bar- rington House, and all the old buildings within many miles of the quarry. 1 665. The following very useful enumeration of the stones used in buildings of the island, arranged under that head, and divided into the sorts of stone employed in them, tve add, verbatim , from the Report which we have so much used. The heads are under Sandstone buildings, Limestone buildings, and Magnesian Limestone buildings. SANDSTONE BUILDINGS. Bakewell, Derbyshire. The bouses generally are of sandstone, and in fair condition. A new bank now erecting of sandstone from Bakewell Edge. Bakewell Church (14th century), of a sandstone of the vicinity, very much decomposed. Barnard Castle, Durham (14th century). Circular keep, apparently of Stenton stone, in excellent condition. In modern works, the Joint Stock Bank and Market-house ol Stenton stone, in good condition. Belter New Church, Derbyshire. Built 10 years since, of sandstone from Hungerhill, in an incipient state (in parts) of decomposition. Blandeord Parish Church, Dorsetshire ( 1 769). Of a green siliceous fine-grained sand- stone, the dressings being of a stone similar to the Portland oolite; the former muc 1 decomposed ; the latter in very good condition. Town Hall, about 80 years old, ot stone similar to the Portland oolite, in good condition. Brancepeth Castle, Durham. Of ancient date, of sandstone of the vicinity; recent lj restored extensively ; older parts in various states of decomposition. Briavel’s, St., Castle, Glocestershire. In ruins (13th or 14th century). Entrance gate- way (the chief remains of the castle) built of red sandstone, decomposed. Bristol Cathedral (13th and 14th centuries). Built of red sandstone and a yellow limestone (magnesian?) strangely intermixed; the red sandstone in all cases decom- posed, the limestone more rarely decayed ; the tracery, &c. of the windows, which arc of the limestone, are in good condition ; but the pinnacles and other dressings, which are of the same material, are much decomposed. The east end of the cathedral is a remarkable instance of the decay and preservation of the two stones employed. Eor- man gateway, west of the cathedral (the upper part of the 1 5th century) ; the Norman archway and its enrichments, which are of a very florid character, built of yellow limestone (magnesian?), in excellent condition. Hyland Abbey (12th century). In part of a siliceous grit (principally in the interior), and in part (chiefly on the exterior) of a compact oolite, from the Wass quarries in the HAP. II. STONE. 463 vicinity. The west front, which is of the oolite, is in perfect condition, even in the dog’s-teeth and other florid decorations of the doorways, &c. This building is covered generally with lichens. vri.isle. Ancient buildings: Cathedral (13th century), of red sandstone, in various states of decomposition. Modern buildings : Many of red sandstone, more or less in a state of decomposition. vstle Howard, Yorkshire. Built generally of a siliceous fine-grained sandstone from the park ; generally in good condition, but in some parts, such as the parapets, cu- polas, and chimney shafts, much decomposed. The pilasters of the north front from a quarry at Appleton ; in good condition, except where subjected to alternations of wet and dry, as in the plinths, where there are signs of decomposition. The stables are of Appleton stone, and in good condition. iatsworth House, Derbyshire. Original bouse built of Bell Crop sandstone from Bake- well Edge, not in very good condition, particularly in the lower parts of the building. In the recent additions the same stone is employed, together with that of Bailey Moor and Lindrop Hill. iepstow Castle, Monmouthshire (11th and 12th centuries, with additions of the 14th century). Of mountain limestone and old red sandstone ; the former in good con- dition ; the latter decomposed. Dressings of doors, windows, archways, and quoins are for the most part of magnesian limestone, in perfect condition ; the remainder is of red sandstone, and is generally much decomposed. Chapel (of the 12th century); mouldings and carvings of the windows, &c., which are of magnesian limestone, are in perfect condition. 1 x wold Church, Yorkshire (15tli century). Generally of fine siliceous grit of the vicinity, and in part of a calcareous nature. Tower in good condition ; porch decom- posed ; lichens abundant on the north side. 1 kry. St. Peter’s Church (13th century), of the variegated coarse sandstone of the vicinity, similar to that of Little Eaton. The whole in bad condition ; but the red stones less so than the grey or white. St. Almund’s Church (of the 14th century), of a coarse sandstone of the vicinity, in a very decomposed state, to the obliteration of the mouldings and other details ; it has lately been scraped and painted, to pre- serve it from further destruction. All Saints Church (tower of the 15th century), of sandstone, similar to that of Duffield Bank, partly in fair condition, and partly much decomposed, particularly the great western entrance. The body of the church, built 1 10 years since, of sandstone, in part decomposing. Modern buildings: Town Hall, of sandstone from Morley Moor, built a few years since, in very good condition. 1 hi am Cathedral (1 1 th and 1 2th centuries). Of a sandstone of the vicinity, elected indiscriminately, and in all stages of decomposition ; few stones are quite perfect. Castle (of the 1 1th century). Of similar stone, and in a similar state. i p.y Abbey, Yorkshire (13th and 14th centuries). Of sandstone of the vicinity ; mould- ings and carvings decomposed and in part obliterated. Walls built very rudely, and in various states of decomposition; some parts, however, maintain their original surface. . i.kston Abbey, Yorkshire (13th century). Of stone similar to that of the Stenton quarry. The mouldings and other decorations, such even as the dog’s-teeth enrich- ments, are in perfect condition. .burgh. Ancient buildings: Holyrood Chapel (12th century), of sandstone from the vicinity, in part much decomposed ; in other parts, such as the west door, almost perfect. The palace (built in the 16th and 17th centuries) of similar stone, generally hi good condition, the older parts being slightly decomposed. The oldest part of the I run Church (1641), of sandstone, much decomposed. A house on the Castle Hill I •'!)!), of sandstone, only slightly decomposed. ■ lern buildings, wholly erected of sandstones from the Cragleith, Bed Hall, Ilumbie, and B innic quarries, for the most from the first-mentioned quarry. None 'I them exhibit any appearance of decomposition, with the exception of ferruginous a mis, which are produced upon some stones. Among the oldest is the Registry Office, which is of Cragleith stone, and built above sixty years since; it is in a perfect I' i. vis’s Abbey, Yorkshire (lltli and 12th centuries, with additions of the 16th ■entury). Of coarse sandstone of the vicinity, generally in bad condition, particularly he west front, which is much decomposed. The nave and transept, which are the arlirxt portions of the building, are the best preserved. i o tain’s Hall, Yorkshire (1677). Of sandstone of the vicinity, and magnesian lime- tone in the dressings. The whole in fair condition. I o .i op Dean, Gloucestershire. l’ark End new church, built fifteen years since, c/ •uidstuiic, similar to that of C’olford. No appearance of decomposition. *164 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IT Glasgow. Ancient buildings: High Churcb (12th century), sandstone of the vicinity generally very much decomposed, particularly on the south side Old quadrangle oi the College (James II.), of sandstone, decomposed. Modern buildings: Hunterian Museum (1 804) ; superstructure said to be of stone from the President quarry ; slight traces of decomposition on the south-west front. The basement of another sandstone, in a more advanced state of decomposition ; othei parts of the building are in an almost perfect state. The other buildings are gene rally erected of stone from the Giffncuch and other quarries in the immediate neigh bourhood, except the new Exchange buildings, which are of stone from the Humbie quarry, thirty miles from Glasgow, recently erected, in which there are not any ap parent symptoms of decomposition. Gloucester Cathedral (Norman for the greater part, altered and cased in the 15th century), built of a fine grained and ill-cemented oolite, a shelly oolite, and a re< sandstone (north side) intermixed, of which the former constitutes the greater por- tion. The tower (15th century), of shelly oolite, in perfect condition. The earh turrets of the south transepts are also in good condition. The body of the building is much decomposed. The great cloister is built of the same materials as the cathe dral. The moulded and decorated work is in good condition, the other parts an more or less decomposed. The small cloister is built of a fine oolite with a compac cement, and is in good condition. The New Bridge, of Whitchurch sandstone parapets of Ruordean fine-grained sandstone, in good condition. II addon Hai.l, Derbyshire (15th and IGth centuries). Of a fine-grained sandstone similar to that of Lindrop Hill. The dressings, parapets, chimney shafts, quoins, &c are wrought and rubbed ; the remainder of the walls is of rough walling. The wholi in fair condition. Ha rrowgate. Cheltenham Pump Room, of sandstone from Woodhouse, near Leeds Built recently. In good condition. Swan Hotel and other modern buildings, of coarse sandstone of the vicinity ; generally in good condition. II akdwicke Hall, Derbyshire. (1597). Of a fine-grained sandstone, chiefly from - quarry in the hill on which the house is built, intermixed with a calciferous grit i similar to that of Mansfield ; generally in good condition. The ashler is in part decomposed, especially where it is set on edge. IIowden Church, Yorkshire (15th century); partly of magnesian limestone, of a dee] yellow colour, and partly of a coarse siliceous grit, of a ferruginous colour. Dress ings and enrichments and the central tower are of the former stone; generally de composed, particularly at the top of the tower. The other parts of the building! a which are of the grit, are very much decomposed. Kirkstall Abbey, Yorkshire (11th century). Of coarse sandstone of the vicinity, i < various stages of decomposition according to the aspect. The east side is in fair coi j dition ; some of the zig-zag enrichments and early capitals and other enrichments t mouldings are in perfect condition. The windows of the chancel and tower (inserts fl in the 16th century) of a yellow sandstone, are for the most part gone, and what re •! mains is much decomposed. Mansfield TownHall, Nottinghamshire. Built three years since, of magnesio-calciferoii q sandstone from Mansfield : no appearance of decomposition. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Ancient buildings: St. Nicholas’ Church (14th century), 1 sandstone of the vicinity, similar to that of the Heddon Quarry, very much decon ^ posed. Parts restored within the last century, with the same stone, now decomposing fl The upper part of the tower and spire restored within the last five years, and pamh i to preserve the stone from decay. Other ancient buildings, of the same stone, more i 3 less in a state of decomposition, according to the date of their erection. Modern buildings, built within the last 25 years, of sandstone from the Felling an fl Church quarries at Gateshead and the Kenton quarry : parts already show sympton J of decomposition. Pontefract Castle, Yorkshire (14th century). Built generally of a coarse grit, of a dat t brown colour, occasionally mixed with an inferior magnesian limestone. The who I in a very decomposed state, more particularly the sandstone, in which all traces of t! | original surface are effaced. Fragments of magnesian limestone are embedded 1 | several parts of the walls, with mouldings of the 12th century, in perfect coi 1 dition. Raby Castle, Durham (14th century). Of sandstone of the vicinity: parts in a pene state, others slightly decomposed. Richmond Castle, Yorkshire (11th century). The keep, of sandstone, similar to that Gatherly Moor, generally in good condition ; mouldings and carvings in columns window in a perfect state. Ripon, Yorkshire. An obelisk in the market-place (1 781 ), of coarse sandstone, much t composed in laminations parallel to the exposed faces. HAP. 1 1. STONE. 465 i i*o s Cathedu a i.. Lower part, east end, and south-east angle (Norman), of coarse sand- stone of tlie vicinity, in good condition. The west front, the transepts, and tower (of the I 2th and 13th centuries), of the coarse sandstone of the vicinity, in fair condition. The mouldings, although generally decomposed, are not effaced. The dog’s-teeth ornaments in most parts nearly perfect. The aisles of the naves, the clerestory, and the choir (of the 14th and 15th centuries), of coarse sandstone and magnesian lime- stone intermixed, not in good condition ; the latter stone, on the south side, often in fair condition. The lower parts of the building generally, but particularly the west fronts, which are of coarse sandstone, are very much decomposed. ivaui.x Abbey, Yorkshire (1 2th century). Of a sandstone at Hollands, one mile from the ruins ; generally in excellent condition. West front slightly decomposed; south front remarkably perfect, even to the preservation of the original toolmarks. iaetesbury, Dorsetshire. St. Peter’s Church (15th century). Of a green siliceous sandstone, from quarries half a mile south of the church. The whole building much decomposed. The tower is bound together by iron, and is unsafe, owing to the inferior quality of the stone. onoKTH Casti.e, Yorkshire (14th century). Of coarse red sandstone; more or less, hut generally much, decomposed. The dressings of the windows and doois, of a semi- crystalline magnesian limestone, are in perfect state, the mouldings and enrichments being exquisitely sharp and beautiful. stern Abbey (13th century). Considerable remains of red and grey sandstones of the vicinity, in part laminated. In unequal condition, but for the most part in perfect condition ; covered with grey and green lichens. sbury Church (13th and 14th centuries; the lower part of the tower of the 12th century). Of calciferous limestone from Tisbury. The dressings are composed of stone throughout, in perfect condition. The ashlar variable; in part much decom- posed ; the undecomposed portions are covered with lichens. Tombstones in the churchyard generally in good condition, some being more than a century old. The houses of the village built generally of the Tisbury stone, and are in very good con- dition. The whole covered with lichens. v x EEiELt) Parish Church, Yorkshire (tower and spire of the 16th century). Of sand- stone, much decomposed. The body of the church, of recent date, of sandstone strongly laminated, and generally decomposed between the lamina?. iithy Abbey (Pith century). Of stone similar to that of Aislaby Brow, in the vicinity ; generally in good condition, with the exception of the west front, which is very much decomposed. The stone used is of two colours, brown and white ; the former, in all cases, more decomposed than the latter. The dog’s-teeth and other enrichments in the cast front are in good condition. LIMESTONE BUM.IilNOS. I r ii. Abbey church (1576), built of an oolite in the vicinity. The tower is in fair con- dition. The body of the church, in the upper part of the south and west sides, much dc composed. The lower parts, formerly in contact with buildings, are in a more perfect state ; the reliefs in the west front of Jacob’s ladder are in parts nearly efliiced. (Queen's Square, north side, and the obelisk in the centre, built above 100 years since, of an oolite with shells, in fair condition. Circus (built about 1750), of an oolite in the vicinity, generally in fair condition, except those portions which have a "cst and southern aspect, where the most exposed parts are decomposed. Crescent (built above 50 years since), of an oolite of the vicinity, generally in fair condition, except in a few places, where the stone appears to he of inferior quality, roi. Cathedral (of the 13th and 14th centuries). Built of red sandstone and appa- rently a yellow limestone (magnesian?) strangely intermixed. The red sandstone in all cases decomposed ; the limestone more rarely decayed. The tracery, &c. of the windows, which are of the limestone, are in good condition, hut the pinnacles and dressings of the same material much decomposed. The east end of the cathedral is a remarkable instance of the decay and preservation of the two stones employed. Nor- man gateway, west of the cathedral (the upper part of the 15th century), the Norman archway and its enrichments, which are of a very florid character, built of yellow limestone (magnesian?), in excellent condition. — , Sr. Maiiv Hedci.ieek (tower of the 12th century ; body of the church of the 15lh century). Of oolitic limestone, from Dundry ; very much decomposed. Emit House (15th century). Of a shelly oolite (Baruack rag), in excellent condi- tion throughout. The late additions are of Ketton stone. so Abbey, Yorkshire (12th century). In part of a siliceous grit (principally in the interior), and in part (chiefly on the exterior) of a compact oolite, from the VV ass qu irrics in the vicinity. The west front, which is of the oolite, is ill perfect condition, II II It lii 466 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I ; even in the dog’s-teeth and other florid decorations of the doorways, & c. Tiiis build ing is generally covered with lichens. Colley Wf.ston Church, Northamptonshire (14th century). Of a shelly oolite (Barnac rag), in perfect condition throughout Dorchester. St. Peter’s Church (15th century). Of laminated oolite, somewhat simila to that of Portland, and of a shelly limestone, somewhat resembling that of Hamhil The latter used in pinnacles, parapets, and dressings. The whole in a decompose state. Glastonbury — Abbey. Joseph of Arimathea’s Chapel. Considerable ruins; Normal of shelly limestone, similar to that of Doulting ; generally in good condition ; tli zig-zag and other enrichments perfect ; the capitals of the columns, corbels, &c. are i blue lias, much decomposed, and in some cases have disappeared. The Church. Coi siderable remains of the choir, and a small portion of the nave (11th century), < shelly limestone, similar to that of Doulting, in good condition. St. Benedict's Puri Church (14th century). Of limestone, similar to that of Doulting, in good condition St. John the. Baptist's Parish Church (15th century). Of stone similar to that Doulting, generally in fair condition. Gi.ocester — Cathedral, (Norman for the greater part, altered and cased in the 1 5t 1 1 century). Built of a fine-grained and ill-cemented oolite, a shelly oolite, and a n sandstone (north side) intermixed, the former constituting the greatest portion of tl | edifice. The tower (15th century), of shelly oolite, in perfect condition. The ear 1 turrets of the south transept are also in good condition. The body of the building much decomposed. The great cloister is built of the same materials as the cathedra j The moulded and decorated work is in good condition ; the other parts are more d less decomposed. The great cloister is built of a fine oolite, with a compact cemei and is in good condition. St. Nicholas's Church (body Norman; tower and spiv 15th century), of a shelly and inferior kind of oolite intermixed, and in unequal coi dition. St. Michael's Church (15th century), built of same stone as that of Sj fl Nicholas, and in the same condition. Grantham Church ( 1 fith century). Lofty tower and spire at the west end. Built of oolite, similar to that of Ancaster, in good condition, more especially the tower, exec , as to some portions of the base mouldings. Ketton Church, Rutlandshire. (West entrance door, Norman; tower of the 12th or 111 i century ; nave, aisles, and chancel of the 14th century). Of a shelly oolite ( Bariuv j rag), in good condition. Dog’s-teeth, carved corbels, and other enrichments in perfect state. Kettering Church (14th and 15th centuries). Of a shelly oolite, fine-grained, the great I portion resembling Barnack rag. The tower and spire in perfect condition. 1 body of the church in parts slightly decomposed. Kirkham Priory, Yorkshire (13th century). Inconsiderable remains. The westi front and great entrance slightly decomposed throughout ; the portions which remi of the body of the church very perfect, but many of the stones are much decomposi The stone is very similar to that of the Hildenly quarry. The whole is covered w lichens. Lincoln Cathedral (the minster generally of the 12th and 13th centuries). Of ooli. and calcareous stone of the vicinity ; generally in fair condition, more especially t , 1 early portions of the west front. The ashler and plain dressings of the south fr< are, however, much decomposed. The mouldings and carvings of the east front in a perfect state. Roman Gate, of a ferruginous oolite, in fair condition. The Co Gateway (13th century), of an oolitic limestone ; ashler much decomposed, dressu perfect. Melton Old Church, Yorkshire (12th century). Light semi-compact limestone, simi > to that of the Hildenly quarry ; generally in good condition, particularly the gv f west door (of the 1 1 th century), where the zig-zag and other enrichments are p“rb Some stones are much decomposed. Montacute, Somersetshire — Parish Church (15th century). Of Hamhill stone, in perl ; condition, covered with lichens. The Abbey (15th century). Supposed abb' house and gateway, of Hamhill stone, in good condition. Montacute House (I century), of Hamhill stone, in excellent condition. Martock Church, Somersetshire (15th century). Of a shelly ferruginous brown In stone from Hamhill, in good condition, except the plinth and base mouldings, wL are much decomposed. Covered with lichens. Newark Church (15th century; the tower, in part, of the 12th century). Of an ool similar to that of Ancaster ; generally in fair condition, with the exception of part' the base mouldings. The building is covered with a grey lichen. The Castle man, with additions in the 15th century). Chiefly of sandstone of the vicinity; unequal condition. A large portion of the dressings of the windows. See. arc ol ool A r. IL STONE. 467 probably from Ancaster. Town Hall (50 or 60 years old). Built of the Ancaster oolite ; in good condition ; in some blocks, however, there is an appearance of lami- nation, where decomposition has to a slight extent taken place. roan Cathedral, Norman (I'Jth century). Chiefly of a shelly oolite, similar to that of Taynton; Norman work in good condition, the latter work much decomposer Merton College Chapel (13th century). Of a shelly oolite, resembling Taynton stone; in good condition generally. New College Cloisters (14th century). Of a shelly oolite (Taynton), in good condition. The whole of the colleges, churches, and other public buildings of Oxford, erected within the last three centuries, are of oolitic lime- stone from Heddington, about one mile and a half from the university, and are all, more or less, in a deplorable state of decomposition. The plinth, string-courses, and such portions of the buildings as are much exposed to the action of the atmosphere, are mostly of a shelly oolite from Taynton, fifteen miles from the university, and are universally in good condition. 1 jl’s, £>t., Cathedral, London ( finished about 1700). Built of l’ortland oolite, from the Grove quarries on the cast cliff. The building generally in good condition, especially the north and east fronts. The carvings ot flowers, fruit, and other ornaments aie throughout nearly as perfect as when first executed, although much blackened; on the south and west fronts, larger portions of the stone may he observed of their natural colour than on the north and east fronts, occasioned by a very slight decomposition of the surface. 1 he stone in the drum of the dome, and in the cupola above it, appears not to have been so well selected as the rest ; nevertheless scarcely any appreciable decay has taken place in those parts. 1 kering Church, Yorkshire (13th and 14th centuries). Oolite reck of the neighbour- hood ; very much decomposed ; the windows, mullions, and buttress angles ohli- S / So St terated. Bering Castle (14th century). The walls of the oolite of the neighbourhood, and the quoins of a siliceous grit. The whole in fair condition. tland, Dorsetshire — New Church (built 1766), of Portland oolite, fine roach; in a perfect state, still exhibiting the original tool marks. Wakeham Village, Tudor House, of Portland oolite, in excellent condition. Old Church, in ruins, near Bow and Arrow Castle (15th century), of Portland oolite, resembling top bed ; in very good condition ; original chisel marks still appear on the north front. Bow and Arrow Castle. Considerable remains of the keep, many centuries old, of Portland oolite ; the ashlar resembles the top bed, and is in perfect condition ; the quoins and corbels of the machicolated parapet appear to be of the cap bed of Portland oolite, and are in good condition. sbuky Cathedral (13th century). Of siliciferous limestone from Chibnark |uarry. The entire building is in excellent condition, except the west front, which in parts is slightly decomposed. The building generally covered with iclie ns. vseoot Casti.e, near Weymouth (temp. Hen. VIII.). Considerable remains of keep, chiefly of Portland oolite, partly of the top bed and partly of the fine roach; generally n excellent condition, with the exception of a few and apparently inferior stones. The inside ashlar of the walls is of large-grained oolite, apparently from the immediate vicinity of the castle, much decomposed. ion Church, Somersetshire (14th century). Built chiefly of blue lias; the quoins, mttresses, parapets, and other dressings of a coarse ferruginous shelly limestone, in •arious stages of decay. The parapet of the clerestory of a lighter-coloured stone, in ;ood condition. * oki) — S t. Mary’s Church (1 3th century ). Of a shelly oolite (Barnack rag), in air condition. St. John's Church (1 4th century). Of similar stone, ill selected, and onxequently decomposed in parts and in laminations, according to the direction of he beds of shells. St. Martin's Church (14th century). Of similar stone, in good • uidition. All Saints (lower part of the body of the church 13th century ; the re- minder 15tli century). Tower and spire in line condition ; body of the church de- oinposcd. Stand well’s Hotel, built twenty-four years since of an oolite similar to Ht ot Ketton ; in perfect condition. St. Michael's New Church. Built four years nice ; no appearance of decomposition. In* Cathedral. West front (13th century), upper part of tower (14th century), shelly limestone, similar to that of Doulting, generally decomposed, but not to any 1 cut extent. North flank (porch and transept llltli century, the remainder of the Ith century), of. similar stone, in good condition, except lower part of flank and west >wer. 1 he central tower (of the 14th century) in very good condition. South side the cathedral generally in good condition. Chapter House (13th century, with Mi (Ions ut the 15th century). The whole in good condition excepting the west out ol the gatewu), which is decomposed. Close gates ( 1 5th century) much de- li ii ‘2 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook ! 1 468 composed, but especially on the south and south-west. The cloisters (15th centurv generally decomposed, particularly the midlions and tracery. Westminster, Abbey (I 3th century). Built of several varieties of stone, similar to that o Gatton or Ryegate, which is much decomposed, and also of Caen stone, which i generally in bad condition ; a considerable portion of the exterior, especially on tli north side, has been restored at various periods, nevertheless abundant symptom of decay are apparent. The cloisters, built of several kinds of stone, are in a ver mouldering condition, except where they have been recently restored with Hat; and Portland stones. The west towers, erected in the beginning of the 18th cental with a shelly variety of Portland oolite, exhibit scarcely any appearance of decai H enry the Seventh’s Chapel, restored about twenty years since with Combe Dow Bathstone, is already in a state of decomposition. W 1 NDRUSH Chukch (15th century). Of an oolite from the immediate vicinity; in ex cellent condition. A Norman door on the north side, enriched with the bird’s-bea and other characteristic ornaments, is in perfect condition. Tombstones in tb churchyard, very highly enriched and bearing the dates of 1681, 1690, apparently i Windrush stone, are in perfect condition. Wyke Church, Dorsetshire (15th century). Of oolite, similar to Portland, the whole i good condition, except the mullions, tracery, and dressings of doors and window which are constructed of a soft material, and are all decomposed. On the south sid> the ashler is in part covered with rough-cast. The entire building is thickly cover? I with lichens. MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE BUILDINGS. Beverley, Yontshire. The minster (12th, 13th, and I 4th centuries), of magnesian linn stone from Bramham Moor, and an oolite from Newbold ; the former, which is use in the west tower, central tower, and more ancient parts of the minster, generally i good condition ; but in other parts of the building the same material is decomposed The Newbold stone, chiefly employed on the east side, is altogether in a bad conditioi Some of the pinnacles are of Oulton sandstone, and are in bad condition. The bnib ing is partly covered with lichens. St. Mary’s Church (14th century), now in cour of restoration, of magnesian limestone and oolite, supposed to be from Bramham Mm and Newbold, respectively. The ancient parts are in a very crumbling state, even i the obliteration of many of the mouldings and enrichments. lioLsovEii Castle, Derbyshire (1629). Mostly in ruins; of magnesian limestone several varieties, and of a calcareous tine-grained sandstone. The dressings, whn are generally of sandstone, are much decomposed, in some instances to the entire o' literation of the mouldings and other decorations, and to the destruction of the form the columns, rustications, &c. Most of the string courses, a portion of the wimlo dressings, and the ashler, which are of magnesian limestone, are generally in excellc i condition. Bolsover Church, Derbyshire (1 5th century). Of a magnesio-calciferous sandstone, mo or less in a decomposed state throughout. Chepstow Castle, Monmouthshire (11th and 12th centuries, with additions of the Hi century). Of mountain limestone and old red sandstone ; the former in good coi dition, the latter decomposed. Dressings of door, window, archway, and quoins are 1 the most part of magnesian limestone, and in perfect condition. The remainder is red sandstone, and is generally much decomposed. Chapel (of the 1 2th centur; mouldings and carvings of windows, &c., which are of magnesian limestone, in perk condition Doncaster (Old) Church (1 5th century). Of an inferior magnesian limestone, genera much decomposed, more especially in the tower, and on the south and west sides; no , under general and extensive repair. IIemingborough Church, Yorkshire (1 5th century). Of a white crystalline magncsi limestone. The entire building is in a perfect state, even the spire, where no traces | decay are apparent. Howden Church, Yorkshire (15th century). Partly of magnesian limestone of a do yellow colour, and partly of a coarse siliceous grit of a ferruginous colour. Dressin and enrichments, and the central tower, are of the former stone, generally dccompo.v particularly at the top of the tower. The other parts of the edilice, built ot the gt are very much decomposed. Huddlestons Hall, Yorkshire (1 5th cent ury ). Of semi-crystalline magnesiafl limesto from the neighbouring quarry. In excellent condition, even to the entire preservan of the mouldings of t lie chapel window in the south-west front. The outer gate ]»' in the fence wall, also of magnesian limestone, very much decomposed. K s aresborough Castle, Yorkshire (1 2th century). Magnesian limestone, carious in pm II V p. STUNK. 4fi0 ■rener illy in very good condi’ion, except on the south and south-west portions of the circular turrets, where the surface is much decomposed. The mouldings generally are In a perfect state. The joints of the masonry, which is executed with the greatest care, are remarkably close. The stone of the keep, which is of a deep brown colour, and much resembles sandstone, is in good condition, especially on the south-west ■ude. ■ sixes borough Castle, Yorkshire (Norman), Coarse-grained and semi-crystalline mag- nesian limestone, from the bill eastward of the castle; in perfect condition. The masonry is executed with gieat care, the joints very close, but the mortar within them has disappeared. mix Cathedrae. Lower part, east end, south-east angle (Norman), of coarse sandstone from the vicinity, in good condition. The west front, the transepts, and tower (of the 12th and 13th centuries), of coarse sandstone of the vicinity, in fair condition. The mouldings, although generally decomposed, are not effaced. The dog's-teeth orna- ment in most parts nearly perfect. The aisles of the nave, the clerestory, and the choir (of the 14th and 15th centuries), of coarse sandstone and magnesian limestone intermixed, not in good condition. The latter stone, on the south side, often in fair condition. The lower parts of the building generally, particularly the west fronts, which are of coarse sandstone, are much decomposed. An obelisk, in the market- place (1781), of coarse sandstone, is much decomposed, and in laminations parallel to tile exposed faces. obix Hood’s Wki.l, Yorkshire (1740). A rusticated building, of magnesian limestone, in perfect condition. ■i hi: Abbey, Yorkshire (12th century). Inconsiderable remains, of semi-crystalline mag- nesian limestone from the neighbouring quarry, generally in fair condition. The mouldings and decorated portions are perfect. Gate-house (12th century) generally decomposed, with the exception of the dressings and mouldings, which are perfect. i.by Church, Yorkshire (nave and lower part of the tower of the 1 1 til century ; the west front and aisles of the 1 2th century ; and the choir with its aisles of the 1 4th century). The Norman portion of the building, which is of grey magnesian limestone, is in excellent condition, particularly the lower part. The early English portions of the building are also of magnesian limestone, and in a partially decomposed state. The I ter portions of the building, which also are of magnesian limestone, are much decom- posed and blackened. i thwei i. Church, Notts (of the 10th century). Of magnesian limestone, similar to that of Holsovcr Moor, in perfect condition. The mouldings and enrichments of the doorway appear as perfect as if just completed. The choir, which is of the 12th cen- tury, and built of a stone similar to that of Mansfield, is generally in good con- dition. u i iikth Castle, Yorkshire (1 4th century). Of coarse red sandstone, generally much decomposed. The dressings of the windows and doors, of a semi-crystalline mag- nesian limestone, are in a perfect state, the mouldings and enrichments being eminently sharp and beautiful. i in t v I’akk, Yorkshire. Banquetting house, about 100 years old, of yellowish mag- nesian linn stone, in perfect condition. lor.i-K Abbey Village. The houses generally of this village are built of magnesian kmcstonc from the vicinity ; they are in excellent condition, and of a very pleasing colour. "n.i-E Su.vix, near Worksop. Manor-house (15th century), in ruins. Of a siliciferous magnesian limestone and a sandstone, in unequal condition ; the quoins and dressings are generally in a perfect state. Parish Church (15th century), also of a siliciferous variety of magnesian limestone and a sandstone, in unequal but generally fair condi- tion. A Norman doorway under the porch is well preserved. “mil. Church, Yorkshire, (15th century). Of magnesian limestone, in excellent condition. The lower part of the tower (of the 12th century) also in fair condition. Ancient Buildings : Cathedral (transepts, 13th century; tower, nave, Ac., 14tli century). Of magnesian limestone, from Jackdaw Craig. West end and towers restored thirty years since ; they are generally in fair condition, but some of the enriched gables and other decorations are obliterated. The transepts are in many places much decomposed, especially in the mouldings and enrichments. The central tower is generally in good condition, but several of the enriched parts are decom- post-d. Mary's Al,l>ey (12th century), of magnesian limestone. West front of the rliurrh generally much decomposed ; the north llank in better condition, but in parts modi decomposed. I he gateway, which is of Norman origin, is in fair condition, /to man hl'ihunf/ul ir T'linr. liuilt of small stones; such as are of magnesian limc- sD'De ,,re m good condition. >7. iJnnss Church. Norman doorway, of magnesian 470 Til KORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I] limestone; south side highly enriched with zig-zag and other ornaments ; the column are gone; the parts which remain are in good condition. St. Margaret's Church (lStl century), of magnesian limestone; east front much exposed, and in good condition The porch is of Norman date, and has been reconstructed; four hands of enrichmen in the head, in tolerably fair condition, but many stones, particularly those of a dec; yellow brown colour, are much decomposed. The other churches of York (which ap of the 14th and 15th centuries) are built of magnesian limestone, and are generally i> an extremely decomposed state ; in many instances all architectural detail is obliterated Modern Buddings: The Museum, of Hackness sandstone, built nine years since much decomposed wherever it is subject to the alternation of wet and dry, as at tin bottom of the columns of the portico, plinth, &c. The Castle (recently erected) the plinth of the boundary wall (which is of Bramleyfall sandstone) already exhibit i traces of decomposition. York Savings Bank. Huddersfield stone (?), in gom j condition. Won ksoi* Church (principally of the I 3th century), of a silieiferous variety of magnes'nu limestone and of a sandstone; in very unequal condition. Some parts are verv mud I decomposed, whilst others are in a perfect state. Table of the Chemical Analysis of Sixteen Specimens of Stone. Sandstones. Magnesian Lime- stones. Oolites. LiMESTor Cragleith. Heddon. Kenton. 6-3 '■c.zz 5 Huddlestone. -C 0 X Park Nook. ^ < Bath Box. Portland. Ketton. 1 a M 5 1 £ |; G Silica 98*i 1 96-40 95-1 93-1 49 4 3 G 2*53 0-8 o-o 00 o-o 1-20 00 o-o 10- 1 Carbonate of lime - 1 1 0-3(3 0-8 2 0 26*5 Ml 54-19 57-5 55-7 93 59 94-S2 95 1G 92 17 934 79-01 I)o. of magnesia o-o 0 0 0-0 o-o nil 40 2 41-37 39 4 41 6 2 90 2-50 1-20 4 10 3'8 .1 Iron alumina 0-G 1-30 2 3 4-4 3-2 1-8 0-30 0-7 0-4 0-80 1 20 0-50 0-90 1-3 21 1 Water and loss o-o 1-94 1 8 0*5 4-8 3 3 1-61 HI 2-3 2-71 1'78 1-94 2 8.1 1-5 4' Bitumen 00 o-o 00 00 00 o-o 0 0 00 o-o A trace. Do. Bo. Do. A trace. D. Specific Gravities. Of drv masses 22:12 2628 2229 2247 2338 2.3 1G 2147 2134 2138 2182 1839 2145 2045 2090 Ol particles 204(3 2993 2(343 2G25 2756 2833 2867 2840 2847 2G87 2G75 2702 2706j 2627 26: Cohesive Powers. 111 too 56 70 72 1 117 G1 55 61 ! 1 33 21 30 3G j 25 10! 1666. In the above table the names of the quarries are inserted under the general di' 1 sions of the different species of stone, and the specimens were considered as fair avera j samples of the workable stone in such quarries. The experiments were conducted I j Messrs. Daniel and Wheatstone. As a conclusion to the report, it may be satisfactory j name the actual stones used in the construction of the first portions (1840) of the Hon j of Parliament. The foundation was laid with Penryn granite, rising to the level of tl | ground, therefore hut little seen. Ah >ve it is Fog-tor granite from Dartmoor. A suit I portion only of the superstructure, to the top of the basement windows, was built wo j Holsover Moor stone from near Chesterfield; after which Anston stone was used for tl j remainder of the outside works. In the interior, Painswick and Caen stones have bet employed; St. Stephen’s crypt is of Beer stone. It has been asserted that had Goven ir.cnt employed a supervision at the quarries io prevent imperfect blocks being sent u to London, the present uns'ghtly appearance of many parts of the building would m have resulted. 1 666a In par. 1500— 1 ”02 is' supplied tables of the crushing weights of many of tb stones herein mentioned. Hereto is added a further table of the weights of a large numl« of building stones, taken from the one prepared by the late C. H. Smith for It. Hunt Mineral Statistics of the United Kingdom , Sfc. Part II for 1858, published 1860; it was ah 1 given in the Transactions of the Institute of British Architects, 1859-60. hat. II. STONE. 471 '<<><■&. Tasi.e ok the Weights op BuirjiiN'G Stones, (in Continuation). Name of Quarry. Tisbury - Farleigh Down ... I5o\ Hill - Park Quarry ... Dimdry Hill ... Stcet ley (white) - Duulting, Old Down Morley Moor ... Steetley (yellow) ... Dunmore Stable - Gosling’s Portland (bottom bud ) Castle’s Portland - - - M oakery .... Hunger Hill Park Nook - Duke or Hamilton’s Hildenley .... Huwksworth Wood Duke of Hamilton’s Red gate .... Meanwood .... Scullcap, Portland Stanley .... Catcraig .... Craigleith (bed rock) - Ham Hill - Hookstone .... Westwood .... GiUheuk .... Anston, Norfall Quart y „ Stone-Ends Quarry - Kenton .... Victoria .... Woodhouse - - - - 1 iun Barrel .... Mansfield (white) - Corby ..... New Leeds - - - - Warwick .... Mansfield (red) ... Amygdaloid ... Talacre .... Chilmark (Trough bed) (Penney bed) Hoyle Mouse (dough) Longwood Edge ... Crossland Hill ... Ketton (Rag bed) Viney 1 1 i 1 1 .... < hilmsrk (hard white bed) - Ixrchee .... Auchray .... I.ioch . Knock Icy .... Dylnis- .... Ke.. tilth Rag ... I'rchaunws .... Red Jacket .... ( ett fas «... Mumble .... A eipht per Post Towns. cubic foot avoirdupois. 11). oz. - Tijbury, V\ i ’ ts - - - in o - Bath, Somerset - - - 122 10 - Chippenham, Wilts - - - 123 0 - Tixall, Stafford - - - 124 9 - Corbv, Lincoln - _ 125 1 1 - Bristol, Somerset - - - 126 2 - Worksop, Not s - - - - 128 3 - Shepton Mallet, Somerset - - 130 4 - Derby ... - - - 130 8 - Worksop. Notts - - - - 130 9 - Falkirk, Stirling - - - 132 2 - Weymouth, Dorset - - - 132 5 - »* »> - - - 133 6 - Corby, Lincoln - - - - 133 8 - Be'per, Derby - - - 135 15 - Doncaster, York - - - - 137 3 - Linlithgow - - - 137 4 - Malton, York - - 137 10 - Leeds, York - - - 137 14 - Linlithgow - - - - 138 2 - Wolsingbam. Durham - . - 139 9 - Leeds, York - - - 139 14 - Weymouth - - - - 140 1 - Bewdley, Shropshite - - - 141 7 - Borrowstoness, Linlithgow - - 141 I 1 - Edinburgh - - - - 141 12 - Yeovil, Somerset - - - - 141 12 - Harrowgate, York - - 142 10 - Le ds, York - - - 143 0 - Glasgow, Lanark - - - 143 14 - South Anston, York - - - 144 0 - „ „ „ - - - 144 3 - Newcastle-on-Tyne - - - H5 1 - Leeds, York - - - 145 3 - Mansfield, Notts * - - - 145 12 - Bewdley, Shropshire - - - 143 () - Mansfield, Notts - * - - - 146 9 - Corby. Lincoln - - 146 1 1 - Leeds, York - - - 147 8 - Huddersfield. York . - . 148 10 - Mansfield, Notts - - - - 148 10 - Creditor, Devon - . - _ 149 9 - Holywell, Flint - - - - 150 4 - Salisbury, Wilts - - - - 151 6 • *» >» - - - 151 9 - Huddersfield, York - - - 151 7 “ » » - * - 153 7 ■ »» » - - - 155 4 - Ketton, Rutland - - - - 155 lO - Col ford, G1 uccster - - - 155 1 1 - Salisbury. Wilts - - - - 157 6 - Dundee, Forfar - - - - 158 1 1 - » „ - - - 158 14 • „ ,, - - _ 159 3 . Col ford. Gloucester . . 159 5 - Swansea, Glamorgan - . 166 3 - Maidstone, Kent - - - . 166 9 - Swansea - - - 1C8 1 ” »» « - - - 168 2 • »• " - “ - 170 2 ' »» “ * * - 170 7 472 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II, 166Cc. In tlie year 1 858, the present editor contributed to tbe Builder J ntrtiul ( pp. (>32-3) a let ot tbe Building Stones used externally in and near the Metropolis , with t lie nanvsand dates of erection of the buildings in which they liad been use;'. This list cannot be here inserted, but the following are among the stones named: — Anston, Aubigny, Bath, Bramley Fall, Broomhill, Cadeby. Caen, Cra'gleith, Godstone, Great Barrington, Ilare. bill, Kentish rag, Yorkshire stone, Ketton. I’ortland Prudholme or Prudbam, Reigate, Roche Abbey. Swanage or Purbeck, and Wnitby (Egton Quarries) stones, besides Granite, and Flint. The paper by E. J. Tarver, on The Architecture of London Streets , read May 10, 1887, at tbe Society of Arts, is also applicable. 1666a Tbe North Anston stone of Yorkshire, not mentioned in tbe preceding Report, belongs to tbe magnesian limestone formation, and is of a yellowish brown colour. Asix- amples of its use we point to tile Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, 1 ’all Mall, in tbe facades of which the e is scarcely a bad stone to be seen, ibis well conceived struc- ture was erected from the design of James Pennethorne during the years 1837 to 1848. At the New Hall and Library, Lincoln’s Inn, designed 1843-45 by P. Hardwick, II. A., tnis stone is in a lamentable state of decay, occasioned (as is reported in the discussion o.i G. li. Burnell’s paper, On Building Stones , §•<•., read at the Society of Arts in 186'0), by the use of two particular beds, the blocks of which were in a state of decay before they left tbe quarry, and supposed to have been selected by tbe builder as yielding him the best profit. Tbe labour upon Anston stone is intermediate between Yorkshire and Portland stones; it can be obtained of any required dimensions. The office of tbe Amicable Life Assurance Company, in Fleet Street, was erected 1843, with the Mansfield Woodliouse or Bolsover stone, in tbe facade of which there is scarcely any trace of decay. 1666e. From the Mansfield quarries are now sent up the red Mansfield stone, tbe white Mansfield stone, and tbe yellow magnesian or Bolsover limestone Tbe former is limcli introduced for colonnettes, short shafts, and bands in coloured coursed ashlar work. For similar decorative work, the following stones have been used (18(15) at tbe new offices of the Crown Assurance Company in Fleet Street ; namely, Portland stone in the piers and caps; Forest of Dean, red Mansfield, and blue Warwick, in other portions of the front ; and Sicilian marble over tbe arches. 1666/1 In consequence of tbe reintroduction of Portland stone of late years, we would refei, in addition to what lias been static! on p 467. as to tbe quarries of Portland stone, to the article Lithology, written by the late C. II. Smith, and published in the Tram actions of tbe Institute of British Architects, 1812. Also to a report, published in tbe Builder of 1863, p. 859, by F. A. Abel, being the result of bis examination into tbe comparative qualities and liiness for building purposes, of samples of stone from different quarries, and made under the direction of tbe Inspector General of Fortifications. 1666p. These results “ show that all the superior descriptions of ‘ whit bed ’ stone combine strength and compactness in a considerably higher degree than tbe varieties of • base-bed’ stone. Some kinds of the ‘ whit-bed ’ stone, however (i.e. those from the New Maggot and Inmosthay quarries), though ranking with the best as regards strength, ex- hibit a greater degree of poros ty. Again, otln r * whit-bed ’ stones (from Old Maggot, Waycroft, and Independent quarries) exhibit but little superiority, in point either ol strength or compactness, over tbe generality of tbe ‘ base-bed ’ stones, and are, indeed, inferior to tbe best ‘ base-bed ’ variety.” 1666/r. “Tbe ‘ base-bed’ stones are, undoubtedly, more generally uniform in structure than those of tbe ‘ whit-bed ; ’ this being mainly due to the comparative freedom of the former from distinct petrifactions. Though such petrifactions were shown, by the results of experiments, to impart, in many instances, great additional strength to the stone, they frequently give rise by their existence to cavities sometimes of considerable size, which not only serve to weaken those particular portions of the stone, but may also, if they exist in proximity to exposed surfaces of a block of stone, promote its partial disintegration by the action of frost. Greater care is, therefore, unquestionably required in tbe selection of ‘ whit-bed ’ stone than need be employed in the case of all the better varieties of ‘base- bed ’ stone.” Tbe results of my experiments lead me to the following conclusions regat ding the comparative merits of tbe various descriptions of Portland stone in question, to> building purposes: — - “ For External work, in tbe order of their merit : — I Stone from War Department quarry, Yern Hill; and'wldt bed ’ stone, Admiralty quarry. II. ‘ Whit-bed ’ stone. New Maggot quarry ; ‘ base bed ’ stone, Admiralty quarry (this may be considered quite equal in quality to ‘ whit-bed ’ stone); a..d ‘ whit-bed ’ stone, In- mosthay quarry (particularly adapted from its texture and uniformity for ornamental woik I- III. * Whit-bed ’ stone. Old Maggot quarry : a marked LI ; and b marked 1 I and IF- The ‘roach ’ stone, from War Department quarry, is an invaluable stone for external wor in localities where any considerable strength and power of resisting mechanical wen * ri 473 .’HAP. II. STONE. equited, as in connection with those portions of work which may become exposed to the mtiuual abrasive action of water. The rough 4 whit-bed ’ stone from Admiralty quariy, is Iso a highly valuable stone for wotk of a similar kind, where great strength is required, and particularly where the numerous irregularities in the 1 roach ’ stone may be objectionable. 1’or Internal work, the following rank highest, ouaceouutof uniformity and comparative treugth: — ‘ liase-bed ' stone, Old Maggot quarry, IT ; ‘whit-bed’ stone. Independent marry; ‘base-bed’ stone, Waycroft quarry; and ‘base-bed’ stone, New Maggot u ^rv. The following are inferior to those just named, both in texture and uniformity : — Whit-bed’ stone, Waycroft quarry; ‘base-bed’ stone. Old Maggot quariy, IE; and base-bed ’ stone, Intnosthay quarry. The ‘base-bed’ stone, from Old Maggot quarry, (larked LI, and that from Independent quarry, are of low quality, as compared with the emainder ; and no reliance can be placed on the durability of the 1 roach ’ stone from udependent quariy, judging from the specimens received.” 16667. Hopton Wood smite is obtained from quariies situated near Middleton and Wirks- ■ ortb, in Derbyshire, in the mountain limestone districts of that part of the country. An eal)sis of it gives: — lime oo‘ 09, magnesia '17, carbonic acid 4130, water ’16, organic • Hitter "05, siliceous mutter insoluble in acids T5, oxide of iron '10, alumina a trace, and ibca soluble in acids a minute tiace= 100 02. It is well adapted for paving purposes, wing to the closeness and evenness of the grain ; these properties give this stone, its rincipal recommendation ; its durability does Dot depend, apparently, upon any necessity ■r placing it on its quarry bed. The late Mr. C. H. Smith lias stated in the Builder , 864, p. 912, that “ these extensive quarries have been worked from time immemorial ; the laterial is decidedly marble, for it is fine grained, compact in texture, and quite hard uough to take a brilliant polish. The colour is a pale brownish white, eeitainly as white s Sicilian marble, which approaches to a bluish grey. It is much heav er than Portland ate, but lighter than Carrara marble. Blocks of very large dimensions may be obtained ee from serious defects ; and as it is an aqueous formation, hard, and well crystallised, ■•re is no doubt of it standing weather extremely well. Both material and workmanship e less than those of Sicilian marble. A quantity of it was laid down about the year ■■')4, for foot-pavements, close to the Parliament Houses in Old Palace-yard, and part Abingdon Street ; and, though in constant use, no symptoms of decay, or of the sur- ce wearing away, are perceptible.” 1666;. Bath stone (noticed p. 460) is an oolite, obtained from several quarries in the igh bout-hood of the city of Bath, in Somersetshire. Its colour, a light cream, is more reeable than the cold tone of Portland stone; its texture is similar, but as it is softer il more absorbent, precautions must be oLserved in the manner of using it, and to •vent its rap'd decay. It may be sawn dry. Much depends on the bedding of the ■tie in the works. The Corsham Bourn stone is usually tree from the bars and vents n-'li are found iu the Combe Down stone; it. is a sound stone, blocks being obtained of V movable dimensions ; the beds vary from 1 foot to 4 feet in thickness. It is finer in uure and more regular in quality than any other description of* Bath stone, and is well ipted both for external and internal purpos-s, except plinths. Below the beds of good me are two be Is of a harder quality, called Corn Grit, which cannot well be used fur y purpose on which labour is required. It does well for steps and landings. One of su beds runs 2 feet 9 inches deep; the other about 4 feet 6 inches. The blocks 'fait- 21 feet cube. Combe Down s'one, when well selected, is considered to le an excel- tt weather stone, ftr use in plinths, copings, and other work ; but the blocks have bars I vents, which are defects The beds vary from 10 inches to 4 feet 6 inches in thick- 's. ami are occasionally found up to 6 feet ; in length from 6 to 6 feet ; wi h an rage .size ot block ot about In feet cube. Box Ground stone is coarse in texture, but inl in quality, and a good weather st'ine: harder than Combe Down stone, and with ■ vents. The beds vary from 1 to 4 feet in thiekne-s, with blocks of average size of •■uhic bet. tarh’icjh Down stone is at some distance. '1 he upper or white hods vary 1 1 liirkiie.ss from 10 incites to 2 f. et 6 inches. The lower or reddish beds are coarser in 1 lure, hut are supposed to stand ’lie weather better than the tipper beds, which are more t able lor internal purposes. The average size ot block is 14 feet. 'iipti/v. The Monk s Park quarry stone is stated tobedurablo and reliable, with uniformity ' olour and evenness of texture. Bath stone, on the whole, is one of the most fragile ' reestones, for when first quarried it is as soft as cheese, and although it hardens in i open air to some extent, yet it soon disintegrates, as it consists onlv of minute l nbs cemented together byyellowish earthy calcaroous matter, and contains a consider* a portion of broken shells. It has been said that for outside work tile stone from •G'lill Down quarry and the weather bed of the Comlm Down quarry ars the only ' stones that will really stand the weather. This material has been well described by " ors in the Builder for the years 1846 and 1861), and the detailed mode of working at ■ quarries in 1802, p. 613. The weigh' of Bath stone is about. 123 lbs. per rnho hot, 1 ill*' crushing weight about 180ft to 2000 lbs. per inch superficial. I n an experiment 474 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book H i a 1864, a 3-inch cube of Box Bath stone crushed with 8 tons 7 cwts 0 qr. 16 lbs., while the same of Corsham Bath stone crushed with 11 tons 11 cwts. 1 qr. 20 lbs. A l|-inch cube Box Ground crushed with 1 ton 3 cwts. 3 q>-s. 12 lbs., and anotherof Corsham with 1 ton 10 cwts. 2qrs. 4 lbs. In some other experiments Box Ground stone was first fractured at an average of 46 tons 5 cwts. 2 qrs. 22 lbs. and crushed at 54 tons; while Corsham was fractured at 73 tons 14 cwts. 1 qr. 4 lbs., and crushed at 83 tons 2 cwts. 3 qrs. 12 lbs. 1666C The Bath Baynton quarries supplied the stone for Queen Square, at Bath; it is the coarsest, hardest, and most expensive and most durable variety. The Combe Down stone from the Bath Lodge Hill quarries is softer and finer grained, is said to have been used between 1808 and 1822 in the restoration of King Henry VII. ’s chapel at West- minster; while Farleigh Down stone from the Monckton Farleigh quarries is said to have been used from 1821 to 1840 on the north side of Westminster Abbey, since renewed, 1666?«. Messrs. Pietor and Sons, Messrs. Randell, Saunders & Co., Mr. Isaac Sumsion, the Corsham Bath Stone Co., Messrs. R. J. Mar.-h & Co., Mr. S. R. Noble, and Messrs. Stones Brothers, have amalgamated the several Bath stone businesses into one, under the style of “ The Bath S’one Firms, Limited,” with the office at Bath. A vast quantity of Bath stone of the best quality is thrown away at the quarries because the pieces are not of sufficient size to make useful blocks. These would yield a large and reliable supply for ashlar, quoins, &c., to serve as inside linings to walls with advantage, as non- cracking and non-peeling, absence of water trickling down the wall, uniform and mellow tint, and far better appearance than cement or plaster. 1666». Ancastcr stone from quarries near Grantham hasbeen used locally for upwards of five hundred years. It is an oolite (p. 459), a good-looking stone, easily worked, and, though soft when first quarried, becomes hard with exposure, and is very durable. Wollaton Hall in Nottinghamshire, and most of the ancient churches in Lincolnshire, are built of this stone. 1666c. Hollington stone, a sandstone from near Ashbourne, ; n Staffordshire (p. 455), or Rocester, near Uttoxeter. The three qualities are — fine, medium, and very coarse. 1666y>. Little Casterton stone, an oolite, from quarries near Stamford, Lincolnshire, it now us“d in lieu of the Barnack stone formerly obtained from quarries in Northamptonshire, long since abandoned. It is said to be of a compact character, to stand all weather, andtr have been used in waterworks. It works freely with the saw. It is about 4 feet thiol in the. bed, and can be raised in blocks of large size ; in ashlar work it is not essential that it should be placed on its quarry bed. The colour is of a lightish brown, resembling: 1 Ketton and Bath stones. 1666y. Tisbury, in Wiltshire. The quarry gives a calciferous sandstone, close and fin grained, of a light greenish-brown colour ; a good weather stone when placed on its bed easily worked with the saw, or with sand and water, when in block, and carries 11 fin ; arris. The Chilmark and the Warclour quarries also give stones of the same qualities '. , Their chemical composition, specific gravity, and resistance to strains, are the same hi;' | those of Portland stone, in which they are placed geologically, but they have more grit The Chilmark stone, a siliciferous limestone of the same colour, was used for Salisbur Cathedral, 1220-58 (p. 467). It is very non-absorbent, and weighs 153 lbs. 7 oz. Thesi j stones have been used from 1864 in the restorations at Westminster Abbey. The house ; at Tisbury, built generally of Tisbury stone, are in very good condition, the whole coverei with lichens. The Chilmark stone does not absorb one thirty-sixth of its bulk, while specimen of Cadeby stone absorbed one quarter. The latter absorbed 519 8 grainy the former only 57’5 grains. This table shews its chemical analysis : Name of Stone Mineral designation Silica Carbonate of Lime Carbonate of Magnesia Iron Alumina Water and Loss Chilmark Limestone Siliciferous 10-4 79-0 3-7 2-0 4-2 Portland - Oolite - 1-20 95T6 1 20 050 1-94 Bath Box Oolite - — 94 52 250 1-20 1-78 Mansfield Sandstone 49'4 26-5 161 32 4-8 Park Nook Magnesian Limestone — 55-7 41-6 0-4 23 16 66r. The “ trough ” or “ hard ” bed is of a close, even texture, of yellowish-brow colour, weighing 143 lbs. to the. foot cube in its ordinary state. It will bear a tensi strain of 500 lbs. per square inch, and a crushing weight of 196 tons per foot supi The average, bed is 3 feet, and it can be obtained of any reasonable length and breadth ; 1 1 random rubble blocks average 16 cubic feet. The “ Scott ” or “ Brown ” bed is of a wanrn colour, weighs 135 lbs. per foot cube, bears a tensile strain o f 206 lbs. per square inf! and a crushing weight of 104 tons per foot super. The average thickness of the 1” is 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet. The random rubble blocks average 16 cubic feet. This be is principally used for ashlar, mouldings, carving, balustrades, plinths, cornices, copu<( 'hap. II. STONE. 475 tc. The “ General bed ” of the Garden quarry supplies a stoDe of a rieh yellow tint and ine texture, applicable to the most elaborate designs, equal to Caen, and superior to it n colour and durability. It will btar a tensile strain of 355 lbs. to the square inch, and i crushing weight of 100 tons per foot super. Thickness of bed from 4 to 5 feet. 1666s. Ketton stone is an oolite, from quarries in Rutlandshire (p. 460). It is very -imilar to Barnack stone in colour, being a warm cream tint, but is harder and more liffieult to work ; from some cause at the quarry it is more expensive. It bears a much greater crushing weight. 1666t. Robin Hood, Park Spring, Potter Newton, Rretton, and Hare Hill are among the Yorkshire stones now much used in sawn landings and slabs, and steps. Potter Newton md Hare Hill in blocks, with Portland and Bramley Fall. 1666a. Endon stone, from near Macclesfield, is put forward as the best of its class, ind as having been quarried for nearly one hundred years. It is of a hard and fine •exture, almost non-absorbent, bright in colour, and of great durability ; it is sawn out of the -olidrock, not being a laminated flag rock. It is used for bases, steps, hearths, landings, diresholds, &c., wall courses, tombs, kerbs, setts and channel stone, and other purposes. 1666ti. Corncockle quarry, one of the oldest of the new red sandstone quarries in the jouth-west of Scotland, is situated about three miles from Nethercleugh station, on the Caledonian railway. It is obtained in any sized blocks up to 10 tons. The colour is a ight red, and very uniform ; slight black streaks occur here and there, which are a form >i mica, but they disappear entirely after twelve to fourteen months’ exposure. The beds ire from 1 to 3 feet thick, with an occas'onal one up to 4 feet 6 inches. The stone is •onsidered locally to be the most durable of all the Dumfries red sandstones, and to keep is colour best. It contains a very high percentage of silica, and stands frost well, as also he sea air, and is a free-working although a strong stone. Its crushing strain is : 38 tons per square inch, applied < n a block of 1| inch cube. 1666u\ Prudham quarry is situated near the Fourstones station, on the Newcastle and ’urlisle railway. The stone is of a light creamy-brown colour, very strong and durable, ad the crushing strain is 2834 tons per square inch. It is well ktuwn in the north of ingland and south of Scotland. It was used in the central station, post-office, and her buildings at Newcastle ; the town-hall and corn-market at Hexham, and in other iwns : also in London, at the Army and Navy Hotel ; St. James’s Residential Chambers, tuke Street, Piccadilly; and at Winchester House, Old Broad Street (1886). 1666-r. Scotgate Ash' stone, abo called Pateley Bridge stone, near Leeds, is a sandstone f the millstone grit series. The quarries afford every class of Yorkshire stone, so that is stated a building of any size can be supplied entire, without going to several quarries <• Red Corn hill stono is obtained from quarries near Annan, Dumfriesshire. It is a grained micaceous sandstone from the lower new red sandstone. It is of a rich rid ccir, even texture, and of great durability ; somo beds are a bright pink. Its crushing u.dit is 500 tons ; that of Bramley Fall 265 tons. It was used for the Hand-in-Hand 'iirance Office in 1873. The red Dumfries stono differs from it. The edifices in that * n Hre built ot stone from Craig, which is of moderato hardness and durability; 0 from Locharbriggs. Shawk stone is from quarries in Cumberland. It is red in our and a fairly good s’onc, very similar in quality aid texture to red Corsohill, but •> in very much smaller sized blocks, and in much thinner lifts. All up the valley, r " a v, ' r y large quantity of stono covered with a great depth of debris, which is nc of a coars, r texture. Jt is loaded at Cwithwuito station, on the Maryport and rliile lino. It has been used at the stores ii. the Haymarket. Ir is supposed to dry (. and not whiten on tho surface as do somo red stones. The rod Mansfield stone (par. ■'a. i has blocks which vary in beds from 1 t , , 7 feet thick, ai.d has landings of very ' L'o dimensions, 'j ho do p bed, selected quality, is esteemed for durability, fineness of f m. And splendid co’our. r,i:r,aa. The Minrra stone, from Berwig quarries. Minnra, near Wioxham. Thoy Minuted at some distance from tho outcrop of tho Wrexham coal field, closo adjoining ctfbonifurous limestone. The stone differs in diameter very materially from the ■ e of tin sandstones found in the Wrexham and liuubon coalfields, being much more r t 47G THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II durable. It nearly resembles the Barley Dale stone in colour und appearame, and is considered by many judges superior in every respect. Analysis of this freestone, by H. K. Bamber, F.C.S. : Silica - - - 85 05 Magnesia - 075 Alumina - 8 25 Alkali - Trace Oxide of iron - 2-30 Water and organic matter 2 22 Lime 100 99-57 The beds run Iron 1 to a feet in thickness, and blocks of any size can bo supplied. 'I he stone costs considerably less to work than the best of the Yorkshire stones. It is much less absorbent than any other stone, and is not affected by atmospheric changes, by damp, smoke, or chemical gases. It is very strong, and capable of sustaining a greater crushing strain than most other stones. It was used largely at the Municipal Offices at Liverpool, by Mr. T. II. Wyatt, as well as at Owens College at Manchester, by Mr. Alfred Wateihouse, R.A. ; also tlie Nati nal Safe Deposit Company’s premises in London, by Mr. James Whiehcord, who in 1876 wrote: “After seeing and testing various samples of sandstones, I decided upon adopting the Minera stone for its fire-resisting qualities; a block of it about 6 ins. cube was put into the middle of a furnace, where it remained for about an hour and a half. It was then taken out quite perfect, and on being plunged into cold water it neither cracked nor calcined in the least degree. Its cost in London was about the same as Portland stone, and it was quite as hard to work. The coarseness of the grain rendered it. unsuited fur small mouldings or delicate carving, but as solidity and boldness were required in this particular de.-ign. no difficulty was found in adapting the detail to this condition.” The weight is about 138 to 1-13 lbs. per cubic foot. The, Moss and Cefn quarries afford a softer variety of the same stone 1666 bb. The Mountain limestone is highly absorbent, but, according to Mr. E. Clark’s experiments for the Britannia Bridge, it is of the extreme density of 13^ cubic feet to the ton, as great as the average density of granite. It resisted a crashing weight of 7,576 lbs. per super, inch, whilst granite resists about 8,000 lbs. As lintels, it has been used in stones 24 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 4 feet thick, which must have been per- fectly homogeneous in character or they would not have borne the shocks they were exposed to in the workshops, or liavo carried the weight that was brought upon them. This stone yields with great ease to tlie plate saw, as it is composed of a pure carbonate of lime, is sub-erystalline. and without planes of bedding; granite cannot be sawn by the ordinary methods. There are several localities where the mountain limestone occurs in great abundance, and where the experience of centuries as to its powers of resistance to the atmosphere, or to tidal action, can be brought forward. It is met with in great masses in the hills that constitute the lower counties of England and Scotland ; it forms the range of the Derby hills, the Mendip, the hills round Plymouth, those of the Great Orme’s Head, the mainland of Anglesea, the outcrop of the carbowferous series of Ruabon, and many oth-r places in England. In Ireland this formation is largely worked, as at the Sheephouse quarries, Drogheda, by A. and N. Hammond. In Belgium it is universally used in all cases where it is desired to unite strength with durability, as in docks, river and canal works. The price of labour upon this material must be at least half as much as that on granite. The late Mr. Burnell, in Practical Mechanics Journal, 1865, notices that it was excluded from the Thames Embankment works, because it was considered objectionable on account of its being worked by the saw with samJ ; because it was feared that the planes of bedding would be distinctly marked, and would easily yield under ihe influence of the weather; and on account of the action of the acids present in Thames water. 1666cc. We do not purpose to enter into a description of quarrying stone; but would refer to the useful freitise by Burgoyne, published among Wea'e’s Elementary Treatises. 1 6 < '6dd. The Kentish ragstone is a limestone with a very small proportion of eartny matters, frequently subcrvstall tie, but ordinarily of a confused texture. When wellehcsen it is very hard and dense, and the labour upon it so expensive that it is very rarely used for anything but rubble masonry in districts remote from the quarries. The custom has been, therefore, to execute all the moulded or carved portions of the buildings in Caen or Bath stones, and even to carry up the quoins and jambs in those materials, whilst the in- tervening spaces, or the wall, are filled in with the rag. The colour varies from a lightish green to a deep blue, and although the colour of the two materials is at first very different, a few years’ exposure causes them to harmonise in tint. 1666ee. The district in which ragstone is quarried extends about thirty miles east and west through the central part of Kent, and averages from four to ten miles in breadth, comprising the towns of Sevenoaks. Maidstone. Lenham, &c. Reigate or firestone, and Tunbridge sandstone, are also afforded by the same formation, greensand. The ragstone is found in beds varying from six inches to three feet in thickness, alternated with fine sand known as Hassock, which in some bpds becomes so consolidated as to form an occasional use! ul auxiliary to the ragstone, in buildings. The quality of the rag differs vcrygruitly hap. n. STONE. 477 iccording to the place in which it is quarried ; some quarries only yielding stone of a hard linty nature, almost unfit for building, while the stone obtained from others is almost as ree working as Portland stone. The finest qualities are at present obtained from quarries ituatod at Boughton, near Maidstone, where they have been -worked for several centuries. 4 section of them is given by J. Whiehcord, in his pamphlet on the subject, published u 1846 ; wherein also are given the local names of the various beds. 1 666/1 Flint work. This material, as used for a description of rubble work, was formerly nuoh employed in the counties of Cambridge, N' rfolk, Suffolk, Sussex, and Ken', where lie chalk formation abounds, and is still used for the purpose in such localities. Flint is .he name accorded to the nearly pure siliceous earth, which by the action of fire becomes •pajue and white, and is harder than quartz, which it scratches. The colotir is usually 'rey, of various shades, but is sometimes black, brown, red, and even yellow. Flint is ragile, with a perfect and large conchoidul fracture, and, being rarely laminated, it is iroken with equal facility in almost every direction ; the fragments are sharp. In the ■halk formation it occurs in regular beds, consisting either of nodules or of fiat tabular nasses. At Brandon, in Suffolk, one of the places where flint forms an article of cnm- Tieree, it is obtained from pits sunk in the chalk, which is within 6 feet of the surface. The first stratum is found in the clay overlying the chalk ; when this has been removed, a shaft is sunk 6 feet in depth ; if no Hint is there found, a tunnel is driven for three feet torizontally, and another shaft is sunk ; and so on alternately with tunnel and shaft till a lepth of 40 feet is reached. The flint is found in floors about 8 feet below each other, uid is obtained by tunnels being driven, sometimes a furlong in length, under each floor, md the flint broken down by crowbars. The small tunnels in the shaft form fables, upon v hich men stand and hand up the flint to each other from below to the surface; no ma- hinery or tackling is used. 1666 gg. Flint, is split upon the workman’s knee, by sharp blows from a hammer with an blate face, and squared upon a steel stake let into a wood block, with a blunt axe formed i y p issing a handle through an old flat file about a foot long, the cutting edge being if inches wide bv i of an inch thick. (See Specification). French Building Slones. 1666 hh. Of these stones imported into the London market, a few only will be men- oned. Aubigny stone is stated to be obtained from quarries situated at St. Pierre anivet, a short distance from Falaise, in Normandy. It is probably of the same nature i Caen stone, namely, oolitic, but much more crystalline in its structure, with semi- ■anspartnt crystals, showing no appearance of ova; very fine grained; as hard or harder ian Anston stone; nearly as heavy as granite; and able to support a greater crushing eight than Caen stone; when worked it requires to be sawn wet with sand. There are *'0 workable beds, one averaging 24 inches, the other 15 inches, in thickness. U. R. ■irnell (in his remarks on the works at Bayeux Cathedral, read at the Institute of British rchitects, 1861, p 257 ) stated that be •“ was convinced the use of Aubigny stono in London ould be attended with danger. M. Flachat chose this stone because it yielded more tisfactory results under the trials to which he exposed the various local stones, so far • their resistances to crushing weights were concerned ; but his assistants expressly state, their published accounts of the works at Bayeux, that the Aubigny stone yielded easily idtr the action of frost, if used exteriorly, as may be seen in the mediaeval buildings in liaise.” Perhaps the only building erected with this stone in London is that part of e old Schomberg House, Nos. 81 and 82 Pall Mall, which was rebuilt in 1851. 1666ft. Caen stone is obtained from the great oolitic formation in Normandy, and has en imported into England tr^m a very early period ; but it first appears to be named in •cuments after the year 1300. There was a cessation of its use after 1448, when Nor- indy was lost to this country; and it is not until the commencement of the present ntury that its employment hero was resumed. This stone is now generally obtained ni quarries situated at Allemaane, a small village on the right bank of the Orne at the ics el Caen, or from those of St. Germain de Blancherbe, commonly called La Malad- rte, the commune immediately adjoining that city, on the lot L bank. 16664/:. The Caen stone of commerce is of a ] ale yellow colour and of a loose open tin which when freshly quarried soils the fingers like chalk, and is very friable. In my places it appears to have lost its oolitic character ; and in others it is harder and more •ipact, being entirely formed of a species of lamellous spath, without any trace of oolites ; " latter appearance is, however, principally to beobserved in the beds which aro worked ’ween Caen and Falaise; at Allemagne and La Maladrerie the former prevails. Neither these two latter quarries appear to have been opened for any great length of time, the no used in the old city having been chiefly got on its site ; and it is remarkable that the i lions of the public buildings which required stones of larger dimensions than could bo ■ bned from the upper beds of the oolitic formation immediately around the town were 478 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. which beds have been rendered available with the advance of mechanical science. The upper beds, called the bancs de bittes, which yielded the stone in olden times, is generally speaking of a harder character, of a finer grain, and presenting a more crystalline appearance than that obtained from the lower beds ; but ev> n in these upper beds care is required in the selection, for the texture is far from uniform; while the small size of the stones is tooo'ten considered an objection to it, as the eight layers, between each of which occurs a bed of flint 2 inches in thickness, are of variable depth (between 11 inches and 26 inches), being about 18 inches on the average. 1666i/. The lower beds comprise the banc de ckambranle, 16 inches thick; the banc de deux pie ds un quart , about 30 inches English thick, yielding a gcod stone, disfigured un- fortunately by the fossils it contains ; the banc rouge, 22 inches thick, of very bad quality and stained by ochreous iron ore, besides being traversed by numerous vertical vents; then the gros banc, 40 inches thick, a very good stone, but likewise disfigured by fossils; the banc defond , usually from 1 8 inches to 30 inches thick, of a closer and finer grain than the last named; and then the banc d,e 81 centimetres, of very inferior quality, worked only for the immediate neighbourhood. 1666«m. Experience proves that Caen stone will not resist the dissolving power of water charged with carbonic acid gas; and as the rain water of our large towns contains a con- siderable quantity of that gas, it is not expedient to employ this stone in any situation where water is likely to lodge, or even to be taken up by c pillary action, uidess, indeed, the projecting parts be protected by metal. In upright walling above the plinths, and in the sheltered portions of cornices, it can be employed when judiciously selected ; and in internal work, with safety and economy. The bedding of the stone should be observed. From the state of some buildings at Havre, it is considered that sea air is particularly destructive to this stone ; and it is generally believed that the stone from La Maladrerie is inferior to that from Allemagne. In Caen itself, the plinths or basements of houses are executed in granite, or in Ranville, Cherence, or Creuilly stones, which are practically non-absorbent; and, moreover, the Creuilly stone is used in the best buildings for the exposed portions of the elevation, although, of course, “Caen stone” is found at the very gates of the town. 1666««. More lengthened notices will be found in the accounts given in the Builder, vols. vi. and vii., entering into the qualities of the stone, from personal surveys of the quarries. When freshly quarried, this stone can be cut with the toothed saw, and carved with ordinary chisels, even more easily than Bath stone. 1666ort. The new facade of Buckingham Palace, erected in 1846-7, is perhaps the most remarkable failure of Caen stone. Mr. H. T. Hope’s house, in Piccadilly, built 1849-50, has been considered one of the best specimens of its employment in London, as it has stood well. The projections wore protected by lead or by slates. The crushing weight of Caen stone is about 2000 lbs. per inch superficial. 1666 pp. The Charente stone is a magnesian limestone of good qualify, has been used in France from time immemorial almost exclusively, not only in the departments which produce it, but also on the sea coast, for Government works, as lighthouses, harbours, fortifications, bridges, docks, &c. ; for churches, and other public and private edifices; the chateau of the Emperor Napoleon III. at Biarritz, and other villas. Blocks of about 8 or 9 cubic feet to about 33 cubic feet are always in stock. The quarries are Crazannes, Montarneuf, St. Savinien, and Ste. Merue, and the average resistance for the square centimetre (about -155 square inch English measure) gave about 157 lbs., 152 lbs., 148 lbs., and 130 lbs. avoirdupois respectively. 166 6qq. Table of the Weights per Cubic Foot Avoirdupois of some French Stones. Caen, Franc bane bed 116 lbs. 2 oz. Caen , Piere de trente pouces 128 lbs. 5 oz. ,, Banc de quatre pieds 118 , 0| „ Ranville, near Caen - 142 „ 6 „ „ Gros Banc 122 , o§ „ Aubigny, near Falaise 150 „ 6|„ „ Pierre franehe- 123 „ 3 „ DECAY OF STONE. 1667. In the paragraphs 1640 to 1648 have already been quoted some of the causes of decay and decomposition in stones, as stated in the Report of the Commissioners, and after the lapse of nearly thirty years since its publication but few additional facts have been obtained on the subject. One of the most commendable essays relating to it is that by G. R. Burnell, read at the Society of Arts, in March, 1860, which is likewise useful for the discussion thereon by some of the members learned in chemistry. We quote a few of the paragraphs for further elucidating some important points. 1667®. Atmospheric moisture, when absorbedinto building stones, acts upon them quite as much through the changes in its own volume. When the stone is placed in such a manner as that water can accumulate in any perceptible quantities between its various layers, and the position of those layers bo such that the expansion of the water in freezing HAP. II. STONE. 479 moot take place freely, the respective layers containing the water will be violently de- iched from one another. This is a more important consideration in the case of the bedding f stones, and it is unfortunaie that the system of competition throws so great a temptation i the way of the practical builder as to render it a mere matter of chance whether this instructive law he observed or not, unless a costly system of supervision be organised, and i us the precautions often taken by the stone merchant to indicate the upper bed of the laterial he delivers, are defeated. 1667b. The chemical reactions which take place in building stones are mainly those rising from the oxygenation, or the hydration of the various ingredients of which those ones are composed. These reactions are independent of those resulting, in the interior of le country, from the agents directly presented by atmospheric moisture in the form of ■ rbonic acid gas, sulphur, and ammonia ; or upon the sea-shore, in the form of hydro- iloric acid, or of common salt itself, in minute particles. Thus, if the oxide of iron be resent in any notable proportions, it is likely to undergo changes of a nature to disturb le stability of the compound, and even the crystalline sulphates of lime are exposed to aemical decomposition, in consequence of the liberation of the sulphuric acid gas they intain. The other mineral salts, such as the silicates and the sulphates of iron, so often ■et with in building stones, are at times susceptible of very injurious decomposition ; and ie soda, potassa, or the organic matters the stones may contain, frequently give rise to le formation of new salts ; mainly under the action of atmospheric moisture, it is true, ut also under the influence of the partial decompositions which take place around them, t is to be observed, however, that the danger to building stones from this peculiar class of ifluences, is very small and very slow in its action, compared with the dangers arising om the mechanical disinte ration produced by atmospheric causes: and that, with the cceptions of the actions of free carbonic acid upon the felspar of gianites, the changes of i.ite produced in limestones by the same agent, and the modifications of the abundant | Its of iron in some peculiar stones, there is little practical necessity fot dwelling upon is interesting but obscure branch of applied chemistry. lC67c. The actions capable of affecting the stability of the composition of ordinary biding stones, by reason of the new forms of matter they superinduce, may principally • considered to be those resulting from the absorption of the gases of the atmosphere, and pecially the process known by the name of saltpetring, or more correctly, of nitrification, his process displays itself in the formation of minute crystals, efflorescing from the tenor to the exterior of the stone, and it leads to the destruction of the exposed surfaces the latter, through the gradual removal of the mi,. ute particles, in consequence of the sintegration produced by the expansive action of the crystals in process of formation. 1667d. It is supposed that the organic matter diffused through nearly all stratified posits gives rise to the formation of certain nitrates, such as the nitrate of lime and 'rate of soda, under the influences of damp, of air, and of light of certain descriptions for nitrification certainly takes place most abundantly near damp ground, rising in a til pari passu with the range of the capillary attractions of its materials, and upon the rtbem or shaded faces of the said walls. Not only does this nitrification throw oft' the nute and less adherent particles of the building materials themselves, whether they be of ne or brick, but it is also able to detach any protecting coat which may be put upon •m, if the adhesion of that coat to the subjacent material should not be of a very ener- t'c nature. Let the adhesion, however, be ever so energetic, if once the action of nitrifi- ion should have been established, it must run its course, and the amount of evil it is •able of producing will simply depend upon the quantity of organic matter originally itained in the materials, or susceptible of being absorbed by them from the atmosphere. 1 667 e. The secondary limestones which have not been affected by plutonic action, the my clays, some kinds of pit sand, sea sand, and some descriptions of natural cements, ■ particularly exposed to the danger of nitrification in damp situations, rendering it in ' n to expect to he able to preserve any mural paintings, or even any sculpture of a i icate character. • 667/ Practically, then, the great agent of destruction of building stones, in any of its i des of exhibition, is the damp, or the water supplied by the atmosphere, directly or i ireclly; the efforts of those who seek to prevent this destruction must be directed to < 'bating ibis primary source of evil. Fortunately the precautions to lie observed for i . purpose are very simple, and they only require a little common sense on the part of i builders charged with their application, to the materials at least, which have been long I ire the public, I'lie first and foremost rule is never to employ a porous absorbent » ie in the ground, or in elevation; unless, in the former case, it be maintained constantly ' . or, in the second ease, the absorption of moisture from the ground be prevented by i interposition of some impermeable material. Porous stones should not be used for ■ copings, parapets, window-sills, weather-beds of cornices, plinths, strings or other p s of u building where water may lodge. Care must also be taken to bed such stones • i mortars which are not exposed to devclope in themselves, or are not likely to excite THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 48(1 in Hie stones, the efflorescence of any of the nitrates of soda, potassa, or of lime. If porous stones be used, it will be found that decay will commence, and be most apparent in the zone of alternate dryness and humidity, or, as the workmen say, “ between wind and water." The stonework about that part should therefore be executed in such a manner as to allow of its being easily replaced, if necessary ; and in case the decay exhibils towards the interior (as it will do when the exterior surface is covered w th a coating impervious to the air), care must be taken to isolate the decoraiive plastering or wall linings from the surfaces which are likely to be covered by efflorescence. Tho effects of wind on stone. Wind is both a destroying and a preserving agent. Iis action as a destroyer of building stone consists in blowing dust and dirty particles against the building; also into the cuttings, holes, and lines in exposed mouldings, filling them up, adding much to the disfiguration of ornamented work. A strong wind accompanied by rain, by blowing the rain hard against a building causes it to penetrate into the stono j farther than it would otherwise do, and thus the chemical action of the water and the i J effects of frost on the .stone are increased. The principal preservative action of wind is 1 J in its drying out moisture from stone; and the f.cids, &e., contained in the moisture have, I therefore, less time to act on it. The action of the sun has much to do with the preserva- tion of stone by drying it. Stone exposed to very different degrees of heat on its different I | faces is liable to crack from unequal expansion and contraction (Wray, (hi Stone). In the] paper on The Stones of Egypt, read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, Nov. 24 j 1887, Mr. Brindley referred to theirdecay. Mr W.Topley stated that, under ordinary tem- 4 peratures, water got into the pores of the rock, carrying in carbonic acid, which attacked, 1 felspar, or whatever the soluble constituents of the rock might be. Tho rock then broke | j down. In northern climates the water froze and the rocks broke off. In a dry climate! I . . . the groat alterations of temperature acted so strongly in expanding and contract- ing rocks that they broke off as rapidly through heat as with intense cold. During the I night a cracking sound was often heard by travellers owing to tho contraction of rocks « which had been expanded by the heat during the day. The effect of a fire on some exceed- a ingly durable building stones is very disastrous, and especially on those which were 1 formed by heat. 1 G67.y. A committee appointed by the First Commissioner of Public Works and | Buildings, on the 23rd March 1861, “ to inquire into the decay of the stone of the New j I Palace of Westminster and into tho best means of preserving the stone from further in- ] jury,” reported on — I. The extent and position of the decay. II. The causes to which i’> 1 is attributable, taking into consideration the composition of the stone, and the inHuenci I exerted upon it by moisture, and by the acids diffused in the London atmosphere. III. Tic ; best means of preserving the stone from further injury. IV. The qualities of the stones to j be recommended for future use in public buildings to be erected in London.” This repor was ordered to be printed 1st August, 1861. It is also given in Adcock’s Engineers Pocket j look fur 1862, p. 205-211. PRESERVATION OF STONE. 1607/t. Even when all the best precautions, as above detailed, have been taken, it r occasionally found necessary to protect the exposed surfaces of the soft and absorbent, oi, liygrometric, stones, with some coating which shall prevent their absorbing the injuriou- atmosphere. This is done in various wavs. 1667«. I. By Painting : — The objection to this process consists in the fact that, as tli oil evaporates, the stone becomes again exposed, and even the absorbent powers of t r stone itself contribute to this action ; thus this costly palliative has to be often repeated to the destruction of any delicate moulded work. 1667/. II- By the injection of oleaginous, fatty, or waxy matters-. — These, it must tu evident, can only act mechanically by closing the pores of the stone, and therefore, utiles the surfaces he protected from the extremes of heat and cold, the heterogeneous material' thus affected must, be acted upon in very different manners. Experience has confirms this theoretical inference, and it has been found in practice that the protecting coats o | any of the materials alluded to are gradually detached from the stone, and that they , require to be renewed quite as frequently as does oil painting itself. 1 667 k. 1 1 1 . By washing the face with a solution able to convert the material into an u soluble non-absorbent substance : — This is the process introduced bv M. Kiihlmann, in wind the carbonates of lime are washed with a solution of an alkaline silicate, as silicate of soda or potassa, or “ water glass ” as he called it, with a view to converting them into silicates of lime through the elective affinities of the lime and the silica. In some cases this system has succeeded, and very great hardness, very great resisting powers, have been comniu- F. II. STONE. 481 ed to the stones operated upon. But, unfortunately, the action of the silicic acid is a slow one, and when the surfaces washed in the manner described are exposed to it is by no means rare to find the solution carried away. Another objection is, that [ 1 the alkaline silicate acts upon the stone, the soda and potassa generally used are j ree. and in efflorescing they are likely to carry away the finer details of the sculpture ; he same time, as they form to some extent deliquescent salts upon the face of the stone, I attract to it a dangerous amount of humidity. This process is only applicable to the rvation of the stones in which the carbonates of lime predominate. 67f. IV. By filling in the pores of the stone with an insoluble material which should wily exclude water : — This may be said to have been effected by the process patented Ir. Ransome. The stone is first cleaned carefully from dust or other extraneous ers; then it is made to absorb as large a quantity as possible of the silicate of soda ■tassa. When this solution has dried into the stone, a second wash is applied, con- lg of the chloride of calcium or of baryta. The silicate of soda and the chloride cf um are most frequently employed ; and the effect of the respective applications is, a double decomposition takes place in the washes, giving rise to the precipitation of ly crystallised silicate of lime or of baryta in the pores of the stone, and an efflo- nce of extremely soluble salts of the chlorides of soda or of potassa. The former in in the pores, the latter are speedily washed away by rain. As the rate of con- ion and ex| ansion of the silicate of lime is, as nearly as may be, the same as that of tone it is intended to protect, there is no danger of the precipitate being detached is cause. This process, in contradistinction to that of Kiihlmann, is applicable to tones, sandstones, bricks, plasters, and cements. It has even been suggested that y be advantageously applied to chalk. 67 m. It must not be forgotten, however, that it is as important to prevent a from decaying as it is to afford a protection to it when that effect has commenced, ly internal decay or any organic decomposition, so to speak, be once allowed to lish itself in a building stone, it will be impossible effectually to arrest its progress, escence, for instance, will continue, however effectually the exposed surface of the may be closed by a mechanical or a chemical deposit, and thus even some of the s of Mr. Ransome’s process appear equivocal. The student should make himself r of the attempts lately made to discover a universal remedy for protecting the es of various materials. The following inventions were described by the late Sir ite, at the Royal Institute of British Architects, January 1861 : — I. Bethell’s patent, perhaps never applied to stone. II. Hutchinson’s, 1847, which has been chiefly d to the Calverley stone of Tunbridge. III. Daine’s, 1854. IV. Szerelmcy’s, V. Newton’s, 1841. And VI. Ransome’s, 1856. We consider it needless to here the inventions in detail. It is difficult to pronounce on their respective •i -. but Ransome’s perhaps promised the best results. In. Sylvester, in 1846, suggested the following very useful and simple recipe for .•■•ting stone or brickwork from the absorption of water; it has been repeatedly and answers well in exposed situations, but requires a fresh application about every ■ r four years. Mix Jib. of mottled tonp in a gallon of nearly boiling water, and it in a boiling state over the surfaceof the work, steadily and carefully, with a large ush, making no lather, and filling up the crusty surface of the work, either of brick •e. This is to remain for twenty-four hours to become dry and hard. Then ^ lb. of S to be mixed with four gallons of water and left standing for about twenty four so that the alum may be completely dissolved ; this solution is to be applied in the " Manner. .Sir G. G. Scott has used for the internal work of Westminster Abbey a a of shell-lac in spirits of wine, which, squirted into the stone work, appears to perfectly in securing the face from further decay arising from damp only. Ho •Hid it of some effect in the open air where defendod from rain, but it failed when 1 to its action. r cleaning down Bath stone of the best quality, it generally may with advantage bed over with two coats of lime-water prepared as follows Fill a tub with wator, ■i it put somo lime ; stir it up well when slaked and let it sottle. If any impurities rise to the surface removo them, and when clear apply it with a clean brush to work. This is an excellent preservative, and reinstates the skin or crust ro- with the drag, without altering the colour of tho stone. (Sumsion, of Bath). •y's metallic cement has been in use in France during the last twenty-six years, French government and the municipality of Paris, for restoring monuments. It I to bo permanent and to resist till attacks of acids in the atmosphere. The whole ecayed stone n cod not be removed. It is carved and worked in situ. It costs n stone. Restorations are more rapidly done than in ordinary stone. The colour r ginal stone can lie matched, and it can be used in all weatheis. “ This metallic - composed of a stone of Trachvtir origin, reduced to powder, and the multeities I 1 »lu nsv * 1 * A 0 w nd too 10 h 1 IOVI 'in #de 1 kte iMhi •»s I rib 482 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I ore reunited by an acid and softened without being decomposed. The cement is mix with the acid, and the stone reconstructed to its original condition.” The process li been used, 1887, at the Church for the Deaf and Dumb, in Oxford Street; the Church S. Paul, London Docks; and the Infant Orphan Asylum, Wanstead, besides other plan ARTIFICIAL STONE. 1667o. The term is sometimes made to comprise not only Terra-Cotta, which is notic in this work in the section Brick, but also the many Concretes, which are described in I section Lime, &c. Those mixtures or concreted masses having more affinity to i original they profess to imitate are here deseribea. 1667p. Justin's artificial stone was invented about fifty years since, duiing which peri it has been well tested. It is used chiefly in the manufacture of statues, garden ornamn chimney shafts, and the like. This material is generally considered to be little else tl ordinary cement, but it is plain there is much more ingenuity in the matter; at all evci it is evidently a concrete of sand and so on. cemented by lime; it is not burnt as is of' suonosed. and much of its value is no doubt due to the manipulation of the materials. 1667g. liaosomcs siliceous stone was patented in 1844. Calcined flints ground to a 1 1 powder were mixed with common soda (sub-carbonate of soda) rendered caustic, and wat the mixture being boiled under steam pressure ; he thus obtained the silicate of soda i liquid form. To one part of this water glaJS he added ten parts of sand, a little pouin flint, and a little clay ; mixed the who'e to a putty ; made eastings of the desired fo i under compression ; dried these, burnt the n in a kiln to a bright red heat, and so m them into blocks of stone. The chemical question was this:— the alkali of the soluble silu of soda combined with a portion of the natural silica or sand, and thus formed an insolul silicate or glass, as a cement, wherewith the remainder of the sand became concreted gether. A sandstone was produced, and technically one of a silicious type; but its c i necting medium was not crystalline as in nature, but as an equivalent, professedly vitrei J This vitreous element, however, was always seen to be its blemish, and the manufacturj now discontinued for the following more recent invention by the same patentee. 1667r. During the experiments made for obtaining a liquid or liquids whcrewitl wash the surface of stone after it has been worked, Ilansome selected and applied silicate of soda, and upon the saturated surface a solution of chloride of calcium. A dm decomposition then follows, not slowly but instantly, and the silicate of soda and chlo- of calcium, the one, an insoluble substance filling the pores of the stone, and the of common salt to be washed out by the weather. Pieces of the putty out of which the viously described si.icious stone was daily made, i.e. sand mixed up with silicate of soda, > dipped in chloride of calcium, out of which it came chang. cl to a hard and solid st j This rather unexpected result led to the formation of an entirely new species of ticial stone, in a manner which was related by Professor Kerr at a meeting of the Inst: of British Architects in 1863, from whose account we have been quoting. 1667*'. Itausome's Concrete stone is the name given to this new material, invented in 1 The process of manufacture now followed is first to dissolve flints in caustic alkali temperature of 350° Fahr., leaving them in a boiler for twenty-four hours. The li' then produced, consisting of silicate of soda, is drawn off, and is allowed to evapi until it becomes a thick matter like treacle. It is next mixed with clean pit sand i 1 porated with five to ten per cent, of chalk in a pug mill, and in four to five minute 1 mixture is formed into a stiff putty. It is then pressed into a mould and afterwards c., saturated with, or immersed in, a solution of chloride of calcium, which being m imbibed, the formation of an insoluble silicate of lime and a soluble chloride ofsodiu common salt results. This latter (about three per cent. ) has to be removed by wasliin effect which it is placed in a hot-water bath for many hours. The employment of tins material as stone in building is gaining ground ; for cast ornaments and moulded wo 1 has been longer used, and probably ii may yet be brought to serve for the chisel ol tlie cr 1667t. The committee of the Institute experimented on this material in ls64. 1 inch cubes were made of equal parts of sand and coarse ballast, with a quarter part of <■ on the third day a cube crushed with a weight of 9 35 tons ; on the tenth day 15'25 tons. With six parts of sand to one of chalk, on the third day a cube crushed 6 tons; at ten days old, 9 40 and 13 "25 tons. Other samples, however, proved I weaker, as at eight and thirty-six weeks old, they crushed with 8 4 and 8'4 tons respect! yet one of twenty-eight weeks crushed with 14 tons, apparently depending on the < of the induration which in the weaker samples was only from 1 to 3 inches. A I formed of five parts of sand to one of fine silex bore 30 tons when three weeks olii, out showing the least effect ; it had been previously tested up to 20 tons. It will dr AP. II. STONE. 483 contrast another sample formed of “all road scrapings from the neighbourhood of wich ’’ which at only three days old crushed with 28 tons; this was probably due to silex contained in it. As another proof that its strength is entirely due to the com- le induration of the material, a nine-inch brick made of four parts of sand, four of fine d, and one of chalk, cracked when thirteen weeks old with 14 tons and crushed with tons; this specimen was gradually filled with chloride of calcium being poured over it, took fifteen minutes to saturate. Another at eight weeks with 4'2 and 300 tons ; ther with 20‘15 and 38'8 tons ; while a fourth cracked at 6 tons and crushed with 6 '65 s ; these were si.ahed in the chloride of calcium, The tensile strength at twenty-eight iks old varied as 47, 74 and 67 lbs. per square inch ; while two specimens made of road ipings, only three days old, broke with 101 and 97 lbs. per square inch, a strength also, doubt, due to the silex contained in it. 667 «. A gallon of each solution is sufficient to produce a cubic foot of stone of the r quality ; but the cost of a block of coarser quality would be less than about half n hat •tlier would be. To render this concrete stone perfectly non-absorbent, the surface of stone, after it is formed into blocks, is treated a second time with a wash of the silicate ,oda, and a second application of the solution of chloride of calcium. These solutions also applied for the preservation of other stones, or of brickwork ; the silicate being ited with water in proportions according to the absorbent character of the material, ich must he clean and thoroughly dry before being operated upon. Tinting solutions also supplied for harmonising with the natural colour of the stones. About four huts of each solution will be, under ordinary circumstances, sufficient for each 100 yards erficiul of surface. 667 u. Experiments conducted by G. R. Burnell, and reported upon by Professor A nsted i paper read at the British Association at Cambridge, 1862, showed that the transverse ngth of a beam 4 inches square resting one inch at each end, with 16 inches clear span, •lined a weight of 2,122 lbs. or 132 lbs. per inch superficial ; whilst a similar bar of tland stone broke with 759^ lbs., or nearly 42 lbs. per inch. The adhesive or tensile ngth was proved by pieces of stone notched for the purpose, the sectional area at the kist part being 5^ inches. The patent concrete stone sustained - Portland stone broke with Bath stone „ „ - Caen stone „ „ - - 1980 lbs. =360 lbs. per inch. 1104 lbs =200 lbs. „ 796 lbs. =say 150 lbs. ,, 768 lbs. =say 150 lbs. ,, inch cube of the patent stone sustained a weight of 30 tons, nearly 2 tons per inch, i re it was crushed. • Tic. The following result of chemical tests of this artificial stone, as compared with i ral ones, will be found instructive. They were made by Mr. E. Frankland at St. • hulomew’s Hospital in December 1861. “ The experiments were made in the follow- uanner. The samples were cut as nearly as possible of the same size and shape, and • well brushed with a hard brush. Each sample was then thoroughly dried at 212°, • 1 icd, partially immersed in water until saturated, and again weighed; the porosity or i ptive power of the stone was thus determined. It was then suspended for forty-eight • in a very large volume of each of the following acid solutions, the alteration in • it after each immersion being separately estimated. The sample was then boiled ' water until all acid was removed, and again weighed. Finally, it was dried at 212°, r * ed with a hard brush, and the total degradation or loss since the first brushing was i ained. The following numbers were obtained.” of Stone. Porosity. Wat r absorbed I’V '* r y stone. per cent. Alteration in weight by immersion in dilute acid. Loss by action of acid and bailing in water, per cent. Further Total degrad i- tmr. from all causes. «»f 1 per cent. of 2 per cent. of 1 per cent. loss liy brushing. Loss Gain Loss Cain Loss Ga n J h - 11-57 1 -28 2*82 205 591 •26 6' 17 ( n . 9-86 213 — 4 80 — •67 — 1 P73 1 -60 13-33 •igny 415 ri8 — 400 — — 101 356 •29 3-85 1 timid 8-86 1-60 — 1-10 — 1 35 — 3-94 •24 418 A ton 6-09 352 3-39 — 3T 1 11-11 •27 1 P38 V ii by 8-11 107 — •53 none none 1-25 •18 1 43 1 o Hill . 4-31 •60 none none •98 •15 1 13 * Spring 4-15 •71 — •10 •15 — •81 none •81 H vmie’s • 6-53 — ‘95 none none none none •63 •31 •94 I i 2 484 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II “ Whilst Portland, Whitby, Hare Hill, and Park Spring stones (from the quarries, Farnle Wood, near Leeds) are thus pointed out as the natural stones best adapted to withstaa the influences of town atmospheres, it is also indicated that Ransome’s patent concrete ston •will be found equal to the best of these, and there is nothing in the composition whit- would lead one to anticipate that it would suffer from exposure to the saline influences t the atmosphere upon the sea coast.” 1667a-. Bousfield’s patent, 1866, consists of 80 or 85 parts of chalk and 15 or 20 < slaked lime, mixed together, moulded under pressure, and dried in the open air, when ti blocks, says the patentee, “ will be found to possess a degree of compactness and firmne: resembling stone, which increases indefinitely with age, and if the ingredients are pure, wi rival marble in whiteness and beauty.” Barff's patent for an artificial stone was obtuim in 1861. He takes 1 part of an aqueous alumiuate of potash, with 3 parts of an alkali) silicate, or water glass (silicate of potash, however, not of soda), which will in a few hou set into a sort of dull glass, an artificial felspar in fact, perfectly brittle and of i very great tenacity, but altogether insolublo in water. With this silicate of alumii while in a liquid state, he makes up sand or any dust (as pounded stone) into a past moulding it into blocks, and drying them in the open air, until they have set hard. Silica of soda and potash are extremely viscid, and anything mixed up or coated by them is n tiered thereby impermeable ; to get another solution into such silicates, much less behind to effect their decomposition, is considered impossible, the only alternative, therefore, is j put on the two solutions as one. Decomposition then setting in, mere dryness is all that necessary to produce the material ; but if the silicate of potash and the aluminate of pot;: be mixed up in a liquid, they remain liquid for any period within reason, aiid they n> be mixed up with any materials selected, or washed over their surface. When put ii stone it hardens and produces an artificial stone, without heat or further process. A previc patent, dated I860, describes that silicate of soda or silicate of potash may be combin wiih, or decomposed by, carbonate of lead, carbonate of zinc, or other suitable material soluble in water, which will decompose or chemically unite with the said silicates ; prop tionate quantities of chalk, sand, or other similar substance may also be incorporated tv the compound, and thus enable it to be obtained at less cost, in accordance with the natj ( or description of the work to which it is intended to be applied. A piece of stone ma. factored with carbonate of lead, powdered pumice stone, and silicate of soda, in proporti stated in the specification, produces a very hard stone, without the application of any In 1667 y. Eluo-silicic acid and silicate of potash are also applied to the surfaces of stoi 3 1667^. The patent Victoria stone has stood the test of twenty years as paving, floor of the entrance-hall at the “ Colinderies ” in 1886 sustained the traffic also of years 1884 and 1885, having had some five million people passing over it. In the cm of 1886 it was laid on London Bridge, where the foot traffic is stated to exceed 80, passengers per day — the heaviest traffic in the world. It bears a crushing weigh 8321 lbs. ptr cubic inch; a tensile strain of from 794 lbs. to 1125 lbs. per square in its porosity is 7'6 per cent, in twenty-four hours, as against 17'0 for Bath, 13'5 for £ Portland, or 8 0 for Park Spring stoues. See also Paving. The Leopold Foreign Rock Asphalte in one of the main corridors was also seve tested by traffic. It is manufactured of Groby granite crushed until sufficiently sink pass through a certain sieve : it is then washed thoroughly to remove all earthy partii This is mixed with Portland cement and well-burnt clinker, ground fine, and a metal-1 mould is filled with it. In a few days the slab has “ set” into a hard concrete, ar then immersed for about ten days in silica fluid. Hodges, Butler, and Dale manufacture an “Imperial stone” for copings, window steps, coal-plate stones, silicated stone sewers, and water pipes, &c. Sect. II. GRANITE. % s 1668. Among the primitive rocks of the globe, whose period of creation is consu by geologists as antecedent to that of organic beings, is that of granite, whose use in a tectnre seems to bid defiance to time itself. The term granite appears to be a corru) of the Latin word geranites, used by Pliny to denote a particular species of stone. 1 nefoi't, the naturalist, in the Account of his Voyage to the Levant in 1699, is the fit modern writers who uses the name. The word seems to have been applied by antiqu to every granular stone susceptible of use in architecture or sculpture, in which t sense it was used by mineralogists until about fifty 3 ears since, when true granite classed as a particular mountain rock. Its constituent parts are concretions of &1 quartz, and mica, intimately joined together, but without any basis or ground. • 1 ,,; h J 4 '•Slilj Ni, biilfl l|,t ( w>. ir. GRANITE. 48 5 f, s are variable in quantity, so that sometimes one, sometimes the other, and frequently i , of them, predominate over the third. The felspar is, however, generally in excess, : nica is the least cons derable ingredient of the rock. In some varieties the quartz is ■ iting, in others the mica ; but where these peculiarities occur, the granites must be con- < ired as varieties, not as distinct species. 66 9. The constituent parts differ in their magnitude, alternating fiom large to small t very tine granular. The colour, moreover, is very variable, depending principally on i predominating ingredient — the felspar, the quartz, and the mica having usually a grey t >ur. The felspar is mostly white, inclining to grey and yellow, sometimes red, and even < y, seldom milk-white, and always translucent. The mica is usually grey, and some- t es nearly black. The felspar in granite has usually a vitreous lustre, and of perfectly 1 rted fracture ; yet in some varieties it becomes quite earthy, with the loss of its hardness n lustre; in other words, it has passed into porcelain earth. The appearance in i stion is sometimes produced by the weathering of the felspar, and sometimes it 0 ears to be in its original state. When pyrites are found in the veins which traverse j> iite, the vicinous felspar and mica are converted into a species of steatitical matter 1 the action of the sulphuric acid formed during the decomposition of the pyrites. 1 Cornwall, there is a considerable portion of its granite in which eat thy felspar is f uL When felspar occurs in abnormal quantities, the granite becomes porplryritic, as Devonshire granite, and that of St. Honorine (Calvados): the name being derived ft n the colour, which is purple. Schorl takes the place of the mica in some parts of 1 onshire; and even the quartz is sometimes wanting, as is often the case in the el tans 0 nurses laden with mineral matters in that district. When hornblende occurs instead of n i, the granite becomes syenite, as at Malvern, and at Syene, in Egypt ; and when j ent with mica in about equal quantities, the material is called Syenitic granite. When ; i is present in such quantities as to cause the rock to assume a slaty cleavage, it is c; :d gneiss. )70. Granite is not decomposed by acids, and is only imperfectly and slowly calculable ir, great heat. Those species which contain much white felspar, and only a small portion 01 uartz, like the greater part of the granites of Cornwall and Devonshire, are liable to ih imposition much sooner than many of the Scotch granites, in which the quartz is more i' idant, and equally disseminated. In the selection of the Cornish and Devon granites, hi e are to be preferred which are raised in the largest blocks and are easiest worked, v •!), for common purposes, answer well enough, such as for paving-stones and the like ; i harder granite must be sought for than Devonshire or Cornwall produces, where the • truetion is of importance ; lor the masses in these counties are mostly in a condition of 1 disintegration and decay, which seems chiefly attributable to their containing a large on of potassa. The Naval Hospital at Plymouth is built of a granite whose parts * [", ar to have been well selected. It was erected between the years 1755 and 1764, and, * t in the columns of the colonnades, does not exhibit symptoms of decay. In these, : teir more exposed sides, the disintegration of the felspar has commenced, and lichens already attached their roots to some parts of the surfaces. 70 a. The cause of the decomposition of granite is a point yet unsolved by chemists, state that the felspar, being acted upon by the carbonic acid in rain water, becomes noosed, and is then easily removed, leaving the mica and the quartz in relief without •einenting material ; and that the decay of the felspar does not take place by any ' ii rules, for the more crystalline it may be, more perfectly does it resist the decom- g action of atmospheric agents. Other scientific men are of opinion that the felspars ' i ining soda generally decompose, whereas those which contain potash do not decay. s also been considered that the kaolin or China clay was produced by the decompo- > i of the felspar with the granite ; but it has been stated that so far as human observa- ■' could go, China clay never was true granite, and that atmospheric decomposition n ' t ; upon felspar, had never gone to the depth of 300 feet, at which depth finer China ' vis found than nearer the surface: miles of country could he shown strewed with hr; the quariz was gone, but the felspar remained. We must leave the decision in ' ore able hands. grn dm Dc Th Th o t mo a i.d |>ui 1 1. lied granite, sometimes yellowish, and generally interspersed with black mica, is in Devonshire; at Mount Edgcombe there are tables of it equal to the finest oriental and it is found also in other parts of England. For hardness, and in works where dity is indispensable, the granites from Mount Sorrel, in Leicestershire; Aberdeen and ■c, in Scotland; and the Cheesewring of Cornwall, are to be preferred by the architect, take an admirable polish, and are superior to all others which this island produces, "creasing demand of late years for this material, has caused many new quarries to be d up in various localities. The red is generally harder than the grey sorts, and difficult to work. The Peterhead, f.om the vicinity of Aberdeen, is perhaps the best, is. moreover, in appearance the most beautiful which Scotland affords; indeed, in o' beauty, it is only surpassed by the oriental granites. I«. Dartmoor granite is, in general, coarse grained, varying much in colour. The grey 486 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I sort is chiefly quarried and worked at Hay Tor on the east side, skipped at Tcignmoui: and at King Tor and Rigmoor Down, on the west side, shipped at Pl\ mouth. The Brm Willy district, worked at the Cheesewring quarries, near Liskeard ; the granite is of a lie grey colour, and was u.ed in the piers of the new Westminster bridge. The granite of: eastern portion of the Hensbap-ow district, near St. Austell, worked above Par, isofg, quality; it is shipped from that port, and known as Lostwithiel granite; the westi portion is remarkable for its liability to decomposition, and is worked for kaolin cl. The Cam Menelez district supplies the granite generally known as Cornish, shipped fn Penryn and Port Navis : blocks of several hundred tons are often raised, varying from to 70 feet in length, and of proportionate breadth and thickness. The finest grain obtained in the Carnseu quarries, near Penryn, from whence were got the stones fur t lodges and piers at the British Museum, the plinths to the Royal Exchange, the pedes for the statue of Lord Clive at Shrewsbury, and that for the statue of Carlo A1 t>e"t o Turin. It was used, 1887, for the monolithic columns to Messrs. Lloyd’s new bar. k i premises in Lombard Street. The columns at the entrance of the royal mausoleum Frognrore are from Lamorna, south of Penzance; which, with Boswarvah and New .VI 1 to the west, have, witli those at Penryn, supplied granite to most public works. Fremat I granite, largely used at the steam dock-yard at Keyham, is white in colour, and being vi i close grained, it can be brought to a highly finished surface, and is said to be very dural 10716. Hay Lor granite company supplies a granite of a very fine grain, hard, of n questionable durability, and generally of a beautiful blue or grey colour; it can I I obtained in blocks of any size that is capable of being removed with existing machinei 1 The quarries have supplied the Nelson column and its pedestals; the granite plinth at .1 steps of the Boyal Exchange; the statue and pedestal of King William IV’.; part of t: river wall of the Houses of Parliament; the plinth of the Sun Fire Office, & c. ; the lar; landings and steps of the terraces at the Crystal Palace; the graving docks at all ID H Doekyatds, as well as the ashlar steps and landings for the royal mausoleum at Frogmot ! Grey granite ftom Lundy island, off the coast of Devonshire, is supplied for the fii 1 section of the Thames embankment. 167 1 c. The Port Nant granite, in Carnarvon bay, near Port Dinllaen, has been us' 8 at Liverpool for paving, for some years; for the tramway on Westminster bridge; for t j Metropolitan drainage outfalls, and for the foundation works and pavement of the Thau 1 embankment. 167 I d. Granite is supplied from a comparatively limited extent in the north-eastern p: 4 of Aberdeenshire. Tile first or central portion is somewhat circular in form, having 1 diameter of about six miles, within which the rocks are of red granite of different varied I typified by the fine warm coloured Stirling Hill stones; and secondly, of an annular sp: I surrounding this nucleus, in which the grey and blue granites abound. Of these, t j Gairngall is close-grained, bard and dense, and as obdurate as any of the red granites. Pitsligo is obtained a light coloured bluish-white stone, which when fresh from the quar is wrought with greater facility than even some of the Scuttish sandstones. It stands i weather well. 1 (>7 1 e. Rubislaw quarry was the lust known quarry in Aberdeenshire, about I hundred and fifty years since, and furnished stones for paving London, and later for wo at Portsmouth Docks and the Bell Rock Lighthouse. Since its introduction about 18 I various quarries have supplied granite for works at Waterloo Bridge (the balustradin: I Sheerness Docks, upper side of London Bridge, &c. About 182-2 Mr. A. Macdonald, | Aberdeen, reduced to practice the difficult problem of giving any requited form to stubborn a material, and communicating to its surface an enduring polish, which it i said, is retained under all atmospheric changes; nor does the material contract any st j witli vegetation. The red granite quarries of Stirling Hill, near Peterhead, about tin J miles from Aberdeen, supplied the shaft of the Duke of York’s column ; the pillars ] Fishmongers’ Hall ; the columns in the king’s library in the British Museum about 18" j the pedestals for the statues in the same building ; the columns at St. George’s If j Liverpool, 25 feet in length in one block; and is now used in numerous buildings innea I all the cities in Great Britain. 1671/ Grey or blue granite is supplied from the quarry of Rubislaw, but prlncipa ' from Gairngall, which is more of a syenite than a granite, a clear blue finely-grained n terial, used for the finest work. This has been employed for portrait statues, as Aberdeen, at Portsmouth, &c. ; for the sarcophagus for the Duchess of Kent, and for ti of the Prince Consort, both at Frogmore. 167 Ip. Argyleshire has only within the last twenty years been opened up for gram Furnace quarry, near Inverary, is more of a Syenitic or porphyritic character than that true granite, and is remarkably hard, in fact harder than that of Aberdeen. It is u chiefly for paving the streets of Glasgow. Bonaw Island quarry, near Oban, gives excellent large-grained grey granite ; it has been used in the harbour works, the flight steps at the West End Park, &c.,all at Glasgow, being obtainable in large blocks. Bon A P IT. GRANITE. 4S7 tseway quarry, near the above, though fine grained, does not supply large blocks ; it ^ed for paving stones. Ardslieal quarry, north-east of Oban, has a good grey granite general purposes. It is easily quarried in layers of any required length or breadth, varies in thickness from 6 inches up to '■> feet. It is said to be less noisy and re safe as a paving stone than the generality of granites employed for that purpose. 67 I A. The Ross of AIull quarries, in the island of the same name, supply granite wo sorts, red and pink, the felspar being in the former of a brilliant red, and in the er of a delicate pink, tint. In its physical character it resembles the Aberdeen granite s now sent in large quantities to the polishing works at Aberdeen, and, moreover, these .Tries can supply larger blocks than can those of Peter! ead. Both the red and pink reties, after having been polished at Air. Sim’s works at Glasgow, were used in the Prince nsort’s mausoleum at Frogmnre; at the Skerry vore lighthouse ; the Liverpool Ducks; Londonderry Docks; the Glasgow Water Works, &c. ; and the pink granite in tie ndations of the early work at the new Westminster Bridge: the Tormore or red granite ag used for the curb to the footways. 67 It. The only quarries in the south-west of Scotland are Kirkmabreck quarry, near ■ toun, Wigtown Bay, which furnishes a silver grey granite, used for the obelisk sent by Sim to the Exhibition of 1362; and used for many years in the Liverpool Docks, icks of any size are readily attainable. Dalbeattie quarry, near Dumfries, has a :e grained grey granite, taking a high polish ; there is a difficulty in getting large ks free from black marks, but it is largely worked for general purposes, kerbing, &c., 1 for ornamental purposes. 671/ The granites o‘ Ireland are in general a speckled grey, inclining to white, as ve of Wicklow, Dublin, &c. ; also greenish from hornblende, as Mourne, Newry, &c. ; did), as Galway. The granite of the Wicklow range is used more extensively than that my other district in the island. It varies considerably even within a limited distance, ir Kingstown it is very hard, the quartz predominating; this is only used for plain •■y work. For more ornamental purposes granite is brought from Ballyknocken, or Iden I Idl, about twenty miles distant. It contains a larger proportion of felspar and quartz than that of Kingstown, and is therefore more easily worked, and is of a lighter more uniform and handsome colour, though less durable. Granite of the Carlow non of the same range is similar. Granite of Down is generally of a darker colour, more finely crystallized ; it is quarried at several piaces, especially at Newry, from :nve it is conveyed by water to several parts of the north of Ireland; it can be worked • tine mouldings, and is of a dark speckled Colour. Galway granite is commonly of a lish colour, containing large crystals of flesh- red felspar; occasionally it has a bluish To the west of Clilden blocks of a moderate thickness, but of great length and tli. can be obtained. Granite to the west of Mayo is similar, but the greater part of it hat county is of a dark bluish-grey colour, difficult to work and seldom used. In legal and Tyrone it is gneissose, and of the same character, and reddish. Cavan granite imilar to that of Down, and but little employed. In the counties of Kilkenny and xl'urd it generally resembles that of the great Carlow range before noticed. 71A. The B.ignalstown quarries, in Carlow, supply four different qualities of granite; or plain work, portions being soft, others bard; some fine-grained, and others coarse; red. blue, grey, and brown in colour; all are obtained from the surface of the I II. A fine grit, employed for ornamental work even in the Gothic style, is very 'hie. and of a very white colour. III. Not quite so fine, but much used for buildings ornamental work, being very white in colour. It lies in horizontal beds of about 1 foot < feet in thickness, and from 1 5 to 20 feet in length ; some beds run 40 feet long. In h >11 of the Oxford University Museum is a slab of it, about 10 feet long, 5 feet wide, 7 inches thick. IV. A very bard granite used for street ctossings in and near Cork, hppery. All these granites are approved for terrace steps, Irom 6 to 15 feet in 'h ; fur floors in stores, porches and halls, as in damp weather it absorbs the moisture i i the atmosphere. •71. Granite used fur paving purposes is imported for curbs ami Iranis, from Guernsey, Aberdeen, and Devonshire. For pitching and macadam, from Aberdeen; Alount 1 ' I, Mark field, and Groohy, all in Leicestershire ; Guernsey ; and a small quantiiy from s .Mount 8orrel granite is red in colour, and was employed for the altar steps in ' I’l'il s ( atlicdral. Granite from the Furnace quarries, at Inverary, as before noticed, is h us d in the streets at Glasgow. Markfield and Gtooby granites tire dark green. The it.' from the island of I lent), near Guernsey, was used for the steps to the l)oke of 1 k\ column, but the cost of working and difficulty of shipping it at the quarry, have led i inch discontinuance of its use. ° Aberdeen granite is most extensively employed for curbs, trams, anil pitching; I ittcr in thin c dies about 9 inches in depth, 3 inches in thickness, and not exceeding " 111 length, fair dressed throughout, it being considered the best granite adapted he traffic ol Loudon, as it is very durable and less slippery than most other granites, 88 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I such as that of Guernsey, for instance, which is therefore now seldom adopted. Tl Welsh granite has the same fault, for, with a large amount of traffic in dry weather, becomes necessary to throw gravel over it. Guernsey macadam, broken to pass through inch mesh at the largest, is found to be by far the best material for the purpose, oi coat properly applied outlasting two of any other granite. The Devon granite being coat in giain, is used only in cuibs for second-rate streets, while for pitching it is not to I compared in price or quality with that of Aberdeen. Blue Bombay, and blue Port Phili granites, are hard and tough, and make good second-class roads ; while grey China grata is soft and friable, and only good for the foundation of a new road. 16726. We are indebted for several of the details here given on this subject, to tl article in the Dictionary of Architecture of the Architectural Publication Society. Tl Builder for 1866 has also entered on the merits of Scottish granites. 1672c. Table of the Weights of Gkanites. N< me. Country. Weight per lubi foot, Avoiitlupoi Stirling Hill ... Stirling lbs oz. dr. 165 14 5 High Rock, Breadalbane • Black Hill Stirling - 166 0 9 166 10 4 Dalkey - Dublin ... 16 9 9 7 Bars, Breadalbane - 169 11 5 I lay Tor ... Devonshire ... 165 3 0 Blue, Penmaenmawr (Grauwacke) Carnarvonshire 160 1 0 Aberdeen grey - Aberdeenshire 166 8 0 „ red ... „ - 165 4 0 Cornish grev ... Cornwall - 166 12 0 „ red .... ?> " 164 0 0 Sect. III. MARBLE. 1673. With the architect and sculptor the name of marble is applied to all stones, ban than gvpsum, that are found in large masses, and are susceptible of a good polish. ( this principle, under the head of marble, are included many varieties of limestone, porpliy and even granite and fine-grained basalts. But with mineralogists the word is used ini much more restricted sense, and is confined to such varieties of dolomite, swinestone, a compact and granularly foliated limestone as are capable of receiving a good polish. 1 674. T he external characters are as follows : colours white, grey, red, yellow, and greij Has generally but one colour, though it is often spotted, dotted, striped, and veim Occurs massive, and in angulo-granular distinct concretions. Internally it alternates In shining to glistening and glimmering ; lustre intermediate between pearly and vitreoi Fracture foliated, but oftentimes inclining to splintery. Fragments indeterminate, angul and rather blunt-edged. More or less translucent. Brittle, and easily frangible. ' chemical characters are, that it generally phosphoresces when pounded, or when thrown glowing coals. It is infusible before the blow-pipe. Dissul.es with effervescence in aet< Constituent parts, Lime - 56 50 Carbonic acid - 43’00 Water - 050 10000 1675. All the varieties may be burnt into quicklime; but it is found that in many them the concretions exfoliate and separate during the volatilization of their carbonic ac so that by the time that they become perfectly caustic, their cohesion is destroyed, a they fail into a kind of sand, which renders a common kiln inapplicable. 1676. The varieties of marble are almost infinite. Those employed by the ancien as well as porpliy ry, are noticed in the Glossary. Besides the paper On Marbles read 1887 by Mr. Brindley, and quoted hereafter, the book by G. H. Blagrove On Mia Decoration , 8 V 1888, and that b\ A. Lee, Marble and Marble Workers , 8 ' 0 . 1888, are val able contributions to the subject. 1677. The principal part of the supply to England of whitish marble is from Carra a small town or village of Tuscany, in Italy, The quarries at this place were celebrat from an early period, and spots are still shown about them whence they dug the marl for the Pantheon. Masses of marble are sometimes procured there nine feet in lengths from four to six in breadth. The quarries are the property of the principal inhabitants UAP. II. MARBLE. 489 ie town, who carry on an extensive trade in the article; but the difficulty of choosing ie marble has induced artists to sett'e there for the execution of their works, and the insequence is, that sculpture abounds and flourishes in the town. The white or atuary, Italian-veined, Dove-coloured, Pavonazzo or purple veined, and Ravaccione ailed Sicilian, supposed to have obtained its name from early shiploads of it having been shipped or sent on from some port in Sicily, at which the vessel touched in its voyage) arbles, are but very slight variations of the same substance; the Dove and “ Sicilian” ive a little more carbonaceous matter in their composition ; but they are all procured Dm quarries in the immediate neighbourhood of Carrara. Serravezza, in Lucca, produces atiiary, Ravaccione, veined or Bianco chiaro, Mischio di Serravezza, Bardiglio, and irdiglio fiorito. 1677ngly urged tho employment of Hopton Wood stone (par. 16661.) in lieu of it for all 0 -door works. 677 c. Matsa Carrara quarries. The special produce now is — I. The ordinary marble • d ‘‘ Sicilian.” having a white ground variously marked with grey veins, spots, &c. : it i' <>od for inferiors as it is easily worked. II. A very hard ordinary “ Silician,” of a ■ -li white with dark veins, adapted for steps and out-door work. When well polished |! ' ls great resisting power. It has been used for tho principal staircase of the Merchant Hirers' school at Bristol, where tho final polish was omitted ; and in some “ flats” in 1 1 ••mil Place. III. A dark grey marble with black veins, called Bardiglio, which has been ■•ly used as a building stone in Naples, and as altar steps in Sweden. IV. A marble • i lSlttnc 1'., a bluish white without veins, hut not so lustrous nor so pure a white as 1 mry marble. It is much used in Belgium, France, and Ireland, lor statues, tombs, I floral carvings; and is little known in London. The quarry which supplied the 6 "• B. i» stated to have been worked out long stince ; hut another marble so called is 1,1 ly a superior class of “ veined white ; ” a large quantity is used in London. Tyrolese ■" 'dr possesses all the beauties of that obtained from the Carrara quarries, and is, "i over, from its intenso hardness, almost iudestructiblo, and better adapted for ex- re to the climato of this country. i 6. There is a beautiful species of yellow marblo obtained from tho quarries near I I '• > n Ibily, and known in England as Siena marble ; but tho quantity now imported • ; very great, and what is introduced is very poor in colour. A good quality, both in ■ ■ i r and vein, can, however, bo procured at the quarries by special orders • Hi. III.' marbles of Sicily, little, if at all, employed in this country, are enumerated ■ lows: Marmo di Trapani, of a grey colour; M. di Cnstelnuovo, of a yellow 1 i ; M. di Segesta, of a yollow colour; M. di Taormina, of a rod colour; M. di a yellow colour , M. d 1 Ogliastro, of a red colour ; and M. di Cust9luccio, of a * r flour. 1 he two last-namod marbles arc readily obtainable in blocks 12 or 13 feet 490 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IT. long. Specimens of some, if not all of these, are included in the fine collection of polished marbles made by the learned Corsi of Rome, an account of which he published ; the collection was subsequently brought to England, and is believed to exist at Liverpool Each specimen it contained is no less than 8 inches Italian long, 4 inches wide, and 2 inches thick, and highly po'ished on all sides. 1679. Many of the marbles of France and Belgium are extremely beautiful. They are chiefly used in this country for chimney pieces. The following is a list (including others) of those so worked, supplied from one of the Belgian workshops : — Rouge royal ; Bleu Beige; Rouge Griotte; French red; Saint Anna; Noir Beige; Noir Beige, second quality; Breccia ( Breche) ; Breccia and black; Breccia Romana ; Breccia rose; Saint Gerard; Sicilian; Sicilian, white veined ; Pavonazzo; Statuary ; Statuary, second quality ; Malachite ; Ver de Mer ; Black and green ; Porphyry ; Brocatello ; Siena ; Siena, second quality; Italian Griotte; Black and gold; Black and gold, second quality; Bard. 11a; and Sarracolin. Another marble, named Saint Mont C'larie, is a pure black. 1680. The marbles of Spain are likewise very fine, but are not exported. A specimen of the “ Emperor’s Red,” of unusually fine quality, was presented to the Queen by the late Don Pedro, King of Portugal, for the royal mausoleum at Frogmore. 1681. The marbles of the British Islands deserve more notice from the English archi- tect than they have hitherto received. In England there are but few as yet quarried of granular foliated limestone, the greater number of varieties of them belonging to the floetz or secondary limestone. The most remarkable, and perhaps most beautiful, ol the English marbles, is that of Anglesea, called Mona marble, and much resemblin' I Verd antique. Its colours are greenish black, leek green, and sometimes purple, irregu- larly blended with white, but they are not always seen together in the same piece. The white part is limestone, the green shades are said to be owing to serpentine and asbestos. The Isle of Man marbles are — I. Black flagstone (Posidonia schist) from Poolvash. J the quarries of which have been worked for upwards of two hundred years; and furnished the steps in St. Paul’s Cathedral, presented by Bishop Thomas Wilson. II. Grey marble (encrinital and shelly limestone) from Poolvash, used for tables and chimney , ornaments. 1 1 1. Black marble (lower carboniferous) limestone, from Port St. Mary, ex- tremely hard and durable, taking a good polish ; raised in blocks and flags of great size, and used for piers, floorings, and tombstones. IV. Pale marble (carboniferous lime- stone (from Scarlett. Castle Rushen, nine hundred years old, and other places, are built ■ with this most durable material. V. Spanish Head flagstone (clay schist), 1’ort St. Mary; is a durable material, and used for lintel and gate posts; it is slightly elastic when t in thin flags, and can be raised in square slabs of 16 feet. VI. Peel freestone (old red t sandstone), from Craig M ill in ; of this stone a large portion of Peel Cathedral was built in j 1226. (Gumming, Isle of Man , Sfc.) 1681a The ornamental marbles of Derbyshire are mostly confined to the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd classes of limestones which are separated from each other by the loadstone, an amyg- j daloidal trap rock. These marbles are usually distinguished by the ; r colour, as white, j grey, dove, blue, black, and russet; or by physical peculiarities, depending mostly on their j fossil contents, as bird’s-eye, dog-tooth or muscle, entrochal, shelly, and breccia marbl s.. | Quarries of lltck marble are situated near Ashford, where machinery for cutting and j polishing these marbles was first used in 1748. The beds of black marble seldom exceed ,, 7 or 8 inches ; it is difficult to be obtained of any considerable surface free from “ shakes, j or small veins of white spar. It is also procured at Matlock and Monsaldah. A brown I marble, in thin bands of various depths of colour, is called “ rosewood,” as it presents the | appearance of it when polished. It is one of the hardest and most durable of the Dcrhv- E shire marbles. A red marble, resembling Rosso antico, is found cniefly near Newhaven, in 9 lumps of no great size. These and other Derbyshire marbles are principally used for I inlaying work, as vases, tables, &c , but chimney pieces, columns, &c., are now made a! f Ashford, Bakewell, Buckland Holiow, and at Derby. This Florentine work, as it is called, is remarkable for fineness of execution and beauty of design, and is almost confined to fl the county. 16816. A beautiful greyish-black coralluid marble is also found in Derbyshire and in ^ Wales. The corals it contains are of the porous kind, of the most elegant species, lodged at all angles and in all directions, and are in general about one inch and a half long aim three quarters of an inch broad. The other species of coralloid marble is equally beau- tiful and compact, tine, even texture, very hard, of a deep jet black, and capable ot a very high polish. It is variegated with species similar to the above, but smaller, and of ale" elegant texture; among these it has usually a great number of sea shells, both turbinated and bivalve, the coral and shells being of a pure snow white. 1681c. The North Devonshire marbles are abundant and diversified. There ait varieties of black and white, from Bridestow, South Tawton, and Drewsteignton. Some of the Chudley, Staverton, and Berry Pomeroy, marbles, have a black ground with large veins of calcareous spar traversing it in all directions. The variegat- d marbles arc gene Chap. II. MARBLE. 491 rally reddish, brownish, and greyish, variously veined with white and yellow, and the colours are often intimately blended. The South Devonshire marbles, now chiefly worked at St M iry Church, Torquay, from the Babbacomhe limestone, are called after the name of the estate or quarry fiom whence they are taken, such as the Petiton, Ogwell, Ash- hurt n, Bahbacombe, &c. The colours are red, grey, and variegated, of almost every tint. The sizes of the blocks vary from 1 to 10 tons ; the ordinary length runs from 4 to 5 feet ; 7 to 8 feet is considered as a good length. At Ipplepen are reddish varieties that are extremely handsome. They are of different qualities, as compact, porcellanic, granular, crystalline, shelly, magnesian, pozolanic or water, stinking or swine. The Bartons quarry at Irplepen, belonging to Mr. Field, of Parliament Street, is worked at 80 to 100 feet in depth ; the lowest beds are about 8 feet thick, and of a mottled character, being dark red and white in colour; the deposit over it is streaky and lighter in colour. Blocks of 1 8 feet square are now conveyed to London. This quarry has lately supplied the mono- lithic polished shafts for the forty columns (18 out of one block), each 12 feet 3 inches in 1 ngth, and 18£ inches diameter on the fillet, with many others, for the new building of i lie National Provincial Bank of England, in Bishopsgate Street. The bases are of Irish black marble, and the caps of the cream-coloured Huddlestone stone. In the corridor of the new Freemasons’ Hall are four columns, two being from the Bartons quarries, and two of Languedoc marble: eight others are placed in the coffee-room of the Charing Cross Hotel. The limestones of Plymouth are not so fine. They ate of two sorts; one, an ash colour shaded with black veins; the other blackish grey and white, shaded in concentric .pots interspersed with irregular red spots; or black with white veins about a quarter to in inch in width. 168 Id. Serpentine, “ beyond all question, the most beautiful of the ornamental stones if this country ” (Hunt), is chiefly found in the sea-bound peninsula called the Lizard, lie most southerly land in Great Britain. This rock, with another called diallage, con- itute nearly halfof the Lizard peninsula. Serpentine has evidently been under the influence ■f heat. At one spot it seems to shade off into the hornblende slate in which it is embedded ; 4 another, it has every appearance of having been thrust up among the hornblende slate. ' I Henry de la Beclie wrote, many years since, that serpentine ouyht to be employed •r decorative purposes. He named Landewednack, Cadgwith, Kennack, Cove, and loosehilly Downs, as four sites whence beautiful specimens might be obtained, vary- ng in colour, as, an olive green base striped with greenish-blue steatite veins ; another pccimen, very hard, with a reddish base studded with crystals of the mineral called diullage. Inch when cut through and polished, gives forth a beautiful metallic green glitter, lightened still further by the reddish tint of the mass in which it is embedded. To the ixhibition of 1831, Penzance sent fine specimens in all kinds of ornaments. The blocks re small, but sometimes they have been obtained 7 feet in length and 4 or 5 tons in eight; the largest was 8 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 2i feet thick; from 2 to 3 feet ms is tli.- usual size. The best blocks are worth from 5 to 10 guineas per ton, according i their weight, the larger the size the higher is the value in an increasing proportion. I end' ally, steatite and serpentine differ little from each oilier, and as they are quarried in i imposition, specimens of both kinds are selected for use; but serpentine being much arder and more richly coloured, is appropriated to the larger articles. 168 le. In the Builder of 1865, p. 877, it is stated that serpentine is not a marble, but a h containing a t ilcrable quantity of chromate of iron. It is sometimes good for external nnuientation, but never when it has the white streaks so commonly seen in it. Hunt’s 't tndlnw/t la the 1 85 1 Exhibition , gives the following analysis of serpentine obtained at the /aril : Magnesia, 38-68 ; silica, 42-50 ; lime and alumina, 2’10 ; oxide of iron, 1 50 i idc of manganese, 10; oxide of chromium, 0\30 ; the colouring matter is probably a mbination of chromium, iron, and manganese. In his Handbook to the 1862 Exhibition, it • ailed a hydrated silicitatc of magnesia, composed of silica, 43-64 ; magnesia, 43 '35 ; and Uvr, 13-01 = 100. Besides the supply from the Lizard.it is obtained in Anglesca, irtsoy in Banffshire, Unstand I-’etlar in Scotland. The “green marble,” or serpentine, ( onnemara, is noticed umong the Irish marbles. This material is sawn by steam power i h sand and water ; and when brought into the form required, it is ground, turned, hhvd. and polished until it presentsa beautiful glossy surface, said to be capable of rcsist- grease mid acids, which is not the case with marble in general. i''8l /. It is said that two brackets of old monuments in Westminster Abbey ; the pancl- rdi-ring of the monument erected to the memory of Addison ; the brackets of u chimney- '• "t Hampton Court, ore all carved in serpentine, and the present condition of these -eimens shows the dui ability of it. “ Equal to granite in durability,” is the statement de in advertisements, hut probably some furthertime must elapse before such a statement • i In- endorsed, though it may he allowed that it appears to stand atmospheric influences ' i.irkubly well. Experiments on the strength of serpentine have been noticed in i lily. '1 herein is mentioned a shaft of l'oltesco grey-green Devonshire serpentine, t the weakest ciomp.es, which went ucros.s and not with the vein : the latter runuing 492 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book U. In the line of the diameter. The green serpentine has been used lately on the outside ol some offices in Cornhill ; and the red quality in 1853 in Leicester Square. 1G81<7. Purbeck, Petworth, or Sussex marble, is the name of a material common to Derby- shire, Dorsetshire, the Isle of Wight, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. It is found at Dinton, near Aylesbury, and it occurs at Boulogne and at Beauvais, in France. In some places, as in the most westerly quarries near Corfe Castle, and at the top of the Isle of Portland, the Purbeck stone is so highly coloured and fine-grained, that it is chiefly identified as be- longing to the fresh water deposits by the fossils it contains. In general, the stone may he said to be fine grained in the quarries north and west ; while in those approaching the east the pattern is larger, the shells well defined, and scarcely any of them broken; the marble from this district is therefore handsomer, and more in request for ornamental pur- poses. Purbeck was well known for its quarries during the middle ages, when the marble was in great request for decorating the clustered shafts and sepulchral tombs, and for pave- ments, in churches. At. the present time, there is scarcely sufficient demand to keep more than a few men at work, and this at Woody-hyde, near Corfe Castle, where the genuine material or Purbeck marble can be obtained, and that quarry is a hole more than a quarry. It has been stated that, during the middle ages, this material was also obtained from quarries at Parham Park, six miles north-east of Arundel, but there are now no traces of it left on the surface. 1681/;. All varieties of Purbeck marble contain a large proportion of clay in their com- position, which is one chief cause of their perishable nature. In the interior of buildings the moisture in the air will be condensed, and absorbed into the argillaceous portion of the marble. While this process is going on, the lustre of the polish is gradually diminished, the colour is altered, its hardness and cohesion destroyed, until the surface is completely changed to a dull earthy appearance, and decay results, which will be facilitated in propor- tion to the amount of clay contained in a given mass. When, as in small columns, this material is placed with the planes of lamination in a vertical position, there results another and a greater tendency to decay. The clustered columns in the Temple church, though renewed in 1849—42, had already lost much of their polish in 1853, a preliminary stage to- wards decay. The large ancient columns supporting the clere-story at Westminster Abbey, have now scarcely a trace left of their original surf, ice. (C. H. Smith, Transactions, Institute of British Architects, 1853). As already stated, this sort of marble is obtained in Kent, where it is also known as Bethersden marble, and likewise as Lovelace marble, obtained near Ashford. In the east and west sides of the new quadrangle of St. John's College, Oxford, are sixteen entire columns of “ Bletchingden marble,” which were put up in 1631-35. It may be seen in Ilythe Church and in some of the neighbouring churches, where it is often varnished in lieu of being polished. The Purbeck marble columns used in Lincoln Minster, in 1186—1200 are asserted to have been worked up by vinegar. 1682. Of the Scotch marbles the principal are the Th ee, of which there are two varieties, red and white. The Iona, whose colours are a greyish white and snow white, somet : me» intermixed with steatite, giving it a green or yellow colour in spots and known under the name of Iona or Icolmkill pebbles. It does not take a high polish. The Skye marble, of greyish hue, with occasionally various veins. The Assynt varieties of white, of grey, and dove colour. Glen Tilt marble, white and grey, with occasionally yellow and green spots. Marble of Balliculish, of a grey or while colour, and capable of being produced in con- siderable blocks. Boyne marble, grey or white, and taking a good polish. Blairgowrie, in Perthshire, of a pure white colour, fit, it is said, to be employed in statuary and for architectural purposes ; and Glenavon, a white marble, said by Williams ( Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom') to be a valuable marble, is not used, from the remoteness of its situation and the difficulty of access to it. 1683. Ireland is rich in marbles. The dark colours vary from jet black to dark dove colour, purple, blue, and grey; the light colours, from the pure snow white to the eelined, cream coloured, pink, and light grey. The variegated consist of the serpentine, black and whi'e veined, mottled, and those marked with fossil organic remains. The black marbles, which are those cf most value in Ireland, are extensively met with, and belong to the lower limestone. The merchantable beds of the best quality, which have been extensively worked, are met with in the counties of Galway, Limerick, Carlow, and Kilkenny. It is also found in the counties of Mayo and Waterford. The best quarries are considered to be those close to the town of Galway, near the bank of Lough Corrib. It occurs in three beds, varying from about 9 to 12 inches in thickness. One is called the “ London bed," as it supplies most of the black marble exported to London. Blocks are raised of an aver- age size of about 5 to 10 feet in length, and 4 to 5 feet in width ; others 20 feet in length can be obtained. Some blocks 16 feet in length were sent over for a staircase for the Duke of Hamilton’s seat in Scotland, who was also furnished with landings and solid balustrades worked to a fine polish. Angliham and Merlin Park cpiarries supply black marble of the very finest description, receiving a high polish. Steps of it were supplied tor the porticos at St. Paul’s, the staircases at Marlborough House, Hampton Court, and Kensington Palace, under Sir C, Wren, cir. 1700. At Oughterard, the beds contain mure ('hap. II. MARBLE. 4 S3 | or less silica, rendering them not so valuable. At Kilkenny, it abounds with shells which necome more conspicuous as the marble dries Kilkenny marble was once extensively employed in Ireland, but the black is now preferred. The polish of black marble, while it ,s considerably affected by dampness, is much improved and preserved by being kept dry. 1683a. Dark grey and dark mottled grey marbles are met with chiefly in King’s county and in several parts of the county of Cork. Near Tullamore, marble is obtained in large jloeks capable of receiving a fine polish, and is much used for chimney-pieces and orna- lental works. The limestone around Cork produces easy working marble of a light grey or dove colour, and more or less mottled, receiving a good polish. In the primary districts of Donegal, a light grey and bluish grey coloured marble of close grain is found to a great extent ; most of it, however, is hard to work from the quantity of silex it contains, l'lie same kind of a bluish tint is very frequent in Connemara. It is compact in texture, put does not always produce a satisfactory polish. White marble occurs in the western rortion of county Donegal, differing much from that of Connemara. It is of comparatively asy conversion, and can be obtained in cubical blocks in great quantities ; its very coarsely granular texture, however, is prejudicial to it for many purposes; for boldly executed works in sculpture, where the expense of carriage would be avoided, it might be advan- ageously employed for many purposes ; but it will not vie with the marble of Carrara, file Connemara white marble is hard and fine, and the strongest yet found ; it cannot, lowever, be procured in large blocks free from streaks, which pass through the blocks rarallel with the beds. At Chevy, near Dungannon, county Tyrone, a very delicate cream oloured marble is obtained, very compact in texture, receiving a high degree of polish, and docks of great length can he procured. The coarsely crystalline and fossiliferous limestone it Ardbraccan produces light coloured marble of easy conversion. 16836. Of the variegated marbles, the Siena of the best quality is perhaps the must jeauiilul. It is obtained in several places in King’s county; but the best, the veined or noitled Siena, is found near the Seven Churches. It is susceptibje of a high polish, and xhibits many bright and distinct colours. Marble of the same character also prevails, laving a dove coloured ground, varied or mottled with Siena colour. In the county of Vrmagh, a Siena, or rather a brownish red marble, is found, containing a great number of ossil shells; several varieties of colour, from a very light reddish brown to a rather dark id, are also met with, more or less marked with shells. At Pallaskenry in the county of Limerick, a dark red and mottled marble is abundant, and has been much used. A red oloured marble, of a compact but slaty texture, occurs in the county of Cork, extending fotn the city in a narrow seam, for a distance of several miles. It is hard to work and dull n colour: at one time it was extensively used. 1683c. The serpentine, or green marble , as it is usually called, of Connemara, in county Jilway, is of a dull green colour. Blocks are raised of considerable size, from which slabs an be obtained, at Barnanoraun quarry, near that at Recess; and at Letternaphy quarry, 'ear Clilden ; the latter being rather coarse in quality; while at Tievebaun quarry, near teecss, the marble is dark green, very sound, and free from shakes of any kind. Black nd white marble, and that of a mottled character, occur near Cork, in the counties ■ I Waterford, Longford, and Kerry; some of the varieties are very fine; that obtained car .Witclielstown is well marked and receives a high polish. The limestone obtained rj r the iieven Churches in King’s county, when polished, produces a good marble I an even grey colour. It is strongly mottled with very numerous fossil organic emaius. It is easily worked, and raised from the quarries in thin beds. This marble, in a • dished state, has been used in the construction of one of the principal ruins at the Seven liurcl.es; some of the stones retain their polish to this lime, while others exhibit decay. Wilkinson, Gtnlnyy, fyc. of Ireland , 1845). A fine purple marble is found at Lough- • uglier in county Tipperary, which is said to be beautiful when polished. Some of a 1 * r | > 1 <-• colour, and purple and white intermixed with yellow spots, were to be procured ill ic islands n ir Duukcrron in the river Kemnare. 1683d. Table OF run Weights of Maiibi.es. Name. County or Country. Weight foot, «▼( |> T c II (111 uhic loin. lb*. 07,. dr. Black . Kilkenny ... 171 6 0 1 tree • - Hebrides, Scotland 172 5 0 Carrara, Statuary - Tuscany ... 168 10 5 Ipplcpcn Uavnccionc • »» - 169 H , Bui tons quarry Devonshire ... 163 6 0 tenacity is staled at 6,000 lbs per square inch, and its crushing weight is also put at ,000 lbs. per square inch. (limit.) (I520e generally stated, that, in the case of two equal-sized and seasoned pieces, the heavier is he piece to be preferred. 169:3. In oak, as in all other woods, the boughs and branches are never so good as the ,ody of the tree ; the great are stronger than the small limbs, and the wood of the heart tionger than all. When green, wood is not so strong as when thoroughly dry, which it arely is till two or three years after it is felled. It is scarcely necessary to say, that, con- aining much sap, it is not only weaker, but decays sooner. It is weakened by knots, at • hich, in practice, it is found that fractures most frequently occur ; and it is important o the architect to recollect that he should always reject cross-grained pieces. 1694. The great use of oak in this country is more for ship-building purposes than for rchitectural, its use, except in the provinces, being principally confined to pieces which re much liable to compression, or where great stiffness is required, or in pieces like sills ) windows and door-cases, where there is much alternation of dryness and damp. So irly as 1788, the consumption of oak for ship-building purposes was, in that year, p wards of 50,000 loads. 1695. When of good quality, it is more durable than any other wood which is procur- ile of a like size. In a dry state, it is ascertained to have lasted nearly a thousand years, lie open-fibred porous oak of Lincolnshire, and some other places, is a bad sort. The est is that with the closest grain and the smallest pores. The colour, as is well known, a fine brown ; that which partakes of a reddish hue is not so good as the other. The nell of it is peculiar ; it contains gallic acid, and it assumes a black purple colour when imp, by contact with iron. It warps and twists much in seasoning, and shrinks in width tout one thirty -seventh part. 1696. Chestnut. One of the finest of the European timber trees, the Fag-its castanea botanists, was heretofore so common in this country, that Fitzstephen, in his description London about the time of Henry II., mentions a fine forest of chesnuts as growing on e northern side of the city. It is stated to have been used in the buildings of our icistors, but it is very doubtful if it was so employed. The young tree vies with the k in durability, from the small proportion of sapwood it contains. Of its durability, e roofs of Westminster Ilall, that of King’s College, Cambridge, and that of Notre one, at Paris, are cited as examples, though the fact of the latter being of chesnut is ■ubted by Uondelct, who says that Buffon and D’Aubenton thought it a species of oak, deli is now well known to be the case in the roof first named. 16'.7. Chestnut, however, is not to be trusted like oak. As Evelyn observed, it is often ll-looking outside, when d< cayed and rotten within. Belidor says it soon rots when ends of timbers of it are closed round in a wall. 1 6 'is. It is, perhaps, from the circumstance of its colour so nearly resembling tliat of k, that one timber has so often been mistaken for the oilier. The difference, however, that the pores of the sapwood of the oak are larger and more thickly set and easily .tmguishcd, whilst those in the chesnut require magnifying powers to be distinguished, it a more decided difference is, that the chesnut has no laige transverse septa. It is far nr to work than oak, and is not very susceptible of swelling and shrinkage. from it has been mentioned above, it may lie inferred that the wood, though tough and com* t. is, when young, hardest and most flexible, the old wood being often shaky and brittle. 1699. Wuter pipes of this tree endure much longer than those of elm; and for tubs l vessels to hold water, it is superior to oak; for when once thoroughly seasoned, it will 'her shrink nor swell, on which account it is used by the Italians lor wine tuns and ks. It will thrive oil most soils, but rather delights in a rich loamy land, succeeding if also, on that which is gravelly, clayey, or sandy. IVlixed soils are suitable to it, and found in the warmer mountainous situations of most parts of Europe. 171X1. from the experiments, the cohesive force of a square inch of chesnut, when dry >e from 9570 to l2/x;o lbs., and the weight of a cubic foot, when dry, is from • to .*■ 5 lb*. 49'? THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 1701. Bkkcii ( Faffiis Sylvatica ). A beautiful tree, growing to a considerable lie’Hit, raid carrying a proportionable trunk. It flourishes most in a dry warm soil, and grows moderately quick. The wood is bard, close, lias a dry even grain, and, like the elm, bears the drift of spikes. The sorts of beech are the brown or black, and the white beech. It is common throughout Europe. In the southern parts of Buckinghamshire, where the soil is chalky, it is particularly abundant; and such is the case near Warbleton, in Sussex, on the southern range of chalk hills, where the beeches are very fine. 1 702. Constantly immersed in water, the beech is very durable ; such also is the case with it when constantly dry ; but mere damp is injurious to it, and it is very liable to injury by worms, though to these Duhamel considers it much less liable when water-seasoned, than when seasoned in the common way. To render it less liable to the worm, it has been recommended to fell it about a fortnight after Midsummer, to cut it immediately into planks, which are to be placed in water about ten days and then dried. Beech is little used in building, except for piles, in which situation, if constantly wet, they are very durable. From its uniform texture and hardness, it is a good material for tools and furniture, and of it, in boards and planks, large quantities are brought to London. It is without sensible taste and smell, easy to work, and susceptible of a very smooth surface. The white sort is the hardest, though the black is tougher, and, according to Evelyn, more durable. Tim weight of a cube foot varies from 4 3 to 53 pounds. 1703. Walnut ( Juglans , quasi Jovis plans ) is of several sorts. The Juglans Regia, or common walnut, was formerly much cultivated in this island, as well for the sake ot its timber as of its fruit. On the former account the importation of mahogany has long since rendered its cultivation less common. It flourishes better in a thin limestone soil, than in one that is rich and deep, and, if raised for timber, should not be transplanted, hut remain in the place where it is sown. For furniture, from its rich brown colour, it is by many persons preferred to mahogany. Its scarcity renders its employment rare for building purposes, though by the ancients it was so employed. One of its properties is, that it is less liable to be affected by worms than any other timber, cedar only excepted; but from its brittle and cross-grained texture, it is not generally useful for the main timbers of a building. 1704. The heart- wood is of a greyish brown with dark brown pores, often veined with darker shades of the same colour, which are much heightened by oiling. The texture is not so uniform ^.s that of mahogany, nor does it work so easily, but it may be brought to a smoother surface. The weight of a cubic foot is about 45 pounds. 1705. Cedar (Pintis Cedrus ) is an evergreen cone-bearing tree, of which though several have been grown in this country, it is too scarce to be employed in building. It- durability is very great ; such, indeed, that Pliny states cedar to have been found in tin Temple of Apollo at Utica, which must have been 1200 years old. Its colour is a light rich yellow brown, with the annual rings distinct. It is resinous, and has a powcrl'u. smell. The taste is slightly bitter, and it is not subject to worms. It is very straight ii the grain, works easily and splits readily. Weight of a cubic foot from 30 to 38 pounds. 1706. Flu ( Finns Sylvcstris). The red or yellow fir is produced on the hills of Scot j land ; but the forests of Russia, Denmark, Norway, Lapland, and Sweden produce tin finest timber of this species. It is imported, under the name of red wood, in logs and deals From Norway the trees are never more than 18 inches diameter, whence there is much sap wood in them ; but the heart is a stronger and more durable wood than is had from large trees of other countries. From Riga a great deal of timber is received under the nami of masts and spars : the former are usually 70 or 80 feet in length, and from 18 to 25 indie diameter ; when of less diameter they take the latter name. Yellow deals and planks ar imported from Stockholm, Frederickshall, Christiana, and various other parts of Sweden Russia, Norway, and Prussia. Of the pine species the red or yellow fir is the most durab).' and it was said by the celebrated Brindley, that red Riga deal, or pine wood, would endur as long as oak in all situations. In Pontey’s Forest Pruner, on the authority of Dr. Snnti an instance is given of the durability of natural-grown Scotch fir. It is therein staici that some was known to have been 300 years in the roof of an old castle, and that it wa as fresh and full of sap as timber newly imported from Memel, and that part of it wa actually wrought up into new furniture. It is to be observed, that foreign limber ha an advantage too seldom allowed to that which is grown at home, the former being abvaj in some degree seasoned before it arrives in this country, and therefore never used in ‘ unseasoned a state as is usually the latter timber. 1707. From its great lightness and stiffness it is superior to any other material for beam girders, joists, ratters, and framing in general, in naval architecture it is used formas' and various other parts of vessels. In joinery, both internal and external, it stands betti is nearly as durable as oak, and is much cheaper. 1708. There is great variety in the colours of the different sorts of this fir: it is general! of a red or honey yellow of different degrees of brightness, and consists in section of bat and soft circles alternately, one part of each annual ring being soft and light coloured, tl iap. II. TIMBER. 497 icr harder and dark coloured, and possessing a strong resinous taste and smell. When abounding in resin it works easily. That from abroad shrinks in the log, from season- . about one thirtieth part of its width. 1 709. The annual rings of the best sort of this timber do not exceed one tenth of an h in thickness, their dark parts are of a bright red colour. That from Norway is the cst of the sort, to which the best Riga and Memel aie much inferior. The inferior timber this kind, which is not so durable nor so capable of bearing strains, has thick annual gs, and abounds with a soft resinous matter, which is clammy and chokes the saw. Much lie timber of this sort is from Sweden, but it is inferior in strength and stiffness. That ich is produced in the colder climates is superior to that which is the product of warmer ntries, the Norway timber being much harder than that of Riga. The weight of a ic foot of this fir, when seasoned, varies from 29 to 40 pounds. That of English growth, soned, from 28 to 38. 710 . White Fir (Pinus allies'), commonly called the spruce of Norway, whose I sts produce it in abundance. This is the sort which in deals and planks is imported n Christiana, in which condition it is more esteemed than any other sort. The trees n which these are generally obtained are of 70 or 80 years’ growth, and are usually cut three lengths of about 12 feet each, which are sawn into deals and planks, each length ding three deals or planks. Their most usual thickness is 3 inches, and they are crally 9 inches wide. In this country they are sold by the hundred, which in the case i hite as well as yellow deals, contains 120 deals, be their thickness what it may, reduced standard one of an inch and a half, a width of 1 1 inches, and a length of 1 2 feet, at is called whole deal is an inch and a quarter thick, and slit deal is one half of that kness. It unites better by means of glue than the yellow sort, is used mtich for interior k in joinery, and is very durable when in a dry state. 711. The colour of the spruce fir is a yellow or rather brown white, the annual ring ■isting of two parts, one hard, the other softer. The knots are tough, but it is not difficult ork. Besides the importation above named, there is a considerable quantity received i America. Of the Christiana fir a cubic foot weighs from 28 to 32 pounds when ined. That from America about 29 pounds ; and the Norway spruce grown in ain about 34 pounds. In seasoning it shrinks about a seventieth part, and after being hased as dry deals at the timber yards, about one ninetieth. 712. American Pines. The Pinus Strobus , or what is called the Weymouth or white , is a native of North America, imported in logs often more than 2 feet square and ards of 30 feet in length. It is an useful timber, light and soft, stands the weather ably well, and is much used for masts. For joiners’ work it is useful from its clean ght grain. But it should not be used for large timbers, inasmuch as it is not durable, is moreover very susceptible of the dry rot. Its colour is a brown yellow, and it has culiar odour. The texture is very uniform, more so, indeed, than any other of the pine ies, and the annual rings are not very distinct. It stands well enough when well Mied. A cubic foot of it weighs about 29 pounds. 1 3. The yellow pine, or Pinvs variabilis, is imported into England, but it is not h used; it is the produce of the pine forests from New England to Georgia. 14. The pitch pine (resinosa), remarkable for the quantity and fragrance of the resin oduces, is a native of Canada. It is brittle when dry. and, though heavy, not durable, of a much redder hue than the Scotch pine, and from its glutinous property difficult me. The weight of a cubic foot is 41 pounds. 1.5. The silver pine (picen) is common in the British plantations. This species of ■ r is produced in abundance, and is much used on the Continent both for carpentry ship-building. It is light and stiff, and according to Wiebekin, lasts longer in air in water A cubic foot weighs about ‘.6 pounds lb ITic Chester pine {pinaster) is occasionally cultivated in the British plantations, better suited to water than exposure to the air, and has a finer grain, but contains less than the pine or silver fir. A cubic foot weighs about 26 pounds. 17. Eakcii ( Pinim I.arix). A timber tree only lately to any considerable extent 1 ted in the plantations of Great Britain, among whose cultivators the Duke of Athol cen one of the most ardent and successful. It grows straight and rapidly, is said to treble in all situations, and appears to have been known and appreciated by Vitruvius, ' egretted the difficulty of its transport to Rome, where, however, it was occasionally Wiebekin prefers it to the pine, pinaster, and fir, for the arches of timber bridges. I o mring lionids and stairs, where there is much wear, it is weil suited, and when oiled a beautiful colour, such, indeed, that when used for internal joinery, a coat of h giws it u more beautiful appearance than it could receive from any painiing. The '• i in larches do not produce turpentine ; but the timber has been considered equal to trupenn sorts. It is of a honey yellow colour, and more difficult to woik than the >. M mel timber, though, when obtained, the surface is better. It bears the driving K li 498 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I to nails anil bolts, and stands well if properly seasoned. A cubic foot weighs from : of 40 pounds. 1718. Poplar. The Populus of botanists, whereof five species are grown in Englam the common white poplar, the black, the aspen or trembling poplar, the abele or gri white poplar, and that of Lombardy. The wood of this tree is only fit for the flooring inferior rooms where there is not much wear. Evelyn attributes to this wood the proper of burning “ untowardly," rather mouldering than maintaining any solid heat. Its colour a 5 ’ellow or brown white. The annual rings, whereof one side is a little darker than t other, making each year’s growth visible, are of an uniform texture. The best sorts are t Lombardy, the black, and the common white poplar. Of the Lombardy poplar, the wcig of a cubic foot is about 24 pounds; of the aspen and black poplar, 26 pounds; and of t white poplar, about 33 pounds. 1719. Alder ( Betula aluus ). A tree delighting in wet places by the banks of rive and which furnished the material, says Vitruvius, for the piles whereon the whole of t buildings of Ravenna stand. In a dry situation it is unfit for employment, on account its early rot when exposed to the weather or to mere damp, and its susceptibility engendering worms. Evelyn says that it was used for the piles upon which the celebial bridge of the Rialto at Venice was founded in 1591 ; but we have no certain data by wli such assertion can be maintained. There is, however, no doubt that it may be adn tageously employed in situations where it is constantly under water. Its colour is of a red yellow, of different shades, but nearly uniform; which latter quid is exhibited in its texture. From its softness it is easily worked, and seems adapted, therefore, for carving. In ai state the weight of a cubic foot varies from 36 to 50 pounds. 1720. Elm ( Ulmus ). In Great Britain five species of this tree abound, wlier the Ulmus campestris, common in the woods and hedges of the southern parts of Engla is a hard and durable wood, but is rarely used except for coffins. The Ulmus suben or cork-barked elm, is an inferior sort, and is very common in Sussex. 1721. The Ulmus Montana is the most common species in Europe, and particularly the northern counties of England. It is more generally known by the name of the lire leaved elm or wycli hazel. Without enumerating the other varieties, whereof the Du elm ( Ulmus major) is good for nothing, we shall merely observe, that the Ulmus glui common in Herefordshire, Essex, and the north and north-eastern counties of Engl: grows to the largest size and is most esteemed, whilst the Dutch elm is the worst. Thei is a durable timber when constantly wet, as a proof whereof we have only to mention i it was used for the piles on which the old London Bridge stood. Indeed, its durabi under water is well known ; but for the general purposes of building it is of little va and it rarely falls to the lot of the architect to be obliged to use it. 1722. The colour of the heart- wood is darker than that of oak, and of a redder bro The sapwood is of yellow or brown-white colour. It is porous, cross and coarse grai has a peculiar smell, twists and warps very much in drying, and shrinks considerabl breadth and length. Though difficult to work, it bears the driving of bolts and i. better than most other sorts of timber. The weight of a cubic foot, when dry, varies fi 36 to 48, seasoned from 37 to 50 pounds. From experiment it seems that in seasoi it shrinks one forty-fourth part of its width. 1723. Ash ( Fraxinus excelsior ). This, the most valuable of the genus, is conn throughout Europe and the northern parts of Asia. It grows rapidly, and of it the yo is more valuable than the old wood. It is much affected by the difference of the soil which it grows. It will not endure when subject to alternations of damp and mohi though sufficiently durable when constantly in a dry situation. Its pores, if cut in spring, are of a reddish colour, and it is improved by water-seasoning. Evelyn says, when felled in full sap, the worm soon takes to it; and therefore recommends its b felled in the months from November to February. The texture is compact and por the compact side of the annual ring being dark in colour, whence the annual rings distinct. The general colour is brown, resembling that of oak ; but it is more vet and the veins darker than those of oak. The timber of the young tree is a white, proaching brown, with a greenish hue. It has no peculiar taste or smell, is dilficui work, and is too flexible for use in building, beside the important want of the characti durability. The weight of a cubic foot varies from 35 to 52 pounds; and it is t observed, when the weight is much less than 45 pounds the timber is that of an old tri 1724. Sycamore ( Acer pseudo-platanus), usually called the plane tree in the nort part of the island, is common in Britain and on the mountains of Germany. It is l in growth, and the wood is durable when it escapes the worm, to which it is quite as 1 as beech. The use of it in buildings is not common, but for furniture it is valuable, colour is a brown white, yellowish, and sometimes inclining to white. Texture unifi annual rings indistinct. It is not so hard as beech, brittle, and generally easy to " A cubic foot, when seasoned, weighs from 34 to 42 pounds. Ware says that there an IAP. II. TIM HER. 499 uses in tliis country floored with sycamore and wainscoted with poplar. It seems well ough calculated for floors. 17 25. Rikch. Betula alba, or common birch, is a species of alder, to which article the ader is referred (1719). The American birch, from Canada, is but little superior to the uropean birch. The Russian birch, on account of its clean light colour and silvery ain, has been for many years extensively employed for bedroom furniture. 1726. A description of fir ( Wellingtmia gigantca) has been lately introduced from our ’ ony of Victoria, in Vancouver’s Island, on the western side of North America. It is nt in logs, deals, and planks. Instead, however, of being only 14 to 16 inches square, d 60 feet long at the maximum, as in the case of Baltic timber, one stick of this timber s been sent not less than 127 feet long, and about 42 inches square at one third of the io lit measuring from the butt end, which end was about 50 inches square. It contained 07 cubic feet of timber ; this is not an exceptional size. A tree is reported to have been t down lately, the circumference of which was 90 feet, and its height 325 feet ; the bark is in some places 4 feet thick. The tree, sound and solid, contained 250,000 feet of nber. It was supposed to be 3,100 years old. G. R. Burnell states the tenacity of this nber to be greater than, and its resistance to a crushing weight apparently superior to, 1 tic timber. When loaded in tl e centre to the | oint of instantaneous rupture, the Van- uver’s island wood bore weights which were to those borne by English cak as 13 to 12, d to those borne by the Baltic fir as 13 to 8. Three-inch cubes of the three woods were bjected to weights of 45 tons each, or 5 tons (11,240 lbs. ) on the inch superficial, when ( • permanent elasticity of oak was not affected, that of the fir only slightly so, whilst the dtic timber was permanently and perceptibly compressed. 1726a. For joiner’s woik, the straightness, freedom from knots, deep warm colour, and luty of the grain, places this timber above any other of the fir or pine woods ; whilst its at r hardness would in staircases, floors, &c., compensate for any slight increase in the ce of labour for working it. It has been employed by Mr. Burnell in the joiner’s work an office in Lincoln’s Inn Fields. It seems to affect iron somewhat as does oak. 1727. M A hoc. a ny ( Swietenia Mahogoni) is a native of the West Indies and the country tnd the Bay of Honduras. The tree is said to be of rapid growth ; its trunk oft it e i ds 40 feet in length and 6 feet in diameter. Its Spanish name is caOba. Spanish Itogany is imported from Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, St. Domingo, and some other of West India Islands and the Spanish Main. The best quality is considered to come tn the sea-board on the south part of the island of San Domingo or Hayti. The logs from 20 to 26 inches square, and about 10 feet in length. It is close grained, hard, Inctimes strongly figured, and generally of a rich brown colour, darker than Honduras; I its pores frequently appear as if chalk had been rubbed into them. It takes a very high | ish with hand labour; and French polishing brings out its flower with great lustre. 727a. Honduras mahogany is imported in logs of larger .size than the above, that is, hit 2 to 4 feet square, and from 12 to 18 feet in length ; logs 40 feet in length have been ained ; planks 6 to 7 feet wide are occasionally imported; but 5 feet square and 15 fiet g are the more ordinary dimensions. It is so distinctly inferior to the Spanish quality, t t no oidinary judge can possibly be mistaken in the normal samples. In weight it is ter ; and it is of a straightcr and more open or spongy grain, without much flower, therefore little sought after by cabinet makers. The worst kinds ate those most filled i urey spi cks, from which Spanish mahogany, except the Cuba, is comparatively free. 7276. Spanish mahogany is in this country far too valuable to be used in common filing. It sometimes sells for as much as 6/. per ft ot cube, when good lir, of nearly I 'olue for such purposes, would only cost 2.v. at the maximum. In Jamaica, mahogany been frequently employed for floors, joists, i alters, shingles, &c. ; and ships have been t of it ; for which last purpose, the circumstance of its allowing shot to be buried in it out splintering, makes it peculiarly suitable. Soon after its introduction into this try in 1721, when a specimen was sent to I)r. Gibbons by his brother, a West India tin, it was employed for doors, as at the Treasury, by W. Kent, in 1733. The better itics are reserved for small articles of cabinet-work and furniture, the best being en - •d in the form of veneers, of which twenty-one cuts are now got out of an inch thick— Solid work lor more general purposes, such as handrails of stairs, sashes, sash-doors, >rdir .arv counting-house and office fittings, fee , is worked out of Honduras mahogany, h is also employed as the groundwork lor veneers of the finer quality. 27c. It is generally sr,ld at per f tot superficial, one inch thick ; the common qualities . to Hi. r,d. per cubic foot. It holds with glue better than any other wood. Of duras mahogany, the quality called ‘common southern’ weighs about 26 lbs. ; •riur northern ’ about 42j lbs. ; ‘good northern ’ about 32 lbs ; and ‘common northern ’ • I. t 36 lbs., per cubic foot. All these qualities arc used in shipbuilding; the lightest, for bi lure. .Spanish mahogany weighs 48 lbs. 6 os., the best from 50 lbs. to 54 lbs. per foot All k inds of this timbci art* said to Ihj very durable, and fret* from the attack >rms when kepi constantly dry. They do not warp or crack under the influence of K K 2 500 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II the sun, but they do not resist alternations of great wetness and dryness. They shrink but little in drying, and twist and warp less than any other wood. 1727 d. African mahogany (Swietenia or Khaya Senegalensis ), from Gambia, is a more recent importation ; it twists much more than either of the above, and is decidedly inferior to them in all respects except hardness. Small quantities of mahogany are also received from Jamaica and the other West India islands, but they are of a quality so inferior even to the Honduras variety', that they are practically unknown to timber merchants. Florida cedar and other varieties are frequently made to pass as mahogany in cheap works. 1728. Teak (Tectona. grand**), has of late years formed a valuable timber for ship- building; and to a small extent in house, and even carriage, joinery. The best varieties are obtained from the ports of Rangoon or Moulmein (called Moulmein teak), and from the coast of Malabar (called East Indian teak). It is by no means rare to meet with sticks of perfectly straight teak CO or 70 feet long, and about 24 to 30 inches square. The wood is of a light brown colour, porous, very hard, tough, and when sound, of great strength and tenacity. It derives much of its value from the aromatic oily substance with which it Is nii/re or less saturated in the fresh state ; but this does not prevent its attack by insects whilst in the forest, consequently the trees turn out to be very defective. The wood works well ; takes a good polish, and though porous, it is very durable in exposed situations: it is considered that its oily properties render it less injurious to iron than oak. The tenacity of Moulmein teak is 15,000 lbs. per superficial inch. Some fine planks from Rangoon were nearly 3j feet wide. 1728a Moiiung saul ( Sltorea robusta), of Nepaul, in the East Indies, is in great repute for shipbuilding. It is a heavy, close-grained, light brown wood. This timber is con- sidered to be the most valuable and extensively used of all the trees of India, but the vale of it is much diminished from the injudicious mode in which it is squared. The saul or sal timber brought to Calcutta is seldom more than 30 leet in length. In strength and tenacity it is considerably superior to the best teak, compared with which, Captain Baker’s experiments prove that its strength is about as 1121 to 869. From Major H. Campbell’s experiments, unseasoned saul broke with a weight of 1308 lbs. ; seasoned saul with 1319 lbs.; and teak wood with 1091 lbs. Considered as a building wood, it is somewhat apt to shrink unless very well seasoned, (/arm’s Reporls, 1851). 17285. Mobba (Mora excelsa), sometimes called Demerara locust, is sent from Demerars in South Ameiica. It is a valuable timber for shipbuilding. 1728c. Greenheart ( Lauras chloroxylon, or Neetandr i rodiaei), imported from the Eng- 1 li>h colony of British Guiana, and Brazil, possesses the’ reputation of immunity from the attacks of marine boring worms ; and for this reason it is now largely used in hydraulic works. Mr. Burnell has stated his conviction from what he saw, especially of two logs, in J the West India Docks in 1860, that this timber does suffer from the attacks of land insects; and he was at that time in possession of a piece of the timber from Victor Bay, Panama, which was completely riddled by tbe Teredo navulis. A writer, commenting on this state- ment, says that “ his experience proves that greenheart is exempt from the therosion by the teredo, but that a mollusc is found alive in it when arming here from the West Indies. The worm is found in sizes from the li/mexylon to the tere lo, but it is of a different species, and seems not to live when this wood is used in such constructions as dock gates, in tins country.” The timber squares from 18 to 24 inches, but usually arrives about 16 inches square and 70 feet in length. It is a hard, heavy, fine, but not even-grained wood ; it proves strong and durable in positions that are alternately wet and dry. 1728c/. Among the other useful hard woods are: — I. The Peon, or Ponn wood, an Indian wood of Travancore, East Indies, formerly imported to some extent, from 2 to 1 feet in circumference and 80 feet in length ; but latterly it has been regarded with such dis favour that it is now hardly ever imported. II. The Kowkie, a New Zealand wood 1 1 1. The Australian Red Cedar. I V. The Sabicue, from Cuba, which was used lor tin steps of the stairs in the Great Exhibition building of 1851, and are now in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. It makes excellent beams and planks. A heavy specimen obtained of this wood was “ a portion of a large beam, which broke merely in falling from a truck : V. The Iron Bark, of Van Diemen’s Land, Australia, is a very hard and compact wood, with a specific gravity heavier than water. VI. Borneo wood, imported from Sarawak, was used in 1865 for the floors and staircase in a warehouse in Gresham Street West, b is of so peculiar a character that it broke nearly all the saws used to reduce it to batten'" it is light brown in colour, with a texture very similar to teak. It may probably be ti n Bilian , or iron wood of that country, said to be impervious to the attacks of the white ant. It has not been known to decay when immersed either in fresh or salt water. An engi- neer who had resided in Borneo for five years, states he had never seen a rotten piece a Jlihan wood. I728e. Besides the weights of various woods given in the text (as marked *) the sub- joined list of the weight per foot cube in pounds avoirdupois, may be useful. HAP. II. TIMBER. Table or the Weights of Timbers. Timber. Rondelet. Tredgold Acacia - - - 47-74 •Aider - . - 39-74 Almond tree - - - - 66-74 •Ash .... - - - 47*52 52 81 •Beech .... - - - 43-63 53-25 •Birch, common - - - 42-55 Box .... - - - 55 55 f 83-00 l 57-00 •Cedar of Lebanon •• - - - 36-50 35-06 Cliesnut, wild ( C/iat'iigiiier ) - - - 41 47 * „ sweet ( Marronier ) - - - 43-73 37-75 Cork - - - - - 15-00 Cypress, pyramidal - - - - 39-74 Ebony of the Alps - - • - 63*72 •Elm - - - - 42-00 42-06 „ English - - - - . - „ American - - - - - • Fir .... - - - 31*92 ,, Christiania, white deal - - - - 3443 „ Memel ... - - . - 37-00 .. Wellingtonia gigantea - - - - - •Larch, English - - - - 33-02 Linden .... - _ 34*13 Mahogany, Spanish - - - _ . 66-43 ‘Oak, common of Canada - - - - 51.18 „ Virginia red - - - 35-42 „ Common - - - 54-69 „ American - . _ „ „ African ... - - - - . „ English ... - \ fre. i 69-56 46-43 * l ine, Northern - 37-17 „ Yellow - _ _ „ Baltic - - _ _ _ „ Red - • . _ _ 41-06 „ Pitch - _ _ _ _ „ .. Weymouth or Yellow - - - - 40-76 Plane .... . - _ 37-58 Poplar, of Italy - - - 24-25 **---- - - - - 23-93 Service tree ( Curmier ) - - - 5.5 07 Sycamore ... _ „ 38-88 37*75 Walnut - . . 41-04 41-93 .. American - - . . 41*90 ^ ew < . _ _ 47-09 leak, African _ _ „ Indian ... - - - - 46*87 „ Moulmein - . t« Malabar - - - - - Morra .... - - Sabicuc .... . m _ . | Orccnhcart . , _ . . Iron wood • - _ Cowrie - • , - - - - 30 CO Morung Saul ... . . • . 1 Indian Saul ... j Iron Bark ... • - - - Others. 41*81 87 81 45'31 32 56 4 1 87 51.44 53*31 2 5'6‘) 29 06 33-4 4 45-75 60-56 38 12 7125 \ 59 69 l 61-60 69-75 73-50 501 Burnell. 42-00 32-00 ! 38-00 i J 55-75 I I 57-1-0 ' J 57-31 | l 63-63 l 4 3-8"to i 45-87 j 52-63 ! 65-60 502 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 1728 f. The cl lief woods employed in shipbuilding and acknowledged as “ first-rate” by the authorities at Lloyds, are eight in number These are. I. English oak ; II. American live oak; 111. African oak; IV. Morung Saul; V. East Indian Teak; VI. Gieen- lieart; VII. Morra; and VIII. Iron Bark. 1729. In timber yards, deals are sold by tbe long hundred or six score; thus the “ standard” of deals is reckoned as 120 — 12 It. x lj in. x 1 1 ins., but varying lengths and thicknesses are imported (See par. 2302 and 2363). Names. No. Ft. long. Ins. t hk. Wide. Sup. ins. Cube ft. Petersburg deals - - 1-20 12 H ii 1980 of 1” 165 „ battens - 120 12 ol 7 - 175 Dantzig deals - 120 12 if 12 - 180 Norway ,, - 120 12 3 9 3240 270 Sweden „ - 120 14 3 9 - 315 Baltic deck deals - - - 40 3 Christiania standard - 120 1 1 9 1237.J of 1" 10 8$ Dranunen - 120 9 ox e£j Ditto - - 120 13 n 9 1462 of 1" 121§ Quebec, long - 100 12 1 I Ditto, short - 120 10 3 11 2750 of 1” 229! London and Dublin - 120 12 3 9 3240 of 1'' 270 The measurements have been reduced to one standard of 12 ft. long, 3 in. thick, and 9 m. wide. Two of the latest works for calculating deals according to this, the Petersburg standard hundred, are, J. Smith, Companion to Hoppus ; Handbook of Tables jfir tin use of Timber Merchants, §•<;., London, 1860 ; and Grandy, Timber Importers’, Sfc. Standan Guide, 8vo., London, 1865, to which latter work we are glad to refer the student, am from which we select the following extracts : — 1729u. “ American Ports. — At Quebec, there are three qualities of spruce deals, 1st, 2nd and 3rd. Irregular size scantlings are scarcely ever shipped from this port, the genera run being battens, 7x3; deals, 9x3; and planks, 11 x 3, 7 x 2, 9 x 2, and 11x2; genera 1 lengths from 8 to 14 feet. All under 8 feet are classed as “ ends.” Ye low pine battens deals, and planks are shipped as 1st, 2nd, and 3rd qualities. Battens are not so valuabl as deals and planks, some of the latter running 11 to 30 inches ; the finer qualities bear high rale. 17295. St.John’s deals rank after those of Quebec in quality. Battens, deal,, am planks run from 8 to 26 feet ; all lengths under 8 feet being classed as ends. All d al are scarcely ever classed into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, but taken by the run; the sizes 7 x : 9x3, and 11x3, being the highest in price. Irregular scantlings, such as 3 x 3, 4 x 3 6 x 3, 5 x 2j, &c., are less per thousand. 1729c. Tagwash, Miramichi, and other Lower Ports. Battens, deals, and planks an obtained as at St. John’s. The deal is a closer grain, but coarser, and hence not so valuable The lengths run from 8 to 14 feet, all under 8 feet being ‘ends.’ Scarcely any irregula scantlings are shipped from these ports. The square timber at the American ports i generally purchased by the cubic foot. 1729r/. Baltic Ports. — Memel. Battens and deals are scarce ; planks form the bulk o the timber imported. They all run from 8 to 20 feet. They are generally sold by 7 2' feet run of 11x3, = 1 Petersburg standard. Battens and deals run 7x3 and 9x3 Christiania. Battens and deals, and Drammen deals run 9 x 3, 7 x 3, or 7 x 2%. Crow Memel. Square timber is generally sold by the 50 running feet, as 1st middling and 2nd middling. But “undersized” timber, that is, under 12 inches square, is sol by 50 cubic feet, or by 50 running feet. There are also “ short lengths of undersized timber. 1729e. Home Trade. — At London, pine deals are sold by the Petersburg, and sprue deals by the London, standard. Square timber is sold by the ioad, or 50 cube feet, or b the cube foot, calliper measurement. At Liverpool and Bristol, deals are sold by tl Petersburg standard ; square timber by the load or foot, string measurement. At Glasyon deals are sold by tbe cube foot ; square timber by the cube foot, string measurement 5 Dublin , deals are sold by the London or Dublin standard of 120, 12x9x3; square timbe by the ton of 40 feet, string measurement.” 1729/. These timbers are used in building for the undermentioned purposes : — Joists and main timbers: The largest, of Hantzic, Memel or Riga, fir; those of 10 or 1 inches square, from Sweden; those of 8 inches square, from Norway. CllAF. II. TIMBER. 503 Partitions and minor timbers : American red wood or red pine, which not being so strong as that from the Baltic, must be cut to a little larger size. Sleepers, window sills, and some parts of the roof: Oak. Framing : Norway and Christiania white deals ; Christiania yellow deals are sappy ; Swedish deals are bad, as they warp much. Panelling: Christiania white pine ; or American yellow pine. Best ordinary floors: Drammen and Christiania white deals; American pitch pine; American deals are bad for floors, as they are a softer wood. Ground floors: Stockholm and Gefle yellow deals. Warehouse floors, and Staircases: Archangel and Onega p'anks, and American pitch pine. (Best floors: Petersburgh, Onega, and Christiania battens. Interior finishings generally : Baltic red and white wood, and American red and yellow pine. 1729<7. Metnel timber is generally considered the most convenient for size, and is jsuperior in strength to the Swedish, or Norwegian ; Itiga, the best in quality ; Dantzic, i when free from large knots, the strongest; and the Swedish, the toughest, but weakest, jltiga can always be depended upon, and although the dearest in price, is the cheapest I in the end. 17.30. We shall now place before the reader, observations on timber made by the cele- brated Evelyn though perhaps at the risk of repetition in what follows after them. 1731. “ Lay up your timbers very dry, in an airy place, yet out of the wind or sun, and Inot standing very upright, but lying along, one piece upon another, interposing some short blocks between them, to preserve them from a certain mouldiness which they usually con- tract while they sweat, and which frequently produces a kind of fungus, especially if there be any sappy parts remaining. 1732. “ Some there are yet who keep their timber as moist as they can by submerging it in water, where they let it imbibe, to hinder the cleaving; and this is good in fir, both for the better stripping and seasoning ; yea, not only in fir, but other timber. Lay, there- fore, your boards a fortnight in the water (if running the better, as at some mill-pond head); and there, setting them upright in the sun and wind, so as it may freely pass through them (especially during the heats of summer, which is the time of finishing buildings), turn them daily; and thus treated, even newly sawn boards will floor far better than many years’ dry seasoning, as they call it. But, to prevent all possible accidents, when you lay your floors, let the joints be shot, fitted, and tacked down only for the first year, nailing them for good and all the next ; and by this means they will lie staunch, close, and with- >ut shrinking in the least, as if they were all one piece. And upon this occasion I am to add an observation, which may prove of no small use to builders, that if one take up deal boards that may have lain in the floor a hundred years, and shoot them [plane their edges] again, they will certainly shrink ( toties quoties ) without the former method. Amongst wheelwrights the water seasoning is of especial regard, and in such esteem amongst some, I hat I am assured the Venetians, for their provision in the arsenal, lay their oak some years in water before they employ it. Indeed, the Turks not only fell at all times of the year, without any regard to the season, but employ their timber green and unseasoned ; that though they have excellent oak, it decays in a short time, by this only neglect. 1733. “ Elm felled ever so green, for sudden use, if plunged four or five days in water ' especially salt water), obtains an admirable seasoning, and may immediately be used. 1 the oftener insist on this water seasoning, not only as a remedy against the worm, but lor its efficacy against warping and distortions of timber, whether used within or exposed <> the air. Some, again, commend burying in the earth; others in wheat ; and there l>c seasonings of the tire, as for the scorching and hardening of piles, which are to stand -ither in the water or in the earth. 1734. “ V hen wood is charred it becomes incorruptible; for which reason, when we wish to preserve piles from decay, they should be charred on their outside. Oak posts used in enclosures always decay about two inches above and below the surface. Charring hat part would probably add several years to the duration of the wood, for that to most timber it contributes its duration. Thus do all the elements contribute to the art of seasoning. 1735. “Timber which is cleft is nothing so obnoxious to reft and cleave as what is hewn; nor that which is squared as what is round: and therefore, where use is to be "i ade of huge and massy columns, let them be bored through from end to end. It is an excellent preservative from splitting, and not unphilosophical ; though to cure the accident painter’s putty is recommended ; also the rubbing them over with a wax cloth is good ; or before it be converted the smearing the timber over with cow-dung, which prevents the effects both of sun and air upon it, if of necessity it must lie exposed. But, besides the former remedies, 1 find this for the closing of the chops and clefts of green timber, to anoint and supple it with the fat of powdered beef broth [we do not quite agree with our • iithor here], with which it must be well soaked, and the chasms filled with sponges lipped into it. This to be twice done over. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 11 504 1736. “ We spake before of squaring ; and I would now recommend the quartering i such trees as will allow useful and competent scantlings to be of much more durablener and effect for strength, than where (as custom is and for want of observation) whole beam and timbers are applied in ships or houses, with slab and all about them, upon false suppi sitions of strength beyond these quarters. 1737. “ Timber that you have occasion to lay in mortar, or which is in any part con tiguous to lime, as doors, window cases, groundsils, and the extremities of beams, &e have sometimes been capped with molten pitch, as a marvellous preserver of it from tli burning and destructive effects of the lime; but it has since been found rather to heat am decay them, by hindering the transudation which those parts require ; better supplied wit 1 loam, or strewings of brick-dust or pieces of boards; some leave a small hole for the aii But though lime be so destructive, whilst timber thus lies dry, it seems they mingle with hair to keep the worm out of ships, which they sheathe for southern voyages, thoug it is held much to retard their course. 1738. “ For all uses, that timber is esteemed the best which is the most ponderous, an which, lying long, makes the deepest impression in the earth, or in the water being floated also what is without knots, yet firm and free from sap, which is that fatty, whiter, am softer part called by the ancients albumen , which you are diligently to hew away. M Lord Bacon (Exper. 6,58.) recommends for trial of a sound or knotty piece of timber, t cause one to speak at one of the extremes to his companion listening at the other ; for if i be knotty, the sound, says he, will come abrupt.” PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 1 739. The preservation of timber, when employed in a building, is the first and most im portant consideration. Wherever it is exposed to the alternations of dryness and moisture the protection of its surface from either of those actions is the principal object, or, in otlie words, the application of some substance or medium to it which is imperviable to moisture but all timber should be perfectly dry before the use of the medium. In Holland the ap plication of a mixture of pitch and tar, whereon are strewn pounded shells, with a mixtur of sea sand, is general ; and with this, or small and sifted beaten scales from a blacksmith forge, to their drawbridges, sluices, and gates, and other works, they are admirably pro tected from the effects of the seasons. Semple, in his work on aquatic building, recoin mends, that “after your work is tried up, or even put together, lay it on the ground, witl stones or bricks under it to about a foot high, and burn wood (which is the best firing fo the purpose) under it, till you thoroughly heat, and even scorch it all over; then, whilst tli wood is hot, rub it over plentifully with linseed oil and tar, in equal parts, and well boilei together, and let it be kept boiling while you are using it; and this will immediate!; strike and sink (if the wood be tolerably seasoned) one inch or more into the wood, clos< all the pores, and make it become exceeding hard and durable, either under or over water. Semple evidently supposes the wood to have been previously well seasoned. 1740. Chapman (on the preservation of timber) recommends a mixture of sub sulphaU of iron, which is obtained in the refuse of copperas pans, ground up with some cheap oil and made sufficiently fluid with coal-tar oil, wherein pitch has been infused and mixed. 1741. For common purposes, what is called sanding, that is, the strewing upon tin painting of timber, before the paint dries, particles of fine sand, is very useful in the pre- servation of timber. 1742. Against worms we believe nothing to be more efficacious than the saturation o' timber with any of the oils ; a process which destroys the insect if already in the wood, with that of turpentine especially, and prevents the liability to attack from it. Evelyn recom- mends nitric acid, that is, sulphur immersed in aquafortis and distilled, as an effectual ap- plication. Corrosive sublimate, lately introduced under Kyan's patent, has long been known as an effectual remedy against the worm. Its poisonous qualities of course destroy all animal life with which it comes in contact; and we believe that our readers who arc interested in preserving the timbers of their dwellings may use a solution of it without infringing the rights of the patentee. But the best remedy against rot and worms is a thorough introduction of air to the timbers of a building, and their lying as dry and as free from moisture as practicable. Air holes from the outside should be applied as much im- possible, and the ends of timbers should not, if it can be avoided, be bedded up close all round them. This practice is, moreover, advisable in another respect, that of being able, without injury to a building, to splice the ends of the timbers should they become decayed, without involving the rebuilding of the fabric; a facility of no mean consideration. 1743. The worm is so destructive to timber, both in and out of water, that we shall not apologise for closing this part of our observations with Smeaton’s remarks upon a species ol worm which lie found in Bridlington piers. “ This worm appears as a small white suit substance, much like a maggot ; so small as not to be seen distinctly without a magnifying glass, and even then a distinction of its parts is not easily made out. It does not attempt Chat. II. TIMBER. 505 to make its wav through the wood longitudinally, or along the grain, as is the ease with the common ship worm, but directly, or obliquely, inward. Neither does it appear to make its way by means of any hard tools or instruments, but rather by some species of dissolvent liquor furnished by the juices of the animal itself. The rate of progression is, that a three inch oak plank will be destroyed in eight years by action from the outside only.” For re- sisting the effects of these worms, Smeaton recommends the piles to be squared, to be fitted as closely as possible together, and to fill all openings with tar and oakum, to make the lace smooth, and cover it with sheathing. 1744. The destructive effects of the white ant are so little known here, that it is unne- cessary to make further mention of them, than that in India they are the most inveterate ■nemies with which timber has to contend. From Young’s Annals we extract the following ■urious statement of experiments made upon inch and a half planks, from trees of thirty to oity-five years’ growth, after an exposure of ten years to the weather. Cedar was perfectly sound. Chesnut, very sound. Larch, sap quite decayed, but the heart, Abele, sound, sound Beech, ditto. Spruce fir, sound. Walnut, decayed. Silver fir, in decay. Sycamore, considerably decayed. Scotch fir, much decayed. Birch, worthless. I’inaster, in a perfectly rotten state. d'hence we may be led to some inference of the value of different sorts of timber in esisting weatlnir ; though we must not be altogether guided by the above table, inasmuch s it is well known that the soil on which timber is grown much increases or deteriorates ■s value, and that split timber is more durable and stronger than that which is sawn, from lie circumstance of the fibres, on account of their continuity, resisting by means of icir longitudinal strength ; whereas when severed by the saw, the resistance depends more a the lateral cohesion of the fibres. Hence whole trees are invariably stronger than spe- mens, unless these be particularly well selected, and of a straight and even grain ; but in actice the results of experiments are on this account the more useful. DECAY OF TIMBER. 1745. If timber, whatever its species, be well seasoned, and be not exposed to alternate yness and moisture, its durability is great, though from time it is known to lose its ' tic and cohesive powers, and to become brittle if constantly dry. On this account it unfit, after a certain period, to be subjected to variable strains : however, in a quiescent tte it might endure for centuries. Dryness will, if carried to excess, produce this cate- >ry. The mere moisture it absorbs from the air in dry weather is not sufficient to impair durability. So, also, timber continually exposed to moisture is found to retain for a ry long period its pristine strength. Heat with moisture is extremely injurious to it, d is in most cases productive of rot, whereof two kinds are the curse of the builder, the t and the dnj rot, though perhaps there be but little difference between the two. They pear to be produced by the same causes, excepting that the freedom of evaporation de- mines the former, and an imperfect evaporation the latter. In both cases the timber is '-•cted by a fungus-like parasite, beginning with a species of mildew ; but how this fungus generated is still a vexata quastio ; all we know is, that its vegetation is so rapid, that •n before it has arrived at its height, a building is ruined. From our inquiries on the ntinent, we believe the disease does not occur to the extent that it does in this country ; a i which we are inclined, perhaps erroneously, to attribute to the use of the timber of the ' uitry, instead of imported timber. Our opinion may be fanciful, but there are many iimls on which we think that is not altogether the case. Our notion is, that our im- 1 l. I timber is infected with the seeds of decay long before its arrival here (we speak of l more especially), anil that the comparative warmth and moisture of the climate bring ' r. effectually the causes of decay into action, especially where the situation is close and ' lined. Warmth is, doubtless, known to be a great agent in the dry rot, andmost espe- 1 ly when moisture co-operates with it, for in warm cellars and other close and confined ■ items, where the vapour which feeds the disease is not altered by a constant change ■ r, the timbers are soon destroyed, and become perfectly decomposed. •’ Iff. The lime, and more especially the damp brickwork, which icceive the timbers of | w Imilding, are great causes of decay to the ends of them; but we do not think that 1 regulations of the 19 Cor. II. cap. !5., which directed the builders after the fire of I don, to bed the ends of their gilders and joists in loam instead of mortar, would, if 1 ' il out in the present day, be at all effective in preventing the decay incident to the • ol timbers. '1 imber, in n perfectly dry state, does not appear to be injured by dry h . and indeed, lime is known to be effettua) in the protection of wood against worms. < her in contact with masonry is constantly found to decay, when the other parts of the SOS THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Bojk II beam have been sound. This will be entirely obviated by inserting the wood in an iron shoe, or by placing a thin piece of iron betwixt the wood and the stone. Cases are known in which the iron shoe appeared to have proved a complete protection against dry rot and decay ; a hard crust being formed on the timber in contact with the metal. The system o( grouting must contribute to the early decay of w< od bond; but at Manchester, where it was used very generally, it appeared to answer well, for the high temperature kept up in the buildings may cause the walls to dry very soon. Sea-sand, used for outside and in- side purposes, in a spirit of economy, soon shows the result by inducing the appearance ol rot in timber. Wood laid in sandy soil is well preserved, as was found to he the case ir tilt' specimens lately dug up at Birkenhead from depths varying from 8 feet to 3 l i feet they were considered to have been buried for centuries. 1747. Nothing is more injurious to the floors of a building than covering them witl painted floorcloth, which entirely prevents the access of atmospheric air, whence the damn ness of the boards never evaporates ; and it is well known that oak and fir posts have beei ! brought into premature decay by painting them before their moisture had evaporated whilst in the timber and pewing of old churches, which have never been painted, we st them sound alter tire lapse of centuries. Semple, in his Treatise on Building in ll'atei notices an instance of some field gates made of the fir of the place, part whereof, near tli mansion, were painted, and had become rotten, while those more distant from the mansion which had never been painted, were rpiite sound. 1747a. According to Baron Liebig, the decay of wood takes place in the thn following modes : — I. The oxygen in the atmosphere combines with the hydrogen i the fibre, and the oxygen unites with the portion of carbon of the fibre, and evapc rates as carbonic acid; this process is called decomposition. II. The actual deia of ihe wood which takes place when it is brought in contact with rotting substances. An j II T. The inner decomposition of the wood in itself, by losing its carbon forming carbon acid gas, and the fibre under the influence of the latter is changed into white dust ; this called putrefaction. PREVENTION OK DECAV. 174'8. After timber is felled, the best method of preventing decay is the immediate r moval of it to a dry situation, where it should be stacked in such a manner as to secu a free circulation of air round it, but without exposure to the sun and wind, and it siion | be rough squared as soon as possible. When thoroughly seasoned before cutting it in scantlings it is less liable to warp and twist in drying. The ground about its place of d posit should be dry and perfectly drained, so that no vegetation may rise on it. Hen a timber yard should be strewed with ashes, or the scales from a foundry or forge, wlii supply an admirable antidote to all vegetation. It is thought that the more gradua timber is seasoned the greater its durability ; and as a general rule, it may be stated, tl it should not be used till a period of at least two years from its being felled, and for joint work at least four years. Much, however, is dependent on the size of the pieces. By son water seasoning has been recommended ; by others the steaming and boiling it ; smol drying, charring, and scorching have also been recommended. The latter is, perhaps, best for piles and other pieces that are to stand in the water or in the ground. It was pr: tised by the ancients, and is still in use generally for the posts of park paling and the lil 1749. In Norway the deal planks are seasoned by laying them in salt water for three four days, when newly sawed, and then dtying them in the sun, a process which is ci stdered to be attended with advantage ; but it does not prevent their shrinking. Mr. Eve , recommends the water seasoning for fir. 1749a. The effectual seasoning obtained by Davison and Symington’s patent proces> forcing heated air in a continued current through timber under pressure, effectually di it, and coagulates the albumen. The timbers for the flooring of the Coal Exchange London have been so treated, and show no signs of shrinkage. The wood was taken in natural state, and in less than ten days it was thoroughly seasoned ; in some cases Iron to 48 per cent of moisture was taken out of it. The air when heated to about 1 10° or f is sent through the timber at a rate of about 48 miles per hour ; the heat being regal according to the quality of the timber. Honduras mahogany exposed to a heat of 3t would have the whole of the moisture taken from it in 48 hours. This process, howc sometimes splits the timber. Out of a hundred specimens of wood experimented up varying from one inch to twelve inches square, nut one of them split : even some open: which were visible before the process was applied, were found to be closer after it. Perl 9 inches square is the limit to which the operation can be successfully applied. 1730. Notwithstanding, however, all care in seasoning, when timber is employed i damp situation it soon decays ; and one of the principal remedies against that is p drainage, without which no precautions will avail. It is most important to take cart- earth should not lie in contact with the walls of a building, for the damp is quickly c municatcd, in that case, by their means to the ends of timbers, and rot soon follows, expedient to guard against this contingency is so good as what are called air drains. : H a?. ii. TIMBER. 507 1751. When the carcass of a building is complete, it should be left as long as possible o dry, and to allow to the timbers what may be called a second seasoning. The modern ractice of finishing buildings in the quickest possible period, has contributed more to dry ot than perhaps any other cause ; and for this the architect has been blamed instead of hi? mployer, whose object is generally to realize letting or to enjoy occupation of them as arlv as possible. After the walls and timbers of a building are once thoroughly dry, all leans should be employed to exclude an accession of moisture, and delay is then prejudicial. 1752 Among the many inventions to preserve wood from decay, those of England have ■ roved the most successful. In 1757 a patent was granted to Mr. Emerson to prepare itnber with hot oil. This was followed by various recommendations early in the present entury ; those of later date consist of : — I. Kyan’s process, 1832, who steeped the timber a a solution of bichloride of mercury, known as corrosive sublimate (pur, 1 742.) It appears o penetrate fir less than some other woods ( Earaday). The wood thus treated becomes of ess specific gravity, less flexibility, and more brittle. II. Sir William Burnett’s patent of 836, was for using the chloride of zinc. III. M. Breant in 1837 suggested sulphate of ror,, which was found not to alter the qualities of the timber as did the corrosive sublimate. V. Margary’s patent, 1837, is for steeping timber in a solution made of one pound of ulphate of copper with eight gallons of water. Wood impregnated with sulphate of upper (blue vitriol) will not last longer in sea water than any other wood. But wood so reated will last longer in the soil than if either tarred or charred. Its application for the irevention of rot is beneficial, and it might be used where not expostd to the action f water, on account of the solubility of the salts. The proportion of the sulphate should >e one pound to four gallons of water ; we have also met with the proportion of one pound 0 two gallons; perhaps the strongest is the best (pur. 17525.) V. Payne, 184 1, patented system for using two solutions; first, sulphate of iron, which would form an oxide of ■ on in the cells ; and secondly, carbonate of soda ; some very good results were obtained, ut the process must be done under pressure and with the greatest care. 1752a. VI. Bethell’s patent, 1838, consists in the injection of oil of tar, containing crea- te and a crude solution of acetate of iron, commonly called pyrolignite of iron, after the ir in the wood has been extracted. This process is effective to a great extent, and full articulars are given by G. R. Burnell in his paper read before the Society of Arts I860, om which we have been quoting. It, however, can only be recommended for railways nd other large works ; the offensive smell and increased danger by fire should deter v use in hous< building. In the best creasoting works, the oil is injected at a temperature f 120° and under a pressure of 150 lbs. on the square inch, so that ordinary fir timber bsorbs 10 lbs. weight of the creasote per cubic foot ; the wood should be weighed to •.certain that it did absorb that quantity. For all engineering purposes, fir timber thus cated is far more durable than the best oak, teak, or other hard woods, and the cost of ie opera: ion is very small. Timber which has just been taken out of water contains so Tge a quantity that it resists the entrance of the oil ; unless time, therefore, be given for to be first dried, it would necessarily be badly prepared. 17326. VII. Dorsett and Blithe, 1863, patented the injection of heated solutions of debate of copper (par. 1752, IV.), a process said to have been adopted by French, Spanish, 1 alian, and other railway companies. Amongst its advantages, tiny state that wood so repared is rendered to a great extent incombustible; and that for out-door purposes it has dean yellowish surface, without odour, requires no painting, remaining unchanged • any length of time. ' ' • Experience of the English processes shows that creasoting is the most generally successful ; the •hcaiion of the sulphate of copper is satisfactory in many cases ; while the other processes, although • 1 mi lit of occasional value, have been practically abandoned. They all depend for their suecess upon p.ilful and conseienLious munner in which tire, are applied ; for as they involve chemical actions on ul'm scale, tl ir efficiency must depend upon the observation of the minute practical precautions or" I to exclude any disturbing causes. • Curbnliuciim Avenarlus is said (1887) to he an efficient preservative of wood against all external “ 1 r, ' d Injurious influence, driving the moisture out of it by making it impervious to damp, and tat«u I . I,.- a preservative against the attack of white ants in hot cliraat. s. Being thin and liquid it into the wood readily. One gallon will cover from 30 to f>0 square yards. I • < i. It is no easy matter to cure the dry rut where it has once taken root. If it bo • nd neccisarv to substitute new timbers for old onts, every particle of the fungus, known be Mi-ruUtm lucrymans, must be removed from the neighbourhood of such new timbers. ter scraping it from the adjoining walls and timbers, perhaps no better application than 1 ■ of the washes above mentioned can be employed. About 300° of beat would effect ' '..une purpose, but this is difficult in application. Coal tar has been found useful, but i odour, arising at a moderate degree of heat, is an objection to its use. A weak solution ■ utiiolic P C '<1 'vith water will generally stop the rot if it have not gone too far. l’yro- 1 a ous acid is recommended for preventing the spreading of the disease. The precautions ‘ n ued above lor the prevention of decay, although not always successful, must be deemed 1 arable to the application of after remedies. £08 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II Sect. V. IRON. 1754. Iron is a metal found in almost all parts of the world, and though not mentionec by Homer, and hence, we may suppose, in his time extremely scarce, it is now more abun- dant than any of the other metals, and is, at the same time, the most useful. Although, witl the exception of tin, it is the lightest of all metals ; yet it is, when pure, very malleable am extremely hard. Its malleability is increased by heat, whereas most other metals, as thej are heated, become more brittle. It is the only known substance whereon the loadstom acts, and its specific gravity to water is as 7682 to 1000. 1755. The iron manufactured in Great Britain is obtained from three species of the ore The Lancashire, which is very heavy, fibrous in texture, and of a dark purple colour in dining to black, and lodged in veins. The Bag ore, which has the appearance of a dee] yellow clay, and is found in strata of from twelve to twenty inches in thickness. Am lastly, Iron stones, of an irregular shape, frequently in beds of large extent, similar to otlic stony masses, and often intersected with seams of pit coal. It is principally from the argil laceous ore or clay iron-stone that iron is extracted in this country. 1 756. After raising, the ores are selected and separated as much as possible from hetero geneous substances. They are then roasted in large heaps in the open air, for the purpose as well of freeing them from the arsenic and sulphur they contain as to render them friable or easy of reduction to a powder. The roasting is performed by means of bituminous coal, and the result is a substance full of fissures, friable, and a deprivation of all vitreou lustre. After this it is transferred to the crushing mill for complete pulverization whence it is carried to the smelting furnace for conversion into iron. Herein it undergoe two separate processes : first, the reduction of the oxide to a metallic state ; second, tin separation of the earthy particles in the form of scoria. These operations are conducted h; submitting the ore, ordinarily mixed with certain fluxes, to the action of carbon at a ver high temperature, in what are called blast furnaces, which vary in height from twelve t sixty feet, and are of the form of truncated cones, sometimes however of pyramids terminating usually in cylindrical chimneys, whose internal diameter is from four to si: feet. The interior of these furnaces is usually of a cylindrical form, whose internal dia meter is from four to six feet. Their cavity is usually of a circular form, except at th crucible or hearth, where it becomes a right rectangular prism, oblong in a direction perpendicular to the blast orifices or tuyeres of the bellows. The sides of the crucible ar most commonly formed of gritstone. The boshes, which are in the form of an inverted quad rangular pyramid approaching a prismatic shape, are placed above the crucible, and abov< them rises the conical body of the furnace, which is lined with fire-bricks, and, in ascending is contracted similarly to the narrow end of an egg, until it terminates in the chimney. Th furnace is of course constructed in the most solid manner, and strengthened by iron hand and bars. The bellows employed are mostly of a cylindrical form, and their pistons worker either bv water or steam. The blast holes, which are in the upper part of the crucible, am frequently placed on opposite sides, but so that the two opposite currents may not imping upon one another, are two in number. Openings are provided at the lower part of llr crucible for the discharge of the metal and scoria, and are kept stopped by clay and san- upon the exterior when the furnace is in operation. The reduction is commenced by graduall heating up the furnace until capable of being entirely filled with fuel, and then, as M c intents begin to sink, alternate changes of ore, mingled with flux, and of charcoal and coke are added. The blast is now let on, and the metal in the ore, parting with its oxygen flows by degrees, subsiding to the bottom of the crucible, covered with a melted slag, whic’ is occasionally let oil’ by removing the clay from one or more, if necessary, apertures in tl> crucible; and on the bottom of the furnace becoming filled with the metal, which gem rally occurs after nine to twelve hours, the iron itself is discharged by one of these opening into a fosse of sand mixed with clay. When the iron has flowed out the aperture is agai closed, and by this method the furnace is kept in constant action. 1757. Limestone of the best quality is employed as a flux to assist the fusion of ti ore, which it accomplishes by vitrefying the earths wherewith it is mixed up with theoxn of iron. The iron when run out from the blast furnace in the state of cast iron is I from being in a pure state, having a coarse grain, and being brittle. In its conversion bar iron, it undergoes one of the two following processes, as charcoal or coke may be e:i ployed. In the former case a furnace much resembling a smith’s hearth is used, having sloping cavity sunk from ten to twelve inches below the blast pipe. After the cavity b been filled with charcoal and scoria, a pig of cast iron, well covered with hot fuel, is placi opposite the blast pipe. The blast being introduced, the pig of iron lying in the vet hottest part soon begins to melt, and runs down into the cavity below, where, being out ' the influence of the blast, it becomes solid, and is replaced in its former position, and tl Chap. II. IRON. 509 avity is again filled with charcoal. It is there again fused, and so on a third time, all hese .processes being accomplished in three or four hours. The iron, thus again solid, is aken out. and very slightly hammered, to free it from the attached scoria ; after this it s returned to the furnace, in a corner whereof it is stacked, out of the action of the blast, nd well covered with charcoal, where it remains gradually to cool until sufficiently com- ■act to bear the tilt or trip hammer (to be sh in;/ led, to force out the cinders), which is moved >y machinery, and whose weight is from 600 to 1200 lbs. Thus it is beaten till the corite are forced out. and the particles of iron welded together, when it is divided into , \eral portions, which by repeated heating and hammering are drawn into bars, in which cate it is ready for sa'e. 1758. There are various melhods of procuring the blast; the first, and most ancient, is v means of bellows; the latest, which has been found in the mining districts to be a con- ivance of great importance, is the placing a series of vanes attached to an axis, which, y machinery, are made to revolve in a box with great rapidity. A pipe passing from the utside of the box to the furnace conveys the air to it as the vanes revolve, a new portion antinually entering by a hole at the axis. The air thus driven through at its natural mperature constitutes a cold blast in contradistinction to air heated by artificial means or t Lla t. This latter system was discovered by J. B. Neilson, of Glasgow, about the ear 1826 ; his patent expired in 1812. At the present day air is forced into the furnaces t a temperature of 600°, and even of 800° Falir., although at the commencement it was irely used above 300°. The irons obtained from the former process are considered to be ugher and stronger than those obtained from the latter process, and present a closer xture and a smaller crystallization than the latter irons. The Blaenavun, Coed Talon, owmoor, and Muirkirk irons are amongst the most esteemed varieties. Perhaps it may laid down as a general principle that where pig-iron is remelte I with coke in the cupola rnace, for the purposes of the ironfounder, or refined with coke in the conversion of rge pig into bar iron, it is of little consequence whether the reduction of the ore has en effected with the hot or the cold blast ; but where large castings have to be run ectly from the smelting furnace, the quality of the metal will, no doubt, suffer from the of the hot blast. 1759. The proportion of pig or cast iron from a given quantity of ore varies as the dif. ence in the metallic contents of different parcels of ore and other circumstances, but thf, antity of bar obtained from pig iron is not valued at more than 20 per cent. 1 760. The other process for manufacturing bar iron, which is that chiefly employed in s country, is conducted in reverberatory furnaces, usually called puddling furnaces. The ration begins with the fusion of the cast iron in refinery furnaces, like the one above cribed. When the iron is fully melted, a tap-hole is opened in the crucible, and the tal and slag flow out together into a fosse covered with clay well mixed with water, by licit a coating is formed that prevents the metal from sticking to tne ground. The finer 1 tal forms a slab about ten feet long, three feet broad, and from two to two and a half inches thickness. For the purpose of slightly oxidizing it, and to make it brittle, it is much nkled over with cold water. In this part of the process it loses in weight from 12 7 percent. After this, it is broken up into pieces, and placed on the hearth of a re- Moratory furnace, in portions heaped up to its sides in piles which rise nearly to the . leaving a space open in the middle to give room for puddling the metal as it flows ri in streams. When the heat of the furnace has brought it to a pasty state, the tem- iture is reduced, a little water being sometimes thrown on the melted mass. The semi- d metal is stirred up by the workman with his puddle, during which it swells, and with a large quantity of oxide of iron, which burns with a blue flame, so that the appears ignited. As it refines, the metal becomes less fusible, or, as the workmen say, gins to dry. The puddling goes on until the whole charge assumes the form of an in- rent sand, v hen the temperature is gradually increased to give it a red white heat, at h period the particles begin to agglutinate, and the charge, in technical language, briny. The refining is now considered finished, and the metal has only to be formed bills, and condensed under the rolling cylinder. From this state it is brought into '•ir iron. After this last operation, several pieces are welded together, from which it res ductility, uniformity, and cohesion. A lateral welding of four pieces together follows, and the mass passes through a series of cylinders as in the first case, and ics Knglish bar-iron. I. The lamination of iron into sheets is by a refinery furnace, with a charcoal instead •kc fire. Malleable iron is often obtained from the ores directly, by one fusion, if the mc- ,M file be not too much mixed with foreign substances. It is a mode of working .more economical than that above described, and from the circumstance of its having '">g known and used in Catalonia, it is known by the name of the nirtliuil of the Catu - t" r yr. 1 In.* furnace employed is similar to the refiner's forge already described, rnciblc is a kind of semicireulur or oblong basin, eighteen indict in diameter, and .510 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boo:; II. eight or ten in depth, excavated in an area, or small elevation of masonry, eight or ten fed long, by five or six broad, and covered in with a chimney. The tuyere is placed five or six inches above the basin, inclining a little downwards, and the blast is received from a water blowing machine. The first step consists in expelling the water combined with the oxide, as well as the sulphur and arsenic when these are present. This, as usual, is done bv roasting in the open air, after which it is reduced to a tolerably fine powder, and thrown ai intervals by shovels-full upon the charcoal fire of the forge hearth, the sides and bottom ot the basin being previously lined with brasques (coats of pounded charcoal). It gradually softens and unites into lumps more or less coherent, which finally melt and accumulate ii the bottom of the crucible or basin. A thin slag is occasionally let off from the uppci surface of the melted metal in the basin through holes which can be closed and opened a *he discretion of the workman. The melted iron preserves a pasty condition owing to tin heat communicated from above. When a mass sufficiently great has accumulated, it is re .noved, put under the hammer, and forged at once. A lump, or bloom, of malleable iroi is thus produced in the space of three or four hours. Four workmen are employed at on forge, and by being relieved every six hours, they are enabled to make 86 cwt. of iron pe week. In the Catalonian forge, 100 lbs. of iron are obtained from 300 lbs. of ore (a mix tore of sparry iron, or carbonate and hematite), and 310 lbs. of charcoal, being a product' of 33 per cent. 1763. A visit to some of the iron districts is necessary fully to understand the processe we have above shortly described; but the founding of iron may be well enough observ. t in the metropolis, though not on so large a scale as in some of the provinces. A succinc description, however, is given under the heading Foundry, Chap. III. Sec. xi. 1764. We here subjoin a summary of the modern observations on iron (collected fron various authorities) as given in Rankine’s Civil Engineering. The metallic products of th ' iron manufacture are of three kinds: I. Malleable or wrought iron; II. Cast ikon; and III. Steel: botli the latter being certain compounds of iron with carbon. Sum investigators affirm that nitrogen is one of the essential constituents of steel, but thi requires continuation. The strength and other good qualities of these products depen mainly on the absence of impurities, and especially of certain substances which are know) to cause brittleness and weakness, of which the most important are sulphur, phosphoru silicon, calcium, and magnesium. Sulphur, and (according to Mushet) calcium, an probably also magnesium, make iron what is termed red short, that is, brittle at high ten peratures. Phosphorus and (according to Mushet) silicon make it cold short, that i brittle at low temperatures. These are both serious imperfections, but the latter is tl worst defect. 176‘la. Wrought or malleable iron in its perfect condition is pure, or nearly pur iron ; its strength is in general greater or less according to the greater or less purity oft ore and fuel employed in its manufacture. Malleable iron is distinguished by the proper' of welding. Two pieces, if raised nearly to a white heat and pressed or hammered tirm together, adhering so as to ‘"orm one piece. It is essential that the surfaces to he weld should be perfectly clean and free from ox de of iron, cinder, and all foreign math Where several bars are to be faggoted or rolled into one, they require careful piling, as to ensure the pressure exerted by the hammer or the rollers being transmitti through the whole mass; otherwise the finished bar or piece may show flaws marking ti divisions between the bars of the pile. Wrought iron, although it is at first ma more compact and strong by reheating and hammering, or otherwise working it, so reaches a maximum strength, after which all reheating and working rapidly makes weaker. Good bar iron has in general attained its maximum strength, and therefore all operations of forging it, the desired size and figure ought to be given to it with t least possible amount of reheating and working. Jn large forgings, the tenacity i< oi about three fourths of that of the bars from which the forgings were made, and soinetin even less. 17646. It is still a matter of dispute to what extent and under what circumstan' wrought iron loses its fibrous structure and toughness, and becomes crystalline s brittle. By some authorities it is asserted that all shocks and vibrations tend to proih that change; others maintain that only sharp shocks and vibrations do so; and otb that no such change takes place ; but that the same piece of iron which shows a fibn fracture, if gradually broken by a steady load, will show a crystalline fracture, if sudde broken by a sharp blow. It is certain, at all events, that iron, whether cast or wrong ought to be as little as possible exposed to sharp blows and rattling vibiations. Kirkal. Wrought Iron and Steel, 1863, p. 52, and in his concluding observations (p. 99), st:l further, that “ the appearance of iron may be changed from fibrous to crystalline by nH'r altering the shape of the specimen so as to render it more liable to snap,” and that " m ,: less liable to snap the more it is worked and rolled. In the fibrous fractures the thro are drawn out, and are viewed externally, whilst in the crystalline fractures the threads • snapped across in clusters, and are viewed externally or sectional'y, In the hitler u 'hap. II. IRON. 511 i le fracture of the specimen is always at right angles to the length ; in the former it is I lore or less irregular.” 1764c. The continuity of the fibres near the surface should be as little interrupted as lossible. For example, projections formed out of a block by turning, roiling, and ham- liering, were broken off by blows with a 6 lb. hammer, with the first, fifth, and eighth ows respectively (Rankine, Proceedings of Inst, of Civil Engineers , 1843). In iron I ork which is to sustain shocks and vibrations abrupt variations of dimensions and angular gures must be avoided as much as possible, especially those with reentering angles; for those points fractures are apt to commence. If two parts of a beam are to be of .ffeient thicknesses, they should be connected by means of eurred surfaces. 1764 d. The fibres of wrought iron are always an indication of its strength, but in the I rplication of such iron we are to be cautious. If the iron be impure in its elements, or is been badly worked, it may be very fibrous and also strong, but in exposing it to a I elding heat it loses all its fibre, and is converted into brittle granulated iron. This hppens frequently with puddled iron and sometimes with charcoal iron. It follows, i erefore. that iron which does not retain its fibre after receiving a welding heat is not to L- trusted. Only good charcoal iron should be used where strength is required, in case liy smithing is to be done to the iron before it is put to use. Where iron is exposed to at, the very purest and best kinds only should be used: with constant heat, even of low mperature, wrought iron, if not very pure, becomes granulated. Very fibrous puddled bn may carry 80,000 lbs. per inch square, when newlv made, but it may in a short time c inverted into granular iron, and reduced to 20,000 lbs., and he inferior in strength to st iron. Where this change in the iron would he detrimental to the work steel should substituted, as its strength is not impaired liy any degree of heat beyond a red heat. 1764e. The quality of iron for boiler plates must he attended to from the first stage.! its manufacture from the ore, which should be of good quality : even then it may be piled in the furnaces. Above all things, states Overman, (whom we are now quoting), t blast ought to be excluded in these cases; it ought to he a criminal offence to ploy hot blast iron for boiler plates. Iron may be fibrous, and when cold very tena- j us; but the test consists in heating it red hot and cooling it in cold water. If it eon- jucs tenacious it may be considered good ; if not it is bad, and unfit for boiler plate. 1764/. Strength and toughness in bar iron are indicated by a fine, close, and uniform rous structure, free from all appearance of crystallization, with a clear bluish grey i irir. and a silky lustre on a torn surface where the fibres are shown. I’l te iron of the 1 1 kind consists of alternate layers of fibres crossing each other, and ought to be nearly ■lire same tenacity in all directions. The breaking strain and contraction of area of , filled steel plat' s, as in iron plates, are greater in the direction in which they are rolled; i 'Teas in cast steel they are hss. (Kirkaldy ) t 7 65. Cast iron is the product of the process of smelting iron ores. The total quantity • carbon in pig iron ranges from 2 to 5 per cent, of its weight. Different kinds of | ig • i are produced from the same ore in the same furnace, under different circumstances as 1 omperature and quantity of fuel. A high temperature and a large quantity of fuel | duco grey cast iron, which is further distinguished into Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and so on ; I being that produced at the highest temperature. A low temperature and a de- I •ncy of fuel produce white cast iron. Grey cast iron is of different shades of bluish P'iV in colour, granular in texture, softer and more easily fusible than white cast iron, " ch latter is silvery white, either granular or crystalline, comparatively difficult to melt, • ■ lie, and excessively hard. It appears that the differences between these kinds of irons 4 nil on the proportions of carbon in them. Thus grey cast iron contains 1 per cent., 1 sometimes less, of carbon in chemical combination with the iron, and from I to 3 or 1 r cent, of carbon in the state of plumbago in mechanical mixture; while white cast ls a homogeneous chemical compound of iron with from 2 to 4 per cent, of carbon, I lie different kinds of ytey cast iron, No 1 contains the greatest proportion of plumbago , cli renders iron comparatively weak and pliable), No. 2 the next, and so on. '' hi. riicro are two kinds of white cast iron, the granular and the crystalline. The gran- o | sort can be converted into grey cast iron by fusion and slow cooling. Grey cast iron can " 'inverted into granular white cast iron by fusion and sudden cooling. 1 his takes place m readily in the best iron. Crystalline white cast iron is harder and more brittle than g'lolar, and is not capable of conversion into grey cast iron by fusion and slow cooling. 1 said to contain more carbon than granular white cast iron , but the exact difference "' "'■r chemical composition is not yet known. Grey cast iron No. 1 is the most easily '"Ue, and produces the finest and most accurate castings; but it is deficient in hardness ariKtrength. I '• di. 1 fie order of strength of cast iron among different kinds from the same ore and *“[*■■ i,H follows; — Granular white east iron, grey cast iron No. 3, No. 2, and No. I. • fit dime white cast iron is not introduced into this classification, because its extreme a I ..ness nukes it unlit (or use in engineering structures. Granular white east iron also, I 512 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book fl. although stronger and harder than grey cast iron, is too brittle to he a safe material for the entire mass of any girder, or other large piece of a structure. It is used to form a hard and impenetrable shin to a piece of grey cast iron by the process called chilling. This consists in lining the portion of the mould where a hardened surface is required with suitably shaped pieces of iron. The melted metal, on being run in, is coohd and solidified suddenly where it touches the cold iron; and for a certain depth from the chilled surface, varying from about i to ^ inch in different kinds of iron, it takes the white granular con- dition, while the remainder of the casting takes the grey condition. Even in castings which are not chilled by an iron lining to the mould, the outermost layer, being cooled more rapidly than the interior, approaches more nearly to the white condition, and forms a skin harder and stronger than the rest of the casting. The best kinds of cast iron for large structures are No. 2 and No. 3 ; because being stronger than No. 1, and softer and more flexible than white cast iron, they combine strength and pliability in the manner which is best suited for safely bearing loads that are in motion. A strong kind of east iron called toughened cast iron, is produced by the process, invented by Monies Stirling, of adding to the cast iron, and melting amongst it, from one-fourth to one-seventh of its weight of wrought iron scrap. 1766. Soft grey cast iron is the best, sort ; it yields easily to the file when the external crust is removed, and is slightly malleable in a cold state. It is, however, more subject to rust than the white cast iron, which sort is also less soluble in acids. Grev c ist iron Ims a granulated fracture with some metall c lustre. White cast iron in a recent fracture lias a white and radiated appearance, indicating a crystalline structure. 1767. Cast iron, when at a certain degree of heat, may be cut like a piece of wood with a common saw. This discovery was announced in a letter from M. Dunford, director o the iron works at Montalaire, to M. d’Arcet, and published in the Annnles de Chimie The experiment was tried in 1 813 by a gentleman of the Philosophical Society at Glasgow who with the greatest ease cut a bar of cast iron, previously heated to a cherry-red, with common carpenter’s saw, in the course of less than two minutes. The saw was not in tin least injured by the operation. 1768. The security alforded by iron for supporting weight, and against fire, has, of lat years, very much increased the use of it, and may in many cases entirely supersede tli employment of timber. Again, it is valuable from its being not liable to sudden decay, no soon destroyed by wear and tear, and, above all, from its plasticity. STEEL. 1769. Steel, the hardest of the metals and the strongest of known substances, is compound of iron with from 0'5 to 1 5 per cent, of its wiight of carbon. The; according to most authorities, as noticed by Rankme, are the only essential constituents steel. Impurities of different kinds affect steel injuriously in the same way as \vi iron. A very small part of its weight, gJ—jth. of silicon causes steel to cool and solidr without bubbling or agitation ; a larger proportion would make the steel brittle. Mu ganese improves the steel by increasing its toughness, and making it easier to weld ai forge. 1769a. The term steely iron, or semi steel, may be applied to compounds of iron wit less than 0 5 per cent, of carbon. They are inteimediate in hardness and other properu I between steel and malleable iron. In general, such compounds are the harder and 'I stronger, and also the more easily fusible, the more carbon they cont dn ; those sorts wind contain less carbon, though weaker, are more easily welded and forged, and from tilt greater pliability are the fitter for structures that arc exposed to shocks. 17695. Steel is distinguished by the property of tempei iny, that is to say, it can I hardened by sudden cooling from a high temperature, and softened by gradual cooling and its degree of hardness or softness can be regulated with precision by suiiahly fixu that temperature. The elevation of temperature previous to the annealing or grade cooling is produced by plunging steel into a bath of a fusible metallic alloy, ranging fie 430° to 560° Falir. 1770. Steel is made by various processes which have of late become very numeroi They may all be classed under two heads, viz., adding carbon to malleable iron, used making steel for cutting tools and other fine purposes ; the otlnr, abstracting carbon frn cast iron, used for making great masses of steel and steely iron rapidly and at a modern eipense. Among the piocesses are the following: — 1771. I. Blister steel is made by cementation, by embedding bars of the purest wrong iron in a layer of charcoal and subjecting them for several days to a high temperature. Ea< bar absorbs carbon, anil its surface becomes converted into steel. Cementation may also pci foi med by exposing the surface of the iron to a current of carburettcd hydrogen gas al A P. IT. IRON. 513 1 li temperature. Cementation is also applied to the surfaces of' articles of malleable iron i irder to give them a skin or coating of steel, and is called easehardening. 7T2. II. Shear steel is made by breaking bars of blister steel into lengths, faggoting I in, and rolling them out at a welding heat; repeating the process until a near approach i uniformity of composition and texture has been obtained. It is used for tools and < ting implements. ,773. III. Cast * feel is made by melting bars of blister steel with a small additional < entity of carbon (in the form of coal tar), and some manganese. It is the purest, most 1 1 form, and strongest, steel, and is used for the finest cutting implements. Another pro- i s requiring a higher temperature, is to melt bars of the purest malleable iron with man- : lese and with the whole quantity of carbon required in order to form steel. The i dity as to hardness is regulated by the proportion of carbon. A sort of semi steel or lg iron, made by this process and containing a small proportion of carbon only, is known i homogeneous metal. ;774. IV. Steel made by the air blast is produced from molten pig iron by Bessemer’s icess, wherein the molten pig iron, having been run into a suitable vessel or converter , has s of air blown into it through tubes as the liquid is poured in. The oxygen of the air . nbines with the silicon and the carbon of the pig iron, and in so doing produces enough i heat to keep the iron in a melted state till it is brought to the malleable condition ; it is n run into large ingots, which are hammered and rolled in the usual way. About two I. irs suffice to convert cold iron into pure steel. 1775. V. Puddled steel is made by puddling pig iron, and stopping the process at the i tant when the proper quantity of carbon remains. The bloom is shingled and rolled 1 e bar iron. VI. Granulated steel, the invention of Cupt. Uchatius, is made by running ! Ited pig iron into a cistern of water over a wheel, which dashes it about so that it is i u. d at the bottom of the cistern in the form of grains or lumps of about the size of a hazel I I. These are imbedded in pulverized luematite oi sparry iron ore, and exposed to a heat ticient to cause part of the oxygen of the ore to combine with, and extract, the carbon 1 in the superficial layer of each of the lumps of iron, each of which is reduced to the con- i ion of malleable iron at the surface, while its heart continues in a state of cast iron. A all additional quantity of malleable iron is produced by the reduction of the ore. These ipcdienls being melted together produce steel. 1776. Kirkaldy observes that “ Steel invariably presents, when fractured slowly, a silky rous appearance. When fractured suddenly, the appearance is invariably granular ; in ich case also the fracture is always at right angles to the length. When the fracture is rous, the angle diverges always more or less f,om 9;>°. The granular appearance pre- ted by steel suddenly fractured is nearly free of lustre, and unlike the brilliant crystal- c appearance of iron suddenly fractured : the two combined in the same specimen aie <»'n in iron bolts partly converted into steel. Steel which previously broke with a silky rous appearance is changed into granular by being hardened. Steel is reduced in mgth by being hardened in water, while the stiength is vastly increased by being "deiied in oil. The increase of strength is greater the higher steel is heated (not being rued) and so treated.” 1 777. “ In a highly converted or hard steel the increase in strength and in hardness is ater than in a less converted or soft steel. Steel plates hardened in oil and joined to- ; her with rivets are fully equal in strength to an unjointed soft plate ; or the loss of ' ugtb by riveting is more than counterbalanced by the increase in strength by hardening ■ ' <■ I. I he most highly converted steel does not, as some may suppose, possess the greatest 1 s' ty. In cast steel, the density is much greater than in puddled steel, which is even less i n in some of the superior descriptions of wrought iron.” I • . H. I his subject may, perhaps, be considered of greater importance to the architect i I engineer, il those experienced scientific men lie right, who predict that the time is i fir hence when there will be no such metals as either w rough! or cast iron ; steel taking • place of both lor all practical purposes. As one instance among many, it has been ’ ;■ d that the absolute strength of any east iron girder may be doubled by the judicious use < i veiy few pounds of steel, costing but a trifle. ( Sec 1633.) Corrosion and Preservation of Iron. 1 77ft. Cast iron will often last for a long time without rusting, if the skin he not injured, 1 ich is coated with a film of the silicate of the protoxide of iron, produced by the action i 'he sand of the mould on the iron. Chilled surfaces of castings arc without this pro- ' ' hi. and therefore rust more rapidly. The corrosion of iron is more rapid when partly ■ “*d partly dry, than when wholly immersed in water or wholly exposed to the air. It i c derated by impurities in water, and especially by the presence of decomposing organic i "cr, or ot free acids. It is also accelerated by trie contact of the iron with any metnl ' ' l 'n *i ctro-negntivc relatively to the iron, or in other words, has less aflinity for 1 "> or with the rust of iron itself. If two portions of a mass of iron are in dillcrent LL 514 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I conditions, so that one has less affinity for oxygen than the other, the contact of the- form makes the latter oxidate more rapidly. In general, hard and crystalline iron is less ox dable than ductile and fibrous iron. Cast iron and steel decompose rapidly in warm impure sea water. The purest and the most malleable irons are the most easily attacki by sea water, u-hen used alone ; for it is to be observed that the fine grained, crvstallin white and brittle metal, which usually resists the action of air and water most successful! is also the most easily attacked by the dilute acids present in the woods so often used connection with iron in ship building, or in timber structures in sea water. The mo extreme care, and the greatest practical skill, are therefore required in the selection of tl irons to be used in certain positions. To R. Mallet we are indebted for a valuable con munieation to the Institute of Civil Engineers in May 1840, On the Corrosion of Cast u< Wrought Iron iti Water, under protected and unprotected states : an abstract is given the Civil Engineer Journal , iii. p. 424, from the Proceedings of the Institute. 1779a. In the Reports of the British Association, 1843 and 1849, Mallet, On Corral of Iron, further states that iron kept constantly in a state of vibration oxidates less rapid* than that which is at rest. Thus the rails of a railway on which a constant traffic rut do not rust so quickly as those on which there may be no traffic. 17795. Spencer, Iron, its active aucl inactive states, read before the Liverpool Polytechn. Society, stated that “ It required a mixture of air and water, or what is usually ternii dampness, to produce rust on iron — one without the other would not do it. Steel film, became rusty in water, because they absorbed the oxygen in the water ; if a second quat tity of filings be put in, they would not rust, as there was no more oxygen. A coating * carbon effectually prevents iron from oxidation, and it can protect it from a body so stron as even aqua-fortis itself. If the aqua-fortis be diluted with water, the protective powi no longer exists. The slightest scratch or abrasion on the surface of the metal also pn vented the action of the protecting influence. A piece of solid carbon also imparts a pri tective property to iron, little short of that given to it by platinum.” 1779c. Sugar exercises a material influence on iron and other metals : Athenaum, Sep 1853 and May 1854. 177 9c/- The iron wire suspension bridges of France, which have fallen within the la few years, appear to have done so principally through the oxidation of the wires in tl portion passing into the anchoring wells: this was notoriously the case with the bridge: Angers. The constant state of humidity prevailing in these wells must sooner or late have rusted the wires, and although the precaution, recommended by Vicat, of surroundin the cables with rich lime had been adopted, the vibration of the bridge had detached tl cables from their supposed protecting case, and the spaces between the wires allowed moi ture from the exterior to permeate the interior of the cable ; at Angers the cables wet thus almost entirely rusted through. In such places it is better to employ bar chains. 1779c. Before painting iron vvoik it is usual to give it a coat of boiled linseed oil, a] plied hot ; it forms a kind of varnish, and is an excellent preparation, and should be dia l after the blue shales are removed. Lead paints, when of good quality and mixed wi good oil without spirits, are recommended. As it is difficult to test Loth oils and colon: others prefer iron oxide paints, especially as they are cheaper. Tar paints are used ehidl for iron work out of sight; it is cheap, and is said not to foul so readily as lead or nth finer paints. A good rough paint is to be made by heating coal tar and mixing with finely sifted slaked lime, say three-quarters of a pound of lime to a gallon of tar, and addii naphtha to render it of a convenient consistency for 'ay i ng on ; it must not be allom to get too hot, and is to be used hot. Where sanding is possible, it adds to its durability 1780. The following recommendations have been made for preserving iron. 1. Boila the iron in coal tar, especially if the pieces have first been heated to the temperature * melting lead. II. Heating the pieces to the temperature of melting lead and smean: th ir surfaces whilst hot with cold linseed oil, which dries and forms a varnish. 'Hits recommended by Smeat.m, and is a good preparation for painting upon. i780a. III. Painting with white lead in oil, which must be renewed from time to tinii Mr. John Braithwaite has stated that his father had used red lead for fifty years with go 0 result; while had was of no use, as theacid used in the preparation of it produced swcllm effects. He had placed rods in a well 200 feet deep forty-five years since, having pauiu them with pure red lead, and on taking them up in TG3 he found that tlnir weight precisely the same. Red lead and one-third litharge made into paint with nut oil wi last longer than when mixed with linseed oil. Iron heated and covered with miner; bitumen or asphaltum in the solid state had resisted a moist atin. sphere for fifteen years the natural asphaltum was the best, the liquid asphalte not answering so will; with a other materials the rust had penetrated beneath. C. II. Smith, in a communication t the Builder, 1864, p. 318, brought forward the advantages of lime whiting as a preserva live of iron from rust. In support of the use of lime, lie notices that polished steel good may be preserved by beating a little powdered lime upon them; and that bricklayer always smear their bright trowels even with damp mortar when leaving work. IAP. II. LEAD. 515 17806. IV. Coating with a metal, commonly called galranizing. Zinc is efficient, pro- ltd it is not exposed to tlie acids capable of dissolving it; but it is destroyed by sulphuric in the air of places where much coal is burnt; and by muriatic acid in the neighbour- id of the sea. All attempts to use galvanized iron for roofs in large towns or smoky tricts have failed. The use of this material will be noticed in the section on Zinc. nned iron does not now answer so well even as good zinc. It is known that during the diawal period, iron nail-heads, anchors, dogs, and such like articles were tinned o\ev, no uht to prevent oxidation ; and tinned iron is greatly used for the covering of houses America. In St. Petersburg and in Moscow iron is mostly used, but it requires ming. The coppering of iron has failed unless it was done in so expensive a manner as to be practicable in anv extended employment of it. A coating of lead, or of lead antimony, is wanted to iron, so as to combine the stiffness and cheapness of iron lithe durability of lead. Messrs. Morewoi d have rtcently intioduced metal plates ered with a uniform coating of lead. These plates are supposed to possess all the ant.iges of sheet lead, and they can be rendered serviceable at a considerably reduced t (Hunt, Handbook, 1862). Enamelled iron is a late invention, and one tending to be v serviceable. (&e also par. 2264 ) 78Cc. Professor Barff’s recently (1877) discovered method of coating iron with mag- t c or black oxide is ejected by subjecting it to steam at a high temperature of about i0 degrees of Fuhr. for six or seven houis. It is said that iron so treated will resist a 1 1 , and bear any amount of exposure to the weather without showing any signs of :■ osion. Difficulties which have hitherto stood in the way of the adequate working of ! process have since (1882), we are informed, been removed, and this preservative pro- i will no doubt be largely adopted, as adequate apparatus iias been provided. Sect. VI. LEAD. 81. Lead, the heaviest of the metals except gold and quicksilver, is found in most of the world. It is of a bluish white when first broken, is less ductile, elastic, and rous than any of the other metals : its specific gravity is from 1 1,800 to 1 1,479, and a foot, therelore, weighs about 710 lbs. It is soluble in all acids and alkaline solu- . fusible before ignition, and easily calcined. The ore, which is easily reduced to the llic state by fusion with charcoal, is found mineralised with sulphur, with a slight ore of silver and antimony, in diaphanous prismatical crystals, generally hexagonal, ', yellowish, or greenish, in Somersetshire, about the Mendip Ilills. About Bristol, n Cumberland, it takes the form of a white, grey, or yellowish spar, without the least >■ llic appearance : in some places it is in a state of white powder or native ceruse ; and imnouthshirc it has been found native, or in a metallic state. . Exposure to air and water does not produce much alteration in lead, though it ly tarnishes and acquires a white rust, by which the internal paits are defended from ion. Pure water, however, does not alter it ; hence the white crust on the inside of >ipes through which water flows must probably be owing to some saline particles in “ter. Lead will form an union with most other metals . one exception, however, is Next to tin. it is the most fusible of metals. It is run from the furnace into moulds ; on form is called a tow. the smaller ones pigs : from these it is run into sheets, pipes, &c. Sin et lead is of two soits, cast and milled. The thicker sort of the fornu r, or the mi cast sheet lead, is manufactured by casting it on a long table formerly made of ut now of cast iron, (w ith a rising edge all round it) from 16 to 29 feet in length, Icct in width, which is covered with line pressed sand beaten and smoothed down strike and smoother’s plane. The pig lead is melted in a largo vessel, near this uni is ladled into a pan ol the shape of a concave triangular prism, whose length is to the width ol u sheet, from which pan it is poured on to the table oi mould, n the surface ol the sand and the strike, which rides upon the edges of the table, a . left which determines the thickness of the sheet. The strike bears away the mils liquid lead before it has time to cool, as it moves by hand along the edges of the tore mentioned. When lend is required to be cast thin, a linen doth is strctclnil ppropriate tilde over a woollen one; in which case the heat of the lend, before ’’ it on the cloth, must be less than will lire paper, or the cloth would be burnt, Ac must for the purpose be passed over it with considerable rapidity. In manufacturing milled lead, it is usual first to cast it into sheets from 8 to 10 iv? -“ ling to circumstances, but the width is regulated by the length of llic rollers 1, I. 2 pa qu tor I. the irol the I con » tit'>r with other metals for roofing purposes. It is only about ono-fifth tho weight > t cl, and not so readily acted upon by fire. Zinc, however, is only about one-third 518 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book the usual price of copper ; the cost of labour is nearly the same. The durability of cop may be taken to be three or four times that of zinc. It requires to be laid by ski! workmen. 1789a. Copper is reduced to sheet by being passed through large rollers, by whirl can be rendered very thin. The thickness generally used is from 12 to 18 oz. to foot superficial. Exposed to the air its lustre is soon gone; it assumes a tarnish of a c brown colour, gradually deepening by time into one of bronze ; and, lastly, it takesagr rust or calx, called patina by the autiquaries, which, unlike the rust of iron, does not jure and corrode the internal parts, confining itself to the surface, and rather preserv than destroying the metal. Hence one of the most important applications of copper i- cramps for stone work, especially when they are exposed to the air, when its cost, wh is about six or eight times that of iron fastenings, can be afforded. Copper nails fastening slates in roofing are recommended in lieu of even zinc nails. 17895. It may be here well to observe, that if wafer is collected from roofs for culin purposes, copper must not be used about them, neither should any reservoirs for collect and holding it be made of that metal, as on the surface is formed a film of verdig which is poisonous. Brass. 1790. Alloyed with zinc, it forms brass for the handles of doors, shutters, lo< drawers, and the furniture generally of joinery. The usual proportion is ono ] of zinc to three of copper; it is then more fusible, and is of a fine yellow coh less liable to tarnish from the action of the air, and so malleable and ductile I it can be beaten into very thin leaves and drawn into very fine wire. The extre ,; of the proportions of zinc used in it are from 12 to 25 per cent, of the wh . Even with the last, if well manufactured, it is quite malleable, although zinc by it scarcely yields to the hammer. The appearance of brass is frequently given to ot metals by washing them over with a yellow lacquer or varnish. Cast brass we 525 lbs. per cubic foot. 1790a. Delta metal is an alloy, an improved brass, hard, durable, and strong as l steel, possessing a beautiful fine colour. When melted it produces sound castings of grain ; it can be forged and rolled hot and cold, and takes a very high polish. It is hi used for all kinds of machinery, house, door, and harness fittings, stair plates, &c. > test the action of acids on wrought iron, steel, and delta metal, rolled bars of each v s immersed for six and a half months in acid water ; the weights when put in were IT 1 lbs., 12125 lbs., and 1'27S7 lbs. respectively. After that period they were found to i 0 9393 lbs., 0 6614 lbs., and 1'2633 lbs. respectively ; showing a loss of 46'3, 4545, 1 U2 per cent, respectively. This Delta metal is said to be now extensively used, t underground machinery in mines. Bronze or Bcll-metal. 1791. Copper with tin (which last melts at 426° Fahr. and resists oxida > better than any of the more common metals) in the proportion of one-tenth to ■ • fifth of the whole forms a composition called bronze or bcll-metal, used in the foum i of statues, bells, cannons, &c. When tin forms nearly one-third of the alloj 4 beautiful white close-grained brittle metal is formed, susceptible of a very 1 ■ polish, which is used for the specula of reflecting telescopes. Bronze weighs 513 i. per cubic foot. Sect. VIII. ZINC. 1792. Zinc is found in all quarters of the globe. In Great Britain it is aburr t though therein never found in a native state. It usually contains an admixture of 1 and sulpur. When purified from these, it is of a light blue colour, between lead and t Chap II. ZINC. .‘>19 inclining to !>Ine. Tlie ore, af;er being hand-dressed to free it from foreign matter, is first calcined, by which the sulphur of the calamine and the acid of the blende are expelled The product is then washed to separate the lighter matter, and the heavy part which re- mains, being ground in a mill, is mixed with one e'ghth of its weight of charcoal, or with one third of its bulk of powdered coal. This mixture is placed in pots, resembling oil jars, to be smelted. A tube passes through the bottom of each, the upper end being terminated by an open mouth near the top of the pot, and the lower end going through the floor of the furnace into water. By the intense heat of a furnace the ore is reduced, the zinc is volatilized, escaping through the tube into the water, wherein it falls in globules, which are afterwards melted and cast into moulds. Thus procured, however, it is not pure, as it almost invariably contains iron, manganese, arsenic, and copper. In order to free it from these, it is again melted and stirred up with sulphur and tat, the former whereof combines with the heterogeneous metals, leaving the zinc nearly pure, and the latter preventing the metal from being oxidated. At the Vieille Montagne Zinc Company’s Works, the pots are placed in the furnaces at six o’clock every morning ; at six o’clock in the evening the , melting is complete ; the metal is then drawn out and run into metal moulds, after which it passes into the rolling house, and is again melted and recast in a metal mould to produce ingots of the proper size and weight for the required gauge of the sheets to be rolled ; this second melting is also desirable to obtain proper purity. 1799. Under rollers at a high temperature, zinc may be extended into plates of great tenuity and elasticity, or drawn into wire. These rollers are from 2 feet 8 inches to 6 feet n length, and the original thickness of the plate subjected to them is about 1 inch. A wire, one tenth of an inch diameter, will support 26 pounds. If zinc be hammered at a temper- ature of 309°, its malleability is much incteased, and it becomes capable of much bending. Its fracture is thin, fibrous, and of a grain similar to steel. It can be drawn into wire ,Lth of an inch in diameter, which is nearly as tenacious as that of silver. The specific gravity s somewhat below 7*0, but hammering increases it to 7*2. When heated, it enters into avion at a heat of about 680° or 703° : at a higher temperature it evaporates; and if a-cess of air be not permitted, it may be distilled over, by which process it is rendered Hirer than before, although then not perfectly pure. When heated red hot, with access ot ur it takes fire, burns with an exceedingly beautiful greenish or bluish flame, and is at he same time converted into the only oxide of zinc with which we are acquainted, con- .isting of 23*53 parts of oxygen combined with 100 of metal. 1791. Zinc, though subject to oxidize, has this peculiarity, that the oxide does not settle tlf as that of iron, but forms a permanent coating on the metal, impervious to the action >f the atmosphere, and rendering the use of paint wholly unnecessary. Dr. von l’eten- ; offer, however, has stated that zinc is oxidized to the extent of 130 grains per square foot n twenty-seven years, about two-fifths of the oxide being removed by the moisture of the tmosphere. Its expansion and contraction are greater than those of any other metal : thus, upposing 1*0030 to represent the expansion, 10019 is that of copper, and 1 0028 hat of lead ; but the thicker the zinc, the less its contraction and expansion. The tenacity 1 zinc is from 7,000 to 8,000. The weight of a cubic foot varies from 424 lbs. to 449 lbs. I’he tenacity of zinc to lead is as 16*616 to 3*328, and to copper as 16*616 to 22*570; hence given substance of zinc is equal to five times the same substance in lead, and about tlirce- jurths of cop nr. 1795. On the first introduction of zinc into this country as a material, the trades with hicli it was likely to interfere used every exertion to prevent its employment ; and, indeed, ■ ie workmen who were engaged in laying it, being chiefly tinmen, were incompetent to he task of so covering roofs ns to secure them from the effects of the weather. Hence, for cotis derable period after its first employment, great reluctance was manifested by archi- ■c:s in its introduction. A demand for it has, however, gradually increased of late, and ’to comparatively high prices of lead and copper will not entirely account for the disparity f consumption. The Vieille Montagne Zinc Mining Company, about the year 1861, >ok stops to improve the quality of the zinc for use in this country, the mode of laying ■ nr roofs, and for the prevention of the us* of thin gauges of sheets which arc unfit for a* purpose. Their zinc possesses a reputation for its purity and excellence. The result i this t are, and the better understanding of the merits of the material, has caused it to be >"• extensively used for purposes which arc noticed in the following chapter. 1795a. A sheet of pure zinc, as stated by J. Edmcston in his llcpnrt on Zinc , will be of n even colour, without black spots or blotches; it will be very ductile, bending readily ii'kwartl . nml forwards in the band : and it will not easily break. If impure, it will be the pposite of nil this. If there be any iron in it, it will be worthless; if it contain any lend, will still, though ton less extent, contain the germs of destruction within itself. 1795/. Common zinc is destroyed by the sulphuric acid in the atmosphere where much >il is burned ; nnd by muriatic acid in the neighbourhood of the sea. Cement does not 'jure zinc . but lime, nnd cnlcnreous waters destroy it ; and zinc pipes to flues over wood re» are destroyed I y them. 520 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I) 1796. Galvanized Ikon is a designation misapplied to that iron which may have re- ceived a coating of zinc ; it should Le called zinked iron. The metal is first cleaned per- fectly by the joint action of dilute acid and friction, and then plunged into a hath of melted zinc, coveted with sal ammoniac, and stirred until the iron is sufficiently coated with zinc. Mo galvanic action whatever occurs between the metals ; it is simply a coating This process, it is stated, was invented in France by iVlaloin, in 1742, but not patented until 1836 by Sorel. The efficacy of the process depends upon the skill employed in removing every trace of the scales of the hydrous oxide of iron, and in its further treat- ment. The coating must not become loosened, or any hole be made through it, as moij. tore obtaining access to the iron will rapidly extend, and the scales of the oxide of iron will force up the slight zinc covering, when the iron will be gradually destroyed, unless it be at once painted. When well executed it may perhaps be durable for a lengthened period, but when badly prepared it is not so valuable as iron well painted (par. 17796.). At the Houses of Parliament, where the iron roofing plates were galvanized, it was found necessary from 1860 to commence coating them with paint or some other material. 1796a The other process, which might be properly called zinked tinned iron, is thus per- formed : — The sheets of iron are pickled, scoured, and cleaned, as for ordinary tinning. A wooden bath is half filled with a solution — the proportion cf 2 quarts of muriate of tin with 100 quarts of water. Over the bottom of the bath is spread a thin layer of finely granulated zinc, then a cleaned plate, and so on al'ernately; 1 lie zinc and iron and the fluid constitute a weak galvanic battery, a .d the tin is deposited from the solution so as to coat the iron, in about two hours, with a dull uniform layer of metal. The iron in this state is then passed through a bath containing fluid zinc covered with sal ammoniac mixed with an earthy matter, to lessen the volatilization of the sal ammoniac, which becomes as fluid as treacle. Two iron rollers are driven by machinery to carry the plates through the fluid at any velocity previously determined ; the plates thus take up a very regular and smooth layer of zinc, which owing to the presence of the tin beneath, assumes its natural crystalline character. This is said to be the process adopted by Messrs. Morewood and Rogers, whose patents date in 1846 and 1850. It is asserted that iron thus prepared does not warp or huckle ; that the plate is not affected by the heat of the zinc, whereas thin sheet iron, kept in molten zinc for a few minutes, becomes so brittle that it will not bear folding or grooving; that the plate is equally covered with zinc, whereas by the dipping process the lower half receives more than the upper : and that zinc is not con- taminated by iron as when dipped, the contamination increasing with each dipping until the zinc in the bath becomes so injured as to be worthless, it being well known that the alloy of zinc and iron is more oxidizable than zinc alone, or than zinc and tin. Professor Brande has stated that in common tinned plate, the combination is such that the oxidiza- tion of the iron is accelerated by the tin, so that the iron is the protecting, and the tin the protected, metal, but in this case the reverse effect ensues, the iron is the protected metal, and the zinc the protector. 17966. Time has proved that galvanized iron lias corroded after seven years in a roof- gutter ; and the slate of most of the roofs to railway sheds and stations and such like places, proves that at least some sorts of galvanized iron will decay ; the difficulty always is to ascertain what description of coating the iron has undergone. Galvanized iron bolts do not act upon oak either in sea or in fresh water, when care has been taken not to remove the zinc in driving them. 1796c. Galvanized iron is said to be nearly the same cost as zinc, and to be less than one quarter as liable to expansion or contraction : to be equally as durable as lead ; less in first cost, and not to require boarding; to be not quite one-third the price of copper, and to be equally as durable; and as compared with plain iron, the cost is increased about two-thirds, but that it increases the strength and durability of the iron. 1797. The soldering used is composed of spirits of salts killed by putting about three ounces of zinc to a pint of spirit ; care must be taken that this solder soaks well between the laps. Sect. IX. SLATE. 1798. Slate is a species of argillaceous stone, and is an abundant and most useful mineral. This material is so soft, that the human nail will slightly scratch it, and is of a bright lamellated texture. Its constituent parts are argill, earth, silex, magnesia, lime, and iron ; of the two first and the last in considerable proportion. The building slate is the sehwtui teg u larii Cha?. IT. SLATE. 521 1799. Mica slate, is a species of gneiss, distinguishable by containing little or no felspar, so that it consists chiefly of quartz and mica. It has a laminated or slaty structure, with the silky lustre of mica ; it is a tough material in directions parallel to its layers, but is ' more perishable than gneiss. In thin layers it may be used for rooting purposes. Chlorite sta'e is also laminated, soft, and easily cut, but more opaque than talc, and is sometimes used for roofing purposes. It has a green or greenish grey colour and silky lustie. Hornblende slate is hard, tough, durable, and impervious to water, and is used for flagstones. | Grauicacke slate is a laminated claystone, containing sand and sometimes fragments of mica iand other minerals. It is used for roofing and flag stones. All these descriptions of slate are inferior to the ordinary clay sla'e. 1800. Slate quarries usually lie near the surface ; and, independent of the splitting grain, along which they can be cleft exceedingly thin, they are mostly divided into stacks, by breakings, cracks, and fissures. Slate is separated from its bed, like other stones, by means of gunpowder, and the mass is then divided into scantlings by wedges, and, if necessary, sawn to its respective sizes by machinery. The blue, green, purple, and darker kinds are jmost susceptible of thin cleavage, the lighter-coloured slates being coarser. The instru- ments used in quarrying and splitting slates, are slate knives, axes, bars, and wedges. 1801. The tenacity of slate is from 9,600 to 12,800. The modulus of elasticity varies |from 13,000,000 to 16,000,000. The resistance to rupture is 5000. The weight of a (cubic foot is from 175 lbs. to 181 lbs. The transverse strength of Welsh slate is greater than any other mineral product of the stone kind. For such qualities as strength, space, and cleanliness, no other material is so cheap as slate. 1802. The slates used about London arc brought chiefly from Bangor in Carnarvonshire. The slate quarries of North Wales are the most important in this country. The chief works ire situated as follows, and belong respectively to the geological formations named : — Penrhyn, Bangor Llanberis, Dinorwic Cambrian. Ffestiniog, Port Madoc : Lower Silurian. Llangollen, Llangollen : Upper Silurian. Machynlleth, Aberdovey, Lower Silurian. Royal Slate, Bangor : Cambrian. Ifhe large quarries at Penrhyn near Bangor, belonging to Colonel Pennant, and from vliich the best Bangor slates a>e obtained, are worked in successive terraces ; the slate s obtained in immense masses by blasting, therefore the waste is enormous, but being got id of without difficulty, the price is kept moderate. These quarries have been variously stimated as yielding from 30,000/. to 40,000/. worth of slates per annum. Many smaller >ncs have lately been opened near Bangor, all supplying “ best Bangor” slates, without Ifecting the produce of the well-established works at that place. The Llangollen quarries re remarkable for the size of the slates they can obtain. 1803. The Delabole quarries in Cornwall have been worked for a considerable period ; hexe slates are shipped from Tintagel and Boscastle. This grey-blue slate, confined till ‘tcly to the western counties, is now obtained in London ; the Wellington College at iandhurst, Berkshire, is roofed with them. The Tavistock slates from Devonshire were t one period in considerable demand. One of the most esteemed slates is of a pale blue- re n, brought from Kendal in Westmoreland, and called Westmoreland slate. There are names in the neighbourhood of Ulverstone, in Lancashire; and the Cumberland sea- jrcen slate works are at Maryport. 1804. 'Hie extended use of this material for paving, shelving, cisterns, &c., has caused umerous companies to be formed for the working of old, and of many new, quarries, 'iefly in North and South Wales. Amongst the companies putting forth peculiarities of ite, arc the Dorothea West, Green, Blue, and lied, Slate Company, situate in Carnar- mshire, which supplied the pale green slates for the Charing Cross Rail" ay Hotel, the "tulon Bridge Hotel, and the Star and Garter Hotel at Richmond. The Llanfair Green (1 Blue Slate Company is also to be noticed. 1805. The slates of Scotland are not in much repute. The Balalmlish quarries in e north of Scotland are very extensive, as between five and seven millions of roofing ‘let are quarried annually. The weight of this number would be about 10,000 tons, d the quantity of rubbish being generally five or six times as much as the slates, some ’,'XX) or 60,000 tons of refuse have to be disposed of, which in this case are thrown directly to the sea, securing an immense saving of expense. IH(>6. The more important slate quarries in Ireland are in the southern division of the ntry, vix., Killuloc, county Tipperary ; Valentin, county Kerry ; Bcnduff, near Glan- v Harlwmr, county Cork ; and near Ashford Bridge, county Wicklow. The chief is at Currnghbnlly, situate about six miles from Killaloc. The colour of the slates is lull bluish grey, preferred by many to the decided blue of the Bangor quarries ; they greatly used in the west of Ireland, where they have superseded the Welsh slates. Tho >ur of the Valentin slates is rather greener than those above mentioned. They are nci.dly thicker and more uneven on the surface, and so arc better suited for the exposed THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 522 aspects of buildings in the western counties. This quarry lias more capabilities for sawn flags and slabs, of which a large amount is now exported to England for cisterns, baths, urinals &c. The Banduff quarry is nearly given up. The slates from Ashford Bridge both i.i colour and quality closely resemble the Bangor slates. (Wilkinson, Geoloi/y, §-c. «/ Ireland, 1845.) 1807. A line sound texture is the most desirable among the properties of a slate ; for the expense of slating being greatly increased by the boarding whereon it is placed, if the slate absorbs and retains much moisture, the boarding will soon become rotten. But a good slate is very durable. Its goodness may readily be judged by striking it as a piece of pottery is struck ; a sonorous, clear bell-like sound is a sign of excellence; but many pieces of the slate should be tried before a conclusion can be arrived at. It is thought to be a good sign, if, in hewing, it shatters before the edge of the zar. The colour, also, is some guide, the light blue sort imbibing and retaining moisture in a far less degree than the deep black-blue sort. The feel of a slate is some indication of its goodness: a good one has a hard and rough feel, whilst an open absorbent slate feels smooth and greasy. The best method, however, of testing the quality of slates is by the use of water, in two ways. The first is, to set the pieces to be tried edgewise in a tub of water, the water reaching above half way up the height of the pieces : if they draw water, and become wet to the top in six or eight hours’ time, they are spongy and bad ; and as the water reaches less up them, so are the pieces better. The other method is, to weigh the pieces of slate, and note their weights. Let them then remain for twelve hours in water and take them out, wiping them dry. Those that on re-weighing are much heavier than they were previous I to their immersion should be rejected. Where the character of a slate quarry is not pre- viously known, experiments of these sorts should never be omitted. 1808. The following comparison of the advantages of slates over tiles is given by R. Watson, former Bishop of LlandafT. That sort of slate, other circumstances being the same, is esteemed the best which imbibes the le ist water; for water not only increases the weight of the covering, but in frosty weather, being converted into ice, swells and shivers the slate. This effect of frost is very sensible in tiled houses, but is scarcely felt in thost which are slated, for good slates imbibe but little water; though tiles, when well glazed are rendered in some measure similar to slate in this respect The bishop took a piece o Westmoreland slate and a piece of common tile and weighed each of them carefully Tin, surface of each was about thirty square inches. Both the pieces were immersed in watc about ten minutes, then taken out and weighed as soon as they had ceased to drip. Tin tile had imbibed about a seventh part of its weight of water, and the slate had not imbibe: a two-hundredth part of its weight ; indeed, the wetiing of the slate was merely superficial He placed both the wet pieces before the fire; in a quarter of an hour the slate was pti fectly dry, and of the same weight as before it was put into the water ; but the tile ha, lost only about twelve grains it had imbibed, which was, as near as could be expected, th very same quantity that had been spread over its surface; for it was the quantity whic had been imbibed by the slate, the surface of which was equal to that of the tile. Tin tile was left to dry in a room heated to sixty degrees, and it did not lose all the water had imbibed in less than six days. 1809. Professor Ansted states that the best slates ate those which are most crystalline and which, when breathed upon, give out a faint argillaceous odour j when this was giver out strongly, then the slates would readily decompose. 1810. The largest slab of slate, perhaps, ever as yet obtained, was the one sent by th Llangollen Slate Company to the International Exhibition of 1862. It was 20 feet lonf 10 feet wide, and weighed 4j tons ; the thickness, however, was not named. The Welsl Slate Company, whose quarries are at I’estiniog, in Merionethshire, sent several slabs avei aging 14 feet by 7 or 8 feet. All the slate from this neighbourhood possesses the remark able quality of splitting with great facility, and with wonderful accuracy of surface, int thin laminae or sheets. Some of these thinly divided sheets are obtained 5 to 10 feet Ion from 6 to 12 inches wide, and not more than the sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The are so clastic as to bend like a veneer of wood. (Hunt, Handbook, 1862.) Sect. X. BRICK AND TII.E. 1811. A brick is a factitious sort of stone, manufactured from argillaceous or clay! earth, well tempered and squeezed into a mould. When so formed, bricks are stacked I dry in the sun, and finally burnt to a proper degree of hardness in a clamp or kiln. 1 1 use of bricks is of the highest antiquity. They are frequently mentioned in the histone Chat. II. BRICK AND TILE. 5 23 botks of the Old Testament ; but whether they were merely sun-dried or burnt in a kiln serins uncertain. We are inclined to doubt the burning of them at a very remote period. ]l will immediately occur to the reader that the making of bricks was one of the tasks imposed upon the Israelites during their servitude in Egypt. Though the oldest remains in Egypt are of stone, Pococke describes a pyramid of unburnt bricks, which are composed of a black sandy earth, intermixed with pebbles and shells, the sediment deposited by the overflowing of the Nile. This species of bricks is still common in Egypt and many other parts of the East. By the ancient Greeks and Romans, both burnt and unburnt bricks were used ; the method of making the latter whereof is thus described by Vitruvius, in the third chapter of his second book : “ I shall first,” says that author, “ treat of bricks, and the earth of which they ought to be made. Gravelly, pebbly, and sandy clay are unfit for that purpose ; for if made of either of these sorts of earth, they are not only too pon- derous, but walls built of them, when exposed to the rain, moulder away, and are soon decomposed ; and the straw, also, with which they are mixed, will not sufficiently bind the earth together, because of its rough quality. They should be made of earth, of a red or white chalky, or a strong sandy nature. These sorts of earth are ductile and cohesive, and not being heavy, bricks made of them are more easily handled in carrying up the work. The proper seasons for brick-making are the spring and autumn, because they then dry more equably. Those made in the summer solstice are defective, because the heat of the sun soon imparts to their external surfaces an appearance of sufficient dryness, whilst the internal parts of them are in a very different state ; hence, when thoroughly dry, they shrink and break those parts which first dried ; and thus broken, their strength is gone. Those are best which have been made at least two years ; for in a period less than that, they will not dry thoroughly. When plastering is laid and set hard on bricks which are not perfectly dry, the bricks, which will naturally shrink, and consequently occupy a less space than the plastering, will thus leave the latter to stand of itself. Eroin its being extremely thin, and not capable of supporting itself, it soon breaks to pieces ; and in its failure, involves sometimes even that of the wall. It is not, therefore, without reason that the inhabitants of Utica allow no bricks to be used in their buildings which are not at least five years old, and also approved by a magistrate. 1812. “There are three sorts of bricks: the first is that which the Greeks call Didortin (5i5a> pop), being the sort we use ; that is one foot long and half a foot wide. The other two sorts are used in Grecian buildings ; one is called Vmitadoron , the other Tetraduron. By the word doron, the Greeks mean a palm, because the word Siiipuv signifies a gift which can be borne in the palm of the hand. That sort, therefore, which is five palms each way, is called Pentadoron ; that of four palms, Tetradoron. The former of these two sorts is used in public buildings, the latter in private ones. Each sort has half bricks made to suit it, so that when a wall is executed, the course on one of the faces of the wall shows sides of whole bricks, the other face of half bricks ; and being worked to the line on each face, the bricks on each bed bond alternately over the course below.” Vitruvius concludes the chapter with the mention of the bricks made at Galentum in Spain, at Marseilles in France, und Pitane in Asia, which are specifically lighter than water. 1813. It is to be regretted that plastering with cement, a practice which is more to the interest of the brickmaker and bricklayer than to the consumer, has become so prevalent in this country. These tradesmen thus get rid of their worst bricks, which are hidden by u coat of plaster; the building soon decaying when the heart of the wall is bad. Colour ,ccms to be the objectionable quality about this material, the commonplace architect forgetting that form is much more essential to beauty than colour. In the times of Jones md Wren, red briek was beautifully wrought into architectural forms, of which a few 'samples still remain in the metropolis: and by Palladio, bricks were occasionally used lor uluinns without smearing them over with plaster. 1814. In England, the best earth for making bricks is a clayey loam, neither abounding nth too much sand, which renders them brittle, nor with too large a portion of argillaceous latter, which causes them to shrink and crack in drying. It should be dug at the least a car before it is wrought, that by exposure to the atmosphere it may part with all xtrancous matter which it possessed when first dug. The general practice is, however, to ig it in the autumn, and allow it to remain through the winter to mellow and pulverize, y which the operation of tempering is greatly facilitated. Upon this operation the uality of the brick mainly depends, and great attention should be bestowed upon perform- 'd this part of the process in a proper manner. This branch of the manufacture was irmerly executed by throwing the clay into shallow pits, and subjecting it to he trodden y men and oxen; a method which has been advantageously superseded by a clay or pug- ill, with a horse track. 1 As soon as the clay has been thoroughly tempered by one of the methods above uned, it is taken to the moulder’s bench, where it is cut by the moulder’s assistant, •ncrally a woman or a lad, into pieces rather larger than the mould, which are passed ou the moulder, who throws it with some force into the mould, which has been previously 524 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. dipped in sand. He presses it down, so that it may fill the whole of the cavity, strikin'' off the superfluous clay with a flat wooden rule. The newly-formed brick is then turned out of the mould on to a thin board, somewhat larger than a brick, and it is removed by a boy to a latticed wheelbarrow, and conveyed, covered with fine dry sand, to the hack. A handy moulder, working fifteen hours, will mould 5000 bricks. In the hacks, which are eight courses in height, the bricks are arranged diagonally above each other, with a passage between each for the circulation of air round them. The time required for drying in the hacks will of course depend on the fineness of the weather ; it is but a few days if the season be propitious ; and they are then turned and reset wider apart, after which, in about six or eight days, they are ready for the clamp or kiln. If the weather be rainy, the bricks in the hack must be covered with wheat or rye straw; and as they ought to be thoroughly dry before removing to the clamp or kiln, a few are genera. ly selected from different parts, and broken, to ascertain if the operation of drying has been well per- formed. The moisture arising from bricks when burning is very injurious to their soundness. 1816. The quantity of clay necessary to make 1C00 bricks will be somewhere about 54 cube feet, which allows about 5 feet for shrinkage in drying and burning; for 1000 x 8| in. x 2^ in. x 4 in. =49 2 3" 4"'. The cost of making 1000 bricks, in the neighbourhood of London, is nearly as follows : — Digging, wheeling, carting, &c. - - - - - 016 Moulding, stacking, &c. - - - - - - 0116 Sand, one-sixth of 2s. - - - - - - - 0 0 4 Straw for hacks - - - - - - - - 009 Barrows, moulds, planks, &c. - - - - - 006 Fuel 9 cvvt. per 1000 - - - - - - 0 10 6 =£l 5 1 1817. In the brickfields about London, bricks are mostly burnt in what are called clumps. These are generally oblong in form, and their foundations are made with the driest of the bricks from the hacks, or with common worthless bricks, called place bricks. The bricks for burning are then arranged, tier over tier, to the height assigned to the clamp, according to the quantity to he burnt, and a layer of breeze or cinders, two or three inches deep, is placed between each course of bricks, and the whole, when built up, covered with a thick stratum of breeze. On the western face of the clamp a vertical fireplace is formed, about 3 feet in height, from which flues are driven out by arching the bricks over, so as to leave a space about one brick wide. The flues run in a straight direction through the clamp, and are filled with a mixture of coals, breeze, and wood, closely pressed to- gether. If the bricks are required to he burnt quickly, the flues should not be more than 6 feet apart ; but if time do not press, the flues need not be nearer than 9 feet to each other, and the clamp is allowed to burn slowly. It is possible, if required, to burn a clamp in a period of from 20 to 30 days, according to the dryness of the weather. The practice of steeping bricks in water after they have been burnt, and then again burning them, has been found to have the effect of considerably improving their quality. 1818. A new mode of burning bricks in clamps has been patented by Robert White at Erith, wherein the advantages are stated to be that, 1st, nearly all the bricks are burnt into stocks, and the yield of inferior bricks is reduced from 35 to about 10 per cent, of the total make ; and, 2ndly, the bricks are so much improved in colour and soundness as to give them a considerable additional value in the market over common stocks. 1819. The kilns which are used for burning bricks are usually 13 feet long, by 10 feet 6 inches in width, and 12 feet in height. The walls are one brick and a half thick, and incline inwards as they rise. A kiln is generally built to contain 20,000 bricks at each burning. The fireplace consists of three arches, which have holes at top for distributing heat to the bricks. T1 ese are placed on a lattice-like floor, and first undergo a gentle action of the fire for two or three days, in order to dry them thoroughly. As soon as they thus become ready for burning, the mouth of the fireplace is dammed up with what is called a shinlog (which consists of pieces of brick piled against each other, and closed with wet brick earth), leaving about it sufficient room to introduce a faggot. The kiln is then supplied with brushwood, furze, heath, faggots, &c., and the fire is kindled and kept up until the arches assume a white appearance, and flames appear through the top of the kiln. The fire is then slackened, and the kiln gradually cooled. This process of alternately raising and slacking the heat of the kiln is repeated till the bricks are thoroughly burnt, which is usually accomplished in about eight and forty hours. 1820. The malm or marl stock, which is of a bright yellowish uniform colour and textu-e, is not always to be had, especially in the London districts ; in consequence of which, several years ago, it was discovered that chalk mixed in certain portions with loam, ami treated in the usual manner, proved an excellent substitute for it. It not only was found to improve the colour, but to impart soundness to the brick ; and the practice is now generally adopted about London. At Emsworth in Hampshire, and also at Southampton, HAP. II. BRICK AND TILE. 525 oze, or sludge, from the sea-shore, containing much saline matter, is used for a similar urpose : these bricks, however, have not the rich brimstone colour of the London malm tock, nor the regular stone-coloured hue of the Ipswich or Suffolk bricks. 1821. The finest mar) stocks, which are technically called firsts, or cutters, are princi- ially used for arches of doorways and windows, quoins, &c., for which purposes they are tibbed and cut to their proper dimensions and form. There is also a red cutting brick, vhose texture is similar to the malm cutter, which must not be confounded with the red tock. The next best, which are chiefly used for principal fronts, are called seconds ; hey are not quite so uniform in colour, nor so bright as the last, but are, nevertheless, a landsome and durable brick. 1822. Stocks are red and grey, both sorts being equal in texture. The red sort are jurat in kilns. The grey stocks are less uniform in their colour than seconds, and are of ather an inferior quality. They are used for common fronts, and walls. 1823. Place bricks, or pecking s, sometimes also called sandel, or samel bricks, are those vhich, having been outermost or furthest from the fire in the clamp, or kiln, have not eceived sufficient heat to burn them thoroughly. They are consequently soft, uneven in exture, and of a red colour. These should never be used in a building where durability s required. The name was formerly applied to the second quality of bricks, and these ire still so called in Ireland, being used for inside walls: the Irish harder burnt brick, laving a semi-glazed surface, is called firebrick, and is used for exterior work where ■xpense is not an object ; of course it lasts much longer than the other sorts. 1824. Burrs and clinkers are such bricks as have been violently burnt, or masses of several bricks run together in the clamp or kiln. 1825. Compass bricks are circular on the plan, and are chiefly employed for steyning, ■r walling round wells. 1826. Concave or hollow bricks are made like common bricks, but hollowed on one side a the direction of their length, and are adapted to the construction of drains and water- our.-es. Other hollow and pierced bricks of several shapes and sizes are supplied by arious manufacturers. A beaded brick, drilled with holes, for garden walls, to avoid the ecessity of nailing in training trees, are made at Stony Stratford, in Northamptonshire. 1827. Firebricks, so called from their capability of resisting the most violent action of |he fire, are of a dark red colour, and of a very close texture ; they are made about : inches long, 4| inches broad, and 1 j inches thick. The loam of which they are male Is yellow, harsh to the touch, and contains a considerable portion of sand. Their quality tnders them highly serviceable in furnaces and ovens. The greater part of those used bout London was formerly brought from Hedgerly, a village near Windsor, whence they btained the name of Windsor bricks. This sort of brick is also made iD various parts f Wales, whence they are called Welsh lumps ; also at Newcastle ; at Poole in Dorset- hire ; at the Hurlford works, near Glasgow ; and at Stourbridge ; the latter supplies fiefly the London market, but the material is one of the dearest. Fire clay, and flue nings for furnaces, are extensively used. The Dinas brick, manufactured by the 'nisymudu Company, near Swansea, stands a heat that will melt the Stourbridge brick. 1828. Paving bricks are for the purpose which their name implies, and their dimensions re the same as those of the foregoing sort. 1829. Dutch clinkers and Flemish bricks vary little in quality; they are exeeeding'y ard, and are used for the paving of stables, yards, &c., though they are by some objected >, as being too hot for the horses’ feet. The former are 6 inches long, 3 inches broad, id 1 inch thick, and are often laid on edge in various fanciful forms, as the herring- juo, The adamantine clinker is noticed in the next chapter. Tebbutt’s patent safety” brick is used for stables, yards, lavatories, and such places, as it gives a good othold and a dry walking surface. 18.30. South Staffordshire supplies a blue vitrified sewerage and paving brick (as used i Char ng-cross suspension bridge, 1856, and on Chelsea now bridge), and a channeled able brick. It is stated that the Tipton blue brick, when used for facings, lets in the wet ost thoroughly, either through the brick or through the mortar joints, so that walls of this at.erial should bo built hollow. Tho construction of the wori was questioned, as 9 and. inch walls have been erected with these bricks with success. As they are scarcely ab- I'bent, mortar does not thoroughly adhere to them; this want of adhesion might be tntdied by well soaking tho bricks before using them. Blue bricks of various forms aro so used for paving, copings, channels, gutters, border tiles, plinths, &,c. 18.31. Amongst the many qualities and vurie'ies of bricks now in use in tho metropolis, '■ following may be enumerated in addition to those already mentioned. Tho Cowley, and Kent bricks. Front Cowloy aro sent stocks, best yellow and white cutters, How and white seconds, paviours, pickings, &c. The Aylesford and Barham works, ir Maidstone, on the river Medway, formerly the properly of tho late Thomas Cubilt, educe yault bricks of good quality. Pickwell's patent white brick is sound, has a THEORY OE ARCHITECTURE. 5 26 Book II, uniformity of colour, resists frost and the action of acids much longer than others. They are manufactured at Hull. 1831«. The Suffolk bricks, called white Suflfolks, are of two or more qualities, expressly made for facings, and are expensive; the best are rarely to be obtained in London, beiii"- sold in the locality of their manufacture. They have a disagreeable cold hue, rendered still more dull after a few years’ wear in the smoky atmosphere even of a provincial towu. They are not so well burnt as those which are somewhat of a light pink or salmon tint. These latter are to be bought at the kiln at about 17*. per thousand, and by some persons are thought to make better brickwork than those which fetch 60s. or more per thousand in London. The works supply superior white and red (kilnburnt) Suffolk facings, splays, door-jambs, coping bricks, stable clinkers, &c. ; dark red facings, rubbers, sp'ays, paving bricks, &c. ; bright yellow malm facings, and cutters of best quality. Mean quality, and pale malm seconds, pickings, paviours, &c. A dark-coloured brick from Huntingdon is of a finer colour, uniform, much smoother than ordinary, and equal to those made in Kent. 18316. j Beart' s patent bricks are made at Aisley, near Hitchin, on the Great Northern Railway, of the following qualities, ranged according to price: — White rubbers; hand made moulded solid brick, equal to the best Suffolks ; No. 1 best selected white facing brick (pierced) ; and ordinary; these two are of uniform colour, hard and well burnt, and used extensively for facings ; No. 2 mingled, red and pink, vary from the above only in colour, aud are equal in every respect to the best made stock bricks. These bricks are made from the Gault clay, one of the subcretaceous formations interposed between the chalk and the wealden deposits, or between the chalk and the upper oolite. The composi- tion varies, for although it is of a tolerably uniform dark blue colour, it sometimes contains large quantities comparatively) of the hydrous oxide of iron; and in others it contains much < f the bicarbonate of lime, in combination. The former bum in the kiln into a deep red brick or tile of rather inferior quality ; the latter are used for the pierced hard white bricks above described. It is stated that these bricks are required to be burnt with great care, for if the calcination of the lime should take place under such conditions as to leave the lime in a caustic state, it will slack on exposure to the weather, or when moisture is applied to it. Thero is some difference of opinion as to whether mortar can be made to adhere to the smooth hard face of these bricks to make sound and strong work. 1831c. The red bricks derive their colour from the nature of the soil whereof they are composed, which is generally very pure. The best of them are used for cut ing-bricks, and are called red rubbers. In old buildings they are frequently found set in lime putty, and often carved into ornaments over arches, windows, doorways, &c. The Fareham reds are noted bricks. The Rowlands Castle (Hampshire) brick, tile and terra-cotta works supply reds in colour and appearance similar to Fareham. They are very hard and strong. At a mean pressure of 76,867 lbs., or 686 cwts., they cracked slightly, and with 140,617 lbs., or 1255 cwts., they cracked generally; giving 141'9 and 259'5 tons per square foot. The Thurstonland brick, from near Huddersfield, is made from a deep bed of shale, producing when burnt a rich red colour ; each brick undergoes a pressure of 14 tons, is well burnt, and being of a vitreous nature is impervious to atmospheric and other destructive influences. Moulded bricks can be made. They have been used at some of the Loudon Board Schools, and largely at Blackburn and Sheffield. The crush- ing st-ain is over 399 tons per square foot, and the brick contains 65 per cent, of silica. 1S31<7. Black bricks are obtained from Cow bridge, in South Wales ; these were used at All Saints’ Church, Margaret Street, and cost £i per thousand. The Baliingdon or Ewell deep black rubbing and building bricks, probably so rendered by manganese, are sol' in make and dead-looking in colour. The same factory, and Challont, supply dark, and bright, red rubbers ; with black headers, glazed and unglazed. Red and black bricks are sent from Burgess Hill, Sussex; and from Maidenhead, in Berkshire. 1831c. Bricks are now made glazed white and also many other plain colours; others with pal terns on the face as borders and for decorative purposes. The white glazed bricks are used in lieu of tiles for the refle.tion of light; others for securing perfect cleanliness of wall surface; and for obtaining quiet and neutral tones of colour lor the walls of wards of hospitals, and other similar purposes. 1 832. By the 17th Geo. III. cap. 42, all bricks made for sale were directed, when burnt, to be not less than 8| inches long, 2| inches thick, and 4 inches wide. This statute, which was enacted for the purpose of levying a duty, is now no linger in force, and the manufacturer is at liberty to make bricks and tiles of whatever size and form may behest suited to the work for which they are used. This Act having been rescinded, has led to the introduction of moulded and ornamental bricks to a vast extent, which will probably ll! still further extended as brickmtking machines become more useful and certain in their operations. The paten s for them are now very numerous : some of them are stated to make up to 20,000 per day, as may be required. The size of the brick, however, has Lietu retained, and habit will, no doubt, continue it in favour, especially for repairs. Chat. II. BRICK AKD TILE. 527 1832a. Bricks laid in the summer season should bo well saturated with water previous to laying ; and if the work be left for a day only, the walls should be as carefully covered up as in the winter, for in hot weather the mortar sets too rapidly, and hence the necessary cohesion is destroyed ; an evil much aggravated by the dust constantly hanging about the bricks, more especially at that season of the year. (See 1900(2.) 1833. A valuable paper, On the Transverse Strength of Brides, was delivered by Mr. \V. Hawkes at the Institute of British Architects, January, 1861. He stated that he had ilways tested bricks by their transverse power in preference to the crushing weight, which vas but seldom called in question, as it tells nothing if the bricks will resist from 30 to !O0 tons dead weight. It would often be useful to know if in a 9 inch wall we could dis- ribute a weight, say of 13 tons, over an opening 90 inches wide, having only 40 inches ieptb, supposing that the bricks be of moderate strength and the mortar be as strong as he bricks. The pressure and weights were applied in each case in the centre of the brick. 1833a. He experimented on Butch clinkers (made at Moor, near Gouda, in South Iolland, from the slime deposited on the banks of the river Yssel; and formerly from hat of Haarlem Meer ; the clay or slime is washed to get rid of the earthy matter before ieing moulded ; the colour is lightish yellow brown) ; Tipton blue bricks; Birmingham, iand and machine made ; Leeds, ditto; Bridgewater; Colchester; Oxford; and London, ;c. ; with tiles of various kinds. As, however, these experiments were made to a calcu- tted standard size of 7 inches long, 4'5 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, the results are nob enerally useful forawork of this description. But we give the fovv actual weights borne y certain bricks. Thus the 9 Leicester bricks carried at. the ordinary size, 1,462 lbs., !392 lbs., 1,252 lbs., 1,132 lbs., 1,052 lbs., 1,002 lbs., 902 lbs., and 892 lbs. The 9 from tigby carried 1,222 lbs., 1,022 lbs., 1,012 lbs., 862 lbs., 822 lbs., 552 lbs., 422 lbs., and 32 lbs. The 7 London bricks carried 1,142 lbs., 1,042 lbs., 952 lbs., 662 lbs., 652 lbs., 12 lbs., all being stocks; the last, a place brick, carried 270 lbs. The 7 London irks (second set) carried 970 lbs., 690 lbs., 580 lbs., 400 lbs., all stocks; and 650 lbs., >0 lbs., 340 lbs., all place ; the frog was not allowed for in the calculation. 18335. The following are the ascertained weights of bricks of the sizes stated: — ins. ins. ins. lbs. cwts. per 1000. 8jj x 4^ x 2f = 6 81 8f x 4 1 x 2£ = 7 O0 x 4| x 2| x 44 x 1=} ‘ x l| 7-84 500 155 875 6-00 9-50 575 60 J 63 65 to 75 45 14 67 h London stocks - Red kilu - Welsh lire - - - - - 9 Paving - - - - - 9 Dutch clinkers - - - • 6^x3 Irish fire - - - - - 8Jx 4 Worcestershire, solid, machine made - Ditto, perforated - Staffordshire, solid, hand made - London stock, hand made - 833c. Brickwork expands with great heat. Mr. Hawkes’s experiments, already iced, on a furnace chimney, 54 feet 7 inches in height, showed that the result of six ' "as an elongation of l - 425 inches. The great heat of the furnace chimney for ting iron is never reached in house flues, but since the introduction of hot air cockles hot water furnaces, particularly the high-pressure, the heat of these flues is increased fold compared with flues from open fireplaces. An iron bar might perhaps be heated edricss in some of the furnace flues. In another chimney, at. Thames Bank, in a lit of 80 feet, the brickwork showed an expansion at times of § of an inch. ‘'•i'l. Buhnt Ci.ay Ballast. Thisis now extensively used for forming the foundations * ie new form, d roads round the metropolis, and for footpaths in the suburban gardens, day obtained in making tho excavations for the new houses is run to a convenient ity adjacent ; a log of old timber is fixed upright in the ground; a horizontal flue i Icoi long is formed with bricks on edge, with an opening on the top near tho log. ngs are laid round the post and in the flue, outside of which pioces of timber are in a conical form about 8 feet wide and 5 feet high ; and then coated with about half of coal, which is covered with the newly excavated clay to a convenient thickness, hav ngs are then lighted, it the wind suit ; and in a short lime tho top of the heap n, lumps of coal are then thrown in, and on them more lumps of clay. Theobjoctto aim d is to have a mass of red hot fire in the middle of the heap. For a heap of I till solid yards of clsy. about 1 1 loads of breeze or ashes and 4 tons of slack or lino will be needed. The heap, once fairly alight, is covered with clay. Tho tendency of re being to burn upwards, tho fireman, with a long rake, drags the outer surface w irds every time tho burning heap is fed; this is done by scattering tho slack over a sliov. I to quicken the fire, and tho breeze is then laid on to retain it ; while a ivor of day is subsequently put on all over tho heap. When t his clay is nearly through, the operation is repeated. When there is a gentle smoke all over tho ’lie fire is going on properly ; if too little, un iron rod is pushed in to stir it up; 528 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. if too much, shields must be put up to break the 'wind. The general form of the heap, which is cone-shaped at starting, becomes of a flattened circular Up in course of being worked. It should not be made too high, as that increases the labour of wheeling the c-1 iy. When all the clay is used, such portions as are not sufficiently burnt are raked off and thrown up to the top to the greater heat: the heap is then trimmed off and left to cool. When well burnt, the ballast may be worth the trouble ; when badly done, as is usually the case, it is not much better than rubbish, in fact not nearly so good as the usual dry brick rubbish of which roads should be made. When well burnt, ground fine, and mixed with an equal portion of sand, and a less than the ordinary proportion of good lime, it makes a mortar which will set as hard as cement. The ballast may also be sifted through a 65 or 70 wire sieve, and the fine stuff, hard and clean, used for mortar or foi the plasterer ; the coarse and the rough for concrete, in addition to gravel. When user as core for a road, it should be at once covered with the Cowley or other gravel, or tin clay beneath it rises up with traffic, and much rain will soon render the road as bad a though the soil had not been covered ; in fact it turns into mud, and the scamping buildc finds it pays to mix his bad lime in the roadway dirt, and to use the mixture for mortar i 1833c. Coke breese or breeze is akin to the above in the use now made of it. It i extensively used for mortar ; ground in a mill, in lieu of sand or burnt ballast, it is sail I to set harder, being cleaner and sharper than sand, and requires less lime or cement. It i employed in artificial stonework, in concrete, and in paving. In ballast burning it burn the clay harder, and is cheaper than small coal. For roads and pathways it is clean, n< picking up in wet weather, and is good for surface drainage. In some places it may L cheaper than sand or ballast. 1831. Tiles, which in their constituent, parts partake much of the nature of brick; are plates of clay baked in a kiln, and used instead of slates, or other covering of the roo' of houses. The clay whereof tiles are formed will always make good bricks, though tl converse does not hold, from the toughness required on account of their being so mw thinner than bricks. The common kinds are made of a blue clay, found in many par about London, and mostly deeper seated than brick earth. The best season for diggii it is in September and October, and it should then lie exposed during the winter. It. ma however, be turned up in January, and worked in February ; and, as in brick, so in til making, the more care bestowed on beating and tempering ihe clay, the better will be tl tiles. In 1477, 17th Edward IV., c. 4, it was enacted that clay should be dug befo November, and be stirred and turned be'ore March. Tiles are burnt in a kiln construct on the same principles as the brick-kiln, but with the addition of a cone, having opening at top round the chamber of the kiln. They require much care in burning, the fire be too slack, they will not burn sufficiently hard ; and if too violent, they gin and suffer in form. 1835. Plain or crown tiles are such as have a rectangular form and plane surface. Tl were made 10| inches long, 6j inches broad, and £ of an inch thick, by the statute. Tl. are manufactured with two holes in them, through which, by means of oak pins, they hn upon the laths. In using all coverings of this species, one tile laps over another, or placed over the upper part of the one immediately below ; that part of the tile which th appears uncovered is called the gauge of the tiling. Terro-mctallic tiles for roofs, w tuo projections at the back to catch on the laths in lieu of pegs, are now in use. Ter metallic Staffordshire goods in red, blue, and buff colours ; also blue and red, pH capped and rolled ridge tiles in 18 inch lengths. Broselcy roofing tiles in vari' colours and patterns. The best, pressed roofing tiles are of superior manufacture a, quality, of very hard metal, impervious to moisture, and will not allow of vegetal growi ng on them. The Kcnningtun and Naccolt tile yards, Ashford, Kent, suppl; dark brown tile, about 9| inches by 6 inches, of which 1,400 go to a ton ; the timber of a roof is not more than for slates. It was there that the abbots of Battel ma factored tiles for their own use and for sale. On stripping old roofs these tiles h been found sound and were used again ; the heart of oak laths had perished f age. Italian tiles, which were made about 1840, by Brown, of Surbiton, differ somev from their first prototype, as, instead of being flat, they are slightly curved, fit easily into the other, with a horizontal indentation across the upper part, to prevent the v drifting the rain over the tile head; they have either wide or narrow vertical ri Such tile -s are usefully employed in picturesque buildings in the country. Taylors roofing tiles have a plane surface and a slight turned up edge at the sides, a lump on surface near the upper edge prevents the upper tile slipping; a cover tile is of a sin size and form; these tiles were used about 1872 at the. new railway station in Li pool Street. They are rt commended as being half the weight of ordinary plain ti each tile weighing under 4 lbs., and as light as slating; they may be laid to as f pitch as slates ; and that 180 will cover a square of roofing. 1836. Itidge roof and hip teles are formed cylindrically, to cover the ridges of hot • HAP. II. TILES. 529 hey should be 13 in. Ion", and girt about 16 inches on the outside. Weight about 5 lbs. dge tiles, plain, and with cresting, are now introduced in red, blue, black, and green ire. Plain, flanged, rolled top, and ornamental grooved ridging tiles, are commonly seen. 1837. Gutter tiles are about the same weight, and dimensions as ridge tiles, though tiering in form, and are for the valleys of a roof. They are now rarely used, tho.r ace having been supplied by lead, and lately by zinc in common work 1838. Pun or Flemish tips have a rectangular outline, with a surface both convex and mcave, They have no holes for pins, as plain tiles have, but are hung i to the laths bv a kuot of their own earth on their underside, nearest the ridge, formed hen making. They are often glazed, and should be 14^ inches long and 10| inches broad, lie Bridgewater double roll tilts are shown in fig. 614a. Three ubs are formed on the back to catch the lath'.' They lap over two ches, and afford good ventilation for farm buildings, with good •oteetion from rain and snow'. Phillips’ patent lock jaw roofing lig.6H«. les, with single grip and double grip, are ornamental, and stated to be wind, rain, and liow proof. The grip consists of each tile locking on to its neighbour by one or two jiunded grooves or beads. 1839. The following are the weights of the undermentioned sizes of tiles used for irious purposes : — - Paving tiles at per 100. 9 x 9x2^ 9 x 9 x 1 \ 9 x 9 x 1| 9 x 9xH 12 x 12 x l| 12x 12x2 14x14x2# 16 x 16x2# 18 x 18 x 2^ 20 x 20 x 2# 22x22x 2# cwOs. qri 0 13 2 0 9 2 0 7 3 9 lbs. each 16 „ 24 x 24 x 3 Kidge tiles 18 in., 3 about f = 22 = 35| = 44 = 64| = 84 = 104 = 133 15 10 to 14 cwts. per 100. rolled, 18 to 24 in. 23 to 29 lbs. each. 12 to 18 cwts. per 100. Malt kiln tiles 12 x 12 x 2 = 16 lbs. each. Hothouse flue tiles 12 x 12 x Plain tiles 6ir x 6|x 7“ x Pan tiles 1 3 k x llix 10ix II x = 13 lbs. each = 2-51 = = 2-90 = cwts. per 1000 22* 26* i = 5-25= 47 9|x Bridgewater double roll tiles 16±x 14 x-§to|= 8'80 Paving tiles, squares = 2-16 = = 5 70 = 6x6x1 9f x 9| x 1 ll^xllfxlJ Ditto, hexagons 6 x 6 x l 6x6x1 ID* 50 = 12-42=111 = 1-63= 14* = 186= 16| 1839a. White glazed, tiles of Dutch and English manufacture are used for lining the 11* of baths, larders, dairies, butchers’ and other shops, kitchen ranges, areas for re- ’ed light, and other such like purposes. For walls of entrance lobbies and similar "■es, glazed tiles are stamped with a pattern, giving a decorative appearance. Mathe- tu.iil tiles are employed for covering the vertical surfaces on the outside of walls, in itation of brickwork, and to prevent wet being absorbed. 839V Ornamental Pavements. The use of hardened clay for pavoment is of the highest iquity. Our own country furnishes numerous examples of the varieties employed by Homans. 'I he tiles are usually made of the clay found in the immediate neighbour- 'd in which they have been used; and ornamented, sometimes with colour, hut more picntly with merely an impressed or raised design. During the Mediieval age, encaustic I oilier tiles were largely employed. Many varieties of plain and ornamental tiles are ; ■ mad'- in the Potteries, as at Broseley ; also at Poole, in Dorsetshire. The coarser li, for streets and doorways, have a red or a bnflf colour, and are prepared from the rtordshire day, which is found associated with coal. By mixing metallic oxides w ith the r days, blue and other colours are produced. The manufacture consists in bringing ■ av into a state of fine powder, containing a certain amount of moisture ; the mass is 1 1 w I in a mould of iron which it completely fills, when the ram of an hydraulic •>. exactly fitting tho mould, givesn pressure of from 150 to 200 tons, compressing the v into a '"II parat ivcly very small space ; on being removed from tho mould it is polished •on sithi-d <.tl on tho surface, and then it is ready for being baked in tho kiln. The " r variegated tile is composed, in tho body, of ordinary red or buff clay ; it is • 1 hi a mould under a common screw press, tho mould not only producing tho outer n of tho tdo, but also certain impressions on tho face of the clay, ubout a quarter of an ' m depth. It is then taken out of tho mould, and allowed to acquire a certain suite ryi ess Bevonshiio or Cornish day, coloured, is then poured ovor tho wliolo surface, ng i he improssions, in t ho si ate o( a very I hick slip ; when I his has been dried ton coi- « eat, i lie slip i, *, ripod until the face of tho common clay or body is seen, the im- M M 630 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II, pressed spaces only being filled with the coloured matter. A layer of clay is also applied to the back, and is sometimes pierced with holes to prerent the bending of the tiles hi the process of baking. 1839c. The Tesserae are manufactured by a similar process. In Lambeth, clay being properly prepared and stained of the desired colour, as black, red, blue, &c., is made into long narrow ribbons, by means of a squeezing machine. These ribbons are cut into squares, which are placed one on another, 16 cr 20 high, previously oiled to prevent adhesion. These piles are then placed tipon a frame sliding in t wo perpendicular grooves, with fine steel wires stretched tightly across, so that by pressing the frame downwards the wires subdivide the slices into the square, oblong, triangular, or other shaped tesserse required; these are then dried and baked in the ordinary way. Messrs. Minton manufacture their tesserae by pressure, as for making tiles. 1 839rf. The mode of forming tesserce into mosaic paving slabs is as follows : — The tessera are laid face downwards on a perfectly Hat slate, in the pattern or design required. Tliej 1 size and shape of the slab is given by strips of wood or slate fastened round the tesssise. s Portland cement is poured on the backs of the tesserse, and two layers of common red tiles | are added in cement ; thus forming a fiat and strong slab, which is fitted for laying down as , j pavement. (Hunt, Handbook, 1851.) The better tile*, and the larger tesserae for pavements, 1 are laid separately on a carefully prepared foundation of fine concrete, and then set in fine i sand. The durability of a tesselated pavement consists greatly in tlie solidity oftlmfounda t ion given to it. With a fioor subjected to vibrations such a work will go to piieces. The I encaustic tiles with raised patterns should only be used as wall linings, as at Granada, ant | never for pavements, as is sometimes dune. 1839c. Stoneware is a dense and highly vitrified material, impervious to the action c I acids, and of peculiar strength. Until ab >ut 1836, when the duty was taken off, thi. jj material was chiefly used for common spirit bottles, oil jars, &c. The clay used is fount | I near the coast in Devonshire and Dorsetshire. It is dug in square lumps of about 40 lbs I each, and transported in ships to London. After being perfectly dried it is ground to . i powder, mixed with water, and, after being allowed to become of uniform consistency, tli mass is passed through pug mills, and taken to the workmen. For making large articles i portions of the burnt material, finely ground, are mixed with the new clay ; also some whit sand found in the neighbourhood of Woolwich and Reigate. 1839/’. Almost all round articles are formed by the pofter, on wheels turning with th required rapidity. The potter's wheel was known in Egypt some 2,500 years b.c., and remains practically the same. It was worked by band , then by the feet, keeping a steadit j constant motion ; larger articles caused the disc to be attached to a large fly wheel, workejj by au assistant, who was directed by the potter ; lastly came the addition of steam an the conical drum, enabling the potter to regulate the speed required. E’or articles • other shapes, the composition in a soft and plastic state is laid in plaster of Par moulds; the porous plaster gradually absorbs the moisture from the clay, and whv sufficiently firm it is removed. Si>me thousand articles are frequently made from oi mould before it is destroyed. When thoroughly dry, the ware is placed in ovens ' kilns, and exposed to a gradually increasing heat, so intense as to become, before finishm; quite white; salt is then thrown in, and, being decomposed, the fumes act chemically the surface of the ware, and fuse the particles together, giving the glaze so well know » Stoneware differs from all other kinds of glazed earthenware in this important l’espet that tlie glazing is the actual material itself fused together; in other kinds of ware i' a composition in which tlie article is dipped while in what the potters call the biscuit , 1 half-burnt, state. (Hunt, Handbook, 1851.) TERRA-COTTA. 1 839<7. Terra-cotta, that is, burnt earth, embraces every kind of pottery, but the ter has now come to be applied exclusively to that class of ware used in building, and more or less ornamental and of a h'gher class than the ordinary, or even the better nut of bricks, demanding more care in the choice and manipulation of tlie clay, and nm harder firing, hence it is more durable. The best terra-cotta is a species of stonewa w hich doe* not after years of use show signs of decay from contact with acids and alkali' 1 839 A. Terra-cotta, like stone, may be good, bad, or indifferent in quality, but. go terra-cotta will hold its own against good stone as a sound building material. Bad ten cotta is that which is imperfectly burnt, and when it is “ slack burnt,” as it is termed, t material will go back to clay again. Flower-pots are common terra-cotta, and often tlm off a scale of red earth each time the plant is watered. A well burnt, sto.'k brick ts a terra-cotta ; and where is the ordinary stone which is equally durable with il ? ' j0< terra-cotta is easily t sted ; when struck with steel it should emit sparks and men show a black line, and ring like a bell. It should be free from fire cracks, have true hm IltAP. II. TERRA COTTA. 531 ts surfaces be not chipped or rubbed after burning, and each piece should be properly hampered with cross-pieces. 18397. The clays best suited for terra-cotta are found in the tertiary beds, or those >ecurring above the chalk, and corresponding with the lower Bagshot sands of the London district. Also those in the oolite and lias tormations. It is procurable at Tam- jvorth in Staffordshire; Watcombe in Dorsetshire; Poole in Dorsetshire; Evt-rton in urrey ; Ruabon in North Walts ; in Cornwall, and in Northamptonshire. The clay hould be as free from iron and limestone as possible, and should be cleansed from all purities. Natural terra-cotta c ay contains 60 to 65 parts of silica to about 28 parts f alumina. The Roman material consisted usually of the following ingredients : idea, 7 1 '45 ; alumina, 2 25; protoxide of iron, 12; protoxide of manganese, 0 17; me, 8T4 ; soda, 16’62; magnesia, a trace. Sand is an essential ingredient, and should e free from iron. The chief materials constituting the paste are clay, sand, Hint, glass, nd phosphate of lime. 1839I". All clays require careful preparation before use, and their after characteristics re often as much determined by this as by anything ; the same clay being different under ifferent treatment. 1st. Kneading, or pugging, which consists of well mixing the clay nd reducing it to a perfect consistency throughout; this is now done by a pug-mill, lost clays are too fat, and require an alloy to make them more workable ; their shrink- g is too great, and they are liable to twist and warp in drying and burning, so that mgh stuff or burned clay' ground fine is added in proper quantities to prevent this, and gives the potter more certain command over the clay. When mixed it is raided in a ry state into the mixers, water is added, and it is then passed through the pug-mills, hen it is ready for use. Sometimes the clay is rendered more homogeneous by being ruck continuously with an iron bar, to assimilate the parts and to expel any air, which l being expanded by the heat of the kiln would shatter the work. 2nd. A ball of this ay is supplied to the potcer, who proceeds to form the article by hand ; or it is pressed to a mould, which is of plaster, when repetitions are required. Care is necessary to ve an equal thickness throughout, to prevent unequal shrinkage. This thickness is not uch more than one inch. When required of a greater thickness, the blocks are formed llow with cross webs to strengthen them. Whi n necessary these cavities may be filled th concrete ; this filling also prevents the accumulation of moisture, to which the blocks juld be liable were they left open. 3rd. The article so formed in the rough is noved to be dried. Drying is evaporating the water, which must be done very adually and evenly or there would be a liability to crack and twist. When nearly as rd as a piece of soap it is placed on a lathe and smoothed or poliched with an iron >1. If any part is required to be attached to it the part is moulded, and the clay listened at the point of junction, and the two luted with a very little soft clay. The rk is now ready to be burnt. 4th. Burning is a process of the utmost importance, as it. depends the lasting qualities of the material. A chemical action goes on in the tiring ich changes the whole nature of the clay; it never admits of being worked up again, in its original state. To accomplish burning successfully requires much experience, II, and patience. It is now removed to a kiln or reverberatory furnace, and carefully 1 ked in fire-clay troughs called s/ggars, or placed one over the other. When the kiln ull the doorway is bricked up, and the fires are lighted in the furnace holes around the 1 n. Large articles have to be fired very slowly for four or five days, then for about 1 ty-eight hours fired sharply until a heat is attained sufficient to bake the ware, and to 1 - the ingredients of which the body is formed into a vitreous mass without melting whole. The intensity usually necessary is stated to be that at which soft iron ihl melt. The articles have to be protected from the coal flame by the seggars, or by ig coated with paper and clay, or by a muffle throughout the kiln, as the flame is apt rack many clays openly exposed to it, and the vapour of coal is sure to discolour the e, generally turning it a foxy red. A kiln of large goods takes about a week to cool. *39/. Of late years terra-cotta has been used extensively for tho facings and ings of a building in the place of stone. It is generally made of hollow blocks, ied with webs inside so as to give strength to the sides and koep the work truo while : g, whereas when required to bond with brickwork it must be at least 4,J inches thick. a.'tOm. Tho following result of experiments made by Mr. Blashfield for Mr. Charles y. were given in a paper by him on Dulwich College, read at tho Royal Institute of ish Architects, session June, 1868. A block of Portland stono about 6 inches cube, bore a crushing weight equal to per foot super. -------- 292 tons A block of Bath stoae, equal to per foot super. - 1U4 A stock brick „ „ - - - - 82 A solid block of Terra-cotta, equal to per foot super. - 523 A hollow block, slightly made and unfilled ----- 80 Tho Hume, but filled with concrete - 163. A hollow block, unfilled, but made with thicker walls - - - 186 M .11 2 532 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 1839». The shrinkage of terra-cotta clay in burning is very uncertain ; it is one-eighth to one-twelfth. To obviate the risk of warping, large pieces should only be used where absolutely necessary. Blocks may average from 1 to 3 feet cube ; never more than 4 feet; the block is usually from 12 ins. to 16 ins. long, by 6 ins. to 15 ins. high; 4| ins. to 9 ins. ou the bed ; if hollow, from 1 to 2 ins. thick. Larger blocks should have a division or web of terra-cotta across them. Joints should be joggled, stopped ends made solid, beds even, and samples should show extreme limit of colour and evenness. In the old Continental and English examples, brick dimensions are as much as possible adhered to. Large blocks require corresponding extension of time to be allowed in their manufacture. 1839o. As regards economy it compares favourably with good stone, while it is much more durable, stronger, and cheaper ; for the use of the mould allows, where there is great repetition of parts, of most elaborate work, produced at a cost less than that of stone ; as much as one-third is saved. The cost of the raw material of terra-cotta is only half the cost of Portland cement, and not one-fourth the cost of good stone. Mouldings having a girth of two feet can be bought at two shillings and sixpence per lineal foot; tracery for parapets, 4 inches thick, at three shillings per foot superficial. 1839/a Its lightness is a source of economy in comparison with stone, by which a saving is effected in carriage and lifting ; the filling of the blocks can be done on the site with the broken bricks lying about. In a district where stone abounds, the saving in cost would not be so advantageous. In London it would be on an average, say 20 per cent, less than Bath stone, and 40 per cent, less than Portland stone. The subject will be further treated in the next book. Sect. XI. LIME, SAND, WATER, MORTAE, CONCEETE, AND CEMENT. 1840. Lime has not been found in a native state; it is always united to an acid, as to the carbonic in chalk. By subjecting chalk or limestone to a red heat it is freed from the acid, and the lime is left in a state of purity, and is then called caustic or quicklime, which dissolves in 680 times its weight of water. It is not our intention here to enter into any account of either of the theories relative to the formation of lime, facts being of more importance to the architect in its employment than the refined fancies of the scientific chemist. The calcareous minerals are mostly distinguished by their effervescing with and dissolving in, an acid, as also by their being easily scratched or cut with a knife. In respect of the lime obtained from chalk, Dr. Higgins (in his work on calcareous cements, Lond. 1780) says, “ It should be observed, that the difference between chalk lime and the, lime obtained from the various limestones, chie 'y consists in the greater retention or expulsion of the carbonic acid gas contained in them.” 1841. An account of the stone from which lime may be obtained in the different counties of England would unnecessarily extend this article ; we shall, therefore, after observing that the use of marble for burning to lime would be too expensive, state the varieties of lime- stone as, 1, the compact; 2, the foliated ; 3, the fibrous; and 4, the peastone. The compile limestones are of various colours, in hues inclining to grey, yellow, blue, red, and green and to a smoky sort of colour besides. It is usually found massive, often compounded wi extraneous fossils, particularly shells. Its internal appearance is dull, the texture is com pact, the fracture small, fine, and splintery ; fragments indeterminately angular, more o- less sharp-edged ; semi-hard, sometimes soft, brittle, and easily frangible. Specific gravii varies from 2’500 to 2 - 70t), and it is composed of lime, carbonic acid, and water, most! with a portion of argyl and oxide of iron, and sometimes of inflammable matter. 1842. The foliated limestones are such as calcareous spar, statuary marble, &c. ; tli fibrous limestones, such as satin spar; and the peastone, another species of spar. It ma be remarked, that the various sorts of marble, chalk, and limestone may be divided int those which arc nearly pure carbonate of lime, and those containing in addition from om twentieth to one-twelfth of clay and oxide of iron. “ Though the best limestones are m . such as contain the greatest quantity of clay, yet,” observes Mr. Smeaton, “ none hat proved good for water building, but what, on examination of the stone, contained clay ; an though,” he continues. “ I am very far from laying down this ai an absolute criterion, yet have never found any limestone containing clay in any considerable quantity, but what w; good for water works, the proportion of clayey matter, being burnt, acting strongly as cement ; and limes of this kind all agree in ono more property, that of being of a dea frosted surface on breaking, without much appearance of shining particles.” 1843. Among the strongest limes, such as will set under water, those most in use in t 1 metropolis are called grey stone limes , and are procured irom Dorking, Merstham, and tl vicinity of Guildford in Surrey. The Dorking and other limes of that part are burnt fro) IAV. II. LIME, SAND, ETC. 533 chalk formation so extremely hard that it is quariied even for the purposes of masonry, hose of Merstham particularly are obtained from an indurated chalk marl (clay anil talk) which is so hard that it partakes of the nature of stone. 18t3a. The known property of the blue has formation for setting under water renders it 1 invaluable material in the hands of the architect. In the neighbourhood of Bath it is died Bath brown lime, and when prepared for cementing with metallic cement, is said to e wind, slahed ; that is, after burning, it is placed in roofed sheds open at the sides, and ie atmosphere is thus introduced to act upon it. The colour of the lias, previous to urning, is blue ; after it has passed the kiln, it is of a rich brown colour. 18436. It is extr.mely difficult to give any quantitative analysis of the blue lias. Every yer in a quarry will be found to differ snore or less decidedly from those above or below . The beds extracted for burning into lime may be said to consist principal 'y of car- mate of lime (perhaps as much as 9.) per cent. ) in combination with silicate of alumina, mie oxide of iron, potash, and a small quantity of sand, in mechanical mixture ; but the igredients insoluble in nitrous acid, such as silicate of alumina and sand, 'ary in every naginable proportion between 5 and 18, oral times 20, per cent. The best blue lias lime obtained from the beds of calcareous marl which contain about 16' per cent, of licate of alumina ; such as is brought from Aberthaw in South Wales, Watchet in omersetshire, and Barrow, in Leicestershire : the limes from Whitby, in Yorkshire, and >m Lyme ltegis, in Dorsetshire, are nearly equal to them. The principal objection to lis lime as used in London is founded upon the large proportion of underburnt or unburnt one or cure left in it. The weight of an imperial bushel of Aberthaw lime of a superior uality is 85 lbs. 1813c. The magnesian limestone of Sunderland lies north-west of the red sandstone. In re vicinity of South Shields, in the county of Durham, the formation becomes extensive, id is to be traced to the Tees below Winston Bridge. The Whitby quarry near Caller- rats has been described in the 4th volume of the Geological Transact. ons. The Sunder- ed limestone is of a bronze colour, and from containing inflammable matter, does not quire so much fuel to convert it into lime. The naturally hydraulic limestone of Arden, und near Glasgow, in Scotland, has been largely used in the local dock works, in the "portion, for concrete, of one part of ground lime, one part of iron mine dust, one part of nd, and four and a half parts of gravel and quarry chips. Pure hydraulic lime, as it is lied, manufactured (in Flintshire) from the best Ilalkin Mountain limestone, is much used the dock works at Liverpool and Birkenhead. 1 84.it/ Ihjd, aulic limes have been tirus classed : — If they harden under water in periods trying from fifteen to twenty days after immersion, they are slightly hydraulic ; if from \ to eight days, simply hydraulic ; if from one to four days, eminently hydraulic, ydraulic works frequently burst from the slak 'u g of the lime which has not been properly pared for its office. It should be all hydrated before placing, and this requires more ue than the slaking of ordinary lime ; the heat developed is much less than in any other lie. 1844. Before limestone is burnt it seems to possess no external character by which a sanction can be made between the simple and the argillo-fcrruginous limestones ; what- cr the colour of the former, they become white when burnt, whilst the latter paitake ore or less of a slight ochrey tint. Brown lime is the most esteemed for all sorts of ments, whilst for common purposes the white sorts, which are more abundant, are suffi- ■ntly useful. In England, the limestones in colour generally incline to a red or blue, d those which are found firm, weighty, and uniform in texture are to be preferred, asses broken from large rocks and beds on the sides of hills, and those when newest taken d deepest dug, are most to be valued. 1845. The process of analysing limestones is so eminently useful to all concerned in ilding, that we cannot refrain from transcribing the method used by Smeaton in his own >rds. “ 1 took about the quantity of live pennyweights (or a guinea’s weight) ol the i tone to be tried, bruised to a coarse powder, upon which 1 poured common aquafortis, t not so much at a time as to occasion the effervescence to overtoil the glass vessel in h li the limestone was put, and added fresh aquafortis after the effervescence of the firmer intity h id ceased, till no fuither ebullition appeared by any addition of the acid. This ne. and the whole being left to settle, the liquor will generally acquire a tinge of some nsparent colour; and if from the solution little or no sediment drops, it may be ounted a pure limestone (which is generally the case with white chalk and several i' rs), as containing no uncalcarcous matter in its composition. When this is well lied, pour pfT the water, and repeatedly add water in the same way, stirring it, and ting it settle till it becomes tasteless. After this, let the mud be well stirred into the I' r. and without giving it time to settle, pour off the muddy water into another vessel. I if there be any sand or gritty matter left behind (as will ficqucntly be the case), this h i ii il by itself will ascertain the quantity and species of sabulous matter that entered ■ the Inline of the limestone. Letting, now, the muddy liquor settle, and pouring oil 534 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. the water till no more can be got without an admixture of mud, leave the rest todry, which, when of the consistence of clay, or paste, is to be made into a ball, and dried for further examination.” 184G. There are many sorts of kilns for burning limestone, varying in form with the fuel employed, and the combination of the process itself with some other, such, for instance, as making coke, and sometimes bricks. The limestone, however, is generally burnt in kilns whose plans are circular and section resembling an inverted truncated cone; of late inure frequently made spheroidal The heat is in either case obtained from a fireplace under the limestone, which rests on bars, that can. when the kiln is a perpetual one. egg-fonned, or a draw kiln, be removed to let out the lime as it is burnt, whose deficiency, on extraction, is supplied by fresh stone at the top of the kiln. Sod kilns are sometimes used for lime burning. These are formed by excavating the earth in a conical form, and then building up the sides as the earth may require. In using these the limestone is laid in with alternate layers of fuel to the top of the kiln, and the top being covered with sods, so as to prevent the heat from escaping, the tire is lighted a id the process effected The lime is not removed till it is thoroughly cool. This mode is a tedious operation, and, because of the quantity of fuel consumed, far from economical. In the common lime-kiln, the fire is never suffered to go down, but as the well-burnt lime is removed, fresh lime issupplied. There isa specie; of kiln called a flame-kiln, in which the calcination is effected with peat. In this kiln the process of burning bricks is carried on at the same time. The loss offimestone by burning is about four-ninths of its weight, shrinking, however, but little. When completely burnt, it falls freely, in s'aking, into powder, and then occupies about double its previous bulk. 1847. Lime burners have made the important observation, that the quantity of stone calcined and the quantity of fuel expended depend on the quality of the fuel. Hence the kiln is constructed with reference to the fuel, rather than to the nature of the stone to be calcined. Limestone, taking an average time, tequires burning about sixty hours to reduce it to lime, when the heat is strong and well regulated : but of course no general rule can he laid down, as diff rent species will require different peri ds of time. The principal object to be accomplished is the expulsion of the carbonic acid gas which enters into its composition. 1848. The lime generally most esteemed is that which heats most in slaking, and slakes the quickest, falling into a fine powder. If there be among it coarse unslakable lumps called cure, that will not pass through the screen, either the stone has not been sufficiently burnt, or it originally contained extraneous matter; this not only indicates defect in quality, but that it will be, as they more or less abound, more costly in use. Lime in slaking absorbs a mean of 2 5 time's its volume; and 2 25 its weight of water. The hydraulic limes absorb less water than the pure limes, and only increase in bulk from L75 to 2 5 times their original volume. Slaked lime is a hydrate of lime. 1849. From the experiments of Mr. Smeaton and of Ur. Higgins, it is sufficiently proved that, when chalk or stone lime is equally fresh when used, the cementitious properties of both are nearly, if not quite, equal ; but from the circumstance of quicklime absorbing carbonic acid more or less in proportion as its texture is solid or spongy, so it gradually parts with its cementing nature, becoming at length altogether unfit for the purposes of mortar. Titus, though each of the sorts may be equally good, if properly burnt and quite fresh from the kiln, yet from the chalk lime so much more easily and rapidly taking in the carbonic acid than stone lime does, it is not so fit for general use ; and, indeed, now the metropolis is so well supplied with the harder chalk and stone limes, there is no excuse to; its use, and it should in sound building be altogether banished. 1850. The following table, from Smeaton, contains a list of the limestones be examined on the occasion of building the Eddystone Lighthouse: — Species of Stone. Propor- tion of Colour of the Ciav. Reduction of Weight Colour of Brick made of such Clay. Clay. by lurniug. Aberthaw, on the coast of Gla- 1 morganshire - - J 3 53 Lead colour 4 to 3 Grey stock brick. Watchet, small sea-povt in So- 1 Do. 4 to 3 / Light colour, red- mersetshire - - - J 53 \ dish lute. Barrow, Leicestershire 3 Do. 3 to 2 Grey stock brick. Long Bennington, a village in \ Lincolnshire - - J 3 55 Do. - Dirty blue. Sussex Church, near Lewes in Sussex - - - J 3 16 Ash colour 3 to 2 Ash colour. Dorking, Surrey Berryton grey lime, near l’eters- ^ 1 17 Do. Do. field, Hants - - J 15 Guilford, Surrey Do. Sutton, Lancashire h Brown LIME, SAND, ETC. 535 ap . ir. 851. Sand should by all means, if possible, be procured from a running clear stream, in I! ference to I bat obtained from pits It is cleaner and not so connected with clayey or i ddy partie'es. About the metropolis it is the practice to use (and an admirable ma- i ial it is) the sand of the Thames procured from above London Bridge. This sand has uired a deserved reputation among the architects and builders of the capital. It con- t ns, however, a vast portion of hetcrogeneoi s matter, such as calcareous fossil, quaitzose, : 1 flint sands, particles of coal alluvium, and much iron. The sharp drift sand of the ' amts, therefore, before mixing with the lime, should be well rertened ai d washed. 1852. If pit sttnd only can be procured, it should be repeatedly washed to free it from earthy and clayey particles it contains, until it becomes br'ght in colour, and feels i ty under the fingers. Smeatou has stated that clay, even in very small quantities, materially inter- ; is with the hardening of mortar, and disposes it to p' risb in a few years. When the aroli.t ct is obliged i ise sea sand , it most te we 1 washed in fresh water until the salt is entirely removed ; otherwise the i lent for which it is used will never dry. So small a qu ntiry as 3 per cent, of salt causes great incon- iences. Whenever the weather is dry, the walls show an efflorescence on the inside or on 1 side. ' is, when there is damp in the atmosphere, will collect n o is 'lire, causing the wall to look wet, and will ow off any paper placed on it. In one case, where a builder in i c. iminately employed sea sand I r ■ side and inside purposes, the saline property soon introduced the rot to all adjoining timber. Thera still (1887) much diversity of opinion as to the advisability of using sea sand. The washing is ol mary importance ; it is to l’e b ist effected by using an iron p'pe of about three-quarters of an incti meter and two feet long, joined on to an india-rubber pipe attached to the water main. This pipe ,o stand in the a litre of the tub ; fill the tub with the sand, then turn on the water, which passu g to ' bottom of the tub, rises through the sand causing any salt to rise with it ; if allowed to run, the lub :i Bows, and the salt is soon all carried off. The i and should be washed as soon as it is taken from the ,cb. (B. C. Morgan.) 1852«. It will be well to notice here that Professor Wilson, of the Edinburgh Labora- ry, made in 1848 a report on the use of tea sand in mortar in a bouse, No. 10 Randolph eseent, which was said to be damp from the use of it. On analysis lie found that the ortar contained only 1-10, 000th part of its weight of the chloride of magnesium, a highly liquescent attracting substance. But be considered that the setting of the mortar •chanically enveloped and locked up within its m iss the substance in question ; and rther, that it might chemically combine with the lime of the mortar to form a compound t readily to be dissolved in water. It was also thought that in consequence of a einical action taking place between the lime in the mortar and the chlorine derived from e sea water contain 'd in the sand, chloride of calcium (muriate of lime) would be pro- iced. and this being a deliquescent substance, would attract moisture and render the tils damp. The amount, however, of chlorine in specimens of sea sands, was found to ry from a 2,174th toa549tli part oftheir weights ; the mean amount was a 1,201th part. ie quantity in the mortar was so minute that it could not sensibly produce the effects of inp. The mechanical envelopment of the chloride of calcium in the mortar would also ut up this deliquescent substance from moisture, and conduce to diyness. A further sub- mce in sea sand, is chloride of sodium (common salt), and if the chlorine of this be msferred to the lime to form chloride of calcium, the sodium will become converted into rbonate of soda. These substances may co exist in the mortar, but as soon us they are tarated from it, and diffused through the stone, or brought to its surface, the carbonate soda will convert the chloride of calcium into carbonate of lime ( chalk) and become elf chloride of. sodium (common salt). A consideration of these facts led the analyst to irm that the apprehension that chloride of calcium, as derived from sea sand, would ider the house damp, was altogether chimerical. On an analysis of some of the pit sands the neighbourhood, lie found that one of them contained almost the same quantity of rine as in the sea sand, although no charge was made against it. It does not admit doubt, he reported, that, other things being equal, sea-sand mortar will dry more quickly I keep more thoroughly dry than will pit-sand mortar; this sand, it must he noticed, itained about 13 per cent, of earthy matter, and was therefore not so pure as the sea id. 1852ft. Although all the professional publications of late years have described the had • c’ts likely to result from the use of unwashed pit sand, builders in the outskirts of • metropolis have taken to use road sweepings in lieu of sand, and this even without ving washed it to free it from those impurities not only detiimental to its making good >rtar, but also to the building itself, as it may he the cause of introducing the dry rot. tely we have noticed a case in trie professional journals where the lime, such as it was, s “mixed with a large proportion of garden mould and mud, the bricks being of an in- or quality and insufficient strength.” We have already noticed the use of road dirt (par. In another case ‘‘ the composition with which the portions of bricks were held < -i her consisted of soap lees witli a few small limestones and dirt.” The interests of the ll-rcr classes should he better protected. 1852c. Afitnllic sand for cement was introduced about 1843. It was sold in coarse or I ■ powder as required, to he mixed up with blue lias lime for joining bricks and stone, • | concretes, for fucc work, or for moulded work. 1 measure of the sand, 1 of lime, and f> ' travel were the proportions used in the foundations of the new Houses of Parliament, and " ^ ,c 6 rcal tunnels ol the Birmingham railway. It has also been used for malt house 536 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II steeping troughs, and floors; for the latter purpose it can be polished. For exterior facings, as stucco, it was used at 57 Coleman Street; and at the Alfred Insurance Office, Lothbury: the latter building has lately ( 1866) been pulled down. The marine turret ut II erne Bay was also coated with it. 1853. Water. Dr. Higgins recommends the use of lime-water for the composition o! mortar. This, in practice, would be impossible The water used, however, for the incor- poration of the lime with the sand should be soft and pure. Mortar and concrete have both been recommended to be made up with hot water ; with the latter especially, when it is desirable that it should s t immediately : concrete thus made has been found exceed- ingly hard. Its employment with mortar dates from before 1520. It is probable that water charged with iron, as at Tunbridge Wells ; a solution of chalk, as in Hertfordshire; sulphuretted hydrogen, as at Harrowgate ; and salts, as at Epsom and elsewhere ; may all affect lime when combined with it. Sineaton stated that he could not discover any difference in the strength of mortar, whether it were made with sea, or with fresh, water. 1854. In forming Mortar from lime, it must, when slaked, be passed through a sieve leaving only a fine powder, an operation usually performed with a quarter inch wire screen set at a considerable inclination to the horizon, against which the lime is thrown with a shovel after slaking. That which passes through is fit for use ; the core falling on that side of the screen against which the lime is thrown, being entirely rejected for the purpose ii question, though it is an excellent material for filling in the sides of foundations under wood floors where they would otherwise be next the earth, and the like. The sifted or screened lime is next to be added to the sand, whose quantity will vary as the quality of the lime, of which we shall presently speak. In making mortar, there is no point so important, at respects the manufacture itself, as the well tempering and beating up the lime witli tin sa .d after the water is added to them. In proportion, too, as this is effectually done, will a small proportion of lime suffice to make a good mortar. The best mode of tempering mortar is bv means of a pug-mill with a horse-track similar to the clay mills used fin making bricks. But if such cannot be bad, the mortar should be turned over repeatedly and beaten with wooden beaters, until it be thoroughly mixed. That this process slieuk be carefully performed, will appear of the more importance when it is considered that 1 thereby admits a greater proportion of sand, which is not only a cheaper material, but tin presence of it renders a less quantity of water necessary, and the mortar will consequent! set sooner: the work, too, will settle less; for as lime will shrink in drying, while tin sand mixed with it continues to occupy the same bulk, it follows that the thickness of th mortar beds will be less variable. 1855. Vitruvius recommends that mortar should be beaten with wooden staves by number of men before being used. Smeaton reckoned it a fair day’s work for a labourc.j to mix and beat up two or three bods of mortar for use. The pug-mill does this now r two or three minutes, l’liny expressly states that “in ancient specifications for building it was provided that no slaked lime less than three years old should be used by the con I tractor.” Covent Garden Theatre was built in 1808-9 with lime while still hotfron the kiln ; when the walls were demolished a few years since, the mortar was found I be hard and solid. It was so used at Tothill Fields prison. At the new Royal Exchange the lime was to be thoroughly and freshly burnt, to be kept in an enclosed shed, and in, more mortar to be made than was sufficient for each day’s consumption. 1856. In most of the public works executed in Great Britain ot late years, the propor tion of lime to sand is as 1 to 3 ; and when the former is made from good limestone, till sand is by no means too much in proportion. Dr. Higgins, in his experiments, has got) so far as to recommend 7 parts of sand to 1 of lime, which, for mortar, is perhaps carryin; I the point to the extreme. It may be taken as an axiom, that no more lime is necessai than will surround the particles of sand. C. H. Smith has stated, ( Builder , 1865, p. d! that if each particle of sand be covered with lime about the thickness of an ordinary cor of paint, he should be disposed to consider such an amount as very near the perfection i quantity. A superabundance of lime or sand, no matter how good it may be, is, undo I any circumstances, objectionable. 18 57. Various opinions have long been entertained by chemists and others respectin the effect of sand and lime upon each other in the formation of mortar. The general in pression is, that the slaked lime and sand in contact have a chemical affinity for euc ; other ; that the lime decomposes the surface of the sand, and the atoms or molecules tide penetrate each other, forming a sort of silicate of lime. This is an extremely ingeniot theory, says C. H. Smith, but it has never been proved. It has been stated, he al adds, that the hardening of mortar arises from the presence of carbon and oxygen form' into carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the lime; but the source from whence tl carbon is obtained is at present a mystery. Oxygen is abundant in the composin' of water and atmosphere, and that quicklime has an astonishing affinity for it, is evinced I the practice of dusting steel goods with it when not in use, to prevent their rusting ; or ^ of placing a small lump of it in any box or case containing such goods. liiickJaye HAP II. LIAIE. SAND, ETC. 5;57 near their trowels with the mortar before leaving oft' work ; and in the Purentalia , it is oticed that “in taking out cramps from stonework at least 400 years old, which were so edded in mortar that all air was perfectly excluded, the iron appealed as fresh as from le forge.” 1858. Various additions are made to morfar, in order to increase its hardness and nacity ; such as coal and wood ashes, forge scales, roasted iron ore, puzzuolana, and the Le. The property of hardening under water or when excluded from the air, conferred pon a paste of lime, is effected by the presence of certain foreign substances, as silicon, lumira, iron, &c., when their aggregate presence amounts to one tenth of the whole. Arti- ial hydraulic limes do not attain, even under favourable circumstances, the same degree hardness and power of resistance to compression as the natural limes of the same class. 1858a. As Purnell, in Limes, Cements , § - c., 1857, p. 71, says — “ It is often a matter of nportance to know the power of resistance of mortars; but as they differ within a very rg.- range, it is not easy to state it very precisely. The best experiments, however, show at we may safely calculate upon a resistance of 14 lbs. per inch superficial for its cohe- re force; of 42 lbs. to a crushing force; and of 5^ lbs. to a force tending to make the a' tides slide upon one another. It would not be safe to expose new works to greater Torts than those which could be included within the above limits.” In the construciion f a wall, whether of brick or rough stone, it should be clearly understood that there is an nportant distinction between mere drying and the ultimate process of induration. The mrtar may become sufficiently set, dry, and solid, in a few days or weeks, to enable the all to bear a very considerable weight and pressure ; but it does not acquire the maximum ■gree of hardness till after the lapse of many years and even of centuries. All cements id limes tend to reassnme a state of carbonization similar to that in which they existed in e stones from whence they were extracted; they only do so to a very imperfect degree, he saying that lime at a hundred years is but a child, is perfectly true. Cements on the ntrary harden very rapidly, but we have no instances of their acquiring the strength of e original stone. 1859. The cendrc de Tournay is used in the Low Countries. This is an article procured im the lime-kilns hordering the Scheldt. The lime of this district contains a considerable • i lion of clay mixed with iron ; and the pit-coal with which it is burnt contains a large i.mtily of an argillaceous schist, impregnated with iron. Alter the lime is taken out of e kilns, there remains the cendre, about one fourth of which consists of burnt lime-dust, 1 three fourths of coal-ashes. This material is sprinkled with water to slake the lime, d well mixed together, and put into a proper vessel and covered over with wet earth, this state it is kept for a considerable time ; and when taken out, and strongly beaten for half an hour with an iron pestle in a wooden mortar or trough, it is reduced to a ft pasty consistence ; it is then spread out for several days in a shady place, and the opera- u of beating repeated: the oftener this is done the better, except it should become manageable from being too much dried. In a few minutes, this cement, when applied brick or stone, adheres so firmly that water may be immediately poured over it; and if pt dry twenty-four hours, it afterwards receives no injury even from the most violent ion of a flowing stream. 1 859a. In London, a mortar made of lime with sea-coal ashes from a smith’s forge : xi d with the iron scales, and called blue mortar, is used for covering parts of buildings iicli exposed to the weather; and if prepared with similar labour and attention, it i lit, in a great degree, possess the valuable properties of the mortar of the Scheldt, just l ntiuned. I , i l c 1 ( ii t I* li Ci t< Is d C “595. Common ashes mortar is made by mixing two bushels of newly slaked lime and ■e bushels of wood ashes, which, when cold, must be well beaten, in which state it is ally kept for a considerable time, and indeed it improves by keeping if beaten two or times previous to using it. This mixture is superior to terras mortar in resisting alternate effects of dryness and moisture, but not comparable with it under water. *59 c. DncU and tile and burnt clay ballast, each well burnt and ground to a powder, i fined with rich lime, possesses hydraulic energy. Pulverised silica burned with rich e produces hydraulic lime ol excellent quality. In some experiments made by I\I INI. itonoy and Kivot, this lime hardened under water in from three to four days, and ired in twenty-two months a hardness superior to Portland cement. The weight of powdered lime never exceeded four times, and was never less than one half that of the d red silica. ISrick-dust mortar used to be considered in some eases better than ,ar made of terms, for unless the terras was always wet it was not thought better than 111,11 mortar made of lime and sand ; 2 bushels of hot lime, i.e., fresh slaked lime, added bushel of brick-dust made from red stock bricks, was to be well beatcnnnd worked up re using, with but little water: the longer it was beaten the better it became. The Wrick rubbish of oid n.dfng broken down and sifted, was considered better than sand, " ls required, and it might he safely used in frosty weather. A tract on Old og Cross, mentions that it was “so cemtr.tcd with mortar made of purest lime, 538 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Bt):K II. cnllis sand, white of eggs, and the strongest wort, that it defied ail hammers and hatchets whatsoever.” The mortar used in bishop Gundulph’s works at Mailing and Rochester is described by B. Ferrey as consisting of a sort of tufa found only in the clills at Dover, which appears to have been exclusively used in his work'. 185 9c/. Slug is applied to the vitrified earths left in furnaces, either for glass or iron. Scoria, are the lighter, more porous, and less vitrified earths arising from the puddling and refining of iron. The cinders used are the earthy residues derived from the combustion of coal. When ground into powder, the two former, which contain a large proportion of the mineral oxides, make very good mortars if mixed with middling or perfectly hydraulic limes. Cinders appear to render the rich limes moderately hydraulic when properly mixed. They require a large quantity of water to render perfect the crystallization of the hydrate of lime. All these mortars may be usefully employed for works out of water. 1859c. The stones whereof the Dutch terras is made are found in the neighbourhood of Liege, and also, we believe, at Andernach on the Rhine, from the size of a pea to that of a middle-sized turnip. From their being brought down the rivers to Holland the cement has been called Dutch ; the only operation they undergo in that country is the reduction of them to a coarse powder by means of mills, 'lliey are beaten by iron-headed stampers on an iron bed till they will pass through a sieve whose wires are about one eighth of an inch apart. This cement is sent from Holland in casks. Truss, terras, or tanas, is a blue- black trap. It is obtained from pits of extinct volcanoes, and has nearly all the distin- guishing elements of puzzuolana, resembling it in composition, and in the requirements of its manipulation, having to be pulverised and added to rich lime to develope its hydraulic properties. 1 859/1 The Puzzuolana, or terra Puteolana of the Italians, which, as well as the last-named cement, has been almost if not quite superseded by the introduction of the Roman cement, is brought from Civita Vecchia. Its name is however derived from I’uzzuoli, where it is principally found, though produced in other parts of Italy, in the neighbourhood of extinct volcanoes. It suddenly hardens when mixed with one third of its weight of lime and water, forming a cement more durable under water than any other. Bergman found 1 00 parts of it to contain 55 to CO parts of siliceous earth, 20 of argillaceous, 5 or (5 of calca- reous, and from 15 to 20 of iron ; this last constituent is considered to be the cause of its property of hardening under water. The iron decomposes the water of the mortar, and thus in a very short time a new compound is formed. According to Vitruvius, when used for buildings in the water, 2 parts of puzzuolana were mixed with 1 of mortar. Artificial puzzuolana may be made by slightly calcining clay', and driving off the water of combina- tion at a temperature of 1,200°. !859p. Subsequently to the use of this material from Puzzuoli, a similar material ha been found near Edinburgh ; and in the Vivarais, a site of extinct volcanic action in tin centre of France. Its aspect and colour, however, vary very much even in the saim locality. Berthier gives the following analysis of two of these materials:-— Puzzuolana from Terras from Uivita Vecchia. Andernach. Silica - - - - - - -445 - •570 Alumina - - - - - T50 - •120 Lime - - - -088 - •026 Magnesia - - - - - -047 - 010 Oxide of Iron fin a slight 1 - T20 •050 state of magnetism) J Potash - - - - - -014 - •070 Soda - - - - - - 040 - •010 Water - - - - -092 - •C96 0-996 0-952 1859/r. In the use of blue lias lime for mortar, workmen ignorant of its qualities in" riably spoil it. In important works the lime should be supplied in an unground state, prevent the core being mingled with the good lime. In slaking, the lumps should I broken into pieces of about the size of a nutmeg; then immersed upon a sieve in wate and kept therein until air bubbles freely rise to the surface : the lime so wetted is to I left in a heap, and covered with damp sand, for twenty-four hours. At the expiration that time it should be screened and mixed with sand and the least possible quantity water. When slaked, it does not sensibly increase in bulk, unlike the ordinary chalk 1 stone lime of the neighbourhood of London. The best descriptions of blue lias lime" not bear more than parts of sand to 1 of lime. Wood, of Bath, in his work on Cottivji 1788, has stated that “blue lias lime mixed with coal ashes in the manner prescribed I M. Loriot, will make the hardest cement I ever saw, as I have found by various exper tner.ts; it will hold water, resist frost, harden ir. a few hours in water, and will hear a vei ( u>. II. MORTAR, CONCRETE, ETC. 5‘ 39 j d polish. Coach or carriage ways are laid or pitched with blue lias, which wears very > 1, though it will not hear the frost." 859i. A very useful hydraulic mortar for executing sea-walling, consists of 1 part of ( Ik lime, or of Halkin lime, with one part of puzzuolana from Civita Vecohia, and l.J 1 1 ts of sand; but the value of this mixture depends upon the influence exercised by the ]! zuolana on the setting of the lime. A mixture of the natural calcareous cements, or of Irtland cement with sand, is another good mortar. The presence of sulphate of lime in a composition intended to resist ihe action of sea water would he fatal, as it crystallises a!’, different rate of rapidity, and it is more easily soluble than the carbonate of lime, i nch authorities lay particular stress on the following qualities fur the formation of good 1 raulic mortar : I. It is essential that the materials should he perfectly pulverised before i mg, so that the combination may be as perfect as possible. II. Sufficient free lime t be present to allow the carbonic acid in the water to combine with it, and form a I toitive coating of carbonate. 1 1 1. Long soaking of the m iterials is advisable, in oi der t . the chemical combinations necessary for the ultimate stability of the mortar may take pbe before it is actually used. 8594. Mr. Smeaton discovered, by a course of experiments, that the scales (grey oxide ' Iron) that fly off under the forge hammer from red hot iron, pulverised, sifted, and mixed m i lime, form an admirable cement, equal to puzzuolana. He found, in pursuing his e briments, that roasted iron ore produced an effective water cement, by using a greater p portion of it than either terras or puzzuolana. Equal quantities of iron scales and a jllaceous lime, with half the quantity of each of these of sand, produced a cement in cry respect equal to terras mortar. If pure carbonate of lime be used, equal parts of e: . of the ingredients ought to be incorporated. We do not think it necessary here to g: a ly account either of Loriot’s cement, or that proposed by Semple : neither are lobe li aided on : indeed the first, as a water cement, is of inferior utdity, and very little better tl common mortar dried before the admission of water upon it. B60. Grout, or liquid mortar, is nothing more than e mmon mortar mixed with a suffi- c. t quantity of water to make it fluid enough to penetrate the interstices and irregulari- tiipf the interior of brick walls, which common mortar will not reach. The mortar w eof it is made will bear 4 of sand to 1 of lime, but it should lie thoroughly beaten. It m be kept a little longer, whereby its quick setting will be facilitated. ■Gl. Concrete is a compound of ballast, or stone chippings, and lime mixed together. ' i so called from the speedy concretion that takes place between these particles. If, ' 11 ever . guilt tt or small stone chippings are used, sand in a large proportion to the lime i 1 1 be used. The use of concrete was well known at an early period ; it is mentioned }|)e I.orme in his work published in 1568; and it is by no means, therefore, a discovery I 'idem days. Wherever the soil is soft, and unequal for the reception of the founda- 1 of a building, the introduction of concrete under them is an almost infallible remedy - sst settlement. The Thames ballast, commonly used for concrete, is a mixture of sand an mall stones. With this, and lime in the proportion of never less than 4 to 1, and ■ 1 • properly exceeding 9 to 1, of stone lime, or such as is known to set hard in water, a "*i are is made. The lime is generally used in powder, and the whole being shovelled ' aer, it is wheeled in barrows to a stage over the spot where it is to be used, and let : iljito the trench dug out for the reception of the foundation. The greater the height rncrete is made to fall, the sounder and stronger it becomes. It must always be re- 1 'I rted that no more lime is necessary than with the thinnest coat to surround the parti- > l I the ballast, and that therefore the size of the pebbles or stones should influence the * iiy of the lime. As the ground is more or less to be trusted, the thickness of the 1 *i ete must be regulated ; when used on the best ground, a foot in thickness will be 11 1| ' Ut ; while on the worst, as many as four feet or more may be required. The upper "| c being levelled, it is usual to lay on it a tier of Yorkshire stone landings, for the re- 1 I in ol the brick-work or mason’s work : in some cases, after carrying the wall a certain I" i t, a second tier of landings has been introduced. When the soil is watery, no water "be d be put to the concrete, but the ballast and lime merely mixed and tumbled in. The u 1 j practice of making concrete as above stated, is objected to by many practitioners, “ h ecommend that the Trench method of making baton should be followed in lieu of it. i i. In forming concrete, the stones or pebbles used should never exceed the size of a ,,,, 1 j egg, of which 2 parts may be combined with 1 part of the smaller substances o r | this makes it about equal to Thames ballast. It has been calculated, that as the " I 'sorb* the water, and with the sand fills up the interstices of the larger material, if the I" "| ’ion of the lime be about one eighth of the ballast, then tij cubic feet of ground lime, •i dii cubic feet of ballast, with a sufficient quantity of water to effect the admixture (and "" generally rather less than a gallon to a cubic foot ofballast, or than equal measures of 't "d lime), will lie required to make 27 cubic feet of concrete; that is, there is u loss o' I k equal to all the lime, and of about 10 per cent, of the ballast. But some experi- niu made in 1 857-8, in which the present editor assisted, showed that the same measure THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I 510 ■which gave a cubic yard of ballast, held precisely the same ballast with the addition i one-sixth in bulk of ground stone lime made with it into concrete, besides about fonrtet pails of water ; and likewise tended to disprove the assertion that concrete swells i setting. This cubic yard of concrete weighed 27 cwt. In estimating, allowance must l made for the loss of material. 1862a. Expansion taking place in concrete made of unground lime, during its slakiu has been taken advantage of by G. L. Taylor in the underpinning of some walls ; Chatham, as detailed in the Transactions of the Institute of British Architects, 183 This expansion has been found to average about | of an inch for each foot in height, ai the size thus gained the c mcrete never loses. Care must be taken when using it for floo and for the spandrel of arches, to allow' sufficient space, and to lay it in such a way tli this increase may take place without thrusting out the walls, as has occasionally happene In old malthouses in the West of England, with concrete floors 5 to 6 inches Hu- stone walls 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet thick have bulged out 3 or 4 inches on each side I the expansi n of the concrete, as also noticed in the Transactions of the above nann society, 1854, p. 74. When ground lime is used the assertion that concrete swells is Te. questionable, as s'ated in the previous paragraph. The Metropolitan Board of Wort under the Met. Man. and Building Acts Amend. Act, 1878, sec. 16, requires the cerm; '• to be Portland cement, or other cement of equ d quality, mixed with clean sharp sat or grit in the proportions of one of cement to four of sand or grit.” Concrete for wal to be “ of Portlaud cement and of clean Thames or pit ballast, or gravel, or broki brick or stone, or furnace clinkers, with clean sand in the following proportions: vi 1 of Portland cement, 2 of clean sand, and 3 of the coarse material, which is to 1 broken up sufficiently small to pass through a 2-inch ring. The proportions ofll materials to be strictly observed, and to be ascertained by careful admeasurement ; ai the mixing, either by machine or hand, to be most carefully done with clean water, ai if'mixed by hand, the material to be turned over dry beforo the water is added.” 18626. For water works required to set rapidly, an excellent concrete may be made 1 a mixture, the proportions of which were found by Treussart as follows:— 30 parts hydraulic lime, very energetic, measured in bulk, and before being slaked ; 30 parts terras of Andernaeh ; 30 parts of sand; 20 parts of gravel; and 40 parts of broki stone, a hard limestone. These proportions diminish one-fifth in volume after maniptfi! tion ; the mortar is made first. When the Italian puzzuolana is used, the proportioj should be 33 parts of lime as before; 45 parts of puzzuolana; 22 parts of sand; a j 60 parts of broken stone and gravel. The first of these concretes should be employ j immediately it is made; the second requires to be exposed about twelve hours before 'I it is put in place. When burnt clay or pounded bricks are used, 30 parts will suffice, I - this mortar must not be used in sea water. If only rich, instead of hydraulic, limes used, the quantity of the natural or artificial puzzuolanas must be increased, and that the stones and gravel be decreased. (Burnell, Limes, cfr.) Seo par. 1864c. 1862c. Afier many experiments, M. Kulilmann recommends a cement composed of parts of rich lime, 50 of sand, 15 of uncalcined clay, and 5 of powdered silicate of potii j as having all the requisite hydraulic properties, especially for cisterns intended forspri i water. In marine constructions care should be taken to add an excess of silicate totlf p irtions of cement which are exposed to the immediate contact of the sea. 1862cL The object to be aimed at in making hydraulic concrete, is to give such a sui ciency of mortar as will produce the aggregation of the whole mass of rough rub materials. In Portland cement concrete, for instance, the proportions for the mortar m be 1 of cement to 3 of sand, and this mortar may then be mixed with 6 parts of bait or shingle. In blue lias lime concrete, the proportions may be 1 of unground lime 2 or 2 of sand, and this mortar may be mixed with 3 or 4 parts of ballast ; and it m> be understood in all cases that the mortar must be made first, and that it then should thoroughly incorporated with the ballast or shingle. This concrete as used at the ref- extension of the London Docks by Mr. Rt ndi-1, consisted of 1 part of blue lias limev 1 6 parts of gravel and sand. The proportions for the blocks of the mole at Marsel were 3 parts of Theil lime to 5 parts of sand mixed up into mortar, and then added 2 parts of broken stone. At the Metropolitan Main Drainage works, the proportion 1 of Portland cement to 5^ of ballast for sewers, and 1 of cement to 8 of ballast a j sand for backing walls and other works except sewers. The usual proportions are 1 1' A report was delivered to the Aberdeen Harbour Board on the damage caused by chemical action of the sea-water on the (Portland ?) concrete entrance works of graving dock. The surface had softened from the foundation up to the bottom of ashlar lining, three feet above low water. The concrete behind four courses of I ashlar, between high and low water, was also softened, loosening the bond. The soflv }■ concrete under the water had been removed, and the face of the wall rebuilt up to I- \ water level with Roman cement concrete in bags plastered with Roman cement, j 4 pressure on the foundations amounts at low water to 5 lbs. on the square inch of surf; and at high water to 11 lbs.; this cause 1 a current of sea-water through the per p. II. CONCRETE AND CEMENT. 511 eture of concrete of theoretical velocity from 1500 to 2250 feet per minute, which iuually washed the decomposed cement into the dock, and brought new particles of rete and sea-water into contact. ( British Architect, July 29, 1887 ; and Architect, •ch 9, 1888, p. 16 of Supplement.) 362«. Beton, or concrete, as made in Franco, is invariably composed as follows: — die mixture of lime and sand, either by hand or by a pug-mill, as for ordinary mortar, at importance is attached to the choice of the lime and to the mode of slaking it; and sufficiently good one cannot be obtained, artificial puzzuolanas are introduced. The \e of slaking is prescribed in the specification according to the nature of the lime, ead of being left to the choice of the workmen. II The mortar so prepared is then l mixed by rakes with broken stones or ballast in such proportions as shall insure its ng up the intervals between them; the volume having been ascertained by immersing stones in a known quantity of water. These spaces are equal to about 0'38 to 0'46 ;he cubical contents of the vessel; but in practice, about one fourth more mortar is ed than necessary to ensure solidification of the mass, especially when the beton is nded to resist water pressure. III. The material is then wheeled to its situation, and mod down carefully until the mortar begins to work up to the surface. 862/. In an English patent, 1859, No. 2757, M. Coignet, of Paris, argues that the acity of mortar is not produced, as hitherto supposed, by the formation of silicate of a and alumina, but by the crystallisation of lime. His concrete, called Beton 'lomere, consists of about 180 parts of sand, 44 of lime produced by slaking, 33 of tland cement, and 20 of water, combined by a process of two main operations: I. A plcte consolidation of the materials with little water; and II., the steady but not ent compression of the consolidation in moulds. The cement is mixed with the sand lime, and sprinkled whilst mixing with a little water. This mixture is thrown into a hiue, formed like an endless screw enclosed in a cylinder, at the rate of two shovelfuls twed by about a quart of W’ater, until the cylinder is full. The screw, turned by two i, delivers the mixture through a series of holes in the bottom of the cylinder ; but on rge scale, a machine is used of 10 to 15 horse-power. This mixture, after it s delivery a ihe machine, is put by degrees into moulds, and each layer is rammed in by work- !. Ho found by experience that the purer the lime the quicker was the crystallisation ; that, although pure hydrate of lime will take carbonic acid, silicate of lime and nina will not take it, because silicic acid took the place which carbonic acid did with pure lime; and frankly admitted that his first experiments in 1855, in marine works, not entirely succeeded, but claimed perfect success for those at Marseilles since 1859, for those executing (1864) in Paris and elsewhere. 162 g. The resistance of beton and concrete should never be regarded as being superior hose given for limes, if the superstructure be commenced upon them immediately. In l cases the resistances are found to increase with comparative rapidity during the first 'jt seven months. 103. Among those cements usod in England, Barker's, also called Roman and Sheppey ent, was discovered in 1796 by Mr. James Parker, of Northfleet. It, was manufac- d principally from stone found in the Jsle of Sbeppey, and at Harwich, being aria from the London clay, and properly classed among the limestones indigenous to country. It consists of ovate or Saltish masses of argillaceous limestone, arranged early horizontal layers, chiefly imbedded in the clay of the cl.ffs. It was found at on the beach, but as it became scarcer it was sought for by dredging out at sea. substance, being coated with a calcareous spar or sulphate of barytes, forms the basis he cement. About 1810-15 it was found possible to uso this material in the depth inter, but with inferior manufacture this is impossible. In 1840 it was stated that •• genuine Sheppey cement is now almost only a name,” arising from the nodules first id having nearly disappeared in consequence of tlio great consumption of the cement, his cement bo of extremely good quality, 2 parts of sand to 1 ot the cement may bo I. The cement itself is a fine impalpable powder ; yet when wo: ted it becomos coarso, unless mixed with great care, it will not take a good surface. When mixed with ■ vnd and water, it sets very rapidly ; it is necessary, therefore, to avoid mixing much lime, or a portion will be lost. The colour of this cement, when finished, is an un- ant dark brown, hence it has received the name of “black eemont.” The surfaoo ires frequent colouring for appearance. It is impervious to water almost the moment i used; her co it becomes highly serviceable on the backs of arches tinder streets, tor lining of cisterns, and for carrying up in it, or coating with it, damp walls on liase- t stories. It will not resist (Ira so well ; and it should therefore uevor he oinp!o\od •etting grates, ovens, coppers, or furnaces. This, w ith many other hydraulic cenunts, been eclipsed by rt/iinil Ci limit, i Atkinton't cement is a g od material, preferable in colour to the last, named, bat, u think, inferior in quality. It takes a much longer time to set than Parker's ceinout, 642 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boon II th in which it absorbs more moisture. It answers well enough in dry situations. Viciv formed a factitious Roman cement; but its efficacy was doubtful, though it had, for wan of a better substitute, been much employed at Paris. , 18G4«. Portland cement, the latest (about 1843) of all these cements, is made fron limestone and clay. The mud of the river Medway, corresponding to the argillo calcareous stone of Roman cement, is mixed with chalk and ashes from former making* and calcined at a heat amounting almost to that of vitrification. A larger quantity o sand may be mixed with it than with Roman cement, to which it is superior in colon and hardness of setting. The heaviest, considered the best in quality, weighs 110 lbs to 112 lbs. per striked bushel. 18046. The distinguishing peculiarities which should render Portland cement a permn ment substitute for Homan, cement have been explained by a London manufacturer of botl materials (Builder, 1863, p. 761). It may be condensed into the statement: — That the ston from which Roman cement is made, though composed of lime and the silicate of alumina yet the proportion of the latter preponderates to such an extent as to prevent a perfec amalgamation of the ingredients in burning. The result is a cement loose in its texture because containing inert foreign matter, which is retentive of moisture, and consequent! attackable by frost and vegetable growth. In Portland cement the case is otherwise. Th dose of lime to clay is in the ascertained correct proportion of two to one, and with thi condition there is the power thoroughly to combine the ingredients by burning, and thu to give a density and compactness to the product which, in enabling it to resist water, frost and other decomposing agencies, are the elements of its durability and of its superiority to the natural cements. Carelessness, or want of proper knowledge in its manufacture ; ai improper mixture of the ingredients ; an imperfect calcination ; its bad manipulation ; am unfair handling when used as a cement, are all likely to result in disasl rous effects on bein; used. When employed as a mortar or as a concrete, it has seldom been known to fail. 1864c. It is usual for the manufacturer to grind the cement after burning it. It i then placed in well-closed casks, which should not exceed 6 cwt. each, when the cernen may be preserved for some time ; but by contact with the atmosphere it is said to absorl humidity and carbonic acid, and thus becomes deteriorated. It should be ground ver fine. For the sieve in sifting it, the French engineers required 185 meshes to thesquar of 4 inches on a side. ' One-third of the volume of the cement for the quantity of wate is the best proportion, and the more that the cement is beaten up, the harder it become; The best cement will harden in about five or six minutes, and under water in about a hour; when mixed with sand it takes aklittle longer. When mixed with sea-water, am used in sea-water with a large quantity of sand, it may take even twenty-four houi before setting. (See pars. 18626, c, and d .) 1864r7. Tfie resistance to rupture of pure cement after 20 days’ exposure to the air i about 54 lbs. per inch square ; if sand be added in the proportion of ^ to 1 of cement, ; falls to 37 lbs. ; and if it be in equal proportions, it falls to 27 lbs. The permanent loadi any large works should never be more than one-sixth of that required to produce rupturt and if small materials be employed, only one-fifteenth should be calculated upon. 1864c. In testing Portland cement, the Admiralty, at the Chatham Dockyard extensio works, specified that samples would be taken from about one sack in ten, and gauged i moulds, which, when set, would be placed in water and tested at the end of seven clea days. Each must bear without breaking a weight of 650 lbs. upon the test-block of l-jincln square in section. In 1878 the Metropolitan Board of Works required the cement to 1 of the best quality, ground so fin6 that it will pass through a sieve of fifty meshes to th lineal inch. It must have a specific gravity of not less than 3T, and weigh as delivery 114 lbs. or moro to the imperial striked bushel. When brought upon the works it is t be put into dry sheds or buildings, which the contractor is to provide for the purpos’ having wooden floors and all necessary subdivisions. The cement is to be emptied or upon this floor, every fifty bu-hel« being kept separate, and is not to be used until it ha been tested by samples taken out of every tenth sack. The samples to be gauged lies in moulds, put into water 24 hours after the briquettes have been made, and remaiu ti tested, to bear without breaking a weight of 400 lbs. per square inch 7 d lys, and 600 11» 28 days after they have been made. The first to be considered as preliminary, and tli second as decisive. Mr. John Grant’s, C.E., specification is of a more extended character and includes the quality of sand. The briquettes with three of sand to bear a weight c 150 lbs. per square inch after 28 days. 1864/. With cement at 1 12 lbs. per bushel, a cubic foot weighs 87' 13 lbs., a cubic yar 2,352'6 lbs., and a ton occupies a space of 25'7 cubic feet. i 1864y. With this cement, the ordinary proportions for walls may be 1 to 12 of gravel fc‘ common, and 1 to 6 of slag and sand for facing, concrete. A cubic yard of concrete take about 11 yard, or 31-s- cubic feet, of loose gravel, exclusive of the cement, as made in gauge or measuring-box. One-twelfth of 31| cubic feet, or a little more than feet cube goes to each gauge, and is easily calculated and prepared ; or 218 lbs. by weight, if t h cement weighs 112 lbs. per bushel. For making good solid concrete, there should b SAP. II. CONCRETE AND CEMENT. 643 .fficiect. sand to fill up the interstices between the stones ; one-third of the entire bulk, one-half of the shingle, is required for the sand — a point not so ofteniattended to as should he. Plenty of water is advocated for the mixing; and for making a good face ;ainst a wood shutter it is essential that the concrete should he wet. 18645. Concrete constructions are described tinder Bricklaying. 1864i. Strength of lintels of various compositions, each 6 inches deep, 4^ inches de, and 3 feet 6 inches long, 28 days after manufacture ; 3 feet clear space, and loaded adually in the middle (see par. 1903.r) ; — Brown Portland stone ------ broke w'th 1905 lbs. White ditto - -- -- -- - „ 1420 „ Burnt clay ballast concrete - - - - - ,, 1413,, Coke breeze - - - - - - - ,, 1119,, Pit gravel ballast - -- -- -- „ 1010 ,, tese three were composed of 1 of cement, 4 of core, 1 piece of hoop iron 1| inches by thick in middle. Box ground Bath stone ------ broke with 476 lbs. Corsham Down ditto ------ - ,, 357 „ 18f 4 j. A natural cement deposit, of very large extent, has been worked at Barrington, mibridgeshire, where it is found from 13 feet to 21 feet in thickness, immediately under e surface. It is considered as giving the material for tire best quality of cement and ne, and it can be manufactured at about half the cost of the usual system (1887). 1865. Hamelins mastic cement, though patented of late years, is an invention of P. iriot, a century old ; the medium for mixing the pounded brick-dust, limestone, and saud, oil instead of water. It is much more difficult to use than the other cements, and re- ires great experience and care. A coat of it should never exceed one quarter of an inch thickness; hence it is totally unfit for working mouldings in the solid. In the metro- lis it is generally used in a very thin coat over a rough coat of Roman cement, in which 3e it is rarely more than an eighth of an inch thick. Thus used, it presents a autiful surface, is durable, but it requires to be painted as oltcn as do the other mcnts. 1866. Keene’s cement is obtained by soaking plaster in alum water after a first calci- tion ; it is then kiln-burnt a second time and ground. It is in reality only a plaster, d is capable of being worked to a very hard and beautiful surface. Martin’s patent sproof and ornamental cement is a plaster of somewhat similar make, and equally good- king. It is manufactured in three qualities, coarse, fine, and superfine. It is said to used with greater facility by workmen than any other cement yet produced, requiring ly about an hour to set, which is less by one-half the time of other cements. It appears be chiefly prepared at Derby. Parian cement (Keating's patent) is also composed of psum, but mixed with borax (borate of soda) in powder, and the mixture calcined and mnd. A fine quality produces a hard scagliola imitation of marble. When applied old brick or plastered work, as in repairs, these cements may be papered or painted on in about 18 or 24 hours after execution. But on new work time must be given for v tfflorescPiee, or damp, to disengage itself 1866a. John's jiatent peimancvt stucco wash, stucco cement , and, stucco paint, were - reduced about 1843. As a paint it is cheap, durable, agreeable in colour, and finis cs bout a gloss. It gives out no deleterious exhalations or odour in drying, and it is • 'ed that as the oil cannot evaporate (?), but is held in intimate and indissoluble union ’ h the other materials, there can be no decay, an objection to which oil mastic is so 1 do. It requires no driers or turpentine, and is applicable both for outside and inside k. Tho cement, which is stated not to deteriorate with age, is packed in casks, and i u.rcs to be mixed with 3 parts of good, sharp, clean sand to make a stucco, its appli- ‘ ion for which is tho same as for any other stucco. It adheres well to glass, iron, slate ■' I tiles in roofing, wood, old plaster, or Roman cement. Whon stt it is hard, and im* i vious to wet and damp. One coat of its own paint, which it will lake after twenty-four i irs, is sufficient. Mouldings may be ruu in it, and castings made. 3665. A cement which will withstand a moist climate, is btated to he composed of one I he| of lime with 15 gallons of water and half a bushel of line gravol sand, mixed witn • lhs. of copperas dissolved in hot water, and kept stirred while King incorporated and i use. Sufficient should he made for the day during which it is to be used, as the colour i iot. eas lv matched. The Bristol Purimachos cement is new, and is stated to he ail 1 ' ta il fire-resisting material, uniting readily with a metal, brick, btono, or like surface, "I forming a permanent joint, impervious to air, gas, smoko, &c. It renews burnt-out I ts of fire-brick without any taking down and rebuilding. It repairs cracked and I 'd iron hoilors, ovens, stoves, pipes, &c. Used us a wash, it imparts a smooth glazed s face to tin- interior of retorts of gas works. It, may for many purposes ha used instead o'liite or red lead in making joints subject to tho action of fire. Other similar materials ' I bo noticed s. v. Pi Asn tiKii. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 544 1866c. Gypsum, bet er known as Plaster of Paris, is a sulphate of lime It is found at A 1st < n, in Cumberland; at Shotover Hill, Oxfordshire; at Or ton, near Grantliam; in Nottinghamshire, in Derbyshire, and in Cheshire ; in France, in the neighbourhood of Paris, chiefly at Montmartre ; and in the departments of the Saone, Loire, of the Rhone, and of many others; and in Tuscany, Savoy, Spain and Switzerland; in some parts of the British Colonies of North America, wherefrom it is exported principally to the United States. The stone is broken into small blocks, and burnt in a walled space with openings in the tiled roof to let out the steam. After its water of crystallization is driven olf, it becomes pulverulent and like flour. On fresh water being added, it combines with the normal quantity of water, and reassumes the form of a hydrate, recovering its original density and strength to a very great degree. A heat of about 200° centigrade is sufficient. The London manufacturers adopt a kind of oven for burning the stone, which prevents the smoke from injuring the plaster. In France it has been proposed to throw a jet of steam beaten above 430° Fahr. over the stone, which is broken very much smaller than usual : this jet takes up all the water present, and leaves the plaster in the state of a pure anhy- drous sulphate of lime. Tl e plaster obtained from Paris is considered the best of all ia quality, probably arising from the fact that the stone is the hardest. Gypsum swells in setting in contradistinction to the cements, which generally shrink. The specific gravity of pure gypsum may he taken at 2 ’3-2 ; and its constituent parts to be sulphuric acid 46, lime 32, and water 21. (See Glossary, s. v ) 1867. 'The best bituminous cements are obtained from the natural a spholte. which is found itt large quantities on the shores of the Dead Sea; in Albania; in Trini.tad ; at Lohsann, and Bekelbronn, in the department of the Bas Rhin; in the department of the Puy de Dome ; at Gattgeac in that of the Landes, &e. The asphalte which is found in inex- haustible quantities at Pyrimont Seyssel, in the Jura Mountains, in the department of the Aire in France, was introduced into England about 1838, under Claridge’s patent. The principal ingredient in its composition is a bituminous limestone, of a rich brown colour. After it has been reduced to a fine powder, a certain portion of grit is mixed with it, it is then placi d in cauldrons heated by strong fires with a sufficient quantity of mine al tar to prevent the asphalte from calcining. The whole mass is thoroughly incorporated and reduced to a mastic , in which state it is run into moulds to form blocks, each 1 loot 6 inches square, 6 inches in depth, and weighing 125 lbs. 1867a. The mastic is of three qualities, fine, gritted, and coarse gritted. The first, being without any admixture of giit, is used for magazine floors, and as a cement for making, in special cases, very close joints in brickwork. II. The fine gritted is used for covering terraces, roofs and arches, lining of tanks, and as a cement for brick work, and for running the joints of stones. III. The coarse gritted is used for paving and flooring, and where great strength of work is desirable, such as gun-shed floors, tun-room floors, a d margins of stable floors; while in gateways for heavy carriage traffic, small pieces of granite (shippings are introduced. These mastics, and more particularly the first two, being ductile and readily yielding to any change that may take place on the surfaces upon which thev are laid, require a proper foundation to he prepared. 18675. When required for use, an iron cauldron having been prepared, 2 lbs. of mineral tar are put in and then 56 lbs of asphalte broken into pieces of not more than 1 lh. in weight. These are mixed together until the asphalte becomes soft. After a quarter of an hour the stirring is repeated, and another 56 lbs. of asphalte added, and so on until a propor- tion of 112lls. of asphalte to each 111), of tar, under ordinary circumstances, fills the cauldron and the whole is thoroughly melted. When fit for use the asphalte will emit jets of light smoke, and freely drop from the stirrer. 1867c. It will he well to note that it is stated asphalte never flames, but merely passes into a state of fusion. At the fire at Hambmg in 1842, it was remarked that when as- phalted roofs fell in, the asphalte, in which a sort of rubble is mixed up, was found to have resisted the effects of the heat, and, like a mass of dirt, served rather to smother the flames than to give them increased vitality.” A like result is recorded of a fire that took place al the Bazaar Bordelais, at Bordeaux, in 1835 ; of another in Stangate, London, in 18.55: and experiments were made by order of the authorities of the British Museum befim this material was allowed to be applied to the snow gutters of the dome of the new Reading Room and other roofs, with a satisfactory result. Notice is not generally taken of the far that if in works, asphalte or tar be used in places where it may he affected by heat, a smell arises which is very prejudicial to the comfort of the occupiers of the building. 1867 it. The term asphalte lias also been given to several compositions formed by tin admixture of chalk, lime, gas tar, and other substances for cheapness. The cool tars, and vegetable pitch, although not so good as the bitumens, are fairly good substitutes in many' cases, as in coating vaults, or walls exposed to the dampness of earth. The proportions 111 which to mix powdered calcareous stone must he regulated by practice, as also the hem. that the stone be not converted into quicklime, perhaps from 6 to 7 of the pitch tn volume to 1 of limestone will suffice ; and it is recommended to use these ill grealci thickness than the asphalte, being about half an inch for the latter material. HAP. I [. GLASS. 545 Sect. XII GLASS. 1858. Glass is a combination of silex with fixed alkali, generally soda. The mixture len calcined receives the name of frit, which after the removal of all its impurities, is nveyed to the furnace and melted in large pots or crucibles till the whole mass becomes autifully clear, and the dross rises to the top. After being formed into the figures re- ared. it is annealed or tempered by being placed in an appropriate furnace. The fineness pends on the purity and proportion of the ingredients. An extremely fine crystal glass obtained from 16 parts of quartz, 8 of pure potash, 6 of calcined borax, 3 of flake white, d 1 of nitre. The specific gravity of glass is about 2600; of French plates, 28*10 ; of tiglish flint glass, 3320. Glass is extremely elastic, and less dilatable by heat than etallic substances. 1868a. Four pieces of the common sort of glass being cut from one strip, each piece was inches wide, 6 inches long, and 4 inches thick. In the trial of strength they were calcu- ted out at a standard size, and gave 17.208 lbs., 15,435 lbs., 14,931 lbs , and 11,385 lbs. ; e mean being 14, 931 lbs. This great difference is the more singu ar from the circum- ance of all the pieces being cut from the same plate. The weight of the glass at a size 9*0 x 4 5 x 3, all in inches, would be 1 1T2 lbs. Sheet glass is stated to be stronger than ite or crown glass, but less flexible. The compressive strength of glass is about 12| tons r square inch. The resistance of glass to a crushing force is about 12 times its resistance extension. 1869 Pliny gives the following account of the discovery of manu'actu'ing glass, which as well known in Aristotle’s time, 350 b. c. “A merchant vessel laden with nitre or ,sil alkali, being driven on the coast of Palestine, near the river Belus, the crew acciden- lly supported the kettles on which they dried their provisions on pieces of the fossil kali ; the sand about it was vitrified by its union with the alkali, and produced glass.” a, ugh, according to Bede, artificers skilled in making glass were brought into England 674, glass windows were not generally used here till 1 180, and were for a considerable tie esteemed marks of great magnificence. 1870. The manufacture of window glass during the last thirty years has undergone tire alteration, especially since the abolition of the excise duty in 18*15. There are now ree special kinds of glass used for glazing purposes, and several varieties of them : 1870a. I. Crown glass, which is blown into large globes and opened out into circular t tables. II. Sheet glass, which is blown into long cylinders or muffs-, then split down d flattened. III. Plate glass, which is either cast on iron tables for large purpos s, and lished; or for smaller squares, blown into a cylinder and polished 1H71. Crown gla-s, the commonest window glass, differs from flint glass in its containing lead or any metallic oxide except manganese, and sometimes oxide of cobalt, in minute rtions, for correcting the colour, and not as a flux. It is compounded of sand, alkali, her potash or soda, the vegetable ashes that contain the alkali, and generally a small rtion of lime. To facilitate fusion, a small dose of arsenic is frequently added. ZatFre oxide of cobalt, in the proportion of 1 ounce for 1000 pounds, is added to correct the lour; but when the sand, alkali, and lime are very fine, and no other ingredients are (1, zafTrc is not required Its manufacture is conducted differently from that of flint- iss articles, the object being to pioduce a large flat thin plate, which is afterwards the glazier’s diamond cut into the requisite shape. It is blown in circular plates, vaiy- f'om 3 feet 6 inches to 4 and 5 feet diameter: the process is as follows: — The rkman, having a sufficient mass of melted metal on his blowpipe, rolls it on an iron te. and then, swinging it backwards and forwards, causes it by its own gravity to hi into a globe, which is made and brought to the required thinness by blowing 'h a fan of breath, which persons accustomed to the work know how to manage. Th * How globe is then opened by bolding it to the fire, which expanding the air confined thin it (the hole of the blowpipe being stopped), bursts it at the weakest part, and while ■ I soft it is opened out into a flit plate by centrifugal force; and being disengaged from d. a thick knob is left in its centre. It is then placed in a furnace, or in a certain rt of the fi irnace to undergo the process of annealing. When the table is cut for use, centre part in which the knob remains is called Itnoli-i/lass, and is used only for the T commonest purposes. Tables are now made of such a size that squares may be pro- red 38 inches by 24 inches as extra sizes. IH'Ma. 1'lie qualities of crown glass in common use are called best, seconds, thirds, and irthx or course ; with l wo still coarser. The Inst is of a very green hue, and only used inferior buildings They were sold by the crate, at the same price, the difference being de up by varying the number of the tables contained in it Thus a crate of best crown ■ *, contained twelve tables; of seconds, n crate contained fifteen; and of thirds, eighteen lex. I hey are now sold (by Messrs. Hartley) in crates of eighteen tables of the usual N N 546 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 11 thickness averaging 53 inches ; and in crates of twelve tables of extra thickness averagin 52 inches. Flattened slabs of the same qualities are sold in crates of thirty-six slabs of tli usual thickness, and in crates of twenty-four slabs of extra thickness, eacli averagin 24 inches, 29$ inches, and 21 ^ inches. The flattened slab is also made as ‘ obscured ’ glav The sizes of both qualities vary from ‘ quarries’ ; under 9 by 7 ; up ro, above 4J feet, an not above 5 feet superficial. Taking the usual thickness of Best as CO extra thickness 150 Seconds „ 90 „ 1 35 Thirds „ 65 „ 110 Fourths „ 50 „ 85 CCandCCC „ 43 and 40 „ 63 and 50 (Adcock 1872. Sheet glass has been manufactured in England with great improvements sine 1832 to 1838 by Messrs. Chance and Hartley, with the co-operation of M. Bonteiws, ( Paris. Though inferior in colour, this glass is in other points generally superior to that c the foreign manufacture. It is composed of the same or similar materials to the above, i well ascertained proportions, and with sulphate of soda to give whiteness. In the mamifac tore of sheet glass a sufficient quantity of the metal is collected at the extremity of a blow pipe, and then lengthened by swinging and blowing, till it acquires the form of a hollov cylinder, which is then detached, the neck being cut off with a thread of hot glass; am one side of the cylinder is cut down lengthwise with a heated iron or diamond. It is tliei taken to the flattening kiln, where the heat causes it gradually to open nearly flat on a bit called laryre, where it is rubbed down by means of a block of wood called a polissnir , am then becomes flattened sheet. After this operation it is placed in the annealing oven i cool gradually. This operation is referred to by the monk Theophilus, who wrote aboui the end of the twelfth century or later, as in use in his time. The method was also em. ployed by the Venetians especially for coloured glass, a-, it secured uniformity. But on tin cessation for its demand, the employment of the cylinders was entirely supeiseded in France England, and the North of Germany, for the rotary principle. 1872a. The great advantage of sheet glass is that of affording plates of larger dimensions and not only of avoiding the waste arising from the circular form of the crown tables, bu also from the knob or bull’s eye in the centre. The surface, however, is much less bril liant than that of crown glass, and is more wavy and undulated. Messrs. Chance, ii 1838, introduced a thicker quality of sheet glass, which was at the same time of a beltcl surface, and since then its use has become general. 18725. In 1840 the same firm introduced a new variety of window glass under the nanv of patent plate, which they obtained from a thick sheet glass by a new process of grindim and polishing. They made plates of several degrees of thickness, and of sizes containin; from 8 to 12 feet superficial. The surface of the glass obtained by this process, thoug not perfectly true, is very nearly so; and in brilliancy it is unsurpassed even by cast plate For glazing sashes it has nearly superseded crown and sheet glass. But for squares e) somewhat large dimensions, it may be calculated whether plate glass will not be as chea; or cheaper. 1872c. As will be perceived by the above short account of the mode of manufacture o' sheet glass, its size is almost only limited by the strength of the workman. It is chief); sold in crates as manufactured, in sheets of not less in width than 28 inches, and not lev than 9 feet superficial area; with a limit of width not exceeding 45 inches, and a limit o length not exceeding 75 inches; but these extremes of width and length cannot be com hined in the same sheet. Thus in glass of 15 ounces to the foot, the dimensions 5.5 b; 36 inches, or 12^ feet in area, is the largest plate. In 21 ounce glass, 75 by 45 inches, > 1 8 feet area : in 26 ounce glass, 75 by 45 inches, or 1 7 feet area : in 32 ounce glass, 6.5 bj 4 4 inches, or 15 feet area : in 36 ounce glass, 60 by 42 inches, or 12.^ feet area : and in 4. ounce gla^s, 55 by 38 inches, or 11 feet area. The four first weights are made in qualltie of best, seconds, thirds, and fourths ; and the two first have two qualities A and B for pic tures. There is no fourth quality to the two last named weights. All these sorts are cu into squares for glazing. 187 2d. Fluted sheet glass of 15 ounce and 21 ounce is usually supplied in crates no' above 43 inches long ; but it is made up to 50 inches in length. Obscured sheet flass i supplied in all substances. 1873 Patent plate glass, already described (par. 18725.) is made in three qualities j B or best, C or second, and CC or third, quality. Each of these are of four kinds, knom as No. 1, which is of an average thickness of 1 ' B th of an inch, and is of an average weigh of 13 ounces to the foot; No. 2 is 7 ' 3 th thick, and 17 ounces No. 3 is ^th, iinc 21 ounces ; and No. 4 is ^th, or 24 ounces to the foot. No. 4 B is thus the very bes quality made ; the prices for the size reqidred vary but about one or two pennies per too' in each kind; and from threepence to sevenpence in each quality. They are manufactured) in sizes from 4 to 13 feet in area, not above 50 inches long, or .36 inches wide. 1874. German sheet, or Belgian sheet glass, as it is sometimes called, was formerly m much demand in England; and is still used for cheapness. Its appearance is more " a 'y iAF. II, GLASS. 547 d speckled than the English manufacture Crystal white sheet glass, for glazing pictures d prints, is imported from Florence in cases of 100, 200 and 300 feet, in first, second J third qualities, and appears superior to other glass in whiteness, but it has the defect ' sweating.’ Similar named glass for such purposes made by Messrs. Chance, appears us to be very green, and therefore detrimental to prints and pictures; but on the other id it d >es not sweat. 1875. Plate glass is so called from its being cast in large sheets or plates. Its consti- ■nt parts are white sand, cleansed with puriHed pearl-ashes, and borax. If the metal mid appear yellow, it is rendered pellucid by ti e addition, in equal small quantities, of ng.inese and arsenic. It is cast on a large horizontal table, and all excrescences are ssed out by passing a large roller over the metal. To polish it, it is laid on a large hori- tal block of freestone, perfectly smooth, and then a smaller piece of glass, fastened to a nk of wood, is passed over the other till it has received a due degree of polish. For the pose of facilitating the process, water and sand are used, as in the polishing of marble; ! lastly, Tripoli, smalt, emery, and putty, to give it lustre; but to afford the finishing ish the powder of smalt is used. Except in the very largest plates, the wor kmen polish r glass by means of a plank having four wooden handles to move it, and to this plank- late of glass is cemented. 876. For the unsilvered polished plate glass for mirrors there are two qualities, nd and best. The Paris factory supplied in 1865 txvo looking glasses for the yor’s room in the Town Hall at Liverpool, each 15 feet by 10 feet. Polished plate glass mnufactured for general glazing purposes up to about 80 feet superficial, of two quali- usual and best. The usual thickness is a quarter of an inch . higher prices are ged for glass selected to be cut above -fj ths , -j 5 s ths. , and jJths. thick ; while for above >. thick, special prices are charged. The best quality is declared to be of the very est colour, free from specks, and not subject to dampness or sweating. s77. limujh plate glass, cast, is used for roofing, in skylights, windows, &c., in plates i not above 20 inches lung, to above 120 inches long, in thicknesses of J, inch, 1 J, U inch ; but these thicknesses have certain limited lengths. The widths are the same •r plate glass. This glass is not ground or polished, but rough from the table, and ■ing the table marks on its underside. 878. The patent rough plate glass, which is also cast, must not be confounded with the >e. It is extensively used for ridge and furrow roofs, conservatories, manufactories, ights, workshops, and other places where “obscured” glass is required to intercept the m without diminishing the light. Blinds are unnecessary, and when it is used in green- >es, no scorching of the plants occurs. The quality knoxvn as Jth. of an inch thick, ;hing about 2 lbs , or 32 ounces to the foot, is usually provided for these purposes, and more, weight for weight, than common crown glass. When greater strength is re- •d, ijths. and J inch thick is said to be cheaper and of a finer quality than the common h plate; but we demur to this statement, as of late years the manufacture appears to decreased in strength from the greater use of sand for cheapness; in moveable window es in warehouses, a lamentable quantity of broken squares is to be seen almost before Doors are occupied Ha. This glass is made of two kinds; I. Pla n, which is merely marked by the fine i of the casting table, and is that above noticed; and II. Fluted, of two sorts, No 1, pattern, having 3J flutes to the inch; and No. 2, small pattern, having 12 flutes to itch. Both the plain and the fluted kinds arc made Jth. fgths. J. jtlis. and ,] inch in ness. The width is about 3 feet, and the length usually not above 70 inches ; but 1). and 100 inch, s long are also made. When a clear glass and much non-transparency quired, No. 2 fluted is the best. ‘‘J. Quarry glass is also made in this material ; No. 1 being 6 inches by 4 Jth inches point to point ; No 2 being 3 inches by 2A, inch. A st lined ornamented patent i/narry plate Ls made tor churches, chapels, schools, flic. A patent diamond rouyh plate glass > manufactured. A patent rough plate, and sheet, perforated glass, polished or un- ed, lor ventilation, can be obtained in sizes, which require consideration in arranging, count of the length of the slits or perforations. It is usually made in columns 1J wide, and 2j inches apart; the space between each slit vertically being 1|| inches, r sizes, or the columns wider apart, can be obtained from various manufacturers, or ier. ti. Many other applications of glass will be noticed in the ensuing chapter, mist here state that the details given in this section are founded upon the price •led by Messrs. Hartley, of Sunderland, and would state our regret that the maiiu- . is have not deemed it advisable for their own interests, to provide some place in on, and in other large towns, where the architect can call and compare the qualities of supplied under his specification with standards there placed. It was comparatively (t imer years to judge of good glnss ; now it is nlmost impossible. N N 2 po 548 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Euoi CHAP. III. USE OF MATERIALS, OR PRACTICAL BUILDING. Sect. I. FOUNDATIONS AND DRAINS. 1881. In the previous chapter, the principal materials used in building have b< enun ejated ; this chapter will explain how those materials may be most advantageou employed ; but we shall net, in the various branches of practical building, again too on the materials themselves, which have been already sufficiently described. The m important of a 1 considerations — a due regard to the foundations on which a build is to stand- — will be first entered upon. The advice of Vitruvius may still be follow In England, the recent introduction of concrete has superseded the use of wood uni walls in the earth ; and piles are now quire exploded, except sometimes fur the pi of bridges and other situations in which they can constantly be kept wet. 1882. The bes* soils for receiving the foundations of a building are rock, grarel, close-pressed strong sandy earth ; “ but,” says L. B. Alberti, “ we must never trust hasdly to any ground, though it may resist the pick-axe, for it may be in a plain, and infirm, the cunsequence of which might be the ruin of the w'hole work. I have seej tower at Mestre, a place belonging to the Venetians, which, in a few years after it i built, made its way through the ground it stood upon ; this, as the fact evinced, wa loose weak soil, and buried itself in earth up to the very battlements. For this rea; they are very much to be blamed who, not being provided by nature with a soil fit support the weight of an edifice, and lighting upon the ruins or remains of some structure, do not take the pains to examine the goodness of the foundation, but inc ! siderately raise great piles of building upon it, and out of the avarice of saving a lij expense, throw away all the money they lay out in the work. It is, therefore, excel! advice, the first thing you do, to dig wells , for several reasons, and especially in order to acquainted with the. strata of the earth, whether sound enough to bear the superstruct or likely to give w'ay.’’ It is impor ant, previous to laying the foundations, to drain tl completely, if possible, not only from tho rain and other water that would lie about, from the land water which is, as it were, pent up in the surrounding soil. In soft, lo and boggy ground, the use of concrete will be found very great ; and in these soils, m over, the width and depth it should be thrown in should, as well as the lower courses of foundation, be proportioned inversely to the badness of the soil. Clay of the plastic kin a had foundation, on account of the continual changes, from heat and moisture, to whicli subject, and which often cause it so to expand and contract as to produce very alarn settlements in a building. The best remedy against this inconvenience is to tie the w together by means of chain plates, buried in the centre of the footings, and on the to the landings that rest on the concrete ; these plates to be, of course, connected at the ret ing angles, so as to encompass the whole building. In these cases, the clay must be e. vated to make room for the concrete. This will be found an effectual remedy in clays* 1883. By the Metropolitan Building Act, no building can be erected upon any which shall have been filled up or covered with impure matter enumerat d in the Act must be removed first, and any holes, if not used for basements, must be filled in with i br : ck or dry ruLbish. Generally, if the soil be a sound gravel, it will want little i) than ramming with heavy rammers ; and if the building be not v^ry heavy, not even t 1884. Where vaults and cellars are practised, the whole of the soil must, of cours* excavated; but where they are not required, trenches are dug to receive the walls, wl in both cases, must be proportioned in strength to the weight of the intended su structure and its height. In general terms, we may direct, the depth of foundations I a sixth part of the height of the building, and the thickness of the walls twice th: those that are raised upon them. Care must be taken that that which is to receive footings of the walls be equable ; otherwise, where external and internal walls are conr.t together, the former, being the heaviest, may settle more than the latter, thereby can fractures, which, though not perhaps, dangerous, are extremely disagreeable in appear.' The lower courses, which are called the footings of the wall, are often laid dry; and. haps, at all events, a sparing use of mortar in a spot loaded with the greatest pressure si) be preferred. If the footings be of stone, very particular attention should be bestowe placing the stone in the courses in the same direction or bed as it lay in the quarr prevent it splitting. The above mentioned Act requires that the foundations of walls of every house or building shall be formed of a bed of concrete not less 1 1 AP III. FOUNDATIONS AND DRAINS. 649 nches thick, nnd projecting at least 4 inches on each side of the lowest course of footings uch walls. If the site bo upon a natural bed of gravel, concrete is not then required. 885. In foundations where, from columns or small piers pressing upon particular ts. there would be a liability, from uneven bearing, to partial failure, it has been the ctice, from a very early perio I. to ■n inverted arches (s. e fig. C15) to ch on their springing the weight be provided against, by which means h weight is equally dis’ributed ! uughout the length of the founda- Standing thus,” says our master j-rti , “ they (the columns or weights) be less apt to force their way into earth in any one place, the we gilt ng counterpoised and thrown equally on both sides on the props of the arches. And apt columns are to drive into the ground by means of the great pressure of the weight on them, is manifest from that corner of the noble temple of Vespasian that stands the north- weit; for, being desirous to leave the public way. which was interrupted by angle, a free and open passage underneath, they broke the area of their platform, turned an arch against the wall, leaving that corner as a sort of pilaster on the other of the passage, and fo tifying it as well as possible with stout work, and with the istance of a buttress. Yet this, at last, by the vast weight of so great a building and giving way of the earth, became ruinous.” When inveited arches are proposed to used, they should be shown in the drawings. 1885c. A method ®f forming foundations has lately come into vogue for bridges and ier hydraulic constructions by the use of cylinders , or other shaped air tight cases. In 1 lia the system of founding large masses of masonry on cylindrical piers built in the ieriorof wooden curbs, has prevailed for a long period. The method of constructing piers is the same as that used in England in sinking the steining for ordinary wells ; when sunk the interior is filled up with concrete or ruble masonry. Some of the iron 1 dges lately erected over the river Thames and elsewhere have been placed on founda- t is formed by cast iron cylinders filled in with concrete. Further details must be uht in works devoted to Civil kngineeiing, as the system will seldom be applicable in tly architectural constructions. 886. Air-drain. It is most important, when the walls are raised > n the foundations, brought up a little above the level of the earth, to take care that the earth, most ■ecially if moist, should not lie against for if walls, before they are dry and led, imbibe moisture, they rarely ever ; t with it, and thence gradually impart ret he timbers throughout the house. It is, n, most important to have a second thin I outside tho basement walls, so as to Ire between it and them a cavity for the ulation of the^air, such cavity being inically called an air-drain. In moist loose soils it is essential for the dura- b ty of the building, as well as for the ith of those who are to dwell in it. The wian rude building composition, by W. of Abergavenny has been largely I for preventing damp passing through a ' A wall mav be built with half-bricks be flat and set in this composition, filling middle joint of half an inch, and an inch ’’ of each bed. This is stated to be much iger than an 18-inch wall built in the nary way. A bri. k flat with a brick on ■. as lor cottages, or for economy, isquilo p-pro f. and equal in strength to a 14-inch huilt with mortar only. No skill is re- I c l ; an intelligent labourer can use it. tHGcf. It is important that Ih a air-drain r H ,,rr a should commence at least as low e o; foundations of the building ; in very flit. flllta. situations it should he provided with pipes to carry off the superabundant moisture, eptmlent of the maio drain of the building. Even when provided, the usual autions to prevent damp arising in the main w alls must not be neglected. The air- 550 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I] drain, which should never he less than 8 inches wide, more if possible, is commonl covered with a half-brick arch, or with stone, slate, or tile, below the surface of tli. ground. This entirely does away with the benefit anticipated by its formation, becaus- the surface drainage descends and injures the main wall, even when cemented above tli< covering; this covering should come some inches above ground. Unless care be taken i often degenerates into a hole for dirt and vermin. A good arrangement is to make a dri area, or a space wide enough to be easily cleared out, and to which a cat or dog cat have access, and to cover it with stone with moveable gratings at convenient distances the expense will not be much greater, while the result will be very effective. The ddok secure arrangement, however, is to form an open arei all round the building. The wan of such a precaution in the houses in the suburbs of towns renders a large majority o those having basements nearly uninhabitable from the disagreeable consequences of dam- walls. (See also Jig. 615 h.) 18865. Damp courses. This simple provision to prevent wet, which is likely to gc- into walls, from rising in them by capillary attraction, is too often neglected, especiall in cheap work, for the present saving of a pound or two ; but at the ultimate expendiim- of many pounds. The simplest plan has generally been to work three courses of tli brickwork above the footings and below the ground floor, in cement. Messrs. Smith o Darnick state that a coating of cement, done in a very substantial manner, did no appear to have the smallest effect, as the wall was as damp above it as below. For smui cottages they found an effective plan was to build all the parts of the wall undergroum quite dry, and not to use any mortar until clear of the earth. This left the walls quit dry above. The next method is to bed a course of sound whole slate slabs, ^ inch thick in cement. When the soil is very damp, two or even three courses of ordinary slate may be laid in and well bonded, not only in the main walls, but in all cross partition and dwarf walls. For seme reason, probably that of the slates and cement having se parated or crushed with the weight of the walls, allowing the damp to pass through, thi method has fallen into disuse. As Portland cement will adhere to slate, probably, i solid works, if used instead of Roman cement, the result would be more satisfactory. 1886c. Sheet zinc bedded in loam has-been found to decay. In extensive works, fine gritted asphalte, applied in a hot state, is introduced as a layer, about half an inch 1 thickness. This material is stated, in the Appendix to the Report of the Fine Arts Coirii missioners, to have kept out the effects of damp, which would have shown themselves, a; the foundations of the building referred to were always in water about 20 inches belof the level of the ground floor. The brickwork s ould be dry and protected from rai during the operation, to prevent the asphalte becoming honeycombed. In budding already erected, the walls can be underpinned to introduce the material. At the Nc Palace at Westminster the joints are only half filled with mortar, the asphalte filling tli, remainder when poured over the bricks. The bricks for the next course, having bee heated at a coke fire, were placed on the asphalte in its fluid state, and the joints ha flushed up. The outer courses, however, should be first laid for short distances, thi; they may set before the middle is filled in. In rubble masonry, it will be necessary t fill up all inequalities on the surface with fine concrete ; when this has set sufficient!; the asphalte is to be laid as described for brickwork. Gas tar mixed with lime is s. id l- be impervious to wet. 1886(2. Two centuries ago, thin sheet lead was laid on the top course of a wall to pro vent damp coming down it from the gutters; of late years, a layer of 4 lb. milled lea< Fig. 6156. Fig. 615e. Fig. 615d. Fig. 6l5e. has been proposed to prevent it rising; no doubt the best and most efficacious rented; but the cost would be gre .ter than usually allowed. But the best invention, bavin 1 price also in its favour, is the damp-proof course, formed of brown stoneware, perforate- throughout its entire width with a half air space, which remains open after the moria beds are laid, on each side of the slab. In an executed work, a course of bricks can cut out and the stoneware be inserted. This is one of the many building inventions o Mr. John Taylor, junior. Fig. 615/). shows one for an 18-inch wall; other sizes as wel as angle blocks are provided. Each foot superficial is stated to be equal to the supp™ of 25 tons or 600 feet of vertical brickwork. Jennings has patented earthenware s'eejio blocks, “ non-conductors of damp and a cheap substitute for brick sleeper walls; I'AP. III. FOUNDATIONS AND DRAINS. 551 •e also useful for carrying stone paving: figs. 615ve the roofs, but this system is considered to be inefficient unless the pipes are of large size. The head of a system of sewers, or the end or head of a sewer, as to a court of houses, requires both a flushing apparatus to occasionally cleanse the sewer, and a pipe ventilator or ventilating shaft carried up to carry off the foul air which there collects. Other s' stems have been sugaested. Various attempts have been made to create strong upcast draughts by furnace chimneys, cowls, or other artificial means, but these attempts have never been more than locally — and then only partially — success'll!. 1887c. Whilst on the subject of se.werage, it may be well to refer to the new system of raising the sewage from a low to a higher level t y means of Sbone’s hydro-pneumatic sewage ejector. This successful system, as carried out at the Houses of Parliament, ts described in the Transactions of the Royal Institu'e of British Architects, 1887, iii-. ne ff series, and in British Architect for January 28, 1887. p. 69. The work was performed thus: in the bottom of the old main brick sewer, about 1000 feet long, passing from north to south under the Houses, a 12-inch cast-iron drain was embedced in concrete, with a fall of about 1 in 212. This received all the sewage of, and rain falling on, the Houses and grounds, and was discharged into a receiver at the bott m of a sewage man- hole. From the side of the receiver a 12-inch east-iron inlet pipe is carried horizontally into the adjoining ejector chamber, in which are three cast iron ejectors, one being capable of discharging 480 gallons, and the other two 335 gallons each, per minute. The sewage is conveyed into them by a 6-inch cast-iron pipe. From the bottom of each ejector a 6-inch cast-iron pipe passes vertically upwards into a 12-inch cast-iron horizontal outlet pipe, which is carried through a clam built in the old main sewer, and discharges beyond it inti the old outlet communicating with the Low Level Sewer, and above the normal flow of sewage therein. 1887«h Compressed air is used for ejecting the sewage, &c., from the ejectors by Atkinson’s differential gas engines — four of them, each of 4 horse-power. Usually one only is employed. There is an automatic airangement for conducting the air, and ball valves for admitting and expelling the sewage. The compressed air in the ej°ctor is dis- charged by a pipe leading into the ventilating shaft passing up the clock tower. The HAP. III. FOUNDATIONS AND DRAINS. 553 nount of sewage ejected iu dry weather is found to average no more than 40 gallons per mute, so that a 6-tnch pipe would carry away all the sewage produced in the Houses, resh air is admitted into the subway and chamber, &c. '1 here is also a 9-inch main aneh drain under the basement along ’he west side of the Houses, which is also venti- ted. The total cost of the works, including the four gas engines, the three compressed r receivers, the piping, and the three ejectors, has been a little over 11,500/. Drains. 1883a. Into the public sewers are carried the drains from the houses. These drains ere formerly made of brick, and called “ gun-barrel drains ” from their circular shape, i course of time they got out of order from decay, rats working their way through, and her causes, so that foul matters soaked through into the soil, which thus became turated, and foul air ascended into the house. Such drains have been discarded since e introduction, about 1845, of pipes into the sewerage and drainage system. These pes are made of vitrified stoneware, and are very different to the glazed or unglazed rthenware pipes sometimes substituted for cheapness. The sewage soon corrodes this azmg, which being removed, the half-burnt earthenware sucks in the foul water and ;cays. Nor is it nearly so strong as the stoneware pipes ; these are also supplied ith covers for occasional inspection. Pipes are also made specially, 3 feet long and . a thickness equal to one-tenth of the diameter, with Stanford’s patent jomts, by Cliff and Sons, near Leeds. Messrs. Doulton manufacture a patent self-adjusting int, securing several advantages. 18885. The main drain necessary for the service of the largest house (we suppose the seof one in the country), if the fall be even but moderate, requires no large dimensions, hen we see a small river draining considerable tracts of country, often in section only 9, or 10 feet superficial, it m y easily be conceived that the surplus water from, and in falling on, a mansion is a quantity, even in pressing times, that exacts no large area discharge to free the place fr m damp. There are few cases in which the greatest, insion would demand more than a 12-inch or 9-inch pipe, with branches of 6-inch and inch pipe; which, with 3^-inch lead pipes for soil pipes, if properly connected an 1 lid, will suffice for all purposes. 1888c. One object in draining a house, a mansion, a village, or a town is to make the ;iins and sewers so that the sewage in them shall never stagnate at any part, but be stantly flowing with a self-cleansing velocity ; and so that the air in them shall never tgnate at any part, but be always flowing, by fresh air passing into their lowest parts, 4 by foul air discharging from their highest parts into the stratum of the atmosphere ove that in which we live and breathe. 18b*3(/. There are several systems of draining a country mansion. Near to the main tlet is fixed a la ge intercepting trap, to be ventilated. Into this passes, by drains on sides of it, all the water by the rain-water pipes from the roofs, the soil by those from • water closets, and from the pantry and scullery sinks, as well as any surface water in trapped gratings. The waste pipe from the scullery sink should, previously to -ing into the drain, be connected with a yrrase trap (see Pj.umhery). Some of the n water pipes may act as inlets of fresh air and also as ventilators to the drain ; but •asionally, and especially near traps, other pipes for inlets of fresh air may be provided prevent what is called “syphoning.” These ventilating pipes are to be of the same ■ meter as the drain, as required by some authorities, or as the soil pipe as by others, be carried up to the top of any gable or roof of the house, and to some feet above and 1 ir of the chimney pots, so as to prevent foul air from passing down them by down 1 lights ; the top is sometimes open, but thoy usually have a cap or exhaust ventilator. iH88r. The rain or surface water from houses in the country, or on open land, should 1 carried away into the natural streams by glazed stoneware or fireclay pipes, embedded i -oncrete if the soil require it, and of diameter* varying from 3 to 24 inches or more, I I with a proper fall. Where a building has to be erected on soil which holds water, 1 site should be drained by the use of agricultural pipes, these b-ing dschirged into ' 'P’-n gully leading to the main drain, to a stream, or otherwise where convenient. .88/. Town drainage consists of the comparatively clean surface and subsoil water ; i I ot soiled and used water containing organic matters called sewage. The combination ' hese two waters was established in London towards the end of the last an 1 the com- i ic. ment of this century, at the time that water supply by pipes to houses became t nil. This was d'sehargid into the cesspools, and thence by overflow drains into 'his, watercourses, and sewirs, open and covered, and Lhence into natural streams and 1 ts. The two systems of drainage should, say many persons, bo kept separate by the 1 vision of one set of drains for receiving the clean water and d scharging it into the 0 mil streams ; and of a seeond set for receiving the dirty water and sewage and con- ' n g it by self cleansing drains, as fast as it is produced, to prepared agricultural land. 1 . system was recommended by Mr. John Phillips about 1819. but it has not found {i iy advocates, chiefly as it uppcirs to fail from the water in the first’ portion being THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 554 Book II. removed from the second portion, and thus there is not sufficient to carry off the sedi- mentary matter, which would be done when the two systems are combined. 1888<7. The position and size of the drains having been settled, the fall has tola arranged. It has been proved beyond a doubt that matters easily carried away by the increased velocity gained by using a small drain, remain as an obstruction in a large drain. A velocity of 2 feet per second is the least which will keep sewers clear of ait ordinary obstructions ; while house drains and small pipes require a velocity of 3 feet per second to keep them clear (Ilurst). A fall of from 2 inches or 3 inches in 10 feet will be found quite sufficient for all practical purposes. A fall of 1 in 30 is considered by many to be a good fall, and not always to be obtained. Pipes half full, with a velocity of 3 feet per second require the following falls : —4 inch pipes, 1 in 100; 6 inch, 1 in 150; 9 inch, 1 in 225 ; 12 inch, 1 in 300 ; 15 inch, 1 in 350 ; 18 inch, 1 in 450 ; 24 inch, 1 in 600; 30 inch, 1 in 700. With a velocity of 2 feet per second, 4 inch pipes require a fall of 1 in 200 ; 6 inch, 1 in 300 ; 9 inch, 1 in 4-50 ; 12 inch, 1 in 600 ; 15 inch, 1 in 700; 18 inch, 1 in 900; 24 inch, 1 in 1200; 30 inch, 1 in 140U (Sears). 1888/i. Hence also the advantage of flushing a drain. One person lias urged that his ten-roomed house and outbuildings have not, in the course of many years, ever been inconvenienced by the use of a 3-inch drain, whilst other houses of similar size, having 6-inch and even 9-inch drains, have been seriously affected. Much depends on the fall, and on the careful lading of the pipes, and something cn the quantity of water used for household purposes. Where a water closet is placed at or near the head of a drain, a stoppage of its pipe often occurs ; while grease from the kitchen sink incrusting in tin pipe, for want of occasional flushing with hot water, is another frequent cause. Sewer.- also occasionally require assistance by flushing them from their head. One of thu best arrangements proposed is that of an iron tilting cistern, to hold about 90 gallons, inserted in a brick pit at the head of a pipe sewer. This cistern, with its brass bear ; ng>| and plates, brickwork, stone cover, and water tap, costs about nine pounds, and if one were placed at the head of each pipe sewer in a town, and all were turned off at tin same time, a material assistance in keeping the main line also clear, would be found The “ self-acting syphon flush tank ” is now much used for such purposes. Rogers Field patent consists of two concentric tubes, the outer one being closed at the top and steadm by radial ribs projecting from the inner tube. The annular space between the tubi'j constitutes the ascending or shorter leg, and the inner tube the descending or longer by of the syphon {Builder, 1879, xxxvii. 1,002). There is another arrangement patentee by him, combined with a grease intercepter. (See Water Waste Preventer.) A sonu what similar one is put forward as “Adams’ patent flushing syphon.” Another 1 Banner, as in The Sanitarian' s Companion . 18887. The house drain should be effectually cut off from aerial connection with lln common sewer, or any other house drain; also, the house should be cut off from neri. connection with all soil and waste pipes ; and all these external pipes and the horn drain should be so formed and so connected that they shall at all times be freely flush- w : th fresh air, and all contribute to their mutual purification. “ House drains,” writes M- Honeyman, “ as usually laid at present are not ventilated. A 4-inch drain, as reooni mended by Sir Robert Rawlinson ( Tram, of Sanit. Inst., vol. vi., p. 72) and other cannot be ventilated by merely leaving openings at each end of it. The friction in suo a pipe would neutralise a considerable amount of energy, and there is no energy. Tl movement of the air is sometimes in one direction, sometimes in the other, and ll quantity which gains admission is just about sufficient to promote fermentation and tl propagation of organisms, and to allow the escape of abominably polluted air at eit In end, or into the house if it have the chance. My advice is to increase the size of tl drain, to confine the sewage, in a narrow channel, and to keep the whole clean. I am n- prepared to say that even a well-ventilated house drain would be superior to one abs< lately without ventilation, from which atmospheric air is entirely excluded ; hut appears to me to be indisputable that there must be either thorough ventilation or non 1 and that in this case the usual via media is the very worst course that can possibly I adopted.” 1888/r. A system has lately (1887) been patented by Mr. H. R. Newton, archil e( whereby he shows the absolute necessity for the total enclosure of sewage from air all ways, to prevent exhalations arising, and to absolutely control the method for tin suppression. He points out the injurious influence of forcing air into fouled water in at way, or of allowing fouled water to have any contact with air; drains and sewers, 1 maintains, should be always full, instead of empty. 18887. Various arrangements are advertised for obtaining access to drains for inspe tion without the necessity for breaking into them, or for clearing stoppages. At the ei of the drain next the sewer (and perhaps at other places) should be formed a manho 1 or “ inspection ” chamber, having a syphon trap in it, or between it and the sewer. It m ;l be formed of bricks in cement, sometimes set on a concrete bed, and is usually 3 h 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches in the clear, and finished with an air-tight cover, as by HAP. III. FOUNDATIONS AND DRAINS. 555 orkshire stone set in cement. The depth of the drain determines the depth of the mmber, which must be larger if very deep. At the bottom of it is an open channel jout 9 inches deep, so that it ance whether the sewage is i the end next the sewer an the drain between the t ap g, if necessary. The cap to Dies be securely fixed and can be ascertained at a flowing properly or not. eye-hole is fixed, to get and the sewer, for elean- this e) e-hole must at all sealed. Fig. 61 jt. A, Inspection chamber at the back of the house. B, Ditto, or manhole, in the front of the house, r, 0, the drain running from the sewer at the end H, through B, wherein is shown a syphon trap, with pipe D through which the drain can be cleansed, if necessary. This chamber B is ventilated by a pipe o. I. to led foul air out or fresh air in. The pipe No. II. is a ventilation pipe to the house drain, and also . a soil pipe, No. III. E and F are trapped gullies or gratings in the yards or gardens. Into A would -o be carried the draiu from the grease trap. Ttiis figure is obtained from Catherine M. 11 nekton's . buMinjs , Healthy and Unhealthy , 8vo., Longmans, 1865, p. 65. 1888»t. Fig. 6151. is a plan and section of the interior of an ordinary town house, lo ving the position of each sanitary apparatus, as urged by officials and by others. The gure is from Ruckton’s Our writings, 1885, p. 62. Plan : back kitchen ; f, front f ehen ; o, front yard or area ; yard or garden ; d, steps wn to the basement ; x, the uin, taking the trapped illy in garden, passing rough tho inspection itiiber A, which takes drain from the water 'Act soil pipe, and from a, grease trap, with iis nt pi [>e No. IV. from e, the k in the scullery. No. II. the vent pipe to I lie DM drain, an l No. 111. the it pipe to tho soil pipe, the front area, o, is the pect ion chamber r, through ich passes the drain x, ibg *, tho trap to sepa- o it from the sewer, and o this chamber runs l ho ppe.l gully ; No. [. is the pipe from it. Section : \ m are two water closets, plans are given nt tho ; and as asnnitnry arrait- mit there should bo a ,'/• lighted and vontilat •'pomn tho water closet and staircase, somewhat as n on plan ii ; y, slop sink, syphon trap passing on h**ad of a pipe into fain. Thu other lotion nt i ,r i IV T~ N _ I ' i_j i n pr^l Rt| . €> 556 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book H Iron Drains. 1888». The “Newman” complete system of Cast Iron Drainage, of which the first introducers and sole manufacturers are the North British Plumbing Company. A paper is published by them, On the use of Cast Iron for House Drains, by W. D. Scott Monerieff, C.E., read at the National Health Society’s Exhibition, 1883. The advantages of cast iron are put thus : 1, its superior strength and capacity to resist fraeture ; 2, the greater lengths in which it can be manufactured, and the corresponding reduction in the number of joint* ; 3, the greater facilities for making the joints secure by means of lead run in, sulphur, nxi ised iron filings, red lead and yarn, &c. The points to be considered in adopting cast iron are : 1, the available means for preserving it ; 2, the determination of the capacity and weight of the pipes; 3, the character of the connections best suitid to the material ; 4, the nature of the joints ; 5, the comparative cost. The preserving methods besides paint are; 1, the coating with a preparation of tar, known as Dr. Angus Smith’s composition ; and 2, the Bower-BarfF process, consisting of coating the surfaces of the iron with magnetic oxide after a very careful cleansing, and then painting to protect the surface from being injured too deeply at any time, for if scratched, oxidation quickly follows. They can also be gUzed inside. At each end of the drain a manhole can be formed, so that the drain could be swept clean from end to end by a sweep’s machine. Some objections have been raised to iron drains, more espe- cially that of the iron cracking, as it is well known iron rain-water pipes will crack, even when protected from the atmosphere. I8880. The pipes in 6 to 9 feet lengths, with inspection covers, curved junctions, are to be laid on concrete, or on a dwarf wall, or on iron bearers, and in a trench or subway under the passage, so that the whole length can be open to inspection at any time. Five-inch pipes are usually adopted, fths of an inch thick, giving about 120 lbs. as the weight of a 6 feet length. When the soil pipe is connected to the iron soil drain, a copper ferrule should be wiped on to the end of the soil pipe, the latter being threaded and caulked as for the ordinary iron joint. The joints may also be screw joints. The company also furnish the necessary house drain terminal, manhole covers, flush tank with annular syphon, rain-water flushing head, grease trap, water-waste preventer cistern, mica non- return valve, soil-pipe cowl, improved valve closets, air ventilator and tubes, Winser's channel pipes and bends, straight and taper, in lest enamelled stoneware : white enamelled sinks for kitchen and scullery; caulking sleeve of brass, for securing lead pi pes in iron sockets, with oakum and lead ; and many others of similar modern appliances. Testing a Drain. 1 888p. There are several methods of ascertaining if the pipes are properly laid, ns well as for finding the place of an escape of smell into the house. 1. By the peppermint test, relying upon smell. This is applied by pouring down the ventilating or other accessible pipe outside the house, about two ounces of strong (essence o') peppermint, quickly followed by about two quarts of hot water, the orifice of the pipe being instantly plugged up to prevent the escape into the atmosphere of the scent. If per- ceived in any room, or closet, or sink, there exists the evil. 2. By the smoke test, relying upon sight chiefly, the invention (1883) of Mr. C. Innes, C.E. Straw may be placed in the drain, say at the inspection shaft (if there be one), then satura'ed with petroleum, and lighted, wiili care on account of the flare. Then the drain must be covered over so thitthe smoke shall ascend the drain, escaping at the ventilating pipe, if there be no crack or defect by which also to escape. A pinhole in an iron pipe has thus been detected when the previous test failed to point out the exact spot. Pain’s “smoke rockets” burn from ten to fifteen minutes, and emit a dense volume of smoke. “Tl.c Banner patent drain grenade ’ or “drain ferret” is made of thin glass, and charged with powerful pungent and volatile chemicals. When the grenade is dropped down any pipe it breaks, and the effect produ-ed by its contents is distributed only as intended. When drains to be tested by the smell or smoke test pass through a house, care must be taken to close all openings ; and when applied outside, the openings should be closed, to prevent any smell entering frem the outside. I8889. In pdaces where the drain is deep and has been laid in clay with rubbish over, and perhaps finished by concrete with a coat of cement over, or tile, or other paving, if the ground be probed with an iron or steel rod to the bottom of the trench, it has been found that smoke was arually issuing f.om the drain ; andita'so showed the state of the ground, the point of the probe indicating the naturo of the soil at the bottom of the trench. A third test is the water test to the main drain of a house. The pipes have to be stopped up at both ends in order to be filled with water, and some upright part formed, or selected, for the purpose of observing if the drain hold the water, or the reverse. The ends of the branches into it having been also stopped up, the water may then be turned on, and the pipes filled to a part marked on the upright pipe. It is then to be carefully watched to ascertain if the waterfalls Chap. III. FOUNDATIONS AND DRAIN'S. 557 below the mark ; should it do so, it at once proves that there is a leak somewhere. (James Stewart, senr.) 1888r. Among other general and special recommendations (Woodward, in R.I.B.A. Transactions, with additions), are the following: — 1. Constant supervision during the laying of drains, to secure good workmanship both in the laying and jointing. 2. Dra ns are best laid when the carcase is completed and the roof put on. They are not required sooner, and they aro then less likely to be disturbed. If left for a later time they may probably be hurried over. 3. Wherever possible, drains should be laid outside the house. When inside, their direction should bo indicated on the floor by a sufficient width of the floor material being laid so as to be easily taken up at any time to obtain complete access to the drains. 4. All old drains and cesspools, and all soil which has been in contact with or saturated by any ot them, should be entirely removed from the premises. 5. Junctions should always be made by a gentle curve or bend with the length of the p : pe, and never at a right angle. 6. A regular and uniform fall should be secured ; a too great fall may rapidly carry away the liquid while the soil remains. 7. The pipes should, if the soil be soft, be laid in a bed of concrete or on well-tempered clay puddle, and formed to suit the curve of the pipe. 8. The joints of all pipes should be well socketed, and the pipes should have a full bearing on the bed, not being allowed to bear only on the joint, so that channels should be formed in the bed, or be cut out for the sockets to rest in. 9. The joints should be carefully cemented or clayed in all round ; not the least particle ot cement or clay should remain on the inside of the pipes, as on hardening it forms an obstruction and the nucleus for stopping the drain. 10. All traps should be earthenware syphon traps, with inlets and covers, with ready access for cleaning out. Grease traps for scullery sinks should be ready of access for periodically removing the grease, which otherwise passes into the drain and assists in terming an obstruction. These traps should be ventilated. 11. As flushing plays an important pat t in all systems of drainage, the waste water from sinks, baths, rain-water pipes, &c., should pass down the house drain. Lately, in some systems, these have been kept distinct from the soil drains ; but as very little wati r accompanies the one emptying of a water closet apparatus, there is much danger of soil remaining, an evil which is avoided by the flushing obtained from the other sources. 12. At the junction of pipes a shaft or inspection chamber should be formed, with a proper cover, to allow of access to the pipes, and by which rods may be passed up and down the drain in case of a stoppage. 13. llelore the drain enters the sewer, and outside the house, a similar shaft should be built, with a stone or iron cover weil cemented down, and a syphon trap fixed on the sewer side of the shaft, with a ventilating pipe carried up well above the roof of the house. 14. All overflows, wastes, and rain-water pipes should discharge over an open gully trap, and not be connected direct into the drain. Where practicable, gully traps should be fixed outside a building. 16. Air inlets should be fixed as far as possible from windows and doors. 16. If the drain has but a slight fall the use of a flushing tank is indispensable. 1888s The importance of sanitary inspections may be shown in tho necessity of some modifications to the existing drainage of a house. The following remarks and stiggrs- ions will be useful to the investigator: — “It cannot be too strongly impressed on the public mind, that to make a house fairly safe from dangerous inroads of sewer gas (or moll), as it is termed, is not by any means a gigantic undertaking. In tho case of a new •“use, an architect of ordinary professional capacity is quite alive to the modern ideas of siaitaiion, and he will no doubt see that, so far as his client permits hint, all that is f'p'T to bo done is thoroughly carried out. The difficulties become apparent when he 's to deal with an old house, tho drains of which ho knows nothing about ; but even i re the task of securing safety from poison from the sower is not such a very hard one. f.iko, for example, an ordinary street house. The water closet apparatus is of the old .mil, perhaps set in an apartment in the centre of the house, w ilhouL any communion ion *ith tho open air. The sink wasto is directly connected with tho drain, supposed to bo rot.cted by an old bell-trap, which is of liitlo use. Tho cistern has tho old standing ■iito pipe, also directly connected with tho drain, and serves the sink ns well as the valor closets. Tho rain-water pipes are also directly con nee ed with the drains, which in under tho kitchen floor or basement passage, and uninterruptedly onwards to the old •’ n hap trap (at tho sewer), which, if it exists, or is in right action, is the only oppos- 'd force to direct contact with tho main sower in front. I8HH'. “ Now this is, apparently, a very alarming state of things, to bo romediod only •" M" would say) by the romoval of pipes, cisterns, and apparatus throughout the house, eo'vig p rimps tho dislocation of everything in it, and tho substitution of the net- 558 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. work of arrangements of modern sanitation. If the client be willing to carry out these elaborate notions, there can be no objection to his having them ; but for the larger class the following will, in ordinary cases, be sufficient to arrest danger ; first supposing that the water closets, sinks, and cisterns, are in a proper state of repair, and that the drains or other pipes are all clear. )888tf. “ Take up the paving of the front area where the main drain runs through to the sewer. Cut out a length or so of the drain, and build, in 9 inch brickwork, a shaft 3 teet by 2 feet. Render it inside in Portland cement. At the bottom let iu a half drain pipe, and at the sewer side fix a syphon trap. Connect with the shaft two 4-inch drain pipes, one on either side of the shaft ; or carry up a 4-inch galvanized iron pipe a short distance to form inlets. If a rain-water pipe be near at hand, the joints may he caulked, and it may be connected with the shaft by one of the pipes; carry it well up above the roof, and treat it as the outlet ventilator. If a rain-water pipe is not near at hand, carry up from the shaft, and well above the roof, a separate 4-inch galvanized iron ventilating pipe. Cover the shaft with a York stone, or iron cover, and the drain job is done. As regards the water supply, the cistern should be well cleaned out periodically, say once a month, and there will not be much to fear in that direction.” — Woodward, London as it is and as it might be, read at Royal Institute of British Architects, and printed in Transactions, new scries, vol. ii. p. 46. Sect. II. BRICKLAYING AND TILING. 1889. Bricklaying, or the art of building with bricks, or of uniting them by cement or mortar into various forms, includes, in the metropolis, and mostly in the provinces, the business of walling, tiling, and paving with bricks or tiles, and sometimes plastering; but this last is rarely, if ever, undertaken by the London bricklayer; though in the country the trades of bricklaying and plastering are usually united, and not unfrequently that of masonry also. The materials used have been described in a previous part of the work, to which the reader is referred (1811. et scq.). 1889rt. It is advisible that the student should be acquainted with the mechanical prin- ciples involved in the construction of shores, and the nature of the forces which are brought into play. G. H. Blagrove, in Shoring and its Application, 1887, writes: “ Though the student has to learn the principles of Shoring, the practising architect has to apply them, often in the utmost haste, to prevent the most disastrous conse- quences, and occasionally surrounded with the most perplexing difficulties. ViolleLle- Duc says: ‘Nothing enhances the respect of workmen for the architect like his being ready to shore properly . . . and nothing is more satisfying to the eye than a system of shoring well combined and well executed.’ ” The author divides his book into Raking, Flying and Dead Shoring, Needling, Centreing, Timbering for Excavations, Underpinning, and Straightening Walls. In Raking Shores is explained the danger of using timber unnecessarily heavy for the purpose, and the danger of the vertical sinking of a wall, causing the shores to separate it ; also the advantage of shoring against the floors, and the proper precautions to be taken for shoring, of a more per- manent and efficient kind than the rough and ready shoring so often resorted to. In the case of Flying Shores there is the risk of their sagging, though this may generally be obviated by using trusses, pirticularly when the flying shores are in more than one height. Little has to be said about “ deed shores,” but the rough way in which they are often put in is detrimental to the building. In the chapter on Needling the necessary precaut'ous are carefully stated, but the proper calculation of the strength of the needles is not urged. The dtvicts which have be n put in practice at times to save expense, viz., the iron frames which enable the bressummer to be rolled in lengthwise, the case where the bressummer has to be enclosed in the frames, then got in para' lei and rolled end on to its place, and where it is only put in parallel, are also explained. Two devices are not noticed : one where the middle of a wall has to be removed, but where an arch can be turned ; the arch form is marked in chalk on both sides of the wall, holes beginning A the skewbaeks are successively cut lo the shape of the arch by men working on both sides, and the segments are then built in and wedged up, until the whole arch is turned without using needling, and, when the cement has set, the brickwork below is cut away. The other is executed thus : narrow iron girders, not exceeding one-fourth of the thickness of the wall, are cut in, and fixed on both sides, then York stone is pinned in on the top of HAP. III. BRICKLAYING AND TILING. 559 iiem, connecting the two girders, which are also bolted together. The brickwork below j then removed. This system will in most cases supersede all others. Careful advi e is iven for shoring up defective arches and vaults ; and a French plan of suppoiting centre- nw on wood by pistons fitted into iron cylinders filled with sand ; by this means the en reing can be accurately slackened by letting out the sand. The familiar methods of 'imbering Excavations are given. Where the earth will not stand, sheet piling is re- •immended, 4 ft. wide, but 4 ft. 6 in. is generally considered to be the least width in thich men can conveniently excavate. In Underpinning, the author points out the itficulties of shoring when the defects have arisen from. the. ground being too soft ; he hows the shoring necessary for crushed piers and columns, and adverts to the move- lents occasioned by underpinning, on parts apparently too distant to be affected by hem. Descriptions are given of the methods employed in straightening walls, as at .rmagh Cathedral, Beverley Minster, and St. Albans Abbey. (G. Aitchison,in R.I.B.A. ‘roceedings. The Mechanics of Shoring, in Building News, Sept. 14, 1877, p. 249.) 1890. The tools used by the bricklayer, who has always an attendant labourer to supply iim with bricks, mortar, &c., are — 1. A brick trowel , for taking up and spreading the rortar, and also for cutting the bricks to any required length. 2. A hammer, for cutting dies and chases in brickwork. 3. plumb rule, being a thin rule, 6 or 7 inches wide, • ith a line and plummet swinging in the middle of it, in order to ascertain that the walls re carried up perpendicularly. 4. The level, which is about 10 or 12 feet long, with a ertical rule attached to it, in which a line and plummet are suspended, the use of which is i try the level of the walls at various stages of the building as it proceeds, and particularly the window sills and wall plates. 5. The large square, for setting out right angles. . The rod, for measuring lengths, usually 5 or 10 feet long. 7. Tk e jointing rule, about or 10 feet long, as one or two bricklayers are to use it, and 4 inches broad, with which icy run or mark the centre of each joint of the brickwork. 8. The jointer, which is of on, shaped like the letter S. 9. The compasses, for traversing arches and vaults. 10. The iker, a piece of iron having two knees or angles, dividing it into three parts at right angles each other, the two end parts being pointed and equally long, and standing upon contrary !es of the middle part. Its use is to rake out decayed mortar from the joints of old walls r the purpose of replacing it with new mortar, or, as it is called, pointing them. 1 1 . The d, which is a wooden trough shut close across at one extremity and open at the other, le sides consist of two boards at right angles to each other; from where they meet a indie projects at right angles to their union. It is used by the labourer for conveying irks and mortar to the bricklayer ; for which purpose, when he has the latter office to rform, he strews dry sand on its inside, to prevent the mortar from sticking. 12. Tho o: pins, which are ot iron, for fastening and stretching the line at proper intervals of the dl, that each course may be kept straight in the face and level on the bed. The pins have line attached to them of 60 ft. to each pin. 13. The rammer, used f ir trying the ground, well as for beating it solid to the utmost degree of compression. 13. The iron crow and ■kaxe, for breaking and cutting through walls or moving heavy weights. 14. The grind- t stone, for sharpening axes, hammers, and other tools. The following ten articles rolato i ely to the preparation and cutting of gauged arches. 15. The banker, which is a bench ■rn 6 to 1 2 ft. long, according to the number of workmen who aro to work at it. It is t. 6 inches to 3 ft. wide, arid about 2 ft. 8 in. high. Its use is for preparing tho bricks rubbel arches, and for other gauged work. 16. The camber slip, a piece of wood, rally about half an inch thick, with at least one curved edge, rising about 1 inch in ■ t, for drawing the sofito line of straight arches. When the other edge is curved, it i s a I «>ut half that of the other, that is, about half an inch in 6 feet, for the purpose of 1 wing tho upper lino of the arch, so as to prevent it becoming hollow by tho settling of 1 arch. Hie upperedgo is not always cambered, many preferring it straight. The slip 1 e sufficiently long, it answers the width of many openings ; and when tho bricklayer has 1 hi i arch, he delivers it to tho carpenter to prepare the centre for it. 17. Tho rubbing " This is of a cylindrical form, about 20 inches diameter, but may be less. It is fixed at 1 end of tho banker, upon a bed of mortar. After tho bricks for the gauged work have I i rough-shaped by the axe, they aro rubbed smooth on tho rubbing stone. Tho headers n Htreteh-rs, in return, whieli are not axod, are called rubbed returns and rubbed headers » stretchers. 18. The bedding stone, which is a straight pieco of marble 18 or 20 inches in b Mi, of any thickness, and about 8 or 1 0 inches wide. It is used to i ry the rubbed side of a 1 k. w >i n ii must be first squared to prove whether its surface bo straight, so as to fit it a i tho leading shew back, or leading end of the arch. 19. The si/iuire, for trying tho 1 bug of the bricks, and squaring the softies acrjss the breadth of the bricks. 20. The " • for drawing tie sofito line on tile face of tho bricks. 21 . The mould, for forming the I inti back of tho brick, in order to reduce it in thickness to its proper taper, one edge ot in mould being brought close to the bed of the brick when squared. The mould has a m b tor every course ot tho arch. 22. The set the, a spike or large nail, ground to a sharp 1" t, t> , mark the bricks on the face and back by the tapering edges of tho mould, fir the 5G0 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. purpose of cu'ting them. 23. The tin saw, used for cutting thesofite lines about one eighth of an inch deep, first by tile edge of the level on the face of the brick, then by the edge of the square on the bed of the br ck, in order to enter the brick axe, and to keep the brick from spalting. The saw is also used for cutting the sofite through its breadth in thedirec- tion of the tapering lines, drawn upon t e face and back edge of the brick; but the cutting is always made deepieronthe face and back of the brick than in the middle of its thickness, for the above-mentioned purpose of entering the axe. The saw is also used for cutting the false joints of headers and stretchers. 24. The brick axe, for axing off the sofites of bricks t'> the saw cuttings, and the sides to the lines drawn by the scribes. The bricks being always rubbed smooth after axing, the more truly they are axed the less labour will be requisite in rubbing them. 25. The templet. This is used for taking the length of the stretcher and width of the header. 26. The chopping block , for reducing the bricks to their intended size and form by axing them. It is made of any piece of wood that comes to hand, from 6 to 8 inches square, and generally supported upon two 14-inch brick piers, if only two men work at it ; but if four men, the chopping block must be lengthened and supported by three piers, and so on accordingto ihe number employed at it. It is about 2 ft. 3 in. in height. 27. The float-stone, which is used for rubbing curved work to a smooth surface such as the cylindrical backs and spherical heads of niches, to take out the axe marks. Jt is, before application to them, made of a form reversed to the surface whereon it is applied so as to coincide with it as nearly as poss ble in finishing. Bonding. 1891 . Before adverting to the bond, as it is technically called, of brick walling, which i.‘ file form of connection of the bricks with each other, it must be observed that in working: walls not more than 4 or 5 feet should be brought up at a time; for as, in settiog, the mortar shrinks and a general subsidence takes place, the part first brought up, if too largt in quantity, will have come to its bearing before the adjacent parts are brought up, and thin fissure' in the work and unequal settlements will take place. In carrying up any particula. part above another, it should always be regularly sloped back to receive the adjoining part to the right and to the left. On no account should any part of a wall be carried highe. than one scaffold, except for some very urgent object. 1892. Previous to the re : gn of William and Mary (1689-1702), brick buildings ii England were constructed in what is called English bond; and subsequent to the reign ii question, when, in building as in many other cases, Dutch fashions were introduced much to the injury of our houses' strength, the workmen have become so infatuate with what is called Flemish bond, that it is difficult to drive them out of it. To the intro duction of the latter has been attributed (in many cases with justice) the splitting c walls into two thicknesses ; to prevent which, expedients have been adopted which woul be altogether unnecessary if a return to the general use of English boud could be esta Wished. 1893. In clnp. i. sect. ix. of this book (1503. ct srq.) vve have spoken generally ' 1 ' walls; our observations here, therefore, in respect of them, will be confined to briio walls and their bond. 1894. English bond is that disposition of bricks in a wall in which (expect at the quoins the courses are alternately composed of headers and stretchers. In britk waiting, and indec « in stone walling also, a course means the horizontal layer of bricks or stones of which tl< wall is composed, being contained between two faces parallel to the horizon, and terminal on eaeh side by tbe vertical face of the wall. The mass formed by Wick or stones in an arch are also termed courses, but receive the name of concentric coux*ses. The term header is applied to a brick or stone whose small head or end is seen in the external face of the wall; and that of stretcher to a brick or stone whose length is parallel to the face of the wall. English bond is to be understood as a continuation either of header or stretcher, continued throughout in ihe same course or horizontal layer, and hence described as consisting of alternate layers of headers and stretchers (fig. 616.), the former serving to bind the wall together in a transverse direc- tion or widthwise and thus prevent its splitting, whilst the latter binds it lengthwise, or in a longitudinal direction. None but the English bond prevents the former occurrence, as work executed in this way when so umlermined as to cause a fracture, separates, but rarely breaks through the solid brick, as if the wall were composed of one entire piece. 1895. The ancient Roman brickwork was executed on this iAP. TII. BRICKLAYING AND TILING. 561 inciple ; and its extraordinary durability is as much to be attributed to that sort of work ing used for bonding it together, as to its extraordinary thickness. 1896. In this, as well as Flemish bond, to which we shall presently come, it will be ob- ■ved, that the length of a brick being but 9 inches, and its width inches, in order to ak the joints (that is, that one joint may not come over another), it becomes necessary ir the angles to interpose a quarter brick or bat, a, called a queen closer, in order to pre- ve the continuity of the bond in the heading course. The bond, however, may equally preserved hy a three-quarter bat at the angle in the stretching course, in which case s last bat is called a king closer. In each case an horizontal lap of two inches and a half is t for the next header. The figure above given is that of a two-brick or 18-inch wall, hut • student will have no difficulty in drawing, on due consideration of it, a diagram of the id for any other thickness of wall ; recollecting, first, that each course is formed either of iders or stretchers. Secondly, that every brick in the same course and on the same e of the wall must be laid in the same direction, and that in no instance is a brick to be .ced with its whole length against the side of another, but in such way that the end of j may reach to the middle of the others that lie contiguous to it, excepting in the outside the stretching course, where three-quarter bricks, or king closers, will of course be neees- y at the ends, to prevent a continued upright joint in the face of the work. Thirdly, it a wall crossing at right angles with another will have all the bricks of the same level irse in the same parallel direction, whereby the angles will be completely bonded. We II close these observations with a recommendation to the young architect, founded on r own experience, on no account, in any building where soundness of work is a desidera- n, to permit any other than English bond to be executed under his superintendence. S97. Flemish bond is that wherein the -same course consists alternately of headers and ■tellers, which, in appearance, some may fancy superior to that just described. Such is our opinion. We think that the semblance of strength has much to do with that of uty in architecture. But there is in the sufferance of Flemish bond a vice by which •ngth is altogether lost sight of, which we shall now describe. It was formerly, though now I ially, the practice to face the front walls of houses with guaged or rubbed bricks, or with east a superior species of brick, as the malm stock ; in the former cases, the bricks being r need in thickness, and laid with a flat thin joint frequently, what the workmen call a putty V t, for the external face, the outer and inner work of the same courses in the same wall, not c esponding in height, could not be bonded together except where occasionally the courses li even, where a header was introduced from the outside to tie or bond the front to the in- i' al work. Hence, as the work would not admit of this, except occasionally, from the " t of correspondence between the interior and exterior courses, the headers would be Uoduced only where such correspondence took place, which » Id only occur in a height of several courses. Thus a wall 1 bricks in thickness, if faced on both sides, was very little u cd better than three thin walls, the two outer half a brick I I k, and the middle one a brick or 9 inches thick. Brick - la rs having iittle regard for their character will, if not pre- v < cd by the architect, not only practise this expedient, but w also, unless vigilantly watched, when a better sort of brick is m for the facing, cut the headers in half to effect a paltry saving o| e better material. In walls of one brick and a half in thick- the strength of the wall is not diminished by the use of I lisli bond so much as in those of greater thickness, as may 1,1 -cii by the diagram ( Jig . 617.). Many expedients have 6c invented to obviate the inconveniences of Flemish bond ; ve think it rather useful to omit them, lest we should be lered as parties to a toleration of its use, for the continu- whercof no substantial reason can be assigned. As we before observed, all that can be alleged in its favour is a 1 1K ' Cl7 in respect of its appearance : but were the English mode executed with the same tion and neatness bestowed on the Flemish method, we should say it was coually • ful ; and therefore we shall thus close our notice of it. s. Hie two principal matters to be considered in brick walling are, first, that the 6<- as strong as possible in the direction of its length. Secondly, that it be so con- m its transverse direction that it should not be capable of separating in thicknesses, roduce the first, independent of the extraneous aid of bond timbers, plates. Ac., it is sit the method which affords the greatest quantity of longitudinal bond is to lie ■ A, as in the transverse direction is that which gives the greatest quantity of bond in ion ot the thickness. VV'e will, to exemplify this, take a piece of walling •! bricks I bricks high, and ‘1 bricks the, k, of English bond : in this will occur ‘.i‘2 stretchers, id, rs, and 1 0 hall headers to break the joint, or prevent one joint falling over another, in an equal piece ol walling constructed in Flemish bond, there will occur only VO o o b co at Ml fui all k«. »• nc< To cie pri dip Ion VI Ni 562 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. stretchers and 42 headers ; from which the great superiority of English bond may be at once inferred. 1899. Bond Timber should be used in pieces as long as circumstances will admit. In walls where the thickness will allow of it, some prefer that the timber should be laid in the centre, so that when it decays no material damage is done. Also that in case of fit e, tin- bond timber is not affected by it. If so placed, when dressings of wood are required, wooden plugs must be provided to which to secure them. When a fire occurs and the bond is next the inside face, it is burnt out, and the strength of a thin wall, say 9 or 1 4 inches thick, is seriously affected thereby. Two or three tiers in the height of the room are usually employed. 1899«. However useful timber may be in bonding thin walls whilst the brickwork is vet green, it has for some years been entirely superseded by hoop iron bond. This consists ol narrow and thin stiips of iron (see Smitherv) laid between two courses of bricks. The iron should be tarred and sanded, the former as a preservative from rust, the latter to afford a firmer hold to the mortar. Some authorities go so far as to state that hoop iron bond, unless it is set in a cement course, is not so efficient as wood bond. A tier of bond h placed in each three feet of height, one strip of iron to each half brick. In extensive works, or in special cases, two, three, or more, tiers are recommended. In addition to the use ol concrete on clay soils, it may be occasionally useful to build all the footings for four or si- courses in height of brickwork in cement, each course well bonded with hoop iron, laid both longitudinally and diagonally; it is perhaps better than a course of Yorkshire stone (par 1 882.) as the bond is continuous. During the execution of the works, the iron is continued through all openings as with wood bond ; the latter is cut away when requisite, but tin former should be turned down against the brickwork. The laps at a junction should he care fully made to secure the continuity of the tie. An addition to the plain band of iron ha- been introduced, and Tyerman's patent notched hoop iron bond has been extensively em- ployed. It consists in forming a slight notch at intervals of 1 1^ inches on both sides al ternately, and turning it up in succession, in contrary directions, forming a triangula piece, whereby a better key is obtained upon the bricks and mortar. 1903. Mortar joints. The propriety of using mortar beds as thin as possible, has bee- inculcated in this work, and most specifications state that four courses of brickwork forme- of the ordinary sized bricks are not to rise more than 1 1-J ; sometimes 12 inches is named, a the joints should not exceed ^ths of an inch. When good mortar is used that sets rapidly the joint might be thicker than thus allowed. In Roman and most Eastern work, tile join was usually 1 and lj inches thick, and where the mortar has been good, such buildings si executed are sound after centuries of wear. “In modern practice, in all masonry and brickuoi where strength is required rather than ornament, thick beds and joints of good morn will be useful. Thin bricks or tilts will also be better than thick bricks, as the materi: will be better burned, and consequently more enduring. More good mortar can also 1 used, which in such work gives strength.” Such is the practical opinion of R. Rawlins;- ! ( Budder , xxi. page 152), who declares that “the proportion of mortar to rubble stonewor should he about 1 to 3, that is, in 4 cubic yards of rubble wall there should not be less ilia?) i 1 cubic yard of mortar. In brickwoik (ordinary bricks) the proportion will be 1 to If thin hricks be used, or if very small stone be used for rubble- work, the proportions ma , be as 1 to 1.” It has been urged that the peculiarity of early Norman masonry, even ol t period of bishop Gundulph, is that of very thick beds of mortar. Mr. Rawlinson furtli ( adds, “ As a general rule, buildings whether of marble, limestone, sandstone, or of brickwm alone, or of brick and terracotta combined, which are ornamental in character, must a * have thin joints and beds. Thick beds and joints of mortar would destroy the harmony design by deteriorating the appearance of labour bestowed on the rich materials in sut buildings.” 1900a. The fine joints of rubbed brickwork are formed by lime putty, being mort reduced to the consistency of cream ; the bricks are dipped into it to take up a coating, ai then driven close upon each other. Ashlar work is usually set in a putty formed ol In' white lead, and a small quantity of very fine sand. 1 9006. The surfaces of many of the machine-made bricks are so hard as to prevent t mortar sticking, unless first coated with sand. Many walls on being pulled down ba shown that the mortar had had no hold upon the bricks; a key had only been formed I tween two bricks by the holes at their ends. A wall, though built in first rate wor was easily shaken to pieces, even after it had been built four or five years. Bricks, esp ciallv in hot weather, should be soaked in water (par. 1832a.); and even some ol I courses of bricks should be sprinkled with water, to prevent, the brick absorbing all mo ture from the mortar before the lime has had time to crystallise. The walls, hotveu take longer to dry ; as is aKo the case when grouting (par. 1860.) is employed. An 1 teresting communication fiom Norway has been printed in the Jo imais of January, explaining how brickwork is carried on there in the winter; “such walls dry quicker tit those raised in summer.” The description is too long to be here further advertec to. HAP. III. BRICKLAYING AND TILING. 563 1900c. The mortar or cement should be such as will quickly set, to prevent the super- cuinbent weight pressing the joints closer, and thereby causing settlements, which even ith the greatest care, often take place unequally. As o'ten as it is conjectured, from the iture of the soil, or from the foundation being partly new and partly old, that the work ill not come to its bearing equally, it is better to carry up the suspected parts separately, id to leave at their ends what are called toothings , by which junctions may be made when e weaker parts have come to their regular sound bearing. 1900ilg it : or ‘jointed,’ as done by a tool called a jointer (par. 1890, art. 8), so as to leave ine impressed on the mortar : or ‘flush joint,’ in which case the joint is drawn at top d bottom with the trowel when the brick is laid, and afterwards when the mortar is par- tly set, the middle of the joint is flushed flat with the ‘jointer ;’ this is sometimes called high joint.’ 1901. A bricklayer, with the assistance of one labourer, can, if he be so inclined, lay in e day about 1000 bricks in common walling; but the trades unions now prevent him m laying more than about one-third that number. Occasionally, for a higher rernune- ion some non-union man may be found to lay near the former number, and then he old complete a rod of brickwork in four days and a half, its area being 272^- feet stiper- al of the thickness of one brick and a half. When, however, there are many apertures or er interruptions to his work, he will be proportionably longer over it. The weight i rod of brickwork is about 13 tons. Generally it may be taken as consisting of from X) to 4500 stock bricks, allowing for waste according to the quality of tire bricks, bushels of chalk lime, and 3 single loads of drift sand, or 18 bushels of stone lime and •ingle loads of sand. In cement, of 36 bushels, and the same quantity of sharp sand, od of brickwork laid dry contains 5370 bricks. A cubic yard contains 384 bricks, requires about 61 cubic feet of sand and 2j of lime. A ton of bricks contains about on an average. 330 well burnt bricks weigh generally about 20 cwt.,so that a cubic weighs about 125 lbs. 902. Brick-nogging is a method of constructing a wall or partition with a row of posts uarters 3 feet apart, whose intervals a>e filled up with occasional plates of wood with kwork between. It is rarely more than the width of a brick in thickness, and the ks and timbers on the f ees are flush. It should never be used where thickness can be lined for a nine-inch wall. A halfbrick nogged partition will require about 500 bricks; bole brick-nogged partition about 1000 bricks; and with brick on edge about 340. 402a. A lialf-lirick partition built in mortar is now adopted in many of the model png houses, sometimes with an occasional hoop iron bond. These arc built four, five, a | six stories in height, the joists of the floors steadying them as they are carried up. Of ”■ sc the apartments in such places are small in all their dimensions, being about 12 feet , 9 feet wide, and from 9 to 9 feet 6 inches in height. A half-brick wall of greater nsi'.ns may be built in cement, and when the floor joists are laid upon it, it becomes steadv, strong, and little likely to be injured by a fire. Thin slabs of stone have been as partitions in small houses near a quarry. Tiles in cement with wood plugs in- ti for the dressings, make a sound partition, and when plastered direct upon the tiles, kes up much less room than a one-brick wall. 1 - 1 ’. Many varieties of hollow bricks are made for a similar purpose. The “ patent bonded w bricks or rebated tiles " (.fig. 6 1 7a.) of Ilertslet and were employed in 1846—7, by Ilenry Roberts in the lodging lions ■ in George Street, St. Giles's ; as also in •-called Prince Albert's model houses, erected in Hyde in 18.(1, and removed to Kenningtou Park. A is a stone; B concrete, C floor boards, and 1) a tie rod. ,i used lor partitions, or for roof and floor arches, these bricks are fireproof, deaden sound more effectually, r- considerably ligher, than solid brickwork. Such as a lining to stone or flint walls, supersede the neccs- r battening. They are also well adapted for cottage // Jlow brohs can be made by any good tile machine, O 0 9 Ik t!< nr ib Pi bn W bn mu I ri lit ll'iV 564 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. in the same manner as ordinary drain pipes. They are more compressed, require less drying, and are generally better burned than ordinary bricks. An interesting and complete paper on the subject, with illustrations on the English and French systems of making hollow bricks, is given in the Building News for 1858. 1902c. Hollow walls, formed of ordinary stock bricks, were employed for two-story cot tages early in this century. Three methods are usually adopted in the construction of a wall. I. All the bricks placed on edge, as Jig. 6 175, the stretchers and headers breaking joints, and the headers , l 1 T forming the bond, Many persons consider that this arrangement produces a disagree- ~r able appearance on the outside face. II. All T the bricks laid flatways, but the stretchers are sawn in half, so as to leave a space of 4 tins, between them ; and in laying the headers, as Jig. 617c. care must be taken only to fill up witli mortar the joints over the half brick - on edge, so as to leave the middl TJ'/'ff- Dffirf'&f* t i H:/TT:r:rn , '..\rTT ^ - r " m Fig. 617c. III. T of the joint open. lay all the bricks flat in the usual English bond, leaving a space of about 2 inches bis tween each face, and to make up the thickness thus caused, viz. 1 1 or lit incites, by bat to each header. This may be varied by using a less number of headers, and placin' ; two or three stretchers together, according to the strength of the work required. A Southampton, and perhaps elsewhere, headers are not used, the two faces being bondc together by hoop-iron cramps (Jig- 617 d.), with forked ends, }|ths by T tjth inch, tailii into the frogsof thebrick (Jig. 6 1 7e. ), an d having a bead in the middle of its length partly as a strut to the inside, and partly to prevent any moisture Fig. 617/. Fig. Clle. running along it to the inside face. A cast iron cramp (Jig. 617/.) is also made, 1 inch T ; ; ths in. thick. Jennings has adopted bonding bricks of stoneware for hollow wall Fig. 617 g. shows the application of the three sizes; A is 131 inches long, to be used garden walls and other places where an uniform face is not required ; 13 is 1 1 q inches lot Fig. C17/i. where but one uniform face is required (the brick is shown to a larger size in Jig. 617 h) ' end of the bond brick being faced with a closure of the same material as the wall; am- is a brick 9 inches long, when both faces are to be uniform, closures being used at In ; < ends of it. A 16 inch hollow wall can be built with a 9 inch inside wall, a 2 inch spa; and a 4^ inch wall outside, and so on. Such a wall is of very common erection in No America, and it is found to stand very well for country villas of good dimensions. 1902 d. Much diversity of opinion exists as to whether the space so left should ventilated by air gratings just above the ground, and also by others under the coping obtain a current of air and secure dryness if water be blown through the outer brickwo In exposed situations, especially on the sea-coast, if hollow walls are not built, either wall lias to be slated on the outside ; or it has to be battened on the inside, even wl cemented on the outside, to prevent damp showing on the interior surface. Hollow cem blocks have lately been introduced in France, and are said to be cheap, as dura as stone, ventilation easily secured, and provide for the ready formation of shafts for " air or for flues. The blocks have a resistance of 430 lbs. to the square inch, and adapted to walls about 20 inches thick as well as to partitions of less width. 1902e. Mr. Taylor has adopted an arrangement of an interior face of common In b, with an exterior facing block of a better manufactured brick a, in the shape ol the lei p. III. BRICKLAYING AND TILING. K5 Fig. 617i. leaving a cavity of 2 or more inches between •m, {fii 7 . 617i). 1903. Groined arches. A groin is the angular rve formed by the intersection of two semi cylin- rs or arches. The centering for raising the more nple groins that occur in using brick arches, iongs to the section Carpentry. The turning imple arch on a centre only requires care to keep j courses as close as possible, and to use very tie mortar on the inner part of the joints. In ■cuting a brick groin, the difficulty arises from - peculiar mode of making proper bond, at the ersection of the two circles as they gradually rise the crown, where they form an exact point. At intersection of these angles, the inner rib should perfectly straight and perpendicular to a diagonal line drawn on the plan. After tha itres are set, the application of the brick to ti e ang’e will immediately show in what ection it is to be cut. With respect to the sides, they are turned as for common cylin- ic vaults. Mr. George Tappen, an ar- ^ iiect of great practical skill, introduced /' ^ \ nethod of constructing groins rising from (angular piers, which bad the advantage not only imparting strength to the angle, ich in the common groin is extremely cient but of increasing the space for ■ stow age or removal of goods, and fur- y r, of strengthening the angles of the / ' in in this construction by carrying the . Lindsay and Co.’s patent system, wherein a steel decking is introduced, and , also their patent trussed concrete flooring. The steel flooring is manufactured of two different strengths, varying from 4 inches to 14 inches in depth, and suitable for spans of from 15 feet to 50 feet clear. It is stated as perfectly and equally distributing the floor j loads to the surrounding walls, and as acting as a complete tie to the building; not! affected by settlements of the walls ; and is 30 per cent, lighter than ordinary arched floors. The trussed fireproof flooring is laid with pumice concrete, enclosing small joists joined] by steel truss rods twisted together every 18 inches; or formed as an arch underneath between girders to 14 feet span. A slab of this concrete, 2 feet span and \\ inches thick, j was loaded to 22 cwt. on the foot without injury. For a space of 30 feet the depth of the I decking is only 5 in. to support a load of l^cwt, per foot super. Brick partitions can bo! placed on this decking and concrete in any position, independentof walls or girders under- neath. This flooring has been largely used in the National Liberal Club, by R. W. Edis, ] architect. The top table is made thicker than the sides, and the sectional strength is thereby greatly increased, and the various sections are riveted together at a point which is! very close indeed to the neutral axis. The concrete is called “pumice concrete,” as it is very light and tough ; considered to be a good material for constructing roofs, domes, & c. 1903g. The “ Doulton-Peto ” patent fireproof flooring, in principle consists of a series of hollow blocks of stoneware placed between rolled iron joists, making a flat ceiling, which I may be plastered or not. The iron girders are fixed in the ordinary way, but not so close together as usual. The tile next to the side of the girder is specially shaped to sei against and beneath it, so as to isolate it completely. The fig. 617/. shows tile: made for a flat ceiling, and set in cement ; if no ceiling, then the under side is mm smooth to receive whitewash, &c. Tu( tiles for ordinary floors are 6 inchc high and about 1 foot thick. The floor is stated to be one-third lighter than concrete or brickwork. A flat root can also be formed with them. Where ai arch is desired between each girder another form of springer (fig. 617w has been adopted. It has stood th test of upwards of 6 cwt. tc tho fo" dead weight on material only, and will an arch of 6 feetspan and quite flat. O' an arch of 8 feet span a cask of graphite weighing 7 cwt. has been rolled and. rocked, t vibration doing no injury. A fire has been lighted beneath, making it red hot in p a and while in that state a hose has been turned on with a considerable pressure o ' without the least effect. It has also been tested with unevenly distributed weigi s ^‘ with vibration and concussion, all which it has successfully withstood. This flooring ; ■ • been used throughout at the London Pavilion, where it was found very advanag from its lightness, the speed with which it was constructed, and its cleanliness. a , building of four stories at Messrs. Poulton's factory has been similarly construe e HAP. III. CONCRETE BUILDING. 569 lat firm ; the under tide of the flooring has not been plastered. ( Builder , Dec. 19, 1885, 877. Transactions of the Eoyal Institute of British Architects, 1886, p. 130.) 1903r. Bunnett's patent floor consists of hollow bricks laid in the form of a flat arch, ■sting on angle irons tied together by tension rods. Each brick is so arranged as to :ceive support from six adjoining bricks. Measures’ patent floor consists of iron joists ith iron fillets 9 inches apart, at right angles to the joists, and resting on their lower mges, and cement concrete filled in, embedding joists and fillets. Hyatt's patent dove- i led corrugated iron sheets are used for fire-resisting iron and concrete floors, ceilings, d partitions, giving great strength combined with lightness. Partitions can be made of ortland cement, concrete, and iron, only two inches thick, the iron being completely pro- ved. The Wight fireproofing Company of America has introduced many novelties ( Builder , '87, p. 701). Parous terra-cotta is made in America by mixing sawdust with the clay ; viug been burnt it was perfectly fireproof, and although spongy, unless dipped in water was not absorbent, but was rather a dry material, besides being one of the best non- nductors of heat and sound. It weighed about half that of ordinary brick. It was ;ed to line outside walls to keep them perfectly dry ; also as fixing blocks, because the >.ils could be driven into it more easily than into deals. It makes a good fireproof roof ■ placing sheets of it on the flanges of JL iron ; it came a little above the edge, and the ates or tiles could be nailed directly on this. Fireproof flooring bricks were made of rra-cotta, and were a great saving in strength of materials. 1903s. A concrete floor to the various stories of a building has often been formed, but ■t always with success. A system is explained in the Builder for April 3, 1886, which ould he well studied. Concrete slabs, the largest of which is 21 feet by 12 feet 6 inches, an average thickness of 13 inches, sustained the great loads and rudely impactive ces of a wholesale provision trade, in a warehouse at Sunderland, erected by Mr. ank Caws, whose description, though concise, is too long to be here inserted. 10037. If properly mixed, care taken in laying, and thorough cleansing of all broken iterials used, then the results may be satisfactory. To receive stone paving and for mways, concrete is laid in successive layers of cement and gravel in proper propor- ris, not too moist, for the requisite thickness, well beaten down with iron beaters. For loor finish, d thick layer of about an inch of the cement and gravel finished off with a ootber, care being taken not to work up too fine a surface. The proportions to be used • 1 part of Portland cement, 4 of gravel, and 6 of broken stone, the latter to pass •ongh a 2b-inch ring. Concrete flat floors are cheaper and equally as strong as arched ' ws, and should be at least from 5 to 6 inches thick. Such a floor will carry a safe 1 1 of about 5 cwt. per superficial foot. One tested went further. Jt was made of 1 of 1 'cut, 3 of gravel, and 3 of well-washed broken stones to pass a 1 )-inch ring, the 1 -hing layer being of cement and gravel. The Portland cement should be tested, for proper strength is of importance. (John Garthwaite, of Liverpool, 1885.) 903m. For town buildings these various patents afford tho means for obtaining flat ’ which have many advantages for the inhabitants, as affording a promenade. They * *' to be thoroughly well constructed. Two of the latest constructions are at the new < v police station, Cloak Lane, Cannon Street, having a superficial aroa of 2600 feet, I ned of iron joists, carrying concreto covered by a layer of one inch of the finest Pyri- " it-Scyssel asphalte, the skirtings being of the same material ; a thin layer of very fine > clean pebbles from the sea shore were applied to the surface while hot. The otlior r is to tho Army and Navy Auxiliary Supply Association in Francis Street, Wcstmiu- ' , having a superfices of about 12,000 square feet, and is of tho same construction. CONCRETE BUILDING. '03w. Tho Metropolitan Board of Works have approved of such structures, and havo ‘ » the following regulations to bo observed in their formation : — b Jbo concreto to be used to bo composod of Portland comont and of clean Thames ballast, or gravel, or crushed smiths’ clinkers, or brick burrs, or small broken stonos, or any hard and durable substance ; und each to bo passed through a sen-on having a mesh not exceeding 2 inches in diameter. Sand to bo in, or added to, such materials in tho proportion of one to two. All such materials to <*> perfectly clean, and froo from all greasy, loamy, or clayey matter. 1 he»o materials and cement to bo mixed in tho proportion of not more than 8 parts of mat erial as aforesuid, by measure, to ono part by mcasuro of tho best Portland cement. . .a making tho concrete, a box 2 feet by 4 feet by 2 feet, or other like proportions, is to lie used for tho materials other than the cement, and another box, capable of holding ono sack or half a cask containing 2 bushels, is to be used for tho comont. I tin cone nt. and tho materials are to bo turned over at least three times, and thoroughly mixed together with water. I he walls of tho buildings to be carriod up all round in regular layers with con- crete thus composed, and grouted with cement in tho proportion of 1 of cement 570 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I] to 2 of clean sharp sand after each layer, until the walls are completed in heigh 1 The grout to be made as mortar first, and then thinned with water to th necessary consistence. V. The concrete to be well and thoroughly bound together, so as to secure the com plete adhesion of the materials and work during its progress. VI. The thickness of walls to be equal, at the least, to the thicknesses for brickwor. prescribed in the Building Act. VII. Suitable cores to be used for flues, and also for recesses. Flues to be formed wil stoneware or fireclay pipes, not less than half an inch in thickness, uuh properly pargeted. VIII. Dior and window frames to be built into the wads. IX. The portions of the party walls and chimney stacks above the roofs of buildings 1 be rendered externally with Portland cement. X. The rules of the Metropolitan Building Act, 1855, as to the use of timber in wall; and other rules of that Act, so far as they may be applicable to concrete building: are to be observed. 1903«i. This concession was made after many attempts to obtain it, by Philip Brannoi j by Tall, Drake, and others. Mr. Wonnacott read a paper in 1871, On the Use of Portia h,' Cement Concrete as a Building Material, which enters fully into the merits and demerit of this construction. It was supplemented by another paper, Remarks on Concrei\ Building, by A. W. Blomfield, who summarises the whole thus: The chief advantage are, I. Cheapness; II. Strength and durability; III. Rapidity of construction; Pi Economy of space. The chief drawbacks are : I. Its liability to failure, from the use < \ improper materials, or from the want of knowledge and proper care, or from the wilfi misuse of good materials; II. The limits which the material and method of constnu tion impose on architectural design and decoration. 1903a:. J. Tall advertises concrete construction for cottages ; door and window franu Brake and Co., concrete building apparatus ; dovetailed self-fixing building slabs; marLli and granite facing bricks ; fireproof floors, doors, staircases, wall tiles, &c.; window head copings, terminals, steps ; marble concrete baths. W. H. Lascelles has, panelled slat and concrete backings screwed to stud work; walls built of Potter’s patent cement slat; plain and moulded concrete forms of all varieties in building and ornamentation, ; window sills, doorjambs, gables; concrete ceilings; and chimneypieces. The Eitrchi Concrete Company has steps, sills, strings, balusters, fireproof floors, mantelpiece < thresholds ; copings ; a concrete door of four panels, hung in position and fitted with lee) ■Faija's concrete, hardened by his new patent process. J. Wright and. Co. have made a “improved concrete lintel,” having a curved upper surface and a X iron passing throng it lengthways; with their fixing block inserted to receive the sash or door frame. 8' also par. 18647; and Artificial Stone. 1903 y. In 1887 Mr. W. Simpson read a paper before the Royal Institute of Brili; Architects entitled Mud Architecture, relating many methods of construction of siniib materials in various countries; further interesting references were made in the discussu." and correspondence of that year. 1903cks are about 18 inches wide by 12 inches high, and are of two thicknesses, those for ■ outer wall being 4 or 5 inches, and for the inner about 3 or 3J inches thick. These ■ tied together by pieces of iron, leaving a space of about 3 inches between them. This ■ms what looks, to those accustomed to the 2 feet thick solid walls of Scotch houses, a nsy wall, but it appears to be sufficiently strong for carrying another story over the ce between the walls, forms a structure which, in a sanitary point of viow, may bo isiderod perfect. Some would prefer to have the inner wall of brickwork. 1903 Taist.e of the Resistance to Thrusting Stress of Nine 2-incii Cubes of Concrete, bedded between Pine thref.-eighths of an inch Thick. By I). Kirkaldy, fur W. II. Lascellcs, May, 1881. Cracked slightly. Remarks. Stress. Per sq. inch. Per eq. foot. Builder , xl. p. CIO. lbs. lbs. tons. 1 19,162 4,790 308 0 Neat cement, made Dec. 15, 1880. 2 18,C‘i8 4,657 299 4 Ditto. 3 16,298 4,074 201 9 Neat cement, made March 8, 1881. 4 12,982 3,245 208 6 3 of cement to 10 of ground material, made 5 12,218 3,002 196-9 Jan. 18, 1881. Ditto. 0 8,188 2,122 130-4 1 of cement to 4 of ground material, made 7 8,023 2,000 1290 Jan. l, 1881. Ditto. 8 5,838 1,159 93 8 1 of cement to 4 of ground material, made ' 9 6,790 1,449 031 Jan. 1, 1881. Ditto. 1 O.T// 7 . I ho use of concrete has extended from tho foundations of buildings, backings ot'hwfx, retaining walls, nnd abutments of nrchos, to the employment of it. lor tho "I vaults to produeo 11 level Hurf.iee; for the oibstance of fireproof floors; for of fhiors, pavements, nnd roods; for tho wulls, floors, &c. of houses, bridges, »' moles; and various other purposes. 572 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. 1904. Mauy ornamental brick cornices may be formed by but little cutting, ami changing the position of the bricks employed, and several, indeed, without cutting, by chamfering only. Of late years the machines for making bricks have permitted the ex- tensive use of moulded bricks of different forms, which have entirely superseded the more artistic advantages of cut brickwork to required outlines or ornamental details. 1905. Niches may be formed in brickwork. They constitute the most difficult part of the bricklayer’s practice. The centre will be described under the section Carpentry. The difficulty in forming them arises from the thinness to which the bricks must be reduced at the inner circle, as they cannot extend beyond the thickness of one brick at the crown or top, it being the usual as well as much the neatest method to make all the courses standing. 1905n. Flues. It has been an established rule to build flues 14 inches by 9 inches, 14 inches square, or larger, for kitchen fireplaces, because it suited the size of the bricks and bonding, contained a sufficient amount of superficial area, and afforded a space for a boy sweeper to ascend them. Since then circular pipe flues, 8, 9, 10, 12 inches diameter, or oblong p>ipes with rounded corners, have been adopted by many, the inside being smooth. These are easily swept, and no lodgments of soot and brick rubbish take place. An objection has been made, if the pipes he glazed, that during a storm, or other con- cussion, the soot falls dow r n into the room if the register flap be not shut. These pipes make good work at the gatherings. It is almost an invariable rule to make the flue tho same size throughout ; there is also the theory that the flue should be made larger at the top, and also smaller at the top, similar to a factory shaft. Also that a tail-boy is useless, for the top should only be finished by a terminal of a few inches, just sufficient to divide the rushing currents and allow them to pass between each pot. The fireplace should be covered over at the usual springing line by a slab of stone, or concrete, or iron plate, with an aperture in the centre of the size of the intended flue. On this the brickwork is carried up. Above it, in the breast, has been formed a chamber with sloping sides, to counteract any down draught. 19055. A brick flue is pargeted inside to render it smoke proof, that the velocity of tho draught should he assisted or improved, and to prevent as far as possible the lodgment and accumulation of soot. The parget, which is a mortar made of a mixture of lime and cow-dung, should he sparingly applied, but sufficient to fill up open joints and all irregu- larities in the brickwork. If applied thick, it shrinks and cracks, and falls off, and assists in making a chimney smoke. It is now recommended to use the ordinary mortar for this purpose, the brickwork being kept as smooth inside as possible, by careful pointing, as it has been found more successful for a number of years. 1905c. Paving. When neither slate, granite, Yorkshire or other stone, flint, nor shells, are used for paving, recourse is had to bricks, tiles, and asphalte. A yard superficial of brick facing requires 32 to 36 stocks laid flat; 48 to 52 laid on edge; 36 paving bricks laid flat, 82 on edge ; 140 Dutch clinkers on edge ; 9 twelve-iuch tiles; and 13 ten-inch tiles. Brick paving is laid flat in sand ; jointed in mortar ; jointed in cement ; and laid , on edge, in the same manner. Tile paving is generally laid in sand or mortar [par. 22^25). Besides the ordinary brick, some others have been introduced, especially for stables and yards, such as the Terro-metallic grooved bricks, and Towers and Williamson’s Adamantine, clinker paving bricks for stables and yards ; it is stated to be superior to the old Dutch ■clinker in shape, colour, density, and wear {par . 1829). Tebbutt’s patent safety brick for stables and yards, &c., is considered to ensure perfect foothold, drainage, easy cleaning, saving in labour and straw, to form a durable floor, and to have a good appear- ance. Each brick is 5 inches by 10 inches by 2)- inches ; and the gutter brick is of tho same size. Homan’s Quartz, Granite and Ferrolithic stone paving, for streets, public buildings, breweries, warehouses, stables, schools, &c. Bennett’s improved Granitic stone, for pavements, &c. (1887), is said to be fire, damp, and vermin proof; the .surface, , though hard and indestructible, is not slippery, it does not absorb moisture, it is laid from 1^ to 3 inches in thickness, is unaffected by the weather, and hardens by time. 31aeleod’s Metallic concrete is proof against fire, vermin, damp and frost, not slippery, and can be used for paving, wall linings, roofing, &e. It is very hard, and has been used in stabling, breweries, workshops, &c., from before 1870. Stuart’s Granolithic and impenetrable pavement (1869), is very largely employed in this country and abroad. Wilkes’ patent metallic paving and Eureka concrete is used at the war office, I be l |r " brigade stations, and police stations. W. B. Wilkinson & Co. patent a specular granitic concrete pavement, which is formed in 15-inch squares of 1} inch thickness, groin d perfectly flat, presenting a spotted appearance of red and different shades of grey | colours. It may be laid on ordinary mortar, can be used for outside purposes, and is stated to cost less than tiles. 1905ah Ordinary tile paving is made of about 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 inch tiles, of a bard and well burnt clay. The 11-inch tiles used in the footpaths, which are each 14 feet 6 inches wide, of new Westminster bridge, were made bv Blashfield, and were laid diagon- AP. III. BRICKLAYING AND TILING. 573 y (par. 1839). The Staffordshire paving tiles, in blue, red, and buff, are very durable, 1 for general purposes as effective as the more expensive qualities for inlaid purposes. 1905c. Floors and paths are often finished with a faee of J inch, 1 inch, or ly inch of rtland cement. They are considered to be best laid with the cement and sand thoroughly xed and just wetted sufficient so that a handful pressed by the hand will not fall to ces when the baud is opened. This laid down, and water brought through it by the id float, stands well. Plasterers do not like to use it so stiff. To repair any worn .ces the old cement should be thoroughly wetted before the new work is applied. 1905/. Here may be mentioned the use of encaustic or inlaid tiles for paving; of saic tiles and of tessera for mosaic work, whether for pavements or for wall decoration ; ■ Homan mosaic pavement ; the Venetian marble mosaic tiles ; Italian marble mosaic . 1 marble mosaic granite. There is also a patent wood mosaic , made of small blocks of ■ od, end grain, and prepared in tiles to pattern 6 inches square. tQOS^. To clean dirt off tiles, dilute muriatic acid, i.e. spirits of salts, may be used, : it must all be wiped off, and after w'ashing, the moisture must be wiped off with a • m dry cloth, 1905ft. Asphalte has now taken the place of most other sorts of manufactured pave- : nts of the same character. A solid foundation is prepared by a bed of concrete of Iraulic lime and gravel, with a layer of finer concrete over it, to fill up the vacuities. ien dry, the asphalte is put on, of a thickness for private purposes of about fths of an : h; for public purposes, from one to two inches: it should be applied as hot as •sible. A small quantity of pure quick lime is added to the asphalte when in ebullition, ! prevent it melting by toe heat of the sun. This material has been much used for I eshing floors of barns, for malt-houses, armouries, tun rooms (sometimes from 2 to 2| i hes thick), dissecting-rooms, dog-kennels, exercising yards, mills of many kinds, i naries, verandahs, and numerous factories and buildings. For carriage traffic, the .• halte is embedded with small Guernsey granite ehippings. This material is not t able for any floor where oil, tallow, or other greasy matter is employed. The 1 onceau and Seyssel Asphalte Company indent the surface into small squares, t rding a foothold for horses in a stable ; this is also considered useful for flat roofs •• 1 paving generally. The granite rock and Seyssel asphaltes, for floors, paving, & "roil is fixed generally.” “ I'-rra-coUa, as a superior sort of brick, has to be designed accordingly, and in string courses, cornices, and such like places, whore ordinary bricks so fixed are 1 1 l “ l ,u sffectod by the weather; and when manufactured in small pieces, for repeti- 576 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. tion work, it will come more true, will have a better appearance than when in large block 1 !, and these will fulfill all constructive requirements; while, as it can be highly decorated at a trilling expense, it can compete favourably with stone similarly used. Without doubt, it is best adapted, both as regards form and colour, for a purely decorative material. It is true there is a great difficulty in combining stone and terra-cotta in the same building effectively; but brick and terra-cotta go well together, and when used legitimately afford the happiest results. Ancient examples show its proper use, but not that as a counterfeiter of stone.” — (W. Henman in British Architect, 1887, p. 105). 1908^. For building purposes the great advantage of terra-cotta is the close and abso- lutely impervious character of the material. Whether the great advantage claimed for it as being impervious to the action of a London atmosphere, of the present day, is well founded or not, will have to be settled by the test of time, but theoretically it should Stand better than any stone under the same conditions. 1 908*. Another writer remarks as follows ; “What are the special characteristics of architectural treatment which terra-cotta demands in order to produce a satisfactory architectural and artistic result with the capabilities and peculiar character of the material? There are two points : 1. The size of the pieces is limited, and the material, while incapable of the high finish and precision attainable in stone detail, and still more, in marble, possesses, before it goes into the kiln, absolute plasticity; it can be modelled; by the hand with great ease and rapidity, and with much variety. Large projections are unsuitable; they cannot be carried out in a pure terra-cotta style, or without! assistance, open or concealed, from other materials. Nothing should be attempted in j terra-cotta architecture which is not capable of being honestly executed in the material, | without the aid of concealed supports and ties. 2. The designer has before him el.l material capable of endless variety of treatment, and the chief value of which consists in its artistic treatment. If a considerable amount of repeated ornament is required tc be economically produced, it can be obtained by a mould more easily than in mos' materials; and this continuous ornament can be produced by hand with constantly varying detail. The architect or designer may, in fact, be the actual worker of th ornamentation. With this, if s oneware be used, may be a considerable variety o colour, which is not only indestructible, but is susceptible of being cleansed, an importaD point in the midst of a town atmosphere. 1908/. “ The first really architectural use of terra-cotta was in the clay plains of Norl Italy, and it is from the productions of the archite ts of this district that much of tb inspiration of the modern terra-cotta designer in architecture has been, or should b | drawn. The earlier specimens are of great simplicity, consisting of the simple moulde , brick cornice in two or three projecting rolls one over the other. Later came a grada elaboration of ornament, especially in cornices, in panels, and on the face of pilaster At the Certosa, at Pavia, the richness is carried in some parts to its greatest possib extent, and is a good example of the constructive ornamental details, but the whole too overloaded. On the other hand, in the Church of the Carmine, at Pavia, the urn ment is for the most part confined to the cornices and horizontal strings, and is design so as to bring out some of the best capabilities of the material. The cornice has a f outline, and a slight projection as compared with its vertical measurement. The m:i divisions of a Classic cornice are kept in view, while in this is a reminiscence of coron bedmould, and frieze; the effect which cannot be got by projection is sought by increaS' depth and by richness of surface ornament. The twisted rope-like string below wb may be called the frieze, is easily carved out in a plastic material ; it is easy to moub the same may be said of the ornament above it. Other cornices may be found exhibm a like treatment. 1908/r. “ Tne consideration of the difference which would have to be made in orn a mental detail in transferring it from marble or stone to terra-cotta, or painted a glazed stoneware, suggests another influence in the nature of the material which mi also affect the ornament executed. However well mixed and burned may be the clay, I shrinkage and twisting in the kiln render it impossible to trust terra-cotta to give ' precise, clear, and sharp symmetry of, say, Greek detail. It may be supposed that manufacturers of the North Italian artists devised the twists to, as it were, soften i resulting twist of their more immature material, as compared with the modern manu! ture, and also in order to avoid the hard straight lines and attempts at symmetn detail, and to impart such a degree of irregu’arity in line that accidental irregularities the manufacture would be the less observable.” The writer in the Builder goes on design, and to explain the modifications he has made in, Greek details, to bring th within the proper scope of terra-cotta, and concludes : 1908/. “ Another point in regard to the general treatment of the walling offer cotta buildings is that in many of the Cinque-Cento terra-cotta buildings there is^ ent ; re absence of any attempt to obtain a completely homogeneous wall surface, surface is as varied and broken up in this respect as that of a brick building, thus rat proving again that it is the material for varied and picturesque effect rather than p. III. TERRA-COTTA. 577 netrical finish and neatness. It has an appearance of surface treatment about it, h is much more in harmony with the feeling of the Renaissance than of Gothic itecture, in which we look for the appearance of great mass and solidity, rather than .egant surface ornament. This terra-cotta may offer to architects wishing to carry i Classic type of design' with great modifications, a material admirably suited to the ilions of modern city architecture.” ( Builder , 1880, vol. xxxix. p. 195, 230.) l'03/re. Large and fine works of art, as busts, bassi-rilievi, ornament, &c., have to be flh lied and moulded in the usual way by the artist or sculptor. He gradually forms the jl into a rough outline, hollow, in a cellular way, propping his model true until it is p|; finished and dry and ready for burning. This is an original terra-cotta. The cr hie is great, but is fully compensated by the result. No moulded copy presents such Q tr, freshness, and grace. When, also, only one or two pieces are required, as in Js ration, they are formed by hand-working on the clay itself, as in the case of sculpture al e described. The more widely the knowledge of pottery is diffused, the more certain tl irchitectural potter is to succeed in developing the use of argillaceous and vitreous sit tances, in the construction of monumental and sylvan works of art. It will be a nc branch of work for the genius of the architect ; it will improve and advance the st y of modelling in all its ramifications; and it will give refinement and taste to the la nrs of the poorest brickmaker. '08m. Cornices of great size have been made, and even portions of the shaft of a eo nn 5 feet long. Terra-cotta steps have been advocated, but Messrs. Doulton have re ;ed to make them ; they have lately patented a tread (called the Sicilian tread) of grp density, which may be used also as a nosing to stone or concrete steps. At South K Ington a flight of steps after two years’ wear is still as perfect as when first fixed. W low sills, label mouldings, jambs, water tables, copings, sinks, fire hearths (with ive rounded edge to serve as a fender), stove backs, chimney shafts, &c., could be elegantly and cheaply wrought in clay than in any other material. 08o. Of late years terra-cotta has been used extensively for the faeiDgs and dressings building in the place of stone It is generally made of hollow blocks, formed with inside so as to give strength to the sides and keep the work true while drying, wljeas, when required to bond with brickwork it must be at least 4^- inches thick. Wki extra strength is needed, these hollow spaces are filled with lime concrete, or RcUn cement, as Portland cement is liable to swell and burst the terra-cotta. It is ab co bear a very heavy crushing weight. A block of about 1 foot cube, without cross wej or filling, at 40 tons splintered at the edges; and at 100 tons it became generally bripn, but not crushed, as on being tied with string it remained in shape. |18p. The putting together of the material requires great care and consideration. Thbieces may be flanged and rebated so as to hold together almost without the assist- amjof mortar. As the outer surface should be almost proof against any ordinary tools, alt .tions cannot be made as the work proceeds, and the design in detail must bo iua bod before the work be commenced. • )8$r. The disadvantages in the use of terra-cotta are neither numerous nor insuper- Besides the difficulty of getting the blocks true, which is a matter mainly fur the facturer, the architect has to design his work so as to be suitable to the material, reat difficulty is on the score of the extra time required to prepare the necessary ngs, one set for the builder, and another set made to the shrinkage scale for the icturer. These last are now often made by the manufacturer from the full-sized ngs supiplied to him. Mr. Charles Barry writes : “ Perhaps the most embarrassing disadvantages is the arrangement necessary to have the terra- cotta blocks made and on the ground before the rest of tho work is begun, in order to work in where 1 as the bricklayers progress. At times this is found impossible, and annoying in the general work take place, for which clients aro apt to blamo their archi- f ho lesson, of course, to be learned from this is to carclully mature the design outset, instead of contenting ourselves with a mere sketch of what is intended, ie hopo and intention of working in parts as time goes on and tho work proceeds.” 'r. In good jobs it is recommended that the fixing should bo done by or under the ision of one or more persons experienced in tho material, and tho propor uso of ■•cements Portland cement will split a block in pieces — especially where most h is required, as considerable additional strength may bo gained, which is only d by practice. An export will bo moro likely to make it work together for good id fit, tiy setting and humouring, as tho pieces are apt to be taken as they come; | s IM especially necessary where small piocos are adopted for simplicity of oxceu- "■opii. ss, and expedition ; time is an object for largo piocos to dry, burn, and cool dy, all ( 'gontial to good work, and to c capo from twisting, hair cracks, &c. I orra-cotta resists the action of fire. It is used as a protectio t to ironwork, umns. Sir., ami can bo treated artistically. Heat which would dostroy stone burns the dirt from this material, giving it tho appearance of having just left At a largo fire at Messrs. Dmiltnn's factory tho stone sills of tho windows P P a hi am Th. dra inai lira of l rein war deL feet tit Wit) ll 1 IQpl nut litre ICql tins tad mn irad ron 1 i # 578 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I! and copings of the walls were destroyed, while the dressings of the windows, which wpi of their terra-cotta, were perfectly sound and looking all tile brighter for the burning. Colours in Terra-cotta. 1098A One advantage of the material is the delightful random variety of tone o colour which is often to be obtained. The colour varies, giving an appearance of dept) to the work and producing very pleasing effects, at times. This variety is generall produced by the flash of the fire. The natural colours are buff, red, and blue, more c less intensified by the amount of heat to which they are subjected. Other colours cm be obtained by the admixture of foreign matter. The red terra-cotta of Ruabon is mad from a natural red-coloured clay when burnt, very hard and non-porous, with a clear; , smooth surface. The buff terra-cotta is a good and sound material, burns hard, an keeps its colour. The pink terra-cotta, a new colour, is made from pure clays, and i • without any stain, very hard and durable. By a little additional cost and the operatioi i of a second firing, a soft dull glaze can be put on all terra-cotta bricks, mouldings, an ornaments, so that facades executed in this way could be washed cltan by water from fire engine. 1908;«. The aid of terra-cotta to polychromatic effect is capable of being developed i a very elaborate manner. Variety may be obtained in the unglazed ware by what i ' called “ slipping,’ or mixing two clays of different tones together in water to produce third or intermediate tone. In glazed terra-cotta the material can be painted in great variety of colours, which are then fixed, and at the same time rendered mor brilliant in effect. This ware is formed by throwing salt into the fire when the ware i at a white heat, which is decomposed in the form of vapour, the soda suspended in incorporates itself with the surface of the ware, forming the glaze. Various miner: colours are used, and the main colour is influenced by the fuel : the blue colour of tl i ancient Rhenish productions is considered to be due to the use of woad. It has bee J stated (Archasolog a, iii. 112, and Proceedings , xi.) that at Gatacre Old House, ne: i Bridgenorth, “a glazing seems to have been applied to the stone of which the house built, by some unknown process, after the building was finished, as it covered the join as well as the stones.” 1908v. The intense heat to which glazed ware is subjected, and the consequent dif culty of keeping its true shape, makes its use in this form very difficult. It is compai tively easy in all thrown ware, which, from its circular form, shrinks evenly in all i j parts. Tho liability in all moulded work to warp and twist requires increasing care all its preparatory stages. That it is not impossible may be ascertained from the sa glazed stoneware in the vestibule of the “Palsgrave,” opposite the Law Courts in t Strand. This greater risk seems to necessitate that “its use must be in small piec. j and in such places where absolute flatness of surface is not indispensable; but urn j these conditions it may be applied with admirable effect to heighten mouldings, or panel terra-cotta pilasters, or as bases and capitals, especially as shafts to ornamen columns, and as bosses.” 1908w. The paper read by the late J. M. Blashfield before the Northampton Archit tural Society, Sept. 6, 1859, on Ancient and Modern Pottery, and that by Mr. Jan . Doulton, read April, 1886, at Carpenters’ Hall, on Terra-cotta, have also been frt quoted from in the above account. Sect. III. MASONRY. 1909. Masonry is the science of preparing and combining stones so as to tooth, inch or lie on each other, and become masses of walling and arching for the purposes of buildii i The tools of the mason vary as the quality of the stone upon which they are to act. Ab the metropolis the value of stone is considerable ; and it is accordingly cut into slips scantlings by a saw moved horizontally backwards and forwards by a labourer. In tl parts where stone is abundant it is divided into smaller scantlings by means of wedfj The principal tools of the mason are the mallet and chisels, the latter being formed of ii except at the steel end, and the cutting edge being the vertical angle. The end of chisel struck by the mallet is a small portion of a spherical surface, and projects on sides beyond the adjoining part or hand hold, which increases in magnitude towards middle of the tool, to the entering or cutting edge. The other tools of the mason at level, a plumb-rule, a square, a bevel, with straight and circular rules of divers sorts, trying surfaces in the progressive states of the work. 1910. In London, the tools used to work the face of a stone are, successively, thegW the inch tool, the boaster (the operation of working with which is called boasting, as t. HAP. III. MASONRY. 579 ith the point is called pointing'), and the broad tool. The use of the point leaves thestone narrow furrows, with rough ridges between them, which are cut away by the inch tool, id the whole made smooth by the boaster. The point is from g to | of an inch broad, the raster is 2 inches wide, and the broad tool 3i inches at the cutting edge, which in use is ways kept perpendicular to the same side of the stone. It performs two sorts of opera- ins. Thus, imagine the impression made by the whole breadth of the tool at the cutting Ige, to be called a cavity ; in one operation, the successive cavities follow one another in e same straight line, until the breadth or length of the stone is exhausted ; successive uidistant parallel lines are then repeated in the same manner, until the tool has passed er the whole surface. This operation produces a sort of fluted surface, and is called ohing. In the other operation, each successive cavity is repeated in new equidistant lines roughout the length or breadth of the stone ; then a new series of cavities is repeated ronghout the length and breadth of the stone ; and thus until its whole length or adth is gone through. This operation is called tooling. The tools for working the cylin- ical and conical parts of mouldings are of all sizes, from ^ of an inch upwards. Those working convex mouldings are not less than half an inch broad, except the space be ) confined to admit of such breadth. 1911. A stone is taken out of winding principally with points, and finished with the h tool. In London, the squared stone used for facing buildings is usually stroked, tooled, rubbed. 1912. In those parts of the country where the stone saved by the operation of sawing lot enough to compensate for the labour, the operation is altogether performed with the Net and chisel. 1913. When stones, previous to the operation of hewing, are very unshapely, a stone are, ling axe, scabbling-hammer, or cavil, is used to bring the stone nearly to a shape ; one end (the jedding axe is flat, and is used for knocking off' the most protuberant angular parts, en less than right angles ; the other end is pointed for reducing the different surfaces to ly the intended form. 914. In Scotland, besides the above described sorts of work, there are seme other kinds, ned droved, broached, and striped. Droving is the same as that called random tooling in gland, or boasting in London. The chisel for broaching is called a punch, and is the e as that called a point in England. Broached work is first droved and then broached, he work cannot at once be regularly done with the punch. Siriped woik must also be droved and then striped. If broaching is performed without droving, which is some- -•s done, it is never so regular, and the surface is full of inequalities. Of the three kinds urfaces obtained, the droved is the cheapest. 915. It is, however, to be observed, that the workmen will not take the same pains to d ve the face of a stone which is to be afterwards broached, as in that of which the mg is to remain the final finish. When the surface of stone is required to be perfectly oth, it is accomplished by rubbing with sand or gritstone, and it is called rubbed work. 115a. Some useful practical remarks for obtaining the face to stone in mediaeval work, ven in Denison’s Lectures on Church Building, 1856'. p. 216. “ The mode of working Idings depends a good deal upon the kind of stone used. In that from Steetly near ksop, employed almost exclusively outside the new church at Doncaster, and in the ester stone, used for pieces of window tracery and mullions too large for the blocks can be got from Steetly, and in the Brodsworth stone, the mouldings are all corn- el with a drag. 1 do not use the word ‘ finished,’ because that means going over the to put a particular kind of surface upon it after it is really completed. On the other a . the Crookhill stone, of which all the pillars and a few other parts are made, would itjly defy any such small tooth-comb work, as a drag ; nothing under a chisel with a My hammer will touch it. Again, some stone from Iluddlestone is too tough ana " 1 -like for dragging, and the mouldings in it are completed by shaving them with a 1 something like wood carving. The effect of that is very good, because a chisel ruu in that way will always make a rather undulating surface, though smooth enough to ouch, even to please the finger of a clerk of the works. In some real Norman , which had been covered with plaster for centuries, the mouldings showed that the ir t ed had never been allowed to make the marks directly across ; generally they are uc and sometimes parallel to the direction of the moulding. Worked in this way, the so, will he sure to show themselves distinctly, and the effect of the mortar staining the f, , for a little distance from the joints, produoes anything but a bad effect. Tuck- t; P 01 '"g, to rati er rough masonry especially, i e., making prominent joints in mortar, with '•» cut quite straight and square, is another chance of spoiling work. After a few this generally splits off,” and the building may look at last as it should have done at Hie mortar should be finished within the face of the stone. The stone work at an\ Abbey is described by Mr. Neale, as finished by the a.re by the Nonnans; ” ‘d during the Transition period; bolster tooted during the Early English; claw during the Decorated, and the mouldings scraped-, while during the Perpendicular it is finely scraped. 580 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II, 19156. Grey granite, or moorstone as it is called in Cornwall, is got out in blocks by split- ting it with a number of wedges applied to notches pooled in the surface of the stone, about four inches apart. The pool holes are sunk with the point of a pick, much in the same way as other hard quarry stones are split. The harder the moorstone the nearer it can be split to the scantling required. Generally speaking, granite has no planes of stratification, and it works or cleaves equally well in every direction ; but in the porphyritic varieties there is a rough kind of arrangement of the crystals ; and in gneiss there is a species of layer, formed by plates of the mica, which is plainly discernible. When brought to near the size required, it is first scabbled by a hammer with a cutting face 4^ inches long by H inches wide, weighing 22 lbs. ; then brought to a picked face with a pick or pointed hammer weighing 20 lbs., formed by two acute angled triangles, joined base to base by a parallelo- gram between them thus < j o ; and if to be finely wrouyht or fine picked, it is further dressed with a similar pointed hammer, reducing the roughness to a minimum The finer finish or fine axed face is produced by a hammer or axe with a sharp edge on both sides, weighing 9 lbs. ; for fine work the “patent axe” is also used, which is a hammer formed of several parallel blades screwed together, capable of being taken to pieces when required to be sharpened. Polishing can then be done by machinery, the granite being rubbed by iron rubbers with fine sand and water, and finished with other materials. 1915c. Aberdeen red granite possesses the property common to all granites, that of a distinct plane of cleavage, which, though not perceptible to the eye, is at once recognisable under the hammer of the workman, and of course can be wrought with much greater pre- cision and effect with the bed, than transversely to it. This bed bears no traceable relation to the natural joints of the rocks, which are indefinite in their directions ; and still less so to their stratification. The grey granites are but slightly affected with cleavage, being capable of being blocked with the hammer with about equal facility in every direction. The local varieties of worked granite differ somewhat from those used in England, and are, I. Hammer-blocked , as in foundations, plinths, &c. II. Scappled blocks, squared with the heavy pick, as in docks and heavy engineering works. III. Picked, a better finish than No II. IV. Close picked, the bed and arrises made fair, and the outer surfaces made as tine as the pick will make them ; used in ashlar work, &c. V. Sinyle axed, a finer finish than No IV., and used in quoins, rebates, cornices, &c., in house building. And VI Fine axed, the finest finish before polishing, given to dressed granite by means of the patent axe, used in the best work in house building, cemetery memorials, and as a finish tc contrast with polished work. WALLING. 1916. In stone walling the bedding joints are usually horizontal, and this should always indeed, be so when the top of the wall is terminated horizontally. In building bridges; and in the masonry of fence walls upon inclined surfaces, the bedding joints may follow tli general direction of the work. 1916«. Footings of stone walls should be built with stones as large as may be, square, and of equal thicknesses in the same course, and care should be had to place the broades bed downwards. The vertical joints of an upper course are never to be allowed to fair over those below, that is, they must be made, as it is called, to break joints. If the walls <> the superstructure be thin, the stones composing the foundations may be disposed so tliall their length may reach across each course from one side of the wall to the other. Wlie the walls are thick, and there is difficulty in procuring stones long enough to reach acros the foundations, every second stone in the course tnay be a whole stone in breadth, an. each interval may consist of two stones of equal breadth, that is, placing header an. stretcher alternately. If those stones cannot conveniently be had, from one side of th wall lay a header and stretcher alternately, and from the other side another series of stone in the same manner, so that the length of each header may be two thirds, and the breadt of each stretcher one third of the breadth of the wall, and so that the back of each heade'j may come in contact with the back of an opposite stretcher, and the side of that header ma come in contact with the side of the header adjoining the said stretcher. In foundations c some breadth, for which stones cannot be procured of a length equal to two thirc 1 the breadth of the foundation, the works should be built so that the upright joints of ar: course may fall on the middle of the length of the stones in the course below, and so th: the back of each stone in any course may tall on the solid of a stone or stones in the low. course. 1917. The foundation should consist of several courses, each decreasing in breadth ; they rise by sets oil’ on each side of 3 or 4 inches in ordinary cases. The number of coursi is necessarily regulated by the weight of the wall and by the size of the stones where, these foundations or footings are composed. 1918. Walls are most commonly built with an ashlar facing, and backed with brick < rubble-work. In London, where stone is dear, the hacking is generally of brick-worl which does not occur in the north and other parts, where stone is cheap and commor Walls faced with ashlar, and backed with brick or uncoursed rubble, are liable to becoui Chap. III. MASONRY. 581 convex on the outside from the greater number of joints, and, consequently, from the greater quantity of mortar placed in each joint, as the shrinking of the mortar will be in proportion to the quantity ; and therefore such a wall is inferior to one wherein the facing and backing are of the same kind, and built with equal care, even supposing both sides to be of uncoursed rubble, than which there is no worse description of walling. Where a wall consists of an ashlar facing outside, and the inside is coursed rubble, the courses at the back should be as high as possible, and the beds should contain very little mortar. In Scotland, where there is abundance of stone, and where the ashlar faces are exceedingly well executed, they generally back with uncoursed rubble ; in the north of England, where they are not quite so particular with their ashlar facings, they are much more particular in coursing the backings. Coursed rubble and brick backings admit of an easy introduction ot' bond timber. In good masonry, however, wooden bonds should not be continued in length ; and they often weaken the masonry when used in great quantity, making the wall liable to bend where they are inserted. Indeed, it is better to introduce only such small pieces, and with the fibres of the wood perpendicular to the face of the wall, as are required for the fastenings of battens and dressings. 1919. In ashlar facing, the stones usually rise from 28 to 30 inches in length, 12 inches in height, and 8 or 9 inches in thickness. Although the upper and lower beds of an ashlar, as well as the vertical joints, should he at right angles to the face of the stone, and the face and vertical joints at right angles to the beds in an ashlar facing; yet, when the stones run nearly of the same thickness, it is of some advantage, in respect of bond, that the hack of the stone he inclined to the face, and that all the backs thus inclined should run in the same direction ; because a small degree of lap is thus obtained in the setting of the next course, whereas, if the backs are parallel to the front, no lap can take place when the stones run of an equal depth in the thickness of the wall. It is, moreover, advan- tageous to select the stones so that a thicker one and a thinner one may follow each other alternately. The disposition of the stones in the next superior course should follow the same order as in the inferior course, and every vertical joint should fall as nearly as possible in the middle of the stone below. 1920. In every course of ashlar facing in which the backing is brick or rubble, bend, or, as they are called in the country, through stones should be introduced, their number being proportioned to the length of the course ; every one of which stones, if a superior course, should fall in the middle between every two like stones in the course below. And this disposition should he strictly attended to in all long courses. Some masons, in carrying up their work, to show that they have introduced a sufficient number of bond stones into their work, choose their bond stones of greater length than the thickness of the wall, and knock or cut off their ends afterwards. I5ut this is a bad practice, as the wall is liable to he shaken by the force used in reducing, by chiselling or otherwise cutting away the pro- jecting part, and sometimes with the chance even of splitting the bond stone itself. 1921. In piers, where the jambs are coursed with ashlar in front, every alternate jamb stone should go through the wall, with its bed perfectly level. If the jamb stones are of one entire height, as is often the case when architraves are wrought upon them, and also upon the lintel crowning them, of the stones at the ends of the courses of the pier which arc to adjoin the architrave jamb, every alternate stone should be a bond stone ; and if the piers he very narrow between the apertures, no other bond stones will he necessary in such short courses. When the piers are wide, the number of bond stones is to he proportioned to the space. Bond stones, too, must be particularly attended to in long courses above and below windows. They should have their sides parallel, and of course perpendicular to each other, and their horizontal dimension in the face of the work should never he less than the vertical one. The vertical joints, after receding about three quarters of an inch from the face of the work with a close joint, should widen gradually to the hack, so as to lorm hollow wedge-like figures for the reception of mortar and packing. The adjoining stones should have their beds and vertical joints filled with oil-putty, from the face to about three-quarters of an inch inwards, and the remaining part of the beds with well-prepared mortar. I’utty cement is very durable, and will remain prominent when many stones are in a state of dilapidation, through the action of the atmosphere upon them. The use of the oil-putty is at first disagreeable, from the oil spreading over the surface of the con- tiguous stones ; hut after a time this unpleasant look disappears, and the work seems as though of one piece. 1922. All the stones of an ashlar facing ought to he laid on their natural beds. From inattention to this circumstance, the stones often flush at the joints; and, indeed, such a position of the lamina much sooner admits the destructive action of the air to take Place. Methods of building in cement and concrete blocks, arc noticed in the previous section. I 922m Riirbi.f-woiik. A wall consisting of unhewn stone is called a rubble wall, whether or net mortar is used. 1 his species of work is of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed. In the for- mer, the stones are gauged and dressed by the hammer, and thrown into different heaps, each 582 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. containing stones of the same thickness. The masonry is then laid in horizontal courses, but not always confined to the same thickness. The uncoursed rubble wall is formed by laying the stones in the wall as they come to hand, without gauging or sorting, being prepared only by knocking off the sharp angles with the thick end of the scabbling hammer. 19226. Apparently, wherever there was any difficulty in obtaining stone, the mediaeval builders employed the worst of all methods of construction in walling, viz., concrete 01 rubble- work between the two faces of squared stone. In the early period of mediaeval art. flint or rough rubble, with “ short and long work ” to the quoins, seems to have been very general; this “short and long work ” was also used in faced walls ; in both cases the shori work consists of stone upon its bed, and alternates with the long work or stone upright : the short work ought to serve as bond throughout the walls. In the 12th century the use of rubble in conjunction with worked stone became frequent. The chief defect, frequently considered one of the merits, of this system, consists in the omission of sufficieni bond both in piers and walls ; the occurrence of joints in angles is too frequent ; in fact any expedient seemed better than the trouble of making a back-joint. 1922c. Kentish Ragstone. This material, now so extensively employed for mediaiva work in the metropolis and suburbs, is never used internally, as it sweats, that is, the con- densed moisture from the atmosphere is not absorbed, and will show itself even through twe coats of plastering. Hassoeli stone, however, which is the sandstone separating the beds o the ragstone, the sand being sufficiently agglutinated to allow of its being raised in blocks must never he used externally. It is easily worked, and makes a good lining for ragstom walls, as it does not sweat. It should be roughly squared, for if not done, the crumbling nature of the stone would endanger the security of the work, should it be exposed to any unequal pressure : it must not he placed where it would he exposed to very great pressure as in arches, jambs, &c. Hassock may be procured in London at from 6s. to 7s. per core (3 feet cube), in roughly squared pieces; while rough rag is about 5s. per ton, and raj headers about 1 2s. 6d. per ton. 192 2d. Sunk and moulded work in so hard a material is to be avoided, and so mucl wrought surface would cause decay. In using ragstone ashlar, it must be laid upon its na tural bed, otherwise rapid decay will almost certainly follow, arising from the thinness of thi strata, for blocks of a large size can seldom be entirely freed from hassock ; and even wlia appears to the eye as blue stone, retains for a considerable distance inward the perishing nature of its enveloping crust. A block of ragstone, if the face be worked, will present ii damp weather an appearance precisely similar to the heart and sap of timber. In the cas< of copings, &c., where one bed is exposed, the stone should be skiffled (or knobbled) as mucl as possible from the upper side, so as to expose only the soundest portion of the stone t the action of the atmosphere. In some situations, as mullions, door and window jamb? an unsightly appearance would be produced by too exact an attention to the beds of tin stone, as the ashlar is generally too small to range with more than one course of headers In these cases the old masons seem to have departed from their usual rule, and to have sc the blocks on end, so as to embrace two or three courses ; but as the depth of the block re quired to work an ordinary jamb or mullion is not very great, it is not difficult to get tin whole thickness required out of the heart of the stone. 1922e. Stone of the smaller layings are generally worked into headers; it is common t work one side of the stone to a rough face with parallel sides, without paying much atter tion to the beds and joints, which often recede at an acute angle with the face, so as tr bring the stones, when laid, to a closer joint. Such stones, however, must be proper 1 pinned in behind, and carefully bonded with the work at back. Headers are general! knocked out to six, seven, eight, or nine inch gauge for the height ; the length and tai being determined by the size of the stone : on the face they do not vary much from th square form. Formerly headers were set on their natural bed, therefore it is not unusua to find stones in an old wall entirely gone from this cause. 1922^1 In the Whitelanas bridge bed, a very free working Stone of a bluish colour ca be got 12 feet long with certainty, and the Horsebridge bed yields a good stone to length of 15 feet. The white rag, the lowest of the beds in the quarry, tumbles to piece on exposure to the air (Whichc-ord, Kentish Ragstone, 1816). 1922 g. In its mechanical properties, ragstone possesses some of the qualities of gramti though in an inferior degree. In respect to resistance to pressure, it stands next to gramt in the list of British stones ; but when loaded for a transverse strain, the numerous vent to which even the best layings are liable, renders it untrustworihy for lintels, or in suspended position, without much precaution. In the former case of lintels and architrave: three stones, arch jointed, gives the requisite security. 1922 h. Whinstone, a material, in one form or another, found almost over all Scotlanc makes a very durable arch for bridge work, when well built with good mortar, the stor being in its nature weather proof. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, whinstone arche have been erected since about 1770, the greatest span being about 60 feet. The Messrs Chap. Ill, MASONRY. 5S3 Smith, of Darnick. ttated, in the Transactions of the Institnte of British Architects, that they had erected bridges with semi elliptical arches of the spans of 51 feet, and of 62^ feet, of whinstone faced with hewn stone. A bridge, almost entirely of whinstone, having an arch 63^ feet span, the depth of the masonry being 2^ feet on the average, was erected in 1833 ; while another, 76 feet 4 inches span, at Falshope, was entirely of whin- stone, with a rise of about 18 feet. It sunk about seven inches when the centre was struck, but no broken stone was observed. The depth of the arch, requiring three breadths of stone to make it up, was 3 feet ; their average thickness was 3^ inches ; but it varied from lj to 6 inches. The stones were laid as close as possible, and in crossing the bond the work was made firm, but the stones were not dressed straight upon the beds. Its cost was 360?. exclusive of the digging for the foundations. 1922i. The most annoying part in the building of rubble arches, is the slowness of the setting or drying of the mortar, as until the mortar is able to bear considerable resist- ance the arch is extremely supple, and easily bent out of its proper curve when the centre is struck. This bridge stood five weeks before that measure was considered advisable. Cement would perhaps be best lor large rubble arches, and even if expensive, the whole cost would be cheaper than a bridge of hewn stone. With cement, almost any kind of stone, even the refuse of a slate quarry, might be worked into an arch of almost any extent. 1922 k. Flintwork — In the chalk districts, the houses of the fifteenth century are frequently faced with dints, cut and trimmed, and arranged with great skill and elfect. One of the best examples is a house in St. Andrew’s, at Norwich, next the cemetery, a fragment of the decorated period of Gothic architecture, in which the dint work is so delicately finished that a penknife can scarcely be inserted in the interstices. 1922?. As dint itself is practically imperishable, and as fiintwork becomes, when per- fectly set, a mass of concrete, it produces substantial work, if great care be taken in its manipulation. But dint walls frequently fail, by bulging while they are in course of con- struction, and splitting when they are old. Oil any sufficient natural cause, as the giving way of the foundation, they are riven into immense masses ; hence a fiint building gets out of repair less readily than a stone one, but if it suffer at all, it is very apt to become a complete ruin. 1922/n. Flint walls intended for durability should not be less than two feet in thickness, built slowly and solidly, dushed up with stiff strong mortar compounded of quick-setting stone lime and coarse sharp sand free from loam. As fiint is a non-absorbent, bricks and tiles are often worked into the middle of the walls to assist in the induration of the mortar; but for the sake of economy, lumps of hard chalk, pebbles, and dat-bedded stones are frequently used as the principal components of the core or middle of the wall. The work must be kept as dry as possible during its erection, as well as subsequently ; frost is found soon to level the work while saturated with water. 1 922?j. Flint walls are strengthened by lacing courses, formed of bricks three or four courses deep, not generally showing outside. At Cambridge, Brandon, and elsewhere, they do show, and are used every two or three feet. The object is not only to get a con- tinuous bond, but to bring the work to a level bed. and again start fair. When round dints are split, and the thicker portion is kept, as usual, at the face of the wall, driving rains are readily conducted by the inclination of the upper bed of each course to the middle of the wall, and by keeping it damp conduce to its decay ; but as dints are seldom split at right angles to their axis, they can be so laid in the work as to be fiush on the face as well as level, and the lower bed must be firmly pinned up with fragments. It is desirable that cavities for drainage, with exit holes at the plinth level, be formed in the middle of the wall by building in rods of wood or iron vertically, and drawing them up as the work pro- gresses. The face is sometimes finished by inserting in the mortar joints gullets, or the sharp fractured bits ot dint, when the woi k is called galleted or yarreted ( Dictionary of Architecture). 1922o. Amongst examples of a systematic parsimony of labour and material in mediarval art, may be no iced the characteristic tables or courses, where each projection is taken out of a separate course of stone or out of the smallest stone adjoining to it. The base (.fig. 618.) and the capital (.fig. 618«.) of a shaft are kept so small as to be got out of single blocks ; the astragal belongs to the capital, and not, as in Roman work, to the shaft ; the bell is in one stone, the abacus in another ( fig. 618 d ); each order of an arch is an in- dependent range of stones; the hoodmould is self-existent ; the sills are not dished, and the buttresses are toothed rather than bonded. In two cases, however, the use of large stones pre- vailed, viz., in shafts of the 13th century (in France, 1160- 1230), which are long rods of stone 6, 4, or 3 inches in diameter n«. ms. Fig. 018a. and incapable of bearing any great weight, unless banded or bonded to the nearest wall or 584 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II pillar, and in the springing stones of vaulting, which are worked with level beds. (See pa 2002/.) The horizontal courses at the bottom of the arch are also seen in the con struction of large horse-shoe arches. With the 13th century, also came the decide distinction between decoration and mere construction, which employed stone vertically not only for shafts of columns, but for mullions and tracery of windows and dwarf walls such tracery being cut out of slabs and confined by grooves or similar means. 1923. Where walls or insulated pillars of very small dimensions are to be carried up every stone should be carefully bedded level, and be without concavity in the middle. 1 the beds should be concave, as soon as the superimposed weight comes to be borne hy thi pier or pillar, the joints will in all probability begin to flush; and it is, moreover, better if it be possible, to make every course in the masonry of such a pier or pillar in om stone. COLUMNS. 1924. When large columns are obtained in a single block, their effect, from thatcircum stance alone, is very striking; but as this is not very often to be accomplished, the nex’ point is to have as few and as small joints as possible; and the different stones, moreover ought to be selected with the view, as much as possible, of concealing the joints, by having! the blocks as much of the same colour as possible. It will immediately, of course, occur to the reader that vertical joints in columns are inadmissible, though in many of the great edifices at Paris such do occur, much to their detriment. 1925. The stones for an intended column being procured, and the order in which they are to be placed upon one another having been determined, we must correctly ascertain the exact diameter for the two ends of each of them. To effect this, draw an elevation of the column proposed to its full size, divide it by lines parallel to the base into as many height; as the column is intended to contain stones, taking care that none of the heights exceed the lengths the stones will produce; the working of the stones to the diameters thus obtained then becomes easy. The ends of each stone must first be wrought so as to form exactly true and parallel planes. The two beds of a stone being thus formed, find their centres, and describe a circle on each of them ; divide these circles into the same number of equa parts, which may, for example, amount to six or eight ; draw lines across each end of tin stone, so that they will pass through the centre and through the opposite divisions of tin same end. The extremities of these lines are to regulate the progress of the chisel along the surface of the stone ; and, therefore, when those of one end have been drawn, those u the other must be made in the same plane or opposite to them respectively. The cylin- drical part of the stonesmust be wrought with the assistance of a straight-edge ; but for the swell of a column, a diminishing rule, that is, one made concave to the line of the column must be employed. This diminishing rule will also serve to plumb the stones in setting them. If it be made the whole length of the column, the heights into which the elevatioi of the column is divided should be marked upon it, so that it may he applied to give eac 1 stone its proper curvature. Rut as the use of a very long diminishing rule is inconvenien; when the stones are in many and short lengths, rules or rods may be employed correspond ing in length to the different height. 1925a. The method of setting the blocks or frustra by the ancients, was to dish out tin beds to obtain a truly fine joint. In the l’aithenon, an outer space of 7 inches in widtl all round the drum, was left a perfectly level and smooth bed for actua contact. The next space, of 1 foot in width, was very slightly tooled o; scratched over. The next, 9 inches in width, was made still lower by being tooled over very roughly. The remaining portion round the centre w i: left smooth, but was made as low as the surface of the second space. / square hole, worked at the quarry, in the centre of the shaft, was filler with a cube of hard wood, in which was a hole to receive the half of : circular pin, also of wood, suggesting the idea that when the marble frustn were set, they were rubbed against each other. The first drum, at tin temple of Hercules at Agrigentum, when placed on the stylobate, wa; turned round until it had been well ground down. ( Civil Engineer S)-c. vii. p. 241.) The practice of late years, for large columns, has beei, to place a plate of thin lead between the beds of stone, so as to securr an equal bearing and prevent the edges flushing, any space being filler j in with putty or cement. At Paris, in many of the porticoes, the columns have ver; deep thin rustics (/)>><<<< 7 * ~ Chap III. MASONRY. 587 1925*. To tie in as! liering to tile brick wall, cramps are used, either of cast iron, wrought iron, copper, or bronze. The two latter are of course the best ; the two former exfoliating by air and damp, and splitting the stone, unless perfectly Fig. 01 ri- ng. 618 ? . secured. During the restora ions at Cologne Cathedral, the Fig. 618s. Fig. 6i8t ornice (above the 55 feet high windows) is 3 feet 7 inches high, and in order to connect lie stones, iron hooks were put hot into the holes, which were then filled up and surrounded nth aspbalte. By this proceeding the iron is for ever preserved from oxidation ; it has nroved itself the best system, because the applications of mortar, gypsum, sulphur and ead, have all failed. On the exterior, bronze surrounded with lead has been used, which ias hitherto proved satisfactory. Cramps are also now set in Portland cement. STAIRS. I 92S. Nothing to perplex will occur in carrying up stairs which are supported by a wall I both ends, because the inner ends of the steps may either terminate in a solid newel , or ie tailed into a wall surrounding an open newel. Where elegance is not required, and here the newel does not exceed 2 feet 6 inches, the ends of the steps may be conveniently upported by a solid pillar ; but when the newel is thicker, a thin wall surrounding the ewel would be cheaper. In stairs to basement stories, where geometrical stairs are used hove, the steps next to the newel are generally supported upon a dwarf wall. 1927. In geometrical stairs, the outer end of each step is fixed in the wall, and one of ie edges of every step supported by the edge of the step below, and formed with joggled lints, so that no step can descend in the inclined direction of the plane nor in a vertical irection ; the sally of every joint forms an exterior obtuse angle on the lower part of the pper step, called a back rebate, and that on the upper part of the lower step cf course an iterior one, and the joint formed of these sallies is called a joggle, which may be level from e face of the risers to about one inch within the joint. Thus the plane of the tread of ii h step is continued one inch within the surface of each riser; the lower part of the joint a narrow surface, perpendicular to the inclined direction or soffit of the stair at the end ext to the newel. 1 928. With most sorts of stone the thickness of every step at the thinnest place need not 'cecd 2 inches for steps of 4 feet in length ; that is, measuring from the interior angle of •cry step perpendicular to the rake. The thickness of steps at the interior angle should proportioned to their length ; but allowing that the thickness of the steps at each of interior angles is sufficient at 2 inches, then will the thickness of them at the interior glcs be half the number of inches that the length of the steps is in feet; for instance, ' cutting In, 16, Ic, ij a t the points a,b,c,d, then through the points A abcdl) draw e; which will be half of the Gothic arch required. (Other methods, par. 1943a., 1 1 seq . ) 39. To draw the joints of the arch stones of a Gothic arch (Jig. 625.). Having formed ingles GDG and ( Dll as before, make At equal to AG and draw I)/ perpendicular ; G. In I)/ make D/i equal to A i and join ! h. Bisect ih by a perpendicular meeting " /. Produce li to p. Divide the curve into as many equal parts as the arch stones be in number. Then i will be the centre of the joints which pass through all the THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 590 Book II Fig. 626. points between A and p, and / will be tbe centre for drawing the joints of the arch stone which pass through all the points between p and D. 1 940. The reason for the foregoing rule is obvious ; for the joints are merely made ti radiate to the centres of the arcs of circles whereof the arches themselves are formed ; a in subsections 1934, 1935, they were drawn to the centres of the approximating circle' wherefrom the elliptical curves were struck. 1941. To describe a parabolic curve for a pointed or Gothic arch by means of a series n lines touching the curve, the dimensions of the arch and the angles it forms at the crown being given. Draw the straight line AB {fig. 626.) and draw CD perpendicular to AB. Make CD equal to the height of the arch, CA and CB each equal to half the span. Make the angles CDe and CD/ each equal to half the vertical angle. Divide Ae and eD each into the same number of equal parts, and through the corresponding points of division draw lines which will form one half of the arch: the other half DB may be found in the same manner 1942. To draw the joints of the arch stones io the above sort of arch. Draw the chords AD, DB for each half of the arch (fig- 627.) ; divide the arch into as many equal parts as there are to be arch stones. Let it now be required to draw a joint to any point h : bisect AD in k, and join ek cutting the curve in/. Draw hg parallel to Ah, cutting eh in g, and in el make ti equal to hj. Join hi and draw hill perpendicular to hi. Then hm is the joint re- quired. In the same manner all the remaining joints will be found. 1943. To describe a rampant pointed arch, whose span, perpendicular height, and the heigi of the ramp are given. Draw the straight line AB (fig. 627.), and make AB equal to tl span of the arch. Draw BC perpendicular to AB, and make BC equal to the height of the ramp. Bisect AC in D, and draw DE per- pendicular to AB. Make DE equal to the height of the arch; draw Af and C g parallel to DE, and make Af and C g equal to about two thirds of DE. Join /E and E g. Di- vide Af and / E each into the same number of equal parts, and through each two corre- sponding points of division draw a straight line. All the lines thus drawn will give one half of the curve. The other half may be Fig. 628. drawn in the same manner. To find the joints of the arch-stones to this sort of arch, prooee as for a plain arch in the last example, as shown by fig. 6'29. 1913a. Besides the rule given in par. 1938, To draw a Gothic arch to any given. dime) lions, the following plan has been put forward for finding the curves of arches and rib I lie fundamental rule that the curves should spring from the line of the impost has b« abandoned by many ; one centre was to be taken a little above this line, another a litt below it, and so on. I he following rule furnishes a principle which gives the centres ' ail these curves with perfect certainty and perfect harmony, at the same time furnishm HAP. III. MASONRY. 591 bat is a further requisite, an independent projection for each rib. The author insists lat these curves were always elliptical. If the arch to be drawn be less in height than : ie half width, let AB,(j! g. 629 a.) be the half width; BCtheheight; join AC ; draw lines om 15 and A perpendicular to AC, and the points E and D are those required. Then ,C will be the smaller radius, and EC added to AD will be the longer radius. For ches whose height is greater than their half width {fig. 6296.), draw CF and I5E perpen- icular to AC, then EC will be the smaller radius ; and EC added to CF will be the nger iadius. The author of this theory is Tlios. L’Aker, as read at the Liverpool Arch, ociety, 16th October, 1850, and printed in the Civil Engineer, \ ol. xiii. p. 365. See ir. 2002 d. 19436. Although the term arc en tiers point is still used in France for an arch enclosing a equilateral triangle, as it was in the time of De Forme, that architect, in his work .titled Souvelles Inventions pour lien lastir, published in 1578, showed that the arc en tiers hut was obtained by division of the space into three equal portions, of which two gave e radius. The arc en quutre points was obtained by division into four, three of them iving the radius. This mediaeval mode of determining some of the shapes of pointed i ches, was noticed by Professor Willis in his elucidation of Wilars de Honecort’s Sketch-book, 859, p. 138-40. lie is disposed to call the equilateral arch, the arch of two points; lentions arches of six points; and instances cases with a radius of five-sevenths and a idius of five-eighths, besides the occurrence of a centre placed to the extent of half the pan outside the springing point. The same authority observes that the true method was rrgotten soon after the disuse of media;val art, as Viola Zanini, in his book Della Architet- iru , published 1629, defines the terzo acuto as the arch on an equilateral triangle, the u trio acuto as the arch on a square with the diameter for radius, and the quinto acuto on pentagon : these last are respectively rather higher and lower than the true arch of four oints. The term point is hete used as meaning a division, and not a puncture. 1943c. The Pro'essor has also explained, p. 141, that to know the extia length of a voussoir at the top of an arch of 2, 3, 4, or 5 points, the radius may be prolonged through the point P (fig. 629c.) of the arch to any extent S ; then PS being divided into twenty-four parts, a line from S may be drawn parallel with the springing line to T, and respectively 12, 6, 8, or 9 of those parts in length ; which will give a point V, so that PV will be the line of the central joint. 1943(7. The construction of ogee arches is very simple; but as will presently be shown, the rule is open to judicious variation. The general principle is to draw the line of the nose Z, (fig. 629 d.) of the hoodmould ; to take a point upon it line; to draw from the springing a line through that point to the centre line, to accept e place where the centre line is cut as the height of the ogee, and to find in the usual anner the centre for the upper part of the ogee. The following directions are chiefly ■"« from Viollet le Due, Diet. 1943e. To draw an ogee arch of one point (fig. 629(7.). Bisect the span in D, draw the centre line CD, describe the arc AG, bisect AG in E, and through E from A draw a line cutting the centre line in II ; through II draw FK parallel to the springing line, and through E from D draw a line cutting FK at hi, which will be the centre for the upper pait of the ogee arch. In some cases, as in the figures 629 e, f and h, the three points KMN form an equilateral triangle. 1 6-15/! To draw an ogee arch of two points (fig. 629e. ). Bisect the span A 15, diaw the centre line, and describe the arcs AGI5; then divide G 15 into five parts G 1, &c. , and proceed us before. 1 9 ’1 3g. To draw an ogee arch of three points (fig. 629/1). Repeat the above operations, observing to divide the span AB into three parts, AE, EF, FB, and to divide GB into four parts, Gl, &c. It will be observed that in A D fig.G29g. (from Pugin), A 15 is divided Ft*. esoa. into three parts, and the centres E with tic to describe the arcs on their own sides of the centre line ; that the distances .VI, and I II equal, and that Ell is equal to EE o 592 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book X 1943/i. To draw an ogee arch of four points {fig. 629/(. ). centre line, fix the four points, and describe the arcs AG, GB; then di- vide GB into four parts, and Bisect the span, draw O'"-. N' MX-.. proceed as above indicated. But a difference is taught by an illus- tration adduced by Viollet le Due, to show another feature of mediae- val art. In fig. (>29i. it will he observed that the arch GA is di- vided into five portions, and that the line AH is drawn through the second di'i- The line F2 produced, cuts the horizontal line JH in M ; or 2H may be bisected, and a perpendicular obtained meets in the point M, for the ogee line ill. A centre N has been as- sumed for the line RR; and also another centre, O, for the line PP, both lines being drawn each way from I ; from which arrangement it results that the lines A2H, RI R, and PI P, are not paral- lel for their whole lengths. In some cases the line of work moot he the centre of a fillet or of a boltel. It should be noticed that some very good deeorated work of the middle of the 14th century, uses five-eighths of the spa upon a line drawn from tl for the radius, and finds the centre of the ogee curve central point of radius at an angle of 45° with the hori- zontal springing line. 1943*. To draw a r.usped ogee arcli (fig. 6i9/o). Proceed as above described for an arch of one point as far as the construction of the horizontal line JK. Then from the centre F through E draw a line, and thereon make IUequal to IS, being so much of I Fas is intercepted by the centre line of the pointed arch; and then on the horizontal line JK make WII equal to IS : thus are obtained the two centres for the cusp. But Viollet le Due appears to prefer another mode, which very slightly differs in result. He draws SI produced at an angle of 45° with the base line; on this he marks G'U, which is the half of a semicircle, equal to GA, fixing 1U, and continuing the process as in the former method. 1944. II. Of the Construction of intersecting Vaults or Groins. The forms of vaults may be so adapted to one another that the lines of intersection shall be in planes, and these planes the diagonals of the plan of the intersecting part of the vaults ; if, hotvevc they be not so adapted, the lines of intersection will I e curved on the plan, and these curves is necessary to ascertain in making both the moulds and the centerings for executing the wor 1945. To determine the form of a vault to intersect with a given one in the plane of t diagonal, and also to find the diagonal rib for the centering, l.et the given vault be El {fig. 630.) and AC and BD the diagonals, crossing in/. Draw f I peipendicular to El cutting EF in c. In the arc I F take any number of points ah, and draw ag, bh parallel 1 If, cutting EF in d, e, and the diagonal AC in g,h. Draw fp, gq. hr parallel toEF, cuttn the base GII at m, n, o. Make nip. nq, or, each respectively equal to cl, da, eb. Draw / 1 gk, hi, perpendicular to AC, and make/I', git, hi respectively equal to cl, da, eb. Mai fl .e. III. MASONTIY. 593 Fig. 630. Fig. 631. . fh' each respectively equal to fg, fh. Draw ah', h'i parallel to fl'. Make g'h' equal Ink, h l equal to hi ; also make mu', m'a each respectively equal to mn, mo. Draw the . s pqr. p'q'r, as also I hi, 17(7' ; then, through the points thus found, draw the curves upon ■ir bases AC and GII, and that on GH is tlie form of the intersecting vaults, and that . AC is the form of the angle rib. If the form of the given arch be that of a semicircle I F (Jig. 631.), let A BCD be the angular points of‘the plan, AC and D13 the ■igonals, cutting each other at M. Draw MK parallel to GD, or CH cutting GI1 in N. law ML perpendicular to AC, and make ML equal to the radius of the semicircle, ten, with the transverse axis AC, and semi-conjugate axis ML, describe a semi-ellipse, |ich will be one of the angle ribs, as required. Also make NK equal to the said radius; in with the lesser axis and the semi-greater axis NK describe the semi-ellipse GKII, it'll is the form of the other vault. 1946. The same method applies in Jig. 632., where the narrow opening is a semi-circle •I the wide one, consequently, a semi-ellipse, having its minor axis vertical and its major *| ■ horizontal. 917. When two circular-arched vaults of different heights intersect, to determine the plan of t, arrives in which the arches meet. Let ABC ( Jig. 633.) be the arch of the main vault, 1 OFF that of the lesser vault ; ACLO the plan of the main vault, and Dl’QF that of 1 lesser vault; and let the two vaults intersect each other at the points IIKNM. Also, * L be the middle point of the lesser semi-circular arc DEF. Produce III) to v, and in ' arch DE take any number of points rs, and draw rb, sa, El parallel to Dll. Draw ", Ee parallel to D F, cutting Do at the points tuv, and produce 1 1 C to G. In CG 1 ; Cic, C.r, CG respectively equal to 1)1, l)u, Do, and draw uz, xy, GB parallel to AC, ‘I'aig the semi-circle ABC in the points zy B. From the points By* draw BI, ya, zb, I dli l to CL. Then through the points lab draw a curve, which will be one half of the |i i of the arris. The other half will be found in the same manner. 'is. 'Die method of tracing the plan of the groii.s is the same (see fig. 634.) when the * its intersect obliquely. | '19. I’n find the plan of the intersections of two arches of the same height, and cither of the I I or different 'jHiies. Let the sections of the two arches be A BC and DE F (Jig. 635. )» * ues A B, BC being equal to each other, and the aics DE, El’ equul to each other ; il Q 504 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Roc i and let H, K, N, M be the points where the two arches intersect each other on the Divide either of the arcs BC or DE into parts, equal or unequal ; as, for example, in arc DE take any number of points r,sat pleasure, and draw ra,sb, El perpendicular to Produce II D to v, and draw rt, su, Eu, parallel to DF, cutting Da in t, u, v. Produce II G, and make C w, Cx respectively equal to Df, D/t ; and as the arches are equal in hei CG will he equal to Du. Draw ivy, x z, GB, parallel to AC, cutting the arc BC in 1 points y, z, and touching it in B. Draw ya, zb and BI parallel to HK, and through the points Ylabl draw the curve 11 ah l, which will he half the plan of the groin as required. The other half IN and the other groin MK will be found in the same manner. 1950. To find the plan of the groins produced by the intersection of a cylindric and a conic vault , the angle of position of the axis, the diameter of the cylinder, and the plan of the conic vault being given. Let AB (fig. 636.) be the axis of the cylinder, CD that of the cone, C being the apex, and D the point through which the base i lasses. Through any point A in AB draw EF u perpendicular to A15, and make AE and AF each equal to the radius of the cylinder, and draw Eli and FI parallel to AB. Through D draw KM perpendicular to CD, and make DK and DM each equal to half the diameter of the cylinder. Join KC and MC, cutting EH and FI in the points N, O, P, Q. Divide the semi- circles FGE and KLIM into parts, whereof the corre- sponding ones are equal to one another. From the points of division in the semicircle EGF draw lines parallel to AB; and through the corresponding points in the semicircle KLM draw lines perpendicular to the diameter KM, cutting KM. From the points of section draw lines to the apex C of the cone, cutting the former drawn through the points in the semicircumference FGE. Through each set of corresponding points draw a curve, and the two curves will represent the arrisses of the groin on the plan. If in an octagonal ground vault the octagonal range he cylinders, and the cross vaults, which tend to the centre, diminish to a line of the height of the vault, the following construction applies : — Let EFGHI (fig. 637.) be the exterior side of the vault, which is both equilateral and equiangular, and let JKLMN be the line of the exterior surface of the inner wall; so that the lines EJ, FK, GL, IIM, IN, which pass through every two corresponding angles, may tend to the centre O of the groin vault. Let the sections of the given ribs be PQR and STU, so that I'll of the rib PQ.R may stand at right angles to the sides EF and JK and the side SU of the rib STU on the middle of the side FG. Divide the two bases PR and SU in the same proportion, and through the joints of division in SU draw lines from the centre O of the ground vault to meet the curve STU ; and UAC. 111. masonry; 515 rough tlie points of division in the base PR of the cross rib PQR draw lines parallel IiK, to terminate in the line FK, and in the semicircle PQR. From the points where ese lines meet FK, draw perpendiculars on one side of FK, and make the heights of ese perpendiculars respectively equal to the ordinates of the arc PQR ; and through the ds of these perpendiculars draw a curve FVK, which will be the angle rib. From the lints of meeting in the line FK draw lines parallel to FG, and through the points of vision in SU draw lines to the centre O, intersecting the former lines drawn from the lints of division in FK ; through the corresponding points of intersection draw the ;rves SBL and KBU, which will form the plan of the angle. 1951. In single groins the centres are made for the widest avenue, and are covered over th boards {fig. 638.), so that the top of the boards may form the surface required for Fi K . 6.18. rmng the arch upon the intersections ; or the angles are found by the following practical cthod. The groins meet in the points I, C ( fig. 639.), upon the boarding of the two /ms. Place the straight edge of a board upon the point I, so as to range over the line II on the plan Then set up another straight edge upon the point II, so as to be vertical, d the straight vertical edge will meet the horizontal edge ; then apply a third straight ge to each of the other two straight edges, so that it may also come in contact with e boarding. After this draw a line along this third straight edge upon the boarding as • as may be found convenient ; shift the moveable or third straight edge, and apply it in e same manner to another adjoining portion of the surface of the boarding. Proceed in e same manner until the whole line be completed on the surface. By this means, the ecssity of laying down lines for the covering is avoided. The lines being thus drawn, *s for the cross vaults are fixed on the top of the boarding ; so that, making proper owance lor the thickness of the same, its surface, when fixed, may form the true surface the other cross vault. The ribs fixed upon the boarding to form the cross vaults are lied jack ribs. 1952. The mode of constructing the curves by lines is shown for a rectangular groin in 640., in which A is the plan, I! the elevation, re, to find the pliant moulds for forming the ■ nns on the surface of the boarding, and working arch-stones, describe a semicircle on one of its Ms, and divide it into any convenient number equal parts. Draw lines perpendicular to the •*' ‘>r diameter, the semicircle being supposed to be thin the piers; the ordinates will cut the diago- but if i> be laid down on the outside, the or- 1 ites must be produced until they cut the diago- From the points where the ordinates cut the t'e, draw lines parallel to the other side of the ■m, and produce the side on which the diameter the semicircle is placed, and extend the semieir- lar arc with its divisions upon any convenient part the line thus produced. Through the points of moo draw perpendiculars, so as to intersect with former parallel lines ; then through the points of ■ r section draw the curve, as shown at C, which I he the mould required. I‘t .3. Sometimes several vaults meet in one coui- • n centre, as in fig. 6 11., which exhibits the plan ail equiangular and equilateral groined vault. • vtrueted uf semicircular arches. U Cl - 596 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I] Fi K . Gil. I 954. Where the piers supporting groins ( Jig- 642.) are made octangular, the angles of the groins should be cut off or arched as ribs, by which they are rendered much stronger than when they are square. In stone groins, where the arch is cut off, there is no advantage in point of strength, and rather a defect in point of ap- pearance, to the groined angles. 1955. Arches intersecting a coved ceiling are similar to groins. Such arches are called lunettes, and are generally practised for semicircular- headed windows piercing the coves in the ceiling: fig. 643. exhibits a plan and section of such arches. 1956. A dome is a solid, which may be con- ceived to be generated by the figure of the b tse diminishing as it rises, till it becomes a point at the summit ; and when a dome has a polygonal base, the arches are plain arches, and the con- struction is similar to that of a groin. A domed ceiling of this kind upon a rectangular plan is shown in plan 15 ( fin . 644.); the sections A A being elliptical in the top, and with lunette win- dows. C shows the geometrical construction. Fi s . 612 'iiap. 1 1 1. MASONRY. 597 1957. When arches intersect an inclined vault , and the projections of the arrisses cross rich other at right angles, and the angle of elevation of one of the semicircular vertical ribs f the ascending avenue or opening is given to obtain the geometrical construction ; so that he cross arches mag be cylindrical surfaces. Jr.uv the straight line AB {Jig. 645.) to present the axis of the inclined vault, and Iraw Cl) perpendicular to AB. Produce T) to e a id h ; make AC and AD each e pial to the radius which forms the edges t f the ribs; draw AN parallel to AB, and lake the angle NAo equal to the inclination if the axis represented by its plan AB. In he line ho take any point p, and draw qr larallc! and ps perpendicular to AN. Make is equal to AC or AD, and through s draw ./ parallel to ho. Draw pu perpendicular 0 Ig, cutting it in u. Produce pu to v. Set the circumference of the inclined vault Vom u to v, divided into the equal parts u, 1 , 2; 2, 3; 3e, at the points 1, 2, 3. Divide ich of the quadrants qs, sr, into the same mmber of equal parts at the points 1, 2, 3, aid through these points and in uv draw la, b. :!c parallel to vt, and through the points in the curve qs, draw z'L, la, 2b, 3c, Kirallel to pu. Through all the points log. cm. a, b, c draw the curve Labor, and this will be the pliable mould for forming the angle or ruin over the plan, and for working the arch stones. Draw DA parallel to Az. Let K Ride the circumference CED into the two equal parts EC, ED ; divide the arcs DE, EC ito the same number of equal parts as uv at the points 1 , 2, 3, and draw 1 w, 2.r, 3 //, E -, irallel to A B ; also through the points 1 , 2, 3 in the quadrant qu draw git, 1 2.r, 3 y, vz, rpendicular to y N ; then through the points A, w, .r, y, z, draw a curve, which will be the m of the groin whereof the stretch-out is L abev. In the same manner the other half of ie plan will be found, as also the whole of the other parts. I 9 8. The firm of an arch crossing an inclined groined vault at right angles, and the plan 1 the diagonal ribs Icing given ; to find the arch of the level vault. Let AB, BC (.fig. 046.) the plan of the axis of the vaults. Through any Miit A in A 11 draw DE perpendicular to AB, and like AD and AE each equal to the horizontal readtli of the vault. Draw DG and EH pa- lilcl to AB; draw also any line LK parallel to til, cutting I1C in C, and make the angle KIL pial to the inclination of the axis represented by ' plane AB. Make CM and CK equal to the nadth of the level vaults; draw KG and MN ii did to I1C, and let MN cut 1)G in N, and EH 1’. Draw the diagonals PG and NIL Pro- ne GK to cut IL in L, and Nil to cut II, in Q. i the curve DEE take any number of points a, • nr..’ draw ml, In:, if 'parallel to AB, cutting DE the point- n. q, r, and the diagonal GP in d, e,f ■I the diagonal 11 N in the points ti,c',f . Pro- " ' II \ to l-„ draw ill, em, fn. Bo parallel to 15C, Iting QI, in the points g. A, i, A; make gl, hm, in, equal respectively to jm, qb , rc, AE; then through points l,m, »i, o, draw the curve QpL. Draw Hit p-ndnoilar to Nil, and make HR equal to Kb, 4 Join N It ; then will 1 1 R be the line of ramp for 811 * r,ir». diagonal rib over its plan II N. Perpendicular to 1 1 N, draw d v, tic, fy, BG cutting Inn- ot ramp RN ill the points s, t, u, v. Make sr, hr, ug, tiG respectively equal / ->. qb, rc, A E. 1 lien through all the points v, w, g draw a curve, which will lie the d,- rili standing over II N, mid which will also nerve for the angle rib standing over I . .All the groined vaults continued in tile same range may be constructed by the same oltlila. I '• i'i. In nuihr the irnrhing drawings for n semicircular arch with a straight fare, ami d. ,,-riti ih, moulds for tin rnussnirs. Tills simple ease will serve as a rule for those I'ol- • uip , lu-iicv the explanation should be perfectly understood, ns all the other eases dillcr 598 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 !■! u'l' dm H i from it only according to the different kinds of arches to be constructed ; such as the bevcllc arch, that in a battering or sloping wall, and that on a circular wall. 1960. Drau two lines (fig. 647.) perpendicular to and crossing each other, as BA, GU From the point E, as a centre, describe the sofite curve ACB, and the extrados or upper curve FGH. Divide each of these arcs into two equal parts, as the dotted arc abc. Draw LM parallel to AB, and make the distance A ' L equal to the thickness of the wall wherein the arch is to be constructed. Draw the outer and inner lines of the plan F Iv, A L, B'M, IIN parallel to CD. Divide the arc ACB into the proper number of equal parts for the arch stones or vous- soirs, suppose five, by the joint lines 1, 2, 3, 4 ; from the point E draw the joints 1 — -5, 2—6, 3 — 7, 4 — 8; then from every point where the joints cut the arcs ACB, FGH, &c. draw the perpendiculars cutting the line K N, as 8 d, cM, if, 1g, hi, 3k, 21, mn, 6a, p, a L, and 5s. Divide the sofite of each voussoir Al, 1—2, 2 — 3, &c. into two equal parts t, u, v, w, from which also let fall the perpendiculars T. 1961. To draw the moulds of the sofite below NK. Draw the line OP parallel to the line KN ; prolong ED to Z and make the distance QZ equal to ED. Through Z draw RS parallel to OP, and on each side of QZ lay off the distances C3, 3«, v4, 4 w, and w B respectively on Q.r, xy, ya, ab, and 5P. Fi 047- On the other side lay off C2, 2 a, u\ , 1 1 and t A on Qc, cd, de, efi and /O. Through the points O, e, c, x, a let fall on RS the perpe diculars OR, ea', cd', xc', ad, PS, apd through the points fi d, y, b let fall the perpendicuki from the middle sheetings fe', df, yg', bli ; the distances of the dark lines give the bread of the sofite of each stone in the sofite curve. 1962. To draw the moulds of the joints : lay off the distance 1—5 on eg, th, xi, ah, ai through the points gliin draw the lines gq, hi, im. I/p, parallel to QZ. To find the midd of the joint divide the distances eg, ch, xi, an, each into two equal parts, as in k', m, g', through which draw the lines h'l', m'n', q'r', s't parallel to QZ. 1 963. The elevation is a section of a hollow cylinder, of which the concave or inter! surface forms the intrados of the arch, and the convex or exterior surface the extrados, ai of which the cutting plane of the section is perpendicular to the common axis of tl cylinder. 1 964. The angles of the stone are found from the angle which the arc of this scctii makes with any joint, and the curving of the sofite of the stone is found by a ruler mould, the edge of which is made to the curve. The ends of the sofite are found by i developement. 1965. When the stones are shaped according to the moulds, , ; and joined together in consecutive order, the whole mass, thus united, will form the solid arch as required. 1966. These separate operations being properly attended to, every difficulty will be removed, and no confusion will arise during the process, which can, in any degree, tend to per- plex the delineator. 1967. To find the bevels and moulds for the joints and sofites of an elliptical arch cutting obliquely through a straight wall, the joints radiating to the centre of the opening. Draw the axis EN of the arch (fig. 648.^, and therein take any point E, through which draw AB perpendicular to EN; make EA and EB each equal to half the space of the extrados or centre line of the arch ; also make EC and ED each equal to half the span of the inner arch. Produce the diameter NE to G ; rf la' l e 7 R .'ha r. in. MASONRY. 599 nake EE equal to tlie height of the inner arch and EG equal to the height of the omer .rch. On the major axis AB, and semi-minor axis EG, describe the semi-ellipsis AG 15, vliieh is the extrados of the arch. Also, on CD as the major axis, and EF the semi- minor xis, describe the semi-ellipsis Cl’D. 1968. Make the angle ABII equal to the angle which the wall makes with the right section of the arch, and let BI1 cut the axis in K. Draw ML at such a distance from 15H that they may comprehend between them the thickness of the wall, and let ML cut lie axis in N. The intrados of the arch on the one side of the wall is OPR, and the xtrados is LQM ; they are both ellipses respectively of the same height as the intrados ud extrados of the right arch, but with the axes OR and LM. 1 969. To find the bevel of the angle of the arch stones corresponding to the joint ah nding to the centre E. Describe the arc be from E with the radius Eft cutting AB in Draw ft;/ parallel to EN cutting BII in f slope or batter AS. In the arc of the in- rados take any number of points bed, Sec. md draw the lines ftft, cc, intersecting AR in lie points I, 2, &c. and meeting the line of ratter AS in the points be. Draw CD pa- allcl to AB, and at any convenient distance rom it draw aubvew perpendicular to CD, nterseeting it in the points e, I, m, n. Sec. Find he points ft', c', d‘ in the straight lines bv, mw, j'L such that the distance of those points rom the line ED may be respectively equal the intervals 1ft, lc, & c. between the per- icudicular AR and the line of batter AS, nd draw the curve a' ft' c' d' e f, which will >e the plan of the arc of the intrados. In he same manner the curve Ep /i i/iD may be escribed ; which being done, the plan of the rc of the extrados will be obtained. 1972. To find the moulds of the sofites tnd beds. Draw any straight line III in a parate place, and extend the arc of the in- rados nbcdef upon the line III from II to I ; ividc it into the same number of parts that ic arc "1 ’/of the intrados is divided into (in this instance five), and mark the points of divi- on l , m , n , c . 1 ransfer the distances ea', lb', me' between the line CD and the plan of the t !,’ < -;, i, ,', trados - to the perpendiculars n'a", l"b" , m 'c", n"cl", c"e", and through the points ft i dej raw a curve, which will he the developement of the ire of the intrados. Pro- net* the lines / //, m'c", n'd", to v", w", x”, and transfer the distances bv, c'w, d'x from • plan to the sofite on the lines b"v", c'w", d'x". Draw ga ', hb' , ic ", hd" perpendi- "lir to II I ; transfer the distances g'a, lib, i'c from the plan to the sofite upon c/a", lib", , and join a /> , b w", x 'c", which will complete the moulds of the joints. I >7.J. Jo malic the drawings for an oblique arch by an abridged method. The following i* tliod is said to he abridged, because, by one very short operation the moulds of the >litc* and joints are found within the plan of the arch A HOC (fg. 650.). Divide AB i K into two equal parts, and draw EF parallel to AO. From the point A draw AO '•rprndicular to AC; prolong DB to G ; divide AC into two equal parts in the point II. r,,m a centre, describe the arc AFG, which divide into voussoirs, and draw the ■ nts from the centre II. Draw lines from each sofite parallel to EF, and below the line l>. the moulds tor the sofites are comprised between the parallels of the key, and those of joints arc traced on the sides of the plan, as follows : — l'*' I To find t/n moulds of the. sofites. Through the point Q draw QM parallel to II 1 ’ '■ 1 "" KS tin point N, through the point K draw k I, also parrallel to (-11. To " 1,11 ^ ^ 'l'*’ l M, *nt *^I* and on US the point L, draw the front line of the second solitc Fig. C49. GOO THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE MN, and the front line of the first IL. The back of this sheeting soiite is found by the same operation below the plan. The mould of the key is formed by two lines ItS, QT, and the front and back lines of the plan A IS, CD; the two moulds of the sofites NMTS and LIXV serve to trace the two stones on each side, ob- serving only that the lower arrisses of the sofite on the side AC become those of the top on the side BD; or that the under arriss of one side may be that on the other side by reversing the mould, which will have the same effect. 1975. To find, the moulds of the beds or joints. Prolong NQ. to meet DG, to find the point P, and through it and the point E draw the front of the second joint P2 ; prolong LM to GD to find O, through which and the point E draw the front of the joint 03. Proceed in the same manner to find the backs of the other joints, which are sufficient also to trace the stones by reversing them. It is not absolutely necessary to cut out the moulds of the sofites and joints, but the angles may be taken by bevels and applied to stones. The heads are prepared, as usual, with the moulds of the heads of the straight arc. It must be observed, that in this arch the face or front differs from a straight arch, being formed by different sections of a cylinder. 197(3. To find the moulds for an oblique arch , whereof the front slopes and tilt rear art pe pcndicular to the axis. Let A UGH {.fid- 651.) lie the plan of the imposts. From the point a, as a centre, desciibe the arcs ACB, DRI, which divide into five or more equal parts for the arch stones. Draw the joint lines from the centre, and the perpendiculars from the joints below the line A B. Fron the summits of the per- pendiculars, draw lines parallel to A B, to terminate in the perpendicular DF. From the point D, as a centre, describe arcs from the points which terminate in DF, to meet the line of slope DE in the poiirts m, l , k, E. Draw the lines mr, Is, lit, EF' parallel to A B, meeting the perpendi- cular DF in the points rstF; transfer the distances rm, th, «P from n to b', front o to c', from a' to s', and through the points A'b'c'd'e'li' draw the curve. Find the extrados or outer line E > fghi in a manner similar to that in which the inner curve has been found. Draw the points h'fi, c'g', d'h, e'i. Prolong AH and BG to K and L, and draw the lines b'b, c'c, d'd parallel to A K. 1977. To make the straight arches. Draw KL perpendicular to A'K, and produce KL /'and g . Transfer the distances between the points m, l, k, E, and the line QD to l ordinates of the lower arc from h to v, from c to w, from d. to x, and from e to ij, and draw the curve Kvwxy L. Also find the outer curve in the same manner, and draw VT at right angles to AH. 1 978. To find the moulds of the sofites. Draw the line 1VX (fid- 652.) in any convenient sur- face, anil lay the breadths of sofite, not from the arc A BC as before, but from those of the right arc Kiucry I ., that is, transfer the distance Ktt, u-w, wx, xg. y\. to the line WX upon W a, ab, he, cd, and uX. Through the poi.its WabcdX, draw the lines dy, ei, fk, gl, hm, ijz, perpendicular to Fib. C51 Fie f Hit. ITT. MASONRY. 601 WX. Transfer the distances 1 A, 2b', 3c', 4 d', 5e' upon the perpendiculars to W X : that, is, from a to e, from b to f from c to g, from d to h, and from X to y, and join de, ef, fg, yh, hy. In the same maimer draw the line yil/hnz, which will complete the sofites. 1979. To find the moulds of the joints. Transfer the distances v/3, wy, xo, ye, to the line XW from a to a, from b to /3, from c to •}, and from d to 5, and through the points, a, /8, 7, 5 draw the iines nr, os, pt, Sn perpendicular to VVX. Find the points n, o, p, q, as also, r,s,t,u, as in the preceding examples; then the moulds of the joints will he eirn, f/tso, ptlg, h5um. It must be observed that the boundaries, or extrados and intrados, DRI, ACB of the ring of the arch, do not stand in a plane perpendicular to the plan, but are supposed to be the lines which are drawn on the wall itself; and this is the reason why arcs are described between the perpendiculars 1)F and the line of siope DE. It must also be observed, that the voussoirs of this arch must be cut by the moulds of the heads of the straight arch, and the moulds of the solite must be applied on the voussoirs before the solite is hollowed. Thus, let the first voussoir on the right hand be cut by the head mould on that face of the stone intended for the sofite ; apply the first sofite mould, and its upper bed the first joint mould, and on its under bed the plan of the impost. Then cut the two heads according to these moulds, and hollow the sofite square to its arrisses, using for this purpose the curved bevel. 1980. To find the moulds for executing a semicircular-headed arch in a mass of masonry, of which one of its faces is a battering plane upon an oblique plan, and the other opposite face a portion of a cylindric surface. Describe /if 1 the intrados and extrados of the eleva- tion; draw the joints and describe the plan a'b’c'd'ef of the intrados ( fig. 658.), and the plan F.g'h i'h'Y. ) of the extrados. Draw lilt perpendicular to All, and draw BS', the portion of the cylindric surface. From the arc BS draw the plan n'l m'n'of of the intrados upon the line Tli, and the plan Tp q'r'sC of the xtrados in the same manner from the arc BS, as the plan of the plane face was drawn from the line of slope AS. 1981. To find the plan of any joint, is that for the line or joint cli in the -devation. Bisect ch in v, draw cm', mv', md hq' perpendicular to AB, intersecting the line VI) in the points quc. From he points cch, in the joint ch, draw cc, •«, hh, meeting the line AS in the points eh, and intersecting the line A It in the mints 1, 3, 2 by three intervals, lc, 3v, ■h. Find the places lire of the three "»nts live on the elevation. In the same manner find the places q'w'm' of the three cor- esponding points ; then will cv'h'q w'm' be the plan of the joint required. The plans of the ’ther joints will be found in the same manner. 1 98-J. To find the joint mould itself. Draw the line III (fig. 654.) equal in length to the levclopement of the intrados, and let He e the developement of the arc ac ; draw perpendicular to III. Draw any line ) X in the plan parallel to VD, inter- ting the lines chi', v'w', h'q, in the >ints I, 2, 3. Draw W X' in the deve- ipemcnt or sofite parallel to III, and ' the same distance from III that \VX from VD in the plan, and let \VX in- rsect the line c"m" in 1 . Make the ■ stances 1 — 2, 2 — 3 respectively equal < », r h, in the joint cli in the elevation, "I through the points 1 , 2, 3, just found, 1 '' v ' VV , A 'q parallel to Cm". From the plan transfer the distances 2p', 2 w', 3 /<', be/" to the Fig. fir, 3. fitc from 2 to V, and from 2 to W ; also from \\h ' and from to g the points cvp' will he 1 ;i straight line, because tlu-y correspond to the straight face of the wall, and the points w * 7 W, I! he in a curve, because they correspond to the cylindric surface. Draw, there- f . the straight line c"h ', and draw the curve line which will he a portion of an lipsis, differing in its curvature hut in a very small degree from that of a circle drawn rough the same three points. However, if more exactness he rujuiml, we may find as 602 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IL. many points in the joints of the surface of the wall and in the cylindric surface as wo please; then c"m"p"h" is the joint required, which serves for the upper and under beds of the two stones that unite together in that joint. 1983. Find all the other joint moulds b'T'p'g ', d'n''v"t'', e"o"s"k", in the same manner, and find the points a"f " in the developement. Through the points a"b"e"d''e'f" draw a curve line by hand, or hy a ruler bent to the points, and this will be the front curve of the so ite. Find the points k 'p" in the developement corresponding to the points a' and f on the plan, and through the points corresponding to the points a and f on the plan, and the points k V'm"n"o"p", draw another curve, which will be the developement of the other side of the sofite. The developements of each of the parts of the sofite and of the two adjacent joint moulds give the three moulds for working one stone and the adjacent joints of the stone on each side of it. The angle which each of these joints makes with the sohte is found by making a bevel with one of its edges, circular for the intrados of the arc of the elevation, and the other to coincide with the joint line adjacent. 1 984. To find the moulds for executing a gateway in the quoin of a sloping wall. Let A BCD (fig. 655.) he the plan of the angle in which the arch is to he constructed, whereof AB is the span. Draw the centre line EL, to which draw the perpendicular FG. Prolong the line CAto F, and DB to G ; then from the point L, as a centre, describe the sofite FHGandits extrados. Divide these arcs into equal parts for the arch stones, and from the divisions let fall perpendiculars, and also from the middle of the sofites to EC, ED. From the sum- * mits of the perpendiculars draw lines pa- rallel to FGterminated by the lines of slope Set off the slope at the different heights «1, a2, a3, a 4 respectively at right angles to the lines on the plan, on dl , 62, dS, 64, K5 ; also on the opposite side -lay a2, u4 on d‘2, 64 ; then on one side draw the curve A66K, and on the other, to abridge the work, join B6, 66, 6K. Again, for the outer curve, or extrados, set off cl, c2, cG on di, d2, N3. On both sides draw the curve MrftfO on the one side, and to abridge the labour, draw the straight lines O d, dd, dN. 1 985. To find the moulds of the sofites. Draw the line PQ (%. 656.), on which lay the arc of the sofite FUG in the usual manner, making the points 1 , 2, 8, which correspond to the points dividing such arc into equ. parts ; then on the lines of the sofite lay the distances FA, fb, gl>, 66, LK, on PR, 16, 21, 3 m, 4 m, QS, and trace the front curve of the sofite R6/»in S. Also repeat tlie same on the other side where there is only a straight line drawn from one sofite curve to another. 1986. To find the bach curve of the sofite. I.ay the dis- tances eo,fp, gq, hr, LE on PT, lo, 2 1, 3 u, 4v, QU, and trace the curve 'TotuvXJ. 1 987. To find the moulds of the beds or joints. The sofite lines to which the beds belong are 2 1 and 4v. Draw the straight lines eb, fd parallel to QU, respectively distant from 2 1, 4v hy t! breadth GI of the joint, and let the lines be, fd meet PQ in e and f; make ea eqn to gd, and ab equal to dw, and join al, lit; make fc equal to hr l, and cd equal to d.v, ai join nc, vcl. To trace the stones by moulds, prepare the voussoirs with the head of t moulds of the straight arch FUG. The sofite should be hollowed in each voussoir i its particular mould : the rest is done as usual ; but it must be observed, that if t sofite moulds are made with straight lines in front and near the sofite, it must not be In lowed till the last. The voussoirs may be worked by bevels, preparing the stones by t plans ACVM, BDWO, as for common imposts. Although the arch in each front he i absolutely necessary here, we shall give the method of constructing it. Let the line ' be drawn apart, on which lay the distances L5, L4, L2, LA on the lines ns, nq, no, / square to mm. Draw the perpendiculars op, qr, st, on which lay the heights of the joints the straight arch taken on the line of slope ; that is, lay 12, on op, 14 on qr, 15 on st, a 0 4 3 2 1 1 MASONRY. 603 1AP. III. nv the line nt, which is the slope. Then draw the curve mprt, and from the point n draw j joint lines pv and rX. The centre of this gate is represented (in the upper part of the igram) with voussoirs, and the keystone placed behind to show the mitre of the centre, le sofite moulds serve for curving the ends of the stone where the intrados meets the rface of the two walls. It must, however, he observed, that, previous to the application the sofite mould, the concave surface of the intrados must be formed by a mould with a nvex edge, and then the solite mould or moulds of developement must be bent into the llow, so that the two parallel edges may coincide with the corresponding edges of the .me. The angles which the intrados makes with the joints are taken from the elevation the face of the arch. This elevation is no more than a section of the arch perpendicular the axis of the cylinder which forms the intrados. 1 98S. To construct a semicircular-headed arch in a round tower or circular wed! . Let L5DC ( fin. 657.) be the plan of the tower. Bisect the |j AB, and through the point of bisection draw EF parallel the jamb line AC or BD. Through any point a in EF aw GH perpendicular to EF. Produce the lines CA and 15 to meet GH in the points G, II, and GH will be bi- :ted in a. From a, as a centre, and with the radius oG or 1, describe the semicircular arc GFFI. Also describe the „• of the extrados and divide the arcs each into five equal its, and let fall the perpendiculars of the joint lines, and jse of the middles of the sofite curves to the inside circu- line CED of the tower. Having extended the arcs of intrados curve on the line IK, and having drawn the es of the sofites and those in the middle of each sheet as fore directed, lay off the distances between the right line il and the circular outside line A6I5, viz GA on IX and KZ, cd on ef, V•), as is evident from the plan ; therefore distances taken between the right line AB 1 the circular line of the tower CDE, being ■qual, must be transposed each on its particu- line of the mould and joint to which it cor ponds in the sofite, that is, the distance AC st he laid on FG, BE on III, and so of the f. To work the stones, dress the beds, then dy the proper moulds and cut the head and circular as before. Trace the breadth of the te on the upper bed, then hollow the sofite, I cut the joints by the bevel. 991. To construct an oblique arch in a round ' nny tower intersecting a semicircular arch within 1 his is nearly the same as the two preceding On one side draw the line of slope (fig. ’■) A 15, and on the other the arc CD. Draw •llels from the divisions of the sofites and their Idles, as in the figure, in order to cut the line dope and arc. To work for the slope, set oil’ I he retreats comprised between the perpen- dars All and the line of slope A B on the I pcndiculars of the sofite, square to the front ■ of the tower F 1 9 (5, as follows : Transfer retreat 9 — 10 on 1 9 — 90 by placing the com- I scs so that the line 19 — 20 would pass mgh the centre of the tower, and the point ‘JO fall on the centre of the gate O 75 17 — 18, and on 91 — 22 in the same manner (only terminated by the lines fin- ran. -8 on 604 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 from the sofitc instead of the centre line of the arch), set also 5 — 6 on 15 — 1 6, and on ‘23—24, 3 — 4 on 13 — 14 and on 25 — 26, and lastly 1 — 2 on 11 — 12 and on 27 — 28, and through these points trace the sofite 28 — 20 • — 11. The extrados is found in like manner, and the middles of the joints 47, 49, 53 ; which done, draw the plan of the joints 1 4 — 47 — 35, 18—19 — 37, 22 — 51 — 39, and 26 — 53 — 41. 1 992. To find the curve of the plun which terminates the tails of the moulds. Set the projections of the buttress of the semicircular arc at right angles to the inside line of the tower ; viz. 64 — 65 on 74 — 75 ; 62 — 63 on 72—73 and on 76 — 77; 60—61 on 70 — 71, and on 78 — 79, 58 — 59 on 68 — 69. and on 80 — 81 ; 56 —57 on 66 — 67 and on 82 — 83 ; then trace by hand the curve 83 — 75 — 66. The curves of the extrados and joints are found in the same manner. , 1993. To find the moulds of the sofite. Draw the line of direction 94 — 84 (fig. 660.) as before, below which set oft’ the distances I — 1 1 or 84—85, K— 12 on 86— 87, L— 14 on 88 — 89, M— 16 on 90—91, N — 18 on 92 — 93, O — 20 on 94 — 95, and then trace the front of the sofite moulds 85 — 95 — 99. To find the rear, set I — 66 on 84 — 33, K — 67 on 86—36, L— 69 on 88 — 100, M— 71 on 90 — 98, N-^ 73 on 92 — 97, O — 75 on 94 — 96, and trace the rear curve of the mould 101 — 96 — 33. 1 994. To find the moulds of the joints. Transfer P — 1 9 on 31- — 54, Q — 37 on 32 — 48, l — 47 on 42 — 52, R — 35 on 43 — 40, and through these points trace the front joint or bed moulds 93 — 54 — 48, 89 — 92 — 40. To find the rear, make 31 — 50 equal to PV, 32 — 38 equal to Q.X, 42 — 46 equal to IT, and 43 — 34 equal to RS; which done, trace tin curve lines 97 — 50 — 38 and 100 — 46 — 34. The two other joints are found by the saim method. We do not consider it necessary further to multiply examples of the kind hcrt given : the latter sort, especially, rarely occur in practice ; and if they should, all that will bt necessary to master the operations will be the application of alittle thought and study. 1995. III. Of Dome Vaulting. In whatever direction a hemispherical dome is cut, the section A is always the same. 13 represents one half (see fig. 661.) of the same in the plane of projection. The con- struction is sometimes such that the plan is only a semicircle, as B, as in the ter- mination of the choir of a church : in which case the French call it a cul-de-four ; with us it is called a semi-dome. 1996. Through the extremities of the joints, and through the middle of each sofite of the section A, let fall on the line ah, perpendiculars, whereof all the distances dc from the centre c will be the radii of the arcs, which will serve for the developcment of the sofites, of the joints, and for the construction of the arch stones. The me- thod which follows, though it will not perhaps give the sofites and joints strictly accurate, will do so sufficiently for all prac- tical purposes. Upon the developement C make SC equal to the arc MDGC, then set out to the right of the points of di- vision the parts ST equal to st on the plan 13 ; then raise through the points T upon the line SC perpendiculars equal Fi K . 059. >H A F. III. masonry. 605 o the correspondents e, t, d of the plan B, and draw the curve ESD through the points so ound. 1997. The sofites are terminated bv four curves, whereas the joints have two right sides, s 1)1, El, and DO, EO, and two curved sides, as II, DE, and OO, DE; the widths )I DO of the joints are equal to DI, GE of the section ; in one direction they are curved .ill v one way, but as respects their sofites they are so in every way. The heights of the oussoirs are given by the section A, their bases on the plan B Thus G, I, in the voussoir ,cxt the keystone, being the most opposite points, the base of it on the plan will be comprised letween the two arcs dte, which answer to the perpendiculars let all from G and I. The ■ ise of the first voussoir, according to the first method, will be equal to the surface com- rised between the arc anf and the arc dse, which answers to the perpendicular let fall from lie point I). 1998. EF and GH are the diameters of the upper and lower bases of a truncated cone, chose lower surface is hollowed out spherically. After working the voussoirs, so as to ke their bases such as we have just indicated, they must be worked to sofite moulds for ing them the hemispherical form of the section ; after which the angles of the moulds joined by arcs parallel to the arrisses of each stone, or by applying a general mould of lie form of the section, that is, circular, of the radius of the dome. 1999. For the pendentives formed in an hemispherical dome. The piers D and E are upposed those of half the dome pierced by the pendentives. If we suppose the face or ration B {jig. 662. ) to make ne quarter of a revolution bout the point A, we obtain he elevations B and C. hrough the points of division the elevation C draw to the AD right lines perpendicu- to CA. On the extremi- es of these lines upon CA, id from C, as centre, describe cs in the plan F, by which ie plan of the projection on F obtained, whose intersections th the right lines drawn from will give the joints and faces the level beds. The lines IF, FE, ED are right lines, ie spaces G A E F, FI 1 1 K are eces of cylindrical vaulting, that the only difficulty is in ining to each of their vous- irs their correspondent parts ELMHFE. 2000. I'he elevation B gives height of the voussoirs ; Fig. 002. ir bases, as seen in the preceding example, will be OPQ.UNO, GSTUVKFG. The 1 the keystone will be XY, and a — A will be half its width. *001. I lie part Hill is the plan of the springing stones of the pendentive in the eleva- 1 1' 1 ' remaining parts of the construction are sufficiently shown by the lines of the L'raui, which will be understood by the student if he has previously made himself polluted with the previous portions of this section. -’002. \Y e should willingly have prolonged this part of our labours, if space bad per- 1 . Ils ( l° so without sacrificing other and important objects. If the subject be one "huh more than the ordinary practice of the architect is called upon to put into cxecu- wc refer him to Simonin, Coupe die Pierree, Paris, 1792, and Kondclct’s Art dc liiitir, mb we have used with much freedom, and in which many more interesting details will • "und than wc have thought it absolutely necessary here to introduce, though we be- wu fiave left no important point in masonry untouched. We cannot close this section loot paying our tribute of respect to the masons of this country, who are among the t intelligent of the operative builders employed in it. A very great portion of them If’i" the north of the island, and possess an astuteness and intelligence which far exceeds 1 ot the other classes of artisans. We must not, however, altogether do this at the cx- those employed in carpentry, which will form the subject of our next section, "ig whom there will be found much skill and intelligence, when the architect takes the ’per means of drawing it out ; and we here advise him never to be ashamed of such alia. 606 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I 200 2o. IV. Of Caissons in Cylindrical ano Hemispherical Vaulting. — Tl method of setting out the caissons or sunken panels in cylindrical vaults and domes, is process required almost in every building of importance, and imparls great beauty to tl effect ot the interior when properly introduced: it is, indeed, one of the elements i composing them, and must therefore be well understood before the student can succet in developing his ideas. 2002/a In setting out the ribs of cylindrical vaulting, the vertical ones are supposed ; falling on supports below the springing ; hut if such supports fall too wide apart, tl caissons themselves will be too wide, and the space must be divided into a greater nuinbei in which case, if practicable, an odd number is to be preferred, taking care that the caissoi are not too much reduced in width. This, however, is only for the purpose of ascertainii; roughly how many caissons may he used in the circuit of tiie vault; and it is to be remeu bered that they must be of an odd number, because a tier of caissons should always exten along the crown of the vault. Fig. 662a. is an example of a cylindrical vault wherein tl Fig. 662a. number of caissons is five. A is one half of its transverse section, and B a small portion the longitudinal section. The width of the ribs between the caissons is one third of then hence, if the number of caissons, as in the example, be live, the arch must be divided inf twenty-one parts, one of which parts will be the width of a rib, and three will be givrn i the width of a caisson. As we have just observed, a caisson is always placed in the centre we shall therefore have the half-arch = 1^4-14-3+1 4- 3 + 1 = lCbj and lOg- x 2 = 21. Tl vertical lengths of the sides of the caissons thus found will regulate the horizontal lengtl of their sides, inasmuch as they should be made square. If the caissons in the vault I seven in number, as in Jiff. 6626., the solite or periphery must be then divided into twent nine parts; if their number be nine, into thirty-seven parts ; and so on, increasing by eigl each step in the progression. The caissons may be single or double sunk, or mou according to the richness required ; their centres may be moreover decorated wit h Jieuron and their margins moulded with open enrichments. Where the apartment is very high ornamented, the ribs themselves are sunk on their lace, and decorated with frets, guilloche: and the like, as mentioned for ceilings in Book iii. , c. i., s. xxiv. Durand, in his Cum tf Architecture, regulaies the width of the caissons entirely by the interaxes of the columns the building ; but this practice is inconvenient, beeause the space may in reality he : great as to make the caissons extremely heavy, which is, in lact, the case in the exampl* he gives. 2002c. In the case of dome or hemispherical vaulting, the first point for consideratio is the number of caissons in each horizontal tier of them ; and the student must recolln that allowing, as before, one third of the width of a caisson as the width of a rib, tl number of parts into which the horizontal periphery (whereof e'e' on the plan A is on quarter, and its projected representation at ee on the section B) is to be divided (Jiff. 6fi2c must be multiples of 4, otherwise caissons will not fall centrally on the two axes of tl plan. Thus, A dome having 16 caissons in one horizontal tier must be divided into 64 parts. 20 ditto 24 ditto 28 ditto 32 ditto 80 dilto. 96 ditto. 1 12 ditto. 128 ditto. and so on increasing by 16 for each term in the progression. In the figure, the number caissons is sixteen. The semi-plan is divided into thirty two parts, three whereof a given to each caisson, and one and a half to each half-caisson on the horizontal axis ol tl plan. From the divisions thus obtained lines are carried up to the section ab, ab, cd, r As the projected representations of the great circles of a sphere are ellipses, if from b, <1, cl. we construct a series of semi-ellipses whose transverse diameters are eq" Chap. III. MASONRY. 607 o the semi-diameter of the sphere, ind their conjugate axes determined Yoni the points of intersection b, b, d , d, we shall have the vertical sides of the caissons. The next part of the process s to ascertain the ratio of diminution n the heiglits of the tiers of caissons is they rise towards the vertex, so that hey may continue square in ascending. Upon a vertical line CC'. whose length is equal to the developed length of the ine of dome ef, or in other words. .vhose length is equal to one quarter of lie length of a great circle of the sphere, 0 the right and left of C set out at g ind g the half width of the caisson ob- tained from the plan, and make hg, hy iqual to one third of the caisson for the width of the ribs on each side. Draw lines to the vertex of the de- velopment from hh and gg. A diagonal ii being then drawn, the horizontal line It will determine the lower edge of the text caisson upwards. Proceed in this ray for the next from l and so on. rite heights of the caissons thus ob- ained, being transferred to the section ■n the quadrant ef, will give the pro- portionate diminution thereon of the i aissons as they rise. They are discon- inued, and the dome is left plain, when hey become so small as to lose their (feet from below, and indeed they mid not beyond a certain limit be xecuted. 20:)2 d. V. Of Gothic Vaulting. — Professor Willis, in his valuable essay On the aults of the Middle Aues, printed in the Transactions of the Institute of British irclntects, 1842, states that every rib should spring as a separate and independent arch, nd that the elliptic curves produced by the method of obtaining the form by ordinates om those of the transverse ribs, are totally at variance with the characteristic forms 1 the Gothic style. De Lorme lirst taught this method, and others followed him, but it as never intended by them to be applied to Gothic rib-vaulting. This author shows h. viii. ) that every riii is perfectly independent of the other in its curvature ; each rib consists I a single arc of a circle whose centre is upon the impost level, and they cannot be therefore innected by projections. They all form pointed arches of diHerent proportions, with the sception of the diagonal arch, which is very nearly a semicircle. “ This,” says Willis, “ may ave been the genuine French method, but in our English examples the centres are coin- only placed without respect to the impost level, and the general forms of the vault are illerent from those which are produced in this manner.” Derand, writing later than De orme, says, “that in this style the ribs are always made arcs of circles, elliptical or other irves being inadmissible ” (p. 177). Willis, later, however, allows certain ribs in a vault ■ be “acini four-centred arches,” the others being arcs of circles. (See 1943a.) O.'e. “ I n the eai ly stage of rib-vaulting ,” remarks Professor Willis, “ the ribs consist of dependent and separate voussoirs down to the level course from which they spring. The •p irate stones were roughly jointed at the back, instead of being each got out of a single me, as in later structures. The hack of these ribs is concentric with the soflite. The insviTsc rib of the north-east transept of Canterbury Cathedral consists of about one iindrcd richly-moulded stones, but the workmanship is exceedingly rude ” '-002/ “The rough construction of the spaudril, in the early instances, was followed at ire by a more artificial structure, bespeaking a great advance in the art of masonry ; id it remained with very slight change to the very latest period of rib-vaulting. This • stein is shown in fig. 662 d. The junction of the solid mass E to N with the clearstory all, is bounded by parallel vertical lines D, and this mass is always built of solid msonry bonded into the wall and forming part of it ; the French name for this block ol i onry is tas tie charge. It is from the level of N that the real rib and panel work the vault begins, lor separate ribs are erected upon the surfuce of this solid, and k g Cg h Fig. 6G2e* 608 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. IloOR 1 1 connected l>y vaults of a light material. The decorative construction, however, of the van! exhibits the rib and panel from the abacus L, upwards. The point N is commonly at abor half the vertical height of the arch, and is nc necessarily guided by the impost of any cleat story rib adjoining. M is the general positio where tiie mouldings of the several ribs run clea of one another at the divergence of the ribs The solid part LM is built of horizontal course of masonry, generally each of a single stout and its level beds cut the curved moulding obliquely in front.” 2002t/. Moller, Memorials, &c., translatio Ifl 1836, p. 154, notices that, at Cologne, tl lower part of the vaulting of the cathedral 1 formed by horizontal courses of stone pre jecting from the wall, consequently the at tual span of the vaulting is proportional! I diminished, while, on the other hand, the aim ment is in the same degree strengthened. Sti | more deserving of attention is the manner i which the essential parts are so linked tt gether as to be rendered incapable of thrusting or giving way, and therefore of necessity remaining in their original position. Price, in his work on Salisbury Cathedral, 17 5: p. 25, quaintly remarks: “And here 1 beg leave to make a conjecture, that is, that all tli[ springing stones of the vaultings were inserted into the walls at the time of their lain erected, and so left till the whole church was roofed and covered in; and then bein defended fro n rains, &c., they fixed their principal ribs and groins, and turned over tl vaultings, as having the weight of the superstructure to act instead of a buttment.” 2002/i. “ Above M,” continues Professor Willis, “ the ribs are each built separately c voussoirs, having their beds properly inclined to meet the axis of curvature of the rib. at these ribs are backed and united by solid masonry which connects them with the wall, at which, appearing between the rib, seems to he a poition of the light vaulting surfac'd really employed higher up. From the upper surface N, each rib A is still built as front I to N with voussoirs, but upon these ribs rests the light thin vault or panel-work.” 2002/. “ It is remarkable that the courses of the vaults are not laid level, but are most cases made to incline downwards upon the diagonal rib. The reason for it is n easy to explain, but it is very common, especially in the earlier examples. These course 1 in the transepts at Westminster Abbey, are of a light coloured stone, probably chalk, i> terrupted at regular intervals bv a course of a darker stone; and the ridge, which has i rib, is also formed entirely of this darker stone, laid in a serrated manner. These dm courses are rather broader than the light ones, and there' are four or five courses of t! light between each of the dark. The surface of the panel between each rib is also ma< slightly concave or domical (probably to preserve the effect of being level, as seen fro below it), and may therefore have been laid without any centreing, since each course woo 1 support itself. These peculiarities may all be found with some variations in other vaul of i he same age.” 2C02 /;. “ The architect of Leon cathedral,” remarks Mr. Street in his work on Goth Architecture in Spain , p. 110, “ filled in the whole of the vaults with a very light tufa, ol tained from the mountains to the north of Leon ; so at least I was assured by the supt intendenr, of the works at the cathedral. Some of the material 1 saw was no doubt tuf; but some of it seemed to me to be an exceedingly light kind of concrete. The vaulting Salisbury Cathedral is similarly constructed. I do not know whether at Beauvais the sail expedient was adopted to lessen the weight.” Both at Beauvais and Leon the constructn in every part was too light. 2092/. Over the vaulis was commonly laid a thick irregular course of rubblervoi which again is also often covered with a kind of concrete. The vaults of the waste compartments of Westminster, and of the south transept and tower of Hereford, are k bare on the upper surface, and tnese vaults, instead of being built with small brick-h stones, are composed of long thin slabs. The ribs themselves are, in some later exampk formed of a few long bar-shaped voussoirs instead of the small and numerous pieces o< t earlier examples. Thus, in the transept at Westminster, L to N consists of 1 3 or 14 stone but at the west end of the nave of 6 only. 2002m. Price notices (p. 24) that at Salisbury, “ The groins and principal ribs tire Chilmark stone, but the shell, or vaulting between them, is of hewn stone and chalk nnxe on t p of which is laid a coat of mortar and rubble of a consistence, probably ground in kind of mill, and poured on hot, while the lime was bubbling; because by this, the wlic is so cemented together, as to become all of one entire substance. This composition IAP. 111. MASONRY. 609 y remarkable, somewhat resembling the pumice-stone, being porous and light, by which contributes prodigiously to the strength of the whole, and at the same time the least in lght of any contrivance that perhaps was ever used.” 2002m. “ The early moulded ribs are formed as fiy. 662/1 from St. Saviour’s Church, uth'vark, the vaulting or panel-work ting only on their backs ; but the ribs later date are rebated for the reception this work, as shown in fig. 662e.” 2002o. As early as 1225-50, the square ms for vaults were superseded by oblong i, which allowed the cross-rib, the groin- , and the wall-rib to arri ' e at nearly one el. In the new system the groin-ribs re portions of circles, and the cross-ribs re struck with the same radius; but ■se vaults were soon considered to be ak, and the cross-ribs were heightened ile the groin-ribs were either stilted or bsequently) sharper pointed. 2002 p. As soon as mediaeval builders nitted the principle that the strength Fl " - 6G2 A FiB - 66 - e - irch-stones, like that of beams, is more dependent on the depth than on the width, they need the widtli as much as they could in order not to require a large abacus to the ital. The next step was to n. solve all thrusts upon that support into a force acting icily upon it ; and consequently lo endeavour to make the various pressures, which pillar has to bear, combine in a point in a stone that should be fully as large in plan the abacus, and perhaps rest upon others of the same character. 002q. The operation of deciding the form and place of this stone is very simple after t size of the arch-stones has been determined. Supposing that the work is, as in a <• ster, hounded by a wall, and with- wall-rihs, there will only be a c rs-rib and two groin-ribs to be led. A line AB ( fiy. 66 2g.) •ving the face of the wall is to be in O by another line CD repre- ing the centre of the cross-rib ; the plan of the arch-stones for rib is to be projected by the aid icse lines. It gives at the wall a re O, and in its length OE on the ul hue a radius with which a circle may he described (as shown he dotted line); a couple of pa- I lines, FG and UK, will now v the thickness of the cross-rib. I’ proceed with a groin rib, a line r O must he laid down at the ct angle made by the groin with I 'all ; and the plan of the groin- I I mist he so projeeted that, with " line for an inside line, the front 'I he arch-stone shall touch the hrclc. A couple of parallel lines 1 and I’Q will now show the thick - ' f of the groin-rib; and the plan h e abacus of the pillar may be '• tied, even so as to allow of wall- 'd- ' they should be intended. >2r. The use of the semicircle an indispensable, hut is a na- y convenient step, because the quantities so taken by it from "pans ol i he ribs leaves undLs- I in general result all culcula- founded upon lines drawn from Fig. c«s B . ^ mitical points that are taken as centres in a plan made to a smnll scale; but ans of the groin-ribs may be placed anywhere U|ion their respective centre lines 610 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II so long as the intersection or junction of the neighbouring lines of the widths of tin ribs is secured at some point. This intersection is not an absolute necessity, but it is tin means of reducing the size of the abacus ; and the point of junction S is that beyom which (working from the wall) the two ribs will be distinct Taking this point S as fixim a line for the springing, the elevations of the two arches are to be drawn on the intersect ing lines; then lines SR and ST drawn perpendicular to the spiingings, will cut the e.\ trados of each arch at points which decide the level of the top bed of the horizontal work The mass of work between this bed and the capital will be divided into a convenien number of courses, and the plans of the beds thus fixed are easily drawn from the elevation of the arches; when it will be seen that, if the groin-ribs are less in depth than the cross ribs, the former will give a good starting-place for the material which is to form tli spandrils of the vaults. In a similar manner, the intersections of any number of ribs ma be found, and the tertiary and secondary ribs may be successively suppressed in favour c the primary principal ones. Viollet le Due, Dictionnair s.v. Construction, p. 96. Prof. Willis gives the follotvin illustration (Jig. 662/1.) showing the method of settii out mouldings for vaulting, belonging to the perpendicuh period ; it is taken from one of the spandrils of a compltT vault which formerly covered the extreme north-westei 1 compartment of the nave of Canterbury Cathedral, tl ' lower storey of the so-called Lanfranc’s tower. The nun her of ribs being seven required two stones in each of i upper courses at least ; fig. 662k. being only a portion the spandril, contains but four of them. It also shows tli the stone had been scored, then rejected, and another s oflines drawn, and actually employed. AB, AC, are the rejected centres, and 1) a portion the tiist outline. EF, EG, EII, and El are the true lines drawn, each parallel to its owl rib. The average thickness of the courses is about 10 inches. 2002s. The liey-stone or boss-stove was adopted by the mediaeval architects as a necessa appendage to groin-ribs, because the solidity of the vaulting depends greatly upon f pressure exerted by the key, which must consequently l-e heavier than any of the arc stones ; it will necessarily be an extremely large stone, allowing a great part of its mass be cut away by the sculptor in order to diminish apparent heaviness. This stone should generally nearly circular in plan ; for if the ribs diverge enough have any large space between them, a fracture is alnu certain. In cases of such divergence, it is best to desi the sculpture so that a mass may occupy the space. 1 remark, of course, does not apply where there are oi two groin-ribs meeting at right angles ; but it governs i amount to which the groin-rib should be allowed to worked in the key-stone. No part of the boss ought Fig. 662i. | )e SU nk within a horizontal line connecting the intrai of one rib with that of another ; and it is generally desirable that, whether or not the r be back-jointed for the tilling of the groining, as Jig. 662/1, the key-stone should h a projection or tall sufficient to stand above the hack of the filling. “ Every boss-ston says Professor Willis, “had its upper surface made horizontal, on which were drawn lines from the axis of the boss in the direction of the respective ribs.” The principles I indicated are illustrated in Jig. 662i. 2002f. In the construction of groined vaulting it has been considered b°st to fix the k stone on the centreing, before laying the arch-stones, for the sake of the guidance wine 1 alfords in the work ; the inconveniences of working a boss in its place, and of setting already worked, were obviated in the 13th century by leaving its breast smooth, so tli; wooden boss, carved at leisure, might be fastened to it with hooks. In the 15th cent such a boss was not unfrequently of stone instead of wood 2002a. A striking feature of the Flamboyant style is the frequent use of pendents in vaulted roofs of the period. These, however, are not confined to the Continent, fur Tudor period in this country exhibits many splendid instances of their employment, n perhaps, more gorgeous, or more interesting as regards its construction, than the Cli- of Henry the Seventh. Some of the various examples that exist have been scientifically vestigated by Professor Willis, in his paper On the. Construction of the Vaults of the ill" Ages, already quoted ; and we therefore now proceed merely to indicate the principles u wliich the fairy- like system of not only suspending vast bosses from the ceiling was i ducted, but that by which these bosses or pendents became in their turn the springcn supporting other vaults as in the beautiful little Lady Chapel at Caudebec in Normal ■ and many other examples. A plan is given in the section on Pujncipi.es of Phopobtk 2002c. This chapel is hexagonal on plan, about 23 feet in span, or from side to - Chap. III. MASONRY. 61 1 J'lfl. 662 h. shows the mode by which, from the key-stone of an arch approaching a semi- circular form, and suspended or elongated beyond its ordinary depth, support is given tor the springing of the vaults of the different bays. On this practice Philibert De Lorme observes, “ Les ouvriers ne font seulement une clef au droict de la croisee d’ogives, mais See another section and] Fig- 6G2A:. [plan, figs. 1322 and 1323. aussi plusieursquand ils veulent rendre plus riches leurs voutes, comme aux clefs ou s’assem- blent les tiercerons et liernes, et lieux ou ils ont mis quelquefois des rempants, qui vont d'unc branche a 1 ’autre, et tombent sur les clefs suspendues, les unes etant circulaires, les i tres en fa£on de soufflet, avec des guymberges, mouchettes, claire- voyes, feuillages, crestes le choux et plusieurs bestions et animaux : qui etoient trouves fort beaux du temps qu'on faisoit telles sortes de voutes, pour lors appelees des ouvriers (ainsi que nous avons dictj routes a la mode fran 90 i.se. ” 200 2to. We have shown above tlie mode of suspending the pendent in a polygonal building. The fig. 6621., by a little consideration, will explain the mode of suspending indents not centrically situate, as in the case of the ceiling of Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, "hose date runs coincident with the Flamboyant period. The figure is a transverse section uid plan of the vaulting of the building, in which one of the main arches, on which the w hole instruction depends, springs just below A, and reaches its summit at 13. The voussoirs or irch-stones whereof it consists are marked in their order. The dotted interval from a to It ■ not to he considered as an interruption of the formation of the arch by the pendent, hut nay he supposed an imaginary line passing through it, or rather through the arch-stone or "issoir C, whose general form is marked by the hounding letters c (left) a ; so that, in wt, the pendent is nothing more, as in the case of the I.ady Chapel at Caudebec, than a "ussoir, a large part whereof hangs down below the face of the vaulting. The voussoirs are nit ol blocks about 3 feet 6 inches deep; hut a considerable portion of the solid below the illitc of the arch is cut away to form the lobes of the cinquefoils. The arch 1) serves, by •x connection with the walls, to stiffen and give weight to the arch where it would he most equired, that is, towards the springing. The pendent or voussoir E, on the same block ■ ith (', being thus established in its place, serves at, or towards its foot, as a springer for a- ribs of a lau work tracery shown on the plan, whose ribs are, in fact, ribs of a dome, and i construction do not differ from it. Their section is shadowed somewhat lighter than the violent vtnissoir. The fanwork round each affords the means of introducing another i ndent at it. meeting at F in the plan. (This pendent is shown at F in the two sections 1 v|, n in I’hikciplbs of 1’hopoktion. ) The Jun vault is very properly distinguished by 'inf. Willis from what lie calls the etellnr vault, which is formed of ribs that may lie, and hs'd frequently are, of different curvature, and the rays of the star of different lengths ; hereos the fan vault consists of ribs of the same curvature mid height, a d the summit 1 the fin is hounded (seethe Jig.) by a horizontal circular rib, instead of the ends of zengi i forming the points of the star. “ The effect of the fan is that of a solid of revolu- *n. Ilium whose surface panels are sunk : the effect of the star is that ol a group of ranching rilis.” It is manifest that the constructive details of these two sorts of vaulting vastly dillercnt. In the one, the dependence is upon ribs which support, by rebates on " r, >, the lilliug in panels; while in the other the principle is similar to that of donte- "Iting I Ins will lie i n mediately perceived hv reference to the plan Ci, in which the orsi-s are marked, as also in the part of the section marked II. The plan 1 shows the uvry of the solfite ol the vault. 'file author above quoted observes, " The construction these Ian vaults is in all examples so nearly the same, that they seem to have proceeded am the same workshop , and it is remarkable that, at least us fur u.s 1 know, there ant no It It 2 612 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 Continental examples of them ; whereas, of the previous vaults, there are quite as many or. the Continent as in England. In France, indeed, the lierne ” (ribbed) “ vaults are not very numerous; they are confined to small chapels, and their patterns are in general simp! But in Germany and in the Netherlands there is an abundance of them, distinguished, <■'" tamly, from ours by local peculiarities, but nevertheless of similar mechanical constructin' and requiring the same geometrical methods.” 2002r. The iniroduction of fan vaulting seems to have occurred in the beginning oftl 15th century. The first instance wherein the span was considerable is the Dean’s Chap attached to the north-west transept of Canterbury Cathedral. In St. George’s Chap at Windsor, the aisle and central compartment only have fan vaults, the principal van not being fanwork. The chief works of this kind, of known date (about 1500), " Henry the Seventh’s Chapel at Westminster, King’s College Chapel at Cambridge, tf central tower of Canterbury, and Bath Abbey church. (See Principles of Proportion In the church of St. Etienne du Mont at Paris, we find a lemarkable example of the sty of the renaissance contending with the expiring flamboyant style. In short, the whole ot tl interior is a mass of interesting incongruities. The church is cruciform, and at the inte ■> section of the cross is a pendent kev-stone, most elaborately wrought, and more than feet deep. It is obvious, in respect of these pendents, that there is no mechanical dinerei) between their pendency and their being insistent, as lanterns are, on domes. Chap. III. MARBLE. 613 Sect. IIIa. USE OF MARBLE. 20C2ao. The Greek term “ marble,” to flash, gleam, sparkle, is well applied to the white marbles of the Greeks, which differed materially from those of Carrara, in Italy. The Greek and Roman marbles are noticed in the Glossary. The Byzantine interiors exhibit fine examples of durable applied marble decoration, about one inch thick, show- ing no desire to appear anything different. The walls were covered with oblong panels in tiers of rich marbles opened out, framed with narrow white mouldings and bands of different colour, continuous horizontal lines of colour on white being introduced between these panels ; the whole surmounted by a marble mosaic frieze, with a cornice displaying small, sharp, triangular shadows, as at Constantinople and St. Mark’s at Venice. At Palermo the panels were framed with bands of mosaic work. 200246. The marble pavements of Greek temples were probably the earliest, and were usually of thick, large slabs. They perfected the tesselated mosaic pavements. The Romans gained the knowledge front them, became proficient, and used them throughout their extensive empire. Although under half an inch square, the mosaic is one inch thick, made to last. Some of the grandest pavements are the simplest, as those of the Basilica Julia at Rome, of Santa Sophia, and the one under the central dome of St. Mark's. That of the Basilica Julia has been lately discovered, and is very perfect in part. The plan is a rectangle of about two squares, the centre space being divided into three squares and four broad bands. The squares consist of large slabs of Giallo antico , with a broad border of Pavonazzetto, the bands being rectangular slabs of rich African o and Porta Santa. The central slab is surrounded for about fifty feet with large slabs of Greek white marble. 2002cc. The Opus Alcxandrinum pavements, as at St. Mark’s and at Westminster Abbey, were usually composed of few colours — red and green porphyries with white Palambino tor the mosaics, the bands being Greek white marble, and made out of old materials : a great variety of geometrical patterns. Some of the most beautiful examples are at Palermo. The Palambino was a limestone of pot-like texture. The great pavement in Siena Cathedral, one of the finest Italian Renaissance works, consists of pictorial subjects in dark green marble and mastic inserted into thick slabs of white marble. These have not wurn well, and are kept covered. The filled-in lace-like patterns used as borders round the monuments at Sta Croce, at Florence, are in a better condition, the fillings being in smaller quantities. These fillings might be of lead set in a white ground, and would look well. Black and vjhite marble pavements in squares were introduced about the time of Torrcgiano, and were largely used, as at King’s College Chapel, Cambridge; the Beau- champ Chapel at Warwick ; and in mansions generally. The white squares crime from Iialy. and the black from Belgium ; and are still used in that country. 'IWldd. The retiring grey marbles, as Petworth, Purbeck, or Frostorloy, wero used by the medimval builders in England, and the colour was most useful in contrast with the "tone. The altars and tombs of the Italian Renaissance were executed in white marble, with only one colour introduced for the columns, pilasters, frieze, pediment, and panels of the b*se. A variety of marble work of late date, seen at Palermo and Naples, consists of inlaid floral arabesque, of orange, red, and brown marbles, with black inserted into white. It is gaudy, being deficient in repose. Similar work is seen in the monuments at Agra, in India. 2002 re. English Alabaster, if selected free from earthy veins and used where wet would not run o cr it, though only for interior work, may be better than many stones, and it would keep its colour. Of all building materials it is about the least porous or absorbont. 1 1 has been used for monumental work from a very early period, and much delicate work 1. is been executed in it. The inner arch moulding of the west doorway of Tutbury Church, carved into birds’ beaks, of the Norman period, is in ordinary alabaster, and remains in i 's -1 preservation. This material came into general use about the fourteenth century in l>erby«hire, and extensively so during the Elizabethan period. Great Britain and Ireland see Maiuilk, ](581 rt srq.) contain many varieties of well-known coloured marbles, littlo used, oven at the present day. 2002/6 Memorial slabs of incised marble preceded brasses, and wero far superior to ’ " Hi- 1 he English Renaissance produced marble work in chimneypiecee equal, if not superior to anything on the Continent. The designs and the marbles were equ»lly good. 20 OO//J/. 1|, 0 On;;. r marbles of Algeria, Mexico, nod California, of the same nature ns trientul alabaster, can be cut and ground thin enough for window purposes. At Tarragona • nhe ! ral and at tirvieto are examples of orange-yellow Oriental alabaster. In the oast windows nf San Miniato are slabs of antique Pavonazzetto, with red-purple markings, nearly two inches thick (par. 615). THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 611 2002M. Carrara and Sicilian marbles are used for steps and floors, wall linings, jambs, lintels, columns, capitals and bases, entablatures, altar rails, fonts, pulpiis, sepulchral memorials, and many other purposes. If consistent details were used, it might probably be employed for public and other buildings (par. 1677a). 2002*7. A new and beautiful white marble, called Hegqe marb’e, from near Brouo, in Norway, is stated to be a pure calcium carbonate, hard, with a few small reins or spots, of nearly uniform whiteness, and taking a high polish. The price in London is about one half that of similar marbles. A green and a red marble are sent from Greece. Verde Avtico and Verde di Corsica are composed of limestone, calcareous spar, serpentine, and asbestos. 200 2/c/c. The British Museum, the South Ken- sington Museum, the University at Oxford, and the Geological Museum in Piccadilly all contain tine collections of coloured marbles, ancient and modern — some wrongly named. The most instructive col- lection is in the museum of the Louvre. (W. Brindley, Marble: its uses as suggested by the past, read December, 1886, at the Royal Institute of Brit ish Architects ) Mouldings. 2002 ll. A marble to stand exposure to the weather should be close, hard, and vitreous-looking. Plenty could be selected. The mouldings used in the palaces of the Caesars and other important buildings in Rome, were usually very simple, and mostly consisted of flat hollows and rounds, with small fillets produced out of a chamfer (fig. 662 »j.). They looked well, and cost less than many modern ones, which are designed forgetful of masons’ methods of work. Mouldings needed to be drawn specially to suit the colour of the marble. 2002mm. Marble linings, whenever possible, should be fixed hollow at the bick, and a few small places left open in the joints until the solid walls are dry; the hollow allowing the slab to keep warmer than the solid wall, thus avoiding condensation. Good well slaked lime mortar is the best for bedding. Cements are to be avoided. Plaster of Paris should be mixed with a little lime putty, to assist adhesion and pre- vent swelling. It must be remembered that marbles absorb water by capillary attraction, and are com- monly permeable to gases. They absorb water from the mortar, which coming to the exterior surface becomes deposited at the mouths of the pores and gives the surface a brownish discolouration. If the interior surface be coated with asphalt urn the dis- colouration will gradually disappear. Polishing. 2002 nn. As to polishing marble : properly polished chimney pieces of foreign manufacture, and toilet tables, are rarely found, as acids are used to procure a rapid and cheap, though imperfect and fugitive, result. At the Carrara quarries the marble is first rubbed smooth with fine satid, then with pumice- stone, then with two or three stones of variable hard- ness. finishing off with lead, which gives the last and brightest polish. Water and friction do the work. (E. C. Robins.) Marble steps shout never be polished, as if properly done they are very slippery and dangerous. In Belgium only the face of the riser and rather more than half the nosing, stopping just whet' the foot pitches, is polished. This trom below lias the appearance of a complete!, polished stair, while at the same time there is no danger from slipping. (C. H. Brodm. Polished marbles and stone rarely go well together in the same work; but some marbles- greys, reds, and cippolinos — look well dull-polished, and then would go better with stone White marble as used by the Tuscan carvers was not polished. These full-size illustrations (fig. 662 m.) have been taken, by permission, from anion the specimens of old marbles in the collection of Mr. W. Brindley. Chap. III. CARPENTRY. 615 Sect. IV. CARPENTRY. 2003. Carpentry is the science of framing or letting into each other an assemblage of pieces of timber, as are those of a roof, floor, centre, &c. It is distinguished from joinery in being effected solely by the use of the axe, the adze, the saiv, and the chisel, which are the carpenter’s tools ; whereas joinery requires the use of the plane. See 2102, et seq. 2004. Though necessaiily of high antiquity, the very scanty information which Pliny and Vitruvius have left us on the subject would merely show that the science was known by the ancients. The roofs of Egypt present us with no more than flat coverings of massy stone; a pediment roof, therefore, would seem to have been among the first efforts of con- structive carpentry ; and upon the pitch which this, then and since, has received in different countries, we shall hereafter have to speak. The Greeks appear to have used carpentry in the construction of their floors and some other purposes ; but in a country abounding with stone and marble, it is not likely that wood was much used in the interiors of their build- ings, unless where lightness, as in doors, for instance, required its employment. With the Romans it was much more commonly used ; and from all that can be gathered, we may consider them as the fathers of the science. 2005. Among the moderns it has been very successfully cultivated ; and, with very few exceptions, we may almost assert that the works of Palladio, Serlio, De Lorme, Sir Christopher Wren, Perronet, and a few others, exhibit specimens which have scarcely been surpassed in later times, notwithstanding the scientific form it has assumed in the present age. 2006. To the mechanical principles of carpentry we have, in Chap. I. Sect X. of this book, directed the attention of the student ; and to the section now under our pen we should have added the words Descriptive and Practical to Carpentry , but that muen of what could have been said on that head has already been anticipated in the section on Descriptive Geometry. Hence, in what follows, that which comes under such pred eament will be only given in particular cases, for the purpose of saving time and trouble to the reader in the application of its principles to them. We must, here, also remind the reader, that under the section Beams, &c„ and Timber, have been described the different sorts of timber used for building purposes, their strengths, and the strains to which they are object and which they are capable of resisting; and that therefore this section is confined 'imply to putting pieces of timber together, so as to form the assemblage of timbers under which we have commenced by defining the science. To do that properly requires great Aill and much thought. Considerable waste, and consequent expense to the architect’s employer, result from that ignorance which assigns to the scantlings of timber larger liincnsions than are absolutely necessary for the office of each piece ; insufficient scantlings ill bring the architect into trouble and responsibility ; and the improper connection of he pieces will be equally ruinous to his reputation. The principles of practical carpentry ire, nevertheless, simple ; and though to form new combinations and hazard bold and mtried experiments in practice will require all the skill and science of a talented artist, the irdinary routine of carpentering is to be learnt by a little application and a due exercise if common sense. 2007. After these observations, we must introduce the student to the first operation Inch in practice may arise. It is not every where that timber can be obtained in suf- icient lengths to stretch across the void he has to cover ; and it will in such cases be icrcssary for him to know how one piece of timber may be so joined to another, for the "irpose of lengthening it, that the two pieces, when joined, may be as nearly as possible qua! in strength to one whole piece of timber of the same dimensions and length. This pi-ration is of great service to the builder, and is technically called scarfing. To perform . the joints are indented, and bolts are passed through the pieces within the length of the ndents, such bolts being confined above and below by means of nuts and screws. In )'!. 663. four ways are vbibited of accom- lisbing the object in ucstion. A and B are lie methods usually nployed for joining igethar plates, lintels, •'I tics, in which bolts ZJ 1 rarely necessary; hut if such a method is used for scarfing beams, holts must he cm- " *yid. I he stronger forms, which only should he used for beams, shown in C and 1), are OM, . v m that reaped such as should, on that account, he used for beams, hut are exe- " 1 ' ' I without loss of length in the pieces of timber. The length of the joints of the • aning may he increased at pleasure ; Che diagrams are merely given to show the mode f doing w|*nt was required. \\ ith fir, however, when holts are used, about four times 616 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 the depth of the timber is a usual length for a scarf. Scarfing requires great accurae in execution ; for if the indents do not bear equally, the greater part of the strength wii be lost : hence it is improper to use very complicated forms for the indents. 2008. Pieces of timber are framed into and joined to one another, by the aid i mortices and tenons , and by iron straps and bolts ; and on the proper placing of tiles depends the soundness of the work. If a piece of framing is to stand perpendicularh as in the case of partitions, without pressure from either side, the mortice and teno: should be in the centre of the wood. But in the case of framing floors, in whic the pressure is on the upper surface, and entirely on one side, the mortices and tenor ought to be nearest the side on which the pressure is, by , which the timber will not be so much weakened ; and p hence it is the constant practice to cut the mortices and Fl „_ 66 ,,_ 1 tenons as \n Jigs. 66-1, 665. By the method shown in the ( last-named figure, the tenon obtains more strength from ! g, | LJ an additional bearing below, which is further increased by the inclined hutment above, called a tusk. 2009. The method of framing wall plates together at an angle, for the reception of th hip rafter on the dragon beam, and the angle ties for retaining the wall plates in thei places, is shown in Jig. 666., wherein All is the mortice cut for the tenon of the hip rafte Fig. 665. Fig. G67. I Fig. 668. Fig. 669. shown in Jig. 667. Fig. 668. is one of the wall plates, showing the halving to receivfi th other plate, and the cutting necessary for dovetailing the angular tie. Fig. 66 9. shows th method of cutting the mortices and tenons of principal and hip rafters; another method being given in Jig 670., and to be pre- ferred where a greater resistance to thrust is sought, because by it a double butting is obtained on the tie beam. Inasmuch, how- ever, as in this last case the beam is cut across the grain to re- ceive the rafter, the part left standing to receive the heel of the rafter may be easily split away, to obviate which, the socket may be cut, as at A, parallel to the grain of the wood, cd is the iron strap for securing the rafter’s foot to the tie beam, and keeping it in its place. A plan of the upper part of the tie beam is given at B, showing the socket and mortice of the section A in the last figure. C exhibits tl mode in which a principal rafter is strapped to a tie-beam, with th e joggling. 201 0. The most approved method of forming hutments (Jig. 671.) for the struts or braces, aa, | 'fZM/m ' which are joggled into the king-post, is to ij> make their ends, which act against the joggle, perpendicular to the sides of the brace ; they will thus be kept firmly on their hutments, and have no tendency to slide. C is a section of the king-post and tie beam, showing the mode of wedging and tightening the strap, with a single wedge, in order to draw the tie beam close to the king-post. D is a section of the same parts to a larger scale, and with the introduction of a double wedge, which is easier to drive than a single one, because there is less action upon the cross grain of the wood. 2011. Straps in carpentry should be sparingly used. Professor Robison has ve properly observed, that “a skilful carpenter never employs many straps, considering ><•' as auxiliaries foreign to his art.” The most important uses ot them are, that of su sP cl ing the tie beam to the king-post, and of securing the feet of the principal rafters o tie beams in roofs. . , 2012. Bolts are sometimes used for the last-named office, with washers anr s screw nuts, in which case the washers, nuts, and heads should be well painte , t or, Fig. 671. A V. III. CARPENTRY. 617 veil then they are liable to rust. Wherever the iron work used for securing a system f framing is exposed to the humidity of the atmosphere, it should be rendered Lurable by frequent painting. Price ( British Carpenter, 1759) observes thus: “There is i.ie particular that had liked to have escaped my notice, concerning the placing of iron :raps on any truss, thereby meaning to help its strength, which is by turning the end iquare (as shown at E , fig. 671.). This method embraces the timber in such a manner, to uake it like a dovetail, which cannot draw from its place ; another observation is, to bolt on our straps with square bolts, for this reason : if you use a round bolt, it must follow the uiger, and cannot be helped ; by this helping the auger-hole, that is, taking off the corners if the wood, you may draw a strap exceeding close, and at the same time it embraces the train of the wood in a much firmer manner than a round pin can possibly do.” The sample given by Price, however, for turning square the strap, is injurious to the rafter, vhich must be partially cut to admit of it. FLOORS. 2013. The assemblage of timbers in a building, used for supporting the flooring boards and ceiling of a room, is, in carpentry, called nalied flooring, whereof there are three different sorts, viz. single flooring, double flooring, and double-framed flooring. B.ut before altering on the particulars of either of the sorts, we will make some general observations in the construction of floors, which require the architect’s attention. First, the wall dates, that is, the timbers which lie on the walls to receive the ends of the girders or joists, >hould he sufficiently strong and of sufficient length to throw the weight upon the piers. Secondly, if it can be avoided, girders should not lie with their ends over openings, as loors or windows ; but when they do, the strength of the wall plates must be increased. 10 avoid the occurrence in question, it was formerly very much the practice in this ountry, and indeed is still partially so, to lay girders obliquely across rooms, so as to avoid ipenings and chimneys, the latter whereof must indeed be always attended to. Thirdly. •Vail plates and templets must be proportionately larger as their length and the weight of he floor increases. Their scantlings will, in this respect, vary to 4i by 3 inches, up to 7^ by inches. Fourthly. The timbers should always be kept rather higher, say half to three piarters of an inch higher, in the middle than at the sides of a room, when first framed, so 11 t the natural shrinking and the settlement which occurs in all buildings, may not ulti- nately appear after the building is finished. Lastly, when the ends of joists or girders are upportcd bv external walls whose height is great, the middles of such timbers ought not t first to rest upon any partition wall that does not rise higher than the floor, but a space hould. says Vitruvius (lib. 7. c. 1.), be rather left between them, though, when all has ■ttied, they may he brought to a bearing upon it. Neglect of this precaution will induce :nequal settlements, and, besides causing the floor to be thrown out of a level, will most rohahly fracture the corners of the rooms below. 20H. Single Flooring is con- ducted with only one series of joists ■s shown in fig. 672.). In this way t framing a floor, if a girder is used, should he laid as nearly as pos- lile ( ver the centre of the apart- >ent. A single floor containing ic same quantity of timber as a >uble floor is much stronger ; but iv ceiling of the former is liable ■ crack, and cannot be got to so • "i a surface when finished. Hence, where the bearings are long, it is much better to se double flooring. 01.,. Hie scantlings of fir joists for single flooring are exhibited in the subjoined table, "I are founded on our own practice. The weight of a square varies from If to 1 8 ewt. Length fa Feet, Width in Inches. Depth in Inches. 6 2 6 8 10 12 14 18 20 - -i in -•2 01 ”3 24 :i ' ■! 8 9 12 12 I he sc scantlings may be varied if wanted, according to the laws laid down in the non II e a sts, Pillars, &c.; 1622. et seg. -(116. In fig. 672 . AAA arc the joists, ami II the floor hoards. The laths for the ceiling ■ nailed to the under side of the joists AAA. 618 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Cook II. 201 7. In most floors, on account of the intervention of flues, chimney openings, and oc- casionally other causes, it will so happen that the ends of the joists cannot have a hearing on the wall. In such cases a piece of timber called a trimmer is framed into two of the nearest joists (then called trimming joists) that have a bearing on the wall. Into tin trimmer, which is parallel to the wall, the ends of the joists thus intercepted from tailing into the wall are mortised. The operation is called trimming. The scantlings of trimmers and trimming joists may be the same as those hereafter given for binding joists ; or if to the width of the common joists an eighth of an inch be added for each joist supported by the trimmer, the depth being the same, the scantling will generally be sufficient. 2018. When the bearing of a single joist floor exceeds 8 feet, a row of strutting pieces should be introduced between the joists, by which they will be prevented from horizontal twisting, and the floor will be stiffened. If the bearing be more than 12 feet, two rows ol stiffening pieces or struts should be introduced, and so on for each increase of 4 feet ii bearing. They should be put in, in continued rows, and be well fitted. Beyond a bearint of 1 5 feet it is not advisable to use single flooring, neither ought it in any case to be user where it is required to prevent the passage of sound. 201 9. A double floor consists in its thickness of three tiers of timbers, which are called binding joists (these perform the office of girders), bridging joists, and ceiling joists, l'roir an inspection of Jig. 67.?. the construction v ill be easily under- stood. A A are the binding joists, which are the principal support of the floor on the upper side, whereon BB, the bridging joists are notched ; which is the best method, though sometimes they are framed between with chased mortices. The binders, of course run from wall to wall ; and as for carrying the floor, the bridging joists, as their name im ports, are bridged on to them ; so the lower tier of timbers, called the ceiling joists, are eitlie notched to them, or are what is called pnlleg mortised into them ; that is, a chase D is cut i the binder long enough to allow tenons of the ceiling joists C being obliquely introduce into them, and driven up to their places. The scantlings of timbers used in this metliO' are the same as those for double-framed flooring of which, indeed, it is but a species. 2020. The double-framed floor differs only from the last-named by the binding joist instead of going from wall to wall, being framed into large pieces of timber called girders (as shown in Jig. 674. ), wherein A is the girder, B a binding joist, C a bridging joist, Daceilingjoist, PI the pulley mortice for the ceiling joist D, and F is the floor. The great advantages of this sort of flooring are, that it prevent the passage of sound between the stories, and enables the architect to make a solid ceiling 2021. As in a double-framed floor the girders are the chief supports, it is exceeding! important that they should be sound and free from shakes. The distances between ot girder and another, or the wall, should not exceed 10 feet, and their scantlings as ntli following table : — Girders of the length of 10 feet should be 9 inches deep, 7 inches wide. 12 — 10 8 14 — 1 1 9 16 — 12 10 18 — 12 1 ( 20 — 13 11 22 — 14 1 2 24 — 1.4 12 26 — 16 12 ‘M — 16 13 30 — 16 14 619 AP. III. CARPENTRY. 2021a. Girders or beams whose bearing exceeds 24 feet are difficult to be procured of licient depth, in which case an expedient is put in requisition to strengthen a less depth, e principles it involves are explained under the head of roofs, namely, those of trussing ■m (2031, et seg.), an operation that converts the beam within its own thickness into a ce of framework, for the purpose of preventing the bending, or, as it is technically called, sagging, which produces an injurious horizontal thrust on the walls. This operation is resented in Jig. 675, in two different ways. No. Ill represents the plan. II. 111 . £_J — ^ " LjT • L a!! ’K> 1 - til li r ’ 1: a •: ■ 4 s — = 4 4 o Fig. 675. e beam is cut into two halves in the direction of its depth and length, between and into ich the truss is inserted, as shown. It is better that the truss posts A, and abutment / es B, should be of wrought iron ; the struts C may be of oak, or some stiller wood a the beam itself. In 1. and 11., the whole, or nearly the whole of the timber, is in a e of tension. OJ It. This operation is further developed by trussing the beam beioiv itself, an uigement considered to be safer and stronger than that above described. No. IV. has vrought iron tension with a stay in the V. tre, which takes the >le of the tension, 1st the timber is thrown rely into compression. V. is the same with stays. By these sys- sa beam, rafter, purlin, which will barely sup- its own weight safely, may be made to carry a load of many tons without sensible eetton. The tension rod is useful in proportion to its distance from the beam (evi- 'Itly within certain limits). If it be immediately under, or concealed within the under 1 e, it becomes nearly useless, especially in a cast iron beam with a wrought iron rod, re the beam is much less extensible than the rod. In such a case, the beam would k and fall before the rod has been brought into action. The respective size or ional area of the rod and beam is regulated by the respective strength of the materials, is useless to apply a rod capable of sustaining double the tensile force that the beam resist ot crushing force, and vice versa ; it is merely adding weight (Warr, Dynamics, -39 ). The flitch girder is described in par. 1629«. -1c. I he resistance of beams of soft wood may be considerably increased by strength- - the centre if gravity. Du Ilamcl, Force Jes JBois, took twenty-four sticks, cut from ig willows, of equal strength. Each stick was 3 feet ( French) long, and 1 A inch square, ■u ' I these broke in the middle with an average weight of 566-48 lbs. In two other s he made a cut across it ^ inch deep in the centre, and filled it out with a piece of these broke with an average weight of 594-73 lbs. Two more were cut i inch and treated in the same manner; they broke with 585 lbs. Five were cut j inch and broke with 572 78 lbs. All the trials showed that the piece of harder wood •I ' d the strength of the beam. id. Eaves’s girder is a simple and effective contrivance for strengthening a beam, pii-cc ol timber having been cut nearly from end to end (fig. 675a.), is bound at each L« - ' — — termination with — -iT " n ^Lj iron strap. I \ Blocks a r e ^ ' driven in the cut Fl*. 07.-, a so as to separate t red pieces to several inches distance in the middle of the length, thereby throwing 620 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I the material farther above and below the neutral axis. A solid beam, 40 feet long, inch deep, and 7j inches wide, deflected inches with a load of 1,700 lbs. When a simil; beam had been cut to 3'6 inches of each end, making the upper part 5 inches deep and tli lower part 4~ inches, and separated by blocks until the parts were as wide asunder as lia the depth of the beam, the beam suffered a less deflection by 1| inch. A greater strengt was obtained by separating the parts to the whole depth of the beam, when it deflects 3 inches less than the solid beam ; and when separated to 1-b times the depth, it deflecte 4 inches less than the solid beam. The greatest strength is obtained by giving a sectio to the upper ai d lower part' proportional to the power of the material to resist tensio and compression ( Civil Eiujinter for 1840, page 161, being a paper read at the Institu of British Architects). 2C21e. Floors are now largely made of fireproof materials, as referred to in the sectio Bricklavek. The introduction of rolled iion joists and girders has enabled the arehite< to construct bis floors of larger span, by supporting the timber joists between them, li u-ing riveted steel girders a saving is made in the cost of construction. 2022. We now return to the subject of binding joists, which ought not to be more tha 6 feet apart. The depth, if necessary, for accommodating them to the thickness of tl floor, may be varied from the following table by the rules given under section Beams, &' Binding joists of the length of 6 feet should be C inches deep, 4 inches wide. 8 — 7 — 16 11 — 6k 10 — 8 5 18 — 12 — 7 12 ~~ 9 — 54 20 — 13 - n 14 feet should be 10 inches deep, 6 inches wide. The scantlings of bridging joists are similar to those already given for single floorin; These, as well as ceiling joists, whose scantlings are subjoined, should not be more tha 12 inches apart, and they require to be scarcely thicker than is necessary to bear the nai of the laths fixed to them, for which 2 inches is quite sufficient. Ceiling joists of the length of 4 feet should be 2k inches deep, 1} inch wide. 6 — 3J — lk 8 — 4 ~ — 2 " 10 feet should be 5 inches deep, 2 inches wide. 12 — 5i — 24 'Hie weight of a square of framed flooring with counter flooring varies from 22 to 36 cwt. 2023. Though, perhaps, more curious than useful, we should not perform our duty t I lie student, were we to omit a method of constructing floors with short timbers, where lor I c ties are not to be procured. Suppose it be required to floor the room ABCD (fly. 676 Let four joists, as in the figure, he mortised and tenoned at abed, as there shown. N it is evident that, these joists will mutually support each other, for each is support' at one end by the wall, and at the other by the middle of the next joist. Fig. 61 shows another mode of accomplishing the same object ; and many other forms worn immediately suggest themselves to the experienced architect. The expedient is of anciei origin, inasmuch as our old master (so we delight to call him, notwithstanding the tie lights that modern critics have found to guide them). Serlio, has described the expcdie j without any difference. In the fourth volume of Rondelet (Art de Butir), an author- whom we are under infinite obligations, is described a floor executed at Amsterdam for room 60 feet square, of exceedingly singular construction, inasmuch as it is without jots at all. Each side of the room is provided with very strong wall plates, whose angles a secured with iron straps, and are rebated to receive the flooring, which consists of thn thicknesses of 1^ inch hoards Of these thicknesses, the first is laid diagonally across ti opening, its ends resting on the rebates of the wall plates, ana rising about 2 ^ incli' towards the centre of the room. The next (second) thickness is laid diagonally at >>g angles to the first thickness, and the two are well nailed together. In the third tliickncs CARPENTRY. jChap. III. 6'21 lie boards are laid down parallel to one of the sides of the room, and form the upper side >f the floor, being, however, well nailed to those below. The whole of them are grooved ind iongued together, forming a solid floor 4^ inches thick. In this example is an instance well worthy the study of the architect, as respects a scientific connection of parts, and the eat advantage of a well-disposed bond. The floor in question is, in fact, a thin plate, well supported round the edges, the strengths of the plates bring directly as the squares of their thicknesses, equally strong to bear a weight in the middle, whatever tluir hearing; though if the load he uniformly distributed, the strength will he inversely as the area of the space. 2023a. The flooring of the Middle Ages, as used for upper rooms, were constructed with large square limbers resting on wood plates, which formed the cornice to the rooms ; sometimes they had stone cornices under them. Occasionally the under sides of the joists were covered with boarding, and this was divided into panels by small ribs, with bosses at the intersections, carved with foliage, or with shields of arms, or other ornaments. An example of the 15th century exists at Wingham, in Kent; Parker, Dom. Arch. iii. 127. These were usually coloured in distemper. The ceiling of the nave and of the eastern part of St. Alban’s Abbey church is a remarkable example of a fine flat ceiling of early date, as is also that in the tower of the church at St. Cross, in Hampshire, and that of the library, 15th century (and foimerly in the chapel) of Merton College, Oxford. In England, in the 13th century, the ceilings (which were of wood) were frequently painted the same as on the wainscot, in green and gold, and were sometimes also decorated with historical subjects and with gilded bosses. 2023 b. The joists that came upon a beam were placed upon it, and, being cut, were pinned into corresponding blocks. If the beam took two sets of joists, the blocks might he made long enough to connect the ends of the two sets. But by the Hth century the system of girders, binders, and joists was perfected ; hoarding one inch and a half thick, rebated on both edges, was laid with the wider lace downward, and connected by rebatt d battens, fixed upon stop-moulded joists, and these were dovetailed for half their depth into moulded binders, that were dovetailed three-fifths of their depth into moulded girdeis, the hacks of all being flush for the boarding, which received the mortar and tile floor. 2023c. Whether in cak or fir, this latter system was apparently never enriched with painting, but moulded and carved ; indeed the inevitable towel decoration makes its appearance in panels formed by moulded strutting. These panels are let into r,b tes on the back of the struts and joists and binders, so as to leave a space between the panels and the flush floor, receiving the plaster or the tiles upon plastering. Another effective practice was to rebate the backs of the joists sufficiently deep to allow the apparent ceiling to consist of short pieces of hoard that were decorated on the two edges, laid close together, tunning a pattern of circles, diamonds, foils, &c., cut in open work, with a ground formed by laying a plank over the whole length between the joists; over this came the finished one, or three coated floor. In the 15th and 1 6th centuries, pendentives hanging by keys to timber ceiling-joists, between binders, formed an entirely new arrangement of decoration, which rivalled in its complexity of drops and coffers the most elaborate works of Saracenic ceilings. In the time of Henry VIII , the ceilings were commonly of plaster, with a great variety of patterns stamped in them. The ceiling of the chapel of the Savoy Palace m the Strand is a rich example of panelling only. 202 'll. Some of the timber houses built in Troyes at the commencement of the 15th century afford good specimens of the manner in which the construction of the floors was rendered ornamental. The studs of the framing carry the usual head-piece, which is moulded; and on this are notched down the ceiling joists, which have their ends cut as cantilevers: upon these rests a hoard, or plank, having its edge moulded, which is kept in place by the chantlates at the feet of the rafters. At other times the sill is separated from the joists; because they rest upon stanchions, upon which are planted brackets carrying the ends of the joists; between the ends, which are grooved, there is a piece of carted woodwork, so that the ends of the joists, in conjunction with a moulded plate resting upon them and receiving the tie beams or ceiling joists, form a sort of corbel-table, (Fiy. 7011) -023e. Another method of forming a floor, with its ceiling, into decorated construction, is lue to the 15th century. This consisted in cutting balks of timber diagonally and laying hem with the unglcs downward close together. The ends were notched into the gilders r hinders, leaving flush hacks. If not sightly enough, triangular fillets were put in >et ween them ; and the sharp angle might even he taken from off the ariis or under edge if the balks. FI oors were also composed of brick segment arches (the bricks being set ■mug-bone) between balks of timber laid with one corner upwards, so as to form a kew-hack for the arches. 2023/. l or these few remarks we are indebted to Viollet le Due’s admirable Dietionnaire. the systems therein shown will scarcely he adopted in England in general practice, the -ludent will do Well to refer to the work should he require uny illustrations. A very 62 2 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II suggestive la*e example, richly moulded and carved, as it existed before 1845! at Fontaine bleau, when ir appears to have been reused and somewhat altered, is given in that worl among many others. 2023p. Timber groined ceilings are to he met with in the choir and lady chapel at St Albans’; in Warmington Church, Northamptonshire, of the Early English period ; in tli cloisters at Lincoln and Gloucester; in the towers at Exeter; in the lantern at Peter borough; the lantern at Ely, and the choir at Winchester, cathedrals ; in the choir a Selby Abbey Church, Yorkshire ; in the nave of Boston Church, Lincolnshire, where i unfortunately occupies 22 feet of height; the chapel of St. Mary’s College. Winchester and the entire tooling of York Minster. The vaults spring from stone-work carried up a high as required to free the ribs from the wall ; there is no special mark of division at tli point where the stonework ceased and the woodwork commenced. The boarding was lei into a groove in the sides of the ribs, or laid on a rebate The eastern part of the chancel o the 13th century church at Uffington, in Berkshire, is evidently groined or prepared fo groining in this way, for whilst the walls and buttresses were insufficient to resist tli- thrust of a vault even tilled in with chalk, the stone springers exist. “There seems to l< no good reason,” continues Mr. Street, from whose lecture on Woodwork we are q noting t “why this kind of ceiling should be condemned, as it has been by some writers, as though it were unreal, or in any way a sham. It is nothing of the kind, and no attempt tvtt made to make the wood look like stone. The boarding was frequently feather-edged, am grooved and tongued, and thus obviously of wood. ( Fig. 780/ ) It may be introduced id buildings not calculated to resist the thrust of a stone vault; and it may be carried far ii|, into the roof and above the top of the walls, which in stone vaults is always, within little, the limits of internal height attainable.” PARTITIONS. 2024. The framework of timber used for dividing the internal parts of a house inti rooms is called a partition or quartered partition. It is commonly lathed and plastered when the spaces between the timbers or quarters are bricked up, it is called a brichnagget. partition. 'File weight of a square of common partition is rarely less than from 13 ti 18 cwt. ; hence it becomes necessary to take care that partitions should not be set upon tli floor, without taking due precaution to relieve it of the weight, either by struts, braces, oil the formation of a truss in it. When a partition occurs in an upper story, under a strong! trussed roof, it may be often advantageously suspended from the roof, and its weight thu taken olf from the floor below. If it have a solid bearing throughout its length, i requires nothing but struts between the quarters ; but these are not absolutely require! file scantlings of the timbers of a quarter partition should vary according to the extern! of bearing. Where that does not exceed 20 feet, 4 by 3 inches will be sufficient ; and whev it is as much as 40 feet, the quarters should not be under 6 by 4 inches, that is, supposiu it to bear only its own weight. When it has to bear more, the scantling must, of coursi be increased accordingly. 2025. Fig. 678. represents a design for a trussed partition, with a doorway in the centi of it : in which hh is the head, and A A the sill ; dc, dc the doorposts; "ch inclination; an addition of six degrees, if covered with slates; and of eight degrees, t covered with plain tiles. According to this law, the table which will be presently sub- "ned has been constructed, and it comparison of it with ancient buildings gives a reinark- P'le corroboration of its value. I bus, at Athens, situated about the middle of the sixth limale. the slope of a pediment would be about 1 6 ,° ; and that of the Parthenon is finally about 1 6° ; that of the temple of Erectheus, I.5.J 0 ; of Theseus, 1.5°. In Rome, inch is about one third of the way up the seventh climate, the Roman tile requires an ncluiation ol 22°. I’lie actual slope of the pediment of Scptimius Severus is 23°; those 1 *ho temples of Concord and Mars Ultor, 23^° ; of Fortuna Virilis and the Pantheon, I ; anil, ol more modern date, the slope of the roof of St. l’aolo liiori le inuru was 23°. 2030. We shall now give the reader the table above mentioned. This ingenious theory luken exception to by P. Waterhouse in his Essuy on I’nlimatta, ftc., lhSti, THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1. 624 Climate. Lens lOH£ D th of Covered with City. Country. r est ay. Hollow Tiles. Roman Tiles. Slates. Plain Tiles, h. in. deg. min. dog. min. deg. min. deg. min. Oarthngena - Spain - - VI. 14 42 16 12 19 12 22 12 24 12 Palermo Italy - — 14 48 16 48 19 48 22 48 24 48 Lisbon Portugal - — 14 50 17 00 20 00 23 00 25 00 Toledo Spain - - — 14 58 17 48 20 48 23 48 25 48 Madrid Spain - - — 15 00 18 CO 21 00 24 00 26 00 Naples Italy - VII. 15 2 18 12 21 12 24 12 26 12 Constanti- nople Turkey - — 15 4 18 24 21 24 24 24 26 24 Barcelona - Spain - - — 15 8 18 48 21 48 24 48 26 48 Rome - Italy - - — 15 10 19 00 9Q 00 25 00 27 00 Pau - - France - — 15 20 20 00 23 00 26 00 28 00 Florence Italy - - — 15 22 20 12 23 12 26 12 28 12 Avignon France - — 15 24 20 24 23 24 26 24 28 24 Genoa - Italy - - — 15 28 20 48 23 48 26 48 28 48 Bologna Italy - — 15 28 20 48 23 48 26 48 28 48 Bordeaux - France - — 15 30 21 00 24 00 27 00 29 00 Piacenza Italy - - VIII. 15 32 21 12 24 12 27 12 29 12 Turin and Venice Italy - — 15 34 21 24 24 24 27 24 29 24 Milan - Italy - - 15 36 21 36 24 36 27 36 29 36 Lyons - France - 15 40 22 00 25 00 28 00 30 00 Geneva Switzerland — 15 44 22 24 25 24 28 24 30 24 Dijon - France - 15 52 23 12 26 12 29 12 31 12 Zurich - Switzerland — 15 54 23 24 26 24 29 24 31 24 Munich Germany _ — 15 58 23 48 26 48 29 48 31 48 Vienna Germany - — 16 00 24 00 27 00 30 00 32 00 Strasbourg - France - IX. 16 2 24 12 27 12 30 12 32 12 Paris - France _ — 16 6 24 36 27 36 30 36 32 36 Ratisbon Germany - — 16 8 24 48 27 48 30 48 32 48 Rlieims France - — 16 10 25 00 28 00 31 00 33 00 Nuremberg - Germany - — 16 12 25 12 28 12 31 12 33 12 Manheim Germany - — 16 12 25 12 28 1 2 31 12 33 12 Havre - France - — 16 12 25 12 28 12 31 12 33 12 Mayence Germany - — 16 IS 25 48 28 48 31 48 33 48 Frankfort (Maine) - Germany - — 16 18 25 48 28 48 31 48 33 48 Cracow Poland - — 16 20 26 00 29 00 32 00 34 00 Valenciennes France - — 16 22 26 12 29 12 32 12 34 12 Brussels Belgium - — 16 26 26 36 29 36 32 36 34 36 Cologne Germany - — 16 28 26 48 29 48 32 48 34 48 Antwerp Belgium - — 16 30 27 00 30 00 33 00 35 00 London England - X. 16 34 27 24 30 24 33 24 35 24 The Hague - Holland - — 16 40 28 00 31 00 34 00 36 00 Warsaw Poland — 16 42 28 12 31 1 2 34 12 36 12 Berlin - Germany - — 16 46 28 36 31 36 34 36 36 36 Hamburg - Germany - — 16 58 29 48 32 48 35 48 37 48 Dresden Germany - — 17 00 30 00 33 00 36 00 38 00 Dantzic Poland _ XI. 17 8 30 48 33 48 36 48 38 48 Moscow Russia _ — 17 22 32 12 35 12 38 12 40 12 Copenhagen Denmark _ — 17 28 32 48 35 48 38 48 40 48 Edinburgh - Scotland _ XII. 17 32 33 12 36 12 39 12 41 12 Stockholm - Sweden _ XIII. 18 30 39 00 42 00 45 00 47 00 Petershurgh Russia - _ XIV. 18 44 40 24 43 24 46 24 48 24 Bergen Norway - — 18 44 40 24 43 24 46 24 48 24 1 “ There is no article,” says Ware in his Body of Architecture, “ in the whole compass of the architect’s employment that is more important or more worthy of a distinct con- sideration than the roof. The great caution is,” continues our author “ that the root be neither too massy nor too slight. Both extremes are to be avoided, for in architecture every extreme is' to be shunned, but of the two the overweight of roof is more to be re- garded than too much slightness. This part is intended not only to cover the building, »u HAP III. CARPENTRY. 625 ) press upon the wain, and by that hearing to unite and hold all together. This it evil, ot he massy enough to perform if too little timber be employed, so that the extreme is > be shunned. But in practice the great and common error is on tire other side ; and he ill do the most acceptable service to his profession, who shall show how to retrench and vecute the same roof with a smaller quantity of timber ; he will by this take off an un- ecessary load from the walls, and a large and useless expense to the owner.” 20:il. We shall now proceed to a popular view of the strains exerted by the timbers of jofs, referring the reader back to the section on Beams, Bili.aks, &c., for a more extended ad scientific view of them. Suppose (Jig. 6 80.), in B ie simplest form of roof, the rafters (shown by lotted lines) A B, CB to pitch upon the walls Aa, c. Let the rafters be supposed to be connected igether at B as by a hinge, as also similarly coll- ected with the walls at A and C. Now if the jffective weight of the walls be not sufficient to resist i ie thrusts of the rafters, as respects the height, iiickness, and situation of the centre of gravity of uch walls, taken as solid masses and moveable on jlie points X and Y, it is manifest the rafters by oeir own gravity will descend, and the walls will Ipread and he thrown out of an upright, as in ab ,nd cd. and the rafters will take the places shown in ie figure. It has already been shown (par. 1622 ) tat the horizontal thrust of a pair of rafters thus leeting each other. Is proportional to the length of a line drawn perpendiculatly front tie rafter’s foot until it intersects a vertical line drawn from its apex. As the roof there- >re becomes flatter, the length of the perpendicular increases. Hence, if AB and BC be ie rafters, and their weights be represented by their lengths, the weight or power of trust exerted by the rafter A B in the direction of its length will be represented by BO, and ie horizontal thrust by AO; AO being perpendicular to AB. To secure, then, the walls in eir perpendicularity, which the thrust of the rafters tends to derange, a system of framing ■comes necessary. Thus, in Jig. 681., beam AC, which from the office it rforms of tying or confining the feet the rafters is called a tie beam, is in- duced across the opening, and into is beam the rafters are framed. If e tie is introduced above the level of e walls, it is called a collar beam, as ac. is manifest that these beams exert ir power in the same way that a ing would, that is, that the principal nin which they have to perform is in ■direction of their length, and hence, that for such especial purpose, if they be prevented from "J'”9 or bending, a small size or scantling will be sufficient, for we have already seen that • cohesive power of timber is very great in the direction of its length. To take care it the tie beam thus introduced _ uld be strained only in the direction which it is used, we are now led to >ther expedient. The beam by its 11 gravity, especially in a large open- , would have a tendency to sag or 1 id in the middle, and the more so if scantling be simply proportioned 1 its office of a tie. To prevent this tic is introduced called a king- Dll (Jig. 682.), by which the n is tied or slung up to the apex of principal rafters; and this combination of a pair of rafters, a tie beam and a king- t. is called a truss, and is the most important of the assemblages which the car- ,l;r produces. When the rafters arc of such length that they would be liable of 1 m selves to vig down, supports an arc introduced at the points where such failures would or, and these supports are called strut*, because their office is to strut up the rafter, < h they should do as nearly as the case will admit in a direction perpendicular to the » '« of the rafters. 1 ) clear that out of this last case a fresh system of trusses may arise ns in f,,r fro,n tl,os « points procured by the struts against the rafters new rod* mav 626 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1, Fir. 6S3. Fig. 6S1. be slung for increasing tire stiffness of the tie beam ad infinitum in theory, but not in practice, because the com- pressibility of the fibres of timber is considerable in lines perpendicular to their direction, and the contraction and expansion of metal places a limit to its use. This compression of tim- ber deserves great attention on the part of the architect. We may lay down as a rule in respect to it that the more the weights or pressures act in the direction of the fibres, the less will be the compression. 2033. To exemplify this, fig. 684. shows in No. 1 . the principal rafters of a roo! butting in an ordinary roof, against the shoulders All, CD of the king- post, whose fibres, being vertical, are compressed by the pressure against it, on each side of the rafters, whereby they approach each other, causing the whole figure of the roof to suffer a change. For by the action of com- pression and its consequence the kingpost must descend, and with it, consequently, the tit beam which is slung up to it. To remedy the inconvenience in roofs constructed of fir, tin kingpost is often made of oak, which is less compressible, a practice which should bt observed in all roofs of consequence. Rut cast iron kingposts are the best substitute when the expense can be justified. In No. 2. the end is accomplished much more economi cally by housing the rafters in the head of the kingpost at the angle in which the rafter meet, by which the fibres of the rafters butt against each other, bringing the compressioi nearer to that which takes place in a post according as the rafters are less inclined to eacl other, and the beam is then literally suspended from the vertical planes of the rafters a their junction. 2034. When a roof (fig. 685.) is trussed by two upright suspending posts, which bo come necessary in increased spans, such posts, AB, CD, are called queen- posts, and the piece between them, BD, is called a collar, which acts as a straining piece to prevent the heads of the queen-posts moving out of their places towards each other. It will on mere inspection be seen that this roof has three points of support, R, E, and D; for by means of the struts AE, EC, new suspending point is gained from E for sustaining the tie beam between the points and C. It is also to be observed that the collar or straining piece RD performs in thi assemblage an office exactly the reverse of that which it docs in fig. 681. 2035. The Mansard roof, so called from its inventor’s name, and with us called a Cm roof, frequently used for the purpose of keeping down the height of a building, and the same time of obtaining sleeping or other rooms in it, is shown in figs. 686 and 687. may be considered as primarily o consisting of four pieces of timber connected by hinges at the points ABODE. If these be inverted, they will arrange themselves by their gravity in such a manner that when returned to their first position they remain in a state of equili- brium, which, however, in practice is but a tottering one, and requires additional expedients to prevent the whole assemblage thrusting out the walls ; and, moreover, to pre- vent the upper rafters from acting by their thrust to displace the lower ones. To obtain these ends the first object is to introduce the tie AE ; and, secondly, the tie BD. It is to be understood that means are to be used, win needed from their length, to prevent these beams from bending, similar to those alreai directed in the cases of simple trusses. Fig. 686 is an example selected from Krali (Art. de la Charpente, fol. 1807 ), having an arched ceiling to give additional height Fig. 68/i Chap- III. CARPENTRY. 627 solve large or public room. This form of roof has been frequently adopted in the palaces of France and Germany. Fig. 687 is a king-post Mansard roof, affording a wide space over the tie beam available as an apartment. Fig. 698 is an example of the principles adopted for a much wider spanned roof. 2035a. We have thus far endeavoured to explain in the simplest way the conduct to be pursued for obtaining stability in the construction of a roof ; but before we proceed to the scantlings of the timbers to be employed, the readtr must be informed that the trussts to roofing, with whose nature he has now become acquainted, are placed only at certain intervals (which should not exceed 10 feet) apart, and are thus made to bear the common rafters and the weight of the covering, as well as to perform the office of suspending the tie beam by which the walls are kept together. Hence the rafters so framed in a truss are called principal rafters; and by the means of a puriine A (Jig. I> 6 88. ), which lies horizontally throughout the roof’s length on the principal rafters, they are made to bear all the superincumbent load. The purlines are in various ways made fast to the principal rafters, md upon it the common rafters are usually notched down. Their bearings are thus lessened, and less scantlings suffice for them, f'hey are received at their feet on a piece of timber (15 in the figure), which runs longitu- dinally along the sides of the building. This piece of timber is called a pole plate, from being the uppermost plate in a build- ing; at their summits they abut against a ridge piece I). When ii roof slopes each way, the space enclosed between the intersection of the slopes is called a hip (fig. 689. ); and the longest rafters in it, which are those. at the angles, are called hip ra fters, and the shorter ones are named jack rafters, as A, A, A, &c. 2036. We have, at the beginning of this section (2007. ), observed, that the use made of holts must be always in a direction as nearly as possible counter to the strain which the pieces exert ; the method, therefore, of introducing them will, on due consideration, be sufficiently obvious. Before proceeding to lay before the reader some few examples of roofs suitable to dif- ferent spans, as well as of some of magnitude which have been executed, it may be as well to complete this portion of our labour, by giving some information on the scantlings of timber for roofing, in which a medium, founded on our own practice, is introduced between ignorant overloading, and fanciful theory. 2037. For roofs whose spans are between 20 and .30 feet, no more than a truss with a king-post and struts will be necessary, in which case the scantlings hereunder given will be sufficient. kor a span of 20 feet, the tie beam to be 9 in. by 4 in. ; the king-post, 4 in. by 4 in. , principal rafter, 4 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 4 in. by 3 in. For a span of 25 feet, the tie beam to be 10 in. by 5 in. ; the king-posts, 5 in. by 5 in. ; principal rafter, 5 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 5 in. by 3 in. For a span of 30 feet, the tie beam to be 1 1 in. by 6 in. ; the king-post, 6 in. by 6 in. , principal rafter, 6 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 6 in. by 3 in. 2038. For roofs whose spans are between 30 and 45 feet, a truss with two queen-posts md struts will be required, and a straining piece between the queen-posts. Thus — kor a span of 35 feet, the tie beams to be 1 I in. by 4 in. ; queen-posts 4 in. by 4 in. ; principals, 5 in. by 4 in. ; straining piece, 7 in. by 4 in. ; struts, 4 in. by 2 in. 1'or a span of 40 feet, the tie beams to be 12 in. by 5 in. ; queen- posts, 5 in. by 5 in. ; principals, 5 in. by 5 in. ; straining piece, 7 in. by 5 in. ; struts, 5 in. by 2J in. I' or a span of 45 feet, the tie beams to be 13 in. by 6 in. ; queen-posts, 6 in. by 6 in. ; principals, G in. by 5 in. ; straining piece, 7 in. by 6 in. ; struts, 5 in. by 3 in. 2039. for roofs whose spans arc between 45 and 60 feet, two queen-posts are required, oir| a straining piece Iretween them ; struts from the larger to the smaller queen-posts, and |uruts again from the latter. s s 2 628 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book If. For a spin of 50 feet, tie beams, 13 in. by 8 in. ; queen-posts, 8 in by 8 in.; small queens, 8 in. by 4 in. ; principals, 8 in. by 6 in. ; straining piece, 9 in by 6 in.: struts, 5 in. by 3 in. For a span of 55 feet, tie beams, 14 in. by 9 in.; queen-posts, 9 in. by 8 in.; small queens, 9 in. by 4 in. ; principals, 8 in. by 7 in. ; straining- piece, 10 in. by 6 in.; struts, 5| in. by 3 in. For a span of 60 feet, tie beams, 15 in. by 10 in. ; queen-posts, 10 in. by 8 in. ; small queens, 1 0 in. by 4 in. ; principals, 8 in. by 8 in. ; straining piece, 1 1 in. by 6 in. ; struts, 6 in. by 3 in. 2040. The scantlings of purlins are regulated principally by their bearing ; and though we have subjoined scantlings for bearings of 12 feet, such should be avoided by not allowing the distances between the trusses to exceed 10 feet. Thus — for a bearing of 6 feet, the scantling should be 6 by 4 ; for 8 feet, 7 by 5 ; for 10 feet. 8 by 6 ; for 12 feet, 9 by 7. For common rafters the scantlings are as follow ; 12 feet should be the maximum of the bearing. For a bearing of 8 feet the scantling should be 4 by 2| ; for 10 feet, 5 by 2| ; for 12 feet, 6 by 2 ‘. 2040a. To determine the size of a rafter for a roof to support the covering of slate, the disran'e between the supports being 6 feet, and the weight of a superficial foo\ in- cluding the stress of the wind, being 56 lbs. ; the deflection not to exceed —th of an inch for each foot in length; the formula becomes: — 56 lbs. x 6 feet = 336 lbs., and ~ E= 3072 x 6 6 = 157’5, of which takefths for uniform load = 98’44. If the breadth be made inches, then ^j“p=39'3, and the cube root of 39'3 is 3’4 inches, the depth required. These are the rules given by Barlow (page 179), who, in the several editions of his work on Strength of Materials , put the “ reduced tabular value ” for Riga fir, E = 96, and 32 times E became 3072; and for English oak, E=105. In the edition of 1851, this has been altered to E=192, and 16 times E=3072 also, for fir ; or for oak E = 210. The reason of this change has been explained in Beams and Pillars, par. 1630/». 20405. Another element in the calculation for timbers above-named, is the weights of the different, materials used in covering buildings ; these are stated to be as follows. (Flat fireproof roofs have been considered s.v. Bricklayer) : — A square of timbering for tiled anil slated roof . 5-5 to 6 5 lbs. „ boarding ? thick - - - - 2-60 »> In lbs. per „ „ and sheet iron, 20 W.G. - 6-5 „ sq. ft. „ pan tiling about 74 cwts., also put at 650 „ 3 10 „ plain tiling „ 14| „ „ - 1780 3 ’ 7 to 20 „ stone slating „ „ - 2380 1 ’ „ slating, a mean „ Ci ”, — 5 toll „ „ common „ »» 50J to 900 ’ i „ „ large „ „ 1120 „ i „ lead „ 5 „ » 700 „ 6 or 7 „ zinc, 15 ounce „ 1 »» — „ A 1-25 to 1-63 copper „ — „ „ 100 „ A sheet iron, 16 w.G., and laths - 5 „ Jjy thick - - 3 „ corrugated - - 3-4 „ and laths - - 55 cast iron plates, thick - 15 „ tliatch about — „ - * — „ i 650 The weights of iron roof coverings are given by G. S. Clarke, Graphic Statirs, 1880, p. 137, from Unwin, Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs. The column of fractions shows what the height of the roof, in parts of the span, is usually made. As the timbers em- ployed are of course less in dimension as the weight decreases, it follows that a much less quantity of timber is requisite where the metals can be employed. On flats it will be necessary to consider the weight of the number of persons who may be probably stand- ing on it at a time. The force of the wind has been considered in par. 1592a. When the rise or pitch is |th of the span, the angle formed is 18°25"; £ is 26 c 35'' ; ^ is 33°42' J is 45° ; | is 53° ; f is 5G°20 " ; when equilateral, 60° ; a whole pitch is 63°30". 2041. By a study of the roofs which follow as examples, the architect will be led to other expedients and modifications of the forms submitted to his notice, as circumstance.' may call forth his ingenuity and talents. We have, we trust, already said enough to lead him on. Where economy must be consulted, the roof shown in fig. 690 may be used; it is only fit for a small building, and the span of such a one should not exceed 25 feet. The left end of the collar beam exhibits what is called the carpenter' s boast, but it partakes somewhat of the rule joint, being worked out to a centre. But in roofs above 25 feet span it is not rig. cm. well to omit the king-post and tie beam, though, if particular strains are to be provided CARPENTRY. 629 e. III. ■ igiinst) even in such small spans the struts should not be omitted, and the form shown in 1 tig. 691. should be adopted, which will answer for spans at least up to 35 feet. In this and Fig. 6D1. Fig. 692. j other cases of larger span, it is often desirable that the common rafters should not stand j above the principals, and then the purlines are framed by mortices and tenons into the i principals, as shown at A, Jig. 692., wherein the line be shows the underside of the ; common rafters notched on to the purlines. This is a usual practice in Gothic roofs. 2042. From 35 to 45 feet, the tie beam should be suspended from at least three points, or it will be unnecessarily heavy ; and this suspension of the tie beam, so that it may be ■eally a tie unsus- ceptible of altera- ; tion in form, is the ( true cause of this introduction of king and queen posts, as before ex- plained. Indeed, as a general rule, it is well that the listance between mch points of sup- port for a tie beam should i ot exceed FlB ' Fi - T 633- 13 to 1 5 feet, without expedients being used to prevent intermediate sagging. Fig. 693. is a pieen-post roof of a span of 43 feet, over the railway workshops at Worcester, showing the iitroduction of skylights. The trusses are placed 15 feet apait. The principal rafters are 8 >y 8 ; tie beam, 12 by 8 ; queen-post, 8 by 6 ; struts, 4j by 4^ ; straining beam, 9 by 8 ; common rafters, 4£ by 2; purlines, in two flitches each (trus-ed with stirrup pieces and iron | ies), 9 by 3. The tie beams are carried on iron shoes. Fig. 694. is a queen-post truss i or a span of 50 feet, which leaves a considerable space free in the middle. The tie beam | vill probably be scarfed, which will he best made between a and b. The straining sill c, •trapped to the tie beam, will add materially to its strength. 2043. For spans above 60 feet we have not given scantlings of timber in the preceding aides ; but such do not greatly increase beyond 60 feet with practicable spans, and enough has been already said to make the reader acquainted with that part of the subject. Fig. 695. is the truss of the parish church of Elgin, de- signed by A. Simpson, of Aberdeen. The trusses are placed 6 feet 6 inches from centre to centre. The tie beam is in two flitches, each 13 by 5i; prin- cipal rafters. 1 1 inches deep at lower • 299 — ■* end, 8 inches at top, and 6 inches Fig. 695. thick ; collar beam, 7 by 5^ ; king- >ost struts. 5 by 5i : struts, 5 by 4i; horizontal rafters, 4,' by 2i, placed 13 inches apart, I ml covuicd with inch, grooved and tongued deal, and 7 lbs. lead. This is similar to the talian system intimated in Specifications, par. 2-85. The tie beams have cast iron shoes ■tiach end, with abutments formed for the rasters, and secured with J inch diameter olts with nuts and washers. The wrought iron suspending rods are inch square, and iave abutment pieces for the rafters and struts. 204. ia. Fig. 695a. is the truss of a roof for a span of 45 ft., with cast iron shoes as abut- nents for the timbers acting as struts. The end of the tie beam has a cast iron shoe, which Iso takes the foot of the principal rafter. The sole plate of the shoe is prolonged inwards, o admit of its being secured by bolts to the tie beam. The head of the principal rafter «, nd the end of the straining beam a b, are inserted into a cast iron socket, shown in detail n fig. A. The suspension rod passes through the solid part of the socket ; it has a head '* its upper end, and at its lower end it is screwed and secured by a nut. On the side of he socket is cast a rest, c, for the side of the purline. To uvoid cutting the principal 630 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. rafters, the other purline at B is also carried in a cast iron rest bolted to the rafter. The centre suspending rod passes through a cast iron socket, which serves as an abutment tc the main struts. Similar abutments are provided for the lower end of the struts. Fig. 6 955. for a span of 45 feet, has also wrought iron suspension rods. A roof of this description, 54 feet span and 212 feet long, is erected at the passengers shed of the Croydon railway station. The figure E is a section through a cast iron socket taking the heads of the prin- cipals, and through which passes a wrought iron king bolt, shown in position at I). 2044. In all the cases given, the roof is supposed to receive no support from any hut the external walls, and the trusses to he in most cases not more than 10 feet apart. 2045. The reader who desires to become acquainted with other examples, is recommended to the works by Krafft, Art de la Charpente, and Charpenterie; Rondelet, L' Art de Butir, and its continuation by Blouet ; Emy, Art de la Charpenterie; Tredgold. Carpentry; Newland, Carpenter's and Joiner's Assistant, to which work we are indebted for the above new ex- amples : and The Doctrines of Carpentry Explained — of a Roof by Lieut.-Col. Waddington, in the Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers, 1849, x. 71-152. 2046 Fiy. 696. represents a roof designed by J. Gibbs. From the centres of columns the Fig. 696. ST. MAltTlN’S-IN-TlIE-FIELDS, WESTMINSTER. middle aisle is 39 ft. 11 in. The roof is well contrived and framed; but the timbers an stronger than they need have been. The scantlings are as follow : — A, principal rafter 13 in. by 10 at bottom, and 1 1 in. by 10 at top ; B, straining brace, 14 in. by 10 at bottom, and II in. by 10 at top ; C, king-post, 9 in. by 9; D, strut, 7 in. by 7^; E, queen-post, N in. by 9^ ; F, strut, 7 in. by 7 ; G, tie-beam, 1 4 in. by 9^ ; H, post over the column, 14 in by 9^ ; I, brace, 7 in. by 7 ; K, brace, 7 in. by 7 ; L, post. 8 in. by 9 ; M, hammer beam 14 in. by 9i ; N, brace, 8 in. by 8 ; P, post in the wall ; QQQ., purline rafters, 4 in. by 6. 2047. Fig. 697. is the section of a roof by James Stuart, about 1785. The span is 51 ft. and as a variation from the general forms of roofs, it is worth the student’s' attention. The Fig. 697. GREENWICH IIOST1TAL scantling of the timbers are subjoined. The distance between the trusses is about 7 ft. All the joints are well secured with iron straps. A A, tie-beam, whose whole length is 57 It. 51 ft. clear between the walls. 14 in. by 12 in ; !>, an iron king-post. 2 in. square! C( HAP. III. CARPENTRY. 631 oteen posts, 9 in. by 12; DDDD, struts, 9 in. by 7; E, straining beam, 10 in. by 7; F, training piece, 6 in. by 7; GG, GG, principal rafters, 10 in. by 7; Jihhh, &c. purline afters for boarding upon instead of rafters ; II, a camber beam, supporting the platform. 2048. Fig. 698. exhibits the roof of the old Drury Lane Theatre, which w:& built in THEORY Ol* ARCHITECTURE. 602 Rook IL 2050. The largest timber roof perhaps ever projected, was over a riding house at Moscow, in 1790, for Paul I. Emperor of Russia, the representation of which may he seen in KraHt, Recueil de Ckarpente. The span is 205 feet, and the slope with the horizon about 19°. The external dimensions of the building were 1920 feet long by 310 feet wide. It was lighted by a lantern at top, and had an interior gallery round the building for spectatois. Cresy, in Ids Civil Engineering, states that this roof was never erected. 2051. We shall close this part of the section with a diagram (Jig. 700.) of the roof ol Fig. 700. the basilica of S. Paolo fuori le mira, executed in the fifteenth century. The trusses arc double, each consisting of two similar frames, nearly 15 inches apart, at intervals from eacl other of about 10 feet 6 inches. The principal rafters abut on a short-king post A lletween the trusses a piece of timber S is placed and sustained by a strong key of wool passing through it and the short king-posts. This piece sustains the beams by means o another strong key at a. The tie beams are in two lengths, and scarfed together, tin scarf being held together by three iron straps. The scantlings of the timbers are a 1 follow : beams t, 22 k in. full by nearly 15 in. ; principal rafters p, 21 tj in. by nearly 15 in. auxiliary . rafters b, full 13^ in. by full 13J in. ; straining beam c, near 15 in. by full 12f in. purlines d, 81 in. square and 5 ft. 7 in. apart; common rafters, full 5^ in. by 4] in., am 81 in. apart. The roof, which is constructed of fir, is nearly 78 ft. 6 in. span, and h covered with the Roman tile, the exact dimensions and form whereof will be found, under! the head Tii.e, in the Glossary appended to this work. The roof is ingeniously and wel contrived, and, with a different covering, would suit other climates. It was consumed by fire in the month of July, 1823. (275.) Philibert Delorme, in his work entitled “ Noiwelles Inventions pour bien batir a petit Frais," Paris, 1561, gives a mode of constructing domes without horizontal cross ties, whei the springing of each rib is well secured at the foot. It is a very simple method, and o great use in domes, even of large diameter, the principle being that of making the severa ribs in two or more thicknesses, which are cut to the curve in lengths not so great as to weaken the timber, and securing these well together by bolts or keys, and observing especially to break the joints of the several thicknesses. This method was adopted in the large Halle aux bleds at Paris, which was many years since destroyed by fire, and has been re- placed by an iron-ribbed dome. The Jig. 701. will explain the construction ; and, if necessary, an iron hoop passed round at different heights will add much to the strength. 2052. The scantlings of the ribs, as given by Delorme, are as under : — For domes of 24 feet diameter, the ribs to be 8 in. deep, and 1 in. thick. 36 feet diameter, — 10 in. deep, and 1| in. thick. 60 feet diameter, — 13 in. deep, and 2 in. thick. 90 feet diameter, — 1 3 in. deep, and 2^ in. thick. 108 feet diameter, — 13 in. deep, and 3 in. thick. For small spans of about 24 to 30 ft., the inch plank is about 4 ft. long by about 8 in. wide. The feet of the ribs are tenoned into the wall plates; the shoulders of the tenon being about one inch. The ties A, placed about 2 feet distant, are 4 in by 1 in. ; they an sometimes shown passing through the planks pinned with keys 1 in. thick and l£ in. wide and of a length nearly the width of the plank ; this method tends materially to weaken the ribs ; that shown in the cut is a better mode. The wall plates, 10 or 12 inches wide and 8 or 9 inches thick, have mortices 2 inches wide, 3 inches deep and 6 inches long, sunk at 2 feet apart, to receive the ends of the ribs. In a roof where the span was 64 feet, the scantling was increased to 13 inches wide and 1 j inches thick. The ties were alter- nately double and single, and were 3 inches by 1^; and each rib was double tenoned into the wall plate. This system, with many modifications, was extensively adopted in the Fig. 701. III. CARPENTRY. f 33 construction of the nave and side erections of the building for the Exhibition of 1862 ; and also for some of the passages. &c., of the Horticultural Society, where they still exist, and deserve examination. It is also adopted for temporary sheds oflarge spans. 2052 a. This work by De Lorme deserves the study of every one that seeks to he an architect, though in these unfortunate days for the art the reward of study and reading is very doubtful. 20526. Since the period of De Lorme, another system, arising out of it, has been ext, n- sively adopted for large buildings. Colonel Emy, having been called upon in 1819 to design a roof of 60 feet span, succeeded in composing one in which, while timbers of a greater length might be used, the necessary solidity, with the lightness and economy of the system of De Lot me, might be combined. This he carried out in 1825 and 1826. The workmanship is less than in De Lorme’s roofs, as the wood is all in straight pieces, and is within the power of the ordinary carpenter. An arch is composed of a series of long and thin planks, laid flatways, the flexibility of which permits them to be easily and quickly bent without the aid of heat ; and their rigidity, properly regulated, maintains the form given and destroys the thrust. Fit). 701a is a por- tion of the base of one arc, which will illustrate the system. The details are best learnt from Emy’s own work, as it would require much space to do justice to them. The vertical pieces A are ~l\ inches luck, and placed about 4 inches from the wall. The three first radial pieces R are prolonged bevond he uprights, and enter reces-es in the wall to steady he fames. Tne plates C, breaking joint well with me another, compose the arc, and are Ijj inch thick, 10 inches broad, and about 40 feet long, bolted to- , ether, the bolts being driven tightly into accurately lade holes, and are further firmly tied together by ron straps ; the bolts are T 7 5 inch diameter, and about feet 6 in. apart; the principal rafters are 5^ in. luck; the trusses are placed 9 feet 10 in. apart. 2052c. Upon an experiment that was made by my to test the strength and thrust of this arch, e found it necessary to add a supplementary plate a part of the extrados, and two plates to a part ' the intrados. The following is the proportion of the number of plates and their hich he adopted as a rule : — Fig. 701a. ridth. - 7 plates, in. 3 wide nearly Oil These From the springing to radial (B) No. 1 From radial No. 1 to the tie placed between radials Nos. 6 and 7 - From this tie to radial No. 6 - From radial No. 9 to the king-post liese supplementary plates were of oak, and of the same thickness as the others, ols are also given with sufficient detail in Newlands’ work above-mentioned. 2052 d. Memjkval Roofs. — In the south of France the few Romanesque roofs did not h r from the common king-post roof, except in two points, viz., that the tie-beam and hmg-post were stop-chamfered ; and the strain of the times upon the principal rafter was counteracted hv a arly upright strut from the tie-beam. This system t the principal rafter with a false hearing, if the walls re not extremely thick in proportion to the width of apartment which they enclosed. As a remedy, the ■ Romanesque builders tenoned the purline into the ncipals, and, moreover, laid it with its wid.r side to rafters, in order that the backs of the common tern should be flush with those of the principal rafters "lilarly to fiii. 692.). The next step was to put ’Per struts from the foot of the king-post. At the sent day the purlinc is placed on edge for economy of lerial. the north of France there was difficulty in roofing over the vaulting; either main walls had to be carried as high as the ritlgc-rib, or else the frame of the roof to >c similar in principle to that shown in Jig. 7016. Experience proved that the /if f'.o ■w~l| Fig. 7016. 634 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book ] 1. latter scheme resulted in letting the principal rafters draw the tenons of the braces and so destroy all idea of a tie connecting the two walls; hence the mediaeval builders were obliged to raise the walls sufficiently high to allow the tie-beams to pass over the hack of the ridge-rih, as would he the case at A. This was expensive, and, moreover, it was scarcely practicable where the walls were little thicker than was necessary for the backing to the formerets of the vaulting over the arches of windows. It is to these facts, rather than to any influence of climate, that may be attributed the adoption of the high-pitched roof, a system which required neither great width of footing nor large scantling of timber, for the purlines were discarded, and the weight was distributed among the rafters and trusses of each bay. The details of such a roof are simple. Two plates A (Jig- 701c.) are placed with their widest sides on the wall, and are strutted between from the feet of the trusses to the centre of the hay. Upon these plates, tassels or short hammers B, are cocked down at intervals between the tie-beams, which are cocked down and dove-tailed, to take not only the feet of the common rafters, but also the nearly upright stud or ashlar rafter F, which serves to give a wider base to the prin- cipal and to the rafter. All these vertical pieces are double- tenoned and pinned into the other portions of the work. 205~g. The racking motion to which large roofs are liable, soon showed that this was not the manner in which to make them secure. The purlines had been discarded, but the need of their! service remained , the necessity was obviated by erecting a sort of! trussed partition under the ridge. If the king-post was not car- ried by the tie-beam, the whole roof depended upon the strength of the head of the king-post, into which the ridge was tenoned, and the manner in which it was connected with the ends of the principal rafters. It therefore appears to he more probable that rig. 70tc. the king-post was supposed to be carried by the tie-beam; indeed, examples occur of trussed partitions (Jig. 701 d.) to ridges, supported bv king-posts A, which stand upon tie-beams that ride in queen-stirrups, 15, where the stirrups are hung from the principal rafters at three-quarters of the height of the roof. Care has been giver to this detail of the practice, because it seems to have been entirely mistaken by Viollet le Due, Did . : for example, the braces C, to the collars D, are supposed by him to exercise a favourable effect in pic venting the flexure of the rafter outwards, where, i the fact would seem to be that the brace has to hole up the collar D and with it the stirrup B, and ivitl them the tie-beam E, for the coilur is tenoned into th king-post and rafter. That author defers dating tin period of the perfection of mediaeval carpentry (a well as of joinery) until the end of the 15th and th beginning of the 16th century. 2052 /t The framing of cradle roofs, with king-post' carried upon ( not carrying, as Viollet le Doc sup- poses) the tie-beams, became a practice that ii France was general from the latter part of the 12tl until the end of the 16th centuiy, and which con tinued the same peculiarities of construction that ac above indicated. The distinction between the stirra and the post is less easy in the truss shown in Jig. 70l< but still it must be reckoned as a post; this exampl __ o from the prefecture, formerly the episcopal palace, a Auxerre, covers a hall which is 30 feet wide; the trusses are placed 13 feet apart from cento to centre. The scantlings are as follows : — King-posts, 5 !>y 5, and principal rafters . . in fig. 701/, and are trussed in a diflerci. The roof appears to be boarded on tli Fig. 701<7. AT A l' X EltRE. the common rafters, 5 by -I ^ tj; cue coin i u on oiwo, o u j .4- ate shown manner; they are placed nearly 2 feet apart, inside to the circular form. 20521. Although Viollet le Due is of opinion that the tie-beams to the fine cradle roo 57 feet 3 inches span, constructed at the beginning of the 16th century, over the g ;. hall of the Palais dt Justice, at Rouen (Jig. 247. ), have been cut away, it may not he m to suggest that the work might have stood as well if, in its construction, it had rcsetnm the older and fine roof of the chateau at Sully-sur-Loire, which he so well '1 lust rate but which want of space prevents our also doing. The student has, perhaps, no • for regret, as its construction can scarcely be recommended lor imitation 111 >e P day. It is about 36 feet span. 2052U The absence of a ridge roll and the position of the riilgc-piece m the major III. CARPENTRY. 6:55 mediaeval roofs deserve notice. As soon as the purlines were discarded, it seems that tilders relied upon the king-post to carry a ridge-piece upon which rested the ends of e rafters ; these were halved and iked together above it. Excepting a few cases the ridge-piece was ther a purline at the top of the roof an an abutment. Much of the bolt id strap work applied in the \isible imes of roofs is not always the most dicious as regards the conversion of nstruction into decoration. For ample, if it were calculated that a i - beam would sag, instead of in- easing its scantling, or of trussing the median al carpenter would very ubably hang it up to his truss, as fgs. 701 g. and 70 1 A. At a later riod (say the 14th century) with ime spikes. Fig. 701 h. illustrates e method of forming the junction of 1 st, beam, and strut in a roof; and 701/. that of beams and posts in e timber framing of houses. Fig. 70ie. fi*. 701 /. -0 521. It will be at once perceived, by fig. 701c., that the hammer-beam 15 B* takes the ace of the tie-beam, the middle part of which may have been cut away. The tinted por- 111 shows the foot of the rafters in a cradle roof; and the lighter portion the position and m of the hammer-beam, the outer end of which is tenoned and pinned on to the wall Fig. 701 0. Fig. 7011. Fig. 70 It. Fig. 7011. Fig. 701fl. ites A, and the inner end supported by a curved brace C, which starts in the bottom of the wall piece 1), the whole being pinned together at • ends. Sometimes a corbel receives the foot of the wall piece and brace, ms the whole length of the hammer beam may be said to have a solid iring equal to supporting the roof rising above it, by the ashlar rafter ‘trot E, and at the same time forming a part of that structure. When whole is put together securely, it has been considered almost impossible for hammer- on roofs to spread, as from the stiffening action of the braces, it would require a veiy >vy force to push out the walls. But “the absence of that curved brace which dis- guishes the Westminster example, makes these ro .fs much more likely to exert a ust upon the walls, and, accordingly, it is notorious that in very many cases this has Hired. In the fine example at Croxton, the strain was so great as absolutely to break it off the perfectly sound heart of oak pins, nearly an inch in diameter, with which it ' la id together ; and it is to be feared that many of the finest of these examples are diirly in a dangerous condition." So writes Mr. Street, in his English Woodwork, read he Institute of British Architects in 1865, a paper which should not be neglected by student. The principle of the construction of t 1 esc roofs has perhaps not yet been sfactorily elucidated. ' Tne timber roofs in England may be divided into five classes: — !. Roofs with beams; II. Roofs with trussed rafters, or single framed roofs; III. Roofs with braces h or without collars; IV. Roofs framed with hammer beams; and V. Aisle roofs. ■ first nre more general and better treated in France. The others are more peculiar to gland, in which country elaborate examples of these forms nre to be found, especially the lmimner-beam system. irV_’/i, pitch . — These roofs are for the most part >\cutely pitched, though this was by "‘e ins their invariable characteristic. An angle of 9() J was perhaps the ordinary eleva- of Norman roofs, and in the early English period, though generally acutely pointed, '1 are nevertheless found of an equilateral pitch or angle of 60°, though this is of rare irrence. In this and the succeeding style, examples are found of so low a pitch as to d the flattest specimens of the perpendicular pciiud. The roof, of the decorated 6:i6 THEORY OE ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 span of 21 fee! style, over the larger south aisle of St. Mar. ill’s Church, Leicester, has a with a rise of only 4 feet. (See par. 20406.). 2052o. I. The tit-ham bears the whole weight of a low pitched roof. The roof ove the south chapel of Kiddington Church, Oxfordshire, is of rather a steeper pitch than tha at Leicester. The under side of the beam is well moulded, and is connected with wall-pieces by moulded curved braces forming a very obtusely pointed arch ; the purline rest directly on the beam, and the ridge is supported on it 1 v a post, and by slior curved braces, the whole of the space above the tie-beam being fi.led up so as to give i the appearance of a solid triangular shaped beam. The naves of Raunds and of Higiian Eerrers Churches, Northamptonshire, the latter of decorated date, and of Wimmiiigte Church, Bedfordshire, present good and differing examples. The tie-beam is rarely lei perfectly horizontal ; the collar- beams and even the hammer-beams will be found toinclin upwards. Tie-beams were s metimes employed quite independently of the other timber being simply laid across the building from wall to wall, notched down, and pinned to tl wall plates. They were never entirely discarded, as they are to he met with in each of tl. four usually accepted divisions of the style. At Southtteet Church, Kent, the tie-beam beautifully moulded ; whereas, at Northfleet, it is left in almost its natural rouglmes while the roof itself, which is one of the trussed rafter kind, is panelled, and has moulds ribs with carved bosses at the intersections. 2052/r. An example of a strongly cambered tie-beam, with an ornamented king-post, issce in Swardcstone Church, Norfolk, and it is by no means uncommon in the counties of Kei and Sussex. The tie-bcai of the roof over the aisle i No’th Walsham Cliurc' Norfolk {Jig. 701/«.), passe through the nave wall, tl end forming a corbel for tl wall pieces of the nave roe This roof also presents practice which became a most universal in roofs later date, viz., an intern | diate truss between the t beams, in consequence the extreme width betweij the main trusses, to support the ridge and purlines, by the adoption cf double rafti on each side, strongly united and framed together, springing from a small hammi beam over the apex of the arches, roofs of high pitch, various ende vours were made to retain the arch shape in conjunction with the ti beam. At Pulliam Church, Norfol and Morton Church, Leicestershir the beam divides the arch into tw with a bad result. 205'2ij. 1 1. S ingle- framed roofs som times have only diagonal braces co necting the rafters. These occur gen rally where the span is small, as over porch. In wider spans, even witlio tie beams, each pair of rafters " framed with a collar-beam, and m stiffened by braces crossing at tun above the collar, and at others * braces being tenoned into its under sid when the latter was the case, a secoi .._ Such roofs were very frequently board' underneath, forming thus a polygonal barrel vault, and moulded ribs were applied, din ing the boarding into panels, with carved bosses at the intersections. 1 he above deta will be found combined in the examples of the decorated period from the nave ot " botsham Church, Norfolk {fig. 701n ). The angle of the root is 78°. The span is 21 a 9 inches ; the rafters and coliars are 4^ inches by 4 inches. The former are placed 1 •' 9 inches apart between the centres. The r.ave roof of Reedbam Church. Norfolk, .71 1 span, is framed on the same principle. The hall at Sully-sur- Loire is a fine example. 2052r. 111. Hoofs constructed with braces may be divided into two classes: I. 1 with collar beams and braces; and II. Those without collar-beams. An example o t former is seen in the roof of the nave at Pulliam Church (fig 701 o.), which is forint an angle of 1.05°, with a span of 20 feet 5 inches. Wall pieces A, arc used, pinned in Fip, 701 n. irmnoTsifAM, norfoi.k. collar was genera lv introduced above the first. At. III. CARPENTRY. 637 ffj =j Jn = n =j ~T underside of the principal rafters, descending low down on the wall; the arched brace ings directly from this to the collar-beam, uniting them both with the principal. It is i that it would be impossible for this roof to spread until it had broken the curved ces. The va- lstimbersare effectively i ilded. The I icipal rafters, nches by 10 i les; common i ers, 6 inches I 3^ inches ; car-beam, 14 i! les by 8£ les ; ridge l c, 8 inches 8 inches ; line, 8 inches 6i inches ; 1 piece, 10 FUIIIAM, KOUFIILIv. Fig. 701,,. STAKSTON. NOKFOLK. lies by 8£ inches. Width between centres of trusses, 6 feet 2 inches ; and depth of cornice et 2 inches. Of class II. is the roof over the nave of Starston Church, Norfolk (Jig. 'p ). The angle formed is 100°. At the apex of the roof is a strut H, about 9 inches are, which hangs down 2 feet ; its four sides are morticed, two to receive the ends of braces where they are pinned, thus preventing the possibility of its dropping ; and the er two on the opposite sides, to receive the arched ridge braces, as shown at C. 'J’his ar- gement tends to prevent the roof either spreading outwards, or rocking from east to west, e span is 21 feet 10 in. The principal rafters arc 10 in. by 9 in. ; common rafters, 6 in. I 1 in. ; wall piece, 10 in. by 7j in.; purline, 6|- in. by 5^ in. ; and cornice, 1 1 in. by 10 in. !052*. IV. Hammer-beam roofs are always doublc-fiamed roofs, the rafters being sup- | ted by a skeleton framing of purlines and ridge, resting on, or framed into, the principal sses. Among the many varieties of this description of roof may he noticed: — (1) Those h collar-beams and no struts, the collars, principals, and hammer-beams being united b curved braces; (2) Those in which the collar-beam is omitted, the curved braces ig carried up almost to the ridge, and framed at the apex of the arch into a strut, which r ives also the upper ends of the principals; (3) Those with no collars or struts, the ' de of the truss being connected together and stiffened with curved braces only ; in this i ance the arched braces are formed of three I es of timber, one on either side of the 1 , tenoned into the hammer-beam and prin- c 1, and reaching up as far as the purline. I centre piece forming the apex of the arch, b g tenoned into each principal, itself acting a brace, and to a certain extent as a collar b n; and (4) Those having hammer-beams, irs, and struts, connected together with ed braces. (See par. 20521.) ).52f. An example of the first sort is the of Capel St. Mary’s Church, Suffolk -Olry.). The angle formed is 87°, and very seldom that a hammer-beam roof i steeper pitch. The span is 18 feet 3 II "s. The principal rafter is 10 inches by * * ie * > c °mmon rafter, G inches by 3 inches; hammer-beam, 10 inches by 8 inches ; collar- b *0 inches by 8 inches ; purlins, 6 inches by 5 inches ; ridge piece, 6 inches by 0 inches, trusses are 6 feet apart from centre to centre. The second sort is shown in Jig. 701 r., 1 I ' uv,: ro °f of I l unch Church, Norfolk. The intermediate trusses are the same, except ."stead of the long wall-piece and brace, the wall-piece is stopped at the crown of the “f| of the clearstory window, and a very depressed brace connects it with the hammer* I lie spandrils are filled in with perforated tracery. The span is If) feet. The prill- rafter is 10 inches by 9 inches; common rafter, 6 inches by 4 inches; lmmmer-beam, ' ben by 10 inches; purline, 8 inches by .5 inches; ridge piece, 10 inches by 10 inches. 1 llr 1 b’l l u inches apait. Tin- third sort is shown in Jig 701 s.. from the nave of , lomlham Church, Norfolk. The hammer-beams project rather more than a quarter idllt of the nave, and are carved into figures ; the intermediate trusses have ulso figures, but made subordinate to those of the main trusses. At the intersections of unities and ridge braces arc large cai ved flowei s standing out in hold relief. Of the Fig. 701fl. CAC 1:1. ST. MAtir, SUFFOLK. It n| t: THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I e :’>8 fourth sort, the most noted examples are those of Westminster Hall, GS feet span (_/, 196.); Hampton Court, 40 feet span; Eltl a l’aluce, 36 feet 3 inches; Beddington Hal KNAI’TON, NORFOLK. 19.0 Fig. 70Ir. TRC’NCll, NORFOLK, Fig. 701# \V VMONMIAM, NORFOLK. South Wraxhall, 19 feet 9 inches; Croydon, 37 feet 9 inches, &c. It will be well notice, what is not usually known, or shown, in the sections of the Westminster roof, tlr the main purlines over the strut, are upheld with the collar-beam by an intermediate raft of great strength. Mr. S. Sntirke has observed (Aichaologia, xxvi. page 417-18), that “this roof is the common collar-beam roof, and of extremely simple construction ; the whole pressure is carried by the straight lines of the principal rafter, and (curved) brace, above alluded to, directly into the solid wall, where it ought to be.” The examples of lesser importance, as regards span, are not all of the same elegance as that of Westminster, which, at the same time that it is the largest and best, is also the earliest (1397) of the series. Some examples present double hammer- beams, forming a sort of corbellii g over up to the ridge or to the collar-beam. Fig. 701/., from Knap- ton Church, Norfolk, is 32 feet span, and is a fair specimen of such roofs. The wall is 2 feet 10 inches in thickness. For all these examples, we are indebted to the excellent publication by Brandon, Mediaeval Roofs, to which work we must refer the reader for de- tails of decoration and painting, as the above figures are only here introduced to slio the principles of construction displayed in such roofs. 2052a. In fig. 701m, we give the modern roof, of 31 feet 2 inches span, over the nave Bickerstaffe Church, Yorkshire, designed by Sydney Smirke, Ii. A., as a good specimen the adaptation of modern science to mediaeval structures. The collar- beam is double, ea 9 in. by 3 in., through which the king-post is tenoned and strapped. The purlines are ?i by 4 in. ; the brace, 9 in. by 7 in. ; and the corbels are 1 1 in. wide, being also tailed in 1 1 2052t\ V. Aisle, or Lean-to, roofs, may be described usually consisting of strong timbers, answering the ]" pose of principal rafters, laid at each end on plates, I lower plate resting on the external wall, the upper c either supported on corbels projecting from the nt wall, or inserted therein. Wall-pieces are tenoned n the upper and lower extremities of the principals, a curved braces springing from the feet of these meet the centre of the principal, forming a perfect arch, hav the spandrils generally filled in with tracery. A purl' is usually framed into the principal, and on this and plates the common rafters are supported (see also; 70 lo.). In aisle roofs the whole of the timbers, even the common rafters, were frequently found more ric moulded than those of the nave, possibly from be nearer the eye of the spectator. 2053. The following instructions relative to the lines necessary to be found in the fram of roofs are from Price’s British Carpenter ; and although published nearly 100 . vears _ ( J subsequent works on this subject give more complete information. Let abed (fig- 1 llICKliKSTAI Ft. VOliKMlIKi:. III. CAIi PEN TRY. G:59 ■ a plan to bo inclosed with hipped roof, whose height • slope is Cb. Divide the an lengthwise into two pial parts by the line ef, hich produce indefinitely both ends. Make ag |Ual ea, and dk equal to and through k and g, irallel to ah or cd, draw nes indefinitely mo, Ip. ith the distance dc or Cc, ther of which is equal to ie length of the common I'ters, set off qe, as also from to p, from i to o, and from o n ; from li to m, and from to /. Make ts equal to Cb, nd ab equal to ta, which oints join ; then either aC or as represents the length of the hip rafter, and joining the veral lines aqb, bpoc, end, and dmlu, they will be the skirts of the roof. 2054. To find the back of the hip. Join ge, and from r as a centre describe an arc ucliing the hip as. and cutting at in u. Then join gu and ue, and gue is the back of the rafter required. 2055. Fig. 10H. represents, in abed, the plan of a building whose sides are bevel to each her. Having drawn the [••iK- tea. ntral line ef indefinitely, sect the angle rag by the ue, meeting ef in e. rom c make eg equal to re, d ry perpendicular to ea ; i, if e a be made equal ta, ra or aq, it will be the ngth of the hip rafter from angle a. Through e <1 /, perpendicular to the les db, ea, draw the lines mq indefinitely ; and from as a centre with the radius describe an arc of a cir- cutting mq in q, and cr crpendieular to ba) pro- iced in l. Ry the same id of operation ac will be md, as also the other parts of the skirts of the roof. The lines nt, tfv, and vp are intro- ced merely to show the trouble that occurs when the beams are laid bevel, 'l he angle of IJ hack of the hip rafter, ray/, is found as before, by means of u as a centre, and an arc of a cle touching aq. The backs of the other hips may be found in the same manner. 205fi. Fig. 704., from Price’s Carpentry, is the plan of a house with the method of placing • timbers for the roof with the upper part of the elevation above, which, after a perusal of preceding pages, cannot fail of being understood. The plan F is to be prepared for a >f, cither with hips and vallies, or with hips only. The open spaces at G and II are r the staircases : in case they cannot be lighted from the sides, they may be left to be ished at discretion. The chimney flues are shown at IK I.M NO. Then, having laid » n the places of the openings, place the timbers so as to lie on the piers, and as far as v, ihle from the flues ; and let them be so connected together as to embrace every part of plan, and not liable to be separated by the weight and thrust of the roof. P is a ssed timber partition, to discharge the weight of the roof over a salon below. -'057. Q is the upper part of the front, and R a pediment, over the small break, whose ight gives that of the blank pedestal or parapet S. Suppose T to represent one half of roof coming to a point or ridge, so as to span the whole at once, “ which,” as Price ly observes, “was the good old way, as we are shown by Serlio, Palladio,” &c., or ,’pose the roof to be as the other side U shows it, so as to have a flat or sky-light over the ■by I, its balustrade being \V ; or we may suppose X to represent the roof as spanning the “Ie at three times. If X be used, the valley and hip should he framed as at Y ; if as '1’, principal rafters must be framed as at Z, in order to bring part of the weight of the roof covering on the partition walls. The remainder needs not further explanation. 640 THEORY OF ARCIIl 1 ECTURF.. Rook II. FIr. 704. KIES FOIl GllOINS, ETC. 0058. We shall now proceed to the method of forming the ribs for groined aiclict niches, & c. The method of finding the shape of these is the same, whether for sustaining plastering or supporting the boarding of centres for brick or stone work, except that, for plaster, the inner edge of the rib is cut to tbe form, and, in centering, the outer edge. Groins, as we have already seen, may be of equal or un- equal height, and in either case tbe angle rib may be straight or curved ; and these conditions produce the varieties we are about to consider. •2059. To describe the parts of a groin' where the arches are cir- cular and of unequal height, commonly called Welsh Groins. We here suppose the groin to be right-angled. Let AB ( fig. 705.) be tbe width of tbe greater arch. Draw BD at right angles to A B, and in the straight line BD make CD equal to tbe width of tbe lesser arch. Draw DF and CE perpendicular to BD and EF parallel to BD. On AB describe the semicircle lighiA, and on EF describe the semicircle E5. W hen n circular-headed window is above the of a plane gallery ceiling, in a church for example, cylindrical form of the window is continued till it 'sects the plane of the ceiling. To find the form •* rurl ’ or pieces of wood employed for completing irris, let ilp (fg. 7<)f). ) be the breadth of the window •• plane of the ceiling. Bisect dp in h, and draw A4 ndicular to dp. Make /i4 equal to the distance the extends from the wall. I’roducc 4/» to B. Make T T 642 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. h\\ equal to the height of the window above the ceiling, and through the three points d, B, p describe the semicircle ABC for the head of the window. Divide hii into any number of equal parts, as 4 at the points h, I , v ; and h4 into the same number of equal parts at the points 1 , 2, 3. Through the points hlv draw the lines et, fit, yw parallel to dp, anil through the points 1, 2, 3 draw the lines my, nr. os. Make 1 in, 2 n, 3 o respectively equal to he, If, vy ; as also 1 q, 2 r, 3s equal to ht, lit, vw ; that is, equal to he. If, vy. Then through the points dmno4, and also through pqrs4, draw a curve which will form the curb required. In the section X of the figure, AC shows the ceiling line, whereof the length is equal to h4, and A B is the perpendicular height of the window; hence BC is the slope. 2066. The construction of a niche, which is a portion of a spherical surface, and stands on a plan formed by the seg- ment of a circle, is simple enough ; for the ribs of a niche are all of the same curvature as the plan, and fixed ( fig . 710. ) m planes passing through an axis corresponding to the centre of the sphere and perpendicular to the plane of the wall. If the plan of the niche be a semicircle (fig. 711.) the ribs may be disposed in vertical planes. 2067. In the construction of a niche where the ribs are disposed in planes perpendicular: to the horizon or plan, and perpendicular to the face of the wall, if the niches be spherical I all their ribs are sections of the sphere, and are portions of the circumferences of different circles. If we complete the whole circle of the plan (Jig. 7 12.), and pro- duce the plan of any rib to the opposite side of the circumference, we shall have the diameter of the circle for that rib, and, consequently, the radius to describe it. 2068. Of forming the hoards to cover domes, groins, §'c. The prin- ciples of determining the develope- ment of the surface of any regular solid have already been given in considerable detail. In this place we have to apply them practically to carpentry. The boards may be ap- plied either in the form of gores or in portions of conic surfaces ; the latter Fjg is generally the more economical method. 2069. To describe a gore that shall be the form of a hoard fo * a dome circular on the plui Diaw the plan of the dome ABD (fo. 713.), and its diameter BD and Ae a radius pci pendieular thereto. If the sections of the dome about to be described be semicircula then the curve of the vertical section will coincide with that of the plan. Let us suppw the quadrant A B to be half of the vertical section, which may be conceived to be raised on the line Ae as its base, so as to be in a vertical plane, then the arc AB will come into the sur- face of the dome. Make Ai equal to half the width of a board and join ei. Divide the arc AB into any number of equal parts, and through the points of division draw the lines If, 2j, 3/r, 41, cutting Ae in the points efgh and ei in the points ijkl. Produce the line eA to s, and apply the arcs Al, 12, 23, 34 to Am, mo, oq in the straight line As. Through the points mnoq draw the straight lines tn, up, vr, and make mn, op, qr, as also mt, ou, qv, respectively equal to ei,fj, gk ; then through the points inpr to s, and also through the points xtuv to s, draw two curves from the points x and i so as to meet each other in s ; and the curves thus drawn will include one of the gores of the dome, which will he a mould for drawing the boards for covering the surface. 2070. In polygonal domes the curves of the gore will bound the ends of the boards ; as, for example, in the octagonal dome Chap. 111. CARPENTRY. 6’43 (fig. 714.), the plan being ABCDEFGH. Let i be tbe centre of the circle in which the octagon may be inscribed. Draw tbe half diagonal i A, iB, iC perpendicular to any side A 13 of the plan. Draw the straight line ih, cutting AB in h. Let him Z be the outline of one of the ribs of the dome, which is here supposed to be the quadrant of a circle. Divide the arc /iZ into any number of equal parts from h at the points Imn, and through these points draw lx, my, nz, cutting Bi at the points xyz, and ih at the points 1, 2, 3. Extend tlic arcs hi, bn, mn, on the line hn, from f h to o, from c to p, from p to q, and through the points npq draw the straight lines i xl, sv, l tv perpendicular to hn. Make ■>u, pr, qw, as also or, ps, qt, respectively equal to la-, c Jy, 3 z; then through the points Arst draw a curve, and through he points nviv draw another curve, meeting the former one in the point n. Thus will be formed the gore or cover- ing of one side of the octagonal dome. 2071. When the plan of the base is ja rectangle, as Jig. 715., draw the plan \BCD and the diagonals AC and 13 D, •utting each other in E. Through E I'Jraw El perpendicular to A 13 cutting JAB in F, and through E draw EJ per- Fig. 715 . Jicndicular to BC, cutting BC in G. Let the height of the dome be equal to half its readth, and the section over the straight line EF a quadrant of a circle; then from the entre E describe the arc FH, its base being EF, and with the straight line EG as half he major axis of an ellipsis, and EF the minor axis, describe the quadrant GF of an ellipsis, ’reduce EF to I, and EG to J. Divide the arc of a quadrant FH from F into any umber of equal parts, and extend the parts on the line FI to him, through which draw e lines hq, Ir, ms, See. perpendicular to FI. Through the points 1 , 2, 3, &c. draw wt, .nr, , Sec., cutting AE at w,x,y, and FE at t,u,v. Make hn, l'o ', 111'p', also hq, Ir, ms, respec- vely equal to tw, ux, vy, and through the points n'n'p draw a curve, also through the flints qrs draw another curve meeting the former in I; then these two curves with the in- A B will form the gore boundary of the build- ig of two sides of the ime. Also in the ellip- cal arc GF, take any amber of points 1, 2, 3, id draw the lines 1 w', 2a-', i, parallel to BC, cutting C in the points w'x'y', d GE in the points if, u, Extend the ares Gl, 03 from G/r', h i, ini, ">n the straight line GJ, through the points draw the lines n'q, p's. Make h'ti, lo, also h q', l'r, m s' respectively equal to t'w', tie', v'y , and through the points 13/i'o'p' iw the curve BJ, and through the points Cq'r's' draw the curve CJ ; then 13JC will be gore required, to which the boards for the other two sides of dome must be formed. '072. A general method of describing the board or half gore ; ‘ny polygonal or circular dome is shown in fig. 7 Id. Let > . be half either of the breadth of a board or of one of the of a polygon, EF the perpendicular drawn from the centre, iw the straight line AB parallel to EF, and draw EA and perpendicular to EF; then upon the base AB describe the \C of the vertical section of the dome. Divide the curve into the equidistant arcs A I, 12, 23, and through the points 11 vision draw the lines Ir/, 2 It, 3 i perpendicular to AB cutting n gin and 1)1- at him. Produce FE to V and extend the ares 12,23 upon tbe straight line EV from E successively to points iipq. Through the points npq draw the lines nr, /is, • urallcl lo ED. Make nr, ps, qt respectively equal to gh, then through the points r si draw a curve, and DEV will I Ik- ball arc or half mould of the boarding. T T 2 644 THEORY OE ARCHITECTURE. Book IT. 2073. To cover a hemispherical dome by hoards moulded to portions of conic surfaces. 1 ) niw a vertical section of the dome ABC {Jig. 717.) and divide the circumference into equal arcs C d, de, ef. Through the centre E draw EB perpendicular to AC. Draw the chords C7 1 tic, ef, and produce all these chords till they meet the line EB, which they will produced in ; convenient space; but those chords that are next to the bottom AC will require a distance too remote from AC ; and for the present confining our attention to those chords which, wlie produced, would meet the line EB at a convenient distance from AC, let ef meet the a>:i E B produced in g, and from the point g as a centre with the distances ge and of describe tli arcs eh and fi. Then efili is the form of the board, so that its breadth is everywhere compiehended between the two concentric circles eh and ft, and when the boards are bent their edges fall on horizontal planes. 2074. We will here shortly repeat a method which has previously been given of describing an are of a circle independent of its centre, as connected with this part of the subject, and useful in cutting out the boards of a dome where the centre is inaccessible or too distant for convenience. Let AB (Jig. 718.) be the chord of the arc and CD its height in the middle. In this case AB will be bisected at C by the perpendicular CD. Draw the half chord A D, and perpendicular thereto draw AE, and through the point D draw EF parallel to AB ; also draw AG and BH perpendicular to the chord AB cutting EF in the points G and H. Divide AC and ED each into the same number of equal parts, and draw lines through the corresponding points of division ; these lines will converge, and if produced with the lines EA and EB, would all meet in one point. Divide AG into the same number of equal parts as the lines AC, ED, and from the points of division draw lines to the point 1) to intersect the former. A curve drawn through the points of intersection will form the arc of a circle. The other part DB is found in the same manner ; and this is a convenient method, because any portion of a circle may be described within the width of a board. 2075. To find the relation between the height and the chord of the arc. &c. {fig. 719.) be the middle points of the boards in the arc, and from a draw a line parallel to the base to meet the opposite curve ; also from these points draw lines to the opposite extremity of the base ; then each parallel is the base, as fa, and the distances eg intersected between it, and the point where the oblique line from its extremity cuts the middle vertical is the height of the segment. 2076. It is, however, more convenient to describe the curvature of the board By a continued motion, which may be done as follows. Let AB {fig. 720.) be the chord of the arc. Bisect AB at C by the perpendicular CD, and make CD equal to the height of the segment. Draw DE parallel to AB, and make DE a little larger than AD; then form an instrument ADE with laths or slips of wood, and make it fast by a cross slip of wood GIL By moving the whole instrument, so that the two edges DA and DE may slide on two pins A and D, the angular point D of the instrument will describe the segment of a circle, and if the pin be taken out of A and put in the point B, the other portion DB of the segment ADB will be described in the same manner. Fie- 7 is. Let ti v 2077. The covering of an elliptical dome is formed by considering each part a portion of the surface of a cone. ABC {fig. 721.) is a vertical section through the greater axis of the base ; the other vertical section through the axis at right angles being a semicircle ; the joints of the boards therefore fall in the circumference of vertical circles. 2078. In the same manner the cover- l' ifc'. 7 rt. ing of an annular vault whose section is semicircular is found, being on the same prim s as now shown for a horizontal dome, which will be evident from an inspection of fig- BRACKETING. 2079. The pieces of wood which sustain the laths of cornices, coves, and the like called brachets, and they take in form the general outlines as nearly as possible of the 1 to which they are to be finished. IjtfEi, S I "Itys 7hAF. III. CARPENTRY. 6 1.5 FiK- 723. Fig. 725. 2080. A cornice bracket of any form being given, to make another similar one, or one that (hail have the same proportions in all its parts. Let A a n ABCDEF {fig- 723.) be the given bracket. Draw lines from the angular points CDE, and let Ah be the projection of the required bracket. The lines AC, AD, AE, being drawn, draw be parallel to the edge BC, cut- ting AC in c; draw cd parallel to CD, cutting AD in d. Draw de parallel to DE, cutting AE in e, and draw ef parallel to EF, cutting AF in f Then A bedef is the bracket required. 2081. To form an angle bracket to support the plastering of a moulded cornice. Let fig. 724. X be the plan of the bracket. Draw the straight line AE equal to the pro- jection ab of the bracket on the plan X, and A a per- pendicular to AE, to which make it equal. Join Em, and on AE describe the given form AFGHIKLE of the bracket which stands perpendicular to the line of con- course of the wall and the ceiling. From the angular points FGHIKL, draw the lines Fa, G b, Ir, He, K tl, L d, cutting AE in the points BCD, and «E in the points u, b,c, d. Draw af, bg, ci, dh, perpendicular to aE. Make af. bg. ch, ci, dh, dl, each respectively equal to AF, BG, ClI, CI, DL, DK. Join fg, gh, hi, i/t, hi, IE. Then afyhihl E is the angle bracket required. 2082. An angle bracket for a cove {fig. 725.) may be described in exactly the same manner. 2083. When cove brackets have different projections, the method of describing the angle one is shown in fig. 126. Let A 11. BC be the wall lines. Draw any line GD perpen- dicular to AB and HF perpendicular to BC. Make GD qual to the projection of the bracket from the wall repre- sented by the line AB, and make HF equal to the pro- jection of the bracket from the wail represented by 11C. I lien, as one of the brackets must be given, we shall sup- pose the bracket GAD described upon G I). Draw DE ■arallcl to AB, and FE parallel to BC, and join BE. In he curve AD take any number of points Q, S, and draw QI’, Sit cutting GD in P, R and BE in p, r. From the points ’• r draw the lines pq, rs parallel to BC, cutting HF in be points p, r. Draw pq, rs perpendicular to BE. Make "p rs also pq, rs respectively equal to PQ, RS, &c. 11a aid HC equal to GA, then through the points aqs, &c. Iraw a curve which forms the bracket for the angle. Also brough the points C, q, s draw another curve, and this vill form the cove bracket. 2084. 'I he angle bracket of a cornice or cove may be armed by the method shown in X and Y ( fig. 727.), Tether the angle of the room or apartment be acute or ibtuse, external or internal. Let ABC be the angle. i r. and traced in the same manner ns that oil a riglit- nglcd triangle. Fl« 7S7 646 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IL 2086. In coved ceilings, the coves meeting at an angle are of plan of the angle is a curve to construct the brackets. Let ABC (.fit/- 729.) represent the angle formed by the walls of the room, and let B dcfg be the plan of the bracket in the angle of a curvilinear form. Draw HIM, and thereon describe the bracket IlOPQ intended for that side, and in the curve IIOQ take any number of points NOP, and draw the lines NR, OS, PT perpendicular to AB, cutting it in the points R, S, T. Let MQ be the height of the bracket, and draw QA perpendi- cular to BA, and through the points NOPQ draw the straight lines N d, Oe, 1’/, cutting HIM at I KLRI. Draw Inn perpendi- cular to BC. IVIake hr, /is, lit, ha respectively equal to HR, FIS, FIT, II A, and draw rn, so, tp, aq perpendicular to BC ; also from the points defy draw the lines dn, eo, fp, y q, and through the points hnopq draw a curve, which will form the other bracket required. 2087. Whether brackets occur in external or internal angles, the method of describing them is the same, and when the brackets from the two adjacent walls have the same projection, one of them must be given to find the angle bracket. When the brackets from these walls have unequal but given projections, then the form of one of the brackets must be given in form to find the angle bracket. 20S8. To form a bracket for a moulded cornice. On the draw- ing of such cornice, draw straight lines, so as to leave sufficient thickness for the lath and plaster, which should in no case be less than three-fourths of an inch. Thus the general form of the bracketing will be obtained. different breadths, and the Fig. 729. 2089. We have, in a foregone page, mentioned a method of constructing dome ribs in thicknesses. We here present to tlie reader two designs for dome-framing, wherein there is a cavity of framed work between the inner and outer domes ; with moderate spans, however, simple framing is all that is required. Fig. 730. A is a design for a domical roof. B exhibits the method of framing the curb for it to stand upon, the section of the curb being shown upon fig. A. The design here given is nearly the same as that used for the dome of the Pantheon in Oxford Street, which was destroyed by fire. C is another design for a domical roof, which is narrow at the bottom part of the framing, for the purpose of gaining room within the dome. PENDENTIVES. 2090. If a hemisphere, or other portion of a sphere, be intersected ( fig . 731.) by with Fig. 731. cylindrical or cylindroidal arches, vaidfs an are formed, which are called pendentives. The termination of these at top will be a circle, whereon may be placed a dome, or an upright drum story, which, if ne- cessary, rnay be terminated by a dome. Fig. 730 :,uip. in. CARPENTRY. 6 17 rhe reader will immediately perceive tliat many varieties may be formed. Our object lore is merely to show how the carpenter is to proceed in making his cradling, as it is :alled, when pendentives are to be formed in wood. 2091. To cove the ceiling of a square room with conical pendentives. Let ABC ( fig. 732.) re half the plan of the room, and DEE the half plan of the curb, at whose top the ribs ire all fixed. The hyperbolical arches agb, hhc on each of the four sides are of equal leight. The straight ribs If ik, Im, &c. are shown on the plan by FB, IK, LM, &c. The method of finding the hyperbolical curves agb, hhc will be explained in the following igure. Fig. 732. / 2092. To find the springing lines of the preceding pendentives, the section in one of the verti - a l diagonal planes being given. Bisect the diagonal LIv {fig. 733.) at the point N by the crpendicular NW, which make equal to the height of tire cone, and draw the sides LW id KW, Bisect the side MK of the square at a, and on N, with the radius Na, describe a arc aA, cutting the diagonal LK at A. Then take any points B, C, D, between A and 1, and with the several radii NB, NC, ND, describe the arcs B6, C c, and D d, cutting M at the points d, c, and b. From the points A, B, C, and D, draw AE, BF, CG, and <11 perpendicular to the diagonal KL, cutting the side WK of the section of the cone at F, G, II. At the points abed erect perpendiculars ae, bfi eg, and dh to the side ML, aking each equal to their corresponding distances AE, BF, CG, and DH, which will be )c half of the curve for that side from which the other may be traced. The dark parts show ic feet of the ribs. 2093. Fig. 734. shows the method of a ing a square room with spherical penden- ts, which a few words will sufficiently scribe. Cl), HE are two sides of the plan; I' B is half the plan of the curb. In the vation above is shown the method of fixing ■ ribs (which, in projection, are portions of pses) on two sides of the plan, ab is the •vation of the curb AFB ; cfd and dge are is on each side of the plan supporting the rtical ribs that form the spherical surface, lich vertical ribs support the curb nfb. On b may, if necessary, be placed a lantern or .'light; or, if light be not wanted, a flat ling or a dome may be placed. This pen- sive is to be finished with plaster ; hence • ribs must not be farther apart than about inches. 2094. For finding (fig. 735.) the intersec- 1,1 of the ribs of a spandrel dome, whose tion is the segment of a circle, and whose n is a square A BCD. Let DEFB be the 'tion on the plane of the diagonal. •• R I, and QG, this last being parallel to I)C or All, the sides of the square; on \\ th the radii VG, VI, VL, VN, and VC, describe the arcs GI 'g, I/i, Lul, Nt in, & c. cut- p\ c ■l c Flg. 73*. First plan one quarter of the ribs, as at UC, TN, THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II (MS ting the base DB of the angular rib :n g, i, I, and n. Draw gh, ik, bn, and no, each perpendicular to DB, cutting the diagonal rib at h, It, m, and o. Then making the distances GH, IK, LM, and NO equal to the corresponding distances gh, ik, bn, and no, through the points H, K, M, O draw a curve which will be the under edge of that for the bottom of the ribs QG, III, SL, TN, and UC, shown complete on each side of the square plan. If each of the circular segments on each side of the square plan be turned up at right angles to the plan A BCD, the ribs will then stand in their true position. 2095. We shall in this work confine ourselves to the simplest forms of tim- ber bridges, which, as well as those of Fie. 735 . Stone, will be found fully treated of in the Encyclopedia of Engineering, by Mr. Cres which forms one of the series. As they mostly depend on the principle of the truss, \vhci ( ' the span is large, and this combination of timbers we have already explained ; so in stor bridges the principle of construction of the arch is the chief matter for consideration, in to that a large portion of this work has been devoted ; hence, on the part of the arcfeitcc' we do not resign his pretension to employment in such works, for which, indeed, as respec design, his general education fits him better than that of the engineer. 209(5. The bridge over the Brenta, near Bassano, by Palladio, is an example of a wood bridge (fa. 73(5.), which is not only elegant as a composition, but one which is economic. and might be employed with advantage where it is desirable that the piers should occu a small space, and the river is not subject to great floods. The same great architect, in celebrated Treatise on Architecture, has given several designs for timber bridges, the pric pies of whose construction have only been carried out further in many modern instant He was the earliest to adopt a species of construction by which numerous piers were rendered unnecessary, and thus to avoid the consequences of the shock of heavy bodies against the piers in the time of floods. Of this sort was the bridge he threw over the rapid torrent of the Cismone (fg. 737.) whose span was 108 feet. Fig. 737 . 2097. Palladio has given a design for a timber bridge (fg. 738.) which is remarkable as having been the earliest that has come to our knowledge, wherein the arrangement is in what may he called framed voussoirs, like the arch stones of a bridge, a principle in later days carried out to a great extent, and with success, in iron as well as timber bridges. Fig. 73S. Chap. III. JOINERY. 649 2 098. We shall conclude our section on practical carpentry with a method of con- structing timber bridges proposed by Price in his Treatise on Carpentry , and one not dissimilar in principle to the method of Philibert de Lorme, before mentioned. The bridge {fig. 739.) is sup- posed to consist of two principal ribs He. The width of the place is spanned at once by an arch rising one sixth part of its extent. Its curve is divided into five parts, which,” says Price, “ I purpose to be of good sea- soned English oak plank, of 3 inches thick and 12 broad. Their joint or meeting tends to the centre of the arch. Within this rib is another, cut out of plank as before, of 3 inches thick and 9 broad, in such sort as to break the joints of the other. In each of these ribs are made four mortices, of 4 inches broad and 3 high, and in the middle of the said 9-inch plank. These Flf; ‘ 7 >u ' mortices are best set out with a templet, on which the said mortices have been truly divided and adjusted. Lastly, put each principal rib up in its place, driving loose keys into some of the mortices to hold the said two thicknesses together ; while other help is ready to drive in the joists, which should have a shoulder inward, and a mortice in them outward; through which keys being drove keep the whole together. On these joists lay your planks, gravel, &c. ; so is your bridge compleat, and suitable to a river, &c. of 36' feet wide.” 2099. “ In case the river, &c. be 40 or 50 feet wide, the stu(T should he larger and more particularly framed, as is shown in part of the plan enlarged, as I. These planks ought to he 1 inches thick and 16 wide; and the inner ones, that break the joints, 4 inches thick and I 2 broad ; in each of these are six mortices, four of which are 4 inches wide and 2 high ; through these are drove keys which keep the libs the better together; the other two mortices are 6 inches wide and 4 high ; into these are framed the joists of 6 inches hy 12 ; the tenons of these joists are morticed to receive the posts, which serve as keys, as shown >n the section K, and the small keys as in L; all which inspection will explain. That of M is a method whereby to make a good hutment in case the ground be not solid, and is y driving two piles perpendicularly and two sloping, the heads of hoth being cut off so i' to be embraced by the sill or resting plate, which will appear by the pricked lines ir.uvn from the plan I and the letters of reference.” Price concludes; “ All that I con- vive necessary to be said further is, that the whole being performed without iron, it is lu ret'ore capable of being painted on every part, by which means the timber may be plo- wed ; for though in some respects iron is indispensably necessary, yet, if in such cases •vlicrc things arc or may be often moved, the iron will rust and scale, so as that the parts ' ill become loose in process of time, which, as I said before, if made of sound timber, will il’vnys keep tight and firm together. It may not be amiss to observe, that whereas some nay imagine this arch of timber is liable to give way, when a weight comes on any par- icular part, and rise where there is no weight, such objectors may be satisfied that no part an yield or give way till the said six keys are broke short oil' at once, which no weight an possibly do.” Sect. V. JOINERY. 2100. Joinery is that part of the science of architecture which consists in framing or ■t ninn together wood for the external and internal finishings of houses, such as the linings I walls and rough timbers, the putting together of doors, windows, stairs, and the hkn. G50 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II, It requires, therefore, more accurate and nicer workmanship than carpentry, being of a decorative nature and near the eye. Hence the surfaces must be smooth and nicely wrought, and the joints must be made with great precision. The smoothing of the wood is called planing, and the wood used is called stuff, which consists of rectangular prisms roughly brought into shape by the saw, such prisms being called battens, boards, and planks, according to their breadth and thickness. 2101. We shall give but a succinct account of the joiner’s tools; an acquaintance with their forms and uses being sooner learnt by mere inspection over a joiner’s bench than by the most elaborate description. TOOLS. 2102. The first is the bench, whose medium height is about 2 feet 8 inches, its length about 10 or 12 feet, and its width about 2 feet 6 inches. One side is provided with a vertical board, called the side board, pierced with holes ranged at different heights in diagonal directions, which admit of pins for holding up the object to be planed, which is supported at the other end of it by a screw and screw check, together called the bench screw, acting like a vice. The planes used by the joiner are the jack plane, which is used for taking off the roughest and most prominent parts of the stuff, and reducing it nearly to its intended form. Its stock, that is, the wooden part, is about 17 inches long, 3 inches high, and 3.j inches broad. The tryi ng plane, whose use is nearly the same as that last described, I but used after it, the operation being performed with it by taking the shaving the whole I length of the stuff, which is called trying up, whereas with the jack plane the workman stops at every arm’s length. The long plane, which is used when a piece of stuff is to be tried up very straight. It is longer and broader than the trying plane, its length being 26 inches, its breadth 3§ inches, and depth 3^ inches. The jointer, which is still longer, being 2 feet 6 inches long, and is principally used for obtaining very straight edges, an operation commonly called shooting. With this the shaving is taken the whole length in finishing the joint or edge. The smoothing plane, which, as its name imports, is the last, 1 employed for giving the utmost degree of smoothness to the surface of the wood, and is chiefly used for cleaning off finished work. It is only 7', ijjches long, 3 inches broad, and 2i\ inches in depth. The foregoing are technically called bench planes. 2103. The compass plane which in size and shape is similar to the smoothing plane, except that its under surface or sole is convex, its use being to form a concave cylindrical surface. Compass planes are therefore of various sizes as occasion may require. The forhstaff plane resembles the smoothing plane in size and shape, except that the sole is part of a concave cylindric surface, whose axis is parallel to the length of the plane. The form is obviously connected with its application, and, like the last named, it is of course of various sizes. The straight block is employed for shooting short joints and mitres, instead of the jointer, which would be unwieldy: its length is 12 inches, its breadth 3j inches, and depth 2^ inches. 2104. There is a species of planes called rebate planes, the first whereof is simply called the rebate plane, being, as its name imports, chiefly used for making rebates, which arc, receding planes formed for the reception of some other board or body, so that its edge may coincide with that side of the rehate next to the edge of the rebated piece. The length of the rebate plane is about 9j inches, its depth about 3j inches, and its thickness varies ac- cording to the width of the rebate to be made, say from l=j to t inch. Rebate planes vary from bench planes in having no tote or handle rising out of the stock, and from their having no orifice for the discharge of the shavings, which are discharged on one side or other according to the use of the plane. Of the sinking rebating planes there are two sorts, the moving fillister and the sash fillister, whereof, referring the reader to the tool itself, a sight of which he can have no difficulty in procuring, the first is for sinking the edge of the stuff next to the workman, and the other for sinking the opposite edge, whence it is manifest that these planes have their cutting edges on the under side. Without enumerating, many other sorts which are in use, we shall mention merely the plough, t plane used for sinking a cavity in a surface not close to the edge of it, so as to leave an excavation or hollow, consisting of three straight surfaces forming two internal nglu angles with each other, and the two vertical sides two external right angles with theuppei surface of the stuff. The channel thus cut is called a groove, and the operation is callci grooving or plowing. This species will vary according to the width from the edge; but i is generally about 7| inches long, 3| inches deep. 2105. Moulding planes are for forming mouldings, which, of course, will vary according to the designs of the architect. They are generally about 9| inches long, and 3jj indie deep. When mouldings are very complex, they are generally wrought by hand ; but wliei a plane is formed for them they are said to be stuck, and the operation is called sticking. 2106. The bead plane is used very frequently in joinery, its use being for sticking mouldings whose section is semicircular; when the bead is stuck on the edge of a picci of stuff to form a semi-cylindric surface to the whole thickness, the edge is said to l« HAP. III. JOINERY. 6.51 ;aded or rounded. When a bead is stuck so that it does not on the section merely fall in ith its square returns, but leaves a space tl lus > between the junctions at the des, it is said to he quirked. The beads or planes vary from very small sizes up to the inch and \ bead. They may however be larger, and are sometimes stuck double and iple. The snipehill plane is one for forming the quirk, whereof we have spoken ; but we > not think a detailed description of it necessary, more than we do of those which are ade for striking hollows and rounds. 2107. The stock and hit is the next tool to be mentioned. Its use is for boring wood, id the iron, which varies as the size of the bore required, is made in a curve on its edge of ■ntrary flexure so as to discharge the wood taken out. It fits into what is called the stock, liich has a double curved arm working on spindles, the end opposite to the bit being essed by the body, whose weight against the whole instrument is the power whereby e operation is performed. The bit is also called a pin, or gouye bit. It is an important •ok and much used. (See Auger in Glossary .) 2108. Countersinks are bits for widening the upper part of a hole in wood or iron for le head of a screw or pin, and are formed with a conical head. Rimers are bits for widen- lg holes, and are of pyramidal form whose vertical angle is about 3| degrees. The ho In first pierced by means of a drill or punch, and the rimer then cuts or scrapes off the in- rior surface of the hole, as it sinks downwards, by pressing on the head of the stock, ccording to the metal on which they are to be used they are differently formed. 2109. The taper shell hit is conical both within and without. Its horizontal section is a escent, the cutting edge being the meeting of the interior and exterior conic surfaces. Its -e is for widening holes in wood. Besides the above bits, there are some which are pro- ded with a screw-driver for sinking small screws into wood with more rapidity than the mssisted hand will accomplish. 2110. The brad awl, the smallest boring tool, the gimlet, and the screw driver, are so well jiown, that it would be waste of space to do more than mention them, the commones* of struments in the science of construction. 2111. The variety of chisels is great. They are well known to be edge tools for cutting tod by pressure on it, or by percussion with a mallet on its handle. The firmer chisel is ool used by the carpenter as well as the joiner for cutting away superfluous wood bv ill chips. Those are best which are made of cast steel. If much superfluous wood is to cut away, a strong chisel, with an iron back and steel face, is first used with the aid of ■ mallet, and then a slighter one with a very fine edge. The first is the firmer first ■ntioned, and the last is called a paring chisel, in the use whereof the force employed from the shoulder or hand. 2112. The mortice chisel, whose use is for cutting out rectangular prismatic cavities in If is made of considerable strength. The cavity it so cuts out is called a mortice, and piece which fits into it a tenon, whence the name of the tool. This chisel is one acted only by the percussion of the mallet. 2113. The gouge is used for cutting concave forms in stuff. It is, in fact, a chisel ose iron is convex. 2114. The drawing knife is an oblique-ended chisel, or old knife, for drawing in the Is of tenons by making a deep incision with the sharp edge, guided by that of the tongue a square, for which purpose a small part is cut out in the form of a triangular prism, c use of this excavation is to enter the saw and keep it close to the shoulder, and thus ke the end of the rail quite smooth, for by this means the saw will not get out of its i irse. ;II5. There are many species of the saw, which is a thin plate of steel, whose edge is in- 1 ted with teeth for cutting by reciprocally changing the direction of its motion. The ’ iclies are — the ripping saw, which is used for dividing or splitting wood in the direction 1 the fibres ; its teeth are large, the measure being usually to the number of eight in : idles, such teeth standing perpendicularly to the line which ranges with the points : 1 length of the plate or blade of this saw is about 28 inches. The half ripper is used i ) for dividing wood in the direction of the fibres : the plate of this saw is as long as of t t last described, but it has only three teeth in an inch. The hand saw, whose plate is '• .aches long, contains fifteen teeth in 4 inches ; it is used for cross cutting, as in the direc- t i of the fibres; for which purposes the teeth recline more than in the two former saws. panel law has about six teeth in an inch, the length of its plate being the same as the I ; but in this and the hand saw thinner than in the ripping saw : it is used for cutting * v thin wood, either with or across the fibres. The tenon saw is most used for cutting ' al transverse to the fibres, as the shoulders of tenons. The plate of a tenon saw is from 1 a 19 inches long, having eight to ten teeth in an inch. This saw not being intended to ‘ through the whole breadth of the wood, and the plate being too thin to make a k ight kerf, or to keep it from buckling, it has a thick piece of iron fixed on the edge 0 >ti to the teeth, called the back. From the opening for the fingers through the 652 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. handle of this and the foregoing saws being enclosed all round, it is called a double handle. The sash saw is used for forming the tenons of sashes ; its plate is 1 1 inches in length, bavin" about thirteen teeth to the inch. It is sometimes backed with iron, but more frequently with brass. The dovetail saw is used for cutting the dovetails of drawers and the like; its plate is backed with brass, it contains fifteen teeth in about one inch, and is about 9 inches long. The handles of this and the last saw are only single. The compass saw, for cutting wood into curved surfaces, is narrow, thicker on the cutting edge as the teeth have no set and is without a back ; the plate, near the handle, is about an inch broad, and about a quarter of an inch at the other extremity, having about five teeth to the inch ; the handle is single. The keyhole, or turning saw, in its plate resembles the compass saw, but tli« handle is long, and perforated from end to end for inserting the plate at any distance with in the handle ; there is a pad in the lower part of the handle, through which is insertei a screw for fastening the plate therein. As its name implies, it is used for turning oui quick curves, as keyholes, and is therefore frequently called a keyhole saw. 2116. The teeth of all saws, except turning and keyhole saws, are bent alternately oi the contrary sides of the plate, so that all the teeth on the same side are alike bent through out the length of the plate, for the purposes of clearing the sides of the cut made in tli wood by it. The saw is a tool of great importance in every case where wood is to b divided, for by its means it can be divided into slips or scantlings with no more waste than a small slice of the wood, whose breadth is equal to the depth of the piece to be cu through, and the thickness of it equal to no more than the distance of the teeth between their extreme points on the alternate sides of the saw measured on a line perpendicular t them ; whereas, by any other means, such as the axe for instance, large pieces of timbe could only be reduced in size by cutting away the superfluous stuff, which would be no les a waste of labour than of the material used ; and even then it would have to be reduce to a plane surface. 2117. Joiners use the hatchet, which is a small axe, for cutting away the superfhiou wood from the edge of a piece of stuff when the part to be cut away is too small to b sawed. 2118. The square consists of two rectangular prismatic pieces of wood, or one of woix and the other, which is the thinnest, of metal, fixed together, each at one of their extrein ties, so as to form a right angle both internally and externally ; the interior right angle therefore called the inner square, and the exterior one the outer square. Squares are, fi different applications, made of different dimensions. Some are employed in trying uj wood, and some for setting out work ; the former is called a trying square, and the latter setting out square. To prove a square it is only r necessary to reverse the blade after havii drawn a line on the surface to which it is applied : if the line of the blade on revers do not coincide with that first drawn, the square is incorrect. 21 1 9. The bevel consists, like the square, of a blade and handle ; but the tengue moveable on a joint, so that it may be set to any angle. When it is required to try 1 many pieces of stuff to a particular angle, an immoveable bevel ought to be made for t purpose ; for unless very great care be taken in laying down the moveable bevel, it will likely to shift. 2120. The gauge is an instrument used for drawing or marking a line on a piece ofstij to a width parallel to the edge. It consists generally of a square piece with a mortice in through which runs a sliding bar at right angles, called the stem, furnished with a sha point or tooth at one extremity, projecting e little from the surface ; so that when the si of the gauge next to the end which has the point is applied upon the vertical surface the wood, with the toothed side of the stem upon the horizontal surface, and pushed > drawn alternately by the workman from and towards him, the tooth makes an incision fix the surface into the wood at a parallel distance from the upper edge of the vertical side the right hand. This line marks precisely the intersection of the plane which divides i superfluous stuff from that which is to be used. When it is required to cut a mortice ii piece of wood, the gauge has two teeth in it, and is called a mortice gauge, one tooth bei stationary at the end of the stem, and the other moveable in a mortice between the fi> tooth and the head ; so that the distances of the teeth from each other, and of each from ' head, may be set at pleasure, as the thickness of the tenon may require. 2121. The side hook is a rectangular prismatic piece of wood, with a projecting kr at the ends of its opposite sides. The use of the side hook is to hold a board fast, its fib being in the direction of the length of the bench, while the workman is cutting across fibres with a saw or grooving plane, or in traversing the wood, which is planing it » direction perpendicular to the fibres. I 2122. The mitre box consists of three boards, two, called the sides, being fixed at ri angles to a third, called the bottom. The bottom and top of the sides are all parallel; sides of equal height, and cut with a saw in two directions of straight surfaces at ri angles to each other and to the bottom, forming an angle of 45 degrees with the si 1 The mitre box is used for cutting a piece of tried up stuff to an angle of 45 degrees with 1 in JOINERY. up, III. 6 *3 its surfaces ; or at least to one of the arrisses, and perpendicular to the other two sides, at least to one of them, obliquely to the fibres. 2123. The straight edge is a slip of wood made perfectly straight on the edge, in order to I ike other edges straight, or to plane the face of a board straight. It is made of different d lgths, according to the required magnitude of the work. Its use is obvious, as its appli- :ion will show whether there is a coincidence between the straight edge and the surface which it is applied. When joiners wish to ascertain whether the whole surface of a .•ce of wood lies in the same plane, they use two slips, each straightened on one edge, with e opposite edge parallel, and both pieces of the same breadth between the parallel edges ; lence each piece has two straight edges or two parallel planes. To find, therefore, letlier a board is twisted, one of the slips is placed across one end and the other across e other end of the board, with one of the straight edges of each upon the surface. The ner then looks in a longitudinal direction over the upper edges of the two slips, until his e and the said two edges are in one plane ; or otherwise the intersection of the plane ssing through the eye and the upper edge of the nearest slip will intersect the upper edge the farthest slip. If it happen as in the former ease, the ends of the wood under the ps are in the same plane; but should it happen as in the latter, they are not. In the st case, the surface is said to wind ; and when the surface is so reduced as for every two tes to be in one plane, it is said to be out of winding, which is the same as to say it is a •rfect plane. From the use of these slips, they are denominated winding sticks. 2124. The mitre square, an instrument so called because it bisects the right angle or itres the square, is an immoveable bevel, for the purpose of striking an angle of 45 degrees jitli one side or edge of a piece of stuff upon the adjoining side or edge of the said piece stuff. It consists of a broad thin board, let or tongued into a piece on the edge called ( c fence or handle, which projects equally on each side of the blade, whereof one of the ges is made to contain an angle of 45 degrees with the nearest edge of the handle, or of at itt which the blade is inserted. The inside of the handle is called the guide. The ! ndle may be about an inch thick, 2 inches broad : the blade about -ft, to j of an inch thick, id about 7 or eight inches broad. The arris of a piece of stuff is the edge formed by u planes. MACHINERY. 2124a. In many of the operations of the joiner, where numerous copies of the same ing have to be produced, accuracy is ensured by introducing the principle of the gui,/e, tiler to direct the tool over the work, or the work over the tool. The mitre bo.v, "ot blocks, and the various kinds of fences and stops, are examples. The principle of the •ide is also applied to simple sawing and planing, and to grooving, tonguing, morticing, uoning, and shaping. The circular saw was introduced about the end of the last century to England, and attempts to construct a planing machine were made about 1776 and 1791 >. L. Molesworth, On the Conversion of Wood by Machinery, read at. the Institute of Civil ngineers, November 17, 1857). When Sir S. Bentham was in Russia previous to 1790, ■ bad made considerable progress in contriving machinery for shaping wood, such as all e parts of a highly finished sash window ; another for preparing all the parts of a wheel, that the joiner or wheelwright in that case had only to put the several pieces together, i 1802 Bramah patented machinery for pr ducing straight, parallel, and curvilinear sur- ces on wood. In 1807 Brunei’s famous block machinery was set in motion in Ports- outh dockyard. Thomson’s machinery for sawing, gauging, grooving, and tonguing •or boards was in operation in 1826 ; and, in 1827, Muir of Glasgow patented a machine r working floor boards, which has since served as a model for others. This machine has •preached perfection in that of MacDowall of Johnstone. A rack circular saw bench, r round or square timber, quickly converts a log or balk into square timber. 21246. For the ordinal y workshop, where the trade is limited and much varied, the nplcr American machines are more suitable. The saw bench occupies little space and n be applied in plain and bevel sawing, and ripping, mitring, teno.iing, rebating, &c. It only S feet 2 inches long, 2 feet 2 inches wide, and 3 feet 6^ inches high ; the saw is inches in diameter and makes 1 5i revolutions for each turn of the handle. A crank ay be acted on by a treadle when the stuff is thin, but in ordinary cases the machine quires two operators. We cannot satisfactorily describe the details, without illustrations, the many operations which this handy bench aids in performing with accuracy and -patch. In Furness’s patent wood working machine for planing, moulding, morticing, "’ing. squaring, tenoning, boring, rebating, and grooving, the stuff is operated up- n by 'Hers, held by horizontal arms fixed to a vertical shaft, in which it resembles the Bramah’s achine of 1802, but it is much simpler and less expensive. Worssam’s “ general joiner ” r the same purposes will, it is said, with a 2 horse- power, do the work of at least fifteen died joiners, l’orin’s patent French band saw blades arc made from ^th of an inch to inches in width and up to 50 feet in length. * 1 24 r. In machines with revolving cutters the general opinion is, that the greater the vd of the cutting tool the better will be the quality of the work. The practical limit, 654 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. however, appears to be between 2,500 and 3,500 revolutions per minute. A h'glier velocity heats the bearings, destroys the balance, and causes injurious vibrations. To pro- duce a good re-ult the travel of the work should be very slow relatively to the travel of the cutters. In some of the planing machines the cutters revolve with a velocity of 7.000 feet per minute, while the work advances at the rate of only 30 feet, but as a general rule the work travels about Jgth of an inch for each stroke of the cutters. To withstand this high velocity the framing of the machine requires to be perfectly constructed, the hearings made of a hard alloy, and precautions taken for obviating the wear of them. Newlands’ work gives illustrations and detailed descriptions of some of the machinery. 2124c? Mention must be made of Jordan’s patent wood and stone carving machine, invented about 1843, and worked by Pratt in 1845 to 1850 on a large scale. It roughed out the material according to the design, leaving but little labour to be received from the hands of the carver. Moulded work has also been obtained by applying red-hot iron moulds to the wood, and so charring off the superfluous wood. Tnis system is probably cheap, but the work is flat and spiritless. Carved panels for doors, coasistingot a thin veneer of wood on a layer of pulp, the whole pressed in moulds, is put forward by the Decorative Wood Company, and has a good appearance. 2124e. The introduction from New York, Sweden, and other places, of prepared flooring, ready-made , doors and machine worked mouldings, out of well seasoned pine, is of great advantage for cheap houses in the neighbourhood of large centres of population. 2 1 25. In joiners’ work executed during the 1 3th, 1 4th, and I 5th centuries, the wood lias neither warped, split, nor shrunk in the tenons and at other joints. This excellence is ascribed to the practice of seasoning the wood for at least six years after it was sawn, by first leaving it in damp places or even in water, and then stacking it in open piles under cover, when it was often turned and sometimes smoked; after such treatment the wood, when worked, has a tendency to acquire the appearance of Florentine bronze. 2125a. As very old timber is likely to show shakes ana to be worm-eaten, the mediaeval joiners felled oak from two to three hundred years old; i.e , timber which, at a yard from the ground, measured from 66 or 72 to 120 or 126 inches in girt without the albumen, and commenced its conversion by marking it with one diameter cross- ing another at right angles. The cuts on these lines having been made, the quarters were sawn in vari- ous ways, regard being had, as much as possible, to the texture of the wood. An unseasoned log of oak splits as shown at A Jig. 739a. because the inner concentric circles are harder and more compact than the outer ones ; therefore the latter, being the most extensive in surface as well as the most porous, con- tain a greater quantity of moisture, and shrink more than the inner ones in drying, thus causing splits or shakes leading to the centre. If timber be converted without regard to this result of dryness, the stuff will not only split, hut will he so affected by changes of weather as to twist. If the cuts he made in lines converging, or even tending to the centre, the stuff may shrink in width but will neither split nor warp. Although oak is formed like other exogenous trees by a succession of layers, these are united and solidified in this particular wood by the medullary rays which foi in a sort of natural dowel. 2 1255. The best method of converting oak for the use of the joiner is shown at B .fig. 130 a., in which there is no waste, as the triangular portions form feather-edged laths for tding and other purposes. The next best method is that at C; that at D is inferior ; hut the most economical method, where thickness is required, as for planks or for moulded work, is that marked E. The resemblance to a watered silk, which is sometimes called hie feather, or flower, or curl, or pattern, of wainscot, is due to the medullary rays, which show most when the saw follows the chink-grain as in B ; in C and D the silky appear- ance does not exist, as most of the rays are cut across ; very slight examination will show which course has been followed, especially in the case of the quarter-grain stuff produced by the method E. It is probable that the cross cuts will follow the line of a layer, called the felt-grain, in the plan marked B, which is that adopted in Holland on timber furnished in great part from Champagne (whence, simply, the superiority of Dutch wainscot), and in ail cases of split oak for lathing and for park paling. ( Viollet-le- Due). 2125c The wood principally used for joinery is of three sorts, pine, and white and yellow deal ; the two first for panelling, and the last for framing. Of late years nuicli American wood has been used, both for panels and frames. It works easily, is soft, free from knots, but more liable to warp than white deal. But joinery is not of course limited to the use of a particular sort of wood. When the exporter cuts a log, the first thing done tv to get one good deal or more for the London market; the residue is then converted to supply other markets. Many deals 3 inches thick are sent to France, perhaps as large a proportion as those of 2 inch and 1| inch, but they are not of so good a description as those sent to London. France is the great mart for all deals that will not suit the London to kit lit! :\u HA t. III. JOINERY. 655 arket. Tlie following are the modes which have been and are at present practised to itaiu deals for both markets. Ill 739 b. (the mode practised until the French market iproved), are obtained an Eng- ,h deal. A, 9 in. by 3 in , and o battens, B, 7 in. by 2^ in., aking 62 feet superficial. In >9c., tlie old mode of cutting, ive two English deals, C, 9 in. f 2^ in., and two English bat- ns, D, 7 in. by 2^ in., making 4 feet superficial. In739d., the esent mode of cutting, gives two nglish deals, E, 9 in. by 3 in., and two French deals, F, 9 in. by lj et superficial. This communication has been obligingly furnished by Mr. T. A. Britten, obtained at the Docks. 2125d. Glue is a material extensively used in joinery ; see Glossary. Fig. 7396. Fig. 739 j. Fig. 7o9cL in., making “6^ MOULDINGS. 2126. When the edge of a piece of wood is reduced to a cylindrical form, it is said to be unded, which is the simplest kind of moulded work. {Fig. 740.) When a portion of the jrris is made semicylindrical, so that the surface of the cylindrical part is flush both with c face and the edge of the wood, with a groove or sinking made in the face only, the {•Tindrical part is called ahead, and the sinkinga quirk; the whole combination {Jig. 741.) .•ing called a quirked lead. j 2127. If a quirk is also formed on the other or returning face, so as (o make the rounded [irt at the angle three fourths of a cylinder, the moulding {see Jig. 742.) is called a bead \‘d double quirk. 2128. If two semicylindrical mouldings both rise from a plane parallel to the face, and e comes close to the edge of the piece and the other has a quirk on the further side, and surface flush with the lace of the wood, as in Jig. 743., the combination is called a double id or double bead and quirk, wherein the bead next to the edge of the stuff' is much smaller an the other. 2129. Mouldings are usually separated from one another, and often terminated by two rrow planes at right angles {Jig. 744.) to each other : these are called Jillets , and show o sides of a rectangular prism. The different pieces of the combination of mouldings ■ called members. A semicylindrical moulding, rising from a plane parallel to the face, d terminated on the edge by a fillet {Jig. 745.), is called a torus. In the figure there are o semicylindrical mouldings, whence that is called a double torus. The reader must serve that the distinction between torus mouldings and beads in joinery is, that the outer -C of the former always terminates with a fillet, whether the torus be single or double; rreas a bead never has a fillet on the outer edge. A repetition of equal semicylindrical uldings, springing from a plane or cylindrical surface, is called reeds. In joinery, / cima recta, and ? , cima reversa, are called respectively the ogee and ogee 'j I erte. The ovolo J , so named from its egg-like form, and the quarter round, the rth part of a cylindrical surface, are the remaining of the principal mouldings used in cry. When tlie margin of any framing terminates on the edges next to the panel, with or more mouldings, which both advance before and retire from the face of the framing 1 the panelling, the mouldings thus introduced are called bolection mouldings. Their 1 nhination is shown further on. (See Jig. 759.) Greek, Roman, and Italian mouldings also shown in 2531. and 2532.; and mediaival mouldings are treated in Practice of CHITECTU K E. DOORS. ! I 30. We shall now more particularly address ourselves to the subject of doors and their uldings. The mo t inferior sort of door used in building is tlie common ledged door, in i' h live or six or seven vertical boards are held together usually by three horizontal I es called ledges, to which the vertical ones are nailed. Sometimes there is an outer I uing, consisting of the top rail and the two outside stiles, but still having ledges us 656 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IT. Before; tliese are c died framed and ledged doors. A door, properly made, is formed by framing and fitting pieces of stuff together of the same thickness; those which are horizontal (fig. 746'.) AAAA being called rail and those which are vertical BBBB beiim called stiles. These form a skeleton into which panels, usually of a less thickness, are fitted. And this, indeed, is the general practice in all systems of framed joinery. In doors, the upper rails are called top rails-, the next in descending, frieze rails ; the next, which are usually wider than the two first, are called the Inch or middle rails ; and the lowest, from their situation, are called bottom rails. The stiles on the flanks are called outside stiles, and those in the middle are called middle stiles. The panels are also named from their situations on the door; thus CC, being the uppermost, are called frieze panels-, the next Dll are called middle panels, and EE bottom panels. The rails and stiles are wedded togetiier, being previously morticed and tenoned into each other. The student should, however, to obtain a clear comprehension of the method adopted, see a door put together at the bench. The varieties and forms of doors are dependent upon the will of the architect, from whom the design of the whole emanates; it will be, therefore, here sufficient to mention the three sorts, viz. the common door, just described ; the jib door, which is made with the same finishings and appearance as the room in which it is placed, so as not to have the appearance of a door; and, lastly, folding doors, which open from the centre of the doorway, and are used for making a wider com- munication between two apartments than a common door will permit, or, in other words, to lay two rooms into one. 2130a. A patent safety and escape door, applicable for all positions, has been produced to | supply the demand of the authorities that all doors in public buildings be made to open outwards. This invention consists of a door within a door, one opening inward, the other outward; the inner door being so constructed that on a rush it yields to the pressure. Sufficient fittings are provided to afford security as well. Messrs Chubb have ptoduced a door, having a superimposed spring panel on the inside of the door, in which the lock is embedded. While a smart knock, or even a slight pressure, on this panel causes the double doors to fly open outward, it is impossible to open the door from the outside without a key. 2131. Though the panelling of framed work is generally sunk witnin the face of the framing, it is (or outside work sometimes made flush. In the best flush woik, the panels are surrounded with a bead formed on the edge of the framing, and the work is called head and flush. In the commoner kind of flusli framing, the head is run only on the two edges of the panel in the direction of the fibres, and is called bead and butt. 2132. The different denominations of framed doors, according to their mouldings and panels and framed work in general, are shown in section of panel and frame. Fiy. 747. represents the commonest door ; it is technically described, first mentioning the numl er A Fi“. 740 of panels intended in it, as a door square and flut panel both sides. The number of panei will not be repeated in the following explanations of the figures. (See Specifications,) 2134 . Fig. 748. represents the rail and panel of a door, with a quirked ovoto and fillet, on one side, but having no mouldings on the other. The panel flat on both sides, t is described as a door with quirked ovolo, fillet and flat icith square back. 2135. Fig. 749. only differs from the last in having a bead instead of a fillet, and i described as quirked ovolo, bead and flat panel with square back. 2136. Fig. 7.50., with an additional fillet on the framing, is described as quirked ovnh bead filet and flat panel with square back. The back, in the foregoing and following casei is described as square, because of its having no mouldings on the framing, and ot the pane being a straight surface on one side of the door. 2137. In fig. 751 . the framing is formed with a quirked ogee, and a quirked bead on on side and square on the other, the surface of the panel being straight on both sides, and tit door is described as quirked ogee, quirked bead and flat panel with square back. 2138. Fig. 752. only differs from the last in the bead being raised above the lower par of the ogee and a fillet It is described as quirked ogee, cocked bead and flut panel ic r i. The section of a door style, and part of the hanging f -f «l the joint, arc represented in A and B (fig. 761.), . win the centre of the bend on each side is in the line of i '., I . light part of the joint from the opposite side. In this \ 11 is the centre of the bead, AG part of the joint in r- ' ; " w '*th its edge. Joining AC, draw AB perpendicular l 11 j to. I lie other pint 111 I is perpendicular to El', which I, 660 THEORY OF ARCEIITECTURE. Book II. is the face of the door or hanging style. This is a joint suitable for many purposes, and may be made with common hinges. If crooked, it will assist in excluding” the current o( air, a point of no mean importance. 2151. In fig. 762. A and B exhibit a plane joint, beaded similarly on both sides. In this case, the plane of the joint is a tangent to the cylindrical surfaces of the two beads ■ and as the margin on each side is alike, no check to the rush of cold air is afforded. The hinge, moreover, is such that it cannot be made in the usual manner, but must be formed as at C. Fig. 762. Fig. 7G3. Fig. 764. 2152. Fig. 763. A and B represent a hinging wherein the plane of the joint from one side is directed to the axis of the bead on the other. The principle in it is the same a that i a fig. 761., and it may therefore be hinged with common hinges, as shown in C, ii which the two parts are conjoined. The methods shown in this and Jig. 761. are useful ii cases wherein a part of the margin is concealed on one side of the door. 2153. Fig. 764. A and B exhibit the beads of similar size on each side, and exactly I opposite to each other, the joint being broken by indenting a part terminated by a plain directed to the axis of the two opposite beads. The hinges are required merely of tin common form, the arrangement is strong, and the apartment rendered comfortable by tliei use. In C the parts are shown as hinged together. 2154. In Jig. 765. the beads are on both sides, but not on the same piece, as in the las figure. The appearance is uniform, but the bead, which projects the whole of its thickness is weakened. The junction is seen in the representation at C. 2155. Fig. 766. is a method that has been adopted for concealing the hinges of shutter A is the inner bead of the sash-frame, B the inside lining, C the style of the shutter. I' the form of the joint, let af be the face of the shutter, perpendicular to ar the face of tl inside lining. Let the angle f a r be bisected by the straight line aa, and in the cent take c. Draw dd perpendicular to au, cutting it in c, which is the centre of the lung; From c, as a centre, describe the arc am, winch must be hollowed out from the nisi lining of the sash through the height of the shutter. In order to make room for the ope ing and shutting of the hinge, the internal right angle of the shutter must be cut out or j edge to the breadth of the hinges. The tails of the hinge are here for the purpose strengthening them, represented of different lengths. 2156. In Jig. 767. the hinges, which are for a door, are concealed, as the door allows in the thickness of the wood, the ends of the hinges being of equal lengths. 2157. Fig. 768. shows the common method of hingeing shutters, a mode wherein the whole thickness of the hinge is let into the thickness of the shutter, the inside lining being assumed as too thin to afford sufficient hold for the screws employed to fasten them. 2158. Fig. 769. exhibits the hanging of a door with the centres concealed. Let ad be the side of the jamb in contact with the edge of the door ; bisect it in b, and draw be perpendicular to ad, make be equal to ba or Id, a join ac and cd ; from c, as a centre, describe the arc aed, which will show the portion be hollowed out of the jamb. The centres are fixed to the upper and under parts ol * door, and the former is to be so constructed as to allow its being taken out ol the sot to unhang the door when required. 2159. Shutters are usually hung in the way represented in Jig. 770., wherein the cen ap. ii r. JOINERY. CGI the knuckle of the hinge exactly opposite to the pendicular part of the iate. The dotted lines ex- jit the flap when folded ck. 2160. When the axis of p . „ o p . ; knuckle cannot be dis- sed so as to fall opposite to the joint, the hinge is to be placed as shown in fig ius, ab being the distance of the edge of the flap from that the shutter, bisect it in c, which will be the point opposite lereto the centre of the hinge is to be placed. This ar- ngement is necessary, both when the shutters are not uare at the ends, and when the boxing is restricted in ace; the principle being to place the centre of the knuckle the hinge at half the distance of the edge of the flap from e rebate on the edge of the shutter. In fig. 772. the ■o parts are shown hinged together. 2161. When a door has attached to it any projection, and, hen open, it is requisite to bring it parallel to its place hen shut, the knuckle of the hinge (fig- 773.) must project least as far as the projection in question. An inspection ’ the diagram, wherein the dotted lines show the situation the door when folded back, will sufficiently convey the ode of conducting this expedient. 2162. Fig. 774. is the representation of what is called a n that the principles have been sufficiently developed to enable ie student to pursue from them the application to any case that Fig. ;? - may be called upon to put in practice. SASH-FRAMES AND SASHES. 2164. In fig. 760. the connection between the shutters and sash-frame has been fully < plained ; we may now, therefore, proceed to the detail of a common sash-frame with s sashes, supposing them to be hung so as to be balanced by weights, suspended by sash- acs running over pulleys, capable of balancing those of the sashes themselves. On the se of French sashes, which open like doors, we do not think it necessary to dilate. heg are, in fact, nothing more than glazed doors; and the principal object for attainment their construction, is to prevent the rain from penetrating into the apartments they rve, as well where they meet in the middle as at their sills, which is a subject requiring mch care and attention. 216.5. I n fig. 776. is shown the construction of a sash-frame, and the method of putting wether the several parts, wherein It is the elevation of the frame, of which AI1CI) is the iter edge. I he thinner lines at EE, GII, EG, are grooves whose distances from the edges the sash-frame LM and KI are equal to the depth of the boxing, together with threc- .’hth i of an inch more that is allowed for margin between the face of the shutter, when, in '■ boxing, and the edges MI. and KI of the sash-frame next to the bead. S is a horizon- ll section of the sides, whereon is shown also the plan of the sill. T is a vertical section of u- sill and top, in which is shown the elevation of the pully style m and n, and the pullies let io the pully piece. U is the horizontal section of the sides, showing also a plan of the lad of the sash frame. V the elevation of the outer side of the sash-frame; the outside iniiig being removed for the purpose of showing the work within the sash-frame. In this / is the parting strip fastened by n pin ; erl one of the weights connected to the sash by leans of a line going over the pulley c, the other end being fixed to the edge of the sash. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 662 The weight de is made equal to one half the weight of the sash. W is the head of the sash-frame before put together, and X shows the edge of W. Y T is the edge of the bottom, exhibiting the manner of putting the styles in it, and Z is the plan of Y. Fig. ’ill.. Nos. 1. and 2., are sections of the sills of sash-frames, with sections of the under rail of the sash, showing the btst method of constructing them, in order to prevent rain from driving under the sash-rail. In each of these, A is the section of the bottom rail, B a section of the bead tongued into the sill, C a section of the sill. Fig. 778. exhibits sec- tions of the meeting rails of the upper and lower sashes, with side elevations of the upright bars ; C is the rebate for the glass, D a square, E and F an astragal and hollow moulding, G a fillet. The smaller letters mark the same parts of the under sash. Fig. 779. is the section of an upright bar with the plans of two horizontal bars, showing the franking or manner in which they are put together to keep the upright bars as strong as possible. The thickness of the tenon in ifT : — "Si - ■ u 1 1 XJU-i. [ ■ -y Fig 777. general is about one sixteenth of an inch to the edge of the hollow of the astragal, and close to the rebate on the other side, hh is a dowel to keep the horizontal bars still tinner together. In this diagram the letters refer to the same parts as in the preceding figure ; and it is also to be observed, that no rebate is made for the glass on the inside meeting rail, a groove being made to answer that purpose. Fig. 780. exhibits four sections of sash bars. But their forms, as in the case of mouldings, generally depends on the taste of the architect. 2I6Ja. Several patents have been taken out, of late years, for hanging sashes so that they rnay be removed from the frames for cleaning or re- pairing without taking down the inside beads, an operation which always results in at least damaging them in a few years. They are not always satisfactory. Gurman’s sash nocht " fittings, and Gribbons’ sash mountings, were introduced about 18,58. Other inventio have been made for hanging them so that the upper and lower sashes shall open with t same action. William M'Adam’s “Imperishable material applied to sash and nth pulleys, economical sash weights, and unproved methods of hanging windows,” compri' a material for pulleys of vitrified stoneware, proof against the action of the weatlr Chap. III. JOINERY. 663 For window weights he substitutes a cheap material manufactured out of various kinds of refuse ; and suggests an improvement in the mode of banging windows whereby one weight can be made to answer the same purposes as two applied in the usual way. R. Adams has a patent anti-accident reversible and sliding window, for cleaning, ventilation, &c , whereby the outside of the sashes can be safely revolved, or reclined into the room for cleaning, &e., thus removing all danger to the cleaner. Meakln has a new patent standard sliding sash, for cleaning. For sash lines, see par. 2260. 21656. The French casement window , or sash door as it is called when it opens down to the ground, is a feature commonly introduced even in English town houses. Its most ordinary form for small apertures is that of two leaves opening inwards or outwards, meeting in the centre of the opening; one leaf being secured to the frame by a bolt at top and bottom, and the other, when closed, is . fastened to the first by a handle, fixed on the second leaf and turning over a staple fixed on the first. When the casement is high, this second leaf may require a bolt also at top and bottom to pre- vent the wind bending it (when inwards), and so admitting cold air and wet. When placed towards an exposed quarter Fig. 780a. Fig. 7805. Fig. 780C. and subject to driving rains, it becomes necessary to take extra precautions to prevent the wet being blown through the joints at the bottom and the sides. To effect this object, the stiles, rails, and frames are beaded and sunk in various manners ; some are shown in fiys. 780a. and 7806., sills and bottom rails. For the latter, a water bar is now much used. 2165c. The next improvement is perhaps that of affixing to the leaf which is first opened an upright bar, which turns, and on being closed, fits against the other leaf, and by a hook at top and bottom effectually fastens both leaves. A similar method is shown in fig. 780c„ adopted at Pisa, as given in the Papers of the Royal Engineers, x. 187. The upright square reeded bar D, is moved to or from the sash, as the win- ■ dow is required to be opened or shut ; \ the top and bottom of the bar being \ rounded, as shown at E, so as to slide \ into two segmental plates F, secured to the sill and lintel. 1 is a plan of the two case- ments, and 2 a plan of the head and sill. 2165d. The best arrangement is that of the F.spagnotette bolt, which is made of brass, and acts in the same manner ns that of the bar above men- tioned. There are several other contrivances of a similar kind to effect the object, but the above r« 7 m<£ 664 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. are those in most general use. There is also a late invention for forming the holt into a plate, and setting it in a groove in the edge of the meeting stile, a corresponding groove being formed in the other stile to receive its half of the plate when moved forward by the handle in closing the casement. This, at the same time, forms a weather bar. (See jiur. 9259. ) 2165e. The fig. 780 a. is a section of an ordinary arrangement in France for a casement. A is the plan, taken across the middle of the height, near the handle ; and B the plan of the hooks at top and bottom of the rod, working into a staple fixed in the head and in the sill, with the movement of the rod Ly its handle. The round and hollow joint in the middle of the casement necessitates the two leaves being closed together and pressed into the frame when shutting the leaves, thus securing all the joints from admitting air or water. 21(>.5 f. Fig. ISOd. is a plan of the elaborate but usual French casement, as lately put up to the stone-fronted houses in the Rue de la Victoire, at Paris. It is given by Daly, in the Re one Generate de V Architecture of 1858. A shows the casements when shut; 13 the shutters closed in the boxings ; and b b the shutters when opened out. C the persiennes or outside blinds shut against the stone reveals ; the ordinary mode is for them to shut on the face of the wall, which spoils the architecture of the faqade ; c c the same when closed; D the espagnolctte bolt ; E the outside architrave ; and F the inside architrave. CROUNDS. 21 66. Grounds are formed of pieces of wood forming skeleton frames, and attached to walls, around windows, doors, or other openings, for the facility of fixing archi- traves or other mouldings upon them. For doorways the liont and back grounds were connected by a third, specified as dovetailed backing. They are disused in common work, the grounds being the wrought woodwork carrying the mouldings, forming a single or double faced architrave, and having the jamb space filled by a single or a double rebated and beaded jamb lining. The grounds served as screeds for the plastering, for which purpose the edge was chamfered, rebated, or grooved. Grounds or narrow grounds were those to which the bases and surbases of rooms were fastened ; slips of wood now receive the skirtings of rooms. All these appliances were secured to wand Ir eks, which (hem-elves have given way to plugs or wedges. Wright and Co’s patent itn- p roved fixing blocks for linings to walls, and floors, are substitutes for wood as a fixing. They take and retain nails crpial to wood ; they do not shrink, split, or decay, or be- come loose ; whilst the crushing weight is fully equal to good average brick or stone. They are built into reveals as bricks, without destroying the bond. When required for skirtings, for boarding, and such like, the Crick is made | inch wider, offering lor the plastering a better key than that obtained when using the wood ground. They are useful also in other cases. In all cases the grounds ought to be fixed vertical on the face and edge, and he fixed firm and solid in every part; for otherwise the inside work cannot be well finished, as in plastered rooms the plaster is worked to them. 2167. In fixing window grounds, the sash-frame must be first carefully placed so as to stand perfectly vertical ; and then the face of the ground must stand quite parallel to the face of the sash-frame, and project about three quarters of an inch from the face of the naked brickwork, so as to leave a sufficient space for the thickness of the plaster. The edge of the ground should be in the same plane with the edge of the sash-frame, or, as the work- men term it, “out of winding.” The edge of the architrave, when finished, in ordinary cases, will stand about three-eighths of an inch within the inner edge of the sash-frame, so that a perpendicular line down to the middle of the grounds would stand exactly opposite to a perpendicular line down to the middle of the sash-frame. 1LOORS OR I LOOR BOARDS. 2168. In the laying of floors, the first care to be taken is that they be perfectly level, which, owing to the nature of the materials whereof they are constructed, is a difficult task. The chief sorts of floors may be divided into those which are folded, that is, when the boards are laid in divisions, whose side vertical joints are not continuous, but in bays of three, four, five, or more boards in a bay or fold ; and those which are straight joint, in which the s. le joints of the boards are continuous throughout their direction. As soon as the windows are fixed, the floors of a building may be laid. The boards are to be placed on their best face, and put to season till the sap is quite exhausted, when they may be planed smooth, and their edges shot and squared. The opposite edges are brought to a breadth bv drawing a line on the face parallel to the other edge with a flooring guage, after which the common guage is used to bring them to a thickness, ami they are rebated down on the back to the lines drawn by the guage. 2169. The next operation is, to try the joints, which, if not level, must be brought so, either by furring up if they be hollow, or by adzing down if they are convex, the former being more generally the case. JOINERY. 6G5 lIAm III. 2170. The boards used for flooring are battens, or deals of greater breadth, whose quali- es are of three sorts. The best is that free from knots, shakes, sapwood, or cross-grained uff, selected so as to match well wiili one another. The second best is free of shakesand ipwood, and in it only small sound knots are permitted. The third, or most common >rt, are such as are left after taking away the best and second best. 2171. The joints of flooring-boards are either Quite square, ploughed and tongued, re- ited, or dowelled ; and in fixing them they are nailed on one or both edges, when the lints aro plain and square without dowels. When they are dowelled, they may be died on one or both sides; but in the best dowelled work the outer edge only is nailed, y driving the brad through the edge of the board obliquely, without piercing its surface. Inch, when the work is cleaned off, appears without blemish. 2172. In laying the floor-boards, they are sometimes laid one after the other, or one is rst laid, then the fourth, at an interval of something less than the united breadth of the ■eondand third together. The two intermediate boards are then laid in their places with ne edge on the edge of the first board and the other upon that of the fourth board, the vo middle edges resting against each other, rising to a ridge at the joint. In order to ( >rce these boards into their places, two or three workmen jump upon the ridge till they lave brought the under sides of the boards close to the joints ; they are then fixed in their laces with brads. This method is that first mentioned under this head, and in it the jards are said to be folded. AVe have here mentioned only two boards, but four boards Ire most commonly folded at a time, and the mode is always resorted to when a suspicion jvists that the boards are not sufficiently seasoned, or they are known not to be so. The leadings of these folds are either square, splayed, orploughed and tongued. If a heading curs in the length of the floor, it should be invariably made to fall over a joist, and one ading should not meet another. 2173. In dowelled floors, the dowels should be placed over the middle of the interjoist ■ ther than over the joists, so that the edge of one board may be prevented from passing at of the other. When the boards are only bradded upon one edge, the brads are eon- jalcd by driving them in a slanting direction through the outer edge of every successive ard, without piercing the upper surface. In adzing the under sides of floor-boards over cli joist, great care should be taken to chip away the stuff straight, and also to avoid king away more of the stuff than is necessary, in which case the soundness of the floor 71 not be compromised. 2173a. The practice of joining the edges of boards by means of rebates, or of tongued ooves, does not appear to have existed before the 16th century. Previously to that riod, the use of ledges dovetailed to the whole or part of their depth into chases, of retailed wooden cramps, or of wood or iron pins or dowels, was general. In the cathe- il at Messina the "St- ■ riling under the . ~ ~ '"T ~ ' [ ~T~ “.7 * ' ~~i ' ' ^ |'"g ’» in two /y/y/7 ,y r yyy •knesses that cross / //J /// / // J /// 1 . other; and, in , cn ji cradle roofs, it tig. /so/. ’Usual to groove and toDgue the wainscoting, and also to cover those joints with j aided fillets, as shown in the examples in fig. 780c. The thickness of this wainscoting, >h was oak split, not sawn, was only three-eighths of an inch (barely moro or less), I it was frequently put together in the manner shown in fig. 78 Q /'. -1736. The nailing of floors is not satisfactory in appearance. S. Putney has designed Pavodilos solid wood flooring to remedy the disadvantages of an ordinary nailed floor, to obviate the necessity for a parquet floor over it. By a mode of interlocking mghout the sides of each board, a perfectly smooth, air-tight, and dust-proof surface ■>t. lined, free from nail holes and indentations (Jig. 78 (ty). This floor is laid upon joists direct, and edgo-nailed to it in the shoulder. Another method is adopted by and edge-nailed, forming Fig. 78C0. M ' inings, the boards being solid, rabbotpd, and tongued, -proof joints, with a fair surface (fig. 780 //). Woodblock flooring. A warm, solid, durable, non-slippery floor, free from foul '•rmin, 11 ml 'lamp, being laid on a concrete bed, is that invented about 1866 by Mr. Vhito, l'.U.I B.A., and called woodblock flooring. It consists of oblong blocks, placed 6GG THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II diagonally on concrete, being prepared from first or second yellow deals, which art Burnetized and seasoned. This invention has produced other systems. W. Duffy'. patent immoveable acme, being pinned at the end and sides. Lowe's improved system the blocks being secured to the bed of concrete by a composition. 8. Jennings's preparer paraffined flooring, which has been laid in several large hospitals and infirmaries, foi which places it appears well suited, as also in houses. Geary's patent premier system wherein the blocks are keyed down and cannot get loose. In Giary and Walker's im- proved patent Invincible system, each block forming the flooring is firmly keyed to the sub structure by means of metal keys dovetailed into the under side of the blocks; the othei end of the keys being embedded in a matrix, acting not only as a damp-proof course am against dry rot, but also as a floating to the concrete foundation in place of the usu.i cement, surface. Another is Nightingale and Co.'s bevelled principle of woodblock floor ing. Elmer's patent hydrofuge floor is formed of, fir.-t, a cement bed in which are si small iron channels ; second, a bed of mastic which runs into the channels and inti grooves formed in the bottom of the wood bl .cks or parquet ; it is considered to l a fireproof, damp-proof, noiseless, and warm floor. I to 2173d. It is stated that in Western Australia both the woods called Jarrah and Karr are used for paving, and from exhaustive tests it is considered that Karri is the superio wood for most purposes, and paving in particular. This refers to paving for roadway- a subject of high importance, and upon which opinions are much divided. It, however does not come within the province of the joiner, and scarcely within the scope of thi work. The engineer to the Corporation of the City of London reported (1888) that aboti forty years since many of the principal thoroughfares of the City were paved with wood . . . most of which proved unsatisfactory; in 1853 only eight streets remained so pavei Since 1873 (December) the granite in nearly the whole of the main thoroughfares in th City has been replaced by either asphalte or wood, but mainly asphalte. Of the latte there are now 23,579 lineal yards, or about 13 miles; and of the former, 10,898 lino: yards, or about 6 miles. The parishes in the metropolis differ in their opinions, som entirely condemning wood for asphalte, others using wood only, and one, at leas keeping to granite as cheapest in all ways. lit 2173c. Parquetry , $c. Floors of principal rooms of the better class of houses ai now being finished with parquetry. It is composed of different pieces of some four 1 five coloured and hard woods, arranged in regular geometrical figures, for the whole of room, corridor, or gallery ; or applied as borders round carpets, lo treads and risers 1 stairs and landings; and even as dadoes, panellings, friezes, &c. Parquetry is kept clc.i by sweeping and periodical waxing. It is usually made solid, one inch thick, groove: tongued, and keyed at the back aud corners. When the woods are applied only as veneer, they are liable to warp and separate by heat. Turpin's thin parquet floor in. thick, prepared on deal back laminations to wear equal to inch solid parquet; can be used for veneering an old existing deal floor, and is susceptible of removal pleasure. 2173 f. Wood carpet parquetry is three-eighths of an inch thick, firmly nailed down w small barbed wire brads on to the top of the old floor; it is stated to be of a dumb nature and texture, bearing constant traffic. It may likewise be used for wainscotinp and walls and ceilings. Elmer's parquetry is attached firmly to basement floors witiio any under flooring, as above explained. “ Wood tapestry (Huward’s patent) for cove ing walls, ceilings, and other surfaces with real wood at a less ccst than painting graining,” dates from about I 860 . 2173^. Marquetry , or the inlaying of coloured woods, became very general at the iall end of the 16tli century. Oak was inlaid with ebony ornaments in the panels and stil of wainscoting; and the framing of doors, windows, and shutters was sometimes made dark-coloured woods, the panels being of light colours, inlaid with ornaments, profiles heads, &c. This process is applied greatly to furniture, where itis imitated by paint, new method has been introduced, of applying a printed pattern to the prepared wood, in the Tunbridge ware, and then varnishing it as usual. “ Ornamental pyrographic wot work,” for panels and in cabinet work, being a process for burning-in ornament up wood, is now in operation. 2174. In fg. 781. aro shown several methods for framing angles in dadoes, skirtm; troughs, and other objects, whereof A exhibits the method of mitring a dado on exter angles in an apartment. In fixing this together, brads may be driven from each side, is a method of framing used for troughs or other rectangular wooden vessels. C is method of putting a dado or skirting together at any interior angle of a room. This me fat ris th' Chap. III. JOINERY. 6G7 is also employed for water- trunks, or troughs. In D is shown the manner of fixing and finishing two pieces of I framing together, with a bead at their meeting, by which j the joint is concealed. It is used only in common finish- I ings. In those of a better sort the angle is kept entire, and only a three-eighth bead used at the joint. It is of great importance in all joiner’s work to preserve the sharpness of the angles of the work, and many prefer mitre at E, is not so good as at A, because it has no abut- ment. 2175. When it is required to glue up large work, those ed ges which are to receive the glue should be well warmed at a fire, and then, while warm, and the glue as hot as possible, they should be united, inasmuch as glue never holds well when it is chilled or cold. 2175a. In studying mediaeval framing, much attention should be given to the modes in which the junction of pieces was effected ; there are two which are chiefly important. The first is a characteristic in the work of the carpenter as well as of the joiner, viz., the shoulder, either solid or applied {figs. 701/c and 70U.). In the first case, it is not economical of material, which was a great point of consideration ; and therefore it is rarely seen except on short pieces, such as the posts of doorways : but as an applied means of strength it is almost as common in good work as a corbel in masonry. The wcond is the use of the mortice and tenon with trenails ; and the extreme care which was given to this part of the work is scarcely to he expected in these days of speed and cheap- tess. It may be predicted that no truly mediaeval work will now be ever reproduced except Ji the fancy-work of the cabinet-maker and the smith. 21756. Another peculiarity is the use of stops to all chamfers and mouldings at points >f junction of framing : it is not until the last phase of pointed art, that the stop of the noulding of a stile is worked in the rail, or that the corner of a panel is rounded : it is only n the dawn of the renaissance that the four-pai, el quirk ogee front ami square back can be lortion of a specification for a door ; for a mitre-joint is eminently not a feature of me- liteval joinery. The juxtaposition, even accidentally, of two stop-chamfered edges, suggests means of enriching work, whether in open or close panels. The avoidance of work gainst the grain, and of large hollows, is also mentioned as a characteristic of joiner’s I ork in pointed art ; but this disappears in the course of the 15th century. The icdianal joiner, depending sometimes upon halving his work together, more frequently 'ought time less valuable than material, and did not repent a profusion of morticing and ■Honing, to which he added the trouble of fastening with wooden trenails or iron pins, s large an amount of rebating and of grooving, however, was done in framing by the joiner s could be expected by those who were accustomed to the back-jointed and the grooved ork of the mason. 2175c. Perhaps the most defective part of the joinery of the middle ages is that which insisted in planting one thickness upon another. The contrivances in glueing and dove- ding were not of themselves sufficient ; and recourse was obliged to be had to nails, he absence of screws and nails, except where nail heads could be made decoration, is ‘Other characteristic of medieval joinery. It was not until the beginning of the 1-ltii ntury that the transition from planted work to panel work can be said to have appeared any strength. At the end of that century, an architect might have specified a door as "e panelled, beaded three edges, chamfered bottom, and raised panel both sides ; but his beads add have been stuck in the solid, and not applied : during the whole of the 14th century snted work was commonly introduced, as in screens, closets, and shutters, where perhaps hiatn buttress serves to conceal the wide joint made by the work in consequence of the iccurate finish of the hingeing. A curious method, which must have been laborious l ue the introduction of the plane, of attaching the planted work, consisted in running in ground a chase wide enough to take the whole breadth of the planted stuff, and then run a couple of grooves in that chase ; of course the back of tne planted stuff had to be irked to match, with two tongues to enter the grooves. -I75rf. 1 he size of the materials was restricted. Three inch stuff for the thickness of Is and stiles, with a not much wider face ; inch and a half stuff for mouldings to be mted ; panels not more than eight inches wide, and three-quarters of an inch thick; ■ y be quoted as usual dimensions for joiner's work. The observance of this restriction ' Ktitutcs an essential characteristic of medueva! work. 1 to employ the method shown in F, without any bead at the joint. In this the joint is made as close as possible, and is well glued together. If additional strength be re- quired, blockings may he glued in the interior angle, which will make it quite firm. The method, by a simple KiR. 7S1. 668 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. Treads. inches. 5 6 7 8 9 Risers. inches. 9 8 ! 8 7i 10 11 6’ 12 si 13 5 14 ■u STAIRS. 2176. Stairs and their handrails are among the most important objects of the joiner’s si ill. The choice of situation, sufficiency of light, and easy ascent, are matters for the exercise of the architect’s best talent. 2177. There are some leading principles which are common to all staircases, of what- soever materials they may be constructed. Thus it is a maxim that a broad step should be of less height than one which is narrower ; and the reason is sufficiently obvious, beeausr in striding, what a man loses in breadth he can more easily apply in raising himself by his feet. Now, as in common practice it is found that the convenient rise of a step 12 inches in width is inches, it may be assumed as some guide for the regulation of other dimen- sions. Thus 12x5^ = 66, which would be a constant numerator for the proportion. Suppose, for instance, a step 10 inches in breadth, then j® = 6j inches would be the height ; and this agrees very nearly with the common practice. The breadth of steps in the commonest stair- case may be taken at 10 inches at a medium. I n the best staircases the breadth of the step should not be less than 12 inches, neither should it be more than 18 inches. (See 2814.) 2178. Having adjusted the proportions of the steps, the next consideration is to ascertain the number of risers which will be necessary to pass from one floor to another. If the height divided by the rise of each step should not give an exact number of risers, it is belter to add one rather than diminish the number. 2178a. An easy mode of proportioning steps and risers may be obtained by the annexed method. Sot down two sets of numbers, each in arithmetical progression ; the first set showing the width of the steps, ascending by inches, the other showing the height of the riser, descending by halt-inches. It will readily be seen that each of these steps and risers are such as may suitably pair together. ( Nevvland, Carpenter's an/I Joiner’s Assistant, 1860, p. 197.) It is seldom, however, that the proportion of the step and riser is exactly a matter of choice — the space allotted to the stairs usually determines this proportion; but the above will be found a useful standard, in first-class buildings the number of steps is considered in the plan, which it is the business of the architect to arrange in accordance with the style of the edifice. 2179. The width of the better sorts of staircases should not be less than 4 feet, to allow of two persons freely passing each other ; but the want of space in town houses often obliges the architect to submit to less in what is called the going of the stair. 2180. The parts of every step in a staircase are one parallel to the horizon, which i< called the tread of the -tep, terminated on the edge by a moulded or rounded nosing, and the other perpendicular to the horizon, which is called the riser of the step. Where great traffic exists, the treads of stairs wear down at the nosing. This is often protected by a brass edging, and by lining it with lead. Ilawksley’s patent treads have come largely into use, not only at railway stations, but in warehouses and other buildings where there is much traffic on the stairs and landings. 2180a. A curious instance of economy of material is given in jig. 781a., which shows the mode of getting six steps out of round timber 80 inches in diameter, being a saving of about ten per cent, upon the attempt to cut up square timber. Such solid steps were housed into the carriage; A showing the under side of it in re- lation to the step B. In straight flights the system of carrying solid newels from bottom to top of the staircase is one which has since been repeated successfully in iron construction. The ingenuity of the mediaeval joiner in this subject is seen best treated in Viollet le Due’s dic- tionary. (See par. 2185.) 2181. Stairs have many varieties of struc- ture, dependent on the character, situation, and destination of the building. We shall now, therefore, describe the method of carrying up dog-legged, bracket, and geometrical stairs. I 2182. A Dog-legged Staircase is one which has no opening or well-hole, and in w itr ' the rail and balusters of the progressive and returning flights fall in the same veitica planes. The steps in it are fixed to strings, newel, and carriages, the ends of the Steps « the inferior kind terminating only upon the side of the string without any housing. 'i al " Z in jig. 782, are the plan and elevation of a staircase of this kind; AB is the lower ne" 1 ' whereof the part BC is turned. On the plan, a is the seat of this newel. DE and F » t Y are the lower and upper string boards framed into newels, KL is a joist framed into t l( trimmer I. The lines on the plan represent the faces of the steps in the elevation "it 1011 the nosings. MO and EQ are called the upper and lower ramps, the method ot age. In bracket stairs the internal angle of the •teps is open to the end, and not closed by the string, as in common dog-legged stairs ; he neatness also of the workmanship is as much attended to as in geometrical stairs. Hie balusters should be nicely dovetailed into the ends of the steps by twos, and the ace of each front baluster is to be in a plane with the front face of the riser, and all the '.dusters being equally divided, the face of the middle one must of course stand in the niddle of the face of the riser of the preceding step. The treads and risers are previously .11 glued up and blocked together, and when put in their places the under side of the tep is nailed or screwed into the under edge of the riser, and then rough bracketed to the trings, as in a dog-legged staircase, in which the pitching pieces and rough strings are imilar. 2184. A Geometrical Staircase is one whose opening is down its centre, or, as it , called, an open newel, in which each step is supported by one end being fixed in the wall r part'tion, the other end of every step in the ascent having an auxiliary support from i it immediately below it, beginning from the lowest one, which, of course, rests on the floor, lie steps of a geometrical staircase should, when fixed, have a light and clean appearance, nd, for strength’s sake, the treads and risers, when placed in position, should not be less i in 1| inch thick, supposing the going of the stair or length of the step to be 4 feet. For cry 6 inches in length of the step an eighth of an inch should be added. The risers lould be dovetailed into the cover, and in putting up the steps, the treads are screwed up ■>m below to the under edges of the risers. The holes for sinking the heads of the screws ight to he bored with a centre bit and fitted closely in with wood well matched, so that :c screws may be entirely concealed, and appear as a uniform surface without blemish, ’•rackets are mitred to the risers and the nosings are continued round ; but this practice iduces an apparent defect, from the brackets, instead of giving support, being them- Ivcs unsupported, and actually depending on the steps, being indeed of no other use ' m merely tying together the risers and treads of the internal angles of the steps; and "in the internal angles living hollow, except at the ends, which terminate by the wall at •e extremity, and by the bracket at the other, there is an appearance of incomplete finish, lie cavctto or hollow is carried all round the front of the slip, returned at the end, and lin at the end of the bracket, thence along the inside of it, and then along the internal igle at the back of the riser. 218.5. 1 lie ancient mode, however, was the best, in which the wooden was nn imitation the method of constructing geometrical stairs in stone, which will he found under ' ivonry, in the previous Section III.; that is to say, the making of the steps themselves solid, id in section of the form of a bracket throughout their length. This is a move expen- '■ method, but it is n solid and good one, and is still practised on the Continent, espe- illy ill I ranee. fSec n'so par. 218Uu . ) 670 Book 1 [. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 2186. In fly. 783. X is the plan and Y the elevation, or rather section, of a geometrical staircase. AB in X is what is called the cur -tail step (curved like the tail of a cur dog ) which must be the first step fixed. CCC are the flyers supported from below by rough carriages, and partly from the string board DHEF in Y. The ends next the wall are sometimes housed into a notch board, and the steps then are made of thick wood and no carriages used. GGG are winders fixed to bearers and pitching pieces, when carriages are used to support the flyers. The winders are sometimes made of strong stuff firmly wedged into the wall, the steps screwed to- gether, and the other ends of the steps fixed to the string DEHF. In all cases of wooden geometrical stairs their strength may be greatly augmented by a flat bar of wrought iron coin- ciding with the under ... side and screwed to the | string immediately be- fr low the steps. El IK in Y is the wall line of the sofite of the winding part of the stairs, and LMN part of the rail supported by two balusters upon every step. Where the space of the going of the stairs is confined, the French have long since introduced, as in fly. 784., the practice of placing the balusters outside the steps, which affords more room for persons ascending and descending. Fig. 781. HANDRAILS AND CUR-TAIL STEP. 2187. The upper part of the fence formed by capping the balusters of stairs is called the handrail, whose use, as its name imports, is for a support to the hand in the ascent and descent of stairs. The hand, for support to the body, should glide easily over it without any strain, whence it is evident, that to be properly formed, it must necessarily follow the general line of the steps, and be quite smooth and free from inequalities. It must be ob- vious to the reader who has thus far followed us throughout the different previous portions of our labours, that the chief principle of handrailing will be dependent on the methods of finding sections of cylinders, cylindroids, or prisms, according to three given points in or out of the surface, or, in other words, the section made by a plane through three given points in space. The cylinder, eylindroid, and prism are hollow, and of the same thick- ness as the breadth of the rail, or the horizontal dimension of its section ; arid their bases, their planes or projections on the floor. Thus is formed the handrail of a staircase of a por- tion of a cylinder, eylindroid, or prism whose base is the plane of the stair, for over this the handrail must stand, and is therefore contained between the vertical surface of the cylinder, eylindroid, or prism. As the handrail is prepared in portions each whereof stands over a qua- drant of the circle, ellipse, or prism of the base which forms the plane, such a portion may he supposed to be contained between two parallel planes, so that the portion of the handrail may be thus supposed to be contained between the cylindrical, cylindroidal, or prismatic surfaces and the two parallel planes. The parts to be joined together for forming the rail must be so prepared that in their place all the sections made by a vertical plane passing through the imaginary solid may be rectangular : this is denominated squaring the rail, and is all that can be done by geometrical rules. But handrails not being usually made ol these portions of hollow cylinders or cylindroids, but of plank or thicknesses of wood, our attention is naturally drawn to the consideration of the mode in which portions ot them may be formed from planks of sufficient thickness. The faces of the planks being planes, they may be supposed to be contained between two parallel planes, that is, the two faces of the plank. Such figures, therefore, are to be drawn on the sides of the plank as to leave the surfaces formed between the opposite figures, portions of the cylindrical, cylindroidal, or other surfaces required, when the superfluous parts are cutaway. A mould made in the form of these figures, which is no more than a section of them, is called the face mould. 2188. The vertical, cylindrical, or cylindroidal surfaces being adjusted, the upper an lower surfaces must be next formed : and this is accomplished by bending another mou Chap. III. JOINERY. 671 -ound the cylindrical or cylindroidal surfaces, generally to the convex side, and drawing ines on the surface round the edge of such mould. The superfluous wood is then cut iway from top to bottom, so that if the piece were set in its place, and a straight-edge ipplied on the surfaces so formed, and parallel to the horizon directed to the axis of the well-hole, it would coincide with the surface. Tire mould so applied on the convex side or forming the top and bottom of the piece, is called th e falling mould. For the purpose of finding these moulds it is necessary to lay down the plan of the steps and rail ; next, the ailing mould, which is regulated by tire heights of the steps ; and lastly, the face mould, which is regulated by the falling mould, and furnishes the three heights alluded to. 2189. Fig- 785. exhibits two of the most usual forms of handrails. The upper part, \ and B of the figure, are sections of the rail and mitre cap of a dog legged staircase. Vertical lines are let fall from the section of the rail A, to the mitre in B ; from thence, n arcs of circles, to the straight line passing through the centre of the cap at right ogles to the former straight lines ; then perpendiculars are set off and made equal in ength to those in A. k curve being traced hrough the points rives the form of the ap. C is called a toad's •tick rail, and is used or a superior descrip- ion of staircases. 2190. Fig.786. shows he method of drawing he scroll for terminat- / ag the handrail at the ottom of a geometrical — tuirease. Let AB be he given breadth ; raw AE perpendicu- ir toAB, and divide it ito eleven equal parts, ml make A K equal to ne of them. Join BE, ■ sect A B in C and B E i F. Make CD equal 1 CF and draw DG •rpendicular to A B. roin F, with the radius Fig. 787. Fig. 788. ' tre, with the distance K E, describe the arc Eli. From I, ns n centre, with the distance I, describe the arc IIP. Proceed in the same manner and complete the remaining < quarters, which will finish the outside of the scroll. Make B K equal to the breadth he nd! ; namely, about two inches and a quarter. Then with the centre D and distame THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1. 672 DR describe the arc RS, with the centre I and distance IS describe the arc ST, and with the centre K and distance KT describe the arc TU, and the scroll will be completed. 2191. Fig. 787. gives the construction of the car-tail step, or that which lies under the scroll, abed is the veneer that covers the riser ; efgh, the nosing of the cover or horizontal part of the step ; ikl the face of the string board, and mno the projection of the nosing 2192. In fig. 788 is shown the cover board for the cur-tail step, abed and efgh in dotted lines represent the plan of the scroll ; opqrs, the nosing of the cur-tail step ; t, u, v, s, the nosings and ends of the risers. The circle 1, 2, 3, Sec is described from the centre of the scroll, and divided into equal parts equal to the distances of the balusters from centre to centre, and lines are drawn to the centre of the scroll in order to ascertain the middle of the balusters, by giving a regular gradation to the spaces. The whole of the spiral lines in this and the previous figure are drawn from the same centres as the scroll. BENCHES. 2192a. “ It must be confessed,’’ says Denison, in his Lectures on Church Building , 1856, page 242, “ that our ancestors did not oiler much temptation to people to come to church by the comforts they provided for them when they got there. Nothing, indeed, can be better for sitting in than some of the old stalls, such as those in King’s College Chapel, where the back has a slope of one to four ; but most of the common old church spats are frightfully uncomfortable — the back of the seat ought to be inclined, especially when it rises as high as the shoulders. It is not of so much consequence when the seat backs are low, but even in them it is better to have a little inclination, about one in eight ; and above all things, the top rail ought not to project. The seats ought never to be less than 13 inches wide with a sloping back, or 14 inches with an upright one, and they will he all the better if they are an inch or two more. Nothing under 2 feet 10 inches at the very least will allow proper room for sitting, standing, and kneeling, especially if there are any divisions under the seats to prevent people from kicking their neighbours’ hats, or appro- priating their hassocks. Where it is necessary to save room in every possible way, it is not a bad plan to make the division under the seat only come down to 3 or 4 inches from the floor; and never in any case ought there to be (what there often is) a thick rail or bar of wood lying along the floor and taking off' an inch or more from the space for the feet. The book boards are best not sloping, which is of no use, but flat and narrow, just wide enough to lay a book upon shut, and to put the arms upon in kneeling. As regards the difficulty of finding a good place and proper height for the pulpit and reading desk, 1 know of no better advice to give upon the subject than to try various places before you finally fix upon any one, unless the construction of the church is such that there is one place marked out by nature (as we may say) as the proper one.” 21925. Examples of benches and bench ends are represented in so many publications that it is deemed unnecessary to give any illustration. Some cappings to benches, and edges to divisions, are shown in the section Wood Mouldings in Book III. Those shown in Brandon’s Analysis, and Bury’s Woodwork, give the following dimensions: — Name of Church. Height. Width. Seat. Opening. Comberton, Cambridge - Bentley, Suffolk - Great Waltham, Essex, 14fO - Bishops Lydeard, Somerset - 2. 9 2. 5 3. 1 2. 10A 3. 4 2. 10 2. 6 f 2 . H\ is. m 2. 9r 1. 0 0. 1 1 V 1. 2 0. 11 1. 6 1. 6 i. 1 f 1. 0 l E 4 Westonzoyland, Somerset 3. 3 — 1. 7 f end U 4 Atheriugton, Devon Ickleton, Cambridge 3. 9 2. 4:7 — P P — 1. 10 Stalls, Bridgewater, Somerset - — — o. ni- centre to centre \ sitting / 2. 3 ,, Wantage, Berks - — 3. 5 — 1. 4 A 1. 10 The rules of the Incorporated Society for Promoting the Building of Churches slate, that “ the distance from the back of one seat to that of the next mustdependingre.it measure on the height of the backs. Where the funds and space will admit, convenience will be best consulted by adopting a clear width of 3 feet ; but a width of not less than 2 feet 8 inches from centre to centre will be allowed if the back of the seat is not more than 2 feet 8 inches in height. If a greater height be adopted, the distance from back to back must he increased one inch at least for every additional inch in height ; but under no circumstances must it exceed 3 feet. There must not be any projecting capping on the top of the hacks. Facilities for kneeling in all cases to be provided. The width ot tlx seat boards for adults to be not less than 13 inches. 20 inches in length must be nllowec for each adult, and 14 inches for a child. Children’s seats must be at least 26 inches Iron Chap. III. JOINERY. G 73 jack to front, and must have hacks. ” Her Majesty’s Commissioners for building r.ew •(lurches allow 20 inches by 34 inches for each sitting ; free seats 20 inches by 27 inches, md 14 inches for children. Benches for tiee sitiings are to he 3 feet, 4 feet 6 inches, ot feet long. The allowance made for each sitting in St. Paul’s Cathedral is, as nearly as lossihle, 20 inches by 33 inches, From 4 to .5 square feet of Hoor is not too much space to oe calculated for each person, allowing for gangways, communion table, &c. 1 192c. Cloisters, porches, canopies, over-doors, stall-work, lych-gates, windows, staircases vl I- wheels and carriages, luflfer or louvre boards, fencing, screens, pulpits, desks lecterns^ bests, tables, cum multi* alii s, are amongst the many other productions of the joiner, being ar too numerous t > be described in detail herein. FORMATION OF BOPIES BY JOINING THEM WITH CLUE. 2193. The way in which bodies are glued up together for different purposes will be iven below, and with them will close this section. 2194. Fig. 78 9. shows at A a section of two boards glued up edge to edge. At B the ice of the same is seen. C shows the section of two boards glued edge to edge, each iece being grooved, and a tongue inserted at their junction. By similar means a board may e increased to any width, be the pieces whereof it is composed ever so narrow. D shows wo boards fixed at right angles, the edge of one being glued on the side of the other. A lock for the purpose of strengthening the joint is fitted and glued to the interior side. K Tig. 789 Fig. 791). 2195. Fig. 790. A is a section of two boards to be joined at an oblique angle. They e mitred and glued together with a block at the angle. B shows the inner sides of ic hoards so fixed. It is by repeating this operation that columns are glued up. 2196. Fig. 791. A is the section of an architrave. The moulding is usually, if not wavs, glued to the board ; the vertical line therefore, showing the extreme boundary of le moulded part, is the sec- inn of the piece to be glued, is the face of the arclii- ave, C and D a section d front of it before it is oulded, E a section of it i tli the button and nail to ow the way in which the o parts are glued together, d F shows the back of the chitravc with the buttons lich are used for the pur- se of bringing the two sur- cs to he glued together in contact, till after they are set and fully held together, being ncked off when the glue has become hard, and then the moulding shown at A and B is ck. 2197. Fig. 792. ex- , its the method of ~^vl ung up a solid niche p 9 wood where A is [•' /•/•, ‘ •■ U* j elevation. 'Hie i // V- -ii u. V' ] rk is performed in same way as if it rc stone or brick, pt that the joints all parallel to the I ae of the base, bo- *e of the difficulty unking a joint with ed surfaces, which Id necessarily be ense if they all led to the centre of 1 sphere. B and C the two bottom fw. 79*. Ftc. 704. r rscs, where the vertical joints are inane to break, as seen in the elevation A. 1 ‘ ,H - In fi'J- 793. is exhibited the mode in which veneers are glued together for the I’ ,>c ic of forming cylindrical surfaces. Brackets with their faces upwards are nailed to X X THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I [. 67 4 a hoard. Their ends are perpendicular, and a cavity is left between them sufficient to ifceive the veneers anti wedges. In A the thin part in the. form of an arc shows the veneers as in the state of glueing, the wedges being on the convex- side. B is a section of the board and bracket. The work when putting together should he dry and warm, anil the glue should be hot. When this last has set hard, the wedges must be slackened, and the veneers, which now form a solid, taken out. if I 99. Fig. 794. is a strong method of forming a concave surface by laying the veneer upon a cylinder, and backing it with blocks in the form of bricks, which are glued to the convex side of the veneers and to each other. The fibres of the blocks are to be as nearly as possible parallel to the fibres of the veneers. A is the section of the cylinder veneer and blocks, and B shows the convex side of the blocks. 2200. Fig. 795. is another mode of glueing veneers together with cross pieces screwed to a cylinder, the veneers being placed between the former and the latter. 2201. In fig. 796. is shown the method of glueing up columns in pieces, which here at eight in number, each being glued to the other after the manner of fig. 790. The work man should be careful to keep the joints out of the flutes, when the columns are to h fluted, by which the substance will be more likely to prevent the joints giving way. A t a section of the column at top, and B at the bottom. After glueing together, the octagon and mitres should be correctly laid down for the true formation of the joints. In B at shown two bevels, one for trying the mitres, and the other for try- ing the work when put together. 2202. Fig. 797. is the mode of glueing up the base of a column. It is formed in three courses, the pieces in each of which are made Vo break joint over one another. The horizontal joints of the courses must be so adjusted as to fall at the junction of two mouldings, forming a re-entering angle. After the glue is set quite hard, the rough base is sent to the turner, by whom it is reduced into the required profile. The fibres of the wood should lie horizontally, in which direction the work Fitf. 798. Fig. 799 JOINERY. 675 Ciiat. I ] I. will stand much better than when they are vertical. A is the plan of the base inverted, and 13 is the elevation. 2‘203. The formation of a modern Ionic capital is given m fig. 798., wherein A is the plan inverted, showing the method of placing the blocks ; and 13 is the elevation. _ 2204. Fig. 799. is the method of glueing up for the leaves of the Corinthian capital, A if the plan inverted, and 13 is the elevation. The abacus is glued up in the same manner j as in the preceding example. 2205. Fig. 800. exhibits the mode of forming a cylindrical surface without veneers, by means of equidistant parallel grooves, A is the elevation, and 13 the plan. 2206. Fig. 801. exhibits the method of covering a conic body. It is, in fact, no moie ban covering the frustum of a cone, and is accomplished by two concentric arcs terminated t the ends by the radii. The radius of the one arc ■> the whole slant side of the cone, that of the other < the slant side of the part cut off. In this case, lie grooves are directed to the centre, and filled in • ith slips of wood glued as before. The plan is Jhown by the circle ABC. The arc HI must be qual to the circumference ABC. 2207. Fig. 802. shows the same thing for a nailer segment. 2208. Fig. 803. shows the manner of glueing up ' globe or sphere by the same method. A is the ce of the piece ; B the edge showing the depth |f the grooves; C shows the mould for forming f the slates nre als > rounded, or cut angleways to a point, or the angles only cut off; oi, f the slates be of a small size, they arc set angleways over courses with square ends, liiese are all shown in an excellent article in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionnaire, s.v. Ardoise. dating is also made to have a decorative effect by forming zigzag patterns with red ■■floured slates among blue slates ; or a few courses of the one above a larger uuinbor of he other. 221 o». James Wyatt, R A., arranged a system for forming roofs with slate slabs • ithout boarding or battens. In this the slates were all reduced to widths equtd to the lutanre between centre and centre of the rafters. On the backs of these last they are crowed by i wo or three strong inch-and-lmlf screws at each of their ends. Over the unctions of the slates, on the backs of the rafters, fillets of slates about two and a half ,r three inches wide, be lded in putty, are screwed down, to prevent the entrance of rain. 1 hi- handsome regular appearance of this sort of slating gained it. at first much c< lebrity ; nt it. was soon abandoned, on account of the disorder it is liablo to sustain from tiio 'lightest partial settlement of the building, as well as from tbo constant dislodgment of i." putty, upon winch greatly depended its being impervious to rain. 2211. Subjoined is a succinct account of tho different sorts of slates brought to the 1-n talon market, and enumerated in the order of their goodness and value, 22lld. II rtttiwreland slatts. These are from 3 feet 0 inches to 1 foot in length, and r "® 2 fo< t 6 inches to I foot in breadth. They should bo nailed with not less than six- |-'nny and eight-penny copper or zinc nails (iron nails should never be used); aud a ton " w,, 'Kbt of sized slates will usually cover al out two squans and a quarter. Tile weight A the coarsest Westmoreland is to that of common tiling ns 36 to 64. 221 16. Hchh ragt are next in goodness, and ure nearly of the sumo sites ns those last 678 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. mentioned ; but a ton of these will coyer only from one square and a quarter to one square and three-quarters. Permanent green. Eureka unfading green, Whitland Abbey green, Westmoreland green, best blue Bangor, best red Bangor, Eureka red, Old vein Portmadoc, are among those now supplied. 2211c. Tablk of the Names and usual Sizes of Slates, with the squares a thousand (1200) will cover according to their size, and the gauge at which they are laid, as btated in various works. Name. Size. Inches. Cover about Cover about Weight per 1200. Weight per 12U0. Squares. Squares. 1 wts. Cwts. 1st quality. 2nd quality. Queens f 32, 34, 36 1 l x 16, 17, 18 j Princesses - - 30x15 16J - 1 '5 Ditto - - - 28 x 14 144 - 97 Ditto - - - *24 x 14 12| 12.! 70 90 Empress - - 26 x 16 95 Ditto, sninl - - - 26 x 14 - •- 90 Duchesses - - - *21x12 11 10 60 80 Ditto, small- - - *22 x 1 2 - - 55 Marchionesses - - - 22 x 12 9J 9 55 70 Ditto - - - *22 x 1 1 9 8 / 50 \ ( 474 ) Countesses- - - *20 x 10 n 7 40 ol Ditto - - - 20 x 12 - 50 Ditto, small - - *18 x 10 - - 36 Viscountesses - - 18 x 10 6f oG 47 Ditto - - - *18 x 9 6 Oj 33 or 31 411 Ladies, wide - - *16x10 - - 30 42 Ditto - - _ 1 6 x 9 5 4 - 28 Ditto - - 1 l *16 x 8 14 x 12 4| 25 33 33 41 Small Ladies - *14 x 8 H 34 22 26 Ditto - - - 14x7 3.V 19 or 20 22 Doubles - 13 x 10 - 4 25 31 Ditto - - - *13 x 7 - 21 16 IS 21 Ditto, small - - *12 x 6 2.4 - 13'1 1 1 L Ditto - r i 12 x 8 11 X O 4 24 18 22 12 Singles - - - 1 Headers - - * 1 2 x 6 - - 14 llitto - - _ *14 x 12 - - 33 Ditto - - - *13 x 10 - - 26 i * Denotes best Welsh rooting sizes. During last century, when building 'works were executed with more rpgard to durability, a thousand duchesses were said to cover 9 squares ; countesses, 6 squares ; ladies, 3 squares ; arid doubles, 2 to 2£ squares. 2211 d. Slates are now split so thin, that in specifications it is desirable to stato the weight per square of the slating required. The scientific journals noticed (1865) that at the Rhiwboyfdir Slate Company’s quarries, sheets of slate 8 feet long and ind part o tin inch were obtained, the width being generally 16 inches. The grain must, of course, be very fine to permit of so thin a cleavage. 221 le. The strength of slate 1 inch thick is considered equal to that of Portland stone 5 inches thick. A foot superficial weighs from 11|- to 14 lbs. Slates of the usual thic - ness will not bear much heat before cracking: the thicker the slate the more readily do ,s it crack with heat ; and they will fly at once if cold water be poured suddenly upon tin m when in a heated state. 221 \f. The Tavistock slates were sold by the thousand of ten hundred, which quan i y covered about three squares and forty feet. . .. 221 1 g. Horsham slate, obtained in Sussex, is a limestone, and is found to have no linn SLATING. HAP. Til. 679 0 its durability ; but being very heavy, proper preparation is needed for it, as timbers of iu h greater scantling than usual are required. 2211 h. French slates, formerly used in London to some extent, are very light, and iiust therefore only be used on boards; otherwise the wind would act upon them. In ranee they are bedded in plaster on the boarding. 22111. The ridge, hips, and valleys of a slated roof were formerly always covered with •.id. The valleys are still usually so formed, but slate has been introduced fur the two ormer. The pieces require to bo cut truly juare, screwed to the boarding, and the ants and heads secured with putty or white ead. i'or hips and ridges, slate roll ribbing a often employed [fig. 803a.). Shorter slates, V, are first nailed to each side of the ridge- -ieee, C, or of the hip rafter, to form the addle, and then the slate roll B is put on ind secured by screws through the top. This ■oil is made also with rebated joints, but it s obviated by the roll b eaking joint with the ■addle. The roll, as shown in the figure, is ■ometimes attached to one side of the saddle, vhich must be made according tj the pitch ■ f the roof. The 3-inch diameter roll has 1 7-inch width of saddle, or wing, on each side; the 2^-inch a 6-inch; and the 2-inch a ij-inch saddle. There are 175, 225, and 320 feet in a ton of the ribbing ; and 400, 560, ind 700 feet of the ribbing. 221 IT". The edges of the slates next a wall, either at the head or sides of a roof, have to je protected. This, in the best work, is effected by lead flishings [par. 2214.). In the ormer case, it is laid on the head of the slate for about 5 to 7 inches, and then turned up igainst the wall for about the same height, and secured by holdfasts ; it may also be either urnedover into a course of bricks, and the brickwork continued up, or the turned up edge s protected by a lapping of lead inserted in the brickwork. Triis lapping, in commoner vork, is replaced by cement. At the edge of the roof against a wall, lead is likewise -laced in a similar manner ; but as the lapping cannot be laid in a straight joint, it is cut in i zigzag form, called “ s'epping,” to each course of bricks. Of late years this lead flashing is utirely replaced by filleting of lime and hair plaster ; of gauged stuff, being lime and ament mixed ; or of cement and sand. But as these materials crack and fall away in a - w yeirs, the filleting has to be looked to periodically or whenever damp makes its ap- pearance. Zinc also takes its place, but is not so effective, as it is more difficult to dress t to the surface of the slates. 221 17. In exposed situations, where filleting cannot be trusted, and lead is too expensive, arious contrivances have been made for preventing the entrance of wet. One of these •onsieta in forming a small gutter between two rafters, lining it with lead, tnrning one ale of the lead uuder the slates, and turning up the other side against the wall, and ■ernenting over if. Another good method is to cement a row of tiles against the wall above he slates, and when dry to cover the tiles and wall with cement, tucking it well into all he crevices. 221 \m. The mediaeval method of easing the lino of tiling at the foot of the framing h serves some notice; thus, as shown in fig. 701c., it appears that the use of chantlates, A, rees the tic-beams, tassels, and other timber, except plates, from all contact with the nasonry; and. as a matter of course, from any consequent tendency to rot. This method ■ - ms more advantageous than that of beam-filling, which is altogether prevalent at the resent time, in order to keep out draughts, but it requires care in closing the work. 1 ii iso has been already described in the section Bkicklav inq. 221 In. In many churches with open roofs, the solid rafters, without any under panelling -r boarding, may be seen covered with rough slabs of boarding, having largo fissures hrough which the lead is visible. Great inconvenienco is often felt in roofs so constructed, "ring the autumn and winter months, when, upon sudden alteration of temperature , -ndcriKition takes place under the lead, and tho drops of water fall in almost a shower. I his defect has been the causo for ceiling many open roofs. A space of two inches loft -etween the innor boarding and tho outer covering has boon found to be sufficient to ibvinte this discomfort. Belt (yiar. 221>kf.) is also sometimes used, to assist in remedying In- evil. 221 lo. In T. mbrukeshire, slato is used for everything. l or posts and rails of the same ■intling as if for wood. The walls of buildings are of square blocks, rough casted. A •“uge ol N tabling might bo erected of rough blocks, with the do >r and window-frames of worked slate. A prejudice exists Against the use of squared blocks without plastering diem, on the ground that they admit damp. It was found that if there was tile smallest 680 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II perforation in the slate, or if, as was often t he case from the want of absorption, tin joints were not perfectly dose, the damp is driven through. The defect, might, perhaps be obviated by laying every block with the b d slightly inclining outwards. 221 ly>. Sl(tbs of sluts, sawn, self-faced, and planed are now extensively manufactured ai all the large quarries. They are usually inif,l,li,l|,lf,2, 2^ and 3 inch thicknesses A quarter of an inch is required for each face planed from the rough and they aresandet in addition afterwards. The best quality Bangor slabs can be obtained in sizes varying from 4 to 6 feet long, or from 2 to 3 feet wide ; and from 6 to 8 feet long, or from 3 tt 3 feet 6 inches wide. The second quality slabs, quarry planed, are under 6 feet long oi 3 feet wide. 22115'. The purposes for which slate slabs are now used are multifarious. Amongst them are: cisterns (Plumbeuy) from J inch t 0 2 inches thick; sinks of inch slate, 4 inches deep inside, either bolted together as cisterns, or with flush ends, planed both sides and screwed ; troughs ; filters ; baths, 2 feet wide, 2 feet high, 4 feet 9 inches at bottom an 5 feet 9 inches at top, all outside dimensions, of plain slate, sanded inside, or enamelled, self-colour inside, or enamelled Siena marble inside, and so on ; urinal back and divisions, plain or enamelled, fitted with angular earthenware basins, flat back basin, hollow back cradle basin, square basin, or with slate apron only ; linings to damp walls ; panels of doors table tops; billiard tables shelving to dairies and pantries ; fittings for wine bins, will) permanent or with movable shelves and ledges ; steps ; and landings. 221 lr. Enamelled slate. — Slate, as just shown, has a surface of paint put upon it, for utility as well as appearance. This can be either plain, or marbles and granites can be represented to great perfection. Several coats of paint are applied, and polished, am dried in a kiln at a great heat. The Kingston Enamelled Slate Company base tlieii reputation on all their enamel work being imperishable. First, the slate has to be finely surfaced to receive the body colour, after which it is placed in a proper stove aDd burn! or baked in three times, the process being repeated each time, and rubbed down with pumice between each, then a coat of enamel is placed thereon; finally, it is subjected ti a high polish obtained by hand friction. It is claimed that by this process a neai resemblance to marble and granite is gained; that the depth of body of ename, procured renders it imperishable; and that it has an extremely high polish of thesurfaci when finished. Cheap work is not lasting. I 2211s. Thatching is an admirable eovoring for securing warmth in winter, and coolness in summer ; but it is subject to injury by birds, and to risk from fire. It was much usei tor churches in Norfolk and Suffolk {fig. 701 ».). The thatcher requires a commor stable fork, to toss up the straw together before being made into bundles ; a thatch/ r's fork to carry the straw from the heap up to the roof ; a thatcher s rake, to comb down the straw straight and smooth ; a knife, or eaves knife, to cut and trim the straw to a straight line a knife to point the twigs ; a half glove of leather, to protect the hand when driving in tin smaller twigs or spars ; a long flat needle-, a pair of leathern gaiters to come up abovo tin knees, used when kneeling on the rafters ; and a gritstone to sharpen the knives. Wheai straw lasts from 15 to 20 years ; and oat straw about 8 years. Reed thatching, as dom- in the West of England, is the truss after the ears have been cut off, leaving the clean sound pipe straw, of which a thickness of 3 inches is laid on the common thatching witl spars only. The mateiials required are straw or reeds, laths, nails, withe^and rods. ) load of straw, laid on about 12 to 16 inches in thickness, will do a square and a bull a bundle of oak laths, lj inches wide, and from 5- to |ths thick, nailed about 8 inch)' apart, 1 square; a hundred of withes, 3 squares; a pound of rope yarn, 1 square; 1 M of rods. 3 squares ; and 2| hundred of nails, 1 square. The fish-house at Meare, Somer- setshire, of about the middle of the 14t.h century, still retains its thatched roof. Probabl) thatched roofs were ornamented by a species of cresting, for in some parts of the counin the withes or willow twigs that bind the thatch are sometimes arranged on the tops o ricks and cottages in an interlacing manner, terminating with a spike with a nideh formed cock. Viollet-le-Duc alludes to the custom of forming the ridge in mud, n which plants and grasses were inserted to prevent the earth being dissolved and washei away by the rain. HAr. III. PLUMBERY. 681 Sect. VII. PLUMBERY. •/2I2. Tlic plumber lias but few working took, for the fscili y with which the metal in which be works is wrought does not render a vai iety necessary. The principal are — a heavy iron hammer, with a short but thick handle. Two or three different sized wooden mahcts, and a dressing and fatting tool, which is made of beech wood, Usually about 18 inches long and 2} inches square, planed smooth on one side, and rounded on the other or upper side. It is tapered and rounded at one of its e..ds for convenient grasping by the workman. Its use is to stretch and flatten the sheet Lad, and dress it into the shape required for the various purposes whereto it is to be applied, by the use of its flat and round sides as wanted. The jack and trying / lanes similar to those used by carpenters, for planing stiaight the edges of their sheet lead when a regular and correct line is requisite. They also use a line and roller called a clwlk line, for lining out the lead into different widths. Their cutting tools are chisels and gouges, of different sizes, and cutting knives. The latter are for cutting the sheet h ad into sti i ps and pieces to the division marked by the chalk line. They use also./t/es of different s zes for making cistern heads to pipes, for pumpwork, itc. For the purposes of soldering, they have a variety of different sized grazing irons, which are commonly about 12 inches long, -tapered at both ends, the handle end being turned quite round to allow of its being held (irmly in the hand whilst in use. The opposite end is spherical, or more usually spindle-shaped, and proportioned to the different situations for which they are required. The grazing iron is heated to redness when in use. 'flic iron ladles are of three or four sizes, and used for the purpose of melting lead or solder. The plumber’s measuring rule is 2 feet long, in three parts, each of 8 inches. Two of the I ■ gs are of box wood, and the third of steel, which is attached to one of the box legs by a pivot whe eon it turns, and shuts into the other legs in a groove. The steel leg is useful for passing into places which the plumber has to examine, into which anything thicker would not easily enter, and it is often used also for removing oxide or other extraneous matter from the surface of the heated metal. The plumber moreover is provided with ■ • utre hits of all sizes, and a stock to work them in, for perforating lead or wood where pipes are to be inserted, as well as with compasses, for striking out circular portions of lead .Stales and weights are also in constant requisition, as nothing done by the plumber if chargeable till the lead is weighed. 2213. The method most commonly adopted in laying sheet lead for terraces or flats, is to place it on a surface as even as possible, either of boarding or plastering. If boards are employed, they should be sufficiently thick to prevent warping or twisting, which, if it occur soon, causes the lead to crack or to become unsightly. As sheets of lead are not more than about 6 feet in width, when the area to be covere d with them is large, joints become necessary, which are contrived in various ways to prevent the wet from penetrating. To do this, the best method is that of forming rolls, which are pieces of wood about 2 inches square extending in the direction of the joint, planed and rounded on their upper side. I'hcso being fastened under the joints of the lead between the edges of the two sheets winch meet together, one is dressed up over the roll on the inside, and the other over both •'l them on the outside, whereby all entry of the water is prevented. No fastening is re- quired other than the adherence of the lead by close hammering together and down on the Hat: indeed, any fastening would be injurious, as by it the lead would not have free play m its expansion and contraction from heat and cold. When rolls are used, the rule should ic specially enforced of turning the open sides or laps from the south-west, west, or south, ■vlu rover practicable, so as to ensure the lap from being forced up by the wind, and thereby the water consequently blown in. If rolls are not employed, which from their projection ire in some cases found inconvenient, seams arc substituted for them ; but they are by no neons equal to the roll either for neatness or security. They are formed by merely ending up the two edges of the lead, and then over one another, and then dressing them down close to the flat throughout their length. Though some solder the joints, it is a had practice, and no good plumber will do it, for the same reason as that just given in respect at fastenings in flats. A lead flat, as well as a gutter, should lie laid with a fall to keep it fry. A quarter ol an inch in a foot is sufficient inclination for lead, if the sheets lie 20 feet ong, so that in this case tin y will be 5 inches at one end higher than at the other. This army a current, as it is called, is usually provided for by the carpenter previous to laying the lead. -21 I. Round the extreme edges of flats and gutters where lead is used, are fixed pieces ■f milled lead which are called fleshings. When the lead work is bounded by a will I of 082 TIIEOUV OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II, brick or stone work, the flashings are passed on one edge into and between a joint of the work, and the edges of the flat or gutter being bent up, the other edge of the flashing is dressed over it. If there be no joint into which the flashing can he inserted, it is fastened on that side with wall hooks (par. 22) 1/;. ). Drips in flats and gutters are used when the length of the gutter or flat is greater than the length of the sheet ot lead, or sometimes for convenience, or to avoid joining lead by soldering it. Some architects place them every 6 or 8 feet, which however good in a box or parallel gutter, it raises an ordinary gutnr too much, and causes great width of lead at the head. They are formed by raising one part above another, and dressing the lead round, as has been described for rolls. No sheet •should be laid in greater length than 10 or 12 feet without a drip, to allow of expansion and contraction. Small cisterns are often sunk in gutters to collect the water before passing oil' into the head of the down pipe. The cistern has usually over it a perforated lead rust, to prevent dirt, leaves, &c. passing down with the water. 2215. The work of the plumber is estimated by its weight and the time employed in fixing it. 2215a. The thickness of sheet lead varies from 5 to 12 lbs. in weight to the superficial foot, and is used in covering large buildings, in flats or slopes, for gutters, the hips, ridges, and valleys of roofs, the lining of cisterns, &c. Thus 7lb. lead is commonly used for roofs, flats, and gutters ; it is the least thickness in which bossini / can be properly done. 8lb lead is a better quality for all these purposes. 6lb. lead is used for hips and ridges; this is the thinnest quality for such purposes. 5lb. lead is used for flashings. It is said that lb'lb. lead was used on the earlier mediaeval churches. The following thicknesses, obtained from Hurst, Surreyors' H indbuok, may be compared with the Birmingham Wire Gauge given in par. 2254, Sect. x. Table I. on the Thickness and Weight of Lead, per Superficial Foot. Thickness - or Decimal of an Inch - 1 Iff •0625 1 8 *1 25 3 T6 1875 5 TS *3125 3 8 *375 7 16 •4375 Pounds - 5-708 7-417 1 1-125 14-833 18-542 22-250 25-958 IS 76 •9375 29 66 7 1 Inch. 1-0 Thickness - or l)ei* :, nal of an Inch - ft ■5625 5 8 •625 ■ ;■ ' 1 1 IS •6875 3 4 •75 13 IS •8125 7 8 •875 Pounds - 33-375 37-083 40 792 44-500 48 208 51-917 55-625 59-33.3 i Table II. of the Weight and Thickness of Lead, per Foot Superficial. Weight in Pounds. Thickness in inches. Weight in Pounds. Thickness in inches. Weight in Pounds. Thicki ess tiles. i 0 017 6 0 101 it 0186 2 0-034 7 0-118 12 c p 3 0-051 8 0- i 35 4 0 068 9 0-152 1 5 0-0 5 10 0 169 22156. Lead is generally cast about 7 feet wide and about S3 feet in length, but its width and length depend upon the margin which is cut oflf after casting, as the scum, ike., is driven to those parts. This may reduce it about 6 inches in width and 18 to 24 indies in length. Lead is now cast to the above-named weights, and sdso ‘- bare,” according to the directions of the contractor. The architect, to do justice to his employer, should care- fully ascertain for himself the weight and size of the sheet of lead from which the piece is cut. It is usually marked or painted upon it. A small piece is not a true test either fur weight or gauge, and the edge is sometimes cut on a bias. The best direction is that it should weigh over the weight specified. 22 1C. A hundred weight of sheet lead will usually cover on a platform, roof, gutter, &c. at 4lbs.=28ft.; 5 lbs. =22 ft. 5 ins. ; C lhs = 18 ft. 8 ins. ; 7 lbs = 16 ft. ; S lbs. = 14 ti. ; 9 lbs = 12 ft. C ins. ; and 12 lbs. = 9 ft. Old lead weighed for recasting has generally a deduction made of 6 lhs. per cwt. for waste, &c. 2217. Lead is used to fasten iron cramps, posts, and bars into masonry by filling up die cavities between them. Sheets of thin lead are sometimes placed between the drums ol columns (par. 1925a.), as well as in the bed joints of wrought stone arches, to distribute HAP. III. PLUMBERY. G83 he pressure between the stones. Lead work treated ornamentally for ridges, and hips f roofs, knobs, vanes, &c., as during the mediseval period, is superseded in the present ;ty by cast and wrought iron, and by zinc Work. ( Builder , 1856, p. 410.) The skill of fie plumber is brought to action in, among other things, eaves and other gutters, flash- igs and valleys, hips to flats or platforms, hatches, windows, and domes; also rain- ater pipes, waste and soil pipes, water-closets, baths, cisterns for hot and cold water, asius or lavatories, cabinet stands, sinks, urinals, pumps, the hydraulic rim, syphon nd other traps, &c. Many of these will be found treated herein, and more in detail in fuchac, Plumbing, 8vo., 1876. This section includes many articles which should per aps have come under Bricklayer and Founder, but would have caused repetition. WATER SUPPLY. 2218. Water is obtained by various means. The aqueducts of the Romans have been reviously described. In England, the chief means of supply, according to locality, is (1) y pumps from springs and wells; (2) by water companies; and (3) by the hydraulic ram. 221 8«. Modern sanitation has put down surface wells in towns and cities. It has en found that the quantity of saline and organic matter in two gallons of water from rtain wells in London ranged from 26 63 grains to 129'73; while that of the New iver water had but 1716 grains. Solid matter in these wells ranged from 50 to 10 grains, and some to 130. As most of these waters were bright and sparkling, and id a cool and agreeable taste, they were much sought after for drinking purposes ; but iie coolness and briskness are dangerous, for they are both derived from organic decay. According to I)r. Letlieby, the dead and decomposing matters accumulated in the soil are irtially changed by a wonderful power of oxidation, and thus converted into carbonic id and nitre. This, although frequently drunk without any apparent injury to health, •t the products of such corruption admitted into the human body must cause insidious ischit-f, while, if the impurities of the soil pass unchanged into the water, quick and rtain injury must result. 22185. As the plumber finds and fixes the 'pimps for the supply of water to a dwell- ? in some localities, a description of the three sorts commonly used, namely, the ting, the common, and the force pump, will be here given. 2218c. Fig. 804. is a diagram of a lifting pump. ABCD is a short cylinder sub- brged in the well or other reservoir, whence the water is to be raised. In this jlinder a valve is placed at x, above which the pipe or tube CE carried upwards as high as is requisite for the delivery of the her. In the cylinder All a water-tight piston, cd, moves i deally, being worked by rod or framework, m, n ; to this •ton is fixed a valve at v, opening upwards. On the descent of piston the pressure against the water opens the valve v, and p cylinder between the two valves is fil ed with the water. When (-■ piston is then raised, the water between the valves being ssed upwards against the valve x, opens it, and is driven into • tube (JE, from which, on the renewed descent of the piston, its q'irn is intercepted by the valve x. The water follows the I ton in its ascent by the hydrostatic pressure of the water on the i ervoir outside the cylinder; and on the next descent of the ll'on the water will again pa'-s through the valve v, and will be ■ yen through the valve x on its next ascent. In raising the 1 1 "ii a force is required sufficient to support the entiro column 1 'ater from the valve v to the surface of the wuter in tho tubo 1 To estimate this, the weight of a column of water is taken, '• 'se base is equal to the area of a section of the piston, and v )! 'C height is equal to that of the surface of the water above 1 valve v in tho tube CE. Hence, after each stroke of the pump, t pressure on the piston and the force necessary to raise it will *''«• 8 '• 1 neruased bv the weight of a column of water whose base is tho horizontal section of 1 piston, and its height equal to tho increase which the elevation of the column in CE r i'v.a from tho water driven through tho valve x. W\V is the levol of tho wuter in tl] well. i 2I8 ight o column of water raised above the level of the water in the well. When the he ght of t force pipe is equal to the length of the suction pipe, the pistou will be pressed upwai aud downwards with equal forces; but when the height of the force pipe is greater less than the length of the suction pipe, the downward pressure must be greater or It in the same proportion, than the force which draws the piston up. 2218/'. The supply of water by the force pipe through the valve V' is evident y in 1 mittent. being suspended during the ascent of the piston , hence the flow from the pm of discharge will be subject to the same intermission if means be not taken to counter, such effect. A cistern at the top of the force pipe, as already shown for the suen pump, would answer the purpose; but it is found more convenient to use an apP' ir ' 1 c tiled an air vessel (fig. 8055.), in which immediately above the valve V' a snort “ communicates with a strong close vessel MN, of sufficient capacity, through t e whereof the force pipe GH passes, and descends to near the bottom. When the p ul HAP. III. PLUMBERY. 685 in action the water is forced into this air vessel MN, and when its surface, as at ww, ses above the mouth H of the force pipe, the air in the vessel MN is confined above the ater ; and as the water is gradually forced in, the air, being creased elastic force on the surface of the water. This pressure >rces a column of water up the pipe HG, and maintains it at an evation proportional to the elastic force of the condensed air. . r hen the air in the vessel MN is reduced to half its original ulk, it will act on the surface of the water ww with double the mospheric pressure; meanwhile, the water in the force pipe eii g subject to merely once the atmospheric pressure, there is i unresisted f 'rce upwards equal to the atmospheric pressure hich sustains the column of water in the tube, and a column 1 feet high will thus be sustained. It' the air is reduced to ne-third of its original bulk, the height of the column sus- d.ne 1 will be 68 feet, and so on. If the force pipe G were made > terminate in a ball pierced with small holes, so as to form jet d’cau, the elastic pressure of the air on the surface would ause the water to spout from the holts, j 2218y. In the formation of all pumps the parts should be nicely fitted, and as air-tight s possible, otherwise, in using them, much of the power employed will be lost. All ex- edients which tend to this great, desideratum are of value. The joint CD, fgs. 605 and 05 a, is especially liable to leak if not well fitted. The variety of pumps now made is ery great, although they are all formed on the principles first explained. The architect ad best select the manufacturer, and learn of him the make and powers of the article ■quired for the proposed purpose. Nearly one hundred varieties are shown in Messrs, tylor and Sons’ Illustrated Catalogue for 1885, 14 th edition. They consist of a pumping Ipparatus for public thoroughfares, with cast iron cased well-engine frames, with fly heel and with one or two handles ; pillar well-engine framo and single or double ranks; the same with wheel and pinion to decrease labour; rotary action, fixed on I ink ; horse wheel frame, for horse power, and others applied to steam power ; pumps >r artesian wells; lift-pump; vibrating standard lift-pump; and rotary action lift-pump, II on planks, &c. 2218/r. The Pulsometer is a patent pump, of great service for foundation and sinking •ork of all kinds, and for general pumping work ; skilled attention is stated not to be ■quired, and it will pump thick gritty water. Norton’s Abyssinian and artesian tube ells and pumps are of much service for large and pure water supplies from shallow or eep sources ; they are also called driven tube wells. 2218 i. The Aqueous Works and Diamond Rock Boring Company, Limited, by their ie' hod of using black diamonds (or carbonate), are able to bore through hard strata, such ’ granite ; they drive a tube for a well say 25 feet deep ; or to a depth say of 1144 feet, aving a bore hole 9J inch diameter ; or in the case of minerals even to a depth of 1906 :et, as at Battle in Sussex. 2218I - . As to water supplied by a company, it will only bo needful to refer to tho uantity, and to the two systems : I. the ordinary pressure ; and II. the non-intermittent * constant supply. A Parliamentary return issued about Midsummer, 1866, states that, ie New River Company supply was equal to 209 5 gallons per house per day; or, iking each tenement to hold five persons, it was equal to 41-9 gallons per individual per iy. l'he daily supply of water to the metropolis in 1865 by all the companies was • irly 93 millions of gallons, or at the rate of rather more than 200 gallons por house, or er 30 gallons per head. In 1887 the metropolis was supplied by eight companies, no East London supplies a populaiion of 1,180,000 persons; the New River Company, 125,000; the Southwark and Vauxhall, 800,000; the Lambeth, West Middlesex, r.ind Junction, and Kent, 500,000 each ; and the Chelsea, 260,000. The daily lotal ‘pplied is 179,600,000 gallons, for a population of 5,3W,000, being an avorage of rather 1 r 31 gallons por head, and ranging over 725,912 houses. 2218/. It may be useful to note that the non-intermittent system, or constant supply, is been adopted at Manchester, Nottingham, Derby, Durham, Leeds, Dundee, Glasgow, swicli, Chatham near Rochester, Wolverhampton, Bristol, &c. ; the two last are de- ribod in Cr. sy's Encyclopedia uf Civil Engineering. At all these places the result |"'nrs to be satisfactory in evory way, both to tho water companies and to the ccn- ansrs. At Hitchin tho average daily consumption was 235 gallons por house; at •oydon, at one time 500 ; Whitehaven, 250, or 50 per person ; York about 200 ; Exeter, ; while at Bristol, Rugby, Sandgate, and Barnard Castle, the waste was so great " supply became inadequate. Nottingham had only 20 gallons per person, and '"■ham 20 to 25. In America, New York has 90 gallons per person ; Boston not loss an 55. In 1881 it whs stated that, taking the daily consumption of water in London compressed, acts with THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I !. 686 Michigan, it was 100; while at Chicago and Washington it was 119 and 155 gallons respectively. 2219. The third mode of obtaining a supply of water is by the hydraulic ram. It is more available in the country on account of the noise caused by the continual clicking of the valve. It is a simple self-acting machine for raising water into a cistern or tank, where a full of water can be secured fiom a stream, or other source. Once set in motion, it will continue to work as long as it is supplied with water, or until the wearing of the iron valve disables it. A fall of only 5 feet to the ram will enable it to supply a tank 60 feet higher than the source and 2,000 yards distant. Much of our present information on the subject of supply of water was known to the Romans, and is carefully described by Vitruvius in Book VIII. of his work. Water Closets. 2220. It is unnecessary to describe at length the machinery of a water closet. The principle on which the usual apparatus is formed is that of a head of water in a cistern placed above it, which by means of a lever attached to a valve in the cistern allows a body of water to rush down and wash the basin, whose valve, or pan, is opened for the discharge of the soil at the same moment that the water is let down from the cistern (par. 2222a. de- scribes the cistern). Bramah's patent was among the first ; Underhay’s among the latest, which does away with wires and cranks, the supply pipe being con- stantly filled with water. The student will obtain by the inspection of a closet a far better notion than words or diagrams will convey. The apparatus of a water closet has also been made self-acting, either by opening the door of the closet, or by lifting or depressing the seat of the apparatus. For the more modern flush closets it is generally necessary to pull a chain, which allows a certain quantity of water to flow from the cistern by a valve, or from a water-waste preventer (par. 2223/.), into the pan, and so wash out the foul water. 2220a. Notwithstanding the many forms of water closet apparatus, nearly all of them may be classed under four heads. I. The oldy?a» apparatus (Fig. 806.), where the water is retained in a pan, which is dis- charged on drawing up a handle, into and through a “ container,” and thence by a short pipe into a trap, called from its shape a D trap. This form was considered to be so objectionable from the occasional deposit in the container, that under par. 69 of the Bye-laws as to New Streets and Buildings, issued by the Local Government Board, “ he shall not construct or fix under such pan, basin, or receptacle, any container or any other similar fitting;’’ and “ he shall not construct or fix in or in connection with the water closet apparatus any trap of tho kind known as a D t ra P-” The “ Banner system ” has introduced an ordinary pan closet improved, and also a patent closet with a pan, both with- out traps. 22205. II. The valve apparatus {flg. 806a.), is now generally fixed m the houses of the better classes. On lifting the handle a valve or flap is let down into the pipe, when the soil descends through it at once into a syphon trap. The wa is, however, only kept in the basin by the closeress of the fit of the valve ana i seating, or bottom of the basin. Any slight corrosion, grit, hair, soapy slops, or papm. not washed through, causes the valve to fail to close properly ; the water then escap > the basin is left in a state unfit for use, and smells arise which the valve is mtenae prevent. Hayward Tyler and Co. make valve closets wiih copper bellows or ora . regulators. Adams’s improved elastic valve closet, with brass or bellows reguia ■ • Warner’s patent valve closets. Stidder’s improved valve closet, with patent overflow [AP. III. PLUMBERY. 687 cl ventilating junction combined; also his patent Siamese trapless closet; and his tent London side outlet valve closet. Banner’s Nestor, Elastic, Simplex, Safety, and 'jin ba>in valve closets. Buchan's (Edinburgh) patent sanitary cioset, “wheieby sewer smell can pass into the room, even when the handle is pulled up. When the set valve is lifted, the water falls in full volume direct into the soil pipe, press-ing all 3 gas before it, and causing a syphonage that sends the whole contents in one body to e drain. There being no trap under the valve, the soil pipes are scoured anti kept, cle an.” 2220c. III. This class comprises the hopper water closet, or flushing sin {fig. 8065 ), which is simply a basin or pan finished with a syphon ip at the bottom, without any further apparatus than that which admits 3 water to flush or wash it out. These pans require the addition a pail or two of water poured down occasionally to help the clearing ] dirt and paper. They are popular for servants’ closets and tor cot- je and common use, but require occasional cleaning out. One of e most simple pans is that called by Messrs. Boulton the enamelled Fig. swift. neware closet pan, figure D, which, with pan and syphon trap complete, is sold at 9d. each. This class includes Adams’s hopper pattern closet, with flushing appa- us ; Warner’s patent cottage basin and trap ; Stidder’s household closet ; and others. 2220d. IV. includes a series of more modern contri- nces, invented for the purpose of obviating certain defects the others. They are called the wash-out basin or 'Set {fig. 806c.) ; but many' still retain the chief defect the carrying down of the discharge into another recep- •le, or trap, below, or at the side, only partially out of ht, and not always with a sufficient flushing power each le it is used, especially where only a small “preventer” dlowed. Among the many patents of these closet pans, Bostell’s Excelsior; Woodward’s Excelsior; Winn’s ' aplete sanitary closet; Twyford’s National; Sharpe’s ent pan basin ; Winn’s free flushing basin and trap ; iodwaid and Rowley's wash-out closet ; Adams’s wash- < pattern closet, with flushing apparatus ; Stidder’s Tor- ■ t water closet ; Banner’s patent wash-out closet {fig. 80 Cc.), &c. !220e. The Merits and Demerits of Various Kinds of Water Closets in General Use, by Emptage, is printed in the Sanitary Record of October 15, 1883, p. 187. The figures ve of these closets are obtained frum L)r. Corficld’s Laws of Health. 8vo., 1887. 1221 f. A protest has been often made against the continuation of the general mode of ng up a water closet with a seat, lid. and riser, cr enclosure, which too often proves e all fair without but foul within. Probably not one of them when taken' down but tld disclose a state of things, as regards cleanliness, as foul as any drain; espe- ly so. when the closet has been used for disposing of bedroom slops in contravention of orders. The lead safe gathers the overflow which will occur, as the servant cannot 1 up the handle at the same time as she empties the pail ; and unless it has a fall to waste pipe (if there be one), it lies there to dry up and annoy the house with the foul 11. O'ten this waste pipe passes into the trap or into the soil pipe, making matters se. Hence the admirable arrangement put forward by Doulton and Co., in the Lam- t Combination closet, which has the basin and trap made in one piece of stoneware ■rated, so that the customary riser is unnecessary; it stands on a finished wood or 1 floor; the scat being made to lift up, it forms a slop sink. The Desideratum closet ; lea’s closet, are others. Twyford’s special water closet basins, which comprise the 'as, the National patent side outlet closet and trap; while the Alliance front outlet ■ t and trap is a variation of the former one. The Crown sanitary closet basin and 1 is a cheap and simple apparatus. The Farnley sanitary closets comprise the Trinal, ''real. National, and Simplex, each in one piece, with or without trap and ventilator, mcr h improved London open water closets, combining in an elegant form a water t, slop sink, and urinal, well trapped abovo the floor linn. Shanks’s pat ent Tubal and '■n water closet with hinged seat, &c. Shanks and Co.’s patent system of combined is and cisterns, where the closet is in one piece of enamelled stoneware, having a V T large inlet horn made with the closet. On it is seated a singlo or double valve i Tti, having a correspondingly largo outlet valve, which from its size gives a flush n loensating for tho lack of the usual height, and washes out and replenishes the basin f "r. Banner’s Holborn combination water closet. All these require an inch-and-a- 'l 1 ter pipe from the cistern, or two gallon syphon cistern or water-waste preventer, for fl' iing purposes. 688 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Eook I Fig. 806d. 2220^. Traps to water closet pans consist of the old-fashioned and now condemn! O trap ( fig . 806 which tend to destroy the ordinary trap. Jennings’s “Du Bois” drawn lead traps a bends are made by hydraulic pressure, in the same manner as ordinary lead pipes, fri 1|- to 4b inches diameter; the inside becomes accessible for cleaning by a screw tap the botiom of the bend. All these traps only continue effective as long as water j| mains either in the cup or at the syphon bend, a fact which is either not known to, forgotten by, very' many housekeepers, who complain of the bad smells from the drains summer time, or after some days of dry weather. .Many of such syphons are now mai factored for various purposes in glazed stoneware, which are readily cleaned. Stiff 1 several “ sewer air excluding traps,” as the Interceptor trap, and the Weaver ventilate trap. Buchan's patent stoneware drain trap is one of the most useful of the sort. adopted first a trap with a slope dowm into the sypli but found that a fall was better; hence the fig. 80' having a fall of 2 inches for a 4 inch trap, 2^ inci for 6 inches fully, and 4 inches for 9 inches ft Doulton and Co.’s safety sanitary trap (Henmu' patent, 1885) is for connecting a wa'er closet | with the soil pipe ; no untrapped joint within a bui ing. Adams's special disconnecting traps. Smeat Son and Co.’s interceptor trap. Banner’s main dr traps, as the Iixcello, and the Ccrus. Bolding’s shaft or disconnecting trap, with inlet at top 1 inlet for easy access to drain for clearing sioppag' his soil pipe intercepting trap ; and his “disconnector” for 6-inch and 4-inch stonew drains. Davies’s disconnecting receiver and trap for house drains is stated to give: Thorough disconnection from the sewer. 2. Thorough ventilation < f drains. 3. Simplin in planning house drains. 4. Easy access to drains and traps in case of stoppage. Convenience of fixing in any position, irrespective of sewer. 6. A barrier against r coming up from the sewer. It is made by J. C. Edwards, of Ruabon. 2220 Jc. Gully traps, for taking off water from yards and from rain-w-ter pip°s, provided of stoneware as well as of iron. Such as Bolding and Son’s simplex gully ti for various purposes; salt glazed and galvanized iron grates, squaro and round, some v raking inlets. Bellman’s patent gully receives and disconnects one rain-water pipe three waste pipes; it avoids splashing, ventilates the pipes and drain, forms a gull} drain from a yard or path, and is easy of access for cleaning out; the ordinary ~o 01 trap can be used with it, and placed at any angle to meet the drain. Adams’6 paf street gully and yard traps. Banner's gully trap. 2220 1. A scouring trap is a late invention ; it appears to possess some advantages- affording a good scouring wash-out and dip to the drain. Davies’s receiver, &e., ab described, is for a somewhat similar purpose. /'•t jLfi Y £r~t % --- Chap. III. PLUMBERY. 689 2220m. When drain traps are left for some time they should be flushed out and left full of fresh water, into which should be placed some ordinary calcium chloride, a by- product of a chemical process, and very cheap. This is exceedingly hydroseopie, having a great affinity for water. Thus the traps would remain full of water for any length of time. (Prof. Babcock of Cornell University, U.S.A.) 2220 n. A grease trap to catch the melted fat, &c., from the kitchen sinks, is considered a desirable, addition, as it tends to prevent the grease from passing into and stopping the drain. There are several varieties, chiefly of stoneware. Those readily cleaned out by- hand are perhaps the best; buckets, used in some, can scarcely be considered satisfactory. Emptying the usual grease trap is one of those many works in connection with a house- hold that almost amounts to emptying a cesspool, as it is usually left ancl becomes foul; this trap is to be avoided if possible. It is recommended to be ventilated (fig. 807c.). The best of the number is the patent of Mr. Farrow, the first one introduced as a special fixture. Hellyer’s, Buchan’s, Stiff's, Doulton’s, with others, are to be procured. One has been devised by Mr. J. Koneyman, architect, consisting of a shallow box encased with cold water, and covered with a movable grating resting about half an inch or more below the level to which the water would rise. The cold water would be frequently replaced from the service to the sink. The greasy water would adhere to the sides, and be forced up through the grating for removal, and the box, being in sight, would be cleaned out as required. Smeaton, Son & Co.’s grease trap ; Adams’s grease trap only ; and his combination grease trap and flush tank; Durrans’ patent glazed stoneware gully and fat trap, by J. C. Edwards of Ruabon, is a cast iron box dropping into the water, and removable for cleansing purposes, giving free access to the drain pipe. 2220 o. The self-cleaning Trough closet, as Adams’s patent, is largely used in schools, factories, barracks, workhouses, and other such institutions where a number of persons are collected or employed. It is automatic, having a Field’s self-acting flushing cistern. About five or more closets, or stalls, are formed over the stoneware trough that com- municates with the drain. The trough is also made of iron, and is also arranged to be discharged on Lind and disposed of by irrigation. These troughs require occasional inspection and good water supply. 2220/). Reference has been made (pars. 1887A and 1888A.) to flushing requirements. To these may be added, Adams’s patent automatic flush tank, “giving an instant start with drop by drop supply”; his patent improved automatic flushing syphon ; his syphon cistern for closet, urinal, &c. ; his flushing valves and penstocks for drains and sewers ; Stidder’s patent syphon water flusher ; Doulton and Co.’s automatic flush tank ; and lothers by Jennings and Co. 2221. Urinals are made of slato for public use, of various forms and arrangements. A water supply from a self-acting flushing cistern, holding from 10 to 20 gallons, arranged fi>r a discharge according to use ; about every quarter of an hour is considered sufficient to freo a much frequented urinal from all nuisance. Sometimes water is turned on for a i ime at several hours of the day. White pottery urinals for private use are of all varieties and shapes. The overflow pipe supplied to some is not always a desirable addition. Boulton and Co.’s improved urinal and lavatory; Adams’s patent lavatory ranges for -‘bools, &c. ; and urinal and closet erections. Jenning’s urinal erections for two or moro persons. Btidder’s school lavatory and slop sink, as used in the London and other board schools. Mounted lavatories for domestic use, by Warner and other manufac- turers above mentioned. 2222. The use of Earth closets as ono of tho safeguards against smells from sewers has vide no headway for large populations, and is beset with practical difficulties. In the Midland and Lancashire towns the pail or tub system has been much more largely intro- h>ccd as a substitute for the water closet, and it has, from. a landlord's point of view, '’any attractions. The first cost, as compared with that of a water closet, is small, and It" landlord is, in most towns, relieved afterwards of all future cost and maintenance. <\ herons in tho case of water closets in cottage property there is undoubtedly great diffi-. "Ity in keeping them in good working ordor, especially during frosts. There are, how- vrr, many objections to the pail system, especially that it appears to boa costly appendago 1 tho water-carriage system, inasmuch as the remaining liquid refuse has still to be f alt with by the modern systems of precipitation or irrigation, at practically the sum a ■ -t ns would have been the case if tho water-carriage system had been adopted in its ntiroty by the municipal authorities. 2222». Tho deposits are at once deodorised by a small quantity of coal ashes or earth, ‘ ii. li absorbs tho ammonia and other fertilising properties, for removal to the garden r Held. It may bo considered moro serviceable where thero is a deficient water supply i a want of proper drainage, and in country, rather than in town, localities. Monti's I at was the first invented. Morrell's patent cinder sifting ash closet, and Heap's 1‘Uont dry closet, are oilier inventions. The earth may, with proper drying, bo used Y Y 690 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. over and over again for years. Ashes, fine and dry, may he used, to obtain which there is the modern automatic cinder sifter. They are not considered preferable to the water- carriage system, where obtainable. Tanks and Filters. 2222 b. Having obtained the source of a water-supply, a tank for a collection for a farm, or a cistern for the supply of a house, are requisite. Tile former may also be required to retain the rain water from the wood, lead, or zinc gutters of the buildings; water from copper gutters is poisonous. The tank is usually formed of brick or stone built in cement, and cemented iuside, and when of a small size it is domed over, with a man-hole for access. If of large size, iron girders supporting slate or stone slabs will form a flat covering to it. These should be well jointed to prevent dirt falling in. Painting the cement with a solution of silicate of potash is said to prevent the soft rain water becoming hard in a new tank. Such a s.istem as the following would be lound very serviceable on many farms having c.'ay lands. 2222c. In Venice, the rain water is collected from the rcofs and led into the court- yard, where it undergoes a regular system of filtration before it reaches the tank, whence it is raised by buckets. The construction to effect this consists of —I. A water-tight enclosure. II. A well of dry brickwork in the centre of, III. A wall of sand, filling up the remainder of the enclosure round the well, aud serving partially as a reservoir, and partially as a filter; care being taken that no water enters the well but what passes through the sand. The system is shown in the Allaemeine Bauzeitung for 1836, pi. 556 ; and in the Transactions of the Institute of British Architects, 1842, p. 187. 2222d. Another and more simple method is described in the Building News , 1862, p. 127. A large hole is dug about 9 feet deep; the sides are supported by an oaken framework of a square truncated pyramid, the wide base being turned upward. A. coating of compact clay, 1 foot thick, is applied on the frame with great care, to stop the progress of the roots of plants, as also to prevent the pressure of the water. A large circular stone, partly hollowed out like the bottom of a kettle, is placed therein with the cavity upwards, and on this as a foundation a cylinder of well baked bricks is constructed, having no insterstices except a number of holes in the bottom row. The large vacant space left between the sides of the pyramid and the cylinder is filled with well scoured sea sand. At the four corners of the pyramid a stone trough is placed, covered with a stone lid pierced with holes; they communicate with each other by means of a small channel made of bricks resting on the sand, and the whole is then paved over. The rain water is led from, the roof to these four sink stones, and, penetrating into the sand through the channels, filters down and passes into the filter itself by the small holes left in the bottom row of bricks. These cisterns get filled about five times a year, and the distribu- tion of water is at the rate of about 312 gallons per head. 2222e. The average annual rainfall is 31 inches. Where rain water has to he dependec upon, a separator has been invented by Roberts, which “prevents the first portion of the rainfall passing into the storage tank. It cants and stores the water when the roof has been washed by the first rain.” 2222/. The Rivers Pollution Commissioners put the several waters derived from various sources in the following order, having regard to their hardness : — I. Rain water (softest). II. Upland surface water. III. Surface water from cultivated land. IV. Polluted rive: water. V. Spring water. VI. Deep well water. VII. Shallow well water (hardest). They consider water at or below six degrees of hardness to be soft, and above that number of degrees to be hard. 2222dy uses much more than 6 gallons, or about 12 gallons, as calculated by Sir W. iy, by a family in London. 22.3't. Tho eiArrn for a house was originally placed outside, and made entirely of load, front of it being frequently decorated with devices, either cast with it, or secured by V V 2 G92 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. Hi pairing, i.e., the soldering on of embossed figures. Lead cisterns arc still in use, butth'-y are cased with -wood, and placed were most wanted for the supply. No cistern should be put where the sun can act upon it, as vegetation in the water sometimes ensues. (1785«). 2223b. A cistern is usually made of lj- or 2 inch memel fir, lined with 6 lb. lead. A cover should always be provided. This metal lining is now much superseded by one of z : ne, on account of the deleterious effects arising by the action of pure water on the iead; but zinc can only be trusted as a temporary resource. Slate is a better material for all collections of water or other liquids in general use. Care must be taken that a porous quality be not supplied ; and it should not be placed where mild damp air will meet it and condense on its cold surface, and so run down in drops. As it is very unyielding to the expansion of ice, its position in the house in that respect is an important consider- ation, and in case the joints become leaky from that or any other cause. Cisterns are supplied with water by a main service or feed pipe sufficiently large to allow of its filling during the time the water is turned on. The flow of water is regulated by a ball cock. Tbs water supply to each bath, water closet, &c., is suggested to be controlled by a stop- cock of a bore equal to the pipe. Ball cocks to be supplied with a stop cock to each, in case of repair. The cistern to have a proper standing waste for cleansing purposes only, as well as the ordinary half or three-quarter warning pipe, which must be provided, according to some water companies’ rules. The fig. 615/r. shows a system of water supply, where c is the cistern in the roof Z, which is often placed over, but quite separated ; from, the water closet A. m, water pipe, cased ; y, slop sink, having a tap from the mainw. i X, flushing tank; the cistern c, in B, also supoplies the syphon flushing cistern in the servants’ w'ater closet d. The dotted line o shows the line of water pipe from tho cistern c in the garden, supplying the kitchen boiler. 2223c. The cistern to supply a water closet should properly be distinct from that for domestic purposes; and when the former is placed in a confined spot, necessitating small- ness of dimensions, one of an upright form is essential to provide the head of water for flushing the basin, ' ; Fig. 806/. an apparatus fitted to a lead cistern for supplying watci to the pan. A, the Fig. sura. ball valve pulled down by the wire B, and thus lifting, by the wire C. the yaho I which admits the water into the lead service-box E, soldered into the bottom, 1 of the cistern. The air-pipe G lets out the air from the box forced into it by pressure of the water rushing through the down pipe H. A waste pipe for emptyin, the cistern, or for carrying off the surplus water when being over filled, roust alw.y be provided. When a cistern supplies the house a service pipe ’s required fio. it the outlet having a rose. For a slate cistern, a brass flange (Jig. 807.), fitted wt screws and nuts, is soldered to the lead service-box, and then secured to the sUt A “ round closet valve with union, fly-nut,” and air-pipe ( fig. 807m) is occasionally used lieu of the above contrivances ; or a spindle valve with union, fly-nut and air-pipe. 2223 d Lon tanks and cisterns made of plate iron riveted, plain or galvanize , < formed to any shape or size ; as also of a small size in stoneware. A question arisen as to zinc and zinc-coated iron for cisterns. Soft water, such as rain water cl ■ solves zinc more easily than hard water. Water containing carbonic acid is spe^a/a to dissolve it. The French Government have prohibited the use of galvanized iron ta on board men-of-war. Professor Heaton analysed spring water, with a further anal); after it had passed through half a mile of galvanized iron pipe, and found it 0 41 grains of zinc carbonate per gallon. Hr. Venable states that where p J passed through 200 yards of such pipes it took up 4 29 grains of zinc carbonate per an (John Smeaton). To stop leaks m iron cisterns, mix litharge and red lead quickly, gold size mixed with boiled linseed oil. Extra hard carriage varnish is usn for inside purposes only, well rubbed into the crack. . e * PB c : 2223c. With the constant supply system, now. being generally introduced, - terns are said to be unnecessary ; but it will be advisable to have one, and especia y Chap. III. PLUMBERY. 6&3 any office requiring a good supply of water, as the service is occasionally cut off for two or three days during repairs or cleaning of the mains. Some lower-class houses are said to have a 6-inch zinc-lined trough instead of the usual cistern ; hence frequent stoppage of drains occur from want of flushing power, as depth of water is essential for it. Water-waste Preventer. 2223/. In some towns the water company insists upon a small cistern being placed in the water closet, or to a urinal, to prevent waste of water, as it is stated. There are various patents, worked by a syphon or other action. They are each regulated for a sup- ply or flush of about a couple of gallons of water at a time. Such are Purnell’s syphon ; Winn’s Acme ; the Peclcham (No. 2) improved pneumatic syphon cistern for fixing in a cistern, has no valves, rubbers, washers, &e., the action is noiseless, and the connection is by an air pipe of ^ inch bore, worked by a push knob ; the Tnvicta ; the Peerless ; the Syphon ; the Double valve; the York; Trott’s patent ; Crapper’s syphon ; Bolding and Son’s syphon, their Simplex after-flush, which is not syphon action, is a simple apparatus; the registered double syphon ; Tylor and Sons’ improved patent model wastc-not cistern valve, for fixing in a cistern under water; Smeaton’s new water-waste preventing valve; Humpherson’s syphon cistern ; Bean’s direct-acting valveless cistern ; Bostell’s cistern. Most of the patents are noisy in action, and all are of questionable utility for the purpose, often getting out of order and wasting water rather than preserving it, besides preventing that useful flush of water which aids in keeping the drains clear. Pipes. 2223<7. The pipes used for the purposes of building are proportioned to their uses. Those, for instance, called soil pipes , for carrying away the soil from a water closet, or those for conveyiug water from roofs, called rain-water pipes, and those occasionally from sinks, are, of course, of larger diameter than those called service pipes, which are merely, as their name implies, for laying on water to a house, those of somewhat larger diameter being called main service or supply pipes; the service pass from tho mains to the cistern. 2223/e. From the cisterns pipes are required to convey tho water to tho several places it is des'ined to supply. Those of lead are either cast round nr soldered. In casting, a mould is made of brass, wherein down tho middle a core of iron is loosely supported, at such a distance from the mould all round as is equal to the contemplated thickness of tho pipe. When this is set the core is removed, and the cylinder opened so as to withdraw the pipe, which is much thicker than is needed, and must be lengthened, while its substance is reduced, by drawing it through a succession of holes in steel plates, diminish- ing gradually in diameter, similarly to the method employed in drawing iron rods. This I machinery became gradually improved in its construction, so that it was of rare occur- rence to meet with an imperfect pipe. Lately tho manufacture of lead pipes has been i further improved by casting them under hydraulic power. A quantity of lead is placed in a box, and forced through the mould at a certain rate, which gives the metal time to coo', so that it is pressed out gradually in a complete state, and wound round a wheel ready for use, its length being made within the limits of carriage. When pipes are made by soldering, a core of wood is provided, round which the sheet lead is rolled, and tho edges are brought togother and joined with solder. A solid drawn lead pipe with a distinct, inside lining of block tin J s th of an inch thick was made, but it was found expensive, and the labour involved in fixing it prevented its ready adoption ; also a solid drawn squire or rectangular fall pipe; both by Hanson, Bale & Co., of Huddersfield. Hellyer has mado a square drawn lead piipe for outside of houses. Glass lined pipes aro later. Gla-s pipes for conveying distilled water are used in laboratories. 2223i. Concussion in water pipes is caused by the weight of water being shut off and stopped in its flow while turning off tho end tap suddenly. If it bo turned slowly this does not take place. The noise may be obviated by continuing the pipe (or a smaller one) over the tap, and inserting tho end into the pipe. Either the water re- bounds into tho supply or the curved pieco of pipe contains air, which serves as a buffer. ’1 lie same arrangement answors for gas pipes where the last jet sometimes has a quivering flume; or (ho pipe (in either case) can bo carried into another pipo near to it, so as to obtain a circuit. Soil ripcs. 2223E Tho most important point in connection with tho wator closet Is the soil pipe. Great care is necessary in fixing it. It should bo hung on tacks of b url at h ast one pound heavier than that from which the pipo is made, at least nine iuchos long, to tuko three courses of bricks, and three tacks to each ten feet longth of soil r>9 i THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II, pipe. Often in the course of three or four years the soil pipes start crawling down, owing to the fixings being scamped. It should not be nailed too closely. .Pipes from slop sinks are often branched into the soil pipe, and require the same treatment, also care to prevent syphonage. Its trap should he as close to the fixture as possible, so as to avoid a length of pipe, which might become foul on the near side of the trap, and so become a nuisance of itself. Banner’s soil pips traps are either for the soil pipe at the end, or the soil pipe in the centre, each trap having a fresh air or rain-water pipe inlet, and an inspection hole. Doulton and Co. manufacture vertical soil pipes, or patent safety house drainage pipes, B CrtOUNO LIME TO main sewer •w 1 FLOOR Fig. 807b. being incorrodible, with junction pieces, fastened to the walls by ornamental iron hands, readily adapting themselves to any settlement of the brick- work ; and are made in lengths of 3 feet, and of 4 in. and 6 in. diameter. ‘Il f 1 .] 2223 1 . The wastes from a hath, a lavatory, a pantry, or a wash-up sink (as partly shown in Jig. 8076.), require special treatment. The discharge from a sink should be under the grating of an intercepting trap, not upon it, as is sometimes done. Under the fixture, and as near to it as possible, should he a syphon trap of good construction, soldered, if to a sink, with only a taper piece to take its grating or washer. The waste from a bath, &c , is sometimes carried through the wall into the open head of a rain-water pipe, or other contrivance, and so to a grating the end being left open ; a syphon trap under the fixture is useful, though not often put A 2 or 2|- inch lead pipe may not be found too large. Safes are provided under the old water closet apparatus, and under a bath, for which 4 lb. lead is enough. The waste pipes from these should also he carried outside, the end provided with a mica or brass flap valve to prevent an in- draught. 2223 in. The fresh air inlet pipe is considered by many as preferable if kept smaller than the ventilating pipe. The soil pipe, if it have considerable fall, must have a provision made for the partial vacuum which the column of water in descending tends to create, causing sypffionage of the rig. 8 o 7 e. traps. This pipe being open at the top is not sufficient to remedy the evil ; a separate vertical ventilating pipe is the only effectual remedy, into which, from all the horizontal branches, are secured ventilating branches. This vertical pipe may be about 3 inches in diameter, with 2 inch or 2^ inch branches at least, carried from the soil pipe into the other vertical pipe. The fig. 807c. shows how the trap under a water closet may he ventilated, where closets are placed one above another to prevent syphonage. A is the soil pipe ; B the ventilating pipe, or ventilating pipe from the grease or other trap ; and P, ventilating pipe from branch pipe to soil pipe. The separate air shaft to the "0 trap might perhaps he better dispensed with by carrying the small pipe through the wall to the open air, and using a mica valve; thus fresh air would be constantly brought in. Mica valves are considered by some to decay. (E. T. Hall.) 2223?j. Solder is a mixture of two parts of lead with one part of tin. In soldering, por- tions of the lead must first be scraped, and when finished they are then done over w r ith a black paint. This solder is used also for tin plates and zinc work. There is a new process for connecting lead pipes without solder, called a cold metal double cone mechani- cal lead pipe joint. By means nf a small piece of a double coned full-bore tube, assisted by a tubular hexagonal-headed screw and nut, the joint is firmly and securely made, ana easily taken apart when required. A new system of jointing, which is readily applicable to every kind of joint required for lead pipes, is adopted at Manchester, whereby the joints are not merely soldered, but welded. A lining pipe is used somewhat similar to the above mentioned process. A clean bore is obtained, no lodgment of solder inside, and a sightly external finish instead of the ugly bulb by the common method, Stidder patents a closet arm joint with india-rubber cones. Dhap. III. PLUMBERY. 605 2223o. Table I. of the Weight of Lead Pipes peb Foot Lineal, A3 now usually Made. Thickness of metal in parts of an inch. [Hurst, j Core in Inches. 1 16 JL 8 3 1? 1 4 5 16 3 8 1 % lbs. •243 •607 1092 1 609 2-427 3 277 4 >> •303 •728 1-273 1 942 2-730 3-641 JL •364 •850 1 456 2-184 3 034 4 004 3. •425 •971 1 638 2-427 3-337 4 369 _7_ •485 1-092 1-820 2-670 3-640 4733 1 •546 1-214 2013 2-913 3 944 5-097 •607 1-335 2 184 3155 4-248 5 460 1 1B f .. •667 1 520 2-366 3-398 4-551 5-825 „ •728 1-578 2'548 3-641 4-853 6189 1 3 •789 1-699 2 731 3-873 5 157 6553 •851 1-820 2 913 4126 5-461 6 917 7 •910 1-942 3 095 4-368 5 764 7 281 15 ■971 2 063 3-276 4-611 6-067 7 646 1 „ 1-032 2-184 3-457 4854 6-371 8 009 n 1-274 2-670 4-186 5-825 7-585 9 466 H „ 1517 3* 1 55 4-915 6 796 8-796 10-923 H 1-760 3 641 5642 7768 10013 12-375 2 „ 2-001 4-127 6-372 8 734 11-223 13-833 2* 2-245 4-607 7 096 9-707 12-436 15 290 H „ 2-4P9 5-100 7-829 10 683 13 654 16-762 2f ,, 2-729 5 583 8'554 11-650 14 869 18 204 3 „ 2-971 6 066 9-286 12-492 16-080 19 660 Table II. of the Weight of Lead Pipes in their Lengths, as variously Cast. Bore in Inches. Length in feet. Weight of length in pounds of various makers. Common. Per foot. Middling. Per foot. Strong. Per foot. i 15 15 16 1 07 17 22 0 22 26 0 i 15 17 - - 20 - - 24 3 4 15 24 24 1-6 28 27 28 1-8 32 36 30 20 l 15 30 30 2-0 42 40 2 6 50 46 42 2-8 n 12 36 36 3-0 42 44 3-7 52 53 4-4 u 12 48 48 4-0 56 56 4-7 64 70 66 56 4 12 76 - - 84 - - 96 2 10 50 56 50 70 60 83 7-0 2* 10 70 ! 7-0 86 86 100 10 0 2223 p. Earthenware pipes, liko iron mains, aro employed underground. At the begin- nng of this century, machinery was invented for forming stone pipes, which were used for ome time, but did not supersede those in use formed of timber. Near Lincoln have been mud circular eartho i ware tiles, 6 inches diameter and 22 inches long, set in a thick casing f cement, so as to exclude air entirely, and to strengthen and protect the piping, which onveyed the water for about a mile and a half. It is always necessary to have some ait lets for letting off the air which accumulates in any length of such tubing. When ' iter is first allowed to enter a long length of new piping, a quantity of very fine sand or list should bo put into it to fill up any cracks or spaces left in the joints. This is also '■commended to he done for new iron boilers, iron water tanks, &c., as it tends to make he joints watertight. A well-made stoneware pipo of 4 inches diameter will bear a pres- uro of from 75 to 100 lbs. por square inch. 2223jt. Iron water pipes for tho service of a houso aro objectionablo in case of their uniting in winter, but this is romedied by placing a stop-cock at tho entrance of tho pipo 696 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. into a house, to shut oft’ the supply for repairs, or in anticipation of a frost. Some wrought iron pipes are lined and coated with hydraulic mortar ; others are enamelled in the interior. These latter have been found, both for gas and water purposes, absolutely incorrodible; in the former case preventing the great loss from leakage, and in the latter case convening the water in perfect purity. For a high service hot water supply, a galvanized wrought iron hot water cistern, with man hole screwed down, is supplied. It is usually 2 feet 6 inches long, 2 fett wide, and 18 inches deep. Cast iron pipes are naturally very poruus ; so much so, that water when very forcibly compressed, as by an hydraulic machine, will make its way through the thick cast iron cylinder in a sort of perspiration on the ester ial surface. Oxidation, to a certain extent, .will close the pores of the metal, and prevent this escape of water or of gas ; and it is recommended that all new gas pipes be prove 1 with a solution of sal ammoniac, which being forced into the body of the metal effectually oxidises it, and to a great extent cures the- evil. Patent welded wrought iron tubes and fittings, and malleable iron fittings, are made for gas, or low pressure steam, and cast iron pipes for water, of from ^ to 4 inch bores : such pipes are also made for high pressure steam or water, and proved to a pressure of 200 lbs. per square inch. The ordinary gas pipe is proved to 75 lbs. on the square inch. 2223r. Gutta Pcrcka. On account of the injurious effects of water on lead cisterns and piping, this material has been recommended as a substitute for it in both cases, since its general introduction about 1849. But it is uncertain whether the material can be guaran- teed as a lining; and some soils appear to affect it when buried underground. It is also attacked by a fungus. Experiments made at the Birmingham Water Works, on the strength of gutta perclia, showed, that tubes made f inch diameter and ^ inch thick, attached to the iron main, and subjected for two months to a pressure of 200 feet head of water, were not in the slightest degree deteriorated. They were afterwards subjected to a proof of 337 lbs. per square inch. The material being slightly elastic, the tubes expanded, but recovered their former size on the pressure being withdrawn. At Stirling, 1 £ inch tubing bore a pressure of about 450 feet, without the slightest injury, whilst the same pres- sure upon strong leather hose scattered the rivets in all directions. A vulcanised fibre is a new substitute for leather, rubber, gutta pereha, &c., for packing hot or cold water taps, valves, washers, &c. 2223s. Pipes to cisterns are supplied with hall cocks and valves, both round way and square way, of various forms and sizes, too numerous to be here described. The “ Brock- ley ” patent ball valve, of Wood Brothers of Brockley, is an improvement consisting of the usual hall turning on a pivot fixed to the screw. “The spherical form of the seating, and the cup into which it works, have been designed to prevent the collection of grit. The rubber envelope at the end of the seating fitting into the opening through which the water flows is specially made, and is durable as there is no cutting edge to destroy it; they only require to be stretched on.” For sinks, or the usual supply taps, bib-cocks having a “ T key,” or a “ spanner” or other key, are required ; these are of diff-rent makes, and often produce a recoil. “ Screw-downs ” or “ valves” are used where the high pressure system is adopted, the “ f key ” then screws down the valve. A “stop-cock” or “valve” is used to shut off the water in a length of pipe, as the service from the main pipe, as above noticed, and likewise for reducing the pressure of the water on the “ screw- down ” valves in a constant service. This system is described in Cresy, Encyclopaedia, pages 1655-57. Stidder’s patent hydraulic ball valve is intended to resist the highest possible pressure ; the greater the pressure the more secure from leakage. 2223f. Lavatories are fitted up with an apparatus for supplying the basin with hot and cold water, and for taking off the waste. Baths are supplied from a boiler either placed at the back of a kitchen range, or set in the fireplace of the bath room, or of an adjoining chamber. They are also heated by a gas boiler called “ Geiser,” or other name, fixed close to or on the bath, having a flow and return pipe; or by ranges of lights under the bath itself. A five-feet bath is said to be heated to 100° in half an hour by gas, at a small cost. A bath generally contains about 60 gallons of water, and requires about 20 gallons of boiling water to heat it. Ewart’s lightning geyser gives a hot hath in five minutes. Shanks’s new instantaneous gas water heater. Doulton and Co.’s Lambeth patent, water heater. 2223m. The bath itself is sometimes formed of marble, cast iron enamelled, opalizud glass, glazed earthenware, and glazed po celain tiles (Rufford’s), the weight of which is 7 cwt. The Farnley porcelain bath, of fireclay and enamelled, is reduced in weight to 4y cwt. ; they are made of four shapes, from 60 inches to 74 inches in length. Zinc, lead, copper, galvanized iron, and slate all require a coating of light-coloured paint, so as to render easily apparent any want of purity of the water. A patent stamped tinned stee bath is designed to obviate the disadvantages of cast iron ; it does not chill the water, UP. III. PLUMBERY. 697 cl is light and durable. If not painted, all metal baths require considerable friction appear clean. The difficulty of making a bath with joints that shall not leak is f-evident. Tslor’s pattern-book gives several descriptions of their baths (par. 2228«.). anks and Co. have approved baths and fittings. 2223u. With water raised to a high level g eat power is gained for various purposes, mestic and otherwise. The hydraulic lift, lately introduced into banks and hotels, is e saving of much trouble and time. The general details for hotels were described by Whiehcord, in a paper read at the Institute of British Architects, in 1864. Waygood d Co. are manufacturers of the more modern lifts, cranes, and hoisting machinery of descriptions by hydraulic and hand power. The American Elevator Company are ikers of the “Standard” hydraulic elevators fixed in various public edifices, hotels, &e. small lift, to be worked by hand, is readily arranged for raising a scuttle of coals, or ler package, from the bottom to the top of a building. Other manufacturers are Clark, .nnett and Co. ; the Hydraulic Engineering Company, Limited (of Chester); Goddard 1 Stewart; S. Chatwood, 1878, balanced hydraulic lifts; and Attwood and Co.'s s and hoists for goods and passengers, worked by gas, steam, hydraulic, or hand : ikers of the ABC self-sustaining lift for houses, clubs, &c. Water applied to a bine is capable of producing a small motive power, useful for organ blowing, turn- ’ a fan to effect ventilation, and other such purposes, without wasting the water so ployed. l'12'ivj. It will be useful to note the non-compressibility of water. It is often necessary, 'ore re-melting cast iron, to reduce the large masses into smaller pieces. This by the inary method is both troublesome and difficult. A simple and ingenious mode of pro- ' i;ig the required fracture has been recently employed in France. It consists in drilling : ole in the mass of cast iron for about one-third of its thickness, and filling the hole with ’ • r, then closing it with a steel plug, fitting very accurately, and letting the ram of a ]! -driver fall on the plug. The first blow separates the cast iron into two pieces. COPPER 224. Many of the uses to which copper is put have already been noticed in the para- g ins 1787 to 1791. The nave of Chartres Cathedral was roofed in 1836-41 with iron r covered with copper plates ; in 1853 the latter had so much oxidised as to require ii oval. It is said that if strips of the best zinc, about 8 inches by 2 inches, be screwed “ ach course of copper, galvanic action would prevent the oxidation of the latter material. I cramps encased and brazed in copper, or gun-metal cramps, in lieu of iron merely, I! exfoliation of which bursts and demolishes stonework, is a precaution now generally e; ited in good work. In the Indies, copper gutters decay after twenty years’ use, not h|ing longer than shingles, the heat and moisture of the climate converting tho metal ' j rud oxide of copper ; iron nails decay there very fast from the same cause .'21a. Table I. of Thickness of Copper Sheets mber of wire gaugo ight of one foot ) ‘per. in pounds - / 1 14-5 2 13 9 3 1275 4 116 6 101 6 9'4 7 8'7 8 7 9 9 7'2 10 6 5 Lbcr of wire gaugo ight of one foot ) 1 iper. in pounds - J 11 5-8 12 508 13 434 14 36 15 3-27 16 29 17 2-52 18 2-15 19 1 97 20 178 jnber of wire gauge jght of one foot ) per. in pounds -/ 21 1 62 22 23 1-3 24 1-16 25 104 26 092 27 0 83 «4 To n hi M oll s 30 0-58 u nlli. t i 22 pi lh * »n 'nch thick ; No. 4 ‘ ; No. 7 = ^ ; No. 11 ^ ; No. 16 ■S till t del ; 1 1 j lbs. - ; 6 lbs. ^ u ' 4 of uu inch. I jlf* ( > --w. - 4 • 1 iron, india-rubber, felt, asbestos, or other perishable material. Causley’s system of glazing without putty, 1881. I VP. III. GLAZING. 701 i vtp's dry glazing; simple and cheap. immond’s patent roof- glazing ; sash-bars in iron, steel, zinc, or wood, i iver & Co.’s simplex glazing. No iron, zinc, or putty. Lead strips on wood-bars, &c. diwell’s patent perfection system of imperishable glass roofing. No putty used. . frey’s patent system of glazing, guaranteed air and water tight. , mson Brothers & Co.’s patent imperishable glazing, ekenzie’s patents, by the British Patent Glazing Company (Limited). No zinc used; a lead cushion over an iron bar. Howes and Darby’s eclipse glazing ; tin-lead bar, V section, ladle’s Acme glazing. Indie & Burrow’s indestructible glazing. Wood sash-bar, the glass covered on it by a wood capping. elley’s patent standard system of glazing, using glass up to 10 feet in length, with his patent bars placed two feet apart, e Pennycook patent universal system of glazing without putty, ch system must be examined for its peculiarity. 2226c?. The Transparent Wire Wove Roofing Company (Limited) has manufactured a bstitute for glass, made in sheets 10 ft. by 4 ft., at 6hd. per foot. Much is said in our of it, and for many purposes it may work in usefully as a temporary material. 2226c. The diminution of light by passing through various sorts of glass has been on thus: British polished plate, 13 percent.; rough cast plate, 30 ; rolled fluted plate, flutes to the inch, 53; 32 oz. sheet, 22; common window glass, about 10; ground uss, from 30 to 60 ; opal globes, from 50 to 60; green, purple, and ruby glass, 82 to 89 ; 1 porcelain transparency, over 97|-. Light decreases in the ratio of the square of its itance from its sources. 2227. Lkadwokk for fixed lights is used in ecclesiastical buildings, often in inferior ices, and frequently in country buildings. Frames made with crossbars receive these his, which are fastened to saddle bars. Where openings are wanted, a casement is reduced of wood or iron. Sometimes a sliding frame is used, particularly for house ndows. Plain, painted, and stained lead lights have of late years been largely intro- eed in the so-called “ Queen Anne ” designs, and adapted for blind or transom, fanlight, or panel, or window. 2228. The glazier's vice is for preparing the leaden slips called camcs with grooves, &c., fit them for the re’eption of glass. The German vices are the best, and turn out a riety of lead in different sizes. There are moulds belonging to these vices in which bars lead are cast; in this form the mill receives them, and turns them out with two sides rallel to each other, and about | of an inch broad, and a partition connecting the two les together, about | of an inch wide, forming on each side a groove near 2L by | of an •'li, and 6 feet long. The setting board is that on which the ridge of the light is worked, d divided into squares, and struck out with a chalk line, or drawn with a lath, which rve to guide the workman. One side and end is squared with a projecting bead or let. The lattcrkin is a pieco of hard wood pointed, and so formed as to clear the groove the lead, and widon it, for the more readily receiving the glass. The setting knife is a ude with a round end, loaded with lead at the bottom of the blade, and having a long uare handle. The square end of the handle serves to force the squares home tight in • lead ; being loaded with lead, it is of greater weight, and also cuts off the ends of the id wiih greater ease, as in the course of working those lights the lead is always longor an is necessary till trimmed. 2229. The resin box contains powdered resin, which is put on all the joints previous to Mi ring. Clips are for holding the irons. All the intersections are soldered on both Ms except the outside joints of the outer side, that is, where thej r como to the outer edge. ! lose lights should bo cemented, which is done by thin paint being run along the lead iirs, and the chasm filled with dry whiting. After it has stood a short time, a small liantity of dry red or white lead is dusted over it, which will cnabio it to resist the | ather well. T uccustomeU sometimes to produce the effect of leads without unnecessarily cutting 702 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IL the glass. A in fig. 8C7d. represents an ancient lead of the usual width ; B its section, consisting of the leaf, a and 6, and the core c. C is the section of a German lead of ili< early part of the 14th century. 1) is a piece of modern fret leud of the ordinary width, and which is now considered (1847) as being very narrow; and E- its section. The process ol compressing the lead between rollers to the proper dimension makes them more rigid than the old leads. It is tile practice at the present day to surround each glazing panel with a broad kad, that is, a lead three-quarters of an inch broad in the leaf, to strengthen the work (page 27.). Leads somewhat narrower than these were very extensively employed. An emire window at Stowting Church, Kent, probably of the early part of the reign of Edward 1 V., w is leaded with leads as F. The other lead, G, is of the early part of the reign of Henry VI., and is from Mells Church, Somersetshire, where similar lead is commonly used. This mode of strengthening the lead without increasing its width was not confined to the decorated period. Both these specimens bad all the appearance of being cast in a mould, One of the faces in each is narrower than the others; these were placed outside, and the diff’eren e probably arose- from decomposition of the metal. A still narrower lead may be occasionally met with in heraldry and other minute mosaic work of the 15th and 1 6th 1 centuries. It is hardly necessary to observe that the greater the number of leads em- ployed, the weaker individually may they be made (page 259-61.). The width of the] leads must be proportionate to that of the lines usually painted on the glass, for the leadet outlines will easily be detected if they are much stronger than the painted ones. The effee of the increased width of modern leads, E, although so trifling, is very perceptible. 2229 b. Saddle bars in ancient windows will be found to be usually placed from 8 to f inches apart, which seems to be the most agreeable distance, though one of 6 inches doe: not appear too little in some cases. The great object is to avoid, as much as possible causing the light to appear as if it were divided into a number of square compartmenis, Ip making the height too nearly the width of the glass. Amongst the advantages resultin' from the use of saddle bars at short intervals, is the opportunity it affords the glazier o carrying a horizontal lead across the light immediately in front of each saddle bar, tli- opacity of which hides the lead. This method of concealing lead work was carried t such perfection during the first half of the 16th century, that a person ignorant of i would find it difficult to conceive how some of the works of that period were constructed. 2229c. Iron standaids or stanc/ieons, in ancient windows put through the saddle bar should he retained in pattern windows, which they improve, and do not appear to be ot of place in picture windows whenever they do not happen to pass immediately behind tli head of the principal figure. They seem also on the whole to improve the effect of tl architecture from without. (Winston, Inquiry into Style in Glass Painting , Svo. 1847.) 2229 d. It is stated that at Cologne Cathedral the glass is strong; the different pice are joined together with lead, and soldered with tin, both inside and outside, which gi'- the whole great strength. The panes are fastened upon iron frames, which are agai fastened upon rods. In the interior the panes are screwed upon iron bars, half an int thick, which are let into the masonry. 22:50. In London a large portion of the glazier’s business consists in cleaning windows 2231. Glazed partitions formed of wood, or of iron frames with the lower panels fill in with slate, are now very usual in warehouses, banks, and counting-houses. If sound 1 desired not to pass through such fittings, they must be glazed with extra thick glass; b double sheets or squares, placed about half an inch or more apart, and carefully puttied, best. This method will also conduce to the warmth of the room. Double windows the fronts of houses are common fittings to effect both the above purposes. 2231a. Glass has been introduced for a variety of building pmposes. Thus, Llovd at Summerfield’s patent crystal window bars, for windows, shop fronts, and cases, are n uncommon. They are fitted with arched heads and spandrils of glass, having patter: silvered or gilt, on a coloured ground. Glass tiles and slates arc a useful auxiliary to roof where a small modicum of light is required. Lockhead’s perforated glass ventHw can either be set in the sash, or fixed outside of it in a frame for the whole width of 1 opening, air being admitted by moving the sash. For the like purpose are such inveniit ns Moore's louvre ventilators in a sash pane; Boyle’s draughtless window ventilators, bei [ a line gauze of wire set in a pane of glass, and used with or without a glass cover ; and ( circular glass “revolving” ventilator. Glass balusters and handrails', pilasters chimney pieces ; door handles, knobs, and plates; mirror frames; trays for dairies; cry stal and opal letters ; Pratt’s patent procr ss of gilding bv precipitation ( 1 886), are amt other useful inventions in this material. See Pavement Lights par 2295/. 2231 b. Coloured or stained glass. We can only here name the varieties There are t! modes of colouring glass: I. Pot metal glass, in which the colour is mixed up with irndten mass. II Flashed, covered, or coated gla s, formed by uniting a thin layer] coloured glass with another layer, either of a different col ur or colourless. III. Pain 1 glass, the white substance being painted on, and then the colour or pigment bun t The colouring materials are in ail cases metallic substances. Such are the methods which all coloured glass windows arc produced. HAP. III. GLAZING. 703 2231 o. l'or ornamental purposes, besides coloured glass, glass may have a ground surface, iich is obtained bv grinding it with a stone, or by the use of fluoric acid. Embossed iss, which permits the application of devices, according to the fancy of the designer or tentinn of the manufacturer, is effected by covering the square of glass with a varnish, cept where the device is intended. An acid is then poured on which eats away the icovered glass for a small depth. The varnish is then cleaned off, and the general surface ground as usual. Its imitation is obtained by covering the plate with a varnish, a lace stencil pattern placed on it, then dusted over with a colouring matter in the state of tine i wrier, and the plate thus treated sufficiently heated to vitrify and fix the dusted varnish the glass. Messrs. Chance, and other manufacturers, sell various enamelled stencilled ■Items, as white enamell d, enamelled and flocked, embossed repeated pattern, stained enamelled, td double etched glass, self shadowed glass, patent polychromatic glass, printed glass, stamped colows, and many other kinds, all which are better seen at the factories than described. 22:3 1 cZ. The compressive strength of glass, that is, its resistance to a force tending to ush it, is about 12J tons per square inch. I bis is nearly equal to one quarter the re gth of cast iron. Glass has three times the specific gravity of iron. In the form of ,rs, a favourable shape for developing a highly tensile strength, one ton per square inch area is the highest amount to be assumed for it. 2 2 : J 1 e. Mosaic work. This durable manner of decoration in glass, requires a short > ice. The Roman mosaic is composed of pieces of enamelled glass, thus rendered opaque, metimes called smnlto and sometimes paste, made of all kinds of colours and of every dif- Tent lute For large pictures they take the form of small cakes. For small works they e produced as threads, varying in thickness from that of a piece of string to the finest a ton thread. The Venetian mosaic pictures are formed of pieces of very irregular shapes id sizes, of all colours and tones of colours; the ground tint almost invariably prevail- g is gold. The manner of execution is always large and coarse, and rarely approaches y neatness of joint or regularity of bedding. Opus Grecanicnm consists in the insertion, to grooves cut in white marble to a depth of about half an inch, of small cubes of these loured and gilded smnlto, and in the arrangement of these forms in such geome'rical nbiimtion as to compose the most elaborate patterns. It was customary to combine the nds of this mosaic work witli large slabs of Serpentine, Porphyry, Pavonazzetto. and iCr valuable marbles and to use it in the decoration of ambones, caneclli, &c. ; its use i rnally was comparatively rare. The hexagon, triangle, square, and octagon, form the ial bases of most of the specimens of this ingenious art to be found in Italy. Patterns accumulating intricacy are Sten at Palermo, and at Monteale. Illustrations in colour • given in the useful work on Mosaics, by M. D. Wyatt. Coloured enamels are made of a vitreous paste (or glass), to this are added other neral substances, which, when properly prepared and I used together, im; art to the paste density and extreme hardness, and also its colour; the better the manufacture, the more i .factory the appearance and the greater the durability of the mosaic work. In an perfect manufacture, the mosaic is liable to be injured by damp, smoke, and all atmo- eric changes ; when well produced, they can be made to give precisely the same effect the painting. --hi I 'J- Gold and silrer enamels were introduced; these are made of the precious metals, t in such thin sheets that their use is comparatively inexpensive. The process is a 'ten It one, for, to produce true gold and silver enamels, great knowledge and experience necessary. On a ground of thick glass or enamel, according as it is dcsir, d to render gold enamel transparent or opaque, or to impart to it a warm or variegated colour, re iv laid a leaf of gold or silver, which is attached principally by the action of lire; ' :| fihn of the purest glass is spread over it, and this may either he perfectly colourless • t any tint that may he required. When well manufactured, these thin layers, alter I g fused, become perfectly united with each other, and form a homogeneous body, and 1 octal is lor ever protected against all possibility ol injury from any cause except actual ' lencc. - HA. Stevens has produced a new kind of glass mosaic, executed at about one third the I e of the ancient manufacture of this kind. The glass is stained or gilt, and the method i "I 1 pled for many purposes. Messrs. Rust are working in gold, silver, and enamel i lies of their own invention ; and Dr. .Salviati employs his “ indestructible system of tnn enamel-mosaic, in works, in a comparatively inexpensive and expeditions 1 a r." At the Wolsey tomb-house, at Windsor, the entire ceiling, consisting of 2,100 1 . decorated in the space of ten months, including the time of the transit of the ' lie. t roan Venice ; and was executed, with the scaffolding, at the price of 4,7‘J.j/. It was " emi loyed at St. Paul's ( ntlndial, for the figure of the prophet Lainll, covering ‘250 1 li "h »us executed nod fixed in two months, at the price of 0001. (Lecture read at • 'I*, lay A. Salviati, 18 and plain ceilings ; for renewing the insides of walls; roughcasting on laths ; plastering i brickwork with finishing mortar, in imitation of stone work, and the like upon laths. 1 cornices and the decorations of mouldings, the material is plaster of Paris, one which I ■ litates the giving by casts the required form and finish to the superior parts of his v • The plasterer uses it also for mixing with lime and hair, where the work is require! > dry and set hard in a short time. For inside work, the lime and hair, or coarse stvj s prepared, like common mortar, with sand; but in the mixing, hair of the bullock, obtu I from the tanners’ yards, is added to it, and worked in with the rake, so as to distribu 1 over the mass as equally as possible. 223 6. What is called fine stuff is made of pure lime, slaked with a small quantii '■ water, and afterwards, without the addition of any other material, saturated with w ■ and in a semi-fluid state placed in a tub to remain until the water has evaporated. 11 some cases, for better binding the work, a small quantity of hair is worked into the < - position. For interior work, the fine stuff is mixed with one part of very fine wa " sand to three parts of fine stuff, and is then used for trowelled or bastard stucco, which n s a proper surface for receiving painting. 2237. What is called gauge stuff is composed of fine stuff and plaster of Paris, in - portions according to the rapidity with which the work is wanted to be finished, •dp four-fifths of fine stuff to one of the last is sufficient, if time can be allowed for the sei ■-'• This composition is chiefly used for cornices and mouldings, run with a wooden m <*• We may here mention that it is of the utmost importance, in plasterers' work, tha lime should be most thoroughly slaked, or the consequence will be blisters throwi upon the work after it is finished. Many plasterers keep their stuffs a consult "'hap III. PLASTERING. 70 a leriod before they are wanted to be used in the building, by which the chance of blistering s much lessened. 2238. When a wall is to be plastered, it is called rendering ; in other cases the first iperation, as in ceilings, partitions, &c. , is lathing, nailing the laths to the joists, quarters, >r battens. If the laths are oaken, wrought iron nails must be used for nailing them, but •ast iron nails may be employed if the laths are of fir. I he lath is made in three and four hot lengths, and, according to its thickness, is called single, something less than a quar- er of an inch thick, lath and half, or duuhle. The first is the thinnest and cheapest, the ;econd is about one-third thicker than the single lath, and the double lath is twice the thickness. When the plasterer laths ceilings, both lengths of laths should be used, by which, m nailing, he will have the opportunity of breaking the joints, which will not only help in improving the general keg, (or plastering insinuated behind the lath, which spreads there aeyond the distance that the laths are apart,) but will strengthen the ceiling generally. The : hin nest laths may be used in partitions, because in a vertical position the strain of the plaster upon them is not so great ; but for ceilings the strongest laths should be employed. In lathing, the ends of the laths should not be lapped upon each other where they termi- nate upon a quarter or batten, which is often done to save a row of nails and the trouble of cutting them, for such a practice leaves only a quarter of an inch for the thickness ot the plaster ; and if the laths are very crooked, which is frequently the case, sufficient space will not be left to straighten the plaster. (2246'i. ) 2239. After lathing, the next operation is laying, more commonly called plastering. It is the first coat on laths, when the plaster has two coats or set work, and is not scratched with the scratcher, but the surface is roughed by sweeping it with a broom. On brick- work it is also the first coat, and is called rendering. The mere laying or rendering is the most economical sort of plastering, and does for inferior rooms or cottages. 2240. What is called pricking up is the first coat of three-coat work upon laths. The material used for it is coarse stuff, being only the preparation for a more perfect kind of work. After the coat is laid on, it is scored in diagonal directions with a scratcher (the end of a lath), to give it a key or tie for the coat that is to follow it. 2241. Lath layed or plastered and set is only two-coat work, as mentioned under laying, the setting being the guage or mixture of putty and plaster, or, in common work, of fine uuffi, with which, when very dry, a little sand is used ; and here it may be as well to men- tion, that setting may be either a second coat upon laying or rendering, or a third coat upon floating, which will be hereafter described. The term finishing is applied to the third coat when of stucco, but setting for paper. The setting is spread with the smoothing trowel, which the workman uses with his right hand, while in his left he uses a large Hat-formed brush of hog’s bristles. As he lays on the putty or set with the trowel, he draws the brush, full of water, backwards and forwards over its surface, thus producing a tolerably fair f ce for the work. 2242. Work which consists of three coats is called floated : it takes its name from an instrument called a float, which is an implement or rule moved in every direction on the ■ laster while it is soft, for giving a perfectly plane surface to the second coat of work, floats are of three sorts : the hand float, which is a short rule, that a man by himself may ‘xe ; the quirk float, which is used on or in angles ; and the Derby, which is of such a ength as to require two men to use it. Previous to floating, which is, in fact, the iperation of making the surface of the work a perfect plane, such surface is subdivided n several bays, which are formed by vertical styles of plastering, (three, four, five, or even ■ n feet apart,) formed with great accuracy by means of the plumb rule, all in the same dane. fhese styles are called screeds, and being carefully set out to the coat that is applied ictween them, the plaster or floating laid on between them is brought to the proper sur- acc by working the float up and down on the screeds, so as to bring the surface all to the unc plane, which operation is termed fll/ing out, and is applicable as well to ceilings as to walls. This branch of plastering requires the best sort of workmen, and great care in the execution. -'-Tl. Bastard stucco is of three coats, the first whereof is roughing in or rendering, the A i ond is floating, as in trowelled stucco, which will be next described ; but the finishing at contains a small quantity of hair or white sand. This work is not hand floated, and lie trowelling is done with less labour than what is denominated trowelled stucco. 2241. Trowelled stucco , which is the best sort of plastering for the reception of paint, is rmed on a floated coat of work, and such floating should be as dry as possible before the tucco is applied. In the last process, the plasterer uses the hand float, which is made ofa ’•‘■ce of half-inch deal, about nine inches long and three inches wide, planed smooth, with i • lower edges a little rounded off, and having a handle on the upper surface. The ground " b«- stuccoed being made as smooth as possible, the stucco is spread upon it to the extent •I four nr five feet square, and, moistening it continually with a brush as he proceeds, the •rkinan trowels its suiface with the float, alternately sprinkling and rubbing the face of c stucco, till the whole is reduced to a fine even surface. Thus, by smull portions at a 7 7 706 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. time, he proceeds till the whole is completed. The water applied to it has the effect ot hardening the face of the stucco, which, when finished, becomes as smooth as glass. 12245. From what has been said, the reader will perceive that mere laying or plastering on laths, or rendering on walls, is the most common kind of work, and consists of one coat only ; that adding to this a setting coat, it is brought to a better surface, and is two-coat woi k ; and that three-coat work undergoes the intermediate process of floating, between the rendering or pricking up and the setting. 2245a. This plain plastered surface has received an improvement in a method of stamping or incising it, while wet, the invention, in 1857, of Mr. Benj. Ferrey, architect. “ It is well known that the external rough-casting on old timber houses was stamped or wrought in small devices, known by the term pargetting ; but it never assumed the import- ance of extensive wall decorations. The plan now proposed is to impress the common stucco wilh geometrical or other forms, and applied according to taste, either under string courses, around arches, in spandrils, softites, or in large masses of diapering ; and texts may be im- p> inter! on the plaster instead of being simply painted on the walls. If colour be desired, it can be effected by mixing the desired colour with the coat forming the groundwork, then by laying the stencilled pattern against it, and filling in the solid portions of the device with the ordinary stucco or plaster.” The process does not pretend to do more than enliven wall surfaces, but for this purpose it is very effective. Whippingham Church, in the Isle of Wight, is decorated in this manner, with devices in different colours. 2246. Ceilings are set in two different ways ; the best work is where the setting coat is composed of plaster and lime putty, commonly called gauge stuff (2237). Common ceilings are formed with plaster without hair, as in the finishing coat tor walls set for paper. The t deflection of ^th of an inch for each foot in length is not injurious to ceilings ; indeed, the usual allowance for settlement is about twice that quantity. Ceilings have been found to settle about four times as much without causing cracks, and have been raised back again without injury. (Barlow, p. 179.) 2246a. In Dublin, the designations in plasterers’ work are different to those we have named above. Work to ceilings is described as “ Lath scratched, floated, and coated , while to walls it is described as “scratched, floated, and coated ” Shimming., to plasterers work, is a very thin coat of white (i.e. lime) put on float work to smoothea it, and to leave a clean face ; coated is the term for better work of the same character. 2246 b. Hitchin’s fireproof plaster appeared about 1877 ; it is valued for its simplicity economy, and facility in working. The fibrous slab plastering is always dry and read for fixing. The slabs on a wire base protect ceilings, walls, and woodwork from firi Casings on wire base proiect iron and wood girder-, columns and such like. 1’uggiii; slabs are used for prevention of sound. Wilkinson and Co’s fbrous piaster slabs ar intended for lining walls and ceilings, and for fixing under slaiing; also to partitions air under floor-boards for deadening sound. 2246c. Johnson’s patent rolled fireproof wire lathing is now occasionally used as a suhsti tute for wood laths. It is a foundation for fire- resist mg pla-ter. His woven wire mui iro fireproof partition wall is intended to supersede the ordinary stud and brick partitions, an is applicable to roofs. Metal laths , of thin sheet iron, by Edwards's patent, are for use i fire-resisting ceilings, partitions, and doors. Wireworlc, in place of lathing, for formic ceilings and other plaster surfaces, patented in 1841 by L. Leconte, had been previousl adopted in the building of the Pantechnicon, near Belgrave Square. 224 6d. Nickson and Waddingham have patented a slate ground fir plaster, by using, ii stead of laths, those slates which do not turn out in the quarries sufficiently wide for size roofing slates ; an immense number of them being necessarily thrown aside daily, althoug of the best quality. The slates are fixed J in. apart ; the pla-ter to be | in. thick, of wc- haired stuff', which keys itself between the slates; they run from 12 to 7 in. long an upwards. The system was worked about 1862 at Manchester 2247. Pugging is plaster laid on boards, fitted in between the joists of a floor to prevei the passage of sound between two stories, and is executed with a coarse stuff made of lm and hay chopped into lengths of about 2 inches. Silicate cotton or slag wool, nailed in slai to the underside of the joists of a floor, or against the studs of a partition, acts as a no conductor of heat or cold ; it is also fireproof, sound-proof, vermin-proof, and frost-proi One ton of it, one inch thick, covers 1,800 square feet. This material is now great used; also for protecting exposed iron work. Asbestos millboard is another mate! greatly employed for lining partitions, to deaden sound passing through; as well as ! fireproof purposes. 2248. The following materials are required for 100 yards of render set; viz. l| hu dred of lime, 1 double load of river sand, and 4 bushels of hair ; for the labour, 1 pla-tei 3 days, 1 labourer 3 days, 1 boy 3 days; and upon this, 20 per cent, profit is usua allowed. For 130 yards of lath plaster and set — 1 load of laths, 10,000 nails, 2^ hundr of lime, l£ double load of river sand, 7 bushels of hair; for the labour, 1 plaste. PLASTERING. 707 Chat III. I 6 days, ] labourer 6 days, 1 boy G days ; and upon this, as before, 20 allowed. inch 1 bushel of Portland or Roman cement will cover, yards super, 1^ 1 ditto, and 1 of sand - - - - 2} 1 ditto, and 2 ditto - - - - * S^- 1 ditto, and 3 ditto - - - - - *1-| 1 ewt. of mastic and 1 gallon of oil - per cent. 7 6 is usually 8 9 ol 1 cubic yard of chalk lime, 2 yards of sand, and 3 bushels of hair, will cover 75 yards of render set on brickwork ; 70 yards on lath ; or 65 yards plaster ; or lendtr two coats i and set on brick; and 60 yards on lath. F.oated work requires about the same as two coats and set. A bundle of laths and 500 nails will cover about yards superficial. Two hundred laths, 4 feet long, are required for a square. A bundle of laths contains 500 feet nominally. 2249. In the country, for the exterior coating of dwellings and outbuildings, a species of plastering is used called ruvyheast It is cheaper than stucco or Roman cement, and therefore suitable to such purpo es. In the process of executing it, the wall is first pricked up with a coat of lime and hair, on which, when tolerably well set, a second coat I is laid or. of the same materials as the first, but as smooth as possible. As fast as the workman finishes this surface, another follows him with a pailful of the roughcast, with which he bespatters the new plastering, so that the whole dries together. The roughcast is a composition of small gravel, finely washed, to free it from all earthy particles, and mixed with pure lime and water in a state of semi-fluid consistency. It is thrown from the pail upon the wall, with a wooden float, about 5 or 6 inches long, and as many wide, formed of half-inch deal, and fitted with a round deal handle. With this tool, while the plasterer throws on the roughcast with his right hand, in his left he holds a common while-washer's brush dipped in the roughcast, with which he brushes and colours the mortar and the roughcast already spread, to give them, when finished, an uniform colour and appearance. 22t9u. Gypsum or plaster of Paris is largely used in France for the construction of walls, both internally and externally, as well as for rendering them afterwards. We adopt the following method of working it, as explained by G. R. Burnell : “ The coarser kinds of plaster are used for rendering ; the finer qualities for ceilings, cornices, and decora- tive works. For walls, the plaster must be gauged still' for the first coats, and more fluid for the setting coat. For cornices worked out in the solid, the core is made of stiffly l gauged plaster, which is floated with finer material, and lastly finished off with plaster laid on by hand, about the consistence of cream. Practice only can ascertain the precise degree of stiffness to be given, as every burning yields a different quality of plaster. When walls arc to be rendered, they require to be first jointed, and then wetted with a broom. The |surface is then covered with a coat of thinly gauged stuff laid on with a broom, or at least worked with a trowel in such a manner as to leave sufficient bold for the next coat. This is gauged stiff, and is laid on with a trowel ; it is floated with a rule, but the face is finished with a band trowel ; the surfaces, however, are never so even, or the angles so square and true, as in the usual plasterers’ work adopted in England. The ceilings are lathed about 3 to .3^ inches from centre to centre, and the plaster poured in from above on to a sort of flat centering, leaving about an inch for the thickness of plaster ; the ceiling oat is added after the centering is removed. The better descriptions are made with itlis 4 inches from centre to centre, the space between ceiling and floor filled up with ight work, and the under and upper surfaces rendered to receive the ceiling and tiles.” 22 i'jIi. \\ ,tb gypsum, only about 2th s of the evaporation arises as from ordinary plaster- mg. A serifs of experiments made in 1850, proved that the cost of ordinary works need ">t exceed in .any sensible proportion, if at all, those usually called “ render set ; ” and hat they are stiictly the same as “render float and set.” A room was begun and finished a thirty hours, whilst a common lime and hair rendering coat would have required, pro- iu-rly speaking, about a month. French plaster must never be used in any position where moisture is likely to affect it for any length of time. It is very hygrometric, and soon iccays ii kept moist. If it be used as mortar, as in brick-noggcd partitions, to be covered ,v ‘ r immediately, a space for its expansion must be allowed. In France, a small space is ' ft between the wall and partitions; this is filled in by the plastering coat. The one observation applies to floors with plaster pugging, and even to cornices with a large I "dy of thnt material, the mitres and returns being executed some time after the straight mouldings. 2'25(>. In forming the coves and cornices which arc applied below the ceilings of rooms, i is of the greatest importance to make them ns light as possible, for the plaster whereof “ V arc formed is heavy, and ought not to depend merely on its adhesion to the vertical ' -I horizontal surfaces to which it is attached, llcncc, when cornices run of large ditneu- z z 2 708 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. sions, bracketing, as lias already been described in the section Joinkhy (2079, et srq.), must be provided, of the general form of the cornice or cove, or other work, and on this the plastering is to be forme, I. On this, when roughed out, the work is run with wooden moulds, having zinc or copper edges, so as to give the general outline of the cornice. If enrichments are used in it, they are cast in plaster of Paris, and afterwards fixed with that material in the spaces left for them to occupy. These enrichments are previously modelled, and from the model a matrix is formed, as for all other plaster casting. Great nicety is required in all the operations relative to the moulding and fixing of cornices, and most especially that the ornaments be firmly fixed by screws or other means, that they may not be detached from their places by partial settlements of the building, and cause accidents to the occupiers of the rooms where they are used. 2250«. Selenitic lime was the invention, about 1 8 5 G, of General Scott, R.E., who observed that limestone capable of conversion by burning into a hydraulic lime, mighi be able to furnish a good cement by simply allowing a small portion of sulphuric acid gas to pass into Tie kiln during the burning of the lime. The process, since about 1870. is explained as consisting of carefully mixing with the water used in the preparation of tin mortar a small quantity of plasttr of Paris or gypsum, or green vitriol. The lime may then be ground in an ordinary mortar-mill with the mixture into a creamy paste fur three or four minutes ; the sand, burnt clay, or other ingredients may then be added, and the! whole thoroughly ground for ten minutes or more. The lime is a good buff in colour With double the usual quantity of sand the tensile strength of the mortar is increased fourfold. It sets rapidly and well, and as *' stuff” in plastering it effects a considerable! saving in time over that usually made from lime. “ Selenitic mortar saves half the lime, is four times as strong, and sets in a quarter of the time of common mortar.” 225 05. A rendering plaster, for superseding the use of lime and hair mortar in the plastering of walls and ceilings, has been brought forward by A. G. Barham, of Bridg- water. It is stated to be very tough and strong, not liable to crack or swell, and is applied without hair, direct to brick walls or lathwork. The surface dries and hardens rapidly, and it cm be painted or papered at once, as there is nothing in the plaster to injurt either of the processes. When dry it is of itself a good grey in colour. For outsidi stucco it is also stated to be a safe material, and is likewise free from vegetation an( colouring. 2250c. Adamant cement has last year (1887) been introduced into this country, a Birmingham, from Syracuse, New York, by a company. It is a wall plaster and cement and is manufactured in three qualities, No. 1, 2, and Chromolith. The two first are use< as for ordinary plastering, and the third in p'ace of the superior Parian cement, at a les cost. As all the bright mineral and vegetable p : gments can be used with it, fiourings mosaics, and mantels are produced; also tiles, marble slabs, terra-cotta, and other article! of a similar character. It is very hard; costs but little more than lime plaster; th room plastered one day can be used the next ; is easily applied, even to iron lath or win work ; is impervious to wind or weather ; smooth to w>>rk over for painting, absorbs bu l'ttle oil, the colours do not change, requires no sizing, and from a sanitary point o view is of gieat value. It is also considered to have fireproof qualities. 2250 d. Stucco is a species of plastering which is sometimes subsequently workpd t resemble marble. There are two sorts of stucco, those made of limes, and those made o plaster. The former are often classed under the name of cements, but their disagreeabl colour prevents their being used for ornamental decoration. They serve, however, toforn the foundations for the better class whenever humidity is to be feared. The latter ar generally made of lime, mixed with calcareous powder, chalk, plaster, and other substances in such a manner as to obtain in a short time a solid surface, which may be coloured painted, and polished with such perfection as to allow of its being used instead of mor expensive materials. 2250e. The Italians usually execute their stuccoes in three coats. The first is very coarsi to form the renderirg. The second is much finer, and contains a larger proportion o lime, bringing the work up to a very even close grain. The last is made of rich lime, whic has been slaked and run through a very fine sieve ; it is allowed to stand from four to fiv months, in order that every particle may be reduced to a hydrate. If the lime canDot l kept for so great a length of time, the slaking may be assisted by beating it up very fn quently. When great perfection is required, pounded white Carrara marble is mingled wit it ; gypsum and alabaster are used for enclosed situations. Colours are obtained by mixm with the lime such metallic oxides, &c., as the case may require. The excellence of th work consists in the care with which the effects of the natural marbles are imitated. 2250/’. When plaster is used ins' ead of lime, it is gauged with lukewarm water, in wine size or gum has been dissolved, so as to fill up the pores, to give more consistency, and t render it susceptible of receiving a better polish. Any colours used should be previous! dissolved in the size water. When the whole of the stucco is perfectly dry, the surface Chap. III. FLASTERING. 709 then rubbed with grit stone and polished up with rubbers, much in the same way as real marble. The thickness of a coat of stucco varies from one-sixth to one-eighth of an inch. 2250y. Stucco work, as it is called, and as executed daily in Ireland for outside work, consists of their rochc lime, slaked for three or four months previously, as above described, mixed with sand, and worked up with the trowel. It stands the weather as perfectly as Roman cement. The term is also given to the interior moulded and cast work. 2250 h. There are practically five mortars now in use. 1. Ordinary grey stone lime moitar; 2. The same selenised ; 3. Lias lime mortar; 4. The same selenised; and 5. Portland cement mortar. The four last take a rapid set. If after a few days set they become expanded and disintegrated by frost, it is doubtful if, when thawed, they will reassume a pasty condition and set again. The first develops heat in slaking, andean be used hot. and will therefore take longer to freeze, but then as it sets slower it remains longer open to the attack of frost. The budding journals in the first month of 1888 printed a communication from Norway explaining how bricklaying was done there in frosty weather. It lias been suggested by Mr J Woodley that, after all, the secret lies in ‘ dry slaking’ the lime, and following it up in small quantities at a time, thus keeping up a continuous supply of mortar in a hot state. This method is to lay out a portion of unslaked lime, and to sprinkle upon it just so much, and no m re, water as is sufficient to set the action called ‘slaking’ in motion: it is not to be run; then to add the stipulated proportion of sand, which should be spread over the lime in such a manner as to effectually prevent the escape of the generated heat and steam. Ordinarily, this should be repeated again and again until the whole consignment of lime is absorbed in one heap, which should be sheltered from the weather, and when required for use passed through the usual ‘ sand-screen ’ or sieve to remove the core. But if desired to bo used warm, it can be slaked and made up in small quantities as required ; hence hot mortar. In winter time the bricks should be protected from excessive saturation by rain or snow; in sum- mer time it is difficult to get them wetted at all by the builder. 2250i. The plastering of a house has occasionally to be dried artificially. Ligny’s patent drying process is us6d : 1. For damp walls and plaster in new houses, so that they may be papered, painted, and occupied as quickly as possible without risk to health, and that at a cost of from thirty shillings a room, according to degree of dampness : 2. For old buildings and basements where the damp arises from contact with wet soil; also for drying thin walls much exposed to the weather and through which wet penetrates. 2250/r. Scagliola work is an imitation of real marble. Its manufacture has generally been assumed as a mystery.- It is a species of plaster or stucco invented at Carpi, in the state of Modena, by Guido Sassi, between 1600 and 1649. It is sometimes called mischia, from the mixture of colours introduced in it. It was not, however, till the middle of the eighteenth century that the art of making scagl ola was brought to per- fection. The following is the method of making columns and pilasters: — A woodrn I crad'e, composed of thin str ps of deal or other wood, is made to represent the column designed, but about 2J inches less in diameter than the shaft is intended to be when [finished. This cradle is lathed round, as for common plastering, and then covered with ia pricking-up coat of lime and hair. When this is quite dry, the scaglio'a artist com- mences his operations, and, by imitating the rarest and most precious marbles, produces i work which cannot be, except by fracture or sound, discovered to be counterfeit. The purest gypsum which can be obtained is broken into small pieces, and calcined. As soon is the largest fragments lose their brilliancy, the fire is withdrawn ; the calcined powder - passed through a vcy fine sieve, and mixed up with a solution of Flanders glue, singlass, etc. In this solution the colours are diffused that are required to be imitated n the marblo; but if the work is to be of various colours, each colour is separately pre- wired, and they are afterwards mingled and combined nearly in the same manner that a ’’'inter mixes the primitive colours on his palette to compose his different tints. When lie powdered gypsum is prepared and mingled for the work, it is laid on the shaft of the "I umn or other surface over the pricked-up coat of lime and hair, anil it is then floated vith proper mou'ds of wood, the artist during the floating using the colours necessary for he imitation, by which means they become mingled and incorporated uith the surface. I lie process of polishing follows; and this is done by rubbing the surface with pumice- •one in one of his hands, while with the othor ho cleans it with a wet stone. It is hen polished with tripoli and charcoal and fine and soft linen ; and after going over it > ith a piece of felt dipped in a mixture of oil and tripoli, he finishes with application of ure oil. Scagliola work is so easily put up in a building, and requires so small an mount of time and expense for renovation and repair, compared with repainting and 710 THEORY OF. A ECU ITECTUKE. Hook II varnishing, that those who are induced to go to the expense of plastering the walls with mastic, to be ready for immediate painting, marbling, and high polishing, might be justi- fied in expending a further sum and adopt scagliola at once. For the walls of the stair- case in the building formerly called Crockford’s Club House, St. James’s Street, the scagliola was prepared upon slabs of slate half an inch thick, sawn on the surface with cuts about one-eighth of an inch deep, to form a key for the plaster groundwork. When the slabs were lit for polishing they were secured with battens fixed to the wall The scagliola to the staircases at the Reform Club House is worked upon the walls; they are richly panelled, moulded and inlaid. The fluted columns, in the same building, to the gallery a .d skylight of the saloon are done upon stone. The three-quarter columns in the drawing and coffee rooms were cast in three lengths, and each backed with tiles bedded in coarse plaster. Some black and gold columns, worked in Keene’s cement on stone, and two twis ed columns in plaster, are placed in Wilton Church, Wiltshire. When Parian cement is used, the groundwork is formed of wet cement of the coarse quality, the veneer being of the same thickness as common scagliola ; but one half of the quantity of colours will pro- duce the same depth of colouring as in the common scagliola. For polishing, the same process is to be followed as for walls, as described in par. 2251 i. 2250/. Scagliola floors exist at Sion House, Isleworth ; at the entrance hall at the Athenaeum Club House, London; and at Crewe Hall. Cheshire. Many other examples of the employment of scagliola work will be found named in an excellent article in the Builder for 1863, p. 840, one of the best on the subject; and another in February 1845. A very inferior imitation of scagliola is too often to be seen. 2251 Vl. A material has been lately prepared at the Patent Marble Works, for similar purposes. It is manufactured in slabs from ^ to l inch thick, of any size, for lining, anj for moulded work. The prices are stated to be under those of enamelled slate. Marezzo marble , made of cement, has been introduced since 1868. The entrance hall at the Society of Arts, London, has been lined with it. 2251. In the present time, the use of ornaments made of carton pierre, a species of papiei mache, has been reintroduced for cornices, flowers, and other decorations. The basis of it is paper reduced to a pulp, which, having other ingredients mixed with it, is pressed into moulds, and thus ornaments are foimed of it. They have not all the delicacy of the plaster cast, and there is the want of that nicety which a good cornice workman in plaster ex- hibits; but their lightness, and the security with which they can be fixed with screws, render them often preferable to plaster ornaments. The ‘‘Critic” newspaper in 1865 s ated that in Bergen, in Prussia, there is a church capable of holding 1,000 persons, con- structed entirely, statues and all, of papier mache. Probably, however, the material is that used to a very great extent in Norway and Sweden for forming the roofs of houses, and said to be incombustible. It appears to be in many respects similar to the Fibrous i slab, the manufacture of which, by Bielefeld, was discontinued a few years since, after much success ; though the dust penetrated through it, showing the marks of the joists, as it; plaster work. The ceiling of the reading room at the British Museum was lined with it. Another material, superseding carton-pierre and papier mache, is Desachy’s Fibrous plaster which is formed of a thin coat of plaster of Paris, run upon a backing of coarse canvas. It is of great lightness, not inflammable, and is ready to be painted immediately after it is made. It is adapted for the speedy and economical production of any coffered or circular work; and for wagon-headed ceilings, as but little bracketing is necessary, it being fixed tt the joists direct; for fluted or ornamented columns, panelled dadoes, &c„ for the lining ci walls and ceilings, and for all purposes of ornamental plaster work. Mr. Owen Jones ha extensively used this material for his interior dtcorations. (22465.) CEMENTS. 2251a. We have already adverted to the cements used in plastering. Roman, Blue Lias and Portland cements are the principal ones for the outside coating of buildings, and tin process of laying them on is so similar to that of other plasterers’ work, that it w ill not In necessary to say much respecting them. The best mode, perhaps, of using these natura cements is to employ them purely in works under water, or where a great crushing weigh' is to be brought upon them at once. For foundations in damp situations, where rapidit; of execution is desired, the mixture may lie 2 parts of sand to 3 of cement; and also fui cornices or coatings exposed to the weather. For upright faces, the proportion is o 3 parts of sand to 1 of cement. Care must be taken that no fissures are formed such a will admit water, as the action of frost will destroy it. The brickwork in mortar, to lie co vered, should be thoroughly dry, or the expansion of the water will throw off the cement the brickwork itself must, however, be wetted before a coat is applied, to prevent tin absorption of the moisture before the coat sets, or it will not harden. With slow setnn; Cements, it is too often the custom to allow the filling out, and even plain faces, to bcconu PLASTERING. 711 Chav. III. martially set, when the adhesion of the next quantity will he found imperfect ana unsound. \I1 work requires to be finished off at once for a good result. Dirty sand causes the ement to be crumbly. Cement once set, or even partially so, should not be worked up I n a fresh mixture, or it will form rotten work. Like lime in the setting coat in plastering, .-ement fa ings and mouldings are not so liable to show fire-cracks on the face if a small ; piantity of sand be mixed up with it. 22516. In using Portland cement, plasterers should use thicker screeds, and finish their •cork in one coat with the screed-rule, instead of working all the water used in gauging 0 the surface with the hand-float and trowel, spoiling the thinner coat whilst they lay it in. This cement has an advantage over others, that it can, with good management, be corked in winter, while other cements cannot be so used without great risk of the frost njuring them befoie they are diy. More cement added to make a coat set quicker, causes t to crack and burst. This cement is best when used of a uniform thickness of |ths of an nch, any dubbing out being done with pieces of brick and Roman cement. A propor- ion of Portland cement mixed in the usual plastering coat affords a quicker drying mate* ial for finishing with Portland or with Martin s cement. The coarse quality of Martin's ement may take the place of plaster, and all the delays consequent on its use. 2251c. Lime putty should never be put in the finishing coat of Portland cement; it is lone to make the cement fat, and to save labour in trowelling the face up to a smooth sur- ace; the lime takes weeks to get hard, the cement takes days only, hence the two cannot rgree. Labour to the cement and clean washed sand is all that is required. 2251 d. For interior embellishments, the cements known as Martin’s, Keene’s, ana Parian, are largely adopted. Martin's cement is manufactured in three qualities, coarse fine, and superfine. The coarse quality presents a whitish speckled surface, and is supplied in red, light red, and grey, colours. The fine is whiter; the superfine is a cream colour. It is said to cover 20 per cent more surface, at half an inch in thickness, at a less cost than an ?qual quantity cf any other cement for internal use, and to be 35 percent, cheaper than such -ements. For walls 1 part of coarse cement is used with lj of clean dry sharp sand, for lie under coat of half an inch thick, finished with J incli thick of pure cement. It is jf a fireproof character, and preserves to some extent the building from damp : the cement s supposed to continue to indurate with age, and therefore to be very durable. When idoptcd for floors, skirtings, and other finishings, whether plain or ornamental, in lieu if wood, the cost is stated to be less than similar work executed in that material, while n appearance it is very much superior, as it takes a fine polish. It can be painted upon vithin twenty hours after having been worked on old brickwork, and in twelve hours vhen on lathed work ; but all three qualities are as well without paint. Plaster of Paris jnust not be mixed with it, or Roman or Portland cement used as an undercoat. 2251e. Keene's cement is said to show on its face the lines of any woodwork which it nay be carried across. If required, it can be painted upon in twenty-four hours after the 1 oat on old brickwork is completed. Skirtings, flooring, and internal stucco are worked in his material, on account of its superior hardness. This cement will mix with any of the netallic oxides, &c., to produce a coloured cement. 1 2251/. Parian cement (Keating’s patent), for internal stucco, has been used throughout he Westminster palace. It does not effloresce, takes paint or paper in forty-eight hours, nd makes a very hard and beautiful scagliola. It sets in four or five hours. It must not le treated as common plastering, by being band-floated up with water, as for all purposes Is little water as possible is to be used with it. This material must not come in contact pith green lime, or with limewater in any of the operations. On brickwork, it is first ' oated about A in. thick, with equal parts of clean washed sharp sand, and the surface lightly dragged. The next day a setting coat, -, 3 6 in. thick, of net cement, may be worked, iid down with a beech float and slightly trowelled. If intended to be painted or papered, ne first coat of paint should be applied from twenty to twenty-four hours after. The aint is to be mixed, for the first coat, only one-fourth oil and three-fourths turpentine, ml with a very small portion of red lead and gold size. The succeeding coats of paint are i be mixed in the usual manner. On lathing, the laths may be closer than usual; the first l it of equal parts of clean washed sharp sand and cement, broomed while soft, and floated ie next day with cement as before; the setting coat to be followed up next day, and lixlicd as described for brickwork. The three coats will be j in. in thickness. 2251 g. Damp walls require a first coat of Portland cement j in. thick ; when dry, a coat of p.ut ol Parian cement mixed with ^ part of washed sand, gauged very still', rubbed in bard, id draggid before it sets. When hard, a floating coat without sand is to be applied ; to be t as before on the following day, and painted on the succeeding morning, without fail. 2-516. For floors, the cement mixed with J part of Rath stone dust, j{ in. thick, is to be ad on a solid bottom of Portland concrete, in one body j in. thick. On common plastering , here the ordinary time is allowed for finishing the works, the plaster is to be laid fair, id dragged and left to dry; the cement to be mixed with an equal part of washed sharp nd and lluated J in. thick. The next day a thin coat of cement having ^ of sand is laid wn and trowelled as before. If required to be papered, it must first have two coats of 712 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II paint. In pa'ching, when required to be painted or distempered on immediately, the edge of the old plastering is to ha\e first a coat of paint. 225 li. For polished work on walls, the floating coat is mixed with equal parts of sharp sand and cement. The setting coat is j in. in thickness, of fine net cement, rubbed down with grit stones and water; the grit is to be then well washed ofif, and when the water is gone, a stopping of fine cement mixed up stiff in a pan is to be applied a d well rubbed in. This is then to be scraped off with a wood scraper, and the stopping repeated until a proper face is obtained, having a scum on the face to be taken off by the next grinding which should be done with finer grit stones. The stopping is to be repeated and finally finished with snake stone, putty powder, and clean cloths. Three or four weeks’ time is required before a good polish can be obtained it being essential that each successive stop- ping of fine cement should be allowed several days to harden before the surface is again scraped. 2251 k. For casting work, the cement is to be mixed stiff and dubbed in the moulds with a brush, and then left until thoroughly set. Such are the instructions for all tluse several processes issued by Messrs. Franc s, tiie manufacturers of this cement, which was applied, to the walls of the wards, corridors, anti staircases of Middlesex Hospital, in 1849, from its non-absorbing qualities. 225 1 1- A very good specimen of plain decora’ive work is to be seen in the booking- office of the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway Company, at the Victoria Station. The walls, piers, &c., were executed in this cement, then painted in flat tints, and var nished and polished several times. 2251m. Cement floors may be made in an economical manner, by first forming a bed of concrete to prevent damp rising, then placing on it a coat 1 1 in. thick of Atkinson’s cement mixed with three of clean fine sand; or in Roman cement; or in Cortland cement, with four of sand, floated in by a rule on screeds, care being taken to prevent the joints setting. If the cement set slow, it may be trowelled down while soft, but not when it is setting, ot the face will be injured. If the cement sets very quick, a rough key is to be formed, and then covered with fine mortar Jin. thick, trowelling it gently before it begins to set. 1 rising damps be not anticipated, the floor may be first paved with clean hard brickbats it lieu of concrete, and covered an inch thick wiih good cement. 2251/1. Cortland cement floors have answered perfectly in several instances, but it i: an uncertain material; therefore, where the floors were not to be covered, or where ; s ight defect was of consequence, it has been considered better to use other cements, such a: Keene’s, as employed at the Metropolitan Convalescent Asylum, Walton-on-Thaines. good floor for common purposes is made of a concrete formed of 6 parts of clean gravel tt 1 of ground lias lime : this is generally impervious to damp and vermin. 2251o. The bituminous cements are used for paving, and for covering the extrados c arches to prevent the percolation of water through them. In all new constructions, there an always movements which crack the coatings executed in limes and natural cements, whicl are also subject to unequal shrinkage, producing crevices; and from these united causes, i is very rare to find such coatings impermeable. The bituminous cements are more elastic it may happen that small crevices, so to speak, solder themselves, and if any serious repair are required they are much easier to be executed than in those works executed with limes When asphalte is to be used, it js placed in a quantity of nearly boiling mineral pitch t< secure its melting. Colonel Emy found the tullowing proportions as the best lor tin asphalte of Gaugeac, and it may be taken for the others of this class of cements, when uset as a coating for arches: — 2J pints (wine measure) of pure mineral pitch. 11 lbs. avoirdupois of bitumen or asphalte. 17 pints of powdered stone dust, wood ashes, or minion. It is advisable to lay this mixture upon a bed of concrete or mortar ; and as much as possibb in slabs of 2 feet 6 inches to d feet in width. It should be evenly spread and compressed will a trowel, well rubbed, and reduced to a uniform close surface. When all the bubbles hav been expelled, a fine sand is sprinkled over the surface, and worked in with the trowel observing never to fill the crevices formed by the air-bubbles with sand, but only will asphalte. The thickness for coating any arches is not more than from three filths to hall an-incli. The quantity of cement thus employed to cover a yard square is about 4£lbs. 2252. It is scarcely within the branch of the plasterer’s practice, but as we shall ha' no other place for adverting to it, we may as well here mention what are called “compo sitioi. ” ornaments, seldom used in cornices, but principally for the decoration of clumne' glasses, frames, and to woodwork generally. The composition is very strong when dry. o a brownish colour, consisting of about 2 pounds of powdered whiting, I pound of glia in solution, and half a pound of linseed oil mixed togetiier in a copper, heated and stirrei with a spatula till the whole is incorporated. After beating it is laid upon a stone covere witlt powdered whiting, and beaten to a tough and firm consistence, when it is laid by f" use, covered with wet cloths to keep it fresh. This composition is then put into inoulu and pressed. Later inventions have nearly caused its disuse in architectural decorat. on. :**!•. in. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 713 Sect. X. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 22.73. Smithery is the art of uniting several lumps of iron into one lump or mass, and forming them into any desired shape. The operations necessary for this are primarily performed in the forge, and on the anvil with the hammer ; but for finishing, many other implements and tools are necessary. These, however, we do not think useful to par- i ticularise, a course we have pursued in the other trades, because the expedients introduced by the engineer and machinist have of late years, except in rough work, superseded many of them. It is now, for instance, easier to pk le iron to a perfect surface than it was a few years ago to file or hammer to what was then always an imperfect one. Formerly a man would be occupied as many minutes in drilling a hole as by machines it now takes seconds to perform. 2254. We have, in a previous section, given all the particulars relating to the produce tif the metal from the ore ; in this section we propose little more than to enumerate the j different objects which the smith and ironmonger furnish in the construction of buildings; and introductory to that it will be convenient to subjoin tables of the weights of round and bar iron, and also of the weights of 1 foot of close hammered bar iron of different thick- nesses ; remembering tint a cube foot of close hammered iron weighs about 495 lbs., of common wrought iron about 480 lbs., and of cast iron 450 lbs., whence may be derived the weight of other solids whose cubic contents are known. Tabi.e showing the Weight of one Foot in length of a square Ikon 11a k. Side of Square 111 inches. Weight in lbs. avoirdupois. ; Side of Square in inches. Weight in lbs. avoirdupois. l 1 0-1875 2 S 15-0625 3 s 0-4687 2 i 16-8740 0 8125 2 S 18-8125 a 1 -2812 »i 20-8125 3 1 -8740 -B 22-9687 l 2-562 5 C) 3 25-1875 1 3-3125 n ■27-7500 j 4 4-2187 3 30-0000 4 5-1875 31 32 -53 1 2 4 6-3125 •H 35-1875 4 7-5000 3| 37-9687 4 8-8125 3* 40 7812 M 10-1875 35 43-7812 4 1 1 -7187 4 46-8740 2 13-3125 a l 50-0520 4 53-3125 Table showing the Weight of one Foot in length of a hound Ikon Bar. Diame- ter in inches. Weight in lbs. avoirdupois. i Diame- ter in inches. 1 Weight in lbs. avoirdupois. i 3 0-1562 2'b 1 1 8125 3 8 0-3750 21 1 3-2500 1 2 0-6562 n 14-75 0 j 5 8 1 -0000 91 “5 16-3437 3 1 1-4687 t)S 1 8 -0000 7 8 2-0000 2* 19-7812 i 2-5937 n 2 1 -6250 4 3-3125 o 23-5625 4 4-0937 3i 2 5-56 25 4 4-9375 3* 27-6562 4 5-937* s| 29-8125 4 6-9052 si 32 0625 4 8-0000 Sjj 34-4062 4 9-1875 a i 36-812.* 2 10-4607 a l 39-3116 | 4 41-8740 bese tables give a little less weight than some others now in use. To convert into weight 1 "dier me als, multiply the numbers, for cast iron by -9.j ; for steel by l ol ; for copper y 115; tor brass by 1*09; for lead by l - 48; and for zinc by '92. Iabik I. of the M eight ok IIoop Ikon, according to the customary width and thickness, by the Birnvngham Wire Gauge, per 100 feet lengths (Ilurst j. Mark. No. Width In Inches. Weight in Pounds. Mirk. N .. Width in Incites. W ight in Pounds. 1 1 n 1 15-78 1 5 u 36-37 " (i) 3 126-30 15 'I 33-34 12 91-78 IG (i* a ) if 26-52 12 ? 73 42 17 4 20-84 13 21 7 1 -23 18 i 16-17 1 i 2 63-32 19 7 9 12-38 14 4715 20 8-81 r • >♦ 40-1 1 £1 ft M 6-95 714 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook IJ. Table II. of the Weight and Thickness of a superficial Foot of Sheet Iron, liv the Birmingham Wire Gauge ; — 1 Mark. | N - Decimals of an Inch Thick. rounds Weight. Mark. No. Decimals of an Inch Thick. Pounds Weight. Mark. No. Decimals of an Inch Thick. Pound* Weight. 00000 ($) •500 20- 10 •137 5-62 24 ■022 100 0000 •450 18- 11 (J) •125 5 00 25 •020 0-90 000 (J s ) •4375 17-50 12 •109 4 38 -'6 (s',) •018 0-80 00 (i) •375 15- 13 •094 3-75 27 •016 0-72 0 •340 13-60 14 •080 3-12 28 •014 0C4 1 (&) •3125 12-50 15 •072 2-82 29 •013 0-56 2 •284 12 00 16 (|' s ) •0625 2-50 30 •012 0 50 3 •26 1 1100 17 •055 2-18 31( T lg) •010 0-40 3-4 (.{) •250 1000 18 •048 l-xo 32 •009 0-36 5 *222 8-74 19 •012 1-70 33 •008 0 32 6 •208 8-12 20 •035 1-54 34 •007 0-28 7 (V •1875 7-50 si a) •0312 1-40 35 •005 0 20 8 • 1 66 6-86 22 ■029 1-25 36 •004 0 16 9 •158 6-21 23 •025 112 Table III. of the Weight of a Superficial Foot of Plate Iron in Pounds. Thickness, parts of an Inch 1 76 1 6 3 76 1 7 6 16 3 7 8 | 16 • ! Weight in pounds - 2-526 5 052 7-578 10-104 12-630 1 5 • 1 56 j 1 7*682 20-208 Thickness, parts of an Inch 9 76 5 S 1 1 76 3 I 13 76 7 15 8 | 76 i Weight in pounds - 22-734 j25'260 [27-7 86 30-312 32-839 -35-365 37 891 40-417 Table IV. of the Weight of Ordinary Angle Iron in Pounds ter Lineal Foot Breadth in inches - - I u u If | 2 Ql 4 “4 3 Weight per pound - - j 1-8 2-7 3 -;i j 3-9 5-0 6-5 8-3 10 4 .1-7 Table V. of Weight of Iron Bolts and Nuts. (Mulholland, in Builder, iv. 2‘J.j Diameter of Bolt, inch. 1 4 3 8 1 2 5 8 3 1 4 7 8 1 4 Weight per foot of) round Iron, pounds J *2 •4 •7 l-o 1-5 2-0 2-7 3-4 4-2 Weight per inch of) round Iron J 016 033 058 •083 •125 •166 •225 •283 •350 Weight either of) Head or Nut J •021 •062 145 •260 •468 •729 1125 1-77 2-187 5-0 60 ■416 500 2-86 ,3-75 « 5S3 4'74 2254 a. Bolts are now often made with square heads, so that these being let into ll timber, the stem cannot turn while the nut is being screwed up. Machinery has bei brought to bear for the manufacture of bolts, rivets, spikes, and other like articles; 1 motions are so arranged that no attention is required beyond entering the bars into tl feed rolls and cleaning the pieces of the ends of the iron out ot the dies.” I Tvt I Fi r* iap. ii r. SMITHEEY AND IRONMONGERY. 715 ’-i.E showing thk Weicht of close-hammer id flat Bar Iron, from One Inch wide and an Eighth of an Inch thick to Twelve Inches wide and One Inch thick. : nches, id their Tbickuess in Parts of an Inch, and Weight in Pounds avoirdupois. arts in readth. h 1 i i 5 i i X i 0'4'9 0-859 1-289 1-718 2148 2 578 3‘0"7 3 437 H 0484 0-68 1 503 1-937 2-422 2-005 3-383 3 8n8 H 0 539 1-078 1-639 2-148 2-682 3-226 S-758 4-305 n 0-593 1-187 1-773 2-368 2 953 3-547 4 133 4 726 4 0-648 1-289 1-937 2579 3 218 3-867 4-508 5-156 if 0-695 1-398 2 093 2-789 3 492 4-187 4 890 5-585 i 0-750 1-500 2 250 3 008 3-758 4-508 6 266 6 016 0 801 1-609 2414 3-218 4 281 4 835 5 641 , 6-445 2 0 859 1 '699 2-578 3 437 4-297 5156 6 016 6-874 H 0-9 1 3 1-828 2-742 3 356 4’562 5'476 6 391 7-305 n 0948 1-937 2-897 3 867 4-835 5-805 6 766 7-734 n 1023 2 039 3 062 4-148 5101 6-125 7-148 8-161 1-069 2148 3 218 4-297 5 375 6445 7-547 8-594 ol 2? 1-125 2-250 3 383 4-516 5 641 6766 7-897 9 023 M79 2-366 3-500 4 726 5905 7-093 8-273 9443 1 234 2-468 3-721 4-937 6 180 7-414 8-048 9-882 3 1-289 2-578 3-867 5-156 6-445 7-734 9 023 10-312 H 1-344 2-087 4-031 5 375 6-734 8 055 9-398 11-742 3f 1-398 2-789 4-187 5 609 6-984 8 375 9-773 11T72 1-443 2-905 4-335 5-805 7250 8-703 10-156 11-601 4 1-500 3 007 4-508 6-016 7-616 9-039 10 503 12-031 3 1 1 562 3117 4-672 6-226 7-789 9-344 10 905 12-461 3:f 1-609 3-218 4-860 6-445 8 062 9 654 11-281 12-890 H 1-630 3-*28 5-000 6-656 8-328 9-992 J 1-656 13 320 4 1 718 3-437 5156 6-874 8-593 10 312 12 031 13750 8 3-436 6-874 10312 13 748 17-186 20-624 24-062 27-400 12 5 156 10-312 15-469 20-625 25-781 30-937 36 094 41 250 If of Cast Iron. I 12 4-835 9-664 14-500 19-336 24172 29 000 33-836 38 672 1255. For the carcase of a building the articles furnished by the smith are, wrought i i columns with caps and bases for the support of great superincumbent weights. ought iron columns were used in England as early as 1860 by Sir W. Fairbairn, t t her with wrought iron girders, and brick arches for fireproof work. When columns beyond a certain length in proportion to their diameter they fail by bending, and not crushing; also wrought iron is much stronger to resist tension than cast iron; as it is an undoubted fact that connections can bo made to wrought iron much better a to east, wo have hero a combination of advantages where long columns havo to be 1 which cannot but be appreciated. The use of steel for constructional purposes is easing rapidly, as it is so much more reliablo than iron. Messrs. Lindsay roll many i"ns of steel which can very easily be formed into columns by riveting. A column >■ of a aeries of steel troughs, 16 inches diameter externally, would bear a safe load 15 tons if 30 feet long, and the weight would be 74 lbs. per foot only. A cast iron mn 16 inches in diameter, 30 feet long, with 1A inches of metal, would (roughly) in ns .'lit be 220 lbs. per foot run, and safe load 100 tons (J. Slater). Combination columns '<■'/ can be. made to 6 feet diameter ; these, having a central concrete filling and outer J of bricks in cement, can be designed to sustain a load up to 2,000 tons. They are *" from 1.3 inches to 48 inches in diameter, and aro stated to bo not moro expensive ■ cast in m columns, and far superior. Cast iron columns and stanchions were pre- "I both for economy and stillness, as was also that material for girders, beams, joists, hrrssummtra, until the introduction of plate iron and rolled iron (all which have been '<"1 in previous sections). Iron columns can bo rendered fireproof by encasing them 1 fireclay blocks, grooved and socured by iron plates with claws, which lit on the rivet I'. I' or round columns a metal band is brought round the column, hooked together, dropped into the grtsivo of tile blocks. In either case a heavy bod of mortar is next cd, und then another course of blocks is bedded over the band or plate. Then it is 716 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ■ Book 1 4f.HL : feSfei il Iroi finished with Keene’s or Parian cement, making a good surface for decoration. Co. blister , shear, and spring steel-, charcoal .'heels and plates; boiler, tank, and jl itch plate ing, add galvanized and tinned sheets ; chequered flour plates, buckled plates; flat bars up to 12 i sabil ■wide, round, bars up to 8 in. diameter, square bars up to 5 in. ; angle, "["• aud trou fcfca irons. Tics of all descriptions, straps, bolts, mils and screws, plates, washers, and t MU like, employed in connecting pieces in framing where the strain is greater than the mt reral ia fibres of the wood will resist. Half-round, bevelled, oval, octagon, hexagon, moulding, ai fancy irons; hoop iron, nail- rods, and sash iron; shoes for piles, when that mode obtaining a foundation is adopted; sanitary appliances in iron ; manhole covers tor accc to sewers and drains; The Kmon disconnecting trap and cover, hinged to manhole f outside a building, and air-tight cover for inside a building. Cramps for holding bloc 1 st, l of stone together ; but those of cast iron are better, as less likely to be subject to o»id tion, while those of copper or gun-metal are still better; area gratings and window hu for securing openings, now generally' superseded for those of cast iron, especially wit of an ornamental character, as are ballisters and railings for stairs and bale >ni( Ornamental fancy gates. Rain-water pipes in 6 feet lengths, 2 to 8 in. in diameter, wi their cistern heads, offsets, tlbou-s, branch pieces, shoes, union sockets, and ears plain ai ornamental. Square rain-water pipes, 2| in. square, 3 in. by 2\ in., 3 in square; 3J- i by 2 in.; 3| in. by 21 in., 3^ in. by 3j in., 4 in. by 2| in., 4 in. by 3 in., 4| in. by 3 i 4 in. square, and 5 in. by 3^ in., with branch pieces, shoes, ears, &c. Rain-water gutti of all shapes and sizes, plain and moulded ; parent spout irons or brackets, with a s t( pin to bind the spout to the clip; roof gutters between slopes, square, angular, and squa and angular. Gregson’s perfectum down spouts ; where the pipe is simply hung on t nails and projects an inch from the wall ; it has a 7-inch socket for sliding to wall join and for sliding out any broken middle lengths for renewal without removing others drawing the nails. His separate patent hanger can he bolted to the ear ot any oth maker's pipes; when bolted they project 1| inches, so as to be painted all round. Pav ment gutters, air or stench traps, scrapers, and coal plates, for which last have lately be brought out Banner’s self-fastening; Stidder’s self-locking; also one self-fastening p forward by a company ; Hyatt’s glazed coalplates ; with many, if not all, of the artie' required for stable fittings, either plain, enamelled, or galvanized, as advertised by Varm Cottim and Hallen; the St. Paneras Iron Work Company; Musgrave, at Belfast; n others. Pavement lights, or Hayward’s patent, “semi-prism,” are extensively used I lighting basements, cellars, and underground apartments, giving a brilliant resu Hayward’s stall board lights. The former differs greatly from the prismatic or . -hi, deck lenses. T. Hyatt’s patent ornamental tile and glass lights fur pavements, sen prism gratings to light basements, Ike., stall-board lights, &c. ; the former have a m appearance, and afford a better foothold than glass alone. There are also Hamilioi patent prism, an 1 Halford’s patent prism pavement. Circular iron staircases with t head, riser, and spandrel in one, and adaptable where the space is confined, or to pi. from one story to another only; and among other things, chimney bars to relieve t weight of brickwork over a chimney opening (in kitchens and rooms where aim .opening is required, and two bars may not be sufficiently strong, a wrought or cast in cradling is neee sary). The Metropolitan Building Act requires that under certain cas the abutments of a chimney must be tied in by an iron bar or bars, turned up and dot a*; the ends, and built into t he jambs for at least 8$ in. on each side. 2255a. The advantage of now being able to procure wrought iron flitches of a go length and depth has obviated the necessity of wilding two or more lengths together the sledge hammer, which has not a sufficient impetus to reach the very core of t metal, and thus the joint became weaker than the remainder of the flitch or bar. It 64 experiments were made at Paris, on the effect of welding by hydraulic preesur two bars, each 1 | in. square, were thus welded together with great ease, and the much was stopped wh-m the part welded was brought down to the thickness of the bar. AO cooling, the welded part was cut through, and the inside was found perfectly compact. 22555. Boilerplate is made of rolled or wrought iron. They are termed sheets wit under A inch in thickness ; plates from a 5- inch to 2 inches thick ; and slabs when m< than 2 inches thick. They are named aecordirigto the quality of the iron^or the local where they are manufactured. The sizes of those most in use are from 6 feet to 9 I- long. 2 feet to 4 feet wide, aud from a | to £ of an inch n thickness. Pure chard Swedish galvanized flat sheet iron is imported for roofing ourposes, instead of zinc lead. It can be bent and hammered without cracking. 2255c. Corrugated iron is sheet iron which has been rolled into the form of a senes waves. It is in that state frequently used for a covering fo? temporary purposes, I tween joists to carry concrete, &e. ; and for fencing, the corrugation giving a thin sic great capabili'y for carrying a heavy weight, or for stiffening framework. The flufcs •' generally about 5£ or 6 inches from centre to centre. Sheets of Nos. 16, 18 and 20 " gauge are made from 6 feet by 2 feet, to 8 feet by 3 feet; and of Nos. 22, 2), ana Ibrsti l fit I, si ( p. III. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 717 f i 6 feet by 2 feet, to 7 feet by 2 feet G inches. In calculating the measure for fixed I 'ng, add A to the weight per square for lapping. The sheets should overlap each e ;r about 6 inches, and be double riveted at the joints. About 3 lbs. of rivets are re- q 'ed for a square of roofing. In roofs, the iron sheets are best used in a curved form. 2 ond. Wrought iron casements are still introduced into buildings. This has given rise t everal improvements upon the old method of manufacture for making them wind and v er tight. Those now generally advertised are : — patent wrought iron windows, by the (l eral Iron Foundry Company (Limited) ; Rurt and Potts’ patent wrought iron water- 4l t window and frame ; Gibbons and White’s wrought iron weather-tight casements and j nes for stone mullions ; and casements for wood mullions, as designed by Mr. G. Devey, a litect. All these are fitted with casement stags and fastenings. Connected with this purpose are Smith's (of Princes Street, Leicester Square) “patent weather-tight water-bar," for French casements, formed in the sill ; and one of another make, by a manufacturer of the same name (formerly of Queen Street, Oxford Street). In connection with tliis subject is the use of iron bars and casements for forming the lights in rear of warehouses anil offices in crowded localities, for the purpose of obtaining as much space and light as psssible, at the same time so as not to interfere with neighbours’ lights. A useful 5 ILL example, designed by Mr. Bassett Keeling, architect, is given in the Builder, 1880, vol. xxxix. 202, from which the following cuts □ forming part of the illustrations _ ~ are here given. Fig. 8U7r. is a section of the lower part of the vertical framing and sill. Fig. 807 h. is a section of one of the up- STO N E Pig. SWe. !pk ✓ — ^ - r it bars, showing hinge of casement. Fig. 807 i. is a section of the other bars and of l side of ca'ement. Fig. 807 g. is a section of the horizontal bar on the curved head from the vertical to the head. Fig. 807 f. shows the finish of the curved head against a wrought iron girder carrying a wall above. The letters B show the iron framing; C the iron casement ; G- the glass ; W the inside beaded wood framing. 225or. Fire-proof iron doors are made to shut in a rebate, as required under the Metropolian Building Act, or are made sliding; or sliding as carried out byMessrs. Hobbs, Hart and Co. on their new pa- tent clutch rebate principle. A door on each side of the party wall is usually required ; and for warehouse purposes in Txm- i i»r. 807/. Fig 807(7. -1 T o. B c a rig. 807 i. don they are specified to be made folding, and to be not larger than a definite size. The usual dimensions, outside of frames, of fire- proof wrought iron doors and frames, nmy bo usefully inserted here : — 6 ft. 9 in. high by 2 ft. 3 in. wide ; 6 ft. by 2 ft i in. ; 6 ft. 2 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. ; 6 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft. 6 in. ; 6 ft. 2 in. by 2 ft. S in. ; and 6 ft. -1 in. by 3 ft. 2255/. Iron shop fronts aro introduced in many towns. They are made from 12 feet by G f-et to 14 feet by 10 feet, generally at one shilling per superficial foot. "Whole hrass”and “half brass” sash bars, of nearly every form and size, aro manufactured, as copper, and zme beads. Metal "stall-board plates” hardly come within 718 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II our province, except to notice them. With this subject is connected the nineties of revolving shutters in iron, wood, or steel, and with or without machinery; and made tc lift up, or down, or to move sideways. A revolving safety shutter in one sheet of steel is probably the last invention ; it requires no machinery. Where the old method o putting up shutters exists, Jennings’s shop-shutter shoes secure them as they arc each pu 1 . up, without the necessity of any shutter bar. 2255 ( 7 . Wrought iron wine bins, and new registered iron bins, adapted for small quan ti ties of wine, placed in a closet in a sitting or other room, and with or without doors will be found a useful addition in small houses. ORNAMENTAL METAL WORK. , 225bh. The ornamental portion of smith’s work has been largely introduced, of late years especially, in wrought iron shaped by hand into various devices and patterns, mort especially according to the several periods of mediaeval architecture. The taste is chief!' developed in gates, railings, altar and staircase standards, screens, grilles and gratings tombs, hinge fronts, the band finishing either in a fleur de lis or trident, reaching to about three-fourths of the width of the door, and of fths iron ; or in seme scrollwork which curls and scrolls over the entire face of the door; shutter hinges, common dooi hinges; gable crosses, terminals, vanes, and hipknobs ; ridge erestings; drop handle.'! with plates, closing rings and plates ; lock plates and escutcheons, knockers, keys, latches | and bolts, bell pulls, levers and plate pulls ; umbrella stands ; scrapers ; fenders an fire-irons ; dog-grates ; lecterns and book rests ; candlesticks, gas, lamp, and candh pendants and brackets, desk lights, and standards ; coronse lucis, lanterns, and pillars It is almost unnecessary to add that many of these articles are to be had in polisher brass, and that many of them are imitated in cast iron. Wrought and cast iron, as ii panelled work to gates, are sometimes employed together, the wrought parts enclosing the panels. 2255 i. As iron has now neither the tenacity nor the ductility which it gained by tin old process of being repeatedly forged, the modern smith can scarcely hope to ennilat the fine works which were produced in mediaeval times, unless the iron be made for th purpose. It is not easy to repeat the mediaeval operations of slotting a bar, so as to get th eyes at equal distances, without a machine ; or of fastening hot (or, as in later time' cold) clips ; or of cutting slits into a bar from the edge, and then curling the splinterd parts; yet these were common work for the smith in the 12th century. It is equal! difficult to produce the twisted work which was easy to the mediaeval smith, whose chit care in the 13th and 14th centuries was bestowed in welding, stamping, and chiselling the file was scarcely ever used. In welding he was careful to fire the two parts separately getting the upper one to a white heat, the lower part to a red heat, and hammering th joint lightly at first, but harder as the iron grew colder. He disguised the uneven stnt of the upper part by punching on it separate dots, or else close ones, forming a sort c incised line. 2255 j. In very large specimens of ancient work, some parts are additions ontireh welded, others are additions confined at the ends by bands, which are welded across tin groundwork. To imitate work of the 13th century, such as a grille, requires a drawing a full size, and a matrix for each leaf or bud, with an anvil cut to each section which a bn or a band is to assume ; this last seems, with regard to the bar, to have been overlook' by M. Viollet-le-L)uc. Then, when a bar has been rounded (if needful), and the e.r stamped, the curl is given, and the smith has a stalk with a foot. Two of these must h applied to the drawing to have the point of junction marked, and the feet are to be welde* together. If the sprigs then made are to be combined into brunches, the larger stem is t be prepared ; and, if moulded on the face, this was passed between the hammer and th 1 cut anvil by a process equivalent to rolling the bar. After the sprigs are welded with th. branch, the poverty of the joint is perhaps to be masked; usually the mask was a moulds band, to which an ornament, e.g. a cup of foliage, was sometimes added; but frequent I the band was superseded by a stamped button. After the feet of the branches are welde' to the trunk or main stem, bands are laid over the junction, are welded, and are finish' with the chisel. The whole has to be riveted to the framework. The size and weigh of the pieces at the last times of welding were difficulties that were partly obviated afte 1250 by omitting the welded bands. 22551;. These operations were superseded by the introduction of sheet iron, in Englan before 1300, in Germany before 1400, and in France soon afterwards, which was cn and bossed to a remarkable extpnt, sometimes stamped, and frequently welded, bo later was riveted. In work of the 15th century the bars are neither stamped no chased, and the sheets are riveted instead of being welded ; but later they are rh.he planted or housed. Finally, the mediaeval smith re'urned to the slots, morlises, an SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. IAP. III. 719 ort bars of the earlier periods, aDd used clips which were closed cold with rivets of 't iron. 22551. The use of metal work in decoration, both as fixed in buildings, and in useful ■vable articles, is most ancient ; the use of bronze is recorded extensively in Greece d Rome. The metal so used has been mostly lost to us. Except gold, this is the most luring metal, and is susceptible of the finest work which the modeller can bestow upon and the chaser can enlarge on it. Its tenacity, too, enables cast work to have thick d thin places, such as cast iron, and to some extent cast brass, will not allow without icking. The statue of Coileoni at Venice, by Verocchio, is a fine example, together th its band of bronze ornament round the pedestal. The gates and enclosure of the nb of Henry VII. ’s chapel in Westminster Abbey should be studied for the art as well for their curious construction. Bronze is a metal which is beautiful if left in its own den tone, and in changing from this tone it never becomes ugly. It can be gilt, and il take various patinas, the green, brown, and black ; and when used with marble of atrasting colours, produces effects which cannot be had so well in any other way. J. S. .rJner, ill numental Use of Bronze, in Journals of February and March, 1888, which -cribes the ( ire perdue process of casting. 22bbm. Wrouyht iron has special qualities of strength, tenacity, durabilit}’’, and relative apness. It has lately come more and more into use. Hinges, screens, railings, grilles, jokers, door bandies, dogs, fenders, fittings for lights, fire irons. 22hon. Polished iron is to be seen, but is not generally su'table for use in this mp climate, but the fine grey polish it takes is very harmonious with rooms richly Dished. 225 bo. Steel was much used in the latter part of the 18th century; it has rather •old and severe tone, but where it can be kept clean it may bo used with excellent, i *ct. 12bbp. For external work, black or painted wrought iron must be used. The present : nufactnre of iron is not favourable to durability ; the old mode of smelting by charcoal i le a finer, close and ductile iron, and less liable to rust; and perhaps the atmosphere i he great cities and towns is not favourable to the duration of wrought iron work. J fine work the best iron should be used, especially when the work is intricate and needs i ty welds. The French work of Louis XIV.’s time is very stately, rich, and well ’ meed in design, with firm leading lines and graceful foliage and garlands. In Louis 1 .’s time the curves became bolder and looser, as in all art of that time, as in the eight t <-ns in the Grand Place at Nancy. In Louis XVL’s time the work became elegant i rather stiff. Soon after, fine ironwork died out. The German work is comparatively e nsy, and the endless scrolls with sprays going out at strange tangents, and passing t »ugh the scrolls in gratuitously difficult ways, the scrolls ending in flowers of the ^ >e of cocoons, and with antennre springing from them, so as to remind one of great i cts, are not very beautiful, if clever from the ironworker’s point of view. In later t '8 ironwork throughout Europe seems to have been greatly affected by the French ' • of the time. In England, the very noble work of Huntington Shaw, now at the s h Kensington Museum, having been removed from Hampton Court Palace, is different h i any other work, though it has its points of resemblance with French ironwork. I and the gales and grilles in St. Paul’s Cathedral are some of the best ironwork in I. land. The construction is good, and the ornament is so applied as to enrich the t ruction without hiding it, and to make a good composition of open and solid work, " contrasted and varied in the screens almost infinitely. There is a largeness of 1 in theso screens and in the St. Paul's work, probably impressed upon it by Sir ren. The later work at tho Adelphi has a very good contrast of free and rigid 111 i. >bq. There is no reason why the men now living should not do work ns good as the '•l showing their form as well as the origin of their name, in their sizes range from 4 to 12 inches by differences of an inch. H_ hinges (H ;i " - conjoined), whose form is implied by their name, and whose sizes are from 4 to H tf ir • l;«!i; N,|, lS, pit HAP. III. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 721 roceed by inches. Parliament hinges are to allow a shutter to open back upon a wall, nd are made of cast and wrought iron, from 3£ to 5 inches, proceeding in size by half iches. 22585. Redmund’s patent hinges consist of, iron rising butts ; or in brass with loulded burnished knuckles and concealed joints ; iron and brass projecting butts wit h loulded burnished knuckles, flaps, and concealed joints, in three sizes of proportional trength, from 1 to 4£ inches projection ; pew hinges, in iron and brass, projecting 1, ll, nd 2 inches. Rising spring hinges in iron ; and not rising spring hinges, in brass, iron, nd patent malleable iron, and of single and double action; these are made flush, the nuckle being made to suit the bead of the architrave ; rising swing hinges, which rise and .■t each way ; gate hinges of many descriptions, &c. 2258c. Coliinge’s patent spherical hinges run from 2 to 6 inches, in plain brass, orn i- lental brass, and cast iron. The gate or strap hinge, from 1 foot 6 inches to ,‘t feet 6 iches, in steps of 3 inches. Improved gate springs, with hardened joints. Spring inges, and also to open both ways, are made light, strong, and extra strong, for 1^, 2, 2j, .nd 2^ inch doors, in iron and brass. 2268m damp and rust through which cords may •ome rotten. Ho adds to them a method of hanging doub'o sashos with a single weight each side of the window. Johnson’s patent axlo pulloy for sashes, wheroby the t'l, axle, and bushes can be removed for oiling and cloaning; the two last being end in, are protecti d from dust and damp ; and the wheels cannot get fixed ns in liuary pulleys. Adams’ patent reversiblo and sliding window, by which tho glass can cleaned from the inside. Solid-frame oilable sash pulleys. Austin’s imperial patent li and blind lines are made of flax in four qualities, and his now imporial patent * sash lino for heavy weights. Patent braided sash line with a twisted copper wire tre, known ns tho " patent golden eagle sash line." A common description is mado n jute, but it is very inforior to flax. Henry's patent sash line fastener is easily fitted ‘ tho rord readily adjusted. Newell's patent copper wire cord and wire strand aro * naively used f..r window sash line, hothouses, lightning conductors, pirturo cord, * k rord, tent rojes, clot hes lines, &c ; tho advantages, ns roportod, being that, they 1 cheaper, much moro durable, equally flexible, andono-sixth part tho bulk. Newell's J Tit improved iron wire rope wo do not dutail. 722 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II Table I. of Ne wall’s Copper Cords. Number .... 0 1 n 1 n 1 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ] 9 | 10 Diameter, inch . § | X 1 h i 1 o | 1 1 1 Breaking strain, lbs. . Working load, in lbs. . Lightning Conductor. 1200 336 For Window Sash Line, Hothouse, &c. 1)60 | 6901 430 [300 | 180 [125 224 168 112 75 45 31 45 11 r Picture Coni, &c. 90 1 120 | 128 | 130 | 300 22 30 32 60 80 Brass axle pulleys and hothouse pulleys are supplied to suit. Table II. of Iron Cords — Galvanized and Plain. Number i 1J> If 2 3 4 Breaking- strain, in pounds ..... 2520 1920 1380 960 600 360 250 Working load, in pounds ...... 672 448 326 224 150 90 CO Wire strand, 4 and 6 wire, of No. 3, 4, 5, G, and 7 qualities ; galvanized and uugalvanized. 2261. The varieties of locks, their contrivances for security, and their construction, art so many, that to describe them minutely would require almost a work of itself. All that the architect has to deal with, for common purposes in building, we shall mention. Foi fastening places where particular security is requisite, as strong closets for plate or cash some of the patented locks should be used, and wo must leave this matter for inquiry in the hands of the architect. Every patentee says his invention is the best. We never- theless believe, notwithstanding the boasts of all the inventors, that no lock has appeared which an expert locksmith acquainted with its construction will not be able to pick. Th< -locks in common use are stock locks, whose box is usually of wood, and whose sizes varj from 7 to 10 inches. Dead locks, whose sizes are from 4 to 7 inches, and so called fron the key shooting the boll homo dead, without a spring. Cupboard locks, of 3, 3^, am 4 inches in size. Iron rim locks, whose box or case is made of iron, and which are fitted or to one of the sides of a door, and whose sizes are from 6 to 8 inches. Of those made of the last-named size, there are some, as also of 9 inches, which are used for external doors called iron rim drawback locks. For the doors of all well-finished apartments mortis locks are used. These take their name from being mortised into the thickness of the door and being thus hidden. Gerish’s patent cylindrical mortise lock, Barron’s patent locks Bramah’s patent locks, Hodges’ patent lock furniture, Kaye’s patent automatic lock am doer opener, or push and pull lock, an 1 Chubb’s patent locks. Hobbs’s patent locks “ ar- mada for all purposes, from the smallest cabinet to the largest fortress gate.” Bill' patent reversible rim lock lias four “ hands” in one lock, doing away with the necessit of considering which way the door is to open. Tucker’s new patent flush bolt sprin: Jock, self-locking dead lock, and railway carriage flush bolt spring lock; they loci themselves when closing or closed. Biggs’ patent tubular reversible mortise lack ; th> machine-made lock, 6 inches long and one inch diameter; the foreplate and striking plat- are 3 inch by 1 inch, with rounded ends. To these either plain or faney furniture, thn is, knobs and escutcheons, are affixed. Longbottom’s patent adjustable lock furuitun simple and reliable. 2261a. Pitt’s patent self-adjusting spindle, with his new patent mount and spindj and Ager’s patent adjusting spindle, alt command a large sale. They are all fitted will knobs and plates, from china, plain white and buff, to gold lines, gold bands, flowers, &c and in hard woods, as ebony, maple, satin, rose, mahogany, wainscot, and walnut; th knobs in many shapes: also with plain and fancy brass, brass and china combined, ai buffalo horn furniture. Also with glass furniture, crystal and amber of varying shape and cutting, with green, black, and opal cut octagons. Above and below them Jvnge plates are generally directed to be fixed, to prevent the door being soiled in the place w here it is mostly caught. 2262. The different sorts of latches in use are the thumb latch, which receives its nan from the thumb being placed on the lever to raise its latch; the Dor folk-latch, which sunk, and requires a pressure on the lever to raise the latch ; the Suffolk-latch ; the foin inch bow latch, with brass knobs ; tho brass pulpit latch ; the mortise latch', and Goth latches. 2262a. Wishaw’s registered improved “ telekouphonon,” for speaking pipes, consis of a whistle mouth-piece of ivory, wood, or metal, with an indicator attached to point- oi from which one or two or more tubes the whistle proceeds. These pipes are no arranged for one or more moutkphees. Electric bells are named in the next seetm The ordinary crank system of bell hanging is noticed in Specifications, 2292. ;hap. iii. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 723 2263. Besides the articles already mentioned, the ironmonger furnishes holdfasts, woll- ooks, door springs of var ous sorts, door chains and barrels of brass and iron, thumbscrews, kuttir fastenings, shutter bars, sash fastenings, of which there are low many varieties gainst burglary, adjustable silent door springs, brass trim buckles, closet knobs, brass u*h rings, iron drawer handles, brass flush draw handles, brass roll.rs, bars with latehets, keif brack/ ts, sash weights, with numerous other articles. 2263a. Bolts, straps, and other exposed iron work are preserved from the action of mois- ure on them by the following mixture: — To two quarts of boiling oil add half a pound f litharge, putting in small quantities at a time, and cautiously. Let it simmer over the re two or three hours ; then strain it, and add a quarter of a pound of fine'y-pounded sin and a pound of white lead, keeping it at a gentle heat till the whole is well ineor- irated. It is to be used hot. A composition of oil and resin and finely levigated brick- ust is found useful in preserving iron from rust. It is to be mixed, and used as a paint ‘‘the usual consistence (see par. 1779e. it segd. Wrought iron ornamental work exposed i the weather has been cased with copper and gilt, as much for decoration as for pre- ■rvation. The surface of iron may be decorated and highly vitrified, the colours being urnt in. Thus the iron can be shaped to elaborate designs and artistically treated ; being isily cleaned, it is a permanent material for walls, ceilings, and other parts of a building, ee the Barff- Power process, &c. for protection of iron, 1 780c. 22636. Mr. T. Fletcher, of Warrington, has lately (1887), by the use of compressed tygen and coal gas, with a i-in. gas supply, brazed a joint of a 2-in. wrought iron pipe . about one minute. He >hen tried welding, a procesi not possible with ordinary coal is and air, and found that a good weld was obtained on an iron wire in. diam., with very small blowpipe, having an air jet about W diam. Larger articles, as boiler plates, • thinks could be done perfectly with little trouble and no handling. By this process ■ fused a large hole in a plate £ in. thick wrought iron by an apparatus which could bo rried up a ladder by one man. GAS FITTER. 2261. The work of this artizan may be placed under the head of this section, although i trade is now kept distinct. Gas is required by the Companies’ Acts of Parliament to ve a lighting power of 16 sperm candles wdien consumed at the rate of 5 cubic feet per ur. As regards purity, the gas must be entirely free from sulphuretted hydrogen, and - maximum quantities of sulphur and ammonia allowed are fixed from time to time for ndon by the gas referees (1886). The pressure of gas usually during tho day varies •m inches to about 3 inches at night. This causes the burners to flare and s. To regulate this pressure various contrivances havo been invented. Carnaby’s for tho turning off of any number of lights by working the handle of a dial in the, ster’s room or office. Tho Stott, Tice, Oakley, and other gas economisers are auto- tic, having valves that rise and fall according as the pressure is larger or smaller ; y are said to save from 20 to 40 per cent, of gas without diminution of fight. A ready u of regulating the supply is to put the tap to the meter at such a point, by trial, as 1 supply the lights in ordinary use. In large establishments this has been done by a n, specially instructed, who alters it according to the lighting up or putting out of the ■ts. A gieat saving has been thus effected. The various forma he for calculating the ' ° 82*000 Inrh. fret. cwt. qr. Ihs. 000 9 17-32»ds 9 4 2 2 m 500 Mfltlui 0 I 24 2,0(10 10 9- 1 OtliB 9 n i n 50,000 1 1 32nds * 1 0 3 4,600 12 6-Htl.s 9 7 0 72,000 3-SUui 9 1 1 24 8, Out) ,T col>t laying, tee Lockwood's Trice Hook, 1887, art. Gas l’itter. 3 a 2 724 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 22G4a. The main distribution of gas is effected through cast iron pipes ■with soeke and spigot ends, whenever the diameter exceeds 2 inches. Wrought iron welded tubii for gas is made from 3 in. diameter, li in., and then down by each J in. to A in., th( |, and A in. diameter, in lengths of from 4 to 1 2 ieet, from 2 to 4 feet, and short' pieces under 2 feet ; together with all their connectii g pieces, cueks, taps, screws, &c. 5 iuch pipe is used for 2 lights, f inch for 6, | inch for 12, J inch for 25, 1 inch for 5 lj- inches for 70, H inches for 120, and 2 inches for 200 lights. In the details of hou: fittings, wrought iron pipes are used when the diameter is, and exceeds, half an inel f in. is the least size recommended to be used, even for supplying upper rooms. F< pipes of small diameters, and for abrupt bends, block tin and composition pipes ai fixed. For occasional use, flexible pipes are employed, such as those made of gutt; percha, caoutchouc, with or without a wire coil inside, and caoutchouc coated wil varnish. This list is the safest of the liexible pipes; the other, though safer when ust with a wire core, is not impermeable to gas, though a coat of linseed oil may render it s The first-named is not only permeable, but causes an unpleasant smell, and is liable 1 contraction at any junctions with metal work, allowing of the escape of gas. There h; lately been patented one formed of two layers of rubber, with pure soft tinfoil, vulcanise between; perfectly gas-tight under any pressure and free from smell, and very flexibl The braided or cloth-covered tube has not come into general use. Brass pipes a> generally used for the gasalier. 22645. Under no circumstances whatever should either iron or composition pipes be I into the plastering, as is too constantly done, or into solid brick or stone work; for til salts in the latter are liable to affect the pipes in a serious manner, and the contractu and expansion of their materials may injure the joints; whilst it must always be diffict to trace a leakage. When placed in a partition, any gas escaping fills all the spac between the studs, and between the joists of the floors, so that when it comes in conti with a light the whole ignites, and the force of the explosion may cause the enti destruction of the house. The police regulations of Paris require that gas-pipes in hous should be visible throughout their length, excepting when they traverse floors, partitioi &e., when the pipe conveying the gas is required to be enclosed in a larger one, projee ing beyond the door or partition, so as to ensure ventilation round it. Cupper pip should never be used, on account of the action of the gas on the metal. Gas pipes shou; be laid with a slight fall, on account of the condensation of the gas, and a draw-off t is required to empty it. Gas by itself will no more explode than air, and on issui into the air it will, if at once ignited, burn quietly, as at a gas burner. When gas previously mixed with air, the mixture, on ignition, explodes with terrific force. 2264c. The form of burner which yields the best economical results is the argatid; t bat’s-wing is the next best; and the fish-tail the worst. A number of small burnt dispersed will give a better light than collections of them. The argand burner, with holes, will burn about to 8 feet per hour, according to the pressure ; ordinary stri lamps, having the bat’s-wing, burn 3 to 8 feet per hour, and are usually contracted for the rate of feet. Bronner’s burners afford a steady light, and each is made to eonsu as many feet per hour as may be required. The number of new burners have been mu increased. Bray’s have a large sale ; Sugg’s are of various sorts for private use and public thoroughfares and edifices. Ilis burners for public lamps affording 20 caml power consume 5 cubic feet per hour; 35 candles, 8 feet; 50 candles, 12 feet; and candles, 15 feet. The former are two burners, and the latter three burners. Tho Hero duplex has two small burners impinging upon one another and so affording a clearer ligl 34 of Bray’s burners burnt 230 feet of gas, 34 of the duplex for one hour burnt i< Hart’s economising burner dates from about 1859. Peeble’s needle governor burn' save 20 to 40 per cent, of gas. Many of these lights are now supplied with “n< corrosive ” burners made of soapstone. One of the latest inventions (1887) is Welsbac system of the incandescent light; it consists of a prepared “mantle” placed over Bunsen burner. It is stated that it doubles tho illuminating power of the gas; Ri' a steady, brilliant light ; and saves 50 to 70 per cent, of gas ; there is greatly diminisl heat, no dirt, and no smoke ; the light rivals the electric light. Another is the Claw" incandescent gas light, supplied by the Aiolus Company; each gives a 40 candle-po 1, light on a consumption of 6 feet of gas per hour. The Chandler patent regenera t gas light has no burner, the gas issuing from a free, open pipe. By the action of ' air supply and the shape of the burner opening the flame assumes the form of an inct descent sphere, like a ball of fire, brilliant and white. It is adapted for burning 2 to cubic feet per hour. A matchless self-lighting gas burner is in use. It is stated tl 60 gas burners produce 2 gallons of water per hour by the combustion, hence part of damage caused to the walls, works cf art, &c. 2264 d. The ordinary lights are stated to require 4 cubic feet of gas per hour, but. t is much too large ; 2\ and 3 will be found to give sufficient light if the burner is u< near the person ; the high lights of a gasalier arc either inefficient or wasteful forrea or working purposes, and often affect the eyesight. IP. III. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 725 264e. For lighting large rooms the solar or sun-light arrangement is agreeable, and U fitted to promote the ventilation of the room. It is very costly, not only in its first iblishment, partly from the necessity of securing the burners and pipes from setting to the surrounding timbers, but also in the subsequent consumption of gas. In rooms noderate height, the heat to the occupants is objectionable. The Wenhant lamp is lewhat similar, but having a globe under, is better adapted to a small room. Denham’s -merly Riekett’s) ventilating lamps are also fixtures. The reflecting and ventilating •pton light is economical in gas and suitable for public places. The patent Albo-car- light is said to save 30 to 50 per cent, of gas, by the gas passing through a white aposition, which, on being melted by the heat obtained from the burner, gives off a ■our which is taken up by the gas, thus giving increased brilliancy to the light. 2264/. As illustrations of the mode of lighting public buildings may be cited : I. The ■cert room at Liverpool, designed and executed by Mr. A. King; it is effected princi- ly by canning a pipe in the cove of the ceiling, which pipe is pierced with numerous cs for fish-tail burners. II. St. James’s Hall, London, and the great hall of the form Club, which are admirable illustrations of the use of the stellar and of the solar iits. III. The new theatre du Chatelet, at Paris, where the lighting is effected by SOi! burners placed above a vault of ground glass, and under a large enamelled reflector ; ■ glass vault forms, in fact, the ceiling of the body of the house, so that the burners mselves are entirely hid. This arrangement was also employed for a few years at the ture gallery in Suffolk Street, London. And IV. The various passages and rooms of ; Houses of Parliament, which are lighted and ventilated under Faraday’s principle. 2264 g . Table of Compaeison of Light-Producing Materials, by Dr. M. Tidy, in Handbook of Modern Chemistry. light-producing Material qual to 12 standard Sperm aadles, each burning 120 Grains per Hour. Cubic Feet Oxygen Consumed. Cubic Feet Air Consumed. Cubic Feet Carbonic Acid Produced. Cubic Feet Air Vitiated. Heat=lbs. of Water raised 10 deg. Fahr. Jannel Gas 3-30 1650 2-01 217-50 1950 ijommon Gas - 645 17'25 3 21 848-25 278-6 Sperm Oil 4 - 75 23-75 3-33 356-75 233-5 benzole ... 4-46 22-30 3-54 376-30 232 6 1’araffin - G-81 34-05 4-50 484 05 361-9 Sperm Candles - 7-57 37-85 5-77 614-85 351-7 Wax 841 42-05 5-00 632-25 383T Tallow ... 12-00 60-00 8-73 933 00 505-4 Flectric Light - None None None None 13-8 A table, prepared by Mr. V. B. Lewes, showing the amount of oxygen removed, the bonic acid gas and water vapour generated, by various illuminants to give a light equal 32 candle-power, is printed in the Proceedings of the Royal Institute of British Archi- ls, for April 12, 1888. 2264 h. A notice was issued in January, 1802, from the London Fire Engine Establish- nt, stating that, “It appears absolutely necessary that somo steps should bo taken to 6 ion owners of property, particularly in largo wharves and warehouses, as to tho posi- >n and protection of the dangerous gas lights. These remarks may not be considered necessary when it is remembered that in many of the most valuable buildings in the ■tropolig movable gas brackets are placed within 20 inches of the ceiling without the .'hirst protection whatever. It may be laid down as a rule that the jet on the outer " of the brti' ket should never be less than 36 inches from tho ceiling over it, and that 'hould be protected on the top by a hanging shado, and on tho sides by stops on the in 1 joints, which should prevent the brackets moving beyond a safo distance. Attention k’ht, p'-rhaps, also bo called to tho very common and dangerous practice of nailing tin iron on tho udjoining timbers. 'Jhis has long proved to bo no protection, and it 1ms dm nl vantage of allowing tho timber to bo charred completely through beforo it is 'Wn." In some places gas lights aro used within 15 inches of tho coiling, and when Hass shade has been broken and not replaced, the heat bus been known to iguito the -•r timbers over tho plastering. 2264i. It will not bo necessary here to do moro than mention tho uso of gns in the •'hen for boiling water, or for buking and ronsting (tho apparatus for each, or for such irjosps, are now supplied in London by tho gas companies at a rent); tho baths •it'd by gas, so rcndily adaptable in places whero a coal stove cannot bo used ; or tho ' ' r -d ga- stares for warming buildings and rooms, &c. Sec 2271)'". *!• I he urgency of efficient ventilation when gas is burnt in a room habitually is a 'ci t >.f immediate importance. It is principally to the neglect of this procaution that. 1 bulk of ths injurious effects said to attend the use of gas may indeed bo attributed. 72(5 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I In tho case of libraries, the destruction of book-bindings may be assigned more justly t the heat than to the chemical action of the products of combustion. No doubt the b sulphide of carbon, which is p esent in even the most carefully purified gases, must giv rise to the formation of minute quantities of sulphurous acid : and this, in its turn, inie be destructive to some descriptions of leather— especially Russian (as noticed in th Builder , vi. 89), but a rapid removal of the products of combustion would almost, entire! obviate this effect. It seems, however, that the excessive dryness and the heat of the air i the upper part of rooms where gas is burnt may occasion tho injury quite as much as ih chemical reactions supposed to take place ; the books which suffer most being alway those placed above the level of tho lamps. Under any circumstances, ventilation shout take place close to the plane of tho ceilings. Even when provision is made for veutilatio over gas burners, a stratum of heated air is often allowed to stagnate over the opening' close under tho line of tho ceiling; and the area of the openings is rarely sufficient to idluv tho escape of the decomposed gases. Again, if any sulphurous acid should be producct it will be found also to tarnish the colours of tapestry and hangings, and to turn imitatio gold ; hence none but the best leaf-gold should be employed iu rooms where gas is burn. The injury caused by the use of such gas as is supplied in London, Paris, Bruxelles, &c is very small compared with the brilliance of tho light; and the gas of Liverpool, Edit burgh, Manchester, and some other places having, bulk for bulk, a higher illuminatin power than that of London, is even less injurious. Mr. Spencer has reported that th quantity of gas leaking from London gas pipes is not less than 9 per cent , or between si and seven million cubic feet per annum, which causes the stinking black earth of tin London street subsoil. No such leakage occurs at Liverpool or Manchester, where tl joints of the pipes are bored, turned, and fitted to each other, like ground stoppers in ghu bottles ; whereas in London the pipes arc jointed with tow and lead, so that after expanse and contraction in summer and winter the perfection of the joints is destroyed. Tliegi j then, acting upon the subsoil, forms sulphuretted carbon, which corrodes not only the g: pipes, but the water mains also, and converts them in ten years almost entirely into a so of plumbago, although in pure London subsoil they last a century. ELECTRIC APPLIANCES. 2264 k. For the important subject of Lightning Conductors , reference should be m u to R. Anderson, Their History, Nature, and Mode of Application, of which the tin edition, revised, rearranged, and enlarged, was published in 1887: “Tho numerc accidents to buildings fitted with conductors sufficiently indicate the indispeusah necessity for occasional inspection. The chief causes that detract from- their efficacy a original defects of capacity, conductivity, and fitting, faulty earth -conne xions, accident, injury and mechanical derangements, oxidation of joints and of earth contacts, at alterations in the conductive capacity of the ground in consequence of improved drainage The efficiency of a conductor is iu proportion to the sectional area of the metal. Tap are made Jgth of an inch thick, being inch, 1^ inches, and 2 inches wide ; y- 2 -th of an ui\ thick, being £ths of an inch wide; ^-tli of au inch thick, being |ths of an inch, inch, at 1^ inches wide. The conductors should not be less than ^-th of an inch thick and ji of an inch wide, weighing 6 oz. per foot, as recommended by tho Lightning Bud Cu, ferenee, 1882. The upper terminal should be in the form of a sharp point, or a clast, of sharp points. As this point may become blunted, an alloy of 835 parts silver at 1 6o parts of copper is therefore used for it, at Paris. The earth termination should : t.iktn some depth, and into moist ground or water, and have a large area of coutai When this is not to be obtained, a copper plate at least 9 feet square should be careful riveted to the end of the tape and be buried in a well, packed with cinders or eok Professor Fleming has pointed out that the ultimate safety of a conductor lies iu tl proper periodical testing of the earth connection of the conductor. 2264^. Electricity for lighting purposes can be obtained by chemical action, as by < arrangement of a voltaic battery, and the combination of cells is termed a “ prnnu-' battery.” A steady light is stated to be maintained at a cost not much in excess of th from a “dynamo ” machine. Such a battery may suffice for a small country houso. but large number of lamps will require a battery of great bulk ; hence it is more economu to produce electricity mechanically, by converting the energy of the prime motor m electric force by the use of the dynamo machine. This motive power is obtained 1 steam, water, or gas, according to circumstances. The engine house would contain i dynamos for generating the electric current. The current is then taken to a " sail board,” which is a simple apparatus ou which all connections are made with sunn arrangements, so that either one or more machines can be made to deliver into the s.u conductor. On this board is an instrument for measuring the strength of the cum i so fixed that it can be read by the attendant by turning the handle of a switch. 1 1 ttis board the mains go towards the lamps, starting as a cable, which ramifies n mp. III. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 727 nailer mains and branches until each incandescent lamp is reached. It is of supreme iporianee in electric lighting that the current should always be uniform at all times in ich individual part of the work, and be unaffected by changes in other parts. The impound shunt machine has been devised to effect this arrangement. 2264»i. A source of danger to property is in the mains and branch wiresconducting the irrent to the lamps ; they must be of sufficient proportion, and of a material whose sistance is uniform. Copper wire is used because it can be obtained in a purer state inn any other available metal, and next to silver it is the best conductor of electricity, reat attention is required to the connectors and joints, and the connections made with lading screws ; besides causing resistance in the circuit, bad contact between a wire and terminal will produce heat. A faulty junction may also upset the calculations made r the current to be taken by an otherwise efficient cable ; solder alone must not be rel e 1 .on, as it may become softened by the current; it must be mechanically perfect. A short circuit” is the current taking the shorter path, where, having no work to do, it mses fire. The only preventive is a “ cut out” or a “ safety fuse,” described as “ a piece * easily fusible metal, which would be melted if the current attains auy undue magni- ide, and would thus cause the circuit to be broken.” From arc lights pieces of i Mndescent carbon are apt to drop ; more fires have occurred from this cause than any ’her. Electricity, having no smell to betray a leak, shows when it is escaping by the iminished appearance of the lights, caused by the diversion of the system. 2264 n. Even if the cost of electric lighting be higher than i hat of a private gas supply, ie extra cost of it for those rooms wliere the preservation of works of art, books, and de- rations has to be considered would be amply returned. The property of not vitiating or i-ating the air will be the salient one which, when fully appreciatedj must banish gas and 1 from the houses of those who consider sanitary excellence the principal feature of a eautiful house. (K. Hedges, in Transactions of Royal Institute of British Architects, i83-4, p. 143). The Electric Ligh ing Act was passed August 18, 1852. The Maxim- eston Electric Comfany (Limited) supply (Nov. 1887) the new “Watt” system ' lighting. They claim that they can now obtain six arc lamps of 150 candle-power in ace of one, as heretofore, from one electrical horse-power. The Pilsen-Joel arc lamp is 1,000 to 10,000 candle-power ; the incandescence or glow lamps are of 5, 10, 16, 20, >, to ICO candle-f ower, for lighting rooms, &c. To popularise the electric light is the dy way to make it pay — it must be cheap and efficient. By cheapness is to be under- ood, either a small first cost and a correspondingly small cost for maintenance, as in e case of a battery placed in the house, or a moderate charge for the supply of the ■ Trent, as in the case of a central distributing station. The lamps must be adaptable the present gas fittings, and the cost of the light must be but little, if at all, in cess of that of the gas of the district. Though the advantages of this light are .great in Ingienic and domestic point of view, the public would, in the main, continue to use the '■sent methods of illumination rather than adopt any new system which entailed extra it. however satisfied they might be that positive advantages were to be gained by it. "■ I - -Mersey, On Primary Batteries, Nov. 1887.) The Phoenix Fire Office rules for fixing, • . an installation are those now generally required to bo carried out by the fire offices. 22'>4«. Although electricity has not ousted gas from the field, as it was at one timo acht it would do, it has yet made more progress than many people imagine, and i o •hitcct would design a public hall without fitting it with incandescent lamps. These not give off as much heat as gas, nor do they contaminate the atmosphere. Tho ri ion of “ storage batteries ” as a soitof buffer between the machine and the lights, and a toi-ans of avoiding tho risk of a break-down of tho engine, has done much to tender ■ tiic lighting more generally available ; and considerable improvements have been made these “ storage batteries” during the last few years. Tho battory of tbo Union Electrical *er Light Company, of fifteen cells, will run twelve ten-caudle incandescent lamps, 1 occupies a few feet only. A small primary battery and lamp combined is invented, so t an electric lamp can be placed on Ihe table ; this can bo recharged by simply pouring ■i the cell containing tho plates tho necessary liquid. Theso lumps will run for about hours say a dinner timo. -’264/). A method of electric lighting for small areas, uhero the trouble and expense of ng np and working engines and dynamos constitute a serious objection, has been intro- •"i by Messrs. Woodhouso atid Jtawson.in which no machinery is required. Tho whole i aratus is contained in a space of some 5 feet by (! feet, by 8 feet in height, with a •teet absence of smell, noiso, or dirt. The light is generated by an “ Upward ” battery. • cost for the equipment, of an installation to run eleven lamps (10 candle-power oncli) hours, or six for four hours, is 56/. ; while fifteen lights for three hours, or e’ght "'x hours, is hi/., and soon. Tho House to House Electric IAyht Supply Co. is taking He stops to promote this menns of illumination. : , < \q. I here is a m-w electric yas liyhtiny system, by which gas is lighted, turned on, extinguished at any distance Ly simply pressing n button, us in ordinary electric 1" , and at the same time the bnttery may be used for ringing dcctric bells. 728 THEORY OR ARCHITECTURE. Book 2264 r. Bells. The principle, as applied to all the different method.-* of construction that the completion of the circuit of the electric current rings the bell, the medium communication from the distant points being wire of various descriptions, carefu insulated. The mechanism is confined to the push (the reverse of the crank systt which has the pull) and to the bell itself, which is struck by a hammer attached ti small and light magnet. The wires are fixed. One bell will answer the purpose for a number of rooms. The battery whence the electric power is supplied is, for an ordin; house, a small six-cell battery, about twelve inches long, nine inches wide, and six inci deep. The posiiive poles of the six cells are all connected with each other, and also 1 negative poles, each to brass knobs on the outside of the box. From the positive pole the battery a wire passes, which is connected with each room, and from each room a w passes to the indicator. This is a tablet with openings, upon which are inscril numbers for, or names of, the rooms. The push, a light ivory knob, completes the elect circle ; on being set in action by it, the current travels through the wire to the indicat and then by the movement of a balanced magnet the number or name appears, and b light magnet attache! to a spring it rings the bell, which can be made to ring until t magnet is released by the hand, ora button, which also returns the name or number to place. The wires are insulated by gutta-percha or india-rubber and coils of cotton silk, which, if exposed, can be made of a colour to match the paper or paint of theroo The bell pushes and other furniture can be carried out in any decorative character. 2264s. The electric bell system can be adopted for protection against thieves and fi For the former, every external door and window may be connected with a battery so th when the circle is complete, the opening of the door or window will ring the bell. In t : daytime a switch is used to disconnect the communication, so that the doors and windo may be opened without ringing the alarum. For the latter, or fire, a thermomet hermetically sealed, into which a platinum wire is fixed, is regulated to any point indie, ing danger, say 100° of heat, and connected with the battery. Should the mercury r to that point, the contact of it with the platinum completes the circuit, the bell rings a sounds the alarum. For the sick bed, the invalid has only to give a slight pressure to j knob at the end of a silk cord, laid close to the pillow, instead of having fo overcoi the stiffness and weight of the old crank and wire system. 226 it. Moseley’s parent electric bells are fixed on the system of the battery not Lei in use when the bell is not ringing. 2264m. The best time to commence fixing the bells is stated to be when the first coat plaster is laid on the walls, and before the floor boards are nailed down. The joints a connections between the compo tubing and the bells should be carefully soldered, and t iron wall boxes fixed flush with the finished wall, with the screw holes in front perfeo vertical. The fixings required are press buttons or pushes, lever action pulls, or h ropes, for rooms used in the day. Bed-head pulls, flexible cords, or pushes, for t bedrooms. Pull-out pulls or pushes for front door or entrances. The tubing is 4-iu bore composition, let into the plaster, &c., and protected therein by wood, or by lart zinc bell tubing. The pulls may be either the “ sunk” pattern, or the “raised ”pa,tte which is fixed on the face of a wall or partition. We can only here refer to the later invention of the “ telephone.” Sect. XI. FOUNDERY. 2265. The very general use of cast iron by the architect induces us to give a succiii account of the common operations of foundery, or the art of casting metal into differi forms. To gain a proper knowledge of the operations, the student should attend a f< castings at the foundery itself, which will be more useful to him than all the description ' could detail of it; however, we give a few particulars not noticed in the previous secti- on Ikon. Some of the articles cast are noticed in par. 2255 k. 2265 a. Those manufacturers who will attend to the good quality of the irons they s can generally command their own price. Thus, the Low Moor and the Bowling bar ir<> contiuue in possession of the market at nominally high prices, whilst the ordinary im are hardly saleable at remunerative ones. The Welsh iron, known as the SC brands, the Staffordshire mitre iron, aro of at least equal quality to the above, and there are otm as good. 22655. Staffordshire, Shropshire, and Derbyshire afford the best irons for rastin The Scotch iron is much esteemed for hollow wares, and has a beautifully smooth surfa which may be noticed in the stoves and other articles cast by the Carron Company. Welsh pig iron is principally used for conversion into bar iron. Almost all irons are n proved 1 y admixture with others, and therefore, where superior castings are required, t ’hap. in. SMITHERY AND IRONMONGERY. 729 hould not be run direct from the smelting furnace, but the metal should be rcmelted in a ; upola furnace, which gives the opportunity of suiting the quality of the iron to its intended .*e. Thus, for delicate ornamental work a soft and very fluid iron will be required, whilst or girders and castings exposed to cross strain the metal will require to be harder and nore tenacious. For bed plates and castings, which have merely to sustain a compressing orce, the chief point to be attended to is the hardness of the metal. Various mixtures of i ifferent qualities of iron have been recommended as materials for large castings (see Fair- airn’s Application of Iron, fc. 65). Most engineers are agreed in considering that the best ■ourse for an engineer to take, in order to obtain iron of a certain strength for a proposed tructure, is not to specify to the founder any particular mixture, but to specify a certain ninimum strength which the iron should exert when tested by experiment. 2265c. As noticed in a previous chapter, the ores are smelted by cold and hot air blasts. I The latter iron makes very fine castings, but is deficient in tenacity, and requires great care jin its application to the purposes of machinery, and for girder castings, by employing it as •econd runnings from the cupola, and mixing third-class pig iron with the first. On • ccount of some defects in it, hot blast iron should be excluded from all such works as lirder bridges, machinery castings, &c.,and from the preparation of bar iron where great strength in the metal is required. It appears that there are no means of detecting hot or >>ld blast irons in pig castings. Whenever great strength is required, air furnaces instead jf cupolas should be used, and where it is not connected with too great an expense, loam instead of green sand should be used for moulding. 2265d. Table of the Weight of Cast Iron fer Foot Superficial. (Hurst.) The weight of a cubic foot is put at 456 lbs. and 460 lbs. Thickness in inches - 1 16 3 Ta i 5 1G 3 8 7 16 1 2 Weight in pounds 234 4-68 703 9 37 11-72 14-06 16-40 1875 Thickness in inches - 9 16 1 11 16 3 4 13 16 1 8 15 1G 1 Weight in pounds 21-09 23-44 2578 28-12 30-47 32-81 35-16 3750 2265e. Collinson’s Mansfield moulding sand has a wide reputation among the modellers >f the finest brass and iron castings, arising, no doubt, partly from its exquisite fineness of rain, but more particularly from its clay-like adhesiveness and plaster quality, combined ' it h a total freedom from any coarse or gritty particles. It is found under a deep deposit t coarse sand, ordinarily known as building sand, and within a short distance of the well- •n°wn white and red Mansfield stone quarries, in Nottinghamshire. The Isle of Wight anils are also used for the purpose. The sand usually employed in casting is of a soft ’« How and clammy nature, over which, in the mould, charcoal is strewed. Upon the sand roperly prepared, the wood or metal models of what is intended to be cast are applied to lie mould, and pressed so as to leave their impression upon the sand. Canals are provided or the metal, when molted, to run through. After the frame is finished, the patterns are iikt-n out by loosening them all round, that the sand may not give way. Tho other half i the mould is then worked with the same patterns, in a similar frame, but having pins 'Inch, entering into holes that correspond to it in tho other, cause the two cavities of the •it tern exactly to fall on each other. Tho frame thus moulded comes now under the care t the melter, who prepares it for the reception of the metal. 226q/'. In making patterns for cast iron, an allowance is always made of about one-eighth l an inch per foot for the contraction of the metal in cooling. And it may be also requisite Hat the patterns should be slightly bevelled, that they may be drawn out of the sand witli- ut injuring tho impression ; for this purpo-e, A of an inch in 6 inches is sufficient. 2265'/. All castings should bo kept as nearly as possible of the same bulk, in order that Itie cooling may take place equably. It is of importance to prevent air-bubbles in castings, | ml the more time there is allowed for cooling the better, because, when rapidly cooled, I'n- iron docs not become so tough as when gradually cooled. It is important in any casting I avo tho metal as uniform as possible, anil not of different sorts, for different sorts will ■ i ink dilb rently, and thus will be caused an unequal tension among tho parts of tho metal, liieli will impair its strength; and, beyond this, an unevenness is produced by such mix- | n e on the surface of t he casting, for different sorts can never bo porfoctly blended together. 22665. Castings should show on the outer surface a smooth, clear, and continuous « in. with regular faces and sharp angles. When broken, tho surface of fracture should be of ! light bluish-grey colour, and close-grained texture, with considerable metallic lustre; both lour and texture should bo uniform, except that noar tho skill the colour may lie some- h.it lighter and the grain closer; if the fractured surface is mottled, either with pulrlus f darker or lighter iron, or with crystalline patches, tho casting will bo unsafe; and it 730 THEORY OE ARCHITECTURE. . Book II ■will be still more unsafe if it contains air-bubbles. The iron should be soft enough to be slightly indented by a blow of a hammer on an edge of a casting. Castings are tested foi air-bubbles by ringing them with a hammer all over the surface. Iron becomes mort compact and sound by being cast under pressure; and hence cannon, pipes, columns, &c. are stronger when cast in a vertical than in a horizontal position, and stronger still wher. provided with a head or additional length, whose weight serves to compress the mass ol iron in the mould below it. The air-bubbles ascend and collect in the head, which is broken off when the casting is cool. Care should be taken not to cut or remove the skin of a piece of cast iron at those points where the stress is intense. The most certain test of the goodness of a piece of cast iron is by striking the edge with a hammer ; if a slight impression be made it denotes some degree of malleability, the iron is of a good quality, provided it be uniform ; if fragments fly off, and no sensible indentation be made, the iron will be hard and brittle. The difference between good and bad iron is shown mainly by the breaking; good iron breaks like a piece of good fir timber; bad iron will break like a carrot, it snaps in two. 22661. Malleable cast iron is made by embedding the castings to be made malleable in the powder of red haematite. They are then raised to a bright red heat, which occupies about twenty-four hours, maintained at that heat for a period varying from three to five days, according to the size of the casting, and allowed to cool, which occupies about twenty-four hours more. The oxygen of the haematite extracts part of. the carbon from the cast iron, which is thus converted into a sort of soft steel : and its tenacity, according to experiments by Messrs. A. More and Son, becomes more than 48,000 lbs. per square inch. (Rankine.) Steel is noticed in Book II. Chap. II. 226.3/'. For resisting fire, as in fireplaces, good strong cast iron is the best material. The quality of breadth of design can be got by cast work better than by wrought work, and each requires its own system of design. The street railing' or screen to All Saints Church, Margaret Street, is considered a good specimen. It can be covered with fine delicate ornamentation, as done by Mr. Philip Webb. The backs of old fireplaces aro generally fine specimens of cast work. There are also cast iron fire-dogs. 2266. The foundery of statues, which is among the most difficult of it s branches, belongs exclusively to the sculptor, and is usually carried on in bronze. The execution of the bronze castings, made by the firm of Barbediennc of Paris, is attributed mainly, after the skill of the modeller, to the fineness of the sand, which can only be obtained at Eontenay- aux-Roses, in France. When new it is yellow in colour, but, on account of its cost it is mixed in well-ascertained proportions with the old sand, which has become black, the mixture foiming a good combination for the mould; other sands are considered to havn two much silex in them, whereas the Fontenay sand has exactly the proportion necessary for the fineness of the work. TESTING AND MACHINERY. 2266a. Ironmasters are, to some extent, averse to testing. A writer has been advised, to exhibit his knowledge of the subject by simply specifying “ best merchantable iron, and if from inspection it was not found to be good it could be tested. Testing is about the only means at the disposal of an engineer to obtain really what he wants. Work tests mean, tapping plates with a hammer to ascertain if they are solid, in which ease each tap will produce a ringing sound ; also breaking the corner off a plate here and there, of course before the plates are “ worked” ; and examining the punchings from theiron. for the purpose of forming some idea of its quality. Those from Low Moor and some of the Staffordshire brands will stand the punch without the slightest sign of cracking, whilst hard, brittle iron will break up in all directions on the convex side of the punching, tiood ordinary iron, such as ought to be used in girder work, will only show slight cracks, ad running with the fibre of the iron. (C. G. Smith, Wrought Iron Girder Work, 1877.) 2266 A Granting that it is advisable to carry out tests, and that these tests should ho realities and not mere forms, it is certainly advisable that some method ot testing should be, substitut'd for the present plan of testing girders whole. At present, a certain per- centage of the rolled joists or other girders for a building are specified to be tested up to loads equivalent to those given in “ Shaw’s Tables,” which correspond to a maximum stress of 6 tons per square inch in the material, and should return to their original forum without permanent set; and this deflection test is the only one carried out. But it is tmt easy to measure a small permanent deflection, say ^ of an inch, with certainty on a 30-foot joist with such means as are commonly used in the yard, and so it cannot be very rigidly enforced under ordinary circumstances. But it affords no clue to the properties nf the material used. It would be much more satisfactory, and probably not mure expensive or troublesome, if the tests specified were made more like those adopted by t 6 Registry societies. The temper test, for the architect’s purpose, might be omitted. |K ultimate extension test is tin indication — a rough indication — of the difficulty o ' metal; we ought to. know tLe maximum exteusi m before .the material begins to gne way TESTING AND MACHINERY. 731 Chap. III. locally. This, however, is somewhat more difficult to measure. It would be sufficient to specify that me out of, say, every ten joists or angles should be supplied 18 inches more than the ordered length, the extra piece cut off, aDd two strips cut from it (one from the web, and one from the flange in the case of the joist) tested for tenacity and extension. The limits fixed might be, according to circumstances, either 28 to 32 tons tenacity per square inch, and 20 per cent, extension in 10 inches; or 38 to 42 tons tenacity and 12 per cent, extension. The tests are made by preference at the manufacturer's yard, in the presence of the inspector, doubtful or special cases being sent to some independent, jtesting machine. In cases of large orders not less than 2 per cent, of the number of ! plates, &c., have to be tested in this way. (A. B. W. Kennedy. ) i 2266c. To test a stanchion, or other cast iron work, especially if painted, it should be examined carefully all over by a good-sized hammer, having a sharp point at one end, such is a scatfolder’s axe. Ply the point or edge of the hammer to any scaly-looking or white spots, and follow it on. Some founders are clever at filling up faults with a soft metal, and i lie delVc's are generally on the face that lies uppermost in the mould. One fault may be found that would jeopardise the stability of a building. To test the samo for strength can only be done by a scientific apparatus now provided at many establishments for the purpose. 2266 d. Testing Stone. T he weight necessary to crush a stone varies with the state of cohesion and hardness of the particles composing it. (®ee par. 1600 et seq.) T he full particulars of the quarry and bed of each stone tested should be stated. It is almost useless to experiment upon cubes of one inch, as was necessarily dune before the powerful machines of the present day were invented ; 4-inch or 6-inch cubes are the least sizes, especially where largo shells appear. Much care and skill are also requisite in the manner iuf testing. The cubes should all be carefully dressed by rubbing down the faces, which should be strictly parallel, perhaps made so in a steel frame. They should all be placed in or against their natural bed. The Bath stones tested by Messrs Poole are stated to have been placed between parallel iron plates, and the pressure communicated to the ■ules, having a sheet of lead at the top and bottom, and between the upper or movable elate and the upper lead plate was a conical heap of fine sand, which was carefully pressed f lj-'nch cube between thin plates of lead. It was found that while one of these cubes could sustain 30,000 lbs., it would sustain 60.000 II s. without the lead plates. When he blocks were rendered perfectly parallel by a machine, the marble chosen for the 'apitol. from a quarry at Lee, Massachusetts, would sustain about 25,000 lbs. to the quare inch. Barlow' states that the crushing strength of Portland stone ranges from 1 bout 1,384 lbs. to 4 000 lbs. per square inch ; the Institute experiments give 2,576 lbs. "r 2-inch cubes, 4,099 lbs. for 4-inch cubes, and 4,300 lbs. for 6-inch cubes, pr wing the i lvantage of testing large bizes. Rennie gives 3,729 lbs., followed by Molesworlh ; vliile Hurst gives 2,022 lbs. 2266e. Testing cement has been described in par. 1864c. The machines commonly used re those by Mr. Adie and Mr. Michele ( Builder , xlviii. p. 283); by the former, ' "luettes of 14 inch square can be tested. Reid and Bailey's is described in Builder, 877, xxxv. p. 1015 ; Arnold’s in Builder for October 22, 1887, p. 579. 2266/. The hydraulic press is generally used for testing. This is a closed vessel, with s upper surface level, completely filled with water; two openings are made in it, Inch are replaced by pistons of areas 1 and 111 square inches. If a weight of 1 lb. be Deed on the smaller piston, a pressuro of 1 lb. will be felt everywhere in the interior of ie fluid, and the pressure on the larger piston will he 10 lbs. Thus a forco of 1 lb. acting u the area ] square inch, produces a pressure of 10 lbs. on the area 10 square inches. 2'ldCtg. Messrs. W. IT. Bailey & Co., of Salford, manufacture testing machines, as tiur-ton's for torsion ; Bramah’s hydraulic, for cement, tensile, crushing and transverse, id tor yarn and oil ; testers for tensile, torsion, and compression, and other purposes, • paper, wire, cloth, &c. ; also test pumps for steam boilers, kitchen boilers, high ' ssure, gas finings, water works, &c. ; Professor Thurston’s patent testers for materials construction ; and Tangye's patent hydraulic boiler prover. There are many woll- eiwi.n American testing machines. I ho f 1 owing persons and institutions hare set up testing machinery for public use or r instruction : — 2 '61. A. 1). Kirknhlg, established 1866, for ti sting and experimcnl ing on the strength | v.imus kinds of meta's and their alloys, stones, artificial stones, bricks, concretes, merits, timbers, (ic. The powerful machinery is adapted for any kind of strain — "" ly. pulling, cru-hing, thrusting, bonding, twirling, securing, punching, bil ging, and milling, from 10 ibs. to 1,000,001) ll s. To entire mnnufne'urcd articles, and timbers of il size, any amount of proof strain desired can be applied, or their ultimate breaking 732 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book U strength can be ascertained. The delicacy and accuracy of the machine is proved by it ability to test cement, canvas, and wire up to the greatest strains required for practice purposes. The capabilities for sizes are as follows : — Pulling stress, any length up t 300 inches. Crushing stress, any length up to 250 inches for columns, &c. For testixq bricks, six of a sort are required for average results. For stones, three or four 6-inci cubes, accurately ground ; concrete, usually 12-inch cubes. For cement, half a bushel i required, and it is suitably made up at the works for testing under pulling or thrusting stress. Bending stress, any span up to 300 inches. For comparing the strengths of full sized timber or iron joists, 10 feet span is recommended as a good standard. The fin museums at Messrs. Kirkaldy s works are open to architects and others taking an interes in the subject; and the results of the many experiments on full-sized work of ever; variety of material used in building or engineering operations, since January, 1866, wil be seen. An apparatus of simple construction is engraved in his Results— into the Com parative Tensile Strength , Ac., of Wrought Iron and Steel , 8vo. 1862. 2266i. King’s College, Strand. The plant for mechanical testing consists of tW' machines. One is a Kirkaldy machine, 23 feet long, taking test pieces up to 4 feet it length ; it exerts a strain of 50,000 lbs., and is constructed to make tensile, transverse compression, and torsion tests. The other is a Thurston automatic recording machine A description of the first machine is given in Engineer, October 5 and 12, 1883. 2266J. City of London and Guilds Central Institution, South Kensington. Themachir is a 100-tons machine, and will take in ordinary tension specimens up to 4 feet 6 incheil in length. It will take in 6 feet 6 inches in specimens with eyes. It has compressior and transverse shackles and autographic diagram apparatus. It takes in about 3 feet specimens for compression, but will be altered for 4 feet. The Engineer, July 25, 1881 shows a nearly similar one. Prof. W. C. Unwin, Machines for Testing Materials, cs pecially Iron and Steel, in Journal of the Society of Arts, July 8, 1887. Also, Tli Testing of Materials of Construction, 8vo., 1888. 2266 k. W. Harry Stanger has opened a chemical laboratory and testing works a Broadway, Westminster. There is a 50-ton machine by Buekton & Co. (Limited), witl Wickstead's patent apparatus for measuring and autographically recording stresses 1 tension, deflection, coxnpression, and torsion, from -j^th of a ton up to 50 tons. Als other machines and apparatus for various purposes. 22661. Messrs. Shaw, Head tf- Co., Queen’s Wharf, Bankside, have a testing machin for girders. It is shown and described in Builder, 1869, xxvii. 1020, Sect. XII. PAINTING, GILDING, PAPER-HANGING, DECORATING, ETC. 2267. Painting is the art of covering the surfaces of wood, iron, and other materials wit 1 a mucilaginous substance, which, acquiring hardness by exposure to the air, protects th material to which it is applied from the effects of the weather. House painting was di scribed by the editor at the Institute of British Architects, Transactions, Nov. 1857. 2268. The requisite tools of the painter are — brushes of hog’s bristles, of various size suitable to the work; a scraping or pallet knife ; earthen pots to hold the colours; a/e can for turpentine; a grinding stone and muller, &c. The stone should be hard and close grained, about 18 inches in diameter, and of sufficient weight to keep it steady. The knot* < specially of fir, in painting new work, will destroy its good effect if they be not first pro } erly killed, as the painters term it. The best way of effecting this is by laying upon tliosl knots which retain any turpentine a considerable substance of lime immediately after it : slaked. This is done with a stopping knife, and the process dries and burns out the tur pentine which the knots contain. When the lime has remained on about four and t went hours, it is to be scraped off, and the knots must be painted over with what is called si. knotting, a composition of red and white lead ground very fine with water on a stone, an mixed with strong double glue size, and used warm. If doubts exist of their still remain ing unkilled, they may be then painted over with red and white lead ground very fine i linseed oil, and mixed with a portion of that oil, taking care to rub them down with san paper each time after covering them, when dry ; so that they may not appear more raise than the other parts. When the knotting is completed, the priming colour is laid on. Tn priming colour is composed of white and a little red lead mixed thin with linseed oil. ( l! pound of it will cover from 18 to 20 yards. When the primer is quite dry, if the work 1 intended to be finished white, mix white lead and a very small portion of red with 1 oil, addinga little quantity of spirits of turpentine for second colouring the work. Of o' second primer, one pound will cover about 10 to 12 square yards. The work should no Chap. III. PAINTING, GILDING, ETC. 733 remain for some days to harden ; and before laying on the third coat it should be rubbed \ down with fine sand paper, and stopped with oil putty wherever it may be necessary. If the knots still show through, they should be covered with silver leaf, laid on with japanned gold size. The third coat is white lead mixed with linseed oil and turpentine in equal portions, and a pound will cover about 8 square yards. If the work is not to bo fini-hed white, the other requisite colour will of course be mixed with the white lead, as in the case of four coats being used. When the work is to be finished with four coats, the finishing :oat should be of good old white lead as the basis, thinned with bleached linseed oil and Spirits of turpentine; one of oil to two of turpentine. If the work is to be finished dead Si white , the very best old lead must be used, and thinned entirely with spirits of turpentine. 2269. When stucco is to be painted, it will require one more coat than wood-work ; the iast coat being mixed, if the work is as usually executed, with half spirits of turpentine ind half oil, for the reception of the finishing coat of all turpentine nr flatting. If the ‘work be not flatted, the finishing coat should be with one part oil and two of turpentine, jit would be impossible to enter into the details which are to be observed in painting walls pf fancy colours; all that can be said on this point in instruction to the architect is, that when fancy colours, as they are called, which in these days a painter construes as anything but white and a tinge of ochre or umber, each coat must incline, as it is laid on, more and unore to the colour which the work is intended to bear when finished. 2270. In repainting old work, it should be well rubbed down with dry pumice stone, land then carefully dusted off, and w‘hen requisite, the cracks and openings must be well stopped with oil putty. After this, a mixture of white with a very small portion of red lead, with equal parts of oil and turpentine, is used to paint the work, which the painters technically call second colouring old work. Alter this, the work being dry, a mixture of ■Id white lead, adding a small portion of blue black in a medium of half bleached oil and talf turpentine, is used for finishing, or, if flatting be intended, the former preparation will ie suitable for receiving dead white or any fancy colour. The same process will serve for tuccoed walls, observing that, if more coats be required, the mixture of half oil and half urpentine is proper. To remove old paint, see 2275. 2271. In respect to outside work, the use of turpentine is to be avoided, for turpentine i more susceptible of water than oil, and thence not so well calculated to preserve work xposed to the weather. Oil, however, having from its nature a natural tendency to dis- olour white, that is necessarily finished with a portion of half oil and half turpentine ; but n dark colours this is not necessary, and in such cases, boiled oil, with a little turpentine, h the best, or indeed boiled oil only. 2271a. When linseed oil is clarified and cleansed by means of sulphuric acid, much of ,he cohesion in the vegetable property of the oil is destroyed, preventing its forming that orfect pellicle which it invariably does upon exposure to the atmosphere during drying. iV'hite lead should be ground with linseed oil in its pure state; this oil is now largely plulterated with oils of resin and pine, as those oils are very much cheaper. Oils are thus ! arified that the lead, when ground, may appear at once as white as possible ; whereas, if 'round in pure linseed oil which has had the refuse cast down by means of ivory black or Wwdered litharge, it will at first have a yellow tinge, which is only to be got rid of by Ime; and hence arises the value of old ground vdiite lead. ( Builder , xiv.). j 2271 b. The blackness which in the v'inter frequently shows itself upon exterior painted ork probably arises from the outer skin of the oil having been rendered porous by the dphuric acid, and the foul, or hydrogen, gas readily fastens itself to the unprotected lead, r which it has an affinity, and hence results the mottled appearance of such work. 2271c. The best linseed oil is obtained from good Baltic and Bombay linseed, crushed, (ineral turpentine is sometimes used as an adulteration of that article; the paint made ith it dries, and then softens, becoming sticky even under a coat of sugar of lead and irnish. Woodwork prepared with bad linseed oil for being stained, prevents the varnish ' Samuel Blane’s fireproof paint has been used at the new theatre in the Strand, built, 181 for Edward Terry. Distemper. 2274. The use of distemper is older than that of oil and varnish. lVhitcwafhhip is kind of distemper, especially when size is used with it. Common distemper colour t walls is Spanish white, or whiting, broken into water, to which is added strong sizo win warm, and then allowed to cool, when it should appear a thin jelly ; two coats are general necessary. The old work should be first washed by a brush with water. This proci in old publications is called, “ painting in water colours.” It is much used for ceihi.; and always requires two, and sometimes three, coats, to give it a uniform appearaw It is not generally known that walls which have been distempered cannot afterwards limcwhited, in consequence of the lime when laid on whiting turning yellow; oil colou: however, can be applied, and then whitelead is used as the vehicle. Papered rooi coloured in this manner, especially over flock papers, look well, as the raised pattern c be seen through the coats of colour. Rooms may be distempered and dry again in a da with little dirt. When wood is covered with distemper, it is liable to swell with' damp. Rooms that are to be, afterwards varnished are prepared in two ways: I- 1 applying the intended distemper colour, and then covering it with as man}' coats varnish, coloured or uncoloured, as may be required; but if the wood be not dry, 1 colour becomes hardened and flakes off. II. The colour is ground and mixed up to varnish, which produces a better result. If the last coat of varnish be applied colours it then forms a glazing to the under tints, and its brilliancy will be greater. I he ttsc size here, again, produces a considerable saving of varnish. For new plaster tvor’ coating of size is desirable. _ . 2274a. Morse’s patent Calcarium distemper, or washable non-poisonous water colo> in cold water, does not require to be washed off previous to re-doing ; colours for mM or outside work, but not on outside painted walls ; white for ceilings. It w> 1 rub off; is stated to be one-fourth the cost of lead paint; that one hundredweight " 737 iap. HI. PAINTING, GILDING, ETC. rice cover 200 to 300 square yards of inside work, and from 100 to 200 square yards of itside work. 2274 b. Mander Brothers’ non-poisonous colours for distemper. They recommend ono mnd of first-rate glue to be dissolved in water over the fire, adding more water to make bucketful of size of about 2j- gallons. A preparative coat, made of whiting slacked in Id water, ad ling the proper proportion of colour; then reduce four ounces of soft soap a Lttle warmed size, and mix thoroughly in the colour, adding it to each bucketful of uff. Then thin down the whole with jelly size until it is fit for use. This coat should ■ made much thinner (with size) than the finishing coat, and it should be laid on evenly ith a flat brush and allowed to dry. For the finishing coat, make the colour as for the •eparathe coat, but with rather less size and more colour, and omit the soft soap. The alls shculd always be properly dry before being coloured, unless made with Parian ment, otherwise they will not dry of a uniform colour. Manders supply about one indred fine colours for various purposes. 2274c. Dicresco is a new washable distemper. 2274 d. Distemper and fresco painting are subjects we do not to treat in this section, as iey would come under “ Decorative Painting,” a higher branch of artistie skill. 2275. Some colours dry badly, black especially, and in damp weather they require a ■ter, as it is called, which may be made from equal parts of copperas and litharge, ground ■ry fine, and added according to cireumstaoces. Drying oil is made as follows : — To gallon of linseed oil put 1 lb. of red lead, 1 lb. of umber, and 1 lb. of litharge, and boil >em together for two or three hours. Great care must be taken that the oil does not )il over, on account of the danger to which the premises would be thereby exposed, aus, in a pot capable of holding fifteen gallons it would not be prudent to boil more than '■-third of that quantity. To remove old paint, varnish, &c., the Electric paint remover, well as the Egyptian clay, are said to be very efficacious. The Wellington automatic rch for burning off paint, and for plumbers’ work, as soldering, is a useful instrument. 2275a. Painter’s putty is made of whiting and linseed oil, well beaten together. Imitations. 2276. Graining (or combing, as it is termed in some late specifications) and marbling, the imitation of real woods and marbles, is done by the painter. Mahogany grained, 1798 is the earliest notice the writer on the subject in the Architectural Publication 'iety’s Dictionary had found; grained wainscot appeared in 1815. Imitation wainscot. obtained by giving the painted work a coat in oil of a brownish tone, the colour being eker than usual ; this is then scratched over by combs of bone, with blunt points, and various degrees of coarseness, leaving the ground visible. The cross white veins or ftps are next taken out with the corners of a piece of soft leather doubled up. The u process, which in cheap work is omitted or carelessly done, is ovr veining ; this is ’ cted with a wide fiat brush, the hairs of which are long and slender, dipped in trans- ; ■ nt colour, when the hairs stick together in a sort of lock ; the cross veins of the i Is are dexterously imitated with this tool, and show the other veins below. Other ■ "dients have been made to imitate knots, veins, mottles, &c., of various woods. The 1 lo dark snots with a lighter shade round them in maple wood are imitated by dex- 1 "is touches witn the tips of the fingers on the W9t pigment. Almost every other 'has weii as wainscot, is imitated in distemper, for which small beor and water, r "1 with Vandyke brown and burnt sienna, according to the tint required, is found to 1 efficiently glutinous without the aid of size, to prevent it smearing during the appli- r 'in of the coat of copal varnish which follows soon afterwards. Graining operations “ always done after the wood has been painted; in best work, indeed, the coats are k* r than usual, to afford a good ground for the combing. Taken with the subsequent * ashing, grained work is considered to he more lasting than painted work. Certain *’ ' have been invented for performing this work ; the grain has been imitated by n hinery; and grained papers havo been printed from the grain of the wood itself. To * the delay consequent on painting and all its annoyances, the editor of this edition * wined, in 1857 8, his system of graining on the wood itsolf, whereby only a pre- p tory sizing is necessary ; the rosult is that scarcely any smell of paint is perceived ; * 'ter brilliancy in effect is attained ; and the woodwork may be left to dry until the moment. ifi'i. Marbltng is painting on a prepared painted surfaco, an imitation of the material i (act us the tftlent of the pninler will admit, and requires no detailed explanation. "65. I'arnuhing, a subsequent operation to both of the nbovo processes, requires much "w and the use of good material, the best copal varnish, to bring out the colours of the w ■ Many qualities of varnish nro manufactured, as: finest copal, for imitation woods, ^ eop-il oak, for grained interior work ; mahogany varnish, being durkor in colour; *'* "»rd-drying oak varnish, drying ill about 8 hours, mid used for seats in ehurehes, &i\ ; “* hurl drying O'k varnish, used alter deal has been stained ; paper varnish, for paper- 3 I! 738 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I hangings, &c. Where expense is not an object, two or three coats are applied, especially t marbling, each coat being well rubbed down to obtain an even surface and a high degre of polish. To restore the gloss of varnished graining, of marbling, orof Tarnished papei the whole must be well cleaned, then sized afresh, and revarnished. But the origin; colour of the work can never be f\dly reproduced, as the varnish darkens by time. Brum wick black varnish, a quick drying jet black, is used for grates, iron work, &c. Cop; cabinet varnish, and a white, and a brown, bard varnish, and French polish, are used ft cabinet-makers’ work. A water flatting varnish renders paperhangings washable wither imparting a gloss. These varnishes are all as made by Mander Brothers, Wclverhamptui 2276c. To clean varnished work, soap and water applied carefully with a sponge, an the use of warm woollen cloths to dry the work, is very efficacious. The steps of woode staircases, painted, grained, and varnished, last a very long time, and neither dust n< dirt adhere so easily to such work as to paint. Real woods, especially wainscot, an prepared for receiving coats of varnish, by being first sized to prevent the rise of th grain which ensues when the slightest quantity of water touches it. When to bo polishei they are well smudged over a short time previously with Russian tallow. A preparatio called Lethicium is said to remove paint from wood in twenty minutes, doing away wil the necessity for burning it off. A hypo-nitro kali has been introduced for the same purpos; 2276(7. Sand paper, glass paper, emery paper, and. emery cloth, of various degree^ t fineness, are employed to rub down work to a surface. I't is made by the pulverise' material being placed in fine sieves, and by a gentle motion distributing it by hand ovt the paper or cloth prepared for its reception. 2276c. Stains, as substitutes for paint, the tints resembling oak, mahogany, rosewoo; walnut, and satinwood, cause tile natural grain of the deal on which they are applied i appear. The wood is then sized and varnished ; their durability is stated to be at lea; three times that of paint in interior work, and only at half the cost. This is Stephen p eparation. Naylor’s stain is said not to require sizing, and to stand exposure to th; Weather. Swinburn’s Transparent staining and anti-dry-rot fluids are chemically pr<| ptred, and show the natural grain and feathery appearance of the wood. When sized an the proper varnish used, they are said not to fade or blister by exposure to the weather. 2276./'. Mander Brotiiers supply permanent wood stains iu dry powder, which are ill stantly soluble in boiling water and perfectly fast in daylight ; they are provided in box of 1 oz., 2 oz.. 4 oz., 8 oz., and 16 oz. A pale copal varnish, or a dark haul-drying o; f varnish, should follow in two coats, put on in a warmish room, free from dust. Kallkoli is a new patent priming and stain ; it is considered to be best used as a first coat of pai to wood, to impart durability to all oil colours, and that the paint does not blister. It very useful to prepare walls for paperhangings. 2277 In the outside work and stairs, the process of sanding is frequently adopted, is performed with fine sand thrown on the last coat of paint while wet. Cement work generally (olmtred with its own cement mixed up with water. Roman cement, or bla cement, as it is sometimes called, must have a wash or two; and while Portland ceme is declared not to require anv colouring, certain it is that in London not many yea pass over before its dirty look urges a colouring or painting process. The process painting the artificial cements, such as Parian, &c., is noticed in pars. 2251/, and 2273/ Gilding. 2211a. Gil ling is of two kinds, burnished, and mat or dead, gilding. The former seldom used in architectural decoration. The latter is done in oil-size on woodwork : water-size on plastering. The gold leaf of various thicknesses, but generally about 55s of an inch, is called “ single,” “ double,” and “ thirds,” and of tints, is furnished in boo 1 of 25 leaves, each leaf being 3t by 3 inches, or in the book 18 inches and § of an in superficial, covering about 1 foot of plain work. It should not be too thin nor have t much alloy. Gilding on metal is effected by first giving it a coat of paint or so; other substance to prevent oxidation. Gold, absolutely pure and of extra thickness, w applied to the ironwork of the great tower at Westminster ; and double gold leaf, pa was used in the reading room of the British Museum. It has been stated, that if J li before commencing to gild, each leaf of the book be slightly rubbed over with wa sufficient only to cause the adhesion of the gold, that gilding in the open air, even windy weather, may be done without the loss of a leaf, as the stickiness of the gol(l-s will overcome that of the wax, and no part be blown away, as is generally the case. 22775. A gold paint, patented by H. Bessemer, is now much used, which, by the higl) improved manufacture of bronze powder, is greatly reduced in price in England, though very much is still purchased from the German dealers. As an impalpable metal powder, its application to plaster, wood, &e., is effected by using a camel’s hair brut which is dipped into a little, of the powder and rubbed up in a small portion of trai parent gummy varnish, by which it adheres to the surface. For all outduor works requires to be varnished over for better preservation. 7uap. in. / PAINTING, GILDING, ETC. 739 Paperhavgivg. 2277c. With painting is often connected the practice of paperhanging hy the same .vtificer. The various sorts of paper used for lining walls may be described as follows : dloek printed by hand, a process now seldom done. Machine printed, of great variety, 'locks, the pattern being formed by a wool ground to a tine powder and fixed to the aper by a sticky oil. Raised Hocks; patent embossed flocks ; imitation leather, of which ] lie new Coriacene is an example. Woollams and Co. were the original makers of 1 uni -arsenical papers. They are also manufacturers of patent embossed flock papers, J tubossed imitation leather paper, and raised flock papers for pa'nting over. Arsenical reen in printed papers is considered injurious to health, from its flaking off in light particles, and floating in the air, when it is taken into the lungs whhe breathing. his colour may be at once detected by placing a few drops of ammonia on it, whereby i lie grem will be changed into a deep blue. 1 2277o'- The methods of manufacturing marble, granite, and wainscot wall papers, is (cell described in the Builder for I860, p.912, and which need not be here entered upon. 2277c. It may be mentioned that papers are printed 12 yards in length, such a leng'li eing called a piece , and 1 foot 8 inches wide ; hence 1 yard in length contains 5 feet superficial ; therefore, any number of superficial feet divided by 60 (the length 36 x 1 ft. ins.) will give the number of pieces wanted for the work ; 1 piece in 7 or 8 is allowed ! 'T cutting and waste to common papers, and any odd yards are allowed as a piece. Tench papers contain about 4| yards superficial per piece, being of various widths. In list papers this allowance for waste is not enough. Borders are 12 yards or 36 feet in j ich leDgtb, each being technically a dozen. A ream of printed paper of 20 quires of 24 i >eets to the quire, is equal to 28 pieces of paper, or each piece contains 17 sheets, latin papers should be hung over a lining jsaper. The paperhanger has to provide and I trig materials required for covering damp walls. 227"/’. Walls of rooms should always he stripped before the new paper he put up, a | "c< ss usually attempted to he shirked, even when charged in the estimate. I11 bad jiinmon plasterer’s work the setting coat often comes off in parts with the paper and has j be repaired. The walls are commonly prepared for papering by a coat of clearcole, similar material, and for better work bv rubbing down, &c. I 2277//. Paperhangers’ paste is made of flour, a little alum, and single size. | 2277 h. Tectorium is stated to be a sanitary decoration for walls ; it is a flue textured 1 1 i co painted, •with the patterns printed thereon. The dado filling is made in 22, 27, 36, , and 45 inches widths. The filling 22 inches wide is either in plain oil colours, or Ilnurs varnished, so that it can be washed with soap and water. The material is ap- ! ed in the usual way as a paper ; it chpcks the inroads of damp intoa room. Lincrusta ydton. formerly known as Muralis, the Sunbury wall decoration, is impermeable I moisture, and has other advantages. Muraline is one among the many washable j | < rs. A Sanitary paper is made of non-absorbent materials, arid being printed under '"int pressure, the colouring is pressed info, and thoroughly inc u-porated with, the | re of the paper. These papers are well adapted for sick rooms, and can be washed | cold water. The Duro-lcxtilc is of this character, and is marie 24 inches wide. W. k • & Co.'s golden lustre silk paper hangings are stated to be free from all impurities. Other Decorative A]>pliances anil Processes. 1 -77i . Distemper and Fresco painting. Sgraffito, an ancient Italian process for external q internal plaster work. Pargetry, or modelling in wet plaster, as carried out in the j ‘-timbered buildings of the 16th and 17th ceniuries. Modelled fibrous plaster work, I ceilings, &c. Marble, mosaic floors. Tile paving. Artistic joinery in dados, doors, ([•l brig, &c , in all woods. Chimneypieces in marble and wood. Real wood veneering ! 1 u of painting and paperhanging. Xylateehnigraphy, a new and permanent process 1 h ei, rating woodwork in lieu of painting or graining. Radeke’s compressed wood, l\‘- Stain'd glass anti leadorl lights. Embossed and painted modern lea her, and ‘1'iisli leather, for walls, screens, &c. Tapestry, imitation painted or printed, for wall li| rings, st rills for curtains, furniture coverings, &e. Pyrographiv woodwork (par. 21 73.7 ). 'yt/ tie try (par. 21737 -). Colour deeorat on, applied to walls, continually fails. Mr. I linn has invented Cloisonne mosaic, a material that will take colours on the principle j n i son n 7 work, which could lie applied in panels 6 feet by 3 feet. It is a metal lining, ’ i in wirli it coloured material, ami washable. 3 u t 740 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE, Book I Sect. XIII. VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 2278. Though this and the following section can scarcely he said to come legitimati under the heading of this chapter, the subjects are so intimately connected with each the sections, and have been referred to occasionally in their description ; and as, moreov the architect is expected to make himself fully acquainted with these subjects, this pla then, appears to be suitable for the consideration of them. 2278a. W hetlier ventilation be left to chance, or whether any special apparatus be erecl for the purpose, foul or vitiated air must be got rid of ; while fresh air, adapted to 1 purposes of respiration, must be admitted in sufficient quantity, that is, at the rate of at< 4 cubic feet per minute for each individual in the apartment. The force or impetus of t 1 incoming air ought slightly to compress the air of the room and assist the efflux of vitiated air; and this, in its turn, ought to be so heated as to have a ceitain amount ascensional power. Mechanical means are sometimes necessary to expel or withdraw air. such as tanners, bellows, pumps, &c. ; but for general purposes it is more convenient well as economical, to trust to the natural method of getting rid of vitiated air; that is, making certain ventilating tubes or openings at the highest point of die room, town which the hot air tends to flow. 22784. Some authors have divided artificial ventilation into two branches, called plen and vacuum. By the first, fresh air is forced into the interior of a building, and vitiated air is allowed to escape by openings contrived for the purpose. By the sect . vitiated air is drawn out of the building, and fresli air finds an entrance through cham i adapted to the purpose. 2278c. As the velocity of a falling body in a second of time is known to be eight tr the square root of the height of the descent, in decimals of a foot, so the velocity of • charge per second, through vent tubes or chimneys, may be briefly stated as equa ) eight times the square root of the difference in height of any two columns of air, in dr mals of a foot. This number, reduced one-fourth for friction, and the remainder mi - plied by 60, will give the true velocity of efflux per minute. The area of the tube ini or decimals of a foot, multiplied by ibis last number, will give the number of cubic fe. 1 air discharged per minute. The height of a column of heated air must be calculated 1 u the floor of the room to the top of the tube where it discharges into the open air. W o several vent tubes are employed, they must all he of the same vertical height, or the hig A vent will prevent the efficient action of the lower ones, so that there might be a smi r discharge through two tubes than through one only. 2278rf. When several openings are made above the level of the floor of a room, e highest one may be the only one capable of acting as an abduction tube, the other I r openings often serving as induction tubes, discharging cold air into the room instcii 4 taking it out., and, in doing so, it may lower the temperature of the hot vitiated air d prevent it from escaping, thus not only causing the bad air to he breath'd over a; t but filling the room with unpleasant draughts. But if the highest at duction tube l» '« small to carry off the requisite qu ntity of hot air, the tube next below it in elevatii 4 any part of the room will act as an abduction tube. If the lower openings (to be prov I with sliding valves) for the admission of fresh air he too small in proportion to thes ( ventilating tubes or openings may be effective, the lower opening for the admissi< »f fresh air must be at least as large as the upper ones, and larger if possible. Tredgol commended that the lower should be about double the area of the upper openings, ,r ia so subdivided as to break the current. (Tomlinson, Warming and Ventilation , "■< 1850.) 2278c. It must be noted that all noxious gases do not rise, and therefore that in : " exceptional cases ventilation must be effected at the floor level. Taking atmospheri ,r at 60° Fahr., and under a pressure equal to 30 inches of mercury as 1,000, then byB n gas equals 6,926 ; nitrogenous miasma, about 975 ; olefiant gas, 978; sulphuretted hyd 11 gas, 1.178; carbonic oxide, 957 ; and sulphurous acid, when anhydrous, 3,000. Oi "j contrary, carburetted hydrogen gas, or marsh miasma, is as light as 555 ; and comnioi J gas ranges between 514 and 420. Thus above or below ihe temperature of 60° the diiions of the diffusion of gases vary in a marked manner, and it is on this account th- ,J foul air of sewers, &c.. exercises a more extended action laterally in hot weather, wl 1 is able to diffuse itself more easily through an attenuated atmosphere, than in cold ve: 'j, when the greater density of the atmosphere, and the comparatively higher tempeiat AP. III. VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 741 e gases given off from the receptacles mentioned, enable the foul air to rise vertically th greater ease than to spread laterally. In a room, the carbonic acid emitted by the hts and by the brea’h of its occupants being of greater specific gravity than atmospheiic ■, would, at the ordinary temperature of the air, tend to accumulate in its lower strata ; j.t the temperature of the products of respiration and of combustion is usually so much excess of that of the air, that they are enabled to rise through it, and to accumulate in e upper portions of the enclosed room until some change in their temperature tithes tee. The foul state of the air in the lower portions of a pub.ic building on the day flowing a crowded meeting may be due to the change of temperature during the night, cl the retention, by closed doors and windows, of the air so rendered impure. In 1 8(55 neral Morin read a paper to the Paris Academy of Sciences, again urging as a funda- ntal principle the exploded practice of drawing off vitiated air from the stratum nearest le floor, pure air being admitted near to the ceiling. 2278/. Our limited space will not permit us to do more than very briefly notice the ief principal methods of ventilation; the application of any one of them must be left to e ingenuity of the architect. Ho will tied that all public buildings, and even all private fuses, from the highest to the lowest c lass, must be spontaneously ventilated, for if any mble be entailed, it will be neglected. The means for ventilation must be cheap, easily pcurable, always in place, self-acting, and not liable to get out of order. Such an inven- lin is the Arnott ventilator, when placed as close to the ceiling as practicable, forming a rect communication between the room and the chimney. The chimney has been made le means of securing a ventilation by a separate and rarified air channel. Thus, besides a •re channel left in the wall adjoining a flue, Doulton’s patent combined smoke and ■ flues, of terra-cotta, for 12, 10, and 8-inch chimneys, are effective. Boyd’s patent flue ites are similar in principle. Chowne’s patent air-syphon, consisting of an inverted syphon be, acts upon the principle of the air moving up the longer leg, and of entering and de- eding in the shorter leg, without the necessity for the application of artificial heat to the E iger leg. This, however, does not appear to be always proved in practice, for whether > current in the longer leg be ascending or descending, depends chiefly upon differences . temperature within and without a building; but as the brickwork of chimneys often 3 heated by the vicinity of the kitchen flue, or even by the sun shining upon it during • day, an ascending current is more likely to be sustained than a descending one, since ckwork will retain its heat for some hours. 2278(7- The system adopted by Dr. Beid, at the House of Commons, was that of admit- ■ - air into a chamber underground, where it was (and is still) purified by being washed le passing through a stream of water, and then through canvas, whereby other i rn- irities are extracted. It then rises to the floor of the apartment, which is piorced with •ny thousand holes, and passing through them is then further distributed by means of a •jr-clotb, ascending towards the ceiling at about the rate of one foot per minute. This ■ is, in cold weather, warmed below ; and in warm weather it is cooled with ice. Tre ■ ecf is to keep the air in all seasons at a uniform temperature of 64°. The air is 'often ' h r in the House than that outside it. From the ceiling it is carried rapidly away along cunnel to feed the great furnace which creates this current of ventilation. The com- ) int is made that it carries with it from the floor the fine dust brought in by the i rubers’ f.-ct, which, being inhaled, sometimes affects those in the House. The method ! pted by Dr. Reid to warm and ventilate St. George’s Hall, at Liverpool, is detailed in t Civil Engineer for 18G4, page 136. The system employed from 1736 to about 1 S 1 7 at 1 old House of Commons, which was effectively ventilated, was by a fan placed over it 1 extracting the heated air, its rate of working being dependent upon an attendant, who 1 ived his directions from a person within the House. The common revolving wind- h id placed at the top of a chimney to induce a suction, whereby the smoke may bo . B A Fig. 80S. Fig. 808a. the plate, tending to prevent the ingress of smoko. However useful this contrivance may be, its result in cubical consumption of a’r is necessarily small. A cowl with vertical, or horizontal, or slanting jalousied sides has also been employed, with or without an Archimedean screw, at the top of a flue, to exhaust the air of a room. The simplest means of the admission of air to a room is a hole in front of which, on the inside, should be a board inclined to throw up the current of fresh air, as fig. 8086. Another well-known invention is Sheringham's inlet ventilator. An opening is made in an ex- ternal wall for the introduction of air, and a metal box inserted, which is a sort of hopper, having at its mouth a valve, so hung as to direct the current of air towards the ceiling, whereby no draught is felt by tho occupants of the apartment. Somewhat similar is Hart’s ventilator, the f.ics being of perforated zinc. Such articles are also made with a box to contain charcoal as a purifier of the air before it is admitted. Looker’s patent ventilator, consisting of a tubular piece of pottery fixed in the wall, into which on the inside is placed another tube, perforated all round wiili small holes, the inner end being closed altogether. This second tube is pushed in or out, according to tho quantity of air required. 2278i/. Amongst tho earliest of other and lator systems is Watson’s double-current venti- lator, consisting of a tube divided by a diaphragm, and rising from the ceiling to the external air; it was intended that the air should circulate, as shown in fig. 808c., by an ascending and a descending current. It has been said that this result only occurs in rooms that are perfeci ly closed, and that the two tubes generally serve as exhausters ; but our own ex- perience is more favourable to the effective working of this invention. Somewhat similar to this is fig. 808 tl., called the Shaftesbury ventilator, which appears to have been applied in small tenements with success, probably for the very reason that the rooms in such cases aro generally kept as close as possible; for it has been necessary to conceal tho opening at the coiling by an ornamental rose, and to put at G ^ , an air grate with largo openings. At times, IT 1 il m Fig. MAC. m 3 n C H Fig. «osud grates raised from the latter to the former height with greatly increased results. Advantage has been taken of the fire-clay stoves, since the period of their invention by Faint Rumford, to combine the back and sides with air flues of the same material, which, '•coming heated, impart their heat to the cold air supplied from the outside, admitting 'arm fresh air to the apartment. These stoves were first adopted by Cundy. Numerous •nns of slow-combustion grates have been introduced of late years. The Carron, Musarnve s, and Barnard, I! shop & Co.’s Norwich stove, are among many others i f that '•-cri ption. The registered Economiser grate and fire-brick hack, manufactured by Nelson ral Sons, of Leeds, on the principles advocated by T. I’. Tealc, in Economy of Coal in 'Inner Firs, has a door to the ash-iit to close the draught; tho sides and back of the fire iv of fire-brick, while above tho fire tho bark slopes forward and over it to near tho mantel, lien it again slopes back to the back of the chimney; all this being in firebrick and •flannelled where above tho fire. It is considered to give perfect combustion of fuel, with mpleto radiation and projection of the heat produced, the form of hack ensuring tho r Mte-t possible consumption of smoke. It can be readily fixed by any bricklayer. • Marlborough grate. (Garland’s patent), with adjustable canopy acting in place of a g 1 si it door, fire-brick sides and back on tho same principle with Economiser ; when ' lire is not used, the eanopycan bo let down to shut up tho flue opening, liken register. ■ n 1 mi 'on of heat has been materially assisted by Sylvester’s arrangement of the ends of '• tin- bars projecting into tho room forming a hot hearth; and also by Joyce. Dr. . r Mil i '* smoke consuming grnte, and tho application of a solid bottom to a grate, reducing “tho Builder's fire," are p ints of consideration for tho householder rather 748 THEOEY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. than for the architect. The Galt on ventilating air store is largely used in hospitals and infirmaries. The Manchester grate, manufactured by E. II. Shorland, of Manchester, for houses, schools, hospitals, asylums, &c., is used by the Bank of England at its brancli establishments. It is called a patent first class smoke consuming and warm air generating grate. Heat is not only given off by radiation, but warm air can be supplied to rooms above or adjoining the one in which the grate is fixed ; in 1882 it was stated to possess nearly 80 per cent, more heat-giving properties, and to be nearly 100 per cent, better as a smoke consuming grate, than others tested at the time. The Wharncliffe patent warm a r ventilating grate. Grundy's patent warm air ventilating fire grate, in which [he heating surface is stated to be greater than any other. Reeve, Ratcliffe & Co.’s Cosy grate is the only open fireplace in which the products of combustion are filtered through a red-hot wasteless purifier, and therefore is a smoke consuming economical grate. 2279c. II. The varieties of close stoves are very numerous, but the priuciple upon which they depend for their efficiency is in all cases nearly the same. This may be stated to be the heating of metal plates by the combustion of fuel in actual contact with them. The quantity of heating surface in the room wherein the stove is placed can be materially in- creased, and nearly the full effects of the heated products from the fuel obtained, by lengthening the smoke flue ; but the longer the flue the less is the draught of the fire, which is further lessened by its becoming choked with soot; thus a 3-inch pipe attached to a small stove, burning coal and in constant use, has been found so completely filled up with soot in the course uf a week that a stick half an inch in diameter could scarcely be passed through the hole left in the centre. The now common American cooking-stoves are on this principle. The principle of theArnott stove is that of consuming the peculiar fuel recommended for its use very slowly, and the detention of the heat in the stove. The addition of a descending flue to some of these stoves is an advantage when it is desired to place the stove in the middle of a shop or warehouse. Franklin’s calorifere, or the vase stove, having a descending flue, was formerly much used. When this system has been adapted to flues carried under a stone floor (after the Chinese fashion), it has been found to warm most efficiently an office and principal staircase with a mere handful of tiro, at a cost of about 30s., while by another apparatus the cost was 18f. (Beaumout, Hints for 'preventing Damage by Fire , 1835.) This is an elaboration of the common method of warming greenhouses by the brick or smoke flue, through which the smoke and flaruo travels from the furnace. A fire-clay casing for the fuel is also combined with some of them. Haden’s apparatus has been mentioned (par. 2278b) for warming large buildings; and equally efficient is that by Grundy, which is also much used for churches and large buildings. The Tortoise stove is a late production for a small room. Gas stoves are of various sorts. There are many of iron make, which render the air unwholesome. Wessel's patent heat dissemin itor (about 1850), made of copper, has proved of value even in rooms kept closed. Ritchie & Co.’s Lux-calor new patent apparatus tor heating and ventilating large buildings by gas, requires no flue, and has no smoke nor smell ; the principal parts are made of copper. It v'as much used in the Bank of England. S. Clark & Co.’s patent Syphon stove is a condensing gas heating, similar in principle. 2279/. The high tempe.ature stoves, such as the eokles, the Strutt or Belptr stove, the Sylvester’s, and others, all used for warming extensive spaces, consist of large metal plates or surfaces of brick or stone, heated in or by a furnace or fire, the air to be warmed being caused to impinge upon or pass between them, and then carried along in tubes to the several rooms or floors where the heat is required. The hot air pipe furnace is used for the same purposes, whereby the flame and smoke passes along the inside of the tubes. In Bavison and Symington’s furnace for obtaining heated currents of air for manufacturing purposes, the cold or fresh air is driven by a fan at a great velocity through the pipes, which are placed in contact with the flames. Any cessation of the blower may be expected to cause material injury to the pipes. 2279(7. A writer explaining the common American system of warming houses by hotair, says that the whole comfort of the result depends upon how the atmospheric air is heated. The various plans are effected by a furnace, from the dome of which pijoes are coiled and twisted about so as to gain the utmost possible radiating surface, and the air is brought in contact with them as it passes through the chamber. To get cheaply a great amount of heat, trie castings tire made very thin, the air chambers and hot air pipes small ; whereby the result is, that a hot desiccated poisonous air is discharged into the room, in- jurious to the lungs, and causing headaches. Where the air chamber, however, is large, the furnace very wide and shallow, and its dome high, with the radiating surface large/ extended, and the external cold air shaft spacious, this mode of heating is excellent, bo apparatus of its kind ever surpassed the old Boston furnace, first invented by Chilson, and since so greatly improved by his successor in New York. In the “Boynton furnace, as it is called, the shaft bringing in the cold air is very large, frequently 4 feet wide and 2 feet or more deep, and the air chamber and tin pipes therefrom are also of considerable size. In the air-chamber a small jet of water is kept playing to restore the natural moisture to the air. Anthracite coal is used, a ton of which, for an ordinary house, WARMING OF BUILDINGS. 749 Chap. III. would be a sufficient supply for nearly three 'weeks. No other fires, except that of the kitchen range, is usually seen in houses possessing this apparatus. ( Builder , xxiii. 582.) '1 he heating of houses by warm air, and the substitution of gas for general heating and i cooking purposes, advocated by a method adopted by Mr. A. E. Fletcher, was considered 1 in the Journals of Jan. 1888. A brick chamber in the basement contains a stove in which coke is burnt ; air is brought in from the outside, and then conveyed by means of pipes I to the entrance-hall'and ground-floor rooms, thus warming the whole house, with the result of a considerable economy of fuel. Then asbestos gas fires were used in the rooms, and ' gas cooking ranges in the kitchen, with great avantages of less dust, cleaning grates, lighting fires, &c. This is not all new (see par. 2279^). Many persons have for years found the advantage of the hall and staircase being warmed, if not carried to too great a heat, but only as an auxiliary to open fires, and the upper floor kept ventilated. ■ Gas fires are not to be depended upon as successful. Gas cooking stoves are useful in many cases, but much depends on the domestic even then. 2279A. III. The circulation of hot water in pipes is caused by the unequal density of the fluid, arising from the difference of temperature in the ascending and descending columns of water connected with the heating reservoir; and its velocity is governed by the height of the columns; Bramah, in appendix to Tredgold, Heating. A boiler (the “ conical ” boiler is considered the best form by some manufacturers, while others prefer the “saddle-back”) heats the water, which, as it becomes warmed, rises and passes out through the flow pipes ; these are laid at a very slight inclination, to assist the current. When the water has arrived at its furthest extent, it enters what are termed the return pipes, on its way back to the boiler, which it enters at the lowest part, to be re-heated, to rise, flow, and return as long as a fire is kept up. A rough calculation has been made that for every 50 feet of 4-inch pipe 1 square foot of boiler surface is required. The self supplying cistern and its expansion box must be placed somewhat above the highest level at which the hot water is desired to rise, yet not so high that the pressure in the pipes will affect their joints. It should be covered, and have a pipe to allow the vapour or steam produced by over-heating to escape into the external atmosphere. With this, the low temperature system, the heat of 212°, or that of boiling water, cannot be exceeded. Jeffrey’s patent Radiator, for hot water or steam, in single or double loops or coils, is ornamental. 2279/. IV. The high temperature svstem was introduced by Perkins, and is frequently called by his name. Water is placed in a coil and range of piping of small diameter, her- metically closed, so as to prevent all communication with the external atmosphere. A coil, being at least one-sixth of the whole piping, is heated by the action of the fire in immediate contact with it, by which means the temperature of the water in it can be raised easily to 300° or 400°; but then the same objection applies to the air warmed by pipes so heated as to that from high temperature stoves. As water expands with heat, allowance has to be made by the addition, at the highest point, of a larger tube to receive [the surplus, which varies from 10 to J2 feet per cent. ; one-tenth of the space of piping [may thus be allowed for expansion. After the pipes are fixed, they are very carefully filled with water, so as to expel all air, through a filling tube situated at the bottom of the expansion tube, and when sufficiently full they are hermetically closed. The danger | to be chiefly apprehended from this apparatus is that, if leakage takes place, the loss of water causes red-hot vapour to be formed, with the possibility of setting fire to any wood -0 which it may be attached. There is now no doubt but that wood, subjected to a constant current of greatly heated air, becomes very liable to combustion. 2279/'. When heating surfaces of great extent are required to be obtained by the appli- cation of hot water or of steam, Walker’s system will probably be found to be the most effectual yet introduced. It must be sufficient here to describe it as consisting of a lumber of small iron blocks, each block having square perforations passing through it for lie current of air from the top to the bottom, of very thin metal. The blocks are en- losed in a corresponding perforated iron box, leaving 1 inch for water or steam allround »ich block, which heats the metal forming the blocks By this very compact arrangement 160 f. .•ot if heating surface may be obtained in a box measuring not more than 2 feet cube. 2279/. The rules for finding the area of hot water pipes for any sized apartment are in 11 respects essentially tho same as will be given for steam, excepting the mean tempera- ire of the pipes: for steam-pipes 200° is given ; but 1 40° to 150° may be taken as that f low temperature hot-water pipes. From data obtained by Ilood, Practical Treatise, I n! edit., 1850, it appears that water in a pipeof 4 inches diameter loses '851 of a degreo J heat, per minute, when the excoss of its temperature over that of the surrounding air ' 125 '; and also that, under tho same condition, one foot of such a pipe will heat 222 ["bn! feet of air ono degree in tho same time ; whence ho deduces the following rule : Multiply 125 by the difference between the maximum proposed tempi ralure of tho room ml that of the external air, and divido this product by the difference between the tern- intnre of the pipes and that proposed for the room ; then the quotient is to be multi- bed by tho number of cubic leet of air to be warmed per minute; and the product, THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. 750 divided by 222, -will give the number of feet, in length of pipe of 4 inches diameter, required to produce the same effict; this length is to be multiplied by 1'33 or by 2, for equivalent lengths of pipes respectively 3 and 2 inches in diameter. 2279 m. In making arrangements for heating by steam , we need not describe the con- struction of the furnace and boiler, or of the chimney, matters which are perhaps better arranged by the engineer fit t ng up the apparatus, as steam for warming purposes is rarely adopted except where waste steam can be brought into use, as in factories and workshops using steam power. The thicker the metal of the pipes the better for greenhouses and such like places ; for buildings, the thinner the better, consistent with strength ; say about |ths of an inch in thickness. Provision must be made fur the expansion of pipes, both for steam and water, of about one-eighth of an inch for every 10 feet of length. The pipes should be placed near the floor, and as close as possible to the apertures for the admission of fresh air. The pipes should be laid with an inclination to the boiler, so that condensed water from the steam shall be returned to it; and they should he carried at once to the highest part of the building and descend to the lowest. 2279 n. To form some idea of the r. quisite area of piping for any desired buildings, tho quantity of cubic feet of air required per minute must first be ascertained. In order to ascertain this, attention must be given to the loss of heat by ventilation, and tile direct influence of cold external walls, glass windows, &c. From the first cause there will be a loss of heat proportioned to the quantity of the air withdrawn per minute: if 4 cubic feet are supplied to each individual per minute, then “ there will he for each individual 4 cubic feet of air conveying off a quantity of heat equal to the differ- ence between the heat of the external air and that of the room.” Thus, if the heat of the room be 70° and that of the external air 50°, then the withdrawal of 4 cubic feet of air per minute must lead off a quantity of heat equal to the differences between 70° and 50°, or 20°. From the second cause there will also be a loss, as heat is transmitted very quickly through glass ; the quantity of air cooled in a given time being simply proportional to the surface of the glass exposed to the external air, and, consequently, will be constant, what- ever variation of temperature may take place. The rule given by Tredgold, § 67, is as follows : — “ If the area of the suriaeo of glass be multiplied by Vo, the product will be the number of cubic feet of air per minute which will be cooled from the temperature of the room to that of the external air;” and to this loss will also be added that arising from each door and window (independently of occasionally opening and shutting tho former); this was calculated by the same author, § 65, to be equivalent to i 1 cubic feet per minute, tile difference of temperature between the internal and external atmosphere being 6U°. 2279n. From a combination of these circumstances, assisted by various experiments, Tredgold, § 68, deduced the following rule : — If the number of people the room is in- tended to contain be multiplied by 4 (or the quantity of air allowed per minute), and added to 1 1 times the number of external windows and doors (as 11 cubic feet of air is pa; sed through each per minute on an average), added to 1 ,( times the area in feet of tho glass exposed to the external air, the sum obtained will be I lie quantity, in cubic feet, to be warmed per minute. The next operation is to find the area or surface of piping which will warm this quantity of air. The mean temperature of a steam pipe at tiie ordi- nary pressure is 200°. The temperature of the air supplying ventilation is to be known at the extreme case of cold, which for the day may be taken at 30°, but for the night may be assumed in this country at zero of Fahrenheit’s thermometer ; the temperature to bo maintained at the same season of cold is also to be settled. Then, lb edgold, § 44, gives the following rule : — Multiply the cubic feet per minute of air to be heated, to supply tho ventilation and loss of heat, by the difference between the temperature the room is to be kept at and that of the external air, in degrees of the thermometer, and divide the product by 2 - l times the difference between 200 and the temperature of the room. This quotient, will give the quantity of surface of cast iron steam pipe that will be sufficient to main- tain the room at the required temperature. According to l)r. Arnott, 1 foot of super- ficies of heating surface is required for every 6 feet of glass ; the same for every 120 feet of wall, roof, and ceiling; and an equivalent quantity for every 6 cubic feet of air with- drawn from the apartment by ventilation per minute. (Tomlinson, p. 124.) 2279 p. “The Metropolitan Building Act, 1855,” requires that: — I. The floor under every oven or stove used for the purpose of trade or manufacture, and the floor around tho same for the space of 18 inches, shall be formed of materials of an incombustible and non-conducting nature ; II. No pipe for conveying smoke, heated air, steam, or hot watci, shall be fixed against any building on the face next to any street, alley, mews, or pubis, way; (III. A pipe for conveying hot water, or steam, at low pressures is now not re- quired to be kept clear of combustible materials) ; IV. No pipe for conveying hot water shall be pilaced nearer than three inches to any combustible material ; and V. No pipe ioi conveying smoke or other products of combustion shall be fixed nearer than nine inchts to any combustible material; with a penalty not exceeding 20/. for non-compliance. ’hap. in. SPECIFICATIONS. 751 Sect. XV. SPECIFICATIONS. 2280. The importance of an accurate specification or de scription of the materials and verk to he used and performed in the execution of a building, is almost as great as the reparation of the designs for it. The frequent cost of works above the estimated sum, ud its freedom from extra charges on winding up the accounts, will mainly depend on the learness, fulness, and accuracy of the specifications ; though it is but justice to the archi- ed to state that extras arise almost .as often from the caprice or change of mind of his mployer during the progress of the work, as from the neglect of the architect in making he specification. A specification should be made in all cases of new designs, additions, r alterations in reference to designs, which, the more they are given in working drawings y the architect, the better will it be for his employer, no less than for the artificer. 2280a. When the drawings have been brought to suit the client’s tastes and requi re- lents, the architect commences to prepare the working plans and details. Before theie re completed, he should take up the specification. The primary and main object of a peeification, is to give, fully and clearly, all necessary and useful written explanations and nstructions for the execution of the work, and for making due preparations for the fleeting of a definite and clear bargain between the person or company accepting an oiler ml the contractor offering to execute the work. 2280ft. To write out a document fulfilling all these requirements, going into every articular, and describing fully and accurately each different part of the work, must uturally cause a lengthened document. But a line must be drawn between running to i almost absurd length and being too brief. The former may occasionally cause the pacification to be neglected, as the builder or his foreman has seldom the time to refer ten to it. The rotation of the various paragraphs is a very important matter. It was rrncrly, and is now, much the custom to divide the specification into trades, which system use when separate contracts were taken for different branches of the work; but at the esent day, when it is so general to have one contractor to carry out the entire work, it is occasionally been attempted to write a specification in a form more quickly and easily nsulted than by referring to paragraphs in several trades respecting some one single •rtion of the work. 2280c. Some architects have written the main portion of the details on the drawings •inselves, detaching them from the general and spteific work, particulars, and conditions ; t the drawings are not always at hand to refer to, if there be no “office” on the ilding. 2280a. In many large towns it has become the custom to relegate this important part ■in architect’s business, especially of a young one, to a “ quantity surveyor.” By doing '. he loses that grasp of construction and of details which the preparation of a speci- atioD, as of quantities, so greatly helps. The man who originally draws the working •ns can with much greater facility write out the specification for the execution of the a.c than the man who, so to say, has first to learn his lesson. It should bear the im- ■s ot the artistic feelings of the designer, which the quantity surveyor can nover give it. item is usually taken separately, and should bo clearly described ; simple language aild be used, without abbreviations; all such words as proper, properly, sufficient, fin others, should be avoided ; involved sentences, had punctuation, and faulty grammar I r s Ctnnpri/ mntt Spec (fit r, 8vo. 1870, should boon tho student's shelf. 752 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II 2280/. Among the Acts of Parliament, &c.. to -which the attention of the architect an, of the builder lias to be directed, are the following. Towns and several other placet and the London p irishes, &c., have their own local Acts and bye-laws. Metropolitan Building Act, 1855, 18 & 19 Viet., c. 122. Amendment, 1860, 23 & 2 Viet., c. 52. Amendment, 1869, 32 & 33 Viet., c. 82. Metropolis Management Act, 1855, c. 120. Amendment, 1862. Metropolis Management and Building Acts Amendment Act, 1878, 41 & 42 Viet., c. 31 Amendment Act, 1882, 45 Viet , c. 14. Metropolitan Board of Works, Bye-Laws, after 1878. Public Health Act, 1875, c. 55. Knight’s Annotated Model Bye-Laws of t-he Local Government Board, 8vo., 188.' is useful, GENERALLY. 22807c. The contractor to supply all requisites; to provide all materials, new and < the best quality; to execute and complete in the best and most workmanlike manner a the works set forth in the specification and drawings, to the satisfaction of the architect to give notices to, and pay fees and charges of all local authorities and officers, as distri. surveyor, paving board, for hoarding, water, gas, and such like (the rights as to advert! ing on hoardings to be reserved, or not to be allowed as on some estates, and as to tl gravel and sand that may be found on the site); to provide a watchman ■ to insure fro; fire in the names of the builder and the client; to provide and maintain on the site ?! office for the clerk of the works, furnished, and for the custody of the drawings and paper; to afford access for the architect, his representative, clerk of the works, and the client, the premises; to remove all dirt and rubbish ; to sweep out and scour all floors, and elec all glass, and to deliver up the building and premises in a satisfactory state at the co elusion of the works, or at a specified time (it is not very clear when a house is “cor pleted”) ; as to the use and possession of the documents, and of making copies ; to keep< the building a foreman of the works ; to carry on the works, and to complete the same ; as unfit workmanship and materials, and works not in accordance with the directions; a3 day bills ; all disputes to be settled by the architect, or arbitrator agreed to before signi the contract; sum to be allowed for contingent works ; as to sureties, time of paymen &c. Besides the above, it would be well to refer to the “ Heads of Conditions of Builde Contracts,” sanctioned by the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1882. EXCAVATOR. 2281. To take down any old buildings and impediments that may be on the site of I new works. If any old materials are to be used again, he is to clean, sort, a stack them for re-using in such parts of the premises as may be directed. '1 rubbish, as well from these as from any superfluous earth that may come out of t basement and foundations, if not wanted for any purposes, he is to cart away, eitl wholly, or to such part of the premises as he may be directed, as well as rubbish that may accumulate in executing the works. To reserve any clay d out, and to thoroughly burn it with small coal into ballast, as directed. To strip the surface soil to a certain depth. To dig out for basement story (wild * one is to be), for the foundations, areas, drains, floors, and all other works requisi To beat down to a solid consistence the ground forming the beds of the trend for receiving the foundations and wads, and after they are in, he is to fill in a ram down the ground ; to level, and to do such other rough groundwork as to be necessary for forming the sectional ground lines shown upon the drawn. To prepare for concrete in foundations. To cover over the ground under par or tiled floors (except where the tiles are laid on joists) with broken bricks w rammed and grouted with liquid mortar. This layer is to be made of suffi -t thickness to receive 6 inches of concrete, which is to be properly rammed < covered with a layer of 2 inches of fine concrete, finished with a level surface, basements no earth is to be left nearer than 9 inches to any floor or other timb< such cavities being by the specification to be filled in with dry lime core. If wa cannot be supplied by any public company, a well may have to be provided, a; next section. To leave the ground free from all useless soil or materials. Roadway and Paths. Remove the top soil from the intended lines of the ron spread over the site a stratum of coarse stone ballast, or of brick rubbish, 12 in' deep; cover the same with coarse gravel, spread, beaten, and rolled down u hard and solid, forming the width with a curve to each side, and rising . . . m r in the middle. The Paths to have a stratum of coarse stone ballast (or b' brjek ballast where such is to be obtained), or of brick rubbish, 4 inches d« cover the same with 3 inches of fine red gravel, well beaten down and rolled 1 until solid, and to be formed to a curve rising . . . inches in the centre. HAP. III. SPl'CJFIC'A'l IONS. 7.13 81ft. Excavator. To bale out or pump out and remove all soil and water which may be necessary for laying the foundations, whether arising from springs, drams, eesspools, rain, or otherwise, and fo be answerable for all accidental damage that may occur whilst the foundations and walls are carrying up; as also, when buildings adjoin, fur all damage that may occur to neighbouring buildings. URICKLAYER. \ 2282. The brickwork is to be executed with tho very best hard well-burnt grey stocks (or kiln-burnt red stock bricks, or such others as may be directed), to be laid in flat joints, and so that every four courses shall not exceed 11 1 inches in height. When better bricks are used for facing external walls, they are to be specified (as best marie stocks, second marie stocks, Suffolk white bricks, as the case may be), in which case it must be specified that no headers of the facing are to be cut off, except where absolutely necessary to form good bond. Fronts so faced are to bo either carried up with a neat flat parallel ruled joint, or to be afterwards tuck-joint, pointed if a finished face is wanted, though the latter is not altogether a sound practice. In old work the joints have to be raked out, the brickwork washed, stained, and tuck-joint pointed. No place or samile bricks to be allowed in any part of the work. The mortar is to be compounded of well-burnt stone lime and sharp clean grit or drift sand (if the work be of importance), to be ground in a pug-mill, or otherwise to be well tempered and beaten with wooden beaters, and to be in the proportion of one heaped bushel of lime to two of sand. (The use of sea sand is sometimes to be avoided; and road scrapings, unless very well washed and screened.) When the earth foundations are bad, concrete should be provided ; it is to be formed in the proportion of six parts of Thames or other unscreened clean ballast, and one part of fresh-burnt Dorking (or other) stone lime, beaten to powder on the premises, and unslaked. They are to be thoroughly mixed in small quantities at a time, the lime at mixing being slaked with as small a quantity of water as possible. The concrete, after mixing, is sometimes stated to be dropped from a stage, but this is a bad practice. The thickness may vary from 4 feet to 18 inches in height, accord- ing to the quality of the earth or soil, and the width about six inches on each side wider than the wall. Damp course. The brick or stone walls and partitions to be covered with a continuous layer of asphalte at least J inch thick, poured on while hot, at above the level of the outside ground as finishe 1. A continuous layer of 5 lb. milled lead has been used. Taylor’s patent vitrified stoneware, of 1, ]t, or 3 inches thick. A course of Bangor slates in cement 3 inches lower than the general level of the ground floor (and where else as needed). See par. 18864, ct srq. for methods of obviating tho rise of damp. I English bond is preferred by many to Flemish bond ; for good work, the brickwork should be specified to be flushed up at every course with mortar. No bats to be allowed except for closures ; and for sound work every fourth course to be grouted with liquid mortar, and in the foundations every course, or at least every second course. The walls, chimneys, their shafts, piers, and other works, to be carried up of the height and thicknesses and in the manner shown and figured on the several ! plans and drawings, together with all brickwork requisite for the completion of tho | house. When the work is within a district under bye-laws of a local board, and ; not required to be of special solidity, it will be well to describe that tho thicknesses of the walls, their heights above the roofs, and other matters, shall bo conformable i to the regulations. A ork to appear without a stone or plaster facing requires rubbed and gauged arches fur all the external openings in tho principal fronts, of 9 inches in depth (or more according to their span), accurately cut, and set closely in front, in back, and on their sofites. To tho other openings the arches will be plain arches, closely sot ; I thuso which appear externally to bo tuck-pointed on their outside faces. Over all lintolH, in external walls, should be provided uncut accurately formed arches. ' hen fascia* are formed of brick, their projections must bo named ; also all cornices formed by arrangements of bricks ; but a drawing should, for the latter, appear j r 'ti the drawing or specification. |\ny moulded bricks are to be carefully made in accordance with tho detail drawings, ■>nd to bo trimmed up before they are placed in tho kiln. They nro to bo made a little thicker than the other bricks, so that the beds and joints may be rubbed true Ix-Iore they are laid ; they aro to be set in fine mortar, and (before the scatfolding • s struck), they aro to bo rasped, rubbed with gritstone, and the arrises to be made I h» straight and true as stonework. 3 C 4 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book F 82o. Bricklayer. Work into the exterior and interior faces of the walls (if required), crosses, diaper zigzags, or other patterns ; and form bands, string-courses, &c., with white, lilac; red, or other bricks, as shown on the elevations, &c. The red and black bricks ai to be laid in blue-black or other mortar, or the joints to be raked out and points with the same. Shafts of chimneys carried up above the roof, out of the common way, must be referre to drawings; otherwise what relates to them and their hues is described i follows: — Turn, parget, with cow-dung mortar (or p lint the inside of all flues wit a flat mortar joint), and core the chimney flues, and finish the shafts with saliei courses 6 inches (or more) in height, with double plaint.ile creesing thereto ; f( each flue provide and fix a large-sized chimney-pot (of cement, plain or moulder, or of earthenware, or ornamented, as may be necessary) ; the upper courses of tl shafts above the creesing to be laid in cement. Parapets not coped with stone or cement are finished with double plaintile ereesin, and a brick on edge on top, or as shown on drawing, all laid usually in cement. Where weather is to be provided against, as in upper courses and elsewhere, tl, laying in cement must be described. Turn trimmers of 4-ineh brickwork to ail the fire-places for receiving the stone, marbl; or cement hearths throughout the building, except where, as iu basement stork- the hearths lie on fender walls, or on the ground. Tile-arch or flat. The .... to be covered with 8 courses of plain tiles set in cemeri the tiles to be first well soaked in water. To basement stories, or the story on the ground, describe piers 9 inches square, continued walls 9 inches thick, to carry the sleepers whereon the joists of the flo or the courses of paving stone are to lie ; the cavity, if small, may be filled wi dry lime core. Where the piers or sleeper walls are high, arches may be form- in them to save material, afford ventilation, and sometimes access throughout t cavity. Build 9 inch sleeper walls to support ends of joists of wood floors abutting upon pav floors (as in a church), and build half-brick honeycomb sleeper walls on one bri footings, 4 feet apart, under all wood floors in basement, or on ground floor wh not excavated under. Foundations to piers of arches to be in brickwork of hard bricks, laid in cement, a ; every course throughout the foundations to be well grouted. Bed in mortar all bond timber, wall or other plates, lintels, wood, bricks, temple stone, or other work connected with the brickwork. All the door and wind frames to be bedded in and pointed round with lime and hair mortar. Execute requisite beam-filling. When the building is faced with stone, or stone dressings are used ; to the above ru- be added— back up and fill in solid with brickwork all the stone work and ii work that is set in the brickwork. If cornices, fascias, &c., are to be run in cement, then — prepare and fix brickwo and such Yorkshire stone slabs and other materials as may be necessary for formi the several external cornices, pediments, strings, sills, and dressings to openin in cement, as shown on the drawings. Br.ck relieving arches that are visible are to be formed of three or four courses red and black bricks, alternately or otherwise, as shown, or as the architect m hereafter direct. j Tarn arches in cement (if wanted) for carrying entrance or other steps. Provide brickwork for stone steps. Turn vaults of brickwork (describe thickness not I than 9 inches) over the intended cellars, according to the drawing, andpropei.y all groins of intersections. The spandrels to be filled in with solid brickwork to the level of the internal crown of the vaulting, the whole grouted with liq mortar. When the centering is struck, the sofites of the vaultings are to he eve- and fairly cleaned off, and pointe 1. Construct round the building a dry drain or area, as shown on the drawings, A down the ground at the back thereof as the work is carried up, and provide v stays of stone, slate, or iron wall-ties from the building as may be necessary maintaining such wall in its place, and as will not carry the damp to the m wall. Such dry area may probably require a drain if the soil be very wet. Brains for draining the premises, ns shown on the plans, to fall into a main se (or cesspool, as the .case may be). The principal drains to bo 1 It. 6 in. and smaller ones 12 inch, 9 inch, 6 inch, and 4 inch diameter, as the ease may req'- of glazed socketed stoneware pipes (state manufacturer), at depths as figurei the drawings. Provide all necessary bends and junctions. All the pipes 0 jointed in cement, and the drains to be properly connected with the sewer ( or 1 ap. ii r. SPECIFICATION'S. V2b. Bricklayer. pool). The outlet of the drain to have a galvanized iron flap to shut flush all round. The feet of all rain-water and waste pipes are to be brought on to the grating of a syphon trap, or to be let into it under the grating, as may be pre- ferred. The lead soil pipes to be carried into syphon traps. The main drain is to be ventilated by a lead pipe carried up above the roof and clear of all openings and chimneys ; and at or near its connection with the sewer should be placid an “interceptor” with a syphon trap, for the purpose of readily cleaning but the drain if it become stopped. This chamber should also be ventilated in like manner to prevent foul air ascending the drain. When foul water cannot bo carried off to a public sewer or running stream, cesspools must be formed to receive it, and made water-tight, if possible, or allow absorp- tion by the earth. They are usually 3 feet 6 inches to 5 feet clear diameter, circular on plan, steened round with hard stocks, in half a brick thick, laid dry till within 18 inches of the top, which 18 inches are to be laid in cement. If the water- closets be far apart, each may have to be provided with a cesspool, and apart from the building. Cesspools (and also wells) are sometimes domed over in brickwork, with, an eye or opening fur access, a circular stone being let into the opening ; or the cesspool be covered with a Yorkshire stone slab. Wells, when above 6 feet in diameter, to be steened one brick thick; and when less than that size, in half a brick, laid flat, paved at bottom, and domed over as for Cesspool. Execute walls for carrying the columns of the portico as shown on the plan, all piers or cross walls for receiving the landings, and brickwork to receive the steps. If the portico be of large size, describe discharging arches above the architrave in the space over intercolumniations, and from return columns to main walls. If a pedi- ment, back up with brekwork behind the tympanum of pediment quite up to under side of raking cornice of pediment. For fence walls, the>r footings, thicknesses, heights, and lengths are to be mentioned, and of what bricks they are to be built. If anything peculiar in their form, a drawing should be given. Bricknogged partitions are described as with grey stock bricks laid flat in mortar, or on edge, filled in between the timber quarters, ties, &c. Strong closets for plate or deeds require a description of thickness of walls and brick arch and paving, and usually 4-inch walls brought up for holding the requisite number of slate or iron shelves. A fireproof (and perhaps burglar-proof j door may be required to be named ; and if the room be large, an inner grated door may be useful. The same of wine cellars, whose bin walls and slate shelving must be mentioned. . When the building is to be heated with hot air or hot water, then: — build furnace room where shown on plan, with flues as necessary ; or, build channels for hot water pipes under floors ; the channels to be ‘2 feet higli by 12 inches wide in the clear, resting upon 3 inches of concrete and a double course of Bangor duchess slates to form channel floors ; the sides to be half a brick thick in mortar. Paning with bricks is described to be either of stocks, paving bricks, malm paviors, or clinkers, which may be laid flat, or on edge, in sand, mortar, or cement, and either straight-coursed or herring-bone. Paving with tiles is usually in mortar; the tiles either 6, 8. 10 or 12 inches square. All splays, ramps, and, chases to be cut where want'd ; the two former to be rubbed where necessary, and the latter to be pargetted. Prick ovens (one 10 feet wide and 8 feet 6 inches deep will bake twelvo bushols of bread, and one 8 feet wide and 7 feet deep will bake eight bushels, and so in pro- portion) are to be constructed with Welsh lumps or fire-bricks for fire-place, i domed over, and hooped with iron hoops. The bricklayer is to provide the bars, plate door, bar to the archway of door, and other ironwork, and to carry up a proper flue from the fire. This is often a, separate trade. An Iron oven, cipalde of baking two bushels of bread, to bo set in propor brickwork. 'opptrs and stewing stoves to be set neatly in brickwork, tho latter in gauged brick- i work with tile top, and flues carried up therefrom. Sot the kitchen range (or kitchener) according to its requirements ; and set all fire-grates at back and sides I well backed up with brickwork in cement, and cemented at top to prevent soot , getting down behind the grate. at" runs to porticoos, or, fronts, which arc to be coated with cement must be described of such diamot' r.s us the drawings require, with entablature, &c., as the case may i be, earriod up in cement. | or statJes, besides what may bo applicable from tho foregoing directions, two air- I purs are to be constructed to each stall and loose box, 9 inches squnre, and carried 3 c 2 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I 75G 2282c. Bricklayer. up over the racks within the thickness of the brickwork, communicating at the tops with the external air, and secured from the penetration of the rain. Lung-fit walls , whose dimensions depend on the size of the stables. Lust-bin, to contain 30 feet cube, to be of half-brick walls in cement. The deal to and cover hinged with water joint hinges, and with deal slides and door in front, be provided by the carpenter. Morrell's patent cinder-sifting ash closet is adapt, for outdoor use. The “ galvanized iron dust-bin,” which is easily emptied towns, has much supersedtd the old wood or brick dust-bin, w r ith its inconvet ences and smells. They are non-absorbent, and are made 24 x 20 x 37 ins. hi{ at back; also 27 x 20 x 37 ; also 30 x 20 x 37 (see also 1907c?). Lust shoots a now used in artizans’ dwellings; one is so arranged as to prevent the passage foul odours into the building should the hopper be left open. In cases of underpinning, the bricklayer is to cut all holes for the needles, and remove the old work, and to bring up the new work in cement on concrr foundation; and, finally, drive in the east iron wedges for bringing the w rk a solid bearing. Hollow walls fur exposed situations. The external walls above the plinth line are to built with a hollow cavity in the middle of about 3 inches, having courses bonders or through stones not more than 1 foot apart in height, and of varir widths, but never more than 2 feet 6 inches apart. At the level of the top of t plinth a course of thick slates, or of thin stones, is to be worked on the wal closely bedded in strong mortar under all the voids or flues thus formed, and small aperture, 9 inches by 6 inches, is to be made for the admission of air and carry off any moisture that may have been driven in; openings into each of thi flues are also to be made between the joists of the different floors for ventilate Other methods of building such walls are described in Chap. III. Sect, II. p 1902c. Fence wall. The site to be enclosed with a 9-inch stock brick wall in mort . . . feet high, with brick footings 6 inches high, with two 2|-inch set-offs on er side of the wall, laid on concrete 9 inches thick and 2 feet 6 inches wide, bottom being . . . feet below the finished surface of the ground. The top of I wall to have a brick on edge course set in cement (or other coping, to be specific Provide (according to the extent of the job) a certain number of rods of brickwo at a price per rod to be named, for such extras as may be ordered in writing the architect ; if the whole or any part thereof should not be wanted, a deduct to be made on settling the accounts. To build all the walls level, except otherwise directed ; to be answerable for damage that may occur to the work, by settlements or otherwise, during the t of budding, and to rebuild or make good the same as the architect shall dire and, further, to perform all such jobbing work as shall be necessary forcomple! finishing the building. To provide good sound and sufficient scajfolding, whirl to remain for, and to be altered for, the mason, carpenter, and other artificers t. may have occasion to use the same. A specimen brick of every deseripti splayed, moulded, for facing, &e., to be submitted to the architect for his appr< before the commencement of the work. SLATER. 2283. To cover the roofs with the best strong Westmoreland, best Bangor, Tavist' or other slate and size to be named, each securely fixed with two best strong co] nails. To be properly bonded, especially at the eaves and heading courses, " slates cut to keep the bond uniform; the bands and diapers to be formed of j narvon or Westmoreland green, or other coloured slates ; or courses to be lain slates cut to a notched pattern. No slates to be laid lengthwise. A little lath may be allowed as to the exact size of the slate to be used. By specifying si other than Countesses and Duchesses, there would frequently be less delay and expense in covering. If roofs are covered with tiles, either pan or plain, the description for the for will be either laid dry, or bedded in lime or hair, or pointed outside or inside ( on both sides ; or if glazed pantiling, to be so described, laid to a 10-inch gaug stout fir laths, with hip, ridge, and valley tiles, filleting, cutting to splays, b filling, painted T nails, hip hooks, &c. Plain tiling is described to be of f sound tiles, laid to a close gauge on heart of oak double laths, combined ornamental tiles, to form patterns, as shown; every tile to be pegged with a ( English-oak peg. and laid in mortar to a 3-inch lap. The hip and. ridge tiles • set in cement, with T nails dipped in molted hot pitch, in all the joints. ' y,r ' similarly pitched, wrought iron hip hooks. Filletings of cement, with strong A7\ III. SPECIFICATIONS. 757 'i'ia. Slatek. iron nails for forming a key driven into the walls or other brickwork at intervals close enough to secure the same. Cover the ridges with socketed roll Stafford- shire ridge tiles set in cement; the tiles to be grooved for cresting (if any). Cover the hips with proper lapping hip tiles or rolled hip tiles. Provide ornamental tile cresting (if any), and fix same on ridges where shown on elevations. Fillits (other than lead flashing) against the brickwork, where requisite, of gauged stuff or cement, formed on nails driven at intervals to form a hold. Fillets of brick or stone may be built up with the wall, level or raking; and if they should be preferred, they must be described in the bricklayer's or mason’s works. If the slating be required to be rendered air-tight, it must be described to be pointed on the inside with lime and hair mortar; but this pointing, from the expansion and contraction arising from heat and cold, may soon fall out. The slater to be answerable for twelve months for his work. All the slating is to be rendered up perfect on completing the building, and all job- bing work to be performed that may become necessary as the work is carried on. Provide slates to form damp-proof course in walls ; and for the bottoms of hot water pipe channels (if any). Slate slabs are now much used for sinks, cisterns, steps, skirtings, sills, covering to bay windows, mouldings, doorsteps, linings, chimney-pieces, trusses, lavatories, nosing to steps, &c. ; they must be described. MASON. 11284. The stone to be used in a building generally depends of course on the place where it is to be built, unless, without regard to expense, the employer determines ou the use of any particular sort. Chap. II. Section II. furnishes the means of describ- ing the best of its sort. In London, Portland stone is most used. Granite or other hard stone is used where great strains and pressures occur, or where use and wear, and the action of the weather, indicate its employment. Having described the sort of stone selected to be of the best quality, free from all vents, shakes, &c., the next direction is, that it shall be throughout lai I in thedirec- tion of its natural bed in the quarry; and if the whole building is of stone, many of the following particulars will be unnecessary. Where the building is only faced wdth stone, then the . . . fronts (describing them) are to be faced with Portland (or other) stone, ashlaring in courses to fall in with the courses of brick- work ; the stretchers of such ashlaring being 4^ inches deep and the headers 0 inches, with bond stones running through the whole thickness of the wall in the proportion of -i of the face, to be introduced where the piers allow. No quoins to show a thickness of less than 12 inches. The whole to be cramped with gun- metal cramps, the mason finding the same and properly running them with lead. 1 W here the building is of brick vsith stone dressings, then- — -To provide and set a Portland stone (or other stone or grauite) plinth all round (or part, as the case may be) the building, . . . feet . . . inches high and 8| thick, in stones not less than 3 feet in length, the vertical joints to bo cramped with T cramps not less than 12 inches long. Describe whether joints are to be close or channelled, and whether ashlar is to be rusticked (rockworked). To provide and fix at, the angles of the building, as shown upon the drawings, solid quoins of Porthind (or other) stone [describe whether close, chamfered, or channelled joints, and whether rustickedj of the length and height shown. Kentish Hag. The Kentish rag to be of the best quality, from the quarries at Houghton, sound and freo from hassock, laid in random courses, galleted and pointed with dark mortar. A sufficient number of bond stones to be built in, | one through stone (at least) to each yard superficial. Hath Stone. To be the best Hath stone from Sumsion’s, Pictor’s, or Randall and Saunders's Combe Down quarries (no Farleigh Down stone to bo used), to be laid on its natural bed in all cases, and cleaned off when sot. All plinths, bases, and other work for a height of 1 loot above the ground level to be of Hox Ground I store-. Ha mb on mailing of local stone. The stono for the walls generally is to bo brought from . . . (state the quarry), that for the foundations (unless brickwork is used for them) to bo of largo size ; all those in the visible surface of tlio walls are to be carefully hammered, seablded, or sawn (as the quality of the stone and nature of tlii- work may require). All stono used in the main walls of the building to ho j of good scantling, and no very thin stone will bo allowed in any part. H nils with concrete, cores. The external face to be built up in courses of hammered, - '.ibbled, or sawn stone. The internal faco to he built up ill sawn (orothor) ashlars, or in rough brickwork, in English bond, or rubble if it is to bo plaslered. Thu 758 THEORY 01' ARCHITECTURE. ill Book I 228 la. Mason. body of the walls to be filled in with strong concrete, composed of 1 part < ground stone lime and 3 parts of clean sharp gravel, filling in interstices. A every 2 feet 6 inches in height a double course of bricks is to be set in morta and at every 8 feet 6 inches in height a bonding through stone, from 10 inches i 1 foot 3 inches deep, is to be fixed. Small stone chippings may be mixed with tb gravel forming the concrete Regularity in the quoin stones is not desired, but they may be worked and set in an reasonable scantling so as best to bond in, and harmonise with, the intermedia! rubble. The upper beds of the stones to be laid with a slight inclination outwardt ! and as close as their nature will allow. Every precaution is to be taken to avni risk of the settling of the work from imperfect beds and open joints. The wot is to be carried up regularly all round the building. In the case of a church wit. a tower, the walls of the latter are to be specified to be built up very slowly an without bmng bonded into those of the church, but are to have slip joints or chast worked in them for forming the connection ; this is in all cases to be so free as t allow for the settlement of the masonry without injury to the work in the churc walls ; with this exception, no part of any wall is at any time to be raised mor than three feet higher than another, during the progress of the works. The walls of the towir of a church are to built quite solid, and inve ted arches ar to be turned under all the large apertures therein. AM flat headed apertures ar to be covered with York (or other) lintels, of thickness proportionate to the width of the opening. A cornice and blocking course, scantling ... by ... , moulded, to be provide! according to the drawings, the bed to be such that the weight of each block cf stone in the projecting part shall not be equal to that on the bed by one-fourth c its cubic contents. The same to be executed according to the drawings; tohav proper sunk water joints, and to be channelled and plugged with lead at all the joint: String-courses to be . . . inches by . . . inches, throated and bevelled on the uppc : face, and the joints plugged with lead. Blocking course , as shown on the drawings, . . . inches high, . . . thick on the bei ' and ... on the top, plugged with lead at all the joints, with solid block at tl. quoins, returned at least 24 inches. The quoins , jambs, string-courses, hoodmoulds, buttress weatherings, copings, an] dressings generally, to be strictly worked according to detail drawings, and to i dragged, chopped, tooled, or rubbed (according to the quality of the stone) so i< to be truly worked in every particular. All the tracery and mouldings to be set out full size, and cut and set to the rigl jointing, as approved by the architect or the clerk of the works. Face the walls of . . . with Minton’s glazed (or other) tiles, value . . . per yar superficial, to be secured with cramps of stout copper wire inserted in holes i edges of the tiles. All the facing tiles to be of the best quality, free from blemishes; to beset) Roman cement, and to have all cement removed from their face after the work i finished ; the edges of the tiles to be rubbed, where Decessary, to ensure neatnes and care is to be taken that the tiles are not injured by the workmen aftor the are laid. The base mouldings of the tower, jambs, and arches of the windows and dooi throughout the building, and whatsoever parts are tinted . . . upon the elevatio' > are to he of tooled or dragged masonry. The plinths, eaves, string courses, and the labels over the windows and doors, are 1 be of Ketton (or other suitable) stone, finished with a dragged or tooled face. The coping of the gables to be of Bramley Fall (or other stone that is not porous worked as shown, and the apices of the (here enumerate which) gables to 1 surmounted by crosses worked in Ketton or other stone, according to drawing, sc with copper dowels. Baltcstradcs to be provided of the heights and sizes shown on the drawings. In balusters to be wrought out of one stone, allowing at bast one inch of joggle at the ends into the plinth and impost. All the vertical joints to he well plugged wit lead; the imposts to be cramped with cast iron (or bell metal), and the whole t be securely fixed. The half balusters to be worked out of the same block 1 stone as their adjoining pedestal. Columns and pilasters , with their pedestals, capitals, bases, plinths, &e., and 11 tablature, to be fixed as shown on the drawings. The columns and pilasters to monoliths, or not to be in courses of more than . . . blocks of stone. The arclntra' < to be joggled from those resting on the, columns or pilasters themselves, and tin) as well as the frieze and cornice to break joint over the. architrave. The ate ' traves, if blocks of stone can be supplied large enough, to be in one block h’ 01 SPECIFICATIONS. 759 HAP. III. 2846. Mason. centre to centre of column, with return architraves in like manner. The whole of the entablature (as well as the pediment, if any) to he executed with all requisite joggles and cramps (and if a pediment, the apex to be in ones*one). The pilasters (if any) to be bonded not less than . . . inches into the wall, against which they are placed in every other course. The sofites of the portico to be, as shown on the plan and sections, formed into panels and ornamented. Provide and let into the top of the architrave good and sufficient chain bars, with stubs on the other side for letting into every stone composing the architrave. The caps and bases to piers to bo in large stones. The caps and bases to dwarf shafts (if any), and the corbels under wall pieces or other roof timbers, to be well pinned into walls, and sunk and dowelled to receive shafts or timbei’s. If a portico is shown, to provide and fix of solid . . . stone . . . steps round the portico, scantling ... by ... , properly back-jointed and worked all over; and within the portico to provide and fix a complete landing of stone, at least 4 inches thick (or less, if a small portico), in slabs, as shown. The joints of the steps and landings are to be joggled and run with lead. If the portico be very large, it is not necessary to make the frieze solid, but concealed arches should be turned in the space from column to column to support the superincumbent weight of the cornice and pediment. If the columns are fluted.it must be mentioned. When a pediment, the tympanum may be described to be faced wi'li a.-hlaring. To construct and fix dressings and sills to the external windows and doors, as shown on the drawings, with all such throated, sunk, moulded, carved, rebated, and other work as may be necessary. To describe sills generally : — Sills to . . . windows of . . . stone, 9| by 0 inches. To . . . windows moulded and of . . . stone, 14 by 8 inches. To . . . windows of Aberleen granite, finely tooled, 14 by 9 inches. To . . . windows of . . . stone, 9 by 5 inches. All sills are to be properly sunk, weathered, and throated, and at each end to be 4 inches longer than the opening. The tower and spire to be carefully carried out in accordance with detailed drawings. The spite to spring from squtnch arches or from the solid broaches (or as the case may be), and gradually reduced towards the top, each stone to be wrought and cut to its through bed and inclination of its plane, the parts (as shown) to be in solid ashlar and carefully tai.ed and bonded. The bands, mouldings, cornices, strings, &c , to be worked as shown, and continued round ; the storm lights to bo formed with solid sills, heads, &c. ; tho vane to drop through the finial and to be securely fixed. The windows of the tower and the storm lights of the spire to be grooved for louvres of wood or slates (or to be filled in with thin slabs of stone with ornamental piercings). Turn relieving arches over all arches of nave, chancel, &c., forme 1 of different coloured stones, arranged as directed, and form bands, diapers, crosses, &c., of same where shown. The stones for parti-coloured work to be Pennant, Caen, Temple Quiting, Red Forest of Dean, Silver Grey Forest of Dean, Red Mansfield, Whinstone, or Iilue Warwickshire stone (or local stone, if of suitable colour). Provide shafts where shown of Derbyshire, Devonshire, Purbcck, or other marble, or of alabaster, serpentine, Aberdeen or Peterhead granite (or othor material as may be selected), to be well polished, and to be sunk, dowellej, and secured into caps and bases. Shafts in angles of doorways (if any) to be of any suitable dark stone (if necessary) to contrast with the jamb. All ornaments, carving, enrichment of capitals, of columns and pilasters, and of sueli as may be shown in the entablature, is to bo executed in an artlsHike good style. Models from tho working drawings arc t o be made at tho contractor’s expense, and the whole to be executed to the satisfaction of the arehitect. The Order may, however, be described if tho working drawings are not sufficiently made out. I'liuths and base mouldings to the portico, as shown on the drawings, to l o worked out of (describe stone) . . . stono of . . . by . . . scantling. Finish the chimney shafts with mouldings as shown in the drawings, or with sunk moulded and throated copings, . . . inches wide and . . . inches thick. Damp course. All tho walls to have Yorkshire stone 8 inches thick and 4 inches on each side wider than the several lowest footings, in slabs of one length across the width of the footing. This was an old custom. Dal conies to a house: — A balcony landing of Portland stone, . . . inches thick, moulded on the edges and tho pieces carefully joggled together, and run with lead, to be provided with holes cut therein for the iron railing. The said balcony is to bo tailed into tho wall, and securely pinned up. Dtsps to the doorways must bo described ab to cant ling*. All external steps s!i mid be weathered. THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1. 284e. Masox. For a back staircase, carry up and construct a staircase from the Basement to the principal floor, with solid Yorkshire quarry steps 13 inches wide and 65 inches high, properly back-jointed and piimed into the brickwork ; cut holes for the iron balustrades. N.B. This sort of staircase of Portland will serve also for hack stabs of upper flights. That from the basement may also be made of granite street curb, 12 by 7 or 8 inches. A staircase may, for cheapness, be made of Yorkshire stone paving 3 inches thick, wrought with fair tooled edges, and securely pinned into the brickwork. Principal stairs to be of Portland stone (as maybe), to extern 1 from principal to . . . floor, with steps and square (or semicircular, as may be) landings, entirely of solid stone, tailed 9 inches into the brickwork, with moulded nosings and returned nosings, and also at the back. The sofites to be moulded to the shapes of the ends of the steps. The landings to be 6 inches thick, with moulded nosings and joggled joints, run with lead, to be inserted at least 4 inches in the walls, but such as tail into the walls, as steps, must go at least 9 inches into the walls. When the under sides of the steps of the geometrical staircase are not moulded, the nosings are returned so as to fall beyond the upright line of the succeeding tread ; in this case the sofite or string is plain wrought. The steps to the sanctuary and chancel of a church to be of rubbed Portland, Red Mansfield, Robin Hood, Oraigleith, or other hard stone, or of marble, in lengths of not less than 1 0 feet, very carefully set and bedded, pinned, joggle jointed, and run and plugged with lead, and back-jointed to receive tile paving. Pave the entrance hall and principal staircase, together with (any passage, &c.), with the best . . . marble, and border according to the pattern drawn. The back staircase (and such other parts as require it) to be paved with Portland stouo 2 inches thick, laid in squares, and with a border 8 inches square. Where story posts are used in a front, it is well to place along the front two pieces of parallel square Aberdeen or other good granite curb, 12 inches by 9 inches, cut out to receive the bases of the columns and story posts. Pave the scullery, larder, pantry, passages, lobbies (and other such places as. may require mention), with rubbed Yorkshire stone inches thick, laid in regular courses with close rubbed joints Pave the bottom of the air drain with Yorkshire paving. Yards may be paved with 2 .) -inch Yorkshire paving, or such other as the place affords, as in common use. The same to basement stories. Pave (if a church) the entrance passage, porches, &e., where coloured on plan, with Minton’s (or other) encaustic tiles, one third (or more or less) being figured, combined with chocolate and black tiles, value . . . per yard superficial, manu- facturers’ prices. Pave the chancel (usually with richer tiles) with tiles value . . per yard superficial. The tiled floor (wdien laid on joists): Spike fillets to joists at 3 inches below their upper surfaces; fill in between the same with inch rough boarding. The vacuity to be filled up with pugging of concrete flush with the upiper surface, finished with a layer inch thick of Roman cement smoothly floated to receive the tiles. Dairy to be paved with . . . stone (or marble) in regular courses, . . . inches thick. Provide a shelf or dresser round the said dairy of veined marble (or slate) 1 inch thick, and a skirting round it 6 inches high. The dresser to go into the wall 1 inch, and to be supported on veined marble piers 4 inches square. To fit up the wine cellar with bins, as per drawing, with 2-inch Yorkshire stone shelves (some prefer slate), fairly tooled, supported on half-brick uprights, all set in cement. A cellular hexagonal brick has been patented by King and Smito, of Weedon, to be used to form the wall of a vault ; each is hollow and open at the inner extremity, so that each brick becomes the receptacle for a bottle. They are made of three different sizes. To provide and fix a warm bath of veinod marble ; rendered waterproof by being pro- perly set in Dutch tarras, and plugged and cramped with copper at, the joints, wit li all requisite finishing. A marble step round two sides of the bath. Cut all fcoics necessary for laying on the water. A bath, if a fixture, may be similarly made of slate, which is of course much cheaper. Where iron girders are used, describe .... pieces of granite street curb, or 3-m. Yorkshire stone, as corbels or plates, each .... long and .... wide, to recene the ends of the iron girders. Where chimneys project without support from below, corbels must be described pro- portioned to the weight they have to carry. The best, corbel, however, is the gra- dual projection of the work by inverted steps, which, if there be height to hide them, should always be the mode of execution. tup. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 761 284rf. Mason. Cellar doorways should have in each of them three pieces of Portland or other such stone 18 in. wide, 18 in. long, and 9 in. high, cut out to receive the hinges and also the rim of the lock. The commonest chimney-pieces that can he described are of lj-inch Bath stone, jambs, mantels, and shelves, 6 inches wide; with slabs of 2-inch Portland stone, 20 inches wide, and 6 inches or a foot wider on each side than the width of the opening. Those of butler’s and housekeeper’s rooms would be of a better quality. A kitchen chimney is described as jambs and mantel (in one piece) of 2-inch Po:t- land stone 10 (or 12) inches wide, with a slab of 2^-inch rubbed Yorkshire stone, if used with a wood floor ; but sometimes the whole width of that side of tho kitchen is paved. Where marble chimney-pieces are to be placed, they are described to be provided of a given value of such marble as may be determined, or working drawings and workmanship may be referred to. It must always be provided in the specification that the slabs are included, and that the price is, or is not. to include the carriage and fixing. Marble, wood, and iron chimney-pieces, with grates, fenders, tile borders and hearths, &e. en suite. All fire-places should have back hearths of 2 (-inch rubbed Yorkshire stone. Front hearths of stone, or of Portland cement, or of marble. Sinks of rubbed Portland or other stone, 7 inches thick (describing the size required), sunk ins. deep, with holes cut for the grating and socket-pipe, and fixed with all requisite brick or stone bearers or supports, complete. A sink of earthenware is now to be obtained. An improved patent combined sink and wash-up tub is specially adapted for kitchens, sculleries, cottages, artizans’ dwellings, &c. It is made of galvanized or enamelled iron. Housemaids’ slop sinks in earthenware or in plain or enamelled slate are made, to suit any position. Sink stones to drains to be provided where shown on. the plan. Flint work. Flint walling is of the following descriptions: — Rough, or as the flints are dug ; random, or broken without any regard to regularity ; split, so that they are true on the face and oval in form ; or, split and squared, by which neat and squaro work is produced. The walling is to be built in the soundest manner with .... flints (state which of the four descriptions is to be used), laid in mortar compounded of quick-setting stone lime and coarse sharp sand, free from loam ; bricks, tiles, pebbles, &c., may be bedded in the centre or core of the wall. The long flints to be selected and laid as through stones, and the string-courses, &c., to le laid en- tirely through the thickness of the wall, so as to give additional bond. The work to be kept as dry as possible during the construction, to be protected by boards in wet weather, and to 1 e covered in as soon as possible after completion. No grouting to bo used. If the walling is faced with half-flints, care is to be taken in laying them to keep their upper surfaces as level as possible, to prevent rain driving into the centre of the wall ; firmly pin up the lower bed with fragments. Th a joints of the masonry generally are to be where exhibited on the drawings, and tho work is to be left perfectly cleaned off, all necessary joggles, joints, rebates, moulded, sunk, weathered and throated works, grooves, chases, holes, back joints, and fair edges, that may be necessary in any part of the work, and all jobbing, though not particularly mentioned under the several heads, is to be performed that may be requisite for the execution of the building, and all the work is to be well cleaned off before delivering it up. The wholo of the work is to be warranted perfect, and any damage that may occur to it by reason of frost or settlement within two years after the completion of the building is to be repaired, tinder tho architect’s diiection, at the sole expense of the contractor. All mortar is to be of the same quality as that described in the bricklayer’s work. 'All cramps to be of copper; iron cramps not to be allowtd (see par. 2286 ). Lend j joggles, and slab slate dowels set in cement, to bo inserted in the joints where directed. The contractor is to ptovide lead to run the cramps and joints, fn */ubl Joi.nkr. String hoards to staircases to receive the ceilings of stairs (c;»ll« cl strings).— 1-inch deal, framed; or framed, rebated, and beaded. l|-inch deal, framed string board; or sunk and beaded, lj-inch deal, framed string board, sunk, beaded, and moulded; and mitred to risers. 1 J-inch deal, wreathed outside, string glued upright, rebated, and beaded; and sunk; and moulded. The string may he glued up in thicknesses; and also plain or moulded circular cuttings or ramps. 1- inch (or lj-inch ; or 1^ inch ; or 2-inch) deal, plain wall string; and these may be moulded. The principal staircase to have lj-inch pitch pine (or other) treads, with rounded, nosing and hollow moulding under same, and inch risers, glued and blocked to fir carriages; the ends of the steps to be housed into lj-inch wall strings, and 2-inch outer string boards, sunk and staff beaded, and finished at the top with a boldly moulded capping, framed at the bottom and corners into 6 inch square newels, with moulded finials, bases, and pendents, as drawing. Boldly moulded oak handrail, 4 inches wide and 6 inches deep, with 1^-inch square oak balusters, stop chamfered. The landings to be formed by joists resting upon boldly moulded stopped beams, r.s shown on sections. Handrails to staircases. — lj-inch (or 1)- inch ; or 2 inch) deal, plain wreathed. These may be moulded ; as deal moulded 2^-inch handrail ; or 2^-inch handrail, ramped (or circular where required) ; or 2^-inch handrail, wreathed and twisted. Spanish (or Honduras) mahogany (or wainscot) moulded handrail. To be de- scribed with all necessary ramps, circular and twist, or with scroll and twist to the curtail step. Mention if grooved for balusters, circular, or sunk for iron cores, mitred and turned caps. Balusters and newels. — Deal square framed newels ; or chamfered. Single and double turnings to newels to be mentioned, as also pendent drops, when used. Deal square bar balusters ; or dovetailed. Turned balusters, according to drawing, or selected from manufacturers’ patterns. Planceer rounded on both edges; or moulded. Fix all necessary iron balusters and stays. Sash frames are of great variety. Deal cased frame for l|-inch sashes, oak (or deal) sunk sill with brass (or other) pulleys for single hanging. Ditto, for double hanging. Ditto, ditto, with circular head. Ditto, circular on plan (and with circular head). Deal cased frames for 2-inch sashes, oak (or deal) sunk sills with brass pulleys for single hanging. Ditto, for double banging (and circular on head and plan, or either). Deal cased frames for 2-inch sashes, oak (or deal) sunk sills with wainscot (or deal) pulley pieces and beads, brass axle pulleys prepared to hang double ; and if circular on head and plan (or either). Deil cased frames for 2- inch sashes, oak sunk sills, mahogany pulley pieces and beads with brass axle pulleys, prepared to hang double. Ditto, for 2^-ineh sashes; and if circular on head and plan (or either). Venetian frames. — Deal cased frames for lt-ineh sashes, oak sunk sills, prepared to hang single (or double). And if circular on plan and head (or either). The above serves for 2-inch and 2-g-inch sashes ; and if wainscot or mahogany. Casement frames for French casements. — Fir solid wrought frames for l^-inch(or 2-inch) casements, oak sunk sills (plain or circular on the plan, as the case may be). Ditto, with wainscot or mahogany stiles and beads, to correspond with the sashes. Ditto, for 2d inch sashes. Fanlight frames over doors. — l|-inch deal frames, square framed. Ditto, semi- circular head. 2-inch deal, square framed. Ditto, semicircular head. If elliptical, so describe them. Sashes. — ll-inch deal ovolo (with circular head or circular on plan). 2- inch deal ovolo (ditto). 2-inch deal astragal and hollow (ditto). 2|-inch deal astragal and hollow (ditto). These may be moulded according to drawing. The above maybe of wainscot, Honduras or Spanish mahogany ; abo to be hung single or double, with patent lines and iron (or lead) weights, and sash-fastenings (patent to be named) complete. _ ' French casements. — 2-inch deal ovolo easements. They may have marginal lights, or be circular on plan, or both; or if with astragal and hollow. The same of 2-t-inch, with the same modifications. The above may be of wainscot, Honduras or Spanish mahogany. The hanging is commonly with 4-inch iron, or brass, butt hinges ; the species of fastening at a price from five to twenty shillings. When Espagnolette fastenings are used, they must be particularly specified. Shop-fronts vary so much that their thicknesses will only be noticed. They range from 1| to 2,) inches ; the forms of their horizontal sections must be stated, or to be executed according to the drawings. Metal bars are now largely used. IAP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 767 85c. Carpenter and Joiner. For revolving wood or iron shutters, the particulars of the manufacturers had best bo obtained. Stall-hoard, and other shop-fittings, &c., of the like nature, are to be described with reference to the drawings, or to the manufacturer. The ceilings of the principal rooms: — after they are plastered, to be divided into square panels about . . . feet square, by nailing thereon hollowed fillets inches by 1 inch (or more), neatly scribed at intersections, with staff beads 1 inch (or more) diameter, nailed along the centre of the same, mitred at intersections, and convoyed round walls as a cornico. Care to be taken in laying the joists so that they may form nailing points for these panel ribs. Friezes and cradling for cornices should be referred to drawings, specifying their height. Skylights. — The common sort are, 1-J-inch deal ovolo skylight (and hipped, and with cross bars). 2-inch deal ditto (ditto). 2^-ineh ditto (ditto). If astragal and hollow moulded ; or if of oak, to be specified. Small skylights are often made of copper or zinc. Kerbs for skylights. — H-inch kerbs to (circular) skylights in two thicknesses, bevelled and chamfered. 2-inch ditto. 2A-inch ditto. These may be elliptical. Coach-house doors and gates. -2-inch deal, framed and braced, filled in with 2-inch deal, and ploughed, tongued, and beaded. Ditto, filled in with battens. 2^-inch deal, framed and braced, filled in with 1-ineh deal, ploughed, tongued, and beaded. Ditto, filled in with battens. These are sometimes filled in with whole deal. 2-ineh deal bead butt and square gates, in eight panels ; and bead flush and square ; and bead flush on both sides. These gates may have more panels ; or be framed with a wicket. A sum may be provided for the hanging of gates, and their hinges and fastenings may be inserted at from 101. to 151., or even 201. Doors. — For out-houses and the like: f-inch ledged wrought deal door; ditto, ploughed, tongued, and beaded. 1-inch wrought deal ledged, ditto. 1-inch ploughed, tongued, and beaded. lj-inch wrought deal ledged, ditto. 1-J-inch ploughed, tongued, and beaded. 1 J-inch and 2-inch deal ledged doors are similarly described. These doors may be hung with hL or cross garnet hinges; and have bolts, locks, latches, and other fastenings, as may be described. External doors with 4-inch cast or wrought butt hinges, and internal doors with cast or wrought iron 3i-inrh butts. Water-joint hinges are useful for light outside flap-doors. For a dwelling house: the principal entrance door to be of deal 1| inches thick, framed flush, with V joints inside ; the exterior to be cased with |-inch oak boards, with moulded fillets over the joints, the same to return round the head, and to die at bottom on an oak rail, 9 inches deep, sometimes having sunk quatrefoils, &e. The door to be hung on wrought iron ornamental hinges to hooks let into the jambs (or screwed to frames) ; an 8-inch rim lock and ornamental drop handle, escutcheon, and key-plate, and two 8-inch barrel bolts The back, or side entrance, door to be l^-inch. framed, ledged. and braced, covered with £-inch wrought oak boarding with chamfered joints, nailed on with rose nails driven through and clenched ; hung on hinges and fastened with lock and bolts, similar to those specified for front entrance. The internal doors maybe of the following varieties: — l|-inch four-panelled, with hollow on the room side, and J-inch diagonal V boarding next the hall or passage ; to be hung with fleur-de-lis or ornamental wrought iron hinges, made to clasp the door si as to show on both sides, and fastened with wrought iron latches and ornamental drop rings. 1^-inch four- panelled, square framed, stop chamfered, filled in with upright or diagonal Vjointed boarding, and hung on hinges as previously specified. 1- ineh deal 1 -panel square door. 1 -inch deal 1-panel square door, folding. These are rarely used. 1 ^ -inch, 2 panels, square; and bead butt and square; and bead flush and square; and moulded and square ; and bead button both sides ; and bead butt and bead flush ; and bead butt and moulded ; and bead flush on both sides ; and bead flush and moulded ; and moulded on both sides. When hung folding, to be so specified. 1 1-inch deal, 2 panels, square, follows in the same order. 2- inch deal follows in the same order. 2j-inch deal follows in the same order. 1 j-inch deal, 4 panels, follows in the same order. 2 inch deal, 4 panels, follows in the same order. 2j inch deal, 4 panels, follows in the same order. 1 j-ineh deal, C panels, follows in the same order ; nnd so on. 66 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II 28.5/! Carpenter and Joiner. If the panels of l-g-inch doors are raised, or if double marginal di ors, so describe them. All the above must be specified as to be hung folding, if the nature of the work so requires. W ainscot doors. — 1^-inch wainscot, 2 panels, square ; and bead flush and square ; and moulded and square ; and bead flush on both sides; and bead flush and moulded. 2-inch wainscot, 2 panels ; 2^- inch wainscot, 2 panels ; follow in the same order 1^-inch wainscot, 4 panels, follow in the same order, and may be moulded on both sides; also 2-inch wainscot, 4 panels; and 2|-inch wainscot, 4 panels; also 2-inch wainscot, 6 panels; also 2§-inch wainscot, 6 panels; and so on. Wainscot sash doors. — 2-inch wainscot, with diminished stiles, lower panel moulded, bead flush, with astragal and hollow sash ; or ditto, with astragal and hollow sash, moulded on both sides ; or 2^-inch wainscot sash doors, diminished stiles, lower panels moulded, and bead flush, with astragal and hollow sash ; or ditto, with astragal and hollow sash, moulded on both sides. These maybe hung folding, double margined, or moulded on the raising. Mahogany doors , or best Spanish mahogany if required (of course now veneered) — 2-inch Honduras mahogany, 2 panels, moulded and square ; or moulded on both sides. 2-iuch Honduras mahogany, 4 panels, moulded and square ; or moulded on both sides. 2-inch Honduras mahogany, 6 panels, moulded and square; or moulded on both sides. 2^-inch Honduras mahogany, 4 panels, moulded and square ; or moulded on both sides. 2|-inch Honduras mahogany, 6 panels, moulded and square ; or moulded on both sides. These may be hung folding ; with projecting mouldings; or with double margins. Mahogany sash doors. — 2-inch Honduras mahogany, astragal and hollow, bottom panel moulded and square; or bottom panel moulded on both sides; or 21-inch Honduras mahogany, astragal and hollow, lottom panel moulded and square, or bottom panel moulded on both sides. These may be bung folding; or with double margin ; or diminished stiles. External doors. — 2-inch wrought, ledged, framed, and braced, folding (or other) doors, with stop chamfered, arched heads, stiles, rails, and braces, covered on the outside with |-inch wrought, tongued, and V jointed oak boarding, hung to solid oak frame (or on hinge-hooks let into stone jambs), with strong, heavy, wrought iron mediseval hinges, and fastened with best rim dead lock cased with oak, and a heavy wrought iron latch, with bold ornamental drop handle and plate, key-plate, &c., all wrought according to detail drawing (or a price to be stated for each article). The frames to be of oak, 6 inches by 4 inches, wrought, double rebated, stop chamfered, grooved, &e., tenoned into stone steps, and to have extra strong hooks on plates screwed to same. 2-inch deal, 4 panels, the lower panels headbutt and square, and the upper panels square both sides ; or the upper panels bead butt on the backs ; or the upper panels bead flush on the back. The panels may have raised mouldings. 2-2-inch deal, 4 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, upper panels sqttnro on both sides ; or bead butt on the back ; or bead flush on the back ; with perhaps raised mouldings. 2-inch deal, 6 panels, lower panels bead butt and square, upper panels square both sides ; or bead butt on the. back ; with perhaps raised mouldings. 2^-inch deal, 6 panels, the lower panels bead butt and square, and the upper panels square both sides ; or bead butt on the back ; or bead flush on the back; wiih perhaps raised mouldings, double margined, &e. Describe any of these external doors, if to be hung folding, or with circular or curved heads. Sash doors. — l|-inch deal, 2 panels, square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash ; and bead butt and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sasb ; and bead flush and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash ; and moulded and square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash ; and moulded and bead butt, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash ; and moulded and bead flush, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash ; and moulded on both sides, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash. 2-inch deal, 2 panels, square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash, in the same order. 2^-inch deal, 2 panels, square, diminished stiles, and ovolo sash, in the sameorder All these may be hung folding, or with marginal lights. In describing joiner’s work, specify the ironmonger}’ to be used ; that is, the hingi 1 - locks, fastenings, and furniture. There is now great variety. ^ _ Common framed 4-panel doors are usually hung with 3|-inch butts and i-inch n° n lim stock locks. Better doors are hung with 4-inch iron or brass butts, mortise locks and brass knob furniture. Folding doors, if heavy, should have 4| or 5 -uh 1 brass butts, and if necessary to clear mouldings, they should be hung with P r0 " jeering brass butts, be provided with flush and other bolts, and mortise locks an AP. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 769 \og. Carpenter and Joiner. furniture. Doors of dining, drawing, and other rooms, where they are required to clear the carpet by rising as they open, should have 4 or 4^-inch rising joint butts. Closet doors have usually 3^-inch butts, with brass tumbler looks and keys. External doors require larger locks, which are usually iron rim locks, or patent locks and keys ; aiso 10 or 12-inch bright rod bolts, chains, staples, &c. Shutters hare butts, which for the back flaps are of a less size, and spring bar fasten- ings. Brass or other china koobs to the front flaps. Doors, mouldings, and joinery are now to be obtained of American and Swedish manufacture, as well as English. Mutildtd architraves to doors and windows, are described by their width and mouldings, or referred to drawings. Columns and pilasters. — l^-inch (or l-|-inch) deal diminished columns, .... inchrs diameter. Pilasters similarly specified. Both one and the other to be glued up and blocked. If fluted, to be mentioned; as also any necking grooves to columns. Caps and bases according to the Order, or to drawing, carved, or of papior-mache, as the expense will allow. Entablatures got out of deal, as to drawing. To be glued up, blocked, and fixed with all necessary brackets and grounds. Water-closet , fitted up with 1-inch clean deal (wainscot or mahogany), seat with hole cut therein, riser (panelled and moulded) and clamped flap (not always considered a necessity), square (or beaded) skirtings, with all requisite bearers and pipe- casing. Privies are described as to seats and risers the same as water-closets, but sometimes have a lid to cover th9 hole instead of a flap. Cisterns, internal and external, must have their cases proportioned in thickness to their sizes. Thus one about 3 or 3 feet 6 inches long, and 2 feet d inches deep, will be 1^-inch deal dovetailed, with requisite bearers, and a cover of |-inch deal with a wood handle. For a good-sized external cistern, provide and fix a wrought and dovetailed 2-inch deal cistern case, . . . feet long, . . . feet wide, and . . . feet deep in the clear. Provide and fix all necessary bearers for the same, with all other requisite fittings, and a f-inch deal strongly ledged cover, with saddle-back fillets aud water channels at each joint. Each water-closet to have a cistern case of 2-inch deal, to contain 36 cubic feet of water, fixed with strong bearers, ledged cover of |-inch yellow deal tongued and beaded. All these cisterns are supposed to be lined with lead, or zinc. Sinks. — For a wooden one lined with lead, 1^-inch dovetailed sink, enclosed with lj-inch deal square-framed front (and perhaps sides), and top or door hung with 3-inch butts, with deal or lead skirtings, and other necessary ironmongery. A proper drainer to be fixed at one side. Plate-rack for scullery to be provided over the sink, and of the same length. Path to be fitted up with riser, frame, and clamped flap (of the best Spanish mahogany), provided and fixed with all requisite bearers and other fittings and appurtenances. The flap to be moulded (in front), and hung with 3|-inch brass butt hinges, and the riser panelled and moulded as shown in the drawings, or to follow the windows and doors. Dresser. — For a good house ; — 2-inch deal, with cross-tongued top 10 feet long and 2 feet 9 inches wide, supported on strong framed legs and bearers. 1-inch deal pot-board and bearers. Six lj-inch sunk shelves, whoso widths are to avorago 7 inches. Back of the shelves to bo of 1-inch deal, wrought, beaded, grooved and cross-tongued. 1-inch deal top, 14 inches wide, with moulded cornice. Five drawers with bottoms and dovetailed rims of ij-inch deal. The fronts to be of 1-inch deal, beaded. A pair of brass (or black) drop handles and a good patent tumbler lock to each drawer; together with till slides, runners, bearers, and other requisite appurtenances. To be fixed complete. Others from 6 to 7 feet long. Dresser top for scullery, lj-ineh clean deal, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and 6 feet long, cross-tongued, and fixed upon strong wrought and framed legs and bearers. Cupboard fronts to correspond with the doors of their respective rooms, hung on ornamental s. H_. or other similar hinges, fastened with small tumbler locks, wrought iron key plates, and small twistod or otlior drop, or fancy, handles. The fittings to closets depend upon the rooms in which they occur; hs the attics, bed- roims, nursery, sitting room, kitchen, housekeeper’s room, store room, butler's pantry, cook's room, &c. Dwarf closets.— 'These vary. 1-iDch deal, sqtiuro framed and moulded in front to follow other doors. The top to have 1.1-ineli mahogany top, moulded in front, and 3-inch skirtings. One shelf, samo depth as closet. The doors to be hung (folding) with 21-tnch butts, a bolt inside, a brass knob outside, and tumbler locks. 3 D 770 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Eouk II, 228 oh. Carpenter and Joiner. Dips casings, wrought and framed, to be provided where necessary, to hide lead and other pipes of all descriptions the fronts to be made to unscrew for coming at the pipes when necessary. Larder Jittings. — Dresser top of clean deal, 1| inch thick, 2 feet 6 inches wide, and . . . feet long, to be feather-tongued and fixed on strong framed legs and rails. Two meat rails, C feet long, of wrought fir, by 2 inches, suspended from wrought iron stirrups. A hanging shelf, 6 feet long, io inches wide, and If inch thick, suspended from wrought iron stirrups. Laundry. — To be fitted up with 1 f-inch clean white deal washing troughs, wrought two sides, and splayed and put together with white lead (as shown on drawing). 1 f-inch deal ironing board, wrought both sides and clamped, hung with hinges to a proper hanging stile. Provide two clothes racks, hung with pulleys and ropes to the ceiling to raise and lower the same. Dust-Inn. See Bricklayer. Arris gutters to eaves should always be of zinc, or iron for better use, not of wood. Stable Jittings, where the old class of work is required : — Mangers, Jjc. — 2-ineh deal bottoms and 1 f-inch deal sides. Wrought oak manger- rails, 4 by 3 inches. Wrought, rebated”, and rounded oak manger post, 6 by 4 inches, wrought and framed with bearers thereto. Oak heel-posts, wrought. 6 by 5 inches, and groove for partitions. Oak top rails, 5 by 4 inches, grooved and rounded at the top. Oak bottom rails, wrought, 4 by 4 inches, grooved and arris rounded off. lf-inch deal partitions, wrought on both sides, ploughed, tongued, and beaded. If -inch deal rails on each side, board wide, and the arrises rounded off. Fronts to hay-rucks. — O.ik standard, 4 by 4 inches, wrought and framed into oak bearer under the manger, lf-ineh deal fronts, framed for the reception of cast iron hay-racks, well secured. Fix fir bearers and 1-inch deal partitions at cavil end of hay-racks, with fir arris rails 3 inches apart at the bottom of each rack. Dressings over stalls connected with heel-posts. J-inch deal frieze, wrought joints, feather-tongued, and backings thereto, segmental sofites and keystone in centre of arches. Impost mouldings at the springings and moulded cornice to girt about 10 inches. Line the walls to the height of 5 feet with 1-inch yellow dea', wrought, ploughed, tongued, and headed, with a f-inch beaded capping thereon. Stable fittings have now become an almost distinct trade. Oak fencing. — The site to be enclosed with an English oak fence, having oak posts 6 inches square, 6 (or more) feet long, the lower end tarred and fixed in the ground 2 feet, and well rammed round with dry ballast or brick rubbish, fixed 9 (or 10) feet apart, and framed with two tiers (or three) of oak arris rails secured with oak pegs. The whole covered with oak cleft pales 4 (5, or 6) feet high, nailed with galvanized iron nails. The bottom to be finished with 11-inch oak plank 12 inches wide, tenone 1 to posts. The top of pales to be covered with inch oak capping 2 inches wide, secured with galvanized iron nails. Sometimes the fence fronting the public way is varnished, with two or more coats. Tar. — Cover the . . . with one (or two) coats of good Stockholm tar. Churches. — To give general directions for the specification of a church would bo impossible. The principles of its timbering may be collected from what has pre- ceded. The old style of pewing, planned as drawings, of deal square-framed partitions two panels high; 1 f-inch framed doors and enclosures one or two panels high, with stiles, munnions, and top rails 3 inches wide, and bottom rails 6 inches wide. The panels of the doors and enclosures should not be more than a board in width, and the framework round them chamfered. The doors are hung with 3-inch butt hinges, and should have brass knob pulpit latches. Capping to the whole of the pewing, grooved and mouldtd according to drawing. Fev- fittings are, 1 1,-inch wrought and rounded seats. 12 inches wide, with proper bearers and 1] -inch cut brackets not more than 3 feet apart Seats rounded next the pew dooi’s. Flap-seats in the galleries to have strong joints. All the pews to have f-inch book boards 6 inches wide, with -g-ineh rounded capping bearers, and f-ineh cut brackets thereunder, not more than 2 feet 6 inches apart, and 1 b ' ' ends rounded next the pew doors. If there be an organ, its enclosure would correspond with the pews, or be specially designed for it. Free seats ot lf-ineh deal, as shown in the driwings ; the seats to be 11 inches wide, rounds in front ; backs framed with stiles, munnions, and rails, 3f inches wide, and the standards, ends, an 1 bearers, according to the drawings. Children's scats, to be of lf-ineli deal, with brackets same thickness, not more than 2 feet fi lncht-fe AP. III. SPECIFICATION, S. 771 35 i. Carpenter and Joiner. apart; at least 8 inches wide, ai d the flap seats, where they occur, to be hung with strong butts. Pulpits and reading desks are usually of lj-inch deal, framed according to drawings, with IJ-inch doors, hung with brass hinges and pulpit latches. Whole deal floors on bearers, 1-inch book boards, cappings and bearers. 1-inch clean deal or wainscot steps and risers, moulded returned nosings, 1^-inch, beaded, sunk and cut string boards, strong bracketed carriages. 1-inch square framed sofite under pulpit floor and stairs, main gany or wainscot moulded hand- rail, with caps turned and mitred ; square bar balusters with one in ten of iron ; turned Dewels to block steps; seats of 1^-inch deal, 13 inches wide,, and proper bearers thereto, together with all appurtenances and requisite fittings for executing the drawings. This exploded manner of fitting up a place for religious worship is well delineated in T. L. Walker, Architectural Practije, 8vo., London, 3rd edit., 1841. The details may be occasionally useful. For more modern work may be specified The whole of the seating throughout to be formed as detail drawings, of good, well-seasoned English oak (or otherwise), to be wrought, chamfered, and stopped, or moulded and cut, as shown or required ; to be carefully framed and put together. The hencli ends to be (at least) 3 inches thick, tenoned and pinned to the chamfered oak sill. The backs to hare solid moulded oak capping. The seats to be lj inches thick, and the book boards to be 2 inches thick (fixed flat or sloping), edges chamfered ; all to be well housed and cut into bench ends. Fix cut brackets, not more than 4 feet apart, under the seats ; and cut brackets, not more than 3 feet apart, under the book boards. All the seats to be kept clear of the piers (if any). See par. 2192a. The carpenter and joiner is to provide and include all such jobbing work, in follow- ing or preceding the other artificers engaged on the works and their appurtenances, as may be requisite for the completion thereof in every respect. Founder, Smith, and Ironmonger 2286. Cast iron girders and columns. Reference must be had to Chap. I. Sect. X. (1628e it seq.), wherein will be found the method of determining their scantlings ; all girders to be previously tested before fixing, by weighting at the foundry. Cast iron cradles, when used for openings, must be described for the particular occasions as they occur. Chimney bars. — To kitchen chimney two wrought iron cradle bars, each 2 inches wide and J inch thick, long enough to extend to the outside of the chimney jambs, and turned up and down (or cock-d down and up) at each end. The other openings to have each a wrought iron chimney bar 3 inches wide and A inch thick. Straps, stirrup irons, nuts, bolts, screws, and washers, together with all other wrought iron work for the roofs and partitions, to be provided as may be requisite, and tho smith is to deliver to and assist the carpenter in fixing or attaching the same. Where the quantity is uncertain, a given weight beyond the above general direc- tion should be provided in the contract, such part thereof as may not be wanted to be deducted from the accounts after tho rate of . . . per cwt. To provide for the carpen- ter’s and joiner’s works, and use, and fix thereto, all requisite spikes, nails, screws, and other proper iromongery, and all requisite brass work, all to be of the very best quality. Cramps of cast, and wrought, iron, or copper (par. 2284(7), as may be directed, for the mason ; the former to he used where the works are exposod to the air. Wrought iron door for strong room or opening in a party wall (it may be folding) to be of the best quality (name tho manufacturer) with ti nges and proper fastenings, of the value of . . . pounds, without fixing. Cast iron sashes as necessary. Wedges for underpinning must be described with reference to the thickness of walls they are to catch ; each pair must be at least as long as the wall is thick. Pnlusters to a back stone staircase and landings. — Wrought iron balusters, ij inch square, with turned wrought iron newel equal to 1.', inch diameter, with rounded handrail of wrought iron Ij by J inch. The balusters and newel are to be riveted into the handrail at top, and at the bottom let into tho stonework, and run with lead. Hal utters to a principal staircase. — Ornamental east iron balusters, as shown on the drawings, or to pattern by a manufacturer, with top rail of wrought iron 1 ^ by i nn inch, let into and firmly screwed to the mahogany (or wainscot) handrail, the lulu tors and nowels nro to be riveted into the iron rail, and at the bottom they are to b> let into tl.o top or side of the stonework, and run with lead. Jlalusteri oj wrought iron for strengthening the principal staircase when of wood. Every tenth laduster to bo of wrought iron, well secured. A nockrr — Provide and fix . . . iron, or brass, knocker for . . . door (specify n priccV 3 n 2 772 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boob. II. 2286«. Founder, Smith, and Ironmonger. Air bricks of cast iron, single or double, and fixed in the brickwork of the outside walls, for the ventilation of the floors; also air gratings, ... in number, 9 inches square. A^ea gratings. — Of cast iron, with bars 1) inch by £ of an inch, and not more than 1^ inch apart. Frames inch by 1 inch, and with strong flanges to let into the surrounding stonework, and properly fixed. Window guards, of wrought iron to the windows of . . . , and . . . bars, to be 1 inch square and 4 inches apart, with framework of iron of the same substance, and let well into and securely fixed to the brickwork in cement. Coal plates of cast iron, with proper fastenings, to be provided to the coal shoot Hayward’s patent self-locking plate is one of the new patents. Cast iron ornamental railing, to the windows, or to the balcony in front of the house, as the case may be, according to the drawings, or selected from a manufacturer. Traps of cast iron, or stoneware, to all communications of surface water with drains to be of appropriate size, with all gully gratings that may be necessary. Drains to roads or paths to be of unglazed earthenware pipes, in 2-feet lengths, of a . . . inch bore, laid to a fall of . . . inches in each 100 feet into . . . , with all neces- sary bends, junctions, &c. Iron gully trap or glazed stoneware trap, or traps, jointed as drains. The Kitchener apparatus for cooking must be specially named ; and in large man- sions many modern conveniences are required to be specified. The Carron Com- pany have issued (1887) a book of appliances of various sizes. Copper. — A copper, . . . inches diameter (or cubical quantity), of copper, or of gal- vanized iron, with all requisite bars and iron work. Stable fittings. — No. . . . east iron hay-racks, 3 feet wide and 2 feet high in the clear, lj-inch round staves, about 3 inches apart, the frames ly by f of an inch, with the arris rounded off next the staves. Fix two manger rings in each stall. Cast iron coping to the walls of the dung-pit J of an inch thick, and returned on each side 4 inches down at the least. Cast iron gratings to stable yards are usually described as of the weight of 1 cwt. Church and Chapel work. The founder’s, smith’s, and ironmonger’s work is so de- pendent on the design, that no general instructions can bo given. Cast iron saddle bars to the windows f by 1 j- inch (or £-inch square), 12 inches longer than the clear width of each window, with lead lights, laid into and worked up with the brickwork, at the height shown on the drawings, to be fixed on an aver- age 1 2 inches apart. Each window to have wrought iron framework for a hopper casement, to be fitted up complete, with patent lines, brass pulleys, and all other requisite appurteninces. Or the hoppers may rest on the sill, and be hinged next to it, so that when closed the exterior glazing may be flush, and to be fitted with opening racks and fastenings. To outside of windows, where necessary, fix 1-inch square stanchions, not more tlmm 6 inches apart, with ornamental heads forged to drawing, let into (frames or) stone sill at bottom, and passed through saddle bars with mortises formed thereon. For church windoivs with tracery heads, provide and build in across the springing ot the arch of all windows of 3 lights and upwards, wrought iron bars 2 inches by i-inch, corked, and well turned up 2 feet from jambs, on each side ; these bars to be well galvanized, and fixed with play for expansion or strain, in notches through the mullions. All straps, bolts, nuts, and washers for the various roofs. Where visible, the straps are to be worked to detail drawings ; and the washers and nuts to be notched anu stamped as directed. Wrought (or cast) iron vanes, crosses, ridge cresting, guards to areas, balconies, &c-, according to drawings; all to be securely fixed ; the vanes and gable crosses to have stems as long as possible, and to be leaded into the stone or screwed to the roof timbers, as the case may be. Ornamental wrought iron hinges, latches, key-plates, closing rings, &c., on doors, nil to be strictly worked according to detail drawings. Ornamental grating of cast iron to pattern, to cover hot water pipe channels in floors. Cast iron rain-water pipe. — To be 2J-, 3, 3.(, 4, 4|, 6 or 6 inches diameter, fixed from the roof into the drain, with proper head and shoe, ears or bands, &c., complete. Eaves gutter.- — All overhanging oaves to have a 4-inch cast iron eaves gutter, with all necessary tingle pieces, valley pans to internal angles, swan-necks, and socket pipes cast on the gutter to lead into heads of rain-water pipes. The gutters to W‘ fixed on strong wrought iron brackets screwed to the feet of the rafters, and no ir. TIL SPECIFICATIONS. 773 ] Q / i . Founder, Smith, and Ironmonger. joints to be screwed together and bedded in red lea l putty. Rectangular rain- water down -pipes are frequently used, with ornamental ears or bands. Newall's (or otner) copper wire lightning conductor, with point, prop rly secured, to . . . (the highest portion of the building), and brought down with all requisite insulators ; the end to bo carried into the earth for a depth of 3 feet from the surface; and all to be carefully fixed. See par. 226 l/r. Plasterer. 1287. Lath, plaster, float, and set all the ceilings, also the strings of staircases, and the quartered partitions on attic stories. Render, float, and set all brickwork in attic stories. All sides of the kitchen offices and office passages to be plastered with best floated rough stucco, lathed where requisite. All the, remainder of the sides of the interior throughout is to be executed with the very best floated stucco, lathed where requisite. Stucco of offices (or office build- ings, if any) to be finished with rough surfaces ; all the rest of the stucco to be trowelled quite smooth. All the arched, groined, panelled, and coffered work, and the bands and architraves, to be executed in gauged stuff, in the best and most accurate manner. To run cornices in plaster round the several rooms, lobbies, passages, and other parts of the building, with enrichments thereto to be accurately modelled in accordance with the drawings (the enrichments may be of papier-mach6). An ornamented rose or flower to the centre of the ceiling of each room on the ground (and one- p tir) floor, securely fixed. Those of papier-mache can be easily screwed to the ceiling joists. Shirtings to basement or ground story (or both) are to be run in cement round all the rooms, lobbies, passages, &c., 10 inches high, lj inch thick, whited when soft, and finally washed of stone colour (or painted). All necessary Leads, quirks, and arrises ; ail internal and external reveals to be stuccoed ; dubbing out where the work may require ir, so as to bring out all extra thicknesses and projections ; and counter-lathing the work over large timbers an I elsewhere, to be done as may be necessary. Enrichments to be carefully trimmed and finished off, and where heavy leaves or embossed work may require it, to be screwed with strong copper screws. Lathing throughout to be lath-and-half heart of fir laths, free from sap. If the walls of a church are to be plastered, the stone jambs to windows and doors are usually specified to project one inch beyond the face of wall, so as to form a slop for plaster, and afterwards cleaned off and left flush Lath for, and plas'er to, the spaces between the rafters (unless the boarding is in- tended to be left visible). To stucco in the very best manner with .... cpment, jointed to imitate masonry, the whole (or part, if such be the case) of the exterior of the building, with columns, pilasters, plinths, entablatures, strines, mouldings, labels, jambs, reveals, chimneys, chimney moulds, decorations, enrichments, and appurtenances of every kind, as shown on the drawings and profiles. Such work to bo subjoct to further instructions from the architect ; to bo roughly coloured as each portion is executed, and finally coloured with weather-proof colouring, fixed with proper ingredients. Decorative chimney pots, of cement, and of the value of ... to be provided for each flue. i Pugging. — To fill in upon the sound boarding between the joists, where si provided, with good iimo and hair pugging mortar, laid throughout at, least 1 inch in thickness. Par. 2247. Roughcasting. — For the mode of describing this, see Plastering, Sect. IX. (2249.) Martin’s cement, if used for walls and partitions, is to be laid in Martin’s coarse cement and clean washod dry sand, 1 of cement to 1 J of sand, floated and set with puro Martin’s fine cement g inch thick. A skirting to bo 9 inches high, dubbed out with tiles in cemont, and run as above described, finished on the top with a . . . moulding, . . . inches in girt, mitred at angles. Reveals to bo run in puro Martin’s fino cement. For floors, equal parts of coarse cement and sand, beaten down and koyed J thick, and finishod with a coat of puro Martin’s cement, and brought to a fine surface. | K’-rne's patent cement. — Brickwork to bo renderod with . . . cement and clean sharp sand, in proportion of 9 to 1, and to bo laid and set with Keene’s patont fine marble cement, highly polished. Paring to la- formed of 3 inches of concrete, laid with Keene’s patent coarse marble cement 1} ins. thick. Skirting will be tho simc as for Martin’s cement. ' 7 1 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. ]>OOK II. 2287u. Plasterer. Parian cement . — To be laid with co irsc quality Parian cement and clean sharp sand in equal proportions, and set wi li fine white Paiian, highly polished. Portland cement . — Rendering to walls, in proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of clean sharp grey sand Drawn and jointed to form blocks (sta'e size). For rough work the proportion may be 1 of cement to 9 of sand. Plumber. 2288. The fiats and gutters to be laid with milled lead of 6 (7 or 8) lbs. to the foot superficial. Where against walls, to be turned up 7 inches ; where against slopes, as rafters, to turn up 10 inches. Rolls not to exceed 27 inches apart. Flashings of milled lead to the walls of 4 (or 5) lbs. to the foot, to be worked iii the wall, and to turn down over gutters and flats. Where flashings adjoin tin slopes of a roof, they should be described to be formed stepwise into the brick- work, and of an averago width of 12 inches. Hips and ridges to be covered with milled lead fi lbs. to the foot, and at least 18 inches wide, well secured with lead-headed nails. Eaves gutters. — To put round the eaves at the curb plate 4-inch iron (or zinc) gutter- ing, fixed complete with bands and brackets, with iron (or zinc) down pipes, . . inches diameter, with neat heads and appropriate shoes, and let into the gutter, syphon trap, or drain. To fix . . . stacks of rain-water pipes (if to be of lead) from the gutters to the drains, of (5) inches bore, turned up from milled lead of 8 lbs. to the foot superficial, and securely fixed with ornamental cistern heads, as shall be approved by the architect, and 2-inch strong overflow discharging pipes. Similar description for conveying water from the roof or flat of a portico. Poses pierced with holes of sufficient size to be provided of 10-lb. lead to rain-water cesspools, and pipe heads. No pipes but of lead or zinc should be used against stone buildings. Cast iron piper should only be used to offices. Domes should be covered with lead from 6 to 8 lbs. to the foot superficial, according to their size, and must be well secured with proper seams or rolls thereto. Tops and sides of dormers to be covered with 5-lb. milled lead, turned down nl round full 8 inches. A flashing of 5-lb. milled lead, 30 inches wide, to be fixec over the sill of the dormer door or window, as the case may be. Aprons of 6-lb. milled lead, and 10 inches wide, should be described to sky-lights. External mouldings of wood may be covered with 6-lb. milled lead, to turn U| 6 inches, and to have flashings of 4-lb. milled lead let into the brickwork, and t' be turned down 5 inches. In London, it is usual to specify that the water supply should be laid on for tin service of the house in following manner (regulating cisterns are required b; some companies) : — Lay on water from the main of the Company will .-pinch strong cast lead pipe to the cistern of the upper water-closet, with ball-coct- complete. Similarly to lower water-closet and to such other cisterns as an provided, with ball-cocks, &c. complete, and to pay all official fees. Line the sink in the scullery, and in the butler’s pantry (and other small ones, i any) with 6-lb. milled lead, and fix thereto a 2-inch waste pipe, with brass bel trap complete, to be carried outside on to or under a grating, and so into t drains. (Another to each for hot water.) Line the kitchen cistern with milled lead, bottom 9 lbs. and sides 6 lbs. to the fool with all soldering thereto. To provide to the same a 1 pinch waste pipe. Lin 1 the kitchen sink with lead of 8 lbs. to the foot, to turn well over the woodwor and to have a 2-inch strong waste pipe to lead into the dram, with brass bd grate complete. A f-inch service pipe and brass cock t) be provided from tb 1 cistern for supplying water to the sink. (Another for hot water). Water-closets to be constructed and fitted up in every respect complete, with . ■ basin, and the very best patent valve apparatus. Soil pipe of 4^-inch bore out ‘ 8-lb. lead, to lead into drain with strong. . . trap; lead service box, 10 incm by 7, and 6 inches deep, of 10-lb. milled lead; 5-lb. lead safe under pan, wit 2-inch Bw r an-necked waste pipe. 1-inch supply pipe to the basin, and all otbc pipes, wires, cranks, handles, and other proper fitments. The cistern is to lined, bottom with 8-lb. cast lead, and sides with 5-lb. milled lead, waste pipe, to be carried outside, with washer and waste complete. (See par. 2-/. for modern contrivances). ., Inferior wader-closets to be provided with stoneware syphon pan, with water laid 0i and in all respects to be fitted complete, to modern requirements. V. III. SPECIFICATIONS. 775 in. Plumber. Provide all stencil-traps, syphon-traps, and other similar contrivances as may be named, where the pipes are to communicate with the drains. Cold bath . — A . . . feet . . . inches bath, if of copper of 16 ounces to the foot superficial, tinned on the inside, and painted in japan to imitate marble, or as may be directed. Lay on the water with st'ong l|-inch lead pipe, with brass cock, and fix 2^-inch strong lead waste pipe, with brass washer and plug, thereto. If the hot bath be not of marble (as before stated, see Mason), the following clauses will describe the several positions and varieties of the boilers by which a supply of hot water is obtained in the present day: — - I. Provide a Tylor and Sons’ 5 feet 2 inch taper oval-end copper (or galvanized tinned iron) bath, white marbled inside, with copper pipes, mounted in wood cradle, with 1 j--inch deal framing, panelled, with French polished Honduras mahogany top. Three of Tylor and Sons’ inch roundw'ay bath taps, S. B., with socket keys and handsome levers, hot, cold, waste. A Tylor and Sons’ patent bath boiler, with stove front to fit opening of fireplace, with doors and damper (no setting required). Inch lead pipe from cold water cistern to boiler, jj-inch lead pipe to relieve boiler up to and turned over top of cistern (or any convenient outlet). Inch lead pipe for hot, cold, waste, and overflow pipes to bath. Lead safe with waste under cocks, and leave the work perfect; as estimated, at 39/. Os. 9 d., exclusive of carriage and any brick- layer's, plasterer’s, or carpenter’s work, cutting away for pipes and making good, fixing bath framing, and graining and varnishing it. A galvanized tinned iron bath is 6 1. less. II. Tylor and Sons’ 22-gallon copper chimney boiler, with wrought iron band, with bobs and nuts to carry ditto, and stove front to fill up opening in fireplace, with sliding blower, revolving damper, soot door, and bars ; as estimated, at 38 1. Os. 9 24025 3723875 ] 2-4498996 5-371685 218 47524 10360232 14-7648231 6-018363 ! 24336 3796416 12-4899960 5-383213 219 47961 10503459 14-7986486 6-027650 7 24649 3869893 12-5299641 5-394690 220 48400 10648000 14-8323970 6-036811 i 24964 3944312 12-5698051 5-406120 221 48841 10793861 14-8660687 6 045943 > 25281 4019679 12-6095202 5-417501 222 49284 10941048 14-8996644 6*055048 ) 25600 4096000 12-6491 10615-428835 223 49729 11089567 14-9331845 6-064126 25921 4173281 12-6885775 5-440122 224 50176 11239424 14-9666295 6-073177 ! 26244 4251528 12-7279221 5 -451362 225 50625 11390625 15-0 6-082201 ! 26569 4330747 12 -7671453 5'462556 226 51076 11543176 15-0332964 6-091 199 1 26896 4410944 12-8062485 5 473703 227 51529 1 1697083 15-0665192 6-100170 1 27225 4492125 12-8452326 5-484806 228 51984 1 1852352 15-0996689 6-109115 ■ 27556 4574296 12-8840987 5-195865 229 52441 1 2008989 15-1327460 6-1 18032 ' 27889 4657463 ; 1 2-9228480 5 '5068 79 230 52900 12167000 15-1657509 6-126925 , 28224 4741632 12 9614814 5-517848 231 53361 12326391 15-1986842 6-135792 1 28561 4826809 13-0 5-528775 232 53824 12487168 15-2315462 6-1 14634 )| 28900 4913000 13-0364048 5-539658 233 54289 12649337 15-26-13375 6 153449 1 29241 5000211 13-0766968 5 '550499 234 54756 12812904 15-2970585 6-162239 [.'1 29584 5088448 13-1148770 5-561298 235 55225 12977875 15-3297097 6-171005 , 29929 5177717 13-1529164 5-572054 236 55696 13144256 15-3622915 6-179747 30276 5268024 13-19090605-582770 237 56169 13312053 15-3948043 6-188463 30625 5359375 13-2287566 5-593445 238 5664 4 13481272 15-4272486 6-197154 30976 5451776 13-2664992 5-601079 239 57121 13651919 15-4596248 6-205821 31329 5545233 13-3041347 5 614673 240 57600 1 3824000 15"491 9334 6-214464 31684 5639752 13-3416641 5-62522 6 241 58081 13997521 15-5241747 6-223083 j 3204 1 5735339 13-3790882 5-635741 242 58564 14172488 15-5563492 6-231678 | 32400 5832000 13 -4164079 5-646216 243 59049 14348907 15-5884573 6-240251 32761 592974 1 13-4536240 5-656652 244 59536 14526784 15-6204994 6-248800 1 6028568 1:5-4907376 5-667051 245 60025 14706125 15 6524758 6-257324 33 18 ,282 79524 22425768 16-7928 556 6-557672 345 1 19025 41063625 18-5741756 7-013® 283 80089 22665187 16-8226038 6-565415 346 119716 41421736 18-6010752 7 -020,9 284 80656 2-2906304 16-8522995 6-573139 347 1 20409 41781923 18-6279360 7-0276 285 81225 23149125 16-8819430 6-580844 348 121104 42144192 18-6547581 7-031 01 286 81796 23393656 16-9115345 6-588531 349 121801 42508549 18-6815417 7"04( l| 287 82369 2.3639903 16-9410743 6-596202 350 122500 42875000 18-7082869 7-04’ 8j 288 82944 2.3887872 16-9705627 6-603854 351 123201 43243551 18-734994017-05 289 83521 24137569 17-0 6-611488 352 123904 43614208 18-7616630 7-06’i W 290 84100 24383000 J 7-0293864 6-619106 353 124609 43986977 18-7882942 7-0fi 61 291 84681 24642171 17-0587221 6-626705 354 125316 44361864 18-8148877 7-07 13 292 85264 24897088 17-0880075 6 634287 355 126025 44738875 18-8414437 7 -08! 18 293 85849 25153757 17-1 172428 6-641851 356 126736 45118016 18-8679623 7-08 11 294 86436 25412184 17-1464282 6-649399 357 127449 45499293 18-8944436 7-09 ^ 295 87025 25672375 17 1755640 6-656930 358 128164 45882712 18-9208879 7-10 J H 2 96 87616 25934336 17-2046505 6-664443 359 128881 46268279 18-9472953 7-10,93, 297 88209 26198073 17-2336879 6-671940 360 1 29600 46656000 18-9736660 7 ■ 1 1 : 298 88804 26463592 17-2626765 6-679419 361 130321 4704 58 81 19-0 7-12.07; 299 89401 26730899 17-2916165 6-686882 362 131044 47437928 19-0262976 7-12,5.5 300 90000 27000000 17-3205081 6-694328 363 131769 47832147 19-0525589 7-1: 92 301 90601 27270901 17-3493516 6-701758 364 1324 9 6 48228544 19-0787840 7 14 37 302 91204 27543608 17-3781472 6-709172 365 133225 48627125 19-1049732 7-14,69 303 91809 27818127 1 7 "4068952 6-716569 366 153956 49027896 19-1311265 7"1 7 90 304 92416 28094464 17-4355958 6-723950 367 134689 49430863 19-1572441 n 305 9.3025 28372625 17-4642492 6-731316 368 135424 49836032 19-1833261 7 -1 r -9.j| 306 936.36 28652616 17-492855716-738665 369 136161 50243409 19-2093727 7’1 80 307 94249 28934443 1 7-52141 55j6 -74.5997 370 136900 50653000 19-2353841 1'\ >54 308 94864 29218112 17-5499288 6-753313 371 137641 51064811 19-2613603 7'J 309 95481 29503629 1 17-5783958 6 760614 372 138384 51478848 19-2873015 T\ 'DO 310 96100 29791000 17-6068169 6-767899 373 I 39 129 51895117 19-3132079 7'] 103 31 1 96721 30030231 17-6351921 6-775168 374 139876 52313624 19-33907 96 1 312 97344 30371328 1 7 -663521 7 6 "78 2422 375 140625 52734375 19-3649167 313 97969 30664297 17-6918060 6-789661 376 141376 53157376 19-39071 94 1 tnAV 314 98596 30959144 17-7200451 6-796884 377 142129 53582633 19-4164878, 7*2 UM| 315 99225 31255875 17-7482393 6-80409! 378 142884 54010152 19-44 22221 1 1 '■ p. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 785 Square. Cube. Square Hoot. Cube Root. No. Square. Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. 143641 54439939 19-4679223 7-236797 442 195364 86350888 21-0237960 7-61741 1 144400 54872000 19-4935887 7-243156 443 196249 86938307 21-0475652 7-623151 14.5161 55306341 19-5192213 7-249504 444 197136 87528384 21-0713075 7-628883 145924 55742968 19-5448203 7-255841 445 198025 88121125 21-0950231 7-634606 146689 56181887 19-5703858 7-262167 446 198916 88716536 21-1187121 7-640321 147456 56623104 19-5959179 7 -268482 447 199809 89314623 21-1423745 7-646027 148225 57066625 19-6214169 7-274786 448 200704 89915392 21 -1660105 7-651725 148996 57512456 19-6468827 7-281079 449 201601 90518849 21-1896201 7-657414 149769 57960603 19-6723156 7-287362 450 202500 9 1 1 25000 21-2132034 7-663094 150544 58411072 19-6977156 7-293633 451 203401 91733851 21 -2367606 7-668766 151321 58863869 19-7230829 7-299893 452 204304 92345408 21 -2602916 7-674430 152100 59319000 197484177 7-306143 453 205209 92959677 21-2837967 7-680085 152881 59776471 197737199 7-312383 454 2061 16 93576664 21 -3072758 7-685732 153664 60236288 I 9-7989899 7-31861 1 455 207025 94196375 21-3307290 7-691371 154449 60698457 19-8242276 7-324829 456 207936 94818816 21-3541 565 7-697002 ,155236 61162984 19-8494332 7-331037 457 20S849 95443993 21-3775583 7 -702624 156025 61629875 19-8746069 7-337234 458 209764 96071912 21 -4009346 7-708238 156816 6 2099136 19-8997487 7-343420 459 210681 96702579 21 -4242853 7-713844 157609 62570773 19-9248588 7-349596 460 211600 97336000 21-4476166 7-719442 158404 6:1044792 19-9499373 7-355762 461 212521 97972181 21-4709106 7-725032 159201 63521199 19-9749844 7-361917 462 213444 98611128 21 -4941853 7-730614 160000 64000000 20-0 7-368063 463 214369 99252847 21 -5174348 7-736187 160801 64481201 20-024 9844 7-374198 464 215296 99897344 21 -5406592 7-741753 151601 64964808 20-0499377 7-380322 465 216225 100544625 21-5638587 7-747310 162409 65450827 20-0748599 7-386437 466 217156 101194696 21 -5870331 7-752860 163216 65939264 20-0997512 7-392542 467 218089 101847563 21-6101828 7-758402 164025 6643012 5 20-1246118 7-398636 468 219024 102503232 21 -6333077 7-763936 164836 66923416 20-1494417 7-404720 469 219961 103161709 21-6564078 7-769462 165649 67419143 20-1742410 7-410794 470 220900 103823000 21-6794834 7-774980 166464 67917312 20-1990099 7-416859 471 221841 104487111 21 -7025344 7-780490 167281 68417929 20-2237484 7-422914 472 222784 105154048 21-7255610 7-785992 168100 68921000 20-2484567 7-428958 473 223729 105823817 21-7485632 7-791487 168921 69426531 20-2731349 7-434 993 474 224676 106496424 21-7715411 7-796974 169744 69934528 20-2977831 7-441018 475 225625 107171875 21 -7944947 7-802453 170569 70444997 20-3224014 7-447033 476 226576 107850176 21-8174242 7-807925 171396 70951944 20-3469899 7-453039 477 227529 108531333 21-8403297 7-813389 1, 1 72225 71473375 20-3715488 7-459036 478 228484 109215352 21-8632111 7 818845 ij 173056 71991296 20-3960781 7-465022 479 229441 109902239 21 -8860686 7-824294 173889 72511713 20-4205779 7-470999 480 230400 1 10592000 21 -908902317-829735 174724 73034632 20-4450483 7-476966 481 231361 1 1 1284641 21 -931 7122,7-835168 175561 73560059 20-4694895 7-482924 482 232324 1 11980168 21 -9544984 7-840594 >! 176400 74088000 20-4939015 7-488872 483 233289 112678587 21-9772610 7-846013 177241 74618461 20-5182845 7-494810 484 234256 1 13379904 22-0 7-851424 178084 75151448 20-5426386 7-500740 485 235225 114084125 22-0227155 7-856828 178929 75686967 20-5669638 7-506660 486 236 1 96 1 14791256 22-0454077 7-862224 l| 179776 76225024 20-5912603 7-512571 487 237169 115501303 22 -0680765; 7 -8676 13 180625 76765625 20 -G 155281 7-518473 488 238144 116214272 22-0907220 7-872994 >,181476 77308776 20-6397674 7-524365 489 239121 1 16930169 22-1 133444 7-878368 1 82329 77854483 20-6639783 7-530248 490 240100 1 17649000 22-1359436’7 -8837.34 183184 7- 402752 20-6881609 7-536121 491 241081 1 1 837077 1 22-1585198)7-889094 J|1H404I 78953589 20-7123152 7-541986 492 242064 1 19095488 22-1810730 7-894446 >184900 79507000j20-7364414 7-54784) 493 243049 1 19823157 22-2036033 7-S99791 ! 185761 80062991 20-7605395 7-553688 494 244036 120553784 22-226 1 108 7 905129 2)186624 80621568 20-7846097 7-559525 495 245025 121287375 22 -2485955 ,7 -9 10460 1 1H7489 81182737 20 8086520 7-565353 496 246016 122023936 22-2710575 7 -915784 1! 188356 j 81746504 20-8326667 7-571173 497 247009 122763473 22 2934968 7 921 1 (X) 7189225 82312875 20-8566536 7-576984 498 248004 123505992 22-3159136 7-926408 5)190096 82881856 20-88061307-582786 499 249001 124251499 22-3383079 7-931710 '| 190969 83453453 20-9045450 7-588579 500 250000) 1 25000000 22-360O798 7-937005 Ij 191844 84027672 20 9284495,7 -594:163 50 J 251001 125751501 22-3830293 7-942293 • 192721 84604519 !0 1523268 7-600138 502 252004 1 26506008 22-4053565 7 947573 9 193600 1 85184000 20 9761770 7 605905 503 253009 127263527 22-4276615 7-952847 I94|m| 1 85715(51^1 2 1 0 7-61 1662 504 25401 6 128024064 22 4499443 7-9581 14 786 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I [ I i No.| Square. ! Cube. Square Root.! Cube Root. 505 255025 1 28787625 22-4722051 7-963374 506 256036 129554216 22 -4944438, 7 -968627 507 2570494 30323843 22 -51 66605 .7-973873 508 258064 131 09651 2 22 -5388553' 7 -979112 509 259081 1 31 872229 22 \561 0283 7 -984344 No. Square. Cube. 568 322624 1 83250432 569(323761 [184220009 5701324900 185193000 571326041 572:3271 84 510 260100 132651000 22-5831796 7-989569 573 511 261121 133432831 22-6053091,7-994788 512 262144434217728 22-6274170 8-0 5 1 3 2631 69 1 35005697 22 -6495033 ( 8 -005205 514 2641 96 135796744 22-6715681 ! 8-010403 515 265225(136590875 22-69361 14 8-015595 51 6 266256 1 37388096 22 -71 56334 8 -020779 517 2672894 38188413 22-7376340 8-025957 518 268324 1 38991832 22-75961 34(8-031 129 519 269361 '139798359 22-7815715j8-036293 520 270400 1 40608000 22-8035085 8 -041 451 521 2714414 41420761 22-8254244 8-046603 522 272484 142236648 22-8473193 8-051748 523 273529 1 143055667 22-8691933 8-056886 524 274576 143877824 22-8910463 8-062018 525 275625! 144703125 22-912878 5 8-067143 526 276676 145531576 22-9346899 8-072262 527 277729 1 463631 83 22 -9564806 8-077374 528 278784 147197952 22-9782506 8-082480 529 279841 148035889 23-0 8-087579 530 280900 148877000 23-0217289 531 281951 149721 291 j 23 "0434372 532 2830244 50568768123-0651252 533 284089,1 51 41 9437 : 23'0867928 534 285156 152273304 23-1084400 535 286225 1 531 30375J23-1 300670 8 -1 1 8041 536 287296 1 53990656 23-1 51 6738 8-123096 537 288369 1 548541 53(23-1 732605 8-128144 538 289444 1 55720872(23-1 948270 8 ■] 33186 539 290521 156590819 23-2163735 540 291600 157464000]23-2379001 541 292681 158340421 23-2594067 542 293764! 159220088 23-2808935 543 294849,1 60103007,23-3023604 544 295936 1609891 84(23-3238076 545 297025: 1 61 878625,23 "3452351 546 2981 1 6'l 62771 336,23-3666429 547 299209! 1 63667323,23-388031 1 548 3003044 64566592,23-4093998 549 301401 j 1654691 49 23-4307490 550 302500 I 66375000 23-4520788 551 303601 1 672841 51 23-4733892 552 304704,168196608 23-4946802 328329 329476 330625 331776 332929 334084 335241 336400 337561 338724 583339889 584 341056 585 342223 586(343396 587(344569 588|345744 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 186169411 1 871 -f 9248 188132517 189119224 190109375 191102976 192100033 193100552 194104539 1951 12000 196122941 197137368 198155287 199176704 20020162 5 Square Root. Cube Rout 23-8327506 8-28163. 23-8537209 8-28649: 23-8746728 8-29134- 23-8956063 8-296l9t 23-9165215 8-301 03( 23-9374184 8-30586. 23-9582971 8-31069 23- 9791576 8-31551 24- 0 8-32033 2 4 -0208243^8 -32514 24-0416306 8-32995 24-0624188 24-0831892 24-10394 16 24-1246762 24-1453929 24-1660919 24-1867732 201 230056,24-2074369 202262003 (24 -2280829 203297472 24-24871 13 589!34692l!204336469,24-2693222 590 348100 205379000|24 -2899156 591;34928] 206425071 24-3104916 59 2 ( 350464 2074 7468 8 24 -33 1 050 1 8-33475 8-33955 8-34434 8-34912 8-35390 8-35867! 8-36344! 3682o| 8-37296! 8-37771; 8-38246; 8-3872C 8-39194 8 -39667 ( 092672 593 351 649 208527857 24-351 591 3,8-401 3! 8-097758 j 594 35283 6(209584584 24-3721 152,8-4061 1 8-102838 595 354025 210644875 24-3926218(8-4108: 8-10791 2 596 35521 6(21 1 708736 24-41 31 1 12,8-4155 8-112980 8-138223 8-143253 8-148276 8-153293 8-158304 8-163309 8-168308 8173302 8-178289 8-183269 8-188244 8-1 93212 8-198175 8-203131 553 3058091169112377,23-5159520,8-208082 554 30691 6 1 70031 464,23-5372046,8-21 3027 555 308025 1 70953875 23-5584380 8-21 7965 556 309136 1 71 87961 6 23-5796522 8-222898 557,31 0249(1 72808693 23 "6008474j 8 -227825 558 31 1364 173741 112 23-6220236 8-232746 559 312481 (174676879 23-6431 808 8-237661 560 31 3600 1 7561 6000 23-66431 91 ,8-242570 561 314721 ! 176558481 23-6854386 8-247474 562 315844 177504328 237065392 8-252371 563(31 6969 1 78453547 23 -7276210 8 -257263 564 318096 179406144 23-7486842 8-262149 565 31 9225 1 803621 25 23-7697286 8-267029 566 320356 1 81 321 496 23 7907545 8-271 903 567,321 489 1 82284263 23-811 761 8 8-276772 597(356409(2127761 73 24-4335834,8-4202 598 357604 599 358801 600 360000 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 61 8 619 2138471 92 24-45403858-4249- 1 21 4921 799,24 -4744765(8-4296 21 6000000 24-4948974, 8-4345 361201 (21 7081801 (24-51 5.301 3 8-4390' 362404(21 81 67208 24-5356883(8-4436 363609 21 9256227 24-556058-3,8-4483 1 364816(220348864 24-57641 1 5,8-4530 366025(221 4451 25,24 -5967478, 8’4576' 367236 22254501 6 24 -61 70673(8-4623 368449(223648543 24-6373700 8"466!' 8-471 6 I 369664 22475571 2 24 -6576560 370881 225866529 24-6779254 372100 226981000 24-6981 781 373321 374544 375769 376996 228099131 ,24-7184142 22 9220928,24-7386338 23034639724-7588368 231475544(24-7790234 8-4762 8-4809 8-4857 ( 8-4S0I 8-4941 i 8-4924 8-5041 I 378225,232608375(24-7991 935 379456 233744896 24-8198473 8-5081 380689,2348851 1 3,24-8394847|8'5i Si ,' 381924 236029032,24 -8596058,8-51 7: 3831 61 (2371 76659 24 -87971 06, 8 -522- 1 620 384400 238328000 24 -8997992, 8 '527( 621 '385641 239483061 (24-91 9871 6 ,8-531 ' 622 386884 240 641 848, 24-93 99278,8 -5.36' 623 3881 29,241 804367,24-9599679 8’540' ( 624 389376 242970624 24 9799920,3 -545 ( , 625 390625 244140625 25'0 (8-540 • 626 391 876,24531 4376,25-01 99920 8-551 ' 627(393129(246491883 25-0399681 !8-55« > 628 394384 247673152 25 0599282 8 -503 j 629 395641 2488581 89 25 ’0798724, 8-561 >1 630 396900 25004 , '000 25-0998008, 8-572 1 Chap. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 787 No. Square. Cube. Square Root. Cube Root. No. Square. 531 398161 532 3 9 9424 533 400689 534,401956 535^403225 S36 404496 537 '405769 638 407044 539408321 640 409600 2621 44000 25 -298221 3 641 410881 263374721 25-31 79778 642 : 412164 ! 264609288 25-3377189 643|413449|265847707|25 -3574447 25-3771551 25-3968502 25-4165301 25-4361947 544 4!4736 ! 267089984 645 41 6025 646 417316 647 418609 648 419904 649421201 650422500 651 423801 652 425 104 653 426409 654 42771 6 455 429025 656 430336 457431649 558432964 559 434281 560|435600 461 436921 462|438244 568 4 3 9 5 69 464 440896 465442225 566443556 268336125 26958613 6 270840023 272097792 25-4558441 273359449 25-4754784 251239591 254 1 971S4 8 -577152 252435968 254 396102 8-581680 253636137 25'1 5949133 -586204 254840104 254 793566 8-590723 256047875 254992063'8\5952S8 257259456 25‘21 90404 8-599747 258474853 25-2388589 8-604252 259694072 25-258661 9 8-608752 26091 71 19|25-2784493|8 -61 3248 8-617738 8-622224 8 -626706 8-631183 8-635655 8-640122 8-644585 8-649043 8-653497 8-657946 8-662301 8-666831 8-671266 8-675697 8-680123 8-684545 8-688963 8-693376 8-697784 8-702188 8-706587 8-710982 8-715373 8-719759 8.724141 8-728518 8-732891 8-737260 8-741624 8-745984 8-750340 8-754691 8-759038 8-763380 8-767719 8-772053 8-776382 8-780708 8-785029 8-789346 8-793659 8-797967 8-802272 8-806572 8-810868 8-815159 8-819417 8-823730 274625000 275894451 277167808 78445077 279726264 281011375 282300416 283593393 284890312 286191179 287496000 288804781 2901 1 7528 291434247 292754944 294079625 295408296 167 444889,296740963 1 168 '446224 [298077632 ■ 69,447561 299418309 ■ 70 448900 300763000 <71(450241 302111711 ■ 72 451584 303464448 771 452929(304821 21 7 1*74 454276 306182024 •75 455625 j 307546875 76 1569761.308915776 1-77 4583291.31 028873.3 ■78 459684 .31 1665752 25-4950076 25-5147016 25-5342907 25-5538647 25-5734237 25-5929678 25-6124969 25-63201 12 25-6515107 25-6709953 25-6904652 25-7099203 25-7203607 25 -7487864 25-7681975 25-7875939 25-8069758 25-8263431 25-8456960 25-8650343 25-8843582 25-9030677 25-9229628 25-942243 5 25-9615100 25-9807621 260 260192237 26 0384331 73 461041 1313046839 26-0576284 - > 462400 314432000 26-0768096 M 463761 .'115821241 126 0959767 >1 2 I 117214568 26-1 I 51297 - 1 466489 31 861 1 987 26'1 :142687 1 '4 467856 32001 3504 26 1 533937 ■G 469225[321 419125 26 1 725047 <6 470596 322828856 26 1 91 601 7 •17 471969(32424270326-2106848 ■ 173344 U 7660672 2 6 2297541 18-828009 *' J 174721 32708276926 -2488095(8 -832285 » I76IOO 32850fXXX) 26-267851 1 8 836556 •I 477481 329939371 26-2868789 8-840822 47886 I 331 373888 26 3058929 8 -845085 ' 480246 332812557,26-3248932 8-84934 4 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 04 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 20 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 481636 483025 484416 485809 487204 488601 490000 491401 492804 494209 495616 497025 498436 499849 501261 502681 504100 505521 506944 508369 509796 511225 512656 514089 515524 516961 51 8400 519841 52)284 522729 524176 525625 527076 528529 529984 531441 532900 534361 535824 537289 538756 540225 541696 543169 544644 546121 547600 741:549081 742(550564 743 552049 334255384 26 ‘3438797 8 -853598 335702375 26-3628527 337153536 26-3818119 338608873 26-4007576 340068392 26-4196896 341532099(26-4386081 34300000026-45751 31 344472101 [26-4764046 345948408 347428927 348913664 350402625 351895816 353393243 354894912 356400829 26-6270539 Cube. j Square Root. Cube Root. 26-4952826 26-5141472 26-5329983 26-5518361 26-5706605 26-5894716 26-6082694 357911000 359495431 360944128 362467097 363994344 365525875 367061696 368601813 370146232 371694959 373248000 374805361 376367048 377933067 379503424 381078125 382657176 384240583 385828352 387420489 38901 7000 390617891 3922231 68 393832837 395446904 397065375 398688256 400315553 401947272 26-6458252 26-6645833 26-6833281 26-7020598 26-7207784 26-7394839 26-7581763 26-7768557 26-7955220 26-8141754 26-8328157 26-8514432 26-8700577 26-8886593 26-9072481 26-9258240 26-9443872 26-9629375 26- 9814751 27- 0 27-0185122 27 03701 17 27-0554985 27 0739727 27-0924344 27-1108834 27-1299199 27-1477439 27-1661554 403583419 271845544 405224000 27-2029410 406869021 408518488 27-221 3152 27-2396769 1101 72407 27-2580263 744 553536 411 830784 27 2763634 74 5 555025 746 55651 6 74 7 558009 748(559504 749(561001 750562500 751 504001 7521565504 1 1 34 93625 '27 '2946881 11 51 60936127-31 S0006 116832723 27 3313007 418508992 27-3495887 8-857849 8-862095 8-866337 8-870575 8-874809 8-879040 8-883266 8-887488 8-891706 8-895920 8-900130 8-904336 8-908538 8-912736 8-916931 8-121121 8-925307 8-929490 8-933668 •937843 8-942014 8-946180 8 -950343 8-954502 8-958658 8 962809 8-966957 •971 100 •975240 8-979376 8-983508 8-987637 8-991762 8- 995883 9- 0 90041 13 9-008222 9 012328 9 016430 9-020529 9 024623 9-028714 9-032802 9-036885 9-040965 9-045041 9-049114 9-053183 9-057248 9 061 309[ 9-065367 9 069422 9 073472 9077519 9 081563 9-085603 420189749,27-3678644 421875000 27-3861279 423564751 27-404379218-089639; 425259008 27 -12261 84 9 093672 753 567009 426957777 27 -4408455 9 097 701 754 568516,428661064 27-4590604 9101796 755 570025 430368875 27 '4772633 *>-105748 756 571536 43208121 6 27 495 1542(9 I 09766, :i i: 2 788 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rmok 1 1. No. | Square. 757573049 758 574564 759 576081 760 577600 761 '579121 762 580644 763j3821 60 764j5836y6 7651585225, 766 586756 767|588289 768|589824, Cube. Square Root. Cube Uoot. 769 770 592900 771 772 773 774 5 591361 594441 595984 597529, 599076 600625 776 602176 777 603729 778|605284 779606841 780608400 781 1 609961 ,782 611524 J783|61 3089 1784161 4656 j785|616225 |786|617796 j 787 1 61 9369 |788 620944 j789!622521 790624100 |7 91 625681 792 627264 793 628849 794J630436 795 632025 796 633616' j797[635209 1 798 636'804j 799!638401 800 640000 801 6 41601 802643204 803 ! 641 809 804 646416! 805|648025' 806[e49636 807,651249 808; 652864 809 654481 810 656100 81 1 657721 8126593441 813) 660969] 814) 662596, 8151664225' 8161665856! 817 667489 1 818:669124 [81 91670761 433798093 435519512 437245479 438976000 440711081 442450728 444194947 445943744 447697125 449455096 451217663 452984832 454756609 456533000 [45831401 1 460099648 461889917 463684824 465484375 467288576 469097433! 470910952 4727291 39[ 474552000! 476379541 478211768 480048687 481890304 483736025! 485587656; 487443403 489303872 491169069 493039000 494913671 496793088 498677257 500566184 502459875 504358336 506261573 5081 69592 510082399 51 2000000 513922401 515849508 517781627 519718464 521660125 52360661 6 525557943 5275141 12 529475129 531441000 5 33411731 535387328 537367797 27-5136330 9 27-5317998 9 27-5499546 9 27-5680975 9 27-5862284 27-6043475 27-6224546 27-6405499 27-6586334 27-6767050 27-6947648 27-7128129 27'7308492 27-7488739 27 -7668868 27-7848880 27-802877 5 27-8208555 [27-8388218 [27-8567766 27-8747197 27-8926514 27-9105715 27-9284801 27-9463772 27-9642629 27- 9821372 28- 0 28-0178515 28-0356915 28-0535203 28-0713377 28-0891438 28-1069386 28-1247222 28-1424946 28-1602557 28-1780056 28-1957444 28-2134720 28-2311884 28-2488938 28-2665881 28-2842712 28-301 9434 28-3196045 28-3372546 28-3548938|9 28-372521 9(9 28-3901391 [9 28-4077454 9 28-4253408[9 28-4429253,9 28-4604989'9 28-4780617)9 28-4956137)9 28-5131549 9 28-5306852 9 28-5482048 9 28-5657137 9 539353144 541313375 543338496 545338513 28-5832119|9 547343432 549353259 T 1 28-6006993 9 128-61 81 760 9 113781 •117793 121801 125805 •129806 133803 137797 141788 145774 149757 153737 ■157713 •161686 •1 65656 169622 173585 •177544 ■181500 ■185452 ■189401 ■1 93347 •197289 •201228 ■2051 64 ■209096 213025 ■216950 ■220872 ■224791 ■228706 232618 ■237527 240433 2443 35 248234 252130 256022 25991 1 263797 267679 ■271559 275435 279308 283177 287044 290907 294767 298623 302477 306327 310175 314019 ■317859 321697 ■325532 •329363 333191 33701 6 340838 ■344657 ■348473 ■352285 •356095 No. Square. Cube. 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 8 55 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 8 66 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 707281 708964 710649 712336 714025 715717 717409 719104 720801 722500 724201 725904 727609 729316 622835864 Square Root. Cube Roo! 28-6356421 9-35990 28-6530976 9-36370 28-6705424 9-36750 28-6879766 9-37130 28 -7054002 9-37509 28-7228132 9-37888 28-7402157 9-38267 820 672400 551368000 821 [674041 1553387661 822 [675684 [55541 2248 823 67 732 9 ] 557441 767 824 678976! 559476224 825[680625[561515625 826[682276 563559976 827 683929 565609283 28 -757607 7 ,9 -38646 828 685584 567663552 28 7749891 ! 9-3902-l 829[c87241 569 722789 28-7923601 9 -39402 830,688900 571 787000 28-8O97206,9-3977: 831 [690561 573856191 28 -8270706[9 -40151. 832 692224 575930368 28-8444102;9-4053: 833 693889 578009537 28-861 7394j9-4091( 834T95556 580093704 28-8790582,9-41281, 835[697225 582182875 28-89636669-4166: 836 698896, 584277056 28-91 36646,9 -4203: 837j700569 586376253 28-9309523 9-4241 •; 838 702244 588480472 28-9482297,9-4278! 839 703921 59058971 9 28-9654967 9-431 6- 840 705600 592704000 28-9827535 9 -43531 59 4823321 29-0 9-4391: 596947688 29-01 72363 9-442S’ 599077107 29 '0344623[9-446G( 601211584 29 -051 6781 [9-450.'l 603351 1 25 29 -0688837 9 -4540 605495736 29-0S60791 ! 9-4577 607645423 29 1 0326449-461 5 609800192 29-120439 6 9-4652 611960049 29-1376046[9-4689 614125000 29-1547595 9-4726; 616295051 29-1719043[9-476:: 618470208 29 4 890390 9 '4 801 620650477 29-2061637 9 -4838 29-2232784 9-487. r 29-2403830 9-4011 29'2574777 9-494I 29 "2745623 9'498( 29-291 63709 -502: 29-3087018 9-505:, ! 29-3257566 9-509' • 29-3428015[9-513 ' 29-3598365 9-517' 29-3768616 9-520 ) 644972544 [29 -3938769[9’524 ■ 647214625 29-4108823 9-528' / 649461 896 [29 -4278779 9'531 ' 651714363 29-4448637 9'535 ' 653972032 29-4618397 9v'!‘ 656234909 29-4788059 9-542 : 658503000[29'4957624 9'54) 660776311 ;29-5127091 9 ' 5 . r >( 663054848 29-5296461 9-550 1 .665338617 29:5465734 9'5." ! 667627624 2 9-5634910 9-561 1 669921875 29-5803989 956 ■ 672221 376I29-5972972 9'56 7 , 6745261 33|29-61 41 858 9-57, ■ 676836152 29-6310648 9-57 1 731025 732736 734449 736164 737881 739600 741321 743044 744769 746496 748225 749956 751689 753424 755161 756900 758641 760384 762129 763876 765625 .767376 769129 770884 772641 880.774400 625026375 627222016 629422793 631628712 633839779 636056000 638277381 640503928 642735647 679151439 681472000 881)776161 ,683797841 882,777924,686128968 29-6479325 9’57 S 1 29-6647939 9-58 /l ; 29-6816442 9-58 •' 29-6984848 9-59 7 AP. III. MEASURING AN1) ESTIMATING. 789' iquare. Cube. 79689 688465387 81456 690S071 04 83225 693154125 84996 695506456 86769 697864103 88544 700227072 90321 702595369; 92100 704969000 93881 707347971 95664 709732288 97449 712121957! 99236 714516984J 01025 716917375] 02816 719323136 04609 721734273! 06404 724150792 08201 726572699 10000 729000000 11801 731432701 13604 733870808 15409 736314327 17216 738763264 19025 741217625 20836 743677416 >22649 746142643 .24464 748613312 126281 751089429 128100 753571000 129921 756058031 Square Hoot. Cube Root. 29-71531 59,9-59371 6 29-7321375 9-597337 29-7489496 9-600954 29-7657521 9-604569 29-7825452 9'608181 29-7993289 9-611791 29-8161030 9-615397 29-8328678 9-619001 29-8496231 9-622603 29-8663690 9-626201 29-8831056 9’629i 97 29-8998328 9 '633390 29-9165506 9-636981 29-9332591 9-640569 29-9499583 9 6441 54 29-9666481 9'6 47736 29- 9833287 9-651316 30- 0 j 9 "654893 30 0166620 9-658468 30 0333148 9-662040 30-0499584 9 665609 30-0665928 9-669176 30-08321 799-672740 30-0998339 9-676301 30-1164407 9-679860 30-1330383 9-683416 30-1496269 9-686970 30-1662063 9-690521 30-1827765 9-694069 31744 758550528 133569 761048497 135396 763551944 '37225 766060875 '39056 768575296 140889 771095213 142724 773620632 '14561 776151559 146400 778688000! 148241 781229961 j 150084 783777448' 151929 786330467, >51776 788889024 155625 791453125! 157476 7 94022 7 76'! 159329 796597983 >61184 799178752] 163011 801765089 <64900 804357000 '66761 806954491 ! 168624 809557568; 30-1993377 9 69761 5 30-2158899 9-701158 30-2324329 9‘704698 30-2489669 9-708236 30-2654919 9-711772 30-2820079 9-715305 30-2985148 9-71 8835 30-31 501 289 "722363 30-3315018 9-725888 30-347981 8;9-729410 30-3644529 9 -732930 30-3809151 9-736448 30-3973683 9-739963 30-4138127 9-743475 30-4302481 9’746985 30-4466747 9 7504 93 30-4630924 9 753998 30-4795013 9-757500 30-4959014 9-761000 30-5122926 9-764497 30-5286750 9 767992 <70489 812166237 30-5450487 9-771484 814780504 80-5614136 9- 774974 81 7400375 30-5777697 9-778461 <76096 820025856 30-5941 171 9 782946 <77969 822656953 30-6104557 9 -785428 <79844 825293672 30-6267857 9 788908 <81721 8271*3601 9 30-6431069 9 ’792386 <83600 830584000 30-65941 94 9 795861 >85481 833237621 30-6757233 9 ‘799333 No. [ Square. Square Root. 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957, 958 959 960 961 1 962 963 964 965 966 ! 967 968 969 970 971; 972 973 974[ 975] 976 j 977; 978 979] 980 981 982 983 984 985] 986 987 988, 989 99o] 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 1 887364, 889249 891136! 893025, 894916! 896809j 898704! 900601 902500' 904401 906304; 908209| 910116, 912025 913936 915849 917764 919684 921600 923521 925444 927369 929296 931225 933156 935089 937024 938961 940900 942841 944784 946729 948676 950625 952576 954529 956484 958441 960400 962361 964324! 966289] 9682561 9702251 972196 974169, 976144 978121 j 980100 982081 9840641 986049 1 988036 990025 992016 991009 996004 998001 000000 I 835896888 30 838561807 30 841232384 30 843908625 30 846590536 30 849278123 30 851971392 30 854670349 30 857375000 30 860085351 30 862801 408 30 865523177 30 868250664 30 870983875 30 873722816 30 876467493 30 879217912 30 881 974079 30 884736000 30 887503681 31 890277128 31 893056347 31 895841344 31 898632125 31 901428696]31 904231063 31 907039232 31 909853209 -31 912673000 31 915498611 31 91833004831 921167317 31 924010424 31 926859375 31 929714176 31 932574833 31 935441352 31 93831 3739!31 941 1 92001 !si 944076141 31 946966168131 949862087]31 952763904 31 955671625 31 958585256 31 961504803 31 964430272 31 967361669 31 970299000 31 973242271 31 976191488 31 979146657 31 9821 077.84 31 985074875 31 988047936 31 991026973 31 99 Kll I 992 31 997005 * I] OOOOOOOOO 31 6920185 ■7083051 ■7245830 7408523 7571130 ■7733651 ! ■7896086 8058436 8220700 8382879! ■8544972 •8706981 , ■8868904! 9030743' ■9192497] ■9354166 •9515751 •9677251 •9838668 0 •0161248 ■032241 3 •0483494 •0644491 •0805405 •0966236 •1126984 ■1287648 •1448230 •1608729 •1769145 ■1929479 ■2089731 ■2249900 •2409987 •2569992 •2729915 •2889757 •304951 7 •32091 95 •3368792 •3528308 •3687743 •3847097 •4006369 •4165561 •4324673 •4483704 •4642654 •4801525 •4960315 •5119025 •5277655 •5436206 ■5594677 •5753068 •591 1 380 ■6069613 •6227767 Cube Root. I I 9-802803| 9-806271 j 9-809736; 9-81 31 98' 9-816659 9-820117 9-823572 9-827025 9-830475 9-833923 9-837369 1 9-840812 9-844253' 9-847692! 9-851128 9 -85456'! 9-857992 9-861421 9-864848! 9-868272! 9-871694, 9-875113 9"878530 9-881945] 9-8853571 9-888767! 9-892174! 9 -8 95580 ! 9-898983! 9-902383] 9905781 9-909177 9-912571 9-915962] 9-919251; 9-922738! 9-926122; 9-929504! 9-932883! 9-9362611 9-939636 9-943009! 9-940379] 9-949747] 9-953113 9-9564771 9-959839 9-963198 9-966554 9-969909 9-973262 9-976612 9-979959 9-983304 9-986648 9-989990 9-993328 9-996665 100 799 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. IjiiOK II 2297^. A power is that number which is obtained by multiplying a number several time by itself. A square is the number muliplied by itself; a cube, twice by itself. Tli square is called the second power; and the cube the third ; when multiplied again h itself it becomes the fourth power (commonly called the bi-quadrate); and so on : — Power. Gf No. 2. Of No. 3. Number 4th Power. 5th Power. 1. 2 3 i i i II. or square 4 or square 9 2 16 32 III. or cube 8 or cube 27 3 81 243 IV. 16 81 4 256 1.024 V. 32 243 5 625 3,125 VI. 64 729 6 1.296 7.776 VII. 128 2,187 7 2.401 16,807 VIII. 256 6,561 8 4,096 32,768 IX. 512 19,683 9 6.561 59,049 X. 1 1,024 59,049 10 10,000 100,000 2297 i. We shall now at once proceed to the general principles on which the measun ment and estimation of work in the several artificers’ departments are conducted; pri mising that the Manchester Society of Architects have issued a revise I edition (July 1881 of their recommendations as to the method of taking out quantities and measuring u work, which may possibly be of use and interest to many students. it is reprinted i the British Architect for September 3, 1886, p. 233. 2298. Excavatoh. Digging is performed by the solid yard of 27 cubic feet (that i 3 feet x 3 feet x 3 feet = 27 feet). Where the ground is soft in consistence, and nothin more, is necessary beyond cutting with a spade, a man may throw up a cubic yard per lieu or ten cubic yards in a day ; but if of firmer quality, hacking becomes necessary, and a additional man will be required to perform the same work ; if very strong gravel, moi assistance will be required. If, therefore, the wages of a labourer were 2s. 6 d. per d.t- the price of a yard would be 3d. for cutting only, without profit to the contractor ; 6 d. ft cutting and hacking, and 9 d. if two hackers be necessary. In sandy ground, wbei wheeling becomes necessary, three men will remove 30 cubic yards in a day to the di tance of 20 yards, two for filling and one for wheeling. But to remove the same quantil in a day to a greater distance, an additional man for every 20 yards will be required. 2299. The quantity of excavation is the length multiplied into the depth and widtl In the cases of trenches dug for the reception of walls, and sloped to prevent the earl falling in, a mean width is to be taken. Thus, suppose an excavation 24 feet long, 4 fe , wide at top, and 2 feet at the bottom (average width therefore 3 feet), and 5 feet deep, v have for the quantity of earth - 4 = 13 33 cube yards. 2300. Brickwork. In measuring and estimating the value of brickwork, the follovvn points must be remembered. A rod of brickwork is a mass 16£ feet square ; hence tl quantity of superficial feet which it contains is 272 \ feet (16'5xl6'5); but the \ of the fo, is too trifling to make it worth while to embarrass calculations with it, and consequent 272 feet is universally taken as the superficial standard content of a rod. Its standai thickness is one brick and a half (or 13J inches). Hence it follows, that a cubic rod brickwork would be 272 feet x 13 J inches = 306 feet cube. The allowance for the numb of bricks is taken as between 4000 and 4500 ; much depending on the closeness of t joints and the nature of the work. In walling, a reduced foot is generally taken as n quiring 17 bricks ; a foot superficial in Flemish bond, laid in malm facing, about 8 brick and a foot superficial of gauged arches, 10 bricks. In paving, a yard requires 82 pant bricks, or 48 stock bricks, or 144 Dutch clinkers laid on edge, or 36 bricks laid flat. 2301. Tiling is measured by the square of 100 superficial feet; a square will requi 800 at a 6-mch guage, 700 at a 7-inch gauge, and 600 at an 8-inch gauge. The gau, necessarily regulates the distance of the laths, and, at the same time must be depende on the slope of the roof, which, if flat, should not be less than 6 inches, as for instanc above the kerb in a kerb roof ; and not more than 8 inches in any case. A square plain tiling requires about on an average a bundle of laths, two bushels of lime, and fi of sand, and at least a peck of oak pins. The laths are sold in bundles of 3, 4, and 5-fi lengths. A bundle of the 3-feet contains eight score, the 4-feet six score, and the 5-fi five score to the bundle. The nails used are fourpenny ; they are purchased by the loi hundred, that is, of six score, and, in day work, are charged by the bricklayer 5-score the hundred. The name of nails, as fourpenny, fivepenny, &c., means 4 d., bd , &c. per 1< The number of nails required for a bundle of 5-feet laths is 500, for 6-feet laths is 60( 2302. A square cf pantiling requires 180 tiles laid at a 10-inch gauge and a bundle 12 laths 10 feet long. (See Table 2321.) 2303. In lime measure, a “hundred ” is 100 pecks, or 25 striked bushels (a measure ap. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 2304. In sand measure, 18 heaped bushels, or 21 striked bushels, ual to 1 yard cube, is a single load, and about 24 cubic feet 1 ton. 2805. In mortar 27 cubic feet make 1 load, which on common .asions contains half a hundred of lime with a proportional quantity sand. Eleven hundred and thirty-four cubic inches make a hod niorrar ; that is, a mass 9 inches wide, 9 inches high, and 14 ■lies long. Two hods of mortar are nearly equal to half a bushel, te following measures and weights it may be also useful to re- unber : — 23 5 cubic feet of sand = 1 ton ; hence 1 cubic foot weighs 95 '3 lbs. 17j cubic feet of clay = 1 ton; hence 1 cubic foot weighs about 0 lbs. 18 cubic feet of common earth = 1 ton; hence I cubic foot weighs arly 1 24 lbs. 306 cubic feet of brickwork = 13 tons; hence 1 cubic foot is equal full 95 lbs. 2306. In the measurement of btickwork, from the surface being 272 ;t and the standard thickness 1^ brick, it will he immediately seen at nothing more is requisite than, having ascertained the thickness of ch part of the work, to reduce it to the standard thickness above ited, and this will be found sufficiently easy in almost all cases, here, however, this cannot be done, we can always ascertain with tficient accuracy the cubic contents in feet of any mass of brickwork ; (1 dividing by 306 we have the number of rods. 2307. We here present an illustration in a wall of the most mmon occurrence {fig- 808A ), which we will suppose 20 feet long ithout reference to any wall which mignt return from it, and thus di- inish its length in measuring therewith a returning wall. The follow- g is the method of entering and calculating the dimensions. Length multiplied by the Height. Area. Number of Bricks in Thickness. Factors to reduce the Arpa to Standard of 11 Brick. Thickness reduced to 1£ Brick in Feet sup. r 20 0 6 — 100 4 4 26-8 20 0 ’notings 6 courses ! 200 0 > round-floor wall r 20 0 12 0 — 240 0 2 >1 320 0 )ne-pair wall ( 20-0 l 14 0 — 280 0 14 l 280 0 wo-pair wall r 20 0 i 7 0 — 140 0 1 l 93-4 . 963 -4 Therefore the total is 963'4 superficial feet 1J brick thick, and = S rods, 147 feet. 2308. Upon this principle the measuring and estimation of brickwork is conducted, and sing the price and quantity of bricks in a rod, and the lime, sand, and labour, which 'I presently be given, we may come to a pretty accurate knowledge of its value. But ere are other articles which will require our attention, to which we shall presently '■ rt. Before proceeding, however, we may as well observe that the above result oi rods 147 feet might have been similarly obtained by cubing the mass of brickwork and • iding the whole mass by 306, but with much more labour. 791 24 Prick* O n ^KL 3 i u . mwM/\ -i c THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook 1 1 iii 7 92 2309. In measuring walls faced with bricks of a superior quality, the area of such facing must be measured, or allowance extra is made in the price per rod of the brickwork. 2310. All apertures and recesses from any of the faces are deducted. 2311. Gauged arches are sometimes deducted and charged separately, sometimes not; but whether deducted or not does not signify, as the extra price must be allowed in the latter case and the whole price in the former. Rubbed and gauged arches, of whatever form, are measured and charged by the superficial foot. 2312. The angles of groins, outside and inside splays, bird’s mouths, bull’s noses, are measured by the lineal or running foot; but cuttings are measured by the foot superficial. Chimneys are measured solid to allow for the trouble of forming and pargetting the flues. The opening at bottom, however, is to be deducted. 2313. Quarters in bricknogging are measured in, as are all sills, stone strings, and timber inserted in walls. Two inches are also allowed in the height of brickwork for bedding plates if no brickwork be over them. 2314. Ovens, coppers, &c. are measured as solid work, deducting only the ash holes; but all fire stone, Welsh lumps, tiles, &c., though measured alone, are not to be deducted out of the brickwork. Pointing, colouring, &c. to fronts, is measured by the foot super- ficial. Plantile creesing by the foot lineal. To estimate the value of a rod of brickwork, the method is as under : — £ s. d. 4500 stocks, at per thousand - - - - -000 1 ^ hundred of lime = 37^ striked bushels containing 27 feet cube to the hundred - - - - - - - -000 2 loads of sand - - - - - - - -000 Labour and scaffolding - - - - - - -000 0 0 0 Per cent, profit - - - - - - 0 0 0 Per rod - - - - - - 0 0 0 2315. In measuring and estimating all sorts of artificers’ works, the method usually adopted for saving labour in making out tbe account is to arrange in separate columns each sort of work, and then to add them up and carry the total to the bill. In brickwork, where walls are of different thicknesses, these with their deductions are arranged in sepa- rate columns, and then ali are reduced to the standard thickness. 2316. The common measure for tiling is a square of 10 feet, containing therefore 100 feet superficial. Claims are made for the eaves to the extent of 6 inches; but in pantiling this ought not to be allowed, as a claim not founded in justice, though custom is pleaded for it. 2317. The following table shows the number of bricks necessary for constructing any number of superficial feet of walling from 1 to 90,000, and from half a brick to 21 bricks thick ; and thence, by addition only, to any thickness or number required, at the rate oi 4500 bricks to a reduced rod. Thus, if it be required to find the number of bricks wanted to build a piece of work containing 7 56 feet super, of walling It brick thick, we find by inspection for 700 feet 1 1580 bricks ; for 50 feet, 827 bricks ; and for 6 feet, 99 bricks ; in all, 1 1580 + 827 + 99 = 12506. Table showing the kequisite Quantitv ok Biucks for a given Superficies or Walling. Area of Wall in Feet. No. of Bricks to Thicknesses of $ lirick. 1 Brick. U Brick. 2 Bricks. 21 Bricks. i 5 1 1 16 22 .27 2 1! 22 33 44 55 3 16 33 4 9 66 82 4 oo 44 66 88 110 5 27 55 82 110 137 6 33 66 99 132 165 7 38 77 1 15 154 193 8 44 88 132 176 220 9 49 99 148 198 248 10 55 1 10 1 65 220 275 20 1 10 220 330 441 551 30 165 330 496 061 827 AP. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 793 No. of Bricks to Thicknesses of of Wall in Feet. 4 Brick. 1 Brick. 1^ Brick. 2 Bricks. Bricks. 40 220 441 661 882 1102 50 275 551 827 1102 1378 60 330 661 992 1 323 1654 70 386 772 1158 1544 1930 80 441 882 1323 1764 2205 90 496 992 1488 1985 2481 100 551 1102 1654 2205 2757 200 1 102 2205 3808 441 1 5514 300 1654 3308 4963 6617 8272 400 2205 4411 6617 8323 11029 500 2757 5514 8272 11029 13786 600 3308 6617 9926 1 3235 16544 700 3860 7720 11580 15441 19301 800 4411 8823 13235 17647 22058 900 4963 9926 14889 19852 24816 1000 5514 11029 1 6544 22058 25753 2000 11029 22058 33088 44117 55147 3000 1 6544 33088 49632 66176 82720 4000 22058 44117 66176 88235 110294 5000 27573 55147 82720 1 i0294 137867 6000 .33088 66176 99264 132352 165441 7000 38602 77205 115803 154411 193014 8000 44J 17 88235 1 32352 176470 220588 9000 49632 99264 148896 198529 248161 10000 55147 110294 165441 220588 275735 20000 1 10294 220588 330882 441176 551470 30000 165441 330882 496323 661764 827205 40000 220588 441176 661764 882352 1102940 50000 275735 551470 827205 1102940 1378675 60000 330882 661764 992646 1323528 1654410 70000 386029 772053 1168087 1544116 1930145 80000 441175 882352 1323528 1 704704 2205080 90000 1 496323 992646 1468969 1985292 2481615 3318. The next table which we submit for use exhibits the number of reduced feet to iperficial feet from I to 10,000, the thicknesses being from ^ to 2^ bricks. Area of Wall in iiipcr- flcial Feet. Reduced Quantity in i Brick. 1 Brick. 1$ Brick. 2 Bricks. 2$ Bricks. Rods. qrs. ft. in. Rods . qrs . ft. in. Rods qrs. ft. in. Rods. qr 5. ft. in. Rods. qrs. ft in. i 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 8 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 8 2 0 0 0 8 0 0 1 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 3 4 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 0 1 4 0 0 2 8 0 0 4 0 0 0 5 4 0 0 6 8 5 0 0 1 8 0 0 3 4 0 0 5 0 0 0 6 8 0 0 8 4 6 0 0 o 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 10 0 7 0 0 2 4 0 0 4 8 0 0 7 0 0 0 9 4 0 0 1 1 8 8 0 0 2 8 0 0 5 4 0 0 8 0 0 0 10 8 0 0 13 4 9 0 0 3 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 15 0 10 0 0 3 4 0 0 6 8 0 0 10 0 0 0 13 4 0 0 16 8 1 1 0 0 3 8 0 0 7 4 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 14 8 0 0 18 4 12 0 0 4 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 20 0 13 0 0 4 4 0 0 8 8 0 0 1.3 0 0 0 17 4 0 () 21 8 14 0 0 4 8 0 0 9 4 0 0 14 0 0 0 18 8 0 0 23 4 15 0 0 5 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 15 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 25 0 1 16 0 () .5 4 0 0 10 8 0 0 16 () 0 0 21 4 0 0 2(t 8 17 0 0 n 8 0 0 1 1 4 0 0 17 0 0 0 22 8 0 0 28 4 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. I>t)Ok 1 1 70-1 ’ A rea of Wall in super- ficial Feet. Reduced Quantity in $ Brick. 1 Brick. 1$ Brick. 1 2 Bricks. 2$ Bricks. Rods. qrs. ft. in. Hods qrs. ft. in. Rod s. qrs. ft. in. i Rods. qrs. ft. in. Rods. qrs. ft in. 18 0 0 6 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 18 0 ) 0 0 24 0 0 0 30 8 19 0 0 6 4 0 0 12 8 0 0 19 0 0 0 25 4 0 0 31 8 20 0 0 6 8 0 0 13 4 0 0 20 0 0 0 26 8 0 0 33 4 21 0 0 7 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 21 0 0 0 28 0 0 0 35 0 22 0 0 7 4 0 0 14 8 0 0 22 0 0 0 29 4 0 0 36 8 jLi.) 0 0 7 8 0 0 15 4 0 0 23 0 0 0 30 8 0 0 38 4 24 0 0 8 0 0 0 16 0 0 0 24 0 0 0 32 0 0 0 40 0 25 0 0 8 4 0 0 16 8 0 0 25 0 0 0 33 4 0 0 41 8 26 0 0 8 8 0 0 17 4 0 0 26 0 0 0 34 8 0 0 43 0 27 0 0 9 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 27 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 45 4 28 0 0 9 4 0 0 18 8 0 0 28 0 0 0 37 4 0 0 46 8 29 0 0 9 8 0 0 19 4 0 0 29 0 0 0 38 8 0 0 48 4 30 0 0 10 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 50 0 31 0 0 10 4 0 0 20 8 0 0 31 0 0 0 41 4 0 0 51 8 32 0 0 10 8 0 0 21 4 0 0 32 0 0 0 42 8 0 0 53 4 j 33 0 0 1 I 0 0 0 22 0 0 0 33 0 0 0 44 0 0 0 55 0 34 0 0 1 I 4 0 0 22 8 0 0 34 0 0 0 45 4 0 0 56 8 1 35 0 0 1 1 8 0 0 23 4 C 0 35 0 0 0 46 8 0 0 58 4 1 36 0 0 12 0 0 0 24 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 48 0 0 0 60 01 37 0 0 12 4 0 0 24 8 0 0 37 0 0 0 49 4 0 0 61 8 38 0 0 12 8 0 0 25 4 0 0 38 0 0 0 50 8 0 0 63 4 39 0 0 13 0 0 0 26 0 0 0 39 0 0 0 52 0 0 0 65 0 40 0 0 13 4 0 0 26 8 0 0 40 0 0 0 53 4 0 0 66 8 41 0 0 13 8 0 0 27 4 0 0 41 0 0 0 54 8 0 1 0 4 42 0 0 14 0 0 0 28 0 0 0 42 0 0 0 56 0 0 1 2 0 43 0 0 14 4 0 0 28 8 0 0 43 0 0 0 57 4 0 1 3 8 44 0 0 14 8 0 0 29 4 0 0 44 0 0 0 58 8 0 1 5 4 45 0 0 15 0 0 0 30 0 0 0 45 0 0 0 60 0 0 1 7 0 46 0 0 15 4 0 0 30 8 0 0 46 0 0 0 61 4 0 1 8 8 47 0 c 15 8 0 0 31 4 0 0 47 0 0 0 62 8 0 1 10 4 48 0 0 16 0 0 0 32 0 0 0 48 0 0 0 64 0 0 1 12 0 49 0 0 16 4 0 0 32 8 0 0 49 0 0 0 65 4 0 1 13 8 50 0 0 16 8 0 0 33 4 0 0 50 0 0 0 66 8 0 1 15 4 60 0 0 20 0 0 0 40 0 0 0 60 0 0 1 12 0 0 1 32 0 70 0 0 23 4 0 0 46 8 0 1 2 0 0 1 25 4 0 1 48 8 80 0 0 26 8 0 0 53 4 0 1 12 0 0 1 38 8 0 1 65 4 90 0 0 30 0 0 0 60 0 0 1 22 0 0 1 52 0 0 2 14 0 100 0 0 33 4 0 0 66 8 0 1 32 0 0 1 65 4 0 2 30 8 1 200 0 0 66 8 0 1 65 4 0 2 64 0 0 3 62 8 1 0 61 4 | 300 0 1 32 0 0 2 64 0 I 0 28 0 1 1 60 0 1 3 24 0 400 0 1 65 4 0 3 62 8 1 1 60 0 1 3 57 4 2 1 54 8 500 0 2 30 8 1 0 61 4 1 3 24 0 2 1 54 8 3 0 17 4 1 600 0 2 64 0 1 1 60 0 2 0 56 0 2 3 52 0 3 2 48 o| 700 0 3 29 4 1 2 58 8 2 2 20 0 3 1 49 4 4 1 10 8 | 800 0 3 62 8 1 3 57 4 2 3 52 0 3 3 46 8 4 3 41 4 900 1 0 28 0 2 0 56 0 3 1 16 0 4 1 44 0 5 2 4 o ! 1000 1 0 61 4 2 1 54 8 3 2 48 0 4 3 41 4 6 0 34 8 1 2000 2 1 54 8 4 3 41 4 7 1 28 0 9 3 14 8 12 1 I 4 3000 3 2 48 0 7 1 28 0 1 1 0 8 0 14 2 46 0 18 I 36 0 4000 4 3 41 4 9 3 14 8 14 2 56 0 19 2 29 4 24 2 2 8 5000 6 0 34 8 12 1 1 4 18 1 36 0 24 2 2 8 30 2 37 4 6000 7 I 28 0 14 2 56 0 22 0 16 0 29 1 44 0 36 3 4 0 7000 8 2 21 4 17 0 42 8 25 2 64 0 34 1 17 4 42 3 38 8 8000 9 3 14 8 19 2 29 4 29 1 44 0 39 0 58 8 49 0 5 4 j 9000 1 1 0 8 0 22 0 16 0 33 0 24 0 44 0 32 0 55 0 40 0 a oooo 12 1 1 4 24 2 2 8 36 3 4 0 49 0 5 4 61 1 6 8 2319. The following table exhibits the value of a rod of brickwork (allowing 450< bricks to a rod) at the prices from 30 s. to 60s. per thousand for the bricks, and for labour mortar, and scaffolding the several sums of 3l. 5s., 31. 10 s., 31. 15s., 41., 41. 5s., and 41. 10s per rod. p. 1 1 L MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 795 icks per inusand. Labour, Mor- tar, &c. per Rod, 3/. 5 s. Labour, tar, &c. Rod, 3/. Mor- per 10s. Labour, tar, &c. Rod, 3/. Ylor- per 15s. Labour, tar, &c. Rod, Mor- per U. Labour, Mor- tar, &c. per Rod, 4/. 5s. Labour, Mor- tar, &c. per Rod, 41. 10s. s. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. 30 10 0 0 10 5 0 10 10 0 10 1 5 0 1 1 0 0 11 5 0 32 10 9 0 10 14 0 10 19 0 11 4 0 1 1 9 0 11 14 0 34 10 18 0 1 1 3 0 1 1 8 0 1 1 13 0 11 18 0 12 3 0 36 11 7 0 11 12 0 11 17 0 12 2 0 12 7 0 12 12 0 38 11 16 0 12 1 0 12 6 0 12 1 1 0 12 16 0 13 1 0 i 40 12 5 0 12 10 0 12 1 5 0 13 0 0 13 5 0 13 10 0 42 12 14 0 12 19 0 13 4 0 13 9 0 13 14 0 13 19 0 44 13 3 0 13 8 0 13 13 0 13 18 0 14 3 0 14 8 o 46 13 12 0 13 17 0 14 2 0 14 7 0 14 12 0 14 17 0 48 14 1 0 14 6 0 14 ii 0 14 16 0 15 1 0 1 5 6 0 50 14 10 0 14 15 0 15 0 0 15 5 0 15 10 0 1 5 15 0 52 14 19 0 15 4 0 15 9 0 15 14 0 15 19 0 16 4 0 54 15 8 0 15 13 0 15 18 0 16 3 0 16 8 0 16 13 0 56 15 17 0 16 o 0 16 7 0 16 12 0 16 17 0 17 2 0 58 16 6 0 16 1 1 0 16 16 0 17 1 0 17 6 0 17 1 1 0 60 16 15 0 17 0 0 17 5 0 17 10 0 17 15 0 18 0 0 120. Tlie following is a talile of the decimal parts of a rod of reduced brickwork. t. Dec. Parts, j Feet. Dec. Parts. Feet. Dec. Parts. Feet. Dec. Parts. Feet. Dec. Parts •00367 41 •15073 81 •29779 121 •44485 161 •59191 •00735 42 T5441 82 •30147 122 •44852 162 •59559 •01102 43 •15809 83 •30515 123 •45220 163 •59926 •01470 44 •16176 84 •30882 124 •45588 1 164 ■60294 •01838 45 T6544 85 •3125 125 •45956 i 165 ■60662 •02206 46 T6912 86 •31617 126 •46323 166 •61029 •02573 47 T7279 87 •31985 127 •46691 1 167 •61397 •02941 48 T7647 88 •32353 128 •47059 i 168 •6)765 •03309 49 •18015 89 •32720 129 •47426 169 •62132 •03676 50 •18382 90 ■33088 130 •47794 J 170 •625 •04044 51 T875 , 91 ■33456 131 •48 1 62 171 •62867 •04412 52 T9117 92 •33823 132 •48529 172 •63235 •04779 53 •19485 93 •34191 133 •48897 173 •63604 •05147 54 T9852 94 •34559 134 •49265 174 •63971 •05515 55 •20221 95 •34926 135 •49632 175 •64338 ■05882 56 •20588 96 •35294 136 •5 176 •64706 0625 57 •20956 97 •35662 137 •50637 177 •65073 •06617 58 •21323 98 •36029 138 •50735 178 •65441 •06985 59 •21691 | 99 •36397 139 •51 102 179 •65809 ) 07353 60 •22059 100 •367 65 140 •51470 180 •66176 07721 61 •22426 101 •37132 141 ■51838 181 '6654 4 08088 62 •22794 102 •375 142 •52206 182 •66912 J 08456 63 •23162 i 103 •37867 143 ■52573 183 •67279 08823 64 •23529 104 ■38235 144 •52941 184 •6764 7 I 09191 6.5 •23897 105 •38604 145 •53309 185 •68015 09559 66 •24265 106 •38970 146 •53676 186 •68382 J 09926 67 •24632 107 •39338 147 •54044 187 •6875 •10294 68 •25 108 •39706 148 •54412 188 •69117 ) •10662 69 •25 367 109 •40073 149 •54779 189 •69485 ) •11029 70 ■25735 110 •40441 150 •55147 190 •69853 •11397 71 •26103 1 111 •40809 151 •555 15 191 •70221 l •11765 72 •26470 112 •41176 152 •55882 192 •70588 1 •12132 73 •26838 113 •41544 153 •5625 19 1 •70956 1 •125 74 •27206 114 ■41912 154 •56617 194 •71323 5 •12867 75 •27573 115 •42279 155 ■56985 195 •71691 5 •13235 76 •279 1 1 116 •42617 156 •57353 196 •72059 7 •1360-1 77 •28309 117 •43015 157 •57721 197 •72426 R •13970 78 •28676 118 •43382 158 •58088 198 •72794 | -1 4338 79 •29044 119 •4375 159 •58156 199 •73162 D •1 1706 80 •291 12 120 •44117 160 •58823 200 •73529 796 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. UooK II. Feet. Dec. Parts. Feet. Dec. Parts. 1 Feet. Dec. Parts. Feet. Dec. Parts. Feet. Dec. Parts 201 •73897 216 •79412 231 ■84926 245 •90073 259 •95221 202 •74265 217 •79779 232 •85294 246 •90441 260 ■95588 203 •74632 218 •80147 233 •85662 247 •90809 261 •959gg 204 •75 219 •80515 1 234 •86029 248 •91176 262 ■96323 205 •75367 220 80882 235 •86397 249 •91544 263 ■96691 206 •75735 221 •8125 236 •86765 250 •91912 264 •97059 207 •76103 222 •81617 237 •87132 251 •92279 265 ■97426 208 •76470 223 •81985 238 ■875 252 •92647 266 ■97794 209 •76838 224 •82353 239 •87867 253 •9301 5 267 •98162 210 •77206 225 •82721 240 •88235 254 •93382 268 •98529 21 ! •77573 226 •83088 241 •88604 255 •9375 269 •98897 212 •77941 227 •83456 242 •88970 256 •94117 270 •99265 213 •78309 228 •83823 243 •89338 257 •94485 271 •99632 214 •78676 229 •84191 244 ■89706 258 •94853 272 1-00000 215 •79044 230 •84559 ‘.2321. The subjoined table shows the number of plaintilcs or pantiles required to covci any area from 1 to 10,000 feet. Plaintiles. Pantiles. ' Feet super- ficial. Gauges. Gauges. 6 inches. 6* inches. 7 inches. 11 inches. 12 inches. 13 inches. . j i n 7 >1- *3 2 15 14 13 3J 3 21 j 3 221 21 1 9j 5 *1 4 4 30 28 26 61 6 55 5 371 35 32| 8J n cl : 6 45 42 39 10 9 8 S 7 r.9 i 49 45l 115 105 as ; 8 60 56 52 131 12 101 9 67| 63 58j 15 1.35 12 10 75 70 65 16f 15 1 si |; 20 150 140 130 33- 30 261 30 225 210 1 95 50 45 40 40 300 280 260 665 60 53 J j 50 375 350 325 83J 75 663 60 450 420 390 100 90 80 1 70 525 490 455 1165 105 935 § 80 600 560 520 1335 120 loci |! 90 675 630 585 150 135 ' 120 100 750 700 650 1661 150 1.335 200 1500 1400 1300 333J 300 2661 300 2250 2100 1950 500. 450 400 400 3000 2800 2600 666 § 600 5335 500 3750 3500 3250 8331 750 666 1 600 4500 4200 3900 1000 900 800 700 5250 4900 4550 11661 1050 93.3.5 800 6000 5600 5200 13331 1200 10661 900 6750 6300 5850 1500 1350 1200 1000 7500 7000 6500 16661 1500 13335 2000 15000 14000 1 3000 3333j 3000 26661 3000 22500 21000 19500 5000 4500 4000 4000 30000 28000 26000 66661 6000 53335 5000 37500 35000 32500 83335 7500 66661 6000 45000 42000 39000 10000 9000 8000 7000 52500 49000 45500 116661 1 0500 93335 8000 60000 56000 52000 133335 1 2000 10666J 9000 67500 63000 58500 15000 13500 12000 133335 10000 75000 . 70000 65000 166661 15000 VP. 111. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 797 'he use of the foregoing tables it can scarcely be necessary to explain. They are such 0 indicate, on inspection, their value; and we shall therefore leave them without fur- r comment for their application. 322. When work is performed by the day, or the materials used are to be numbered, jfttimes necessarily occurs, fire bricks, red rubbers, best marie stocks for cutters, md best ditto, pickings, common bricks, place bricks, paving bricks, kiln-burnt bricks, Dutch clinkers are charged by the thousand. 323. Red rubbers, kiln and fire-burnt bricks, are also charged by the hundred. Foot 5 and ten inch tiles are charged either by the thousand or hundred. 324. Sunk foot tiles and ten -inch tiles with five holes, now never used in the south of jland, are charged by the piece. 325. Pantiles, plaintiles, and nine-inch tiles are charged by the thousand. 326. Oven and Welsh oven tiles, Welsh fire lumps, fire bricks, and chimney pots are 1 sold hy the piece. 327. Sand, clay, and loam are charged by the load ; lime sometimes by the hundred ght; but the hundred of 100 pecks is the more usual measure in and about the metro- is. Dutch terras is charged by the bushel, which is also sometimes the measure of lime, rtland and other cements are similarly charged. Plaster bj the bag. !328. Pantile and plaintile laths are charged by the bundle or load; hair and mortar the load; hip hooks and T tiles by the piece. 1329 Neither here, nor in the following pages, is it intended to convey to the reader re than the principles on which an estimate is founded. The prices of materials arc in :ate of constant fluctuation; something approaching a constant value, from the known formance of a good workman, was given in the previous editions from the computations Peter Nicholson, but tl ey are now omitted. W ood w orking machinery has also altered values very materially. CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 2330. The works of the Carpenter are the preparation of piles, sleepers, and planking, 1 other large timbers, formerly much, but now rarely, used in foundations; the centering which vaults are turned ; wall plates, lintels, and bond timbers ; naked flooring, quarter titions, roofing, battening to walls, ribbed ceilings for the formation of vaulting, coves, 1 the like in lath and plaster, posts, &c. 2331. In large measures, where the quantity of materials and workmanship is uniform, ■ articles are usually measured by the squaie of 100 feet. Piles should be measured the foot cube, and the driving by the foot run according to the quality of the ground 0 which they arc driven. Sleepers and planking are measured and estimated by the t, yard, or the square. 2332. Plain centering is measured by the square ; but the ribs and boarding, being fvrent qualities of work, should be taken separately. The dimensions are obtained by ting round the arch, and multiplying by the length. Where groins occur, besides the asurement as above, the angles must be measured by the foot run, that is, the ribs and trds are to be measured and valued separately, according to the exact superficial contents each, and the angles by the linear foot, for the labour in fitting the ribs and boards, and ste of wood. -333. Wall plates, bond timbers, and lintels are measured by the cubic foot, and go der the denomination of fir in bond. 233 1. In the measurement and valuation of naked flooring, we may take it either by :squ are or the cube foot. To form an idea of its value, it is to be observed, that in 1 d cubic quantities of small and large timbers the latter will have more superficies than former, whence the saving is not in proportion to the solid contents; and the value, refure, of the workmanship will not be as the cubic quantity. The trouble of moving ibers increases with their weight, hence a greater expenditure of time ; which, though t in an exact ratio with the solid quantity, will not he vastly different, their sections not r ymg considerably in their dimensions. As the value of the saving upon a cube foot is nparatively small to that of the work performed by the carpenter, the whole cost of >our and materials may be ascertained with sufficient accuracy when the work is ifurm. 2! !'. When girders occur in naked flooring, the uniformity of the work is thereby errupted by the mortices and tenons which become necessary ; thus the amount arising an the cubic quantity of the girders would not be sufficient at the same rate per foot as put on the other parts, not only because of the difference of the size, but because of the •'tiers which are cut lor the reception of the tenons of the binding joists. Hence, for 2 tl e labour and materials, the whole should be measured and valued by the cubic unit) , ami on additional rate must be put upon every solid foot of the girders ; or, if ■ binding joists be not inserted in the girders at the usual distances, a fixed price must put upon every mortice and tenon in proportion to their size, The binding joists are 798 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. not unfrequently pulley or chase-mortised for the reception of the ceiling joists ; some- times they are notched to receive the bridging joists on them, and they should therefore be classed by themselves at a larger price per foot cube, or at an additional price for the workmanship, beyond common joisting. All theso matters must be in proportion to the description of the work, whether the ceiling joists be put in with pulley mortises and tenons, or the bridgings notched or adzed down. 2336. Partitions may be measured and estimated by the cube foot ; but the sills. top pieces, and door heads should be measured by themselves, according to their cubic contents, at a larger price ; because not only the uniform solidity, but the uniform quantity, of the workmanship is interrupted by them. The braces in trussed partitions are to be taken by the foot cube at a larger price than the common quartering, on account of the trouble of fitting the ends of the uprights upon their upper and lower sides, and of forming the abutments at the ends. 2337. All the timbers of roofing are to be measured by the cubic foot, and classed according to the difficulty of execution, or the waste that occurs in performing the work. Common rafters, as respects labour, are rated much the same as joists or quarters ; purlins, which require trouble in fitting, are worth more, because on them are notched down the common rafters. The different parts of a truss should, to come accurately atlhr true value, be separately taken, and the joggles also separately considered, including tic- tenons at the ends of the stmts ; mortising tie beams and principals, forming t.he tenons of the truss posts ; mortis-ng and tenoning the ends of the tie beams and principals; also the work to the feet of common or bridging rafters. The iron strapping is paid for according to the number of the bolts. 2338. The battening of walls are measured by the square, according to the dimensions and distances of the battening. 2339. Ribbed ceilings are taken by the cubic quantity of timber they contain, making due allowance for the waste of stuff, which is often considerable. The price of their labour is to be ordered by the nature of the work, and the cubic quantity they contain. 2340. Trimmers and trimming joists are so priced as to include the mortises and tenons they contain, and also the tenons at the extremities of the trimmers. But to specify all the methods required of ascertaining the value of each species of carpenter's work would be impossible, with any respect to our limits. They must be learned by observation ; all we have to do is with the prin -iples on which measuring and estimating is conducted. 2341. When the carcass of the building is completed, before laying the floors or lathing the work for receiving the plastering, the timbers should be measured, so that the scani- lings may be examined and proved correct, according to the specification ; and in this, as a general rule, it is to be remembered that all pieces having tenons are measured to their extremities, and that such timbers as girders and binding joists lie at least 9 inches at their ends into the walls, or | of the wall’s thickness, where it exceeds 27 inches. In the measurement of bond timber and wall plates, the laps must be added to the net lengths. If a necessity occur for cutting parallel pieces out of truss posts (such as king or queen- posts), when such pieces exceed 2 feet 6 inches in length, and 2 ^ inches in thickness, they are considered as pieces fit for use, deductiug 6 inches as waste from their lengths. 2342. The boarding of a roof is measured by the square, and estimated according to its thickness, and the quality of boards and the manner in which they are jointed. 2343. Where the measurement is for labour and materials, the best way is, first, to find the cubical contents of a piece of carpentry, and value it by the cubic foot, including the prime cost, carting, sawing, waste, and carpenter’s profit, and then to add the price ol the labour, properly measured, as if the journeyman were to be paid. It is out of the ques- tion to give a notion of any fixed value, because it most necessarily vary, as do material 1 - and labour. The only true method of forming a proper estimate is dependent on the price of timber and deals, for which general tables may be formed. 2344. A load of fir timber contains 50 cube feet : if, then, the price of a load is know: in the timber merchant’s yard, the approximate value of a cube foot is found as under say, if taken at 41. 10s. per load, then — £ .!. d. Prime cost of a load o' fir - - - - - - -4 10 0 Suppose the cartage (dependent on distance) - - - - 0 6 0 Sawing into necessary scantlings - - - - - - 0 10 0 5 5 0 Waste in converting equal to 5 feet, at 2 T ' 5 .s. per foot, the load being 105r. 0 10 6 5 15 i 20 per cent, profit on 51. 15s. G d. - 1 3 0 £G 18 6 2345. Now, a! ' = 2 '77 shillings, or 2 shillings and 9 pence and nearly 1 farthin: per foot cube. p. III. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 799 46 - 50 . It is only in this way that llio value of work can be arrived at ; it is much ? regretted that from no species of labour of the carpenter have been formed tables ble of furnishing such a set of constants as would, by application to the rate of a leyman’s wages, form factors, or, in other words, furnish data tor a perpetual price- As we have before hinted, the best of the price-books that have ever been ished are useless as guides to the value of work. The method of lumping work by square is as much as possible to be avoided, unless the surfaces be ot a perfectly jrm description of workmanship ; as, for instance, in hipped roofs, the principal ble is at the hips, in fitting the jack rafters, which are fixed at equal distances thereon ; e such a price may he fixed for the cubic quantity of hips and valleys as will pay not for them, but also for the trouble of cutting and fixing the jack rafters. Such parts, ed, as these should be separately classified; but the analysis of such a subject ires investigation of enormous labour ; and as it must depend on the information red from the practical carpenter, is, we fear, not likely to be soon, if ever, accomplished. 151 . The works of the Joiner consist in the preparation of boardiug, which is measured estimated by the foot superficial. Ot this there are many varieties ; as, edges shot; s shot, ploughed, and tongued ; wrought on one side and edges shot ; the same on sides and edges shot ; wrought on both sides and ploughed and tongued. Boards d and clamped ; mortise damped, and mortise and mitre clamped. The value per increases according to the thickness of the stuff. When longitudinal joints are d, an addition per foot is made; and if feather-tongued, still more. 152. The measurement and estimation of floors is by the square, the price varying as surface is wrought or plain; the method of connecting the longitudinal and heading :s, and also on the thickness of the stuff ; as well as on the circumstance of the boards g laid one after another or folded ; or whether laid with boards, battens, wainscot, or r wood. Skirtings are measured by the foot super, according to their position, as 'her level, raking, or ramping. Also on the manner of finishing them, as whether i. torus, rebated, scribed to floors or steps, or whether straight or circular on the plan. 153. The value of every species of framing must depend on the thickness of the stuff loyed, whether it is plain or moulded ; and if the latter, whether the mouldings be :k on the solid, or laid in ; whether mitred or scribed, and upon the number of panels liiven height and breadth, and also on the form of the plan. 154. Wainseotings, window-linings, as backs and elbows ; door linings, such as jambs sofites, with their framed grounds; back linings, partitions, doors, shutters, and the are all measured and valued by the foot super. I lie same mode is applied to sashes their frames, either together or separately. 155. Skylights, the prices whereof depend on their plans and elevations, are also sured by the foot super. 158. The value of dado, which varies as the plan is straight or circular or being level ldined, is measured by the foot super. 157. In the measurement of staircases, the risers, treads, carriages, and brackets are, r being classed together, measured by the foot super, and the string board is some- s included. The. value varies as the steps may be flyers or winders, or from the •s being mitred into the string board, the treads dovetailed for balusters and the m sings rued, or whether the bottom edges of the risers are tongued into the step. The curtail is valued by itself, and returned nosings are sometimes valued at the piece ; and if are circular on the plan, they are charged at double the price of straight ones. The Irail, whose value depends upon the materials and diameter of the well hole, or whether ped, swan necked, level, circular, or wreathed; whether got out of the solid, or in krnsses glued up together, is measured by the foot run. The scroll is charged by f, as is the making and fixing each joint screw, and 3 inches of the straight part at each ot the wreath is measured in. The deal balusters, as also the iron ones and the iron mns to curtail, housings to steps and risers, common cut brackets, square and circular he plan, together witn the preparing and fixing, are valued all by the piece. Extra ng in the rail for iron balusters is valued by the foot run, the price depondiug on the a* being straight, circular, wreathed, or ramped. The string hoard is measured by foot super, and its value is greater or less as it is moulded, straight, oi wreathed, or ruing to the method in which the wreathed string is constructed by being properly ted upon a cylinder. ■'iH. The shafts of columns are measured by the foot super., their value depending ■i the diameter, or whether it be straight or curved on the side, and upon its being • rly glued and blocked. If the columns bo fluted, the flutes are taken in linear sure, the price depending on the size of the flutes, whose headings at top und bottom charged by the piece. Pilasters, straight or curved in the height, are similarly ’arid, an I the price takon by the foot aupir. In the caps and liases of pilasters. 800 THEORY OF AUC1HTECTUUE Root: 1 1 2359. Mouldings, as in double-face architraves, base and surbase, or straight ones struct by the hand, are valued by the foot super. Rase, surbase, and straight mouldings wrought by hand, are generally fixed at the same rate per foot, being something more than double- faced architraves. When the head of an architrave stands in a circular wall, its value i- four times that of the perpendicular parts, as well on account of the extra time required tc fit it to the circular plan as of the greater difficulty in forming the mitres. So all hori- zontal mouldings on a circular plan are three or four times the vajue of those on a straight plan, the trouble being increased a-t tbe radius of the circle upon which they are former diminishes. The housings of mouldings are valued by the piece. The value of moulding much depends on the number of their quirks for each whereof the price increases. It wil also, of course, depend on the materials of which they are formed, on their running figure and whether raking or curved. 2860. Among the articles which are to be measured by the lineal foot are beads, fillets bead or ogee capping, square angle staffs, inch ogees, inch quirk ogee, ovolo and bead astrag Is and reeds -on doors or shutters, small reeds, each in reeded mouldings, struck In hand up to half an inch, single cornice or architrave, grooved space to let in reeds an; grooves. And it must be observed, that in grooving, stops are paid extra ; if wrought In hand, still more ; and yet more if circular. Besides the foregoing, narrow grounds P skirting, the same rebated or framed to chimneys, are measured by the foot run. Rulij joints, cantilevers, trusses, and cut brackets for shelves are charged by the piece. Watel trunks are value 1 according to their size by the foot run, their hopper heads and shoe ' being valued by the piece. Moulded weather caps and joints by the piece. Scaffolding where extra, must be allowed for. 2361. Flooring boards are prepared according to their length, not so much each ; tli standard width is 9 inches; if they are wider, the rate is increased, each board listing at s j mu.h per list. Battens are prepared in the same way, hut at a different rate. 2362. I’lie following memoranda are useful in estimating ; — 1 hundred (120) 1 2-feet-3-inch deals, 9 inches wide (each deal containing, therefore 2 feet 3 inches cube), equal 5§ loads of timber. 1 hundred (120) 1 2-feet- 2^-inch deals, 9 inches wide (each deal containing, therefore t 1 foot 10 inches cube), equal 4i loads of timber. 1 hundred (120) 12-feet lj-inch deals equal 1 reduced hundred. 1 load of 1 .(-inch plank, or deals, is 400 feet superficial. 1 load of 2-inch plank, or deals, is 300 feet superficial. And so on in proportion. Twenty-four 10-feet boards, at a 5-inch guage, w ill finish one square. Twenty 10-feet boards, at 6-inch guage, will finish one square. Seventeen 10-feet boards, at a 7-inch guage, will finish one square. Fifteen 10-feet boards, at an 8-inch guage, will finish one square. Thirteen 10-feet boards, and 2 ft. 6 in. super, at a 9-inch guage, will finish one sqnan Twelve 10-feet boards, and 2 ft. Gin super., at a 10-inch guage, will finish one square. Twenty 12-feet hoards, at a 5-incn guage, will finish one square. Sixteen 12-feet boards, at a 6-inch guage, will finish one square. Fourteen 12-feet boards, at a 7-inch guage, will finish one square. Twelve 12-fect hoards and 4 feet super., at an 8-inch guage, will finish one square. Eleven 12-feet boards, and 1 foot super., at a 9-inch guage, will finish one square. Ten 12-feet boards, and 1 foot super., at a 10-inch guage, will finish one square. Battens are 6 inches wide. Deals are 9 inches wide. Flanks are 1 1 inches wide. Feather-edged deals are equal to j|-inch yellow deals; if white, equal to silt deal. A reduced deal is l(-inch think, 11 inches wide, and 12 feet long. 2363. It may here be useful to advert to the mode of reducing deals to the standard fvhat is called a reduced deal, which evidently contains I ft. 4 in. 6 parts cube; for 1'-' x 11 in. x 1 ^ in. =1 : 4 46, or in decimals, 12 ft. x ‘91666 ft. x‘125 ft.= !‘375 cube nearly. Hence the divisor 1 375 will serve as a constant for reducing deals of dilferi lengths and thicknesses. Thus let it be required to find how many reduced deals there in one 14 feet long, 10 inches wide, and 2( inches thick. Here 14 ft. x -8333 ft. (or 10 1- x ‘20833 (or 2t in.)=2‘43042 cube feet, and = l‘?67 reduced deal. 2364. The table which is now subjoined exhibits the prices of deals and parts ttuv calculated from 30/. to 9 51 . per hundred, a range of value out of which it can rarely hapi that examples will occur, though it has fallen within our own experience during the l war to see the price of deals at a very extraordinary height. This, however, is not hke ; happen again. The elements on which it is based are — iap. Ilf. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 801 First. Price of deals, each being 12 feet long, three inches thick, 10 inches wide. Then from we have the prime cost of each deal 5'00 Second. Profit on prime cost, 15 per cent. - 0 75 Third. Planing both sides and waste, the former a constant depending on the price of labour (say 5s. per day used in the table), and the latter a variable, increasing with the cost price of the material - 0-8332 6s. 1 d as in the table for a 12 feet deal = 6 58IJ3 the third element a constant (the planing) being involved and a variable (the waste) creasing with the cost of the material, the latter was eliminated by experiment and found ual to -4166 shilling for every 10/. upwards of the price per hundred of the deals. The width of the running foot is 9 inches. For instance at 45/. per cent, the cost of a foot m k •u.»7s per. ( = 144 in.) = l’25s. = Is. 3d. and of a foot run ’9375 shilling = 1 1 i-n 9 inches This table is applicable purely to joinery. I i 10 feet long each. 12 feet long each. 1 1 f.€t long each. Ter foot run. Per foot busier. 1 a. rz •- 5 ££ c in f?et long each. 17 feet long each. 1 1 feet long each. Per foot un. Per foot I super. 1 In. . d. S. n S d. s. d. s. d. In. S d. S. d. .v. d. s. d. 5. d. i 1 4f 1 8 1 14 0 2 0 24 2 7f 3 14 3 7f 0 3f 0 4f 1 74 1 11 f 2 3 0 21 0 3 f 3 If 3 <4 4 5 0 44 n s) 1 *2 Of 2 5f 2 mi 0 3 0 3| 1 3 Ilf 4 11 5 if 0 ftf 0 74 If 2 IA 3 3 (1 0 34 0 4f c5 If ft Of G Cf 7 o| 0 7 0 Of u 2 Ilf 3 G f 4 if 0 41 0 54 14 G 0 7 -4 8 ft 0 8f 0 11 2 3 11 4 7 5 4 0 Sj 0 7' 2 7 Of 9 41 10 Mf 0 11 1 2f •4 4 4 ft 8 j G 7) 0 G4 0 8f 2 4 9 9 11 8f 13 7f 1 14 1 G 3 ft 5f G 7 7 8f 0 74 0 10 3 n Gf 13 It) IG 2f 1 4 1 9) 1 1 Gf 1 10 2 »>! 0 21 0 3 A 2 Of 3 4 3 lOf 0 3f 0 5f 2. 1 I0J 2 2 2 A 0 2! 0 31 f 3 4f 4 0) 4 8f n tf 0 Gf 1 2 4 2 ( 3 3f 0 31 0 4f 1 4 44 5 3 G 1) 0 G 0 8 T 2 104 3 5 4 o? 0 4 0 5f 0 If ft ft G G 7 7 0 7) 0 10 i) 3 5 4 1 4 9 0 41 0 r,l 14 G Sf 7 8f 9 0 0 9 1 0 2 4 af ft 2 6 0 0 0 8 2 8 ftf 10 2f M 104 0 Ilf 1 3f 4 5 6 ft f 7 Gf 0 7.1 0 10 54 10 Gf 12 8 14 94 I 2) 1 h 3 r, 7 7 i 8 »« 0 9 0 Ilf 3 12 ft 11 n 17 S 1 5 1 n 1 1 8 ? 2 1 2 54 0 21 0 31 4 2 Ilf 3 G) 4 1) 0 4 0 El 1 2 2 sf 2 10f 0 3 0 3f 3 7} 4 3f 5 Of 0 ft 0 Gf 1 2 4 3 2 3 0 3f 0 5 T 4 8» 5 7i G GJ 0 G) 0 4 3 3 3 10} 4 G| 0 4 I 0 G •o if 5 9f G Ilf 8 If 0 8 0 lOf 4 3 10 4 7 } 5 44 0 SI n 7 if 6 1(4 8 3 9 7) 0 0 : \ 1 of 1 2 4 14 5 n G 0 7 0 94 2 9 u 10 Ilf 12 ! f 1 Ilf 1 5 1 <; 2 7 5 8 8 0 8f 0 ll| 24 11 3f 13 7 1ft lOf 1 3| 1 0 3 7 •25 8 8 10 4 0 10 1 If 3 13 3) Ift 11$ 18 7) 1 Gf 2 (’) 1 i 1 11 2 34 2 8 0 2? 0 3f 3 1) 3 9 4 4) 0 44 0 s$ M 2 2 9 3 24 0 0 4} 3 9f 4 Cf s :if II sj (1 7 i 2 14 3 G t 4 11 0 4 (1 Si 1 4 Ilf S 114 6 III n Gf 0 9 4 3 4 4 4 ft 0 ] 0 ft n i,i 0 G U 7 4 1 8 74 0 8) 0 11 } 4 4 4 ft 1 ft 1 >? 0 G 0 8 Si i) 7 3f 8 Of 0 : | 0 10 1 u 2 ft 7 G 4 H II 0 7? 0 mi 2 9 7) 11 q 13 Ej 1 li 1 ftf H G 11 8 3 9 8 0 9 } 1 if 24 13 1 If 14 44 IG 4 1 4 1 9) 3 H 1 9 8 1 1 4 n 14 1 3 3 14 2 17 (» 19 10 1 H 2 2) 1 2 4 2 G 2 II 0 3 0 4 i 3 4 3 114 4 8 0 41 0 G / .1 2 G 3 0 3 6 0 34 0 4? | 4 Of 4 10 s 7f () .')} 0 74 1 3 4 3 104 4 G 0 14 0 G 1 5 3 } G 3f 7 4) 0 7) 0 ol 4 8 " 4 9 ft «* 0 7} , c * i) G G 7 <4 9 1 0 hi 1 0 4 4 ft U G 7 0 ci 0 sf 14 7 9 9 3) 10 10 0 nf 1 v i 2 G 4 7 ft H 7 l 0 8} 0 11 ) 2 10 2 12 5) 1 1 3 1 2 1 f| 't 7 'f 9 2 10 Kf 0 Ilf 1 2 7) 12 8 1ft 24 IS 0 1 ;.) 1 tit A M 14 10 9 1? J 1 1 1 2 11 11 13 7) Ift 10 I 1 31 1 0 9 4 in II 12 1 nl 1 M V* 1 1 1* IG III 19 9f 1 h 2 Vf i* 10 "i 1 10 1 1 1 1 A i 7 i 3 1 10 Of 20 I* 23 ft ] 1 loj 2 G 3 !• 802 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book IT. 2365-9. The above table almost explains itself, but one example will be taken for illustrating its use, premising that if deals are at a price between, above, or below that stated in the first column, the rules of arithmetic must be applied for the intermediate prices. Suppose deals, then, to be at 45 1. per hundred ; an inspection of the table show; that the value of l|-inch deal is 8tomary to add an inch to the dimensions for extra laboui to marble, ^ of an inch ; or to take the running dimensions of the edges. 2372-3, Paving slabs and stones under 2 ins. thick are taken by superficial measur Cornices are measured by obtaining their girt, and multiplying by their length for t) quantity of moulded work in them. 2374. Founder. The proper mode of estimating cast iron is by the ton or cw Moulds for the castings, when out of the common course, are charged extra. Very olte too, cast iron pip; s and gutters are, according to their sizes, charged by the yard. Wroug 1 iron beams and girders, of various shapes, are charged for by the ton. (See 1765 et srq For ornamental castings patterns have to be made; these are usually paid for in additio and are often expensive. 2375. Smith and Ironmonger. Wrought iron for chimney bars, iron ties, screw hoi balusters with straps, area gratings, handrails and balusters, hook-and-eye hinges, brack for shelves, chains for posts, wrought iron columns with caps and bases, fancy iron rail ./ casements, shutter-bars, and the like, are charged by the pound, at various prices, accord i, to the nature of the work. In the ironmonger’s department nails and brads are charged the hundred, though sold by weight, seldom exceeding 909 to the 1000. Screws, whi take their names from their length, are charged by the dozen. Cast, and also wrought bu and screws, cast and wrought back flaps, butts and screws, side or H hinges, with screws, the pair. All sorts of bolts with screws, of which the round part of the bolt determii the length, by the inch. HL hinges and cross garnet hinges by the pair. Other hinges a screws by the piece. Locks by the piece. Pulleys according to their diameters. On ironmongery 20 per cent, is charged on the prime cost. Wrought iron ornamental " ' is charged for according to the time and skill. (See 2253 et seq.) 2376. Plasterer. The work of the plasterer is measured, generally, by the yard sup ficial. The usual way of measuring stucco work to partitions and walls is, to take the lie); from the upper edge of the ground to half way up the cornice, the extra price of the stu>, making good for the deficiency of floated work under it. In ceilings and other work, the face under the cornice is often taken, because there is no deficiency but in the setting, and t lp. nr. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING. 803 impensatedforby the labourin making good. Cornices are measured by the foot super- hand estimated according to the quantity of mouldings and enrichments they contain, ere there are more than Uur angles in a room, each extra one is charged at the price per run extra of the cornice. Stucco reveals are charged per foot run. and according to r width of 4 or 9 inches or more. Quirks, arrises, and heads by the foot run, as are gins to raised panels, small plain mouldings, &c. Enriched mouldings are measured :he foot run, and with flowers to ceilings, pateras, &c., must be considered with refer- i to the size and quantity of ornament; modelling may have to be charged if under let run. For some of these, papier-mache and other materials (see 2261), which are •h lighter than plaster, are coming now into general use, and from the ease and security l which they are fixed, often supersede the use of plaster ornaments. Scaffolding is rged for when the “ hawk ” cannot be served from the floor. 377. Plumber. The work of this artificer is charged by the cwt., to which is added labour of laying the lead. The superficies of the lead is measured, then multiplied ;he weight, as 5 lb. lead, 6 lb. lead, &c., and brought into cwts. Water pipes, vain- er pipes, and funDel pipes are charged by the foot run, according to their diameter ; sj i are socket pipes for sinks, joints being separately paid for. Common lead pumps, li iron work, including bucket, sucker, &c., at so much each; the same with hydraulic other pumps, according to their diameters. In the same manner are charged water- ets, basin3, a : r traps, washers and plugs, spindle valves, stop-cocks, ball-cocks, &c. b 2212 et seq.) By the increase of manufacturers of sanitary appliances these are r priced at p< r article. 378. Glazier. The work of the glazier is measured and estimated by the superficial , according to the speciality as well as the quality of the glass used; it is always iMired between the rebates. (See 2225 et seq.) Stained and painted glass are usually in at agreed prices. 379. Painter. In the measurement and estimation of painting, the superficial quantity aken, allowing all edges, sinkings, and girths as they appear. When work is cut in on h edges it is taken by the foot run. The quantity of feet is reduced to yards, by which a'ing is charged for in large quantities. In taking iron railing, the two sides are measured lilt work; hut if it be full of ornament, once and a half, or twice, is taken for each side, h frames are taken each, and sash squares by the dozen. On gilding we have already ken in Sect. XII. (2277 et seq.) Cornices, reveals to windows and doors, strings, clow sills, water trunks and gutters, handrails, newels, &c , are taken by the foot run. ay small articles by the piece. Plain and enriched cornices by the foot run, according h; quantity of work in them. Work done from a ladder is paid for extra. The price aintcr's work greatly depends on the purity of the materials employed, as oil, turpen- . &e., as well as on the quality and the number of times over that the work is painted ; labour is usually considered as one-third of the price charged. Scarcely any trade ■ies so greatly. Imitations of woods and marbles are charged according to the artistic atment and the labour employed on them, and the quality of the varnish used. 1380. Paperhancer. In common papers the price used to he settled according to the airs or quantity of blocks used in printing the pattern. Now the price appears to n I on the sale, or fashion, of the pattern, or on the manufacturer’s pleasure. Until ly t ho old prices were charged, with a large discount, but now the price marked by ><• of the leading firms is subject only to the ordinary discount to the trade. Embossed I other papers are if higher prices. These, as well as lining paper, are charged by the ■e, containing 6.3 feet super. The hanging is charged separate, and borders, dadoes, moulding ;, &c. by the yard run. (See 2277c.) 3 i i 804 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Boos It CIIAP. IV. MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION. Sect. I. DRAWING IN GENERAL. 2381. Under this section it is not our intention to enter into the refinements of t art, but merely to make the attempt of directing the student to the first principles ot faithful representation of ordinary and familiar objects, with all their imperfections; in other words, of transferring to a plane surface what the artist actually sees or cc ceives in his mind. This power is of vital importance to the architect, and without he is unworthy the name. 2382. Tire usual mode of teaching drawing now in use is, as we conceive, among tj most absurd and extravagant methods of imparting instruction that can be well conceiv The learner is usually first put to copying drawings or prints, on which he is occupied a considerable time. Much more would he learn, and much more quickly, by follow; the course which the following lines will prescribe. Outline is the foundation of all drawl the alphabet of graphic art. As soon as the student has attained the use of the pencil and pen in drawing purely geometrical figures, he is prepared to receive the rudiments of p spective. As shown in the following section, the representations of all geometrical sol is dependent upon mechanical means ; and these may, if it be desirable, be shadowed tr by the methods given in Sect. III. ; but what is now called free-hand drawing is tliema fur our present consideration. 2383. Outline, as we have stated above, is the foundation of all drawing, the alpha; of graphic art. Every representation of an object, or series of objects, however com catcd, is in reality but a set of outlines composed of straight or curved lines. The kn ledge, or rather the power of forming these lines, is essential to the student, and in same manner that he was obliged to form pothooks and hangers before he proceeded ellipses when he was taught to write, he should begin his study of free hand drawing practising himself in the production of straight lines, proceeding to segments, and the > curves of contrary flexure. It is a good plan to compare the copy with the pattern ; ; > inasmuch as all formal diagrams that are set as patterns should be perfect, it is desk r that the standards for straight lines, segments, and contrary flexures should be drawi f the teacher himself from rulers; these rulers can be subsequently applied to the cop, and are sometimes the only evidence upon which to make a mutinous pupil conscio; ( his errors. The student ought not to proceed to the elliptical and oval forms until - hand, first turning one way, can draw a tolerably correct circle ; and then, turning in e other direction, can make another equally good. The next step will be to acquire e power of drawing spiral lines in one direction, and of repeating them in another; w k will be followed by that of drawing lines either parallel or slowly approximating. 2383a. After this, the student is sufficiently advanced to attempt to repeat all t e stages with copies of a size larger or less than the patterns ; and he will be ready to 1 11 the mechanical use of chalk. This branch of his tuition needs only such examples at e prints, which have been prepared for that purpose, of purely geometrical forms ; in IS stage the rudiments of shadow are implanted, and the use of the brush may be acquiri 23836. The student will then be ready to learn the mode of obtaining local eo r < and of blending his materials so as to obtain tints and shades of (he different colours. e next steps would be to draw in chalk, in ink, or in colour, the simplest architectural! inents, sucli as a chevron or an ovolo ; and to proceed through a course of architei" d foliage fiom prints. The result of such training is usually a confidence in the eye; J> what is sometimes high ly important, a judgment so sound as to be able to reproduci know previously all the parts which compose the work. In other words, some men can retend to sketch distant rocks and yet miss the very features by which the outlines inti- late the geological character. 2385. Such are the reasons which have for many years led to the conviction that the •chitect’s course of drawing should leave the figure alone until he has made one or more udics from carving in each style of art that opportunity presents to him ; this is affirmed i he the only method of obtaining a satisfactory appreciation of the minute characteristics hich sometimes constitute the differences between styles; and the only method of making royal road to the object, which some teachers pretend is the easiest, but is truly the most ifficult, in art. Having acquired the power of accurate representation of ornament, hich involves dexterity in the use of his materials, the student may commence his perations with the figure. 2386. The method proposed in the following pages is old, at least in principle, yet has been of late years published as new in Paris, by M. Dupuis. (“ De T Enseignement da )rssin sous le point de vue industriel,” 1836.) The principles of the work, however, are rhaps better expressed and arranged, in some respects, than we might have presented icin to the reader : and we shall not, therefore, apologise for the free use we make of it, remising, however, that in respect to the whole figirre and the application of the method i landscapes, what follows is not found in the work of M. Dupuis. 2387. Between the ancient mode of teaching the student (we will take the head, for istance, shown in Jig. 809. as the first roughing of the leading lines of that which in e method practised by M. Dupuis, the only ilference is this, that M. D., instead of let- ug the student form the rough outline at ncc from the finished bust, roughing out n paper the principal masses, provides a ries of models roughly bossed out in their ifferent stages, which lie makes the student raw. The system is ingenious; but as the reatest artists have been made without the ■edification in question, we do not think it laterial ; at . .U events, the principles are the one. M. Dupuis, for this purpose, has a •rics of sixteen models, the first of each four I the series are quite sufficient to show the d as well as his own practice. Thus, in / 809 , the general mass of the oval of the head is given, in which it is scon that the odile is indicated by an obtuse angle, whose extreme point corresponds with the lower ut ol the nose, and the lines at one extremity terminate with the roots or commencement I the hair, and at the other with the lower jaw. The form of the rest of the head is the ■suit ol combining the most projecting points of it by curved lines, in short, of supposing roiigli mass, out of which the sculptor might actually, in marble or other material, form ic head. |8S. 1 he next step is exhibited in fig. 810., with the four principal divisions: the occi- II d to the beginning of the hair, the forehead to the line of the eyes, the projection of the •or , and the inferior part of the face, with some indication of the mouth. 806 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. r is. 8ii. 2389 In fig. 81). it will be seen that another step is gained. The eyes (here only oih appears, hot we speak with reference to the subject, being less in profile), the mouth, the chin, and the ear are more cleaily marked out, \viih some sort of expression of the whole work, but still without details, though sufficiently in- dicating that little more is necessary to bring the rude sketch of fig. 809. to a resemblance. 2390 In fig. 812. this is obtained; but still, according to the degree to which an artist con- siders finishing necessary, to be further pursued and carried through to make a perfect drawing; all that is here intended being to show the principles upon which the matter is conducted, and upon which we shall presently have further observations to make. It will be observed, that on the shadowing and finishing in this way the drawings the student may make we set no valuer when he can draw, if those matters hi of importance to him, they will not be difficult of acquisition. 2390a. Having accomplished the art of drawing, with tolerable correctness, the figure the architect will have little difficulty in drawing the most complex productions of nature 'l ire principles are precisely the same; but we wish here to impress upon him the necessit;, of recurring to nature herself for his ornaments: a practice which will always impart . freshness and novelty to them which even imitation of the antique will not impart. 2391. The port crayon, whether carrying chalk or a black lead pencil of moderate weigh and size, say full seven inches long, is the best instrument to put into the hands of the lx gi nner. The first object he must consider in roughing the subject, as in fig. 809., is tli relation the height of the whole bears to its width ; and this determined, he must procee to get the general contour, without regard to any internal divisions, and thus proceed I) subdivisions, bearing the relative proportions to each other of the model, comparing tliei with one another and with the whole. We will now show how the port crayon assists i this operation. Let the pupil be supposed seated before the model, at such a distance froi it that at a single look, without changing the position of his head upwards, downwards, c sideways, his eye takes in the whole of it. The strictest attention to this point is necessan fur difficulties immediately present themselves if he is too near, as well as if he is too fi from it. And here let it be observed that the visual rays (see Jig. 813.) upon every objci may be compared to tbe legs of a pair of compasses, which open wider as we approach 11 object and close as we recede from it. This is a law of perspective well known, and whit' the student may easily prove by experiment, keeping tbe head of the compasses near li eye, and opening the legs to take in, in looking along them, any dimension of an objee He will soon find that as he approaches such object he must open the legs wider in ordi to comprise within them the given dimension. Hence every diameter or dimension, sep; lately considered, is comprised in the divergence of the visual rays. It is on this ?ccoui that, being at a proper distance, any moveable measure which with a free motion of b body he can interpose upon some one of the points of the distance between his eye and ti model, may, though much less than the model itself, take in the whole field of view, rear the extremities of the dimension, and consequently become of great assistance in certai mathematical measures. For by applying such a measure to one division only of the modi we shall obtain, as it were, an integer for finding a great many others into which the mod may he subdivided. 2392. Thus, taking fig. 809., which is profile, and supposing the width at the nci unity, if this is twice and a half contained in the general height of the bust, we have imin dintely the proportions of one to two and a half, which may be immediately set out on t! paper or canvas. This is not all ; the integer or unity obtained by the diameter of ti Chap. IV. DRAWING IN GENERAL. 807 neck serves also for measuring the horizontal diameter of the head, and also of the bust ; whence new proportions may be obtained. So much for the first casting of the general form. Now, in the entire bust, as respects the head only, suppose we wish to obtain the proportions of the principal divisions, — for example, from the base of the bust to the base of the chin, — we may establish another integer to measure other parts ; as, if from the point of view, the distance from the base of the bust to the base of the chin is the same as from the last to the summit of the head, the learner a ould have nothing more to do in that respect than to divide the whole height into two equal parts. On the same principle, pass- ing from divisions to subdivisions, the distance between the base of the chin and the poii.t whence the nose begins to project, may be found a measure for the height of the nose, and from thence to the top of the cranium. We are here merely showing the method of ob- taining different integers for measuring the different parts mentioned ; others will in prac- tice occur continually, after a very little practice. We do not suppose our readers will believe that we propose to teach drawing by mathematical rules; we now only speak of obtaining points from which undulating and varying lines are to spring and return, and which none hut a fine and sensitive eye will be able to express. Rut to return to the port crayon, which is the moveable measure or compasses whereto we have alluded, and requires only skilful handling to perform the offices of compasses, square, plumb rule, and level. Ry interposing it (see Jig. 813.) on the divergence of the visual rays between the eye and the object, we may estimate the relative proportions ; since in the field of view the learner may apply it to the whole or any of the parts, and make any one a measure for another. For this purpose he must hold it, as shown in the figure, steadily and at arm’s length. Any portion of it that is cut by the visual rays between any two parts of the object, becomes the integer for the measurement of other parts whereof we have been speaking. This in the drawing will be increased according as the size is greater or less than the portion of the port crayon intercepting the visual rays. This process may be easily accomplished by making, upon one and the same line of the visual ray, the extreme point of the port crayon to touch one of the extremities of the proportion sought upon the model, so that they may exactly correspond. Then at the same time fixing the thumb or fore-finger where the visual ray from the other extremity is intercepted, we shall find any equal length by moving the port crayon with the thumb and fore-finger fixed to any other part we want, as to size, to compare with the first, or by using the same expedient toother parts, other integers maybe found. The different integers, indeed, which may be thus obtained is infinite. The port crayon will also serve the purpose of a plumb bob by laying hold of it by the chalk, and holding it just only so tight between the fingers as to prevent its falling, so that its own gravity makes it assume a vertical direction. Doing so, if it then be held up to intercept the visual rays, we may discover the pro- portion in which a line swells whose direc- ton approaches the vertical, as also the quan- tity one part projects before another in the model ; and comparing this again with the integer, obtain new points for starting from. Again, by bolding it before the eye in an horizontal direction, we shall obtain the different parts of the model that lie before the eye in the same horizontal line. Ry degrees we shall thus soon find the eye be- come familiarised with the model it con- templates; judgment in arranging the parts supervenes ; the hand becomes bold and unhesitating, and the leading forms are quickly transferred to the paper or canvas to be subdivided to such extent as is re- quired by the degree of finish intended to be bestowed upon the drawing. -393. The process that we have consi- dered more with relation to the bust is equally applicable to the whole figure. Iu fig. 8H. we have more particularly shown by the dotted lines the horizontal and verti- cal U'C of the port crayon; but the pre- vious adjustment of some measure of unity for proportioning the great divisions to each other is also applied to it ns already stated. In the figure, I. E is the line of the hori- lon, or that level with the eye; it will be Fl«. 61ft. 808 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. seen passing through the knee of that leg upon which the principal weight of the body is thrown. 2394. Though our object in this section is to give only a notion of the way of trans- ferring to paper or canvas such objects as present themselves, we think it proper to hint at a few general matters which the student will do well to consider, and these relate to the balance and motion of the human figure. Geometry and arithmetic were with the painters of antiquity of such importance that Pamphilus the master of Apelles declared, without them art could not be perfected. Vitruvius particularly tells us the same thing, and, as follows, gives the proportions of the human figure : — “ From the chin to the top of the forehead, or to the roots of the hair, is a tenth part of the height of the whole body ; from the chin to the crown of the head is an eighth part of the whole height ; and from the nape of the neck to the crown of the head, the same. From the upper part of the breast to the roots of the hair, a sixth ; to the crown of the head, a fourth. A third part of the height of the face is equal to that from the chin to the under side of the nostrils, and thence to the middle of the eyebrows the same : from the last to the roots of the hair, where the forehead ends, the remaining third part. The length of the foot is a sixth part of the height of the body ; the fore-arm, a fourth part ; the width of the breast a fourth part. Similarly,” continues our author, “ have the other members their due proportions, by attention to which the ancient painters and sculptors obtained so much reputa- tion. Just so, the parts of temples should corre- spond with each other and with the whole. The navel is naturally plaeed in the centre of the human body ; and if a man lie with his face up- wards, and his hands and feet extended, and from his navel as the centre, a circle he described, it will touch his ringers and toes. It is not alone by a circle that the human body is thus circumscribed, as may be seen { fig- 815.) by placing it within a square. For, measuring from the feet to the crown of the head, and then across the arms fully extended, we find the latter measure equal to the former ; so that the lines at right angles to each other, enclosing the figure, will form a square.” 2395. “ How well,” says Flaxman ( Lectures on Sculpture ), “the ancients understood the balance of the figure, is proved by the two books of Archimedes on that subject; besides, it is impossible to see the numerous figures, springing, jumping, dancing, and falling, in the II erculaneum paintings, on the painted vases, and the antique basso-rilievos, without being assured that the painters and sculptors must have employed geometrical figures to determine the degrees of curvature in the body, and angular or rectilinear extent of the limbs, and to fix the centre of gravity.” Leonardo da Vinci has illustrated the subject in his Trattato di Pi/tura, a perusal of which cannot fail of being highly beneficial to the student. 2396. As in all other bodies, the centre of gravity of the human figure is that point from which, if suspended, the figure would remain at rest when turned round upon it. Flaxman, by some strange mistake, has described the centre of gravity as “ an imaginary straight line, which falls from the gullet between the ankles to the ground, when it (the figure) is perfectly upright, equally poised on both feet, with the hands hanging down on each side.” (Fig. 816.). The fact is, that the centre of gravity is found to be in a line so drawn, or rather removed backwards from it, in a verti- cal plane returning from that line. 2397. Motion implies change of position ; for instance, in fig. 817., the weight of the figure is thrown on one leg, hence a line pass- ing through the centre of gravity falls from the gullet on one leg, on which side also the shoulder becomes lowered, and that on the opposite side raised ; the hip and knee sinking below those on the side supporting the weight. In fig. 818. the dotted lines terminated by the letters ABCD represent lines of motion, as also the extent of such motion. The same are also shown in fig. 819., wherein A shows the inclination of the head to the breast ; 15 the extreme bend of the back over the legs, without changing their position; C that of the back bent backwards, the legs Fig. 815. Fig. 816. Fig. 817, Chat. IV. DRAWING IN GENERAL. 809 remaining in the same prward, in which the action is ended by the fall of the blow upon the object. 2400. In fiy. 822., bearing a weight, the combined centres of gravity of the figure and Fix. M* Ftx. 8‘23. Fix. K'21. |e weight to be borne must be found ; and through it the line falls between the feet, if • whole weight rests equally on both, or on the supporting foot, if the weight is thrown "in one. l'laxinan, who was a finer artist than a geometrician, has, in his lectures, fallen to another mistake on this head, by saying the centre of gravity is the centre of the umhent weight, which is absurd; because the figure has not only to balance the weight If, but also its own weight. ■ 101. In leaping (Jig. 823.), the body and thighs are drawn together to prepare for the | r, ng ; the muscles of the leg draw up the heel, and the figure rests on the ball of the >t ; the arms are thrown back to be ready immediately for swinging forward, and thus ting in the impulse. When the figure alights, the arms, at the instant of alighting, II be found raised above the head ; and a line dropped from the centre of gravity will bo and to fall near the heels. j- ,0 -. In leaning (fig. 824.), if on more than one point, the greatest weight is about that ml on which the figure chiefly rests. 810 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 11. 2103. Fig. 825. is a flying, and fig. 826. a falling figure, both where- of being in motion through the air rest on no point. In the first it will be observed that the heaviest por- tion of the figure is bounded by lines inclined upwards ; as in fall- ing the heaviest portion of it lias a downward direction We have thought these elements would he useful, as exhibiting those leading principles without the comprehen- sion whereof no motion or action F|R - S25, can he well expressed. “ Every change,” says Flaxman, “of position or action in the human figure will present the diligent student with some new application of principles, and some valuable example for his imitation.’ 2404. We shall close this section with the application of the principles detailed in the management of the port crayon to the drawing of landscapes. The subject of figs. 82". Chaf. rv. PERSPECTIVE. 811 and 828. is from a spot a little way out of Rome, the tower of Ca'cilia Me tel la being seen in the distance. 2404 a. In Jig. 820. the masses are roughed in from the objects themselves : and the principal mass abcQ\d on the left side is first very carefully drawn by itself, being, as respects leading lines and thicknesses, cor- rected until the eye is satisfied of the truth of its general form. The eye is as high as K and K, which therefore show the height of the horizontal line, and are also, in fact, the vanishing points for the wall on the right-hand side of the picture, *nd the house on the same side a little beyond it. Holding the port crayon level, and taking on it with the thumb or forefinger the distance 01, we shall find that twice that measure in 2 and 3 will give the junction of the wall with the pier ; and that a line continued horizontally from dew ts the top of the plinth of the gate pier. The picture happens to be divided into two equal parts by a vertical line drawn through the break in the city wall in the distance, d 1, continued upwards, deter- mines one side of the house on the right-hand side of the road, and from a point at a break in the foreground intersects the projecting wall at r : a vertical line determines the left side of the tower. The remaining horizontal lines, it will be seen, determine other points and lines; and thus it is manifest that the whole arrangement has been accomplished by making the mass nbcO\d a measure or unit for ascertaining the size and relative position of the other parts, lny/g.828. the detail is filled in, and brought to a higher state of finish. 2404ft. There is a mechanical method of obtaining the exact relative sizes of objects, and their positions In making drawings from nature or casts, which we will endeavour to explain If the draftsman take a pair of pretty large sized compasses, and, fastening a piece of string at the joint end of them, hold the points open before his eye, so as to take in the extent of space his drawing is intended to occupy ; then tie a knot In the string to keep it between his teeth, so that the compasses nohvs may be kept in any plane always equally distant from the eye ; he may, for the various par s of his drawing, by opening or closing the com- passes, have their exact relative heights, widths, and positions, to be at once transferred to the drawing. Sect. II. PERSPECTIVE. • • 2405. A perspective delineation is the linear representation of any object or objects, as it or they appear to the eye, and is such a figure of an object as may be supposed to be made by a plane making a section of the body or pyramid of visual rays directed from the ve to the different parts of the object. A delineation so made, being properly coloured land shadowed, will convey a lively idea of the real object, and at the same time indicate its position and distance from the eye of the observer. 2406. Definitions. — 1 . An original object or objects is or are an object or number of Ejects proposed to be delineated : for instance, a house, a ship, a man, or all or any of hem together. In fig. 829. the bouse ABCDFHK is the original object. 812 4 5 . 6 . 8 . 9 . 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II. always considered a boundless level plane. The plane X in the figure is the ground plane, upon which is placed the object ABCDFHK. The point nf view or point of sight is the fixed place of the eye of the observer, viewing the object or objects to be delineated : E in the figure is such point. The station point is a point on the ground plane, perpendicularly under the point of sight or eye of the observer, and expresses on the plan the' station whence the view is taken. S is the station point in the figure, being a point on the ground plane ver- tically under the eye of the observer at E. The plane of delineation or the picture is the canvas or paper whereon it is intended to draw any object or number of objects. Thus, in the figure, the plane G1KL is the plane of delineation ; but, in the extensive sense of the word, the plane of delineation is considered a boundless plane, however circumscribed may be the delineation made thereon. The horizontal line or the horizon is a line on the plane of delineation in every part level with the eye of the observer or point of view. VZ is the horizontal line on the plane of delineation GIKL. It is supposed to be obtained by the intersection of a plane passing through the eye of the observer, parallel to the ground plane, produced till it touches the plane of delineation. The centre of the picture is a point perpendicularly opposite the eye of the observer, or point of view, and is consequently always somewhere in the horizontal line. O in the horizontal line VZ is the centre of the picture, being perpendicularly opposite to the eye at E. The vertical line is a line drawn through the centre of the picture perpendicular to the horizon. In the figure PR is the vertical line. It is here worthy of notice that the vertical line determines how much of the view lies to the right and how much to the left of the eye of the artist. The distance of the picture is a direct line from the eye to the centre of the picture. EO is the distance of the picture, or plane of delineation, GIKL. The ground line is that where the ground plane intersects the plane of delineation, as GL in the figure. An intersecting point is one made on the plane of delineation, by producing a line in an original object till it touches the plane of delineation. Thus, T is the inter- secting point of the original line BA. An intersecting line is one made on the plane of delineation, by producing any plane in an original object till it touches the plane of delineation, or where, if pro- duced, it would touch it. Thus WT is the intersecting line of the original plane ABCDN, being the line, where that plane, if produced, would touch the plane of delineation. A vanishing point is that point on the plane of delineation to which two or more lines will converge, when they are the perspective representations of two or more parallel lines in an original object, whose seat is inclined to the plane of delineation The point V in the figure is the vanishing point of the line AB, being found by tin line EV, drawn from the eye of the spectator parallel to it, and produced till n touches the plane of delineation in the point V. For a similar reason, V is tin vanishing point of the line CN ; it is also the vanishing point for any other line parallel to the line CN, as BA ; all parallel lines having the same vanishing point The point Z is the vanishing point of the line AK, being obtained by a line drawi from the eye parallel to the line AK, and produced till it touches the plane o delineation. The point Z, moreover, is the vanishing point of the original hnc DF and NH. And it is to be recollected by the student, that there will be a many different vanishing points of lines in the delineation of an original object a there are different directions of lines in that original object. The point Y is ff vanishing point of the parallel original lines DN and FH, being found by the lin EY being drawn from the eye parallel to them till it touches the plane of delineatioi So also Q is the vanishing point of the line CD. In the process of perspectn delineations, as we shall presently see, the plan of the object being drawn, the placi of the various vanishing points are found on the ground line, whence they ai transferred to the horizontal line by means of perpendiculars raised from them. A vanishing line is one supposed to be made on the picture by a plane passu through the eye of the observer parallel to any original plane produced till touches the picture. The line VZ is the vanishing line of an horizontal plane, an of all horizontal planes, being found by the intersection of a plane passing Jan zontally through the eye, or parallel to an horizontal plane. The vertical line I ' is the vanishing line of the original vertical plane, ABCDN being the line whetc plane passing the eye of the spectator parallel to that plane would touch the pin cf delineation. There will be as many different vanishing lines on the piano delineation as there are different positions of planes in the object or objects; ai Chap. IV. PERSPECTIVE. S 13 all parallel planes will have the same vanishing line. Similarly, all lines lying in the same plane will have their vanishing points in the vanishing line of that plane. All planes or lines in an original object which are situated parallel to the plane of delineation can have no vanishing lines or vanishing points on the plane of de- lineation. 16. A visual ray is an imaginary right line, drawn from the eye to any point of observation. EA and EY, &c. are visual rays, being right lines drawn from the eye to the points A and Y. Hence a number of visual rays directed to every part of an object will form a pyramid of rays, whereof the eye is the apex, and the object the base. 17. A perspective delineation , then, is the section of a pyramid of rays producing a perspective projection, and is most commonly considered as being made between the object and the eye. But the section of rays may be taken when they are extended beyond the object ; in which case such a section is called a projected perspective re- presentation of the object. 2407. It will then be seen that a knowledge of perspective is, as Addison has said, a knowledge of “ the science by which things are ranged in picture, according to their ap- pearance in their real situation.” 2403. The situation of the objects being given with the plan and position of the plane of delineation and the height and distance of the eye of the observer, the delineation of such objects is truly determinable by rule. The mechanical operations necessary for this pur- pose form the subject of what follows. It is however necessary, before proceeding to lay them before the reader, to premise that he must thoroughly study and understand the pre- ceding definitions before he can proceed with profit to himself, and we recommend a repeated perusal of them until that be effectually accomplished. 2409. Example I. In Jig. 830., No. 1., we have the plan of the original object l? Eli \P(T\ whereof AB('I) is a cube, and BEEF a double cube, that is, twice the height < BAD. (il.is tlie plan of the ground line ; S, the station point. Through S draw parallel to the plane of delineation GL, and draw SG and SI. respectively parallel to f' side. I. A and All of the united cubes AliCDand 1KTK; and these produced to meet 814 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Took II the plane of delineation will determine the vanishing points (Def. 14.) of the horizontal lines AE and AD, and of all other horizontal lines parallel to them. Draw the line SO perpendicular to GL, which line being the direction of the eve perpendicular to the plane of the picture determines the point thereon to which the eye should he directly opposite to view it when completed, showing also how much of the object is on one side, and how much on the other of the point of view. We have now to draw the visual rays SA, SB, SE, SF, SC, SD, cutting the plane of the picture or delineation in b, x, w, c, and d ; the point A of the nearest cube touching, itself, the picture at that point. The preparation on tiie plan is now completed. 2410. The picture (No. 2.) or plane of delineation is to he prepared as follows : — First draw the ground line GL, and to such ground line transfer, by dropping verticals, the points K.rhwcA and d. Above, and parallel to GL, at such convenient height as may he necessary to show more or less of the upper surfaces of the cubes or otherwise, as desired, draw the horizontal line VZ ; mark on such horizontal line the point O, to which the eye is supposed to be perpendicularly opposite for viewing the delineation when completed. All the other preparations are obtained from the plan, and may be obtained as follows: - - First set otf on the horizontal line VZ the points V and Z, which are the vanishing points of the sides AE and A D respectively. As A, the nearest angle of the object, touches the plane of delineation, it is manifest that a line vertically drawn from that point will be of the same height as the object itself, that is, as the figures are cubes, equal to All or Al) in the plan No. 1. Take, therefore, AB No. 2. of the height required, and draw the lines 15V and AV, also AZ and 15Z, which being crossed by verticals carried up from xbwcd will determine the points ke and i at the bottom, and in f and h at the top, and pq and r in the part where the cube is double the height. Drawing AV it is intersected by the verticals ! from the visual rays at c and w, cutting in g and n. The line KK forms another line of heights, if desired, for finding the height F1 have their vanishing points on the picture as well as any other direction of lines in the ne object. The line km (No. 5.) being in the vertical plane gliilon, will have its vanish- ’ points somewhere in the vanishing line of that plane, (l)ef. 15.) A vertical line iwii through the horizontal vanishing point V will be the vanishing line of the plane >hm\ therefore the vanishing point of the lines km, hi, and of all lines parallel to them, I he somewhere in the vertical GVXQ. -110. Two lines drawn from the eye parallel to any two lines in an object, finding their ushing points, will make the same angle at the eye as the lines in the object make with h other; for the two lines in the one instance are respectively parallel to the two lines the other. I he line SQ is drawn from the station S parallel to the line All (No. 4.), and a ■ drawn from the station S, making the same angle with SQ as El) does with EC, ■> I.), will liud the vanishing point of the line El), and this point must be evidently i where in a vertical line through the point Q. To obtain this point in practice, take distance of the vanishing line it is in, that is, the length from S to Q in the compasses, 1 cl oil the same in the horizon (No. 5.) from V. to \V. At the point W make an angle ' ^ equal to the inclination of the roof, that is, equal to the angle CE1) (No. I I, and 816 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Hock II. produce the line till it intersects the vertical line through the vanishing point V in the horizon in the point X. The point X will he the vanishing point of the line of the roof km (No. 5.), and of the line no, parallel to it. The slant lines of the roof km and no, already obtained, will, on application of a ruler, be found to tend to the point X, as above stated. 2421. In the same way the line of the roof ki ( No. 5.) will also have its vanishing point, and in the same vertical line GVQ. It will be found to be as much below the horizontal vanishing point V as the point X is above it. (Def. 14.) 2422. Let the line A I? (No. 6.) be the line of the horizon, and CD the vanishing line ot a vertical plane, being the gahle end of a house, and let the angle ABC be that of inclina- tion, finding the vanishing point of the slant lines of a roof in one direction. Let the ' line BD be the line, finding the vanishing point of the slant lines in the other direction having the same inclination to an horizontal line; then the angle ABD will be equal t< the angle ABC, and the distance AD equal to the distance AC. 2423. Example III. To find the representation of a quadrangular building situatei inclined to the picture, covered with a single hipped roof. 2424. Let the quadrangle GDHK (No. 7.) be the plan of the building; the line Mh will represent the ridge of the roof. The former line QL may be the place of the plane o delineation, and it may be viewed from the same station S. The position and direction o the lines of this object being the same as those of the last example, the preparatory line will also answer for this. We have then only to draw the visual rays MS, NS, CS, PS; and KS, intersecting the picture in the points m, n,g,p, and k, and to produce the line D( for an intersecting point at R. 2425. Prepare the picture (No. 8.); let the line VZ be the horizon, GR the groun line, O the centre of the picture, and the points m,n,gp, and h coresponding wit m, n, g, p and k. ( No. 7.) Draw the visual line lines through those points and the intersect ing point Ii, and proceed as follows; — 2426. On the intersecting line RE set up the height RT, equal the height of tit object IIG (No. 2.), and draw the lines TV and RV, cutting the visual lines of the froi of the bu dding in the points z and o, y and />, determining the plane ypoz for the represen atiun of the plane of the front. From the angular points z and y draw the lines zw and j to their vanishing point Z determining the plane yzwx for the end of the building. 2427. On the intersecting line set up the height of the roof TE equal the height N (No. 3.), and draw EV cutting the angular visual line of the building in the point e, fro which point draw the line ez, cutting the visual line pa in the point a, the point of directii of the ridge of the roof. Draw the line a V, which, cutting the visual lines through the poii m and n in the points t and v, determines the exact position of the ridge of the roof tv, whi is the representation of OP (No. 3.), or of the ridge MN (No. 7.) ; draw the lines to, and vw, which will complete the whole representation required. In No. 8., if the lii az and aw be drawn, they will form a gable end yzaw.v, of which the point a is the point the gable, and will answer for the direction of the ridge, whether it be a gable end or nipped roof, for in both cases it lies in the middle of the breadth of the house ; wherefi the line uV answers as well the edge of a hipped roof as of a gable end. 2428. In examining the plans (Nos. 4. and 7.) of the two buildings, it will be seen tl they are placed at right angles to each other, and in contact at the point D, so that 1 second example might have been easily accomplished from the first, without the aid another intersection and other preparatory lines, than the additional visual rays from i angles, which the student will have surely no difficulty in carrying through, without necessity of encumbering these pages with the detail. 2429. Example IV. In Jig. 832. No. 1. is the general plan of a church similar many country churches. ABCD is the main body of it; EFGH its tower; IKLM MLNO subordinate parts of the building, and abed the porch. No. 2. is its geometri elevation; the ends and measurements, AB and BC, answering to IM and MO in No. and the points of the roofs D, E, and F. ( No. 2. ) answering to the lines of the rid QR, TV, and PL, No. 1. To find the perspective representation of this building on plane of delineation YZ, the station being at S, the following is, perhaps, the read process. 2430. Find the vanishing points Y and Z of the horizontal lines of the building by lines SY and SZ being drawn from the station parallel to them. O is the centre of ' picture. Draw the visual rays from the visible angles of the object in direction to station S, to intersect the plane of delineation. 2431. When a complicated object, that is, one composed of many parts, is to be dr? » it requires, of course, a great number of visual rays for the precise determination of tl parts, and the whole together forms an apparently confused number of lines. 'I he - however, which views them properly, does not perceive that confusion f and, if it per the student, different coloured inks, or of different shades of depth, may be used to pr cularise different parts. In the delineation of such an object as the present example, 1 most important consideration is the choice of a proper intersection; for though any m- )AP IV. PERSPECTIVE. 817 i tion will do, that should he chosen which unites most parts in its direction with the eatest exactness and the least trouble. In the case under consideration, none seems lore eligible than the direction of the roof PLM, which produce to \V. 2432. In the picture No. 3., GL is the ground line, GV the height of the horizon, e line VX being then the horizontal line. () in the horizon is then the centre of the ;ture, from which, place the distances of the horizontal vanishing points OV and OX ual OY and OZ, No. 1. AB (No. 3.) is the intersecting line, and all the visual lines the plane of delineation are drawn conformably to their intersections on the ground e in the plan. On the intersecting line the height AC is made equal to the height AG the elevation No. 2. ; and the lines Cc and A a, being drawn in direction to the vanishing ■nt V, determine the height ac ; being the height of that part of the building on the visual " answering to the ray from the point M in the plan No. 1. Through the points a and <; the lines de and bf to their vanishing point X, determining the plane bdef the repre- itution of the plane AGIIC, No. 2.; the visual lines bd and fe answering to the ray; ' n the points I and O in the plan. Draw the lines ilh and bg tending to their vanishing int V, to the ray from K in the plan completing the plane bghd. On the intersection ;he the height AD equal to the height of the roof NE of the elevation No. 2., and lw Di in direction to V. Through i draw the line hi to the vanishing point X, touching - visual lines of the roofs in the points h and I. Draw the lines Ion, mil, lid, he, h and le, nch will complete the whole of the structure over the plan IK NO, No. I. 2433. The height of the roofs of the low buildings is equal to the height of the right walls of the body of the building, as shown by the line PR in the elevation No. 2. ; ace, the line mn, and the return line on, may be drawn to the visual lines corresponding 'I' the intersections from the angles A and II of the plan From the angle g the line g* "J also be drawn, which will determine the lines sr, rt, and tp of the porch. Make AE the intersection equal to the height of the roof BF in the elevation, and draw the line ■ determining the ridge of the roof between the two visual lines from the points P and "I the plan. Draw the lines of the gable end vo and vz, the point z being obtained by line nra drawn to its vanishing point X, cutting the visual line from the angle I) of • plan in the point z. 3 G 818 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 11 2434. Make AG and AF on the intersection equal to the heights of the tower BO an BM of the elevation, and draw the lines GV and FV cutting the visual line from P in th plan, in the points a and b ; through which points draw the lines ac and ef to their vanish ing point X ; and the lines cd and eg to their vanishing point V ; the points g , e, and/bein in the proper visual lines from the angles of the tower F, E, and II in the plan. Th tower will he completed by drawing the lines dg, de, ae, and af. 2435. This example elucidates the general practice of vanishing points, which are as we: to be obtained of other positions of lines as horizontal ones. It is not always that th vanishing points of inclined lines are required, but they are often useful, and sometime absolutely necessary. In the geometrical elevation No 2. the lines MO, PF, GD, IE ar all parallel lines, as also are the lines OV, FR, EH, and DI, and though situated in dil ferent, yet they are in parallel planes, and will therefore have a common vanishing point A line drawn perpendicularly to the horizon through the vanishing point X {fig. 3.V a LQ,, will be the vanishing line of the plane of the end of the church over the line 10 of tb plan, also of the end of the body AD, likewise of the side of the tower EH ; and a lin drawn through the point V (No. 3.) perpendicularly to the horizon, as GM, will be th vanishing line of the planes over the lines (No. 1.) IK, AB, ab of the porch, and FE of tb tower, and all lines in those planes, or the boundaries of those planes, will have the! vanishing points somewhere in those vanishing lines. 2436. To obtain the vanishing points of the inclined lines of the roofs and tower, tak the distance of the vanishing point Z from the station S in the compasses, and apply it o ' the horizon from X to PI. At the point H make an angle with the horizontal line equ; the angle of the roofs uPc (No. 2.); the curve K1 and the distance of it from the centr II being equal to the curve ac, and distance of it from its centre P: then is the angle K 1 1 equal to the angle of the roof aPc (No. 2.). Produce the line HK to Q; Q will lie th vanishing point of the line ea of the tower, also of the parallel lines or, dh, and cl, which though obtained by a different process, will all be found, by application of a ruler, to ten truly to that point, as is shown by the dotted lines in the example. Proceeding in tb same way with the distance of the vanishing point Y from the station S, we obtain th vanishing point of the same inclination of lines in the other planes of the object. Take till length SY in the compasses, and set it off on the horizon from V to N. At the point make an angle IN I' on the horizon equal the angle KPII, that is, equal the angle of ii dination of the roof aPc (No. 2.). The line NT produced to M in the vanishing lii GM will be the vanishing point of the line de of the top of the tower, also of the lines u and yo of the porch (the inclination of the roof of the porch being the same as the othi roofs of the body of the church), as shown by the dotted lines in the example. Tl walls of the porch are obtained from the height AP on the intersection, equal the heigl AT, No. 2., Pm being drawn to the vanishing point V, and mn to X, give the lines n5, 5 ! and 32. We may observe that the inclined lines af, le, he, and vz have a common vanish ing point, which, if required, may be obtained ; it will be in the same vanishing line wu the point Q, and as much below the horizontal vanishing point X as the point Q is abo it. to which point, were it obtained, the lines already drawn will be found exactly to tend. is seldom absolutely necessary to have both those points; in this instance one only of thei the point Q., is obtained, which answers every end required of both ; for, supposing it ive; left to that vanishing point for finding the inclined lines, the visual lines being drawn, ai the heights of the upright walls being found, the line d/t being drawn in direction to t- vanishing point Q determines one side of the gable end at the visual line in the middle the other is accomplished by joining the points h and c together. So of the other gab cl being drawn, le is also had by joining together the points l and e. 2437. To complete the whole, draw the line xq on the tower from the point x to tl angle of the tower, in direction to the vanishing point Q.; then draw the lines qh and nil their proper visual lines and vanishing points V and Q. The putting on of the spire i quires some consideration, and in it we must proceed with some thought and care. 1 base of it is intended to be a regular octagon. If the two external lines in the geometric , elevation of the spire be continued till they touch the sides of the tower, as is done at and L (No. 2.), and an octagon be there constructed, extending the square of the tower, will be the base of the spire. Set up the height of the spire BW (No. 2.) on the inti section (No. 3 ) at B ; also the height of the base line KL at R, and draw the lines BV a. RV ; the first, cutting the visual line through the centre of the tower in the point 0, (\ termines the height of the spire ; the other, cutting the tower in the point u, determines base. Through the point u draw a line round the lower, and find the points of the octagl in the middle of each face of the tower, to which let lines be drawn from the top 0, a the whole will be completed, as shown in the example. 2438. Thus have we gone through the process of finding the representation of rathe complicated object with as little confusion of lines as possible ; but one thing succeedi another, and each being required to remain for the student’s observance, the wli unavoidably becomes intricate. Indeed, it is not now so perfectly executed but t Ihap. I-V. PERSPECTIVE. 819 lomething remains for the student to complete, which must result from his own study or iccupy more space- than all we have already written on it. We allude to the intersections hat take place at the lodgment of the spire on the top of the tower, to elucidate which it s drawn to a larger scale at No. 4., the mere inspection whereof will convey a full and, ,ve hope, satisfactory idea of what we advert to. The student has been left to complete he base of the octagon, a process so simple that we cannot, if he retain what le has read, lelieve he will find difficulty in accomplishing, either by visual rays or otherwise. It is lext to an impossibility to describe intricate matters like these so as to leave nothing for he exercise of the reader’s judgment; for, however copious the instruction, there will ilways remain sufficient unexplained to keep his mind in action, and afford him the oppor- ainity of exercising his own ingenuity. 24:19. Example V. In fig. 833. the objects X and Y are plans of columns with bases nd capitals, whose general forms are shown at X and Y (No. 1.). YZ, as before, is the | one of the picture, S the station point. The picture, as previously, is prepared with the 1 nishing points VZ, and the ground line GL. GO is the central line of the picture, and A, HA are, it will be seen, lines of height. -140. In the squares X and Y the dotted lines show the diagonals and boundaries of "ares inscribed in the circles, by which so many more lines are gained for obtaining the •rves which the circles form in the perspective representations. The visual rays are l «'n as in the preceding examples, and transferred to the picture, the process being, in I 't, nothing more than making squares following the profiles, which, at the different fights, guide the formation of circles within and around them, of which the upper ones My, for preventing confusion, are shown in the perspective representation. In each ics, the extreme width of the appearance of the circle may be obtained by visual rays, as I 6, h , b. 2141. At Z and z (Nos. 3. and 2.) arc the plan and elevation of an arcade, from which Swill be seen that the principle of inscribing squares and diagonals is equally applicable i the vertical representation of circles. Presuming that we have sufficiently described the 'gram to enable the student to proceed in drawing the examples at large, we shall now r !, ‘it an example of general application. 1 12. Example VI. In Jig. 834. YZ is the plane of delineation, and the plan of the fifing, with its projections, roof, and chimneys, is shown in No. 1 . In practice, this is go- (‘•’Mv made on a separate drawing board, to enable the draughtsman to make his perspective :i ti 2 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. 820 outline; without injury from constantly working over the paper. Here the vanishing point are too distant to he shown on the diagram ; but the reader, from the tendency of tli several lines, will easily find where they lie. In the same manner, he will find whereaboi the station point is placed. BA, BA, BA, No. 2., are lines for the transference of the height' The projection of the cornice is dotted round the leading lines of the building on the plai The rest of the figure cannot fail of being understood and put in practice by the studei who has made himself master of the preceding examples. 2-143. We shall now turn to a point whereon much difference of opinion has prevaiic namely, the adjustment of what may generally be coi.sidered the best angle of vision, with which objects should be seen to obtain the most agrcable representation of them. For this angle is enlarged or decreased by viewing the objects at greater or less distances, the appearance will vary, and their delineation, in consequence, be affected thereby, and di tortion of the objects will be the result. 2444. By the angle of vision or angle of view is understood the expansion of the hn proceeding from the eye, by the two extreme visual rays embracing the whole extent of the view, and this whe- ther it consists of one object or of many. Let A (fig. 835. ) represent the plan of a mansion ; let B be the outhouse contiguous to the mansion, and let the places of trees be at CCC and DDU. Let S be the station or point of view from which the whole is seen. Con- sidering the mansion A as a lone object, the extreme visual rays Sa S b form at the eye the angle aSb; then uSb is the angle of view under which that object is seen, Sa and S h being the two extreme visual rays em- bracing the whole extent of the object. Again, if the outhouse B be taken as a single object, then will the ex- treme visual rays cS and d S form, at the eye, the angle cS <1, being the magnitude of the angle under which that object is seen. So of any object, the visual rays that embrace its whole extent form the angle of view under which it is said to be seen. It is then mani- fest that the angle of view will be either large or small, as the eye is near to or remote ti- the object. Suppose both the objects A and B are to be taken into the view, with the s FIR. 835. Chap. JV. PERSPECTIVE. 821 dition of the trees to their right and left. Let visual rays be drawn from the trees on botii sides to the station S. The angle CSD is the angle of view under which the whole extent is seen, and the rays CS and DS are denominated the extreme visual rays of the view. 24 45. Objects may not only be placed too near the eye for comfortably viewing them, hut they may be so nearly placed to the eye as to give it pain. The eye only contemplates a small portion at a time ; it is only by its celerity and continual motion that it becomes perfectly sensible of a whole and of the many forms whereof it is composed. But when an object, or many objects, widely extended, are placed too near, the traverses of the eye in viewing the whole become painful. Every one must have experienced that this is so, and why so we must leave to others to account for. When the eye is removed to an agreeable distance, the extent of the view to be delineated is at once seen without turning the head to one side or the other, so that all the objects are at once comprehended. 2446. In taking a view, the turning of the head is to be avoided. The view should on no account comprise a greater extent than can be taken by a coup d’ceil, or than can be viewed by the traverse of the eye alone; and this necessarily confines the extent of that with which we have to deal, and brings the angle of view within certain limits. What the eye can contemplate without trouble it views with pleasure, and beyond a certain extent the eye becomes distracted. 2447. Smallness of object has no relation to the angle of view ; a die, or the smallest possible object, may be brought so near the eye as to give pain in looking at it, and a large extent of view may be contemplated with as much ease as a small one. by merely placing the larger one at a greater distance. If the place of the plane of delineation be at EG, then ESG will be the angle of view. If a section of the same visual rays be taken at III, then HI will be the extent of the picture, and the angle HSI is the angle of view; but the angles ESG and 1 1 SI are the same, therefore the eye views both with equal satis- faction : but in this case one must be placed at the distance SO, and the other at the distance SP. 2448. The attempt to select an angle suitable to all the cases that may occur, as the best angle of view, would be as vain as it would be absurd. Different subjects require different treatment. External subjects differ from internal ones ; and the last from each other, accord- ing to circumstances. Some authors on the subject have laid it down as a rule, that the greatest distance of the eye from the picture should not exceed the width of the picture laterally, which makes the angle of view about 53 degrees; others have insisted that the distance should be less, requiring that the angle of view should not be smaller than GO degrees ; and others allow of a still larger angle. The elder Malton, and his son, to whom we are indebted for all that is valuable in this section, and whose (both of them) experience in the matter was very' extended, advise that the angle of view should never exceed from 53 to 60 degrees ; the former recommending an angle of 45 degrees as the best, because neither too large nor too small. The elder Malton advises to keep between the one and the other, that is, not. to let the angle of view exceed 60 degrees, nor be less than 45, the first being likely to distort the objects, and the last rendering them too tame in the outline. We can add, from our own experience, that the advice is sound ; for though, under very particular circumstances, it may be necessary to use a larger angle of 'iew than 60 degrees, such a case does not frequently occur. Much must always be left to the discretion of the artist in respect to points which are to guide the angle of view he adopts. After a little experience, he will find that angle best suited to the circumstances under which his drawing is to exhibit the object or objects. 24 ID. Example VII. The principles upon which we delineate any of the interior parts of a building are in no wise different from those used for the representation of their external views, for it is of course immaterial whether we represent the external faces of their sides, or those which form their internal faces ; the only difficulty which arises in making an internal view being that which arises from the inability, on account of the restricted distance under "hich they are in reality viewed, of placing the station point at such a distance as to take m a sufficient quantity of the objects to be represented. A person placed in a room can ol course only see the whole of one and part of another wall ; in short, in every direction he cannot see comfortably more than, as we have above mentioned, forty, or, at the most, fifty, degrees of the objects around him. On this account, and for the purpose of showing more than in reality can be seen, it is customary, and perhaps justifiable, in order to give * more comprehensive view of the interior to be delineated, to place the station point of the spectator out of the room or place, supposing one or more of its sides to be removed. This m fact, a delusion, as is every view of an interior possessing any merit that has come under our notice. Hut for picturesque delineation, it is not only one which is necessary, ‘'Ut one without the practice whereof no satisfactory representation can be given of an in- '■■rior whose dimensions are not very extended. Tile section whereon we are now engaged 1 not supposed to be a treatise on Perspective, but merely a concise developement ol its nnciplcs so as to give the reader tuch a general knowledge of the subject as may enable 822 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. him to pursue it, if he please, from the hints it affords. With this apology for not pro. ducing to him a more complicated, though not less useful subject, we proceed. 2450. Fig. 836. (No. 1.) represents the plan of a staircase one third the sue used for the purposes of the delineation ; YZ (No. 1.) is the plane of the picture, O is its centre. 1‘jui the data, therefore, there will be no difficulty of obtaining the vanishing points of the siili Yu and ah. The diagram is not encumbered with the visual rays necessary for the define ation, which we are to suppose drawn and transferred to their proper places on No. 3 wherein II H is the horizontal line. No. 2. is a longitudinal section of the staircase, where! are shown the rising and descending steps, and the dotted line cd gives the section of tli vaulted ceiling over the staircase. It will be immediately seen that the ends of the stej ; will be determined by visual lines, notwithstanding the ascent and descent of them, becaur either is determined by referring to any lines of height, which may be obtained from tfi plan and section, by which the portions seen of the flights will he immediately found an 'hap. IV. PERSPECTIVE. 823 ransfcrred to their respective places on the picture. With these observations we leave the liagram for the exercise, on a larger scale than here given, of the ingenuity of the student. 2-151. Example VIII. The last perspective example to be submitted is that of a cornice Jg. 837.), wherein the contrivance of the elder Malton is used for finding the places f the rnodillions and the other parts. 2452. Let EM, FN, GO (No. 1.) represent the angles of a building in perspective, -MNO being the lower horizontal line of the cornice, whose geometrical elevation and rofde are shown in No. 2. Make MQ equal to mq the depth of the cornice, supposing ie edge EQ to be in the plane of projection ; draw PQ.RS, &c., the lines of the top of the rrnice, to their respective vanishing points. Make QT, QT in II Q, PQ, produced equal > the perspective projection of the cornice qt. Then place the depths of the various louldings along MQ, and fix the lengths of their projections on the lines drawn to the imshing points through those in EQ, an operation which may be much facilitated by awing MT, MT, by which, in many places, the points of the mouldings are at once termined, as in the case of the top and bottom of the fillets of the ovolo ; and very often, if ■ drawing is not on a very large scale, mt and its perspective images MT, MT, ftc. will 'able the eye to proportion the mouldings. Thus the perspective projections MQT, QT' of the sections of the cornice by the planes of the sides EN, EL, supposed to be olongcd or extended, may be found j and it is manifest that lines through the points these sections to the proper vanishing poiirts will give the perspective forms of the cor- ce mouldings as they would appear. 2453 The lines found will by their intersections supply the mitre MQU; but where scale is large, it is better to obtain mitre sections at each principal angle of the building shown by the lines MQU, NRX, &e. The planes of the mitres form, of course, angles forty-five degrees with the sides of the building itself, consequently the vanishing points QU, RX, Xc. may be found by bisecting perspectively the right angles found, or bv awing on the plan lines parallel to the diagonal lines or mitres from the station point to tersect the picture. If these, indeed, are found in the first place, there would be no '-■easily to draw the square sections MQT, MQT', inasmuch as lines drawn from the 'Hidings intersecting the mitre sections to the vanishing points will at once form the 'spective representation of the cornice. In practice, this is the usual mode of proceeding, •mse a skilful draughtsman can pretty well proportion by lus eye most mouldings as seen perspective ; but where great accuracy is required, the method of proceeding by square lions is recommended, because, from the great foreshortening of the diagonal line, the •dlest inaccuracy of intersection on it will cause very large errors in the mouldings. 824 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II FIR. S37. a. When the diagonal sections alone are used, it is clear that the geometrical profile, No. 2,, will not be the same as that formed bv the oblique section of the cornice: this last inus'i therefore be obtained from a plan and elevation of the mouldings as shown in No. 3. 2454. Instead of finding the square section made by the plane FNGO at the angle OG it may be drawn on the plane TQM, where it is more readily found by producing the line? thereby the section TQM was obtained; so the lines T'T", MO" are set out in per spective equal to the projection of the break of the building ON: moreover by the line T"0" we may obtain the mouldingsof the cornice on the face of the wall GH as products or prolonged to T"0", and conversely the cornice in perspective may be drawn from this imaginary section, if it be pre- viously found. Where vanishing points are at an inconvenient distance in draw- ings, a mode may be adopted to obviate the inconvenience, the principle whereof is this. I,et A (fig. 837 a ) be the vanishing point, CDB a segment of a circle whose centre is A; then if CB be bisected in D, AD will be tig. 837. ft. a vanishing line for such bisection ; and if CD be bisected, and a ruler applied to join CD, i will, by the application of a square on CD. give the vanishing line for the new bisection Fig. 837. b. 2455. Our next care is to find the vanishing point of the raking mouldings, which may be found from wha has already berni said, and a perspective section must be made of these 1 mouldings by means of any vertical plui i where most convenient; but the best place is through the apex of the pediment, which, as it could not, fol want of room, be done in the present example, is taken through the line uo, No 2., passing through the ex treme left anglo of the tympanum of the pediment. 2456. As the mouldings of the pediment (Jig. 337 ) here are of the same depth and projection as in the hori rontal parts, they will not, when inclined, coincide with the diagonal section of the horizontal cornii e at OS hence that section, if found in perspective at 0.3, cannot he used for drawing the perspective representation <> the pediment cornice, except for the bead or fillet above the corona, w hich, from the construction of th pediment, will coincide at this mitre, as we may see in No. 2 ; whence it may also lie seen that the point does not coincide with t. X'x cannot, therefore, in the perspective represen ation, be drawn through X, th point answering to t in the diagonal section NRX. OO' in the line OH is to be made in perspective equa to mo , no. 2., and the whole depth oo, and those of the several mouldings on the oblique section, being sc upon EQ produced, they are to be transferred to OO' by means of the vanishing points. The distance 0' is the perspective distance of the projection nt of the cornice as before, and is most readily obtained from th j section 0"T", which is transferred to the plane O'l, and will be easily comprehended from the figure; th quantity of projection of each raking moulding of the pediment is equal to that of the same moulding wher horizontal. Thus the perspective representation of an oblique section made by a plane passing through oi No. *2., is obtained, and the mouldings are then drawn to the vanishing point through the various points, th line IX' cutting T"X in the point corresponding to x, No. 2. As to the modillions, their representations ar‘ found with less confusion by planning them apart and using visual rays; but if no plan is used, the followin method, invented by the elder Malton, may be adopted: — 2457. Draw BC, the line intersecting the plane oi the sofite of the corona, Nos. 2. and 3., through the propc point .r in MQ at right angles to it, and draw xy to the vanishing point. Producethe linecorresponding to A No, 3. to A in xy, and transfer A to 1 in BC, so as to be proportional to it in respect of the whole exten , Then set off the proportion d widths and intervals of the modillions, as shown on Nos. 2. and 3. on BC, an:| transfer them by means of the same proportioning point by which z was transferred to 1 ; and trom th points 2, 3 4, 5, 6, &c. in xy thus obtained, draw on the perspective of the sofite by the use of the vanishin point the lines representing the tops of the modillions corresponding to 2, 3, 4, &c.. No. 2. The cymatiu. round them and the inner angle of the sofite may be drawn by the eye, or where great accuracy is require- the mitre or diagonal sections may be determined as for the principal mouldings already described. At the backs of the modillions the verticals are to be determined cither by means of visual rays from a plan, or through the medium of intersections of the perspective lines ( f the upper parts of them on the sofite, which is as much as can be lequisite for guiding us to a correct delineation. The same process is to be used for the modillions on the other sides. The following is an easy method for dividing vanishing lines in perspective. Let AB, CD be the perspective representation of two parallels, no matter in what plane. It is required to divide the given portion of AB on one of them so that its parts shall be the perspective representation of equal portions of the real line (or in any assigned ratio). Draw- BE parallel to CD and equal to aB, and divide it into the required number of equal parts or of parts in t lie desired propor- S37 - c tion beginning at E. Join AE and produce it to meet CD in F. From F draw lines to each of the poli of division PQUS of the line AE, and they will cut AB in the required points of subdivision p q r s. V Sect. III. SHADOWS. 2458. Seiography, or the doctrine of shadows, is a branch of the science of projectu ard some preparation has been made for its introduction here in Sect. VI. Chap, I. (11- el. seq.) on Descriptive Geometry, which, if well understood, will remove all difficulty comprehending the subject of this section. 24.59. The reader will understand that in this work, which is strictly architectural, t only source of light to be considered is the sun, whose rays, owing to his great distan are apparently parallel and rectilineal. It is moreover to be premised, that such parts any body as may be immediately opposed to the rays of light arc technically said to be SHADOWS. 8 ‘2 5 * ''hai 1 . IV. iyht, and the remaining parts of such body are said to be in shade.. But when one mdy stands on or before another, and intercepts the sun’s rays from the latter, which s thereby deprived of the action upon it of the rays of light, the part so deprived of the mmediate action of the light is said to be in shadow. It seems hardly necessary to ob- serve, that the parts of any body nearest the source of light will be the brightest in iippearance, whilst those furthest removed from it will, unless under the action of reflected ight, be the darkest. 2460. It has been the practice, in architectural drawings, to represent the shadows of heir objects at an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon, as well on the elevations as }>n the plans. The practice has this great convenience, namely, that the breadth of the hadow cast will then actually measure the depth of each projecting member which casts t, and the shadowed elevation may be thus made to supply a plan of the external parts o( lie building Now, if in the elevation the shadows be cast at an angle of forty-five degrees, t will on a little consideration be manifest, that, being only projections of a more length- ened shadow (for those on the plan are at an angle of forty-five degrees), the actual shadow ceil diagonally must be at such an angle as will make its projection equal to forty-five legrees upon the elevation ; because all elevations, sections, and plans, being themselves lathing more than projections of the objects they represent, are’ determined by perpen- dicular, horizontal, or inclined parallel lines drawn from the mints which bound them to the plane of projection, and simi- larly, a shadow in vertical projection, which forms an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon, can only be the representa- ion on such projection of an angle, whose measure it is our nisi ness now to determine. 2461. In the cube ABCDEFGI1 {fig. 838.) the line BD, •brining an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizon, is a irojection or representation of the diagonal BI1 on the ver- ical plane ABD ; and our object being to find the actual angle AHB, whereof the angle ADB is the projection, we have the following method. Let each side of the cube, for example, Fi „ S3S = 10. Then (by 907.) AD 9 + DH 9 = AH-\ That is, IOxIO+IOx 10 = 200= AH 9 , consequently A H = 14-142100. As 13AI1 is a right angle, we have by Trigonometry, using a table of logarithms, — As AIi ( = 14-14142100)’ or Ar. Co. Log. . 9-8494850 To tangent 45 1 .... 10 -0000000 So AB ( = 10-00000000) log. . . 1-0000000 'To tangent of angle TUB = 35° 16' . The angle ABH is therefore 54° = 9-8494850 44'. Hence it follows, that when shadows are projected on the plan as well as on the eleva- I ion, at an angle of forty-five degrees, the height of the sun which projects them must be |15° 16'. 2462. It is of the utmost importance to the student to recollect this fact, because it will he hereafter seen that it will give him great facility in obviating difficulty where confusion ■f lines may lead him astray, being, in fact, not only a check, but an assistance in proving lie accuracy of his work. 2463. We now proceed to submit to the student a series of examples, containing the nost common cases of shadowing, and which, once well understood, will enable him to : xoeute any other case that may be presented to his notice. 2464. In fin. 839. we have on the left-hand side of the diagram the common astragal lift and cavetto occurring in the , • uscan and other pilasters, above in levation and below in plan. The ight-hand part shows the same coll- ected with a wall, whereon a shadow cast by the several parts. LL is a He showing the direction of the light projection at an angle of forty- live legrees. It will on experiment be nind, by a continuation of the line, r by one parallel to it, to touch the de of the asliagal at a, whence an lorizontal line drawn along it will ctermine its line of shade. We here again repeat, to prevent misunderstanding, that i the matter we are now attempting to explain we arc not dealing with reflected light, or with the softening off' of shadows apparent in convex objects, but arc about to 826 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Booi II. determine the mere boundaries of shade and shadow of those under consideration. The rest must be learned from observation, for the circumstances under which they are seen must constantly vary. This, however, we think, we may safely state, that if the bound- aries of shade and shadow only be accurately given in a drawing (however complex), the satisfaction they will afford to the spectator will be sufficient, without further refine- ment. But it is not to be understood from this that we discountenance the refine- ment of finish in architectural subjects ; all that we mean to say is, that it is not necessary. To return to the diagram : it is manifest that if the boundary of shade be at a from that point parallel to the direction of the light a line ab will determine the boundary of shadow on the fillet at b, and that from the lower edge of such fillet at f a line again parallel to the direction of the light will give at c the boundary of the shadow it casts upon the shaft S. As, in the foregoing explanation, a was the upper boundary of shade, so by pro- ducing the horizontal line which it gave to a on the right-hand side of the diagram we obtain there a corresponding point whence a line aa' parallel to the direction of the light is to be drawn indefinitely ; and on the plan a line aa, also parallel to the direction of the light, cutting the wall Wff whereon the shadow is cast at a. From the point last found a vertical line from a, where the shadow cuts the wall on the plan, cutting aa' in a', will determine the point a' in the shadow. The point e, by a line therefrom parallel to the direction of the light, will determine similarly the situation e' by obtaining its relative seat on the diagonal cd, which perhaps will be at once seen by taking the extreme point d of the projection of the astragal, and therefrom drawing dd' parallel to the direction of the light. From the line dd, drawn similarly parallel to the direction of the light, and cutting WW in d, we have the boundary of the shadow on the plan, and from that point a vertical dd being drawn, the boundary of shadow of the extreme projection of the astragal is thus obtained. The boundary of shadow of the fillet on the right-hand side at h, similarly by means of hb, and by the vertical hb . gives the boundary point of the shadow from b. The same operation in respect of cc gives the boundary of shadow from c to c' in the latter point. We have not described this process in a strictly mathematical manner, because our desire is rather to lead the student to think for himself a little in conducting it ; but we cannot suppose the matter will not be perfectly understood by him even on a simple inspection ol the diagram. 2-165. In the diagram (Jig. 840.) is represented a moulding of com- mon occurrence in architectural sub- jects, and, as before, the right-hand side is the appearance of its shadow on the wall WW on the plan. It will be immediately seen that LL being the projected representation of the rays of light, the line aa de- termines the boundary of shadow on the ovolo, and that at b, the boundary of its shade, is also given by a line touching that point parallel to the rays, or rather projected rays, of light. On the right-hand side of the figure oo', drawn indefinitely parallel to the direction of the light, and determined by a vertical from a", the intersection by a" a!' with the wall, will give oa . the line of shadow of oa'. The line aa determines the shadow on the ovolo, and tins continued to a' horizontally gives also a like termination to a" in the shadow ; b, the boun dary upwards of the ovolo’s shade, is represented to the right by b', and to the right on the plan by 5, whence by a vertical cutting the line b'b" in b", the boundary of shadow which b' will cast is obtained, cc on the plan is in projection the distance of the line of shade c' from the wall whereon the shadow is cast, and its place in the shadow is at c", ee''b" being the length of hori- zontal shadow produced by the cir- cumstances. In Jig. 841., which, it will be seen, is a common fillet and cavetto, LL is, as before, the direction of the IAP. I V. SHADOWS. 827 lit, and aa gives the boundary of shadow, as well of the fillet’s lower edge as of the ver edge of the cavetto itself. In respect of the right-hand side of the figure, aV is a e showing in profile the extent of projection of the fillet before the wall line WW, and im a' a line drawn indefinitely parallel to the direction of the light, and terminated by e intersection of a vertical from a' in a", will give the point a' in the shadow. So is found through a vertical from b on the wall, by a line drawn parallel to the direction the light from b on the plan. The several points being connected by lines, we gain the undaries of the shadow, wherein a 'a'" is represented bv a''a". 2466. Fig. 842. exhibits a fillet and cyma reversa or ogee, wherein, as before, LI. is tho ection of the light at a similar I gle to that used on the plan, om the lower edge of the fillet, rallel to the direction of the ht, is obtained the point a on e ogee, and from b a similarly rallel line gives the boundary of alow in c. A line from o in di- ction of the light, drawn indefi- tely, intercepted by a vertical ie from cl, its projection on the an in <1 determines o'd, the undary of the shadow of the let on the wall WW. cc'" is e line of profile of the project- ’ boundary in elevation, of the ide of the ogee before the wall, lereon its shadow is terminated mi c and c"' by a vertical c'" c'". the boundary of shade of the •e itself, is found in shadow by the line b b " drawn indefinitely parallel to the direction the light, and terminated by a vertical from b', the point on the wall correspondent to on the plan, the place of the shade’s point in the elevation. By the junction of the es so found, we shall have the outline of the shades and shadows cast. It is here to observed, that the portion of light a'b' which the moulding retains is represented in -■ shadow by a"b"', all the other parts of its curved form being hidden, first by the pro- don of the fillet, and secondly by the line of shade bb", which acts in the same way as the et itself in producing the line aa', for the moment the light is intercepted, whether by •traight or curved profile, shadow must follow the shade of the moulding, whatever it ; and this is by the student to be especially observed. '-’467. Fig. 843. exhibits the mode of obtaining the shadows and shade in the cyma ta. LI. is the direction of the ht, parallel whereto the line ab (ermines the line of horizon- shadow cast by the lower edge the fillet upon the cyma, and that of the under part of the na itself upon the fillet at d. is the upper boundary of the de of the cyma, and e the point determining the shadow of the cr fillet, the points abed corre- nding with nbed on the plan. I' on the right hand is the face the wall, whereto the lines e’e", <■ c", bb", and a a" are drawn *11*1 to the direction of the it. from e"rl 'c"b"a" vertical oft drawn, cutting the indefi- lines oo', a a", &c. parallel the direction of the light in FIs- sis. d , c", b ', and a", we have the i of the shadow in elevation. The part from b' to c' of the cyma being in light, its '•ow will be the curve c b", wherein, if it be required on a large scale, any number 'omis may lie taken to determine its form by means of correspondent points on the plan ‘ or the parts already described. Ifis. f i,j . i s the plan and elevation of some steps, surrounded by a wall, and I’ in [dan is a square pillar standing in front of them. It will be seen that the lino All 828 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. lioOK II, , corresponds with ab on the plan, as do the points E, F, G, II with efgh, from which verticals deter- mine them in the elevation. The projection of the plinth on the lower step is found by KI and a corresponding line and vertical, which, to prevent confusion, is not shown on the plan. The shadow of the square pillar P is found in a similar manner by the line CD corresponding to cd on the plan, the shadows on the steps being also determined by the points L, 1VI, N, O, through the medium of verticals from 1, m, n,o The left-hand side of the shadow of the pillar is determined in a similar way by the line pq, and Q.R in the elevation is given by qr in the plan, and is the line representing the hack ps of the top of the pillar. It will be observed that we have not described any of the preceding dia- grams in a strict way, neither shall we do so in those that follow, presuming that the reader has, from the perusal of the section on Descriptive Geo- metry acquired sufficient knowledge to follow the several lines. 2469. The fig. 845. is a sort of skeleton plan and elevation of a modillion cornice, hut deprived of a corona, so as to show the shadows of the modillions, independent of any conncctu with other parts of the assemblage. FG, III, and AB parallel to the direction ot the hg determine, by means of verticals from d and i, the points of shadows from the eorresponi ent points c, 1, the points D, L, and I, whereof L is the point of shadow of M. 2470. In fig. 846. we approach a little nearer to the form of a modillion cornice. 1 line EF determines the shadow of the corona, and x\B by means of the lines cd, Ik, and tl verticals dD, kK, the boundary of the side HE of the modillions. A line also draw horizontally from B will give the under sides of their shadows. FG is a line represents the shadow of the corona. , 047 ] . Fig. 847. gives the finished modillion, and the lines Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd will uen mine, by horizontal lines drawn from them, the shadows which we are seek- ing. The auxiliary lines, to which no letters are attached, cannot fail of being understood ; but if difficulty arise in comprehending them, it will be removed by planning the several points, and therefrom drawing on the plan, to meet what may be called the frieze, vertical lines to intercept those from the corre- spondent points in the elevation, and the operation will be facilitated, perhaps, by projecting the form of the curved lines (as seen in the figure) whereof the modillion is formed. , . , , t 2472. Fig. 8 18. will scarcely require a description. It is a geometrical e c HAP. IV. SHADOWS. 829 "oiic triglyph and frieze, with the usual acces- iries. A 15 gives the boundary of shadow on j'e femora of the triglyph, AC the boundary of iadow on the light sides of the glyphs, and AD the shadow of the corona on the frieze. 2473. Fig. 849. is a skeleton representation a three-quarter column, forming part of an cade. The abacus is the mere block of material AK. In the plan ab shows the ngth of the line of shadow AB, and is determined by the vertical bB. In the same way, D is found by cd and the vertical dD. KG is i>e representation of kg on the plan, and by a rtical from g the line G1I is also determined; giving also by the horizontal line l'H, in which is already found, the situation of shadow of the >int E of the abacus, as also by a vertical from IAIN are places of the shadow of the column i the impost moulding of the arch, whereof two ^respondent points are seen in 1 and n. 2474. The form of shadow of the console in i ■ 850. will be seen on inspection to have been ami from the lines aa, cc, dd, &c. on the eleva- |m, corresponding with aa, cc, dd, &c. on the -tion, all which are parallel to the direction of |e light, and sufficiently explain themselves. 2475. Fig. 851. is the elevation and section of i hemispherical niche, wherein are shown the udows cast thereon by the vertical wall in which ri s- 8Ja. is placed. Through the htre O draw I)D at right glcs to the direction of the ht, and from O draw OA ailed to the direction of the lit: A will he found the point the wall casting the longest alow. Produce AO indefi- ■ ly; and from a, the corre- •nding point in the section A on the elevation, draw aa', allel to it, which will cut 1 surface of the niche in a', aw the horizontal line a' a" 'ting AO produced in a ■ 1 a" will represent in the ‘ 'low the point A in the cir- < iferencc. Take any other Pi«. sm. I at B in the edge of the niche, and by means of a line drawn therefrom horizontally we 1 '• the correspondent point b of B in the section From B draw in the direction of the 1 A the line Bb'" b", cutting DI) on the diameter in b'" ; transfer the point b"' in the « ation to b in the section, and draw lib' in the direction of the light indefinitely. n with Bb'" as a radius from b as a centre, describe an arc cutting bb' in 1/ ; and 1 n b' draw the horizontal line b' b", cutting Bb'" produced in b", and b" will be the i it in the shadow corresponding to B in the elevation. To avoid the confusion which 830 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook H would follow the description of the remainder of the operation; we have not encum- bered the diagram with more letters of reference ; the lines showing, on inspection similar applications of the process for all parts of the curve. The fact is, that the whole of the shadow may be completed by taking the line DD as the transverse axis of ai ellipsis, and finding the semi-conjugate axis Oa by the means above described, for Da"D i a semi-ellipsis in form, inasmuch as it is the projection of a section of a hemisphere. Thi: example is applicable to the shadow of a cylindrical niche with a hemispherical head. The line NN shows the shadow of the portion of the head, and the remainder is obtained b\ the mere intersection of lines in the direction of the light from different points to the let' of N, of which enough has been already given in the previous examples to make the appli cation intelligible. 11476. Fig. 852. is the representation of a pediment wherein the section A is that of tin FiR. ssa. mouldings of the pediment at its apex. In the section, ab drawn from the projection a of the corona in the direction of the light, de- termines the point b therein, where- from the horizontal line intercepted by the line ab in the elevation, also drawn parallel to the direction of the light, gives the point b in the elevation. A line from b, parallel to the inclined sides of the pedi- ment on the left, will give the shadow of the corona on the tympanum on that side, and similarly the line of shadow from b on the right side, cd determines the line of shadow on the frieze, and R is the section of the shadow of the assemblage of mould- ings on the right- 2477. In Jig. 853. is given the plan, elevation, and section of a square recess, covered with a cylin- drical head. The lines A A, BB, CC of the elevation are determined by aa, bb, and cc of the plan ; and in the section e’e' is the representation of the line cc of the plan. D, the point at which the direction of the light begins to touch the circular head, is d' in the section. 2478. Fig. 854. is the elevation of an arch, below which isits plan and the shadow east by it on the plane upon which it stands. A A is shown by aa on the plan, the corresponding points in the rear of the arch being a' a', and a" a" the points in the shadow. In a similar way, by BB corresponding with bb' on the plan the points b" b" are obtained in the shadow. 2479. Fig. 855. is the plan and elevation of the upper part of a house. Fig. 854 HAP. IV. SHADOWS. 831 herein the upper story is occupied an attic in the centre, against liich, on each flank, the sloping roof terminated. aa on the plan in e direction of the light, produced intersect the hip at b, gives, by a rtical to B on the elevation, the rection B B of the shadow thereon ; id BB cut by A A in the direction the light, the length BA of the ne of shadow, which may, by let- lg fall the vertical Aa, determine e length aa on the plan. The ie of shadow ac is determined by tting fall a vertical from C, where e line of shadow is intercepted the hip of the roof; and from c e shadow will be found on trial to turn as shown in the diagram. E '.il D on the elevation are found, seen in previous examples, in ee, and d on the plan, and their shadows at e'e' and d'. 2480. What is called an attic base is given in plan and elevation by Jig. S5G. The rue- od of obtaining the shadows thereof plan and elevation is now to be plained. It is an example which nstantly occurs in architectural hjects, and should be well studied d understood. The operations re- . isite for obtaining a representation the lines of shadow of the different mldings in this example depend on the principles developed in the ^ceding subsections. The lower rtion of the figure exhibits the in, and the middle portion the ele- ion of the attic base in question. >e uppermost portion of it presents ee sections of the mouldings of the .e in question cut in three different ces parallel to the direction of the lit. This last portion of the figure lot absolutely necessary, inasmuch the profiles in question might c been obtained upon the eleva- i ; but we have preferred keeping eparate to prevent a confusion of 1 tsidiary lines. There is moreover I 'ther advantage in thus separating 1 parts from each other, namely, 1 t of immediately and more dis- i tly seeing the lines at each select- place, in which the rays of light irate the parts actually in light 1 n those in shadow ; and where student is likely to meet with fi«. sac. ' tirs of perplexity, nothing should be left untried to save bis time, and, what is often e important, his patience. The mode to be adopted is as follows: — duke on the plan any number of sections a'a'a'a', b'b'b'b' in the direction of the light, and 1 'v on the elevation the corresponding sections anna, bibb. LL being the direction of the t, draw parallel thereto tangents to the curves of the convex mouldings, and the boundu- of their shades will be obtained, as will also those of their shadows, by continuing them 1 such boundaries till they cut the other parts in each section, as will be more especially it cc. It will he recollected that in our first mention of the projected representation of inie of light and shadow we found that it was an angle of 54 44' of the diagonal of a 1 his angle is set out in xyz on the plan. We have therefore another mode of boundaries of shade and shadow on the moulding, by developing the sections m u , bbb b , Ac., as at A, l’>, and C, and drawing tangents i/z to the convex mouldings for THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. 832 Book II. boundaries of shade thereon, and continuing them, or otherwise, for the other parts, shown in the diagram. 2481. In Jig. 857., which represents the capital of a column, a similar me- thod is used to that last mentioned for obtaining the shades and shadows, by means of a add and b'b'b'b', which are shown on the elevation by aaaa and bbbb. We apprehend this will be un- derstood by little more than inspec- tion of it. It is obvious that the means here adopted for obtaining the lines of shadow are precisely similar to those used in the preceding example. In this, however, the sections of the ca- pital parallel to the direction of the light are made on thy elevation, and it will be seen that many of them are not required to obtain an accurate boundary of the lines of shadow sought ; for after having obtained those points from which the longest shadow falls, and on the other side those where the line of shadow com- Fig..S37. mences, a curve line of an elliptical nature connects the points found. If the drawing td be made be on a laige scale, it may then be worth the architect’s while to increase tin number ot points wheiefrom the shadow is to be projected, so as to produce the greates possible accuracy in the representation. 2482. The shadows of an Ionic capital are given in jig. 858. The shadow of the voiut on the column is obtained by any number of lines A A, 1115, CC, Sec. from its differen Fig. S.5S. parts and verticals from their corresponding ones aa . bb, cc, Sec. on the plan, and similar the shadow of the capital on the wall. In this example, as in those immediately precedii the employment of sectional lines parallel to the direction of the light is again mamfc The use of them is most especially seen in the example of the Corinthian capital win follows. As a general rule, it may be hinted to the student of sciography, that in the dil culties that may occur, they will be most expeditiously and clearly resolved by the u of the sectional lines, whereon we have thought it proper so much to dilate. 2483. The Corinthian capital in Jig. 859. will require little more than inspection understand the construction of its sciography ; and all that we think necessary to partn larise are the developed projections A, 15, C, D, E, F of the abacus and the leaves, where the termination of the shadows at angles of 54° 44', as explained in Jig. 856., give th respective depths on the elevation. There is another method of arriving at the result here exhibited, by drawing sectio 1 lines parallel to the direction of the light through the different parts and leaves of HAf. IV. COMPOSITION. 83 3 Fig. S59. pital on its elevation, as in fig. 857 , and sucli was the mode we were formerly in the habit adopting. It however induces such a confusion of lines, that we have long since aban- med it, and have no hesitation in recommending the process here given as the best and I ost likely to avoid confusion. It is of course unnecessary, in making drawings, to project ore than the shadow of one capital, as in a portico, or elsewhere, similar capitals, similarly posed to the light, will project similar shadows, so that the projection on one serves for e projection on all of them. 2484. For instruction upon the mode in which reflected light acts upon objects in shade d shadow, we must refer the learner to the contemplation of similar objects in relief, le varieties of reflexes are almost infinite ; and though general rules might be laid down, ey would necessarily be so complicated, that they would rather puzzle than instruct, and der this head we recommend the study of nature, which will be found the best instructress e student can procure. Sect. IV. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION. 2485. The end of architecture, without whose aid no other art can exist, is not merely please the eye, but so to provide against the changes of the seasons as to he serviceable man. Pleasure to the eye may, however, result from the useful, well combined with the autiful modifications whereof it is susceptible. It is in combining thus that the genius the architect is exhibited. The art of decorating a well-proportioned edifice is a very ondary and comparatively easy part of his work, though requiring, of course, the early Itivation of his taste and an intimate acquaintance with the parts, whereof this may taught and that acquired ; but the distribution and arrangement of the several portions the plan, upon which every accessory is dependent, requires great knowledge and usiderable experience. And in this is involved not only the general convenience and ct of the building, but what is of much consequence to the proprietor, the cost of the rk. None but those practically conversant with the planning of a building would hi ve the saving that may be produced by proper distribution. In the case of many i ■ rnal breaks, for instance, much addition arises in the length of walls enclosing the ‘lire, without generally increasing the convenience of the interior, but always when the r 1 1 ion comes to be adapted to the plan, with the certainty of breaking up the masses, I destroying the simplicity df the effect. This is mentioned merely as an instance of q licily of plan always producing simplicity of section and elevation. 3 11 S34 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book TI. 2-186. All ornament in architecture is non-essential, inasmuch as the pleasure received by the eye is not its end. To public and private utility, the welfare and comforts of' indi- viduals. which are the ends of the art, every other point must he sacrificed; and it is only when these have been accomplished that we are to think of decoration. An anecdote is related of a certain nobleman, who, having boasted to a friend of the beauty of the facade of his house, which within was exceedingly ill contrived, was told that he thought ths peer would do well to take the house opposite, that he might be thus always able to look at it. Those who make the internal parts of an edifice subservient to the project of a fayade, and adjust their plan and section to the elevation, must be considered as making the end of less importance than the ornament of the building. Those who work in this mode produce little variety in their designs, which, numerous though they be, consist of but few different combinations, whilst those that result from the natuial order of making the f.^ade subservient to the internal parts, which the plan and section impose, are susceptible of infinite variety and decoration. 2487. It is not, however, to be supposed that we are, in what has been said, sanctioning the student’s neglect of careful composition and adjustment of the facades. Upon the; adaptation of the different fronts of the building to sort with the internal convenience, the greatest care should be bestowed. It is from these his reputation is likely to flow, be- cause they are the parts most susceptible of comprehension by the public. The architect will, upon every succeeding day’s experience, find that the two objects are not incompatible; ! but if such a case, which is possible, arise, he had far better sacrifice the fa 9 ade, consider- ing first the comforts of those who are to inhabit the house, and then the gratification j of those who are only to look at it. 2488. Durand has well observed that compositions conducted on the above principles I must please. “ Has not nature,” says that author, “ attached pleasure to the satisfaction of our wants, and are our most lively pleasures other than the satisfaction of our most press- ing wants? These wants are better satisfied in the interior distribution of a building than in the exterior.” Who leaves the Pantheon without more satisfaction than he expected j from the view of the portico, fine though it he? Again, faulty as are both St. Peter’s and 1 St. Paul’s, will any one who understands the subject aver that he has received more plea- sure from their respective fa 9 ades than from their noble interiors? The pleasurable sensa- tions produced by both are entirely dependent on their interior distribution. But when we find that in the former of these buildings there is no mockery of a dome, the interior and exterior being as far dependent on each other as the circumstances of construction would permit, whilst the dome of the latter is worse than a mockery, the interior and exterior domes having nothing in common with each other, the last being no more than a timber! leaded appurtenance to the fabric, Wren, with all his greatness, for great he was, shrink; into nothingness by the side of Michael Angelo, although the external form of the dome o London be more elegant than that of the Vatican. This is a strong but not a forced illus- tration of our opinions, the good sense whereof must be left for appreciation to our readers who, we doubt not, on a little reflection, will concur with us. 248 y. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the student will find that a good distribute of his plan leads him, with anything like ordinary tact, to the composition of good section and good elevations, far better, indeed, than he could arrive at by pursuing an opposite course. In domestic Gothic architecture, this is notorious, for in that a regular distribu- tion of the openings would often produce the tamest and least picturesque effect. 1 hi Gothic architects placed windows internally where only they would be serviceable, lettm; them take their chance in the exterior. It is not to be understood, because such would b rather outre, that this method will exactly suit the principles of composition in Italian arcln lecture; but it is well known to practical men that a required opening in a particular place instead of being a blemish, may be converted on many occasions into a beauty. Indeed, i is incontrovertibly true that distribution and disposition are the first objects that shoiil engage the architect’s attention, even of him whose great aim is to strike the attention In ornament, which can never please unless its source can be traced to the most convemen and economical distribution of the leading parts. Theorists may be laughed at, but it doi not move us, nor diminish our regret to see many architects without any other theory tlia that whereon, in an inverted position, their own wild fancies are grafted. If what we Ini' stated be true, and from the nature of things we cannot imagine a controversy can an upon our observations, the talent of the architect is to be estimated, as Durand proper, observes, according to his solution of the two following problems: — First. For a given sum, as in private buildings, to erect the most convenient and sm able house for his employer. Second. The requisites in a building being given, as in public buildings, to erect it the smallest possible expense. 2490. An investigation of all the modes of accomplishing these desiderata can only I fully effected in a work of much larger extent than this; but we have, in the practic parts of our volume, sn prepared the reader, that he will not generally be at a loss in respc of the construction of a building, whatever its nature or destination Chat. IV. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 885 Sect. V. DRAWINGS NECESSARY IN COMPOSITION. 2490a. For the thorough comprehension of a projected edifice, at least three drawings ire necessary, the plan, the section, and the elevation. The first is a horizontal section of it, I .tie second the vertical section, which shows the building as if it were cut in half, that half learest the spectator being removed from its plan, so as to permit the inner parts to become isible, and the third is the geometrical appearance of the front represented as if viewed rom an infinite distance, in which no convergence of the lines would be seen. 24906. In making a design, it is always better to put he general idea together on a single sheet of paper, and onsequently, in most cases, on a small scale. This, a afterwards making the drawings, is, as may be ne- essary, increased in size. The three parts being drawn nder one another, as shown in /ip. 89 5a„ wherein the niddle diagram is the plan, the lower one the section, nd the upper one the elevation. By thus beginning on single sheet, in which the whole is before the eye, the orresponding lir.es are more readily transferred from ne part to another. Having drawn through the middle f the paper the vertical A A, cut at right angles by he horizontal line BB, draw the required centres or xes of the walls CC and DD, and supposing the build- ig is to be square, with the same opening of the com- nsses set out the axes of the return walls EE and T. Having determined the thickness of the walls, ie half may be set out on each side the axes, as in ff cc, and dd, and then the lines showing the thick- •sxes of the walls may be drawn. The width of idlings in the walls may be next set out, half on each de the axes BB and AA, first drawn towards bb and (, and the lines drawn to their places. Having thus oceeded, we shall discover that not only has the plan en drawn, but at the same time a considerable portion the section and elevation. To distinguish the voids >m the solids, the latter should be coloured or itched, and then the next step will be as follows: — irallel to the principal axis BB, draw the ground lines ( > and GG. From these lines the heights of the ilding, its cornice and openings, may be set up in the don and elevation ; and afterwards, the height of the ot and projection of the cornice having been de- nnined, they may be set out and drawn. In the tl,, n. as in the plan, it is usual either to colour or n h the solid parts, as we have done in the figure. -490r. Simple as the above process maybe, it contains " h'de elementary part of the mechanical process exsary for making a design. It might have been ■ducted on a more complicated mass, but had we done ■ t would not have been so well understood, and we "•tore deprecate any observations on the simpleness 1111 process by those who have been brought to know se dungs by practice and experience. We do not, ''•ver, led we should discharge our duty before > \ « : f t mg this section, without a censure on the attempt p i : convert drawings of geometrical elevations and sec- ' '- into pictuicsquc representations, because such 18 ’ l1 ‘ 1 ,‘Irc is not only injurious to the art, but is dishonest, nnd has a tendency to mislead architects employer; and we are sorry to say that it is not unfrequently done with ! v ! ew \ denounce it, and without hesitation aver that the casting of shadows 1 resign is only admissible for the purpose of showing the relative depths of projecting . am h hen so admitted, the medium should be confined to Jndinn ink or sepin, and ” " 111 m erely in masses, the apertures being just slightly filled in with the same 2 11 2 THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II. K36 Sect. VI. WORKING DRAWINGS. 2491. Working drawings are those made of tire parts at large for executing the works, which could not he well done from drawings on a small scale, wherein the small parts would not be either sufficiently defined, or could not be figured so as to enable the work- man to set out his work with accuracy. They are generally in outline, except the sectional parts, which are frequently tinted to bring the profiles more readily before the eye. 2491a. It is obvious that though drawings made to a twelfth or a twenty-fourth part of their real size may well enough supply the wants of the workman where there is no complication in the distribution and arrangement, and where there is a simple treatment of regular forms, of right angles and the like ; yet in all cases wherein we have to deal with the minor details of architecture, and in construction, where the variety of forms used is infinite from the variety of the circumstances, nothing short of drawings of the full, or at the least of half, the size will safely guide the workman. 24 91/.*. The art of making working drawings, which must have been well understood at all periods of the practice of architecture, involves a thorough knowledge of projection, or descriptive geometry, and consists in expressing by lines all that occurs for the develop- ment of every part of the details of a building, in plan, elevation, and profile, each part, being placed for the use of the workman with clearness and precision. All the rules by I which working drawings are wrought are dependent on the matter in this work already [ communicated to the reader, excepting only those details of the oiders, and some othef matters, which will be found in book III. But we shall here, nevertheless, briefly replaccj before him the leading principles whereon working drawings are to be prepared. Am I first, he is to recollect that solids are only represented by the faces opposite to the eye secondly, that the surfaces by which solids are enclosed are of two sorts, that is, rectilinea or curvilinear. Those bodies in which these properties are combined may be divided into three sorts : 1, Those which are bounded by plane surfaces, such as prisms, pyramids, am generally all straight woik. 2. Those in which there is a mixture of stiaight and curvei lines, as cylinders, cones, or portions of them, voussoirs of vaulting, and the like; and : Those solids wherein a double flexure occurs, as in the sphere, spheroid, and in man cases of voussoirs. 2491c. We should, however, unnecessarily use our limited space by further entering o these matters, on which enough has been said in previous sections. The plain truth is, tha working drawings are to be so made for the use of the artificer as to embody on a scale, t prevent any mistake, all the information which this work has already given on constructio: and that which follows in the more refined view of architecture as a fine art. 2491c/. In works whose magnitude is not of the first class, the drawing of every par both in construction and in those which involve the work as one of art, should begi'ej of the full size whereof it is proposed to be executed. Where the building is larg 1 as also the parts, this may be dispensed with; but then it becomes (the detail belli drawn on a smaller but fully intelligible scale) the duty of the architect to see that tl drawings he furnishes are faithfully drawn out to the full size by the artificer on prop/ moulds. Often it is useful — never, indeed, otherwise — to offer up, as it is called, sma poitions of mouldings on the different parts of a building, to ascertain what the effect ms be likely to be at the heights fixed for their real places. In these matters he should lea no means untried to satisfy himself of the effect which his first drawings in small is likely produce when executed. 2491 e. We have presumed that the architect is so far educated as to have acquirej full knowledge of all that rules can teach, and that, strictly speaking, he has proportion* his work in conformity with them. Still, in real practice, there are constantly so mai circumstances which concur in making it almost necessary to depart from establish' rules, such as surrounding buildings, where it is of importance to give predominance to part for the purpose of making it a feature, that the expedient of trying a portion of t proposed detail in the place it is actually to occupy, is a matter that we would advise evi architect to adopt alter he has made and studied the working drawings whereof we treat 2491/. We have not alluded to the matters of carpentry and joinery, in which it is oil necessary to give the artificer information by means of working drawings; but themethe of trussing in carpentry, and of framing in joinery, often require working drawings, has already been exhibited under those heads (2031, et seq.~) will prevent his being ur, instructed, and will, moreover, have afforded such information as to prepare him, ay 1 exercise of his own ingenuity, for such cases as may not have been specially given in 1 examples herein contained. We therefore here close our observations under this sett by an intimation to the student, that the proper preparation ot working drawings *oi use of the artificer tests his acquaintance with the theory and practice of the ait, an cf the utmost importance to the pocket of the employer, which it is his duty as a gent *.n incessantly to protect. . BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. '837 p. I. BOOK III. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. CHAP. I. GRECIAN AND ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. Sect. I. BEAUTY IN ARCHITECT UK E. 2192. The existence of architecture as a fine art is dependent on expression, or the acuity of representing, by means of lines, words, or other media, the inventions which the rchitect conceives suitable to the end proposed. That end is twofold ; to be useful, and o connect the use with a pleasurable sensation in the spectator of the invention. In loquence and poetry the end is to instruct, and such is the object of the higher and histo- ' ical classes of painting; but architecture, though the elder of the arts, cannot claim the ]ank due to painting and poetry, albeit its end is so much more useful and necessary to nankind. In the sciences the end is utility and instruction, but in them the latter is not if that high moral importance, however useful, which allows them for a moment to come nto competition with the great arts of painting, poetry, and eloquence. It will be seen hat we here make no allusion to the lower branches of portrait and landscape painting, put to that great moral and religious end which fired the mind of Michael Angelo in the ■iistine Chapel, and of Raffaelle Sanzio in the Stanze of the Vatican and in the Cartoons. Above the lower branches of painting just mentioned, the art whereof we treat occupies ! a exalted station. In it though the chief end is to produce an useful result, yet the ex- pression on which it depends, in common with the other great arts, brings each within the cope of those laws which govern generally the fine arts whose object is beauty. Beauty, P'hatever difference of opinion may exist on the means necessary to produce it, is by all Admitted to be the result of every perfection whereof an object is susceptible, such perfec- jions being altogether dependent on the agreeable proportions subsistent between the" I everal parts, and those between the several parts and the whole. The power or faculty of nventing is called genius. By it the mind is capable of conceiving and of expressing its onceptions. Taste, which is capable of being acquired, is the natural sensation of a mind elined by art. It guides genius in discerning, embracing, and producing beauty. Here e may for a moment pause to inquire what may be considered a standard of taste, and hut cannot be better done than in the words used on the subject by Hume (Essay xxiii. ): 1 he great variety of tastes,” says that author, “ as well as of opinion, which prevails in the vorld, is too obvious not to have fallen under every one’s observation. Men of the most onlined knowledge are able to remark a difference of taste in the narrow circle of their acquaintance, even where the persons have been educated under the same government and ave early imbibed the same prejudices. But those who can enlarge their view to con- ernplatc distant nations and remote ages are still more surprised at the great inconsistence Imd contrariety. We are apt to call barbarous whatever departs widely fiom our own aste and apprehension, but soon find the epithet of reproach retorted on us, and the ighest arrogance and self-conceit is at last startled on observing an equal assurance on all ides, and scruples, amidst such a contest of sentiment, to pronounce positively in its own avour.” True as are the observations of this philosopher in respect of a standard of taste, I- shall nevertheless attempt to guide the reader to some notion of a standard of taste in irchitecture. -19:'.. '1 here has lately grown into use in the arts a silly pedantic term under the name of .Esthetics, founded on the Greek word 'AurOpTuebs, one which means having the power of "Tception by means of the senses; said to be the science whereby the first principles in all I " arts are derived, from the effect which certain combinations have on the mind as con lectcd with nature and reason . it is, however, one of the metaphysical and useless additions 838 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III, to nomenclature in the arts, in which the German writers abound, and in its application to architecture of least value ; because in that art form is frcm construction so limited by necessity, that sentiment can scarcely be said to be further connected with the art than is necessary for keeping the subordinate parts of the same character as the greater ones under which they are combined ; and, further, for thereby avoiding incongruities. 2494. It is well known that all art in relation to nature is subject to those laws by which nature herself is governed, and if we were certain that those rules of art which resulted from reason were necessarily and actually connected with sensation, there would be nc difficulty in framing a code of laws whereon the principles of any art might be firmly founded. “ Principles in ait,” as well defined by Pavne Knight, ‘"are no other than the trains of ideas which arise in the mind of the artist out of a just and adequate consider- ation of all those local, temporary, or accidental circumstances upon which their propriety or impropriety, their congruity or incongruity, wholly depend.” By way of illustrating the observation just made, we will merely allude to that maxim in architecture which inculcates the propriety of placing openings over openings and piers over piers, disallowing, in other words, the placing a pier over an opening without the exhibition of such pre- paration below as shall satisfy the mind that security has been consulted. There can be no doubt that a departure from the maxim creates an unpleasant sensation in the mind, which would seem to he immediately and intimately connected with the laws of reason; but there is great difficulty in satisfying one’s self of the precise manner in which this) operates on the mind, without a recurrence to the primitive types in architecture, and I thence pursuing the inquiry. But in the other arts the types are found in nature herself, and hence in them no difficulty occurs in the establishment of laws, because we have that same nature whereto reference may he made. We shall have to return to this subject in the section on the Orders of Architecture, to which we must refer the reader, instead of pursuing the subject here. 2495. Throughout nature beauty seems to follow the adoption of forms suitable to the expression of the end. In the human form there is no part, considered in respect to the end for which it was formed by the great Creator, that in the eye of the artist, or rather, in this case the better judge, the anatomist, is not admirably calculated for the function it has to discharge ; and without the accurate representation of those parts in discharge 0 / their several functions, no artist by means of mere expression, in the ordinary meaning of that word, can hope for celebrity. This arises from an inadequate representation having the appearance of incompetency to discharge the given functions ; or, in other words, they appear unfit to answer the end. -496'. We are thus led to the consideration of fitness, which, after all, will he found to be the basis of all proportion , if not proportion itself. Alison, in his Essay on Taste, says, “ I apprehend that the beauty of proportion in forms is to be ascribed to this cause," (fitness) “and that certain proportions affect us with the emotion of beauty, not from any original capacity in such qualities to excite this emotion, but from their being expressive to us of the fitness of the parts to the end designed.” Hogarth, who well understood the subject, concurs with Alison in considering that the emotion of pleasure which proportion affords does not resemble the pleasure of sensation, but rather that feeling of satisfaction arising from means properly adapted to their end. In his Analysis of Beauty that great painter places the question in its best and truest light, when, speaking of chairs and tables, or other common objects of furniture, he considers them merely as fitted from their pro- portions to the end they have to serve. In the same manner, says Alison, “the effect ol disproportion seems to me to bear no resemblance to that immediate painful sensation which we feel from any disagreeable sound or smell, but to resemble that kind of dissatis- faction which we feel when means are unfitted to their end. Thus the disproportion of a chair or table does not affect us with a simple sensation of pain, but with a very observ- able emotion of dissatisfaction or discontent, from the unsuitableness of their construction for the purposes the objects are intended to serve. Of the truth of this every man must judge from his own experience.” We cannot refrain from continuing our extracts from this most intelligent author. “The habit,” he says, “which we have in a great many familiar cases of immediately conceiving this fitness from the mere appearance of the form leads us to imagine, as it is expressed in common language, that we determine proportion by the eye, and this quality of fitness is so immediately expressed by the material form, that we are sensible of little difference between such judgments and a mere determination of sense yet every man must have observed that in those cases where either the object is not familiar to us or the construction intricate our judgment is by no means speedy, and that wc never discover the proportion until we previously discover the principle of the machine or the means by which the end is produced.” 2497. The nature of the terms in which we converse shows the dependence of proportion on fitness, for it is the sign of the quality. The natural answer of a person asked why tin proportion of any building or machine pleased him, would be, because the object by sue proportion was fit or proper for its end. Indeed, proportion is but a svnonyme of fitness Chat. I. BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. 839 for if the form be well contrived, and the several parts be properly adjusted to their end, we immediately express our opinion that it is well proportioned. 2498. There is, however, between proportion and fitness, a distinction drawn by our author, which must he noticed. “ Fitness expresses the relation of the whole of the means to the end ; proportion, the proper relation of a part or parts to their end.” But the dis- tinction is too refined to be of importance in our consideration ; for the due proportion of parts is simply that particular form and dimension which from experience has been found best suited to the object in view. “ Proportion,” therefore continues Alison, “is to be considered as applicable only to forms composed of parts, and to express the relation of propriety between any part or parts and the end they are destined to serve.” 2499. Forms are susceptible of many divisions, and consequently proportions; but these are only subordinate to the great end of the whole. Thus, for instance, in the constantly varying forms of fashion, say in a chair or table, the merely ornamental parts may bear no relation to the general fitness of the form, but they must be so contrived as to avoid unpleasant sensation, and not to interfere with the general fitness. If we do not under- stand the nature of its fitness, we cannot judge of the proportion properly. “ No man.” -ays Alison, “ ever presumes to speak of the proportions of a machine of the use of which :ie is ignorant.” When, however, we become acquaint' d with the use or purpose of a particular class of forms, we at the same time acquire a knowledge which brings under our iiew and acquaintance a larger circle of agreeable proportions than the rest of the world mderstand ; and those parts which by others are tegarded with indifference, we contenr- jlate with pleasure, from our superior knowledge of their fitness for the end designed, fhe proportions of an object mirt not in strength be carried beyond what U required for fitness, for in that case they will degenerate into clumsiness, vhilst elegance, on the contrary, is the result of the nicest adjustment of iroportion. 2500. Fitness cannot exist in any architectural object without equilibrium n all the parts as well as the whole. The most complete and perfect notion hat can be conceived of stability, which is the result of equilibrium, may >e derived from the contemplation of an horizontal straight line ; whilst, n the contrary, of instability nothing seems more expressive than a vertical traiglit line. These being, then, assumed as the extremes of stability and "stability, by carrying out the gradations between the two extremes, we lay, extending in two parts the vertical line, obtain various forms, more or s-. expressive of stability as they approach or recede from the horizontal lie. In fit/. 860. xve have, standing on the same base, the general form of ie lofty Gothic spire ; the pleasing, solid, and enduring form of the Egyptian yramid; and that of the flat Grecian pediment: which last, though in its iclination adjusted on different grounds, which have been examined in look II Chap. III. subsect. 2027, et seq., is an eminent instance of stability. Fiji. sen. he spire, from its height and small base, seems to possess but a tottering equilibrium nnpared with the others. 2.501. Stability is obviously dependent on the laws of gravitation, on which, under the usion of statics, not only the architect, but the painter and sculptor, should bestow consi- rable attention. We cannot for a moment suppose it xvill be disputed that at least one ’ tile causes of the beauty of the pyramid is a satisfactory impression on the mind of the ate of rest or stability it possesses. Rest, repose, stability, balance, all meaning nearly c same thing, are then the very essential ingredients in fitness; and therefore, in architec- ts I subjects, instability, or the appearance of it, is fatal to beauty. Illustrations of this ■ st in the famous Asinelli and Garisendi towers at Bologna, and at l’isa in the celc- ated leaning Campanile. 2.502. It may be objected to what we have written, that fitness alone will not account the pleasure which arises in the contemplation of what are called the orders of archi- •ure, and Alison seems very much to doubt whether there be not some other cause ot mtv. It will, however, be our business to show how the ancients, their inventors, con- 1* red principally their fitness; and upon these grounds to show, moreover, how the “portions in ancient examples varied, and may be still further varied, without infringing mi the principles which guided them in the original invention. Payne Knight has well erved, “that the fundamental error of imitators in all the arts is, that they servilely v the effects which they see produced, instead of supplying and adopting the principles “ h guided the original artists in producing them ; wherefore they disregard all those d, temporary, or accidental circumstances upon which their propriety or impropriety, ir congruity or incongruity, wholly depend.” “ Grecian temples, Gothic abbeys, and 1 d castles were all well adapted to their respective uses, circumstances, and situations ; distribution of the parts subservient to the purposes of the whole; and the ornaments I dc orations suited to the character of the parts, and to the manners, habits, and cm- ' "unis of the persons who were to occupy them; but the house of an English noble- 810 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. man of tne 18th or 19th century is neither a Grecian temple, a Gothic abbey, nor a feudal castle ; and if the style of distribution or decoration of either be employed in it, such changes and modifications should be admitted as may adapt it to existing circum- stances, otherwise the S' ale of its exactitude becomes that of its incongruity, and the de- viation from principle proportioned to the fidelity of imitation.” This is but anothei application of the principle of fitness which we have above considered, the chief foundation of beauty in the art. We have shown how it is dependent on stability as a main source of fitness, and here subjoin some maxims which will lead the student to fitness in his designs, and prevent him from running astray, if he but bring himself to the belief that they are reasonable, and founded upon incontestable grounds, which we can assure him they are. First. Let that which is the stronger part always bear the weaker. Second. Let solidity be always real, and not brought to appear so by artifice. Third. Let nothing be introduced into a composition whose presence is not justified by necessity. Fourth. Let unity and variety be so used as not to destroy each other. Fifth. Let nothing be introduced that is not subordinate to the whole. Sixth. Let symmetry and regularity so reign as to combine with order and solidity. Seventh. Let the proportions be of the simplest sort. Eighth. Let him recollect that nothing is beautiful which has not some good ami, useful end. If, after having made his design, he will scrupulously test it by these maxims seriatim and will strike out what is discordant with the tenor of them, he will have overcoimj a few of the difficulties which attend the commencement of his career. 2503. We are not of the same opinion with those who, on a geometrical elevation of a building, draw lines from its apex, which, bounding the principal parts of the outline, fine a pyramidal form, and thence infer beauty of general outline. If those who favour such . notion will but reflect for a moment, they must see that this cannot be a test of its effect ; inasmuch as the construction of a geometrical elevation of any edifice supposes it to hi viewed at an infinite distance, whereas, in fact, it is most generally viewed under angle which would puzzle the most learned architect, without full investigation, to discover tin primary lines which they assume to be the causes of its beauty. The obscurations am foreshortenings that take place are at points of view near the building itself; and, however] judicious it may be to form the general masses in obedience to such a system, so as to pro duce an effect in the distance that may be in accordance with the principle, it would In extremely dangerous to lay the principle down as a law. The finest view of St. Raul’s i ; perhaps a little east of Fetter Lane, on the northern side of Fleet Street ; but it woul< puzzle any one to discover its pyramidal form from that point of view. 2504. The beauty of the proportions of architecture in the interiors of buildings i dependent on those which govern the exteriors. Much has been said on proportions o| rooms, which, hereafter, we shall have to notice: we mean the proportions of their iengtl to their breadth and height. That these are important, we cannot deny ; but whether tli beauty of a room is altogether dependent on the due adjustment of these, we have som doubts ; that is, under certain limits. We here address ourselves more particularly to tha fitness which, in ornamenting a ceiling, for example, requires that the beams which appea below the general surface should invariably fall over piers, and that in this respect cor responding sides should be uniform. In the study of this point, Inigo Jones is the grea English master who has left the student the most valuable examples of this branch t the art. 2505. It may, perhaps, be useful to observe generally that the bare proportions of tl interiors of apartments depend on the purposes for which they are intended, and accord) i to these we seek immediately for the expression of their fitness. This point, therefore involves on the part of the architect so general an acquaintance with the most refine habits of his employers, that we should be almost inclined to agree with Vitruvius on tn multifarious qualifications necessary to constitute a good one. Certain it is that i instructions he can receive for building a mansion will qualify him without an intimm acquaintance with the habits of the upper classes of society. 2506. We have already stated that it is hopeless to arrive at a fixed standard of fast 1 That considered worthy of the appellation will not be so considered in another. “ H sable Africans,” says Knight, quoting from Mungo Park, “view with pity and content | the marked deformity of the Europeans, whose mouths are compressed, their noses pinclie their cheeks shrunk, their hair rendered lank and flimsy, their bodies lengthened hi emaciated, and their skins unnaturally bleached by shade and seclusion, and the hand influence of a humid climate.” In the countries of Europe, where some similarity ol tat may be expected, the tyranny of fashion, no less than that of habit and circumstance, hr and always will have, its influence on the arts. Within the short space of even a ft months we have seen what is called the renaissance style of architecture imported fro France, drawing into its vortex all classes of persons, many of them among the high Chap. L BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. 841 ranks, possessed of education to have patronised better taste; and in architecture, and some other arts.no one solves the question of what is really right by saying that there have been errors in the tastes of different ages. 2507. The specimens of Greek sculpture, whose beauty is founded in nature herself, will throughout all time excite the admiration of the world ; because in this case, the standard or type being nature, mankind generally may be supposed to be competent judges of the productions of the art. But it is very different in architecture, whose types in every style are, as respects their origin, uncertain ; and when we are asked whether there be a real and permanent principle of beauty in the art, though we must immediately reply in the affirmative, we are at the same time constrained to refer it to the quality of fitness. If this were not the case, how could we extend our admiration to the various styles of Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, Gothic, and Italian architecture? These at first appear, com- pared with each other, so dissimilar, that it seems impossible to assign beauty to one without denying it to the rest. But on examination each will be found so fitted to its end, that such cause alone will be found to be the principal source of the pleasure that an educated mind receives from each style; and that thence it arises, rather than from any certain or definable combinations of forms, lines, or colours that are in themselves gratifying to the mind or agreeable to the organs of sensation. If this be true, what becomes of the doctrine of the German acsthetical school, so vaunted of by self-constituted critics and reviewers, who pass their judgment ex ca'liedra on works they have never seen, and, strange to say, are tolerated for a moment by the public? The truth is, the public rarely give themselves the trouble to judge ; and unless led, which is easily done by the few, do not undertake the trouble of judging for themselves. That the Egyptian pyramid, the Grecian and the Roman temple, the early Christian basilica, the Gothic cathedral, the Florentine palace, the Saracenic mosque, the pagoda of the East, are all beautiful objects, we apprehend none will dispute ; but there is in none of them a common form or standard by which we can judge of their beauty: the only standard on which we can fall back is the great fitness of them, under their several circumstances, for the end proposed in their erection. 2508. We are thus unavoidably driven to the conclusion that beauty in its application to architecture changes the meaning of the word with every change of its application ; for .hose forms which in one style are strictly beautiful on account of their fitness, applied to mother become disgusting and absurd. By way of illustrating this, let us only picture to aurselves a frieze of Grecian triglyphs separating the nave and clerestory of a Gothic •athedral. From what we have been taugbt to consider tbe type of the Doric frieze con- nected with its triglyphs an idea of fitness immediately arises in the mind ; but we cannot race its fitness in a dissimilar situation, neither can we comment on such an incongruity tetter than in the oft-quoted lines of Horace : — • “ Humano capiti cervicem pictor equinam Jungere si velit, et varias inducere plumas Undique collatis membris, ut turpiter atrum Desinet in piscem mulier formosa superni* ; Spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici ? ’* riie influence of circumstances in every age has imparted to each style of architecture its icculiar beauty and interest ; and until some extraordinary convulsion in society give the mpetus to a new one, we are constrained to follow systems which deprive us of other lovelty than those of changes which are within the spirit of the universally established aws of the art. Turn to the Gothic churches of the present day, — the little pets of the hurch commissioners and clergy. What objects of ineffable contempt the best of them re! The fact is, the religious circumstances of the country have so changed that they are ■ holly unsuitable in style to the Protestant worship. Had, with the scanty means afforded » the architects, such a model as St. Paul's, Covent Garden, been adopted, we might have een a number of edifices in the country, though “ Facies non omnibus una Ncc diversa tamcn,” hat might have been an honour to the age in which we live, and suitable to the circinn- tanccs of the times. 2509. Unity and harmony in a work necessarily enter into that which is beautiful ; and will not therefore require any argument to show that from a mixture of styles in any 'iiilding incongruity and unfitness, and consequently a want of unity and harmony, must the result. Hence we cannot agree with those wise reviewers who advocate the pos- ibility of amalgamating the arch with the severe Grecian style. We leave them to their reams, and trust that before we give them credence we may have some proof of their radical power in this respect. 2510. .Symmetry is that quality which, as its name imports, from one part of an assem- ble of parts enables us to arrive at a knowledge of the whole. It is a subordinate, but cvertheless a necessary, ingredient in beauty. It is necessary that parts performing the one office in a building should be strictly similar, or they would not ex vi termini be 842 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. ' symmetrical ; so, when relations are strictly established between certain parts, making one the measure of another, a disregard of the symmetry thus induced cannot fail of destroying beauty. But here again we have to say, that for want of attention to the similarity of the parts, or neglect of the established relations on which the whole is founded, they have lost their symmetry, and have thus become unfit for their purpose ; so that thus again we return to fitness as the main foundation of beauty. 2511. Colour abstractedly considered has little to do with architectural beauty, which i? founded, as is sculpture, on fine form. We are here speaking generally, and are not inclined to assert that the colour of a building in a landscape is unimportant to the general effect of that landscape, or that the colours used on the walls of the interior of a building are unessential considerations ; but we do not hesitate to say that they are of minor consequence in relation to our art. We believe it would be difficult to paint (we mean not in the sense of the artist) the interior of the banqueting room at Whitehall, were it restored to its original destination, and divested of the ruinous accessories which from its original pur- pose have turned it from a banqueting room into a chapel, — we believe, we say, that it would be difficult to paint it so as to destroy its internal beauty. But as we intend to be short under this head, we shall quote a brochure touching on this subject published by us in 1837. 2512. One of the beauties tending to give effect to the edifices of Greece has been, on the testimony of almost all travellers, the colour of the materials whereof they are com- posed Dr. Clarke observes that a warm ochreous tint is diffused over all the buildings of I the Acropolis, which he says is peculiar to the ruins of Athens. “ Perhaps,” says the I author. “ to this warm colour, so remarkably characterising the remains of ancient buildings i at Athens, Plutarch alluded” (/« Vita Pericles) “in that beautiful passage cited by Chandler, where he affirmed that the structures of Pericles possessed a peculiar ami un- p irallcled excellence of character ; a certain freshness bloomed upon them and preserved their', faces uninjured , as if they possessed a never-fading spirit, and had a soul insensible to aye.” It is singular that recent discoveries have incontestably proved that this species of beauty at ! all events did not originally exist in them, inasmuch as it is now clearly ascertained that it f was the practice of the Greeks to paint the whole of the inside and outside of their temples in party colours. It had been some time known that they were in the habit of painting and picking out the ornaments on particular parts of their buildings ; but M. Schaubert, the architect of the King of Greece, found on examination that this fell far short of the ex- tent to which this species of painting was carried, and M. Semper, another German archi- tect, has fully corroborated the fact in his examination of the Temple of Theseus. The! practice was doubtless imported into Greece from Egypt, and was not to be easily aban- doned, seeing the difficulty of falling away from the habits of a people whence it seems certain the arts of Greece more immediately came. It is by no means uncommon for a person to be fully alive to all the beauties of form, without at the same time having a due feeling or perception of the beauty resulting from harmony in colouring. It is therefore not to be assumed that the Greeks, though given to a practice which we would now discourage, possessed not that taste in other respects which has worthily received! the admiration of posterity'. The practice of painting the inside and outside of buildings has received the name of polychromatic architecture, and we shall here leave it to tin- consideration of the student as a curious and interesting circumstance, but certainly with- out a belief that it could add a charm to the stupendous simplicity and beauty of such a building as the Parthenon. 2513. After all that we have said of fitness, it will be expected that in decoration it shall form a principal ingredient. By the term decoration we understand the combination oil objects and ornaments that the necessity of variety introduces under various forms, tej embellish, to enrich, and to explain the subjects whereon they are employed. The art ol decoration, so as to add to the beauty of an object, is, in other words, that of carrying om the emotions already produced by the general form and parts of the object itself. By it means the several relations of the whole and the parts to each other are increased by new combinations; new images are presented to the mind whose effect is variety, one great; source of pleasure. From these observations two general rules may be deduced in rcspec of decoration. First, that it must actually be or seem to be necessary. Second, tha such objects must be employ ed in it as have relation to the end of the general object o. the design. We are not to suppose that all parts of a work are susceptible of ornament 1 Taste must be our guide in ascertaining where decoration is wanted, as well as the quantity requisite. The absence of it altogether is' in many eases a mode of decoration. As i language its richness and the luxuriance of images do not suit all subjects, and simplicit in such cases is the best dress, so in the arts of design many subjects would be rathe i impoverished than enriched by decoration. We must therefore take into consideration th character of the building to be decorated, and then only apply such ornament as is neces, sary and suitable to that character. We may judge of its necessity if the absence of n causes a dissatisfaction from the void space left; of its suitableness, by its developing th character. History has recorded the contempt with which that decorator was treated wii BEAUTY IN ARCHITECTURE. 843 Ciur. I. ornamented the senate house with statues of wrestlers, and the gymnasium with statues of senators. 2514. By some the art of architecture itself has been considered nothing more than that of decorating the buildings which protection from the elements induces us to raise. 2515. The objects which architecture admits for decoration result from the desire of producing variety, analogy, and allegory. We here follow Quatremere de Quincy. ( Encyn. Method.) The first seems more general than the others, as being common among all nations that practise building. It is from this source we have such a multitude of cut- work, embroidery, details, compartments, and colours, more or less minute, which are found in every species of architecture. It would be useless for the most philosophical mind to seek for the origin of these objects in any want arising out of the mere construc- tion, or in any political or superstitious custom. Systems of conjecture might be exhausted without arriving one point nearer the truth. Even in the most systematic of the different .kinds of architecture, namely, that of the Greeks, we cannot avoid perceiving a great number of forms and details whose origin is derived from the love of variety, and that alone. In a certain point of view, thus considered, an edifice is nothing more than a piece of furniture, a vase, an utensil, the ornaments on which are placed more for the purpose of pleasing the eye than any other. Such, for instance, are the roses of caissons in ceilings and sofites, the leaves round the bell of the Corinthian capital, the Ionic volutes, and many others, besides universally the carving of mouldings themselves. These ornaments, drawn from the store- house of nature, are on that account in themselves beautiful ; but it is their transference to architecture, which in the nature of things can have but a problematical and conjectural origin, that seems to indicate a desire to vary the surface. Unless it was the desire of variety that induced them, we know not what could have done so. 2516 It has been well observed by the author we have just quoted, that though the art has been obliged to acknowledge that many of its decorations depend in their application on such forms as necessity imposes, and in the formation of them on enance, caprice, or whatever the love of variety may dictate, yet in the disposition of them there must reign an order and arrangement subordinate to that caprice, and that at this point commences the difference between architecture as an art subservient to laws which are merely de- pendent on the pleasure imparted to the eye, and tiiose which depend on the mere me- lianieal disposition of the building considered as a piece of furniture. Architecture, of all the arts, is that which produces the fewest emotions of the minds of the many, because it is the least comprehensible in regard to the causes of its beauty. Its images act indirectly mi our senses, and the impressions it seems to make appear reducible chiefly to magnitude, larniony, and variety, which after all are not qualities out of the reach of an architect of he most ordinary mind, and therefore not — at least the first and last — unattainable where economy does not interfere to prevent the result to be attained. 2517. Analogy, the second of the objects by which decoration is admitted into archi- ecture, seems to be resultant from the limited nature of all human inventions in the arts, aid the power of being unable to invent except by imitation and alteration of the forms of hjects pre-existtnt. It is most difficult to discard altogether what have been considered lypes in architecture, and that difficulty has so prevailed as to limit those types to their |nost probable origin in the case of the orders. 2518. Tiie reader will begin to perceive that our analogy in decoration tends upon trees >r columns, the ends of beams for triglyphs, and the like. Whatever truth there may he I n this analogy, it is now so established as to guide the rules of decoration that are in- olved in it ; and it must be conceded, that if we are desirous of imitating the peculiar art " any country, we have no hope of success but by following the forms which the con- traction in such country engenders; and we must admit that, as far as external cireum- I i im es can direct us, the architecture of Greece, which, modified, has become that of the - hole of Europe, and will become that of America, seems so founded on the nature of hings, that, however we may doubt, it would not be prudent to lead the reader away from jl'e consideration, and perhaps from a belief, that such is the truth. Without holding "tscIvcs bound by the analogy of the types of the tree and the cross beam, which appear " kavc guided the architects of Greece, we can without hesitation assent, that whenever "isc have been abandoned the art has fallen on the most flagrant vices; witness the irrors of the school of Borromini, where the beams are broken, pediments, which arc the | ihlcs of roofs, are broken into fantastic forms, and none of the parts seem naturally con- '•ted with each other. The works of the school in question seem indeed so broken up, u the study of them would almost convince an impartial and competent judge that the "nverxo of its practice is sufficiently beautiful to establish the truth of the types whereon : e have here and before expressed our scepticism. “ Si tot," says l)c Quincy, “que le genie icorateur s'est cru libre des entraves de 1'analogie, Unites les formes caracteristiques se ■m contournees, pervertc.'s, ct denaturees, au point qu’il y a cntr’clles et celle de la bonne " ‘"lecture, plus de distance qu’entre cellcs-ci et les types de la primitive construction." ! - 513. In the dccoratiot of architecture, neither of the other two means emplovcd are 844 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III, more important than that ocular language which architecture occasionally employs in its ornaments. By its use architecture is almost converted into painting, and an edifice be- comes a picture, or a collection of pictures, through the aid of the sculptor. We shall refer to no other building than the Parthenon to prove the assertion. Here the history of the goddess is embodied in the forms of the building, and to the decoration thus intro- duced the subordinate parts of the sculpture, if it be not heresy so to call them, is kept so under that we are almost inclined to cry out against their not having been principals in- stead of accessories. This is the true principle upon which buildings should be decorated to impress the mind of the spectator with the notion of beauty, and the principle which, carried out, no matter what the style be, will insure the architect his most ample reward, reputation. The matter that is supplied by allegory for decoration in architecture may be considered under three heads — attributes, figures, and paintings. 2520. The first takes in all those foliages, plants, flowers, and fruits, which from their constant use in sacrifices were at last transferred from the altar to the walls of the temple. The garlands, festoons, chaplets, and crowns which we find sculptured on temples seem to have had their origin from the religious ceremonies performed in them ; as do the instru- ments of sacrifice, vases, the heads of the victims, paterae, and all the other objects em- ployed in the worship of the ancients. Thus, in architecture, these have become conven- tional signs, indicating the destination of the buildings to which they are applied. From the particular application of some ornaments on temples we derive in the end a language i in the arts of imitation. It was thus that the eagle grasping in his talons the attribute of | Jupiter, came to represent eternity and omnipotence; the myrtle and dove of Venus, the passion of love ; the lyre and laurel of Apollo, to point to harmony and glory; the spear and helmet of Mars, to represent war. Palms and crowns became the emblems of victory, as did the olive the emblem of peace. In the same way the ears of corn of Ceres, the; serpent of Esculapius, the bird of Minerva, and the cock of Mercury were equivalent to the expression of abundance, science, and vigilance. Instruments of the arts, sciences, in short, all objects useful to the end for which an edifice is erected, naturally become signs ol that edifice; but applied otherwise become absurd. What, for instance, could be more ridiculous than placing ox sculls and festoons on the frieze of a Protestant church? — and yet this has been done in our own days. 2521. Figures of men and animals come under the second head. The application oj these may be seen to their highest perfection in the Parthenon, to which we have ahead; alluded. They may be introduced in low, high, or full relief. In the last case thehl situation is usually that of a niche. We shall say no more on the subject of figures than that of course they must have relation to the end for which the edifice is erected, and i not in that respect perfectly intelligible are worse than useless. 2522. The walls of Pompeii furnish ancient examples of the decoration obtained by tlv aid of painting, as do the loggie of the Vatican and the ceilings of the Farnesina moderij examples of it. Herein the moderns have far surpassed anything we know of the ancien application of painting. Sculpture, however, seems more naturally allied to architectur, than painting, and, except in purely decorative painting on walls and ceilings, the nitre duction of it seems bounded within narrow limits. The rules as to fitness of the subject Introduced, applicable to the first two heads, are equally so under that of painting. Sect. II. THE 0HI1ER.S. 2523. An order in architecture is a certain assemblage of parts subject to uniform est. blished proportions, regulated by the office that each part has to perform. It may I compared to what organisation is in animal nature. As from the paw of a lion bis dime sions may be deduced, so from a triglvph may be found the other parts of an example the Doric order, and from given parts in other orders the whole configuration may i found. As the genus may be defined as consisting of essential and subservient parts, ft first-named are the column and its entablature, which, as its name imports, is as it we the tabled work standing on the column. The subservient parts are the mouldings ai detail into which the essential parts are subdivided, and which we shall hereafter separate consider. The species of orders are five in number, Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, a Composite, each of whose mass and ornaments are suited to its character and the i pression it is intended to possess. These are the five orders of architecture, in the pro] understanding and application whereof is laid the foundation of architecture as an a The characters of strength, grace, and elegance, of lightness and of richness, are ' tinguishing features of the several orders, in which those characters ought to be ton not only in the column employed, but should pervade the whole composition, whereof Ihaf. I. THE ORDERS. 845 olumn Is, as It were, the regulator. The mode of setting up. or, as It Is technically ermed, profiling an order, will he given in a subsequent part of this section. Here we hall merely observe that the entablature is subdivided into an architrave, which lies immediately upon the column, a frieze lying on the architrave, and a cornice, which is its ippermost subdivision. The height of these subdivisions together, that is, the whole leight of the entablature, is one fourth that of the column according to the practice of the ncients, who in all sorts of entablatures seldom varied from that measure either in excess ;>r defect. “ Palladio, Scamozzi, Alberti, Barbaro, Cataneo, Delorme, and others,” says |sir William Chambers, “ of the modern architects, have made their entablatures much lower in the Ionic, Composite, and Corinthian orders than in the Tuscan or Doric. This, |>n some occasions, may not only be excusable but highly proper; particularly where the ntercolumniations are wide, as in a second or third order, in private houses, or inside ecorations, where lightness should be preferred to dignity, and where expense, with every Impediment to the conveniency of the fabric, are carefully to be avoided ; but to set ntirely aside a proportion which seems to have had the general approbation of the ncient artists is surely presuming too far.” 2524. As rules in the fine arts which have obtained almost universal adoption are ounded on nature or on reason, we may be pretty certain that they are not altogether mpirical, albeit their origin may not be immediately apparent. The grounds on which uch rules are founded will, however, in most cases become known by tracing them to jirst principles, which we shall here endeavour to do in respect of this very important elation of height between the column and its entablature. We were first led into this investigation by the perusal of a work by M. Lebrun, entitled Theorie de V Architecture j' jrecque et Romaine deduite de P analyse des Monumens antiques, fol. Paris, 1807 ; but our esults differ very widely from those of Lebrun, as will be seen on reference to that work. 2525. One of the most obvious principles of proportion in respect of loads and supports, lid one seemingly founded on nature herself, is, that a support should not be loaded with i greater mass or load than itself; or, in other words, that there should be an equality ■etween weights and supports, or, in the case in point, between the columns and en- ablature. In respect of the proportion of the voids below the entablature between the olumns or supports, a great diversity of practice seems to have prevailed, inasmuch as ke find them varying from 1 '03 to 2-18, unity being the measure of the supports. Lebrun cakes the areas of the supports, weights, and voids equal to one another, and in what nay be termed the monumental examples of the Doric order, such as the Parthenon, &c., e seems borne out in the law be endeavours to establish ; but in lighter examples, such ■> the temple (Ionic) of Bacchus at Teos, where the supports are to the voids as 1 ; 2 05, nd in the temple of Minerva Polias, where the ratio is as 1 ; 218, he is beyond all uestion incorrect: indeed there hardly seems a necessity for the limitation of the voids e prescribes, seeing that, without relation separately to the weight and support, sta- ility would be obtained so long as the centre of gravity of the load fell within the ex- -■rnal face of the support. If it be admitted that, as in the two examples above men- oned, the voids should be equal to the supports jointly, we have a key to the rule, and istead of being surprised at the apparently strange law of making the entablature one iiirtli of the height of the column, we shall find that no other than the result assumed in flow from the investigation. 2526. In fig. 861. let AB be the height of the column, and let the distance between the >lumns be one third of the height of the column=CD. Now if 1 15 be subdivided into four equal parts at a, b , and c, and the hori- mtal lines ad, be, and cf be drawn ; also, if CD be divided bori- intally into four equal parts, and lines be drawn perpendicularly p wards intersecting the former ones, the void will be divided into xteun equal parallelograms, one half whereof are to be the measure : the two whole supports BC and DE ; and DE being then made |ual to one half of CD, it will be manifest, from inspection, that ie two semi-supports will jointly be equal to eight of the parallclo- rams above mentioned, or one half of the void. We have now to lace the entablature or weight A GUI upon the supports or co- nnns, and equal to them in mass. Set up from A to F another ■w of parallelograms, each equal to those above mentioned, shown ■ the figure by AFKI. These will not be equal to the supports • two whole parallelograms, being in number only six instead of oht ; dividing, therefore, 8, the number in the supports, by 6, the miber already obtained, we have 1 ‘333, Ac., which is the height In- assigned to AG, so that the weight may exactly equal the qiports, thus exceeding one quarter of the height of the support (or column) by of lf, h quarter, a coincidence sufficient to corroborate the reason on which the law is unded. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 8 46 Rook III. 2527. From an inspection of tile Jigs. 86], 862. S63, it appears that when the void is i third the height of the supports in width, the supports will be 6 diameters in height ; when one fourth of their height, they will he 8 diameters high ; also that the intercolumni- ation, called systvlos or of two diameters, is constant hy the arrangement. VV hen the surf, ice of the columns, as they appear to the eye, is equal to that of the entablature, and the voids are equal to the sum of those surfaces, the height of the entablature will always he one third of that of the columns. Thus, let the diameter of the columns be = l, their heigh t = /«, their number's; n. Then the surface of the columns is nh ; that of the entablature the same. As the surface of the voids is double that of the columns, the width of the intercolumniations is double the width of the columns, that is, 2 ji diameters, which, added to the n dia- meters of the columns, gives 3 n diameters for length of the entablature; therefore, the surface of this entablature is Ft-. S62. nh, and its length being 3 n, its height must be ^ = ^ exactly. 2528. Trying the principle in another manner, let Jig. 864. be the general tetrastyle temple wherein the columns are assumed at pleasure 8 diameters Fig. 863. form of a in height, Fig. 864. Fig- 865. Then 4 x 8 = 32 the areas of the supports; and as to fulfil the conditions the three voids are equal to twice that area, or 64, they must consequently be in the aggregate equal to £ diameters, for 6 g =8, and the whole extent will therefore be equal to 12 diameters of £ snpport or column. To obtain the height of the entablature so that its mass may equa that of the supports, as the measures are in diameters, we have only to divide 32, the columns, hy 12, the whole ex'tent of the facade, and we obtain two diameters and two thirds of a diameter for the height of the entablature, making it a little more than one quarter of the height of the column, and again nearly agreeing in terms of the diameter with many of the finest examples of antiquity. If a pediment be added, it is evident, the dotted lines AC, CB being bisected in a and b respectively, that the triangles AEa, 4FF are respectively equal to Cl)a and DbC, and the loading or weight will not be changed. 2529. Similar results will be observed in fig. 865., where the height is ten diameters, the number of columns 6, the whole therefore 180, the supports being 60. Here fg = 3j diameters will be the height of the entablature. This view of the law is further borne out by au analysis of the rules laid down by Vitruvius, book iii. chap. 2, ; — rules which dici not emanate from that author, but were the result of the practice of the time wherein he j lived, and, within small fractions, strongly corroborative of the soundness of the hypothesis of the voids being equal to twice the supports. Speaking of the five specits of temples afler specifying the different intercolumniations, and recommending the eustylos as th< most beautiful, he thus directs the formation of temples with that interval between thi columns. “ The rule for designing them is as follows: — The extent of the front hemp given, it is, if tetrastylos, to be divided into lit parts, not including the projections o the base and plinth at each end; if hexastylos, into 18 parts; if octastylos, into 24 parts. One of either of these parts, according to the case, whether tetrastylos, liexa stylos, or octastylos, will be a measure equal to the diameter of one of the columns. . ■ • “ The heights of the columns will be 8.^ parts. Thus the intercolumniations and tl' heights of the columns will have proper proportion.” In the same chapter lie give J directions for setting out armostyle, diastyle, and systyle temples. The tetras ylos, be state: is I 1 & parts wide and high; the area therefore of the wliolefront becomes 1 1 .J = HAI'. I. THE ORDERS. 847 iu four columns are 4 x 8j = 34, or very little more than one third of the whole area ; the naming two thirds, speaking in round numbers, being given to the intercolumnsor voids, le hexastylos (see Jiff. 865.) is 18 parts wide and 8.) high ; the whole area therefore is x 83 = 153. The six columns are 6 x 85 = 51, or exactly one third of the whole area; 2 voids or intercolumns occupying the remaining two thirds. The octastylos is 24 5 parts de and 85 high. Then 24 5 x 8. t =208^. The eight columns are 8x85 = 68, being a ;fle less than one third of the area, and the voids or intercolumns about double, or the naining two thirds. The average of the intercolumns in the first case will be diameters. In the second case J8 r 6 =2j diameters. I11 the third case —8 ; — =2f‘ou’b diameters. i 530. A discrepancy between practice and theory, unless extremely wide, must not be allowed to interfere h principles, and therefore no hesitation is felt in submitting a synoptical view of some of the most Dele- ted examples of antiquity in which a comparison is exhibited between the voids and supports ; certain it hat in every case the former exceed the latter, and that in the earlier examples of the Doric order, the 0 between them nearly approached equality. In comparing, however, the supports with the weights, re is every appearance of that part of the theory being strictly true ; for in taking a mean of the six rnples of the Doiic order, the supports are to the weights as 1 : MG; in the five of the Ionic order as i*05; and in the four of the Corinthian order as 1 : 1*04, a coincidence so remarkable that it must be ibuted to something more than accident, and deserves much more extended consideration than it lias lerto received. Building. Order. Number of Columns. Supports. Weights. Voids. iemple of Jupiter Nemeus Doric 6 1-00 0 70 1 03 Urlhenon - — 8 JM0 l 07 I 04 emple at Bassae - — 6 HO P14 1-1G iemple of Minerva at Sumum — G 100 1*10 117 jemple of Theseus at Athens - — G TOO M3 1 21 iemple of Jupiter Panhellenius — G 1 00 1*45 1 *3G Iemple of Krectheus - Ionic G 1-00 0-i9 1-24 ‘ mple of Foruma Virilis at Rome - — 4 1 00 115 1-71 mple on the lyssus — 4 HiO 0 00 1-7-2 mple of Bacchus at Teos — 8 1-00 1-25 2*05 mple of Minerva Polias, Athens - — 4 1 00 roi 2 H rtic > of Septimius Severus - Corinthian. 6 1 00 0 03 l :i7 .iSon Carrt'e at Nismes — G i-co 0 03 1-58 mple at Jackly - — G 1 00 0 00 1 *62 ntlieon at Rome - — 8 1*U0 1 43 P84 instead of taking the apparent bulk of a column, tnat is, as a square pier, we take its real bulk, which is it three quaiters (£) that of a square pier of thesame diameter and height ; height oi the entablatuie will be one fourth of the height of the column ; ere is a curious fact connected with the hypothesis which has been sug- (t that requires notice; it is relative to the area of the points of support In* edifice which the arrangement affords. In Jig. 8Gf> the hatched squares 'eut the plans of quarter piers of columns in a series of intercolumnia- every way, such intercolumniations being » f two diameters, or tour diameters These, added to the quarter piers, make six semidiametei s, m .square 36 is therefore the area to be covered with the weight. The quarter piers or columns=4, hence the points of support are - 3 4 lT of the area • i N«.w in the list (1583.) of the principal buildings in Em ope the mean |4 0 168, differing only 0 057 from the result here given ; but if we select allowing buildings the mean will be found to differ much less. Temple of Peace - 0 1 1 27 S. Paolo fuori le MuiA- Oil* S. Sabi no - - 0 100 - S. Eilippo Neri - - O’ 120 Sum = 0 474. Mean. ‘* t il = 0 - 118 . MOULDINGS. 31. The subservient parts of an order, called mouldings, and common to all tlic Roroatl rs, are eight in number. They are — 1. The ovolo, echinus, or quarter round. ( big . 867.) commonly found under the abacus of capitals; and is also almost always placed ven the corona and dentils in the Corinthian cornice: its form gives it the appearance eming fitted to support another member. it should be used only in situations above vcl of the eye. 2. The talon, ogee, or reversed cijma (Jig- 868.) is also, like the ovolo, a ding fit for the support of another. 3. The cymu, cymu recta, or cymatium (Jig. 869.) - well contrived for a covering and to shelter other members; it is only used properly owning members, though in Palladio’s Doric, and in other examples, it is found ionally in the lied mouldings under the corona. 4. The torus (Jig. 870.), like the I presently to be mentioned, is shaped like a rope, and seems intended to bind and "then the parts to which it is applied; while, 5. The scotia or trochilos (Jig. 871.), <1 between the fillets which always accompany the tori, is usually below the eye ; its eing to separate the tori, and to contrast and strengthen the effect of other mouldings II an to impart variety to the profile of the base. 6. The cuvet to, mouth, or hollow 8 18 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 Fi-:. 870. 70 "fir IT; Ofc fjj /Jv/yW.Z' Fig. 873. Fig. 874. (Jiff. 872.) is chiefly used as a crowning moulding, like the cyma recta. In bases ai capitals it is never used. By workmen it is frequently called a casement. 7. The ustrug j (Jiff. 873.) is nothing more than a small torus, and, like it, seems applied for the purpose binding and strengthening. The astragal is also known by the names o (head and bngueti' 8. The JiUct, listel, or annulet (Jiff. 874.) is used at all heights and in all situations. 1 chief oflice is the separation of curved mouldings from one another. 2.732. In Grecian examples, the sections of mouldings are obtained by portions of ellipse, parabola or hyperbola, all parts of a conic section, so that they give a great delicacy of outline than do the Roman examples. “ These latter,” writes J. B. I’apworl in his edition (1826) of the work by Sir W. Chambers on Civil Architecture, “prod lie ; similar quantities of middle tint, light, and shadow ; the Greeks carefully avoided t! sameness, and judiciously and tastefully made the shadows to prevail distinctly. Ilei in all their works we find the result of a superior understanding of the principles a effects of light and shade, which are opposed to each other, and relieved with grtatski whereas, in the Roman style, being divided and broken, they are certainly less beauti and less capable of affording the charms of reflected light than the vestiges of Grecian i which by their w. studied proportl merit respect and ii tation.” Sir Will observes on these c- ferent mouldings that their inventors meant to exp 1 . something by their different figures, and that ' destinations above mentioned may be deduced only from their figures, but from the practice of the ancients in their most esteci works; the cyma and cavetto are constantly used as finishings, and never applied wh,jt strength is required; the ovolo and talon are always employed as supporters to essential members of the composition, such as the modillions, dentils, and corona; thee use of the torus and astragal is to fortify the tops and bottoms of columns, and someti of pedestals ; and the scotia is employed only to separate the members of bases, for wl purpose the fillet is likewise used not only in bases but in all kinds of profiles. 2533. The names of the Greek mouldings are the same as those already mentioned ; there is another (Jiff. 8746 ) called from its appearance a bird’s-heak moulding, compri' the outline of the echinus hollowed out below and then brought down with a ci into the fascia. It is chiefly used in the capital of an anta or pilaster, as in fff- • elegantly decorated. Fig. 868c. is an ogee projecting furiher than the ordinary f< Fig. 874 c. is an outline of the base of the Clioragic Monument of Lysierates at At showing a combination of mouldings ; three of the mouldings being inverted, kxani • \r. I. THE ORDERS. 849 Greek capitals are given on pages 906 and 907, in addition to those in Figs. 883 887. 534. The simplest method of describing the contours of mouldings in Roman or lian architecture is to form them of quadrants of circles, as shown in Figs. 867 374. Where circumstances justify a variation, the ovolo, talon, cyma, scotia, and 2 tto, may be either described from the summits of equilateral triangles, or be iposed of portions of the ellipsis, but the section of the torus and astragal is always lieircular. ORNAMENTS OF MOULDINGS, 535. In ornamenting the profile of an order, repose requires that some mouldings should eft plain. If all were enriched, confusion instead of variety would result. Except for titular purposes, the square members are rarely carved. There are but few examples he best age of the art in which the corona is cut ; indeed at this moment the only one t occurs to us wherein work is in fine style is that of the three columns in the npo Vaccino. So where the ovolo above and talon below it are carved, the dentil d between them should be uncut. Scamozzi, in the third chapter of his sixth book, ilcates that ornaments should be neither profuse nor abundant, neither are they to be sparingly introduced. Thus they will be approved if applied with judgment and dis- ion. Above all things, they are to be of the most beautiful forms and of the exactest portions; ornaments in buildings, being like the jewels used for the decoration of ices and princesses and persons of high rank, must be placed only in proper situations, tlier must variety in ornaments be carried to excess. We have to recollect that, being y accessories, they must not obtrude upon but be kept subordinate to the main object, is ornaments applied to mouldings should be simple, uniform, and combining not more i two distinct forms in the same enrichment; and when two forms are used on the same riding they should be cut equally deep, so that an uninterrupted appearance may be wrved. Mouldings of the same form and size on one and the same profile should be ilar; and it is moreover a requisite of the greatest importance, so to distribute the (res of the ornaments employed that the centre of one may fall exactly over the centres hose below, of which the columns of the Campo Vaccino form an example for imitation his respect. Nothing is more offensive than, for example, to see the middle of an egg :ed over the edge of a dentil, and in another part of the same moulding to see them >e right, centre over centre, and the like negligent and careless distribution. This may ays he avoided by making the larger parts regulate the smaller. Thus where there are lillions they must be made to govern the smaller ornaments above and below them, and ■e smaller ones should always be subdivided with a view to centring with the larger s. The larger parts are dependent on the axes of the columns and their inter- .mmations ; but all these must be considered in profiling the order. It will of course iccessary to give the ornaments such forms as may be consistent with the character of order they enrich. The enrichment of a frieze depends upon the destination of the ding, and the ornaments may have relation to the rank, quality, and achievements of proprietor. We do not agree with Chambers in condemning the introduction of arms, ( S and cyphers, as an unbecoming vanity in the master of the fabric. These may often i introduced as to indicate the alliances of the family, and thus give a succinct history s connections. In Gothic architecture we know the practice induced great beauty variety. We have before observed, in Sect. I. of this Rook (2520.), that the instru- ' ' and symbols of pagan worship arc highly indecorous, not to say ludicrous, on ' es devoted to the Christian religion. ■ >6. In carving ornaments they must be cut into the solid, and not carved as if they applied on the solid, because the latter practice alters their figure and proportion. In every moul hug should be first cut with its contour plain, and then carved, the most ""cut part of the ornament being the actual surface of the moulding before carving, rving that all external and re-entering angles are kept plain, or have only simple leaves the central filament expressed on or in the angle. In the circular temple of Tivoli principle of cutting the ornament out of the solid is carried out so far, that the leaves, o il in most examples of the Corinthian order, instead of being mere appliquees to the 1 'I the capital, are actually cut out of it. 17. The He •gree of relief which ornaments ought to have is dependent on their distance ■ the eye and the character of the composition: these matters will also regulate the * '' "I finish they ought to possess. There are some mouldings whose profile is in— 1 ive of hearing weight, as the ovolo and talon, which by being deeply cut, though ' " Ives heavy in character, are therebysusceptible of having great lightness imparted to 1 i, whilst such as the cyma and cavetto should not be ornamented deep in the solid. The 1 from nature of the objects represented should be carefully observed, the result cof will impart beauty umi interest to the work on which such attention is bestowed. 3 I 850 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Boon 1 CHARACTERS OF THE ORDERS. 2588. In the First Book of this work, Sect. XI. (133, et seq.~) we have considered history of the five orders of architecture; we shall here offer some general observati upon them before proceeding to the detail of each separately. The orders and their sevi characters and qualities do not merely appear in the five species of columns into which t have been subdivided, but are distributed throughout the edifices to which they areappli the column itself being the regulator of the whole composition. It is on this account name of orders has been applied to the differently formed and ornamented supports, columns, which have received the names of the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, . Composite orders, whereof the three first are of Grecian origin, and the two last, it is :■ posed, of Italian or Roman origin. Each of these, by the nature of its proportions, ; the character resulting from them, produces a leading quality, to which its dimensn form, and ornaments correspond. But neither of the orders is so limited as to be conli within the expression of any single quality. Thus the strength indicated in the Doric or is capable of being modified into many shades and degrees of that quality. We may sat ourselves of this in an instant by reference to the early compared with the later 1)' column of the Greeks. Thus the columns of the temple at Corinth are only four diarnet high, while those of the portico of Philip are six and a half. 2539. As the Doric seems the expression of strength, simplicity, and their various mo so the Ionic, by the rise in height of its shaft and by the slenderness of its mass, as vl as by the elegance of its capital, indicates a quality intermediate between the grave solii of the Doric and the elegant delicacy of the Corinthian. Bounded on one side by stren;! and by elegance on the other, in the two orders just named, the excess of elegance in Corinthian order ends in luxury and richness, whereof the character is imprinted on it. 2540. We cannot here refrain from giving, in the words of the excellent Sir He Wotton, a quaint and homely, but most admirable description of these five orders, from Elements of Architecture. “ First, the Tuscan is a plain massive rural pillar, rcsembl some sturdy, well-limbed labourer, homely clad, in which kind of comparisons, Vitruvl himself seemeth to take pleasure.” (Lib. iv. cap. 1. ) . . . The Dorique order is the gra' that hath been received into civil use, preserving, in comparison of those that follow, a n • masculine aspect and little trimmer than the Tuscan that went before, save a sober garn ; ment now and then of lions’ heads in the cornice, and of triglyphs and metopes always in frize.” . . . “ To discern him will be a piece rather of good heraldry then of architect j, for he is knowne by his place when he is in company, and by the peculiar ornament of jt frize, before mentioned, when he is alone.” . . . “ The /unique order doth represent a Iql of feminine slendernesse ; yet, saith Vitruvius, not like a light housewife, but, in a dec dressing, hath much of the matrone." . . . “ Best known by his trimmings, for the h of this columne is perpetually chanded, like a thick-pleighted gowne. The capitall dre on each side, not much unlike women’s wires, in a spiral wreathing, which they call ’ Ionian valuta." . . . “ The Corinthian is a columne lasciviously decked like a courtc . and therefore in much participating (as all inventions do) of the place where they v 1 first born, Corinth having beene, without controversie, one of the wantonest towns in •' world.” . . . “In short, as plainness did characterise the Tuscan, so, much delicacie 1 varietie the Corinthian pillar, besides the height of his rank.” . . . “ The last is the ■ pounded order, his name being a briefe of his nature : for this pillar is nothing in effect 1 a medlie, or an amasse of all the precedent ornaments, making a new kinde by stealth, 1 though the most richly tricked, yet the poorest in this, that he is a borrower of his beam Each of the orders, says De Quincy, is, then, in the building to which it is applied- governing principle of the forms, taste, and character of that system of moral order 1 with in Grecian architecture which alone seems to have suited the physical order ol portions with each part, so that what is agreeable, ornate, and rich is equally found in whole as in the parts. 2541. On the two Latin orders we do not think it recessary to say more than that i will be fully described in following pages. The invention of new orders must arise oi other expressions of those qualities which are already sufficiently well and beautil expressed; hence we consider, with De Quincy, to attempt such a thing would be Chambers thus expresses himself on this subject, without the philosophy of De ■ yet with the feelings of a learned and experienced architect : “ The ingenuity of man j- hitherto, not been able to produce a sixth order, though large premiums have been of' and numerous attempts been made, by men of first-rate talents to accomplish it. 8"' the fettered human imagination, such the scanty store of its ideas, that Doric, Ionic. Corinthian have ever floated uppermost, and all that has ever been produced amount ' nothing more than different arrangements and combinations of their parts, with trifling deviations, scarcely deserving notice ; the whole tending generally more to dim 11 than to increase the beauty of the ancient orders.” Again: “ The suppression of pai THE OltDEUS. 851 -. I. ueient orders, with a view to produce novelty, has of late years been practised among th full as little success ; and though it is not wished to restrain sallies of imagination, ) discourage genius from attempting to invent, yet it is apprehended that attempts to the primary forms invented by the ancients, and established by the concurring appro- (i of many ages, must ever be attended with dangerous consequences, must always be .lit, and seldom, if ever, successful. It is like coining words, which, whatever may he value, are at first but ill received, and must have the sanction of time to secure them rent reception.” 1 2. In the progress of the five orders, from the Tuscan up to the Composite, taking diameters for the height of the Tuscan column, and eleven for that of the Composite, i entablature be taken of the same absolute height in all, and at the same time in t one quarter of that of the column, we shall have the height of the entablature in of the diameter of the column, as follows : — In the Tuscan order . ^ of ^ = 1 ^ entablature diameters high. In the Doric order . ^ of ^ = 2 entablature diameters high. In the Ionic order . J of f = 2^ entablature diameters high. In the Corinthian order \ of !j° = 2 entablature diameters high. In the Composite order J of y = 2J entablature diameters high. HEIGHT AND DIMINUTION OF COLUMNS. 18. Vitruvius tells us that the ancients were accustomed to assign to the Tuscan in seven of its diameters for the height ; to the Doric, eight ; to the Ionic, nine ; and e Corinthian and Composite, ten. Scamozzi, the leader of the moderns, adopts ir proportions. But these are not to he considered as more than an approximation to mits, nor as relating to the proportions between the heights and diameters of the nt Doric examples, whereof in our First Book we have examined certain specimens, work cannot be extended to a representation of the variety under which the orders appeared in their various examples of each order. The works in which they are ined must be consulted for particulars of detail in this respect. Our intention is to g neral information on the subject, and to follow, with few exceptions, in that respect, rcccpts of Vignola, as tending to the most generally pleasing results, and as being hose which have been adopted on the Continent for general instruction in the art. I I. We have already spoken (2524, et set /. ) of the general proportion of the height of itablature to that of the column as one fourth, and, without returning to the discussion • propriety of that proportion, will only here incidentally mention that Scamozzi, Bar-' Alberti, and Palladio have not assigned so great a height to their entablatures, chiefly 'ears, because they seemed to consider the slenderness of the columns in the more deli- irders unsuited to the reception of heavy burdens. If, however, the reader will bear in ection what has been said at the beginning of this section relative to the supports and its, it will directly occur to him that the practice these great masters sanctioned is miided upon just deductions. Chambers seems to have had a glimpse of this theory, itliout any notion of its developement, when he says, “ It must be remembered that, 'li the height of an entablature in a delicate order is made the same as in a massive ■ et it will not, either in reality or in appearance, be equally heavy, for the quantity of r in the Corinthian cornice A (.Jiff- 875.) is considerably less than in the Tuscan e B, and the increased number of parts composing the former of these will of course it appear fur lighter than the latter.” lie was, however, nearer the exact truth lie speaks in a previous passage of the possibility of increasing the intervals between jlumnx. Ik The diminution or tapering form given to a column, whereof all the authors find pe, whether truly or not, in that of the trunk of a tree, in the ancient examples, some* commences froju the foot of the shaft, sometimes from a quarter or one third of its t, in which case the lower part is a perfect cylinder. Though the latter method hux mostly adopted by modern artists, the former seems more to have prevailed among the it-. Of the method of entasis, that is, of swelling columns us they rise, we have already •n in the first Book (144.). A curve of diminution, if we may so term it, in which the pait does not much vary from the cylinder, but never much exceeding its boundary " height of one third upwards, is the best, and to something like that we now come. I> l I Itreilulinn ths t/uttln / irineiuaux 1 ’ruble tut s d' /Irchitecture) says, that the best and ' st instrument for the diminution of columns is that invented by Nicomedes lor ‘lung the lirst conchoid, which, upplied at the bottom of the slialt, gives, by continued 1 I«>th the swelling and the diminution. Vignola had not strictly anticipated lllnndcl • method, which, it is said, was that used for the columns in the Pantheon ; but the i.ltr had come so near to it that we shall first describe Vignola's method, and theu nopo-.ed by Dloudcl. Vignola having already spoken of the common practice, says, a i 2 852 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II (Stampani’s edit. Dei cinque Ordini d’ Architettura, Roma, 1770, cap. 7. p.51.), “In spect of this second mode, it is my own discovery, and will be soon understood by figure, though not so well known as the first named. The measures of the colui having been fixed, namely, the height of the shaft and its upper and lower diameti from C {fig- 876.), draw an indefinite line through D perpendicular to the axis of column. From A, the extreme point of the upper semi-diameter, to R, a point in axis, set off' CD the lower semidiameter. Through B from A draw the line ABE, eutt the indefinite line CD in E, and from the point of intersection E and through the axi the column draw any number of rays, as E IF/, whereon, from the axis towards the circi ference, setting off the interval CD, any number of points aaa may be found, and throi them a curve being drawn gives the swell and diminution of the shaft. 2546. This method is so far defective as to require the curve to be drawn by hand ji the application of a flexible ruler through the points found. To remedy the defect, B del, who on investigation of the curve found it to be a conchoid, applied the instrun . of Nicomedes for the purpose, the description of which instrument here follows, height of the shaft and the upper and lower diameters of the column having been di • mined, as also the length {Jig. 876.) of the line CDE, take three rulers, FG, ID, and , ■ of which let FG and ID be fastened together at right angles in G. From top to hot i let a dovetail groove be cut down the middle of FG, and at E on the ruler ID, w length from the centre of the groove in FG is the same as that of the point of intersec 1 from the axis of the column, fix a pin. On the ruler AH set off the distance AB c I to the lower semidiameter of the column CD, and at the other end of the ruler cut a t through it from FI to K, the length whereof must at least be equal to the differcnc 1 length between EB and ED, and its breadth sufficient to admit the pin fixed at E to ' through the slit, and allow the ruler to slide thereon. Now, the middle of the groi r ! the ruler FG being placed exactly over the axis of the column, the ruler AH in mo ■ along the groove will with its extremity A describe the curve Aaa C, which curve is same as that produced by Vignola’s method, except that the operation is performed !;;■ continued motion of the ruler AH. If the rulers be of an indefinite size, and tlie pii ' E and B be made to move along their respective rulers, so as to be able to lncreasff diminish at pleasure the lengths AB and DE, the instrument will answer for dno columns of any size. 2547. The diminution of the column as respects quantity is rarely in ancient exam ■ less than one eighth of the lower diameter of the column, nor often more than one six 1 will be seen in the subjoined examples. One sixth is the diminution recommendc Vitruvius, and followed by Vignola, in all his orders, except the Tuscan. In the follop table the first column contains the order ; the second, the example ; the third, the In 11 of the column in English feet and decimal parts of a foot ; the fourth column slur s diameter in similar terms ; and the fifth the ratio of diminution. The dimensions arc Renault, reduced here from French to English feet. if. I. THE ORDERS. 85 :? Older. Examples. Height of Column in English Feet. Diameter of Column in English Feet. Ratio of Diminution. Doric Theatre of Marcellus 22-386 3-198 0-200 Coliseum - .. - 24*384 2*865 0*077 Ionic Temple of Concord, now of Saturn - . 38-376 4*485 0-182 Temple of Fortuna Virilis - - 24-340 3109 0*125 Coliseum - - - 24*518 2*909 0-166 lorinthian Temple of Peace . - 52-400 6 041 0111 Portico of Pantheon - . . 3R-998 4*796 0*106 Altars of Pantheon - - 11*548 1*465 0*133 Temple of Vesta . - 29*226 3*109 0*111 Temple of the Sybil at Ti; >li - . 20*254 2-487 0133 Temple of Faustina - - - 38-376 4-796 0*133 Temple of the Dioscuri . . 39-973 4-840 o-lll Basilica of Antoninus - . . 39442 4-752 0-106 Arch of Constantine - _ - 23*097 3*435 0*117 Interior of Pantheon - • - . - 29*314 3*642 0133 Portico of Septimius - - - 39*442 3*632 0125 'omposite. Baths of Diocletian - > 37-310 3-553 0-200 Temple of Bacchus - . 11-371 1*443 o-lll Arch of Titus - . _ 17-056 2*102 0117 — Arch of Septimius Severus 23-097 2-877 0117 !548. The recommendation of Vitruvius (lib. iii. c. 2.) to give different degrees of dilution to columns of different heights has been combated by Perrault in his notes on passage; and we are, with Chambers, of opinion that Perrault is right in his judgment, smuch as the proper point of view for a column fifty feet high (Jig. 876. unshaded part) ;ht not to be at the same distance as for one of fifteen, the point being removed more tsnt as the column increases in height, and therefore the apparent relation between the ier and lower diameters would appear the same. For supposing A to be a point of view ose respective distance from each of the columns fg FG, is equal to the respective gilts of each, the triangles /Ag FAG will be similar; and Af or Ah, which is the name, i be to Ag, as Ah', or its equal AH, is to AG : therefore, if de be in reality to be as 1 is to BC, it will likewise be apparently so : tor the angle d Ae will then be to the angle , as the angle DAE is to the angle BAC ; and if the real relations differ, the apparent •s will likewise differ. “ When, therefore,” observes Chambers, “a certain degree of dilution, which by experience is found pleasing, has been fixed upon, there will be no essity for changing it, whatever be the height of the column, provided the point of view not limited; but in close places, where the spectator is not at liberty to choose a proper ance for his point of sight, the architect, if he inclines to be scrupulously accurate, may y ; though it is, in reality, a matter of no importance, as the nearness of the object I render the image thereof indistinct, and, consequently, any small alteration impar- tible.” Our author afterwards adds: “ It must not, however, be imagined that the ie general proportions will in all cases succeed. They are chiefly collected from the pies and other public structures of antiquity, and may by us be employed in churches, ■ces, and other buildings of magnificence, where majesty and grandeur of manner should •xtended to their utmost limits, and where, the composition being generally large, the ts require an extraordinary degree of boldness to make them distinctly perceptible from proper general points of view.” SUBDIVISION OF ENTABLATURES. 519. We have spoken of the entablature as the fourth part of the height of the column, renewal terms, its subdivisions of architrave, frieze, and cornice are obtained by dividing ■eight into ten equal parts, whereof three are given to the architrave, three to the frieze, four to the cornice; except in the Roman Doric order, in which the whole height of entablature is divided into eight parts, of which two are given to the architrave, three he frieze, and three to the cornice. From these general proportions variations have i made by different masters, but not so great as to call for particular observation. They “te but little from the examples of antiquity ; and the ease with which they may be llectcd render them singularly useful. MODE OF MEASURING THE ORDERS. ■ 50. e evcral methods have been used for forming the scale of equal parts, by which the 1 rs are measured ; but they are all founded on the diameter of the column at the bottom 1 '• shaft; for those that use the module or semi-diameter as the measuring unit (which ivc done in the Doric order ) must still recur to the diameter itself. The authors have 'iso. illy divided it into thirty parts, but all concur in measuring by an unit founded m- diameter. We shall follow the practice of Vignola in describing the orders, that 1 ter dividing the diameter into two equal parts, of which caeli is the unit of the scale for 854 PRACTICE OP ARCHITECTURE. Rook II profiling tlie order. The module for the two first orders, the Tuscan and Doric, is diviel. into twelve parts err minutes; and for the Ionic, Corinthian, anel Composite orders in eighteen parts, by which minute fractions are avoided. 2551. For drawing or profiling, as it is called, an order, the proper way is to set out t height erf the leading parts and their projections, and then proceed to the subdivisions each. As a general rule, we may mention that it is usual to make projections of cornii nearly or quite equal to their heights. APPLICATION OF THE ORDERS. 2552. The application of the orders among the ancients was exceedingly extensh Porticoes abounded about their cities ; their temples were almost groves of columns, w which also were profusely decorated their theatres, baths, basilicae, and other pub buildings, as were no less the courts, vestibules, and halls of their private dwellings. '1 moderns have in a great measure imitated their example, and their use has very mu exceeded the limits of propriety. The maxim of Horace, “ Nee Deus intersit,” has in case been more violated by architects than in the unnecessary introduction of the orders the facades of their buildings. The test of fitness being applied to their employment the best that the young architect can adopt. Sect. 1 1 1 THE TUSCAN ORDER. 2558. The reader, in fig. 877., has before him the geometrical representation of the Tusi order and its details. A shows the plan of the sofite of the cornice, and 15 is a plan of the capital. The exam- ple is from Vignola’s profile, whereon we consider it proper to remark, in conformity with an opinion before ex- pressed (2532, 2533.), that the ovolo which crowns the cornice is an im- proper moulding for the situation it occupies. The substitution for it of a fillet and cyma recta woidd have been much more suitable, and would have also been more pleasant in effect. 2554. “ The Tuscan order,” says Chambers, “ admits of no ornaments of any kind ; on the contrary, it is sometimes customary to represent on the shaft of its column rustic cinc- tures, as at the Palace Pitti in Flo- rence, that of the Luxembourg in Paris, York Stairs in London, and many other buildings of note. This practice, though frequent, and to be found in the works of many cele- brated architects, is not always ex- cusable, and should be indulged with caution, as it hides the natural figure of the column, alters its proportions, and affects the simplicity of the whole composition. There are few ^ examples of these bandages in the remains of antiquity, and in general it will be advisable to avoid them in all large desi reserving the rustic work for the intercolumniations, where it may be employed with ? propriety, to produce an opposition which will help to render the aspect of the wl composition distinct and striking.” Our author proceeds to observe, that “in sm;> works, of which the parts being few are easily comprehended, they may be sonicti ■ tolerated, sometimes even recommended, as they serve to diversify the forms, are pro 1 ‘ five of strong contrasts, and contribute very considerably to the masculine bold aspec ! pup H j 111 II il II llllll on 1 III!! Ill!:n| riit. »/n. 'lie detail on a larger scale of the general representation exhibited in that preceding ■ measures of each part, are given in the following table. I i HA r I. THE TUSCAN ORDER, 855 ie composition.” Le Clerc allows their propriety in the gates of citadels and prisons, id also considers them not out of place for gates to gardens or parks, for grottoes, fou li- nns, and baths. Delorme made abundant use of them in several parts of the Thuilleries, jvering them with arms, cyphers, and other enrichments. They are to be found in the etail of the Louvre, with vermiculated rustics. De Chambrai, who banishes the Tuscan - rder to the country, nevertheless admits that the Tuscan column may be consecrated to ie commemoration of great men and their glorious actions, instancing Trajan’s column, Me of the proudest monuments of Roman splendour, as also the Antonine column. 2555. Having adjusted the size of the module with its subdivisions of twelve parts, i that the paper or other material on which the order is profiled may contain the whole f the order, it always being understood that the representation for practical purposes need it include the whole height of the shaft of the column, whose minutiaj of diminution iay form the subject of a separate drawing, the first step is to draw a perpendicular line r the axis of the column. Parallel to the base lines are then to he drawn, according to ie dimensions (parts of the module) given in the table subjoined ; and the beginner, £.s ell as the more practised man, is recommended not to set up these as they are given parately, hut in every case to add the succeeding dimensions to those preceding rather lan to set them off one by one, which, on a small scale, causes minute errors in reading if from the scale to become in the end large in amount. By the adoption also of ich a practice the work corrects itself as it proceeds. As the heights are set up, the ojection of each member from the axis of the column is to he set off, and this should j always done on both sides at the same time, by which gulling of the paper from lie point of the compasses, and errors in other respects, are avoided. The Jig. 878. is 856 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 IT. Table of the Parts of the Tuscan Order. Mouldings whereof the Parts are composed. Entablature. Cornice A, 16 parts. Frieze 15, 14 parts. Architrave C, 12 parts. f Quarter round Cymatium, J and parts. . Astragal | Fillet - Conge, or cavetto - Corona Drip ... Sinking from corona, hollow Fillet - Bed moulding Ogee - Fillet. Fascia. Fillet, or listel Conge, or small cavetto - Fascia - The height of the drip under the corona is taken on that member, and that of the hollow in the height of the fillet. Column. Capital D, 12 parts. Shaft, 12 modules. Base, E, 12 parts. Cornice G, 6 parts. Die F, 44 parts. Base, 6 parts. Abacus. f Fillet - j Conge, or cavetto Cymatium. Band f Ovolo - Fillet - [ Conge, or cavetto' - Neck, or Hypotrachelion f Bead - Fillet - Conge, or cavetto - f Shaft - 1 Conge, or apophyge \ Fillet - - t Torus - [ Plinth - Pedestal. Astragal, or necking. Shaft. f fi .. f Listel - i Cymatium. ( ^ _ { ' { * f Die, or dado 1 Conge, or apophyge f Fillet - - - ( Plinth - Heights of Mouldings in Parts of a Module. 4 1 1 2 1 5 1 i 5 1 2 4 14 2 2 8 Projection from the Axis of Column in Paris of a Module. 1 1 2 3 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 mod. 8 parts. H i 2 4 3 mod. 4 parts. 2 1 5 231 2lf 19.1 14 131 9.1 111 91 91 141 131 131 131 9.1 11 101 91 91 12 131 161 iei 201 20 161 16.1 181 201 2556. Vitruvius in this order forms the columns six diameters high, and makes their diminution one quarter of the diameter. He gives to the base and capital each one module in height. No pedestal is given by him. Over the capital he places the architrave of timber in two thicknesses connected together by dovetailed dowels. He however leaves the height unsettled, merely saying that their height should be such as may be suitable t< the grandeur of the work where they are used. He directs no frieze, but places over the architrave cantilevers or mutuli, projecting one fourth part of the height of the column, including the base and capital. He fixes no measure for the cornice, neither docs lie give any directions respecting the intercolumniations of this order. The instructions are not so specific as those which he lays down for the other orders, and there have been various interpretations of the text, which unfortunately cannot in any of the suppositions be tested iHAF. I. TIIE DORIC ORDER. 857 n ancient remains. The whole height, according to the measuring unit winch we have clopted from Vignola, is 16 modules and 3 parts. 2557. Palladio makes the height of his Tuscan column 6 diameters, and diminishes the haft one fourth of a diameter. The height of the base and capital are each half a diameter, de provides no pedestal, but, instead thereof, places the base of the column on a zoccolo, r lofty plinth, whose height is equal to the diameter of the column. He leaves the inter- olumniation unsettled, merely hinting that as the architraves are of timber, they, the ntercolumniations may be wide. The whole height by him assigned to the order is 9 iiameters and three quarters of the column. The whole height according to our scale is 9 modules and 6 parts. 2558. Serlio makes the column of the order 5 diameters exclusive of base and capital, :ach of which are half a diameter in height, and his diminution is one quarter of the liameter. He gives half a diameter to the height of the architrave, and an equal height o the frieze and to the cornice. His pedestal is with a plinth and base, a die, and .'vmatium, the whole being a third of the height of the column, pie gives no rules for the ntercolumniations, though in book 4. he inserts a diagram wherein intercolumns appear, nerely saying that they are equal to 3 diameters. The total height according to our neasure is 19 modules and 3 parts. 2559. Scamozzi makes the shaft of his column 6 diameters, and diminishes it one fourth iart of its diameter. The heights of the base and capital are each half a diameter. To the entablature he assigns for height one fourth of the height of the column, including its rase and capital, less half its diameter. He places a sort of triglyph in the frieze, which irises from a misconception of the text of Vitruvius. The height of his pedestal is a fourth part of that of the column, with base and capital, less half a diameter. The whole height in our measure is 21 modules and 9 parts. Sect. IV. THE DORIC ORDER. 25C0. The Doric order of the moderns is of two sorts : mutular and denticular, the oriner is represented in Jiff. 879. A is a plan of the sofite of the corona ; 13, a plan of the Fia. 879. pitnl ; and C, a plnn of the base. In the frieze the channelled projections arc called ily phi, and the spaces between them metojiw, which should in breadth be equal to their 858 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 111, height, which is that of the frieze. The shaft is usually channelled with twenty flutes. Over t he triglyphs are distributed mutules or modillions, and another peculiarity is the introduction of gutter or drops, which decorate the sofite of the cornice and the feet of the triglyphs. 2561. Daviler, speaking of the two Doric entablatures given by Vignola, admires the elegance of their composition, and scarcely knows which of them to select as the most beautiful. “ The first ” (or denticular), hereafter immediately subjoined, says Chambers, following that author, “ which is entirely antique, is the lightest, and consequently pro- perest for interior decoration or objects intended for near inspection ; the other, composed by Vignola himself from various fragments of antiquity, being bolder, and consisting of larger parts, seems better calculated for outside works and places where the point of view is either distant or unlimited. On polygonal plans, however, the mutule cornice must be avoided, because the sofites of the angular mutules would form irregular and very disagreeable figures : neither should it be employed in concaves of small dimensions, for the same reason ; nor in places where frequent breaks are requisite, it being extremely difficult, often impossible, to prevent tbe mutules from penetrating and mutilating each other in various unsightly manners; and wherever this cornice is used on a convex surface, the sides of the mutules must be made parallel, for it would be both disagreeable and un- natural to see them broader, and consequently heavier in front than where they spring out of the mutule band.” We have elsewhere observed that there is very great difficulty in distributing the parts of the Doric entablature, on account of the intervals between the centres of tbe triglyphs, which necessarily confine the composer to intercolumniations divisible by three modules, thus producing spaces which are often too wide or too narrow for his purposes. Chap. I. THE DORIC ORDER. 859 Ta ble of Parts of the Entablature OF THE Mutui.ar Doric. Heights of Projections Mouldings whereof the Parts are composed. Mouldings in Parts of a from Axis of Column in Parts Module. of a Module. Fillet of the corona i 34 Cyma - - - - 3 31 Fillet - - - - 1 5 31 Cyma reversa - - - - i 30^ Corona - - - 3 5 30 Cornice A, Cyma reversa - - 1 29! 18 parts. Mutule - - - 3 284 Drip - - - 1 3 28 Gutta of the mutule - - - I 26 ! Echinus, or (juarter round - - 2 Ip i Fillet - - - - i Capital of the triglyph - - o ii Frieze 15, Triglyph - - - 18 10i 18 parts. Metope - - - 18 lu Listel - _ _ _ 2 12 Architrave C, Capital of the gutta; Gutta; - - - 1 2 1» Hi 111 12 parts. First fascia _ _ _ 6 101 Second fascia - - - - 4 10 1) is the plan of a triglyph to double the scale. E is the plan of the round or square gutt;e. E is the elevation of the triglyph and its gutUe. 2563. To obviate the difficulties mentioned in 2561. relative to the triglyphs, they have often been omitted and the entablature left plain, as in the Coliseum at Rome, the colon- nades of St. Peter’s of the Vatican, and in many other buildings. This, says Chambers, is an easy expedient ; but as it robs the order of its principal characteristic distinction, the remedy is a desperate one, and should only be employed as a last resource. 2564. The Doric order was used by the ancients in temples dedicated to Minerva, to Mars, and to Hercules. In modern buildings, Serlio (lib. iv. c. C.) recommends it in churches dedicated to saints remarkable by their suffering for the Christian faith. Le Clcrc suggests its use for military buildings. “ It may,” says Chambers, “ be employed in the houses of generals, or other martial men, in mausoleums erected to their memory, or in triumphal bridges and arches built to celebrate their victories.” 2665. As the difference between the mutular and denticular Doric lies entirely in the entablature, we give in the following table the whole of tile details of the order. ol>*orving, that from the capitals downwards, the measures assigned to them are the -one for each. Fit/. 881. represents the entablature of the denticular Doric and its parts. 860 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book Hi which, with those of the capital, base, and pedestal, are in fig. 882. given to a larger j r £D L scale, as we have before represented the parts of the Tuscan order, subjoined : — The general table is Members composing the Order. Heights in Parts of a Module. Projections in Parts of a Module from Axis of Column. Entablature. ' Fillet of corona _ i 34 Cavetto - 3 31 Fillet - - 1 5 26 Cyma reversa - - n 30 Corona - 4 281 A, Cornice, Drip - - 1 27^ 18 parts. Fillet - - I 25 Gutta under the corona - I 241 Dentil - 3 15 Fillet - - 1 13 Cyma reversa - • 2 12* Capital of triglyph - 2 11 B, Frieze, Triglyph - 18 10* 1 8 parts. Metope " 18 10 Chaf. I. THE DORIC ORDER. 861 Heights in Projections in Members composing the Order. Parts of a Module Iron - Module. Axis of Col’V.i.n. T.istel 2 hi C, Architrave, Capital of guttae - - - 2 1 1 10 parts. Guttaj - - - >1 ii Fascia - ' - 10 10 Column. Listel . _ - l 1 .5' Cyma reversa - - - - l 15! Rand - - - - n 14 D, Capital, Echinus or quarter round Three annulets - - n n 13? Ilf 12 parts. Neck of capital - - - 4 10 r Ovolo - - 1 12 Astragal 1 Fillet - - - 1 2 114 L Conge - - - 1* 10 Shaft of the Column, 14 modules. Apophyge or conge - - - 2 12 E, Rase, 12 parts. Fillet - - - - 2 3 14 Astragal Torus - * i* 4 HJ 17 Plinth - - - 6 17 Pedestal. Listel . . . 1 2 23 F, Cornice, 6 parts. Echinus Fillet - Corona - - - 1 2 ■ 2 2 22§ 21| 21 . Cyma reversa - - - - H 18J Die of the Pedestal, 4 modules. Conge _ _ _ i 17 Fillet - - - - 1 2 18 G, Rase, Astragal - - - i 18’ 10 parts. Inverted cyma - - - 2 19 Second plinth - - - ~i 21 First plinth * “ 4 21 J 2566. Vitruvius, with more clearness than in the others, describes the Doric order hook iv. chap. iii. ). In order to set out its proportions, he tells us, though not giving a lircct rule, that its pedestal is composed of three parts, the cymatium or cornice, the die, loid the base ; and that the base and cimatium are composed of many mouldings, whose ((dividual proportions, however, he does not give. He assigns no particular base to the )oric order; but, nevertheless, places under half a diameter in height the attic base, whose "embers are the plinth, small fillet, scotia, and the upper torus with its superior and inferior diets, together with the apophyge of the column. lie gives to the projection of the base liflh part of the diameter of the column. The height of the shaft he makes of 6 diameters, id its diminution a sixth part of the diameter. The capital’s height he makes equal to ■df a diameter, and divides it into three parts, one for the abacus and its cymatium. "other for the echinus and its fillets, the third for the hypotrachelium. 'io the architrave he signs the height of one half diameter of the column; and to the frieze 50 parts of the module semidiameter divided into 80 parts), including the fascia, forming the capital of the tri- lyphs. His cornice consists of 30 parts of the module, and its projection 40. The whole eight which he gives to the order is, in the measure here adopted, 17 modules and 20 parts. 2.V; 7. l’alladio makes the Doric pedestal rather less than 2.J diameters of the column, ividing it into three parts, the base, die, and cymatium. To the die he assigns nearly a "under and one third of the column. To the cymatium a little more than one third of "• diameter. He uses the attic base to the order, but, for the sake of carrying oil’ the iter, turns the plinth into an inverted cavctto (guacio). ending in the projection of the 862 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book HI. cyinatium of die pedestal. To the shaft of the column he assigns various proportions, directing that if accompanied with pilasters, it should he of the height of 8^ diameters, and if entirely isolated, 7 or at most 8 diameters high. lie cuts the shaft into 24 flutes, and diminishes it the tenth part of its diameter. The height of his capital is half a diameter, and, l.ke the annotators on Vitruvius, he decorates the neck or frieze, as tliev both call it, with ruses, adding, however, other flowers, and making its projection a little more than a fifth part of the diameter. To the architrave, frieze, and cornice he gives a little more than one fourth part of the height of the column, so that the whole height o( Ins order is in our measure 24 modules and a fraction above 2^ parts. 2568. Seriio makes the height of the pedestal of his column a little less than 3 dia- meters, with its base, die, and cymatium. The height of the die is set up equal to the diagonal of a square, formed on the plinth of the column. The height of the cymatium, according to the strict text of Seriio, should not be less than that of the base ; but he altogether omits any mention of its projection. His base is the attic base, to which he assigns a projection of a quarter of a diameter. The column is 6 diameters high, and has 20 flutes. 1 1 is capital differs only from that of Vitruvius in its projection, which is rather more. The architrave and frieze do not much differ from those already described. The projection given to the cornice is equal to its height. The whole height in our measures amounts to 23 modules and 5 parts. 2569. The Doric order as described by Scamozzi is not very dissimilar to those already described. The pedestal is by him made 2 diameters and a little more than a quarter, with a base, die, and cymatium, and the projection barely a quarter of the diameter of the column, to which he gives the attic base. Ilis column is 71 diameters high, and the dimi- nution a fifth part of the diameter. There are 26 flutes on the shaft, separated from each other by fillets, whose width is one third of the flute. This author gives three different sorts of capitals for the order : the first has three annulets ; the second has only the lower annulet, the two upper ones being changed to an astragal ; the third, instead of the two lower annulets, has a cyma reversa. Lastly, above the corona he places a cyma reversa, and in the other parts does not vary much from the preceding authors, especially in the frieze and architrave, except that in the last he uses two fascia?. To the cornice he assigns the projection of five sixths of a diameter of the column. His whole entablature is a little less than one fourth the height of the column, including base and capital. The whole height of the order in our measures is 23 modules and 8 parts. 2570. In jig. 883. the profile of the Grecian Doric from the Parthenon at Athens is given. Though very different to those we have already described of this order, the resemblance is still considerable. Its character is altogether sacred and monumental, and its application, if capable of ap- plication to modern purposes, can scarcely be made to any edifice whose general character and forms are not of the severest and purest nature. The various absurd situations in which the Grecian Doric has been in- troduced in this country, has brought it into disre- pute ; added to which, in this dark climate the closeness of the intereolumniations excludes light, which is so essential to the display of architecture under the cloudy skies with which we are constantly accompanied in high latitudes. The diameter of the columns in the original is 6 feet 2’7 inches. 2571. Lest we may be reproached, with neglecting to submit to the student in this place (and the remark equally applies to the following section on the Ionic order) more examples of the Grecian Doric, we would here observe that this work is not to stand in place of a parallel of the orders. Nothing would have been easier than to have placed before him an abundance of examples; hut they must be sought elsewhere, inasmuch as the nature of our labours requires general, not special, information in this respect. We have not, however, refrained in the first book (142, et seq.) from entering into details respecting the Grecian Doric, which we consider much more valuable to the reader than would be the exhibition of a series of profiles of its principal examples. Vc nave, moreover, at that place, suggested some criteria of their comparative antiquity. Ve do not think the nice copy ing of a profile into a modern work any other than a disgraceful exhibition of the want of ability in the man, we cannot call him artist, who adopts it, ami •shall lie much better pleased to leave the student in doubt, so that he may apply biinsell re naia to the matter which calls his genius into play. From what we have said on ike order* in Sect. II. of this Book, (2523, el seq.), relative to the order, and on moulding/ Fig. *HS, Chap. 1. THE IONIC ORDER. 8G3 '2532, et seq.), it in list be quite clear that the variety of every order, keeping to first prin- ciples, lias not been yet exhausted, neither is it likely' to be so. Table of the Parts of the Grecian Doric (Parthenon). Heights in 1 Projections in Parts <>1 a Mo- Parts of a Members composing the Order. dule and Deci- Module from mals. Axis of Column Entablature. Fillet - - - . 0-60 2210 Echinus ... - 312 20-40 Fillet, with sunk cyma reversa - 2-20 A, Cornice, Corona ... - 4-88 18-98 , 15-32 parts. Fillet ... - - 1 IQ 18-80 Capital of mutules - 1 -10 Mutules ... - 0-32 18-36 Bead and capital of triglyphs - - 2 00 11 -4G B, Frieze, ' Frieze (in metope) - 15-12 1 4 88 parts. Triglyph - 14-88 11 -40 Fillet ..... _ 1 -50 12-50 C, Architrave, Cap of gutta; ... - 1 -00 12-40 17 10 parts. Guttie ... - 0-20 Architrave below guttie - 14-40 11-20 Column. Abacus ... . 4-40 12-90 D, Capital, Echinus ... Fillets and hollows, with cavctto - 3 80 0-80 1 2 GO 1 1 1 G parts Neck - - 2 -20 9-44 Groove or sinking - 0-16 Shaft .... 20-30 ( at f° P , 9 'Z 1 at bottom 1 2 00 First step or plinth - 6-90 12-80 Second step or plinth - - 6-70 21-80 Third step or plinth " 6-90 30-84 2572. The minutiae of the Grecian Doric, as we have just observed, cannot be given ill general work of this nature. In its smaller refinements it requires plates on a much irger scale than this volume allows. The reader, therefore, must be referred to Shunt's Intiquities of Athens (original edition), and the publications of the Dilettanti Society, for other information on the subject of the Grecian Doric. All that was here possible was to ivea general idea of the order. In the figure, E is the section of the capitals of the inner ilinnns of the temple on a larger scale. Dl) relate to the principal columns. F is a '<-•11011 of one of the antic or pilasters to double the scale of the capital. The centre inter- ilutnniatiou 4 modules -^j, from axis to axis of columns. The principal Grecian Doric samples are — the Parthenon, the temple of Theseus, the propylaiuin and the portico of ie Agora at Allien” *. the temple of Minerva at Sunium ; the temple at Corinth; of jpitcr Neimcus, between Argos and Corinth; temple of Apollo and portico of Philip in ■ e island of Delos; the temple of Jupiter Punhellenius at Egina, and ot Apollo Epicurius l’higalia; the two temples at Seliuus ; that of Juno Lucina and Concord at Agri- ntuin ; the temple at Egesta, and the three temples at Picstuin. (See 142, ct.seq.) Sect. V. the ionic order. 2573. Of the Ionic order there are many extant examples, both Grecian and Roman ; id, except the debased later examples of the latter, there is not that wide difference tween them that exists between the Grecian and Roman Doric. The Ionic has been ii .idered us deficient in appearance as compared with the other orders, on account ot 864 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. the irregularity of its capital, which, on the return, presents difficulties in use. These difficulties are not obviated by the practice of the Greeks, who made an angular volute on each extremity of the principal faijade, and then returned the face of the capital. With all our respect for Greek art, we think the expedient, though ingenious, a deformity; albeit, in the case of the type being a timber architrave, we must admit that the face of the capital should lie in the direction of the superincumbent beam. 2574. In the example given {fig. 884.) we have, as in the examples of the preceding FiK. SS4. orders, selected the profile of Vignola as the most elegant of the moderns ; and the read* will here recollect that in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders, the module cr sem diameter of the column is divided into 18 parts. In the figure, A is a plan of the sofite the cornice, and B a plan of the capital. The method of tracing the volute will be givi in a subsequent figure : previous to which, as in the orders already given, we subjoin a tabl showing the heights and projections of the parts of the order. Members composing the Order. Heights in Parts of a Module. Projections from Axis of Column in Par of a Module. Entahlatuke. Fillet of cyma - - - n 46 Cyma recta - - - 5 Fillet - - - - i 41 Cyma reversa - - - 2 40.j Corona - - - 6 38.1 Fillet of the drip - - 1 29 j A, cornice, Ovolo . . _ 4 28{ 34 parts. A stragal • . _ 1 23 Fillet - - - 1 2 24J Dentel fillet - - - H 21 Dentels « - - 6 24 Fillet - - - - 1 20 Cyma reversa - - * - 4 195 B, Frieze - • - - 27 15 I l AT. 1. TIIE IONIC ORDER. 865 Members composing the Order. 1, Architrave, 224 parts. D, E, Capital, 17 parts. I’, Base, 1 9.J parts. I >, Cornice, II j parts. H, Base, 1 0 parts. Listel ... Cyma reversa ... First fascia ... Second fascia - - - Third fascia ... Capital on the side Capital on the coussinet, or cushion Coi.umn. Fillet ... - Cyma reversa - Listel - Channel of the volute - Ovolo ... ( Bead Fillet [ Conge, or cavetto r above Shaft of the column I ^below Apophyge ... Fillet - Torus - - - - Fillet --- - Scotia - - Fillet .... Two beads ... Fillet .... Scotia .... Fillet .... Plinth ... Pedestal. Fillet - Cyma reversa - Corona Fillet of the drip Ovolo - Bead - Fillet - Conge Die, 4 modules Conge Fillet - Bead - Cyma reversa - Fillet - Plinth Heights in Parts of a Module. Projections from Axis of Column in Parts of a Module. i| 20 3 19§ n 17 6 16 4J 15 19 20 IS 174 1 20 2 19 J 1 171 3 1" 5 22 2 18 1 17 2 15 - 15 1 6 mod. 6 parts. - 18 2 18 11 20 5 22| 5 20t 2 20 i 3 22 2 221 i 22 2 21 1 3 24 6 25 § 35 •i 34 3 3 33.' 1 2 30 3 294 1 27 1 2 6‘ u 25 123 1 mod. 7. 2 25 1 27 >4 28 3 274 3 31 § 4 33 e flutes in this order are separated by a listel. I’ 5. Tire letters to the leading divisions of the above table refer to the fig. 885., in the parts are drawn to a larger scale, and wherein 1 is the eye of the volute, pro wl u ’ to be described. 866 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Boo* II Fig. 885. 2576. Fig. 886. shows the method of drawing the volute, the centre of whose eye, a is called, is found by the intersection of an horizontal line from E, the bottom of HAT. I. TIIE IONIC ORDER. 867 diinus, with a vertical from 1), the extremity of the cyma reversa. On the point of tersection, with a radius equal to one part, describe a circle. Its vertical diameter is died the cathetus, and forms the diagonal of a square, whose sides are to be bisected, and irough the points of bisection (see I, Jig. 885.) the axes 1, 3 and 2, 4 are to be drawn, ich being divided into 6 equal parts. The points thus found will serve for drawing the iterior part of the volute. Thus, placing the point of the compasses in the point 1, with le radius 1 D, the quadrant DA is described. With the radius 2 A another quadrant may j described, and so on. Similarly, the subdivisions below the points used for the outer nes of the volute serve for the inner lines. The total height of the volute is 16 parts of module, whereof 9 are above the horizontal from E, and 7 below it. 2577. Vitruvius, according to some authors, has not given any fixed measures to the edestal of this order. Daniel Barbara, however, his commentator, seems to think other- ise ; and, on this head, we shall therefore follow him. The height of the pedestal is made ,-arly a third part (including its base and eymatium) of the height of the column. To ,e base of the column he assigns half a diameter, and to the shaft itself nearly 8 diameters, s surface being cut into 24 flutes, separated by fillets from each other. His method of .scribing the volute is not now thoroughly understood ; and it is, perhaps, of little nportance to trouble ourselves to decypher his directions, seeing that the mode of forming is derived from mathematical principles, as well understood now as in the days of the ithor. The architrave he leaves without any fixed dimensions, merely saying that it must larger or smaller according to the height of the columns. He prescribes, however, that ie architrave, frieze, and cornice should together be somewhat less than a sixth part of the right of the column, with its base and capital. The total height he makes the order, ■cording to our measures, is 25 modules and nearly 9 oarts. 2578. Palladio gives to the pedestal 2 diameters and nearly two thirds of the height ot :c column. He adopts the attic, though without rejecting the Ionic base, and makes it ill f a diameter high, adding to it a small bead, which he comprises in the height of the mft, which he makes 8 diameters in height. To the architrave, frieze, and cornice, taken igcther, he assigns a little less than one fifth of the height of the column, including its ise and capital, and makes the projection of the cornice equal to its height. The total ■ight of the order, in our measures, is, according to him, 27 modules and nearly 8 parts. 2579. Serlio, in this order more than any of the others, varies from Vitruvius. To the ■destal he gives, including base, die, and cvmatium, a little more than a third part of the ■ight of the column, with its base and capital. To the shaft of the column he gives diameters, and diminishes it a sixth part of its diameter. His capital is that of Vitruvius, far as we can understand that master. Ilis mode of constructing the volute differs from her authors. I Iis directions are, that having found the cathetus, which passes through e centre of the eve, it must be divided into eight parts, from the abacus downwards, one hereof is to be the size of the eye of the volute, four remain above the eye, and three ■low that part comprised below the eye. The cathetus is then divided into six parts, operly numbered by figures from 1 to 6. With one point of the compasses in 1, and e other extended to the fillet of the volute, he describes a semicircle, and so on with micircles consecutively from 2 to 6, which will ultimately fall into the eye of the volute, e cannot speak in high terms of Serlio’s method, and therefore have thought it unne- 'sary to accompany the description with a figure. It is rather a clumsy method, and we ir, if exhibited in a figure, would not satisfy our readers of its elegance. The height of - architrave, frieze, and cornice together is a little s than a fourth part of the height of the column, luding the base and capital. The whole height of order, in our measures, is 25 modules and 6 parts. -580. Scamozzi directs that the pedestal shall be h its base and cornice two diameters and a half of column. He uses the attic base, and, like Pal- in, gives an astragal above the upper torus. To the 'It of the column he assigns a height of little less "i 8 diameters, and makes its diminution a sixth i of the diameter. He adopts the angular capital, nothin" like the example of that in the temple of tuna Virilis The height of his architrave, frieze, • cornice is a little less than a fifth part of the ~'ht of the column, with its base and capital. The 1 d height ot lus order, in our measures, is 26 mo- il cs. ''81. The principal examples of the Grecian Ionic i" the temples of .Minerva Polias, of Krccthciis, ■ I the Aqueduct of I ladrian, at Athens; in tin* ' |’li* ot Minerva I’olias at l’ricne ; of l>acchus at :i k 2 868 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Bo.k II Teos ; of Apollo Didymrrus at Miletus ; and of the small temple on the Ilyssus. ne: Athens, whereof in fitj. 887. the profile is given, and below, a table of the heights an projections of the parts. It is to be observed, that in the Grecian Ionic volute the fill of the spiral is continued along the face of the abacus, whilst in the Roman examp] it rises from behind the ovolo. Some of the Athenian examples exhibit a neck below tl echinus, decorated with flowers and plants. The entablature's of the early Ionic a usually very simple. The architrave has often only one fascia, the frieze is generally plai and the cornice is composed of few parts. In Book I. Chap. II. (153, et seq.) we ha already examined the parts of the Grecian Ionic, and thereto refer the reader. Table of the Parts of the Grecian Ionic in the Temple on the Ilyssus. Heights in Projections in Members composin g the Order. dale and Deci- Mod id e from mals. Axis of Column Entablature. Fillet - .. _ restored. restored. Cyma recta - _ - - restored. restored. Fillet - - - - - restored. restored. Cornice, sup- Echinus - - - - 2-040 34-440 posed height Corona - - - - 6-240 33-960 18 "33 parts. Drip - - - - - 4-680 Cyma reversa - - - - 2-700 20-520 Fillet - - - - - 0-720 Echinus - - - - 1 -260 1 8 -360 Frieze - - - - 29-901 17-400 Fillet - - . - - 1 -920 30-520 Architrave, Echinus - - - - 2-520 20-100 S3 '66 parts. Bead - - - - - 1 -200 17 880 Fascia - - - - 27-600 17-160 Column. Echinus _ - - - 2-040 19 860 Fillets, or beads of volutes - - 1 -050 Channel - - - - 7-320 Fillets, or beads of volutes - - 1 -050 Capital, 19-32 Channel - - - - 0-600 parts. Cathetus - - - 17-550 Echinus - - - - 4-650 18-960 Bead - - * - - 1 -080 17-250 Fillet - - - - - 0-450 15-720 Conge - - - 1 -080 Shaft - - - - - 17mod.7-1 10 above 15-36 below 1841 Apophyge - - - - I -080 18-960 Fillet - - - - 0-450 Bead - . - . - 1-080 19-320 Base, 33-27 Horizontally fluted torus Fillet - * - 6-120 0 450 22-500 22-500 parts. Scotia _ . _ 6-000 21-840 Fillet _ - . - 0-450 23-640 Torus _ _ - - 5-760 24-960 Plinth - - - - 11-880 26-520 j The height from the top of the echinus to the centre of the eye of the volute is 15 , i parts. Total projection of the volu te from axis of col nmn 27-90. The flutes are ell. , tical on plan (fly. 887.), and the distance >etween axes of columns, 6 mod., 3-21 | 2581a. An Ionic capital from the celebrated Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, can no s seen at the British Museum, having been recovered during the explorations made in I ■ by Mr. J. T. Wood. The shaft was 6 feet 1 in. diam., and a part of its base was found in ■ TA.P. I. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 869 Sect. VI. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. ■2582. For the Corinthian order, we must seek examples rather in Rome than in any part Greece. The portico at Athens, and the arch of Hadrian at Athens, do not furnisli us ;h specimens of art comparable with the three columns in the Campo Vaccino, belonging, is generally supposed, to the temple of Jupiter Stator. Those in the temple near Mylassa, i the Incantata, as it is called, at Salonica, do not satisfy the artist, as compared with ; examples in the remains of the temple of Mars Ultor at Rome, the temple of Vesta Tivoli, and others, for which the reader may refer to Desgodetz. 2583. The reader is again here reminded that the module or semidiameter is to be Fig. 888. ided into eighteen parts. In Jiff. 888. is a representation of the Corinthian order, whose asurcs are given in the following table : — A, cornice, 36 parts. Members composing the Order. Heights in Parts of a Module. Projections from Axis in Parts of a Module. Entablature. Fillet of cornice ... i 53 Cyma recta 5 53 Fillet .... 1 48 Cyma reversa M 45{ Corona .... 5 46 Cima reversa .... 'J 451 Modillion .... 6 4‘U Fillet (remainder of modillion band) - 1 28J Ovolo .... 4 28 Read .... 1 25 Fillet .... i 21 i Dentils .... 6 24 Fillet 20 . Cyma reversa ... 3 191 870 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Bock 11 Heights in Parts of a Module. Projections Members composing the OrJer. from Axis in Parts of a Module. B, frieze - • f Bead 1 and fillet It Frieze, 1 mod. 7g- parts high - - 15 Fillet - - i 20 Cyma reversa - - 4 lfll Bead - - 1 17 C, architrave, First fascia - 7 lfi] 27 parts. Cyma reversa - - O i«i 151 Second fascia - - 6 Bead - 1 15J Third fascia - 5 15 Column. Echinus . 2 f diagonally : Fillet - * 1 l on plan 33], 1 Lower member of abacus - - 9 D, capital, Inverted echinus of the bell - - o 22’ j 3!J j 42 parts. Large volutes - - - 6 (fig. 890.) Upper small leaves - - 4 Large leaves - 12 at top, 24' Lower leaves - - 12 at top, 20 i Astragal - - O 18 Fillet - - 1 17 Shaft, Conge - - 2] ] 7 modules Shaft f Upper part - - 15 Impart. | Lower part - - - 18 Apophyge - - 2 20 Fillet - - >1 «'l Torus _ . 3 oo Fillet - - 1 * 1J 20] Scotia - - 20 Fillet - - 5 i 21 j E, base, Two beads - - 22 1 4.} parts. Fillet - - 1 n 21 1 Scotia - - 21 J Fillet - - i 4 23 Torus - - 25 Plinth - - 6 oj] • ; Pedestal. |j Fillet 33] 1 Cyma reversa 's 331 ! Corona 3 32 F, Cornice, Throat u 30] 14J parts. Bead 1 m Fillet | 254 Frieze 5 25 Bead H 26J Fillet 3 2fij Die, 91 j parts Conge Die - Fillet n 871 i.j 25 25 25 Conge 3 } 281 Bead J] 27! G, Base, 14] parts. Inverted cyma reversa 3 26 1 Fillet Torus 1 3 30] 32] Plinth - 6 32] 1 1 AT. I. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 871 Fig. 889. -.7 8-1. Fig. 88f). shows the details of the entablature, &c. and also the profile and front i the Corinthian tnodillion to a larger scale. On the profile is shown the caisson or sunk and on the sofite of the corona. The height is six parts, and the projection sixteen. As en in the figure, a distance equal to three parts and a half is taken for the height of the nailer volu , and on this distance a scale of sixteen equal parts is made; the figure shows ie dimensions to he given to the small squares, whose angles serve as centres to describe ie curves. Having drawn the line A 15, it is divided into four equal parts by lines per- indicular to it, which, meeting vertical lines from A and 15, give the points, which serve ' centres for striking the curve of the modillions. The acanthus leaf which supports it, - well ns the curves which form the profile of the roses in the caisson, arc also struck by impasses. In Jig. 890., which exhibits the method of drawing the Corinthian capital, one halt f the plan shows the capital in plan, and the other half of it laid down diagonally. Having rnwn the axis of the plan correspondent to the axis of the elevation of the capital, with a idius equal to two modules, describe a circle, which divide into sixteen equal parts heir lines of division will each correspond to the centre of each leaf. 'Hie vase of the ■Mittal is determined by a circle whose radius is 14J parts. The figure shows the circles f hich hound the leaves upwards on the vase. -7HG. ’Hie elevation shows the heights whereon ure carried the projections of the plan. 872 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 L Above the leaves come the sixteen volutes, whereof the eight larger ones support the fun angles of the abacus, and the eight smaller ones support the flowers which decorate tin middle of the abacus. The volutes seen in profile may be drawn geometrically with th compasses, but they are always more agreeable and easy when drawn by the eye with hand which feels the contours. The different parts of the capital are as follow: A, plan of the leaves and abacus; h plan of the larger and smaller volutes; C, the vase or body of the capital; D, the tier of leaves; E, the second tier of leaves; F, the caulicolus ; G, the larger volute; B the smaller volute ; I, the flower ; K, the abacus ; L, the lip of the vase. 2587. Vitruvius is scanty in the information he gives on the Corinthian order, and "ha he says respecting it relates more to the origin of the capital and the like than to the proj portions of the detail. He makes the capital only 1 diameter high, and then forms upo' the plan a diagonal 2 diameters long, by means whereof the four faces are equal accord ing to the length of the arc, whose curve will be the ninth part in length and its heigl the seventh part of the capital. He forms the order with a pedestal, with base and comic as Daniel Barbaro would have it. The whole height given to it in our measures is aboi 27 modules and 2 parts. 2588. Palladio uses the pedestal with its ordinary subdivisions, making it between third and fourth part of the height of the column, including its base and capital, the base he gives 1 module, the shaft of the column a little less than 8 diameters, an places twenty-four flutes upon it, which two thirds downwards are channelled, and on tn other or lower third neatly fitted with convex pieces of segments of cylinders called col lings. lie makes the capital 1 diameter and a sixth in height, giving it two tiers ' leaves, catilicoli, and abacus. To the architrave, frieze, and cornice lie assigns a little Ic HAP. I. THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 87:3 an a fifth part of the column, including the base and capital. The whole height given the order by this author is about 27 modules and 10 parts of our measures. 2589. Serlio makes his pedestal pretty nearly as the rest. To the base of the column : assigns half a diameter for the height, when that is about level with the eye, but when uch above it he directs all the members to be increased in height accordingly, as where le order is placed above another, he recommends the number of parts to be dimi- shed. To the shaft of the column he gives a little more than 7 diameters, and to e capital the same height as that given by Vitruvius, whom, nevertheless, he considers error, or rather that some error has crept into the text, and that the abacus ought not to : included in the height. The height of the architrave, frieze, and cornice he makes a tie less than a fourth part of the column, including its base and capital. The whole of e order, according to him, is 28 modules and a little more than 1 part of our measures. 2590. Scamozzi gives to the pedestal of this order the height of 3 diameters and one ird, composing it with the usual parts of base, die, and cornice ; to the base of the lumn the same height and mouldings as Palladio. To the shaft of the column he ,igns the height of 8 diameters and one third, and diminishes it on each side an eighth rt of its thickness at bottom. The capital is of the same height as that by Palladio. The ■hitrave, frieze, and cornice he directs to be a little less than a fifth part of the height of e column. By our measures the whole height of his order is 30 modules and 20 parts. Sect. VII. THE COMPOSITE ORnER. ,2591. The Composite order, as its name imports, is a compound of others, the Corin- tan and Ionic, and was received into the regular number of orders by the Romans, lilander, in his notes on Vitruvius, has described its proportions and character. Its Vital consists, like the Corinthian, of two ranges of acanthus leaves distributed over the | face of a vase, but instead of the stalks or branches, the shoots appear small and as nigh flowering, adhering to the vase and rounding with the capital towards its lddle. A fillet terminates the vase upwards, and over the fillet an astragal is placed, 11 above that an echinus, from which the volutes roll themselves to meet the tops the upper tier of leaves, on which they seem to rest. A large acanthus leaf is bent ive the volutes, for the apparent purpose of sustaining the corner of the abacus, which issimilar to that of the Corinthian order, inasmuch as the flower is not supported by a k seemingly fixed on the middle of each face of the abacus. The principal examples of I ut Sill. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 874 Book III the order are at Rome, in the temple of Bacchus, the arches of Septimius Severus, of tin Goldsmiths, and of Titus ; also in the baths of Dioclesiau. 2592. Fig. 891. (see preceding page) is a representation of Vignola’s profile of the order Its measures are subjoined in the following table : — Heights in Projections from Members composing the Order. Parts of a Axis in Parts o! Module. a Module. Entablature. Fillet of cornice _ - - n 51 Cyma recta - - - 5 51 Fillet . - - 1 46 Cyma reversa - - - 2 45} Bead _ - - i 43§ A, Cornice, 36 parts. Corona . _ 5 43 Cyma under the corona Fillet - - n ] 41 33 Cyma reversa - - - 4 32j Fillet of the dentils . - - 1 28 Dentils . . - 29 Fillet - . - 1 23 Ovolo - - - 5 22 Bead _ - 1 17 11, Frieze, Fillet . _ 1 16} Conge ' « _ 3 15 27 parts. Upright face - - - - 15 Apophyge - - - 7 22 Fillet - . . 1 22 Cavetto - - - 2 201 C, Architrave, Ovolo 3 20 Bead 1 1 7f 27 parts. First fascia - . - 10 17 Cyma reversa - - - 2 16§ Second fascia - - - 8 15 Column. Echinus and fillet _ _ 2 20f Lower member of abacus - 4 diagonally Si Capital, Volute _ _ 12 diagonally ■ Bend of upper leaves _ 3 24 42 parts. Upper leaves - - - - 9 22} Bend of lower leaves - - - 3 m Lower leaves - - - - 9 19} Astragal _ _ 2 17} Fillet . - i 16} Conge - - 2 15} 1: Column, f Above - - - 15 1 6 mod. 12 parts. Shaft j 1 6 mod. 1 2 parts. Below « - - 18 Apophyge - - 2 20 Fillet - - n 20 Conge _ . O 20 Fillet - . 20 Torus - . 22 Fillet - • 1 3 20} l Scotia - - n 20 E, Base of co- Fillet - . i 3 21} lumn, 18 parts. Bead - h 2M Fillet - . \ 21} Scotia - - • 2 20} 1 Fillet • • 1 3 4 23 Torus _ . 25 I Plinth i * * - 6 25 rur. I. THE COMPOSITE ORDER. 875 Heights in Projections from Members composing the Order. Parts of a Axis in Parts of Module. a Module. Pedestal. Fillet - - I 33 Cyma reversa - - h 323 Corona - 3 31 1 F, Cornice, Cyma recta - - ij 28} 14 parts. Fillet - - 4 26} Cavetto - - 1 25} Frieze - - 5 25 Bead - - 1 27 Fillet _ _ 1 27} Conge - - U 25 Die, 94 parts. Die - - - 88} 25 Apophvge - - 2 27 Fillet - - i 27 Bead - _ i 27} G, Rase, Inverted cyma reversa Fillet - - 3 1 30} 314 12 parts. Torus - _ 3 33 Plinth - - 4 33 2593. The flutes in this order are separated by a fillet between them, and are, when red, twenty-four in number. *» IS 12 3 (I 3 o yari i I rw. H^. 876 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III 2594. Fig. 892. (see preceding page) shows the parts of the entablature, base, and pedestal to a larger scale, and Jig. 893. gives, similarly, a more intelligible, because larger, represent- ation ol the mode of setting up the capital, which, as we have already observed, has onl eight volutes. In this figure A is the plan, as viewed frontwise; B, that of the cap its viewed diagonally ; C, the vase or body of the capital ; D, the first tier of leaves ; E, th second tier of the same ; F, the volutes ; G, the flower ; H, the abacus. 2595. Vitruvius has not given any instructions on this order; we are therefore oblige to begin our parallel, as in the other orders, with — 2596. Palladio, whose examples of it are light and much decorated. To the pedestal height this master assigns 3 diameters and three eighths of the column, adding to it lower plinth of the height of half a diameter. He makes the base of the column halt diameter in height, and assigns to the shaft 8 diameters and a little more than one fourth, a> cuts on it twenty-four flutes. The height of this capital is 1 diameter and a sixth, 1 volutes being very similar to those he prescribes for his Ionic. The architrave, frieze, a cornice he makes a little less than a fifth part of the height of the column. 'Ihe win height of his profile in our measures is 30 modules and 1 2 parts. . 2597. Serlio seems to have founded his profile of this order upon the example m Coliseum at Rome. He makes the height of the pedestal a little less than 4 diameters the column. To the shaft of the column he assigns 8 diameters and a half, 1° height of the capital he gives 1 diameter, differing therein from his profile o Corinthian order in the disposition of the volutes and leaves. His entablature, wine ' 1 little less in height than one fourth of the column, he divides into three equal parts lor AP. I. PEDESTALS. 877 hitrave, frieze, and cornice The total height of his profile in our measures is 32 mo- les and 9 parts, being much higher than that of Palladio. .'398. Seamozzi’s profile greatly resembles that of Palladio. His pedestal is 3 dia- ters, and the base of his column half a diameter in height. The shaft of his column- :hout base or capital, is 8 diameters and one twelfth high, and the capital 1 diameter 1 a sixth. The entablature is one fifth part of the column in height, and the whole the profile in our measures is nearly 29 modules and 7 parts. Sect. VIII. PEDESTALS. 2599. We think it necessary to devote a small portion of our labour to the consider- on of pedestals, on account of the great difference which exists in the examples of the lers, and this we shall place in a tabular form, previous to the general remarks it will be cessary to make. Table showing the Height of Pedestals in ancient and modern Works. Plinth in Mouldings above Die in Cornice in Total Minutes. Plinth in Minutes. Minutes. Minutes. Minutes. Doric Palladio 26 14 80 20 140 Scamozzi 30 15 68} OO 1 — 2 13G,'| Temple of Fortuna Vi- rilis 44 19] 93 3 23} 1 80] Ionic Coliseum 94 81 g 17 141} Palladio og a HI 97] 21} 162} Scamozzi 30 15 82 } QO 1 150 Arch of Constantine - 17} 29 153 09 1 228 Corinthian Coliseum Palladio 23 23} HJ 14} 78 93 19} 19 131} 150 Scamozzi 20 15 1 32} OOl — i 200 Arch of Titus Arch of the Gold- 55 30 141 29 255 smiths 46 251 144} 25} 241 I'omposite Arch of Septimius Se- veins 30 30J 1 40.', 29} 182} Palladio 33 17 133 17 200 . Scamozzi 30 15 112} 22 1 180 ‘jr,00. The minutes used in the above table are each equal to one sixtieth of the diameter the shaft. -''*01. Whether the pedestal is to be considered a component part of an order is of little portancc. There are <>o many cases that arise in designing a building, in which it mot be dispensed with, that we think it useful to connect it with the column and "filature, and have consequently done so in the examples already given of the several i rs. Vitruvius, in the Doric, Corinthian, and Tuscan orders, makes no mention of I vital*, and in the Ionic order he seems to consider them rather as a necessary part in construction of a temple than as belonging to the order itself. A pedestal consists properly of three parts, the base, the die, and the cornice. *»Mie authors,” says Chambers, “ are very averse to pedestals, and compare a column * d on a pedestal to a man mounted on stilts, imagining they were first introduced rely through necessity, and for want of columns of a sufficient length. “ It is indeed lie continues, “ that the ancients often made use of artifices to lengthen their '""ns. as nppears by some that are in the baptistery of Constantine at Koine ; the shafts ■ Inch, living too short for the building, were lengthened and joined to their bases by an I dated sweep, adorned with acanthus leaves; and the same expedient has been made ■>t in some fragments which were discovered a few years ago at Nismes, contiguous to 1 temple of Diana. Nevertheless, it doth not seem proper to comprehend pedestals in PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. 87ft the nun her of these artifices, since there are many occasions on which they are evidently necessary, anti some in which the order, were it not so raised, would lose much of it's beautiful appearance. Thus, within our churches, if the columns supporting the vault were placed immediately on the ground, the seats would hide their bases and a good part of their shafts ; and in the theatres of the ancients, if the columns of the scene had been placed immediately on the stage, the actors would have hid a considerable part of them from the audience; for which reason it was usual to raise them on very high pedestals, as was likewise necessary in their triumphal arches ; and in most of their temples the columns were placed on a basement or continued pedestal ( stylobata ), that so the whole might he exposed to view, notwithstanding the crowds of people with which these places were frequently surrounded. And the same reason will authorise the same practice in our churches, theatres, courts of justice, or other public buildings where crowds frequently assemble. In interior decorations, where, generally speaking, grandeur of style is not to be aimed at, a pedestal diminishes the parts of the order, which otherwise might appear too clumsy ; and has the farther advantage of placing the columns in a more favourable j view, by raising their base nearer to the level of the spectator’s eye. And in a second order of arcades there is no avoiding pedestals, as without them it is impossible to give the i arches any tolerable proportion. Sometimes, too, the situation makes it necessary to \ employ pedestals, an instance of which there is in the Luxembourg at Paris; where, the body of the building standing on higher ground than the wings, the architect was obliged to raise the first order of the wings on a pedestal, to bring it upon a level with that of the body or corps de Ingis of the building, which stands immediately on the pavement.” 2603. The dies of pedestals are occasionally decorated with tablets or with sunk panels whose margins are moulded ; but, generally speaking, such practices are to be avoided. In very large pedestals the surface may be thus broken, as in single monumental columns, which, at best, are but paltry substitutes for originality. Habit has reconciled us to view with pleasure the Trajan and Antoninc columns, the monument of London, and the co- lumn of Napoleon in the Place Vendbme at Paris, in each of which the pedestals are ornamented in some way or other, so as to tell in some measure the story of the person in whose honour they were erected, or, as in the basso-relievo of the London column, the event which it records. But care must be taken when inscriptions are used to preserve a rigid adherence to truth, and not to perpetuate a lie, as was the case in the monument just named, against a most worthy portion of the people of the British empire. 2604. As respects the employment of pedestals, we should advise the student, excep under very extraordinary circumstances, to avoid the use of them under columns whirl j arc placed at a distance from the main walls of an edifice, as, for example, in porche peristyles, or porticoes, — a vice most prevalent in the Elizabethan architecture, or rathe.; the cinque-cento period, which the people of this day are attempting with all its ah surdities to revive. ITere we must again quote our author. Sir William Chamber' whose excellent work we have used above, and on which we shall continue to draw largely “With regard,” he says, “to the application of pedestals, it must be observed, tlia| when columns are entirely detached, and at a considerable distance from the wall, aj when they are employed to form porches, peristyles, or poiticoes, they should never b placed on detached pedestals, as they are in some of Scamozzi’s designs, in the tempi of Scisi (Assisi) mentioned by l’alladio, and at Lord Archer’s house, now Lowe’s hotel, l, Covent Garden ; for then they indeed may be compared to men mounted on stilts, as the have a very weak and tottering appearance. In compositions of this kind, it is generall best to place the columns immediately on the pavement, which may be either raised on continued solid basement, or be ascended to by a flight of fronting steps, as at St. Paul and at St. George’s Bloomsbury ; but if it be absolutely necessary to have a fence in tl intercolumniations, as in the case of bridges or other buildings on the water, or in a secon order, the columns may then, in very large buildings, be raised on a continued plinth, as the upper order of the western porch of St. Paul’s, which in such case will be sufficient] high : and in smaller buildings, wherever it may not be convenient or proper to place tl balustrade between the shafts, the columns may lie placed on a continued pedestal, as tin are in Palladio’s designs for Signor Cornaro’s house at Piombino, and at the villa Arsie near Vicenza, another beautiful building of the same master.” The same author continue “ The base and cornice of these pedestals must run in a straight line on the outside tlirougl out, but the dies are made no broader than the plinths of the columns, the intervals betwe. them being tilled with balusters, which is both really and apparently lighter than it t whole pedestal were a continued solid.” The author quoted then proceeds to caution > student against the employment of triangular, circular, and polygonal pedestals, and sti as are swelled and have their die in the form of a baluster, or are surrounded by cincture These extravagances were rife in the age of Louis XV., but notwithstanding the zea the jobbing upholsterers and decorators of the present day, who are the curse of all aic tectural art, we hope they will never be permanently revived in this country, though tli introduction has already proceeded to a considerable extent XT. I. 1 N TERCOL UM N I A T I O XS. 879 Sect. IX. INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 605. An nitercoluvnniation is the clear distance between two columns measured at the er diameter of their shafts. This distance must depend principally on the order em- yed : in the Tuscan, for example, the nature of its composition allows a greater width ween columns than would be admissible in the Corinthian order, independent of what already been stated in Sect. II. (2524, et seq .) in respect of supports and loading; and ; because of the enrichments of the several orders requiring that they should take their artures (to use a phrase borrowed from another science) from the axes of their rc- ctive columns. The ancient names (which are still preserved) of the different inter- umniations are described by Vitruvius in his second and fourth books. They are — the nostyle , wherein the space between the columns is i diameter and a half, as its etymology a tvkvos and arvKos imports (thick in columns), an intercolumniation used only in the ic and Corinthian orders ; the systyle (owTtM.os, with columns a little more apart), .rein the interval between the columns is a little greater ; the eustyle (evarvXos, or well* trived interval), wherein the intercolumniation is of 2 diameters and a quarter ; the ityle(Sia(TTv\os. with a more extended interval between the columns), having an inter i Liinniation of 3 diameters ; and the arceostyle (apaioiirv\os, with few columns), wherein i interval is 4 diameters. In the Doric order the triglyphs necessarily regulate the 'rcolumniations, inasmuch as the lyph should fall over the axis of column ; hence the intercolumnia- is in this order are either systyle lotrigly ph (that is, with a single tri- >h in the intercolumniation), or iiameter ; diastyle, or of 2=J dia- ers; or araostyle, which will make interval 4 diameters, as will be lediately understood on refer- • to fiy. 894. ; wherein A is the de monotriglyph intercolumnia- of 3 modules ; 13, that of the dia- or 6 modules ; and C, the ar;co- ;, or of 8 modules. The inter- mniation marked D serves for application of coupled columns, ’ Fig. 891. herein the rule seems necessarily to be that the space b 'een the columns may be increased, so that the requisite number of supports accovd- to the order and intercolumniation is preserved. Ini 0r>. The intervals of the Tuscan order are indicated in Jig. 895., wherein A shows t lie calumniation called eustyle of 4,( modules; 13, the diastyle of G modules; and C, the tyle of 8. I), of 1 module, is the space of coupled columns. w iutercolumiiiations in this order are scarcely susceptible of rules other than those we indicated in our previous discussion on the orders generally in Sect. II. (2523, ct seq. ), in we have entered on the subject at such length that we refrain from saying more •i place. We may, however, observe, that the application of the principles there iuned are so intimately connected with this section, that the separation of one from the would destroy all our scheme for keeping the student in the right path. Hereafter rumples in question will be applied to and tested on arcades. 880 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III Fig- S9T 2607. In fig. 896., of Ionic inter- columniations, A is the eustyle ar- rangement ; B, that of the diastyle ; C, that of the araostyle ; and U, that of coupled columns. 2603. Fig. 897. is a similar ap- plication of the intercolumniations to the Corinthian order, wherein also A exhibits the eustyle ; B, the diastyle ; and C, the armpstyle intervals : D also showing the space used of 1 mo- dule for coupled columns. 2609. Sir William Chambers, for whose observations we have much respect, — and, indeed, to whose va- 1 liable labours we acknowledge our- selves much indebted, — seems to have bad a distant glimpse of the doc- trine of equal weights and supports, hut knew not exactly how to jus- tify his notions on the subject. He therefore avoids the main question by attributing the pycnostyle interco- lumniation rather to necessity than choice; observing, that “as the ar- chitraves were composed of single stones or blocks of marble, extending from the axis of one column to that of another, it would have been diffi- cult to find blocks of a sufficient length for diastyle intervals in large buildings.” But this is a reason al- together unsatisfactory, inasmuch as we know that they were sufficiently masters of masonry to have conquered any such difficulty. We are much more inclined agree with him when he says (always, however, reverting to the principle of equal support and weights), “ With regard to the ara?ostyle and Tuscan intercolumniations, they are 1 much too wide either for beauty or strength, and can only be used in structures whe| the architraves are of wood, and where convenience and economy take place of all otl considerations : nor is the diastyle sufficiently solid in large compositions.” These consich ations, however, may be always safely referred to the doctrines laid down in Section of this Chapter, already alluded to; and, indeed, that reference is justified by the instri tions of Vitruvius in the second chapter of his third book, wherein he directs that t thickness of the column should be augmented in an enlarged intercolumniation : as, 1 example, supposing the diameter of a column in the pycnostyle species to he taken o tenth of the height, it should in an araeostyle be one eighth; arguing, that if in an arasostv the thickness of the columns exceed not a ninth or tenth part of their height, they appe too slender, and in the pycnostyle species the column at one eighth of its height is clmri and unpleasant in appearance. Upon this passage Chambers observes, “that the intent)’ of Vitruvius was good, but the means by which he attempts to compass it insulftci.i Ilis design was to strengthen the supports in proportion as the intervals between the were enlarged ; yet according to the method proposed by him this cannot be effecti since one necessary consequence of augmenting the diameter of the column is enlarging t intercolumniation proportionably. Palladio and Scamozzi have however admitted t! precept as literally just, and by their manner of applying it have been guilty of very co siderable absurdity.” We are not at all inclined to admit the truth of the opinion Chambers ; for, again reverting to the doctrine of the supports and loading, which was n known to him, it is to be remembered that increase in the space of the intercolummati immediately involves increase of weight in the load or entablature, and therefore set to demand increase of diameter to the supports. Palladio and Scamozzi were not tin 1 fore guilty of the absurdity laid to their charge. _ . 2610. Among the other reasons for our adopting the practice of Vignola is that he observed so much uniformity in his intercolumniations, except of the Doric order, when the triglyplis prevent it, aware as we are that the practice has by many able writers n much condemned. Chambers even says that his practice in this respect is “prefera c any other, as it answers perfectly the intention of Vitruvius, preserves the character o c, order, and maintains in all of them an equal degree of real solidity.” ClIA?. I. INTERCOLUMNIATIONS 881 2611. With the exception of the Doric order, wherein the most pci feet arrangement of he detail results from the interval produced by the ditriglyph, there can be no doubt that, ibstractedly considered, the diastyle and eustyle intercolumniations are very convenient n use, and may be employed on most occasions, except, as just mentioned, in the Doric >rder. 2612. In setting out the intervals between columns especial care must be taken that the •entres of modillions, dentils, and other ornaments in the entablature fall over the axes of he columns. It is on this account that Vignola gives about two diameters and a third to he intervals in all the orders except the Doric, instead of two diameters and a quarter, as equired by Vitruvius; an alteration which removes the difficulty and greatly simplifies the ules. 2613. Cases from many circumstances often occur where greater intercolumniations han the eustyle and diastyle are too narrow for use, and the moderns, headed by Renault, lave adopted an interval which that master has called arteosystyle. This disposition is ■btained without infringing on the law of weights and supports, to which we have already ■o often alluded. In it the columns are couplet ! , as shown in the preceding figures, the in- erval being formed by swo systyle intercolumniations, the column separating them being, is Chambers observes, “approached towards one of those at the extremities, sufficient room leing only left between them for the projection of the capitals, so that the great space is diameters wide, and the small one only half a diameter.” One of the finest ex- amples of this practice is to be seen in the facade of the Louvre, (see Jig. 176.) which in many respects must be considered as the finest of modern buildings. The objections of Biondel to the practice are not without some weight, but the principal one is the extra •xpense incurred by it ; for certain it is that it requires nearly double the number of olutnns wanted in the diastyle, besides which it cannot he denied that it causes con- iderable irregularities in the entablatures of the Doric, Corinthian, and Composite orders, rltich, however, are not apparent in the other two. It is, nevertheless, so useful in cases f difficulty which constantly arise, that we should be sorry to exclude the practice alto- ether, though we cannot recommend it for unlimited adoption. 2614. A great many expedients have been employed to obviate the irregularity of the lodillions in the Corinthian and Composite orders, arising from the grouping of columns, fe, on this head, agree with Chambers, whose instructions we subjoin in bis own words : The simplest and best manner of proceeding is to observe a regular distribution in the ntablature, without any alteration in its measures, beginning at the two extremities of the adding, by which method the modillions will answer to the middle of every other column, nd he so near the middle of the intermediate ones, that the difference will not easily be itercolumniations of the composition will be broader by one third of a module than is ■cessary for eleven modillions: but this is a very trifling difference, easily divided and ■ndcred imperceptible if the extent be anything considerable.” In the Doric order, the imping of columns is not so easily managed, and therein our author recommends the • nedient employed by Palladio, in the Palazzo Chiericato, and in the Basilica at Vicenza, i the last-named, the coupled columns are only 21 minutes apart, thus making the space •tween the axes 2 modules and 21 minutes, that is, 6 minutes beyond the breadth of a polar metope, and 2 half-triglyphs. To conceal the excess, the triglyphs are 31 minutes nad, and their centres are carried 1 minute within the axis of the column, and the '■tope is 3 minutes broader than the others. These small differences are not perceptible 'tliout a very critical and close examination of the distribution. In this arrangement '■ attic base of Palladio should be employed, because of its small projection, and the -'•r intercolumniation must be arreostyle. -61.5. Intercolumniations should be preserved of equal width in all peristyles, galleries, rticoes, and the like ; but in loggias or porches, the middle interval may be wider than others by a triglyph, a modillion or two, and a few dentils, that is, if there be no opled columns at the angles nor groupings with pilasters, in which cases all the other ervals should be of the same dimensions. It has been observed by Biondel, that on casions where several rows of columns are used, as, for instance, in the curved colonnades the piazza of St. Peter’s, the columns ought as much as possible to be in straight lines, air.e otherwise the arrangement can only be understood by viewing it from the centre of figure employed. The observation is well worth the student’s consideration, for the ultiiig effect of a departure from this rule, as Chambers has properly observed, is nulling but confusion to the spectator’s eye from every point of view.” The same hnr condemns, and with justice, though in a smaller degree, the use of "engaged 'sters or half columns placed behind the detached columns of single, circular, oval, or ’ gonal peristyles, as may be seen in those of Burlington House. Wherefore,” he "in buildings of that kind, it will perhaps lie best to decorate the back wall of the istyle with windows or niches only.” We can hardly suppose it here necessary to ‘■•on the student against the use of intercolumniations without reference to the absolute 882 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 [1. size of them r they must not be less than three feet even in small buildings, because, at Sir William Chambers seriously says, “there is not room for a fat person to pass between them.” 261 6. Before leaving the subject which has furnished the preceding remarks on inter- columniations, we most earnestly recommend to the student the re-perusal of Section II. of this Book. The intervals between the columns have, in this section, been considered more with regard to the laws resulting from the distribution of the subordinate parts, than with relation to the weights and supports, which seem to have regulated the ancient practice ; but this distribution should not prevent the application generally of the principle, which may without difficulty, as we know from our own experience, be so brought to bear upon it as to produce the most satisfactory results. We may be perhaps accused of bringing a fine art under mechanical laws, and reducing refinement to rules. We regret that we cannot bind the professor by more stringent regulations. It is certain that, having in this respect carried the point to its utmost limit, there will still be ample opportunity left for him to snatch that grace, beyond the reach of art, with the neglect whereof the critics are wont so much to taunt the artist in every branch. Sect. X. ARCADES AND ARCHES. 2617. An arcade, or series of arches, is perhaps one of the most beautiful objects at- tached to the buildings of a city which architecture affords. The utility, moreover, of arcades in some climates, for shelter from rain and heat, is obvious ; but in this dark climate, the inconveniences resulting from the obstruction to light which they offer, seems to preclude their use in the cities of England. About public buildings, however, where! the want of light is of no importance to the lower story, as in theatres, courts of law, churches, and places of public amuse- ment, and in large country seats, their introduction is often the source of great beauty, when fitly placed. 2618. In a previous section (2524.) we have spoken of Lebrun’s theory of an equality between the weights and sup- ports in decorative architecture : we shall here return to the subject, as applied to arcades, though the analogy is not, per- haps, strictly in point, because of the dissimilarity of an arch to a straight lintel. In fiy. 898. the hatched part AEMFDCOB is the load, and A1JGH, CUIK the supports. The line GK is divided into six parts, which serve as a scale to the diagram, the opening III being four of them, the height BH six, NO two, and OM one. From the exact quadrature of the circle being unknown, it is impossible to measure with strict accu- racy the surface BOC, which is necessary for finding by sub- traction the surface AEMFDCOB; but using the common method, we have AD x AE-— * 7Srl4 = to that surface; or, in figures, E M F Fig. S98. 6x3- = 11 -72. Now the suports will be IK x IC x 2 (the two piers) = the piers; or, in figures, 1 x 6 x 2 = 12 00. That is, in the diagram the load is very nearly equal to the supports, and would have he< found quite so, if we could have more accurately measured the circle, or had with great nicety constructed it. But we have here, where strict mathematical precision is not on object, a sufficient ground for the observations which follow, and which, if not founded i something more than speculation, form a series of very singular accidents. We have chosi to illustrate the matter by an investigation of the examples of arcades by Vignola, hcc.in we have thought his orders and arcades of a higher finish than those of any other lnaste. but testing the hypothesis, which we intend to carry out by examples from Falladio, w mozzi, and the other great masters of our art, not contemplated by Lebrun, the sm. differences, instead of throwing a doubt upon, seem to confirm it. 2619. In fiy. 898. we will now carry, therefore, the consideration of the weights a supports a step further than Lebrun, by comparing them with the void space they si round, that is, the opening IIBOCI ; and here we have the rectangle HBCI=HB x that is, 6x4=24, and the semicircle BOC equal, as above, to — =628. B 24 +6-28 = 30-28 is tbe area of tbe whole void, and the weight and support being H '• ClIAF. 1. ARCADES AND ARCHES. 883 12 = 23-72, are a little more than two thirds the areas of the whole void ; a proportion which, if we are to rely on the approval of ages in its application, will be found near the limits of what is beautiful. 2620. We shall now refer to the examples tition of figures in their numbers, as referred follows as unconnected with the entablatures take those into separate consideration. Fig. RS9. of Vignola alluded to ; but to save the repe- to, each case is supposed in what immediately which they exhibit, it being our intention to 2621. Suppose the Tuscan example (fig. 899 ) without an entablature, we have the Supports, 9'75 x 3 = 29‘2 5 The whole of rectangle above them, 4 '25 x 9-5 = 40-375 , • , G'5xG Sx 7854 , _ .. Eess semi-arch, 2 = 16 6 23-77 5 — 53-025 solid parts. Hie area of the void is 16-6 + 9-75 x 6-5 = 79 97, whereof 53-025, the portion of solid arts, is not widely different from two thirds. In Vignola’s Doric example, (fig. 900.), again without the entablature, we have Supports, 10-5x3 = 31 -50 Tile whole rectangle above them, 5-5 x 10 0 = 5500 t i 7 x 7 x *78»)‘l > « .o/f Less semi-arch, 2 = 19*24 35*76 67-26 solid parts. The area of the void is 1 9'24 + 10 ‘5 x 7 = 92-74, whereof 67"26, the portion of solid parts, I- not much different from two-thirds. In the Ionic example (fig. 901.), still without considering the entablature, the following ill result : — Supports, 12 -64 x 2 "66= 33-61 The whole rectangle above them, 10-88 x 5-2 =56-57 , . . G'4 X G'4 x 7854 . .„ Q Less semi-arch, , . =16 08 40-49 • 74 -1 0 solid parts. "Dm sren of the void is 16 08 + 12-64 x7-1 105-82, whereof 7410, the portion of •did puriv, dillcrr, little in amount from two thirds of the void. 3 I. 2 884 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. Fig. 301. In the Corinthian example {fig. 902. ), not taking into consideration the entablature, the following is the result : — Supports, 14 'll x3‘55 = 50 09 The whole rectangle above them, 1 1 '33 x 5 -88 = 66 '62 T • , 776 x 776x7854 _ , Cess semi-arch, 2 =23 -65 = 32-97 83-06 solid parts. The area of the void is 2.3-65+14-111 x 7 " 7 6 = 133-1 5, whereof 83-06, the portion oh solid parts, is somewhat less than two thirds of the void. 2622. The result which Hows from the above examination seems to be that, without respect to the entablature, the ratio of the solid part to that of the void is about '600.. Bearing this in mind, we shall next investigate the ratio of the supports and weights, con- sidering the entablature above the arcade as a part of the composition ; and still following Vignola, whose examples, as we have above stated, do not so much differ from those ol other masters as to make it necessary to examine those of each, we will begin with that architect’s Tuscan arcade, without pedestals, exhibited in fig. 899. on the preceding page. In this example, from centre to centre of pier, The whole area, in round numbers, 17 "5 x 9 5 . - ■ . 6'5x6 5x'7S54 Area ot semi-arch, — 2 Rectangle under it, 9"75 x 6 "5 = 1662 = 16-6 = 63-3 Total void, therefore, =79'9 86 3 Entablature, 9-5 x 3-5 =33-2 Leaves for the supporting parts - - - - - 53 1 In this example, therefore, the supporting parts are 53, those supported 33, and the voids 79. The ratio between the solid and void parts = "9, and the ratio of the support to the weights is 33 = 62. The distance between the axes of the columns is 9 modules and 6 parts ; the height « the sr.mi-arch, 3 modules and 3 parts ; and between the crown of it and the under su t “ the architrave is 1 module; the whole height, including entablature, being 17 mocu > and a half. ?hap. I. ARCADES AND ARCHES. 885 2623. Following the same general method, we submit the Doric arcade (Jiff. 300.) vithout pedestal. Measuring, as before, from centre to centre of piers, The whole area, in round numbers, 20-2 x 10 - • - =202 0 a c • u 1 x 7 X '7854 , Area of semi-arch 2 • • =19-2 Rectangle under it, 10'5 x 7 - - =73-5 Total void, therefore, = 92-7 1 09 -3 Entablature, 10x4-2 ...... 420 Leaves for the supporting parts - - - . - 67 -3 In this example, therefore, the supporting parts are 67, those supported 42, and the roids 92. The ratio between the solid and void parts is -85, and the ratio of the supports o the weights is || = -63. The distance between the axes of the columns is 10 modules, the height of the semi-arch s 3 modules and 6 parts, and between the crown of it and the underside of the architrave s 2 modules ; the whole height, including the entablature, being 20 modules 3^ parts. 2624. The Ionic arcade, without pedestal, is shown in Jiff. 901. The measurements, is above, from centre to centre of pier, The whole area, 22-64 x 10-88 in round numbers ... =246-3 a e ■ l C 4xC-4x 7854 Area of semi-arch, — 2 - -=161 Rectangle under it, 12'64 x 7'1 - - — 89'7 Total void, therefore, =105-8 140-5 Entablature, 10 88 x 4-8 ...... 52 2 Leaves for the supporting parts - - - - - 88 -3 Hence, in the example, the supporting parts are 88, those supported 52, and the voids 05 ; so that the ratio of the voids to the solids, in this order, is -8, and the ratio of the upports to the weights does not materially differ from the other orders, being jj| = -6. The distance between the axes of the columns is 10 modules 16 parts, the height of the •mi-arch is 3J modules 3 parts, and between the crown of it and the under side of the rchitrave is 2 modules ; the whole height, including the entablature, being 22 modules •>.J parts. -625. Fig. 902. represents the Corinthian arcade without pedestal. The measurement, . before, is from centre to centre of pier. The whole area, 25'2 x 1 1 -33, in round numbers - - = 288-5 . e . , 7'7flx 7-76 x -7854 or) _ Area of semi-arch, — 2 = 23-6 Rectangle under it, 14-11 x 7-76 = 109-5 Total voids, therefore, = 133 1 155-4 Entablature, 10-36 x 5-6 ...... 53-0 Leaves for the supporting parts ... -97-4 the Corinthian example, therefore, the supporting parts are 97, those supported 58, d the voids 133. The ratio between the solid and void parts = -8, and the ratio of t' pports to tlie weights j$=-59. The distance between the axes of the columns is modules and 6 parts, the height of the semi-arch is 3 modules 16 parts, and between " crown of it and the under side of the architrave is 2 modules 3J parts; the whole ight, including the entablature, being 25 modules 3J parts. ’ 626 . The laws laid down by Chambers for regulating arcades arc as follow : — “ The id or aperture of arches should never be much more in height nor much less than able their width; the breadth of the pier should seldom exited two thirds, nor be less m one third of the width of the arch, according to the character of the composition, d the angular piers should be broader than the rest by one half, one third, or one fourth.” “ I he height of the impost should not be more than one seventh, nor need it ever be than one ninth of the width of the aperture, and the archivolt must not be more than 1 eighth nor less than one tenth thereof. The breadth of the console or mask, which r 'cs as a key to the arch, should at the bottom be equal to that of the archivolt, and ales must lie drawn from the centre of the arch. The length thereof ought not to h ss than one and a half of its bottom breadth, nor more than double.” 886 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III 2627. The ratios that have been deduced by comparing the void and solid parts, if then be any reason in the considerations had, show that this law of making arches in arcades o the height of 2 diameters is not empirical, the following being the results of the use of th ratios in the arcade without, and that with pedestal, of which we shall presently treat. Thu in the Diameters. Diameters Tuscan arcade without pedestal, 13 5 height 65 width = 2-0; with pedestals, Doric arcade without pedestal, 140 7 = 2'0 200 10 0 Ionic arcade without pedestal, 1583 710 = 2-2 22-0 11 7 0 Corinthian arcade without, pedestal. 18 00 '7 76 = 2'3 25 0 12-0 2628. In the examples of the arcades with pedestals, we shall again repeat the process! which the results are obtained, tirst merely stating them in round numbers. Fij. 903 is I — 1_ . 1 i i | i i — i 1 — | 1 0 1 2 3 4 S Ci 7 8 D 10 71 12 13 14 Modules Fig. 903 Tuscan arcade from Vignola’s example, as will be the following ones. In this the "'] area is 306, omitting fractions, the area of the void is 156, that of the entablature and the supports 100. The ratio of the supported part (the entablature), there! is -jijt = \5, and the supports and weights are very nearly equal to the void The heigh the pedestal is almost 3 modules and 8 parts, the opening 9 modules 6 parts, and ■width of the whole pier 4 modules and 3 parts. The detail of the above result is as follows . — The whole area, 22 - 30 x 13 ’75 - - - - = 306'62 Area of semi-areh, ! ' ,)X9 5 0 x = 35 '43 Below that, 12'75 x 9'75 * «= 1 21 T2 Total voids, therefore, = 1 56 '55 150-07 Entablature, 13'75 x 3'66 ---»•«= 50'S2 Leaves for supporting parts 99'75 HAP. I. ARCADES AND ARCIIES. 887 will be seen that we have taken the numbers in the preceding paragraph without supplv- g strictly the decimal parts that arise from the multiplication and subtraction of tbs voral portions compared. The coincidence of the hypothesis with the apparent law is nu ss remarkable in this example than it will he found in those that follow ; and, scep- al as we at first were on the appearances which pointed to it, we cannot, after the cx- nination here and hereafter given, do otherwise than express our conviction that, in cat ry- g out the principles, no unpleasant combination can result. I 2829. Fig. 904. exhibits the Doric arcade, whose whole area from centre to centre of dumt-.s is 374. The area of the void is 189, that of the entablature 62, and of the sup- orting parts 1 12. The ratio of the entablature to the supports is therefore ffj= '55, and iat of the supports and weights to the voids '9. The height of the pedestal is almost modules and 4 parts, the opening 10 modules, and the width of a pier 4 modules and parts. As in the preceding example, we think it will he useful to detail the process by which e general results stated have been arrived at. It is curious and interesting to observe 'c similarity between the cases. It is scarcely possible to believe that accident could ■*ve produced it. IVIay not the freemasons of the middle ages have had some laws of this ature which guided their operations? llut we will now proceed to the calculation. The whole area, 25 4 x 14-75 Area of semi-arch, - 39-27 = 374-65 Relow that, 12 75 x 9‘75 = 150-00 Total voids, therefore, - =189-27 Entablature, 1-1-75 x 4-25 . 185-38 = 62-68 Reaves for supporting parts - 122-70 Iuxcin, as before, the general result in the preceding paragraph has been given in round 888 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 1 numbers, that the mind of the reader may not he distracted from the general proportions The detail again corroborates the hypothesis, as in the preceding subsection was predicated and thy further we proceed, as will be presently seen, its truth becomes more manifest. t — i — i — j — i — t— u — i — i — t — i — i — i — i — ; — i — i — ! — i U 1 2 3 4 6 0 ■ 8 S 10 11 12 13 14 13 16 17 1? MoJulet Fig. 905. 26110. The Tonic arcade with a pedestal is shown in fig. 905. The whole area is 448 between the axes of the columns ; that of the void, 228. The entablature’s area is 73, and the supporting parts 146. The ratio, therefore, of the load to the support is 7f5 = ’f and supports and weights are very nearly equal to the void. The height of the pedestal is 6 modules, the opening 11 modules, and the width of a pier 4 modules and 12 parts. Once more returning to the detail on which the above proportions are based, and which in this as in the following example we think it better to supply, observing, as before, that the numbers above stated are given roundly, we shall have in the Ionic arcade, Whole area, 28 '66 x 15 '66 . e ■ . 11 x 11 x '7854 Area of semi arch, ^ = 47-01 = 448-81 Below it, 16’5 x 1 1 = 181-50 Total area of voids, therefore, = 228-51 Entablature, 15 -66 x 4-7 .... 220-30 = 73-50 Leaves for supporting parts * - 146-80 Whence it will be seen that the round numbers first given are shown to be sufficiently accurate for exemplification of the law, and that the further we examine the hypothesis t c more closely we find it connected with the theory of weights and loads that has occupied a very considerable portion of this Book, and which we hope may not have had the effect o exhausting the reader’s patience. We trust we shall have his pardon for pursuing the course we have taken. BAP. L ARCADES AND ARCHES. 880 Fi K . 906. 2631. Fir/. 906. is an arcade with pedestals of the Corinthian order. Its total area is s > of the void 284, the area of the entablature 84, and that of the supporting rts 159. Hence, the ratio of the load to the support is ^ = \52, and the supports and ight are equal in area to the void within a very small fraction. The height of the Cstal is 6 ^ modules, the opening is 12 modules wide, and the width of a pier is | nodules and 9 parts. W e here close the curious proofs of a law whose existence, we believe, has never been 'I’ccted by modern architects. It was clearly unknown to Rondelet, and but for the I rk of Lebrun already quoted, we might never have been led to the investigation of it. ■ t author himself, as we believe, did not entertain any notion of it. In the Corinthian arcade with pedestal we have Whole area, 32 x 16’5 - . =528 00 Area of semi-arch, ? 2 * 12 *’ 7854 _ 55-05 Below it, 19 x 12 - =228 00 Total area of voids, therefore, = 281 -05 243 -9.6 Entablature, 16-5 x 5‘09 - - . . . — g-j-io leaves for supporting parts - 159-85 "K’"’!, the law seems to be borne out, and to prove that the assumptions we have 1 n making are not those of empiricism. '12. In fig. 907. are collected the imposts and archivolts used in the arcades of the h rent orders. 890 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. r a - aS — — T Imposts of the different Orders. 2588. We are not of the opinion of Sir William Chambers in respect of the arcade" which Vignola has given ; that author had not, we think, critically examined their compo sition, and we confess we do not think his own examples are improvements on those of the master in question; hut we are willing to admit that in the examples of arcades with pedestals, they woidd have been much improved by assigning a greater height generally to the plinths of the pedestals, which are, doubtless, much too low, and might be wcl augmented by adding to them a portion of the dies of the pedestals. 2684. Great as is our admiration of Palladio, we do not think it necessary to say mor< relative to his arcades, than that he has given only designs of arches with pedestals, am that their height is from one and two thirds to two and a half of their width. His pier are generally 8-] modules, except in the Composite order, wherein they are 4t modules. 2635. Scamo/.zi makes his Tuscan arch a little less than double its width, increasing tin height gradually to the Corinthian arch with pedestals to nearly twice and a half tli wi dth. He d iminishes his piers as the delicacy of the order increases, his Corinthiai piers being only 3^ modules in width. We do not, however, think it necessary to dwcl longer on this part of the subject, and shall close it by observing that the impost of tin arch should not much vary from half a module in height, and that the width of tli archivolt, which should touch the shaft of the column or pilaster in the geometrical elc vation, at its springing, is necessarily prescribed by the width of pier left after setting out tin column upon it. Where columns are used on piers, their projection must be such that the m« prominent member of the impost should be in a line with the axis of the column on tin transverse section. In Ionic, Composite, and Corinthian arcades, however, it may projec a little beyond the axis of the columns, to avoid the disagreeable mutilations which ar otherwise rendered necessary in the capitals. Arcades should project not less than thei width from the front of the wall which hacks them.” With regard to their interior deco ration,” says Chambers, “ the portico may either have a Hat ceiling or be arched m va rious manners. Where the ceiling is flat, there may be on the backs of the piers, pilaster of the same kind and dimensions with the columns on their fronts ; facing which pilaster there must be others like them on the back wall of the portico. Their projection as we as that of those against the back of the piers may be from one sixth to one quarter of the diameter. These pilasters may support a continued entablature, or one interrupted an running across the portico over every two pilasters to form coders ; or the architrave an frieze only may be continued, while the cornice alone is carried across the portico over tl pilasters as before, and serves to form compartments in the ceiling, as is done in the vestihu of the Massini palace at Rome, and in the great stable of the King’s mews, near Charm Cross,” — no longer in existence, having been destroyed to make way on its site for tl execrable mass of absurdity to which the government who sanctioned it have facetious Chap. L ARCADES AND ARCHES. given the name of National Gallery. Chambers thus continues : — “ Where the portico is arched, either with a semi-circular or elliptical vault, the backs of the piers and the inner wall of the portico may be decorated with pilasters, as is above described, supporting a regular continued entablature, from a little above which the arch should take its spring, that no part of it may be hid by the projection of the cornice. The vault may be enriched with compartments of various regular figures, such as hexagons, octagons, squares, and the like, of which, and their decorations, several examples are given among the designs for ceilings.” Of these we shall hereafter give figures in the proper place. “ Rut when the vault is groined, or composed of flats, circular or domical coves, sustained on pen- dentives, the pilasters may be as broad as are the columns in front of the piers, but they must rise no higher than the top of the impost, the mouldings of which must finish and serve them instead of a capital, from whence the groins and pendentives are to spring, as I also the bands or arcs-doubleuux which divide the vault.” 2636. In the examples of arcades, we have followed those given by Chambers, as ex- hibiting a variety which may be instructive to the student, and at the same time afford hints for other combinations. Fig. 90S. is one of the compositions of Serlio, and is ai'. expedient for arching in cases where columns have been provided, as in places where the use of old ones may be imposed on the architect. The larger aperture may be from 4-1 to 5 diameters of the column in width, and in height double that dimension. The smaller opening is not to exceed two thirds of the larger one, its height being determined by that of the columns. Chambers thinks, and we agree with him, that this sort of dis- position might be considerably improved bv adding an architrave cornice or an entablature to the column, by omitting the rustics and by surrounding the arches with archivolts. It is not to be inferred, because this example is given, that it is inserted as one to be followed except under very peculiar circumstances. Where an arrangement of this kind is adopted, rare must be used to secure the angles by artificial means. 2637. Fig. 909. is given from the cortile of the castle at Caprarola by Vignola, a struc- ure which in the First Rook of this work we have (346. ) already mentioned. The height of lie arches is somewhat more than twice their width. From the under side of the arch to lie top of the cornice is one third of the height of the arch, the breadth of whose pier is qual to that of the arch, and the aperture in the pier about one third of its breadth. 2638. A composition of Rramante, executed in the garden of the Relvedere at Rome, is , r nen at Jig. 910. The arch in height is somewhat more than twice its width, and the F.g. mi. Kl«. 910 892 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 1. breadth of the pier equal to the opening. By dividing the latter into twelve parts we have a measure which seems to have prevailed in the mind of the architect, inasmuch as two of them will measure the parts of the pier supporting the archivolts, four the space for the two columns, two for the intervals between the niche and the columns, and four fur the niche. Half the diameter of the arch measures the height of the pedestal ; the columns are of the height of ten diameters, and their entablature one quarter of the height of the columns. The impost and arehivolt are each equal to half a diameter of the column. 2639. Fig. 911. is an example whose employment is not uncommon in the designs of Palladio, and was considered by our great countryman Inigo Jones to be worthy of his imitation. The arch may he taken at about twice its width, and the pier not less than one nor more than two thirds of the width of the aperture. Fit,’- 912. Fig. 913. 2640. The example in fie/. 912. is from the hand of Vignola, and was executed for one of the Borghese family at Mondragone, near Frascati. In it the arch is a little more in height than twice its width, and the breadth of the pier columns supporting the anh includes a little less than the width of the arch itself. We are not quite satisfied in having here produced it as an example, though, compared with the following one, we scarcely know whether we should not on some accounts prefer it. 2641. The last example {fig. 913.) is one by that great master, Palladio, from the basilica at Vicenza. From the figure it is impossible to judge of its beauty in execution, neither can any imitation of it, unless under circumstances in every respect similar, produce the sensation with which the building itself acts on the spectator ; yet in the figure if appears meagre and nothing worth. We can therefore easily account for the conduct of the critics, as they are called, who, never having seen this master’s works, indulge in ignorant speculations of the pictorial effects which his compositions produce. Though not entirely agreeing with Chambers in his concluding observations on arcades and arches, we may safely transfer them to these pages. “ The most beautiful proportion,” he observes, “ for com- positions of this kind is, that the aperture of the arch be in height twice its width; that, the breadth of the pier do not exceed that of the arch, nor he much less ; that the small order he in height two thirds of the large columns, which height being divided into nine parts, eight of them must be for the height of the column, and the ninth for the height of the architrave cornice, two fifths of which should he for the architrave and three for the cornice. The breadth of the arehivolt should be equal to the superior diameter of the small columns, and the keystone at its bottom must never exceed the same breadth.” Sf.ct. XI. ORDERS ABOVE ORDERS. *'642. Vitruvius, in the fifth chapter of his book “ On the Forum and Basilica,” in hod) which species of buildings it is well known that orders above orders were employed, thn instructs his readers: — “ The upper columns are to be made one fourth less than those oelow” (quarta parte minores quam inferiores sunt conslituenJcc), “ and that because the latter, being loaded with a weight, ought to be the stronger ; because, also, we should follow the practice of nature, which in straight-growing trees, like the fir, cypress, and pine, makes the thickness at the root greater than it is at top, and preserves a gradual diminution throughout their height. Thus, following the example of nature, it is rightly ordered that bodies which are uppermost should be less than those below, both in respect of height am thickness.” It is curious that the law thus given produces an exactly similar result tot m' 1 AP. I. ORDERS ABOVE ORDERS. 893 d dowr. by Scamozzi, p. 2. lib. v. cap. ii., whereon we shall have more presci fly to speak, dliani. Chambers, and others have considered the above-quoted passage of Vitruvius in nnection with another in chap. vii. of the same hook, which treats of the portico and other rts of the theatre, wherein the author states, after giving several to this question unim- rtant details, “ The columns on this pedestal” (that of the upper order) “ are one fourth sin height" (quarta parte minores altitudine sint) “than the lower columns.” The reader 11 here observe the word altitudine is introduced, which does not appear in the passage st quoted ; and we beg him, moreover, to recollect that the last quotation relates entirely the scene of the ancient theatre, in which liberties were then taken with strict architec- ral proportion as much as they are in these later days. Those who think that because truvius interlarded his work with a few fables, he is therefore an author not worth nsulting, as ephemeral critics have done in respect of that great master of the art, Pal- lio, may opine we have wasted time in this discussion ; but, adopting the old maxim of orace, “ Non ego paucis offender maculis,” we shall leave them to the exposure which, th the instructed architect, their own ignorance will ultimately inflict on them, and to e enjoyment of the felicity attendant on a slight knowledge of the subject a person is in l- habit of handling. 2643. We will now place before the student our own reading and explanation of the ssage of Vitruvius relative to the use of orders above orders, and attempt show what we conceive to he its real meaning. In Jig. 914. the diagram Inbits an Ionic placed above a Doric column : the entablature (which wever does not belong to the consideration) being in both cases one irth of the height of the column. Inasmuch as in our previous rules ■Mowing Vignola) it will he recollected that the module of the Doric tier is subdivided into twelve, whilst that of the Ionic is subdivided into flitcen parts, we must, for the purpose of obtaining an uniformity of - isures in both orders, reduce those of either to the other to obtain si- ilar dimensions. Instead, therefore, of measuring the upper order by itself, lich would not afford the comparison sought, we shall have to reduce established measures to those of the lower one, or Doric, and this, as .11 as the measurement of the lower order itself, is taken in modules and cimal parts of its semidiameter. Thus, the lower order being 2 modules its bottom diameter and 1 • 666 modules at its upper diameter, the •an, without descending to extreme mathematical nicety, may be taken 1 833, which multiplied by the height, 1 8 modules = 32'994, the area of section through the centre of the column. Now if the upper columns to he the same thickness at the bottom as the lower ones are at the top, it is, 1 -666 module of the lower order, their upper diameters will he 1 387 nit is, five sixths of the lower diameter), and the mean will he 1 "526, lich, multiplied by 16, the height, = 24'41fi the area of a section down • centre of the column, and just one fourth less than that of the lower himn. The investigation tends to show us that we should not lightly it the laws laid down by Vitruvius and his followers at the revival of • arts, for we may he assured that in most cases tin y are not empirical, t founded on proper principles. We cannot, however, leave this point tliout giving another reason, which is conclusive against Chambers’s istruclion of the passage; it is, that supposing the upper column’s lower meter to he the same or nearly so as the lower column’s upper diameter, the fourth part had relation to the height instead of the hulk, we should have had the •urdity in the illustration above given, of an Ionic column in the second order only and three quarters diameters high, whilst the lower or Doric is nine diameters in height. > 14. Scamozzi, we doubt not, thought as we have expressed ourselves on this subject, and here translate the words he uses in the eleventh chapter of his sixth hook (second part). I cnee it is more satisfactory, and they succeed better and are more pleasing to the eye, cn these columns (the upper ones) are made according to their proper diminution, so n the lower part of the upper column may he just the thickness of the upper part of the ■ r one, and so from one to the other, as may he seen in the Ionic order of the Theatre M ircellus and other edifices; and this is the reason and natural cause that it is the same hough out of a long and single tree the shafts were cut out one after the other.” 1 I 1. 1’he laws of solidity seem to require that where more than one order is used, the •"gv-'t is to occupy the lower situation; thus the Doric is placed on the Tuscan, the ■won the Doric, the Corinthian on the Ionic, and the Composite on the Corinthian; "gh, with respect to the last, we find examples of importance wherein the reverse has I n the case. l’wo tiers of columns should not he of the same order, neither should an ■ riiied iate order he omitted; such, for instance, as placing the Ionic on the Tuscan ; ""in. or the Corinthian on the Doric: for by this practice many irregularities are i educed, especially in the details of the members. =7 :r~~3 i \ ttt/ 1 \ : l 7 894 PRACTICE 0 1 ARCHITECTURE. Hook III 2646. Frontwise the axes of the upper and lower columns must he in the same ver tic. plane, but viewed in flank this is not absolutely necessary; they should not, however, deviat too much from it. In the theatre of Marcellus the axes of the upper columns are nearly foot within those of the Doric below them ; but circumstances required this, and there no great objection to the practice if the solidity of the structure be not lessened by i Chambers observes that the retraction should never be greater than at the theatre < Marcellus, where the front of the plinth in the second order is in a line with the top of i 1 shaft in the first. When the columns are detached, they should be placed centrally ovi each other, so that the axes of the upper and under ones may form one continued line, I which means solidity is gained as well as a satisfactory result to the eye. As to the fal bearings of the bases of the upper order on the protile, this is a matter neither really aflec ing stability nor the appearance of the design. 2647. In England there are not many examples of orders above orders, while on t! Continent the practice has not been uncommon ; but it is always a matter of great, diflicuh so to arrange them as to avoid irregularities where triglyphs and modillions in the san design meet in the composition. We have used the figures of Chambers for our illustrate here, because they are nearly coincident with the rules of Vitruvius and Scamozzi, and a shall now place them before the reader, observing that the irregularities alluded to a almost altogether avoided. whereof 4 belong to the entablature. _ 2650. In fit/. 917. is represented the Corinthian above the Ionic order; the intcrv A, B, C, D are respectively 5, 6, 7, and 1 modules, and those of A', B', C' D' respective 6-4, 7-6, 8-8, 1-6 modules; the lower order is 221 modules high, 18 being given to column with its base and capital ; and the upper or Corinthian order is 241 modules u; whereof 20 belong to the height of the column, including its base and capital. 2651. The last {fig. 918.) is of the Corinthian order above and Composite below, the lower order the intervals A, B, C, D are 4|, 6, 7, and 1 modules lespective V> * A', B', C', and D', in the upper order, 6, 7'6, 8-8, and 1 '6 modules respective y- whole height of the Corinthian order is 25 modules, whereof 5 are given to the entahJaur the Composite order here is 24,1 modules, ot which 20 belong to the column, inc u »’o base and capital. „ i • 2652. We insert the observations of Chambers relative to the above four "gores, '.HAT. I. ORDERS A ROVE ORDERS. 895 s we have adopted them, shall be in his own words. “ Among the intercolumniations lere are some in the second orders extremely wide, such as the Ionic interval over the )oric araeostyle ; the Composite and Corinthian intervals over the Ionic and Composite aiostyle, which, having a weak meagre appearance, and not being sufficiently solid, vcepting in small buildings, are seldom to be suffered, and should seldom be introduced, he most eligible are the eustyle and diastyle for the first order, which produce nearly e diastyle and ara;ostyle in the second.” Speaking of the use of pedestals in orders >ove orders, the author thus proceeds : — “ Many architects, among which number are alladio and Seamozzi, place the second order of columns on a pedestal. In compositions insisting of two stories of arcades this cannot be avoided, but in colonnades it may and ight; for the addition of the pedestal renders the upper ordonnance too predominant, and e projection of the pedestal’s base is both disagreeable to the eye and much too heavy a id on the inferior entablature. Palladio, in the Barbarano palace at Vicenza, has placed e columns of the second story on a plinth only, and this disposition is best ; the height of c plinth being regulated by the point of view, and made sufficient to expose to sight the ioIc base of the column. In this case the balustrade must be without either pedestals or If balusters to support its extremities, because these would contract and alter the form the column ; its rail or cap must be fixed to the shafts of the columns, and its base made el with their bases ; the upper torus and fillet of the columns being continued in the erval, and serving as mouldings to the base of the balustrade. The rail and balusters Jst not be clumsy; wherefore it is best to use double-bellied balusters, as Palladio has ne in most of his buildings, and to give the rail a very little projection, that so it may t advance too far upon the surface of the column, and seem to cut into it. In large ddings the centre of the baluster may be in a line with the axis of the column ; but in all ones it must be within it, for the reason just mentioned. The height of the balus- de is regulated in a great measure by its use, and cannot well be lower than three feet, should it be higher than three and a half or four feet. Nevertheless, it must neccs- 1 1 y hear some proportion to the rest of the architecture, and have nearly the same relation the lower order, or whatever it immediately stands upon, as when a balustrade is placed ■reon chiefly for ornament. Wherefore, if the parts are large, the height of the balustrade ist be augmented, and if they are small it must be diminished ; as is done in the Casino A ilton, where it is only two feet four inches high, which was the largest dimension that tbl be given to it in so small a building. But that it might, notwithstanding its lowness, wer the intended purpose, the pavement of the portico is six inches lower than the bases 'he columns, and on a level with the bottom of the plat-band that finishes the basement ” We must here leave this subject, recommending the student to an intimate acquaintance h the \ arious examples that have been executed, and further advising him to test each of examples that may fall under his notice by the principles first udverted to in this section, ■ thu only true means of arriving at a satisfactory result. 896 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. Sect. XII. ARCADES ABOVE ARCADES. 26.53. As tlie disposition of one arcade upon another is, under certain regulations, subject to the same laws of voids and solids as the simple arcade of one story, which has formed the subject of a previous section, we shall no further enter into- the rules of its combinatioi than to offer a few general observations on the matter in question ; and herein, even will the reproach of a want of originality, we shall draw largely on our much-quoted author Chambers, whose language and figures we are about to use. So sound, indeed, is tin doctrine of Chambers in this respect, and so well founded on what has been done by those w hom we consider the greatest masters, that we should not be satisfied without transferrim his dicta to these pages, and that without any alteration. 2654. “ The best,” says Chambers, “ and, indeed, the only good disposition for tw< stories of arcades, is to raise the inferior order on a plinth, and the superior one on . pedestal, as Sangallo has done at the Pallazzo Farnese ; making both the ordonnances o' an equal height, as Palladio has done at the Basilica of Vicenza.” 2655. “ Scamozzi, in the thirteenth chapter of his sixth book, says that the arches in tin second story should not only be lower, but should also be narrower, than those in the first supporting his doctrine by several specious arguments, and by the practice, as he says, of tin ancient architects in various buildings mentioned by him. In most of these, however, tin superior arches are so far from being narrower, that they are either equal to or wider that the inferior ones. In fact, his doctrine in this particular is very erroneous, entirely con- trary to reason, and productive of several bad consequences; for if the upper arches Ini narrower than the lower ones, the piers must of course be broader, which is opposite fi all rules of solidity whatever, and exceedingly unsightly. The extraordinary breadth o the pier on each side of the columns in the superior order is likewise a great deformity even when the arches are of equal widths it is much too considerable. Palladio has, in tin Carita at Venice, and at the Palazzo Thiene in Vicenza, made his upper arches wider that the lower ones, and I have not hesitated to follow his example ; as by that means tin weight of the solid in the superior order is somewhat diminished, the fronts of the uppe I piers bear a good proportion to their respective columns, and likewise to the rest of tii composition.” 2656. “ In a second story of arcades there is no avoiding pedestals. Palladio ha; indeed, omitted them at the Carita, but his arches there are very ill proportioned. Ih extraordinary bulk and projection of these pedestals are, as before observed, a considerabl defect ; to remedy which in some measure they have been frequently employed withou j bases, as in the theatre of Mareellus, on the outside of the Palazzo Thiene, and that of th Chiericato in Vicenza. This, however, helps the matter but little ; and it will be best t make them always with bases of a moderate projection, observing at the same time t reduce the projection of the bases of the columns to ten minutes only, that the die may I. no larger than is absolutely necessary ; and in this case particular care must be taken w to break the entablature over each column of the inferior order, because the false bearui of the pedestal in the second order will by so doing be rendered far more striking, and i reality more defective, having then no other support than the projecting mouldings ot tl inferior cornice. There is no occasion to raise the pedestals of the second order on plinth, for as they come very forward on the cornice of the first order, and as the pon of view must necessarily be distant, a very small part only of their bases will be hid froi the eye.” 2657. “The balustrade must be level with the pedestals supporting the columns; r rail or cornice and base must be of equal dimensions, and of the same profile with their It should be contained in the arch and set as far back as possible, that the form of the arc may appear distinct and uninterrupted from top to bottom ; for which reason, likewise, tl. cornice of the pedestals must not return nor profile round the piers, which are to he coi tained in straight perpendicular lines from the imposts to the bases of the pedestals. Ik back of the rail may either be made plain or sunk into a panel in form of an open surh.-c for so it will be most convenient to lean upon, and it should be in a line with or souiewb recessed within the backs of the piers. The back part of the balustrade may be adorm with the same mouldings as the bases of the piers, provided they have not much projc tion ; but if that should be considerable, it will be best to use only a plinth crowned wi the two upper mouldings, that so the approach may remain the more free.” 2658. In fig. 919. is a Doric above a Tuscan arcade, from the example given Chambers, whereon, before giving the dimensions of the difierent parts, we shall mui observe of it that the voids or arcades themselves are in round numbers to the sola sas - to 205, being vastly greater. We are inclined to think that the voids in this case art rn a too great in volume, and that, bad they been reduced to one half their height exact j, if. I. ARCADES ABOVE ARCADES. *97 Kig. a 19. portions would have been somewhat more pleasing. It is 2 that a trifling irregularity would have been introduced > the triglyphs of the upper order, or rather the metopaj ween them; but that might have been easily provided against a very trifling alteration in the height of the frieze itself is fault of making the voids too large pervades Chambers’s mples, and but that we might have been thought too pre- ring we should have slightly altered the proportions, little ng requisite to bring them under the laws which we have ught to be founded on reason and analogy. We have indeed aughout this work refrained from giving other than approved mples, preferring to confine ourselves to observations on m when we have not considered them faultless. 1659. In the figure the clear width of the lower arcade is and its height 14^ modules. The width of each pier is 1 dule. Of the upper arcade the width is 9j, and the height 233 modules. The width of the piers is 1J module each, e height of the plinth of the lower order is 1 ^ module, that the column, including base and capital, 14£ modules, the ablature 31. The height of the pedestal of the upper order '733 modules, of the column with its base and capital 16, . of the entablature 3 - 733 modules. In the proportions ween the voids and solids above taken the balustrade is not sidered as a solid, because, in fact, it is nothing more than ailing for the protection of those using the upper story, we have expressed our desire to give the examples of others ier than our own, we feel bound to recommend the student set up the diagram in question, with the simple alteration of reducing the solids rly to an equality with the voids, which may be done with sufficient accuracy by as- ning to the lower arcade a module less in width than Chambers has done ; and we iture to say that he will be surprised at the difference, as regards grace and elegance, ich will result from the experiment. It is to be understood that no change is proposed the other dimensions of the ordonnance, the width of piers, orders, entablatures, all re- ining untouched. 1660. In Jig. 920. we give another example from Chambers, which, in our opinion, uires a rectification to bring it into proper form. Herein the Ionic is used above Doric arcade, and the voids to the solids are as 3-33 to 2-98, being much more n equal to them. In this, as in former example, we should have ferred a greater equality between solids and voids, though in that ier consideration there is a nearer iroximation to it. «361. In the figure the clear width ■he lower arch is 81, and its height ; modules ; the width of each pier 1 module. Of the upper arcade width is I0J, and the height 20J dules. The width of the piers is module each. 'Hie height of the ith of the lower order is I \ module t of the column, including the base capital, 16.1 modules, and of the ablature 4 modules. The height the pedestal of the upper order 4 •biles, of the column, including <• and capital, 18 modules, and of cotablature 4, and of the balus- •ie above it "J, v.2 The dimensions of the Ionic i Corinthian arcades in Jig. 921. as follow : _ Clear width of cr arch 9 modules, its height 1RJ lule*. The width of each pier is "'bile. Of the upper arcade the ih of an arch l.?| modules, and its 'bt 23 modules. 'Hie width of 893 Book I II. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. the piers is module each. The height of the plinth to the lower order is 1 1 module; of the column, including base and capital, 18 modules; the entablature 41 modules. The pedestal of the upper order is 4J modules high ; column, including base and capital, 20 modules; entablature 41 modules; and, lastly, the balus- trade is 33 modules in height. 2663. Fig. 922. is an arrangement adopted by Palladio in his basilica at Vicenza, being the dimensions, or nearly, of the arcades on the flanks. The intermediate ones are much wider. In the basilica, however, the entablature breaks round the columns of the orders. The width between the axes of the columns of the lower order is 15 of their modules. The arch is 15 modules high and 7| wide, l'he order wherefrom the arch springs is 1 Oj modules high ; from axis to axis of the small columns in the lower arcade is 9 modules. The height of the plinth is 1J module, of the principal columns, including bases and plinths, 16J modules, and of their entablature 4 modules. In the upper arcade the distance between the axes of the principal columns is 1 8 of their modules. Their pedestals are 4 modules high, the columns, including bases and capitals, 18 modules, and entablature 4 modules high. The width of the arch is 9§ modules, and its height 20jj modules. The height of the small columns is 1 1 '733 modules high, including their entablature. 2664. The use of arcades above arcades seems from its nature almost confined to public buildings, as among the ancients to their theatres and amphitheatres. In the in- terior quadrangles or courts of palaces they have been much employed on the Continent and in the magnificent design made by Inigo Jones for the palace at Whitehall are ti be found some very fine examples. Sect. XIII. BASEMENTS AND ATTICS. 2665. When the order used for decorating the facade of a building is placed in the middl <>r second story, it is seated on a story called the basement. The proportion of its height t the rest must in a great measure depend on the use to which its apartments are to h appropriated. “ In Italy,” observes Chambers, “where their summer habitations are ver frequently on that floor, the basements are sometimes very high. At the palace of Port in Vicenza, the height is equal to that of the order placed thereupon ; and at the Thienc in the same city, its height exceeds two thirds of that of the order, although it he almw of a sufficient elevation to contain two stories; but at the Villa Capra, and at the Lot Arsieri, both near Vicenza, the basement is only half the height of the order ; because i both these the ground floor consists of nothing but offices.” It may hence be gathered th. no absolute law can be laid down in reference to the height of a basement story. Yet we ina state, generally, that a basement should not be higher than the order it is to support, foi would in that case detract from the principal part of the composition, and, in fact, would h likely to interfere with it. Besides which, the principal staircase then requires so many step that space is wasted for their reception. “ Neither,” says Chambers, “ should a basemei be lower than half the height of the order, if it is to contain apartments, and consequent! have windows and entrances into it ; for whenever that is the case the rooms will he lov the windows and doors very ill formed, or not proportional to the rest of the compositioi as is observable at Holkham : but if the only use of the basement be to raise the groin floor, it need not exceed three, four, or at the most five or six feet in height, and be in tl form of a continued pedestal.” 2666. Basement stories are decorated generally with rustic work of such various kmc that we fear it would be here impossible to describe or represent their varieties. Mai are capriciously rock-worked on their surface, others are plain, that is, with a smooth su face. The height of each course, including the joints, should on no account he less tin one module of the order which the basement supports ; their length may be from once ai a half to thrice their height. As respects the joints, these may be square or chamfer' off. When square joints are used, they should not be wider than one eighth part oi A Chap. I. PILASTERS. 890 height of the rustic itself, nor narrower than one-tenth, their depth not exceeding their width. When the joints are chamfered, the chamfer should be at an angle of fortv-five degrees, and the whole width of the joint from one third to one fourth of the height of the rustic. »■ 2667. The courses are sometimes (often on the Continent) laid without showing vertical joints ; hut, as Chambers says, this “ has in general a bad appearance, and strikes as if the building were composed of boards rather than of stone. Palladio’s method seems far pre- ferable, who, in imitation of the ancients, always marked both the vertical and the hori- zontal joints ; and whenever the former of these are regularly and artfully disposed, the rustic work has a very beautiful appearance.” We shall presently make a few remarks on the subject of rustics ; but here, to continue and finish that more immediately under con- sideration, have to add, that when a high basement is used, it is not uncommon to crown it with a cornice, as may be seen in Jig. 909. ; but the more common practice is to use a plat- band only (as in Jig. 91 1.), whose height should not be greater than that of a rustic exclu- I sive of the joint. Of a similar height should be made the zoccolo or plinth ; but this may, | and ought, perhaps, to be somewhat higher. When arches occur in basements, the plat- band, which serves for the impost, should be as high as a course of rustics, exclusive of the joint ; and if the basement be finished with a cornice, such basement should have a regularly moulded base at its foot ; the former to be about one thirteenth of the whole height of the basement, and the base about one eighteenth, without the plinth. 2668. The Attic — which is used instead of a second order where limits are prescribed to the height of a building, examples whereof may be seen at Greenwich Hospital, and in the Valmarano palace, by the great Palladio, at Vicenza — should not exceed in height one-third of the order whereon they are placed, neither ought they to be less than one quarter. Bearing some resemblance to a pedestal, the base, die, and cornice whereof they are composed may be proportioned much in the same way as the respective divisions of their prototypes. They are sometimes continued without, and sometimes with, breaks over the column or pilaster of the order which they crown. If they are formed with pilasters, such ought to be of the same width as the upper diameter of the order under them, never more. In projection they should be one quarter of their width at most. They may be decorated with sunk moulded panels if necessary ; but this is a practice rather to be avoided, as is most especially that of using capitals to them — a practice much in vogue in France under Louis XV. 2669. We now return to the subject of the rock-worked rustic, whereof, above, some notice was promised. The practice, though occasionally used by the Romans, seems to have had its chief origin in Florence, where, as we have in a former Book (329.) observed, each palace resembled rather a fortification than a private dwelling. Here it was used to excess ; and if variety in the practice is the desire of the student, the buildings of that city will I furnish him with an almost infinite number of examples. The introduction of it gives a boldness and an expression of solidity to the rustics of a basement which no other means afford. In the other parts of Italy it was sparingly applied, but with more taste. Vignola and Palladio seem to have treated it as an accident productive of great , variety rather than as a means of decoration. The last-named architect has in the Palazzo Thiene carried it to the utmost extent whereof it is susceptible. Yet, with this extreme j extent of application, the design falls from his hands full of grace and feeling. To imitate ! it would be a dangerous experiment. l)e Brosse failed at the Luxembourg, and produced ; an example of clumsiness which in the Palazzo Pitti does not strike the spectator. 2670. Rustics and rockwork on columns are rarely justifiable except for the purpose of | some particular picturesque effect which demands their prominence in the scene, or street view, as in the gateway at Burlington House in Piccadilly, — of which a good view, with i the house itself, is to be seen in the “ Builder” for 1854, p. 559. It was pulled down | about 1867. Sect. X I V. rir.ASTPiis. 2671. Pilasters, or square columns, were by the Romans termed antic, by the Greeks l»iruntat4 Cvma reversa - 4 Neck Astragal 1 - 5 H Baluster, 8 modules. Fillet j ‘ Centre of belly - - 3 4 27 13 Prom same to astragal - - 9 Astragal ~1 Fillet j’ ■ - - 24 10£ fillet Inverted cyma - - 64 Plinth - - 54 13 Inverted cavetto _ 5 Pedestal, P'illet - - 2 3 modules. Astragal - - 5 Plinth * ” 15 24 2700. In fiy. 936. is given the form of a baluster suited to the Doric and Ionic orders, of liich also the table of dimensions is subjoined : — ! Members. Heights in Parts of a Mod die. Projections in Parts of a Module from Centre of Baluster. Rail, i 2 modules. Baluster, 8 modules. Pedestal, 3 modules. Fillet Cyma reversa Corona Quarter round P'illet Abacus Echinus Fillet Neck Astragal 1 Fillet J " Centre of belly From same to astragal Astragal Fillet Inverted cavetto P'illet Plinth Fillet Inverted ogee Fillet Astragal Plinth 2 7 4 ‘4 54 34 1 .5 5 27 9 6 or ~J 54 n 5 ‘1 «1 15 27 22 11 5 1 0 upper part) 12J 23J 2701 . A suitable baluster for the Corinthian or Composite order is exhibited in fig. 937, hereof the measures are as follow ; — 906 PRACTICE OK ARCHITECTURE. Rook III Members. Heights in Parts of a Module. Fillet _ if Echinus _ - 2} Fillet 1 Rail, Corona Gi 2 modules. Cyma reversa * - Astragal 1 02 Fillet I ' “3 Abacus _ 5 Echinus - _ 3 Fillet 1 Cavetto j Neck - - 5 Astragal 1 Fillet J * - “ 02 -a Baluster, 8 modules. Centre of belly - n From same to astragal - - Astragal 1 Fillet J ' Scotia - - Fillet - - 1 Astragal - - 3 I Plinth - - G Fillet ] Astragal J " “ ‘3 Pedestal, Inverted cyma recta - - - 3 modules. Fillet - - 1 Astragal - - 4 Plinth - - 15 Projections in Parts of a Module from Centre of Baluster. 26'J I 10A 12 4;} (at top) 12 2:1 m 2702. The Tuscan baluster (Jiff. 938.) is suitable for terraces and basements: its rai JU niTTiinTiri!! nrni Fig. 938. Fig. 939. Fig. 941 Fig. 943. , _ Fig. 940. and pedestal may be the same height as in the Jig. 935. Its principal measures being follow : — Members. Baluster 5 modules. Abacus - - - - Cyma reversa ... Neck 1 Fillet J - ‘ - fat top Rustic belly j - C at bottomj Bottom of belly 1 Fillet j * Inverted cavetto and fillet . Plinth .... Heights in Parts of a Module. 27 2J S «4 Projection* in parts of a Module from Centre of Baluster. 6 3 n 71 s 71 p. I. BALUSTRADES AND BALUSTERS. 9J7 her forms of Tuscan balusters are given in figs. 939. and 910., but it is not ne- ry to give the detail of the parts, as the proportions are sufficiently preserved in the es. 03. The double-bellied baluster is used in situations where greater lightness is ired from the smallness of the parts and the delicacy of the profiles. The proportions le bases and rails need not vary from those already given. Perhaps they need not ho 1 so large. 0-1. Fig. 941. is an example of a double-bellied baluster, suitable to the Doric order arts are as follow : — Projections in Height « in Parts of a Members. Parts of a Module from Module. Centre of Baluster. Abacus Echinus 1 - - - 44 44 8 Fillet I ’ Baluster, modules. Upper part - Middle part - - - - 24} 4 4 / 4 neck 18 belly 6 centre Lower part - - - - 24} |8 belly 14 neck Fillet j Inverted echinus/ . Plinth 4 4 8 05. In fig. 942. we give an example of the double-bellied baluster for the Ionic order, its measures are subjoined : — Baluster, 0 modules. Members. Abacus Fillet and cyma reversa Upper part - Middle part - Lower part - Inverted cyma and fillet Plinth Heights in Parts of a Module. 4 4 4 4 30J 9 30J 4 i 4 4 Projections in Parts of a Modulo from Centre of Baluster. 19 belly 7J centre f9 belly 1 4J neck "i. The last example we shall give of the double-bellied baluster (Jig. 943.) is suit* ’> the Corinthian order. The measures are as follow : — Members. baluster, modules. Abacus Echinus and fillet Neck Astragal and fillet • Upper part - Middle Lower part - Fillet and astragal • Neck Fillet and inverted echinus Plinth Projections in Heights In Parts of a Parts of a Modulo from Modulo. Centre of Baluster. . 5 n - 4 - 54 54 - - 34 - - £9 1 54 at top 1 1 1 at bellv - - fi 29 f 1 1 at belly ■ l 54 at bottom - - 34 - - • r -i <| 5J . - 5 1 1 !_ PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 90S 2707. We do not deem it necessary to give any examples of the scroll and Guilm balustrades, which were so much in vogue during the reigns of Louis XIV. a Louis XV., though the present taste seems almost to require it. As that taste has be mainly generated by house decorators, as they are called, and upholsterers, these gent will soon find out another means of amusing the public, by driving them out of faslii and finding all that is beautiful in some renovated and equal absurdities. 2708. We have already observed that the intervals between balusters should not be ntt than half the diameter of the baluster at its thickest part ; to this we may here add, tl they should not be less than one third of that diameter. The pedestals for supporting I rail ought neither to be too frequent nor too far apart ; for in the first case they impar heavy appearance to the work, and in the last the work will seem weak. Seven or n balusters are good numbers for a group, besides the two half ones engaged in the pedest; The disposition, however, and number of the pedestals depend on the places below of i piers, columns, or pilasters, for over these a pedestal must stand ; and when, therefore happens that the intervals are greater than are required for the reception of nine balusti the distance may contain two or three groups each, flanked with half balusters, and - width of the dies separating the groups may be from two thirds to three quarters the wii of the principal pedestals. The rail and base should not be broken by projections, I run in unbroken lines between the pedestals. 2709. When the principal pedestals stand over columns or pilasters, their dies should n he made wider than the top of the shafts, and on no account narrower ; indeed, it is better to flank them on each side when the ranges are long with half dies, and give a small projection to the central pedestal, and to let the base and rail follow the projection in their profiles. This practice will give real as well as apparent solidity to the balustrade. 2710. Fiy. 944. shows the application of a balustrade to a portion of a staircase, and herein the same proportions are observed as on level ranges. Some masters have made the mouldings of the different members of the baluster, follow the rahe or inclination of the steps; but the practice is vicious : they should preserve their horizontality, as exhibited in the figure, in which, at A and B, is also shown the me- thod in which the horizontal are joined to the inclined mouldings of the base and rail. In the balustrades of stairs the spaces between the balusters are usually made narrower than they are on level beds ; and Le Clerc recommends that the height of the plinth should be equal to that of the steps ; but this is not absolutely required, though it must on no account be less. 2711. The bulbs or bellies of balusters and their mouldings may he carved and otherwise enriched : indeed, in highly decorated interiors, this seems requisite. 2712. The following observations as to the height of statues placed upon halustr are from Sir William Chambers : — “ When statues are placed upon a balustrade t height should not exceed one quarter of the column and entablature on which the bs trade stands. Their attitudes must be upright, or, if anything, bending a little forwa but never inclined to either side. Their legs must be close to each other, and the drape ■ close to their bodies, for whenever they stand straddling with bodies tortured into a vai of bends, and draperies waving in the wind, as those placed on the colonnades ol Peter’s, they have a most disagreeable effect, especially at a distance, from whence ‘ appear like lumps of unformed materials, ready to drop upon the heads of passenpl- The three figures placed on the pediment of Lord Spencer’s house, in the Green 1 which were executed by the late ingenious Mr. Spang, are well composed for the purpe 2713. “ The heights of vases placed upon balustrades should not exceed two third the height given to statues,” says the same author. We are not altogether averse to application of either statues or vases in the predicated situations, but we think the gre, discretion is required in their employment. When it is necessary to attract the eye an indispensably obtrusive roof, they are of great value in the composition ; but we not further enter on this point of controversy, for such it is, inasmuch as many objet their use altogether, and have considerable reason on their side. We must, however, hr 1 state the ground of objection, and Chambers’s answer as respects statues. There an says, some “ who totally reject the practice of placing statues on the outsides of bund ’> founding their doctrine, probably, upon a remark which I have somewhere met with 1 French author, importing that neither men, nor even angels or demi-gods, could star 11 all weathers upon the tops of houses or churches.” 2714. “ The observation is wise, no doubt,” (we doubt the wisdom of it,) “yet, piece of marble or stone is not likely to be mistaken for a live demi-god, and as sta • when properly introduced, are by far the most graceful terminations of a composition j- of the most abundant sources of varied entertainment, and amongst the richest, PEDIMENTS. 909 p. I. ible, and elegant ornaments of a structure, it may be hoped they will still continue to alerated.” We fear that if the only reasons for their toleration were those assigned by author, their doom would soon be sealed. Sect. XVII. PEDIMENTS. 715. A pediment, wtiose etymology is not quite clear, consists of a portion of the zontal cornice of the building to which it is applied, meeting two entire continued ng cornices, and enclosing by the three boundaries a space which is usually plain, ;d the tympanum. It is not, however, necessary that the upper cornice should be ilinear, inasmuch as the cornice is sometimes formed by the segment of a circle. The ngement in question was the Roman fastiginm, and is the French fronton. The Greeks ■d pediments aeroi, or eagles; why, this is not the place to inquire. The origin of the iment, according to authors, seems to have arisen from the inclined sides of the primitive This is a subject, however, which in the First Book (subsec. 5.) has been already iidered, and we shall therefore in this section confine ourselves to its employment in the litecture of the day. 716. Of the varied forms which, by masters even of acknowledged talent, have been in to the pediment, whether polygonal, with curves of contrary flexure, with mixed ns, broken in the horizontal part of the cornice or in the raking parts of it, or reversed ;s office with two springing inclined sides from the centre, we propose to say no more . that they are such abuses of all rules of propriety, that we shall not further notice in than by observing that in regular architecture no practice is to be tolerated where i pediment is composed otherwise than of two raking unbroken and one horizontal roken cornice, or of the latter and one continued flexure of curved line. To these . therefore, we now apply ourselves. 17. Generally, except for windows and doors, the pediment ought not to be used, as a termination of the whole composition ; and though examples are to be found out number in which an opposite practice has obtained, the reader, on reflection, will onvinced of the impropriety of it, if there be the smallest foundation for its origin in termination of the slant sides of the hut. 18. The use of the pediment in the interior of a building is, perhaps, very questionable, *h the greatest masters have adopted it. We think i* altogether unnecessary : if the : nidal form is desirable for anv particular combination of lines, it may be obtained by t number of other means than that of the introduction ot tne pediment. Hence we j'f opinion that the attempted apology for them in Sir William Chambers’s work, is alto- ■ r weak and unworthy of him, and only to be explained by that master’s own practice. 1 9. Vitruvius ordains that neither the modillions nor dentils which are used in the ontal cornice should be used in the sloping cornices of a pediment, inasmuch as they M-nt parts in a roof which could not appear in that portion : and the remains ally of antiquity seem to bear him out in the assertion ; but the Roman remains seem ir a different testimony to the validity of the law, and to our own eyes the trans- ion affords pleasure, and we should recommend the student not to feel himself at all 1 by it; for, as Chambers most truly observes, “ The disparity of figure and eniich- Utween the horizontal and inclined cornices are such defects as cannot be compen- by any degree of propriety whatever, and therefore to me it appears best, in imitation greatest Roman and modern architects, always to make the two cornices of the profile, thus committing a trifling impropriety to avoid a very considerable deformity.” Different sized pediments in the same facade are u avoided ; but as respects their forms in ranges of ws and niches a pleasing variety is often obtained by g them alternately curved and rectilinear, as in the • 't Ni lines and in the niches of the Rantheon at • In the horizontal part of a cornice under a pe- t the two upper mouldings are always omitted, and terxection of the inclined with the horizontal lines, mg the inclined members of the cornice to be of the 'eight ax those which are horizontal, will not fall into ofilti 945 .) whereof AB and BC are the lead- ”' H - 1 o obviate this inconvenience, some architects n ule a break in the cymatiuin and fillet, as shown 910 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 in the figure. But this is a bad practice, and to it we prefer either making the cyma ; lillet higher, as the dotted line AD indicates, or altogether lowering the height of the tv on the horizontal line If the inclined cornice is joined on each side by horizontal ones, best expedient is to give only such small projection to the cyma as that it may meet inclined sides. 2722. The heights of pediments should be regulated by their lengths, independent of consideration of climate. (See Book II. Chap. 111. Sect. IV. 2027.) Thus, when the bast the pediment is short, the height of the pediment may be greater ; and when long, it sho be diminished ; for in the former case the inclined cornice leaves but scanty space for tympanum, and in the latter case the tympanum will appear overcharged. From one f; to one quarter of the length appears to have been agreed on as the limits ; hut we subjc from a work by Stanislas E’Eveille ( Considerations sur les Frontons, 4to. Paris, 1824), method which we consider the best for determining the height of a pediment, observing the way, that a strict adherence to the ordinary rules for finding the height may prod the absurdity of a pediment higher than the columns by which it is borne, a condit which would not at all accord with the view we have taken of the orders in Sect. Chap. 1. of this Book. In fig. 946. we have a synoptical view of pediments of vai 1 extents, and as the letters applied to the central pediment will apply to all the rest ; c shall restrict our description to that. Suppose the points a and b to be the extrema'* of the fillet of the corona. Then, with a radius equal to ah, from the points a a , describe the arcs ax, bx, and from their intersection x with the same radius let die ar 'A be described. From y, as a centre, with a radius equal to the height of the horiz *1 j : part of the cornice, describe the portion of the circle f y, and from a and b draw th to tangents intersecting in y. Then yb and ya will be the proper inclination of the fil the corona to which the other members of the inclined parts will necessarily be parall 2722. We conclude this section by the words of Chambers. “ The face of the tyi ln is always placed on a line perpendicular with the face of the frieze; and when large. ■) be adorned with sculpture, representing the arms or cypher of the owner, troph various kinds, suited to the nature of the structure, or bas-reliefs, representing 1 l ' r allegorical or historical subjects ; but when small it is much better left plain.” Sect. XVI 1 1. corns ices. 2724. In many cases the faijades of buildings are erected without any of the appearing in the design, other, perhaps, than those which are applied as the dressi windows, niches, or doors. The palaces of Florence and Rome abound with such exa in most of which the edifice is crowned with a cornice, which adds dignity to the bu; producing a play of light and shadow about it of the utmost importance as rega picturesque effect. The moderns have generally failed in this fine feature ot a bu and it is only within the last few years, in this country, that a return to the practice old masters, a practice properly appreciated bv Jones, Wren, Vanbrugh, and Burh has manifested itself. If a building be entirely denuded of pilasters and colunii there are very few common instances that justify their introduction, it seems ratio of cs, HAP. 1. CORNICES. 911 ;duce the proportion of the height and profile of its cornice from the proportions that ould be given to it if an order intervened. 2725. If we consider the height of the crowning cornice of a building in this way, and ; the portion of an entablature whose height is, as in the case of an order, one fifth of that ' the building, we should immediately obtain a good proportion by dividing the whole eight into 25 parts and giving two of them to the height of the cornice. For the itablature being one fifth of the whole fight, and its general division being into J parts, four whereof are given to the imice, we have for its height the ofi = ^ ,? 3 , or the twelfth and a half part of the ital height of the building = 0 08. ow there are circumstances, such as hen the piers are large, and in other ■ses when the parts are not very full in eir profiles, which may justify a de- •rture from the strict application of this tie ; but it will be seen that in the llowing ten well-known examples the j-actice has not much differed from the eory, nearly the greatest deviation being the celebrated cornice of the Farnese dace, which is here placed {fig. 947.) as i extraordinary work of art in connection ith the building it crowns. The ex- iples alluded to are as follow, and we all begin with those of earlier date, e diminution in height being almost a chronological table of their erection, with the ception of those by Palladio : — In the Spannocchi palace, at Siena, the cornice is of the whole height of building, or $= -081 . in the Picolomini palace, at Siena, the cornice is -.XL of the whole height of building, or 2 2 T = -074. In die Pojana palace, built by Palladio, at Pojana, in the Vicentine territory, the cornice ‘ s the whole height of building, or -^ = 071. n the Strozzi palace, at Florence, the cornice is of the whole height of building, 11 the Pandolfini palace, at Florence, by Itaffaelle, the cornice is ■,§£ of the whole height of building, or -069. n the \ ilia Montecchio, by Palladio, the cornice is of the whole height of building, " the 'dla Caldogno, by Palladio, the cornice is of the whole height of building, °r £ = -069. TJ ° 5 " another villa by Palladio, for the family of Caldog no, the cornice is of the whole height of building, or T b = -066. i the farnese palace, at Rome, the cornice is of the whole height of building, or ^ — '059. i the Condi palace, at Florence, the cornice is ^3 of the whole height of building, or 3 -. = "057. rom these examples it appears that the mean height of the cornices under consideration "nothing more than one fifteenth of the height of the building, and experience shows except under particular circumstances, much more tVit is too great, and much less too little, to satisfy d ucated eve. The grace beyond the reach of art ■>e may use an llibernicism, in the power of few, the bounds have been passed with success, as is ivd m the Farnese palace. It may be objected to 'tern that we have generally adopted in this work, • e are too much reducing the art to rules. Rut • a P rac ticcr of which the painter is not ashamed proportions of the human figure, and we must 1 our reader and the student that all rules are more • purpose of restraining excess than bounding the •"/ ' of genius. ' • Fo,. 91 R. is an entablature by Vignola, which great beauty, and has been often imitated in "nyx for crowning a building; this must be con- 912 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 1, sidered more in relation to a building tlian a mere cornice, and requires rustic quoins, if possible, at the angles when used. Chambers, speaking of this example, says, that “when it is used to finish a plain building, the whole height is found by dividing the height of the whole front into eleven parts, one of which must be given to the entablature, and the remaining ten to the rest of the front.” We suspect that the smallness which is assigned by this author to its height has been induced by some error, and that a better rule would be induced by assigning to the cornice its proper height, according to the laws above hinted at, and proportioning the rest of the entablature from the cornice thus obtained. Fig. 951. Fig. 960. 2727. In Jigs. 949, 950, and 951. are given three examples of block cornices (th second being by Palladio), whose proportions the figures sufficiently show without her giving a detail of their parts. The height of either should not be less than one fifteenth < the height of the building. Fig. 952. Fig. 954. Fig. 953. 2728. Figs. 952. and 953. are block cornices, which we have adopted from Chambi the first being from a palace at Milan, and the other, by Rafthelle, in a house in 1 Lungara at Rome. The height of these, says the author, and we agree with him, w not exceed one sixteenth part of the whole front, nor should either be less than <. eighteenth. Fig. 954. is what is called an architrave cornice, which was frequently employ by the old masters. It seems well adapted to the entablatures of columns bearing arcl being rather in the nature of an impost ; but it is useful, changing it to suit the order cases where the height does not admit of the whole of the entablature being used over order. Sect. XIX pkofii.es of dooks. 2729. One of our objects in this work has been to impress throughout on the mind our readers that architecture does not depend on arbitrary laws; and though we may have proved satisfactorily to the student that the precise laws have been exactly stated, trust we have exhibited sufficient to show and convince him that there was a method limit in the works of the ancients which in the best times prevented the artists from far on either side into excess. 2730. In Jig. 955. we give a door with its architrave, frieze, and cornice, without . •v>/s>il/linrrc Itnf tvimvilir /wvnci rloroH in flio moccoc T + c nrnnorf lOIK P f) 1' r P S 1 1 No , 1 lation to mouldings, but merely considered in the masses. Its proportions corresp with those most usually adopted ; that is, its height is twice its width, the entablatui one fourth of the height of the opening, and the architraves on each side, together, sixths of the width. The opening, therefore, measuring it in terms of the width of 1 architrave, will be G parts wide and 12 high, and its area consequently 72 parts. 1* mt AP. 1. PROFILES OF DOORS. 913 T 7 will be lomul that the solid parts of this are exactly on their e two thirds of this area ; for up to the top of the opening each •hitrave being equal to 12, the sum will he 24 ; and the entabla- re being 8 wide and 3 (one fourth of twelve) high, 8 x 3=24; dch added to 24 for the architraves gives 48 for the solids, and = ij, as above stated. The same analogy does not seem to hold respect of doors and windows, of making the voids equal to the pparts and weights, as in intercolumniations ; nor indeed ought to expect to find it, for the conditions are totally different, tsmuch as no door can exist except in a wall, whereas the office columns is connected with the weight above only. We trust, ■refore, we have shown enough to keep the reader’s mind alive some such law as above developed, without insisting very strongly a minute attention to it in detail. 2731. We shall now, before submitting any examples of doorways Fis- 935. . the reader, touch upon some important points that must he attended to; the first of which that all gates and doors, independent of all other considerations, must be of sufficient size convenient passage through them. Hence internal doors must never he reduced undei feet 9 or 10 inches, and their height must not he under 6 feet 10 inches or 7 feet, so as to mit the tallest person to pass with his hat. These are minimum dimensions for ordinary uses in the principal floors ; but for houses of a superior class, which are provided with what i iv he called state apartments, widths of 4, 5, and 6 feet, folding doors and the like, will not too great for the openings, and the heights will of course be in proportion. The entrance jOrs of private houses ought not to he under 3 feet 6 inches, nor ordinarily mare than feet in width ; hut in public buildings, where crowds of people assemble, the minimum |dth should he 6 feet, and thence upwards to 10 or 12 feet. No gate should he less than feet wide; and when loaded waggons or carts are to pass through it, 11 or 12 feet 11 not he too much. As a general observation we may mention that all doors should open cards, for otherwise the person entering pulls the door in his face, which is an inconvenient >de of entering a room. Also when the width of a door is greater than 3 feet 8 inches ( should he formed in two flaps, by which three advantages accrue : first, that the door 1 not occupy so much space for opening ; second, that each door will be lighter ; and, rd, that the flaps will more nearly fold into the thickness of the wall. Chambers pro- ly says, “ That in settling the dimensions of apertures of doors regard must he had to architecture with which the door is surrounded. If it he placed in the intercolumniation tin order, the height of the aperture should never exceed three quarters of the space i ween the pavement and the architrave of the order ; otherwise there cannot be room for ornaments of the door. Nor should it ever he much less than two thirds of that ce, for then there will be room sufficient to introduce both an entablature and a I iment without crowding ; whereas if it he less it will appear trifling, and the inter- ' animation will not be sufficiently filled. The apertures of doors placed in arches are 1 dated by the imposts, the top of the cornice being generally made level with the top v lie impost; and when doors are placed in the same line with windows, the top of the * 'lure should he level with the tops of the apertures of the windows ; or if that he "l practicable without making the door much larger than is necessary, the aperture "I he lower than those of the windows, and the t ins of all the cornices made on the same Ml.” 732. To say that the principal door of a building should if possible be in the centre of ' front would seem almost unnecessary ; but it is not so, perhaps, to inculcate the necessity ' is being so situated in connection with the internal arrangement of the building as to I with facility to every part of it, being, as Seamozzi observes (Parte Secunda, lib. vi. 1 •), like the mouth of an animal placed in the middle of the face, and of easy comimini- m with the insiile. In the internal distribution the doors should as much as possible I 'pposite one another on many accounts, not the least whereof is the facility thus given 1 i ntilation ; hut such a disposition also gives the opportunity of a far better display of i re s of rooms, which on occasions of fetes imparts great magnificence to the apartments. I 'his climate it is well to avoid too great a number of doors, and they should never, if " m he avoided, he placed near chimneys, because of subjecting to draughts of air those * sl t near the fire. Generally the doors in a room should he reduced to the smallest I her that will suit the distribution, and the practice of making feigned or blank doors, 'I gh sometimes necessary, should if possible be excluded. 33. The ornaments with which doors are decorated must of course depend on the bn ling in which they are used ; and as this is a matter in which common sense must II t the architect, it is hardly necessary to say that the ornaments applied to them in a h.re would ill suit a church. 14. Hie composition and designing of gates and their piers must of necessity suit the H lion, as well as the folding gates attached to them, for the enclosure of the parks. 914 PRACTICE OP ARCHITECTURE. Boon. II gardens, and other places they are to serve. There are few finer examples in the high class of this species of design than the celebrated gates at Hampton Court. 2735. 'Ihe evil days on which we have fallen in this country, in respect of the arts, pr eludes the hope of again seeing the doors of our buildings ornamented with bassi relievi ai bronze ornaments, a practice common among the ancients no less than among the revive of the art;; witness the doors of St. Peter’s, and, above all, those monuments of the art, t doors of the baptistery at Florence by Lorenzo Ghiberti, wherein art rises by being ma only subservient to the holy purpose to which it is the mere handmaid. In the menti of doors those of San Giovanni Laterano at Rome must not be omitted ; they have the crei of having been the enclosures to the temple of Saturn in the ancient city. 2736. The manufacture of doors has been already sufficiently noticed in the Seco Book; and it therefore only remains for us to subjoin a few examples, which, we tliii among many others, deserve the attention of the student. 2737. Fig. 956. is an external doorway designed and executed by Vignola, at Caprar , not a great distance north of Rome ; it must speak for itself: if the reader be of mind, he will see in it a beautiful handling of the subject; but we cannot further answc our opinion, knowing as we do that some of the reviewers of these days may find out i it possesses no (Esthetic beauties. There are cases where imitation has been permitted; > the sanction for our opinion is, that it has been imitated by one whom we and all ot - hold in reverence at Greenwich Hospital, though, as we think with Chambers, for worse. “ The aperture is in the form of an arch, and occupies somewhat more than 1 thirds of the whole height. It is adorned with two rusticated Doric pilasters and ju - gular entablature. The height of the pilasters is 16 modules, that of the entablatui I. The width of the aperture is 7 modules, its height 14, and the breath of each pii ,s 3 modules.” To the detail of Chambers we have to add that the void in this exan ■ which has no analogy to that which as a general rule we gave in the commencemc >1 the section, is about one third of the area of the whole design, the void being to such * jis 7-57 to 20-88. 2738. Fig. 957. is a design by the last-mentioned master, in which the void is as m iy as possible equal to one third of the area, the supports another, and the weights the ' r third : in other terms, the aperture occupies two thirds of the whole height and out of the whole breadth, being, in fact, a double square. Its entablature has an alliance 11 the Tuscan order, and the cornice is equal to one fifteenth of the whole height of the i '■ These two examples are especially external ; those which follow are from their i e applicable in general form to either external or internal doorways. 2739 Fig. 958. is a doorway in the Cancellaria at Rome, and is from the desk Vignola. The width is one half the height, and the height of the entablature is equal to one third of the height of the aperture. The breadth of the architrave is one fifth of the aperture’s width, and the oilasters below the consoles are half as broad as the architrave. It is heavy, as might have been expected from the proportion be- tween the voids and the solids. 2740. Fig. 959. is a design by Michael Angelo Buonarotti, and its aperture m;iy be twice its height, IAP. L WINDOWS. 915 whole entablature a quarter of its height, and the architrave one sixth of the width the aperture. The face of the pilasters or columns at the sides must be regulated the lower fascia of the architrave, and their breadth is to be a semidiameter. 2741. Fig. 9G0. is by Vignola, and is in the Farnese palace at Rome. The opening is ice the width in height, and the entablature is three elevenths of the height of the aper- re, one of the foregoing elevenths being given to the architrave. The whole of the orna- ■nt on the sides is, including architraves and pilasters, equal to two sevenths of the width the aperture. The cornice is Composite, with modillions and dentils, and the frieze is riehed with a laurel hand. I 274 2. Fig. 961., another of the examples given by Chambers, is believed to be by soli. The void is rather more in height than twice its width. The impost of the arch equal to half a diameter, the columns are rather more than nine diameters high, anu sticated with five square cinctures. The entablature is not so much as one quaitei ol o height of the column, and its tablet is equal to the width of the aperture. PI*. 961. Fig. 96V. Fig. 963. 2743. Fig. 962. is by Inigo Jones, and the aperture may be twice as high as it is wide. ic architrave may be a sixth or seventh of the width of the aperture, the top of it being ■el with the astragal of the columns, which are Corinthian, and ten diameters in height, icy must be so far removed on each side from the architrave as to allow the full projec n of their bases. The entablature may be from two ninths to one fifth of the column, (1 the pediment should be regulated by the rules given in Sect. XVII. (2722.). 2744. Fig. 963. is by Serlio. The aperture may be a double square, or a trifle less ; • diameter of the columns a quarter of the width of the aperture, or a trifle less ; their light 8 to 8.1 diameters ; the entablature about a quarter of the height of the ’columns. 1 the pediment should be drawn in conformity with the directions in Sect. XVII. Sect. X X. WINDOWS. 745. Windows, of all the paru of a building, are those which require the greatest nicety adjustment between the interior and exterior relations of them. The architect who ' oly looks to the effect they will produce in his facades has done less than half his work " deserves no better name or rank than that of a mere builder. It seems almost use- I to observe that the windows of a building should preserve the same character, that 1 ,«.• in each story must be of the same height, and that the openings must be directly over " another. Rlank windows are, if possible, to be avoided, they always indicate that 1 architect wanted skill to unite the internal wants of the building with its external de- ition. \\ inflows, moreover, should be as far removed ns the interior will permit from 1 quoins of a building, because they not only apparently, but really, weaken the angles v n placed too near ihcm. 16. Vitruvius, Palladio, Scamozzi, and Philibert dc l’Orme, besides many other mas- !' . ii->vc given different proportions to them as connected with the apartments to he t " . * ' iat these should lie different is indicated by the different places in which those " ’i ts have written. Nothing, indeed, seems so much to disallow general laws ns the I' 'ort ion of windows to nn apartment; according to the climate, the temperature, the H N 2 PRACTICE OE ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 1 916 ' length of the clays, the general clearness of the sky, the wants and customs of commerce and of life generally. In hot climates the windows are always few in number and small n dimension. As we approach those regions where the sun has less power and the winter i longer, we observe always an increase in their size and number, so as to enable the in habitants to take as much advantage as possible of the sun’s light and rays. It seems therefore, almost impossible to give general rules on this subject. We shall on this accoun endeavour, in the rules that this section contains, to coniine ourselves to the sizes whirl seem suitable in this climate, as resuects the proportion of light necessary for the comfor of an apartment. 2747. It is a matter of experience that the greatest quantity of light is obtained for a apartment when lighted by an horizontal aperture in the ceiling. Of this a very extra ordinary verification is to be found in the Pantheon at Rome. This edifice, whose clea internal diameter is 142 feet 6 inches, not including the recesses behind the columns, nearly 74 feet high to the springing of the dome, which is semicircular. The total clea number of cubic feet in it may therefore be taken in round numbers at 1, 9.44, 460 cubi feet. Those who have visited it well know that it is most sufficiently and pleasingl lighted, and this is effected by an aperture (the eye, as it is technically called,) in the crow of the dome, which aperture is only 27 feet in diameter. Now the area of a circle 27 fei in diameter being rather more than 572 feet, it follows that each superficial foot of tl area lights the astonishing quantity of nearly 3380 cubic feet. Independent of all cons! derations of climate, this shows the amazing superiority of a light falling vertically, whf it can be introduced. But in a majority of cases the apertures for light are introduced vertical walls ; and the consequence is, that a far greater area of them for the admi sion of light becomes necessary. In considering the question it must be premised th a large open space is supposed before the windows, and not the obstructed light whii it is the lot of the inhabitants of closely-built streets to enjoy. Again, it is to be recollectij that in the proportioning of windows it is the apartments on the principal floor that are be considered, because their width in all the stories must be guided by them, the only v riety admissible being in the height. In this country, where the gloom and even darkne of wet, cloudy, and foggy seasons so much prevails, it is better to err on the side of t much rather than too little light, and when it is superabundant to exclude it by means shutters and blinds. We are not very friendly to the splaying of windows, because of t irregularity of the lines which follows the practice; but, it must be admitted, it often I comes necessary when the walls are thick, and in such cases a considerable splay on i inside increases the light in effect by a great diminution of shade. It is well, if possib j to have an odd number of windows in an apartment ; nothing wherein contributes mi to gloom than a pier in the centre. 2748. We do not think it necessary to advert to the rule of Palladio for the dimensii of windows given in the first book of his work, chap. 25. ; because, were it true for t climate of northern Italy, it would not be so for that of Great Britain ; neither are we all satisfied with that which in his practice Sir William Chambers says he adopted, a which is as follows, in his own words : — “ I have generally added the depth and heig we suppose width “ of the rooms on the principal floor together, and taken one eigl part thereof for the width of the window ; a rule to which there are few objections : mitting somewhat more light than Palladio’s, it is, I apprehend, fitter for our climate tli bis rule would be.” This rule is empirical, as indeed is that on which we place m dependence, and to which we shall presently introduce the reader, being ourselves inclit to the belief that in the lighting a room there is a direct relation between the area ot aperture admitting the light and the quantity of cube space in the room. Indeed the 1 which we are about to give is one founded on the cubic contents of the apartment ; am the results bore a regular ratio to that quantity, the discussion would be at an end, for should then have only to ascertain the cubic contents, and, knowing how much an area light one foot square would illuminate, the division of one by the other would supply superficies of windows to be provided. Our own notion on this subject is, that I foot sup licial of light in a vertical wall, supposing the building free from obstruction by fi objects in the neighbourhood, will in a square room be sufficient for 100 cube feet if pin centrally in such room. It will, however, immediately occur to the reader, that tins i cannot in many cases satisfy the requirements of an apartment as respects the quantity light necessary for its proper illumination. The subject is beset with numerous difficult which to overcome requires the greatest skill. In the case of an apartment, long as i pared with its width, it is well known to every practical architect that windows ol the s. collective area at either of the narrow ends of such apartment will light it much u effectively than if the same area of light were admitted on either of the long sides, and n especially so, if it should happen that on such long side there were a pier instead of a wim in the centre of such side. In illustration of what we mean, let us refer the reader to ball room at Windsor Castle, an apartment 90 feet long, 34 feet wide, and 33 feet h This room is lighted from the northern narrower side by a window nearly occupying WINDOWS. 917 I. dth, and is supplied by an abundance of light. But had the same quantity of light been mittcd from either of the long sides of the room, so many masses of shadow would have m introduced through the interposition of piers, that its effect would have differed most dely from the cheerful and airy aspect it now presents. We have taken this as an imple that more presently occurs to us, hut the reader from his observation will have no ficulty in supplying instances in corroboration of our impressions on this subject. But we shall now proceed to give, in the author’s own words, the rules of which we ve spoken. That author is Hubert Morris, and the work quoted if Lectures on Archi- ' ure , consisting of Rules founded on Harmonich and Arithmetical Proportions in Building. udon, 8vo. 1734. “ There are rules, likewise, for proportioning of light according the magnitude of the room by which any room may be illuminated, more or less, ording to the uses of them, and at the same time preserve an external regularity ; ich, as it is on an uncommon basis, I shall explain to you as well as I conveniently i. Let the magnitude of the room he given, and one of those proportions 1 have posed to he made use of or any other ; multiply the length and breadth of the room •ether, and that product multiply by the height, and the square root of that sum will the area or superficial content in feet, &c. of the light required.” Fix* 901. Fig. 905. 749. “Example. Suppose a room {fig. 964.), whose magnitude is the arithmetical portion of 5, 4, and 3, and is 20 feet long, 16 feet broad, and 12 feet high, the cube or luct of its length, breadth, and height multiplied together is 3840, the square root of eh sum is 62 feet. If the height of the story is 12 feet as before mentioned, divide 62 feet into three windows ; each window will contain 20 feet 8 inches of superficial t, and those will be found to be 3 feet 2.1 inches broad, and 6 feet 5 inches high, which windows of two diameters.” WO. “ Let us now suppose another room on the same range whose height is 12 feet, as preceding example is, and its proportion {fig. 965.) shall be the cube. The product of cube is 1728, and its root is 41 feet 4 inches, or thereabouts: divide that 41 feet lies in two parts for two windows, and each will be 20 feet 8 inches of superficial *, and those will be two diameters in height, and the magnitude the same as the pre- ng room.” ■71. “ Bor example sake, I will only suppose one more room {fig. 966 ) upon the same e, and 12 feet in height, •c proportion shall be the metical of 3, 2, and 1 ; is, its height being 12 the breadth will be 24 ength 36, the product of numbers multiplied to- ■r will be 10368, and its 101 feet 8 inches, or al>outs : divide this room five windows, each win- will have 20 feet 4 inches ‘ ficiul light, and the mag- e will be near or equal to tlicrs, and if the proportion be 6, 4, and 3, and coved, the light is the same.” “ 1 here is," says the author, rather perhaps simply, “but one objection to this to ,na ^ u '* universal for all kinds of proportioned rooms on the same floor, and that square root doth not always happen to be exact enough for to make them alike; but '•■nation will be so small, it may be made use of; and if the area something exceeds ui' ard of the principal room, that room may be converted to a use which requires thari standard light, and the necessities of families sometimes require it. But, how- t i,’ rule will serve for the purpose near enough for any practice.” PRACTICE OP ARCHITECTURE. Book III 918 27 58. “If you extend the rule to larger rooms, the same methods will be preservee even if the height be continued through two stories, if the upper windows be made square . fvf. and to have two tire” (tiers) “of windows. Let us suppose the room (fig. 967.) with t« tire of windows in height, to be 50 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 90 feet high, the aril metical proportion of 5, 4, and 8, the product of those numbers multiplied together will 60000, the square root of which sum is 245 superfical feet ; divide that sum for the iir< (tiers) “ of windows into three parts, or take one third of it, and that makes the attic square windows 81 feet 8 inches superficial light ; divide this into 5 windows, and they a 4 feet and half an inch square, and the five lower windows, consisting of 168 feet 4 inch superficial light, being what remains out of the 245 feet, the root, each of these windows 4 feet and half an inch by 8 feet 1 inch, or two diameters, which 245 feet, the whole si. of the square root of the room, will sufficiently illuminate the same.” 2754. The extreme piers should not, if possible, be less than half the width off principal piers. This cannot always be obtained, but a much less width causes gr irregularity, and that more especially when one of such end piers falls opposite a chimr breast, besides causing a great mass of shadow on the other side of the chimney, wli liar a tendency towards making the room dark and gloomy. 2755. Windows in the same story should be similar. There may be an occasional viation for a great central window, but such deviation must be used with much cauti Another practice, most properly reprobated by Chambers, is that of intermitting the arc trave and frieze of an order in the intervals between the columns to make room for wind and their enrichments, as on the flanks of the Mansion blouse in the city of London practice from which Sir Christopher Wren was, unfortunately, not exempt, as may noticed in St. Paul’s Cathedral. 2756. What are called Venetian windows are occasionally allowable, when so ran; and introduced as not to interfere with the composition, — a task often difficult to ell 1 They should not be much repeated, as in the front at Holkham, where they become actu. disgusting. Though in the examples which follow there be two which arc comp i with semicircular-headed centres, we do not approve of the general use of examples signed on such principles, and would advise the student rather to study the composition the Venetian window, when required, as in fig. 968., which we do not present as one of beauty, but rather of propriety, where the want of light to the apartment renders a Venetian window expedient. The method of making sashes, shutters, and the other accessories of windows has been described in a previous section ; we therefore proceed to offer a few of the most celebrated examples of windows. It is not necessary, after the investigation relative to the voids and solids of doors, to pursue the inquiry into the relative proportions of windows as respects that part of the subject. They are, in a measure, in regard to windows, subject to the same principles, and this, by trial, will be immedi- ately apparent to the student ; and we therefore shall not stop for such investigation. Fig. 9S8 WINDOWS. 91S) I. '57. Fig. 9G9. is after tlie lower story of windows at St. Peter’s at Rome, by Michael elo. and is rather less than the double square in height. Tne architrave is one seventh Fig. 969. Fig. 970. ie aperture’s width, being the same as that of the pilasters. The length of the consoles le third of the width of the aperture, and the entablature one quarter of its height. 75H. Fig. 970. is from the Mattei palace at Rome, and is the design of Bartolomeo manati. It possesses, though rather heavy, considerable beauty, and well deserves the ation of the student. Chambers, from whom we have selected many of our examples lis and others sections, says, “ the parts made somewhat less would succeed better, as Id also a pediment instead of the sloped covering at top : ” but we entirely disagree i him, and are of opinion that what he proposes would ruin the design. PI*. OT1. Pi». 97*. <9. Figi. 971. and 972. arc the compositions of Bernardo Buontidenti. The aper- > are a double square, or something less, the architraves a sixth or seventh of the lures, and the pilasters may he about the same. The height of the entablature should be more than a quarter that of the aperture, nor much less. The greatest length of consoles should not exceed half the width of the aperture, nor should their least length vs thsn one third of it. 90. Fig. 973. is from the old I.ouvrc at Paris, and is by the celebrated Pierre Lescot. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 920 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Route III abbot of Clugny in the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. Its proportions are not much dissimilar from the two last examples. The opening double 27(51. Fig. 974. is a window constantly used by Palladio, square, the breadth of the architrave equal to one sixth of the aperture, and the frieze aiu 1 cornice together equal to double the height of the architrave. The breadth of the con- soles equal to two thirds the width of the architrave. The breaks over the consoles in tin bed mouldings of tbe cornice are perhaps not strictly correct, but are deviations from pro priety which may be tolerated. The breaks in the upper vertical parts of the architrave would perhaps be better omitted. The practice generally should be avoided, except ii cases where a greater length of cornice is wanted for the purpose of filling the bare wall to which the windows are applied. 2762. Fig. 975. is from the Banqueting House at Whitehall, by Inigo Jones, aperture is a double square, the entablature one fourth of its height, and the architrave somewhat more than one sixth of its width. 2763. Fig. 97 6. is by Michael Angelo, and executed at the Farnese palace at Rome. It possesses all the wildness and fancy of the master, and though abounding with faults, is redeemed by its grandeur and originality. 2764. In Jig. 977. is given the design by Ludovico da Cigoli of a window from the ground floor of the Renuceini palace in Florence. It can scarcely be properly estimated without its connection with the facade, to the character whereof it is in every respect suitable. 2765. Fig. 978. is a design of Palladio, nearly resembling that executed in the Barbarano palace at Vicenza. It has been imitated by Inigo Jones, and perhaps improved on by him, in the flanks at Greenwich Hospital. ni:. a; 6. Fig. % -in— nr— nr— ilr~— PqPqEj Fig. 978. FI*. 979. 2766. Fig • 979. is also by Palladio, and executed by him in the Porto palace at Viccnz; 2767. Fig. 980. is the design of RafTaelle Sanzio, and worthy of the reputation of tni biar. I. WINDOWS. 921 reat painter and architect. It is executed in the Pandolfini palace at Florence, on the rincipal floor. The height of the aperture is a very little more than twi le its width, the rchitrave is one seventh the width of the aperture. The columns, which are Ionic, arp Fig. 981. diameters high, and should be as much detached from the wall as possible. The distance them from the architrave of the window is a quarter of a diameter, which is also the stance of the entablature from the top of the same architrave. The total height of the itablature is two ninths of that of the column, and the height of the pediment is one farter of its base or somewhat less. The pedestals are one quarter of the height of the hole order. 2768. Fig. 981. is one of the windows of the Bracciano palace at Rome, by Bernini, lie aperture is more than a double square, and the architrave about one sixth the width the aperture. The entablature is only one fifth of the height of the columns, bi- nding their sub-plinths, and the pediment is less in height than one quarter of its extent. P'S- 9SZ. Pig, 0K9. ' Fig. 982. is from the principal floor of the Palazzo Thienc at Vicenza. Tbt >■ r t nre is two and two tenths of its width in height ; the columns are nine diameters high, d one quarter engaged in the wall. The under sides of the Ionic capitals are level with • top of the aperture, having angular volutes with an astragal and fillet below the volute, f bates are Tuscnn, and there arc on each shaft five rustic dies of an equal breadth. 922 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 111. whose inner sides are on a line with the sides of the aperture, and their projection equal to that of the plinth of the base, that is, one fifth of a diameter of the column. The keystones incline forwards towards the top, and they are hatched, only the surface being left rough, as are likewise the dies on the columns, except at their angles, which are rubbed smooth. The entablature is Ionic, the architrave consisting of only two fascite, the frieze swelled, and the dentil band placed immediately on the frieze, without any intervening mouldings, a practice not very unusual with Palladio. The pedestals are rather more than one third the height of the columns. The dies and balusters stand on the platband of the basement, which was done to diminish the projection. 2770. Fig. 983. is a design by Inigo Jones, which has been much used in this country. It is rather higher than a double square. The width of the architrave is one fifth that of the aperture, and the rustics are a trifle less than the third of it. The entablature is two ninths of the height of the opening, and the height of the pedestal is or nearly so, of the height of the aperture and pedestal taken together. Fig. 984. Fig. 9S5. 2771. Fig. 984. is the design of a Venetian window by Colin Campbell, the compilci of the three first volumes of the Vitruvius Britannicus ; and 2772. Fig. 985. is very similar to the Venetian windows in the west facade of the Horst Guards, executed by Kent. It is perhaps as favourable an example of this species ol window as can be produced. Sect. XXI. NICHES AND STATUES. 27 73. A niche is a recess constructed in the thickness of a wall for the reception of difFeren objects, such as statues more especially, but occasionally also for that of busts, vases and tripods. Vitruvius makes no mention of niches, and but for an inscription publishes by Visconti in the Monumenti Gabini we should not have known that they were by tip ancients called zothcccc, or places for the reception of a figure. Our English word niche i evidently derived from the Italian nicchio, a shell. 2774. In the early Greek temple the niche is not found; at a later period, as in tin monument of Philopappus, we find a circular and two quadrangular-headed niches occupa in the time of Stuart by statues ; and it does not seem improbable that in the Gymnast’ Agora, Stadia, &c. of the nation mentioned, the use of the niche was not uncommon. Bn the different forms of the ancient tomb, and the early methods of sepulture, would soo suggest to the Greeks and Romans the use of the niche, especially in such tombs as wei devoted to the use of a particular family. These sepulchres, whose subdivisions wer called columbaria , had their walls ornamented with small niches for the reception u cinerary urns, or those containing the ashes of the dead. In these, a large-sized nich occupies the principal place in the apartment, and in this was deposited the urn or sarci. pliagus of the head of the family. 2”75. The small temples (arlicula) of the Romans are often found decorated with niches and in the small building on the Lake of Albano, generally supposed to have been Nympheum, we find each side of the interior dressed with six niches, whose height stiff ciently indicates that they were provided for the reception of statues. In the temple < Diana, at Nismes, in the South of France, which is now considered to have been a porU< Chap. I. NICHES AND STATUES. 923 >f Thcrma;, as the great aqueduct ran near it, the interior has two sides decorated with six Corinthian columns, and in the wall between each column is a niche (called tabernacle by he moderns). Each is placed on a pedestal, and at ihe sides have pilasteis alternately urmounted by segmental and triangular pediments. We do not, however, consider it lecessary to enumerate the various Roman works wherein the niche finds a place, and shall herefore do no more than refer the student to the Pantheon, the temple of Peace, the arch if Janus, at Rome, and to its exuberant employment at Palmyra, Baalbec, and S, alato. The buildings cited will furnish him with examples of all sorts and characters. 2776. The dresses of niches seem to bear an analogy to those of windows and doors in heir form and decoration ; the niche may really be considered as an opening in a wall, and indeed there are, in the arch of Claudius Drusus, now the Porta Maggiore, at Rome, jpenings used as niches, in which an object placed may be seen from either side of the wall. It therefore appears not improper to dress the niche with the ornaments which custom has sanctioned for doors and windows. The author of the article “ Niche" in the Encyclopedic Methodique, has divided niches into three classes. The first are such as are square on the plan, and either square or circular-headed. These are the simplest, and are without dressings of any sort. Second, such as are square on their plans, and with square Heads, but ornamented with dressings, or crowned with a simple platband supported by two consoles. In the third class are included all niches whose plan and heads are semicircular, cither ornamented with festoons, or with dressings, or with columns and entablature. These, says the author, are to be introduced into buildings according to their several cha- racters, from simple to highly enriched, as requisite. 2777. Some architectural authors have laid down positive rules for the proportions of niches. According to others the proportion is found in a niche twice and a half its width in height ; and indeed this produces a proportion not inelegant. But in considering the lasses separately, they have divided the width of the niches invariably into twelve parts. To a niche of the first class they give twenty-eight of such parts ; to one of the second class, thirty; and to one of the third class, thirty-one parts. This reduction, however, of I lie proportions of a niche seems to us to partake of empiricism ; and we would rather dways trust to an educated eye than to rules which seem to have no basis on fitness and iropriety. It is, moreover, to be recollected that all rules of art can be considered only as '•can terms , serving more as approximations than positive laws for the guidance of the lirtist in the different combinations he imagines. 2778. 'Hie use of tiers of niches over each other is condemned by J. F. Blonde], unless f parated by a line of entablature between them, which may seem to indicate the existence f a floor ; otherwise, he observes, one figure seems to stand on the head of another. This, however, is an abuse of reasoning ; not that it is to be understood that we think the | 'ract ice very allowable. The recommendation of this master in respect of the relation >etween niches and the statues that are to occupy them is worthy of attention. He pposcs, and we think with great propriety, the placing a statue without a plinth in the iclie. The plinth is, indeed, necessary to the good effect of every statue ; and to pretend fiat the imitation in marble could or ever was intended to be mistaken for the object it nutates, would be to leave behind all those matters of convention in art for which the pcctator is well prepared. In architectural decoration, no less than in the abstract imita- ion of the objects of sculpture, no one is desirous of believing them natural and living, but nly as models of imitation. 2779. The following observations are from Chambers, relative to the size of the statues sed in niches. “ The size of the statue depends upon the dimensions of the niche ; it muld neither be so large as to seem rammed into it, as at Santa Maria Maggiore, in 'ome, nor so small as to seem lost in it, as in the Pantheon, where the statues do not cupy above three quarters of the height of the niche, and only one half of its width, 'alladio, in arched niches, makes the chin of his statues on a level with the top of the im- >st (springing), so that the whole head is in the coved part. In the nave of St. Peter’s, at > nine, the same proportion has been observed, and it has a very good effect. The distance ' tween the outline of the statue and the sides of the niche should never be less than one urd of a head, nor more than one half, whether the niche be square or arched ; and when is square, the distance from the top of the head to the soflite of the niche should not ex- i d the distance left on the sides. 'The statues arc generally raised on a plinth, the height which may be from one third to one half of a head ; and sometimes, where the niches e very large in proportion to the architecture they accompany, as is the case when an dcr comprehends but one story, the statues may be raised on small pedestals, by which i aus they may be made lower than usual, and yet fill the niche sufficiently, it being to be rred lest statues of a proper size to fill such niches should make the columns and entabla- |‘ re appear trilling. The same expedient must also be made use of whenever the statues the niches, according to their common proportions, come considerably larger than those ued at the top of the building. A trilling disparity will not be easily perceived, on an- 924 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Ruok III. count of the distance between their respective situations; hut if it he great. it has a very bad effect ; and therefore this must be well attended to and remedied, either by the above-mentioned method, or by entirely omitting statues at the top of the building, leaving tlie balustrade either free, or placing thereon vases, trophies, and other similar ornaments.' Further on in the same work, the author says that “ niches, being designed as repositories for statues, groups, vases, or other works of sculpture, must be contrived to set olf the things they are to contain to the best advantage; and therefore no ornaments should ever be introduced within them, as is sometimes injudiciously practised, the cove of the niche being either filled with a large scollop shell, or the whole inside with various kinds of pro- jecting rustics, with moulded compartments, either raised or sunken, or composed of dif- ferent coloured marbles, for all these serve to confuse the outline of the statue or group. It is even wrong to continue an impost within the niche, for that is of considerable dis- advantage to the figures, which never appear so perfect as when backed and detached on a plain smooth surface. An excess of ornaments round the niche should likewise be avoided, and particularly masks, busts, boys, or any representation of the human figure, all which serve to divide the attention, and to divert it from the principal object.” 2780. “ The depth of the niche should always be sufficient to contain the whole statue, or whatever else it is to contain, it being very disagreeable to see statues, or any other weighty objects, with false bearings, and supported on consoles or other projections, as i: sometimes done, and in the case of niches, the side views become exceedingly uncouth ; foi in these a leg, an arm, a head, in short, those parts alone which project beyond the niche appear and look like so many fragments, stuck irregularly into the wall.” We trust wi shall be excused for this and many other long quotations from Chambers, on account of the strong common sense with which they abound, though not always expressed in the most elegant language that might have been selected. 2781. We conclude the section with a few examples of niches, whose general propor- tions are sufficiently to be derived from the figures which represent them, and which, therefore, will not require our more minute description in this place, the diagrams them- selves being the more useful mode of submitting the subject to the student. Fig. asm. Fig. 9S7. Fig. 9-S. Fig. "JSO. 2782. Fig. 986. is the simple niche, square and circular in the head and in the plan ; m the latter we have before, as a general rule, given the proportion of its height as twice and - half that of its width ; but the former, or the square-headed one, may be a double square yet it never should exceed in height twice and a half its width. 2783. Fig. 987. is a common form of using the niche where the opening of windows with which it is accompanied requires a correspondent square recess for the niches, as ah' in interiors where the leading lines may require such an expedient. 2784. Fig. 988. shows the method of introducing niches in a rusticated basement, wine! is often requisite. The rustics are received on a flat ground, in which the niche is forme - The reader is not to understand that any of the figures are intended as models for imitation, but merely as modes on which, in using them, he may so work as to reduce them to his own views in the design whereon he is engaged. 2785. Fig. 989. is from the plate of Palladio’s Egyptian Flail, and exhibits the violation of Cham- bers’s excellent maxim of not allowing the impost to be continued round the springing of the niche. If niches are merely introduced for play of light and shadow without reference to their reception of statues, the practice of this abuse may be to- lerated ; but certainly not in cases where statues are to be placed in them. 2786. Fig. 990. is the niche accompanied by entablature, pediment, architraves, consoles, and pedestals, as in the windows which have already Fig. 990. Fig. mi. 'hap. I. CHIMNEY PIECES. 925 eon given, and their proportions will serve as a guide in this ; the only difference beings hat a niche is inserted within the architrave of the opening. 2787. Fit/. 991. is imitated from one of the niches of the Pantheon, for the details thereof the reader may refer to Desgodetz. Sect. XXII. CHIMNEY PIECES. 2788. It is not our intention to devote much of a space, necessarily restricted, to the onsideration of designs for chimney pieces ; not because we consider them unworthy of the erious attention of the student, nor because the ever-varying fashion of the day seems to reate a desire for new forms, but because they come under the category of doors and will- ows (strange as it may seem) in respect of the relation of the void to the solid parts. We re not aware that any view of this nature has heretofore been involved in the consideration f them, but we are not the more on that account to be driven from our hypothesis. The Ixamples of chimney pieces that have been given by Chambers, and, before him, by old jierlio, were but fashions of their respective days ; and if it be possible to establish some- aing like a canon on which they might be designed, we apprehend it would be useful to Sue student. 2789. A chimney piece is the ornamental decoration applied to the aperture of a chimney pening, and it seems but reasonable that in its general distribution it should be subject to jiose laws which regulate the ornaments of other openings. The forms and fancies into Inch this ornament of a room may be changed are infinite, and we therefore consider that its appendages can he drawn into a consistent shape we shall be of service in the few Fib. im. marks subjoined. In Jig. 992. the chimney opening to be decorated is 4 0 wide and feet C inches high; its area is therefore equal to 4 ; 0 x 3 ; 6 = 14 feet. The principle re recommended is to make the two supporting pieces equal to one half of that area, or ven feet, and the supported piece B equal to the other half. Now, as the height is 3 ; 6, • shall have ^ = 2 for the width of the two piers, that is, each will be one foot wide. By addition of these to the width of the opening, the dimension becomes six feet ; and as is to contain seven feet superficial, it follows that J = is the height of B that it may Mtain 7 feet. -790. In fir/. 993. we have shown the method of developing the principle; in it the •ports, load, and void hear the same relation to each other as in the preceding figure, e entablature is divided into three equal parts for the architrave, frieze, and cornice, and 'ves are placed on the pilasters by the sides of the architrave. The tablet is of course ■ absolutely required, and the trusses may be formed of leaves instead of being plain, as e shown. -791. Fig. 994. is another mode of using the proportions given in jig. 992., and upon is well as that last given, we have only to observe, they are not introduced as specimens lesign, but solely with the view of illustrating a principle. The projection of chimney* • '-s should not generally be greater than the whole width of the support, nor less than 792. \\ e wish we could give some rule for adjusting the size of a chimney opening to * t of the room it is to warm. Morris, in his Lectures on Architecture , before quoted, ' igiued that he had found out one, and he speaks with confidence on the results which • o» its use; lint we confess we are not satisfied with them. We nevertheless should | ' rung in omitting it, and therefore give his words for the consideration of the student. • first rule is as follows*. — •• To find the height of the opening of the chimney from any i n magnitude of a room, add the length and height of the room together, and extract 1 -ouarc root of that sum, and half that root will lie the height of the chimney.” The nid Pile is us follows • — “ l'o find the breadth of a chimney from any given magnitude 92 S PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. of a room, add the length, breadth, and height of the room together, and extract the square root of that sum, and half that root will he the height of the chimney.” The third rule lie gives is, “ To find the depth of a chimney from any given magnitude, including the breadth and height of the same, add the breadth and height of the chimney together, take one fourth of that sum, and it is the depth of the chimney.” His fourth and last rule is, “To find the side of a square or funnel, proportioned to clear the smoke from any given depth of the chimney, take three fourths of the given depth, and that sum is the side of the square of the funnel. Observe, only, that in cube rooms the height is equal to the breadth, and the foregoing rules are universal.” The rules given by Chambers are extremely vague and general. He says that “ in the smallest apartments the width of the aperture is never made less than from three feet to three feet six inches ; in rooms from twenty to twenty- four feet square, or of equal superficial dimensions, it may be four feet wide; in those of twenty-five to thirty, from four to four and a half; and in such as exceed these dimensions, the aperture may be extended to five or five feet six inches ; but should the room be extremely large, as is frequently the case of halls, galleries, and salons, and one chimney of these dimensions neither afford sufficient heat to warm the room nor sufficient space round 1 it for the company, it will be much more convenient, and far handsomer, to have two , chimney pieces of a moderate size than a single one exceedingly large, all the parts o! which would appear clumsy and disproportioned to the other decorations of the room.' It is well so to place the chimney as that persons on entering a room may at once see it In this climate a cheerfulness is imparted by the sight of a fire; but it is not to be s: placed as to be opposite a door, neither ought it, if possible to be avoided, to be so placed j as to have a door on either side of it. There are, however, circumstances under which even the last-named category cannot be avoided, but it is always well if it can. The faclj is, that the further the door can, generally speaking, be removed from a chimney, the better and the architect must, if the plan admit it (and he ought so to distribute his parts), avoir 1 all cross draughts of air in a room. Angular chimneys are only admissible in small room where space and other considerations permit no other means of introducing a chimney We can hardly think it necessary to say, with Chambers, that “whenever two chimneys art introduced in the same room they must be regularly placed, either directly facing eacl other, if in different walls, or at equal distances from the centre of the wall in which the; both are placed. He observes, however, with a proper caution to the student, that “tin Italians frequently put their chimneys in the front walls, between the windows, for tin] benefit of looking out while sitting by the tire ; but this must be avoided, for by so (loin;) that side of the room becomes crowded with ornaments, and the other sides are left toi bare ; the front walls are much weakened by the funnels, and the chimney shafts at tli top of the building, which must necessarily be carried higher than the ridges of the root; have, from their great length, a very disagreeable effect, and are very liable tc be blow down.” All these objections, however, may be easily answered, and the funnels collectei or shafts, as they then become, be, with skill, made even ornamental to a building. It i in cases like these that the power of the architect above the artisan is manifest. 2793. Where the walls of a building are sufficiently thick, their funnels rise within th thickness of the walls, but in walls of a mean thickness this cannot be accomplished, fi under such circumstances the walls and chimney pieces will necessarily project into tli rooms, and if the break be great, the effect is unpleasant ; but this may always be obviate by making arched recesses on each side, which, in commoner rooms, may be occupied b presses or closets, thus enabling the architect to carry the cornice unbroken round tl room, a point which should never be forgotten, inasmuch as by the cornice or entablatui of the apartment being carried round it without a break, which gives the ceiling an unbrokt and regular form, a regularity is preserved infinitely more satisfactory to the eye than tli disagreeable appearance of a broken, and, we may say, disjointed cornice. 2794. Of the materials employed in the construction of chimney pieces, nothing more requisite than to say that the costliness of the material must follow the wealth of 11 founder of the building. Marble, however, is the material usually employed, and It various sorts known are not unfrequently intermixed, so as to produce a pleasing office When the aid of the sculptor is called in, much latitude is allowed in the proportions; bi on this head we hope we may, without prejudice, deliver our opinion, that the effect h. never amounted to anything like what might have been expected from his extraneous ai( and the solution is easy: his object is not to produce a work in harmony with the apai ment, but rather to exhibit his own powers. 2795. In the external appearance of chimney shafts, so as to group them with t ! building to which they belong, no architect can be put in competition with Sir John Vai brugh. Those of Blenheim, Castle Howard, and other of his buildings, exceed all prar and alw woi point we are certain that the best advice that can be given to the student is a consta deserve the closest investigation of the student. They become in his works, as avs should do, parts of the building, inseparably connected with it, and their remoi ild detract from the majesty of the structure with which they are connected. On ti h N, Chav. I . STAIRCASES. 927 ■ontemplation of the works of Vanbrugh. In these days there seems to he a return to 'ood feeling in this respect ; and we hope it will, for the credit of the English school, he ollowed up. Sect. XXIII. STAIRCASES. 2796. A staircase is an enclosure formed by walls or partitions, or both, for the reception >f an ascent of stairs, with such landings as may he necessary. Of the construction of tails we have treated in previous sections ; this will be confined to general observations on .hem and their enclosures. 2797. Scarcely any subdivision of a building is of more importance, as respects the haracter of the architect and the comfort and pleasant occupancy of it by his employer, than ts principal and subordinate staircases. There is, moreover, no part, perhaps, in which core room is left for architectural and picturesque display. In our own country there (ire some extraordinary examples of great beauty produced in staircases on comparatively •mall scales ; whence the student may learn that without great space he may produce very mposing effects. One of these may be still seen, though in a very neglected state, as are nost of the buildings attached to the collegiate church of Westminster, at one of the pre- >endal houses there built by our great master Jones. It is a specimen of his consummate kill as an artist, and well worth the attention of the student, if he can obtain admittance to iew it ; but if he cannot, we may refer him to some plates executed from drawings made >y us many years since, and published in the first and best edition of Illustrations of the " uhlic Buildings of London (Loud. 1828). The extreme space occupied by the staircase in luestion does not exceed 24 by 23 feet; and within these small dimensions he contrived a taircase fit for a palace. So highly did the late Sir John Soane think of this bijou that he ad a series of drawings made to illustrate its parts, and exhibited them in his lectures at fie Royal Academy. 2798. It is almost unnecessary to impress upon the student that an excess rather than a cficiency of light is requisite in a staircase, and that it should be easily accessible from all arts of the building. Those laws upon which the ease of persons ascending and descending cpend will form the subject of two subsections shortly following (2804. and 2814.), to which e particularly recommend the reader’s attention. They are of the utmost importance, nd we record with surprise that they have not been attended to by architects generally of ite years. We have crept up staircases in houses of consequence, which deserved little more ian the name of ladders, and we are sorry to say that this defect is found even in the works f Chambers himself; but never in those of Jones and Wren. We shall with these re- larks proceed to further observations on the subject, which has already been partially niched upon in 2170. et scry. 2799. We know little of the staircases of the Greeks and Romans, and it is remarkable that itruvius makes no mention of a staircase, as an important part of an edifice; indeed his Icnce seems to lead to the conclusion that the staircases of antiquity were not constructed ith the luxury and magnificence to be seen in more recent buildings. The best preserved icient staircases are those constructed in the thickness of the walls of the pronaos of mplcs for ascending to the roofs. Of this sort remains are found in several peripteral mplcs. That of the temple of Concord at Agrigentum is still entire, and consists of rty-one steps. According to I’ausanias, similar staircases existed in the temple of the lyinpian Jupiter at Elis. They were generally winding and spiral, like the inside of a -H, and hence are called scale a litmaca by the Italians, and by the French escaliers cn 'lufon. Sometimes, as in the Pantheon at Rome, instead of being circular on the plan, ■ v are triangular; so were they in the temple of Peace, and in the baths of Dioclesian. 28(10. Very few vestiges of staircases are to be seen in the ruins of Pompeii ; from which may he inferred that what there were must have been of wood, and, moreover, that few the houses were more than one story in height. Where they exist, as in the building at ■ above place called the country house, and some others, they are narrow and incon- uent, with steps sometimes a foot in height. Occasionally, too, we find private staircases ntioned, as in the description of Pliny’s Tusculan villa, where one was placed by the side •be dining room, and appropriated to the use of the slaves who served the repast. ’ ' ‘ > 1 . 1 lie author of the article “ Escalier” in the Encyc. Method, observes that the mng- "•ence of the staircase was but tardily developed in modern architecture, and that it owed » h of its luxury to the perfection to which a knowledge of stereotomy biought the ■ nee of masonry. The manners too and the customs of domestic life for a length ol " re ndered unnecessary more than a staircase of very ordinary description. Thus in irliexl p daces the staircases seem to liuve been constructed for the use of the inha- 928 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III nitants only, possessing in fact no more beauty than we now give to a back staircase. The are for the most part dark, narrow, and inconvenient. Even in Italy, which in the splcn dour of its buildings preceded and surpassed all the other nations of Europe, the staircas was, till a late period, extremely simple in the largest and grandest palaces. Such are tin staircases of the Vatican, Bernini’s celebrated one being comparatively of a late date. Th old staircases of the Tuilleries and of the Louvre, though on a considerable scale, are, fron their simplicity, construction, and situation, little in unison with the richness of the res of these palaces. And this was the consequence of having the state apartments on tin ground floor. When they were removed to a higher place, the staircase which conductei to them necessarily led to a correspondence of design in it. 2802. It will be observed that our observations in this section are confined to interna staircases. Large flights of steps, such as those at the Trinita tie’ Monti and Araceli a Rome, do not come within our notice, being unrestricted in their extent, and scarce! subject to the general laws of architectural composition. In these it should however b remembered that they must never rise in a continued series of steps from the bottom to th summit, but must be provided with landings for resting places, as is usually the case in th half and quarter spaces of internal stairs. An extremely fine example of an external flight c stairs may be cited in those descending from the terrace to the orangery at Versailles. To simplicity, grandeur, design, and beauty of construction, we scarcely know anything i Europe more admirable than this staircase and the orangery to which it leads. 2803. The selection of the place in which the staircase of a dwelling is to be seated! requires great judgment, and is always a difficult task in the formation of a plan. Palladio the great master of the moderns, thus delivers the rules for observance in planning them that they may not be an obstruction to the rest of the building. He says, “ A particula place must be marked out, that no part of the building should receive any prejudice b them. There are three openings necessary to a staircase. The first is the doorway th; leads to it, which the more it is in sight the better it is ; and 1 highly approve of il being in such a place that before one comes to it the best part of the house may be seci for although the house be small, yet by such arrangement it will appear larger: the doo' however, must be obvious, and easy to be found. The second opening is that of the wii dows through which the stairs are lighted ; they should be in the middle, and larg enough to light the stairs in every part. The third opening is the landing place by whit one enters into the rooms above ; it ought to be fair and well ornamented, and to lea! into the largest places first.” 2804. “ Staircases,” continues our author, “ will be perfect, if they are spacious, ligli and easy to ascend ; as if, indeed, they seemed to invite people to mount. They will 1 clear, if the light is bright, and equally diffused ; and they will be sufficiently ample, if the do not appear scanty and narrow in proportion to the size and quality of the building Nevertheless, they ought never to be narrower than 4 feet” (4 feet 6 inches English*), “s that two persons meeting on the stairs may conveniently pass each other. They will 1 convenient with respect to the whole building, if the arches under them can be used fi domestic purposes ; and commodious for the persons going up and down, if the stairs a not too steep nor the steps too high. Therefore, they must be twice as long as broa> The steps ought not to exceed 6 inches in height ; and if they be lower they must be so long and continued stairs, for they will be so much the easier, because one needs not li the foot so high ; but they must never be lower than 4 inches.” (These are Vicentu inches.) “ The breadth of the steps ought not to be less than a foot, nor more than a for and a half. The ancients used to make the steps of an odd number, that thus beginning ascend with the right foot, they might end with the same foot, which they took to be good omen, and a greater mark of respect so to enter into the temple. It will be sufficiei to put eleven or thirteen steps at most to a flight before coming to a half-pace, thus to lie weak people and of short breath, as well that they may there have the opportunity resting as to allow of any person falling from above being there caught.” We do not pr pose to give examples of other than the most usual forms of staircases and stairs; tin variety is almost infinite, and could not even in their leading features be compassed ir work like this. The varieties, indeed, would not be usefully given, inasmuch as the for; are necessarily dependent on the varied circumstances of each plan, calling upon t architect almost on every occasion to invent pro re natd. 280 5. Stairs are of two sorts, straight and winding. Before proceeding with bis desij. the architect must always take care, whether in the straight or winding staircase, that the p son ascending has what is called headway , which is a clear distance measured vertically fri any step, quarter, half-pace, or landing, to the underside of the ceiling, step, or other pi immediately over it, so as to allow the tallest person to clear it with his hat on; and this the minimum height of headway that can be admitted. To return to the straight a winding staircase, it is to be observed, that the first may be divided into two Jlights, or • The Vicentine foot is about 13 G inches English. fi k . 'jyb. Fig. 096. de quite square, so as to turn on tlie four sides round a close or open newel, as in fir/. 995. ■ehiclj the former is the case, light being obtained by windows in the walls which enclose newel ; or, as in Jig. 996. : in which case, the newel is open, and the light may he received ier from a vertical light above, or from side windows in the walls. Palladio says these ■ sorts of stairs were invented by Sig. Ludovico Cornaro, a gentleman of much genius, > erected for himself a magnificent palace at Padua. - K 06. Of winding or spiral stairs, some are circular on the plan, either open or with a id newel ; others elliptical, also with open or solid newels. Those with the open newel I referable, because of their allowing the staircase to he lighted additionally, it requisite, the light obtainable from above; besides which, persons passing up and down may see h other. Palladio thus directs the setting out of spiral staircases. “ Those,” he says, hich have a newel in the middle are made in this manner. The diameter being divided • three parts, two are given for the steps, and the third is for the newel ; or, otherwise, diameter may be divided into seven parts, three of which are for the newel and four 1 the steps. “ Thus,” he says, “ was made the staircase of the column of Trajan at ltome ; l it the stairs are made circular,” (that is, the treads segments of circles on the plan,) ey will be handsomer and longer” (of course) “ than if made straight.” M *7. “ llut as it may happen that the space will not give room for these measures, 1 diameter may be reduced and divided according to the plates." The essence of these I ns, omitting the step whose (dan is segmental, we here subjoin. Fig. 997 . is a plan and section of a staircase with a solid newel, in which the a, diameter is divided into twelve parts, and of these four are given to the newel, • the remainder divided equally between the steps. 0 () 930 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II Fig. 997. Fig. 90S. 2809. Fig. 998. is the plan and section of a spiral staircase with an open newel, wlier the diameter is divided into four parts, two being given to the newel, and the rcmaim equally divided between the steps. 2810. Fig. 999. is the plan and section of an elliptical staircase with an open newel. T conjugate diameter is divided into four parts, whereof two are given to the conjug. diameter of the newel, and the remainder one on each side to the steps. 281 1. In fig. 1000. the same staircase is given, but with a solid newel, and of course quiring many openings on the sides to light it. 2812. It is not the difficulty of multiplying the examples of staircases which preve our proceeding on this head, but the space into which our work is to be condensed. Enoi of example has been given, by using portions of the examples, to meet every case, the de ration being dependent on the design of the architect, and the distribution on his good s in the application of what we have submitted to him. 2813. There is, however, one important point in the construction of a staircase to wh we must now advert, and that is easiness of ascent. Ulundel, in his Cours d' Architect was, we believe, the first architect who settled the proper relation between the height . width of steps, and his theory, for the truth whereof, though it bears much appearand! it, we do not pledge ourselves, is as follows. 2814. Let x- the space over which a person walks with ease upon a level plane, 2 = the height which the same person could with equal ease ascend vertically. Then it h the height of the step, and w its width, the relation between It and w must be such 1 when w = x, h = 0, and when h — z, w = 0. These conditions are fulfilled by equations of i form h = ^ {x—w) and w = x — 2h. Blondel assumes 24 (French) inches for the value x, and 1 2 fur that of z. We are not sufficiently, from experiment, convinced that these are proper values; but, following him, if those values be substituted in the equation /i = ^ (24 - and u> = 24 — 2/j : if the height of a step be 5 inches, its width should be 24 — 10 = H iue and it must be confessed that experience seems to confirm the theory, for it must he served, and every person who lias built a staircase will know the fact, that the nit CEILINGS. Chap. 1 9:1 1 Fig. 999. iducing the height of the risers without giving a correspondent width of tread to the step inconvenient and unpleasant. Sect. XXIV. CEILINGS. 2815. Economy has worked so great a change in our dwellings, that their ceilings are, late years, little more than miserable naked surfaces of plaster. This section, therefore, 11 possess little interest in the eye of speculating builders of the wretched houses erected out the suburbs of the metropolis, and let to unsuspecting tenants at rents usually about fee times their actual value. To the student it is more important, inasmuch as a well- |>igned ceiling is one of the most pleasing features of a room. 28 IS. There is, perhaps, no type in architecture more strictly useful in the internal distri I tion of apartments than that derived from timber framing ; and if the reader has understood '• section on Honrs, he will immediately see that the natural compartments which are formed the carpentry of a floor are such as suggest panels and ornaments of great variety, en a single-framed floor with its strutting or wind-pieces between the joists, gives us hint for a ceiling of cotters capable of producing the happiest effect in the most iusig- cant room. If the type of timber-framing be applied to the dome or hemispherical mg, the interties between the main ribs, diminishing as they approach the summit, in the skeletons of the cotters that impart beauty to the Pantheon of Agrippa. We ‘lade thus to the type to inculcate the principle on which ornamented ceilings are tiesigned, t|iig satisfied tnat a reference to such type will insure propriety, and bring us hack to that 3 0 2 932 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 111 I' t ness which, in the early part of this Book, we have considered one of the main ingre dients of beauty. If the panels of a ceiling he formed with reference to this principle namely, how they might or could be securely framed in the timbering, the design will bi lit for the purpose, and its effect will satisfy the spectator, however unable to account fo the pleasure he receives. Whether the architrave be with plain square panels between i and the wall, as in the temples of the Egyptians, or as at a later period decorated with coffers for instance in the Greek and Roman temple, the principle seems to be the same, and verilic the theory. The writer of the article “ Plafond” in the Encyc. Meth. has not entered into the subject at much length, nor with the ability displayed in many other parts of that work but he especially directs that where a ceiling is to be decorated on the plane surface witl painting, the compartments should have reference to the construction. With these preli minary observations, we shall now proceed to the different forms in use. Ceilings are eitlic flat, coved, that is, rising from the walls with a curve, or vaulted. They are sometimes I however, of contours in which one, more, or all of these forms find employment. When coved ceiling is used, the height of the cove is rarely less than one fifth, and not more tlui one third the height of the room. This will be mainly dependent on the real height o the room, for if that be low in proportion to its width, the cove must be kept down ; who otherwise, it is advantageous to throw height into the cove, which will make the excess t the height less apparent. If, however, the architect is unrestricted, and the proportion of the room are under his control, the height of the cove should be one quarter t the whole height. In the ceilings of rooms whose figure is that of a parallelogran the centre part is usually formed into a large fiat panel, which is commonly decorate with a flower in the middle. When the cove is used, the division into panels of the cei ing will not bear to be so numerous nor so heavy as when the ceiiing appears to rest o the walls at once, but the same sorts of figures may be employed as we shall present! give for other ceilings. If the apartment is to be highly finished, the cove itself may 1 Fig. 1003. decorated with enriched panels, as in the Jigs. 1001, 1002, 1003, 1004, 1005, 1006. In ceilings it is desirable to raise the centre panel higher than the rest, and the main di sions representing the timbers in flat ceilings should, if possible, fall in the centre of i piers between the windows. 2817. Fig. 1007. shows the ceiling of a square room in two ways as given on each si of the dotted line, or it may be considered as representing the ends of a ceiling to a im whose form is that of a parallelogram. The same observation applies to Jigs. 1 0()S. a 1009. The solites of the beams should in a'l cases approach the width they would CV*?. I. PROPORTIONS OF ROOMS. 0:13 w ij Ml jv''7| □ [ 111 rWi Fit; 1007. Fig. 1008. Fig. 100D. considered as the sofites of architraves of the columns of the order to which the cornice belongs, and they may he decorated with guiloehes, as in Jiff. 1010., or with frets. (See the word “ Fret ” in Glossary.) Fig. IU10. 2818. In the two following figures (101 I. and 1012.) are given four examples of rooms which are parallelograms on the plan, and above each is a section of the compartments. Fig. 1011 Fig. 1012. 2819. As to the proportion of the cornice, it ought in rooms to be perhaps rather less than in halls, salons, and the exterior parts of a building ; and if the entablature be taken at a fifth instead of one fourth of the height, and a proportional part of that fifth be taken for the cornice, it cannot be too heavy. Perhaps where columns are introduced it will be better to keep to the usual proportions. Chambers, if followed, would make the proportions still lighter than we have set them down. He says that If the rooms are adorned with ail entire order, the entablature should not be more than a sixth of the height nor he less than a seventh in flat-ceiled rooms, and one sixth or one seventh in such as are coved ; and that when there are neither columns nor pilasters in the decoration, but an entablature alone, its height should not be above one seventh or eighth of those heights. He further says that in rooms finished with a simple cornice it should not exceed one fifteenth nor be less than one twentieth, and that if the whole entablature be used its height should not be more than one eighth of the upright of the room. In the ceilings of staircases the cornices must be set out on the same principles ; indeed in these, and in halls and other large rooms, the whole of the entablature is generally used. In vaulted ceilings and domes the panels are usually decorated with panels similar to those in Jiffs. 1001, 1002, 1003, 100-1, 1005, 1006'., but in their application to domes they of course diminish as they rise towards the eye of the dome. (See 2837.) Ski r. XXV VllOFOKTlONS OF KOOMS. 2820. The use to which rooms are appropriated, and their actual dimensions, are the principal points for consideration in adjusting the proportions of apartments. Abstractedly L-ousidered, all figures, from a square to the sesquialteral proportion, may be used for the plan. Many great masters have carried the proportion to a double square on the plan ; nit except the room be subdivided by a break the height is not easily proportioned to it. Ibis objection does not however apply to long galleries which are not restricted in length, 934 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 111 on which Chambers remarks, “ that in this case the extraordinary length renders it im possible for the eye to take in the whole extent at once, and therefore the comparison be tween the height and length can never he made.” 2821. The figure of a room, too, necessarily regulates its height. If a room, for example be coved, it should be higher than one whose ceiling is entirely flat. When the plan i square and the ceiling flat the height should not be less than four fifths of the side no more than five sixths; but when it leaves the square and becomes parallelogramic, tin height may he equal to the width. Coved rooms, however, when square, should be as higl as they are broad ; and when parallelograms, their height may be equal to their width, in creased from one fifth to one third of the difference between the length and width. 2822. The height of galleries should be at least one and one third of their width, and a the most perhaps one and three fifths. “ It is not, however,” says Chambers, “ alway possible to observe these proportions. In dwelling-houses, the height of all the rooms oi the same floor is generally the same, though their extent be different; which renders i extremely difficult in large buildings, where there are a great number of different-size) rooms, to proportion all of them well. The usual method, in buildings where beauty am magnificence are preferred to economy, is to raise the halls, salons, and galleries highe. than the other rooms, by making them occupy two stories; to make the drawing-rooms o other largest rooms with flat ceilings; to cove the middle-sized ones one third, a quarter, on a fifth of their height, according as it is more or less excessive ; and in the smallest apart ments, where even the highest coves are not sufficient to render the proportion tolerable, i is usual to contrive mezzanines above them, which afford servants’ lodging-rooms, baths: pondering -rooms," (now no longer wanted !) “wardrobes, and the like; so much the tnon convenient as they are near the state apartments, and of private access. The Earl o! Leicester’s house at Ilolkham is a masterpiece in this respect, as well as in many others the distribution of the plan, in particular, deserves much commendation, and does grea credit to the memory of Mr. Kent, it being exceedingly well contrived, both for state am convenience.” 2823. In this country, the coldness of the climate, with the economy of those who buih superadded, have been obstacles to developing the proper proportions of our apartments and the consequence is, that in England we rarely see magnificence attained in them. IV can point out very few rooms whose height is as great as it should be. In Italy, the rub given by Palladio and other masters, judging from their works, seem to be sevenfold i respect of lengths and breadths of rooms, namely, - — - 1. circular ; 2. square ; 3. the lengt equal to the diagonal of the square ; 4. length equal to one third more than the square! 5. to the square and a half; 6. to the square and two thirds ; or, 7. two squares full, A to the height of chambers, Palladio says they are made either arched or with a plai ceiling : if the latter, the height from the pavement or floor to the joists above ought to I equal to their breadth ; and the chambers of the second story must be a sixth part le than them in height. The arched rooms, being those commonly adopted in the princip; story, no less on account of their beauty than for the security afforded against fire, if squan are in height to be a third more than their breadth ; hut when the length exceeds tl breadth, the height proportioned to the length and breadth together may be readily foui by joining the two lines of the length and breadth into one line, which being bisectet one half will give exactly the height of the arch. Thus, let the room be 12 feet Ion and 6 feet wide, —q ~= 9 feet the height of the room. Another of Palladio’s methods i proportioning the height to the length and breadth is, by making the length, height, at breadth in sesquialteral proportion, that is, by finding a number which has the same rat to the breadth as the length has to it. This is found by multiplying the length and bread) together, and taking the square root of the product for the height. Thus, supposing d length 9 and the breadth 4, the height of the arch will be V9 x 4 = 6, the height require) the number 6 being contained as many times in 9 as 4 is in 6. 2824. The same author gives still another method, as follows: — Let the height i assumed as found by the first rule ( = 9), and the length and breadth, as before, 12 and Multiply the length by the breadth, and divide the product by the height assumed; tin -*-- = 8 for the height, which is more tnan the second rule gives, and less than the first. 'hai-. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 935 CHAP. II. PRINCIPLES OE PROPORTION. Sect. I. GENERAL REMARKS. 2825. In undertaking to point out some of the mechanical methods of obtaining pro- portions of length, bread ill, and height, in plans and elevations, as traceable upon geometrlo representations of the design, we would recall the reader’s attention to the admirable re- narks on the true natuie of proportion made by the author of this Encyclopaedia in iect. I of the first chapter in this book. 2826. But, however just those remarks may be, they do not, any more than any of the | nechanical means, result in success in the building as executed and seen in perspective, l’he ever varying relation between the sides of a mass, such as a Greek temple, can hardly i>e supposed to be at every moment equally beautiful in proportion, and the finest mediaeval fracture equally owes the satisfactory effect which it produces to the spectator’s judicious ltoice of his point of view. Some very judicious observations on the rectification of pro- portions according to the position of the spectator are given by James Pennethorne, in his Elements and Mathematical Principles of the Gieeh Architects , 8vo , London, 1844. 2827. Before the probable effect in execution of an intended design can be ascertained, lie designer must have well mastered the routine of drawing, as explained in the several ■ections on Drawing, Perspective, and Shadows, given in this work. He should like- vise have familiarised himself with the varying effects of the changes resulting from points >f view and alteration of light upon some building of which he may have opportunities to nake studies in the usual Geometric Drawings (explained 2490a. et set ]. ), so as to become mbued with that sense of general fitness of parts to the whole, which is meant by having the compasses in one’s eye.” 2828-2837. The simpler such a building may be, the easier it will be at first to begin to cquire the power of anticipating correctly the effect in a design if it be executed : that lower can then be applied to designs of more complicated character resulting front the anous methods, which » e are about to point out, of obtaining proportions. Sect. 1 1. horizontal and vertical combinations of buildings. 2838. The different elements of a building are ranged by the side of or above each other, nd in designing an edifice both these combinations must be kept in mind, though in the tudy of the subject, in order to lighten the labour, they may be separately considered. The two species of disposition are horizontal, as in plans, and vertical, as in sections and levations. 2839. As respects horizontal disposition of the elements of a fabric, beginning with olumns, their distance in the same edifice should be equal, but that distance may be varied is circumstances require. In buildings of small importance, the number is reduced as nuch as possible, on the score of economy, by increasing the distance between them ; but n public buildings they should be introduced in greater number, as contributing to the greater solidity of the edifice by affording a larger number of points of support. They >ught not, however, to be at all introduced except for the formation of porticoes, galleries, ind the like subdivisions. The least distance at which they can be properly placed from a vail is that which they are apart from one another. This distance, indeed, suits well nough when the columns are moderately wide apart ; but when the intercolumniations re small compared with their height and the diameter of the columns, their distance from he walls in porticoes must be increased, otherwise these would be much too narrow for heir height, affording shelter neither from the sun’s rays nor from the rain. On this iccount, under such circumstances, they may be set from the walls two or three times the listance between the axes of the columns. From this arrangement will result an agreeable nul suitable proportion between the parts. 2810 The ceiling of a portico may be level with the under side of the architrave, or it P3G PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 1 .nay be sunk the depth of the architrave, which may return in a direction towards the walls, thus forming sunk panels in the ceiling, or the sinking of the panels may he as inuili as the whole height of the entablature, whose mouldings should then be carried round them. When several ranks of columns occur in a portico the central part is sometimes vaulted, the two central columns of the width being omitted. The method of disposing pilasters in respect of their diminution has been treated of in a former part of this work. (2G7 1, et seq.) 2841. The exterior walls which enclose the building should run as much as possible in straight continued lines from one angle to another ; a straight line being the shortest that can be drawn. The internal walls, which serve for subdividing the building into itsseveial apartments, should, as much as may be, extend from one side to the opposite one. Where they are intercepted by openings, they should be connected again above by lintels or other means. 2842. In fig. 1013. is shown the method of forming apian or horizontal distribution, anti combining it with the vertical distribution in the section and elevation. The thing is so simple that it can hardly want explanation. The equidistant parallel axes being drawn and cut at right angles by similarly equidistant ones, the walls, according to the required accommoda- tions, are placed centrally upon the axes ; and the columns, pilasters, &c. upon the intersections of the axes. The doors, windows, niches, and the like are then placed centrally in the interaxes, which must be bisected for that purpose. Above and below the horizontal com- bination the section and plan are to be drawn. These vertical combinations are infinite, and from every plan many sections and elevations may be formed. The figure exhibits a building of one story only, with a central apartment occupying the height of two stories. Rut on the same plan a building of two or more stories may be designed. These may have two tiers of porticoes, one above the other, or one only on the ground story, form- ing by its covering a terrace on the first floor; or a portico might receive on its columns the walls of the next story, and thus become recessed from the main front. So, again, the stories may be equal in height, or of different heights, as circumstances may require. The most usual practice is, above a basement to make the succeeding story higher; but above a principal floor the height of succeeding ones is diminished. The method of placing orders above orders does not require that any addition should be made to what has been said on that subject in Chap. 1. Sect. 11. of this Book, and by the same methods arcades over arcades may be conducted. 2843. Not the least important of the advantages re- sulting from the method of designing just submitted to the reader is the certain symmetry it produces, and the prevention, by the use of these interaxal lines on each floor, of the architect falling into the error of false bearings, than which a greater or more dangerous fault cannot be committed, more especially in public build- ings. The subterfuge for avoiding the consequence of false bearings is now a resort to cast iron, a material beneficially enough employed in buildings of inferior rank; but in those of the first class, wherein every part should have a proper point of support, it is a practice not to be tolerated. Neither should the student ever lose sight, in respect of the ties he employs in a building, of the admirable observation of Vignola on the ties and chains proposed by Tibaldi, in his design for the bap- tistery at Milan : “ Che le fabbriche non si hanno da sostenere colie stringhe ; ” — Buildings must not depend on ties for their stability. The foregoing figure is from Durand’s Precis d’ Architecture. We now submit, in Jig. 101 8., an illustration of the principles of interaxal division from the celebrated and exquisite Villa Capra, near Vicenza, by Palladio, wherein it will b seen, on comparing the result with what has actually been executed, how little the remaining being divided into three equal parts, the upper third, or entablature, ben the part supported, the remaining § are divided between the columns and their interspace: thus making the columns equal to § of the height comprised between the centre ol ll tympanum and the platform upon which they were placed. If we take each of these nine parts as 5 feet, we have 45 feet for the width, 30 for tl height, including the 5 feet for the rise of the pediment, which il we divide by the horizon! line, to obtain its true area or quantity, we shall have 2 feet 6 inches for its mean heigh and 6 feet 8 inches for that of the level entablature : for as we have observed, these tv dimensions, which make 9 feet 2 inches, must be equal to half the height of the columns the whole will not be divided into three parts; or, which is the same thing, the height rt the centre of the pediment must be divided into three parts, and the upper division t ' for the entablature. These proportions are exceedingly simple in their application, n were intended that the columns and the spaces between them should be equal, half the " “ of the facade, or 22 feet 6 inches, should be distributed among the intercoluinniatio and the other half divided among the columns. . The Temple of Theseus at Athens is one of the best preserved as well as the most admn and was probably erected soon after the Parthenon; it is of Pentelican marble, a on with admirable sculptures. The total width of its hexastyle portico is 45 feet, am its instead of 30, is 3 1 feet ; the extra foot, which prevents it being an exact square an a ^ given to the pediment, which probably has undergone some change, as it rises mui i than the ninth of its whole extent. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. y45 II. The height of the pediment is level cornice frieze architrave columns Feet. In. 5 9-75 1 0-45 2 8-55 2 8-9 18 8-8 and of the entire facade - - SI Feet. In. half the pediment - - - 2 10-875 the level entablature - - - 6 5-9 a g together a dimension nearly equal to half the height of the"! >1 1 ns. J 0-4 9 4-775 ; fajade of this beautiful temple is divided equally into three parts ; ^ is given to the t ature, and the other two to the columns and their intercolumniations. The outer >h ns are 3 feet 4-85 inches in diameter, and all the others 3 feet 3-4 inches. The middle t< dumniation is 5 feet 3-95 inches, the next two each 5 feet 4-05 inches, and those Is the angles 4 feet 6-35 inches. The diameters taken together are 20 feet, and the 4t ilumniations 25 feet, so that the columns and their spaces are not in equal proportions : e oner would have required a diameter of 3 feet 9 inches, which would have made iet nearly five diameters in height, instead of what they are; they would have been heavier, ujue, but more in accordance with the early examples. J Hexastyle Temples at Rhamnus, Sunium , Egina, Eleusis, and Phygalia, are not suffi- >--n perfect to enable us to decide whether our principles would apply to them ; but on | ie judgment we can form from their remains, they appear to have been all comprised ■ aiuare and a half, and their entablatures and pediments in the proportion of a third f tlj whole. 7 Hexastyle Temple at Segesta in Sicily is sufficiently perfect to enable us to judge of ■’ e ,re proportions. Feet. Id. Its total length is - and height - d whole facade is bounded by a square and a half. Trie height of the columns is entablature pediment - 3 P - 76 0 - 59 8 Feet. In. - 31 0 -114 - 8 4 Total 50 8 916 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 1 I>(t. In. Half tlio height of the pediment is - • - 4 o entablature - - - - 1 1 4 Total height of superincumbent mass - - - 15 6 which is exactly one-half of 31 feet, the height of the columns; so that we have, as far a height is concerned, J for the superincumbent mass or entablature, and § for the column and their intercolumniations. Feet. 'Hie columns have their united diameters - - - 3V The intercolumniations ditto - - - - - 39 so that they are not in exact equality, although the difference is not considerable. At Agrigentum are the remains of four Hexastgle Temples That of Juno Lucina is wither its cornice and pediment : the diameter of the columns is 4 feet 6 inches, and the entii width is 55 feet. The united diameter of the six columns is 26, and of the live intercolun niations 29 feet. The Temple of Concord is in width 57 feet, and in height 38 ; or it is comprised with: square and a half. Feet. In. The height of the columns is - - - 23 0 entablature - - 8 0 pediment - - - 7 0 38 0 Feet In Half the height of the pediment is - - - 3 6 The height of the entablature - - - - 8 0 which is equal to half the height of the column - - 11 6 Thus one-third of the entire height is given to the entablature or mass supported. T united diameter of the columns is 28 feet, and that of the intercolumniations 29 feet, t latter being a little in excess. Temple of Hercules. — The total width is 84 feet, and height 56, which is a square anil half. The height of the columns is - entablature pediment Making a total height of - Feet. In. - 33 6 - 13 0 9 6 - 56 0 The united diameter of the columns is 43 feet, and that of the intercolumniations 4 1 f The height of the entablature and half pediment is in this case 17 feet 9 incites, instcai 16 feet 9 inches, as it should have been to have equalled half the height of the columns. Temple of Castor and Pollux is imperfect, but the total width is 45 feet, of which diameters of the six columns occupy 24 feet, and the intercolumniations 21. The heigh the columns is about 20 feet, and that of the entablature 8 feet, as measured on the W. This temple nearly agrees in width with the temple of Theseus at Athens, but its | portions vary ; there is not sufficient remaining to judge of its entire form. At Selinus are the remains of five liexastyle temples. In one the total extent is 5) > of which the united diameters of the columns occupy 24, and that of the five in - columniations 27 feet. The height of the entablature is about 1 1 feet,- but that of columns and pediments has not been yet ascertained. The second temple is in width 77 feet 6 inches, the diameters of the columns occup; 37 feet, and the five intercolumniations 40 feet 6 inches ; the height is 50 feet 8 inche 1 that the whole fa<;ade is included in a parallelogram, having a height not quite eqn. two-thirds its extent, or a square and a half. The height of the columns is entablature pediment In all Ft. In. - 29 4 - 13 4 - 8 0 . 'SO 8 which is a foot less than the required height. In this example there is not an exact correspondence between the columns and nliat support; the entablature and pediment occupy 13, the intercolumniation 12, am .AT. II. "PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 947 lunms 1 1 parts out of the whole number, 3G, into which the parallelogram may be sup- sed to he divided. The third temple is not sufficiently measured to enable us to examine into its propor- ns ; the total width is 79 feet, of which the united diameters of the six columns occupy feet, and the five intcrcolumniations 43 feet. The fourth temple is in width 84 feet 9 inches, and in height 56 feet 6 inches or a square Feet. The height of the columns being - - - 34 entablature - - 1 1 pediment - - 1 1 In. 0 C 0 In all the height is ... 56 6 The height of half the pediment is - the level entablature - Ft. In. 5 6 11 6 Making a height equal to half that of the columns, viz. - 17 0 Hiiis the heights are in just proportion, one-third being given to the entablature and i timent, and the other two-thirds to the columns and their intermediate spaces, which i in the proportions of 44 feet 9 inches for the columns, and 40 feet for the five inter- i umniations. The fifth temple is 81 feet in front, the six columns occupying 37 feet 8 inches, and the five i 'rcolumniations 43 feet 4 inches. The height of the column is 31 feet, and the entabla- t ; 15 feet 6 inches, or one-lialf the height of the column, so that, without the pediment, t entablature in this example would constitute a third ; and if the pediment had only risen let 6 inches, to make the general proportion a square and a half, these columns would He had more to sustain than any other example we have yet referred to. Jctastyle Temples . — We will now apply these principles to a facade with eight columns, a 1 endeavour to follow the same system. We have already had a square, and a square a, a half, as the form or figure within which the design was comprised; the portico of f7 columns being circumscribed by the one, and that of six by the other ; and as in the o , style there are double the number of columns contained in the first, a double square is n 1 ired to comprise it, that the same relative proportions may be obtained. - er the width of the fi^ade is determined, it is divided into sixteen parts, and ten are set " ' 1 1 r the height to the top of the tympanum of the pediment ; which generally rising a 11 of the extent, two divisions will serve to denote it, and if a circle he inscribed in the " num, and a horizontal line drawn through the centre, we shall have a parallelogram J lares in width, and 9 in height. M squares in height will determine the under side of the entablature, which, if divided y between the columns and their intercolumniations, would give 48 squares to each, 1 1 precisely the proportions of the example we are about to examine 3 P 2 9-18 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III The Parthenon or Temple of Minerva at Athens is admitted to have the most beaulifi proportions of all octastyle Greek examples ; its entire width, measured in the front of tl, columns at the base, is 100 feet 9 inches, and its height to the centre of the tympanum, froi the level of the platform on which the columns are placed, 51 feet 2^ inches, 20 inches onl beyond what it should he to accord with the rules laid down. Dividing this height hit three parts, we have in round numbers 17 feet 1 inch for each: the height of tl entablature and half pediment is 17 feet, and that of the columns 34 feet 2 inches, precise! one-third of the height being devoted to the entablature, the lower two-thirds being divide between these and their intercolumniations ; adding all the diameters together, we ha\ 49 feet 6 inches ; the intercolumniations being 51 feet 3 inches, or only 1 foot 9 inches excess for the latter: hence if a parallelogram or double square be divided into 401 squan and 13^ be given to the columns, the same quantities to the intercolumniations, the e tablature and its pediment, we should have the general proportions of the Parthenon, ti difference before alluded to being too slight to produce any effect on the eye in so large a mai The height to the centre of the pediment is 51 feet 2| inches, consequently the width to tnal it an exact double square should have been 102 feet 5 inches, instead of 100 feet 9 inclie and this difference may have been occasioned by the difficulty of setting out the triglypl or from the idea that the width, as measured along the corona, should have some co sideration, and a mean be established. As we have before observed that the Parthenon is considered perfect both in its desi; and execution, a more detailed account of its construction and mouldings will be the bi illustration that can be offered on the subject of Greek masonry, premising that in the pr( sent instance it is all of the finest marble from Pentelicus. The Doric Column varies considerably in its proportions, some not being more than fo diameters in height, whilst in other examples they are from that to six and a half: tin we are now considering are formed of twelve blocks; on the upper and lower bed of ea are described two circles, the circumference of the outer being 9 inches from the ed/ whilst the inner circle is only 20 inches in diameter. The space between these is i polished, but left rough as from the chisel, and a little sunk for the purpose of retaiui a fine mortar or cement. In the centre of each block is a square hole, measuring 5 J y’ on each side, sunk 3 inches in depth ; in these were inserted pieces of hard wood, 6 in in length, to steady the blocks, and keep them from being displaced, particularly ai time the flutes were worked, or the exterior was undergoing the process of poliM The outer columns are 6 feet 3^ inches in diameter at bottom, and the others 6 I^j inch, the upper diameter of the latter being 4 feet 9ij inches: their total heig it feet 2y 8 0 inches, or nearly five diameters and a half ; the diminution is not regular, being at a certain height a swelling or entasis, which improves the outline, and cs that meagreness which is the result of a straight line. The angular column is a itt <- , in diameter, that it may not appear less than the others, which are not so surrou by air. _ The shafts have generally twenty flutes, uniting in an arris, and not with a ^I Ll ' 1 , r ' between them, as in the other orders; they are elliptical in some examples, as at a where their number is 16 and 24; the heads are variously finished. The capita o order varies in its height from J to ij of the lower diameter of the columns, an iaf. 11- PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 949 acus is sometimes more than J longer than that width, all these proportions depending ore upon the height of the column than upon its lower diameter. i Under the abacus is the echinus or ovolo , which is beautifully turned, or cut like the ill or profile of a flat cup, under which are usually from 3 to 5 annulets. Ihe contom 1 ig. 1037. DORIC CAPITALS. cirofile of the echinus is a portion of a curve formed by the section of a cone. Where M capital is placed on the column is another sinking, and sometimes three ; and the true and 1 cate manner in which these lines are cut gives a charm that more elaborate sculpture fails i attaining. Che architrave of the Parthenon, which extends from the centre of one column to that L 1 he other, is in three thicknesses, showing two joints on the soffite. The frieze is admirably trived not to overload the architrave : the triglyphs are each in a single block, 3 feet e and 2 feet 3 inches in thickness. On each side is a perpendicular groove 1| inch p, into which the sculptured metopes are slipped, the clear width between the triglyphs ig 4 feet inches, and the angular one 3 inches less : at the back of the metopes, and -veen the triglyphs, is a hollow space, from 8 to 14 inches deep. The metope is held to back of the frieze by a metal cramp in the form of an H, 2 feet long, and attached on i side to the adjoining triglyph by others 1 7 inches in length. The cornice is in one kness ; the angular block covers two mutules, each of the others one space and a ule. For further particulars of the construction of the Parthenon, and for several ensions omitted by Stuart, the writer must refer to some notes he added a few years ' his return from Athens to his wife’s (Mrs. Cresy) translation of “ The Lives of cele- ed Architects, ancient and modern, by Francesco Milizia,” 2 vols. 8vo 1826. the Doric Order we may trace a reason for the direction given to the several lines, ther perpendicul lr or horizontal ; and although there is great variety in the form ol members, yet when examined in detail, nothing will be found to disturb the unity 950 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 1 of the design. Hie voids are nicely adjusted to the solids, and all those parts, as Hi columns and triglyphs, intended as supports, are striated perpendicularly, whilst those sup ported are decorated with members and mouldings running horizontally, and indicatin, rest or repose. The inclined lines of the pediment are the only exception to this rule, an! they are composed of longitudinal members, placed consistently with their use, viz. that o throwing off the water from the roof: so well-combined a whole, consisting of parts a, expressing their utility, deserves our admiration : even the annulets under the echimi of the capital indicate so many cinctures to bind the tops of the perpendicular flat: together, before the elegant tazza or cup-like vase is placed between the shaft and the abaca Ionic Proportions. — This style seems very nearly coeval with the Doric : it is supposed I some commentators to be of Achaic origin, by others of Persian ; both Greeks a Persians may have contributed to its formation ; the term Ionic was applied to it by Vitr I vius, from its being first used by the inhabitants ot Ionia; the few perfect examples r maining are of the greatest beauty, both in design and execution. The shores of Asia Minor, in the reign of Medon, the son of Codrus, were taken p< session of by a number of Greeks, who commenced their migration about a thousand yc: before Christ ; after they had passed from Attica, they first mixed with the inhabitants Caria and the Leleges. Helen the son of Deucalion, who reigned in Phtliia, situated I tween the rivers Peneus and Asopus, having left his kingdom to his eldest son, the otln sought for settlements elsewhere: Dorus established himself in the neighbourhood Parnassus and Xuthus in Attica, where he married the daughter of Erechtheus, the soil reign of Athens, and had by her two sons Acharus and Io. lo with a number of followers from Athens went into the Peloponnesus and establish himself at iEgialus, a place on the sea-shore lying between Elis and Sicyonia; here married the daughter of Selinuntus, king of that district, at whose death he succeedeil his dominions; Io built Helice, and called the inhabitants Ionians. Some time after was recalled to Athens to command the troops in a war against the Thracians, over "'ll he obtained a victory : the Athenians inconsequence designated themselves Ionians. All, was divided by Io among four tribes, the Geleontes, the Argades, the AJgicorcs, and Hopletes, the names of his four sons, or according to Strabo, labourers, artisans, priests, ■ guards. When Erechtheus died, Cecrops, his eldest son, succeeded, and Xuthus, his other was driven out of Attica ; in the country he afterwards inhabited he built four ton (E noe. Marathon, Probalinthus, and Tricorythus, after which he died at yEgialus; his: Aclimus then passed into Laconia and Thessaly, when he recovered his father’s dominin his two sons Archandar and Architeles went into Argos, where they married two dauglu of Danaus, one of the royal family of Argos. The Lacedaimonians and Aigears " called after Achams Achasans, until the return of the Ileraclidae, when they were driven < and obliged to flee to A2gialus and into Attica, where the Ionians again received them account of their common origin. At the death of Codrus, his youngest son Nileus embarked with all the Ionians i Asia, where they occupied eight of the Ionian cities, viz. Miletus, Ephesus, Myus, 1 Priene, Lebedos, Erytlira?, and Clazomene ; the other four founded by the Ionians * Colophon, Phocaa, Samos, and Chios. The Ionians formed themselves into twelve st ■ because, according tc Herodotus, they were previously so divided in the Peloponnesus: names cf the cities from whence they were ejected were Pellene near Sicyon, Mg ira Aiga-, Bura, Ilelice, Aigium, Itypae, Patra>, Pharae, Olenus, Dyme and Trittea, the being an island. Che inhabitants of Athens who migrated from the l’rytaneum were the most » HAT. I ! PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 951 nong the Ionians. though all who celebrated the Aplurian festival, from which alone the Ephesian and Colophonians were excluded, were afterwards called Ionians. The appellations Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian are derived from Vitruvius : but it ap- jars doubtful whether these terms were current among the Greeks : that author ;serts that the first is the most ancient; “for Dorus, the son of Hellen, and the nymph Irseis, built the temple of Juno at Argos of this order when he reigned over the whole of .chaia and Peloponnesus: that many temples afterwards erected throughout Greece were f the Doric order, but by command of the Delphic oracle in a general assembly of the ifferent states of Greece, thirteen colonies were sent into Asia, who built the cities jfore mentioned, and erected temples; among the first they dedicated was one to Apollo anionios, having Doric proportions, and another to Diana, in which some variations was lade. The first was of a masculine proportion, the other feminine, and the latter was the ivention of the Ionian settlers, and afterwards called from them Ionic. But if it be difficult to trace the Ionic order to its origin, we may analyse its proportions, id compare them with that order which prevailed so universally in Greece, which will ad us to remark that a very great change took place when the rules that guided the oric builders were laid aside : at no other period were such material alterations made in ie proportions of the masses, the columns, entablatures, and intercolumniations ; to the orinthian, so universally used in later times by the Romans, the feminine proportions ere applied which are stated by Vitruvius to have commenced with the Ionians. There is of course much fable in all the accounts that have reached us upon these impor- nt changes, but among them is one which seems to carry with it some semblance of truth, id which is as follows: — “when Ilermogenes was employed to erect the temple of acchus at Teos, according to Vitruvius, the marble was prepared for one in the Doric lyle ; but the architect changed his mind, from the idea that other proportions, afterwards lied Ionic, were more suitable for the purpose, almost inducing the inference that Hermo- 1‘neswasthe inventor of those delicate proportions ; he appears unquestionably to have dis- ayed great skill and ingenuity in all his designs, and to have entertained the opinion that cred buildings should not be constructed with Doric proportions, as they obliged the option of false and incongruous arrangements.” To obtain more delicate proportions, without sacrificing the great principle of making the “ight supported equal to its supports, would seem at first difficult : in the example of e Doric order we have seen this practice universally adopted, and it is equally evident the Ionic, though not exactly after the same method ; the columns and their entablatures, what they carry, agree in quantity, but their distribution is different. The square or ure which bounds the Ionic facade is divided into four parts, one of which is given to the tablature, a second to the columns, and the other two, or one half, are distributed among b intercolumniations. In the quantity of material for constructing the two varieties of temples there is a con- lerable difference, the Doric requiring one-third more than the Ionic ; for example, in a jiric tetrastyle portico where the area was 12, four parts would be given to the entablature, I ir to the columns, and four to the intercolumniations. In the Ionic three parts would be |uired for the entablatures, and three for the columns, six being allowed for the inter- umniations ; thus one temple would have eight, and the other six parts solid out of dve, consequently, with a given quantity of materials, two very different porticoes jght be built, without making any change in the proportions wnich the columns r to their entablatures. Hermogenes could construct with the same material a much ter temple in the Ionic style than in the Doric ; and supposing the dimensions already iued upon, there would be a saving of labour and material : from the imperfect 1 e of the Ionic temples remaining, it is scarcely possible to enter into a thorough exami- ' ion of their proportions; that on the llissus at Athens, measured by Stuart, no longer 1 sts, but its dimensions, given by that very accurate delineator, may serve our purpose ■ m example of a tetrastyle portico. Its entire width was 18 feet 7^ inches, and height * be top of the level cornice in front 18 feet 4| inches, to which must be added that of 1 tympanum of the pediment : multiplying the width by the height of the entablature and 1 i the pediment, which together is 5 feet 7 inches and 10 parts, we have for the area of t portions supported 105 feet 4 inches and 9 parts: the quantity contained in the four i imns is found by multiplying their united diameters, 7 feet 1 inch and 7 parts, with t r height, 14 feet 9 inches and 4 parts, giving a product of 105 feet 4 inches and 9 parts a heir area. The united intercolumniations in this example are 1 1 feet 6 inches and 2 1 ts, which multiplied by the height of the columns is 170 feet 1 inch and 9 parts for the 0 G 40 feet 7 inches and 9 parts less than it would have been had it equalled the quantity i tained in the columns and their entablature, or been one-half the entire area of the facade. lie portico of this elegant example of Ionic was nearly a square without the pediment, 3 the supports and supported are in exact accordance as to quantity, whilst the inter- r imniations arc about 1| times the quantity contained in the columns, instead of t ide. Departing a little from the proportions before us, let us endeavour to set out a 952 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II Fig. 1039. IONIC TETKASTVLE TEMPLES. portico, as already done for the Doric order, having the same number of columns, and i the tetrastyle eustyle of Vitruvius, divide each side of the square which circumscribe into 11| parts, premising that the pediment rises a ninth and one side of the square pa through its centre. The side of the square being divided into 1UJ parts, 1 is given to diameter of the columns, 3 parts to the middle intercolumniation, and 2J to each of others; thus the sites for the columns are obtained: dividing the upright sides of square into the same number of parts, 81 are given to the height of the column, and remaining 3 to the entablature and half pediment. Multiplying lit by the same, we have for the entire area 132J, which if divided into 33 and a fraction for the columns, the same for the entablatures, and double that the intercolumniations : the columns being four in number and 8| diameters in bet, > their area will be 34 parts; the intercolumniations being 7^ in their united width, 1 multiplied by 8^, their height, gives 6'3| for their area, and the entablature being 3 I 1 and 111 in width, we have for its contents 34| parts, giving a result of nearly a fir 1 for the entablature as well as for the columns, and a half for the intercolumniations. p making some allowance for the diminution of the columns, an exact agreement bet" 1 the quantities might be obtained; those in the intercolumniations would then be Ic equal to those in the entablature and its supports, or half the entire square devoted to and the other half to voids : had the columns of the temple on the Uissus been about 1 inch <■ in diameter, its proportions would have been in close accordance with those of the fig'- where the 4 columns occupy 38 squares, the entablature the same number, and the i columniations 76. . Ionic Hexastyle. Temple of Ercchtheus at Athens. — This highly-enriched example, exec in the finest marble, is in height without the pediment 26 feet 6^ inches, and in w '> measured along the front of the corona, 40 feet 6 inches, so that this portion is comp 11 within a square and a half or nearly so : the lower diameter of the columns is 2 fin i« inches, and the upper 1 foot 1 1 j-j inches, giving a mean of 2 feet lfj inches; their coll 1 diameters are 12 feet 9 inches, whilst that of the intercolumniations at the same level feet l-jj inches, nearly double the space occupied by the columns. The height of tin tablature without the pediment is 4 feet 1 1 } inches, and its superficial content on the 190 feet, and adding 85 feet for the area of the tympanum, we have altogether 2 '■ ,'llAP. II. PRINCIPLES OP PROPORTION. 953 ipposing the tympanum to rise a ninth of its base ; the height of the columns is 21 feet \ inches, and their united mean diameter 12 feet 9 inches, which being multiplied together oduce 275 feet 8 inches, or nearly equivalent to the area of the mass they support. 1o btain the exact quantity of mass and void, the mean diameters of the columns as well of the intercolumniations should be taken ; the greater the probable delicacy of ex- ution, the greater is the necessity for the architect to balance his quantities exactly. In 1 l e subject now under consideration the whole is comprised within a square and a half; the pports and the entablature are equal, and the intercolumniatious as much as the two to- ■ther or one-half the whole. The height of the architrave is 2 feet l T |j inches ; that the frieze 1 foot 1 Ijj inches, and the level part of the cornice 10, inches. Roman Tetrastyle. Ionic Temple of Fortuna Firilis. — The width is 33 feet 6 inches, and ight, including half the pediment, 37 feet 1 inch, comprising an area of 1 242 feet 4 inches, I e quarter of which, 313 feet 1 inch, nearly agrees with the quantity contained in the itablature as well as in the columns which support it ; their height is 27 feet, and their ' ited diameters 12 feet 4 inches, which multiplied together produce 333 feet for the area of i supports. The height of the entablature with half the pediment is 10 feet 1 inch : this iltiplied by its width, 33 feet 6 inches, gives 337 feet 10 inches for the area of that supported : ■ intercolumniations are together 21 feet 2 inches, which multiplied by their height, 27 feet, es 571 feet 6 inches for their area, about 100 feet less than the quantity comprised in r columns and entablature. Without the pediment this fa 9 ade is nearly square ; its proportions rank very high in estimation of all admirers of Roman architecture ; it has, however, undergone many re- ations before the stucco was put upon the columns; they were lighter, as was the entab- ire, the upper members of the cornice being somewhat heavier than is usual in the 1 ly examples of this order ; if divested of these additions, and giving a trifle more to the i rcolumniations, we shall obtain half the area for the columns, and a quarter for each of > other divisions ; at present the columns equal in quantity the mass they carry. f it be required to draw a tetrastyle portico in exact accordance with the rules laid i zn, after forming the square each side should be divided into 12 parts, or 144 squares, 3 mged like those of an abacus : one of these divisions on the base would become the dia- t er of the column, and nine their height, the other eight on the base would be devoted to t intercolumniations, and the upper three of the height to the entablature. The columns, 9 0 neters in height, would thus comprise 36 squares, the intercolumniations 72, and the e blature and half pediment 36 ; consequently the columns and entablature would be e al in quantity, and the intercolumniations half the whole, or equal to the contents of • supports and supported. toman Hexastyle.. Corinthian, Maison Carree at Nismes. — This beautiful temple has u ergjne several restorations; its entire width and height to the apex of the pediment is I eet 8 inches, from whence it lias derived its name. The height of the columns, includ- «54 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 111 ing base and capital, is 29 feet 6 inches, that of the entablature 6 feet 9 inches, and of the pediment 7 feet 5 inches ; taking away half the height of the pediment, we have 39 feet 11 inches and 6 parts, which may he considered as 40 feet; this multiplied by the width produces for the entire area 1746 feet 8 inches. The superficial content of pediment ant. entablature, 456 feet 8 inches, is obtained by multiplying the entire width by 10 feet 5\ inches, the height of the entablature and half the pediment, which superficies is only 20 feci 2 inches more than a quarter of the whole. The united diameter of the six columns is 17 feet 6 inches and that of the intercolumniations 26 feet 2 inches, so that they are ii the proportions to each other of 2 and 3, the whole being 5, one having an area ol 515 feet 9 inches, the other 772 feet ; when added together they are nearly three times tin area of the part supported. The proportion between the columns and intercolumniations of the temple at Assissi i- also similar, the height of the columns is 32 feet 10 inches, and the total width of the si> 52 feet, which dimensions multiplied together produce 1707 feet 4 inches, one-fifth being 341 feet G inches nearly. The area of the columns is 684 feet, and that of the intercolumniations 1023 feet 4 inches giving a proportion of two-fifths and three-fifths. The entablature, pediment, and pedestal- upon which the columns are placed seem to have undergone a change since their erection If the whole extent of an hexastyle portico be divided into 18 parts, and one be called tin diameter, to obtain the same proportions as those laid down for a tetrastyle portico, the heigh up to the centre of the pediment must include 12 only of those parts, which would give :j portico of a square and a half, comprising 216 squares ; the 6 columns, each 9 diameter- in height, would require 54 ; the 5 intercolumniations, double that number, or 1 OH, and tin entablature and half pediment 54. Roman Octastyle. — The Pantheon at Rome, which has a portico of 8 columns, is one o the best examples that can be selected for examination. The total width is 109 feet l inches; the diameters of the eight columns 39 feet 5 inches, and the seven intercolumnia tions 70 feet 5 inches, or nearly in the proportion of 1 to 2. The height of the columns i; 46 feet 5 inches, and that of the entablature and half pediment 23 feet 2.1 inches, togetlu 69 feet 7^ inches, nearly a square and a half, the area of which is 7647 feet 2 inches The united diameter of the columns, 39 feet 5 inches, multiplied by their height, gn 1829 feet 7 inches, and the collected intercolumniations multiplied by the same height " be 32G8 feet 6 inches : multiplying 109 feet 10 inches by 23 feet 2.] inches, we obtain the area of the entablature and pediment 2549 feet, which, rejecting parts of an inch, " when added to the two other calculations, make up a sum agreeing with the entire area. Feet. The supported is .... 2549 The area of columns - 1829‘7 \ >5093 of intercolumniations - 3268’6 f Together 7647 ^HAP. II. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 9 55 A line drawn through the centre of the pediment, another at half the height of the columns, and a third under the entablature, would divide the height into three ?qual portions, proving that, in this example, the Romans made the part supported one- third of the whole, and divided the other two between the columns and their intercolumni- itions. The shaft of each column is cut out of a single block of granite ; they are not efficiently delicate to he exactly in the proportion of half the quantity contained in the ntercolumniations ; but if allowance be made for their diminution, the difference is not ery great. The whole width being 109 feet 10 inches, the third, 36 feet 7 inches and 4 iarts, is nearly a mean between the collected diameters of the top and bottom of the shaft, naking the intercolumniations double the quantity contained in the supports, or equal to hat of the supports added to the mass they carry. The whole would then be divided into our, as in the previous examples of the Ionic, and two portions given to the intercolumniations. The Pantheon Portico is a double square without the pediment, or nearly so, the length 'f the level cornice, which crowns the entablature, being double the height of the order : his, no doubt, was the outline of the proportions before the heavy pediment was placed ipon it, which in all probability was heightened beyond the ordinary rise of a ninth, for he purpose of concealing the wall behind it. The Roman proportions are frequently rade independently of the pediment ; the tetrastyle porticoes are a square, the hexastyle a quare and a half, and the octastyle, as in this instance, a double square without it. To set out an octastyle portico, in which half the pediment should be comprised within he double square, after dividing the width into 24 and the height into 12, which multi- plied produce 288 squares, 72 are given to the column, the same to the entablature ana alf pediment, and double that, or 144. to the intercolumnations, or proportions similar to lose laid down for the tetrastyle and hexastyle porticoes. The columns in such a case could be nine diameters in height, the entablature and half pediment three : supposing the itter to rise a ninth of the span, the remainder would be distributed among architrave, ; ieze, and cornice. We have endeavoured to show the proportions required in a tetrastyle, hexastyle, and jetastyle portico among the Dorians, the Ionians, and their followers the Romans : the ||uare and a half, or the double square, were the outlines or boundary figures from whence e other proportions were deduced. The great difference of character in the Doric and Ionic designs arises from the distance which the columns are placed, which affects the proportions of the entablature laid pon them, as well as that of the columns themselves ; where these are six diameters in ight or consist of six cubes, they are made to carry the same quantity, whatever may be eir distance apart, and where drawn out to nine diameters, they have only their own bight to support ; but the form given to this weight, or the proportions of architrave, frieze. Id cornice, vary, as the intercolumniations are of one or more diameters. It has been too generally considered that the orders derived their proportions from the ■ver diameter of the columns, without reference to their application : this has produced a jriety of design, but at the same time occasioned a great departure from the true principles, jd led to very important errors. The Tuscan, the Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and mposite orders have been laid down in modules or measures of various kinds, which the ung architect has adopted as mere isolations, regardless of the many other considerations I'ich have stamped beauty on his model ; hence we have imitations, but soul is wanting. The Doric order is treated of as so many diameters in height according to its age, and the ablature is said to be heavy or light, as it was of early or late execution ; the other lers have been chronicled in a similar manner, and architecture lias been fettered, and its Pat principles lost, or at least neglected : it is true that the outline which bounds the lure has undergone but few changes, but the subordinate parts or the filling-in are sus- itible of interminable variety. An object inscribed within a circle is perhaps the st easily compassed by the eye, next that within the square, and when a building vast, and distance is necessary to comprise a view of the whole, the double square; ond this the ancients seem seldom to have gone for the proportions of their facades, or '( a portico intended to be seen in front. After the masses were proportioned, their del- ations were more various than the buildings themselves ; no two are perfectly alike, ■ the great difference is in their ornaments and enrichments, or in the number of diameters 1 tained in the height of the columns. The Parthenon and Pantheon porticoes are both octastyle, each admitted to be as beau- ! 1 as they can be — one the perfection of sober grandeur, the other of cheerful lightness; 1 Greek Doric, the other Corinthian, both comprised within a double square, and having tj r columns equal in quantity to the mass of entablature they support: where, then, is the 1 erenee between the two examples? It results, as we have already seen, from the mate- i in the one occupying two-thirds, and in the other only half the entire area. In tj faqade of the Parthenon the eye has one-third void only to contrast with the solid 1 ! ter, and in the Pantheon half, which proportions seem to have been established by the I|ians, and usually adopted by the Romans. | 956 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III T.n proportioning the architrave, frieze, and cornice, care must be taken that no more is laid upon the columns than their own bulk : when the latter are one diameter apart, this quantity will be greater in height than when they are further distant; so that the greater the intercolumniation, the lighter in appearance will be the entablature, tho columns still bearing the same weight, nor need they be increased after it is ascertained that they are competent to their duty : to do so would be to employ material in excess, which it should be the aim of an architect to avoid. If we now examine the portico of the Pantheon, we cannot fail to perceive the agreement existing between the parts supported and their supports. The mean diameter of the columns is Their height, including capital and base The solid content of each Consequently the cube of the whole 8 is The mean width of the architrave and frieze is Their height ------ The solid contents of the entire length, 110 feet, is - The mean width of the cornice is 7 feet, length 114 feet, height and its cubical contents ----- ft. in. - 4 7 - 46 5 765 10-6 6027 0 ft. in. - 4 3 - 6 8-3 3125 11 J 2793 0 The solid content of entablature 5918 11 which leaves little more than 100 cubical feet of difference between one and the other; and if the crown moulding returned on the flank be comprised, the quantity contained in the entablature would equal that of the eight columns. The pediment is omitted altogether in this calculation, it being in reality, though not in appearance, an additional load for the eight columns beyond their regular entablature, which is of marble, and weighs probably 452 tons ; the granite columns with their marble bases and capitals are something more than that quantity, and these, including the entabla- ture and pediment, probably contain upwards of 1000 tons of material. The Capitals of the Columns of the Pantheon are admitted to rank among the best example found in Rome: though not so highly and elaborately worked as those which decorate tin columns of the temple of (Jupiter Stator) the Dioscuri, yet they are remarkable for the f - 1040 CAPITALS OF TIIK rANTIIEON. HAF. II- PRINCIPLES OP P 1(0 POUT I ON 957 egant arrangement of the ornaments: further details will be found in Taylor & resy’s Architectural Antiquities of Home, whence the de tails here given have been selected Fig 1045. CAPITALS OF PANTHEON. Fig. 1047. .i ^* e ^ omang did not improve the arts which the Greeks had spread among a, yy the introduction of the arch they materially altered the character of the arehi- are piactised before the time of the Republic : this feature alone produced entirely 958 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III different construction, and the several changes it has since undergone in form have served to establish a variety of styles, as we shall afterwards find. Sewers, aqueducts, bridges, theatres, amphitheatres, baths and triumphal arches, all exhibit the arch in its most useful application, and as did the halls of the baths vaulting of stupendous span; the dome of the Pantheon being 142 feet t> inches in diameter in- ternally, covered by a hemispherical dome. Symmetry , as understood by Vitruvius, seems to relate more to the proportions of the facade than to those of the detail ; but he doubtless intended it to be understood that AF.cn WAY, IN' TUB “ SOSGE DE FOI.Il’liU.K." perfect harmony should subsist between them as well as between each particular mem however subordinate ; as in the well-formed human figure, all the limbs being in due pn portion, the whole when combined produces true symmetry : and the same author insists ver strenuously on a careful study of the rules upon which this is founded, proving t a effect desired cannot be produced by a mere effort of fancy, or what is commonly taste. Chap. II. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 959 A building, though entirely devoid of ornament, may be rendered beautiful by the ustness of its proportion, and the richest edifice wanting in this never can excite admira- ion : facades having but height and breadth, these two dimensions must be equal to each jther, if we adopt the symmetrical proportions prescribed by Vitruvius, for he observes ■ the square includes the human figure either lying down or standing in an erect posture, he arms being stretched out.” Temples, triumphal arches, and other buildings left us by he Greeks and Romans were decidedly designed upon this principle, as were most of the 'abides of the religious structures erected since the fall of the Roman empire. In the “ Songe de Poliphile,” originally published in Italian by Aldus in the year 1499, lire some observations on setting out a facade, which convey some idea of the principles | idopted for the formation of a perfect and harmonious design on the revival of Roman irchitecture. •< Draw a square figure, divided by three perpendicular and three horizontal lines, at qual distances from each other, forming sixteen squares ; on the top of the square add a ialf square, which, similarly divided, makes altogether twenty-four squares : in the lower Iquare draw two diagonals, crossing eight squares in the same manner ; then form a lozenge i hove the great square, tracing within it tour lines on the four principal points that separate | he four sides of the void.” After understanding this figure, I thought within myself what can modern architects do, •ho esteem themselves so learned without letters or principles? They neither know rules or dimensions, and therefore corrupt and deform all sorts of buildings, both public and rivate, despising nature, who teaches them to do well if they would imitate her: ood workmen, besides their science, may enrich their work either by adding to or diminishing herefrom, the better to please the eye, but the mass should remain entire, with which all liould be made to harmonise. By the mass is understood the body of the edifice, which, j ithout any ornament, shows the knowledge and spirit of the master, for it is easy to mbellish after any invention ; the distribution and arrangement of the parts is also a matter If consideration ; hence we may conclude that any workmen or their apprentices know ow to ornament a work, but to invent lies only in the heads of the wise. Taking from the square and a half, the lozenge and the diagonal lines leaves the three jrpendicular and the three horizontal, except that in the middle, which terminates in the •ntre of the perpendicular, cutting it into four parts or portions ; by this rule will be found vo perfect squares, one above and one below, each containing four small squares, which rm the opening or doorway ; now if you take the diagonal of the lower square, it will show >u what thickness must be given to the centre of the portico ; if you carry it straight, the lie will serve to denote the architrave : and the point of the centre of the upper square ill show you the centre of the arch or curve to be given to the door ; turning a semicircle will rest on the transverse line, which cuts the square and a half into two equal parts ; but done by any other means 1 do not esteem it perfect. This method was invented by an- :nt and expert masons, and observed in tlieir arches and vaults, to give them both grace d solidity ; the pedestal on which the columns rest commences at the level of the pave- lent by a plinth, and the whole is a foot high, furnished with mouldings ; one portion divided into architrave, frieze, and cornice, the latter being something more than the lers; that is to say, if the architrave and frieze contained five parts, the cornice should six. The whole twenty- four squares form a square and a half; then divide the upper If into six parts by five horizontal and five perpendicular lines, and draw a line from the itre of the fifth transverse to the corner of the great perfect square, where the architrave ,nmences; then draw it perpendicular on the key of the archivolt, and it will show you ! height to be given to the frontispiece above, the extremities of which should unite and ate to the projection of the cymatium and its mouldings. General Principles — It would appear that all the principal Roman triumphal arches with jgle openings were a square, either comprising or excluding their attics : that the centre m whence the archivolt was struck was the centre of the square, or if the facade was re than a square, as the arch of Trajan at Ancona, then where the two diagonals crossed centre was fixed. The width of the opening is generally half the entire extent, some- es three parts out of seven. lliese triumphal arches were generally surmounted by a group of figures, or the car and ses of the conqueror, accompanied by his companions in arms and the trophies obtained n the enemy; these, as shown on several medals, appear to be equal in height to j of entire edifice upon which they are placed, the attic and entablature representing and > columns and pedestals the other |; and as the former are nearly equal in their height, it f >ws that the horse and his rider, or the car and its triumphant hero, were double the 1 ght of the pedestal on which they were placed, for so we may consider the attic 'jeh contained the inscription, the body of the arch being a perfect square, and in correct F portion, without the attic. The depths of these arches varied ; that of Constantine at I ne is nearly the same as the width of the great centre opening ; many of the ;rs are less than that proportion ; but it seems that the cube was the measure that 960 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 11 1 bounded the propor- tions, as shown in tig. 1053. The several Roman examples se- lected differ In ar- rangement, but not in principle, from the description given by Poliphile: takeaway the pedestals on which the columns are placed, and then four squares in height in- clude half the tym- panum, and eighteen squares the entire figure, 6 of which may be considered as devoted to the arch, and the other 12 to supports : or, if we comprise the whole facade in 20 squares, and abstract the 8 which belong to the opening between the pedestals, we have 4 for each pier or sup- port, and 4 for the en- tablature, the supported being only l the quantity contained in the two supports: resistance; to the arch, or its thrust, requires a different arrangement from that of a portico, but w nevertheless find definite proportions made use of, and a double quantity given to masse which have to bear weight as well as resist thrust. The Arch of Augustus at Rimini has the height of its order determined by the lengt of the frieze. The Arch of Augustus at Aosta resembles that of Titus in arrangement; it is a perfecl square comprising the attic. ARCH OP AUGUSTUS AT RIMINI. Chap. IT. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 961 The Arch of Sergius at Pula is a perfect square, without attic, like that of Titus. The Arch of l'itns at Rome, raised by die senate | md Roman people to com - memorate the conquest of Imhea, is one of the best .'samples of proportion that 1 remain : built of white i narble, it is a monument >f constructive art, some !>f the blocks being 9 feet quare, and 2 feet thick; the rch is composed of eleven onssoirs 16 feet deep. ’or a detailed account t its construction and or- ament the reader is re- ared to the “ Architectural Yntiquities of Rome.” The proportions are a quare, as is the opening f the archway, up to the bringing; and not a double Ipiare, as described by echo. The pedestals are ji height nearly half the bening of the archway, liich Palladio observes las the ordinary proportion ven by the ancients. The entire length of the upper member of the cornice in this ample is 48 feet, which dimension corresponds with the entire height, almost to a fraction: le width of the opening is 17 feet 6 inches, a trifle more than one-third of the entire width : uuding the fayade by a parallelogram, excluding the attic, and drawing two diagonals, ; obtain the centre from which the arch is struck, which rule will apply to the other i 962 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III triumphal arches with a single opening, though varying materially from the principles laid down by Poliphile, and adopted by Serlio and other architects at the revival of ltaliai architecture. The Arch of Titus is a square com- prising its entire facade ; that of Poliphile a square up to the under 6ide of the entablature ; conse- quently, the opening of the triumphal way is in width half the height to the top of the impost upon which the archivolt rests, while in the more ancient the entire aper- ture without the arch is a square. In the Arch of Poli- phile the entablature and pediments are nearly equal in quantity to each of the piers upon which they are carried ; and the piers themselves are in width only one quarter of the whole breadth of the facade : it will be found, however, that nearly the same proportions exist be- tween supports and sup- ported in both examples. The Arch of Augustus at Susa has a single arch : proportion a square to the top of the entabla- F‘g- 1055. arch of Augustus at susa. tore, opening a square to the springing: width divided into four, two given to the openi and one to each pier, which has a three-quarter column at the angle : attic as high as pii are wide. In arches with three openings, as those of Septimus Severus and Constantine, tin PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. H AC. TL 9C:5 j’CUfy one-half the width, and the piers the other: where the diagonals of the figure i oss is the centre, from which the principal arch is struck. The Arek of Trojan at Benevenfoni. — Circle struck from the centre which describes the chivolt ; comprises all within it except the attic : division of width into seven, two for each er, three for centre ; attic half the height of the order. Fij. less. Alton of trajan at reneyentcm. In the foregoing examples, we have attempted to show that the beauty which belongs form in architecture rests upon one principle based on the laws of nature, and that the t element in a good design is the proportion of the parts as well as the whole: nothing more misled the critics upon this subject, as well as architects themselves, than im- -itly following the rules laid down far drawing the orders. In treating upon the ique, they have frequently been right as far as regards the letter, but essentially wrong die spirit. The laws of nature do not vary, nor do our organs of sense or perception, ■ 1 what was apparently fit and proper in the opinions of the Greeks is equally so at the | sent day : in their sculptures we never find a man represented carrying more than his i 1 weight, and such laws ought to be our guide. Viter the destruction of the Roman empire, the character impressed upon architecture I the Greeks was lost : other styles arose in succession, which have been designated as lantine, Romanesque, Lombardic, Saxon, Norman, Saracenic, and Pointed. The five I t retained the semicircular arch, and only differed in the quantity of material em- | red : for examples of the three first-mentioned we must refer to a work entitled rchitecture of the Middle Ages at Pisa," by Edward Cresy and G. L. Taylor, containing t isurements made in 1817. 3 y 2 964 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III CIIAP. III. MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. Sect. I. THE STYLE IN GENERAL. The question that first naturally arises is, What is Gothic or Mediaeval architecture Although Rickman, in his essay mentioned on page 971, gave a sketch in which he wislu to show the differences between Classic and Gothic architecture, the first real attempt defining the character of Mediaeval art seems to have been made by the late A. W. I'ugi who, in his True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture, 1841, enunciated theft, lowing principles, which have formed the keynote for the various works and lectures t the subject since written and delivered: — 1. There should be no features about a building which are not necessary for convenient j construction, or propriety. II. All ornament should consist of enrichment of the essenti construction of the building. III. The smallest detail should have a meaning or serve purpose. IV. The construction itself should vary with the material employed. V. I design should be adapted to the material in which it is executed. VI. Pointed architi tore does not conceal her construction, but beautifies it. VII. Plaster, when used I any other purpose than coating walls, is a mere modern deception. VIII. A flat root contrary to the spirit of the style. 1 X. A splayed form is necessary for piers, arch bascmoulds, strings, and copings. X. All mouldings of jambs are invariably sunk fro the face of the work. XI. Large stones destroy proportion. XII. The jointing; masonry should not appear to be a regular feature. XIII. A joint in tracery slim always be cut to the centre of the curve where it falls. XIV. The external and inter appearance of an edifice should be illustrative of, and in accordance with, the purpose which it is destined. XV. It is a defect to make the two sides of a design correspond i if their purposes differ. XVI. The picturesque effect of the ancient buildings res fiom the ingenious methods by which the old builders overcame local and construct! difficulties. XVII. The elevation should be subservient to the plan. XVJII. Pet, are multiplied with the increased scale of the building. These principles, with the addition of the subject mentioned in the next pnragra set m to form the creed of the most advanced foreign archaeologists, such as M. Violh © © ’ Due, for the consideration of the spirit of the style has been neglected in favour of an vestigation of details by French and German writers on architecture. “ Internal altitude,” writes Pugin in the same work (p. 66.), “ is a feature which wi add greatly to the effect of many of our fine English churches, and I shall ever advoi its introduction, as it is a characteristic of foreign pointed architecture of which we can a 1 ourselves without violating the principles of our own peculiar style of English Chris i architecture, from which 1 would not depart in this country on any account. I once s I on the very edge of a precipice in this respect, from which I was rescued by the advice 1 arguments of my respected and reveied friend Dr. Rock, to whose learned researches 1 obsei rations on Christian antiquities I am highly ind bted and to whom I feel it a boui 1 duty to make this public acknowledgment of the great benefit 1 have received from ' advice. Captivated by the beauties of foreign pointed architecture, 1 was on th>- ' 1 of departing from the severity of our English style, and engrafting portions of form detail and arrangement. This I feel convinced would have been a failure; for altln " the great principles of Christian architecture were every where the same, each country 11 some peculiar manner of developing them, and we should continue working in the parallel lines, all contributing to the grand whole of Catholic art, but by the very va increasing its beauties and its interest.” This author claimed for pointed architecture the merit of its having been the only J of art in which the “ principles ” had been carried out, and is supported, with some n tions, by Viollet le Due. Our space is too limited to discuss that assertion ; the student "j desires to investigate the subject must refer to Pugin’s publication for his argument: must guard against being captivated by the one-sided illustrations given as “ cont For an assertion of the same general principles in regard of Classic and Modern arclute y the reader is referred to the chapter on Beauty in Architecture, in the present k AP. III. MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 965 ,! r . 2492, ct seq.), written, we are inclined to consider, before the publication of Pugin’s , positions. \ more strictly architectural definition of the ternr Gothic architecture lias been deduced i n the writings of various investigators, as being that combination of art and science in I Iding which followed the adoption, during the middle ages, of broken arches for vaults, linings, and ornaments, in lieu of the previously existing arches of continuous lines. ■ term Gothic architecture, according to such writers, does not acknowledge as its j timate productions any structures that are point vaulted and point arched, point , i |ted but not arched, point arched but not vaulted, or neither arched nor vaulted, unless t| v conform to rules approved by the builders in north-western Europe (and especially ij England) during the middle ages. These regulations are, in effect, nine : — I. Duy- I t must not fall upon any apparently horizontal plane surface, however small, except l aments, steps, seats, and tables. II. Every arch must be moulded within a chamfer, ( it least be chamfered. III. Every impost must follow the plan of the arch or arches rich it receives. IV. Every pillar must be an assemblage of juxtaposed shafts or mould- i ;. V. Every pier must be polygonal, or at least circular in plan. VI. Every base must f nv the plan of the pillar or pier to which it belongs, or at least be either polygonal ( ferably octagonal), or cylindrical if under t. shaft. VII. M\ decora' ion must be worked v i in the plane of the walling to which it belongs, except in the cases of bases, bands, c Itals, cornices, copings, and dripstones. VIII. Roofs of high pitch and flying buttresses, s es, and pinnacles, tracery and foliation, are incidental, rather than peculiar, features. The continuous arch may be exceptionally employed when it, with the rest of the ding in which it occurs, exhibits submission to the preceding regulations. 'liese regulations were observed to the north of the Eoire and of the Alps, which was seat of what may be designated original Gothic. South of those boundaries we have eal with what may be designated imitative Gothic, to which, as a matter of course, k aids itself one of the two divisions, Christian and Mahomedan, of Pointed art. We it for granted that the reader is already convinced that the Romanesque and Ryzan- perfect developments of Roman construction do not become transitional to original litative Gothic architecture merely by the introduction of the pointed arch as a mere i, independent of the regulations above enumerated. On the contrary, they become styles, with their own periods of transition and development; which, by those writers do not feel that the architecture of the Mahomedans has been as consistent as that of l. -western Europe, are at present considered as mere solecisms, deserving to have the lets of pointed Romanesque and pointed Byzantine given to them. liese regu'ations, therefore, define the difference between Gothic and Pointed arcliitec- They exclude from the title of Gothic those branches of the transition from Ro- sque art which, in Germany, Italy, and the Spanish peninsula, were, whatever the id might be. merely imitation Gothic ; as they also exclude any branch of the pointed tntine school, which was employed by the Normans in Sicily, or by other Christian minifies. ie readers who are desirous of considering this subject more in detail are referred to t’lman, History of Architecture, 1S49, wherein Chapter I. Part II. treats upon the “ 'finition and Origin of Gothic Architecture;” and concludes with the observation : “ ■ may then define Gothic architecture as a style whose main principle is vertically, a |>r iple suggested by the pointed arch, and carried out in its accompanying details.” A "'i r in the Archceohgical Journal , for February 1847, has expressed his notion that “it w< d be very possible to build a thoroughly good Gothic church, taken entirely from ancient ex| pies, without a single pointed arcli throughout ; ” a principle which would astonish mil of the talented practitioners of the present day. |i eminent amateur has written a very studied and elabora’e explanation of what he eo ders to constitute Gothic architecture. “I believe,” says Mr. Ruskin, in Stones of 1 tie, Vol. II. Chap. VI., after a short inquiry into the mental power or expression, t the characteristic or moral elements of Gothic are the following, placed in the order leir importance : — I. S ivageness ; II. Changefulness; III. Naturalism; IV. Gro- eness ; V. Rigidity; and VI. Redundance. These characters are here expressed as ging to the building. As belonging to the builder they would be thus expressed : — vageness, or rudeness; II. Love of change; III. Love of nature; IV. Disturbed nation; V’. Obstinacy; and VI. Generosity. The withdrawal of any one, or any two, iot at once destroy the Gothic character of the building ; but the removal of a majority in will.” He then proceeds to examine them in their order; but our limit d space nls our following him word for word, and we have found it necessary to curtail some ’ following paragraphs. defining its outward form, be states that the most striking feature is that it is com- of pointed arches. “ I shall say then, in the first place, that Gothic architecture is vhich uses, if possible, the pointed arch for the roof proper ;” and subsequently adds, r (h finition will stand thus : Gothic architecture is that which uses the pointed arch 966 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 3 for tlie roof proper, and the gable for the roof mask.” — “All good Gothic is nothing n than the development in various ways, and on every conceivable scale, of the group fori I‘V l he pointed arch for the hearing line below, and the gal.le for the protecting line a! (fig. UV56.). The subject of the masonry of the pointed arch has been discussed in Chapter XI. of Volume I. (of his work), and the conclusion deduced, that of all possible forms of the pointed arch (a certain weight of material being given), that genetically represented in fig. 1057. is the strongest. But the element of foliation must enter somewhere, or the style is imperfect ; and our final definition of Gothic will, therefore, stand thus: — Foliated architecture, which uses the pointed arch for the roof proper, and the gable for the roof mask.” F ' B - 1057, The figure 1057, though of the outline as given by Mr. Ruskin, really exhibits the si arch erected in granite across the chancel of the Bruen Testimonial Church at Car . designed by the late J. Derick ( Builder , 1854, p. 34.). The trefoiled arch exercisi i force within the building neutralising the outward thrusting force of the lancet arch, : two forces producing a state of rest. “A few plain and practical rules,” continues Mr. Ruskin, “ will determine wheth i given building be good Gothic or not, and if not Gothic, whether its architecture is n kind which will probably reward the pains of careful examination : — I. Look if the ( rises in a steep gable, high above the walls. If it does not do this, there is someth.' wrong; the building is not quite pure Gothic, or has been altered. II. Look if the p - cipal windows and doors bave pointed arches, with gables over them. If not pui I arches, the building is not Gothic; if they have not any gables over them, it is cither t pure or not fiist-rate. If, however, it has the steep roof, the pointed arch, and gabli I united, it is nearly certain to be a Gothic building of a very fine time. III. Look il e arches are cusped, or apertures foliated. If the building has met the first two - ditions, it is sure to be foliated somewhere ; but, if not everywhere, the parts which are ht unfoliated are imperfect, unless they are large bearing arches, or small and sharp archc: n groups, forming a kind of foliation by their multiplicity, and relieved by sculpture ul rich mouldings. If there be no foliation anywhere, the building is assuredly impel t Gothic. IV. If the building meets all the first three conditions, look if its ai s in general, whether of doors and windows, or of minor ornamentation, are caiM on true shafts with bases and capitals. If they are, then the building is assm , ■’ of the finest Gothic style. It may still, perhaps, be an imitation, a feeble copy, or a fit example, of a noble style ; but the manner of it, having met all these four condition v assuredly first-rate. If its apertures have not shafts and capitals, look if they are n openings in the walls, studiously simple, and unmoulded at the sides. If so, the bail 1 may still be of the finest Gothic, adapted to some domestic or military service. But i sides of the window be moulded, and yet there are no capitals at the spring of the an it is assuredly of an inferior school.” “ The next tests to be applied are in order to discover whether the building be good am- tecture or not ; for it may be very impure Gothic, and yet very nohle architecture; h may be very pure Gothic, and yet, if a copy, or originally raised by an ungifted bn: r, very bad architecture : — I. See if it looks as if it had been built by strong men ; if it 'is the sort of roughness, and largeness, and nonchalance, mixed in places with the extp '' tenderness, which seems always to be the sign-n anual of the broad vision and massy p ■< of men who can see past the work they are doing, and betray here and there something :e disdain for it. If it has not this character, but is altogether accurate, minute, and sir J- lous in its workmanship, it must belong to either the very best or the very worst ot sen the very best, in which exquisite design is wrought out with untiring and conscien is care, as in the Giottesque Gothic; or the very worst, in which mechanism has taker ie place of design. On tire whole, very accurate workmanship is to be esteemed a bail IT. Observe if it be irregular, its different parts fitting themselves to different purposi 11 one caring what becomes of them so that they do their work. III. Observe it al 'c traceries, capitals, and other ornaments, are of perpetually varied dcs’gn. IV. L: Head the sculpture. Preparatory to reading it, you will have to discover whether h legible (and, if legible, it is nearly certain to be worth reading). The criticism o u building is to be conducted precisely on the same principles as that of a book; and it 1 depend on the knowledge, feeling, and not a little on the industry and perseverance o 1 reader, whether, even in the case of the best works, he either perceives them to be gre, Jl feels them to be entertaining.” “ T he variety of the Gothic schools,” says Air. Ruskin, in another portion ot the ,e woik, “is the more healthy and beautiful, because in many cases it is entirely unstn > and results, not from mere love of change, but Irom practical necessities. It is one ( - Fig. 1056. IAP III. PERIODS OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 967 of virtues of the Gothic builders, that they never suffered ideas of outside symmetries j .1 consistencies to interfere with the real use and value of what they did. If they wanted vindow they opened one ; a room, they added one; a buttress, they built one; utterly aidless of any established conventionalities of external appearance. Every successive liitect employed upon a great work built the pieces he added in his own way, utterly ;ardless of the style adopted by his predecessors. These marked variations were, liow- •r, only permitted as part of the great system of perpetual change which ran through rv member of Gothic design, and rendered it as endless a held for the beholder’s inquiry ' for the builder's imagination ; change, which in the best schools is subtle and delicate, J rendered more delightful by intermingling of a noble monotony, in the more barbaric iooIs is somewhat fantastic and redundant ; but, in all, a necessary and constant condition the life of the school. Sometimes the variety is in one feature, sometimes in another: may be in the capitals or crockeis, in the niches or the traceries, or in all together, but some one or other of the features it will be found always. If the mouldings are constant, j surface sculpture will change ; if the capitals are of a fixed design, the traceries will lange ; if the traceries are monotonous, the capitals will change; and if ever, as in some e schools, the early English for example, there is the slightest approximation to an I varying type of mouldings, capitals, and floral decoration, the variety is found in the position of the masses, and in the figure sculpture.” Sect. 1 1. PERIODS OF GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. The divisions of Gothic architecture in England, as made by King, Dallaway, Millet \ d others, have been used in Book I. Chap. 111. ; but their subdivisions and nomenclature ive been discarded by later investigators ; and many tables have been put forward of visions and subdivisions. Thus, Britton’s nomenclature ( 1807) was, English 1189-1272; corated English 1272-1461; highly decorated, or florid, English 1461-1509; debased iigiish 1625. Millers’s division ( 1807) was early English 1200-1300; ornamented lglish 1300-1460; and florid English 1460-1537, as adopted herein in Book I. E. arpe classifies the style as, Romanesque — Saxon period until 1066 ; Norman 1066-1 145 , \ulltic — transitional 1 145-1 190 ; lancet 1190-1245; geometrical 1245-1315; curvilinear 115-1360; and rectilinear 1360-1550. The following table introduced by Rickman, Attempt to Discriminate, fyc., shows his menclature and the duration of the periods ; these names have maintained themselves, j consequence of their general appropriateness, from 1819 to the present time : — Kings. Date. William I. 10 r,G William 11. 1087 Henry I. 1100 Stephen. 1135 Henry II. 1154 to Us9 Richard I. 1189 John. 1199 Henry 111. 1216 Edward I. 1272 to 1307 Edward II. 1307 Edward III. 1327 to 1377 Richard II. 1377 Henry IV. 1399 Henry V. 1415 Henry VI. 1422 Edward IV. 1461 Edward V. 1483 Hicham III. 1483 Henry VII. 1485 Henry VIII. 1509 to 1546 Name of Period. Remarks. Early English. Decorated English. Perpendicular English. Prevailed little more than 124 years -, no remains really known to be more than a few years older than the Conquest. Prevailed about 118 years. Continued perhaps 10 or 15 years later; prevailed little more than 70 years. Prevailed about 109 years. Few, if any, whole buildings exe- cuted in this sty le later than Henry VIII. This style used in additions and re- buildings, but often much debased, as late as 1030 or 1040. pe reign of Richard I. was the chief period of the transition from the Norman to the Irly English style; that of Edward I. for the change from the early English to the corated style (the Eleanor crosses belonging rather to the latter, than to the former, le) ; while in the latter part of the long reign of Edward III. the transition to the jrpcndicular style commenced, and was almost completed by the time of the accession of icl ard II. 968 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III Similar tables of the duration of styles in foreign countries have been given in the sectioi Pointed Architecture, in Book I. Rickman, in describing the style to which he gives the name “ decorated,” especial!’ classes under that style the tracery in which ‘-the figures such as circles, trefoils quatrefoils, &c., are all worked with the same moulding, and do not always regular! join each other, but touch only at points; this," he says, “may be called geometrica tracery.” The Rev. G. A. Poole, Ecclesiastical Architecture, 1848, remarks that “ a ver large proportion of the buildings in which this k .nd of tracery is used, belongs ti the previous period, called early English. The examples which might have been sup posed to clear up the difficulty only make it greater. Thus, in speaking of the chapter house at York, which has splendid geometric tracery, he says, “ The chapter-housi is of decorated character ; ” yet the ohapter-house is clearly of a character which prevails during a considerable part of that period which Rickman assigns to the early Englisl style. The general tendency has likewise been, of late, to range with the early Englisl by far the greater proportion of those examples which answer to Rickman’s definition o geometrical decorated ; a few of the later examples only being treated as transition fron early English to decorated. The mouldings, it is true, are generally of perfectly earl English character,, and so are the clusters of foliage, the bosses, and other ornaments appendages. Instances occur in which the simple early English lancet was used during the period of the geometrical tracery. How, then, are the two styles, if they be two, to hi separated, in a system which is in part chronological? How are they to be united, in system which is also in part founded on similarity of parts? “ It is, however, perhaps the most perfect of all the styles ; for its tracery has the com pleteness and precision of the perpendicular, without its license and exuberance; while it minor details partake of the boldness and sharpness of the early English, which need no: fear to be compared with the ornamental accessories of any subsequent style. Besides tli intrinsic beauty of this style, it is important as affording the first full development of tracer and of cusping, with all their power of enriching large windows, and of bringing together several lights as one whole.” “ In pursuing the study of mediaeval architecture, it may be held as an axiom,” write Brandon, Analysis of Gothic Architecture, “that personal inspection of the old churches t England is the only means by which it can be possible now, either to appreciate the genius t opr mediaeval architects, or to sympathise with the spirit which animated them. But it probable that even experienced observers may sometimes be misled by a practice of occa sionally assimilating work in a later style to some already existing portion of an incomplete general design. Indeed it forms a strongly marked exception to the usual practice; for was a general rule with the builders of the middle ages never to fall back upon a pa ova of their art, even when engaged in completing structures of a bygone age.” He the describes the proceedings in this respect at St. Alban’s Abbey Church, at Westmiustc Abbey, and at Fotheringay Church, Northamptonshire. The early English character of Westminster Abbey Church has been so well pieserve throughout, that in many cases it requires a close inspection before it is possible to detei the presence of decorated or of perpendicular work. Thus the windows in the aisle erected by Henry V. are very decidedly of early decorated character; the customar octagonal and moulded cap of the perpendicular period occupy the place of the corn spending circular and foliated members, which, had the windows really been erected soni hundred years earlier, would assuredly have surmounted the boltels placed in their jamb fftg. 1058. WESTMINSTER ABBEY ; THANSETT AND CHOIR. EARLY ENGLISH. I. 1059. WESTMINSTER ABBEY; PILLARS OF NAVE It. RAYS- DECORATED — M. WESTERN BAYS, PERPENDICULAR-; In the earlier plans of the nave piers four shafts stand clearly detached from the 111,1 body of the pier, fig. 1058.; but subsequently the pier was worked with eight slta fig. 1059. (L) ; and, later still, with eight shafts, fig. 1059. (M) all attached to the centr I AT, III. MOULDINGS. 960 Fip. 10G0. WESTM1NSTEK ABBEY. iss, indicative of the altered fashion of the day, in which detached shafts, once such a ourite feature, were entirely discarded. In the piers they worked the bands of the 13th century (N) with the mouldings peculiar to the ]5th (O). Figures 1060, both drawn to the same scale, show how they departed both from the outline and size of the original. In the triforia, the early English design is equally apparent in the earlier and later portions of the work ; but the mouldings in each are true to their styles. Although the groining is tolerably in keeping throughout, yet in the aisles and in the later portion of the vaulting, the original spring and height of the ridge rib has been preserved, while to the elegant acutely pointed lancet of the earlier groining an obtusely pointed arch has been pre- ferred, which, consequently, it has been necessary to stilt, litandon gives illustrations of the early English and perpendicular arcades under the windows, a feature which, though long disused and siqv planted by a system of panelling, is yet followed out. “ I am not aware,” writes the Kev. J. L. Petit, “ whether sufficient attention has been given to the attempts occasionally made by the mcdiarval architects to assimilate their work to the portions erected in an earlier style. In some instances, as in the chi irs at Ely and ncoln, this is done without sacrificing any of the distinctive features of the style then in L> ; but in Beverley Minster, and in Whitby Abbey, the case is different. In the latter, jr whole of the early English arrangement of the choir, as regards its lancet windows, :ontinued in the transept, though the ornaments with which it is enriched show that s part clearly belongs to the decorated period. The triforium in the former is uniform onghout the whole church, for the same is continued in the decorated work, except the use of marble in the shafts.” The same system of using previous ideas, but working them out with later details, is Implified in the Sketch Book of Wilars de Honecort, an architect of the middle of the ;h century. In comparing his sketches with drawings from the original works, their reme inaccuracy and contempt of detail is evident. He sketched them because he saw I re was something in the general arrangement which, with alterations, might become •fnl. He therefore drew each with his own improvements to it. As to the details, Wilars 1 not want them, for he was perfectly coniinced that those of his own time were better ir anything previously executed. The reader will find reviews of this work in the ilder for 1858, with some woodcuts of the illustrations. , Besides this question of assimilation of style, there arises that of similarity of work in 'lferent buildings, resulting from the superintendence or design of one master mind ; but ' ■> is so extensive a subject that in our limited space we dare not do more than name it the attention of the student or r eader. Another interesting important point is that of 1 transition from one period into another, such as the decorated into the perpendicular, rurious example of this exists in the church at Edington, in Wiltshire, an account of licit, with woodcuts, is given by Parker, in the 6th edition of Rickman’s Attempt, 1862. Sect. III. MOULDINGS. t will probably surprise many of our readers that even so late as 1845, the statement 1 made that *• but little acquaintance with mouldings is evinced in the works of most lern architects.” Such was the opinion expressed by F. A. Paley, when he published very useful Manual of Gothic Mouldings. “ Viewed as an inductive science,” he writes, e study of Gothic mouldings is as curious and interesting in itself as it is important in results. Any one who engages actively in it will be amply repaid, if only by the en- cd views he will acquire of the ancient principles of effect, arrangement, and composi- . But the curves, the shadows, and the blending forms, are really in themselves emely beautiful, and will soon become the favourites of a familiar eye ; though viewed lout understanding they may seem only an unmeaning cluster of holes, nooks, and leless excrescences. Perhaps few are aware that any group can be analysed with per- ease and certainly; that every member is cut by rule, and arranged by certain laws of ibmation. The best work on Gothic mouldings which could possibly be written will 'O more than set him in the right way to obtain a knowledge of the subject by his own arch. The look of a moulding is so very different in section, projected in a reduced size 970 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 111 on paper, from its appearance in perspective reality, that the same form seen in the on may scarcely he recognised in the other. *• Gothic architecture revelled in the use of mouldings; — and yet, mouldings are mere] the ornamental adjuncts, not the essentials, of architecture. Some buildings of the lies periods were quite devoid of them, whence it is evident that they are not necessary eve to a perfect design. Boldness and simplicity produce effects, different indeed in their kiiu yet not less solemn and striking than richness of detail. If the uniformity in tlici use had not been very strict and close, it had been a hopeless task ever to master tli subject ; indeed, if there had not been a system of moulding, there would have been no tiring to investigate. But so little did the mediaeval masons depart from the fixed col ventional forms, that we often find a capital, a base, or an arch mould of perfectly the sail profile in an abbey or a cathedral which we had copied in our note-book from a villa" ; church at the other end of the kingdom, so that we might almost suspect that the ver same working drawing had been used for both.” — Thus far we have quoted from Paley. i whose work we shall again hare recourse in the further development of this section; hut in condensed a form, that it should not prevent the student from himself possessing so invaluan a work, of which a third edition was issued in 1865, with an accession of illustrations. We must now attempt to give some idea of the nomenclature of mediasval moulding ' “ The most complete specimen,” writes Professor Willis, in his Architectural Nomenclutu ' of the Middle Ayes, 1844, ‘‘is that preserved to us by William of Worcester, or BotOjie who was born in Bristol, in 1415, and is now best known by a manuscript note book i j inaining in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge ; it was printed in 17 by Nasmith. Two of its pages contain lists of technical words attached to roughly dra\[ outlines of jamb mouldings, the one showing the north door of St. Stephen’s Church, tl other the west door of St. Mary’s liedcliffe Church, both at Bristol. These doors are s 1 inexistence; on comparison, the former agrees perfectly with the mouldings of the »«u porch of the church in question, except that two little boltels have been scraped clean i The west door of Redcliffe Church has undergone a much severer skinning. Fiy. 10q represents the outline of the former door ; “ the names given to the mouldings by Bnto are, A, a cors wythoute ; B, a casement, C, a bowtelle ; D, a fclet ; E, a double ressaui Fig. 1063. Fig. 1062. Fig. 1061. ST. M.UiT’S litlX Lll'FK ; AND ST. STEPHEN’S ; lUtlSTOL. F, a boutel ; G, a fclet ; IT, a ressant ; I, a felet ; K, a casement wytli Levys ; L, a h a boutel, a felet; M, a ressant; N, a felet ; O, a casment wyth trailer of Levys, felet, a boutel], a filet ; Q, a casement; It. a felet; S, a casement; T, a felet; U, y 1 myddes of the dore a boutelle.” Of these terms (which display his various modes of ling) perhaps the only ones needing remark are K and O, which are identical, am square leaves or flowers in them of the usual form, set at regular intervals, forming a continuous train. “ Benet le Ffremason ” appears to have worked the original monk The section of the mouldings of the west door of RedclifFe Church is shown in fit- to which the names were also attached, the additional terms obtained being A, a c i.u C, a double Ressant wyth a filet ; O, a Ressant lorymer ; M, a lowryng casement, a ' a grete bowtelle.” “ I cannot help pointing out,” writes Professor Willis, “how im| K MOULDINGS. 971 Chap. III. a nomenclature must l>e, wliicli can make no stronger distinction between the combinations Earn! C, than by calling one a ‘double ressant,’ and the otlier a ‘double ressant with a fillet.’ The universal moulding (), in fig 1062, is a 'ressant lorymcr.’ ” Fig. 1063. is an outline of the jamb mouldings as they appear at present, engraved from a drawing made expressly for us by Mr. T. S. Pope, of Bristol, and exhibits the skinning they have undergo.. e. Mouldings of an arch or jamb are said to be grouped when they are placed in com- bination as they are generally found ; but a group is a branch of mouldings or separate members, standing prominent or isolated, either on a shaft, or between two deep hollows. An arch of two or more orders is one which is recessed by so many successive planes or | retiring arches (see fig. 1065 &c.), each placed b hind or beneath the next before it, reckoning from the outer wall line. The accompanying figures exhibit both groups and orders. We have adopted the usual architectural system of exhibiting the mouldings in the manner of a mould or pattern, and it likewise carries out the principle of this work. It is also preferred to the popular way of engraving sections, that is, by an apparently perspective representation of a stone cut out of an arch. The several sets of figures are all drawn to scale. The examples selected are, Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, for the transition and for the early English period ; Tintern Abbey, Gloucestershire, for the geometric period; Ilowden Church, Yorkshire, for the late decorated period ; and Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster, for the perpendicular period. For tliose from the three Hist buildings, we have to express our grateful acknowledgment to E. Sharpe’s Architectural Parallels, 2 vols. fol. 1845-48, a work combining technical precision, without which it would be useless to the architect, with artistic character, by which it will recommend itself to every one interested in such antiquities. The illustrations of Tintern are valuable examples of the geometric period. The work contains many geometrical plans, elevations, and sections of 14 buildings, xvith all the principal mouldings to a large scale (those herein ire all reduced, and therefore less useful), with an additional valuable volume of the mould- ings engraved full size. For the illustrations of the fourth period we are indebted to Cottingliam’s work on the Chapel, fol. 1822-29, perhaps the only perfect monograph of a arge structure yet published in England. One reason for selecting the illustrations in this manner has been that, with the very imited space at our disposal for so extensive a subject as the detail of Gothic architecture, re could not emulate either the very satisfactory work which now, with its useful lllus- rations, passes as Rickman’s Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England, vo. 1865, 6th edit., or Brandon’s Analysis of Gothic Architecture, which is full of examples f detail drawn to scale. Another reason was, to give the means of comparing the use of jctails in similar parts of edifices of nearly the same general dimensions; otherwise we ould merely have given the prettiest selection that it had been possible to have made for lie purpose. “ During the period in which the so-called Anglo-Saxon architecture prevailed, little eeorative work was done. The very rude carvings are extremely shallow, being such as puld be worked with the hammer or pick, and ithout the chisel. In some doors and larger arches |iere is a regular impost at the springing, having rude resemblance to Roman mouldings; other- jise the jambs and arch stones are merely returned uare. The tower of Sompting Church possesses rly carved work, and boltels at the angles of the indow openings, and also a very peculiar orna- ented string course. The chancel arch at Witter- g Church, Northamptonshire, is among the early tempts at moulding observed in this country, dug rough and coarsely chiselled members, gene- lly semi-cylindrical. A square-edged reveal soon came a boltel, by first chamfering, and then re- oving indefinitely the angles. Thus, a square- gedarch with its sub-arch or soffit rib, was either irked into rounds at each angle or into pointed Us; or some edges were chamfered, others worked to rolls, and the sub-arch cut away into a broad mi-cylindrical rib. *• The Xorman architects never got much be- nd the plain semi-cylindrical roll (fig. 1064. rig - 1064 - fousxaixs abbey; have. 'cs not show even so much work). I hey paid more attention to surface sculpture PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 972 Book I IT. AKCH PLANES. FOUNTAINS ABBEY ; CHOIR. and shallow ornamental work in the arehivolts and soffits. Some of the early mouldings and ornaments are illustrated in fiu. 1 88 , in Book I. “ The invention of the pointed boltel, contemporaneously with the pointed arch, opened the way to a great number of new forms, all more or less referable to this common origin, in varying the members of com- plex early English groupings. The first and by far the most important of these is the roll and fillet, as A in figs. 1065. and 1066. It is the keynote of almost all the subse- quent formations. The charac- teristics of the mouldings of this style may be d. fined to be, deep undercut hollows between promi- nent members, which comprise a great var ety of pointed and fil- leted boltels, clustered, isolated, and repeated at certain inter- vals, a great depth or extent of moulded surfaces, and the gene- n g . i 065 . ral arrangement in rectangu- lar faces. The hollows, giv- ing the effect of a series ot detached arches or ribs, rising in succession, are seldom true circles (A, fig ■ 1067.) ; and, like the projecting parts, they assume a great number of ca- pricious forms. They are not always arranged in exact / lanis ; the student must be fully prepared to find great irregularity in this respect. *• Early English mouldings may be said to comprise the following members : — I. I he plain boltel or edge roll ; 11. The pointed boltel ; 111- I he roll and fillet ; IV. The scroll moulding(rare) ; and V. Angular forms, consist- ingof chamfered ridges and intervening projections of irregular character. The other forms chiefly consist of capricious modifications of the roll and fillet. The roll and triple fillet (of which B. fig 1067., is a modifi- cation), is much used in the more advanced build- ings of the style, and was the favourite form during the reigns of Edwards I. and I I Som- times only one side hasa fillet attached, as at C, and others. Three pointed rolls, placed to- gether somewhat in the Fig. 1067 . tinteiin abbey; choir. shape of a fleur-de-lis, form a combination of very frequent occurrence (as figs. 1097. and 1 104.), with many min varieties of shape. The fillet is almost always a narrow edge line. The irregular sl » and the freely undulating curve of the roll and fillet moulding has been commonly 1 ferred. Almost every conc eivable modification ol the plain roll, peaked, depressed, ellipt'c grooved at the end, throated, isolated, and combined, might be found and catalogued I'} careful observer. The scroll moulding, also called cdv sinking a channel on each face; and occasionally it stands like an excrescence on the surface of a plane (as in Jigs. 1061. and 1062.); hut this is a departure from the usual practice, as well as from the principle of mouldings. 1 1. The constant use of boltels, or beads of three-quarters of a circle, resembling small shafts. And HI. The fre- quency of the double ogee, and some varieties of it peculiar to the period, as shown in the figures above-named. This double ogee appears to he composed of a semi-circular hollow continued in a boltel. All varieties may be considered distinctive criteria of the period. The double ressaut is sometimes of a large and clumsy size. The roll and fillet was not extensively used ; its form is that of B, jig. 1071. “ Rich and good perpendicular mouldings are not very common, most examples consisting but ot three or four very ordinary members, offering nothing either novel or interesting to the view. The doorways are, however, often very deeply recessed, and the engaged jamb sha ts bear isolated groups of considerable delicacy. The distinction of the orders is often completely lost in this period, while it is seldom undefinable in the previous one. The chamfer plane in many cases is either more or less than an angle of 4 5°. Sometimes two parallel chamfer planes are taken for the basis of the arrangement of the mould- Among the characteristics of the tertiary French style, or the Flamboyant, which has been described and illustrated in pars. 546, et. seq., is that called by Professor Willis, in a most ingenious and valuable paper, read in 1840 before the Institute of British Architects, vcnitration or inter-penetration of the different mouldings and parts. The French anti- quaries have called the system in question moulures prismntiques. Neither of these terms seem satisfactory, but of the two we are inclined to prefer the first as most significant. In the paper above mentioned, he observes that the practice is very rarely to be seen in English buildings, but produces an instance of it in the turrets of King's College chapel, at Cambridge (Jig. 1069.), where the cornice A of the pedestal seems to pierce the plinths of the angle buttresses, and appears at B. This is, how- ever, by no means a capri- cious, but rather an indis- pensable arrangement, by which the solidity of the octangular base was ob- tained without the necessity of the multitude of re-entering angular mouldings, which would have otherwise been carried round the buttresses. Instances of interpenetration are abundant in France. Amongst those selected hy him is one from a screen, in the cathedral at Chartres ; it is given here geometrically (Jig. 1070 ). Fig. 1071. is from the stone cross at Rouen, in which the • • • • 1 • T 1 I • ~ i'lg. l\JH> interpenetration principle is displayed in many ot the vertical as well as horizontal members of the structure. The parts A A, the fillet of the mullion pierces the chamfered and moulded parts ot the sill. Flamboyant examples, small knobs and projections may be observed, and on mark wh> a ]n ma 1 a supcrliti II A f III. PIERS AND COLUMNS. 975 FI K . 1072. •w might pass for mere unmeaning ornaments, but will be found plicable upon tl.is system of interpenetration.” Fig. 1072, “ is a udow from a house near Ilo.inne, at the base of whose mullions, ohs may he observed, which really represent the Gothic base of a nave mullion on the same plinth with the hollow chamfered inuilion, d interpenetrating with it.” The Professor also states that, “ it may rhaps he found that this character belongs to one period, or one strict, of the Flamboyant style; ” hut from our own observation, we ■ inclined to believe it to have been universal from the middle of the eenth century to the period when the style of the Renaissance super- led it. The principles on which it is conducted certainly prevailed Germany and in the Low Countries, as Professor Willis afterwards states. A notion what extent it proceeded may be perceived by Jig. 1073, taken from Moller’s Denhniciler ■ Deutrchen Bau- nst, 1821, and ex- lits on the plan a ies of interferences itrived with great tenuity and a con- mmate acquaint- with practical vmetry. The sub- t is the plan of a 'ernacle, or canopy, E li as is not un- pjent in churches ilthe Continent. It lews, says Moller, 1 iv the simple and fere architecture of t 1 13th and 14th ijturies had been i ased. The square DE is the corn- icing figure. comparison of dish and French ildings has been le, with illustra- s, by the Rev. J. Petit, in his work, hitectural Studies ance, 8vo. 1854, y;'._ Fig. to?; Pf 141. Of course Viollet le Due’s Diotionnaire has now become a well of information Ojthis as on many other details. Some few examples are given at the end of the ensuing ci.iter of this Book. Venetian details have been carefully elucidated by J. Buskin, in 5 Ies of Venice, Vol. Ill , 1853, wherein pp. 221-249 are devoted to the examination in si ess ion of the bases, doorways and jambs, capitals, archivolts, cornices, and tracery h;,, of Venetian architecture. We do not, however, perceive that any scale or dimension isjiven to the examples illustrated, the absence of which materially lessens the useful- nr ot the examples. German details may be sought in Mdller’s work before quoted ; ■'i ing, Sludg Book of Mediaoal Architecture and Art , 1860; in Statz, Ungewitter, and R hensperger, Gothic Model Book, 1859 ; and in Iloffstadt, Gothisches ABC buck, 1840. Sect. IV. PIERS AND COLUMNS. ie general plans of the piers supporting the principal arches are either simple or com- d : simple, when composed of one plain member; and compound, when consisting of e surrounded by smaller shafts, detached or engaged. Piers of the earliest period arrying walls were square, as at the cathedral at Worms. These were relieved by ed shafts, as in fig. 1074. In the 12th century the shaft begins to take the on its plan of a Greek cross {fig. 1075.), with engaged columns in its angles as as on its principal faces. >r the benefit of those making surveys of buildings, we think it useful to subjoin allowing recommendation from the “ Remarks” of Professor Willis: — “In making Fig. lOTod. Fig. 1076. FOUNTAINS ABBEY ; NAVE. Norman piers are, in tlieir earlier form, mostly masses of wall, with rectangular no containing attached shafts, as at Winchester, figs. 1267 and 1268. The circular (fig. 10/ and / ctagonal columns seem to have been introduced about the time of the transitu and continued common in ordinary parish churches throughout the early English decorated periods. Complex early English piers are so varied in arrangement thal would be impossible here to do more than notice their general characteristics, which con principally in the number of smaller isolated shafts clinging to a central column, to wli they are at intervals attached, in reality as well as in appearance, by moulded band fillets (Westminster Abbey, fig. 1278. ), wherein a circular shaft is found, with four define solonnettes {fig- 1058.), and with eight small gracefully de detached shafts at Ely. Fig. 107. signed pier. One without the co- lonnettes, and with broader fil- lets, is a very common form in the early English and decorated pe- riods, with some varieties. Geometric and decorated piers have their shafts engaged {figs. 1078. mass _______ ... , detached, and four attached, colonnettes to the central shaft, but the reason lor this e*i tional anangement has been explained. It would require a volume to set forth the m 1 Fig. 1077. FOUNTAINS ABBEY ; CBfllie Fig. 107$. TINTEI.'N ABBEY 1 HER. ;. and 1079.), so that a clustered column is formed by working out the sttrlaces o in lines and hollows. The example {fig. 1059.1, from Westminster Abbey, has A 976 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. architectural notes, the plan of a pier should always he accompanied with indications of the distribu- tion of its parts to the vaulting ribs and arches which it carries. The mere plan of the pier by itself conveys but small information ; for it often happens, that the identical pier may be distributed in many different ways, and that these differences constitute the only characters that distinguish the Fig. 1074. practice of one age or Fig. i°7o. country from another. Fig. 107 5a. shows one way in which the plan alone may be ma to convey these particulars. The dotted lines, drawn from ilie respective members oft pier, mark the direction of the ribs and arches ; and upon each of these, at a small distai from the pier, are placed vertical sections of these ribs, as at ABCD." Book II CAPITALS. 977 fap. III. i d extent of the great piers in cathedrals aiul abbeys. Piers in tbe perpendicular period ■ generally of oblong or parallclogranimic plan, tbe longitudinal direction extending from north to south (_/?ase, provided it possessed any character at all. In the Norman period, when the shaft ' ; round, the highest and lowest members only were square, the parts immediately next tm being rounded off to suit the shape of the shaft (Jig. 1266.). This is seen in the c inary form of the cushion capital. We may observe the lingering reluctance to get rid ' he square plinth, in the tongue-shaped leaves or other grotesque excrescences which are n seen to issue from the circular mouldings of transition Norman bases. ” Fig. 1080. is rious example of the square form in front (N), and the circular moulded form in rear, of shaft, shown on plan,_/fg. 1076. As soon as a sub-arch was introduced the corners of the tals were either cut off or cut out : the former process produced the octagonal form ; the shape of the shaft produced 7 Fig. msi. FOUNTAINS AliilKY ; CHOIR. Scale, the same as to fig. 1064. tl,c Tular capitals and base. But capitals became octagonal before plinths: and ' mi ‘ 7 octagonal plinths were retained long after circular capitals had become universal. 3 II 978 PRAC TICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 Fig- 1081. is the front face of the shaft shown in fiy. 1077., as is also JUj. 1082. of that jit). J078.,&c. “ Capitals may be divided into moulded and floriated. In the latter, the foliage in tl transition Norman and early English period is arranged vertically, in the decorated twines horizontally, or rather transverse round the capital (fig. 1083.). In the pi pendicular, more frequently small leaves paterae are set like studs at intervals roa the shaft above the neck. The capital ci sists of three parts, the abacus, the hell, a ' the neck. In the early English period t abacus is almost invariably undercut. In t decorated it consists of the scroll mould! with a cylindrical roll of less size below The bell, in early English caps, is sometin double, with a very handsome effect, while decorated work it is seldom so deeply und j cut. It is also much more varied by eln ' rate and capricious forms, as by a number; fine edge lines ; and the underpart of the I is often composed of a roll and fillet. 'J necking forms an impoitant detail injudg| of the dates of the work. In the early E j lish it is usually of a hold annular outli or a semihexagon. The neck during the j corated period is almost always the sc moulding, hut many other forms will be fo to occur. Even a practised eye inav occ is ally be deceived in the date of capitals of two early periods “The capitals in the perpendicular pc > present such marked features that they seldom liable to be mistaken. The mo ings are large, angular, meagre and Neither abacus nor bell is clearly deli The latter is reduced to a meagre slope - er part of the abacus is usually sloped oil 1 Fig. 1083. though it sometimes still remains. The upp sharp edge, and the section of the moulding below resembles the letter S inverted, bci a Fig. 1080. Fig. 1081. FOUNTAINS ABBEY, flndow .litmb. I Vaulting Shaft. HOIK AIS1.K- I CIIOHC AISLE. Fig. 1085. Fig 1087. Vanning Shafts. Clio I K AISLE. Fig. 10S8. F'R- 100 °* TIN TERN ABBEY. . | Door Jamb. |"in.), hut in early English often oct.m- fh r (fig. 1077. and 1081.); and the base mouldings, a series of annular rolls, slopes, or Ik ws. taking the form of the column. In decorated and perpendicular columns, the h is apparently omitted, and the base is divided into heights, stages, or tables, by gr rally spreading courses, each separated from the next by a plain, or by a moulded, The lower part of the base is sometimes octagonal or polygonal. A cavetto above li ter round is a very common form in early woik. A hold annular roll, quirked on tin nder side, often divides the shaft from the plinth. ie early English base is very similar to the Attic form, the chief peculiarity consisting 3 hollow being cut downwards and extended from half to three quarters of a circle, so 1 k It is capable of containing water (figs. 1081., 1084., and 1085.). The earlier the a is in the period, the shallower, as a general rule, is this water-holding hollow (fig. 10 . .... . . ... tin. ). A common form is obtained by omitting the hollow altogether, and thus bringing ills into contact (like fig. 1088.). In very rich early English bases there are often 'one hollows between filleted rolls, and below these occur other bold annular rolls, single, dot e, and even triple, as at the beautiful Galilee porch at Ely, where the bases are worked 11111 1 Burheck marble and were polished. The spread of the base in the uppermost me kts generally equals that of the capital, or nearly so. By far the commonest decorated MS s that shown in fig. 1087. and fig. 1089.. the number of rolls being ge..erally three, ten only two. A few modifications may he perceived, but they are seldom very ex. The large spreading roll is worked out of the block, with which it usually flush, and is separated by a quirk or angular nook. This is also observable in the ms style. A simple form of base is shown \n fig. 1091. - prevailing characteristic of the bases of perpendicular columns is a large hell-shaped ’l m ! in the upper part, often double, forming the contour of a double ogee in section, as 93. ; and is one of the ordinary kind. The lower part is almost invariably octagonal, ’per being generally round, but also frequently octagonal, irrespective of the shape of dt (fig. 1300.). It has either one or more stages sloping off by a hollow chamfer, second bell-shaped slope. The first member of the base is always an annular roll, ding the neck of capitals ; this is often in the form of the debased roll and fillet, lines scarcely ever occur. Other examples of bases are given in the last section of "ik. The usual distribution of the t.dile mouldings of a late base consist of a plain r op I< ( fig . 1320.), reckoning upwards from the ground line C, a flat surface E and a i 1 "king moulding D, In more elaborate structures, the number of these base tables con, stai pre 'll fig. the the or I res I'd; this 3 E 2 980 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 15ook II =md intermediate champs or fascia is increased, and t!ie latter are often carved in pant Ac. Thus a second table, 13, is introduced above the ground line G. Professor Wil applies the term “ground table, grass table, or earth table,” to the slope B, and states tl to such tables as D the term “ ledgement tables ” were probably applied. Sect. VII. VAULTING SHAFTS AND RIBS. When the main shaft supporting the clerestory had an attached circular shaft front, the latter was often carried up as a shaft to the roof {Jig. 1266.) The pc Fig. 1005. Fig. 1096. CTIOII!. CIloll! AISLES. FOUNTAINS ABBEY. VAULTING SHAFTS. Fig. 1097. Fig. 1098. Transverse and Diagonal Rib; and Wall Rib — choir a , FOUNTAINS ABBEY. VAULTING RIBS Fig. 1099. NAVE AND CHOIR. TINTERN ABBEY. Fig. 1100. aislk. VAULTING SHAFTS. has not yet been settled whether this shaft in some early buildings was, or was so carried up to receive the cross- rib of a vault, or simply to bear the beam of rooling. When vaulting became more general, the purpose of the shaft was un guised (fig. 1278. V and being made correspondent with the vaulting libs, the groii| the latter were received on a colonnette or on small columns. The vaulting ribs at St. Saviour’s (Southwark) Church, are given in fig. 66 2e. In the latter part of the 15th century engaged colon- nettes for receiving the vault rihs rise from corbels placed on or above the capitals of the shafts, and sometimes the rihs themselves spring from the corbels (figs. 1274. and 1275.), and later, or in the perpendicular period, the older form was, as it were, reverted to, and the attached circular shaft was carrie to, and received the vaulting rihs, as in figs. 1302., 1307., 1314., 1317., and 1825. Corbels very fre- quently supplied the place of capitals both for the springing of arch mouldings and for vaulting. These corbels were either moulded or carved to correspond with the capitals (fig. 1 109.), or they were fashioned into a mass of foliage, into heads of males and females, or of animals. Even whole figures ^ introduced, occasionally deformed if not purposely so carved for admission wit u Fig. 1101. Fig. 1102. NAVE AND AISLES. Aisles, Transverse Rib, and Diagonal. Wall Rib. TINTERN ABBEY. VAULTING RIBS, Fig. 1 IW. NAVE AND Clip' , Transverse ltib and Di f Fig. 1105. CHOIR AISLE. Fig. 1 106. Fl &, CHOIR AND AISLE. ... Transverse Rib and Diagonal. VAULTING RIBS. • t nil nrcl i 1 1 I * pace. In the vaulted sacristy at Winchester College, its “ springers presc n (J f a benediction, a bishop, and a king, and over the door a guardian angc . r. III. HOOD MOULDINGS AND STRING COURSES. 9h: Fig. iris. Und B, Ribs for groining. IY VII. ’S CIlAl’EL ; AISLE. Fig. 1109 WESTUINSTKIC AlHU; Y CIIUUCII ; NORTH AISLE OK CHOIR. leaves and roses alternately, carved with great taste and ‘ subtilite,’ enrich and cover the junction of the libs. — The uncouth and barbaric heads in the corbels which surround the principal figures contrast with their gra- ciousness, and form tliat antithesis which the great masters in fine arts of the succeeding centuries employed so abundantly. The virgin patroness presides over the western pinnacle of the chapel ; the angel Michael at the other termination of the building menaces with his flaming falchion the several demons which might approach the hall, refectory, cellar, and t hen; the angel Raphael points out the entrance to the house t rayer at New College ; the king and the bishop support the label e j he gateways to the college at Winchester, and the entrance of the chapel ; and as the a dinted guardians and supporters of temporal and spiritual things, they sustain alter- truly the corbels or springers of the ceiling of the chapel. At the entrance of the hall a kitchen, the recreating psaltery and bagpipes are affixed; over the kitchen window is ‘Less,’ a head vomiting ; and opposite is ‘ frugality ’ in the figure of a bursar with his i -bound money chest. Over the master’s windows are the pedagogue instructing, and a li ess scholar, scarcely attentive to the book he holds in his hand. Elsewhere we recog- lii tile soldier, the scholar, the clergyman, &c , as suggesting the various professions in inch the inmates may occupy themselves in after life. The inept substitutions for these s dficant and appropriate ornaments are amongst the most palpable evidences of the in- s iciency and inaptness of our mimicry of this style, in most instances in the present day; a they betray great ignorance of the poetical mind and spirit of mediaeval sculpture.” — kerell, The Wyheham Buildings. Sect. VIII. HOOD MOULDINGS AND STIUNO COUUSES. The strings consist of projecting ledges of stones carried below windows, both within at without a building, round buttresses, and other angular projections, and to cornices, p ipots, tower stages, and other parts of edifices, being used as dividing lines. Though sibrdinate, they are of the greatest possible importance in imparting a character to a b ding. They at once relieve naked masonry, and bind into a whole the seemingly de- fied portions of a rambling or irregular construction. In most cases, especially to wHows, a string course forms a real drip or weathering, and adapts its upper surface es cially to this end, thus becoming what is termed a hood moulding, which when used t« nally, cannot be said to have any real use; but they form a decorative finish ot too n irtant a kind to be neglected with impnnitv.” orinan strin , courses are generally full of edges or bard chamfered surfaces (Jig. 1 1 10.). i lost cases they have some sculptured decoration of the style, as the billet, the chevron, lg. 1115. Fig. 1116 Fig. 1117, TIXTSIIX AUII V; NAVE, ETI . CLERESTORY. AISLE. AISLE. Fig. 1118. Fig. 1119. Fig- 1120. HOWDLN 1 them is even called the “ earth table.” The early exiu s are very plain, consisting of one or of more chamfered sct u t various heights, as Jig. 1124. In the early English period, the roll moil was introduced at the upper edge of a deep c 1 fer, as Jigs. 1125. and 1272., and with one oiu p. III. BASE COURSES. PARAPETS. 983 qjzin^l 4 1126 is very sm;)ll for so large a building The basement to Lichfield Cathedra! u t much more defined. Fig. 1277. is a r el pr example. The basement in the perpendicular period is one of the glories the style. That shown in Jig. 1306. from Winchester, may considered very plain, as is also that at Bath, jig. 1319. : versed ogees and hollows, variously disposed, are the prin- al members. Fig. 1128. being the tasement round the tside of Ilenry V I I. ’s chapel, will alibi'd some idea of the irk bestowed upon this feature. Yelvirtofl Chinch, North- iptonshire, has four rows of diagonal, square, and circular nelling, one above the other ( Rickman, page 213., 6th edit.). Norfolk, where Hint work was used in the erection of the ilding, it was introduced in upright panelling in the lowest e, above an ogee moulding (ibid, page 214.). 7 r \? 3 f! y Bill! Sect. X. pa a Arms. "S The Norman period may be said not to have exhibited any rapet, the roof being finished by the tiles or lead work pro- ting over the wall and supported by a corbel I locking. During nearly the whole of the early English period, the rapet in many buildings was often plain, as figs . 1129. and 26.; or with a series of arches and panels; or with quatre- Is in small panels, as Jig, 1277., which is of the next peried ; plain, with a rich cornice under it. In the decorated period it was still plain but with moulded capping d cornice, as Jigs. 1130. and 1131., and with the ball flower, as Jig. 1128., hut also closer and connected by tendrils; it is often iced in various shapes, of which quatrefoils ( Jig. 1277), in circles, without that enclosure, are very common; but another, consisting a waved line, is more beautiful and less usual ; the spaces are foiled. Pierced battlements are very common, with a round or ■are quatrefoil. The plain battlement most in use is one with all intervals, and the capping moulding only horizontal. 1 bey continued to be used in the perpendicular period. The foiled panel with waved line is seen, but the dividing line is more en straight, making the divisions regular triangles. One of the est examples of a panelled parapet, consisting of quatrefoils in aares with shields and flowers, is that at the Beauchamp Chapel, arwick. The pierced parapet on Ilemy Vll.’s Chapel (Jig. 1133.) is fine example, with its angle pinnacle. That on the choir at Win- -■ster Cathedral consists of upright panelling only ( Jig. 1306'.). rly period battlements frequently have quatrefoils either for the ver compartments or on the top of the panels of the lower, to m the higher. The later examples have often two heights of ids, or richly pierced quatrefoils in two heights, forming an inducted tlement. They have generally a running cap moulding carried round the indeutatii ns, o £81 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 1. In a few late buildings the capping is ornamented, somewhat like a cresting : and in a few instances figures resembling soldiers on guard have been carved on the battlements. Plain battlements have been divided into four descriptions. I. Of nearly equal dhi sions, having a plain capping running round the outline. 11. Of nearly equal intervals Fig 1131. TINTERN ABBEY ; CHOIR. Fig. 1132. IIOWDEN CHURCH ; CHOIR. and sometimes with large battlements and small intervals, the capping being only place on the top, and the sides cut plain. III. Like the last, but with a moulding runninl round the outline, the horizontal capping being set upon it. And IV. The most comma late battlement, with the capping broad, of several mouldings running round the outline, often narrowing the intervals ( Rickman). It is sel- dom that the battlements will tell the age of the building, as they have been so often rebuilt. A small battlement differing to these four descrip- tions, is shown in jig. 1128., under the windows of Henry VII.’s chapel. A few more words may be said in the section Toweiis a n n SmiEs. Sect. XI. MOULDINGS IN WOODWOKK. “ If this kind of work be attentively examined, it will be seen that it was wrought altogether on the same principles as the corresponding sculpture in stone. We see the thoroughly conventional early school, the naturalesque middle-pointed school, and the again conventional third- pointed school of carvers, succeeding each other in exactly the same way, the main difference between the two being that the work in wood is ordinarily very much more thin, flat, delicate, and sharp, than the work in stone ; that it has always some limits set to its exuberance by the nature of the framework in which it was wrought. In carpen- ter’s work, it was always the rule only to mould the useful members, and so it was also as regards the carving. It was not useful or convenient to put on to a piece of oak framing a mass of oak to be carved as a boss or a stopping to a label (this sort of device was reserved for the ingenuity of nine- teenth century architects), and so it will be found that most of the old wood-carving is so contrived as to be wrought out of the same plank or thickness as that which is moulded, or else is a separate piece of wood — in a spandril, for instance, enclosed within the constructional members. The spandrils in the arcades behind the stalls at Winchester Cathedral are an admirable example; they are carved in thin oak, perforated in all direc- tions, and then set forward about half-an-inch in advance of the back panelling. The effect of this is, as m.iy be supposed, to give the Fig , ns2 . HE.VIIY VII.’S CIIAI'EL. HAP. III. MOULDINGS IN WOODWORK. 985 rving the most dis inct relief ; and it is an effect strictly lawful, because it was impossible other material, and yet natural in woodwork. The same attention to the material will found exemplified very remarkably in all old wooden mouldings. The accompanying ustrations {Jigs. 1134. and 1135 ) will show how extraordinarily minute, delicate, and sharp they were. In the stalls at Selby we see an elabo- rate cap, only lj inches high ; at Winchester, a band of an inch in height, and yet consisting of four distinct members, and showing in elevation as many as eight Fig. 1137. Scale 2 in. to 1 ft. Fig. 1136. SCREEN ; NORTHFLEET. ' inct lines. The finish of the wall plates in the porch at Horsemonden, and the c ung of the miserere seat, so curiously preserved in the midst of woodwork some three h dred years later in date, in Henry VII. ’s chapel, are fair illustrations of the goodness o he earlier sculpture.” The whole of the early mouldings are sharp, delicate, minute, and quaintly undercut. : y are ver y often unlike any stone mouldings, just as many wooden traceries (e g. those 0 ne screen at St. Mary’s hospital, at Chichester {Jig. 1135.), and the stalls at Lancaster), a quite unlike what could conveniently be executed in stone. In spite of a bad fashion "ch obtains just now,” among some of the present mediaeval architects, “of ignoring * va lue of mouldings, I maintain that they prove conclusively the existence of a school V ‘I in this country of almost unsurpassable excellence.” Street, On English Woodwork '' he Vith and 14 ih centuries, read at the Royal Institute of British Architects, 2Cth 1 'ruary, 1865. s an example of early work we give figs. 1136. and 1 137., from Bury, Woodwork, being h details of the screen in Northtleet Church, Kent. M, in the first figure, is the first c mn (the details being given to a larger scale at S) in the screen abutting upon the 986 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III, centre opening, the arch of which -i — i — i Fig, 1138. I.AVENHAM, SUFFOLK. O.her notices of the thickness of st Having given illustrations of tl mediaval period, we now append is shown at N. The corresponding positions on plan are exhibited in Jig. 1137. The section O, represents the face of the buttress P, while the plan Q, is that of the arch mouldings at R. Fig 1 1 38. is a section of the screen on the south side of the chancel at Lavenham Church, Sullblk, wherein the details N, O, and P, are those belonging to the buttress Q., which even in late mediaeval car- pentry was not omitted, though somewhat out ol accordance with the “true principles” attributed to design in that style. Fig. 1139, being the capital and base moulding.' from the screen in Aldenham Church, Hertfordshire are of the perpendicular period. These examples an. all further illustrated in Bury’s work above-men- tioned, as well as Jigs. 1140. to 1144., showing tin general style of mouldings adopted \ for seats and bench ' I ends, as noticed in jar. 2192/;. Fig. 1 1 40. is the rail of the bench ; Jig. 114 1. the division under the scat ; and Jig. 1142. the sec- tion of the arm of the stall and of a bench end, all at Bridgenorth Church, Somerset- shire. Fig 1143. is the arm of the stalls at M’ai tage Church, Berkshire; and jig. 1144. the ra and stall mouldings at Swinbrook Church, 0:dorij shire. The ends of the stall even in Henrv VII chapel are worked out ot only 3-inch planks, ai formed into three attached shafts, similar to fy. 1 1 1 nil' are given in fiar. 2175r/. ie principles of constructing timber roofs during t some of their details, wi.ich, on comparison with 1 T 1 i ! 1 f r 1 j Fip. 115ft. SCREEN; Al.niMI.UI, IfcKTS. Fig, 1145, Fip. 1M6. rULUABl. NORFOLK Fig. 1117 MOULDINGS IN WOODWORK. 987 HAT. III. kc decorative work. Fig. 1H5. shows the rafters used at Pulliam Church, Norfolk ih/. 701 o. ), L being the main, and M. the common, rafters, with the hoarding N sunk between them collar-beam. Fig 1150. lig. 1149. Fig. 1152. CAI*EL ST. aiAl:Y, SlTi'OLK. Fig. 111G is the purline; fiy. 1147 the wall piece; and fig. 1148. Fig. 1119. illustraies the rafters in the church at Canel St. Mary, Suffolk ( Jig . 70U/.), O being the section of the common rafter. Fig. 1150. is the collar-beam with the arched truss under it ; and P the ridge piece; Jig. 1151. shows the moulded cornice abut ting upon the hammer-beam. Jig. 1 152., and Q the lower purline. Fig. 1153. gives the details of the roof of late work at Knapton Church, Norfolk {Jig. 70D.), being the section of the lower hammer-beam ; Jig. Fi , r n55 1 154, the post abutting upon it; Jig. 1 155. the ridge piece , and It purline. These will all be found to a larger scale, with the other details, in Brandon’s djsis. All the illustrations from Jigs. 1145. to 1155. are drawn to the same scale. The following sections repre- sent the roof timbers in the south aisle of Lavenham Church, Fig. 11 Fig. 1151. KXAPTON, NOKEOLK. Fig. 1150. Fig. 1157. Fig. 1158. Fig. 1159- LAVENIIAM, SUFFOLK. Fig. 1100. ST. ALBAN’S. Si C(J in lk, from which building the screen in fig. 1138. was also derived. Fig. 1156. is the iee ; jig. 1 157- the wall strut, and Jig. 1158. the purline. Fig. 1159. is the cornice e chancel aisle. These are likewise derived from Bury, Woodwork. 988 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. Sect. XII. WINDOWS. In the body of the work we have, under eacli period of Gothic architecture, given a description in general terms of the windows prevailing at the several times. The examples here brought together, are inserted merely for the purpose of showing the gradual change in their forms and combinations, which are almost infinite in number, and yet that the latter are far from exhausted, is conclusively shown by R. W. Billings, in his work on Geometric Combinations ; and by E. Sharpe, in Decorated Window Tracery. The earliest windows are extremely small, always semi-circular headed, or nearly so, and without moulded arehivolts. They are usually with a single light (Jig. 1266.), except in belfry towers, where we often find them divided into two by a shaft with a capital, as in the tower at St. Alban’s (Jig. 1160 ). The simple plain head, however in the latter part of the early period, was more or less ornamented with the chevron or zigzag, and other orna- Fig 1161. BEAUDESEIiT. Fig. 1162. C ANTE I' BURY. Fig 1165. SALISBURY. ments of the time, as in Jig. 1161. One of the greatest and most striking change brought in by the pointed style was that of introducing, from the suddenly elongate dimensions ot its windows, a blaze of light into its edifices, which, from the low andnarro sizes of their predecessors, were masses of gloom. From the beginning of the lit century we see them lengthened in a surprising manne and terminating with a lancet-head, which somethin became occasionally cusped. An instance of the simp lancet-head is given in Jig. 1162., from the Trinity Chap, 1 at Canterbury Cathedral. Sometimes an elegant con bination is obtained by grouping lancet-headed windovj under one hood, the centre rising above the side ones, at Salisbury Cathedral (Jig. 1 163 . ), where the spaces hi tween the heads are ornamented, or have a sunk panel device. These spaces are frequently pierced with tohnf circles, or with trefoils or quatrefoils not enclosed. 1 an example at Lincoln (Jig. 1 164.), the height ot the gro is equal, hut the light of the centre being wider than t two side lights, the curvature of the arches of the latt is necessarily much less than that to the former, and the effect is not satisfactui There were, however, many other arrangements in designing these lancet-head windows than the single and triple ones just mentioned Two, four, and five, ligl occasionally fo ra the group. Of the last-named, are windows at Iithlingboroopj in Warwickshire, and at Oundle, in Northamptonshire, in which the lights on the sit j gradually rise up to the centre one. In the latter part of the period, heads fin with trefoils ; the mullions are moulded and finished, both inside and outside, with sha or colonettes, from the capitals of which spring the mouldings of the subdivisions. The finest and largest group of early English lancets in the kingdom is the five, c< monly called ‘the five sisters,’ in the north transept at York Cathedral, completed 12 They are each about 5 feet 7 inches wide, and nearly 60 feet high, and in the inteil have a beauty altogether their own, not surpassed, if it be equalled, by any decora or perpendicular window in the kingdom. The rich effect of the arrangement ot two stories, each having three lights, at t' e east end of Southwell Minster, is well desen of attention. Ely cathedral has internally five lights over three, while externally d more are observed over the five. ree huge early English lancets, the centre one hi TW Fifr- 1104. LINCOLN. At Kilkenny Cathedral there arc three hi Chap^IIi. WINDOWS. 989 62 feet high and 8 feet wide. The detached shafts are fdleted in four rows ; tlie mouldings over are formed into trefoil arches. In the south side of the choir of St. John’s Priorv, in die same city, is a continuous arcade of 54 feet of lancets, the largest pier being only 9 inches wide. These filleted hands are an interesting work, as they are found in many parts both of Ireland and England. Perhaps the most remarkable example in England is that at VValsoken Church, near Wisbeach, where the chancel arch has four small shafts in each lier, all banded five or six times It is additionally sinking from its greater antiquity lian any of the Irish examples, being, as at St. Alban’s, romanesque. These banded olumns and roll mouldings find their counterpart at Margam Abbey, in Glamorganshire, he west front of which shows a fine triplet, and a doorway below banded in this peculiar nanner. Transactions of the Institute of British Architects, 1865-66, pp. 80-86. The f.lia'ions seen in windows belonging to the earlier examples of this style in England re notgenerally cut out of the same stone as the head of the arch to which they belong, but form the tracery, in small pieces, and these enter into the class of plite tracery, i.e. they be- long to the flat soffit, and not, like bar tracery, to the outer mouldings. By perforating the space between tlie heads of two adjoining lancet-headed windows, as in the old painted chamber at Westminster ( fig. 1 ,65 ), the elements of the ornamented window are ob- tained. To cover it, however, ornamentally, the enclosing arch must be depressed and modified ; and at Ely (fig. 1166 ), we find an example for illustrating the remark. Tlie lozenge-shaped form between the heads of the arches is con- Fi" lias. verted into a circle which, as well as the beads Fi„ nrr, faixtkii chamber. of th , lights is fc, iatl . d . Instead of a single ^ rcle inserted in the head of the window, we then have them with three foliated circles as Lincoln, one above and two below ; the same cathedral furnishing an example in the east mow of its upper part having one large circle inclosing seven smaller foliated ones, be- sides its containing similar ones in the heads of the two leading divisions below. I he windows just described belong to a transitional style between the early English Gothic and the decorated ; but the ornamented windows of the 14th century exhibit in their general form and details a va-t variance from them in the easy unbroken flow of the tracery with which they abound. In the next stage come the examples shown by fig. 1167., Meiton College Chapel, and./??. 1168., the Cathedral, both at Oxford; the latter whereof has a tendency towards the Flamboyant style, which has been before mentioned, and which, in the 14th century, had thoroughly established itself in France, as may be seen in the win- dows of the church of St. Ouen, at Rouen, exhibited in fig. 1169. It may be observed that the principal lights are seldom divided by transoms ; when they, however, occur they are mostly plain, and rarely embattled. Though the ogee head is often found, the usual form is that of the simple-pointed arch. In the clerestory, square- headed windows are of en seen, but more often in other parts of the edif.ee. In the preceding, as well as in this period, occurs the win- d nv bounded by three eqmlaterally segmental curves foliated more I „ „ or le , ss as . the date increases. The arrangement of the tracery of have been introduced about the end of the 12th century as sub stitutes for iron frames, and were at first built in courses that corresponded with tin other work of the wall in which they stood, or were in small pieces. But as early j 1235 they were face-birbled stones dowcllcd with iron. As the oxidation of the metal M proved injurious, iron was superseded, after the end of the Hth ecu tury, by dowels made from the bones of sheep or from the horns i deer. Fig. 1173., from the west windows in the tomb-house . Windsor, tern]). Ilenry VII, illustrates the arrangement usuall adopted in drawings to show the distance from centre to centre, r, at M, N and O, that is to be allowed in forming the length > radius employed in striking the curves for the tracery. Other e amples of such sections are given from the clerestory of the r.aw ' Winchester Cathedral, fig. 1303 ; Rouen Cathedral, fig. 1 29H J King’s College Chapel, fig. 1312. ; St. George’s Chapel, Windsor. Ji j 13If>. ; and from Amiens Cathedral, fig. 1329. The simplest mullion or monial or tracery bar would be a ph rectangular block of stone. The next, with the edges chamfcrr varied by substituting a hollow for a plain chamfer; by giving ogee form to the chamfer; and by cutting out a hollow in l chamfer with receding angles instead of a receding curve; this I Fir. 1173 . Windsor. ; s p er | la | )S peculiar to the i ally decorated style. The hollow chamfer is the only moulding ordinarily made to carry the ball flower ornament »l t Hth century, and t four-leaved flower ol t 15th century. When I tracery becomes at elab rate, the siihoi nation of the parts effected by giving to jambs and mullions, perhaps to some "I mullions only, and some of the tracery h an additional order mouldings. I ken fillet or bohel ol outer moulding I V fig. 1173.) describes greater lines ; that id inner moulding (0) smaller lines ol the and the whole ' eery the c usping* manner a third or. 1 often added by the same means and lor the same purpose (as INI), hadi of these 01 il’ltAP. Ill WINDOWS. 991 wy hf as varied as was t ’10 first. Perhaps the most common form for the first is the allowed chamfer, and for the second and third, the ressant with a fillet. In a very few instances, the outer fillet becomes a sharp edge, i.e. the mullion is chamfered to an arris. *• Nothing is nxn-e essen- tial to the good effect of windows (except where the mullions are treated as shafts under a mass of tracery without glazing), and nothing is so much neglected by modern ar- chitects, as making the mullions of adequate thickness,” writes Mr. Denison, in Church Builtl- iny. “ 1 he modern works are very seldom more than £th of the width of the lights ; probably about -1 inches in the ordinary side windows, and sometimes less, and perhaps a few as much as 7 or 8 inches in ge east and west windows. In the east window of Tintern Ahhey, which has eight hts (jig. 1178.), the principal mullion is 15 inches thick, and the two secondary ones are 1 1 inches, and the four smallest very nearly 8 inches. At Guisborough Priory, of the geometrical period, a win- dow of only seven lights had two principal mullions, both as thick as the middle one at Tintern. The great mullion of the east window at Lin- coln is about 2 feet thick. Even the two small east win- dows of Guisborough, with only three lights, has 9-inch mullions, and those at Tintern 7-inch. Some four-light win- dows at Whitby have the middle mullions about 13 inches, and the short clere- story windows of Bridling- ton are above a foot thick. No mullion ought to be much less than one-third of the width of the adjacent light. The lights of the small Guis- borough windows are exact y three times the width of the mullions; the aisle windows Fib 1178 . tintern abdky. east window. Fig. 1 179. of Selby are about the same; e there are more lights than these, and therefore two or more classes of mullions are red, the larger ones must be considerably more than this. In all cases the deptli hack to front ought to be at least twice the width or thickness from side to side, are a few old geometrical windows, with ‘thin’ mullions, but they are exceptions, lo not look well. lie difference between good and bad windows, strikingly exhibited in the same church, in, i fie seen in the north aisle of the choir at Selby, where a set of windows of no more ■ 1 '. three lights, and those rather short ones, having tracery of the simplest possible l ,at n, only three quatrefoils in the head, aie perhaps the most beautiful windows of the i be found anywhere. Above them in the clerestory are windows of four lights and more elaborate tracery, and yet almost as ill-looking as any modern ones. The lra i is that the lower ones are deep set, and have thick mullions and tracery, and high , whereas the others are very shallow, on account of the passage in the wall ; the ms are thin, and the arches are low.” 992 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 Sect. XIII. WINDOW JAMBS AND ARCH PLANES. The following details of window jambs and mouldings, are reduced from those givi the valuable publication already mentioned, namely Sharpe’s Architectural Parallels. 1174. is the plan of the jambs, and Jig. 1175. of the mouldings of the arch over them, to the early English choir at Foun- tains Abbey, Yorkshire. Figs. 1176. and 1 177. are the similar portions to the geometric choir at Tin- tern Abbey, Monmouth- shire. 1 lie. same publication gives, amongst its nume- rous details, the elaborate grouping of mouldings to the magnificent east {figs. 1178. and 1179.) and west (figs. 1180. and 1181.) windows of this building, which is somewhat transi- tional to the decorated period, and of very great beauty. Fig. 1 1 82. is the jamb mouldings to the decorated east window at II owden Church, York- shire, showing a passage in the wall, which mateiially deteriorates from the gcod effect of the window. The following illus- trations are from Henry VII ’s Chapel. Fig. 1 1 89. is the wall jamb to the first cant of the angular win- dows to the aisles. Fig. 1184. is the first angle mullion of the circular or bow win- dows ; it also shows tlie arrangement for the mullions or monials, and (L) the mitring OUTSIDE Fi OUTSIDE Fig. 1133. HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. Fig. list- HENRY VII.’S CHAPEL, 4AI. III. CIRCULAR WINDOWS. 993 tli tlie wall-ivork Inside. Fig. 1185. is the jamb mouldings of the upper range, or clerestory windows. These are all reduced from Cottingharn’s work on this building, and are, to some extent, shown in the interior eleva- tion of the bay, given in Jig. 1325. The section of the jambs to the windows of the clerestory at Winchester Cathedral is given in Jig. 1303. ; to the windows of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, in Jig. 1312.; to those of St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, in Jig. 1316. ; and to those in the clerestory at Amiens Cathedral, in Jig. 1329. The arch planes worked in the same buildings, have been placed on pages 971., 972., and 973., while the series of mouldings to the arches of Henry VII.’s Chapel will be found very poor in comparison, as may be observed in Jig. 1325. Sect. XIV. (. 1185 . The large circular windows so frequently seen In the transepts of churches, and sometimes at the west ends of them, and going by the general name of rose windows, seem to have originated from the ocnli with which the tympana of the ancient basilica; t e pierced, and which are still observable in monuments of the 11th century. For the s ly of this species of window the edifices of France furnish the most abundant means, ijiy of them being of exquisite composition, and in our opinion far surpassing any else v re to be seen. Many of these, from Rouen, Beauvais, and Amiens, will be found i strated in the following chapter of this work. t is scarcely previous to the 12th century that they can be fairly called rose windows ; b ire that period they are more properly denominated wheel windows, the radiating n lions resembling the spokes of a wheel and being f< led of small columns regularly furnished with bases a capitals, and connected at top by semicircular a es or by trefoils. By many the more decorated cijdar window has been called the marigold window, '> we scarcely know why that should have been done. I rose windows are used in gables, but their dimen- si's are then generally smaller and they are often en- el d in segmental curves whose versed sines form an ’| lateral triangle or a segmental squat e. n early specimen of the wheel window is in Bar- 1 on Church (j fig. 180. ), wherein it is manifestly later l ; the other parts of the front. The example from f ixbourne Church, Kent (Jig. 1186.), is a curious ar early example of the wheel window; herein, and F, s- 1186 - patrixbocrnb. u> ;d in all the minor examples, a single order of columns is disposed round the centre; PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 1 991 Imt in t lie south transept at York Cathedral we have a noble instance of this spec {fig 1187.) — a double order of columns being employed, connected by foliation above t capitals of the columns ; this example is of the 1.8th century. As the early style came the columns would of course give place to the midlion, as in the elegant specimen fn St. David’s, shown in jig. 1 188. The two following examples {jigs. 1189. and 1190.) fn Westminster, and Winchester Palace, Southwark, are both of the 14th eenturv. The ii is not the original window, but we have reason to believe it was accurately remade fr< the original one. The latter is a most elegant arrangement flowing from the continued sic of the central hexagon, and consequent forming a series of equilateral triangles d! corated with foliation. It was placed in t gable of the great hall of the palace, whi ball was spanned by a timber roof of v< beautiful and ingenious construction, a fu years since destroyed by fire, after which t wall containing the window was taken dov During the period of the three lastexa pies in this country, the French weremaki rapid stiides towards that era in which tli flamboyant was to be stifled and ext guished by the introduction of the renu sance style, about which we have alrea submitted some remarks, and prodttt some examples. In the church of St. 0u< at Rouen, the circular window {jig. 119 middle of the 14th century, ex bibits extraordinary difference between French ;• English examples of the same date. Be; t i fill as many of the English examples undoubtedly are, we know of none that is equal this for the easy and elegant flow of the tracery composing it. The leading points it ' be seen are dependent on the hexagon, but, those determined, it appears to branch olf lr the centie with unchecked luxuriance, preserving, nevertheless, a purity in its forms qi in character with the exquisite edifice it assists to light. The details of this window t be advantageously studied in Pugin’s Antiquities of Normandy, and in the larger wood' given in the subsequent chapter. Besides these examples of circular windows, others will be found of varying pnttcr forming the centre pieces in the heads of large windows, as at the churches of Fas II owden, Wellingborough, and at St. Alban's Abbey. ST. OUEN, ROUEN. Sect. XV tracery of windows. As the perpendicularity of the style changed, at the beginning of the 1 3th century, ft that which might be termed horizontal, so did the comparatively rude and clumsy forn its ornament assume a lightness founded on a close observation of nature. Its sculpt is endowed with life, and its aspiring forms are closely connected with the general out bounding the masses. The models used for decoration are selected from 1 lie forest the meadow. Among the flowers used for the angular decorations of pinnacles and sp AP. III. TRACER V OE WINDOWS. 99J crockets, and in similar situations, an ornament very mucli resembling the Cypripodiuti ■eolus, or lady’s slipper, and the iris, are of constant occurrence. The former plant, vever, appears to be found only in the woods in the north of England, and now, at rate, it is very rare. ! I'liese models, however, though closely and beautifully imitated (says Ramee), are sub- ted to reduction within such boundaries as brought them to a regular and geometrical n. Thus is found every conceivable description of ornament brought within the limits ,1 circles, squares, and triangles, as well as within the more varied forms of the many- : d polygons; the latter, as in the marigold and rose windows, being again subject to i circumscribing circle; these polygonal subdivisions having always reference to the ljulating subdivisions of the apsis, as will be further referred to in Chap. IV. 'lie circle obviously presents a boundary for a very extended range of objects in nature. Ijthe vegetable world, a flower is scarcely to be found which, within it, cannot be sym- 11 rically arranged. Its relations afford measures for its subdivisions into two, three, four, and six parts, and their multiples, by the diameter and radius alone; the last being an unit, upon which the equilateral triangle and hexagon are based ; moreover, as the in- terior angles of every right-lined figure {Eu- clid, prop. 32. b. 1.), together with four right angles, are equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sir , it will be immediately seen that the interior angles in the equilateral triangle, the ■< agon, the hexagon, the nonagon, and the dodecagon, are divisible by the sides so as to clear the result of frac- tions. Thus, in the equilateral triangle, the number of degrees sub- tended by the sides is 60°. In the pentagon the number is 108° ; in the hexagon, 120°; in the nonagon, 110°; and in the dodecagon, 1 50°. (See par, 1219.). In- dependent, therefore, of the service of the circle in construction, we are not to be surprised at in architecture, from the V // \\ \ z' /■ v\ /7 \y \ _ 7 Fig 1192. Fig. 1185. A/ \\ v' J A/ \/J/ Fig. 1194. figure Fig. 1195. period at which the art was a mg so favourite u i ome truly serviceable to mankind. 1| respect of the pentagon (fig. 1194.), if lines be drawn from each angle so as to conlct every two of its sides, the pentalpha results; a -A in much esteem in the 13th and 14th centuries, 1 idped among the Pythagoreans as a symbol of health, ccn ies and centuries before. % are rare not A of g lar heptagon and undecagon, whose interior angles t divisible without a fraction or remainder, were used by the Freemasons ; an instance of either does cur to us. inspection of figs. 1 192. to 1198. will show the mode -‘rating from the several polygons the lobes of circu- 1 dows, as also the way of obtaining the centres for >es in a simple and symmetrical manner. In Jig. 1195 and quat the type: Fig. 1196. the basis of formation is the equilateral triangle, "ee lobes are the result. Those of four lobes, or oils (fig. 1193.), originate from the square ; and ucifera:, or cruciform plants, Tetradynainia of Linnaeus’s system, seem to be their h nature. ! oihose of five lobes, resulting from the pentagon (Jig. 1191.), types are found ill the 3 s 2 996 PRACTICE OF ARCH) LECTURE. Hook II /ff K /) / i\ /J\ VA Y Fig. 1197. classes Pentandria, Dccandria, and Icosandria, of Linnaeus. They comprise the rose, t apple, cherry, and medlar blossoms; those of the strawberry, the myrtle, and many otlie For circular windows consisting of six lobes, and based on the hexagonal formation ( / 1195.), the class Hexandria seems to furnish the type, under which are found aim- all the bulbous-rooted dowers, pinks, &c. These observations might be extended to great length ; but the writer does not feel in- clined to pursue the system to the extent to which it has been car- ried by a German au- thor (Metzger), who bases the principles of all pointed architecture on the formations of the mineral and vegetable kingdoms. In fig. 1 196. the oc tagon is the base ; in fig. 1197. the nona- gon ; and in fig. 1198. Fig. 1193. the dodecagon. Beyond the last, the subdivision is very rarely, if ever, carried. It not that all these types were selected from a mere desire of assimilating to nature the de f rations of the 13th century, but it sprung from that deep impression of the utility geometrical arrangement, which sought in the vegetal kingdom, and elsewhere, such forms as fell in with outlines adopted. Similar formations based upon arrangement of squares, triangles, and polygons, are hibited in figs. 1335. to 1339., in the latter portioi this chapter, as obtained from the decorations of Aim Cathedral. Mr. Denison comments upon a particular figure ..window tracery, which appears to him to be very 1 and often adopted. He calls it the “ broken-hac cusp,” (fig. 1 199.) because it gives the feeling that Fig. 1199 . Fig. 1200 . always going to break (like fig. 1205., doorway). B the cusps are made a principal instead of an accessory; the proper way being to mal sub-arch at the back of the lower pair of cusps (fig 1200.), a. id to thicken the tr above until it looks like a piece of solid stonework, and having a real bearing on eacho and capable of resisting pressure. Few attempts have been made to point to the origin of tracery and its ramificat As the spaces of window openings went on increasing, until at la t they became gig in several instances exceeding 40 feet, a construction of stone framework became absoh ■ necessary. This framework, as we find in examples of the early decorated period, w 1 first unornamented — mere pillars or mullions below, with segmental curves, crossing other, to fill the arch. But by degrees these curves changed their character, and assn <1 all the infinite variety we now know under the term tracery. From great windows, class of decoration descended to the minor parts of buildings ; and at last we find light, fragile, screen-work, to lie the great depository of this kind of knowledge. 1 ' geometric forms, rather than mere fancy, as the foundation of composition, are ever 1 preferred as of the utmost importance to the designer, if he wishes or intends to arri 1 a succe'sful result.— Billings, Infinity of Geometric Design. Our limited space warns us to refrain from the further elucidation of this subject 1 before quitting it, we can refer to the many illustrations of the further developmc ol “ tracery and geometric forms,” forming a portion of the ' cm.ES of proportion, treated hereafter, wherein exampli given from Westminster Abbey, Beauvais, Rouen, and cathedrals. To aid in the formation of tracery a perfect knowler 1 practical geometrical drawing is requisite ; we therefore the reader to that section in Book II. where, comment 1 : gar. 1007., he will find other more useful problems tha assist him in his designs. We append another application problem “ to inscribe a circle in a given triangle,” as bein of those more generally required in circular forms, and per quicker method than those above described. If a five-lobed figure be required, as y 1201., obtain the triangle ABC from the five divisions, on a base line B C at a b to the circle; bisect B C and join A D. Bisect the angle A B C by a line III. DOORWAYS. Of) 7 ere it crosses the line A D, as at F, will he the centra of the required circle or lobe, circle with the radius A F being drawn, the other centres on the lines of division, as G, A H, &c., are readily found. Another usual geometrical problem in tracery work consists in finding the centre of a cle placed in the head of anarch. This has been eluci- ted by E. W. Tarn, in the Builder for 18G3, p. 221. t A B C in fig. 1202. be an equilateral arch, and the dth A B be divided into three equal portions A D E B. ■t the arches D F and E G be drawn with the same lilts as those of A and B, as I) H. Then it is re- ired to find the centre of the circle which shall touch ■ four arcs. Make E I equal to J th of E B, and with centre A and radius A I draw an arc cutting the pendicular or centre line of the window in K ; then K is the required centre, and K L radius of the circle. Fig. 120V. Sect. XVI. DOORWAYS. It is almost needless to observe that through the several changes of style the door* ys followed their several forms; our duty will, therefore, be to do little more than sent the representations of four or five mples to the notice of the reader. The ior’s entrance at Ely (Jiff. 187.) is a fine i cimen of a highly decorated Norman i irway. The earlier Norman doorways I I but little carving. They are, as in Jiy. j >3., generally placed within a semicir- ar arch, borne by columns recessed from face of the wall, and the whole sur- unted with a dripstone. In Jig. 187. it be seen that the semicircular head of t door is filled in level with the springing, a sculptured with a figure of our Saviour i sitting attitude ; his right arm is raised, a in his left is a book. What is termed t vesica piscis surrounds the composition, v ch is supported by an angel on each side. J ;se representations are frequently met " > in Norman doorways. Many examples a composed of a series of recesses, each s tned by semicircular arches springing h a square jambs, and occupied by insu- i; d columns ; though sometimes the columns are wanting and the recesses run down to Fig. ia>». MUHYIKLD. 998 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 111 the plinth. The arches are very often decorated with the chevron, zigzag, and other N'oi man ornaments. The early English doorways have the same character as the windows of the period ; tin smaller ones are often recessed with columns, from which a pointed arch is twined witl a cut moulding on it and a dripstone over it. The more important doors, however, ar mostly in two divisions, separated by a pier column, and with foliated heads. These nr generally grouped under one arch, springing from clustered columns on each side, and tli space over the open- ings is tilled in, and decorated with a qua- trefoil, as in the door- way to the chapter- house at Lichfield ifig. 1204.). Sculp- ture often occurs in the arrangement. The door to the chapel of St. Nicholas, at Lynn ( fig. 1205.), is a cu- rious example of the latter part of the de- corated period. Fig. 1206., from Tatter- shall Castle, Lincoln- 's- t-uo. TATTKiisiiALi. castle. coinshire, belongs to ri s- the Florid English or perpendicular period, whose simplest doorways usually had th depressed or Tudor arch, and without the square head which appears in the example. Th more ornamental ones were crocketed, and terminated with tinials, as appears in the far of the porch at King’s College Chapel, Cambridge {fig. 1208.). The doorway at Si George’s Chapel, Windsor {fig. 1207.), though later in date, is more simple than the Iasi notwithstanding the exuberance of ornament and tracery which bad then very ncarl reached its meridian. Sect. XVII. TORCHES. The porch is a distinguishing feature both in ecclesiastical and domestic architedui throughout northern Europe during the whole of the mediaeval period. In the case of II smaller churches it was usually attached to the north and south doors. When to tl north, it was generally built of stone, while the south porch was more often ol tnnhci In France the porches are usually of very grand proportions and of elaborate structure. A Norman porch, with an upper story or parvise, a chamber which appears to ha> been variously appropriated, occurs on the north side of Southwell Minster, Nottingh.m shire, and is arched (Rickman, p. 81.); and another at Sherborne, Dorsetshire, whin is groined. The example at Malmesbury Abbey Church is perhaps the finest of the fi" that exist of this period. An early English porch with a chamber remains on the north - sid of St. Cross Church, Hampshire. The porch at Felkirk, in the West Riding of V or I shire, of late early English or early decorated date, has a roof formed of stone ribs 1 h" in breadth by 10 inches in depth, plain chamfered at the angles, placed about 18 inch apart, springing from a string or impost about 4 feet from the floor. A complete ill tiation of this interesting example is given in Robson, Masons Guide. The same simp plan is followed in those at Barnack, Northamptonshire, and at Middleton Cheney, Noit amptonshire. The south porch at St. Mary’s Uffingdon, Berkshire, is groined. H feature was extensively used in this period, as at Salisbury and Wells. A beautiful example of a vaulted roof to a shallow porch occurs in the decorated clum at Higham Ferrars, Northamptonshire (Rickman, p. 1 11., also giving a plain vault richly moulded door jambs at the west porch of Raunds Church, Northamptonshire Stone ribs are employed in the vestry or chapel at Willingham Church, Cambridgcshi (Rickman, p. 179., decorated); the chapel is 14 feet 1 inch long, and 9 feet 9 inches wul as shown in Lysons’ Cambridgeshire , p. 285. In this, and in the following, periods, t groined roof became common, and partook of all the varied enrichment exhibited in larf roofs. The porches exceed in profuseness of decoration those of the preceding style: t 11 were almost universally adopted. The south porch of Gloucester, and the south-" 1 porch of Canterbury are beautiful examples. In tbc former, canopied niches occupy 1 front over the doorway, the front being crowned with an embattled parapet of P' cn panelling, and at the quoins are turrets embattled and finished with crocketed pinnacles- u». HI. TOUCHES. 999 KING’S COLLEGE CIIAl'EL, CAMUltIDGE 'lie example here given of the shallow porch at King’s College Chapel, Cambridge 1208 ), is beautiful in design and in proportion. The north porch at Beverley Minster s somewhat higher than the aisle, the upper part forming a parvise. The door 1ms a feathered straight-sided canopy, r one of ogee form, both croc- ;d. It is Hanked with niches, tresses, and pinnacles ; the ile front is panelled and crowned l a lofty central pinnacle, hav- a niche. An idea of it will be ted from the illustration given a frontispiece to the present ion. The south porch of Leve- ;ton Church, Cambridgeshire, is ined, and also has carved bosses. :r it is a parvise 10 feet 1 inch e and 14 feet 4 inches in length. i covering (of slabs of stone?) upported by six arched stone i, placed 2 feet 1 inch apart, and let 5 inches span ; the rib is 4 les wide, 6 indies in depth, and mfered on the lower edge. It a richly perforated stone ridge ament. The section and details given in Builder for 1848, p. 91, ch also (iii. 598.) illustrates the th porch at North Walsham ircli, Norfolk, which is lofiy open to the roof, it not having l divided into stories. It is a •iinen of the mixture of flint a stone details. The south porch of a church near Evesham, in Worcestershire; the isty, also at Felkirk ; and the porches at the churches of Strelly, in Nottinghamshire ; dl Saints, at Stamford; and of Arundel, in Sussex, have interesting stone roofs. i the case of domestic buildings, the porch, as at Wingfield Manor House, Derbyshire, a story over the entrance, differing from those at Eltham, Croydon, Cowdray (which an elaborate groined stone roof), and y others, having only one story. That dorchester Cas io hall was the whole [lit of the building, having a room 'e the entrance to the hall, which was ited on a basement story, and was hed by a flight of steps occupying the : r story of the porch. At Dartington i Or House, Derbyshire, and at East 1 sham, Norfolk, there are two stories e the entrance, an arrangement fre- ltly observed in similar erections, as at rpland Hall, Norfolk, and at Eastbury 1 se, Essex, erected cir. 1572. From I irchitectural prominence given to this - re in domestic buildings, t.ie designa- “ porch house” was often employed. i very exceptional is the use of brickwork nlngland in medueval work, at any rate ~ ~ 11 1 the common brick porches, which added in the 17th century, that we Fig. 120 °. r nduced to notice one of the many examples in this material executed abroad, in Ger- f especially. The north porch of Liibeck Cathedral {Jig- 1209.), is described by G. treet, as “ a 13th century addition, of two bays in depth, with groining piers of clustered s with sculptured capitals, and a many-shafted doorway of the best character. Its ior is probably mainly of stone, but the exterior is all of brick. The archway is boldly ided, and above it is a horizontal arcaded corbel table, stepped up in the centre to <1 t the arch The gable is boldly arcaded upon shafts, and has a stepped corbel tables ‘'i, 'a double line of moulded bricks above it next to the tiles. A couple of simple open l’OKCII, AT LUTEL'K. 1000 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II arches are pierced in each side wall, and there are flat pilasters at the angles. In tl gahle, enclosed within the arcading, are some circular openings, one of which is enspe with small foliations formed ofhrick. The moulded bricks in the main arch are of t« kinds only, one a large boltel, the other a large hollow, and these arranged alternately wii plain square-edged bricks, produce as much variety as is needful. The jamb of the doo way is of plain bricks, built with square recesses, in which detached stone shafts are placet The capitals throughout are of stone, and carved with simple foliage. Perhaps no otli example is more completely all that it should be in the use of its materials. The exteti. is simple in all its details, yet sufficiently enriched by their skilful arrangement to I thoroughly effective; whilst in the interior, xvhere more adornment was naturally require brick is frankly abandoned, and the ricnly moulded and sculptured ribs and archivolts a all of stone, though I have no doubt the vaulting and walls are, as on the outside, of brie The only tracery which can he properly executed in brick is in fact the simplest jih tracery (and even this requires great skill and care in its execution), or that simple frill; of cusping round an opening which occurs in the porch, and which may he executed wit case with a single pattern of moulded brick often repeated." Church Buihler, 1863, p. ,'i We have somewhat altered the arched entrance as shown in Mr. Street’s sketch, nude standing that this porch has been lately restored in this manner. Sect. XVII 1. TOW'EllS AND SPIKES. Tie. 1211. SECTION OF si’ll E. Europe has been considered by J. H. Paiker, Transactions of the Institute of Ilriti Architects, to be indebted to Caen and its neighbourhood for that very interesting featm the Gothic spire of stone. He has also traced its history from the iow pyramid of Thai Church, Normandy, dating ubo the end of the 1 I tli century, sliov in fig. 1210., whereof the stones a left rough within and overhang on another, while at the base a lar piece of timber was introduced if to bind the whole together (/ 1211.), which has now entirely < : cayed. The apex has also decay or been removed. The spires Comornes near Baveux ; Basly m Caen, middle of 12th century ; a J Rosel, are of the same character, a are followed by those at Hupp 1 ’ tv ar Baveux, which is considerably taller, but ot ab< the same date ; Vaueelles, near Caen ; St. Loup, tv Bayeux ; St. Contest, near Caen; and Bougy, which of a fine transitional character, as is that at Dotivrcs . 1 small square spires at the east end of St. Stephens Caen; and the elegant lofty octagonal spire with squ, pinnacles at Ducy. which is a little earlier than the < gant western spires of St. Stephen’s at Caen On building are altogether eight spires, varying in date t one of about the middle of the 12th century on a s turret ; the two pairs of early Gothic work ot the < 1,1 to the light xvestern spires which possess pinnacles o <>| work at the angles and in the centre of each face, 11 date about 1230. The fine spire on St. Peter’s < nun j Caen, dates at the beginning of the 14th century, and is commonly quoted as the per cr of a spire ( Jigs. 1212. 1213.). It is octagonal, with openings pierced 1,1 \ the a . Y That of St. Saviour’s is later and not so good. Nearly all the spires in • '*s is the surface of the stone cut to imitate shingles, a clear proof of their having m prototype. The spires at Bayeux Cathedral were probably being bui t at >e sa as those at St. Stephen's Church, which they resemble. Secqueville mrc i nearly the same date. . )n Of later date are the spires at Bretteville, Bernieres, and Langrune, comtn^ middle of the 13th century. They are all of elegant design, and light construe t these are the unfinished spires of Norrey and Audrieu, closing the cenury. tions of several of these buildings will be found in Brittons Norman y. _ r ‘ c . considers that the spire took its origin from the gable termination seen in foreign towers. pty 1210. TUAOJf, NOISMANDT. 1001 111 . TOWERS AND Sl’lRES. V chronological sketch of the gradual development of the spire in Germany, has lately been attempted by W. II. Brewer, in the Builder for 1865, to which we can here only refer the reader, as well as for its very peculiar illus- trations. In England, dur- ing the Norman pe- riod the west end of the larger churches sometimes had towers terminating the aisles. Another tower rose from the intersection of the cress (the smaller churches had but this one), while it was only of suffi- cient elevation to break the long line of nave, choir, and transepts, all of equal o height. The roofs of the towers were of but little higher pitch than the rest. The nearest approach to spires, in form if not in height, were found in the pinnacles sur- mounting the angle buttresses in the larger Fig. 1214. WARM1NGTOX. ^ churches. During the early English period, towers rise to a greater elevation, and are very generally finished with a spire, some- times of great height. The most frequent spire is that called a broach when it does not rise from within parapets, but is carried up o j >ur of its sides from the top of the square tower, the diagonal faces resting on squinches, o rches thrown across the corners within, and finished on the outside in a slope, as shown ir|fy. 1214. of Warmington Church, Northamptonshire, which has been published in dlil by W. Caveler. A great many spires consisted of wooden frames, covered with lead o ith shingles; and these in general, as well as stone spires in a few instances, were ciliected with the tower in a different way ; the spire itself being at first only four-sided, ai the angles being canted off a little above the base, to form the octagon. The early k lish spire, completed in 1222, to Old St. Paul’s Cathedral was the highest in Europe, beg 500 feet high, according to Stow, or 489 feet as calculated by Mr. E. B. Ferrey. i the decorated period, Heckington Church, Lincolnshire, one of the most beautiful " perfect models in the kingdom shows, says Rickman, “a very lofty tower and spire "1 ited at the west end (Jig. 1215.), the four pinnacles which crown the tower are ajj and pentagonal. This unusual shape has, at less cost, an effect fully equal to an otjgon, and the pinnacles are without crockets, but have rich finials ; the spire is plain, three tiers of windows on the alternate sides. The whole arrangement of this steeple juliarly calculated for effect at a distance.” The details of this work are given in Bow- and Crowther’s useful publication. The elaborately arranged octagon at Ely Cathe- h the design of Alan de Walsingham, is of this period. The work entitled Churches of h Irchdeaconry of Northamptonshire, 1849, illustrates in small pictorial views several of h ine lofty west towers and spires of this and the succeeding period, erected in that 'o. it y. he perpendicular period is distinguished by the splendour and loftiness of its towers n »pires. That at Salisbury, for example, rises to the height of about 287 feet. That orwich, rebuilt soon after 1361, is 318 feet high. St. Michael’s spire, at Coventry, 1373-95, is the most beautiful one in the kingdom ; it does not rise, like those at hury and Norwich, from the centre of a transeptal church, but from the ground ; and ying buttresses, and extremely taper form, give it great advantage over every spire h rises from within battlements. The broach is not unfrequent in this style, and x pies are chiefly to be found in Northamptonshire. Of other remarkable spires of 1002 PRACTICE OP ARCHITECTURE. Rook III this style we should name Whittlesea, in Cambridgeshire (,/? - a harmonious. (See frontispiece, fig. 1218.) Each of the towers has four large and t r. III. TOWERS AND SPIRES. 10.3 II pinnacles, and a very beautiful battlement. The whole front is panelled, and the resses, which have a very bold projection, are ornamented with various tiers of niche* Ic of excellent composition and most delicate execution. We may here incidentally ce that the east front is fine, but mixed with early English, which style extends to the septs, while the nave and aisles are decorated, terminating with perpendicular, and bed with the west facade above noticed. a concluding this portion, we cannot withhold naming the most elaborate work on the ect of this section, published from drawings made by C. Wickes, in 3 vols. fol. 1853— Its chief drawback is that the illustrations are pictorial and not geometric, which lit have been obviated by a plan and section to each. Our sketch of the varieties of ers and spires will be found filled up, in Rev. G. A. Poole’s History of Ecclesiastical hitecture. n Ireland, the Dominican Abbey, commonly called the Black Abbey, at Kilkenny, bad nver placed on the south of the altar in a most singular way. At the Franciscan irch, the tower was placed at the east end of the nave, with a chancel at the end ; the er was much narrower than the nave, but exactly the width of the lofty arch support- it, so that now the roof has gone, the construction appears extremely bold and hazard- This building was one of a numerous class. Except the round towers, which ted to be built when the English went to Ireland, and the low Cistercian lowers, the h churches up to that period were almost towerless. In a few instances other towers Id be named, as the fine massive one of the Trinitarian Friary, at Adare ; but sud- ly, in the 1.5th century, it became the practice to build to the Franciscan and Domin- i structures these lofty and slender additions The nave was shut out from the choir two transverse walls placed close together and pierced each with a narrow arch ; above m rose the slender tower, standing as it were on the apex of the gables, instead of tading over the width of the nave. They were finished with a peculiar battlemented apet. There is no instance of two western towers to the mediaeval churches in Ireland ; a mediaeval spire is not known to exist in that country. n Scotland, the spires are chiefly of the middle pointed period, but not erected until ut the middle of the 15th century. Short octagonal stone spires form a very common nination to towers of late date ; they generally carry small pedimental headed lights er on all or on the cardinal faces, and are for the most part plain, though, as at Cors- lihine, at Aberdeen, and at Crail, in Fifeshire, they are banded by two or three em- led strings or corona; into stages. Sometimes, as at the two former places, there are 11 pinnacles at the angles; while at Corstorphine, and St Andrew’s at Aberdeen, a pish semi-pyramidal abutment on the angles is extremely suggestive of the broach. lie construction of the tower and spire is of such importance as to require much attention, nver built for the reception of bells intended to be rung, should have a solid founda- , not merely four arches nearly as wide as the tower itself, leaving four piers not much >l;er than the thickness of the wall which they support. Bells require a tower to them- es, for it is known that they will spoil the best clock ever fixed. In Sir C. Wren’s ■vrs, and others built by his imitators, the substance of the walls was concentrated at 11 ingles, leaving a moderate sized arch on each side, and only the same internal area as d exist in the case of four straight walls. This is sound construction, and is well ayed in the tower of Antwerp Cathedral. Such an arrangement also admits of a ase being carried up in the substance of the wall, without diminishing strength, es, a desirable object in some large towers, doing away with the necessity for but- :s. The tower, if thus carried up its whole height, will be more fit to support an gular or circular spire or lantern. The mean internal area should he half the external ■ t and then, if well built and of good materials, the tower will safely bear as many bells i be hung on one level. ere should be an offset to support the ringing floor and the bell floor, so that no r be run into the wall to act as battering rams. Neither should a bell be bung on beams resting on the walls, but always in a trussed cage. As regards sound, one of bells is considered better than two tiers. It is wonderful that some of the early or stone cones or pyramids (shown in fg. 121 1.) have stood, for they were evidently n level but gathering courses, even in the 1 1 th century, around a light frame of timber, was either removed or left to decay. As soon as the principle of diminution up- I was acknowledged, two systems of construction presented themselves ; the first is carriage of the upper storey from the basement floor ; the other is a false-bearing ; ight being, in either case, thrown as much as possible upon the angles, even to the upon each floor of an opening in the centre of each side, which is the weakest part ink tower. In the first ease there are two varieties, one being the pyramidal roof on plan ; the other being the pyramidal roof octagonal on plan. The latter, ir completed externally as a broach or otherwise, requires to be carried as low the tower for support as possible ; and in some cases, as at St. Leonard, in France, agon is more judiciously placed with four angles over the centres of the sides of the 1004 PRACTICE OP ARCHITECTURE. Book III. tower, than with four faces over the corners of the tower, which then require to be loaded by pinnacles. These are set diagonally more advantageously than when square with tin tower, because they thus have a larger base. The greater height given in the middle ot the 12th century to the spire rendered such precaution inevitable ; and at the same tiim it became evident that if the spire were to be no longer square on plan, it must not seen to rise abruptly out of a square. Octagonal steeples, with octagonal spires not built through, hut resting upon them, seen to be considered now as dangerous experiments in construction. Yet one at Guebwille-i in France, is a central steeple of four stages, including the pendentives. At Schelestadt it another of the same kind. This plan does not seem to have been in favour after the com menceinent of the 13th century. When the French architects determined to trust their octagonal spires to the uppei storeys of their steeples, they seem to have been careless about allowing the pendentives t approach points of weakness. The student will gather a good lesson on this point fron the section of the steeple at the Abbaye de la Trinite, at Vendome, given in Viollet li Due’s Dictionnaire In the steeple of the cathedral at Chartres, the pendentives of tin octagon sit upon the four pinnacles, which are thus each obliged to take a part of tie weight of the spire; the other part being thrown upon the four faces of the octagoim drum, which are weighted by heavy gables. At the bottom the spire is 31| in. thick, am at top ll| in. in a length of 156 ft. 8 in., built of hard Berchere stone. The roofs of tin pinnacles are 19| in. thick. It is to be noticed that the danger of a fall, which was st imminent as to cause the destruction of the steeple at St. Denis, is attiibuted in great par to the increase of weight given to it during a course of restoration, by using the stone o St. Pierre instead of that of Vergele. Some French spires have a very curious effect, due to the presence of a simulated hip in the centre of their sides for the whole or part of tin height: but still more extraordinary were the slits in that of St. Denis, and the slit will two transoms in that of St. Nicaise, at Reims. The spire of the church at Langrune, near the sea-coast, north of Caen, in Normandy has at its base in the interior, a sort of buttress of thin stone resting on the thicker wall of the tower, which runs up for a great height to each of the angles and sides of the spin They are pierced so as to afford a free passage all round at the base of the spire and may have been provided to assist in strengthening it on account of its exposed positioi It has been drawn by Rev. J. L. Petit in his Architectural Studies. It will be found that the stone spires of the 12th century were high in regard to tl; rest of the steeple. The proportions at St. Denis were 38^ to 35 ; those at Chartres ai 60 to 42 ; but in time these proportions were altered so much that the spires of St. Nicai: at Reims (end of 13th century), and those of the front of the cathedral in that city, ai scarcely half the height of the tower instead of equal or superior to it. Murphy, in li account of the Batalha, remarks that no settled proportion seems to have been observe in the dimensions in general ; they varied from four times the width of the base to eigl times. As regards the jointing of the stones of which spires are composed, their secuir seems to be wholly the result of an accurate working of the beds and vertical joints, and tl adhesion of naturally good and properly applied mortar. In modern work it is quesbo able whether such aids as dowelling and cramping should be altogether dispensed wit. Iron must not be used, for reasons given in an earlier portion of this work. One metin' used at present to steady and tie in the spire, is that of the insertion of an intermedia stage or floor of timber framing. Sir C. Wren, when rebuilding the upper portion ol tl (former) spire of Chichester Cathedral which had been forced out of the upright, plact two intermediate stages connected with a pendent beam of timber about 80 feet in leng attached to the finial stone; each stage was about 3 inches less in diameter than the sp at their levels; these restored the spire if it departed from the upright. A sinul pendulum, with two stages, to act in like manner, has been introduced by Gibbs in 1 spire of St. Martin’s in the Fields, London. Iron rods have of later years been used effect this purpose. When tlie beds of the stones are horizontal, one course of binders secured with (lm tailed dowels will perhaps be enough in the height; but when the beds are inclim two or three of these courses in its height would be an effectual means of preventing spread. It has been considered that a spire is stronger when the beds are set at rig angles to the face, but if not well set, water gets in, and sudden frosts do much injury, is probable, however, that a large number of steeples would, were examination possible, found to have been well chained with timber or with metal The former material appt to have been employed in the church at Chateauneuf (Saone et Loire). The spire, built cir. 1315, of St. Aldate’s Church, Oxford, had to betaken down in IS The tower is about 56 feet high ; the spire, about the same height to the weatheren was for 10 feet down from it of solid stone, similarly to that shown in fin- The cause of its failure was that a l|-ineh iron bar coupled at the angles and inserter 'hat. III. M E D I JE V A L PIt O PO It I' ION. 1005 lie first course of stone 7 inches thick at the base of the spire, had rusted, in some place, ntirely through, bursting the stone inside and out. The angle pinnacles alone sustained he spire for many years. Nearly all the spires of Normandy are said to have been executed in thin slabs o t tone ; they are all about 7 inches thick at the bottom, and about 4 inches thick at the I op, and are almost all executed in the Creuilly stone. In Caen, especially, that stone ras employed in the steeples, though it had to be brought about 12 or 14 miles. The I oints are (probably) set at right angles to the face of the stone. The spire at Batalha Is about 7 inches thick, independent of the carved work, though almost a fourth part f its superficies is perforated : its stones are said to be keyed together by means ol ovetailed pieces of pine wood (Murphy). The slender stone ribs of the octagonal pire of Freiburg Cathedral are girded together at intervals of about 15 feet by means | f double horizontal ribs or bands of limestone; in the middle of each of these bands n iron cramp is inserted, so that one half of the thickness of the metal is fixed in i lie under course of the stone- work, and the other half in the upper course, in order to revent all thrust. The space between the rib and the horizontal bands is filled up with i erforated tracery, so that the appearance of great lightness, united with great boldness, is nparted to the whole. Plate XI. of Muller's work shows a careful representation of the jints, explaining in what manner the stones are connected together, both in the principal inembers and the ornamental parts. The spires of Strasburg and Constance Cathedrals, nd that of St. Stephen’s Church at Vienna, present other examples of open work spires. The thickness of the decorated spire to the staircase in the north tower of the west front f Peterborough Cathedral, is about 11 inches at 2 feet above the wall of the tower, >here the octagon commences, and is about 10 feet diameter (shown in Robson, Masons' I luide). The methods adopted of strengthening Salisbury spire and tow’er, are related by ’rice in his work published in 1750, who states that it is 400 feet high from the pave- ment to the extreme top, but to the top of the capstone or ball only 387 feet as previously i oticed. It is only 9 inches thick at the bottom, diminishing to 7 inches. The outline of a tower in election should be a parabolic curve, for strength as well as ppearance, as it will not then present a top-heavy appearance. The difficulty in de- gning a tower and spire in the Roman or Italian style is to prevent a telescopic effect ; id in the mediaeval style the appearance of an extinguisher is too often obtained. The itasis to the spire, and due diminution of the tower (though the. former is usually held at to have existed, some spires being formed of two and even three lines at different lgles), are desirable both for appearance and strength. They are common features in ■ssex and Middlesex, and the absence of them may be noticed by any one going from ■ssex into Suffolk, the round towers in which county have the entasis, but not those of ter date. The tower of All Saints’ Church, Colchester, possesses it, and diminishes om 21 feet to 19 feet, having internally an offset at each floor and at the roof, so that ) timbers run into the walls. A mathematical method of setting out the entasis for a spire was furnished by Mr. homas Turner, of Hampstead, to the Builder for 1848, through the late Professor ockerell, R.A. Rut as be states that the ordinates may be obtained very nearly true r taking a thin lath and bending it to the extent required, we do not consider it necessary ire to do more than to refer to the paper. In the reconstruction of the spire to St. ephen’s Church, at Vienna, an iron framework was introduced to support the light stone os, until near to the summit, which was made wholly of iron. The iron spires at Rouen, Bruxelles, and Auxerre, are the only three we have noted. CHAP. IV. MEDIAEVAL PROPORTION. Sect. I. EFFECT on USE OF NUMBEItS. The introduction into this work of the investigation of the principles of proportion, as ^pounded bv the late E. Cresy, renders it necessary that some preliminary details should considered, before the student passes on to those pages. These details will consist of result of the use of numbers, as given by the late Mr. Gwilt and appended to the pre- >us editions, and of the enquiry by modern investigators into the use of the triangle and the square during the mediaeval period. The subject is interesting, and a very enticing 100G PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook II rig. 19. one, and we regret that our limited space will not allow us to do more than merely entt upon it. We would warn the student that should he feel inclined to devote any time i this subject himself, he must not he content with the measurements he may usually fin in publications, but must found his theories on those taken by himself to be in any degn certain of his deductions. The plan on which the earlier Christian churches were constructed, wrote Mr. Gwi was that of a cross : he omitted to notice, however, the Italian basilican plan and tl domical Greek plan; but be justly observes that (in we-Acrn Europe) after the 10th cei tury it would perhaps be difficult to find a cathedral deviating from a cruciform plan. / the beginning of the 9th century, in an inauguration (of church) sermon, the preacher observes, “In dextro con altaris (pi.x> in modum cruris constructa cst ; ” and again, “ 1 medio eeclesia; qua; est instar crncis constructa." (Acta S Benedict.) Round churches, as at Aix la Chapelle, in Ge many, Rieux and Merinville, in France, with Little Mapl- stead, Cambridge, Northampton, and the Temple Cliurc London, in England, are not enough in number to atfect tl rule. It was in the 13th century that the termination of tl choir was changed from a circular to a polygonal form. Tl general oi donnance of the plan was, however, not change and seems almost to have sprung from the laws and propo; tions upon which surfaces and solid bodies are dependen | The square and its diagonal, the cube and its sides, appea at least the latter or the side of the former {fig. 1219.), t| furnish the unit on which the system is based. Hence tl numbers 3, 5, and 7, become the governing numbers of tl different parts of the building. The unit in the Latin cross, placed at the intersection c the nave, gives the development of a perfect cube, according to the rules of descripth geometry. Here are found the number 3, in the arms of the cross and the centre square the number 5. in the whole number of squares, omitting the central one; and the numbi 7, counting them in each direction. The foot, however, of the cross was, in time, length ened to repetitions of five and six, and even more times. In monumental churches, fornu on such a system, there necessarily arises an unity of a geometrical nature; and tl;j geometrical principles emanating therefrom guided not only their principal, hut the I secondary, detail. Even before the 13th century there seems to have been some relatii j between the number of bays into which the nave was longitudinally divided, and il exterior and interior divisions whereof the apsis consisted; but after the introduction of ti pointed style, this relation became so intimate, that from the number of sides of the api the number of bays in the nave may be always predicated, where the work has been earn out as it was originally designed. From the examination of many, indeed most, ol t churches in Flanders, this circumstance had been long known to us; but for its first pu lieity, the antiquary is indebted, we believe, to M. Ramee, in 1843. The connection of the bays of the nave with the terminating polygon of the choir u such, that the polygon is inscribed in a circle, whose diameter is the measuring unit ot t nave, and generally of the transepts, and forms always the side of the square intercept’ by them. It is most frequently octagonal {fig- 1220.), and gen rally formed by three sides of the octagon. When this is use the go'erning number will be found to be 8, or some multiple it. Thus, in the Abbaye aux Hommes, at Caen (this, howcv is previous to the 13th century), the termination of the chon by a double octagon, and the number of bays in the nave is eig The same occurs at St. Stephen’s, at Vienna ; in the Cliurc. > St. Catherine, at Oppenheim ; at Lichfield Cathedral ; at lewk bury Abbey, and at almost every example that is known. It may be well here to observe, that English cathedrals, partly from their great di ciency in symmetry, on account of their not having been finished on their original pin do not afford that elucidation of the theory that is found in those on the Continent, twenty-four instances i.f them we have sixteen in which the terminations are square nist of polygonal ; when polygonal, the rule seems to have been always followed. It must noted, however, that in contradistinction to the rest of Europe, England kept steadily a rule, to a square east end ; and though at Canterbury and Tewkesbury, and a few ot noted examples, the circular form appears, yet often, as at Peterborough and Wcstmins the curved apse was capped with a rectilinear addition, protesting, as it were, agains foreign element. An eastern termination of the choir in three bays may be produced from the octago omitting the sides in the direction of the length of the building, as in fig. 1221. In fig- ■ the three sides will be found to be those of a hexagon; and in this case the num j Fig. 1220. USE OE NUMBERS. 1007 'Chap. IV. governs the oilier parts. Examples of this arrangement are, the minster at Freiburg-im- heisgati ; the cathedral at Cologne, where the apsis is do- decagonal, and there are six bays in the nave; and the abbey at West- minster, where the eastern end is hexagonal, and there are found twelve hays in the nave. In re- f1 g- 1 - 2 1 • spect of a nonagonal termination, Fi s- 1222 - ie most extraordinary instance of a coincidence with the above-mentioned rules occurs i the duomo of Milan, commenced at the end of the 14th century. Its apsis is formed y three sides of a nonagon, and l lie hays in the nave are nine in number. One third o( ie arc contained under the side of an equilateral triangle seems to be the governing di- icnsion. The number 3, submultiple of 9, pervades the structure. There are three hays I tlie choir, and the like number in the transepts The vault of the nave is subtended by i equilateral triangle. The lower principal windows are each designed in three hays, he plan of the columns in the nave in each quarter contains three principal subdivisions, id, in a transverse section of the nave, the voids are just one-third of the solids. These are trious points, and much more worthy of investigation than many of the unimportant tails which now-a-days so much occupy the attention of archaeologists. If the stem of e plant is right, the leaves and fruit will be sure to grow into their proper forms. Figs. 1223. and 1224. show the decagonal terminations of an apsis. In the first, a side the polygon faces the east ; in the second, the angle of the polygon is on the axis of the church. The last case is of rare occurrence. Examples of it arc, however, found in the church at Morienval, and in the choir of the dom-kirche of Naumburg. The first case is illustrated by F 'n- ISM, a variety of examples — such are f *k» 1224 cathedrals at Reims, Rouen, Paris, Magdeburg, and Ulm, with the churches of Ste. izabeth at Marburg, that at St. Quentin, &c., and, in this country, the cathedral at l’eter- B'ongh ; all of which have cither five or ten bays in the nave. The dodecagon, as a Imination, is subject to the stone observations as the hexagon : indeed they were antiei- ed by the mention of the cathedral at Cologne. Under the figure of the heptagon must classed the magnificent cathedral of Amiens, wherein seven chapels radiate round the choir and there are as many bays in the nave (Jig. 237. ). The choir at Beauvais is terminated a double heptagon; and, had the church been completed, it would doubtless have had .11 or fourteen hays in the nave. At Chartres, the choir is also terminated by a double tagon, and the nave contains seven bays. In the duomo at Florence, the eastern nination is octagonal, and there are four bays in the nave; this is an example of the c iting Gothic style in Italy. ()n an examination of the principal churches on the Continent, in and after the 13th c . ury, it would appear that the practice of regulating the details was dependent on the u iiber of sides in the apsis, or of hays in the nave. Thus, if the choir is terminated by fke bays, formed on an octagonal plan, we find 3, or a multiple of it, is carried into the 61 livision of the windows. So, if the number 5 is the dominant of the apsis, that 11 |iber will be found transferred to the divisions of the windows ; and in like manner the re binder is produced. There are two or three other matters affecting the monuments of at rected in and after the 13th century. The aisles are usually half the width of the m j> though instances occur where the width is equal. Many churches have two apsides — c are the cathedrals at Nevers, and at St. Cyr ; and in Germany, St. Sebald at Nurem- 1,4 ; the dom-kirche at Mayence ; the abbey church at Laach ; the cathedrals of Barn- Worms, and others. So far Mr. Gwilt. t remains to observe,” writes Professor Cockerell, in the Archaeological Journal, 1845 >n the mysterious numbers employed by Wykeham in the plans of his chapels at Win- er and Oxford, which are divided longitudinally by 7, and transversely by 4, equal In the first, the chapel consists of 6 of these parts, and the ante-chapel of 1 ; in econd, the chapel consists of 5, and the ante-chapel of 2 ; the width being equal to responding with the entire figure of the vesica piscis .” e recurrence of the number 7, “ a number of perfection,” is constant ; accordingly we 1 employed in the following remarkable instances, sometimes in the nave, and some- in the choir. In the cathedrals of York, Westminster, Exeter, Bristol, Durham, eld, Paris, Amiens, Chartres, and Evreux ; in the churches of Romsey, Waltham, was, St. Alban’s (Norman portion), and Castle Acre; and in St. George’s Chapel, 1 Hdsor, Roslyn Chapel, and many others. See also the notice on page 1011. be ch pa tlu 4, lin tin Id. llu 1 008 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III Sect. II. EARLY USE OF GEOMETRY AND OF A MEASURE. The idea is now generally sanctioned, that the mediaeval architects had some settli system of proportioning their designs either by simple geometric forms or by combinatiot of them. It will be our endeavour to indicate the sources whence the facts on this subjr can be drawn, and to notice such of the details as our space will permit. The knowledge of geometry previous to, and in, the 12th century has been comments upon in par. 309, et set]. The Album of Wilars de Honecort, an architect living in tl middle of the 13th century, exhibits the use of geometry in various ways. This man script was published in facsimile by M. Lassus in 1858, and an English translation w.- edited by Professor Willis in 1859. The sketches also show a certain mastership of figu drawing, besides many designs of portions of buildings. Some original drawings still ex: of Reims Cathedral, known to be before 1270, thus of the same period as those of Wilai and two of them have been published in the Annales Arclteologiques, vol. v. page 92. Tl drawings were traced with a masterly line; they only showed how the design was to ! arranged ; and by means of axial lines only , the whole was set out as regularly as could 1 done for the most classical building. Scarcely any of tbe later original drawings st existing in many continental cities show the use of geometric figures (s ee fig. 1073.). Yi on the Hth of February, 1321, during the erection of the cathedral at Siena, five perso who had been appointed for the purpose reported that “ the new work ought not to be pi ceeded with any further, because if completed as it had been begun, it would not have th measure in length, breadth, and height, which the rules for a church require.” The « structure, it also appears, “ was so justly proportioned, and its members so well agreed wi each other in breadth, length, and height, that if in any part an addition were made to; under the pretence of bringing it to the right measure of a church, the whole would destroyed.” Della Valle, Lettere Sanesi, ii. p. 60 ; noticed in ITawkins, Gothic Ara lecture, 1813, p. 183. This statement would seem to prove that some system had exisk In par. 620, we have already mentioned the disputes on the great question of propi tioning the cathedral at Milan, 1387-1392, by the foreign system of squares, or by f! native theory of triangles. The first notice in England of this unique instance o dispute appears to have been taken by J. W. Papworth, who presented in 1854 to Institute of British Architects some extracts from the Records of the Board of Works Milan Cathedral, published by Giulini, Mcmorie di Milano, 4to. Milan 1776, part 2, 448-60 of the Continuazione. These notes further condensed show, that on the 1st of Hi 1392, fourteen of the artists employed upon the works made affidavit of their opinion on points submitted to them, on the part of the German Enrico di Gamondia, who was of the number. On the third point, thirteen declared that the said church, not induct the intended cupola, should be raised non al quadrato ma Jino al triangolo , that is to ' on the triangular proportion. The same opinion is given on the fifth point as to the vet sine of the vaulting. Enrico, who on all the points held a contrary opinion to the thirb was thereupon dismissed. Another meeting of similar character, held 26th of March, I of thirteen artists employed on the building, and two amateurs, was not so nearly un. mous upon the question of the alterations proposed by the Frenchman Giovanni Migno and upon that occasion Guidolo della Croce (one of those employed) declared that alterations were correct, and that Mignotto was a v eras operarius geometra, because ratios were like those of the dismissed maestro Enrico. The dismissal of this Jean Wig 13th of October, 1401, was accompanied by a charge for the expense of pulling down work that he had erected during two years. Although the chronicle makes the cui mistake that the magister Enricus and the magister Annex (i.e. Johann von I'cru 1391-92}, also a German, had advocated the triangular system, it rightly adds that triangular system prevailed over that of the square; and the lines may be supposed to I been truly given by Cesare Cesariano The conclusion we have arrived at in the m is that the plan was designed on the principle of the square (exhibited in Jig. 1-81), v the elevation was designed on that of the triangle (shown in Jig. 1232.). Cesare Cesariano, the first translator of Vitruvius, Como, 1521, terms the g com principle of design, “ Germanic symmetry,” and “ rule of the German architects, who translated this work (Nur. 1548), names the order resulting from the triangle as highest and most distinguished principle of the stonemasons.” One principle rest', rhe arrangement of the square, or of the octagon which proceeds from it, in the same " that of the equilateral triangle was based upon the hexagon or dodecagon which rc from it. On this law of the square is founded the work by M. Roriczer, On the 1 nation of Pinnacles, 1486, which was printed by Heideloffi, in Die Bauliiitte des Mdtc in Deutschland, Nuremberg, 1844; and also by Reichensperger, who translated n L F IV. USE OF A MEASURE. 1009 ern German, Trier, 1 S -10 . It was noticed in the Journal of the Archaeological Institute Jreat Britain, 1847 ; and translated in a concise manner by J. W. l’ap worth for the litectural Publication Society, Detached Essay. 1848, with woodcuts. An appendix iws On the Construction of a Canopy , which was also given in Heideloff’s publication, he square, or octagon system, maintained itself among the German stonemasons until commencement of the 1 9th century. HeidelotF relates that the chef-d’oeuvre of Kieskalr, last city architect of Nuremberg (1806), was founded on the rules used in Roriczer, those in the book of instructions written 1506 by Laurenz Lecher, architect of the nt Palatine, on the art of the stonemason, nach. des Choresmaass und Gerichtigheit, cording to the measure and ordination of the choir.” The system depending on the equilateral triangle for its variety of form,” states E. .y, Stone Church, 1840, “continued in use till the beginning of the 15th century in ice, when it underwent a great ar.d important change by the introduction of the eles triangle and its compound the pentagon. A pupil of Berneval, the designer le Church of St. Ouen at Rouen, proved that these figures could furnish novelties in ;n. We can well imagine how displeasing this innovation must have been to the whole rnity of masons ; their mystery was invaded.” Pommeraye, in his History of the Abbey . Ouen, mentions that the master was so incensed at the clergy preferring the rose ow of the northern transept (fiy. 1293.) executed by his pupil, where this innovation first introduced, to that of the south {fig. 1288.), of his own execution, upon the nt triangular system, that in a fit of jealousy he killed his rival, and was himself earned to be hanged. (See page 1036.) the year 1525, Albert Duerer published in German his Geometrical Elements, showing in clustered columns, and a few other details of Gothic architecture. In 1532 a n edition was published at Paris, entitled Albertus Durerus, Institutionum Genmttri- «; and in 1606 a second edition was printed at Arnheim. It is this author who first ;s to our notice the use of a figure called the vesica piscis, which is explained in III. In 1589 Spenser published his Faery Queene, and in it allusion is made to the >rtion of a building in words which deserve attention (b. 2, canto 9, v. 21). In 1593 Thomas Tresham erected the curious lodge at Rushton Hall, Northamptonshire, idy constructed on the equilateral triangle ; it contains one room of an hexagonal ; the upper windows are mostly triangular openings ( Builder , iii. 538. 550.). eglitz, in Altdeutscher Eauhuust, 4to. Leipzig, 1820, records the possession of a manu- Trealise on Architecture, giving the rules and instructions according to which the nt werkmeisters and steinmetzen worked. Judging from the character of the hand- g, it must belong to the middle of the I 7th century, and this is also indicated by the 'ngs which exhibit the Italian style of that epoch. But the rules for the construction ■ irehes belong to a more remote period, and the author of the manuscript states that - rules were never described, but were transferred in a traditional way to. and kept by, Mists, who called them, like the ancients, Measure of the Choir and Justice. It ■ to be the only written directions for a building which has come down to us. The nngs in it, which are only shaded, are finely executed by a steady and practised hand ijsliow the formation of the several cornices, mouldings, jambs for doors and windows, ' s, and arches, and also the formation and the arches of the vaulting. The building is 1 1 to have strict rules and an established module, according to which all the members 1 ;ulated by the ensemble of the structure, and the who'o is again regulated by the ers. The choir is considered as the key, and after its breadtli is regulated, the tliick- 1 the enclosure-wall, and also all the dimensions for the cornices and other members • tained. Thence the saying, “ Measure of the Choir and Justice.” ^ irst, from a given circle an octagon is to be constructed, and according to it, the J 1-plan and the pentagonal projection of the choir are to be devised. Should the contain 20 feet in the clear, its wall would be 2 feet thick ; and if 80 feet wide, then The pillars of the choir are commonly 2^ feet thick at their base, exclusive ol the 1 table ( schrdgesims ), and the depth is double of the thickness. The width of the ■vs is regulated by the space between the columns, which is divided into 5 parts : 3 are o the window in the clear, together with the mullions. If the choir be very exten- id therefore the lights of the windows be too wide, in such case intermediate mullions roduced; but small windows have only one main or two subsidiary mullions. nave and aisles are regulated after the manner of the choir, being made equal to it w [h, yet in such a manner that the pillars, although equal in thickness to the wall of >ir, do not run in the same line of the opening, but project with three sides of their nal form. The breadth of the choir being divided into 3 equal parts, 2 are to be o each aisle, including the wall of the choir. The same dimension of two such parts cd to the pillars from one centre to the other, which shows at the same time the >r the buttresses on the enclosure-wall. As, in consequence of the aisles, the nave requires a wider vaulting than the choir, the enclosure- wall of the nave ought to 3 T 1010 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II be constructed one-third thicker than that of the choir. The buttresses are the same thickness and breadth as for the choir. The windows are kept of the same width throughc the whole structure. The transept projects as far as the breadth of the aisles, and its w has the same thickness as the wall of the choir. The length of the church is for the m part regulated according to the requirements of the population. The towers, erected on both sides of the facade, are devised from the width of the in shafts and external pillars, which width formed into a square givus the external enclose line of the towers. If only a single tower be constructed, it ought to be regulated id the choir, and agree with the same. The thickness of the tower-wall is regulated by height of the tower itself. Tims for every 100 feet of height, 5 feet in thickness is quired for the wall. Then, to this thickness one half more is to be given ior the founi tion. But if the ground be firm and good, this thickness need only be kept as far as base, and thence gradually reduced. The formation of the groining is not so ciea developed by the editor, and we therefore omit it. The outline and elevation of the choir are also calculated from its width. A cli which is 20 feet broad, ought to be one and a half or twice as high. The latter hoi was called the real height. An ordinary choir requires only four tables or strings. T ground table (schragesiuis) rises from the floor or ground to a height equal to the thickm of the counterforts. The string course ( hu(fsi/ns ) above is placed as high as the distil 1 between the pillars. The supporting string (trayesims') ought not to rise higher than capital of the pillars in the interior of the choir. The top, or roof-cornice (dachsii ought to be placed at least half a foot higher than the vaulting. The pillar-cornice measured by taking the thickness of the pillars twice down from the top cornice. Act of greater height requires more cornices and decorations. The height of the nave portioi I fixed by taking twice the width of the choir, and this is measured from the ground-tabli j above the top-cornice. The ground floor of the tower ought to be as high as the wb tower is broad, and the upper floors to be regulated accordingly. We have only to : that the form given to the towers by the author of the MS. shows the Italian style of epoch, whilst the church itself is constructed in German fashion, that is, with high point • arched windows and buttresses, which are drawn without any mouldings. Sect. III. THE VESICA PISCIS. If on the diameter of a circle (Jig. 1225.), with an axis perpendicular to it, anequilat triangle be described, whose vertical height shall be equal to - semi-diameter of such circle, and from the angles of the triangleji the diameter, with a radius equal to one side of the triangle, arc jf circles be described cutting each other superiorly and inferiorly, figure described is that which is called the vesica piscis, or lo bladder. The Greek word I’xdus, signifying a fish, seems to have been in t v ages a mystical word, under which Christ was denominated, “ Ed q I in hujus mortalitatis abysso, velut in aquarum profunditate, peccato esse potuerit, quemadmodum nihil salsedmis a marinis aquis pisci arti'icatu that is, Because in the unfathomed deep of this mortal life he could exist without sin, 1 as a fish in the depths of the sea is not affected by its saltness. The term, too, at a y early period, furnished an anagram, whose paits were expanded into the expres ’Irjtrous Xpiarbs 0eo5 Tibs (jp. The initials of these words were, in their turn, panded into a long acrostic (to which reference may be had, sub voce Acrosticlna, am 0 under the term Ichthys, in Hoffmann’s incomparable Lexicon) on the Hay of Judgn • said to have been delivered, divino afflutn , by the Erythrean sybil, but much more rc bling the hard-spun verses of a learned and laborious man than the extemporaneous enu of a mad woman. This acrostic is recognised by Eusebius, and by St. Augustine, Cm. > tkc. There is nothing, declared Mr. Gwilt, to aflord any proof of the connection ol this nogram with the form and plan of the churches erected during the mediaeval period o art Apology, perhaps, would be due for any digression upon it, had it not been f opinion in favour of its use expressed by the late Professor C. R. Cockerell, whose t.i j and learning deservedly ranked high in the eyes of the public, in his essay on the Anlittc Works of William of Wykeham, read 1845, before the Archaeological Institute ol 1 Britain and Ireland. Ramee, in his Histoire, has also gone more at length into ibis ject. Professor Cockerell likewise noticed that the writers of the 16th centuiy, Ucsa 1521, Caporali 1536, and De Lome 1576, recommend this figure, chiefly as thatgeome ■' rule by which “ two lines may be drawn on the ground at right angles with each ot i any scale, according to the conception of Euclid’s mind.” p. IV. VESICA PISCIS. 101 1 (From ail early time the triangle seems to have been associated with as much mystery and eration as the number 3. Without here touching on symbolism, in its use, whether I ilateral or isosceles — we cannot but perceive, both in one and the other, a tendency to production of the pointed arch. The geometrical law for de- bing it is, as every one knows, founded on the intersection of i circles of the same radius ( fig . 1226'.) The Pythagoreans i ed the equilateral triangle, Tritogeneia. It was, according to itarcli, the symbol of justice. The subdivision of the arcs i nding an equilateral triangle by other arcs of equal radius, ! s other modilications of the pointed arch, and by their inter- ■ ions are obtained the skel.ton lines of ornamented windows of iparly period, which, at a later date, branched out into the most I iriant forms. Mrs Jameson, in Sacred, and Legendary Art, 3rd edition, 1857, vol. i. I '3, gives a drawing from an ancient Greek picture, wherein the upper part of the re- I entatio.i of the Infant Christ is placed in a figure formed of four equilateral triangles ( ich produce the dodecagon). The head of the infant may be supposed to occupy in the o ram the site of a chancel, the body in the place of a nave, and the bands, being held full, assume the place of the transepts. Fig. 1220. Sect. I V. MODERN INVESTIGATIONS. mong the investigators early in the present century was C. L. Stieglitz, who pub- li d his Altdeutschen Baukunst, 1820, as already mentioned. Therein he states that, “ with rc rd to the ground-plans of churches, it seems that two sorts have been employed. With thirst, the nave of the church was in breadth equal to that of each of the aisles. With tl second, if, for instance, such a breadth be taken as an unit, the breadth of the nave w Id be the diagonal line of the square, and the breadth of each aisle an unit. The le tb of the interior of the churches of these two sorts, measured from the entrance to h hoir, contains usually nine units The church of St. Stephen, at Vienna, is an illustra- tiilof the first system ; and the Munster at Strassburg of the second. The cathedral at Ggne is a variety of the first plan. In this instance the nave is the breadth of its aisle, hi j.ich aisle is divided into two by a row of columns in the middle. The fore-part of lb burch has usually three diagonals of the square for its breadth, wherefrom the unit, sh id it be unknown, can easily be deduced. According to this principle, if the whole nin breadth of the church be considered as the root of a square, the diagonal of the same wipe equal to the whole breadth of the front on the outside. the first sort of plan, the nave of the church is raised either to an equal height with tinpsles or a little higher. In the second, however, the nave is constructed far higher. ’ *' g to the first disposition, both the nave and the aisles are brought under a single roof, as St. Stephen's at Vienna. In those of the second sort, the nave and the choir (which "'ajqual in breadth to the nave) had each, as well as the aisles, a separate roof. The " a if the nave and of the choir, on account of its small thickness, comparatively with its eiit, required some support at the sides, and this was provided for by arched counter- tor or flying buttresses from the enclosure- wall of the aisles. The cathedral tit Cologne bo] a similar disposition, although the nave is equal in breadth to one of the aisles, b' fora the aisles are divided into two rows by pillars, for the purpose of giving to this port n of the vault (when it will be finished), on account of its smaller arching, a less 1 >: : than the one intended for the vault of the nave and of the choir. The ground-plan I tl cathedral is a Latin cross. The aisles surround the choir, which rises high above ‘>e; and therefore the enclosure-wall of the choir is connected with the pillars of the outi wall by means of arched buttresses. According to Boecker’s observations, the null edif uav< 1 spot tow 70 f r 7, consecrated by religion and philosophy, is applied all over the parts of this not only in the measures of length, in the proportions of height, in the pillars of the is well as in those of the choir, but also in the decorations and details.” inner height of the choir is stated to be 161 feet; the height to the gable, corre- ng to the entire width of the west front, is 231 feet ; the (proposed) height of the is equal to the entire length of the building, 532 feet ; the height of the side aisles , and so forth. In a similar manner, at the entrances on either side, are pedestals ‘ t^n statues ; in each of the entrances as many spaces for statues; there are 14 corner tube icles on the southern tower; and with attention, the same combination maybe traCl in all the details. Twenty years appear to have elapsed, and then Hoffstadt pub- lie Gothisches ABC Such, Frankfort, 1840, which enters fully into the formation of by a geometric system. ingland, the subject was not thoroughly taken up until 1840, when R. W. Billings ed his Attempt to Define the Geometric Proportions, &c. Fie therein considers that 3 t 2 lisl detai In Ptlbl 1012 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I Clerestory 1 square, Triforium | square. Arch 5 square. Column 1} square. Fig. 1227. the interior were framed. during the Norman period, no intricate figures were used for regulating the proportii of the various parts of buildings. He exhibits the early simplicity of prop tion, in the elevation of a compartment of the Norman nave of Gloueto Cathedral, as in the annexed fig. 1227. Something of the same sort of equal may be perceived at Winchester Cathedral, as shown in fig. 12GG., where t width K L gives the heights I M and M N ; the diagonal of this square gi the height L O ; and O P is a square in height ; but we are at a loss to regal the upper part, unless the triangle be used, when P Q will give the upper ;m at It, the centre of the head of the semicircular window. In the projection of the plans of the nave and choir of Carlisle Cathedral ( , 1228.). the architect, says Mr. Hillings, was guided by the repetition of a cm whose diameter in the first or Norman part was the extreme width of the bui ing ; and in the second part, erected 200 years subsequently, it was the wi< between the internal walls. The distribution and even the substance of columns was regulated by some recognisable subdivision of the circle; am circle, or arc of a circle regulated by the width of each compartment t’ formed, was the basis upon which the heights of the different portions The woodcut must suffice to show this principle as regards ! plan. The precise d sions will not proba j answer in any other l>u I ing, but must be modil The east wall, it will j perceived, is inclu within the boundary li: this is also the case at It Temple Church, Lorn . From the result of ca ■ lations, the scale for choir was made 8 part I the radius of the prim 1 circle, or ^ tli of the meter ; this sixteenth ' is equal to 4 feet G in 1 Fig. 1223. rLAN of Carlisle catuedkal. (or a yard and a h . and the dimensions of the building may be calculated therefrom. In the nave, the | are exactly 5 feet 8 inches, or th of the diameter, and it was this exact division, s Mr. Billings, which induced the application of the scale of twelve parts to the diaj: jf that end of the building. In every portion of the elevation of a com part me the choir (fig. 1229 ), there is evidence ofitsgeom c formation. The student must have recourse to the lication itself for the further detailed development i system in connection with this figure, but it is ncce to state that from the dimensions ot the arch Mr. hi divided the width between the centres of the piers i, parts for a scale ; this gives all the remaining propoi t The same scale of 6 parts of the width was apple Mr. Billings to a bay of the presbytery of the ' in Worcester, and finding it satisfactory, though tot.i variance in its proportions, with the exception ", principal arch, it was considered as confirmatory 1 theory. These two examples are of nearly the 1 period in the style. In 1846 Mr. Billings published bis Arcluteduia 1 tiquities of the County of Durham, and in collecting ' measurements of its churches lie was led to compare proportions. The result is given by him m two proving a groundwork of squares, and this he “ would at once account for the non-existence < lf 1 working drawings, for the designer would only b; communicate a rough diagram of his plan, ° lin series of equal squares, and give the dimensions o - • to be properly understood by a practical tnan.^ singularly, the measure is in each case one square yard (as above notice' ). ,j . six ol the chancels are 15 feet; three others are 18 feet; and t ikl o _ , ;,i . . ... , , ,-.1 f -.,,,1 *1,0 fltotnnce between the column tun, the widths ol tli nave, are all 15 feet. Ilg 1229. BAY IN CIIOIR; CARLISLE. chancel, of the transept, and the distance between Hi P 1 V. MODERN IN V ESTI G A TI O NS. 1013 Fig. 1230. The next investigator was the late Prof. Cockerell, R.A., who, in his essay before noticed ages 1007, 1010), considers that Cesare Cesariano “ may be said to have done to a great tent in that style what Vitruvius did in the Greek, namely, in discovering many of its idamental doctrines and principles. More especially does be reveal the estimation in licli Vitruvius was held during the middle ages; and the interpretations of his rules .empted by the architects and commentators of that period ’’ Thus, the church in the istle of Nuremberg, built by Barbarossa in 1158, and the I'rauenkirche, probably of later !te, in the centre of that city, are exact illustrations of the temple ‘ in Antis” of i truvius, as given bv Cesariano, lib. iii. fob 52. The use of the work of Vitruvius, about 84, is also recorded in Galiani’s edition of the author, by an amusing story connected th the building of the Castel Nuovo at Naples. “It is needless to produce any further proofs of resemblance,” writes J. S. Hawkins, in History of the Origin of Gothic Architecture, 1813, p. 223, “than to say that, in every ithic cathedral as yet known, the extent from north to south of the two transepts, in- ding the width of the choir, if divided into ten. as Vitruvius directs (for Tuscan build- 's, lib. iv. cap. 7), would exactly give the distribution of the whole. Three arches form |i north and three the south transept ; the other four give the breadth from one transept I the othet. One division of the four being taken for each of the side aisles of the nave, 1 two left for its centre walls, the complete distribution of the nave is also given. Of “ proportion of one-third of the whole width as the height of the columns, the cathedral Milan is a decided instance. The two transepts together are 1 10 cubits, the breadth of ; choir 28, making together 138 ; and the height of the columns is 46 cubits.” The rules named by Cesariano occur in his Commentary. fols xiv. and xv., and he istratesthem by the plan and section, of Milan Cathedral, which was commenced in 1386. ie figures are entitled “ ichnographia,” — “ orthographia,” — “ sceno- nphia,” — “ sacra .Ed is Baricephala, Germanico more, a Trigono ac riquadrato perstructa,” and, “ secundum Germanicam symmetriam,” 1 again, “ per symmetric quantitatem ordinariam ac per operis, de- ationem ostendere, Germanico more,” &c. Tlie first rule, “a Trigono,” establishes the respective proportions the length and breadth of the cross, which are included within the ) arcs of 102°, constructed according to the first proposition of Euclid, e fig. 1230. has been commented upon (page 1010) as involving the ca piscis. Mr. Cockerell continues his remarks by i icing Mr. Kerrich’s paper in the Archceologia, xix. i|353-61, wherein that author uses the figure but 1 s not confess his debt. In all the examples given l him the vesica is applied to the internal length a, breadth. Hie second rule, “ a Pariquadrato,” is effected by di- v ng the area comprehended in the vesica, into eom- npsurate squares or bays, on the intersections of which t columns and buttresses are placed. The number o'them will be determined by the extent of the ! . Fig. 1230. represents the illustration of the rule iijhich 14 by 8 are used ; in the chapels of Wykeham "have 7 by 4. The plan, Fig. 1231., explains the d' rmination (by the symbol of the vesica piscis) of length and breadth of a church ; the subdivision squares, the position of its piers, &c. Fig. 1232. c) ains the rule by which the heights of the vaulting, d roof, the spire, &c., are determined, namely, by " ateral triangles erected upon the plan. The ieut exhibits both a single and a double aisled ch. )is important fundamental rule will be found applicable to cathedrals in England, as at , W inchester, Worcester, Lichfield, Here- Salisbury, Norwich, Exeter, Westminster, ey, and others : in Italy, in the church n Petronio at Bologna, and in most of the s of the architects Lombardi, as San Zac- and San Salvatore, at Venice : in France, ■ cathedral at Rouen, and in others : and in Germany, in those at Prague, and others, t is to be noted, continues Professor Cockerell, that another rule of distribution (not ;■ i scovered) is more frequent in the latter countries. e third rule, also “a Trigono,” is orthographic, and establishes the normal heights in FI*. 1232. 1014 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Hook II] the elevations and sections by equilateral triangles, according to Cesariano, fol. 15. “Tli application of the first and second rules in New Collet; Chapel is exact ; the whole and the parts are comtnei surate, its well in the hays or squares as in the subdiv sion of the bays of the windows ; of the flanks, as als of the west end. While in All Souls’ and Magdalen Chapels, the two copies of the former, the di vergeneesar extreme. Fig. 1233. is the plan and its subdivisions New College Chapel, Oxford. To our author’s own wor we must refer the student for the apt remarks and con parison of the three plans, merely adding that the fir is three diameters long, while the other two are less tliti three diameters, by which Professor Cockerell apprt heads that the rule had been lost, or was disregarded, ai though Chichele’s chapel was built by “ the King masons.” The chapel at Winchester is upon the san principle, the number 7 including the vestibule, whic I only occupies one of the divisions instead of two, as ; New College ; the relation of three diameters is obtainc without making the diagram, as in New College Chape inclusive of th; walls. “ The application of the third-, the orthographic ml is not traced so distinctly iir the elevations and intern of New College Chapel, though more exactly in tin i of Winchester, and we also perceive the value of tl principle of the extension of these squares laterally, for the purpose of establishing tl height of the ceiling, and of the pinnacles in the east and west fronts.” The next exponent of this instructive subject was R. D. Chantrell, who in 1847 read paper on the Geometric system, before the Institute of British Architects. It was printc with cuts of the two chief keys of the system, in the Builder for the same year, lie fir refers to Mr. Kerrich’s use of the vesica piscis, explaining it, as in fiy. 1234. Where tl Fig. 1 255. n.AX ; Fig. 1234 Fig. 1235. Fig. 1236. chancel is separated by an arch, the plan is subdivided by taking the breadth as r id (fig. 1235.), as at Routh Church, near Beverley, the vesica coming sometimes within i walls and western arch, and at others extending to the western face of the arch in the na in many works of the 13th century. The apse is sometimes included in, and sonietin excluded from, the vesica. Where the nave and chancel vary in breadth, the base of : triangles equal the breadth of the chancel (fig. 1236.), its length being determined by vesica, and in each of these cases the breadth of the nave is obtained by framing a sum vesica upon the remaining length. The Anglo-Norman church at Adel, in Yorkshire, is defined upon the extreme lent internally, as shown in fig. 1237., and subdivided by the proportions of smaller vesicce and other proportions. The equilateral triangle alone I as been tried, but no great variety, he considers, can be produced, as, like the former system, it is but a minor portion of the great system in which most others will be found combined. He notices that in 1830, J. Browne, Fi X - t - X / r i v\ _A s. \ ? k ) j Fig. 12-W. on the circle. Hy p'acing a square or cross on the ecu Fig. 1237. of York, produced a system _ ,. B _ of the circle, dividing it into four equal parts, centres are obtained for vesica (fig- - of different proportions to those formed hy the double triangles. By striking these w lines upon each of the four points on the circumference, centres are produced in alum ■' for quatrefoils, crosses, and other figures applying more especially to tracery. 1 k vesica gives the proportions of the naves and their aisles of the cathedrals at Durham. Peterborough, Canterbury and Salisbury, but no others, and cannot thereforebe conn an universal system. ( \ p. IV. MODERN INVESTIGATIONS. 1015 1 1842 Mr. Cliantrell developed a system which includes that of Kerrich’s. Its formn- t is detailed in the journal named, to which we must refer the investigator, as the essay I not otherwise been published. Fig. 1239. will at once show the principle, and if it I rawn out to a very larger scale it v not appear so com- p . Besides the tri- ll es, the points are o ined for many po- I; ns. The six divi- s is, A A, B B, from ti semidinmeter are fi obtained ; and si | gilt lines drawn to e 1 alternate one give tipgles. On their in- tuitions, as C C, if li be continued to tli circumference, six ci Ires are given, D D, F upon which, with ti i first radius A B (ipftiie semi-diame- te strike a second se|s of segments, and a rd set of 12 cen- tres obtained. The se| id centres will give tv intersecting tri- al jes, completing the fi 1 part of the design, bin the 24 points of tL intersecting inner man ai , a circle inscribed Fig. I239 - mu. ctiaxtukll's system. w determine the inner triangles upon the centres of the first, and the diagram is perfected. I' more complex forms, an additional number of centre lines may be drawn upon the re lining intersections. be number 10 was, according to Vitruvius, Plato’s perfect number ; but the anti- P onists, with their 6 or the radial division of the circle (A to B .Jig. 1239.), could, by the w >ng of their centres, without the necessity of dividing with the compasses, produce the It bowing that they were the more perfect, as their system combined with all others. F examples named by Mr. Cliantrell, in which “the system is clearly exhibited,” are biose window in the south transept of York Cathedral ; that of Winchester Palace in Sijhwark (fg. 1190.), but slightly varied and almost undisguised ; and the cast window b awkhurst Church, Kent. Walkington Church, near Beverley', using the entire diagram, afijis a simple illustration ; whereas Kerrich’s plans are proportioned upon the second a 1 figure produced by the division of the circle, they should be placed upon the base of ih reat triangle, thus facilitating the operation of giving proportion to a plan. In the ° iosition of the cathedrals at Ely, Lincoln, Canterbury, Norwich, Salisbury, Worcester, Eiam, Peterborough, and Winchester, the general proportion is determined by the first f J 24 subdivisions on each side of the centre intersecting the great triangle. The s are all produced on the intersections of the triangles and their centres, and the visions for the piers are found in the centre portion of the diagram, with this occa- difference, that transversely the radial lines may either pass through the centres nf the or come on the outer nr inner faces, to conceal the principle on which they were based. M (jig. 1239.) is part of the plan of the nave of Boston Church, Lincolnshire, ?ed on the former principle, while N is part of that of Middleton-on-the-Wolds •'h, Yorkshire, where the lines come on the inner face of the piers, or the elevation, proceeding with the double spherical triangle upon the centres "dinally, and the variations before noticed, transversely', the various heights were ied for the pillars ; and the subdivisions by the spherical triangles upon them gave capitals, and bases, triforia, tracery, mouldings of every' description, and due 'lion to each Feature. I have every reason to believe,” concludes Mr. Cliantrell, this system will apply to the works of all ages that can be tested by sound geometric pies.” results of the investigations published by E. Cresy in 1847 are added in Sect. VI. A Penrose, in his investigations at Lincoln Cathedral in 1848, for the Archeological ab sul sio ]iie Th arr Cfi Ion obt arel pro “tli prir I F 1016 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. UllOK I 1 Institute of Great Bri'ain and Ireland, urges that “the tendency towards the system designing on the square, with greater or less degree of approximation, is found to occur so many churches that it is a law which had great authority with, at least, the im orthodox of the middle age architects, although they did not scruple to modify it when tli saw occasion.” He decides that the nave of Lincoln Cathedral was formed on this systt on the intersection or intended intersection of the piers, and coinciding with the outs of the main walls. The choir seems to be built upon the true system of squares, whi are of the same size as those of the nave, but the greater width of the former allows of t squares coinciding with the inside of the walls. “The height of the choir appears to obtained, as is so frequently the case, from that of an equilateral triangle , whose base 1 within the walls. The height of the nave is obtained by a square placed within the sai limits, which, though less symbolical, is more commensurate.” He thinks that if the long of St. Hugh’s choir could be recovered, the whole length from east to west was then su that it included the transepts within a vesica piscis. He also conceives (for reasons states) that the architect to the presbytery had access to the original drawings prepai for the earlier parts of the building. The ratio of the voids to solids appears to be more remarkable than is to be found any vaulted building in Europe, at least among the larger structures. Very care measurements taken immediately above the plinths give voids 1056, supports 107, or i former nearly ten times the supports, including in the latter, the external buttresses a walls ; and including in the voids, the clear internal area of the church. Mr. Penrose gives the measurements of the heights of various parts taken by him w;! great exactness, and this height he divides into 26 parts, which will be found “to agree an exceedingly accurate manner with the principal divisions of the bays. In Bourj. Cathedral, he states the height of the vaults agrees with that of an equilateral trian whose base occupies the breadth from centre to centre of the external walls. Same of 1 heights may be obtained from parts of this triangle, and others from integral numbers French feet. In the cathedral at Metz, the height is 130 French feet=138'6 Engl: feet. If this he divided into 300 parts, various proportions of them determine heigh The cathedral of Ratisbon appears to be founded on the triangle taken as that at Bourn | The latio of its height to length is as 3 to 8 ; and is 104 -2 English feet high, or lj Bavarian feet. These results are well worth further consideration, from the well-kno; conscientious manner of taking measurements adopted by Mr. Penrose. An early investigator, Mr. W. P. Griffith, published in 1847-52, numerous ev- en this subject, as named in the list of books in tbe Glossary addendum. He exhil the adaptation of the square, set square and dial nally, one upon another (as in Jig. 1073.) to church of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridge, 1240. ; anti also of the triangle, for early churches at Little Maplestead, _/?//. 1241. Westminster Abl Church, and the cathedrals at Salisbury, V Chester, and Rochester, are based upon a trian whose base being the width of the nave, inchid r . the walls, is placed upon the centre of the ceil ciiuRcimvx little cuuiicii of Tine hoi.y tower, and three of these triangles will include m.u lesteao. scruLci.KE, CARTRIDGE. | engtll of the nave . E | y Cathedral, Redclifle Churl Bristol, and Bath Abbey Church, arc proportioned in a similar manner. “We n insist,” he writes, “after a primary figure of form or unit has been given, that each | produced shall bear a proportion to each other, and to original unit Although the equilateral triangle diet: the general proportions, the square and pentagon were I" very useful in the details. The chapter houses of M York, Salisbury, and Westminster, are proportioned by i squares forming an octagon; and those of Lincoln, V. minster, Worcester, and others, by two conjoint pentag forming a decagon.” He illustrates the formation ol the i of Salisbury Cathedral, both on the square and on the trian but, as noticed respecting Milan Cathedral, although the sip appears to suit best for the plan, the elevations appear to been set out upon the triangle. Fig. 1242. shows the sv 1 applied by him to the plan of Sefton Church, Lancashiic A comparison of the number of equilateral triangle- named by Mr. Griffith, in fixing the height of buihh will be as follows, viz., Westminster Abbey, 6; King’s College Chapel, 4 ; Lincoln, Hereford Cathedral, 4; l’eterborough; 3i ; Lichfield, 3^; Exeter, 4 ; Worcester, ■ Bristol, 3. The loftiness of Westminster Abbey is attributed to the cause that cloisters adjoining (similar to double aisles, as originally intended) being included n HAP IV. MODERN I N V E ST I G A TIO N S. 10.7 ise of the triangle of the transverse section, therefore the height of the ahhey is ire than the cathedrals. The chancel of llristol Cathedral has no triforinm, and is ' eordingly less in height. These buildings having been based upon the equilateral (angle, that figure will alone be a key to them, and it will be futile to try the square. In estminster Abbey that figure mostly abounds (in trefoils, hexafoils, dodecafoils, &c.) ; iile Salisbury Cathedral, being based on the square, that figure and its products will be and chiefly employed (in tetrat'oils, octafoils. See.). This building is 4 squares high. Dr. Henszhnann, in his Remarks on his alleged discovery of the constructional laws of ■diarval chinch architecture, read at the Institute of British Architects, 1852, states that lie architects of old did not employ much reckoning in their constructions, hut usedgeo- ■tric forms. — In studying the chinches, I became persuaded that out of a ground line or m, considered as a basis, there can be developed, either by a geometrical or algebraical tliod, between 30 and 60 sums or lines, corresponding to the size, age, and importance the building, and there is, with very few exceptions, not a structural member, be it large Ismail, the proportions of which are not defined by one of these lines or sums, or excep- nally by their multiples or divisions.” lie published the first portion of his elaborate I tern in 1860; this, together with the extensive system put forward by D. R. Ilay, of inburgh, must be left to the reader to investigate from the books themselves, lhe last of the investigators with whose system we shall trouble the student is White, who published it in the Ecclesiolngist for 1853. He has perceived that each hitectural period has its own appropriate order of rules, and this in minute accordance li an intelligible system of development. Thus, in the Norman period, the general pro- tions of the plan are reducible to the square, and the relative proportions and positions i the minor parts chiefly by the equilateral triangle. As architecture progressed the i are disappeared, and to the outline and detail was applied tne triangle. In the middle < ! lie 14th century, as art declined, the triangle was forgotten, and a system of a diagonal t;ure was taken up. Since then mathematical proportions have been chiefly employed, e. 'dally that of the diagonal of the square, fig. 1243. The figures applicable to the setting out of mediaeval buildings are these: 1. the s]are; 2. the equilateral triangle; and 3. certain arcs described upon diagonals and L n. lit. 4 - 1245 . Fig. 1240. ■ Fig. 1247. s of the same.” Thus, in Norman work, the proportion of a square placed lozengeways the ends of which a vesica piscis is struck (Jig. 1244.) is in common use. In first pointed work, the proportion is that of a square touching the head and sill {fig- 1245.). The system shown in fig. 124C. seems chiefly used in lancet windows and works of that period, the height being first deter- mined. The proportion in Jig. 1247. is used in traceried first pointed, Fi „ , 0 , Q „. the resica, giving the width, being ob- ■ , . tamed trom the apex of an equilateral ' * 1C l lro P or *i° ns ./fy s ' 1243. to 1 251. predominate in middle pointed ; those of 1 1. U | * th Y I f me > onI y ^ the latter period the rule is applied to the determining of the lights or bays instead of the whole opening, and is applied to the centres of the mullions and not to the sides vm. only. All these proportions appear to have been equally well known in all \ early times, but in the middle pointed * period they gradually became more complicated, and are consequently more difficult to (race out. In thud pointed they can hardly be found, Fig. 1252 . and in obtuse third pointed they quite ]'□?,!’ pr °P^ion s shown in figs. 1243. and 1252. taking their place. The equi- ty , ,"^ gC ° }»** [/''{■ 1253 '> uscd to obtain on e point, is often accompanied > I ang '° ,0rmcd of 30 °> E F G, to obtain another relative point ; each equal subdivision Fig. 1255. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 1318 Rook I 1 1. F D and F G ; F G and F E, having the corresponding angles of each equal ; whereat in other triangles (as fit). 1254.) this is not the ease. We give one of his illustrations of the theory as applied to Steyning Church, Sussex, a Norman building. The plan (fig. 1255.) is set out by equal squares, and also the exterior (fig. 1256.) to some extent. The interior (fi/, 1257.) is set out by squares and triangles. Tin- diagrams will explain themselves. The diameter of the columns is determined similar to c c f in Rule II. The lower window is set out bv li and the upper one by VI. Fig. 1258. is the ground-plan, and fig. 1259. the elevation of the east end : and fig. 12m the elevation of part of the side, of the church of St. John, Wappenbury, Warwickshire. Tl relation of the lines one with another is well exhibited in the diagrams. At Jtclnnor ( luuv Sussex, the width is dir i A externally. In the " - window of the north ah of the church of St. A drew’s at Ewerby, t centres of the mull • obtained on the plan squares diagonally vided. exactly coinc with the same points the elevation as dc't-1- s according to Rule ' This system is shown figs. 1287. and I 'Figs. 1262. and 1263. plain the method "1 ting out the proporti for third pointed " j the height of the hay ( being first determined the diagonal of a wp‘. The example is the church at St. Probus, Cornwall. The windo vs S are a square " to the outer edge of the moulding, and are fixed by a square o o the base ot the - The windows T have their points fixed much in the same way, b it their width is m mined by the diagonal of a square. The height of the arches in the interior arc determined by the diagonal of a square (fig. 1261.). . . “ No one,” writes Mr. White, “seems to have carried out upon the equilateral trial • any definite theory of design, or to have reduced the application of it to any tang shape. — The theory is that the several parts of a perfect building must lie in i la gimetria, who Ci'd give a judgment in the matter. Such skilled persons were brought to the building a approved the work in debate. Whereon the town council requested the vicar, as b g a person who was always in the building, to oversee the remainder of the work. 1 church is in the Gothic style, with a nave and chancel only, and is executed in cut sije. Iturriza was further employed at Santa Marina de Oxirondo in 1559. r e have given in the section Masonry an illustration ( fig . 662/i.) of a mode of setting o i the ribs for vaulting, found on an incised block of stone. Such specimens of mediteval W K are very rare. Prof. Willis, in his paper on Vaulting , gives another example, and praps only two more could be quoted. But these do not show how the mouldings were 'Portioned. ,Ve insert from the appendix to Roriczer’s work, quoted on page 1008, the method of m ng the template or mould for working the mouldings for a canopy. The directions are: — ■ given square A B C D (Jig. 1264.) inscribe a circle and draw the diagonal and centre With the centre Z, and a radius equal to the given line A B, describe a circle, and in inscribe a square E F G H parallel to iagonals of the first square. This gives li' zeof the horizontal measurement of the ni caves of the great flower or finial of the '; JI y- In the same circle inscribe a square 1 1. M of equal size to the last mentioned but parallel to the sides of the square D, and let the line I K intersect the G in N, and the line F G intersect K L and the line K L intersect the line G II and the line G II intersect the line L M Bisect the line B K in It, and with the n B a-iid the radius B It describe a circle ; 1 <1 itli the same radius describe a similar ™ about the centre C. With the centre G, 1 ' same radius, cut off from the line G Z a pc a iii the , ings hollt jaml on G T, and through the point T draw 8 S of indefinite length; and from the points O and 1’ draw lines perpendicular te - S S and joining it. This gives the outline of the template for the arched mould- for M Q, will be the internal face of the wall, Q P the external splay, with one moulding C therein; the rectangular parallelogram under P O will contain the touldings from which the template of the mullion is found, &c. 1020 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook III The jamb and hood mouldings are not described by Roriczer, but probably the back . the hood is obtained by the radius X Y cutting Z E at a, and from, a and X the san radius will give the point i>, from whence the curve X a is obtained. The curved line Y is obtained from X. Divide X Y into 5 equal parts, and at 1 draw a line parallel to Z The length af will be equal to the diameter e Y. With a radius equal to c/e, and tl centres f and Y, describe arcs of circles intersecting in the point g , and with the cent; <7 and the same radius describe the arc f Y. The roll moulding appears to be formed I the length e Y on the line E Y, cutting the line Y X at 1. The jamb moulding is probably obtained by dividing the line SS into 8 equal part: a radius equal to one of the parts struck from 2 and 6 will give the curves, and the lii V W. T r will be equal to half T 4, and the jamb is completed. For the remainder of tl construction of the canopy we must refer the reader to the publication in question. “It is in vain,” states Cresy, Stone Church, Kent, 1840, “ that we attempt to imitate the tracery or mouldings belonging to this (the 13th century) style correctly, unless we consider them to emanate from some simple figure. However numerous the mouldings, they never appear confused, which entirely arises from the order observed in their arrangement.” This he illus- trates by the mouldings forming the trefoil arches round the chancel. “ The [joints of inter- section of the two equilateral triangles are the centres for the hollows, and the more promi- nent parts of the moulding are set out with the same radius at the points of the triangles ; or, in other words, four circles are en- circled within a circle, and by omitting each alternate one the figure is formed.” Fig. 1265. is from Mr. White’s essay, and represents his system applied to a cap and base of the porch doorway at the church of St. Andrew, at Heckington, in Lincolnshire. The mouldings are reduced from full size drawings whereon the diagrams coincide very accurately with the several members, the whole being set out by subdivisions of the equilateral triangle, or angled' 30° and 60° & c. (as fig. 1253.). Fig. 1265a. illustrates another cap and base from Ste ing church, previously selected as an example. The cap of the columns is formed on principle of Rules II. and III., and the base upon that of VI. A remarkable circumstance connected with this subject is, that although the Gen i arclueologists appear to have reduced the proportioning of mouldings and details M system, as illustrated and explained by Hoffstadt, Goth inches ABC Buch, Frank! 1840, which has been translated into French by T. Aufschlager, Principes du Style Gulin , Paris and Frankfort, 1847, no one has translated it into English, or prepared a co - sponding publicaiion on English work (certainly not since the well conceived hut lam ably produced system by Batty Langley in 1742), not even the author ol the Ana * of Gothic Architecture, from whom it might have been expected. In fact, a true sys j of mediaeval architecture being still unknown in England, designs are made at random, 1 the school, in disregard of its professed principles, continues disunited. For the sate tion of those who may desire to subject the mouldings given in Chap. III. to a ..y we add that the plans of Fountains, Tintern, and Henry VII.’s Chapel, appear h designed on the system of the square ; that of Howden on the triangle. fig. 1205a. CAP AND CASE AT STEVNINO. rig. 1265. HECKINGTON. Sect. VI. PIUNCITLES OF PROPORTION. The following portion of the elucidation of this subject was originally publish 11 1847 by E. Cresy in his Encyclopaedia, as referred to at page 900 of this work, who not ( • while introducing it, that “our attention must not be directed to the decorative port it the style, but to the construction, from the study of which some valuable lessons m K deduced.” PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1021 Jhap. IV. The Saxon manner of Building. — A division of the transept of the cathedral at Win- chester has been selected as the best authenticated example of the style in use previous to he Norman Conquest. In a paper read before the British Archa’ological Association a' rheir second annual congress, held at Winchester in August, 1845, the author gave his reasons for supposing it to be the work of 3t. A thelwold, for which the reader is referred to ts “ Transactions.” Arches upon arches enabled the Saxons to continue their walls to a considerable height, the openings between the piers being proportioned as those of the Roman build- ngs in the time of the emperors. The plans of the piers differ from those pre- vious to the introduction of Christianity : n Britain both the Greek cross and the ■ircle are applied to them. At Winchester Cathedral the columns ;f the triforium recede within the pier, and ire sot round a circle, (fig. 1267.); the passage in the walls of the clerestory is hown at the side ; in another portion of lie same building is a similar arrangement n less massive piers, (fig. 1268.) The Saxon churches were generally di- vided into three tiers or stories, viz. a ower arcade, a triforium, and clere-story above ; and such was the solidity and thick- icss of the walls, that buttresses were alto- ;ether omitted, the outer face of their build- pigs in this particular bearing a closer resemblance to the Roman than the Nor- man, although the workmanship was rude, nd the decoration scanty. The proportions found in Saxon buildings Ire the same as in the Roman, which, ithout doubt, they took for their models, he circular temple of the Pantheon at dome, 142 feet 6 inches diameter internally, nd 183 feet 8 inches externally, contains he proportions of two-fifths wall and three- fths void ; the area of the latter being 5,948 superficial feet, and of the former 6,493 superficial feet; the difference of nese areas giving 10,545 feet for the area 'the walls. We have already seen that in the Coli- um at Rome the points of support are iout one-sixth of the entire area of the an ; and the proportions of both these hidings have been admired for nearly 2000 ars, the one vaulted, the other uncovered. Generally the walls and piers of our xon cathedrals occupy from one-third to o-fifths of the entire area ; in their sections e-third is devoted to walls and piers, and i remainder divided between the nave and le aisles. The division of the cathedral at Win- ester exhibits very perfectly the xon manner of building ; the piers that ’port the lower arches are 10 feet wide, I the clear openings between them 12 feet The nave and transepts retain ir original construction ; in the former der the casing executed by William of jkeham, and in the latter it is seen in its I purity. The choir stands over the pts built by St. Athelwold, and though 1022 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book lil somewhat changed by tl le Nor- mans, it yet retains the di- mensions given to it by its celebrated Saxon constructor. The small piers, one of which, in the south transept, is nearly perfect, are set out with great regularity, and measure 9 leet 8 inches from west to east, and 8 feet 2 inches from north to south ; their form is that of the Greek cross, composed of five cubes, each 2 feet 7 inches in width, with large and small columns placed around them to receive the mouldings that decorate the arches: six of these co- lumns have their centres on the same circle : it is evident that the hexagon, or the du- plication of the equilateral triangle, was applied, and that the whole was set out by one conversant in geometry, and acquainted with the proportions of the cube. The Greek cross, which defines the solid mass, is con- tinued through the triforium rig, 12G8. pier at transept at winchester cathedral. and clerestory up to the timber roof. The columns of the triforium, set round the inner circle, are partly cut i the lateral arms of the Greek cross, but the face of the shafts of the columns are in a PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1 025 JChap. IV. 1-vith its outer side. The centre of the pier is preserved throughout, and so placed as Iwavs to balance the masses around it equally. The circular shafts at Gloucester athedral, Tewkesbury Abbey Church, and several others, were probably of earlier date han pillars formed of several shafts ; those in the church of Saint Germain des Prez, at >aris, are delicate examples of the former style. That aisles, galleries, and passages, belonged to the construction of a Saxon church, e have sufficient evidence in the accounts left us by contemporary historians ; but the resent subject is almost conclusive on this point, there being a preparation for a wall feet 8 inches in thickness, containing the passage 2 feet in width, indicated by the plan f the pier at fig. 1267. The arrangement of the columns shows that there was no itention of vaulting the side aisles, for the two which carry the cross springers appear i have been added some time after the original construction, as were also those in the pier, 2. 1268. Athelwold is supposed to have executed the whole of this work before the year 980 : le mouldings throughout are rudely cut, the capitals of the main pillars being the only irtions which are at all enriched by sculpture, and they are very simply carved. The Norman manner of Building can scarcely be said to differ from the Saxon, though the asons employed after the Conquest certainly acquired a superior knowledge in their art. he ornaments which we find in Norman buildings had all been previously used by e Saxons; hence the difficulty of distinguishing the works of one from the other: where ritten authority is not handed down to us, we can only judge by the difference of the orkmanship ; it cannot be denied that there were many very able masons among e Saxons, who were qualified to raise buildings and enrich them with sculptured nament. The finest examples of Norman irk may be seen at Caen and its ighbourhood, and have been en- ived from measurements taken by ; late Mr. Pugin. In England the same style pre- led throughout our religious uctures ; there is a great similarity arrangement, and little variety of {lament. The Norman style was erally adopted after the Conquest, that named by the monkish orians the “ Opus Ilomanum ” was tinued in many of our parish relies, as well as in some larger Idings. The Norman pillar was letimes composed of a cylinder h four small half columns at- t led, as at Amiens, which is 7 feet 2 i ies diameter. or the Saracenic or Arabian Styles " must refer to the beautiful work r< ntly published by Mr. Owen Jj-s, where the decorative parts of j, j„ 12C9 6 curious and highly ornamented a itecture are admirably given, and proceed to the description of the principles which g led the constructors of pointed architecture. \lie Lancet Style succeeded the Norman, and we find it well defined in many churches n cathedrals as early as the year 1180; in it decoration was sparingly introduced, al , throughout every part of the design there was simple uniformity, and a display of a (’.side ruble knowledge of geometry : the heads of the windows and doors were formed of “ u d e d arch, constructed upon an equilateral triangle; all the mouldings which sur- '° ded those apertures were delicately formed, and had both capitals and bases ; this style w. practised till 1230, when it was followed by another, which by some writers has been te ed p T«r/y English or the Geometric Style, from the manner in which the several portions building were set out ; and we find it adopted generally up to the year 1280. lisbury Cathedral, founded by Bishop Richard Poore, in the year 1220, was finished ‘ n P lan ' s that of a Greek or patriarchal cross, the extreme length being 480 -r that of the great transept from north to south 232 feet, and that of the lesser transept ! cet : the stone used for the external walls and buttresses was brought from the quar- t Chelmark, which ties about 12 miles distance, westward from the city. The middle PIER AT AMIENS. 1024 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. of tilt! walls is filled in with rubble, and the shafts of the columns are of marble, from the Purbock quarries. At the intersection of the nave with the great transept rises a noble stone tower and octagonal spire, the total height of which is 400 feet ; the stone of the spire is in thickness about 2 feet to the height of 20 feet above the tower, after which it is only 9 inches in thickness to the summit : this spire, though braced and strengthened throughout by timbers and ironwork, has declined from the perpendicular 221 inches; but since 1681, when the observation was made, there has been no further declination. The walls, after they were carried up to the iloor of the triforium, appear to have beei. increased by corbelling, as if it had been doubted whether, as originally set out, there would be sufficient strength to carry the cross springers of the vaulted nave ; the total width is exactly 100 feet. The clear width of the nave, as measured on a level with the triforium, is 33 feet 3 inches, and that of each side aisle half that dimension, or 16 feet 9 inches; had this last been 16 feet 7^ inches only, the proportions shown by a section would have been exactly one-third for walls and two-thirds for voids ; after appropriating the third of the 100 feet to the walls, half the remainder is given to one side, and hall to the other; we also find that each of these dimensions of 16 feet 8 inches is divided into three, two parts of which are given to the outer wall and buttress, and the other to : the main pillar that divides the nave and side aisles, or nearly so. The inclination of the arched buttresses is not such as to resist the spreading of the vault at its base, the knowledge of their use not having then been attained The height of the vaulting of the nave from the pavement is 81 feet. Wells Cathedral has some peculiarities in its construction, particularly in the application o 1 its arched buttresses : they pitch against a stone corbel inserted below the springing cf tin middle vault, and a tangent drawn at the back of the vault and elongated determines inclination of the top of the flying buttress: here some improvement is shown upon t fiiar. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1025 t Salisbury. The masonry of tbe arches is admi- ibly constructed, and the joints all radiate to a com- on centre. The total width of this cathedral from face to face the buttress is 8G feet 5 inches, and that of ic nave 31 feet 10 inches, instead of 28 feet 9^ idles, as it would have been if a third had been lopted; the side aisles arc also diminished in consc- ience, being only 13 feet 1\ inches in the clear; I toy are, however, equal to the buttress, outer t ill, and main pillar added together, the first pro- ofing 2 feet 8 inches, the second or outer wall ing 6 feet in thickness, and the piers 5 feet diame- r ; whilst the width of the side aisle measures 13 jt 7j inches, an approximation sufficiently near to ppnse that the proportions of thirds wasstill adopted practice. The nave has been increased at the pease of the side aisles, and its height is 68 feet iinoh.es to the top of the vaulting from the pavc- jnt. Fig. 1273. TKIFOttIUM, INSIDE. Chapter House at j/fc, erected between i years 1293 and >2, is an octangular Iding of great Ijuty. A section tough the but- tlses shows that t ' equilateral tri- bes crossing each <)rr have determined t! mass and void, "j di are in the pro- Plion of one to two, «• ie thickness of the t'j walls is equal to ai' third the entire lipeter : the base DIVISION OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. of the triangle, liich the supports ' crypt are placed, *y indicates this gement. Ofthe e equilateral tri- s comprised in the lelogram formed dting the bases two larger, each wall and buttress T two, or the ‘alls and their sses four of the divisions, ? eight for the T'a between them. pa by of on occ t\VC bul] tw« Itai Fig 1275- CIIAPT r'H-UOlJSE AT WELLS, 3 U 1026 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Where it is determined that the walls shall occupy one-third of the section of a buildin no figure is so well calculated for such a distribution as the equilateral triangle ; it enabl the architect at once to limit and fix the proportions of his design; hence its univers application : and the mysterious qualities attached to it by the freemasons no doubt aro from the extraordinary facility it afforded them in setting out their several works. Wli can be more simple or more beautiful than the distribution of this edifice? Within a cir< a hexagon is set out, the perpendicular sides of which mark the outer faces of the buttress, the junctions of the angles, by forming a base to every two sides, produce the t\ equilateral triangles, which sub-divided not only enable us to arrange the other portir accurately, but also to measure with the greatest nicety their relative dimensions. '1 quantities of material employed in construction can be estimated by such means mu , more easily than by measuring each portion separately, cubing it, and adding the ntrmeri dimensions so obtained together ; there is decidedly more simplicity in the former than , the latter system : the area of one triangle being found, we at once know that of all the a Fig. 1276. CHAPTER-HOUSE, WELLS: PLAN. or of any portion. In the subject before us the distance from the middle of one buttn *° that of the other is 31 feet 6 inches, and the diameter taken through them at this lc IS 92 feet ; omitting the buttresses, the outer side measures 26 feet, and the inner 2 l 't 6 inches, the respective radii of the circles which comprise the octangular outer wall the void being 38 feet and 31 feet 5 inches. Hence we find that the entire area. 111 building without the buttress is .... 3264 feet. The urea of the void - - - - - - 2176 feet. And of the walls or points of support - 1088 feet. At the level of the crypt, above the outer plinth, we have these regular proportion' •' thirds void and one-third walls. The height of the entire building, from the pavement to the top of the parapet, is 6 inches, and to the top of the pinnacles 92 feet, the total height being equal to thee 11 diameter taken above the plinth moulding on the outside. The interior ot this cl 01 Chap. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1027 house exhibits the most perfect proportions as well ns appropriate decorations ; the eight windows, divided into four days, have their heads filled in with circles set out upon equilateral triangles; the vaulted stone roof rests partly upon the octangular central pillars, 3 feet in diameter, surrounded by sixteen small columns, one at each angle and another between : the height of the pillar is 22 feet 8 inches. Thoroughly to comprehend the expression, as well as use of the various members found j in the architecture of the middle ages, we must trace the progress made in vaulting, and observe the changes it underwent, from the simple cylindrical to the more complex and difficult display of fan tracery or conoidal arches. The ridge ribs, or liernes, as they are 1 termed, in the crypt of the Chapter-house at Wells, pass from the centre of the building to the middle of each buttress ; the diagonals, or croissees, mitre into them as well as into the ifonneretn or ribs against the outer walls. In the vaulting of the Chapter-room, we have evidence of greater refinement, and an Fjg. 127(, CHAPTER-HOUSE AT WELXS : SECTION. (movement in the decoration, by the addition of a number of intermediate ribs ■n mating against the octangular one in the middle. ^t a later period we find transverse ribs made use of, then others between ; but • tough the design may seem complicated, yet when laid down the plan will as- ! tie the greatest simplicity, as shown in the division representing the groining of the t|:>t. |>V hen this system had been carried out to a considerable extent, the fan tracery' was t reduced, and although apparently more difficult of execution, it is far more scientific in ‘ application and arrangement, evincing a higher knowledge of mathematical principles 0 geometry, and is another evidence of the gradual progress of the mind toward* Rection in this style of architecture. 3 U 2 1028 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. n ■ 11- Q Westminster Abbey , commenced in the year 1245, is in that style which for many years prevailed in France: the tine church at St. Denys, near Paris, is exactly similar in all its detail. The windows are wide, divided by mullions, and have their heads filled in with plain circles, the origin of the cusp, or that kind of decoration which every pointed arch afterwards received. This style, which succeeded the Lancet, is found throughout England, and many of the parish churches exhibit fine examples of it. Stone Church, in Kent, of which the writer has published an account, may he cited as one of the best ; its ornament shows the skill and taste that prevailed among the free- masons at that period. Salisbury, Wells, and York Cathedrals abound with rich foliage and sculptures of the highest merit executed at the same time, and it is wonderful to observe to what a state of perfec- tion the artists of this country had arrived. The effects of the chisel of the Pisan school were dis- played upon marble, but our sculptors worked upon an inferior material ; yet the draperies of their figures, as seen in the front at Wells, and else- where, are quite equal to those wrought by the pupils of Italian masters at the same time. The circle and its intersections at this period were alone employed for the plans of piers, sections of mouldings, and the filling in of windows and doorways: from them we trace the origin of the style which immediately succeeded. The cathedrals of Cologne, Amiens, Beauvais, the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, and numerous other ex- amples on the continent, exhibit the same propor- tions and style with that of Westminster ; the lofty pointed arches, which rest upon the main cluster, are decorated with numerous small mouldings ; the tri- form m , in some instances glazed, have their pointed arches filled in with trefoils, cinquefoils, or sexfoils, and the clerestory, carried up to the very apex of the vaulting, is similarly adorned. Westminster Abbey is one of the finest examples of building executed in the thirteenth century. Tracery and Geometric Forms — To comprehend thoroughly the principles which directed the free- masons of the middle ages in the execution of all their works would require far greater illustra- tion than can be bestowed upon the subject in the present volume : it must be sufficient if we point out a few which influenced the design of some of their best examples, and show that it is a perfectly erroneous opinion to suppose they were executed without a thorough knowledge of certain rules, originating with themselves, and perfected by a constant study of what was not only useful, but productive of the best effect. Those who inquire into this subject must collect the data upon which an opinion can be formed, for it is scarcely possible, without positive measurement, to arrive at any con- clusion upon the matter: the admirer of the Greek, or the commentator upon Vitruvius, alone can scarcely hope to be successful : it is true that in one of the early printed Italian editions of the valuable author quoted, there are several dia- grams which seem to point to the subject, but the student will find only the nucleus around which the lovers of geometry in the middle ages arranged their varying and beautiful forms ; this is the equilateral triangle, anil inclosing the plan, section, or elevation of a building within It, the several propoi can be accurately measured, and if sub-divided into a number, either of the trial would show the proportion it bore to the whole area. I l a r ; Fig. 1278. WESTMINSTER AHBFY. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1029 In one of the tracery heads of he windows in the cloister at West- 1 ninster, the date of which is about j 348, we have two figures that re- einble the plans given to clustered illars, indicating at once that the une principles were applied to I he setting out of both windows nd points of support. When (lie circumference of a circle is ivided into twelve equal parts, le points which divide them form ;ie termination of four equilateral dangles, and we have at their itersections, not only the centres I f the circles that constitute the lling in, but also the several litres and other portions of the irure. These rules were evidently ap- jtied to windows, and to tracery of cry description, executed at |e end of the thirteenth and unmencement of the fourteenth nturies ; also to the plans of the ain cluster of pillars in many thedrals and churches. For arly a century, circles and their tersections formed the ornamen- 1 portions of every kind of panel Id window head; they were erwards blended into other ores, and apparently set out on different principles; but the xagon and equilateral triangles re necessary to produce the fiow- ; lines which succeeded. The uige which took place in design doubt arose from the facility ich had been attained by the icticeof this method, and if it re possible to exhibit each iety in England alone, there uld be ample evidence of the i entive power of the freemasons, 1 1 the progressive improvement | heir school for depicting form. ’ e quatrefoil in fig. 1279. is met ' h in the panels of several altar 1 lbs - in th . e spandrills of the arches of door- ' s, and it is worthy of observation that •nhe mitres, where the figures change their 1' n, are perfect for each : had these con- ? ra ‘ 10 " s been neglected, we should not • 1 had the graceful flowing lines found 11 hcse designs : no other triangles crossing V- T v . ersall y applicable, or require less ln 1 lelr adoption. The student of the ]’ ent d ‘ l - v might occupy a life in the col- ° n ot the f e subjects, and they are most ' cn 1 models for the application of the rif of theoretical geometry to practice. ln . ws of three Days or Divisions are With, haying heads of singular beauty, ISed Wltlll n an equilateral triangle, and mmerous are the designs, that it is to meet with two exactly similar. In Fig. 1281. 1030 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. the more simple of three days or lower divisions, the head is occupied by three circles, each of which contains a trefoil constructed upon the crossing of either three or four equi- lateral triangles. A very extraordinary design, composed of intersecting circles, is to be seen at the east end of the chancel of the church at Sutton, at Hone, in Kent ; although much dilapidated, it still preserves many of its original flowing lines, all struck from the same radius, through points previously determined by crossing the primitive circle by four equilateral triangles. At half the height of the head of the window a horizontal line may he supposed to be drawn from one side to the other, on which are three circles: the two outer touching, are crossed hv the third, struck from the point of their junction ; with the same radius several spherical triangles are struck from the points of intersections, producing the lines, which unite and divide the window head into several compartments, differing in pat- tern and dimension. After the circles were struck, the lines that did not play into each other were left out, and those only re- tained which flowed on grace- fully; by these nice consider- ations and just application of principles, the masons were cer- tain of producing a perfect ef- fect, without rigidly adhering to any particular form. r,g 1282, 11UNE caul!Ui * tL -' x - Windows of four Duys or IZii’isi&ns. — Among the heads of a more simple charactf are those which contain one large circle, subdivided by three equilateral triangles, eac Fig. 1283. Fig. 1284. inclosing a trefoil. Others contain, in addition to the one great equilateral Irian two smaller, const] ucted upon the points of its base, and dropping into the space comp 1 between the heads of the divisions below. IAP. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. ion rig. 1285. IVtndows of Six Divisions are far more complicated, and, though exhibiting greater skill geometry, are set out precisely upon the same principle. The two equilateral triangles iosed within the great circle mark out the prominent features of the design, and their ininations are the centres of as my spherical triangles, which, their crossing, constitute the borate filling in. In some examples, above ■ two main lower divisions a circle divided by several >ers, the twelve which are ideated in the figure serving to bportion the tracery of this •apartment. ^t the latter end of the four- •jnth century, these designs e so multiplied that almost i ry cathedral and church had ipeeuliar windows: in Amiens c ledral, the chapels constructed : this same time receive their 1 |it from windows, the heads of vjch are filled in with tracery eeedingly varied, but the gleral principles of setting out t ! work are preserved ; the ejle and the equilateral tingle were subdivided a pst to infinity, and at no p lod of the arts do tl inventive facul- b ippearso fertile as iiijhat we are now dering. The ; west window of : Cathedral is the : example of the movement made in tli mode of deco- rat a ; the geometric folk are there so con- I by the blending ol )e several curves, as produce con- tm Ji flowing lines, whu is partly shown 11 1 1282. ; they are, boater, all set out m j; same manner, anrilie centres upon ' h.| they are struck •me (established by I tbejossing of equi- 1 triangles, mg the ep is- of John Gran- from the year o 1369, Exeter Iral was under- m entire change architecture. bishop we are indebted for the great west window, of nine days, and several smaller and five, in which are introduced tracery showing a great variety of design : some nposed of equilateral triangles, each containing late 1 Cop; diss 132 Cat] goir. in To i| of f are i turn sank T Fig. 1286. , . 0 — , — .... — ..... & a trefoil, some of circles with six >eis have four and three; but the heads of all, varied as they are, belong to the •bool as fig. 1285. 6 great east window at Bristol Cathedral is another fine example of nine days, 10:52 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 executed about the middle of the Hth century ; the centre of the head of the window rather the nucleus to the tracery, is an octagon, six sides of which are retained, the o' two being suppressed, to allow of a better combination with the three centre division: the lower part. The equilateral triangle also defined the form and magnitude of the several mullions, as shown by fie/. 128?., constructed upon measurement of the windows of the clerestory of the nave at Winchester: a line drawn from the apex of one mullion to the other is the base of the triangle, and the space inclosed by the two is divided into ten other equilateral triangles, two of which agree in dimensions and form with each mul- hon. Of the twelve equilateral tri- angles embracing two half mullions, ten are given to the day or space to admit the light, and two, or one- sixth of the whole, is comprised hy the mullion; such appears to have been the manner of proportioning the parts of windows in the middle ages. Rose Windows in the West Transept of the Church of St. Ouen at Rouen is 29 feet GinJi in diameter, and composed ot seven equal circles, one of which occupies the centre: ear I those, which surround it, are again subdivided by others ; two only of the outer six are served in the figure, and form the quatrefoils, whilst the intersections of the others serv i centres to the rest of the design. Fig. 1288. ST. OUEN AT HOUEN. Rose Window of the South Transept of the Cathedral at Rouen is 23 feet in dial '' measured to the centre of the large bead, which comprises the figure. A portion o 1 1 AP. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1 033 is beautiful example is given, for the purpose of exhibiting the principle upon which it is out: it will be evident that the nucleus of the design is composed of two equilateral angles, and the sides of each continued, constitute the alternate divisions. ' die tlu an bei 3 i ROUEN CATHEDRAE : SOUTH TRANSEPT, e internal hexagon has Us parallel sides prolonged, to mark the position of the four ons that have their pointed heads attached to the small circle, which forms the eye of ittern ; and the length of these prolonged lines is limited to the extent of the sides of uilateral triangle, which is again divided regularly, the triangular spaces between filled in with trefoils. The small mullions are in width 2 \ inches, the next size ies, and those which mark out the figure and have a bead for their termination are lies : another bead and bold projecting label, or rim, circumscribe the whole rose window, ’he ollow around which is enriched with a curved leaf. On each side of the internal i I 011 an equilateral triangle is constructed, around which a circle is struck, uniting '-fitly with the next, and forming the six turns which characterise the filling in of 1034 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. circles at this period ; these were the principal decorations after the Lancet style was ab u doned, and were continued until succeeded by more flowing and varied designs. Hose IVindow of the South Transept at Beauvais, 34 feet 4 inches in diameter, is compose! of six large circles and their intersections. To set out this win- dow the great circle expressed by the cuter head is divided into twelve parts, each being equal to half the radius; twelve equi- lateral triangles are then inscribed, the points of which touch each of the divisions, and where they cross nearest to the outer circle, the twelve pointed arches that surround the figure are struck ; the other points of intersection of the triangles are centres, from which the other curves are drawn. It must at once be evident, that in a circle so divided, or by any other equal num- ber of equilateral tri- angles, the portions contained between the smaller angles must be equal to each other ; the six circles around the centre have their curves blended into the outer, and if it be required to fix centres for each of these flow- ing lines, they can only be obtained by cover- ing the entire rose xvindow with lines in the manner already described. The radius being equal to the side of a hexagon, and that figure being com- posed of two equi- lateral triangles, was probably the chief reason of its first pre- ference overall others; it certainly affords the most extraordinary powers of combination, and there is carcelv a moulding or form in the architecture of this period but is set i from it. The mullions that bound the divisions are all portions of this figure, as are ' mouldings, which sweep round the arches of the buildings themselves. Nothing can si pass the brilliant effect of these marigold windows when glazed with rich colours, a exposed to either a rising or setting sun ; in the example now described, this effect is s further heightened by making nearly the whole end of the southern transept a continual of the same design, the glass descending almost to the tops of the doors which afford arc to the cathedral. The construction of such works must excite our highest admiration, it appears scarcely possible to excel the perfect manner in which the parts are together and worked oft’, the execution being in every particular worthy the design. Fie. 1291. BEAUVAIS CATIIEDKAL I SOUTH TIIANSEPT. A?. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1035 1'he Rose Window in the South Transept at Amiens, 29 feet G inches in diameter is set out n two squares, which cross each other diagonally. Fig. 1292. AMIENS CATHEDRAL : SOUTH TRANSEPT. ' teen divisions are employed in this figure, and by crossing as many squares, we ariive 11 1; method by which it is set out ; each side of the square is equal to the radius by ’ li the master line on the outer bead or circle is struck : where the squares cross each °th are the divisions of the pattern, and their several points are the centres upon which the hinted arches are struck, which surround the outer portion of the rose. kere the lines of the squares cross, in the interior of the figure, the smaller divisions fire Itablished, and their points of intersection serve for centres to strike the lesser curves ; t0 S! ' v this clearly the whole must be set out, and drawn to a large scale. J : architecture of France underwent a material change after the thirteenth century ; ' e jads of the windows were no longer filled with tracery composed of six foils, generally in each window, but branched out into a more running pattern, as practised in parts of England. The fourteenth century not only exhibits windows of more It design, but an apparent absence of the principles by which the several parts were tioned to each other. Before the Perpendicular style appeared, great progress had nade in the groining of the spacious vaults of the naves, as well as those of the side After the fan tracery was substituted in England, the windows had straight ns ascending till they intersected the arch ; and we have no further display of the figures that everywhere prevailed before : geometry was now exercised upon the f les w * llc h their surprising vaults exhibited. It is somewhat singular that we never l : "l beauties of a previous era retained, and blended with that which succeeded. h the 300 years during which the Pointed style continued to flourish, each half century it a new character ; hence we have seldom any difficulty in establishing its date • e changes resulted from an improved knowledge in the arpof construction. The of freemasons were gradually approaching the principles which directed the efforts rclntects of the Byzantine school, and which were found too refined and delicate to " ,J PaUsed out of Italy after the eleventh century. tlirt sevc difli piO] bcei aislt mul varii intri gave all t lodgi of th 1036 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I The Rose Window in the Northern Transept of the Church of St. Ouen at Rouen, 28 fi f< mclies in diameter, is an example of the pentagonal setting out. Fig. 1295. When the sides of a pentagon are prolonged, they unite and form five isosceles triang* each having for its base a side of the original pentagon. The equilateral triangle, | square, and the pentagon may have been adopted by different confraternities of freemasn the first can be formed into hexagons, duodecagons and their multiples ; the squares, crossing diagonally, into octagons; they may be also tripled and quadruple'll: mitre of the equilateral triangle is in the direction of its centre of gravity, as is t of the square and the isosceles triangles ; consequently to unite the mouldings arm, either, the plummet would indicate the direction of the line, when dropped from angles and suffered to cross, the point of intersection being the centre of gr;n lommon to the several lines. In the chapel of St. Cecile is the monument of Alexander Berneval, the master inasm the works at St. Ouen, at the time the rose window was executed by his pupil, whom i reported he murdered from jealousy : such an application of triangles was then ca the pentalpha. The foundations of this church were laid by Marcdargent, about 1318, by whom it built as far as the transept ; but probably the rose window of the northern transept not inserted till many years after, for the memorial of Berneval bears the date o H this monumental stone is 8 feet 6 inches in length, and 4 feet in width, and in 11 represented the architect and his pupil, each employed tracing with his compasses respective design ; these beautiful brasses with their rich tabernacle work were in highest state of perfection when the writer was last at Rouen, and around the master li; was inscribed in German letters ; — (St) gist ©laigtrc 2Ctejtanbrc be SBernemil/ ‘tOiaiStre beg oeuoreS be 50 ?aconnene bu . > notre ©ire/ bu SSailtage be Siottett/ et be ceSte (Sglibe/ qui treSpa6&l/ I'tw u 1) mil. ccccrl. le o jour be Stiff liter. Erie's £)icu pour Fame be lup. The date of the pupil’s death is not commemorated, which lias led some to imagine tale of his murder untrue, and that he erected the monument to his master n.Ui Intention of being buried by his side. a i*. TV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1037 The. North Rose Window ot Amiens , 37 feet 8 inches in diameter, is a magnificent example die application of the pentagon, with 5 isosceles triangles around it. Phis window, probably cuted in the fourteenth itury, has a great resem- ! nee to the last described ; fan tracery, of which have early specimens in ■ cloisters at Gloucester, aired the same know- | ge of geometry to perfect ir design. In 1482 | did was first printed at nice from the Greek t; butgeometry had been died in England from the e that Adhclard, in 1 1 30, i introduced a transla- i of that author from Arabic versions which met with during his tra- : in Spain. In 1256 npanus of Navarre t lslated Euclid, who ; ns to have been com- i ited upon by several tinent writers, and no i bt it was the text-book i he freemasons, who dili- (i dy applied the problems 1 ontained to every pur- p -■ of their art. In 1486 t. Editio Princeps of Muvius appeared, and t! commentaries of Cmsare Mariano followed in 1 |l ; the latter author Pjlished three plates of Cathedral at Milan, red with equilateral 'gles, which have not described so as to be d or understood, compartments which ll C( ti hi II! u !| ' the Hat sides of the original pentagon for their base, and parallel sides throughout till 'K terminate in the pointed arch, have their mullions proportioned to their opening, the ht being double the size of the smaller, whilst the latter are equal to half the open space een them : the mullions in these examples, which divide two spaces, 6 inches in h, are usually 3 inches in thickness, and the others are in the same proportion. The sized mullion is 4J inches, with a bead of 1^ inch diameter, which runs round the e pattern of the figure, the centre of which may be called the master line, by which e rest are set out ; the several mullions are all twice as much in depth as in width. ptistery of Pisa. — The internal diameter of this circular building is 100 feet, and the ness of its outer walls and columns 10 feet 6 inches ; its external diameter is 1 2 1 fei t, wea of which is 11,499 superficial feet, that of the interior being 7854; if we ct from it what is occupied by the four piers and eight columns, or 1 88 feet, we 7666 feet for the void, exactly two-thirds of the entire area. To find these pro- ms in an edifice commenced about the middle of the twelfth century in Italy, is a is corroboration of the opinions already advanced, the same rules as those described e Chapter House at Wells being apparently followed : the conical brick dome was the of an after period, and may have been the prototype for that of St. Paul’s at London; ointed architecture belonging to the exterior of this edifice, of the same character as rhich adorns the crosses of Queen Eleanor in England, was added in the fourteenth y- ‘ section shows how tne equilateral triangle governs the proportions of this celebrated n S >' the extreme diameter is the base, and its apex the level on which the 1038 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book more recent conical and hemispherical domes arc placed : the intersection of the great triangles fixes the diameter to be given to the internal void, around which the aisle, its walls and pillars should be formed. The circle which has its diameter t prised between the apex of the two equilaterals determines the clear width between Fig. 1295. BAPTISTERY OF TISA outer walls. That the architects of those days delighted in the forms produced several intersections of the circle in combination with the equilateral triangle, ' assured by viewing the several designs they have left us in mosaic upon the walls 1 1 Duomo, and at the cathedrals of Florence, Sienna, and elsewhere. Roslyn Chapel , Scotland commenced about the year 1446, has its buttressc ,c suited to give aid to the walls, and to enable them to resist the thrust of its ncarl; circular vault, which they receive below the springing. The extreme width fro J ' to face of the buttresses is 48 feet 4 inches; the span of the nave is id feet 8 ^ being 5 inches less than the proportion of a third ; the two side aisles ti Chap. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1030 re 15 feet, or within a few iches of the width of the ave; consequently the walls nd piers in this beautiful ixample are 17 feet 8 inches, r 15 inches more in extent I iian they would have been the proportion of one-third ut at the present day, when copies a rigidly made of the finest ex- a des of each style, it would seem a h i innovation to suggest such an aj ition; still it might be introduced, a probably would have been, had d freemasons continued an operative ft brnity, and been required to build he Lancet or other style, which rseded it. The same decora- s an 1 form of arch may be used Fig 1309. VAULTING OF KING’S COLLEGE CUAFEL. ie later styles as in the earlier, as far as construction is concerned, and we have evi- ■e of sufficient stiength in the example before us; the principles are the same in each, igh they may differ in form ; there would be no more difficulty in transforming one ■ to that of another, than was experienced by William of Wykeham, when he changed Saxon nave of Winchester to the Perpendicular. ’n the section shown at Jig. 1308. a line is drawn exhibiting the catenarian curve, for tl purpose of showing that the abutment piers are set out in correspondence with its P 1 i pies ; it is not contended that a knowledge of this curve guided the freemasons in ortioning their piers, or that their flying buttresses were always placed within it ; it is singular that in those structures where their true position seems to have been led, the catenarian passes through them. ath Abbey section (Jig. 1319.) is an example which exhibits this most perfectly ; and by 11 'Inparison of its section with that at Wells (Jig. 1272.), it will be perceived that the struts 1 differently placed, and that the earlier example is defective : Jig. 1 298. represents Roslyn 10-13 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I Chapel, in which there is evidently some improvement ; but at the time of its construct' perfect knowledge on this subject had not been attained. In a catenarian chain formed links of equal length, every side is a tangent to the curve, and the direction of each link at right angles to it, acting in a direction perpendicular to the line it forms in the ca naria ; and hence its useful application to the science of construction. It is quite clear tl wherever the curve passes through the section of a building, stability is obtained ; a where it does not, it is doubtful : certainly the best application of flying buttresses that which can be tested by this principle. The main arches of the roof abut against the outer buttresses, and spring from a cluster of mouldings set round a circular pier : the situation of the small columns and hol- lows which decorate it being determined by the crossing of equilateral triangles. The ribs of each severy abut in the centre upon a circle 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, formed of two stones, and indicated by No. 1. : in the middle is a mortise-hole 9 inches square ; No. 2. is in width 17 inches in the widest part; No. 3. is 2 feet 2 inches; No. 4., 3 feet 8 inches ; No. 5., the same ; No. 6., 3 feet 3 inches; No. 7. 4 feet 3 inches ; No. 8., the same; No. 9., 3 feet 2 inches, and No. 10., which abuts against the outer wall, 4 feet. By a reference to the plan on fig. 1.312., it will be un- derstood how the several rings of voussoirs which com- pose the quarter of the para- bolic conoid abut and are locked one into the other : the construction of this vault is somewhat similar to that adopted by Soufflout at the Church of St. Genevieve at Paris, although his manner of applying it materially differs. The buttress in the present example has an area of 56 feet, equal to that of the piers, to which it is attached ; or the two piers and buttresses togctl have an area of 224 feet: it is curious to find that ot the 336 feet before given to t points of support, one-sixth should be applied to the piers, one-sixth to the buttress and the other portion to the walls between ; for 55 ft. 6 in. x 6 = 336 feet— the area oft points of support taken on both sides ; so equally are the parts even distributed. When the Normans first used flying buttresses, as at the Cathedral at Chartres, t Abbaye aux Homines at Caen, and several other buildings, they abutted them again t ordinary outside wall ; but it was soon discovered that a greater resistance was necessary oppose the thrust, and prevent the abutments from yielding. Salisbury Cathedral ' probably one of the earliest where flying buttresses were used; and the opinion <>1 - Christopher Wren is worthy of quoting upon this subject, as it applies more particul.n to the first constructed, and not so immediately to those erected in the fourteenth fifteenth centuries. “ Almost all the cathedrals of the Gothic form are weak and detect in the poise of the vault of the aisles; as for the vaults of the nave, they are on both sn equally supported and propped up from spreading by the bowes or flying buttresses, wh rise from the outward walls of the aisles: but for the vaults of the aisles, they are uui supported on the outside by the buttresses ; but inwardly, they have no other stay but pillars themselves, which, as they are usually proportioned, if they stood alone, without weight above, could not resist the spreading of the aisles one minute : true, indee , great load above of the walls and vaulting of the nave should seem to confine the P 1 " 1049 ur. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. their perpendicular station, that there should be no need of butment inwards , but cerience hath shown the contrary, and there is scarce any Gothic cathedral, that I have si at home or abroad, wherein I have not observed the pillars to yield and bend inwards fin the weight of the vault of the aisle ; but this defect is the most conspicuous upon the aiular pillars of the cross, for there not only the vault wants butment, hut also the <' [ i Mar arches that rest upon that pillar, and therefore both conspire to thrust it inwards towjds the centre of the cross.” d King’s College chapel, flying buttresses are dispensed with, and happily the knciedge of construction had arrived at such perfection, when its astonishing vault was proj ted, that we have no evidence whatever of its yielding in any part. lay seem extraordinary that the Pointed style made so little progress in Italy, the cine being always preferred: the architects of that country were probably unwilling nquish a mode of construction so economical, half only of the material employed in htest, and a tpiarter in the earliest of the Gothic style, being required for the basilica : imple, where 100 rods of stonework would be used in the latter, 200 would be ■ ry for the style practised at King’s College, St. George’s Chapel, and Bath Abbey 1 htjh, and 400 for that of the Chapter-house at Wells ; this result w’ould lead to the :,, ac|5ion, that no style is so well adapted for the wants of the present day as the Byzantine, I By: to r the for necc 1050 PRACTICE OP ARCHITECTURE. Btox ] 1 1 St. George's Chapel, Windsor .- — -If we sup- pose a line on the plan to pass through the centre of the buttresses and piers, and one severy of the nave to be defined, we shall have a width of 12 feet, and a length of 84 feet, the area of which is 1008 feet : after this we shall find the area of the walls and piers comprised within this severy to be I 68 feet, or one-sixth of the whole ; such are the proportions of mass and void found in t his chapel. The clear width of the side aisles between the columns is 1 1 feet 9 inches; that of the nave 34 feet 10 inches, and be- tween the outer walls 69 feet 2 inches: the height of the top of the vaulting of the nave is 54 feet 2 inches. The height up to the springing line of the great vault over the nave being equal to half the entire width, it is evident that two squares must comprise within them the entire building beneath this line; upon setting them out we find the nave and its pillars occupy one, whilst the other is given to the side aisles, external walls, and buttresses. The Rev. John Milner, in his admirable treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England, which has been the text-book for all modern writers, states that “ its rise, progress, and decline, occupy little more than four centuries in the chronology of the world : as its characteristic perfection con- sisted in the due elevation of the arch, so its decline commenced by an undue depression of it. This took place in the latter part of the ]5th century, and is to be seen, amongst other instances, in parts of St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, commenced by Edward IV. in 1482; in King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, and in the Chapel of Henry VII. at Westminster. It is undoubtedly true that the architects of these splendid and justly admired erections, Bishop Cloose, Sir Reginald de Bray, &e. displayed more ait and more professional science than their predecessors had done; but they did this at the expense of the character- istic excellence of the style itself which they built in.” “ In St. George’s Chapel we have the work covered with tracery and carvings of the most exquisite design and execution, but which fatigue the eye, and cloy the mind by their redundancy:” but we have also a building constructed with one-half the ma- terials that would have been employed had the style practised in the chapter-house of Wells been adopted. The admirers of the Pointed style have not sought for the true principles which mark its several changes ; they have not examined into its constructive arrangements; had they done so, they would have perceived that, as the skill of the free- masons advanced, and their workmanship im- proved, they economised material, con- structed more solidly, and produced a richer and more harmonious effect, without sacri- ficing any of the principles which governed their practice ; the improvements they made were as great as those noticed when the — Hu,, Af. TV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1051 ■ric proportions were changed to the Ionic. In the Doric we had two-thirds mass, one- id void; in the Ionic half mass, half void; at AVells Chapter-house one-third mass, ji-thirds void; in St. George’s Chapel, one-sixth mass and five-sixths void. 1052 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I small columns on the fall towards the nave, or the single column on that towards the si aisles, the first of which projects 6| inches, and the latter 4 inches. The mouldings around the windows and their mullions are shown at the side of t pier in their proper position. Division of the Nave of St. George's Chnptl. — The mouldings set around the plan the pier are continued up to the vaulting of the roof, without any other interrupt! except where they are mitred round the arches. Bath Abbey Church is 89 feet 5 in. wide from face to face of the buttresses to nave: whose clear width is 29 feet 10 in., or one-third of the whole; and each the side aisles is a trifle more than the half of the width of the nave, being 15 feet 8 inch, the walls and piers added together are not quite equal to a third, as they amount only to feet 2 inches on each side, or together to 28 feet 4 inches, the difference being given increase the side aisles. The section of this beautiful building presents to us all the improvements made in vaulting, and the right proportions as well as directions to be given to the flying buttresses : in the first application of those supports, as at Salisbury, they are evidently misapplied, but in the example before us we find that the constructors had arrived at a knowledge of the principles of the catenarian curve, which is traceable through the solid masses of the section : it was by slow degrees t-hat the freemasons arrived at a knowledge of the peculiar properties of this figure; had it been known at the first commence- ment of the introduction of flying buttresses, we should have had a better application of them ; in several instances we find them adopted where no advantage, or very little, could be derived from them. Division in Bath Abbey Church differs from all other examples of this period, by the height given to the clerestory and the omission of the triforium : the judicious and excellent arrangement of the flying buttresses permits of the greater display of glass, which in the sixteenth century had arrived at its most gorgeous state, rich in every colour, and beautiful from the drawing of the patterns, and figures with which it was covered. Bishop King commenced this building about the year 1500, on an entirely new site, near the old church : from the centre of one pier to that of the other is 20 feet 1 inch ; the thickness of the outer buttresses 3 feet, and their projection 4 feet ; one severy of building contains 1 65 0 feet, and the area of the points of support is 275 feet, or one-sixth. The pillars are square, though set diagonally, their width from north to south and from east to west being 5 feet, and the opening of the arches between them 15 feet 1 inch ; half their | and base is shown at fig. 1 320. : the height from the pavement to the top of the capi where the sculptured angel is placed, is 56 feet 3 inches, and to the top of the vaul 73 feet 6 inches, within 7 feet as much as the clear width between the outer walls. Fig. 1321. shows the plan of the stone vaulting, which is perfectly geometrical in, 1 setting out ; the cloisters at Gloucester, the aisle at the east end of Peterborough cathc and St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, have vaults of a similar kind. The thickness of the stone which comprises the vaults of fan tracery varies accordntf 1 its position, but in no instance is it considerable, or more than absolutely necessary to r crushing. The spire of Salisbury, 180 feet in height, of an octangular form, measures I 1 east to west internally 33 feet 2 inches, and from north to south C incites more ; thickness of the spire at bottom is only 2 feet, or the area of its base is half that of void, the void containing two parts, and the solid around it one ; this spire diminish' thickness for the first 20 feet, after which it is 9 inches in thickness throughout; at a ‘ 30 feet from the summit is a hole, by which an exit from the interior may be made, by means of the crockets and irons on the outside the top of the spire may be attained 1816 the writer examined the position of the vane, and the manner in which the cap stone was placed, and descended astonished at the perfection of the masonry, and thinness of the stone with which it was constructed Fit;. 1517 . bath abbey chukch. PRINCIPLES OP PROPORTION. 1053 Fig. 1X2 1. chapel at Caudebec, near Rinen, Normandy , exhibits the manner of suspending a locking it between the voussoirs of a strong semicircular arch. The length of this Af. I V. 105 + PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE Rook II pendent stone is 1 7 feet C> inches, and its thick- ness at the top, where locked, is 80 inches : the voussoirs are 3 feet in depth ; the small pointed arches or ribs that form the groining of the hexa- gonal vault spring from the side walls and the ornamental knob of the pendentive, and are per- fectly independent. The abutments of the semi- circular arch, which has a radius of 12 feet, are formed by solid walls continued for some length in the direction of its diameter. This sacristy is hexagonal ; each side internally measures 12 feet, and the height from the pave- ment to the springing of the ribs is 18 feet. Henry the Seventh's Chape ! , Westminster. ■ — The lirst appearance of the pointed arch was probably a little before the termination of the twelfth century; the pil- lars and mouldings which then accompanied it were of Saxon origin ; to its acute form ’ll AT. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1055 hich the arch was struck from more than two .litres : the naves of York, Canterbury, anil Winchester Cathedrals have been cited as nong the best examples. Rut we have now p describe the principles of a style founded Ipon the others, and applied to all buildings a England from the middle of the fifteenth the middle of the sixteenth century; it is Jit met with on the continent, the Italian revived classic architecture having there pen generally introduced and preferred. The variety exhibited in groined vaults, ogressing from simple ribs to those of an Itricate and net-like arrangement, no doubt I the masons of the time to the construction the cloisters at Gloucester, King’s College, |d Henry the Seventh’s Chapel at Westmin- r, which works are the best evidences that i be adduced of the improvements made in ofessional science, and which could only suit from a continued perseverance in the inly of the subject: an examination of the eral styles will prove that they must have :n produced by the same school or fraternity, 1 that neither Sir Reginald Bray nor Wil- jn of Wykeham could have become ac- linted with the mysteries of the craft, unless y had been instructed by the freemasons ; il that to them, and not to any individual, i to the clergy as a body, ought we to i ibute the construction of these scientific < highly decorated works. H’he Division of Henry the Seventh's Chapel I |rs a strong resemblance in its general pro- 1 :ions to that of St. George’s at Windsor, alough it is rendered more ornamental by t! multitude of figures enshrined in delicate ta made- work, which covers almost the entire "is. The mouldings of the main piers (fig. Rjl.) that separate the middle from the side atjs are enclosed within a circle divided in! a pentagon — a form the best adapted to ri - ve the weight of the ribs, and the flying hilresses that were to resist their force. le Rev. James Dallaway, whose dis- coj.es upon the architecture of England, ]' ed so many admirers of this interesting met. observes, that “here the expiring ■ seems to have been exhausted by every Hie pendentive roofs, never before pted on so large a scale, are prodigies t.” But it is not to the profusion of set tured angels, statues, royal heraldic dc- V!C that we are desirous of drawing tbajtention, so much as to the extraordinary '.nn|'uction that prevails throughout this • '•ay-piece, in which we have the strongest "ye that theory and practice went hand 111 that the knowledge of geometry d vanced to its highest pitch in the con- strulve arts, and that not only were the Pnrbles of the arch thoroughly understood, ' *t msiderable advance made in the appli- ' '' of the properties belonging to the cone. 1 section of this beautiful chapel is 78 feet m 'hh; the buttresses and outer walls are 6 feet 9 inches, the side aisles 1 lfeet. !S > the piers from north to south 4 feet. tuge ’1 iitt 1056 JiotlK 111 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. 6 inches, and the clear width of the nave 33 feet. The entire width, at the basement or lev of the pavement of the crypt, is 79 feet : 26j feet, or is devoted to points ot support, a 52| feet, or to the side aisles and nave ; the area of a severy shows J applied to wa and piers, and | to the void, which proportions accord with the early rather than with t late examples ; the great weight of the vaulting, which is 62 feet high from the pavenu of the chapel, requiring additional strength, the proportions of St. George’s Chape Windsor would not have been equal to the necessary resistance. (See jiar. 2002 w.) Our limits will not permit a more extended inquiry into the principles of proport! the study of which is calculated to produce an important improvement in the noble ■ for the practice of which the young architect must prepare himself by careful measu ment, not only of the ruins of the Acropolis and of the Capitol, but of all that remain 1 mediaeval architecture : he must be a pilgrim seeking after truth, not bowing before favourite shrine, but returning with a devotion as enlarged as his subject. The stupend works which antiquity has transmitted to us, it is hoped, may excite the attention of general reader, nor will his interest be diminished by the contemplation of the astonish development of modern industry. The writer cannot but feel the importance and van of his subject, and, while he is conscious of his own imperfections, he must often accuse deficiency of his materials: but the results of ins labour, however inadequate to Ins < wishes, he finally delivers to the candour of the public. Chap. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 10.57 The Figure of tiie Cube lias from time immemorial been selected by the architect nd engineer as best suited for every variety of edifice ; and it is icmarkable that the nultiplying of the cube constitutes the design of the Greek temple, the Gothic catbedinl, nd the modern iron structure at Sydenham, t lie variety of effect depending upon the lode of its application. Reviewing the temples of the ancients, we find that those cotti- osed of a portico of four columns, and six intercolumniations on the flank, or seven olumns; that the whole constituted a double cube, or two cubes side by side. A abe of 32 feet 4 inches in height, breadth, and length, placed behind another of the hme dimensions, would represent the entire mass of the temple of F’ortuna Virilis Rome. The temple of six columns, or the Ilexastyle, is composed of nine half cubes, or three itire, placed one behihd the other, with the addition of three half cubes against the sides the first, making altogether four cubes and a half. The Octastyle temple is composed of nine whole cubes, or four cubes and a half in ; pth, repeated twice, placed side 1 y side. The Parthenon is thus formed of cubes, whose les each measure 50 feet 6 inches; two occupy the front, of 101 feet; the depth of the jur and a half cubes are a trifle more than 227 feet, the ti ue extent being 227 feet 7 inches. Six cubes, placed one above the other, form the design of the Campanile, at Florence, mmenced by the celebrated Giotto in the year 1334 ; and on the breaking up of these ibes into ornament, the perpendicular lines are lengthened out, whilst in the Greek mple the horizontal are made to preponderate ; repose in the latter, and lofty aspiration the former, marks the distinction between them. The Tower of Rochester Castle, usually supposed to be of Norman construction, rfcctly resembles the far-famed Coliseum at Rome, in the manner in which the spiral ults are executed, and in the general method adopted in carrying up the massive ills. The cement employed was evidently manufactured on the spot, as it is entirely nposed of the materials found close at hand, and the stone such as could be brought i'vn tlie Medway, and quarried on its shores. If this enduring structure ua« the work IGuodulph in the 12th eentuiy we have the strongest evidence that the Roman aits of instruction were continued without any change either in the art or mystery of building to that period at least. Irite building is a cube and a half nearly, being about 74 feet square without the en- tice porch, and its height to the top of the angular turrets is 1 12 feet. A square divided ij> twenty-five equal squares exhibits its plan ; the sixteen outer squares represent the t "kness of the walls, in which are galleries, rece ses, and contrivances necessary for its fltection against an enemy ; the nine inner squares of the plan are divided into two spacious r ns, one being 45 feet by 19 feet, the other 45 feet by 21 feet; the wall that divides win is 5 feet 6 inches in thickness. The height comprises a basement story and three o rs beneath its roof, which has been vaulted, and which is 90 feet to the top of the b dement, and 112 feet to the top of the turrets. "les adopted by the Freemasons in setting out their Buildings, from the Tenth to the F rentli Century : — i the foregoing remarks on Proportion some general rules have been suggested as to >nj and void, and more particularly the principles of setting out the windows and h ry of the English and French cathedrals. On referring again to this interesting su rct, the writer was led to inquire why the structures of the latter countiy should be so iiformly larger than those of the former, from which they differed but little in style, |u' rving the same relative proportions, though differing in dimensions. Guided by the su osition that the buildings of the above period were the works of fraternities of he msons, it seemed conclusive that they should have some standard of measurement, h ■ of their own or peculiar to each country ; and. on testing the measurements with u iew, it resulted that thove of England were set out with the English perch of 16 feet ■ hes, and no doubt by an English lodge; while in those of France the French perch ra 3 of 22 j oieds du roi , equal to 23'452 English feet, was employed ; the few exceptions at i.'eux, Caen, St. George Bocherville, and some others with round arches, and the le . it church of St. Ouen at Rouen, in the flamboyant style, are set out with the English 1 ■- r I of 1G feet 6 inches, and are universally attributed to English constructors; they r Inly most curiously agree in proportion and dimension with the English cathedrals, h have two cubes given to the nave, producing on the plan a Latin cross, instead 1 Greek so usually found in Fiance. It would se.m that the standard measures h ;d to were well and wisely chosen, as if intended to apply to all times and all : es of structure; for it is singular bow nearly the dimensions of the cubes of the lair balace at Sydenham, 24 feet, correspond to 23 feet 6 inches of the royal French peuj 1 1 illustrate this subject fully is not within our present narrow limits; a very few v sanies must suffice, out of the numbers which might be adduced in support of the V f °l!ttion; and it is earnestly hoped that the young architect may be sufficiently into* 1058 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. rested to test the theory practically, that while he admires their picturesque beauties, lie will examine by measurement their plans and sections. Of the French Cathedrals , we must be content to refer to Chartres, Reims, and Amiens as those most admired, and which serve as examples of the application of the French perch in setting out their various parts as well as the whole. Chartres Cathedral, in which the pointed arch first appears, is a structure of the llih century, and one of the most remarkable, as well as beautiful, erected after the first intro- duction of the pointed style by those who had journeyed with the Crusaders, and had at opportunity of studying their craft, in the East. The proportions are simple in the extreme. A cube is devoted to the nave, two to tin transept, one to the choir ; in addition to which, at the eastern extremity, is a semicircula termination with six polygonal chapels attached, forming on the plan a Greek cross o admirable design. The nave, comprising six divisions of pointed arches on each side, is in its length am width six royal perches, the distribution of which will enable the reader to comprehend tli setting out of the entire plan, which he can refer to in several publications. The clear width of the nave is two royal perches between the clerestory walls ; eacl side aisle is one royal perch, and the distance from the middle of one pier to that of tli other, from west to east, is also a royal perch. The entire width of the nave from out to out, that is to say, from the face of the oxterio buttresses, is six royal perches, four perches being given to the two side aisles and navefo their clear widths, and the other two to the projection of the buttresses, thickness of tin two outer walls, and those of the clerestory of the nave. If the royal perch be divided into three, one part constitutes the diameter given to till pillars, and another the thickness of each of the walls of the side aisles. The internal height of the nave is the same as its clear internal width with side aisles so justly is all proportioned that the perch royal, and its division into three, enables n to comprehend the dimensions of the parts, us well as that of the entire mass of construe lion. Heims Cathedral was similarly set out. The clear width of the nave is two rny perches, and each of the side aisles is one perch. The extreme width of the nave, comprisii J the projection of the buttresses, is six royal perches; the diameter of the piers, one-tlii of a royal perch, as in the example of Chartres. It must he observed that the dimensions do not apply to the clear distances betivei the pillars but to the space between the walls, which in the clerestory are peculiar fin t contrivances of a gallery, which usually continues around the entire cathedral, and wlii< will he better understood when we treat upon Amiens Cathedral, reserved for a fuller deseri tion. That the perch was the standard of measurement there can be no doubt; for in t smaller churches of Great Britain, as that of Roslyn, for example, the nave is a single per i in width, and the side aisles half a perch ; the proportions of the parts being al.o those the third of an English perch. Salisbury Cathedral , a contemporary structure with Amiens, is set out with the Engl perch, and affords the best commentary upon t lie two standard measures made use of the same century bv the French and English freemasons. The Nave of Amiens Cathedral is usual y admired for its elegant proportions, ami several eminent critics has been cited as the beau ideal of that style of architecture universally practised during the middle ages, or after the Romanesque had been disco tinued. It is one of the most simple in it' arrangement, though at first sight, reinovi all idea of simplicity, and appearing so complicated from its vaiietv of parts, as to defy application of any ordinary rules; the numerous arcades, the narrow and lofty comp; ments, the vaulted divisions, the diagonal aim curved lines, blending one into the other, apparently without limit, it is some lime before the eye can acqui see in the idea that si an edifice can be brought under the same law„ as a Greek temple, or that the cube cm be the measure of its parts or its whole. In taking the measurements, however, of this i example, the dimension of 2 i feet 6 inches so frequently occurred that it seemed to (lei a standard by which to ariive at the length, breadth, and height of the whole, and tliai considered after the manner of Sebastian Serlio where he describes Brainantc’s plan ol Peter’s, we might arrive at something like a clue to the whole design. It is curious to note, in the work of the abov« mentioned architect, several allusion the cube, in the defining the parts as well as the whole of a design, and there can he 1 doubt that this simple figure served as the means of measuring the quantities, of eii solid or void, in every period of the constructive arts ; certainly none presents to the ar tect a better means of comprehending or of measuring quantity, and none is more rea subdivided, or rendered subservient to the taste of the designer, whatever may he the ar tecture he is anxious to imitate. Within an isometrical cube may be placed the entire nave of Amiens Cathedral ; and better to understand its proportions, we must suppose each square or cube into which > HAP. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1059 ivided to measure 23 foot G indies each side, or the isometrical figure to conta'n 216 uch cubes; the total height, width, and length being 141 feet, or six times the 23 feet inches. ( See Jig. 1327.) On the plan are six divisions in length and width, or altogether 3G squares ; each mea- ire 23 feet 6 inches on each of .their sides. The six outer divisions of the principal figure ire devoted to walls and buttresses ; the adjoining six on each side show the situation f e side aisles ; and the two middle dir isions that of the nave. The two side aisles °cjry together 12 squares, as does the nave; the remaining 12 being devoted to outer wa and their buttresses. e entire area, therefore, has 24 squares to represent its interior distribution, and halt lumber its external walls ; or one third walls, two-thirds void. Such are the general gements of its plan, and its extreme simplicity has enabled the constructors to execute ulting of the side aisles and that of the centre nave by diagonal ribs, which in the r extend over one square, and in the latter two, thus giving to the nave its due pro- of height, without changing the principle of its construction, e freemasons of the middle ages were so perfectly acquainted wi h geometry that there lorn any defect in their vaulting ; it is evident that they laid down their plans for its ion before they decided upon the form of their main piers; in their setting out, 1 e part had its due function ; and the column, which was intended to be connected ll,h he vaulting, either of nave or side aisle, was peculiarly adapted by its position for | use. tin arr the fo pot is s exe '1 ycai help and master mason Robert de Luzarche commenced the building of this nave about the 220, the founder being Bishop Evrard. The pillars of the nave were raised to the of their capitals in 1236, but it was not till 1236 that the vaulting was completed; out tight or nine years afterwards the lateral chapels were added. 3 y 2 10G0 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II To the top of the battlement of the nave there is not quite so much height as the oute wall of the Coliseum at. Rome, which is 157 feet ; but it is curious to observe that one division of this renowned building does not differ very materially in its proportions from that at Amiens ; the division of the ampitheatre being seven cubes in height ; the piers occupy one third of the width of a compartment, as is usual in Ro- man structures of the same period. The masonry of Amiens Cathedral is executed after the Roman models, consequently the pointed arch makes tha chief difference between the two styles. To render the application of the theory of the cube to the nave of Amiens Cathedral more evi- dent, or how the 216 cubes which the isometrical figure contains are placed, somewhat more of detail must be entered into. The six main divisions shown in the figure, with the side aisle behind them, have their points of support at the four angles of each of the six squares ; then each square, with its 23 feet 6 inches sides, shows the position of the lowest cube of the six placed one above the other, forming the entire height of each division or severy. At the top of the second cube is the level upon which the main arches spring, and that upon which the ribs of the vaulting of the side aisles rest. The top of the third cube indicates the level upon which the triforium is based, and conse- quently contains the vaulting of the side aisle. file fourth cube is the triforium, and the fifth and the sixth the clerestory. On examining the section, the side aisles are three cubes in height, including the vaulting, and the nave six; the entire open space of the interior has 18 cubes for each aisle, or 36 for the two side aisles, and 72 for the nave ; in all 108 cubes, or exactly one half the entire number contained in the isometrical cube. It must be remarked that considerable altera- tions have been made since the building was con- structed ; between the buttresses, chapels have been formed, and the original windows, which lighted the side aisles, removed to the extent, or somewhat beyond the outer face of buttresses, as represented. Tne interior is therefore increased mate ially in width, and its effect greatly im- proved, making the entire internal width and height more in conformity with each other, or each 1-11 feet. In rhe elevation of the divisions the boundary of each of the six cubes is more clearly marked. i jl The width from centre to centre of each pillar, in- : dicated by the seven circles (fig. 1528.) is 23 feet 6 inches; to the top of the capitals from the pavement A B, the height is twice that dimension ; tj the bottom of the bases of the column of the triforium 1? C, the same ; thence to the bottom of the glass of the clerestory windows C D, the same; to the tops of the capitals or spring of the arches 1) E, the same ; and above that line to the under- side the vaulting E F, the same; thus, six tunes 23 feet 6 inches, or 141 feet, is the total height from the pavement, of the division represented in fig 1328. As the groined vaults of the side aisles are set Fig. ists. elevation or nave; amie.'s ^ out upon a square, and the width from the centres of piers is the same as these to»ai PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1061 nave, we have three perfect cubes of 24 feet in each severy up to the bottom of the trifo- rium story, and the same number from thence to the top of the vaulting of the nave. The main pillars are 7 feet, and 7 feet 2 inches in diameter, composed of a large cylindrical column, with others 'attached for the support of the vaulting. Towards the nave there are three columns which are carried up to the height of about the middle of that of the clerestory windows; on the capi- tals which terminate them rest the •toss springers and diagonal ribs of he vaulting. The arches of each livision are 4 feet 9 inches in thick- tess, and rest on the side columns, of 8 inches diameter. The faint line n the plan fig. 1929. represents the ier and mullions of the division of he clerestory window. The seven circles shown in fig. 1528. xliibit the proportion each pier bears j the opening, namely, that of two- evenths for piers, and live-sevenths tr the space between them. The intensions vary a little as taken liroughout the six severies, as in me instances the diameter of the ers varies as above stated. It may be remarked that the contour the torus and scotia in the base, I? not sections of cylinders or their Irtions, but partakes of the elliptical. ie mouldings below, are contoured Iferently to those above, the eye, and 1 isideration is given to their position, Fig 15 3 o. t produce proper effect. rLAX OF COLUMN'S ; AMIENS. Fig. 1331. Fig- 1333. ie base and capital of the main pillars, as here shown with their dimensions, is the as the front view towards the nave, with the exception that the two 7-inch columns e side of that in the middle are omitted. e piers that divide the side chapels, and the original outer buttresses, have been ;ed probably from their original design ; they are now 8 feet wide. ClIAP. IV. 1062 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book I II. The clerestory window with its piers and mullions being already given (fiij. 1:329.) it remains to show the plan of the piers , . and nnilli ins of the triforium, and I its gallery or passage, which has a clear width of 20 inches between the main pier and the outer wall, which is about 10 inches in thickness (fig. 1334 ) The middle mnllion, or that which divides the triforinni into two principal arches, is 2 feet C inches in width, and composed of seven s t all columns, as shown attached to the main pillar, which has a depth of 6 feet 8 inches. The ordinary decoration in this ca- thedral is very simple, consisting of a circle, comprising either three, four, live, six, or eight others ; the centres of which and their portions may be understood by reference to the five diagrams figs. 1335. to 1339. Sculp- tured foliage occurs in the capitals and along the stiing mouldings; figures, however, of the most elaborate execution and desigi decorate the exterior, and particularly around the chief entrances; perhaps few buildingsexce the Cathedral of Amiens in the richness of these portions, or the magnificence of its porches In describing the figs. 1292. and 1291., an attempt was made to convey an idea of tin geometrical style of the tracery in the rose windows, as well as those of the side chapels. We cannot quit this part of our subject without regretting the want of further space fo the treatment of this very interesting reference to the arts as displayed by the builders of thi period, particularly as the principles upon which they practised are so little known. Simple a they were, their system seems to have been forgotten after the lodges of the freemason were broken up, and the new era appeared. The renaissance, or the return to the Grec models, at once set aside all knowledge of that architecture which had attained such pci faction in Europe for four centuries. l’J.AN UK 1’JtlFOKnjH. Ni Fig. 1359. THE BUILDING FOR THE EXHIBITION OF THE INDUSTRY OF ALL NATIONS, 1851. This building was stated to have been suggested to the Society of Arts in June 181 < Ids Royal Highness Prince Albert, and it was not long ere the plan for its adoption ' developed. The public quickly responded to an appeal by subscribing 75,000/. to ena the commissioners to erect a suitable building, to be completed by the 1st ot May 18 the site being granted by Her Majesty, on the south side of Hyde Park ; am that was required of the exhibitors was, to deliver their various specimens of art Si f ffn hr-n h; Chap. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1063 manufacture at the building which would be provided for them. Mr. Paxton, aftci some )tlier designs had been set aside, submitted a design composed chiefly of glass and iron, .vliich Messrs. Fox, Henderson, & Co. tendered to construct for 79,800/. This was inune- liately carried into effect. FI*. 1341 1064 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 The site for the building contained about 26 acres, being 2,300 feet in length, an 500 feet in breadth ; the principal front extending from west to east. The total area of tf ground floor was 772,784 superficial feet, and that of the galleries 217,100 square feci The length of these galleries extended nearly a mile. The cubical contents of the buildin were estimated at 33,000,000 feet. There were used in its construction 2,300 cast iron girders, 378 wrought iron trnssc for supporting the galleries and roof, 30 miles of gutters for carrying water to tl columns which served as water-pipes, 202 miles of sash-bars, and 900,000 superfici, feet of glass. On the ground-floor, 1,106 columns of cast iron, rested on cast iron plates, based upo concrete; these columns were 8 inches in diameter, and 18 feet 5^ inches in height ; tin were east hollow, the thickness of the metal varying from J to 1J in., according t the weights they were destined to support. The sectional area was increased by for broad fillets or faces, 3| inches in width, and a little more than a sixth of an inch i thickness. The principal entrance was in the centre of the south side ; passing through a vestibul 72 feet by 48, the transept was entered, which was covered by a semi-cylindrical van 72 feet in diameter, springing from a height of 68 feet from the floor; and this vault iron and glass was in length 408 feet from north to south. On each side of the transej was an aisle 24 feet wide. Standing in the middle of the transept, the vista or nave, at right angles, extended e;r and west 900 feet in each direction; the total length being 1 848 feot. This na>e w. 72 feet wide, and 64 feet high ; and on each side was an aisle 24 feet in width ; and abuvij at a height of 24 feet from the floor, were galleries which surrounded the whole of the navi and transept. Beyond these side aisles and parallel with them, at a distance of 48 feet, were sccoi. side aisles, of an equal width to those already mentioned, and also covered with galleries < a similar level to the others. Bridges of communication were made at convenient di tances, to allow of an unbroken promenade, and from which a view of the several cour I might be obtained. These courts were roofed in, at the height of 2 stories, and were • feet in width. Ten double staircases 8 feet wide gave access to the several galleries. After the transept and nave were marked out, the general arrangement consisted of series of compartments 24 feet square, and as much in height; these bays or cubes we each formed of 4 columns, supporting girders put together very ingeniously. One of the bays or gallery- floors, 24 feet square, containing 576 superficial feet, was calculated support as many ewts , or 30 tons. The symmetry and strength of this vast building depended upon the accuracy with whi the simple plan was drawn out, and much credit is due to Mr. Brounger, who stipcri tended this portion of the work. He had to establish a series of squares of 24 feet, and tl was admirably effected by rods of well-seasoned pine, fitted with gun-metal cheeks. Stakes were driven into the ground to mark the position of the columns, their prec centres being afterwards found by the theodolite, and marked by a nail on the top ol t stake or pile; and when the digging commenced for the foundations, and there was a n cessity to move the pile, a right-angled triangle was formed in deal, and previous to the i moval of a stake, a nail indicating the position of the column was placed at the apex of t triangle ; two oiher stakes were driven in, and the first withdrawn. The entire ground pi may be considered as composed of 1,453 squares, each containing 576 superficial feet. 1 south front occupied 77, the east and west fronts each 17, so that the entire parallelogr. 1 contained 1,309 of these squares ; on the north side were 48 others, 3 divisions in depi making an additional 144, thus completing the number stated. The nave, transept, a;| courts were formed by the omission of the columns, where their width required to either or 72 feet, and girders of sufficient strength were substituted to span the sp where such columns were omitted. Had each of the 1.387 squares of which the plan c< sists had its complement of columns to have perfected each cube, 1,502 would have !;: required; but the formation of the wider openings occasioned only 1,106 to be employ so that, by the omission of a third, the courts, nave, and transepts acquired their adinn proportions. Each of the 1,387 squares was 576 superficial feet, or a total of 798/ superficial feet. The columns being 8 inches in diameter, the area of the section of whole 1,106 was 380 superficial feet, or the points of support were a trifle more thai 2,000th of the entire area, for ^ 3 $p== 2 , 102 . When we compare the Crystal Palace with one of the lightest constructed basilica ancient Rome, we are astonished at the difference in the proportions. For instance, total area of the basilica of St. Paul without the walls of Rome, was 108,000 superb' feet ; while the points of support were 12,000, or one ninth. The Crystal Palace, wh was seven times the area of the basilica of St. Paul, had it been constructed in a sim manner, would have required 84,000 superficial feet for the points of support, instcac 380 superficial feet. HAP. IV. PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTION. 1065 In the Saxon cathedrals, one third of the entire area was employed for walls and piers ; the Pantheon at Rome, one quarter ; in St. Paul’s, London, one sixth ; and in most o( L cathedrals constructed from the 12th to the 15th century, the same proportions are ictist'd ; but we have never hitherto seen any attempt to lessen the proportions of the i>ports beyond a twentieth of the entire area, when the ordinary building materials, brick or stone, have been employed, whilst in this instance iron columns are found ficiently strong, when they have the proportion of a 2,000th part of the whole, or are U hundred times less in section than their points of support, estimated as a twentieth the whole, and which we have considered as the lightest of the constructions hitherto etised; the round Temple of Claudius at Rome being the example. Tredgold initiated that an iron column of cast iron 8 inches in diameter, and 24 feet high, 1 carry nearly 50 tons, or 1,106, 55,800 tons; so that, if each of 1,287 squares had i| sustain 30 tons, there would be ample strength, this not amounting to more than 2 J 10 tons. n preparing the foundations for the columns, great care was taken to arrive at the I vel, upon which a bed of concrete was thrown ; and it was es’imated that a pressure per f erfieial foot of 2w tons should be provided for. The concrete varied in depth from f i 4 feet, and was finished by covering the top with a surface of fine mortar, worked e i and with a level face. On this was laid a base plate for each column, the lower part c sisting of a horizontal plate having attached to it a vertical tube of the form of the ejimn it was to carry. The length of these base plates was from north to south, so tj the water brought down by the columns from the toof might run in the d'etion from east to west. Into the sockets, cast iron pipes 6 inches in diameter " e inserted, for the purpose of conveying the water into the cisterns and tanks provided b eceive it. t the upper portion of the base plate four holes were cast, in as many projections, k at him in a right direction ; but as the spectator Qoves to the extremity of the side, it is manifest that the angle in which the head must turned becomes sharper, and the position is then painful. Besides this objection, the m is known to be unfavourable to hearii g or to the propagation of sound. 2954. The truncated oval is in some measure subject to the same inconveniences on the i es as the last-mentioned figure. It removes also a large portion of the spectators to a i siderable distanco from the centre of the scene, besides which, in the boxes near the ] scenium, their seats tend in opposite directions to the actor. It has been to remedy these 1 Its that the form of the horseshoe has been adopted, which is a sort of mean between the c drangular and oval forms : and where the plot of ground is much longer than it is wide, ) j a suitable figure, and one which affords the opportunity of increasing the number of 1 es. 955. When, however, the circumstances concur in allowing it, the adoption of the icircular plan is doubtless the best. It is a figure which allows each spectator to be at ised : but this must be done so as not to inter- ipt those who are behind. It may be accom- islied in a similar way ; for, as formerly set off, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. =21 feet ( Jig. 1349. ), 1 is the Hrst tenor point. Join Al, and let it cut the vertical le through 2 in x', the portion downwards x'l= 1] ;t ; then l is the point found. Join Al, make x "h 1 feet; join Ah and x""i=l\ feet; and so on. It, i, k, l, are the places found which the heads of the ectators should occupy, and show the elevation to given to the seats successively. Fi K . 1349. 1 2961 . If the simple process described be accurately performed, the points which indicate places of the spectators will lie in the branches of a very beautiful curve, which may be med the iseidomal or the isaco/istic curve, that is, one of equal seeing or hearing : it will of the form in Jig. 1350. A being the place of the speaker, and the heads of the spec- £ h i A- c 4 3 h 's being placed on the line A mn, continued as far as the voice will reach, XAX being axis of the curve, and YY its parameter. This curve has two branches on opposite s A, showing that if the building extend behind the speaker, or if the spectacle be >le or tile sound audible on every side, the same may be continued al! round. I>y ns of this curve, the position of seats in a theatre may lie satisfactorily determined. 162. For any great assemblage, where it is desirable that one individual or group of yiduals should be seen or heard, an amphitheatre of this form might be constructed the surface of revolution generated by moving the curve round its axis, which would -ftly accommodate 10,000 individuals. 163. According to the arrangement of London audiences, Mr. Wyatt calculates that a re consisting of three fourths of a circle on the plan, with a stage opening of 35 feet, ontain, in boxes in four tiers, tour other boxes next tlie stage, a pit a., it two galleries, 1 persons, exclusive of four boxes in the proscenium, and fourteen immediately under lli '|ress boxes. Perhaps no modern theatre can be required to hold above 2,500 people. 1070 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook 1 1 2964. We have already given some general hints relative to the form ; we shrill here a the author's view of this matter; and thereon he very properly says that, with reference distinct sound, the safest method is to adopt a form known to be most capable of convex i sound with facility, to construct that form of materials that are conductors of sound, and avoid all bteaks and projections on the surface of that form, because they obstruct a impede the progress of the sound. It is well known that a circular enclosure witlu breaks possesses the power of conveying sounds witli facility, as the whispeting gallery St. Paul’s Cathedral ; and that wood is an admirable conducting material for the purpo; Count Algarotti, in his treatise on the Opera, says, daily experience teaches us that ii box whose walls are naked, the singer’s voice is reverberated in a particular manner; sounds crude and harsh, and by no means flattering to the ear; the accents are quite lost the box be hung with tapestry ; whereas they are reflected full, sonorous, and agreeable the car when the boxes are only boarded, which is an obvious proof, and confirmed experience, that the best lining for the interior part of a theatre is wood, as is said to ha been the ea--e in Her Majesty’s Theatre, burnt in 1867. 2965. Whatever be the form of the theatre, it ought in every part to be limited in extc- to such distance as the voice will distinctly reach ; and the nearer that figure conforms the proportions wherein the natural voice is heard in each direction, the more equally " the sound he heard in every part of the theatre. The experiments tried by Mr. Wy. proved that the reach of the voice when moderately exerted was in the proportion about two ninths further in a direct front line than laterally; and that being distinct! audible on each side of the speaker at a distance of seventy-five feet, it will be as plain heard at a distance of ninety-two feet in front of him, declining in strength behind him so not to be clearly heard at much more than thirty feet. “ According,” says Mr. Wya “ to these data, it would appear that the geometrical figure, which comes the nearest to til extreme limits of the natural expansion of the voice, is a semicircle of 75 feet radius, or 1 feet in diameter, continued on each side to the extent of 17 feet, or in the proportion about two ninths of its lateral expansion (Jig. 1951.) beyond the limits of the semicircle, and then converging suddenly until the two lines meet at C, behind the back of the speaker.” Rut though the voice may be heard at these dis- tances, it does not follow that a theatre of this extent should he erected ; indeed, it would he absurd to do so, for the actor varies his place almost every moment ; and as he removes from the centre, from which it has been assumed he is speaking, he would become inaudible to some parts of the audience as he receded from it. It is evident, therefore, in planning a theatre, the radius or semi-diameter must he so reduced as to bring the extreme distance at which he may in any case be placed within the space of 75 feet, that is, that when the speaker is placed at the extremity of either side of the stage, his voice may be heard by those seated on the oppose side of the house. In the diagram, the widest part of the theatre inscribed in the largi figure is 58 feet upon the level of the dress boxes; and allowing 9 feet 6 inches for tl depth of the boxes on that floor, by means of a projection of 18 inches more than the box above, there will be 67 feet 6 inches between the extreme part of the stage on one side at the back wall of the boxes on the opposite side : but as the speaker is in no case placed either extremity of the stage, and even if so situated, the distance between him and n opposite side of the house wotdd he within 8 feet of the reach of his voice in its later, direction, and 25 feet within its limits in a direct line, it hence appears that the circuh is preferable to any other form ; ana if we fix a limit for the diameter of that form, we ai in possession of the rules which limit the length of the theatre, or the distance from i! front line of the stage to the boxes immediately in front of that line. Taking 75 li for the distance at which the voice can be heard laterally, as the space between the bo line of the stage and its immediately opposite boxes may occasionally be in the Intel direction of the voice, the greatest distance from the front wall of the stage to the h le against the disastrous results of a panic is a work of greater physical difficulty ■ 1 a j : o render a building fireproof. For a stage manager to appear every night and ■ xjJn the available means of egress, the attendant at special doors to shout “ here” on h named (and then to vanish for the rest of the evening), might satisfy some persons. ■' aramount consideration is a sufficiency of exit*. Ingress and egress should be ed on each side of the house, so that whatever doors, passages, and staircases are on one side, there will be corresponding ones on the other. The spectators are ivided and pressure avoided. The various tiers may in large theatres require more ne exit. It is important to prevent two crowds meeting in the street, such as the 1 the gallery, for the pathway becomes blocked. The difficulty on the ground • “oi not great. A ’rush” room and waiting room are wanted, where those having carriages may wait, ■ 1 id lose who are going to walk should be let out clear of them. A-never two passages meet, by which an exit takes place, from that point onwards “"'tqage should be double the size, in order to let the crowd pass easily. The passages ;Jil ' lircases should be made direct, so that the crowd need not hesitate or stop the way at a, | Large halls and staircases give rise to much lounging about, which is bad. A "S 1 ! should as much as possible be avoided, as well us steps in passages, for which no 1 «ui can be offered. The pn plat til U! thai pit 1072 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book 1 Sloping corridors have been advocated, but these are not praticable in s< localities. 2970a. Every opening should be instantly and always practicable. All obstruct! should be forbidden by law. Doorways ought not to be less than 6 feet wide, and doors in most cases are best made sliding, or should open both ways, whether mad. wood, wrought iron, cement, or terra-cotta. Messrs. Chubb have lately invented a cl. contrivance for dispensing with an attendant at extra exit doors, consisting of a su] imposed spring panel on the inside of the door, in which the lock is embedded ; v a slight pressure the double doors fly open outward, and it is impossible to open tl from the outside except by a key. Another invention is Walker’s now safety and esc door, consisting of an inuer frame of a door which will open outwards, the usual oi frame opening inwards. Present doors can be adapted to the invtntion. 29706. Two stone or cement staircases to the galleries are essential, although one n only be used its an entrance. The staircases for the upper parts should be as wide as easy as possible. Staircases should never be less than 5 feet wide (some writers not more than 3 feet wide), tbe steps to be all straight, no winders, 12 inches in the in and not less than 61 inches rise. They should be square, and be formed along an end', wellhole, if any ; no windows should be permitted. A series of staircases absolutely < connected with each other has lately been urged; the only doors on to it being tit top and bottom ; an iron hand rail on each side. It has also been suggested that " tin should be an equal number of steps to each flight, say thirteen for headway and space : half-landing should be elliptical, every door should open both ways, and folding, with easy fastener. All these, in any case, ought to be provided in new buildings, and as in , 1 as possible in old buildings” (W. H. White, F.S.A.) In large staircases, which coin] of a centre and two side flights, the central one should be equal in width to the two > flights together. In calculating the width, regard should in some measure he had to j number of persons which the part they serve will contain. The broad, long gall 1 stairs at the Italian Opera House, Covent Garden, with the door near the top, slio good arrangement ; they serve a double purpose, being at once a stairs and a waiting-! Communication with the wardrobe and the property rooms should be effected only, iron spiral stairs. 2971 The “ crush room ” or saloon at the Italian Opera House, Covcnt Garden situated at the top of the grand staircase, and forms an ante-room for all those passiu; ■ the boxes. At each end of the room are refreshment- bars, to which all classes can I resort, to the exclusion of none. Proper cloak rooms, with lavatories and water-elm!, and refreshment rooms or bars, are necessary adjuncts. The various rooms required ' the different departments will differ in every theatre, and the architect must obtain information from the manager, before he sets to work. Near the orchestra is a wail ■ room for the musicians, with cupboards for their instruments and coats, lavatories, The music library should not he far away. A painting room over the ceiling of the - toriura was formerly usual, also at the back of tbe stage, where the artist can paint ap: - the upright wall. The carpenters’ shops are near to it. The property and armoury n ■ must be near the stage; and a very well ventilated property shop. The theatre at V saw is. said to be very complete in its wardrobes. The dressing-rooms for men and \v. 1 should be kept apart ; the tailors’ and dressmakers’ shop and wardrobes just above 1 . and fitted with lifts to send costumes up and down. Supernumeraries’ and soldiers .1 ing-rooms are also required. A large magazine near the stage, to keep the slock, f « cloths, and wings, properly fitted with racks and grooves, to stow them away ingoi <1 01 ■ Green-rooms, or waiting-rooms for men and women, so that no one should lie on the 1 who is not immediately concerned in the acting. The passages lo have plenty of v - doors to prevent draughts. Proper apartments for firemen, hall porter, and housekm - kitchen and cellars; rooms for the manager, secretary, tieasurer, chorus and solo ; lice; and lavatories, &c., throughout the house. A box office is usually provided - the chief entrance. Large and dry cellarage is a desideratum, in which to stow ui. d properties. 2971a. With the exception of the dressings and interior ornaments of the buildt » would be possible, though perhaps somewhat inconvenient, to erect a theatre, thong, perhaps absolutely fireproof, yet very secure against fire. Small theatres cant' structed of concrete and cement and terra-cotta, from its rude form as common firi stair treads; all the finishing touches would be of the ordinary materials of t 1 building. Iron should never be depended upon except as a stiffener, and then but r concieie. Stone should be excluded. Floors to he of cement floated on concrete, .v Wilkinson’s improved granite concrete, havingarched under surfaco between iron fm also with iron J_ joists forming a parallel landing about 6 inches thick for landings * ities. )l\d. Johnson’s patent fireproof wire lathing, by which any partition or ceiling is T iered practically fireproof. Metal laths, on Edwards’s patent, tor use in the con- t colon of fire-resisting ceilings, partitions, and doors. With his dove-tailed corrugated ir ' sheets (Hyatt’s patent), for the same purpose, partitions are formed of Portland nt, concrete, and iron only two inches thick, the metal being completely protected, “fibrous plaster” slabs of Wilkinson and Co., and of Hitchens, are intended for ? walls, ceilings, and floors for fireproof purposes, as noticed par. 22466. Fireproof ng ot various sorts are noticed par. 19037. et seq. 71c. Wood can now be protected by various paints, for which reference can be made ;e previous chapter, s v. Painting. Among them are, Asbe^t^s fireproof paint, also wat-resisting ; colourless fireproof liquid “antiflame” for fireproofing fabrics; aiso a * ,r< oof stain. Griffith’s pyrodene fiivproof paint is stated to render wood of all kinds ibrics absolutely flame-proof by being simply soaked with it, and can be applied by e (par. 2273y). It was supplied to the Manchester Exhibition, 1887, Sir Seymour s’s fireproof paint was used (1887) at Edward Terry’s new theatre in the Strand. \f The flimsiest material, as canvas, hangings, dresses, gauzes, &c , can now, me solution, or by chemical treatment, also lie rendered incapable of bursting lame. The chemicals now most commonly used for this purpose are alum, phosphate of soda, sal-ammoi'.iac, and tungstate of soda (a “ fireproof starch ” 3 Z anc Ml} lilsi V into 1 107-1 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book III. prepared with it was first introduced by Donald Nieoll, ex-sheriff of London). Tins tungstate is considered the best, but as, if used singly, it is ap to become insoluble and to rub off, the addition of about 3 per cent, of phosphate of soda will diminish the risk. After the ordinary washing the go Ms should bo immersed, before wringing and drying, in a solution containing 20 per cent, of tungstate, with a proportionate quantity of phos- phate. Alum acts injuriously on the fabrics, especially if coloured. The others are cheap and commonly harmless. 2071 g. The electric lighting system should be used in preference to the common gat system. It has been put up at the Savoy and the Criterion Theatres in London. Any ga- burners should be properly protected, aud no inflammable substance used. 2971/i. An exit for smoke is advocated to be formed over the stage and over the prosce- nium. Firemen to be always in attendance with hose capable of being attached to hydrant: lixfd at convenient points, the water being supplied from a tank, and also from the watei mains. The supply of water from large reservoirs provided in the upper parts of tin building is a precaution which should never be omitted, ill nigh late tire- have shown the are never in order when required. Pipes may bo laid on fiom them to those parts, suci as the carpenters’ room, scene room, and painting-room, where fires would be mus likely to break out, and where if they did break out they would probably bo mm> daugerous. The necessary fireman’s arrangements, with tell-tale clocks, &e , must b duly provided. 2971L The “automatic sprinkler” is advocated by many, to be fixed over the fins am over the roof of the auditorium. They have been introduced at Mr. E. Terry’s nrv theatre in the Strand. A hollow girder was advertised in 1861 by William Rood fo holding water, which could be played on a fire without opening doors aud windows to gc at it. This was objected to for many reasons. This is now stated to have been “ the ingeuiou , invention of Jethro Robinson, who introduced the system to E. T. Smith, who used it. n Astley’s Theatre.” Sinclair’s “ automatic sprinkler” has found favour Lately in Americt: where it was adopted in various ways in warehouses. Insurance offices are said to huv reduced the premiums in consequence of the use of the system. The water jets leave m a space outside the range of action. Once fixed they work of themselves when a temper, , ture of 155 degrees arises where they are pla'ed. All the apparatus is tested to pressure of 500 lbs. to the square inch. Hanuay s patent pneumatic principle is applii for charging the tubes with air as a protection against frost. Dick's Fire Queen extur! teur is portable an 1 self-acting; a gallon of its contents (water super-saturated wit carbonic acid gas) is stated to be of more value than 30 gallon- of water. 2971/r. Mr. K. S. Ash, of Monaco, in a letter to the Times, August 1887, suggested fit each theatre should have a fire guard room, disconnected from the main building. In it a series of water pipes should pass to those parts specially menaced with fire, response, to an electric summons, the man in charge would be euabled to turn on one more or all the pipes. One pipe should be specially prepared to saturate the curtain, to act as a falling sheet of water if the curtain be up. People are rarely burnt to ilea in a fire, but are suffocated by the carbonic acid gas, the want of air, the smoke, or t intense heat. The pipes are not exposed to rust, it is stated, but unless they -'-re us occasionally, it is feared they will rust. The guardian.it is supposed, will not experts the feelings of panic, and so will be prepared to obey the summons, and, “ if the tu supply of water is working satisfactorily, water would be delivered immediately wit needod.” The Asphaleia Company, on whose system the new Opera House in Jut Pesth, and the Stadt Theatre at Halle, have been rebuilt, have sent over a model of th system for exhibition ; it was explained by Mr. Walter Emden, in his paper on llieat and Fireproof Construction, read at the Society of Arts, January 25, 1888. 297U. A Modern Fireproof Theatre. Edward Terry’s, in the Strand. Almost the wl of the structural portions are of incombustible materials, and the limited amount ot work has been coated with fireproof paint. Ironwork has been thoroughly easel in ■ Crete ; t he flights of stairs are generally of concrete, the corridors and floors eh c . mosaic and cement, the panelling is in fibrous plaster, the gallery seats are of coitcu The isolation of the auditorium from the stige is complete. The proscenium w.u. * some 20 feet above the auditorium roof, and iron doors close the openings between two parts of the house, while an asbestos drop curtain, stretched on a metaUramew . fil s the proscenium opening, and is to be used as an ordinary green curtain. ' this curtain, besides the fireproof nature of the materials used, all the woodwor been coated with the fireproof solution called Py roc I ene, prepared by Messrs, i’ 1 Brothers. A thoroughly efficient system of automatic sprinklers and the e ec rit have been introduced. In both the roofs direct exhausts have been formed so as <>' off the ordinary heat, and in case of fire to draw up and extract the smoke an g ^ generated. An efficient hydrant service is provided all over the house, i n theatre is only estimated to accommodate about 800 persons, exits have been proi l< e‘ ^ assembly of 3,500 persons. Each part of the house has two or more exits, on "u Chap. V. THEATRES. 1075 of the building. The corridors and gangways generally average 3 feet 6 inches to 4 feet in width. Plain directions are painted over each opening out of the auditorium, which openings can be available for ordinary use. The doors are fitted with a specially con- structed lock, invented by Messrs Chubb and Mr. Walter Eniden, the architect, which ■an only be opened from the outside with a key, a push from within opening it without difficulty. ( British Architect for October 21, 1887, p. 295.) 297h«. There aro now two new theatres in London which are considered fairly fire- proof, and the “ Court ” at Sloane Square may be a third, as regards inflammability, i Is to any advance in plans and sections, there have been two plans prominently put ; forward this year (188- ). One father, d by Mr. Henry Irving and Alfred Darbyshire, ircllitect, drawings of which were published in the Daily Telegraph of October 29, 1887. Another was brought forward by R. Nevill, architect, in an extensive paper read at tho 'loyal Institute of British Architects, Dec. 9, 1887 (discussion); and reported in Pro- I e.edings of Jan. 26 following. Another is by R. M. Roe, architect, printed in the Proceed- Ugs of Feb. 23. One by J. G. Buckle, architect, described in his work, and dedicated to Vilson Barrett. And lasth , by E. J. Tarver, architect, whose drawing is given in the iritish Architect for March 23. “ Managers who contemplate new structures will have i form their own judgments and selections according to what may be the individual haracteristics of the ground and neighbourhood. The Darbyshire plan is for a house Cached all round, and with one gallery only. The Buckle plan is for a place where an inderground house is needed. The Tarver plan is for a theatre above ground, adaptable 1) any site with one side open and the pit partly or wholly sunk.” 1 297 Ire. Many of the bad features of construction and arrangement in modern theatre nilding are stated to be often due to the proprietors or managers ; the architect has it his entire way in the matter. The expenses of a theatre are very great, and the liount of the ground rent is an inducement to the site being made as small as possible. |iy extraneous provision must necessarily entail iost and occupy space. [2972. Foreign theatres are not considered good examples for tho study of an English- n, as the habits of the nations are so different. Abroad, too, theatres usually stand in "■n squares, as at Hanover, Munich, Berlin, Dresden, and Darmstadt; not in back thets and crowded thoroughfares. The new Opera House in Paris is essentially a pernment establishment, and would be wholly useless in England, where a theatre is a p ate speculation. It is an exaggerated and badly proportioned copy of Munich theatre, vp which it will not compare for compactness. It seats only 2,000 people. One of t best studies of a house on the balcon principle is that at Mayence, given in Fer- gSson’s Handbook. The theatie at Darmstadt has been the type for those at Munich, Ellin, Moscow, and other places. But their passages and front arrangements are all bad feuse in England; the idea being to collect the people into the entrance hall for show. I Victoria theatre at Berlin is a double theatre, one for winter, with another for summer. Ti theatre at Dresden is round, following the form of the interior. It has been lately svjested that the orchestra floor should be much deeper than is usual, so as to hide the m ;ment of the instruments, which often spoils the illusion of the scene. In England di tage is always made on the incline ; in Germany it is flat, which arrangement has be'ne very general abroad ; as in the double theatre at Berlin. 12 a. We have availed ourselves largely of papers read at the Royal Institute itish Architects, in which will be found further remarks upon the lighting, ventila- nu and fittings required for these structures; On the Construction and Rebuilding of the - A Italian Opera House, Covent Garden, by its arcnitect, Mr. E. M. Barry, Feb. 6, 18t| and On the Construction of Theatres, by Mr. Warington Taylor, Dec. 19, 1861. in Guilder, Building News, Architect, and British Architect journals, contain descriptions pit of the numerous theatres erected at home and abroad of late years, and to these initiations the architect can resort for further views on the several important points l, a?8 sixlh or last pavilion is designed for special diseases, and the wards are therefore smaller. The iloors of the wards are laid with wainscot, as being non-absorbent, and tongu d with hoop iron, and prepared for waxing and polishing ; the walls are plastered with Parian cement with the same object, the finishing coat of which is tinted to avoid the glare of the white. The windows are constructed in three divisions, the lower part being hung to open in the usual way, and the upper sash drops to the depth of the transom. They are glazed with plate glass. 297*5/'. The general entrance to the hospital is placed in the centre, and the hall forms the substructure of the chapel. Near to it is the kitchen department. On the first floor are the resident medical officer’s department, two operating theatres, &c., placed between the ends of the blocks next the side public th iroughfare. The administrative department is placed at the end, adjoining the bridge, in a detached building, and comprises the governors’ hall, committee room, counting-house, clerk and surveyor’s offices, the treasurer’s residence, and many other apartments necessarily required for so large an establishment. The training institution for nurses adjoins the matron’s residence between the first and second wards, and affords accommodation for forty probationers, each having a separate bedroom. 297 5g. The Warming and Ventilating Arrangements . — For the latter, the natural system is depended upon as much as possible, but in order to change the air during cold and boislerous weather and at night, a main extracting shaft is carried up in the well-hole of the stair- case, and in this is placed the smoke fiue from the boiler, consisting of a wrought iron tube 15 in. in diameter. In the upper part of this shaft is also placed the hot-water cistern. Shafts are carried from the ends of all the wards, both at the ceiling and floor level, and from the centre of the stove hereafter men'ioned, communicating with a horizontal trunk in the roof, which trunk is connec ed with the heated shaft previously referred to. To replace the air thus extracted, fresh air is introduced by means of zinc tubes laid between the “ Dennett arching ” and the floor boards, communicating with the stoves and hot-wab r coils, the whole admitting of regulation by valves. The wards generally are warmed by three open fireplaces, aided in cold weather by an auxiliary system of hot water. These stand in the middle of the wards, with vertical shafts, an inner one of wrought iron 15 in. diameter, and an outer case of cast iron, the space between forming a ventilating shaft, which is connected with the main trunk in the roof. The smoke tube is carried down !o j the basement, from whence it can be swept. The ventilation of the lavatories and water closets is entirely independent of the wards, and is carried up the shaft in the river turret. That of the medical museum and school buildings, placed beyond the hospital buildings, is on the same general principle, the ventilating and smoke shaft being con- .j tained in the tower at the southern end of the building. There is an hydraulic lift to ! each pavilion. For the numerous other details the student must be referred to the paper itself, which contains a plan and perspective view of this admirably designed building. 2975A. The sixth report of the Local Government Board contains the report made hv Dr Bristowe and Mr. Holmes on the inspection of all hospitals in Great Britain ami Ireland. 297 oi. The first circular hospital erected in England was the Miller Memorial Hos- pital, at Greenwich, designed by' Messrs. Keith D. Young and Henry Hall. The Burnley jiospital was another, and then the Hastings, St. Leonard’s, and East Sussex hospital, which was opened in September, 1887 (illustrated in British Architect, January 28, 1887 ; and Builder, p. 180). The Antwerp hospital, the hospital at Hampstead, and the’ circular hospitals for the army deserve inspection; but this Hastings hospital is th** : most typical, and probably the most complete building on the circular principle which has yet been erected in this country*, or indeed anywhere. 297*5/. In the rectangular ward, where the nurse’s room is at one end, while at the ot.ic. is possibly placed the worst “ case,” that is, the patient who is most severely ill, the nurse, as the day goes on, must find the whole length of that ward a great strain upon her physically. In the circular ward, the nurse can see all the beds except one — certainly except two — in the whole ward from any point in it; and she has to travel the shortest possible distance to get to any one patient, who may need her services at any given lime. It must not be regarded as the most perfect system of hospital construction ; it is one type of construction suited to special cases, and one which deserves a fair and prolonged tri*l. (Henry C. Burdett). Professor Marshall and P. Gordon Smith, Circular System of Hospital Wards, 8vo. 1878. 2S7-5L Village Hospitals. — Each village ought to have the means of accommodating instantly, or at a few hours’ notice, s.ty four cases of infectious disease, in at least separate rooms, without requiring their removal to a distance. A decent four-room m six-room cottage, at the disposal of the authorities, would answer the purpose. *’ 10,1 such provision as this has been made, and cases of disease in excess of the acconnnodai mn Chat. V. INFIRMARY. 1079 I occur, the sick should not bo crowded together, but temporary further provision be nude for them. The most rapid and the clie < pest way of obtaining this further accommoda- ion may often be to hire other neighbouring cottages; or, in default of this, tents or huts trght beertctod upon adjacent ground. The regulation bell tent is 14 feet diameter, 10 l et in height, the area of base is 54 square feet, and cubic space 513 feet. The regula- ion hospital marquee is 29 feet long, 14 feet wide, with sido walls 5 feet 4 in., height o ridge 11 feet 8 in., giving a cubic capacity of a little over 3,000 feet. Mr. Geo Buchanan's report (1888) to the Local Government Board, containing sugges- tions as to the provision of isolation hospital accommodation, with plans, is of high im- jortance. 2975 1. Convalescent Hospitals, erected in the country for the recovery of patients i.fter they have been treated for their diseases in town hospitals, and then only requiring a hoi’t time of change and fresh air before returning to work, are now considered desirable Injuncts to hospital treatment. 2975 m. An Imbecile asylum is provided at the Poplar and S'epncy sick asylum; Austin Bros., architects. — Sect. III. INFIRMARY. 2976. The word infirmary appears to have two opposite meanings. In one it designates place for aged, blind, or impotent persons; the other, a place for the cure of wounded r diseased persons ; such are hospitals, which buildings were originally called infirmaries, -'he infirmary proper is the place appropriated to the sick in a large establishment, such is an asylum, a prison, a workhouse or a school. Greenwich Hospital has an infirmary ttached to it. 2976a. Workhouse infirmaries were until lately greatly condemned for the want of jceommodation ; the want of classification and separation; imperfect ventilation, owing to le insufficient supply of cubic space, sometimes aggravated by essential defects in con- traction : 500 cubic leet per bed only being provided where 1 ,000 feet at least is equired ; insufficient washing arrangements; and other comforts for the patients, as ell as for the nurses, and officeis, neglected. 29765 The requirements of the Local Government Board at Whitehall for a pro- ineial workhouse sick ward or infirmary, comprise a separate building from the 'orkhouse itself. The sick should be divided into; 1. Ordinary sick of both sexes; . Lying-in women, with a separate labour room adjoining the lying-inward; 3. Itch uses of both sexes ; 4. Dirty and offensive cases of both sexes ; 5. Venereal cases of both ■xes; 6. Children of both sexes; and, lastly, 7. Fever and small-pox cases ol both ixes. Classes 1 to 6 may be accommodated in the infirmary ; separate entrances t 3 and 6; a detached building with separate rooms for 7. In the case of large ifeetious wards, there should be a detached washhouse, otherwise a shed containing copper, in which the linen may be disinfected by boiling before being taken to the bneral laundry. The length of dormitory wards should be calculated according to the Uowing minimum wall-space for each bed, in addition to that occupied by doors or replaces, viz. : for inmates in health , adults 4 feet ; women with infants 5 feet; children, ingle beds 3f feet, double beds 5 feet ; and for sick, itch, and venereal cases, 6 feet ; for ling-in, offensive, fever, and small-pox cases. 8 feet. The day rooms should afford commodation for not less than one-half of those who occupy the day and night rooms, minimum of 20 feet floor space should be allowed for each sick person. Sick wards ould be 29 feet wide and 10 to 12 feet in height. Infectious wards should be 20 feet | de and 12 feet in height, and should have external windows on their opposite sides, te gangways should be in the centre of the wards; but if a sick ward holds only one w of beds, which is not recommended, it should be at least 12 feet in width, and have e gangway and fireplace on the side opposite to the beds. The dimensions above given 3 considered the most economical, and at the same time the most convenient for the ’ious classes of wards. But where they are not so constructed, there should be Floor space. Cubic space. In ordinary dormitories .... 36 feet 360 feet In sick wards 60 ,, 600 „ In lying-in, offensive, and infectious wards . 80 „ 960 „ e room or a suite of rooms communicating by a gangway should rarely exceed 90 feet length. Such a room or suite of rooms may be connected with a similar suite in the 1080 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook III same line bv the central part of the building, in which would be placed the apartments of the nurses, and other offices; or they may be plac'd in blocks, parallel or otherwise, connected by a corridor. Nurses’ rooms and suitable kitchens and sculleries should In- provided. Special means of ventilation, apart from the usual means of doors, windows, and fireplaces, should be secured. Air bricks are suggested, 9 in. by 3 in. or 9 in. by (1 in. covered on tlm inside with metal, having perfjrations of about one-twentieth of an inch in diameter inserted about 8 feet or 10 feet apart i-n the upper and lower parts of tin external wall. The lower set may be fitted with hit-and-miss gratings, made to lock s , that they may be regulated only by the proper authorities. Ventilating fireplaces am useful. Where hot-water pipes aie used, they should run round the wards, amt a portion of the fresh air pass over them. If no other system of warming be adopted, fireplaces should be provided in all inhabited rooms, say a fireplace to each 30 feet of length. Tin- walls of all sick wards should be plastered internally. 2976c. The infirmary for the Central London District Schools at Hauwell, designed 1865 by Mr. Gale, accommodates 100 children of each sex. It forms three sides of a quadrangle, and consists of ten wards, live on each floor. Each ward has a nurses’ room, two fireplaces, and set of bath room, water closets, &c. ; six of the wards have tloubn sets with two entrances for the convenience of subdivision. The corridors are all pm vided with open fireplaces and draw-off sinks, with supply of hot and cold water. In fad. corridor, at a central point between the various wards, is a lift by which provisions, ike arc sent up direct from the kitchen. 2976 d. The infirmary at Blackburn, erected 1858 by Messrs Smith and Turnbull, mat be described as arranged on the pavilion principle, consisting of a main corridor, on er-hl side of which are placed eight wards alternating, each holding 8 beds in a ward, with their own set of bath rooms and water-closets. In the middle and separating the set i; the building devoted to a chapel, the necessary offices and apartments, and tho operating room, with two wards of four beds in each. Sect. IV. PRIVATE BUILDINGS. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 2983. Private buildings differ in their proper character from public buildings as nuH as one public building differs in character from another not of the same kind. I In ends in both, however, in common, are suitableness and utility. The means are the satin namely, the observance of convenience and economy. The same elements are used 1 the formation of one as of the other; hence they are subject to the same principles an the same mechanical composition. Distribution, which is usually treated dist.mc from decoration and construction, and very improperly so, as applied to piivat.e edifice' is conducted as for public buildings, that is, as we have said, with a view to utility tin- economy. 2984. If the student thoroughly understand the true principles of architecture,- it h- possess the facility of combining the different elements of buildings, or, in other word fully comprehend the mechanism of composition, which it has in a previous part of tin Book (III.) been our object to explain, nothing will remain for him in the composition ' private buildings, but to study the special or particular conveniences required ui There ate some quaiut old aphorisms of Dr. Fuller, prebendary of Sarum, which HP- applicable to all private buildings, that we shall not apologise for transferring them t our pages. 2985. “ First,” he says, “ let not the common rooms be several, nor tho several iwn common ; that the common rooms should not be private or retired, as tho hall l which t 1 - pandochseum), galleries, &c , which are to be open ; and the chambers, closets, &c., retin and private, provided tho whole house be not spent in paths. Light (Gods eldest dang ter) is a principal beauty in a building-, yet it shines not alike from all parts of' 1 heavens. An east window gives the i.nfant beams of the sun, before they are of strong to do harm, and is offensive to none but a sluggard. A south window in summer i chimney with a fire in it, and stands in need to be screened by a curtain. In a west " dow the sun grows low, and oyer familiar towards night in summer time, and with m light than delight. A north window is best for butteries and cellars, where tho beer w be sour because the sun smiles upon it. Thorough lights are best for rooms of enter at ments, and windows on one side for dormitories.” 1AP. V. PRIVATE BUILDINGS. 1081 2986. “Secondly, as to capaciousness, a house had hotter he too little for a day than too r for a year ; therefore houses ought to be proportioned to ordinary occasions, and not extraordinary. It will he easier borrowing a brace of chambers of a neighbour for a rht, than a bag of money for a 3 ear ; therefore ’tis a vanity to proportion the receipt to extraordinary occasion, as those do who, by overbui ding their houses, dilapidate their ids, so that their estates are pressed to death under the weight of their house.” 2987. “Thirdly, as for strength, country houses must be substantives, able to stand of ■mselves, not like city buildings, supported and flanked by those of their neighbour on jih side. By strength is meant such as may resist weather and time, but not attacks; ties being out of date in England, except on the sea-coasts, &c. As for moats round uses, ’tis questionable whether the fogs that arise from the water are not more i healthful than the defence that the water gives countervails, or the fish brings profit.” 1 2988. “Fourthly, as for beauty, let not the front look asquint upon a stranger, but l ost him right at his entrance. Uniformity and proportions are very pleasing to the ; and ’tis observable that freestone, like a fair complexion, grows old, whilst bricks ip their beauty longest.” ii989. “Fifthly, let the offices keep their due distance from the mansion-house; those , too familiar which presume to be of the same pile with it. The same may be said of jbles and barns ; without which a house is like a city without works, it can never hold 1 long. It is not only very inconvenient, but rather a blemish than a beauty to a build- ', to see the barns and stables too near the house ; because cattle, poultry, and suchlike ; st be kept near them, which will be an annoyance to a house. Gardens ought also to 1 disposed in their proper places. When God planted a garden eastward, he made to ; w out of the ground every tree pleasant to the sight and good for food. Sure heknew 1 ter what WnS proper for a garden than those who now-a-days only feed their e) es and fire their taste and smell.” The same honest old dignitary (would we had some such i hese days!) says, “ He who alters an old house is ty’d as a translator to the original, a is confined to the fancy of the first builder. Such a man would be unwise to pull c n a good old building, perhaps to erect a worse now one. But those who erect a new L se from the ground are worthy of blame if they make it not handsome and useful, v m method and confusion are both of a price to them.” Sect. V. PRIVATE BUILDINGS IN TOWNS. 90. The common houses of the town are not those which will engage our attention. 1 jondon, and indeed throughout the towns of England, the habits of the people lead i to prefer separate houses for each family, to one large one in which several families be well lodged, or, in other words, they prefer rows of mean-looking buildings, with ; in the walls for windows, to the palaiial appearance which results in Paris and most e other cities in Europe, from large magnificent buildings with courts, and capable of umodating a number of different establishments. The section will be confined chiefly e arrangement of a house of the first class ; and from what will be said, sufficient i 1 may be drawn for the composition of those in a lower class. 91. The private buildings in a town are often in their composition beset with diffi- ;s which do not occur in those of the country, where the extent of site is freer and ir. These, therefore, may be isolated, and receive light from every side. Their 3 may be sepiarated from the main house, and the parts may be disposed in the est possible manner; but in cities the site is generally more or less restricted, often irregular in form, and generally bounded by party walls. Yet, with all these cles, it is necessary to provide almost as many conveniences as are required in a ry house; whence the disposition cannot be so simple in its application as where is no retraiot. All that can be done is to make it as much so as the nature of the ■vill permit, and to produce the maximum of comfort which the site affords. 2 . Nothing must be considered below the attention of an accomplished architect, lything above his powers; he ought as cheerfully to undertake for the proprietor the ct of the meanest cottage as of the most magnificent palace. Little will be requisite said on the common houses of London, or other cities and towns, in which there are i more than two rooms and a closet on a floor, with an opening behind. These may i"d ; but the general mode is to construct them with a kitchen in a floor sunk below ound, and a room behind, serving for a variety of purposes; an area in front, with under the street, and the same often in the rear of the house. The spaco opposite 1082 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II the descend'ng stairs will form a dark closet; and the privies, and wine and beer cellar with other small offices, are provided in the vaults. On the ground floor there is rare I more than a passage on one side, which conducts to a staircase ; and this requiring mm width than the passage itself, the best room on this floor is placed in front, and the bar is a smaller room, often opening on a small light closet still further in the rear. A yar is supposed behind, by which light is obtained for the back room. On the one-pair an other floors the passage becomes necessary as an access ; the drawing or front room then fore runs over it, and becomes larger, capable, in the upper floors, of subdivision ! bedrooms, or other purposes, as may be required ; and the back rooms with their closA if carried up, follow the form of those on the ground floor. Though little variety may I the result of the restricted space to which this species of house is usually confined, tli addition of four or five feet either way will enable an intelligent architect to throw i closets and other convenient es which are invaluable, as relieving a small house from th pressure which otherwise will exist in the different apartments. But this will be obvin to the practical man, unless he walks about blindfold. The houses we have just describ may stand upon a sile of about twenty feet by thirty feet, independent of the vaults front and rear, and the back light closet, which is an invaluable appendage to a hiu.ve this description; which is the scale of n second-rate house. 2993. Of the next higher rate of house the varieties are too great to be describe because the extent of the largest arrives at what would be called a palace on the cunt nent. Bur, taking a mean between that just described and that last named, wo may tnk J one similar to a moderate one in Portland Place for example In such a one must ! 1 provided, on the basement or sunk story, vaults under the street for beer, coals, woo i privies, and the like, the refuse or dust of the house. The body or corps de logison tl. floor must contain housekeeper’s room, servants’ hall, rooms for butler and head footma wine cellar, clo.-ets for linen, strong room for plate, with closets and other convenient” for the household. The ascending staircase must also have a space set apart for it. I the rear, under the open area behind, will be placed a kitchen, scullery, and the lard< with the other appendages of this part of the household ; an area, covered, where t! communication with the rest of the floor is made between the body of the house mid I 1 offices in question Beyond the kitchen are often vaults (though the disposition is sum times otherwise), over which the stables and coachhouses tire placed, opening on I ground floor on to a mews parallel to the street in which the house is situate. Tho grout floor of this disposition has usually a dining-room in front, with a good-sized hail a! , side, leading to a staircase which ascends in direction of the long side of the house; a this is necessary whtn the rooms above are to communicate by folding doors. In sot old houses, however, the staircase ascends between the front and back rooms, and a baj staircase is provided by the side of it. But more commonly this is placed beyond the pr> cipal stairs, to allow of throwing the drawing-rooms intoone. In rear of the dining-ra is often placed a library for the gentleman of the house ; and beyond this, and further 1 1 the back stairs, when tile lateral staircase is used, a wa.iting-room, at the rear oi whirl water-closet may be placed, with a door from it to the area over the kitchen ; or tic may be a communication of this sort from the waiting-room, v hich may serve the purp of access to the stables. On the one-pair floor the disposition will be two drawn rooms, a boudoir over the waiting-room, and beyond this a water-closet. On the two-p,| floor two bed-rooms, each with a dressiDg-room, or three bed-rooms and one dressn room, and a bath-room and water-closet. Above this four bed-rooms and closets may obtained ; and, if necessary, rooms in the roof in addition. For a goud house of t class, with the offices, the pilot of ground should not be much less than 100 feet by d 2991. Of the first-class of houses, as a model may be taken the town-house Piccadilly, of his Grace the Duke of Devonshire, which, with the officos and court -v t in front, covers an area extending about 231 feet towards tho street, and 188 fee depth, whereof the house itself occupies a frontage of 163 feet and a depth of 188 and opiens on to a large garden in the rear. On the east side of the court-yard nr posed the kitchen and other domestic offices, opposite whereto, on the west side, m the coach-houses and stabling. The basement of the house contains apartments t i various persons attached to such an establishment. The principal floor, to whin ascent is by an external staircase, contains an entrance-hall, 35 feet by 30 feet, an muni cates to an apartment on the w 7 est side, 33 feet by 22 feet, leading to the m western corner room, which is 20 feet square. On the north of the last is a room, m j the north-west angle of the building, and this is 40 feet by 20 feet On the C' IS of this last, and facing the north, is a room 33 feet by 23 feet, and in the centre north front, corresponding with the width of the hall, is an apartment 30 feet. 0 6 inches. To the east of the last is a room 33 feet by 24 feet, and east of that, url the north-east angle, is a small room 2> feet square. Thus far these rooms, sen number, are all cn suite, but this is in some measure interrupted by the remnindri ■east flank, which is filled with three sma'lcr rooms. To that of them, houeiei, > \p. V. PRIVATE BUILDINGS IN THE COUNTRY. 1083 h, which is 20 feet square, a passage is preserve 1, an 1 from that you enter another n, 23 feet by 22 feet, which once more brings you l>aek to the hall. The staircases 1 I etvveen the north and soutli rooms on each side of the hall. Above this floor are the ing rooms, &c. The superficial arra of all the reception rooms on the principal floor, d together, amounts to 57<>8 feet. Plans and elevations are given in the Vitruvius Yannicus, which contains other town houses of tmpoi tance of the period, well worth . student’s attention. ;)95. Burlington house, Piccadilly, before its lute partial demolition, was in some re- ; ts— for instance, in its beautiful semicircular colonnade in the front court — considered t rior to that just described. It can be hardly necessary to add that, in such edifices, uis must be provided for steward, butler, housekeeper, stillroom-maid, valets, ladies’ nils, servants’ hall of good dimensions, &c , for a muniment room and for plate, both if liich must bo fire-proof. Baths also should be provided on the chamber floor, with it conveniences which will occur to the ar Rite it. The rooms for pictures, if possible, h Id be on the nordi side of the building. The illustrated journals of the present day h the great changes which have been made in the requirements, and the size and inner of the apartments, of all grades of society. 95 a. During the last thirty years, however, flats, or residences in flats, have been ly adopted, and the system appears to be gaining ground in large towns for many is of society. The paper by Mr. \V. H. White, On Middle-class Houses in Paris and ■al London, read November 19, 1877, at the Royal Institute of British Architects, is isted for perusal. Sect. VI. PRIVATE BUILDINGS IN THE COUNTRY. Fig. 1352. 5 . Of first-class private buildings in the country, we apprehend we cannot furnish hints than by describing that of Kedlestone, in Derbyshire, erected for Lord Scars- Robert Adam. There are others which are larger, but we do not think any >r iu distribution and effect. The plans and elevations of it are to be seen in the ius Britannicus above mentioned. The main bod/ house IVI (fig. 1352), is about 136 feet by 105 nd at each angle are quadrants of communication 'our wings A, B, C, and D, which are each about by 54 feet. On the basement story of the main g are a large and small sub-hall in the eentre, the 67 feet 3 inches by 42 feet, and the latter 42 feet eet 7 inches. On the right of these are disposed a room, 22 feet 6 inches by 17 feet 9 inches; a eper’s room, and a steward s room, 30 feet by 21 aches. On the left, a batli, a gun-room, 23 feet s by 23 feet 7 inches ; a smoking parlour, 28 feet by 17 feet 9 inches; a boot- 2 feet 6 inches by 17 feet 9 inches, besides closets, staircases, &c., on either side, ig B contains the stables, a chapel, and other apartments. C, sleep hg and other light in number, with a staircase whi -h conducts to the corridor in the corre- g quadrant. D contains the kitchen and its requisite accessories, and a servants’ i;:i:! - his wing has also a staircase to its corresponding corridor iu the quadrant, which it to the main body. On the principal story, the main body M has at the , which is iu the centre, and approached by a noble flight of steps, a magnificent feet 3 inches by 42 feet, at the end whereof is a saloon 42 feet diameter. To the itering from the hall, is the principal staircase, beyond which, laterally, is a bed 33 feet by 22 feet, with its accessories ; and on its end, towards the back front, -rooms, and towards the front the dining- room, whence by the corridor is access itchen in the wing D, and from the ante-rooms above mentioned the corresponding on that side leads to a conservatory in the back front of the wing, and the upper he chapel. On the left-hand side of the hall, with windows in the left flank of body, is the drawing-room, 44 feet by 28 feet ; at the end towards the rear is a . , which is continued in the corridor leading to the wing A, wherein is a music yullm 56 feet by 18 feet, with other rooms and a staircase. On the end of the drawing- ■ "-Wards the front, is a music room, 36 feet by 24 feet, whence the corridor leads to ; " 1 ‘ Jrsclale’s bedroom, 18 feet square, with dressing-rooms, and the lady’s library, 1|! ">it this floor, are in the wing C. The wing IJ is occupied by the upper part of Mitt lale at pi I iti if t feet o tl: tO f Imili form by 4 buth Ileus feet -I U inc room The • room spone at tad eutra hall, right, chaml are at to the corrid part o the mi librar 1084 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book the kitchen, a laundry, 35 feet by 18 fee 1 ’, and soma bedrooms, to which access is i gallery over part of the kitchen. Tlie main body and wings contain a story over has been last described, chiefly for chambers. Wo have before (in the First Book, 221, 222) noticed the splendid hall and saloon, which occupy the height of the v h building, and are, though somewhat faulty in detail, very tinely-coDeeived and - proportioned apartments. The former is 40 feet high to the top of the cove, and e latter 55 feet to the level of the eye of the dome. Though the elevations exhibit del -, we are not inclined to quarrel with them in a dwelling which deserves rather the i e of a palace than of a country house. 2997- England abounds with country seats of this class ; among them is Hoik i, which has already been mentioned in the Fir»t Book (511 ) ; but we know none for d sition that can claim superiority over that which we have above described at length, m which the student may derive much information on the requirements in a mansion o' la first class. It is to be understood that we here intend modern buildings. The hom f the times of Elizabeth and James are many of them magnificent structures, but the fort introduced into houses of later date leaves them, independent of their pietun to beauty, far behind the buildings of Kent, Carr, James, and many others. Blenhe is monumental in its design, and properly so, and hence does not fall within the categc of this section. 2998. There are, of course, many intervening degrees between the mansion we o just described and the villa of the retired banker or merchant: it would be impossi in state them in detail. We have given the maximum in the above case, and we shall >w give the minimum for the class last mentioned. 2999. The smallest site of ground on which a villa can be well designed is, sup] tig it an oblong, about 80 feet by 56 to 60 feet. This on the principal floor will admit a hall, a saloon or ante-room, which may lead to the principal apartments, a drawing- m, two secondary drawing-rooms, one whereof maybe appropriated to the reeeptioi ; t billiard table, a good dining-room, not less than 30 feet by 20 feet, a library of ml size, wiih other rooms, suitable to the particular taste of the proprietor, and tlx ui- veniences and accessories which such a building requires. The ground, supposii ho domesiic offices to be under the principal floor, should be raised, so that thp.y ne( mt be much sunk below the general level of the land. If the building be seated on ng ground, a little more sinking may be allowed than under other circumstances, pri led the lower story be pro* ected by dry drains all round the building, to prevent the A lying against the walls, because drainage, the most important of all things in a bu hc may then be obtained easily by the natural fall of the ground. But a villa need lm compelled to have its domestic offices underground; then their combination wi k apartments will test the architect’s capabilities. The plot we have mentioned will ■ ! of all the offices below which are necessary for the service of a good-sized famil !»nd above, with only one story above the principal one, will afford a pretty fair allow: ol dormitories ; but if a concealed story for servants be practised in the roof, there a Jj* 1 " establishments on a common scale for which, on the plot, accommodation may l' e provided by a skilful artist. The stables aid coach-houses and the greenhouses I'uld stand apart. Some persons like to have th> se communicating with the villa itse ; but the practice is destructive of symmetry, and very injurious (except in the villa 1 an irregular plan, which then rather approaches to the cottage, orne) to the general 1 ' 1 the architecture. 3000. The villas at Foot’s Cray and Mereworth, imitations of Palladio's Villa pru, so often mentioned in this volume, and represented in fig. 1018, are the maxima ol l; ts , beyond this the villa becomes a mansion, and must be treated as one on a scale r o 1,1 less grand, as the means of the proprietor allow the architect to provide for hi' 111 All precepts, however, on this head are valueless, because the architect is reg' l 1 much by the convenience required. He must possess himself fully of that, and, al "iic to the general rules given throughout this work, but especially in this Third L , 1 will find little difficulty in fulfilling the commission with which he is intrusted. 1 ' other matters let him well inform himself of what has been done, and make master of the points involved in domestic economy, from the lowest to the higliet 1,1 ' and be cannot, using that information, fail of giving his employer that satisfactio 111 11 is the first care that should animate him. 3001. The cottage orne, as it is called, is a building subject only to rules w 1 architect chooses to impose upon himself. The only point to be attended to, r 11 ternal comfort has been provided for, is to present picturesque effect in the exieri 1 student should consult tho work of Professor Kerr, The English Gentlemans IE London, 3rd edition, 1871, in which will be found a selection of the best exai ; 1 house planning, with a fund of useful observations ; while, the illustrated journa • present day exhibit plans and views of villas designed in the many peculm architecture adopted by the various professors of the art. I A I’. V. FARM- HOUSE. 1085 Sect. VII. FARM-HOUSE. i00‘2. The mere building denominated a farm-house is simple enough in its distribution, |l scarcely justifies a section here, because the persons engaged in agriculture have lierally the best notion of the mode of suiting it. to their own particular business and the ure of the farm they occupy. It is first to be considered whether it is expedient to ]ce it close to the other buildings of the farm, such as the barns, stables, and stalls for 1 tie, &c. If so, it should be designed in character with them, and a large space of ground enclosed for the formation of a farm-yard; which, notwithstanding the seemingly re- jsive nature of the subject, may be made a very picturesque composition as a whole, le farm-house itself, though it must be sufficiently large to accommodate the family of i farmer, should be restricted in the size of its rooms and the extent of its plan by the ignitude of the farm, it being altogether an absurdity to plant a large house on a small I n, not only because of the original cost, which the rent of the land will not justify, but I ause of the cost of the annual repairs which a large building entails beyond those of a s Her one. The same observation applies to the farm buildings themselves, which in cent must be regulated by the size of the farm cidtivated. It is moreover to be eon- s red, in respect of the latter, whether the farm be grazing or arable. In the first case i|'e provision of cattle sheds must be afforded; in the latter case more barns must be a t tted to the cultivator. These, however, are matters upon which the architect receives 1 instructions from the proprietor, and whereon, generally speaking, he is himself ineom- I Mit to form a correct judgment. 003. In the commonest farm-houses the external door may open to a plain passage, at t end whereof the staircase may be placed. On one side of the passage may be a eom- ni kitchen, and on the other side the better or larger kitchen, serving also as a parlour f> the farmer and his family. Beyond these, on one side, may be placed the pantry, and » he other side the dairy-room, the last being much larger than the former, and being on Aside of the parlour or best kitchen, not so liable to the beat. To these, as needful, may b aided more rooms on the ground floor; the upper story being divided into bed- el nbers for the family, with garrets over them for the servants. The kitchens should be P ed upon arched cellars on several accounts, not the least of which is that the farmer si Id have the means of preserving in good condition the malt liquor or cyder which is tl principal beverage of his establishment. It is a sad mistake on the part of landed pirietors, though common enough, to think that such buildings are not only below the enj of an architect, but that he is 'too ignorant of the wants of the farmer *o be competent < 0 |ie task ; if, however, he will reflect for a moment, he must admit that the artist who ca make the most of a large plot of ground, with numberless requirements in the accom- mhtion, is not less able to turn to the greatest advantage for the comfort of the occupier 'Via small farm-house. !'04. In the erection of a larger farm-house the choice of the site, as before, must de- I’t-i on the nature of the ground and the situation of the farm' Health and convenience ar lie primary governing matters. It must never be placed where it cannot be well i jied. It should be central to the land, and as near the road as the conditions will d t. For such a building the principal door may open into a moderately wide passage, >a g therein a staircase to the upper rooms. On the right of the passage a common en may be provided for the family, and on the left a room somewhat larger, which in small farm-houses used to be called the best kitchen, but which in this may be really larlour, where the family may sit retired from the servants. Under these, cellars, as ■ mentioned, may be provided. On the ground floor we may now add a bakehouse cullery to the pantry and dairy provided in the first scheme, as also closets and such a raences for the housewife. The floor above may be extended ever the additional s just mentioned, thus giving lodging room to a larger number of persons than to contemplated in the first scheme. “In this manner,” says Ware, in his Complete of Architecture , folio, London, 1756, “the young architect will very easily see how to ’C or contract his plan for the building of farm-houses, according to the intended ss. ... “ They all consist of the same number of rooms, and in general of the same er of offices ; this is where the bare article of convenience for farming is concerned, e the inhabitant is grown rich, and intends to live in another manner, he may add lie pleases, which the architect may adopt.” . . . “ It is then no longer to be con- d a farm-house, but as the house of some person of fortune, who intends to live as independent of business do, but withal to have some farming in his eye.” When the louse comes to this extent it trenches hard upon the condition of the villa, though not reaching it, because the latter includes many provisions for a refined mode of living the yeoman, the pride of England, does not require; a class which, we fear, the ma- uling and commercial classes are fast annihilating. 101 tin Bo cnl big inn VV iv li side tlio, fan qtii \v hi u uf 1086 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Rook I Sect. VIII. COTTAGES. 300.7. “ Estates," observes Kent, ( Hints to Gentlemen of Landed Property, 8vo. Lon 1776,) “being of no value without hands to cultivate them, the labourer is one of the i valuable members of society: without him the richest soil is not worth owning." follows, then, that his condition should be most especially considered, and it is a dm every country gentleman to take care that the labourers on his estate are so consider., to be made at least comfortable. “The shattered hovels,” says the same author, “ w half the poor of this kingdom are obliged to put up with, is truly affecting to u h fraught with humanity.”. . . “The weather penetrates all parts of them, which n occasion illness of various kinds, particularly agues; which more frequently visit children of cottagers than any others, and early shake their constitutions.”... MW careful of our horses, nay, of our dogs, which are less valuable animals ; we bestow siderable attention upon our stables and kennels, but we are apt to look upon cottage incumbrances and clogs to our property, when, in fact those who occupy them arc very nerves and sinews of agriculture.” We fear the neglect of the comfort of the cott. has given a greater impulse to poaching and other crimes than his natural propens have induced. This, however, is not a matter for discussion here. It is not to be su))]>. that we mean the labourer is to be placed in an expensive dwelling; a difference ol i must exist ; and if the whole revenue of the country were divided among the popula per head, it would be seen (as M. Dupin has recently shown in a most eloquent sound address delivered in Paris as respects France) that the division of it per > after allowing for the expenses of the most economical government that could he vised, would be such as would not satisfy the lowest class of labourer, much less the genious mechanic. This is a matter so susceptible of proof, and so proper to be gener promulgated, that we have here gone a little out of our way lest we should be consult too urgent with respect to the cottager. 3 006. No cottage ought to be erected which does not contain a warm, comfort, plain room, with an oven to bake tbe bread of its occupier; a small closet for the beer provisions, two wholesome lodging rooms, one whereof should be for the man and his v and tbe other for bis children. It would be well always, if possible, that the boys girls in a cottage should be separated ; but this unfortunately entails an expense, and haps is not so materially necessary, because tbe boys find employment at an early age. shed for fuel should be attached. Cottages should always be placed in sheltered spots, and as near as possible to farm where the labourer is employed. The wear and tear of a man is not very i milar to that of an engine, and it tends as much to the interest of the farmer as it doi > the comfort of tbe labourer that all unnecessary fatigue be avoided. 3007. In tbe erection of cottages it is not only more economical, but more comfort to the occupiers, that they should be built double, or in twos at least. In those provi where brick or stone can be obtained they should never be constructed with timber, i tiles, if they can conveniently be had, should always supersede thatch. Further obsi tion on this subject will be unnecessary, for we have ill delivered the principles ol ou if the student be not now prepared to carry out tbe few bints on the subject of coll — buildings, in point of fact, of importance paramount to the palace which the sovei inh bits. The following remarks are by .7. C. Loudon, and are extracted from a “ Report to Majesty’s principal Secretary of State, from tbe Poor Law Commissionors, on an Eni ' into tlie Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain,” 1842. “ The essential requisites of a comfortable labourer’s cottage may be thus summed n “ 1. The cottage should be placed alongside a public road, as being more cheerful i: - solitary situation and in order that the cottager may enjoy the applause of the public " he has bis garden in good order and keeping. “ 2. The cottage should be so placed that the sun may shine on every side of it di tbe day throughout the year, when he is visible. For this reason, the front of the eodtc can only be parallel to the public road in the case of roads in the direction of north h south-west, north-west, and south-east ; in all other cases the front must be placed oblii y to the road, which, as we have previously shown, is greatly preferable io having the •' parallel to the road. “ 3. Every cottage ought to have the floor elevated, that it may be dry ; the walls ve the outer surface. ‘5. The minimum of accommodation ought to be the kitchen or living room, a bad ehen or wash-house, and a pantry, on the ground-floor, with three bedrooms over ; or a rooms and a wash-house on the ground floor, and two bedrooms over. * 6. Every cottage, including its garden, \ aid, &c., ought to occupy not less than one i tli of an acre ; and the garden ought to surround the cottage, or at all events to extend rfi before and behind. In general, there ought to be a front garden and a back yard, the :er being entered from the back kitchen, and containing a privy, liquid manure tank, jee for dust and ashes, and place for fuel. ■7. If practicable, every cottage ought to stand singly, and surrounded by its garden ; 1 1 it all events not more than two cottages ought to be joined together. Among other : jiortant arguments in favour of this arrangement, it may be mentioned that it is the only i by which the sun can shine every day on every side of the cottage. When cottages are jjied together in a row, unless that row is in a diagonal direction with reference to a south ; north line, the sun will shine chiefly on one side. By having cottages singly or in 1 I s, they may always be placed along any road in such a manner that the sun may shine i .very side of them, provided the point be given up of having the front parallel to the rjl, a point which in our opinion ought not for a moment to be put in competition with t advantages of an equal diffusion of sunshine. 8. Every cottage ought to have an entrance porch for containing the labourer’s tools, a; into which, if possible, the stairs ought to open, in order that the bedrooms may be municated with, without passing through the front or back kitchen. This, in the case ickness, is very desirable, and also in the case of deaths, as the remains may be carried n stairs while the family are in the front room. 9. The door to the front kitchen or best room should open from the porch, and not frit the back kitchen, which, as it contains the cooking utensils and washing apparatus, never be fit for being passed through by a stranger, or even the master of a family, •e proper regard is had by the mistress to cleanliness and delicacy. 10. When there is a supply of clear water from a spring adjoining the cottage, or from other efficient source, then there ought to be a well or tank, partly under the floor of lack kitchen for drawing it up for use, as hereafter described in detail. The advan- ta n of having the tank or well under the back kitchen are, that it will be secure from fni, and that the labour of carrying water will be avoided. 1 1. The privy should always be separated from the dwelling, unless it is a proper water- 'll it, with a soil-pipe communicating with a distant liquid manure tank or cesspool. A It detached, the privy should be over or adjoining a liquid manure tank, in which a !; tr ;ht tube from the bottom of the basin ought to terminate ; by which means the soil ha: may always be kept clean by pouring down the common slops of the house. No sl >i ;e being left from which smell can arise, except that of the area of the pipe, the double 1 1 ) o be hereafter described, will prevent the escape of the evaporation from this small s>«. 952. On p. 295 of the following volume, six builders’ estimates are given erecting six cottages on the premiated plan, ranging from 397/. 13s. 4 d. to 527/. the |n a difference somewhat accounted for by the designer in his observations at p. 319, when states that 260/. the pair would be the price of some he was then erecting, with mod i I tions. On p. 394 is given a design estimated at 200/., and tendered for at 180/. the |> which is deserving of comparison. 3011. The Central Cottage Improvement Society, London, stated in 1865, that 1 • rep > from different parts of the country, of the actual cost of building, prove that on the aver: . each room containing 100 superficial feet, or 10 fe t square, of a cottage or bloc)- 1 buildings, costs from 20/. to 25/., exclusive of laud ; this is equivalent to 3d. per foot c In the five s.ts of plans published by the society, No. 1, of four rooms, has been iruill 162/. ; No 2. slightly larger, for 168/. ; No. 3, same as No. 1, with a scullery, for 17 and No. 4, more commodious, for an artizan, for 220/ per pair. The Journal for U c the Bath and West of England Society, vol. vi., details a cottage of five rooms, built i Exmoor, for 60/., with a living room 15 feet by 13 feet. Sect. IX. TOWN DWELLINGS FOR THE INDUSTRIAL CLASSES, 3012. The hading features of construction and detailed arrangement which he considered peculiarly applicable to dwellings intended for working men w 1 wages range from 12s. to 24s. per week will be described herein. Workmen of the- have been hitherto strangers not only to the conveniences which render home attrac • but to the barest accommodation necessary to render social life tolerably decent. Cut nately, the nearer an improved dwelling approaches its miserable predecessor in gc aspect and character, the more popular it will be. The difficulty, therefore, in designing homes for the poor consists in the introduction of improvements which shall lead n 1 gradual abandonment of injurious habits, and to give no sudden offence to je.di h cherished prejudices. To do this effectively it is desirable to ascertain the leading req |< ments of the inhabitants of the district in which it is proposed to build. 3013. A poor man’s town dwelling should consist of a living room and bedroor ' plentiful supply of water ; a water-closet, sink, and lavatory, distinct but not far ren 11 from his tenement; awash-house, with the means of diving clothes in any weather'd 11 artificial heat; and, when practicable, a play-giound for children. CHAP. V. TOWN DWELLINGS FOR INDUSTRIAL CLASSES. 1089 9014. The living-room should be 12 feet by 10 feet clear of all obstructions or pro- eetio .s, and 8 feet high, giving 960 cubic feet at least. The rooms should be of a square drm, as being easily kept clean and made comfortable. Fig. 1353. presents a general plan if the arrangements. The door should open nto a porch or vestibule, and be placed at the ■nd of the wall opposite to the window, so iiat when both are open the air in the dwel- ing may he effectively changed. The window liould he sufficiently large to light every part Of the room. It should be fitted with sashes, a insure top and bottom ventilation ; and its ill should not he more than 2 feet 9 inches rom the floor, to prevent high furniture being laced under it. Tolerably large panes of lass will be found to last longer than if the anes be small. The fire place should he as ear the centre of its own wall as possible, nd be furnished with a range containing a oiler, with a tap of the best description fixed Fig. 1353. peabody dweu.isos, commercial street. inches above the bottom ; an oven ; and a cooking place at least 10 inches wide from side 0 side, with sliding bars, flap and catch, all of which ought to be of wrought iron. The iving-room should have a good serviceable closet the entire height of the room, the front lush with the chimney breast, to contain shelves for cooking utensils and crockery, &c., j nd a large covered box for coal ; this closet should be lighted by a small window hung ipon centres and to be easily opened. 30.5. The bedrooms should be 12 feet by 8 feet, and 8 feet high, communicating with he living room by a door in the wall opposite to the fire-place at the end nearest to the indow, so that enough wall space may be secured for the bed. As these rooms would be jafficiently warmed from the living-room, fire-places can be dispensed with where space is mited or expense of much importance. 3016. The walls should be well-built with sound stock bricks (the partitions being alf a brick thick) and coloured with two coats of well sized distemper colour of a warm 1 leerful tint. Such walls offer no harbour for vermin; they are uninjured when nails are riven into them ; and their freshness and colour are easily renewed at a trifling expense, lie ceilings should be plastered, not only for a clean appearance, but also as a preventive gainst the spread of fire. The floor is best made of wood, though it is apt to get dirty and derably difficult to clean. If firewood or coal be broken upon any other floor than a ooden one the concussion is injurious to it. Tile and asphalte floors are often recom- ended as the best ; but though they have a clean appearance, they are cold to the et when uncovered by a carpet; are more liable to injury; and are more troublesome to I pair. Asphalte a..d cement floors depend in a great measure upon their rigidity for their ticiency, and require iron beams and brick arches, which are expensive. 3017. As regards ventilation, beyond supplying doors that do not lit too close, windows at will open at top and bottom, and fire-places with air-cl anne's underneath the floor, it extremely difficult to know how to proceed further without detection. A ventilator I ce discovered is instantly rendered useless by being pasted over. Perforated bricks reed throughout the length of the wall in which the window is set, and in that opposite it, causes the air to be so diffused by its passage through the narrow channels with which e bricks are provided, that the paste-brush is seldom used. 3018. The lavatory should contain a water-closet fitted with a strong galvanized iron Ive ; a lead trough, for washing purposes, supplied with a high-pressure loose valve cock, d an enamelled iron basin. A smaller lead trough or waste, for the discharge of dirty | ter, should have an inch service cock above it for supplying pails and kettles. The Us, coloured as those of the dwelling, should be well painted to the height of 18 inches ove each trough, for frequent and easy washing. The floor is best covered with thick nch square tiles, which bear a goad deal of wear and tear and slopping i t one spot thout injury. The lavatory should have two windows at least, one in the external wall the water closet and one at the furthest end of the wall at right angles to it. : 30 1 9. lo attach a laundry to an extensive range of such dwellings becomes a positive ty. A washing tub and rinsing tub are necessary, about 3 feet 3 inches long by 1 foot •ches wide, with washer, plug, and chain, and a separate cold water service to each. ie top of the tubs should he 3 feet 3 inches above the foot-board, or the floor, if not pro- led. A 10-gallon copper, with cold water service, and a tin ladle. The flue of the 'per is to be carefully constructed to insure the heat being well distributed over the es and bottom, and to afford facilities for regulating it and for cleaning. Wringing .dunes might be provided if hydrometers are not used ; they are easily attached to the >3. Artificial means of drying clothes, as adopted with advantage in public wash-houses, 4 A 1 - i 1090 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book JIT are to be avoided in small laundries, because they cannot be maintained without consider able expense. Clothes are more easily and effectively dried when protected from rain, am suspended in strong cross currents of air. 3020. The water- cistern should be as close to the laundry as possible, in order that tin piping may be short, witli very few joints and bends so as to be free from the risk which attend a variety of levels. More attention is desirable to the dimensions of the iroi piping, and the nature and position of the services, than they usually receive. Thus meat, should be provided for filling, emptying, and cleaning the cistern or tank ; also for regu lating the supply during the time that any portion of the piping is under repair. Even rising main should be furnished with at least two valves. The first is best fixed in il i junction between the rising main and the company’s street main, so as to regulate the entin Mipply of the building. The second should be fixed at the bottom of the rising main, sc as to release the water which remains in the pipe after the cistern has been filled. In sonic cases an additional cock, 2 feet above each floor level, for the supply of buckets, or for the connexion of hose in case of fire, may be desirable. 3021. A few square yards of play-ground is of inestimable value for the labouring man’ children. One large [day-ground to a block of buildings is of much greater use that:] many small yards to as many eoltaires, and has tended as much as anything to ensure tl.e success of the large blocks ot dwellings in London. 3022. The drain-pipes should be of the best description, and their diameters larger thru I those employed under ordinary circumstances, because their liabilities to obstruction ar- very much greater. The main drains should be external to the building, and supplied with examination holes at intervals for repair and cleansing, and should possess the mean , of being regularly flushed with water. When the ground is soft, the chains, both large am small, should be laid upon beds of concrete, to preserve them in their proper falls. Soi| and other pipes should be ventilated by being taken above the roof of the building. 302.3. The site fur a block of associated dwellings should be as open and in a situation as public as possible, nut only to receive the advantages of light ana ventilation, hut that i may be easily found and readily accessible, and that its residents may have contact witlj neighbours whose habits and appearance are superior to their own. The ends of the sit should face north and south, so that its east and west sides should have the morning am evening sun. It should oiler every facility for good drainage; the nature of the subso should be well ascertained, and every necessary precaution taken to avoid, or to clear ou any accumulation of foul refuse that may have been carted into the vacant site. The mo; economical dimensions for a site within the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Board ( Works in London, are 108 feet long by 60 feet wide. This area will accommodate building 108 feet long by 34 feet wide, and admit of a playground 26 feet deep in its rea The multiple of 108 by 34 = 3600 in round numbers, is the area allowed by Act of l’arli, ment for a building containing several distinct tenements, and possessing only one entrant and staircase. The height of the building is best kept at 46 feet from the ground line t the eaves of the roof; it admits of as many stories of dwellings as can be occupied wit comfort to the tenants, and it requires no unnecessary thickness of walls. If made fb stories in height it will contain 40 or 45 dwellings, about 16 water-closets, 8 lavatorit 8 wash tubs and coppers. 3024. The following paragraphs comprise a brief description of the dwellings lately bui or now constructing. In the basement, only a small cellar need be proud, d lor dust, aecc to it is to be obtained by a small external staircase under its first landing, but dhtinc so that the dust may be removed without annoyance. The ground, first, second, and tliii floor plans may be divided throughout their entire length into two equal portions, by corridor 4 feet 2 inches wide, on each side of which are arranged the dwellings {fig. 1354 In the centre is the pri cipal entrance, which 5 feet 6 inches wide, at furnished with external a internal folding-doors u der the immediate su|» vision of the poiter win office adjoins it. r l staircase, placed iiru. diately opposite to the , trance, is 8 feet wide, " solid square stone st having a 10- inch tre and an average rise o, inches. The side furtl _go feet. from the corridor has ,|i arch 7 feet wide, and rte i?m. CKABOUr DWELLINGS, COMMERCIAL STREET. 'HAP. V. SANITARY ASPECT OF HOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 1091 ending from the ground-line to within a few feet of the eaves of the roof. It is separated om the corridor by two arches, whose centre pier contains a dust shaft, traversing the itire height of the building, and communicating with the cellar above named in the base- lent. It is 14 inches wide within, open above the roof for ventilation, and is furnished itli a hopper, which receivos the dust, and closing flush with the wall at each floor level. 3025. The lavatories adjoin the staircase, those for the men on one side, for the women |i the other. The fourth or topmost floor contains a laundry, about 22 feet long by 12 et wide, covered with an open timber roof, the tie-beams having standards helping to pport it, and serving as clothes posts. It is lighted by a range of small casements, ad- itting air sufficient to remove any unpleasantness that might arise from the laundry, and thoroughly dry the clothes. It is furnished with eight sets of wash tubs, some being I parated by slate partitions, for privacy ; eight 10-gallon coppers ; eight wringing ma- I ines, or a patent hydrometer ; trellis framed standing boards; stools (as being better an tables) for clothes baskets; soap boxes and ladles. This floor also contains a bath- jom for each sex, placed over the lavatories; it is furnished with one of RufFord and I nch’s stoneware baths, and has a service of cold water. Hot water is supplied from the mdry when required. A cistern lined with lead adjoins each bath-room, and also Ipplies the lavatories below it ; this position secures a direct fall to the several services, id avoids the necessity for frequent bends and joints. 3026. The main drains are 12 or 9 inches in diameter ; the smaller drains, kept as short possible, are 6 and 4 inches, according to their requirements. The ventilation is secured the side corridor having a window at each end of it, and by the open staircase in the idclle of its length, all which forbid stagnation and remove impurities. These very prac- ■al observations are mainly due to the paper by II. A. Darbishire, who has designed several icks of dwellings in the metropolis, as given, with illustrations of those in Commercial reet, Whitechapel Road, in the Civil Engineer, &c. for 1864. Sect. X. SANITARY ASPECT OF HOUSE CONSTRUCTION 1027. This subject may usefully be referred to. Granting that a house is well drained 1 that the plumber’s work is properly carried out, there are yet other matters to he con- ered, so that a house may be a healthy residence. It should have plenty of light, nt-y of air at all times, pure and dry, or at least as much so as possible. During the iod when the number of windows and the glass in them were each taxed, large win- i vs were advocated ; but as soon as both were taken off, a change of fashion occurred, ill small windows and small panes were again introduced. As regards street architecture, i s important that the houses should be erected of a height bearing a direct relation to 1 breadth of the street in which they are situated. Perhaps the height of the house suld not exceed two-thirds of the width. As regards the direction of a street, the best i >ne nearly north and south, as the sun shines on a house on the west side from morn- i' till mid-day in the front, and from mid-day till the evening on the back of it. In the (jercase, the houses on the south side get scarcely any direct sunlight, in winter none f|dl in front ; while those on the north side get none to the back rooms. Hence, large V dows are necessary to compensate, by giving as much light as possible, for the direct 6 light which is necessary to make an apartment wholesome. 028. Purity of air cannot be maintained in a house unless it be thoroughly dry. Set- t ; aside the not inconsiderable quantity of water in the atmosphere produced by those 1 ng in it, and by the combustion of gas, oil, and candles, the air in a house is liable to 1 endered moist, 4, by absorption from the soil below it ; and 2, from the porous material c fkich it may be built. 029. The porosity of most building stones and bricks is remarkable. A cubic foot of s le will absorb from 5 to 9 lbs. of water, or from half a gallon to nearly one gallon. J absorption by certain kinds of stone is so rapid that in slight showers the water is a .mbibed; and if the surface be kept wet by constant rains, a large portion must find i' vay inwards, Freestone also allows of the passage of air or other gas by transpira- t and diffusion ; also bricks, unless these have been exposed to a temperature high e ’gh to flux the material. The quantity of air diffused into and out of a house by the v Is is very considerable. If the stone be coated with oil, paint, or any silicate solution, a the absorption be prevented, the valuable property of diffusing air into the house is P "ented. Hollow W'dls may secure these advantages. These may be of brick, or of 01 rete, or of stone outside and brick inside. In some parts of the country the material lf iid with beds slightly sloping upwards somewhat to counteract the effects of the rain, ei daily when blown from the south-west ; perhaps the two inches of the bed of the e ie on the outside might be bevelled, and the remainder be worked level. 4 a 2 1092 PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE. Book II 3030. Where rubble walls are used, the best thing to be done is perhaps to point thei with a mixture of 1 of Portland cement to 2 of sand, and then to colour the whole wit cement wash. But this should not be done until after one summer's sun has assisted i drying the stone, or the damp may dry inwards. It is considered that a 2-feet stone wi not dry thoroughly, even under favourable circumstances, in less than two years. 3031. Plaster, whether on brick or lath, is exceedingly porous, and permits of a read diffusion of gases. A wall merely whitewashed or coloured is better in a sanitary poii of view than one that is covered with oil paint, which is then practically impervious the passage of gases. Wall papers are probably not so bad in this respect as oil pair, but inferior to colouring or distemper work. 3032. The foundation of a house is an important part of it. The most perfect is solid platform of concrete extending over the entire area of the building, from 2 to feet in thickness, and coated on the top with nearly pure cement. Damp cannot pen trate this, it is considered. The joists should be laid on sleepers, so as to obtain vein lation to the space ; in case of the bursting of a water-pipe or of water getting into tl concrete bed, it should be laid sloping, so that water could be carried off by outs 1 gratings. This would be expensive, it is true. Another system would be, to build tl walls and dwarf-walls to a certain level, and then to fill in with hard dry rubbish, at. cover the whole with cement 3 inches thick, composed of 1 of cement and 2 of coai" sand. Or, this might be covered with asphalte, also over the walls, or the usual dan course take its place. This damp course must be put to main and dwarf walls. 3033. Gratings should be placed all round the building, thoroughly to ventilate tl ; space under the basement floor, about 10 feet apart. If a town house, then about 3 d 6 feet apart and each about 10 by 6 inches. Cross walls should have goou openings in the to obtain this circulation of air. The floor may be considered cold by this ventilation if so, the floor can be pugged, or the boards be grooved and tongued. 3031. In this wet climate, where occasionally half an inch of rain falls in a day, it well to cover the tops of the chimneys, in order to prevent rain from coming down t stiaight flues into the grate, or down others into the gable walls and keeping them dan preventing the smoke rising; and this cover can be combined with some means 1 preventing downdraughts. 3035. A simple method of ventilating a room is to drill a series of smallish ho 1 vertically through the lower frame or meeting bar of the top sash of the windo say six or eight to the sash ; the air rises through them into the room in the same mam as in a Tobin’s tube. This is an old custom, and often tends to cure a smoky chimn caused in a room. Another is to have a bar of 3 or 4 inches in height to fit in between t frame on the sill of the lower sash, when raised for the purpose; there will then be a sp; left at the meeting rails for inlet of air. 3036. At the meeting of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, held at Bolt' Mr. R. FI Middleton, C.E , read a paper on the then proposed Sanitary Begistrution Buildings Bill , 1887, in which he quoted a specification where water-closets are used, is here given, as showing the present views, extreme or otherwise, of many sanitary officii “ 1. Every drain or part of a drain inside a house and all soil pipes shall be wat tight throughout. “ 2. The main drain of the house shall be ventilated at its upper extremity by me. of a continuation of the soil pipe, or by a special pipe provided for the purpose; st ventilating pipe, whether connected with the soil pipe or otherwise, having a clear f tional area of 10 square inches throughout, and being carried to such a height that i outlet shall be at least 3 feet above the eaves of the roof, and tho same distance al • any window or opening in the roof, not being a chimney, and not less than 6 feet dist from any chimney or opening in the roof, whether of the house to which it belongs ml the next adjoining house, measured in any direction. The main soil pipe shall le s: ■ larly ventilated, and if there be more than one soil pipe, then each such soil pipe wl ‘ shall he longer between the basin of the closet and the main drain than 8 feet slta! > similarly ventilattd. The main drain shall be disconnected from the sewer or eesspil means of a syphon trap of approved construction, provided with nmans for cleaning the i 1 and the portion of the drain between the trap and the sewer or cesspit; and it shal 1 ventilated by an inlet air-pipe or ventilating disconnecting manhole ; and if there bo n than one outlet ventilating pipe connected with the house drain, then each such por 11 of drain and outlet ventilating pipe shall le provided with a suitable syphon trap air a inlet air-pipe or disconnecting manhole, as already described; and the area of the inlet |- pipe shall in all cases be at least double that of the outlet ventilating pipe in the cl “ 3. No pipe which passes through any part of a, house, not being a soil pipe or 1 drain, shall be connected directly with the main drain. “ 4. No water-closet shall be situated next to a larder or place where food is sto • No pan-closet or [) trap shall be used, and every water-closet shall be trapped, and - be arranged so as to prevent svphonage. “ 5. The overflows from safes of closets and of baths, and from cisterns, shul 9 tip. V. TECHNICAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 1093 -charged into the open air in an exposed posilion, and shall not bo connected with the I drain or rain-water pipes, either directly or indir. ctly, but shall act as detectors. ‘ 6. All sinks, baths, lavatories, and urinals shall be trapped with suitable traps, and the charges from them shall be carried outside the walls of the house, and shall not be con- •ted directly with any soil drain, nor shall they be introduced under the griting of any p, but they shall terminate in the open air, and not mar any window or other opening. ‘7. All water-closets, urinals, and slop sinks shall be provided with suitable siting cisterns, and the flushing pipe for any elosot shall not have a less internal imeter than 1|- inches, and the height of the flushing cistern above the closet, urinal, slop sink shall not be less than 4 feet. It shall be impossible to draw water from y cistern used for flushing purposes for any other purpose than that of flushing. • 8. The cisterns used for general purposes shall be easily accessible, and shall he pro- led with covers ventilated into the open air outside the house by a rising pipe other n the overflow pipe, and no pipe from them shall be connected in any way with any 1 pipe, drain, or with any pipe receiving the discharge from any bath, lavatory, urinal, k, or flushing cistern. ‘ 9. No rain-water pipe used to receive the waste from any bath, lavatory, sink, or ual stall be placed near a window or other opening; and no rain-water drain shall meet directly with a soil drain ; and no rain-water pipe shall be used as or connected th the soil pipe, nor as a ventilating pipe. 10. No cesspit shall be constructed in such a manner, nor placed in such a position, to endanger the water supply; and every cesspit shall be ventilated by an inlet air ie and by an outlet ventilating pipe rising to an elevation above the ground level of not s than 20 feet, and having a clear sectional area of not less than 10 square inches, the :a of the inlet pipe being double that of the outlet ventilating pipe.” Sect. XI. TECHNICAL SCHOOL AND COLLEGE BUILDINGS. 1037. The remarkable movement in favour of more efficient technical training has called an exact treatise on the peculiarities of plan and structural arrangements and fittings of Idings required for its development. Foreign nations have been beforehand with us in s matter, and have long since provided noble buildings, specially created and admirably ed up for the purpose, and well stored with singularly complete industrial and fine art lections. 038. Mr. E. C. Robins, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.A., has, besides the lectures delivered by i, brought together a large amount of information on the subject of technical edu- ' ion as taught both in England and abroad, and on the adaptation of architecture to i requirements of this teaching. This new volume is entitled, A Treatise on the Design Construction of Applied Science and Art Buildings, and. their suitable Fittings and >1 litation, with a Chapter on Technical Education, 4to. 1887. It contains full descrip- b is of such institutions as the Bonn, Berlin, and Munich chemical laboratories; Du s-Reymond’s Physiological Institute at Berlin; the laboratories at Charlottenburg, •ich, Paris, Strassburg. Most of these are accompanied with cuts and diagrams, so I't their interior arrangements may be studied in minutest detail. Descriptions of the 1 oratories at South Kensington, Finsbury, Leeds, Bristol, Manchester, Huddersfield, • | ford, Cambridge, and other English cities, are given; with chapters devoted to the ngs of these buildings, giving detailed information concerning the hundred and one lor things which go to make up the perfect laboratory ; as the wmrking benches, demon- ition tables, drawing rooms, and so on. The heating, ventilation, and sanitation of * lied science buildings are also elaborately treated and profusely illustrated. An 1 endix gives statistics as to the technical schools in Great Britain : as particulars of tl area occupied by buildings, their cubical contents, the cost of land, cost of fittings, ■ ual expense of maintenance, number of students, and so forth. One chapter embraces t planning of schools for middle class education generally, as at South Hampstead, ( avesend, Sevenoaks, Oaterham, Battersea, Wapping, Haverstock Hill, Stepney, with t! Camden School for Girls, and the North London Collegiate School for Girls ’039. It has lately been pointed out that technical education was not meant to be a s statute for apprenticeship. The object is rather to teach boys and young men how to I n a trade rather than to teach them the trade itself. As a comparison of the views M by some continental states, and by England, on this subject, it has been stated that V Finsbury College, London, cost 37,000b to build, and requires 6,000b per annum bu the City Guilds for maintenance ; and that the City and Guilds Central Institute jp 90,000b to build, and receives 10,000b per annum ; while at Berlin, a building has n erected twice the size of Buckingham Palace, which cost 690,000b to build, and it r ' ves 37,380b per annum from the state! 1094 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. BoiiK I B 0 0 K IV. VALUATION OF PROPERTY. CHAP. I. The. valuations in which the architect is consulted are properly onlv those wherein buih ings have heen or may he erected ; from which if lie wander, the probability is that iie w create difficulty for himself, tending to exhibit him as a pretender to knowledge not with the regular course of his occupation. The general principles, therefore, on which we |m pose to touch, are confined to the species of property above named, as distinguished fro that in which the resident valuator near the spot in the different provinces is the In adviser, from the local knowledge he possesses. The auctioneers who with unblttsliii effrontery pretend to a knowledge of the value of property in the metropolis, are utter incompetent to the duties they undertake, from an ignorance of the durability and cost buildings, which can be attained by the practice and experience of the architect only. Buildings may be so disadvantageous^ placed on their sites as to realise nothin like a proper interest on the money expended in their erection; and, indeed, so as all gether to destroy even the great value of the ground on which they are built. Thus, place before the reader extreme cases, which generally best illustrate a subject, let hi suppose a row of hovels built in Piccadilly, and a house like Apsley House placed Wapping High Street. In both cases the productive value of the ground is destroye there being no inhabitants for such dwellings in the respective quarters of the town. From this it must be evident that the value of town or city property, which const- principally of buildings, is divisible into two parts ; namely, — That arising from the value of the soil or site ; and That which arises from the value of the buildings placed upon it. We will suppose for a house which is fairly let at a rent of 1001. per annum, matter what the situation of it be, that it could be built for 1000/., and that the proprict or builder would be content with 7 per cent, for the outlay of his money, a rate by means larger than he would be entitled to claim, seeing that the letting, after it is built, a matter of speculation, and that loss of tenants and other casualties may temporal ' deprive him of the interest of his capital. In this case, then, the rent of the mere build! would be 70/. ; and as the full rent assumed is 100/., 100—70 = 30, which is manifestly the value of the ground or ground rent. Thus in the cases of valuation of freeholds, wherein the gross rent can he act rately ascertained, there can be no difficulty in coming at the real value of the ground u because the building rent, or that arising from the expenditure of money on the soil, i be immediately ascertained by the architect, with the rate of interest on it which it is the builder should have. The remainder of the rent is that inseparably attached to the va of the soil, and belongs to the ground landlord. The reason for thus separating the two rents is this: the ground rent, attached it is to the soil, is imperishable. It is true that the value of ground is constantly Hi tuating from the power of fashion over certain localities; but with this the valuator cam deal. The changes are slow ; and the Lord Shaftesbury in the time of Charles II. woi have little thought it possible, when be placed his residence in Aldersgate Street, that successors would have dwelt in a house in Grosvenor Square ; neither, even five aim twe years ago, did it cross the mind of the then possessor of the Grosvenor property that i Five Fields at Chelsea contained a mine of wealth in the ground rents of Redgrave . Eaton Squares. Such are the mutations of property, with which the present question not involved, unless the gift of foresight, in a degree not to be expected, be given to valuator. The other portion of the value of house property is strictly the result of perishable part of it, namely, the building itself ; and this is limited by the durability the building, which has great relation to the time it has already existed, and to the s. stantiality with which it has been constructed. The durability, then, or the number,, years a building will continue to realise the rent, is the second ingredient in a valuat. and is a point upon which none but an experienced person can properly decide. The rate of interest which the buyer is content to obtain in the investment of money in buildings, or, in other words, in the purchase of the perishable annuity an- from the building, will necessarily vary with the value of money in the market. In compensation cases under public improvements, wherein it is obligatory on the owin ' 1 :hap. i. VALUATION OF PROPERTY. 1095 art with iiis property, the 6 per cent, rate of the table is generally used, by which the uyer makes too little interest on the perishable part of the property. Few would be in- ined to invest money in such property at so low a rate, for a rent which every year, from 1 car and tear, becomes less valuable. Individuals understanding the subject would arcely be found to purchase, unless they could make at least 8 per cent, for this part of ie capital. In the cases above mentioned, twenty-five years’ purchase, that is, 4 per cent., the usual price at which the ground rent is taken. Having thus prepared the student, we will present an example of a valuation conducted : the principles named. Thus, suppose a building and the ground on which it stands to ■ together worth 150/. per annum, and that its durability is such that a purchaser may bunt on receiving that rent during a term of fifty years. We will suppose the house to and upon a plot of ground ‘24 feet in frontage and 60 feet in depth ; that the size of the 1 i use is 24 feet by 40 feet, and that to build a similar one would cost 1,440/., which, at a te of 7 per cent, upon the expenditure, would produce a building rent of 100/. 16's. per mum. £ s. d. £ > d. Now the total rent being - - - 1 .50 0 0 The rent arising from the building itself - - 100 16 0 The value of the mere ground must be - - 49 4 0 We therefore here have the imperishable part, viz the ground, of the value of 49/. 4s. per annum, which, giving the purchaser 4 per cent, interest for his money, is twenty-five years’ purchase for the fee-simple by the Fourth Table, that is An annuity (from the building) of 10:7. 16s., to continue for fifty years, is. by the Fourth T able at 5 per cent., worth 18 256 years’ purchase, that is - -- -- -- - The value of the old materials at the end of the term, if taken to be pulled down and sold for 150/., will be that sum at the end of fifty years to be received at the present time, discounting at 4 per cent, from the Second Table "1407 x 150 - Total value of the freehold - 1230 0 O 1840 0 11 = 21 2 0 3091 2 11 Tn the above valuation the ground estimated by its frontage would be 24 -j ee ~ = 41s. per 5>t, and ground is usually let by the foot when demised for building. In the chief parts of leat cities ground is now usually sold and let at per foot superficial. The next case of valuation is that of a beneficial lease, in which the rent paid by the '-ee is less than the actual value of the premises. The difference between them, there- I e, is an annuity for the term of the lease, which is so much benefit to the lessee, and is imated by the Fourth Table; thus — !Suppose the actual value of given premises be - £100 Rent reserved by the lessor ------ 50 Beneficial annuity belonging to the lessee ----- £50 If the term of the lease be twenty one years, such is the length of the annuity, and the ‘I'stion stands as under : — An annuity for twenty-one years, discounting at 5 per cent., is by the Fourth Table worth * 1 82 1 1 years’ purchase, which multiplied by 50/. = 641/. Is. t is to be observed that the annuities must be clear after the deduction of all outgoings ' "ch may be necessary to keep it unencumbered. -et us take another case. v man takes a lease of ground at 10/. per annum, and lays out 1 ,000/. on a sixty-one years’ I e, interest being 3 per cent. How much must l.c receive as rent to replace the princi- 1 at the end of the term ? 900/. at 3 per cent. = 30/. + 10/. ground rent = 40/. improved rent. ! / per annum for sixty-one years at 3 per cent, wdl amount to 169/. (Sec Third Table.) — = 51. 9s. = the sum to be laid out yearly. 69 nd 30/. + 51. 9s. — 351. 9s., or 3‘59, is the rate of interest to secure or replace the princi- r]at the end of the term without consideration of repairs, loss of tenants, insurance, &c. ■ j 1O0G VALUATION' OF PROPERTY. Rook I V We now subjoin some observations on the va'uation of house property, which claim tl architectural student’s attention. Inwood’s Tables for the Purchusiny of Estates, tyc. liar long been in general use ; they are founded on the elaborate Tables bv Baily and Smar A series are given hereafter. W. D. Biden, Itules, Formula, and 'Tables for the Valualw of Estates. Sfc., with his smaller work, Practical lin es forValuers, 1862, are useful, and liar furnished the outline for the following remarks. It is generally considered that the value of a fnehuld house ranges, according to situ; tion, style, condition, &c., from 10 to 20 years’ purchase. It naturally follows that pm chasers, and some valuators indeed, imagine that house property, as a rule, pays from 5 ‘ 10 per cent, interest on the purchase-money. This is a great error, as many have e: perienced who have endeavoured to realise and to expend yearly 8 per cent, on the cost bouse property. The valuation should be made at 5 per cent, (if the purchaser will I content with that interest); and the present value of all the costs, charges, and losses inc dent to house property should be fairly stated and deducted in the valuation, and then ti purchaser will not be deluded with the idea that he is to net a very large interest, whir may be spent unconcernedly. Such is the expectation of many of those who are induced i join Building Societies, and who buy, what appears to them, a bargain, as they will 1 receiving for years double or treble the amount of interest obtainable from the fund.;, change of tenants, or other cause, soon shows the difference. Where, however, the buy himself occupies the house, whether freehold or leasehold, he may make a very advant geous investment of his money 7 . In the latter case, that is, of a leasehold, he must bear mind the result of the occupation of the premises, namely, dilapidations, for which he wij be called strictly to account by his landlord at the expiration of his term of lease. Compare the following valuations, made in two ways, of a freehold house, which w valuator may make out bis calculations thus ; — • £ s. d. £ s. J Gross rent received by the landlord - - 63 0 (1 Deduct Insurance - ") n 10 0 „ Land Tax - l when paid by him - - i 2 6 „ Sewers Rate J lo 15 9 ,, General repairs, 10 per cent. - - 6 6 0 „ Collection, &c. ... - - 4 14 6 To pay 8 per cent., at years’ purchase (Fourth Table) Presumed value of the property, according to tiiis rough valuation - A uotlier valuator will make out bis calculations as follows: — £ s. Gross rent ------- Annual deductions, as before - - - - Net rent ------- But property is usually subject to various depreciating con- tingencies, which must be provided against by an annual reserve according to the class of building, thus; — Deduct for losses by bad tenants, say r 1 year’s rent in 6 And, for extra repairs and expenses contingent upon sucli frequent changes, say an equal sum - - - Deduct a sum for rebuilding (say about £630), which, put by each year in the funds at 3 per cent, compound interest, will produce that amount at the end of the life of the house, say 80 vears, i.e., £1 per annum for 80 years (Third Table) - ' - - - = =£321-303 14 8 48 11 1) 1 507 0 £ S. 63 0 14 8 48 11 ■ = 10 10 0 10 10 0 2 0 0 £ 612-726 Clear income from the property 23 0 25 U CP If the purchaser elects to have 5 per cent, for his speculation, the amount to be paid for the property will be - - - - £512 The value of the ground in these calculations is included in the rental; when of s< Importance, it must be valued upon its own merits, as shewn in the previous page. Chav. I. VALUATION OF PROPERTY. 1 007 But there may be a further expenditure for surveyors’ charges, solicitors’ charges for transferring the property, and loss of capital by selling out of the funds, which it may be often necessary to deduct from that amount. A matter also of consideration is whether I the building is in a good state of repair, both in structure and decoration, as ready for a tenant. When the property is leasehold, then, as soon as the clear income has been ascertained it will have to be multiplied by the number of years’ purchase at the rate of interest required 1 for the term (Fourth Table), to find the amount that the property is worth. The number of years’ purchase provides for the percentage and to get back the principal, the annual instalments of which must be invested at the same rate of interest to produce the total sum it the end of the term (in lieu of the rebuilding fund in the freehold property). Among Inwood’s Tallies, ICtli edition, 1855, is one (p. 177), whereby to calculate “ the present nalue of an income for a certain number of years, which is to pay during its continuance a | riven rate of interest on the purchase-money, and to replace the purchase-money at the end it the same number of years at a rate of interest to be selected. ’ From the former method of expressing the valuation, it would appear that a purchaser | nay realise 8 per cent, upon bis outlay ; and so indeed be may, for a few years, if every- | liing connected with the property be very favourable ; but the latter calculation shows 'xactly what may be expected, namely, that on capitalising a further sum to form a sinking I and for certain repayments, then 5 per cent, per annum may be appropriated as income, he remainder of the rent being set aside to supply a fund to meet exigencies of no unenm- non occurrence. The rial value of the property, moreover, is found to be much less than vhat the rough calculation would show it. to be worth. The deductions for losses depend entirely upon the class of bouse. First class houses I n good situations let so readily to responsible tenants, who for their own comfort and lisplav maintain the fabric, that the sums to be deducted for the occasional want of occu- pants and expenses of reletting are reduced to a minimum. On the other hand, a much jjvver class of house, together with the present unsatisfactory mode of letting houses on jhree years’ agreements, and the still more ineligible arrangement by the year, throw so nuch larger amounts for rep’airs, decorations, and change of tenancy, upon the landlord. nit the total of the sums to be di ducted is raised to a very high estimate. Herein the lest judgment of the valuator is called into requisition, and it requires the knowledge ob- i lined by the practical architect to assist bis judgment in such matters. After the actual value has been ascertained, another item for consideration is the additional ini that a purchaser will be induced to give for some reason — such as the property being in fashionable neighbourhood ; the house possessing arrai igements peculiarly suited to bis islies, and so on : this amount may be called a “ fancy price,” and when paid had better - considered as money sunk. For making rough calculations, according to the first instance, the value of freehold nd in the country is generally considered worth from 30 to 33 years’ purchase, being cal- lated on the 3 per cent, tables. In a few very exceptional cases as much as 40 years’ hrehase has been given ; but the difference constituted a fancy price.” For town plots »n 25 to 30 years’ is more usual. Freehold houses and buildings, 1st and 2nd class, from to 20 years’ purchase, or 5 per cent.; 3rd and 4th class, about 1G years’ purchase, or 6 r cent. For I.easeho'd property : — 1st and 2nd class, from 15 to 16 years’ purchase or G per cent. 2nd and 3rd „ 14 to 15 „ 7 „ 3rd and 4th „ 12 to 13 ,, 8 „ 4th and 5th „ 1 1 to 12 „ 9 ,, 5th and 6th „ 10 „ 10 ,, freehold Ground-rents are valuable in proportion to the extent to which they are 1 ervd by the rack-rent and by the period of reversion. A good ground-rent ought to ' six times covered, that is, five parts are brick and mortar rent, and one part ground- 'd. A reversion, however, unless within forty years, is not much taken into account. ; jne ground-rents in the City of London (where the ground-rent is larger in proportion) 'ie sold for 31^ years’ purchase; those only covered by three times the rack rent, sold f 25 years’ purchase. Leasehold and freehold ground-rents can only be valued according t ocality, circumstances, length of holding, &c. Unsecured ground-rents are usually ' wd at 25 years’ purchase, but those well-secured at from 30 to 33 years’ purchase. t owed ground-rents are not worth so much as the freehold ground-rent, in consequence t|he covenants of superior leases, danger of breaches of covenants, & c. In the valuation of leases held on lives, the operation, after bringing the rent to a clear a juity, is conducted by means of the sixth, seventh, and eighth tables, given hereafter, as case may require. n l he valuation of warehouses, the only safe method of coming at the value of a rental 1098 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Book IV. is by the quantity of goods or tonnage they will contain after leaving proper gangway, and not overloading the floors. In corn warehouses, however, the grain being distributed over the surface of the floor, the squares of floor are taken to come at, the contents. Goods warehoused are paid for to the warehouseman usually at a weekly or monthly rent ; and u is commonly considered that the profit he should make ought to be one half of the rent he pays to t'.ie landlord, so that in fact two-thirds of the actual rent realised goes to the pro- prietor, and the other third to the warehouseman or lessee. Tables of the weight and space occupied by different goods are given in the Glossary Addendum. We have noticed at the commencement of this chapter that valuations depending upon building or building land are essentially within the province of the architect, lint as valuations for Railway and Improvement compensations ramify into one and the other, as well as into agricultural land, a portion of the subject into which we do not consider it desirable here to enter, we will only notice that, as regards the former, there are several items, beyond those already mentioned, to be taken into consderation. A man holding a property, and dispossessed against his will, has a right to be paid for his interests being so injuriously affected, hence an item for “ compulsory sale ” is allowed ; this was fotmerly a- much as 30 per cent, for house property, now it is only 10 per cent. ; while for land, from 10 to 25 per cent, is obtained, according to circumstances. With certain exceptions, the purchase of lands compulsorily is placed under the provisions of the Statute 8 Viet. cap. 18, “The Land Clauses Act.” The assessment of the items usually consists of the bil- lowing heads : — I. The value of the property taken. 1 1. Any reversionary or prospective advantage the owner may be likely to receive at any time; to be estimated in present money. III. Any advantage the owner may have by carrying on a trade, business, oi profession, in a locality ; whether the same would be utterly destroyed, or a portion btj taken with him. IV. The cost of removing, or loss by forced sale. V. The value of tin | portion only of the property (if so taken), and amount of damage the remainder nip sustain in consequence of the severance; this is usually called consequential damu;n VI. If a portion only be taken, and that portion injuriously divides the remainder of tin property, the estimated amount of damage is known as severance. VII. Compensatioi for loss of time, trouble, and expense, in finding a new investment; loss of interest: tl parting with property to which one is attached to and has an interest in ; and other Iosm by being forced to give up a property and seek new. 'Ibis forms the item of compuhur sale. CHAP. II. CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDATIONS. I lie architect, in the course of business, may be commissioned to ascertain the extent neglect on the part of an occupant in keeping premises in proper order according to il terms upon which the property is held by him. In civil cases it is not usual for the less to exercise a power, generally reserved to him in leases, of causing his architect to inspr the premises from time to time to detect dilapidation ; but it is usual for the lessor to can such an inspection (at a reasonable period, so that the repairs may be done) before I , expiration of the term : this reasonable period may vary from two to twenty-six week more or less. After such inspection or survey, a notice to repair dilapidations according its appended schedule is served upon the tenant, who may either execute the works with the term, or (unless he can compound with the lessor for a sum to be ascertained mid arbitration) take the responsibility of paying the charges of the tradesmen employ bv the lessor after the premises have been surrendered, to which a compensation for loss rent is naturally added; but this arrangement, if adoptel, is a very exceptional pi cedure. It will be evident that in cases where a lease expires and is not to he renew before other suitable premises can be obtained, the latter method of action may desirable ; but generally, and especially in the case of a dwelling-house, the clieapi if the most inconvenient, course is for the tenant to have a survey made for himself and get the repairs executed within the term. In ecclesiastical cases the survey previous the end of occupancy is rarely, if ever, practicable ; and a sum must be ascertained uni arbitration. According to the usual tenor of leases, the lessor expects that the pretm shall be delivered, at the expiration of a term, in as good condition as tiie use ami u during the time will permit, and the lessee undertakes to make good any injury which premises may have suffered through accident, neglect, or intention; these conditions ap|| not only to what was originally demised, but to whatever may have been erectid din bis occupation. In ecclesiastical cases the principle, as will hereafter he explained rather ditferent. It may he noticed here that the term wear and tear is a popular mist ■ which the law does not support; use and wear is legitimate, tear is dilapidation. 'llAP. II. CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDATIONS. 1099 In civil dilapidations a tenant is bound, according to his covenant, specific or general, nt never beyond maintaining and upholding, unless the conditions of repair are so bad mt no measures short of reconstruction are consistent with safety, or possible from the xlent of decay. His liability is not supposed to extend to such defects as only indicate re, so long as the efficiency of the part still remains. But if the edicts of use or age have roceeded so far as to destroy the part, or its efficiency in the structure, the tenant is liable, being the presumption that at the commencement of the term the tenant was satisfied | iat every part was sufficiently strong to last to the close. On the same presumption the I igree of liability of the tenant is regulated by the actual condition of the premises at any me, as specified in bis covenant, and admits of no extenuation by reason of dilapidations Listing at the commencement of bis term, as lie is presumed to have taken the proper purse to guard biins. If against the occurrence of undue liability. In extreme cases, the ibility of a tenant extends to the rebuilding of a party wall condemned as unsafe, to ; construction after fire, & c., unless specially excepted. In fact, under the natural and the gal favour which the lessor enjoys, the person proposing to become the lessee should | lploy a professional surveyor, not only to inspect the apparent, and as far as be can the Idden, state of the building, but also to check the conditions contained in the draft of the j ise, which are sometimes extravagant when applied to an old and worn-out fabric, though ey might be reasonable as regards a new structure. Whatever the tenant has power to remove during the term cannot be chargeable with lapidations. Upon this point the old rule is, that whatever is fixed to the freehold cannot removed by the tenant : thus a lessee may erect barns or sheds or any building upon ioden or stone or other blocks laid on the surface of the ground, and take them down, il please, without substituting anything in their place ; but if the barns are fixed into the lund, they immediately become the property of the lessor. There seems, however, to be exception in respect of buildings erected for the purposes of trade: hence not only ipers and ovens may be taken away, but workshops and the like erected by the tenant I his paiticular trade. This exception seems at first to have applied only to wooden hidings ; but Lord Kenyon held that a brick chimney would prevent a tenant from jiovinga building, and decided that its being on a brick foundation would not do it. nigh this opinion was not held by Lord Ellenborough, yet it was not because the Idings were of brick, but because they were erected for the purposes of agriculture, and of trade. It is to be remembered, in all cases, that a lessee is bound to leave the 1 nises in as good condition after the removal of fixtures as though they bad never ted: thus, if a marble be substituted for a wooden chimney-piece, when the former is oved, the latter, or one of equal value, must be replaced. If a partition be put up and tun away, all damages to the adjacent work must be repaired. t he general rule for determining what injuries are considered dilapidations, is to ascertain v ;t is fair near without dilapidation arising from accident or neglect. Injury by acci- dj is that which happens suddenly, and perceptibly differing from wear, which occurs o by lengthened use. Thus the nosing of a step worn away is not dilapidation ; but if si > be broken away instead of worn, it is a dilapidation. It may be said that indent is defined here with too much latitude, inasmuch as it takes account of il which occurs without apparent reason at any particular time; but we use the term in c will yield, even without a load upon it. When accident occurs, such alone does not 1 the extent of the dilapidation, but also such injuries to the building as follow in its tr ■ Thus, if the weather-boarding of a building decay from age, so long as the coi-ing will keep out wet, it is no dilapidation ; but if broken in any part, that is a dilap i- daj n ; and if from want of reparation any of the internal parts of the building be injured, 511 injury is a dilapidation : so if timber or timbers belonging to any part of a house !n ly decay, if it or they be still sufficient for the support of the bouse, no dilapidation >e chargeable ; but if such timber or timbers give way, they must be replaced, ill parts made good which suffered by their failure. Watte, in law, is insufferable, in freeholds which are held for lives only. According to Woodfall ( Landlord and nt), “waste may be done in houses by pulling them down or suffering them to be 111 1 ered, whereby the rafters and other timbers of the bouse become rotten ; but the bare xul ing them to be uncovered, without rotting the timber, is not waste ; so if a bouse be lin M er ed when the tenant cometh in, it is no waste in the tenant to suffer the same to fall 1111 " In external covering, however, it seems that decay arising from inattention to it is filiation, even though no accident be the cause. It is always considered that though , u|ng neglected is not itself a dilapidation, yet where decay arises from it, it is one. h n glass is not considered a dilapidation, unless there be more than one crack m the Some, however, contend that while the glass is sufficiently entire to exclude the and weather, no waste is assignable. Generally it seems then to be the rule, that accident occurs, it is a dilapidation. ‘he preceding paragraph the word neglect has naturally occurred ; dilapidation from par win win I 1100 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Eook IV. neglect being very often followed by dilapidation by accident'. the latter term is still more nearly connected with the word misuse, which occupies the place here given to “accident" in the Report upon Dilapidations, published in 1844 by the Royal Institute of liritisli Architects. This Report does not define its meaning of the word misuse ; it is clearlv not the meaning in which the term is generally employed ; for the Report says, “ If the effects of use or age have proceeded so far as to destroy the part or its efficiency in the structure, this argues neglect or misuse. ” The student will find it advantageous to study the Report, and especially the specification contained therein. This specification instructs the mason “ in cases of broken nosings, or of the treads being worn to such an extent as to render the passing up and down dangerous,” to piece as described the step ; and also directs the joiner “to put nosings to stairs where partially defective, and treads where wholly so.” There is in appearance a contradiction between these views upon worn steps and that given in the commencement of this chapter; but tilt practised surveyor will see that they are easily reconciled, and that his judgment must decide which is, and which is not, fair use and wear. It is to be regretted that the cleat and discriminating section on dilapidations in Chambers and Tattersall, Laws relating t< Building, 184 5, contains a sweeping condemnation of this Report, which is in no way authorised by the evidence adduced. We have added to the usual definition of dilapidation, namely any injury through acci dent , misuse, or neglect, the word intention ; and the propriety of the addition, as meaning some thing different from wilful waste, will be obvious. The erection of a photographer’s roon I on the to]) of a house in one street may be deemed an injury, and be claimed as dilapida I tion by a lessor, who would demand the removal of it and the restoration of the root while in another street, and within a few yards of this dilapidation, the same lessor migli consider the same work (if judiciously executed) an improvement which he would no allow to be removed. So also a grated iron door, instead of the common wooden one, am similar alterations, may become dilapidations of intention at the pleasure of the lessor There is another point on which surveyors have frequently differed, namely the insertion c| nails and screws for the suspension of frames of pictures, &c. This may be now considered 1 1 be determined by the judgment in the case of Martin and another v. Roe ( 1857), where In I house frames, bedded in mortar on brick walls, had been removed without damage exee|j what was unavoidable to the mortar. Lord Campbell said that, “in considering th question, we treat the removal by the plaintiff' as having been in fact effected without it jury t> the freehold. In all cases of this kind, injury to the freehold must be spoken with less than legal strictness. A screw or a nail can scarcely he drawn without son injury ; and when all the harm done is that which is unavoidable to the mortar laid < brick walls, this is so trifling that the law, which is reasonable, will regard it as nom Among surveyors it has been held that what is nailed belongs to the freehold, but tin which can be unscrewed does not, the careful withdrawal of the screw enabling the twin to make good the hole. Although there is a general impression that only damage of broken glass can be claim from a yearly tenant, he is to use the building in a husbandlike manner, and is bound fair and tenantable repairs so far as to keep it wind and water tight and to prevent wa or decay. It used to be supposed that the judgment in the case of Wise v. Medcalf (1829) r tamed an exposition of the whole law on the subject of ecclesiastical dilapidation as tar regarded incumbents ; and the decision, which is contained in the following words, slur be always in the mind of the surveyor: — “Upon the whole, we are of opinion incumbent was bound to maintain trie parsonage (which we must assume upon this c to have been suitable in point of size and other respects to the benefice) and also chancel, and to keep them in good and substantial repair ; restoring and rebuilding w necessary, according to the original form, without addition or modern improvement ; 1 that he was not bound to supply or maintain anything in the nature of ornament, to wl j painting (unless necessary to preserve exposed timbers from decay) and whitewashing papering belong.” This decision is held to establish the principle that the executors 1 deceased incumbent are bound to perform those repairs which are necessary to prir t decay, and to use all reasonable means for preventing any future decay, case of Mason v. Lambert (1848) showed that perpetual curates were liable a' cumbents for these dilapidations. We have therefore to add, in ecclesiastical c '• any provision against prospective injury; such as paint necessary to preserve exp, 1 woodwork from decay, the insertion of ties to plates taking the feet of rafters, the u: pinning of walls at cracks showing continual settlement: these might be entitled dila tions of precaution, and ought to include the immediate destruction of any erections i c by a late incumbent which were suitable to his |>rivate fortune rather than to the hen • as seems to be indicated in the judgment given in the case of Martin and another r. A (1857), wherein it is observed that. “ as to any matter of needless expense or luxe <■ ornament by which the present incumbent has gratified his own taste or increased hi 11 CALCULATION OF INTEREST. 1 101 ’hap TIL limfort, he is not only not bound, but be ought not, to transmit it to his successor.” he principle thus stated is directly opposite to that which, as we have above observed, gulates civil cases, namely, that the occupier must keep in repair whatever may have •ell erected during his occupation. The judgment just cited continues in these words : If the successor may recover damages from the executor after such things have been re- oved by the testator, there can be no doubt he in his turn must maintain it ; and if he aintain it he must also restore, and even rebuild when decayed; so that the benefice ight become permanently saddled with a useless burden.” The duty to remove such ections does not, however, appear <|uite to have been thrown upon the estate of the ector ; the same judgment says, “the case now supposed is that of an erection, which, if e deceased had left out of repair, his successor could not have maintained any action for lapidations, which he himself therefore would not be bound to keep in repair, which im- uses no burden on him, and which he may remove; for it would be unreasonable to hold at he might not remove, however useless or unsuitable to the living, or even incon- nient to the occupation of the parsonage or glebe, that which for one of these reasons he is not bound to keep in repair.” Finally we would quote from the same judgment: with regard to an ecclesiastical benefice, the character and object of the building to lich the chattel is attached, and the manner in which it has been so attached, seem of ry great consequence in determining whether there was any intention to separate it per- tinently and irrevocably from the personal estate.” In this case the plaintiffs (executors) re held justified in removing the framework and sashes, valued at 300/., of two hot uses, and might apparently have removed also the brickwork, repairing any waste or mage to the freehold. With respect to that damage we have already referred to thij se. The real difference between civil and ecclesiastical dilapidations may be thus stated : — he man takes certain premises, engaging to pay a rent in order to derive advantages out them, but having no interest in the Ireehuld. The other man receives a salary to do tain services, the use of the house being a portion of that salary. In the latter case, if a man’s own private convenience he lays out a large sum on the freehold, that expendi- e will seriously affect his successor, if he have to be burdened with large and expensive etions or decorations suitable perhaps for one of an aristocratic family, but quite foreign the habits of a future rector of the village coming in as an ordinary occupant. Such are the general principles of the law of dilapidations; these, in their application, i lerally impose upon the out-going occupant orhis representatives the payment of a sum for ich special provision is rarely made during the occupancy : the misery thus entailed is inetimes evaded in civil cases by the lessee, who parts with the remainder of a lease to i ■ one who will give something for it ; or who (if the lessor be not careful) assigns it to Ilian of straw. ciiap. hi. CALCULATION OK IXTKKEST. ol aterest, or the value of the use of money, is usually expressed per cent., or after ti rate per hundred on the principal lent. Thus, if we put out 500 pounds sterling at r cent., it signifies that for every hundred pounds the lender is to receive five pounds annum during the continuance of the loan. The solution of this question, which is merely of simple, interest, is so obvious, that it is unnecessary further to detain the er upon it ; and we therefore pass on to compound interest, or interest upon interest, 'll arises from the principal and interest taken together, as it becomes due at the end icli stated time of payment. ’ the resolution of this question, we are to consider that 1001. at the end of a year b< mes 105/. Let a = principal. Its amount at the end of the year is found by saying, '* |d gives 105, what will a give? and we answer which may be also expressed vi) r’ nr tt -t- 7^ x a. bus, by adding its twentieth part to the original principal, we have the principal ■'t e end of the first year ; adding to this last its twentieth, we know the amount of the i principal in two years, and so on. Hence the annual increases to the principal may Iwisily computed. Suppose, for instance, the principal of 1000/. Expressing the values 1,1 Jciina! fractions, it will be worth — After 1 year - £1050 52-5 One year’s interest on ,£T05U. After 2 years - " - 1102-5 55-125 — 1102-5 After 3 years - - - 1157-625 57-881 1157C25 After 4 years - - - 1215-506 60-775 1215-506 After 5 years - - - 1276-281 &c. The method above exhibited would, however, in calculations for a number of years, become very laborious, and it may be abridged in the following manner. Let the present principal = a ; now, since a principal of 20/. will amount to 21/. al the end of a year, the principal a will amount to x a at the end of that time. At the end • l • 21 2 of the following year the same principal will amount to p x a = (|i)- x a. This principal of two years will, the year after, amount to (|^) 3 x a, which will therefore be the principal of three years ; increasing in this manner, at the end of four years the principal becomes (=!) 4 x a. After a century it will amount to (|i) 100 x a, and in general (| 4 ) ” x a is the amount of the principal after n years ; a formula serving to determine the amount of prin- cipal after any number of years. The interest of 5 per cent., which has been taken in the above calculation, de- termined the fraction |t. Had the interest been reckoned at C per cent, the principal « would at the end of a year be ({§§) x a; at the end of two years to (too ) 2 x and at the end of n years to ( jS'j) n x a. Again, if the interest be at 4 per cent, the principal a will, after a j years, be (jgjj) n x a. Now all these formula; are easily resolved by logarithms; for ill according to the first supposition, the question be (|'>) “ x a, this will be L.(|i) n + L.a, and I as (^J) n is a power, we have L.(?i) ” = i;L. : so that the logarithm of the principal re- quired is = n x L.|i + L.a, and the logarithm of the fraction |i=L.21 — L.20. We shall now consider what the principal of 1000/. will amount to at compoum interest of 5 per cent, at the end of 100 years. Here ra=100. Hence the logarithm o the principal required will be = 100L.?i+ L. 1000, calculated as under: — L.21 =1 -3222193 Subtracting L. 20 = 1 -301 0300 L.?J = 0-0211893 Multiply by 100 100 L.^= 2-1 189300 Add L. 1000 = 3 -0000000 5-1 189300 = Logarithm of the princip: required, from the characteristic whereof the principal must be a number of six figure and by the tables it will appear to be 131,501/. In the case of a principal of 3-152/ . 6 per cent, for sixty-four years, we have a= 3452 and b = 6 4. Principal at the end of tli first year therefore =-155 = 30- Hence the logarithm of the principal sought = 64 x L|J L.3452, which will be found to amount to 143,763/. When the number of years is very great, errors of considerable magnitude in.-, arise from the logarithms not being sufficiently extended in the decimal places; but as 01 object here is only to show the principle on which these calculations are founded, we d not think it necessary further to pursue that subject. There is another case which now requires our consideration ; it is that of not on! ndding the interest annually to the principal, but increasing it every year by a new s" — b. The original principal a would then increase in the following manner: — After 1 year, 4- b After 2 years, (|J)-a + §]/> + b After 3 years, (|o) 3 a + (| J) 2 6 + %\b + b After 4 years, (§!)->& + (^) 3 /< + (^) q b + + b After n years, (#)»« + ($)“-' 'b+ ( jj)"- h + . . . . + b This principal evidently consists of two parts, whereof the first =(^)"a, and the otli taken inversely, forms the series b + + (|^) ~b + (-^) ;i 6 + . . . . */'• This last srriv- evidently a geometrical progression, whose exponent = Its sum, therefore, will he ton by first multiplying the last term by tbe exponent which gives (.§3)”*- 131 tract the first term b, and we have the remainder m)”b — b; and lastly, dividing by t.ie HAP. III. CALCULATION OK INTEREST. I 103 mont minus 1, that is, by we have the sum required, = 20(^) H b — 20 b. Wherefore the incipal sought is (|J)"a + 20(|J)”6 — 206 = (i^)“ x (a + 20b) — 20l>. To resolve this formula we must separately calculate its first term (|J)” x (a + 206), lich is ?iL. |J+ L.(a + 206), for the number which answers to this logarithm in the tables 11 be the first term, and if from this we subtract 206 we have the principal sought. Suppose a principal of 1000/. placed out at 5 per cent, compound interest, and to it ere be annually added 100/. besides its compound interest, and it be required to know to lat it will amount at the end of 25 years. Here a = 1000, 6=100, n = 25- and the eration is as follows : — L.|J = 0-021 189299 Multiply by 25 we have 25 L.^ = 0-5297324750 L. (a + 206) = 3-4771 21 31 35 ng logarithms we have nL.^ = L.334, and dividing by L.|4, li 34 = 2-5237465 and L. |i = 0-021 1893, wherefore n- ojhis fraction be multiplied by 10000000, we shall have n = e( l ua ^ 1° one hun- = 4-0068537885 e first part or number which answers to this logarithm is 10159-1/. ; from which if w« itract 206 = 2000 we find the principal in question to be after 25 years 8159-1/. If it be required to know in how many years a principal of 1000/. under the above iditions would amount to 1,000,000 /. ; let n be the number of years required, and since 1000,6 = 100, the principal at the end of n years will be (§3) ” (3000) — 2000, which sum st make 1,000,000/. ; whence results this equation: — 3000 ( |! ) ” - 2000 = 1 000000 Adding to both sides 2000 we have 3000 (5J) ” = 1002000 Dividing both sides by 3000 we have (|J) = 334 we obtain n= Now T 2-5237465 T( , 1 -1 ,1 . 0-(i‘>lis'i-j. lastly, the two terms 2-5237465, cuuii ue muiLipiieu uy i uuuuuuu, w c aium nave u — (i 1 and nineteen years one month and seven days, which is the time wherein the prin- cjl of 1000/. will be increased to 1,000,000/. In the case of an annual decrease in- s 1 of increase of the capital by a certan sum, we shall have the following gradations as 11 [rallies of a, year after year, the interest being at 5 per cent., and, representing by 6 the sc annually abstracted from the principal. After 1 year it would be — 6 After 2 years — After 3 years — (?J) 3 rr— (-^) 2 6 — |J6 — 6 After n years — — — (Is )" -26 • • • • “(53)^ his principal evidentlyconsists of two parts, one whereof is ('r,\) n a, and the other to be sub- tri ed therefrom, taking the terms inversely, forms a geometrical progression, as follows ; — - b + (n)b + (nfb + (n) 3 b+ .... e sum of this progression has already been found = 20 (|^)”6 — 206 ; if, therefore, this 6e btracted from we have the principal required after n years =(|4)”(o — 206) + 206. For a less period than a year, the exponent n becomes a fraction ; for example, 1 day = 2 days = 3 | 3 , and so on. It often happens that we wish to know the present value of S|i of money payable at the end of a number of years. Thus, as 20 pounds in ready >cjy amount in a twelvemonth to 21 pounds, so, reciprocally, 21 pounds payable at the ell< f a year can be worth only 20 pounds. Therefore, if a be a sum payable at the end ! ear, the present value of it is Hence, to find the present value of a principal a • end of a year, we must multiply by ; to find its present value at the end of two it must be multiplied by (^)-a; and, in general, its value n years before the time of ;nt will be expressed by (%f)"a. Thus, suppose a rent of 100/. receivable for 5 years, reckoning interest at 5 per ■n if we would know its value in present money, we have For £100 due after 1 year, the present value is £95-239 after 2 years — after 3 years — after 4 years — after 5 years — Sum of the five terms t If- in present money, the value is 432/. 1 9s. 1 d. But for a great number of years such a calculation would become labor ous. It facilitated as follows: — Let the annual rent —a, commencing direct! j and con- 90 -704 86-385 82-272 78-355 £432-955 may , 1 104 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Book IT tinning /i years, it will be worth a + (§f)a + (jjf ) 2 a + (|f) 3 a • • . • + ($)"a, whiel is a geometrical progression whose sum is to be found. We have therefore only to multiph the last term by the exponent, the product whereof is (f}) n+ 'a, then subtract the first tern and the remainder is (§°)’ i + 1 « — <*. Lastly, dividing by the exponent minus 1, that is, or, which is the same, multiplying by — 2 1 , we have the sum required, = — 21(|^) n+1 a + 2L or 2Ia--21 ii+ '«, the value of which second term is easily calculated by logarithms. CHAP. IV. COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITY TABLES. As the architect is often called on to value property, we here add some practical obse rations on the subject, and a set of Tables for the ready calculation of such matters, whir we shall at once explain. Table First contains the amount of 1?. put out to accumulate at compound interest f< any number of years up to 100, at the several rates of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 per cent. Til amount of any other sum is found by multiplying the amount of 1/ found in the table the given rate per cent., and for the given time, by the proposed sum. Example : — Required the amount of 7 557. in 51 years, at 5 per cent. Amount of 17. for 51 years, at 5 per cent, is 12 ’040769 i Given sum ---------- 755 £9080780595 Table Second contains the present value of 1/. payable at t'-eend of any number of ye up to 100. The present value of any given sum payable at the expiration of any numl of years is found by multiplying the present value of 17. for the given number of years, I the proposed rate per cent., by the given sum or principal. Example: — Required the present value of 90907. payable 51 years hence, compoi interest being allowed at 5 per cent. By the table, the present value of 17. payable at the expiration of 51 years at 5 per cent, is- - - - - - - ’08305! Given principal - -- -- -- -- 9090 or 7547. 1 8s. 7 fad. £754-933590 Table Third contains the amount of an annuity of 17. for any number of years, an ) thus used. Take out the amount of 17. answering to the given time and rate of inter {< this multiplied by the given annuity will be the required amount. Example : — Required the amount of an annuity of 277. in 21 years, at 5 per cent, c - pound interest. Annuity of 17. in 21 years at 5 per cent. ----- 35719251 Annuity given --------- or 9647. 8s. 4 ^d. £964-419777 Table Fourth shows the present value of an annuity of 17. for any number of yea; st 3, 4, 5, 6. 7, and 8 per cent., and is used as follows: — First, when the annuity commences immediately. Multiply the tabular number an '- ing to the given years and rate of interest by the given annuity, and the product will I r ‘v value required. (This table provides for the percentage and to get back the principal Example: — Required the present value of an annuity of 457., which is to contim *8 years, at the rate of 5 per cent. Under 5 and opposite to 48 years is (years’ purchase) - - IS’07715 Annuity given - -- -- -- -- 4 or 8137. 9s. 5fol. £813-47206 Second, when the annuity does not commence till after a certain number ot years. tip'y the difference between the tabular numbers answering to the time of comment - end end, at the proposed rate of interest, by the given annuity, the product wn. ■' present value required. P. IV. 1105 COMPOUND INTEREST. Example. n annuity of 40/. is to commence 20 years hence, and is to continue 30 years; required it resent value, the rate of interest being 4 per cent. Under 4 per cent, and opposite to 20 is - - - - 13 590.126 Under 4 per cent, and opposite to 50 (20 + 30) is - - — 21 482184 Difference - -- -- -- -- - 7'89185o. Annuity given - -- -- -- -- 40 or 315/. 13s. 5 ft* £315-674320 \bi.e Fifth contains the annuity which 1/. will purchase, compound interest being al ed. The manner of using this table is obvious, from what has been said relative to ill receding tables. Example. Iiat annuity for 10 years will 5001. purchase, the rate of interest being 5 per cent.? [Under 5 and opposite to 10 is- - - - - - - •! 29504 Principal given ......... 500 or 64/. 1 5s. Oft* £64-752000 bles Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth are for finding the value of annuities on single and ■i lives, and were constructed by Simpson, on the London bills of mortality. find the value of an annuity for a single life, at a proposed rate of interest, within the it of the table, take from Table VI. the number answering to the given age and proposed at :f interest, which multiplied by the given annuity, the product will be the value re- qu'rl. Example. 1 at is the value of an annuity of 50/. upon a single life aged 40 years, according to the hoi jin bills of mortality, the rate of interest being 4 per cent. ? 'he value of an annuity of 1/. for 40 years at 4 per cent is - - - 11 -5 mnuity - -- -- -- -- -- 50 Value - -- -- -- -- -- £575 i find the value of an annuity of two joint lives, multiply the number in Table VI L unsvjing to the given ages, and at the proposed rate of interest, by the given annuity, and iduct will be the required value. Example. Mlit is the value of an annuity of 60/. for two joint lives, the one being 30 and the other 10 y "s, interest at 4 per cent.? ie number answering to 30 and 40 years at 4 per cent, is - - - 8 8 nnuity ........... 60 Value - -- -- -- -- - £528 0 -(.nd the value of an annuity for the longest of two given lives, proceed as directed in 1 c 1 : immediately preceding, but using Table VIII., and the product will be the value. Example. • is the value of an annuity of 60/. for the longest of two lives, the one being 30 and oiir 40 years, interest at 4 per cent. |e tabular number answering at 4 per cent. is ... - 15’9 nuity - 60 Present value ---------- £954 ‘0 h nst five tables which follow are printed from those of Smart; the remainder are front npson. j C alculations involving the valuation of annuities on lives are not very frequently ini- | a the architect, but it is absolutely necessary he should be capable of performing them, 11 * ca3e of valuations of leases upon lives, which sometimes occur to him. 4 B i 106 VALUATION OF P HO FLUTY. Book ! The First Table of Compound Interest. The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, &c. Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 4 1 -014889 1 -01 9803 1 -024695 1 -029563 1 -034408 1 -03923C i 1 -osoooo 1 -040000 1 -050000 1 -060000 1 -070000 1 -08CXXX 4 1 -045335 1 -060596 1 -075929 1 -091 336 1-106816 1 -1 22868 2 1 -060900 1-081600 1 -102500 1 -123600 1 -144900 1 -1 66401 24 I -076695 1-103019 1-129726 1 -156817 1 -184293 1-212151 3 1 -092727 1 -124864 1 -157625 1 -191016 1 -225043 I -2597 C 34 1 -108996 1 147140 1-186212 1 -226226 1 -267194 1-2091 31 4 1 -125508 1-169858 1-215506 1 -262476 1-310796 1 -36048.' 44 1 -142266 1-193026 1 -245523 1 -299799 1 -355897 1-41386 5 1 -159274 1 -216652 1.276281 1 -338225 1 -402551 1 -46932 5> 1 1 76534 1 -240747 1 -307799 1-377787 1 450810 1 -526971 6 1 -194052 1 -265319 1 -340095 1 -418519 1 -500730 1 -58687 6J 1-211830 1 -290377 1-373189 1 -460454 1 -552367 1 -64912 7 1 -2298 73 1 -315931 1-407100 1 -503630 1 605781 1-71382 74 1-248185 1 -341992 1 -441848 1 -548082 1 -661033 1-78105 8 1 266770 1 -368569 1 -477455 1 -593848 1 -718186 1 -85093 I 8 J 1 -285631 1-395672 1 -513941 1 640967 1 -777305 1 -92354 9 1 -304773 1 -4233 1 1 1-551328 1 -689478 1 -838459 1 -9990C 94 1 -324200 1 -451498 1 -589638 1-739425 1 -901717 2 07742 10 1 -343916 1 -480244 1-628894 1 -790847 1-967151 2.15891 104 1.363926 1 -509558 1 -669120 1 -843790 2-034837 2-2436: 11 1.384233 1 -539454 1 -710339 1 -898298 21 04851 2-38161 114 1 -404843 1 -569941 1 -752576 1 -954417 2-177275 2-4231 12 1 -425760 1-601032 1 -795856 2-012196 2-252191 2-5181 124 1 -446989 1 -632738 1 -840205 2-071683 2-329685 2-6169 13 1 -468533 1 -665073 1-885649 2-132928 2 409845 2-7196 134 1-490398 1 -698048 1-932215 2-195984 2-492763 2-826: 14 1-512589 1 -731676 1-979931 2-260903 2-578534 2-9371 144 1 -5351 10 1 -765970 2-02882 6 2-327743 2-6672 56 3 0524 15 1 -557967 1 -800943 2-078928 2-396558 2-759031 3-1721 154 1 -581164 1 -836609 2-130267 2-467407 2-853964 3-296' 16 1 -604706 1 -872981 2 182874 2-540351 2-952163 3-425' 164 1-628599 1 -910073 2-236780 2-615452 3-053741 3-560 17 1 -652847 1 -947900 2-292018 2.692772 3-158815 3-70061 174 1-677457 1-986476 2-348619 2-772379 3-267503 3-845 18 1 -702433 2-025816 2-406619 2-854339 3-379932 3-996 » 18 4 1 -727780 2-065935 2-466050 2-938722 3-496229 4-152 5 19 1 -753506 2-106849 2-526950 3 025599 3-616527 4-3151 194 1-779614 2-148573 2-589353 3-115045 3 -7 4 0965 4-485 4 20 1 -8061 1 1 2191123 2-653297 3-207135 3-869684 4-666 7 201 1 -833002 2-234515 2-718821 3-301948 4 -002832 4-84: 8 21 1 -860294 2-278768 2-785962 3-399563 4-140562 503: 3 21J 1-887992 2-323896 2-854762 3-500064 4-283031 5-23l)9 22 1-916103 2-369918 2-925260 3-603537 4 -430401 5-436 0 ■2 24 1 -944632 2-416852 2-997500 3-710068 4-582843 5-64 8 23 1 -973586 2-464715 3-071523 3-819749 4-740529 5-87j»9 234 2-002971 2-513526 3-147375 3-932672 4-903642 6-10 >4 24 2-032794 2-563304 3-225099 4-048934 5-072366 6- 241 2-063060 2-614067 3-304744 4-168633 5-246897 6-58 18 25 2-093777 2-665836 3 386354 4-291870 5-427432 6-84 75 | »Af. IV COMPOUND ’INTEREST TABLES hot The First Tabi.e of Compound Interest — continued. The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, &c. •ars. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. :5$ 2-124952 2-718630 3-469981 4-418751 5-614179 7-117144 !6 2-156591 2-772469 3-555672 4-549382 5-807352 7-396353 2-188701 2-827875 3-643480 4-683876 6 007172 7-686515 7 2-221289 2-883368 3-733456 4-822345 6-213867 7-988061 7 * 2-254362 2-940470 3-825654 4-964909 6-427674 8-301437 8 2-287927 2-998703 3-920129 51 1 1686 6-648838 8 627106 Q 1 2-321992 3-058089 4-OI6937 5-262803 6-87761 1 8-965551 9 2-356565 3-118651 4-1 16135 5-418387 7114257 9-317274 9 J 2-391652 3-180412 4-217783 5-578571 7-359044 9-682796 0 2-427262 3-243397 4-321942 5-743491 7-6122 55 10-062656 2-463402 3 -307629 4-428673 5-913286 7-874177 10-457419 2-500080 3-373133 4 -538039 6-088100 8-1451 12 10-867669 u 2-537304 3-439934 4-650106 6-268083 8-425370 1 1.294013 2 2-575082 3-508058 4-764941 6-453386 8-715270 11-737083 '5 2-613423 3-577532 4-882612 6-644168 9-015146 12-197534 i 2-652335 3-648381 5003188 6-840589 9-325339 12-676049 1 3 2-691826 3-720633 5-126742 7-042818 9-646206 13-173337 I 2-731905 3-794316 5-253347 7-251025 9-978113 13-690133 l 3 2-772581 3-869458 5-383079 7-465387 10-321440 14-227204 2-813862 3-946088 5-516015 7-686086 10-676581 14-785344 l J 2-855758 4-024236 5-652233 7-913310 11-043941 15-365380 2-898278 4-103932 5-791816 8-147252 11-423942 15-968171 \ 2-941431 4-185206 5-934845 8-388109 11-817017 16-594610 3 2-985226 4-268089 6-081406 8-636087 12-223618 1 7 -245625 3-029674 4-352614 6-231587 8-891395 12-644208 17-922179 3-074783 4-438813 6-385477 9154252 13-079271 18-625275 3-120564 4-526719 6-543167 9-424879 13-529303 19-355954 3-167026 4-616365 6-704751 9-703507 13-994820 20-115297 3-214181 4-707788 6-870325 9-990372 14-476354 20-904430 1 1 3-262037 4-801020 7 -039988 10-285717 14-974457 21-724521 4j 3-310606 4-896099 7-213841 10-589794 15-489699 22-576785 4 3-359898 4-993061 7-391988 10-902861 16-022669 23-462483 4 3-409924 5-091943 7-574533 11-225182 16-573978 24-382927 4 - 3-460695 5-192783 7-761587 1 1 -557032 17-1442 56 25 -339481 | 4; 3-512222 5-295621 7-953260 1 1-898693 17-734157 26-333562 ! 4i 3-564516 5-400495 8149666 12-250454 18-344354 27-366640 4 3-617589 5-507446 8-350923 12-612615 18-975548 28 -440247 4- 3-671452 5-616515 8-557150 12-985481 19-628459 29-555971 4 3-726117 5-727744 8-768469 13-369371 20-303836 30-715466 4.; 3-781595 5-841175 8-985007 13-764610 21-002451 31 -920449 1 4i 3-837900 5-956853 9-206893 14-171534 21-725105 33-172704 ! 4( 3-895043 6-074822 9-434258 14-590487 22-472623 34-474085 1 3-953037 6-195127 9-667237 15-021826 23-245862 35 -826520 1 4: 4-011895 6-317815 9-905971 15-465916 24 -045707 37-232012 4-071628 6-442933 10-150599 15-923135 24-873072 38 -692642 4f 4-132251 6-570528 10-401269 16-393871 25-728906 40-210573 4£ | 4-193777 6-700650 10-658129 16-878524 26-614187 41-788053 4£ 4-256219 6-833349 10-921333 17-377504 27-529929 43-427418 4fi 4-319590 6-968676 11191036 17-891235 28-477180 45-131097 \ 5C L 4-383906 — 7106683 1 1 -467399 18-420154 29-457025 46-901612 ilOR VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Book I The First Table of Compound Interest — continued. The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, Ac. Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. G per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent 50\ 4-449178 7 -247423 11-750588 18-964709 30-470583 48-74158 51 4-515423 7 -390950 12-040769 19-525363 31 -519016 50-65374 51A 4-582654 7-537320 12-338117 20 102592 32-603524 52-64091 52 4-650885 7-686588 12-642808 20-696885 33-725347 54-70604 4-720133 7-8 18813 12-955023 21 -308747 34-885771 56-85218 53 4-790412 7-994052 13-274948 21 -938698 36-086122 59-0825“. 53 ^ 4-861737 8-152365 13-602774 22-587272 37-32777 5 61-40031 54 4 -934 1 24 8-313814 13-938696 23-255020 38-612150 63-80911 544 5-007589 8-478460 14-282913 23-942508 39-940719 66-31231 1 55 1 5-082148 8-646366 14-635630 24-650321 41-315001 68-9138. 1 55\ 5-157817 8-817598 14-997058 25-379059 42-736569 71-6173' 56 5-234613 8-992221 15-367412 26-129340 44-207051 74-4269' 56\ 5 -3 ! 2552 9 170302 15-746911 26-901802 45-728129 77-3467 57 5-391651 9-351910 16-135783 27 -697101 47-301545 80-3811 571 5-471928 9-537114 16-534257 28-515911 48-929098 83-5345 58 5-553400 9-725986 16-942572 29-358927 50-612653 86-8116) 58A 5-636086 9-918599 17-360970 30-2268 65 52-354135 90-21 72 59 5-720003 10-1 15026 17-789700 31 -120463 54-155539 93 -75651 591 5-805169 10-315343 18-229018 32-040477 56-018925 97-4346 60 5-891603 10-519627 18-679185 32-987 690 57-946426 101 -257C, 601 5-979324 10-727957 19-140469 33-962906 53-940249 105-229-1 HI 6-068351 10 940412 19-613145 34-966952 62-002676 109-3570 6 1 5 6-158703 11-157075 20-097493 36-000680 64-136067 113-647 62 6-250401 1 1 -378029 20-593802 37-064969 66-342864 118-106 - 62^ 6-343464 1 1 -603358 21 -102367 38-160721 68-625592 122-739 63 6 -437913 11-833150 21 -623492 39-288867 70-986864 127-554 ) 63J 6 533768 12-067492 22-157486 40-450364 73-429383 CC tri CO 64 6-631051 12-306476 22-704667 41 -646199 75-955945 137-75! ’ 641 6-729781 12-550192 23-265360 42-877386 78-569440 143-163,1 j 1 65 . 6-829982 12-798735 23-839900 44-144971 81-272861 148-779 > 651 6-931675 13-052200 24-428628 45-450030 84-069301 154-6K -'| 66 7-034882 13-310684 25-031895 46-793669 86-961961 160-68! 1 I 661 7-139625 13-574 288 25-650060 48-177031 89-954152 166-98.' <■ i 67 7-245928 13-843112 26-283490 49-601290 93-049298 1 73-531 8 67^ 7-353814 14-1 17259 26-932563 51-067653 96-250943 180-34 6 [ 68 7-463306 14-396836 27 597664 52-577367 99-562749 187-41 3 68J 7-574428 14-681950 28-279191 54-131713 102-988509 1 94-77 '6 202-41 M 69 7-687205 14-972709 28-977548 55-732009 106-532142 C9\ 70 7-801661 7-917821 15-269228 15-571618 29- 693150 30- 426425 57-379615 59 075930 110 197704 113-989392 210-35 218-6045 70' 8-03571 I 15-879997 31 -177808 60-822392 117-911544 227-H 4! 71 8-155356 16-194483 31 -947746 62-620485 121 -968649 236-0“ |f 71J 8-276782 16-515197 32-736698 64-471 736 126-165352 245-3.- 79 8-400017 16-842262 33-545134 66-377715 130-506455 254-9 - 72J 8-525086 17-175804 34-373533 68-340040 134-996926 264-9 ■!'!' j 73 8-652017 17-515952 35-222390 70-360378 139-641906 275 - 3 ! 12 286 297 '' 60 1 3091203 321- ’29) 73£ 8-780839 17-862837 36-092210 72-440442 144-44671 I 74 5 8-911578 18-216591 36-983510 74 -582000 149-416840 74 J 75 9-044264 9-178925 18-577350 18-945254 37- 896821 38- 832685 76-786869 79-056920 154-557981 159-876019 ,KAT. 1 V. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 1 109 The First Taui.e of Co.ui-ouxn Intekf.st — continued. The Amount of One Pound in any Number of Years, &c. ears. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. j 5 per Cent. | 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. j 8 per Cent. 7-SS 9-315592 19-320444 39-791662 81 -394081 165-377040 333-805339 76 9-454293 1 9 -703064 40-774320 83 800336 171 -067340 346-900892 76i 9-595059 20-093262 41-781245 86-277726 176-953433 360-509982 77 9-737922 20-491187 42-81 3036 88-828356 183 042054 374-652963 'U 9-88291 1 20*896992 43-870307 91 -454390 189-340173 389-350781 78 10-030059 21-310834 44-953688 94-158057 195-854998 404-625200 78 j 10-179399 21-732872 46-063822 96-941653 202 -593985 420-498844 79 10-330961 22-163268 47-201372 99-807541 209-564848 436-995216 79j 10-484781 22-602187 48-367013 102-758152 216-775564 454-138751 30 10-640890 23-049799 49-561441 105*79599;* 224-234387 471 -954834 10-799324 23-506275 50-785364 108-923642 231 -949854 490-469851 SI 10-960117 23-971791 52-039513 112-143753 239-930794 509-711221 pn 11-123304 24-446526 53-324632 1 15-459060 248-186343 529-707439 82 1 1 -288920 24-930662 54-641488 118-872378 256-725950 -550-488118 1 1 -457003 25-424387 55-990864 1 22 -386604 265-559387 572 084035 33 11-627588 25-927889 57 373563 126 004720 274-696766 594-527168 k 11-800713 26-441362 58-790407 129-729800 284-148545 61 7-850757 11-976416 26-965004 60-242241 133-565004 293-925540 642 089341 k 12 154734 27-499017 61 -729928 137 513588 304 -038943 667-27881 8 p 12-335708 28-043604 63-254353 141 -578904 314-500328 693-456488 k 12-519376 28-598977 64-816424 145-764403 325-321669 720-661124 ; 6 12-705779 29-165349 66-417071 150 073638 336-515351 748-933008 k 12-894958 29-742936 68-057245 154-510267 348-094186 778-314013 [17 13-086953 30-331963 69737924 159-078057 360 071425 808-847648 7 i 13-281806 30-932654 71 -460108 163-780884 372-460779 840-579135 8 13-479561 31-545241 73-224820 168-622740 385-276425 873-555460 13.680261 32-169960 75-0331 13 173-607737 398 -533033 907-825465 19 13-883948 32-807051 76-886061 178-740104 412-245775 943.439897 j |9i 14-090668 33-456758 78-784769 184-024201 426-430345 980-451503 |° 14-300467 34-119333 80-730365 189-464511 441 -102979 1018-915089 I 1 14-513389 34-795029 82-724007 195-065653 456 280470 1058-887623; l 14-729481 35-484106 84-766883 200-832381 471 -980188 1100-428296 u 14-948790 36-186830 86-860208 206-769592 488-220103 1143 598633 2 r 15-171365 36-903470 89 005227 212-882324 505-018801 1188-462560 k 15-397254 37-634303 91 -203218 219-175768 522-395510 1 235 -086523 3 15-626506 38-379609 93-455488 225-655264 540-370117 1283-539564 H 15-859172 39-139675 95-763379 232-326314 558-963196 1333-893445 It 16.095301 39-914794 98-128263 239-194580 578-196026 1386 -222730 H 16-334947 40-705262 100-551548 2 46-265893 598 090619 1440-604921 F 16-578160 41-511385 103-034676 253-546254 618-669747 1497-120548 !>i 16-824995 42-333473 105-579125 261 -041846 639-956963 1555-853315 > 17-075505 43-171841 108-186410 268-759030 661 -976630 1616-8901 92 i 17 329745 44-026812 110-858082 276-704357 684-753950 1680-321580 17-587770 44-898715 113-595730 284-884572 708-314994 1746-241407 5 17-849637 45-787884 116-400986 293-306618 732-686727 1814-747306 18-115403 46-694663 119-275517 301 -977646 757-897043 11885-940720 ; 1 5 18-385126 47-619400 122-22103 5 310-905016 783-974797 1959-927091 18-658866 48-562450 125-239293 320-096305 810 949836 2036-815978 i 18-936680 49-524176 128-332087 329-559317 838-853033 2116-721258 l J 19-218631 50-504948 131 -501257 339-302083 86'7 ‘71 6325 2199-7612 56 1110 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. »,,oi l\ The Second Table of Compound Interest. The present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, &c. Years. 3 per Cent 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. * i < l 2* ■985329 •970873 •956630 •942595 '928767 •9305SO •961538 •942866 •924556 •906601 •975900 •952380 •929428 •907029 •885170 •971285 •943396 •916307 •889996 •864440 •966736 •934579 •903492 •873438 •844385 •962250 •925925 •890972 •857338 •824974 3 3* 4 44 5 •915141 •901715 •888487 •875452 •862608 •888996 •871532 •854804 •838204 •821927 •863837 •843019 •822702 •802875 "783526 •839619 •815510 •792093 •769349 •747258 •816297 •789144 ■762895 ■737518 ■712986 •7938.12 *76.3865 •735029 •707282 •680583 54 6 64 7 H •849953 •837484 •825197 •813091 •80 1 162 •805965 •790314 •774967 •759917 •745160 •764643 .746215 •728231 •71068 1 •693553 •725801 •704960 •684718 •665057 •645960 •689269 •666342 •644177 •622749 •602034 •654891 •630169 •606381 •583490 •561463 8 8* 9 94 10 •789409 •777828 •766416 •755172 •744093 •730690 •716500 •702586 •688942 •675564 •676839 •660527 ■644608 •629073 •613913 •627412 •609396 •591898 •574902 •558394 •582009 •562649 •543931 •525840 •508349 •540268 •519873 •500248 •481364 •463193 '04 1 1 ii4 12' 12* 13 134 14' 14* 15 •733177 •722421 •711822 ■7 01 37 9 •691090 •662445 •649580 •636966 •624597 •612467 •5991 17 •584679 •570588 •556837 •543417 •542360 •5-6787 •51 1661 •496969 •482699 •491439 •475092 •459289 •44401 1 •429242 •445708 •428882 •4 1 2692 •397113 •382122 •68095 1 •670961 •6611 17 ■651418 •641861 •6005 74 58891 1 •577475 •566260 •555264 •530321 •517540 •505067 •492895 ■481017 •468839 •455376 •442300 •429600 •417265 •414964 •401 161 •387817 •274917 •362446 •367697 •353817 •340461 •327608 •315241 15* 16 16* 17 17* •632445 •623166 •614024 •605016 •596140 •544481 •533908 •523540 •513373 •503403 •469424 •4581 1 1 •447071 ■436296 •425781 •405283 •393646 •382343 •37 1 364 •360701 •350:189 •338734 •327467 •316574 •306044 •30334 1 •291891 •280871 •270268' ■260066 18 18* 19 19* 20 •587394 •578777 •570286 •561919 •553675 •493628 ■484042 •474642 •465425 •456386 •415520 •405506 •395733 •386196 376889 •350343 •340283 •330513 •321022 •311804 •295863 •286022 •276508 •267310 •258419 •250241 •240801 •231711 ■22296' •21454’ 20* 21 21* 22 22* •545552 •537549 •529663 •521892 •514235 •447524 •438833 •430311 •421955 •413761 •367806 ■358942 •350291 •341849 •33361 1 •302851 •294155 •285708 •277505 •269536 •249823 •241513 •233479 •225713 •2 1 8205 •20644’ •19865 •19115 •18394 •17699 23 23* 24 24* 25' •506691 •499258 •491933 •484716 •477605 •405726 •397847 •390121 •382545 •375116 •325571 •317725 •310067 •302595 •295302 •261797 •254279 •246978 •239886 •232998 •210946 •203930 •197146 •190588 •184249 •17031 •16: 8f •1576! •15174 •14601 U1\ IV. COMPOUND INTEREST TAR I.ES. Thf. Second Table or Compound Interest — continued. The p-escnt Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, &c. ! jars. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 1 8 per Cent. ; 2 si •4 705 98 •367832 ■288186 •226308 •178120 •140505 1 26 •463694 •360689 •28 1 240 •219810 •172195 •135201 N •456891 '353684 '274462 •213498 •166467 •1 30097 1-27 ■450189 •346816 •267848 •207367 •1 60930 •125186 I 2 U 443584 •340081 •261393 •201413 •155577 •120461 28 •4:17076 ■■333477 '255093 •195630 •150402 •115913 m •430664 •327001 •248945 ■190012 •145399 •111538 29 •424346 .320351 •242946 •184556 •140562 •107327 2 •4181 20 •314424 •237091 •179257 •135887 •103275 10 41 1986 •3083 18 •231377 T74110 •131367 •099377 i m •405942 •30233 1 •225801 •1691 10 •126997 •095625 31 •399987 •296460 •220359 •164254 •122773 •! 92016 |31* •394119 •290703 •215048 •159538 T 1S689 •088542 32 •388337 •285057 •209866 •154957 T 14741 •085200 0 21 •382639 •279522 •204808 •150507 •1 10924 •081983 33 •377026 •274094 •J 99872 •146186 ■107234 •078888 331 •371495 •268771 •195055 T41988 •103667 •075910 34 •366044 •263552 •1 90354 •13791 1 •100219 ■or 304 5 341 *560674 •258434 T85767 •133951 •096885 •070287 35 •355363 •253415 •181290 •130105 •093662 •067634 •350169 •248494 •176921 •126369 •090547 •06508 1 10 •345032 •243668 T72657 •122740 •087535 •062624 •339970 •238936 ■1 68496 •1 19216 •084623 •060260 7 •334982 •234296 •164435 •1 15793 •08 1 808 •057985 n •330068 •229746 •160472 •1 12468 •079087 •055796 l 8 •325226 •225285 *1 56605 •109238 •076456 •053690 -VN oo •320454 •220910 •152831 •106102 •073913 •05 1 663 9 yy •315753 •216620 •149147 •103055 •071455 •049713 H •31 1121 •2124 1 3 •145553 T00096 •069078 •047836 0 •306556 •208289 •1 4.045 •097222 ‘0667S0 •046030 01 •302059 •204244 T38622 •094430 *054559 •044293 1 •297628 •200277 •135281 •091719 •062411 •042621 '* •293261 •195388 ■132021 •089085 •060335 •041012 ) •288959 •192574 •128839 •086527 •058328 •039464 >i •284719 •188835 •125734 •084042 •056388 •037974 3 •280542 T 85 168 •122704 •081629 •054512 •036540 31 •276427 •181572 •119747 •079285 •052699 •035161 4 •272371 •178046 •116861 ■077009 •050946 •033834 *268375 •174588 •1 14044 •074797 •049251 *03 '2556 5 •764438 •171)98 •1 11296 •072650 •047613 •031327 H *260559 •167873 •108614 •070563 •04 6029 •030145 3 •256736 •164613 •105996 •068537 •044 498 •029007 5 J •252970 •161417 •1034 42 •066569 •043018 •027912 7 •249258 •158282 •100949 •054658 •041587 •026858 '1 •245601 •155208 •098516 •062801 •040204 ■025844 i •241998 T52194 •096142 ■060998 ■038866 •024869 <4 •238448 •149239 •093825 •059246 •037573 •023930 } •234950 •146341 •091563 •057545 •036324 •023026 •231503 •143499 •089357 •055893 •0351 15 •022157 — ) •228107 •140712 •087203 •054288 ■033947 •021321 1112 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Buok ] The Second Table of Compound Interest — continued. The present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, &c. 1 "Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 50.! •224760 •1 37980 •085102 •052729 •032818 •020516 51 •221463 •1 35300 •083051 •051215 •031726 •019741 511 •218214 •132673 •081049 •049744 •030671 •01 8996 52 •215012 •1 30096 •079096 •0483 1 6 •029651 ■018279 52} •211858 •127570 •077190 •046929 •028664 •017589 53 •208750 •1 25093 •075329 •045581 •027711 •016925 53- •205687 •122663 •0735 1 4 •044272 ■026789 •016286 54 •202670 •1 2028 1 •071742 •043001 •025898 •015671 54' •199696 •117945 •070013 •041 766 •025037 •015080 55 •196767 •115655 •068326 •040567 •024204 •014510 55} •193880 •1 1 3409 •066679 •039402 •023399 •013963 56 •191036 •111207 •065072 ■038271 •022620 •013435 56\ •188233 •109047 ■063504 •037172 •021868 •012928 57 •185471 •106930 •061974 •036104 •021 140 012440 571 •182750 •104853 •0604 80 •035068 •020437 •011971 58 •180069 •102817 •059022 ■034061 •019757 •011519 581 •177428 •100820 •057600 •033083 •019100 •011084 50 •174825 •098862 •056212 •032133 •018465 •010665 59.1 •172260 •096942 •054857 •031210 •017851 •010263 60 ■169733 •095060 •053535 •030314 •017257 •009875 60} •167242 •093214 •052245 ■029443 •016683 •009503 61 •164789 •091 404 •050986 •028598 •016128 •009144 6 i } •162371 •089629 •049757 •027777 •015591 •008799 62 •159989 •087888 •048558 •026979 •015073 •008466 62} •157642 •086181 •047388 •026204 •014571 ■008147 63 •155329 •084508 •046246 •025452 •014087 •007889 | 63} •153051 •082867 •045131 024721 ■013618 •037543 64 •1 50805 ■081258 •044043 •02401 1 ■013165 •007259 64' •148593 •079680 •042982 •023322 •012727 •006985 | 65 •146413 •078132 •041 946 •022652 •01 2304 •006721 651 •144265 •076615 •040935 •022002 ■011894 •006467 ' 66 •142148 •075127 •039949 •021370 •011499 •006223 66} •140063 •073668 •038986 •020756 •011116 ■00598? 67 •138008 •072238 •038046 •020160 •010746 •005762; 67} •135983 •070835 •037129 •019581 •010389 •005544; 68 •133988 •069459 •036234 •019019 •010043 •00533/' | 68} •132023 •0681 10 •035361 •018473 •009709 •00513V 69 •130086 •066783 •034509 •017943 •009386 •004941. 69} •128177 •065491 •033677 •017427 •009074 •0047.6 1 70 •126297 •064219 •032866 •016927 •008772 o o 70} •124444 •062972 •032074 •016441 •008480 •00440. 71 •122618 •061749 •031301 •015969 •008198 •00423 ; 71} •120819 •060550 •030546 •015510 -007926 •00407- 72 •119047 •059374 •029810 •015065 •007662 •00392 ! 72} •117300 •058221 •029092 •014632 •007407 •00377 73 •115579 •057090 •028391 •014212 •007161 •00363 73} •113884 •055982 •027706 •013804 •006922 •00349 74 •112213 •054895 •027039 •013408 •006692 •00336 74} •1 10567 •053828 ! -026387 •013023 •006470 •00328 75 •108945 •052783 ! -025751 1 •012649 1 ■006254 •0031 1 Cjiap. IV. COMPOUND INTEREST TAREKS. 1 1 13 The Second Table of Compound Interest — continued . The present Value of One Pound payable at the End of any Number of Years, &c. ! Years. 1 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent l wi •107346 •051 758 •025130 •01 2285 •006046 •002995 76 •105772 •050753 •024525 •01 1 933 •005845 •002882 76} •104220 •049767 •02.39.34 ■01 1 590 •005651 •002773 1 77 •102691 •048801 •023357 •01 1257 •005463 •002669 77} •101184 •047853 •022794 •010934 •005281 ■002568 78 •099700 •046924 •022245 •010620 005105 •002471 78} 098237 •04601 3 •021 709 •010.315 •0049.35 •002.378 79 096796 •0451 1 9 •021185 •010019 •004771 •002288 791 •095376 ■044243 •020675 •0097.31 •00461.3 •002201 80 •093977 •043384 •020176 •009452 •004459 •002 1 1 8 80} •092598 •042541 •0’ 9690 •009180 •004311 ■002038 81 •091239 •041715 •019216 •008917 •004167 •001961 8 U •089901 •040905 •01875.3 •008661 •004029 •001 887 82 •088582 •0401 1 1 •018.301 •008412 •00.3895 ■001816 82} •087282 •039332 •017860 •008170 •003765 •001747 83 ■086002 ■038568 •017429 •007936 •003640 •001682 83} •084740 •037819 •01 7009 •0 >7708 •00.3519 •001618 84 •083497 •037085 •016599 •007486 •00.3402 •001557 84} •082272 •036.364 •016199 •007272 •00.3289 •001498 8.5 •081065 •035658 •015809 •00706.3 •0031 79 •001442 85} •079876 •034966 . •015428 •006860 •00.307.3 •001387 86 •078704 •0.34287 •015056 •00666.8 •002971 •001 335 86} •077549 ■03.3621 •014693 •006472 •002872 ■001284 87 •07641 1 •032963 •014339 •006286 •002777 •001236 87} •075290 •032328 •01 399.3 •003105 •002684 •001189 88 •074186 •0.31 700 •01.3656 •005930 •002595 •001144 88} •073098 •031084 •013327 •005760 •002509 •001101 89 •072025 •0.30481 •013006 •005594 •002425 •001059 89} ■070968 •029889 ■012692 •005434 •002345 •001019 90 •069927 029.308 •012386 ■005278 •002267 •000981 90} •068901 •028739 •012088 •005126 •002191 •000944 91 •067891 •028181 •011797 •004979 •0021 18 •000908 91} •066895 •0276.34 •011512 •0048.36 •002048 •000874 92 •065913 •027097 •01 1235 •004697 •001980 •000841 92} •064946 •026571 •010964 •004562 •001914 •000809 93 •063993 •026055 •010700 •004431 •001850 •000779 93} •063054 •025549 •010442 •004304 •001789 ■000749 94 •062129 •025053 •010190 •004180 •001729 •000721 94} ■061218 •024566 •009945 ■004060 •001671 .000694 95 •060320 •024089 •009705 •003944 •001616 •000667 I 95} •059435 •023621 •009471 •0038.30 •001562 •000642 96 •058563 •02.3163 •009243 ■00.3720 •001510 •00061 8 96} •057704 ■022713 •009020 •0036 1 3 •001460 •000595 97 •056857 •022272 ■008803 •00.3510 •001411 •000572 97} •056023 •021839 •008590 •003409 ■001 .364 •000551 98 •055201 •021415 •008.38.3 •003311 •001319 •000530 1 98} ■054391 020999 •008181 003216 001275 '0005 1 0 99 '■ '053593 •020592 •007984 •003 1 24 •001 233 •000490 99} . -052807 •0201 92 •007792 00.3034 •001192 •000472 iOO •052032 •01 9800 •007604 •002947 ■001152 •000454 1114 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Bo:i 1 V The Third Table of Compound Interest. The Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years, &c. r v > i ears. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. i ■496305 •495097 •493901 •492716 •491 543 •490381 i 1 -oooooo 1 -oooooo 1 -oooooo 1 -oooooo 1 -oooooo 1 -oooooo il 1-511194 I -514901 1 -518596 1 -522279 I -525951 1 -52961 1 o 2-030000 2-040000 2 -050000 2-060000 2-070000 2 -080000 Ol 2-556530 2-575497 2-594526 2-613616 2-632768 2-651980 3 3-090900 3-121600 3-152500 3-183600 3-214900 3-246400 31 3 -633226 3-678517 3-724252 3-770433 3-817061 3-864138 4 4-183627 4-246464 4-310125 4-374616 4-439943 4-506112 41 4-742222 4 -825658 4-910465 4-996659 5-084256 5-173270 5 5-309135 5-416322 5-525631 5-637092 5-750739 5-866600 5 i 5-884489 6-018684 6-155988 6-296459 6-440.154 6-587131 6 6-468409 6-63297 5 6-801912 6-975318 7-153290 7-335929 61 7-061024 7-259431 7-463788 7-674246 7 -890964 8-1 14102 7 7-662462 7-898294 8-142008 8-393837 8-654021 8-922803 71 8-272855 8-549809 8-836977 9-134701 9-443332 9-763230 8 8-892336 9-214226 9-549108 9-897467 10-259802 10-636627 H 9 9-521040 9-89180! 10-278826 10-682783 1 1 -104365 11-544288 10-159106 10-582795 1 1 -026564 1 1 -491315 11-977988 12-487557 9.1 10 10-806671 11-287473 11-792767 12-323750 12-881671 13-467831 11-463879 12-006107 12-577892 13-180794 13-816447 14-486562 101 12-130872 12-738972 13-382406 14-063175 14-783388 15-545258 11 12-807795 13-486351 14-206787 14-971642 15-783599 16-645487 ) 11 13-494798 14-248531 15-051526 15-906966 16-818225 17-788879 12 14-192029 15-025805 15-917126 16-869941 17-888451 18-977126 121 14-899642 15-818472 16-804102 17-861384 18-995501 20-211989 13 15-617790 16-626837 17-712982 18-882137 20-140642 21 -495296 131 14 16-346631 17-45121 1 18-644307 19-933067 21 -3251 86 22-828948 17-086324 18-29191 I 19-598631 21-01 5065 22-550487 24-214920 144 15 17-837030 19149260 20-576523 22-129051 23-81 7949 25-655264 18-598913 20-023587 21 -578563 23-275969 25-129022 27-152113 151 19-372141 20-915230 22-605349 24 -456794 26-485205 28-707685 16 20-156881 21 -824531 23-657491 25-672528 27-888053 30-32428: 161 20-953305 22-751839 24-735616 26-924202 29-339170 32 -00430!; 17 1 21 -761587 23-697512 25-840366 28-212879 30-840217 33-750225] 171 22 -58 1 904 24-661913 26-972397 29-539654 32-392912 35-56464-1 18 23-414435 25-645412 28-132384 30-905652 33-999032 37-45024!: 181 19 24-259361 26-648389 29-321017 32-3 1 2033 35-660416 39 -40981 6j 25-116868 27-671229 1 0-539003 33-759991 37-378964 4 1 -4462P: 1 9j 25-987142 28-714325 31-787068 35-250755 39-156645 43-56260' 20 26 -870374 29-778078 33-065954 36-785591 40-995492 45-761 964 2(U 27-766756 30-862898 34-376421 38 -365801 42-897610 4 8 "04760! 21 28-67648 5 31 -969201 35 719251 39-992726 44-865176 50-42292; 2 1 > 29-599759 33-097414 37-095243 41 -667749 46-900443 52-8914 If 1 99 30-536780 34-247969 38-505214 43-392290 49-005739 55 -45675 1 221 31 -487752 35-421310 39-950005 45-167814 51 -183474 58-12273 99. 32-452833 36-617888 41 -430475 46-995827 53-436140 60-89329 231 33-432385 37-838163 42-947505 48-877882 55-766317 6.3-7725." 24 34-426470 39-082604 44-501998 50-815577 58-176670 66 -7647.5 241 25 ‘ 35-435356 40-351689 46-094880 52-810555 60-669959 69 '8743a 36*459264 41-645908 47-727098 54-864512 63-249037 73-10593: Chat. TV. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 1115 Thf Third Tabi.e of Compound Intfp.kst — continued. The Amount of One Pound per Annum in my Number of Years, &c. fears. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 251 37-498417 42-965757 49-399624 56-979189 65-916856 76-464302 26 38-553042 44-311744 51 -1 13453 59-156382 68-676470 79-954415 261 39-623369 45-684387 52-869605 61 -397940 71 -531036 83-581 446 27 40-709633 47-084214 54-669126 63-705765 74-483823 87-350768 27J 41-812070 48-511763 56-513086 66-081817 77-538209 91 -267962 28 42-930922 49-967582 58-402582 68-528111 80-697690 95- 338829 28^ 44-066433 51 -452233 60-338740 71-046726 83-965884 99-56 9399 29 45-218850 5 2-966286 62-322711 73-639798 87-346529 1 03-965936 291 46-388425 54-510323 64-355677 7C -309529 90-843495 108-534951 30 47-575415 56-084937 66-438847 79-058186 94-460786 113-283211 301 48-780078 57 -690735 68-573461 81-888101 98-202540 118-217747 31 50-002678 59-328335 70-760789 84-801677 102 073041 123-345868 3>1 51 -243481 60-9983 65 73-002134 87-801387 106-076718 128-675167 32 52-502758 62-701468 75-298829 90-889778 1 10-218154 134-213537 321 53-780785 64-438300 77-652241 94-069470 114-502088 139-969180 13 55-077841 66- 209527 80 063770 97-343164 1 18-933425 145-950620 !331 56-394209 68-015832 82-534853 100-713639 123-517234 152 166715 34 57-730176 69-857908 85-066959 104-183754 128-258764 158-626670 341 59-086035 71-736465 87-661596 107-756457 133-163441 165-340052 .35 60-462081 73-652224 90-320307 111-434779 138-236878 172-316803 35.1 61-858616 75-605923 93 -044675 115-221844 143-484882 179-567256 36 63-275944 77-598313 95-836322 119-120866 148-913459 187-102147 36| 64-714374 79-630160 98-696909 123-135155 154-528824 194-932637 137 66-174222 81 -702246 101-628138 127-268118 160-337402 203-070319 371 67-655806 83-81. r 367 104-631755 .’31 -523264 166-345841 211-527248 38 69-159449 85-970336 107-709545 135-904205 172-561020 220-315945 381 70-685480 88-167982 110-863342 140-414660 1 78-990050 229-449428 39 72-234232 90-409149 1 1 4 -095023 145-058458 185-640291 238-941221 391 73-806044 92-694701 117-406510 149-839540 1 92-51 9354 248-805382 |40 75-401259 95-025515 120-799774 154-761965 199-635111 259-056518 401 77-020226 97-402489 124-276835 159-829912 206-995708 269-709812 11 78 -663297 99-826536 127-839762 165-047683 214-609569 280-781040 »1 80-330832 102-298588 131-490677 170-419707 222-485408 292-286597 12 82-023196 104-819597 135-231751 175-950544 230-632239 304-243523 121 83-740757 107-390532 139-065211 181 -644890 239-059387 316-669525 13 85-483892 110012381 142-993338 187-507577 247-776496 329-583005 131 87-252980 112-686153 147-018471 193-543583 256-793544 343-003087 14 89-048409 115-412876 151-143005 199-758031 266-120851 356-949645 141 90-870570 118-193599 155-369395 206-156198 275-769092 371-443334 ; 15 92-719861 121-029392 159-700155 212-743513 285-749310 386-505617 151 94-596687 123-921343 164-137865 219-525570 296-072928 402-158801 6 96-501457 126-870567 I68-6S5163 226-508124 306-751762 418-426066 98-434587 129-878197 173-344758 233-697104 317-798033 435-331505 7 100-396500 132-945390 178-119421 241-098612 329-22438 5 452-900152 102-387625 136-073325 183-011996 248-718930 341-043896 471-158026 i 8 104-408395 1 39-263206 188-025392 256-564528 353-270093 490-1 32164 I8J 106-459254 142-516258 193-162596 264-642066 365-916969 509-850668 9 108-540647 145-833734 198-426662 272-958400 378 -998999 530-342737 h 110-653031 149 -216908 203-8207 25 281-520590 392-531 156 551 -638721 0 112-796867 152-667083 209-347995 290-335904 406-528929 573-770156 ' J 1116 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Book IV The Third Table of Compound Interest — continued . The Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years, & c. Years 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. G per Cent. 7 per Cent 8 per Cent. 50.1 51 51] 52 52] 1 14-972622 117-180773 119 421801 121-696196 124-004455 156-185585 159-773767 163-433008 167-164717 170-970329 215-01 1762 220-815395 226-762350 232-856165 239-100467 299-411826 308-756058 318-376535 328-281422 338-479127 421 -008337 435-985954 451-478921 467-504971 484-082445 596-769819 620-671768 645*511405 671-325510 698-152317 | 53 53> 54 54.1 55* 126-347082 128-724589 131-137494 133-586326 136-071619 174-851306 178-809142 182-845358 186-961507 191 -159173 245-498973 252-055491 258-773922 265-658265 272-712618 348-978307 359-787875 370-917006 382-375148 394-172026 501 -230319 518-968217 537-316441 556-295992 575-928592 726-031551 75500450'- 1 ' 785*1 14075 816-40486:: 848-923201 55] 56 56.1 57 571 138-593916 141 -153768 143-751734 146-388381 149-064286 195-439968 199-805539 204-257567 208-797761 213-427869 279-941178 287-348249 294-938237 302-715661 310-685149 406-317657 418-822348 431-696716 444-951689 458-598519 596-236711 617-243594 638-973281 661 -450645 684-701411 882-717252 917-837057' 954-33463 992-26402. 1031-681403 58 581 ! 59 59.1 60 151 -780032 154-536214 157-333433 160-172301 163 053436 218-149672 222-964984 227-875658 232-883583 237 990685 318-851444 327-219407 335-794017 344 -580377 353 583717 472-648790 487-114430 502-007717 517-341296 533-128180 708-752190 733-630510 759-364844 785-984645 813-520383 107264514:1 1115-215915 1159-456755 1205-433188 1253-213295 60] 61 61] 62 62] 165-977470 168-945039 171-956794 175-013391 178-115498 243-198927 248-510312 253-926884 259-450725 265-083959 362-809396 372-262903 381 -949866 391 -876048 402-047359 549-381774 566-115871 583-344680 601-082824 619-345361 842-003571 871-466810 901-943821 933-469486 966-079888 1302-867843 1354-470359 1408-097271 1463-827988 1521-745052 63 63] 1 64 64] 65 181 -263792 184-458963 187-7C1706 190-992732 194-332757 270-828754 276-687318 282-661904 288-754810 294-968380 412-469851 423-149727 434 -093343 445 307214 456-79801 1 638-147793 657-506083 677-436661 697-956448 719-082860 999-812350 1034-705480 1070-799215 1 108-134864 1146-755160 1581 -934227 1644-484656 1709-488965 1777-043429 1847-248082 65] 66 66.1 67* 67] 197-722513 201-162740 204 654189 204 1 97622 211-793815 301 -305003 307-767115 314-357203 321 -077800 327-931491 468-572574 480-637911 493 001203 505-669807 518-651263 740-833835 763-227832 786-283865 810-021502 834-460897 1186-704304 1228-028021 1270-773606 1314 989983 1360-727758 1920-20690 1996-0279-"' 2074-823456. 2156-710163 2241 -80933'. 68 68] 69 69] 70 215-443551 219-147629 222-906858 226-722058 230-594063 334-920912 342-048751 349-317748 356 -730701 364-290458 531 -953297 545-583826 559-550962 573-863018 588-528510 859-622792 885-528550 912-200160 939-660263 96 7-932169 1408-039282 1456-978701 1507-602032 1559-967211 1614-134174 2330-246976 2422-15407! 2517-666734 2616-92640. 272008007 ' 70] 71 71] 72 -.11 ■-5 234-523720 238-511885 242-559431 246-667242 250-836214 371-999929 379-862077 387-879926 396-056560 404-395123 603-556169 618-954936 634 -733977 650-902683 667-470676 997-039879 1027 -008099 1057-862272 1089-628585 1122-334008 1670-164915 1728-123 566 1788-076459 1850-092216 1914-241812 2827-280518 2938-68647' 3054-46295! 3174-781398 3299-819996 73 73] 74 74] 75 255-067259 259-361301 263-719277 268-142140 272-630855 412-898822 421-570928 430-414775 439 433765 418-631366 684-447817 701-844210 719-670208 737-936420 756-653718 1156-006300 1190-674049 1226-366679 1263-114492 1300-948679 1980-598671 2049-238738 2120-240578 2193-685450 2269-657418 3429-76390 3564.-80559 3705-14502. 3850-9900' 4002 -5566‘. CflAP. I V COMPOUND INTEREST TAB EES. 1117 The Third Table of Compound Interest — continued . The Amount of One Pound per Annum in any Number of Years, &e. Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent, 8 per Cent. 7 5J 76 76J 77 11 \ 277-186404 281-809781 286-501996 291 -264074 296-097056 458 011116 467-576621 477-331560 487-27 9686 497-424823 775-833241 795-486404 815-624903 836-260724 857-406149 1339-901361 1380-005600 1421 -295443 1463-805936 1507 573170 2348 -243432 2429-533437 2513-620472 2600-600778 2690-573905 4160069247 4323-761154 4493-874786 4670-662016 4854-384769 78 78{ 79 79^ 80 301 -001 996 305-979968 31 1 -032056 316-159367 321-363018 507-770873 518-321816 529-081708 540-054688 551-244976 879-073760 901 -276456 924-027448 947-340279 971 -228821 1552-634292 1599-027560 1646-792350 1695-969214 1746-599891 2783-642833 2879-914078 2979-497831 3082-508064 3189-062679 5045-315010 5243-735551 5449-94021 1 5664-234395 5886-935428 801 81 81* 82 82| 326-644148 332-003909 337-443472 342-964026 348-566776 562-656876 574-294775 586-163151 598-266566 610-609677 995-707293 1020-790262 1046-492658 1072-829775 1099-817290 1798-727367 1852-395884 1907-651009 1964-539637 2023-1 10069 3299-283628 3413-297067 3531 -233482 3653-227861 3779-419826 6118-373147 6358-890262 6608-842999 6868-601483 7138-550433 83 83' 84 84' 85 354-252947 360-023780 365-880535 371-824493 377-856951 623-197229 636-034064 649-1251 18 662-475427 676-090123 1 127-471264 1155-808155 1184-844827 1214-598563 1245-087068 2083-412016 2145-496673 2209-416737 2275-226474 2342-981741 3909-953812 4044-979214 4184-650579 4329-127759 4478-576119 7419 089602 7710-634474 8013-616770 8328 -485232 8655-706112 851 86 861 87 87.1 383-979228 390-192660 396-498605 402-898440 409-393563 689-974444 704-133728 718-573422 733-299077 748 -316358 1276-328491 1308-341422 1341 -144916 1374-758493 1409-202161 2412-740062 2484-560645 2558-504466 2634-634284 2713-014734 4633-166702 4793-076448 49.58-488372 5129-591799 5306-582558 8995-764050 9349-162600 9716-425174 10098-095609 10494-739188 88 88.^ 89 89| 90 415-985393 422-675370 429-464955 436-355631 443-348903 763-631040 779-249013 795-176282 811-418973 827-983333 1444-496418 1480-662269 1517-721238 1555-695383 1594-607300 2793-712341 2876-795618 2962-335082 3050-403355 3141 -075187 5489-663225 5679-043337 5874-939651 6077-576370 6287-185426 10906-943257 11335 -318323 11780-498718 12243-143789 12723-938615 90^ 91 91* 92 92 5 450-446300 457-649370 464-959689 472-378851 479-908480 844-875732 862-102667 879-670762 897-586773 915-857592 1634-480152 1675-337665 1717-204160 1760-104549 1 804-064368 3234-427556 3330-539698 3429-493210 3531 -372080 3636-262802 6504-006716 6728-288406 6960-287186 7200-268595 7448-507289 13223-595292 13742-853705 14282-482916 14843-282001 15426 -081549 93 93^ j 94 94J 95 487-550217 495-305734 503-176723 511 -164S06 519-272025 934-490244 953-491896 972-869854 992-631572 1012-784648 1849-109776 1895-267586 1942-565265 1991 -030965 2040-693528 3744-254405 3855-438571 3969-909669 4087-764885 4209-104249 7705-287396 7970-902800 8245-657514 8529-865996 8823-853540 16031 -744561 16661-168073 17315-284126 17995-061519 18701 -506856 i 95^ i 96 96J 97 97J 527-499853 535-850186 544 324849 552-925692 561 -654594 1033-336834 1054-296034 1075-670308 1097-467875 11 19-697120 2091-582514 2143-728205 2197-161639 2251-914615 2308 01 9721 4334 030778 4462-650504 4595-072625 4731 -409534 4871-776982 9127-956615 9442-523288 9767-913579 10104-499918 10452-667529 19435-666440 20198-627405 20991 -519756 21815-517597 22671 -841336 ; 98 981 i 99 1 99J ! 00 570-5)3462 579-504232 588-6288 66 597-889359 607-287732 1142-366590 1165-485005 1189-061254 1213-104405 1237-623704 2365-510346 2424-420708 2484-785863 2546-641743 2610025156 5016-294106 5165-083601 5318-271753 5475-988617 5638-368058 10812-814912 1 1 185-354256 1 1570-711956 11969-329054 12381-661793 23561 -759005 24486-588643 25447-699726 26446-515734 27484-515704 118 Tlu;- VALUATION OF PROPER TY Book I :,ir The Fouutii Tahi.e of Compound Intzrest. present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come, &c. ^ j Years. | 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. G per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 0,! 1 ■489024 •485483 •481998 •478568 •475193 ■471869 "1 1 •970873 •961538 •952380 •943396 •934579 •925925 i£ 1 -445654 1 -428349 1-411427 1-394876 1 -378685 1-362842 i5 i 2 1-913469 I -886094 1 -859410 1 -833392 1 -808018 1-783264 2 5 2 374421 2-334951 2-296597 2-259317 2-223070 2-187816 C i 3 2-82S611 2-775091 2-723248 2-67301 1 2-624316 2-577096 3-i 3-276137 3-206683 3-139616 3-074827 3-0U215 2-951682 1 *! ; 4 3-717098 3-629895 3-545950 3-465105 3-387211 3-312126 4.1 4-151589 4-044888 3-942491 3-844177 3-749733 3-658964 : 5 4-579707 4 -45 1 822 4-329476 4-212363 4-100197 3-992710 ni 5-001543 4-850854 4-707135 4-569978 4 -4. 19003 4-313856 'i 6 5-417191 5-242136 5-075692 4-917324 4-766539 4-622879 6 'i 5-826741 5-625821 5-435366 5-254696 5-083180 4-920237 li 7 6-230282 6 -002054 5-786373 5-582381 5-389289 5-206370 n 6-627904 6-370981 6-128920 5 -900657 5-685215 5*481701 8 7 -01 9692 6-732744 6-463212 6-209793 5-971298 5-746638 8^ 7 405732 7-087482 6-789448 6-510053 6-247865 6-001575 9 7-786108 7-435331 7-107821 6-801692 6-515232 6-246887 8160905 7-776425 7-418522 7 -084956 6-773705 6-482940 10 8-530202 8110895 7-721734 7 -360087 7-023581 6-710081 io.l 8-894082 8 -4388 70 8-017640 7-627317 7 265145 6-928648 11 9-252624 8-760476 8-306414 7-886874 7-498674 7-138964 111 9-605905 9-075837 8-588228 8-138978 7-724435 7-341340 12 9-954003 9-385073 8 863251 8-383843 7-94268 6 7-536078 121 10-296995 9-688305 9-131646 8-621678 8-153677 7-723463 13 10-634955 9-965647 9-393572 8-852682 8-357650 7-903775 13* 10-967956 10-277216 9-649187 9-077054 8-554838 8-077281 14' 11-296073 10-563122 9-898640 9-294983 8-745467 8-244236 H> 11-619375 10-843477 10-142082 9-506655 8-929756 8-404890 1.5 1 1 -937935 11-118387 10-379658 9-712248 9-107914 8-559478 151 16 12-251821 11-387958 10-611507 9-911939 9-280145 8-708231 12-561102 1 1 -652295 10-837769 10-105895 9 446648 8-851369 161 12-865845 11-911499 11-058578 10-294282 9-607612 8-989103 17 1 3-166118 12-165668 11-274066 10477259 9-763222 9-121638 171 13-461986 12-414902 1 1 -484360 10-654983 9-913656 9249169 18 13-753513 12-659296 1 1 -689586 10-827603 10.059086 9-371887 IS.! 14-040763 12 898945 1 1 -889867 10-995267 10-199679 9-489971 19 14-323799 13-133939 12-085320 11-158116 10-335595 9-605599 191 14-602682 13-364370 12-276064 11-316289 10-466990 9-712937 20 14-8/7474 13-590326 12-462210 1 1 *469921 10-594014 9-818147 20A 15-148235 13-811894 12-643870 1 1 -619141 10 716813 9 919386 21 15-415024 14-029159 12-821152 11-764076 10-835527 10-016803 21J 15-677898 14-242206 12-994162 11 904850 10-950292 10-110542 22 15-936916 14-151 1 15 13-163002 12-041581 11-061240 10-200743 221 16-192134 14-655967 13-327773 12174387 11-168497 10-287539 23 16-443608 14-856841 13-488573 1 2 -303378 11-272187 10-371058 23.1 16-691392 15 053814 13-645498 12-428667 1 1 -372427 10-451425 24 16-935542 15-246963 13-798641 12-550357 1 1 -469334 10-528758 24A 17-176109 15-436360 13-948094 12-668553 11-563016 10-605171 25 17-413147 15-622079 14-093944 12-783356 1 1 -653583 10-674776 HAP. IV. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 1 1 If) Tu f. Fourth Table of Compound Interest — continued. The present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come, 8c c. ears. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. fi per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 15* 17-646708 15-804192 14-236280 12-894862 11-741137 10-743677 16 17-876842 15-982769 14-375185 13-003166 11-825778 10-809977 18-103600 16-157877 14-510742 13-108360 1 1 -907604 10-873775 27 18 -.3270.31 16-329585 14-643033 13-210534 1 1 -986709 10-935164 n 18-547184 16-497959 14-772136 13-309774 12-063182 10-994236 28 18-764108 16-663063 14-898127 13-406164 12-137111 11-051078 28A 18-977849 16-824960 15-021082 13-499786 12-208581 11-105774 29 19-188454 16-983714 15-141073 13-590721 12-277674 11T58406 294 19" 195970 17-139385 15-258173 13-679044 12-344468 1 1 -209050 iO 19-600441 17-292033 15-372451 13-764831 12-409041 1 1 -257783 104 19-801912 17-441716 15-483974 13-848154 12-471465 11-304676 ;i 20 000428 17-588493 15-592810 13-929085 12-531814 11-349799 «4 20-196031 17-732419 15-699023 14-007693 12-590155 1 1-393218 52 20 388765 17-873551 15-802676 14-084043 12-646555 1 1 -434999 *2* 20-578671 18-011942 15-903831 14-158201 12-701079 1 1 -475202 53 20-765791 18147645 16-002549 14-230229 12-753790 1 1 -513888 531 20-950106 18-280713 16-098887 14-300189 12-804747 11-551113 54 21 -1318.36 18-411197 16-192904 14-368141 12-854009 11-586933 ■H 21-310841 18-539147 16-284654 14-434141 12-901632 11-621401 55 21 -487220 18-664613 16-374194 14-498246 12-947672 11-654568 54 21 -66101 1 18-787642 16-461575 14-560510 12-992180 11-686482 ■6 21-832252 18-908281 16-546851 14-620987 1 3 -035207 11-717192 22 000981 19-026578 16-630072 14-679727 13-076804 11-746743 7 22-167235 19-142578 16-711287 14-736780 13117016 11-775178 n 22-331050 19-256325 16-790545 14-792195 13-155891 1 1 -802540 8 22-492461 19-367864 16-867892 14-846019 13-193473 11-828868 8 4 22-651505 19-477236 16-943376 14-898297 13-229805 11-854203 9 22-808215 19-584484 17 017040 14-949074 13-264928 1 1 -878582 94 22-962626 19-639650 17-088929 14-998393 13-298883 1 1 902040 0 23-114771 19-792773 17-159086 15-046296 13-331708 11-924613 04 23-264685 19-893894 17-227552 15-092824 13-363442 1 1 -946333 I 23-412399 19-993051 17 294367 15-138015 13-394120 1 1 -967234 14 2:5-557947 20-090283 17-359573 15-181909 13-423777 1 1 -987346 2 23-701359 20-185626 17-423207 15-224543 13-452448 12-005698 j 2 4 23-842667 20-279118 17-485308 15-265952 13-480166 12-025320 5 23-981902 20-370794 17-545911 15-306172 13-506961 12-043239 34 24-119091 20-460690 17-605055 15 345238 13-532865 12-060482 1 24-254273 20-548841 17-662773 15-383182 13 557908 12-077073 H 24 -.387470 20-635279 17-719100 15-420036 13-582117 12-093038 5 24 518712 20-720039 17-774069 15-455832 13-605521 12 108401 } h 24 -648029 20-803153 17-827714 15-490600 13-628147 12-123184 > 24-775449 20-884653 17-880066 15-524369 13-650020 12-137408 24-900999 20-964570 17-931156 15-557169 13-671165 12-151096 ? 25-024707 21 042936 17-981015 15-589028 13-691607 12-164267 7* 25-146601 21-119779 18 029673 15-619971 13-711369 12-176941 j l 25 -266706 21-195130 18-077157 15-650026 13-730474 12-189136 *4 25-385049 21 -269018 18-123498 15-679218 13-748943 12-200871 1 ) 25-501656 21-341472 18-168721 15-707572 13-766798 12-212163 >4 25-616553 21-412518 18-212855 15-735111 13-784059 12-223029 > 25-729763 21-482184 18-255925 15-761860 13-800746 12-233484 1 120 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. lion* IV. The Fourth Table of Compound Interest — continued. The present Value of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come, Stc. Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 50: 1 , 25-841313 21 -550498 18-297957 15-787841 13-816878 12-243545 51 25-951227 21-617485 18-338976 15-813076 13-832473 12-253226 51 3 26-059528 21 -683171 18-379007 15-837586 13-847549 12-262542 52 26-166239 21 -747581 18-418072 15-861392 13-862124 12-271506 26-271386 21-810741 18-456197 15-884515 13-876214 12*280132 53 26 -374990 21 -872674 18-493402 15-906974 13-889835 12-288431 531 26 -477074 21 -933405 18-52971 I 15-928788 13-903004 12-296418 54 26-577660 21-992956 18-565145 15-949975 13-915734 12-304103 ! 54.1 26-676771 22-051351 18-599725 15-970554 13-928041 12-311498 55 26-774427 22-108612 18-633471 15-990542 13-939938 12-318614 ! 55.1 26-870651 22-164760 18-666405 1 6 -009957 13-951440 12-325461 56 26-965463 22-219819 18-698544 16-028814 13-962559 12-332050 56' 27-058884 22-273808 18-729909 16-047129 13-973308 12-538390 57 27-150935 22-326749 18-760518 16 064918 13-983700 12-344490 57> 27-241635 22-378662 18-790390 16-082197 13-993746 12-350361 58 27-331005 22-429566 18-819541 16-098980 14-003458 12-356010 581 27-419063 22-479482 18-847990 16115280 14-012847 12-361445 59 27 -505830 22-528429 18-875754 16131113 14-021923 12-366675 ; 59‘ 27-591324 22-576425 18-902848 16-146491 14-030698 12-371708 60 27-675563 22-623489 18-929289 16-161427 14-039181 12-376551 60' 27-758567 22-669640 18-955093 16-175935 14-047381 12-38121 ! 61 27-840353 22-714894 18-980275 16-1 90026 14-055309 12-385696 j 611 27-920939 22-759269 19-004851 16-203712 14-062973 12-390011 jj 6 2 28-000342 22-802782 19-028834 16-217005 14-070382 12-394163 j- 621 28-078581 22-845451 19-052239 16-229917 14-077545 12-398158 | j 63 28-155672 22-887291 19-075080 16-242458 14-084469 12-402002 63.1 28 -231632 22-928318 19 097370 16-254639 14 091163 12-405702 64 28-306478 22-968549 191 19123 16-266470 14-097635 12-40926) 641 28-380225 23-007998 19-140352 16-277961 14-103891 12-412687 65 28-452891 23-046681 19-161070 16-289122 14-109939 12-415983 65 J 28 -524491 23-084614 19-181288 16-299963 14-1 15786 12-419154 66~ 28 -595040 23-121809 19-201019 16-310493 14-121438 12.422206 66.1 2S -664554 23-158282 19-220274 16-320720 14-126903 12-425143 67 28-733048 23-194047 19-239066 16-330653 14-132185 12-427969 61\ 28-8005.8 23-229118 19-257404 16-340302 14-137292 12-430688 68 28-867037 23-263507 19-275301 16-349673 14-142229 12-433304 681 28-932561 23-297228 19-292766 16-358775 14-147002 12-435822 69 28-997123 23-330295 19-309810 16-367616 14-151616 12-43824.5 69.1 29 -060739 23-362720 19-326444 16-376203 14-156077 12-440576 70 29-123421 23-394514 19-342676 16-384543 14-160389 12-442819 70.1 29-185183 23 -425692 19-358518 16-392644 14-164558 12-444978 71 29-246040 23-456264 19-373977 16-400513 14-168588 12-447055 71‘ 29 -306003 23-486242 19-389064 16-408155 14-172484 12-449053 72 29-365087 23-515638 19-403788 16-415578 14-176250 12-450977 72* 29 -423304 23-544464 19-418157 16-422788 14-179891 12-452827 73 29-480667 23-572729 19-432179 16-429790 14-18341 1 12-45460 8 731 29-537188 23-60044 6 19-445863 16-436592 14-186814 12-456321 74 29-592881 23-627624 19-459218 16-443198 14-190104 12 45797C 74.| 29-647756 23-654275 19-472251 16-449615 14 193284 12 -45955 1 75 29-701826 23-680408 19-484969 16-455848 14-196359 12'46108. ;h*p. IV. COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. The Fourth Table of Compound Interest — continued. Flie present Vah e of One Pound per Annum for any Number of Years to come. Ac. Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 751 29-755103 23-706033 19-497382 16-461901 14-199331 12-462553 76 29-807598 23-731161 19-509495 16-467781 14-202204 12-463966 761 29-859323 23-755801 19-521316 16-473492 14-204 982 12-465326 77 29-910289 23-779963 19-532852 16-479038 14-207668 12-466635 77j 29-960508 23-803 655 19-544110 16-484426 14-210264 12-467895 78 30 009989 23-826887 19-555097 16-489659 14-212774 12-469107 ’ 781 30-058745 23-849668 19-565819 16-494741 14-215200 12-470273 79 30-106786 23 872007 19-576283 16-499678 14-21 7545 12 471395 ' 791 30-154122 23-893912 19-586495 16-504473 14-219813 12-47247 5 80 30-2007 63 23-915391 19-596460 16-509130 14-222005 12-473514 80} 30-246720 23-936454 1 9-606185 15-513654 14 224124 12-474514 81 30-292003 23-957107 19-615676 16-518047 14-226173 12-475476 811 30-336621 23-977359 19-624938 16-522315 14-228153 12-476402 82 30-380585 23-997218 19-633977 16-526460 14-230068 12-477292 82} 30-423904 24-016692 19-642798 16-530486 14-231919 12-478150 83 30-466588 24-035787 19-651407 16-534396 14-233708 12-478974 83} 30-508645 24 054511 19-659808 16-538194 14-235438 12-479768 84 30-550085 24-072872 19-668007 16-541883 14-237111 12-480532 84} 30-590917 24-090876 19-676008 16-545466 14-238727 12-481267 85 30-631 151 24-108531 19-683816 16-548946 14-240290 12-481974 851 30-670794 24-125842 19-691436 16-552326 14-241801 12-482654 86 30-709855 24-142818 19-698872 16-555610 14-243262 12-483309 861 30-748343 24-159464 19-706129 16-558798 14-244674 12-483939 87 30-786267 24-175786 19-713212 16-561896 14-246039 12-484545 87} 30-823634 24-191792 19-720123 16-564904 14-247359 12-485129 88 30-860453 24-207487 19-726868 16-567326 14-248635 12-485690 88} 30-896732 24-222877 19-733451 16-570664 14-249868 12-486230 '89 30-932479 24-237968 19-739874 16-573421 14-251060 12-486750 ■89} 30-967701 24-252766 19-746143 16-576098 14-252213 12-487250 90 31 -002407 24-267277 19-752261 16-578699 14-253327 12-487732 ,90} 31 -036603 24-281506 19-758232 16-581225 14-254405 12-488195 91 31 -070298 24 -295459 19-764058 16-583678 14-255446 12-488640 91} 31-103498 24-309140 19-769744 16-586061 14-256453 12-489069 92 31-136211 24-322556 19-775294 16-588376 1 4 -257426 12-489482 92} 31 -168445 24-335712 19-780709 16-590624 14-258367 12-489879 93 31 -200205 24-348612 19-785994 16-592807 14-259277 12-490261 43} 31 -231500 24 -361261 19-791151 16-594928 14-2601 56 12-490628 94 31 -262335 24-373 665 19-796185 16-596988 14-261006 12-490982 94} 31 -292718 24 -385828 19-801097 16-598989 14-261828 12-491323 95 31-322655 24-3977 55 19-805890 16-600932 14-262623 12-491650 95} 31-352154 24-409450 19-810568 16-602819 14-263391 12-491965 35 3T381219 24-420918 19-815133 16-604653 14-264133 12-492269 96} 31 -409858 24-432164 19-819589 16-606433 14-264851 12-492560 97 31 -438077 24-443191 I 9-823937 16-608163 14-265545 12-492841 31-465881 24-454004 19-82S180 16-609843 14-266216 12-493111 18 31-493278 24-464606 19-832321 16-611474 14-266865 12-493372 98} 31 -520273 24-475003 19-836362 16 613059 14-267492 12-493622 99 31-546872 24-485198 19-840305 16-614599 14 268098 12-493862 > 91 , 31 -573081 24-495196 19-844154 16-616094 14 268684 12-494094 10 31 -598905 24-504998 19 S47910 16-617546 14-269250 12-494317 F. 33 333333 25 000000 20 000000 1 6 '666666 14-285714 1 2 -500000 j 1122 VALUATION OF PROPERTY. Book I\ The The Annuity which One Finn Talt.e of Compound Interest. Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, &c. | Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 0 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. i 1 -030000 1 -040000 1 -050000 1 -060000 1 -070000 1-080000 u •691728 •700108 •708502 •716909 •725328 •733760 2 •522610 ■530196 •537804 •545436 •553091 •560769 2} •421155 •428274 •435426 •442611 •449828 *457070’ 3 •353530 •360348 •367208 •374109 •381051 •388033 H •305237 •31 1848 •318510 •325221 •331981 •3 8789 4 •269027 •275490 •28201 1 •288591 •295228 •301920 4 J •240871 •247225 •253646 •260133 •266685 •273301 5 •218354 •224627 •230974 •237396 •243890 •250456 5} T99938 •206149 •212443 •218819 •225275 •231811 6 •184597 •190761 T97017 •203362 •209795 •216315 6} •171622 •177751 T83980 •190305 •1 96727 •203242 7 T60506 T66609 •172819 T79135 •1 85553 •192072 n •150877 T56961 •163160 T 69472 175894 •182425 8 •142456 •148527 •154721 T61035 •167467 •174014 8 } ■135030 •141093 •147287 T53608 •160054 •166622 1 9 T 284.33 •134492 •140690 •147022 •153486 •1 60079 9} T22535 T28593 T34797 T41 144 •147629 •154251 10 T 17230 •123290 •129504 T35867 •142377 •149029 10} •112434 •118499 •124724 T31107 •137643 •144328 11 •108077 ■114149 •120388 •126792 •133356 •140076 11.} •104102 T10182 T16438 T22865 •129459 •136214 12 •100462 T 06552 •112825 T 19277 •125901 •132695 12> •097115 •103217 •109509 T15986 T22644 •129475 13 •094029 T00143 •106455 •112960 •119650 •126521 13} •091174 •097302 •103635 •1 10167 •1 16892 •1 23804 14 088526 •094668 •101023 T07584 •114344 •121296 14} •086063 •09222 1 •098599 T05189 •1 1 1 985 •118978 15 •083766 •089941 •096342 T02962 •109794 •116829 15} •081620 •087812 •094237 T00888 •107756 •11483.3 16 •079610 •085820 •092269 •098952 •105857 •1 1 2976 16} •077725 •083952 •090427 •097141 •104084 •11 1245. 17 •075952 •082198 •038699 •09.5444 T02425 •109629 17} ■074283 •080548 •087074 •093852 •100870 •108117 18 •072708 •078993 •085546 •092356 •099412 ■106702 18} •071221 •077525 •084105 •090918 ■0S8042 •1 Oi 7 1 19 •069813 •076138 ■082745 •089620 •096753 •I04.2 - ’ 19} •068480 •074825 •081459 •088368 •095538 •102955 20 •067215 •073581 •080242 •087184 •094392 ■101852 20} •066014 •072401 •079089 •086064 •093311 •100812 21 •064871 •071280 •077996 •085004 •092289 •099832 21} •063784 •070213 •076957 •083999 •091321 •098906 2-2 •062747 •0691 98 •075970 •083045 •090405 •0980.32 , 22} •061758 •068231 •075031 ■082139 •089537 •097204 j 23 •0608 1 3 •067309 •074136 •081278 •088713 •09642'. 23} •05991 1 •066428 •073284 •080459 •087931 •0956H 24 •059047 •065586 •072470 •079679 •087189 •094977 24} •058220 ■064782 •071694 •078935 •086482 •09431 1 25 057427 ■064011 •070952 •078226 •085810 •093671 COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 1 123 Ibap. IV. The Fifth Table of Compound Interest — continued. The Annuity which One Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, &c. fears. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent 8 per Cent. 25J •056667 •063274 070243 •077550 •085170 •093078 26 •055938 •062567 •069564 ■076904 •084561 •092507 •055237 •061889 ■068914 •076287 •08397 9 •091964 j 27 •054564 •06 1 238 •068291 •075697 •083425 •091448 m •053916 ■060613 •067695 •075132 •082896 •090956 28 •053293 ■0600 1 2 •067122 •074592 •082391 •090488 281 •052693 •059435 ,•066573 •074075 •081909 •090043 29 •052114 •058879 •066045 •073579 •08 1 448 •08961 8 291 •051557 •058345 ■065538 •073104 •081007 •089213 30 •051019 ■057830 •065051 •072648 •080586 •088827 101 •050500 •057333 •064582 •07221 1 •080183 •088458 31 •049998 •056855 •064132 •071792 •079796 •088107 311 •049514 •056393 •063698 •071339 ■079427 •087771 32 •049046 •055948 •063280 •071002 •079072 •087450 121 •048594 •055518 •062877 •070630 078733 •087144 13 •048156 •055103 •062490 •070272 •078408 ■086851 •047732 •054702 •062116 •069929 078096 •086571 !4 •047321 •054314 •061755 •069598 •077796 •086304 •046924 •053939 •061407 •069280 •077509 •086048 15 •046539 •053577 •061071 •068973 •077233 •085803 •046165 ■053226 •060747 •068678 •076969 •085568 6 •045803 •052886 •060434 •068394 •076715 •085344 6 J •045452 •052558 •060132 •068 1 21 •076471 •085129 7 •04511 1 •052239 •059839 •067857 •076236 •084924 3 •044780 •051 930 ■059557 •067603 •07601 1 •084727 8 •044459 •051631 •059284 •067358 •075795 •084538 H ■044147 •051341 •059020 •067121 •075586 •084358 ) •043843 •051060 •058764 •066893 •075386 •084185 k •043549 •050788 •05851 7 •066673 •075194 •084019 p •043262 •050523 •058278 •066461 •075009 •083860 |i •042983 •050266 •058046 •066256 •074831 •083707 •042712 •050017 •057822 •066058 •074659 •083561 i 5 •042448 •049775 •057605 •065867 •074494 •083421 •042191 •049540 •057394 •065683 •074335 •083286 1 2 •041941 •049311 ■057190 '065505 ■074183 •083157 •041698 •049089 •056993 •065333 •074035 •083034 2 ■041460 •048874 •056801 ■065166 •073894 •082915 1 •041229 •048664 ■056616 •065006 •073757 •082801 1 > •041004 ■048460 •056436 •064850 •073626 •082692 •040785 •048262 •056261 ■064700 •073499 •082587 > •040571 •048069 •056092 •064555 •073377 •082486 •040362 •047882 •055928 •064414 •073259 •082389 •040159 •047699 •055768 •064279 •073146 •082297 •039960 •04 7521 •055614 •064147 •073037 •082207 ; * •039766 ■047348 •055464 •064020 •072932 •082122 ' •039577 •047180 •055318 •063897 •072830 •082040 •039393 •047016 •055176 •063778 •072732 •081961 •039213 •046857 •055039 •063663 •072638 •081885 1 * •039037 •046701 •054906 •063552 •07254 7 •081812 •038S65 ■046550 •054776 •063444 •072459 •081742 4 C 2 1124 VALUATION OF PROPERTY, Rook 1 The Fifth Table of Compound Interest — continued. The Annuity which One Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, So. 1 Y ears. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. C per Cent. 7 per Cent. 8 per Cent. 50* •038697 •046402 •054650 •063339 •072375 •081675 51 •038533 •046258 •054528 •063238 •072293 •081611 51.1 •038373 •0461 18 •054409 •063140 •072214 •081549 52 •038217 •045982 •054294 •063046 •072139 •081489 52^ •038064 •045848 •054182 ■062954 •072065 •0S1432 53 •037914 •045719 •054073 •062865 •071995 •081377 53| •037768 •045592 •053967 •062779 •071926 •081324 54 •037625 •045469 •053864 •062696 •071861 •081273 541 •03748 5 •045348 •053764 ■062615 •071797 •081224 55 •037349 •045231 •053666 •062536 •071736 •081177 55\ •037215 •045116 •053572 •062461 •071677 •081132 56 •037084 •045004 •053480 •062387 •071620 •081089 56k •036956 •044895 •053390 •06231 6 •071565 •081047 57 •036831 •044789 •053303 •062247 •071511 •081007 571 •036708 •044685 •053218 •062180 •071460 •080969 58 •036588 •044584 •053136 •062115 071410 •080932 1 581 •036470 •044485 •053056 •062052 •071363 •080896 59 •036355 •044388 •052978 •061 992 •071316 •080S62 591 •036243 •044293 •052902 •061932 •071272 •080829 60 •036132 •044201 •052828 •061875 •071229 •080797 604 •036024 •044111 •052756 •061820 •071187 ■080767 61 •03591 9 •044023 •052686 •061766 •071147 •080738 61 j •03581.5 •043938 •052618 •061714 •071108 •080710 62 •035713 •043854 •052551 •061663 •071071 •080683 621 •035614 •043772 •052487 ■061614 •071035 •080657 63 •035516 •043692 ■052424 •061567 •071000 •080632 631 ■035421 •043614 •052363 •061520 •070966 •080608 64 •035327 •043537 ■052303 •061476 •070933 •080584 64i_| •035235 •043463 •052245 •061432 •070902 •080562!! 65' •035145 •043390 •052189 •061390 •070872 •080511 651 •035057 •043318 •052134 •061349 •070842 •0805 1 1 66' •034971 •043249 •052080 •061310 •070814 •08050 661 •034886 •043181 •052028 •061271 •070786 •080481,, 67 ■034803 •043114 •051977 •061234 •070760 •08046. •034721 •043049 •051928 •061 1 98 •070734 •0804 4 1 68 •034641 •042985 •051879 •061 163 •070710 08042 681 •034563 •042923 •051832 •061129 •070686 08041 69 •034486 •042862 •051787 ■061096 •070663 08039 69j 70 •034410 •042803 •05174 2 •061064 •07064 1 08038 •034336 •042745 •051699 •061033 •07C619 •080361 70J 71 •034263 ■042688 •051656 •061002 ■070598 •08035 •0341 92 •042632 •051615 •060973 •070578 08034 1 711 ■034 1 22 •042578 •051575 •060945 •070559 •08031 72 •034054 •042524 •051536 •060917 •070540 •080:1 1 j •033986 •042472 •051498 •06089! •070522 •0808( 73 •033920 •042421 •051461 •060865 •070504 0802! j 73j 74 •033855 •042372 •051424 •060839 ■070487 0802 •0337 '->1 •042323 •051389 •060815 •070471 •08021 74 .J •033729 •042275 •051355 •060791 •070455 •0802 75 •033667 •042229 •051321 •060768 •070440 •0802 — Chap. IV COMPOUND INTEREST TABLES. 1 1 25 The Fifth Table of Compound Interest — continued. The Annuity which One Pound will purchase for any Number of Years to come, & c. 1 j Years. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 6 per Cent. 7 per Cent , 8 per Cent. 751 •033607 •042183 •051288 •060746 •070425 •080240 7 6 •033548 •042138 •051257 •060724 •07011 1 •080231 76J •033490 •042094 •051 226 •060703 •070397 •080222 77 •033433 •042052 •051195 •060683 •070384 •0802 1 4 •033377 •042010 •051166 •060663 •070371 •080206 78 •033322 •041 969 •051 137 •060644 •070359 •080198 7S\ •033268 •041 929 •051109 •060625 •070347 080190 79 •033215 •041890 •051082 •060607 •070335 •0301 83 79j •033162 •041851 •051055 060589 •070324 •080176 80 •033 [ i j •041814 •051029 •060572 070313 •080169 801 •033061 •041777 •051004 *060555 •070303 •0801 63 81 •033012 •041741 •050979 •060539 •070292 •080157 811 •032963 •04 1 706 *050955 •060524 •070283 ■080151 82 •032915 •041671 •050932 •060509 •070273 •080145 82« •032868 •041637 •050909 ■060494 •070264 •0801 40 g 3 •032822 •041604 •050886 •060479 •070255 •080134 83i •032777 •041572 ■050865 060466 •070247 •080129 84 •032733 •04 1 540 •050843 •060452 •070238 •080124 84.1 •032689 •041509 •050823 •060439 •070230 •0 0120 85 •032646 •041479 •050803 •060426 •070223 •080115 85‘ •032604 •041449 •050783 ■060414 •070215 •0801 1 1 86 •032562 •041420 •050764 •060402 •070208 •080106 86| ■032522 •041391 •050745 •060390 •070201 •080102 87 •032482 •041363 •050727 •060379 •070194 •080099 8 ■032442 •041336 •050709 •060368 •070188 •080095 ' 88 •032403 •041309 •050692 •060357 •070182 •080091 8SA •032365 •041283 •050675 ■060347 •070176 •080088 89 .032328 •041257 •050658 ■060337 •070170 •080084 :891 •032291 •041232 •050642 •060327 •070164 •080081 90 •032255 •041207 •050627 •060318 •070159 ■080078 i30j •032220 •041183 •05061 1 •060309 •070153 •080075 91 •032185 ■041159 •050596 •060300 •070148 •080072 PH ■032150 •041136 •050582 •06029 1 •070143 •080070 ,92 •032116 •041114 •050568 •060283 •070138 ■080067 | •032083 ■041091 •050554 •060275 •070134 •080064 13 •032051 •041070 •050540 •060267 •070129 •080062 % •032018 041048 •050527 •060259 •070125 •080060 4 •031987 •041027 ■050514 •060251 ■070121 •080057 >4.J •03 1 956 •041007 •050502 •060244 •070117 ■080055 '5 •031925 ■040987 •050490 •060237 •070113 •080053 •H •031895 •040967 •050478 •060230 •070109 •080051 6 •031866 •040948 •050466 •060224 •070105 •080049 6\ •031837 •040929 •050455 •060217 •070102 •080047 7 •031808 •04091 1 •050444 060211 •070098 •080045 n •031780 •040893 '050433 •060205 •070095 •080044 3 •031752 •040875 •050422 •060199 •070092 •080042 "i •031725 •010858 •050412 ■0601 93 •0700S9 ■080040 9 •031698 •040841 •050402 •060188 •070036 •080039 3 1 ■031672 •040824 •050392 ■0601 82 •070033 ■080037 0 •03 1 646 •040808 •050383 ■060177 •070030 ■080036 1 S. •030000 •040000 •050000 ■060000 •070090 •080000 1126 VALUATION 7 OF PROPERTY. Book IV Table VI. Showing the Value of an Annuity on one Life according to the Probability of Life in London. Age. Year’s value at i | Age. Year’s value at 1 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent.! 1 6 18-8 16-2 14-1 41 130 11-4 10-2 7 18-9 16-3 14-2 42 12-8 11-2 10-1 8 19-0 16-4 14-3 43 12 6 11-1 10-0 9 1 44 12-5 11-0 9-9 and J- 19-0 16-4 14-3 45 12-3 10-8 9-8 10 j 46 12-1 10-7 9-7 11 19-0 16-4 14-3 47 11-9 10-5 9-5 12 18-9 16-3 14-2 48 11-8 10-4 9-4 13 18-7 16-2 14-1 49 1 1 -6 102 9-3 14 18-5 16-0 14-0 50 11-4 10-1 9-2 15 18-3 15-8 1.3-9 51 11-2 9-9 9-0 16 18-1 15-6 13-7 52 11-0 9-8 8-9 17 17-9 15-4 13-5 53 10-7 9-6 8-8 18 17-6 15-2 1.3-4 54 10-5 9-4 8-6 19 17'4 15-0 1.3-2 55 10-3 9-3 8-5 20 17-2 14-8 13-0 56 10-1 9 1 8-4 21 17-0 14-7 12-9 57 9'9 8-9 8-2 22 16-8 14-5 12-7 58 9-6 8-7 8-1 23 16-5 14-8 12 -6 59 9-4 8-6 8-0 24 16-3 14-1 12-4 60 9-2 8-4 7-9 25 161 14-0 12-3 61 8-9 8-2 7-7 26 15-9 13-8 12-1 62 8-7 8-1 7 6 ; 27 156 13-6 12-0 63 8-5 7-9 7-4 28 15-4 13-4 11-8 64 8-3 7-7 7-3 29 15-2 13-2 1 1 -7 65 8-0 7-5 7 1 30 15-0 1.3-1 11-6 66 7-8 7-3 6-9 31 14-8 12-9 11-4 67 7-6 7-1 6-7 .32 14-6 12-7 11-3 68 7-4 6-9 6-6 33 14-4 12-6 11-2 69 7-1 6-7 6-4 34 14-2 12-4 11-0 70 6-9 6-5 6-2 35 14-1 12-3 10-9 71 6-7 6-3 6 0 .36 13-9 12-1 10-8 72 6-5 6-1 5-8 .37 13-7 11-9 10-6 73 6-2 5-9 5-6 38 13-5 11-8 10-5 74 5-9 5-6 5-4 .39 1.3-3 11-6 10-4 75 5 6 5-4 5-2 40 13-2 11-5 10-3 Table VI. a. Expectation of Life. De Moivre’s Hypothesis on the duration of human life, namely, that of 86 persons bo one dies every year till all are extinct, has led to an empirical rule of easy recollection f the expectation of life, namely, to subtract the age from 86 and halve the difference for : answer. In the left band side of the subjoined table is shown the number of persons o of 10,000 who may be expected to die in the year following their attaining the age marl ' in the ffrst column, according to the Hypothesis, to the Northampton and Carlisle tabli and to the Belgian one of Quetelet. The table on the right shows the values of annuiti on lives at 3 per cent, in years’ purchase, whence it appears that in money results ! Hypothesis curiously agrees with the celebrated Northampton tables. Age. Hypo- thesis. North- ampton. Carlisle. Belgium. Age. Hypo- thesis. North- ampton. Carlisle. 10 132 92 45 88 10 19'9 207 23-5 20 152 MO 71 120 20 18-5 1 86 21-7 30 179 171 101 126 30 16-8 16 9 19 6 40 217 209 130 144 40 14-8 14-8 171 50 278 284 1.34 183 50 125 124 14-3 60 385 402 3.35 325 60 9-7 98 10-5 70 625 649 5 16 680 70 6-4 6-7 7*1 80 1667 1343 1217 1425 80 2-3 3-8 4‘4 - If S I U Chap. IV, ANNUITY TABLES. 3127 Table VII. Showing the Value of an Annuity on the joint Continuance of two Lives, according to the Probabilities of Life in London. Age of the Value at Younger. Elder. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 10 14-7 13 0 1 1 -6 15 14-3 12-7 11-3 20 13-8 12-2 10-8 25 1 ST 11-6 10-2 30 12-3 10-9 9 7 35 11-5 10-2 91 10 40 107 9-6 8-6 45 100 9 0 8-1 50 9-3 8-4 7-6 55 8 6 7-8 7-1 60 7-8 7-2 6-6 65 6-9 6-5 6-1 70 6 1 5-8 5-5 75 5-3 5-1 4-9 15 13-9 12-3 11-0 20 133 1 1 -8 10-5 25 12-6 11-2 101 30 1 1 -9 10-6 9-5 35 11-2 10 0 9-0 40 10-4 9-4 8-5 15 45 9-6 8-8 8-0 50 8-9 8-2 7-5 55 8-2 7-6 7-0 60 7-5 7 0 6-5 65 6-8 6-4 6-0 70 6 0 5-7 5-4 75 5-2 5 0 4-8 20 12-8 11-3 10-1 25 12-2 108 9-7 30 11-6 10-3 9-2 35 10-9 98 8-8 40 10-2 9-2 8-4 20 45 9-5 8-6 7-9 50 8-8 8-0 7-4 55 8-1 7 5 6-9 60 7-4 6-9 6-4 65 6-7 6-3 5-9 70 6 0 5-7 5-4 75 5 2 5 0 4-8 25 11-8 10-5 9-4 30 11-3 101 9-0 35 10-7 9-6 8-6 40 100 91 8-2 45 9-4 8-5 7-8 !5 50 8-7 7-9 7-3 55 8 0 7-4 6-8 60 7-3 6-8 6-3 65 6 6 6-2 5-8 70 5-9 5-6 5-3 75 5-1 4-9 4-7 30 10-8 9-6 8-6 35 10-3 9-2 8-3 0 40 9-7 8-8 8-0 45 91 8-3 7-6 ~ 50 8-5 7-8 7-2 Age of the Value at Younger. Elder. 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per Cent. 55 7-9 7-3 6-7 60 7-2 6-7 6-2 30 65 6-5 6-1 5-7 70 5-8 5-5 5-2 75 5-1 4-9 4-7 35 9-9 8-8 8 0 40 9-4 8-5 7-7 45 8-9 8-1 7-4 50 8-3 7-6 7-0 35 55 7-7 7-1 6-6 60 7-1 6*5 6-1 65 6-4 6-0 5-6 70 5-7 5-4 5-1 75 5-0 4-8 4-6 40 91 8-1 7-3 45 8-7 7-8 7-1 50 8-2 7-4 6-8 55 7-6 6-9 6-4 40 60 7-0 6-4 6 0 6.5 6-4 5-9 5-5 70 5-7 5-4 51 75 5-0 4-8 4-6 45 8-3 7-4 6-7 50 7-9 7-1 6*5 55 7-4 6-7 6-2 45 60 6-8 6-3 5-8 65 6-3 5-8 5-4 70 5-6 5-3 5 0 75 4-9 4-7 4-5 50 . 7-6 6-8 6-2 55 7-2 6-5 6 0 50 60 6-7 6-1 5-7 65 6-2 5-7 5-3 70 5-5 5-2 4-9 75 4-8 4-6 4-4 55 6-9 6-2 5-7 60 6-5 5-9 5-5 55 65 6-0 5-6 5-2 70 5-4 5-1 4-8 75 4-7 4-5 4-3 60 6-1 5-6 5-2 60 65 5-7 5-3 4-9 70 5-2 4-9 4-6 75 4-6 4-4 4-2 65 5-4 5-0 4-7 65 70 4-9 4-6 4-4 75 4-4 4-2 4-0 70 70 4-6 4-4 4-2 75 4-2 4 0 3-9 75 75 3-8 3-7 3-6 1 1 ‘28 VALUATION OF PROPERTY Book I\ Table VIII. Showing the Value of an Annuity on the longer of two Lives. Age of the Value at 1 Age of the Value at Younger. Elder.' 3 per Cent.j 4 per Cent. fl per Cent. Younger. Elder.^ 3 per Cent. 4 per Cent. 5 per C, 10 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 23 -4 22-9 22-5 22-2 21 -9 21 -6 21-4 21 '2 20-9 20-7 20-4 20 T 19-8 19-5 19-9 19-5 19-1 18-8 18-6 18-4 18-3 18-2 18-0 17-8 17-6 17-4 17-2 16-9 171 16-8 16-6 16-4 16-2 16-1 160 15'9 15-8 15-7 15-5 15-3 15 T 14-8 30 55 60 65 70 75 17'4 17-0 166 16-1 15-6 15-1 14-8 14-5 14-1 13-7 134 132 12-9 120 12 '2 35 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 18-3 17-8 17-4 17*1 16-7 16-3 15-8 15-3 14*8 15-8 15-4 15-1 14-8 14-5 14-2 13-8 13-4 130 13-8 13-5 13'3 134 12-9 12-7 124 120 11 C | 15 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 22’8 22-3 21 -9 21-6 21-3 21-1 20-9 20-7 20-4 20-1 19-8 19-4 18-9 19-3 18-9 18-6 18-3 18-1 17-9 17-3 17-6 17-4 17-2 16-9 16-6 16-3 16-7 16-4 16-2 16-0 15-9 157 15-6 15-4 15-3 15-2 15-0 14-7 14-4 40 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 17*3 16-8 16-3 15-9 15-4 14-9 14-5 140 15-0 14-6 14 0 13-9 13-5 13-1 12-7 12-3 13 - 3 ! 130 12-7 12-4 124 11-81 11-4 110 45 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 16-2 15-7 15-2 14-7 141 13-6 1 ST 14-2 13-8 13-4 12-9 12-5 120 11-6 124 121 12 1 11*7 20 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 216 21 -1 20-7 20-4 20-1 19-9 19-6 194 191 18-7 18-2 17-7 coo7p^ppoop 15-8 15-5 15-3 15-1 15-0 14-9 14-7 14-5 14-3 14-1 13-8 135 11-4 lit 10-1 50 50 55 60 65 70 75 150 14 5 13-9 133 12-8 12-3 13-3 12-9 12-4 120 11-5 llO 12-1 11 * 111 10 -: lo - ll)' 55 55 60 65 70 75 13-6 13-0 12-4 11-8 11-3 12-4 11-9 11-3 1 0’8 10-3 11 - 10 10 J- 10 10 9 9 7’ 8,1 ‘L 25 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 20-3 19-8 19-4 19-2 18-9 18-7 18-4 18-0 17-6 17-2 16-7 17-4 17-0 16-7 16-5 16-3 16 T 15-9 15-6 15-3 15-0 14-6 I 5 T 14-9 14-7 14-5 14-3 14-2 • 14-0 13-8 13-6 13-3 12-9 60 60 65 70 75 12-2 11-5 10-9 10-3 11-2 10-6 10-1 9*5 65 65 70 75 10-7 100 9-3 10 0 9-4 8-7 30 30 35 40 45 50 19-3 18-8 18-4 18 T 17-8 • 16-6 16-2 15 ; 9 15-6 15 4 14-5 14-2 14-0 138 13'6 70 70 75 9-2 8-4 8-6 7'9 i ( 75 75 7 6 72 ■t: Ilk: I 10 l fill k Di tli! )\l sDni Hi; Si l fall time fa I IS 111® l fall hie tfaia Isa tl&j fci Btl pV pCiuij ''Wa; 1129 A BRIEF SYNOPTICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS, ANCIENT AND MODERN, . WITH THEIR CHIEF WORKS, Revised by Wyatt Pafworth ote. — Many of tlie Names herein are more fully noticed in the body of this work, and some few others will be found by reference to its Index. BEFORE CHRIST. 7th. Century. i. Agamedes and Trophonius of Delphi.-— Mentioned only in mythology; temple to Apollo at Delphi; a temple to Neptune near Mantinaea. II. Theodorus and Rhcecus, of Samos. — Labyrinth at Lemnos; some buildings at Sparta ; the temple of Jupiter at Samos; foundations of one of the temples of Diana at Ephesus. in. IIermogenes of Alahanda. — Temple of Bacchus at Teos; and that of Diana at Magnesia. 6th. Century. iv. Demetrius and P^onius, of Ephesus. — Continuation of one of the temples of Diana, at Ephesus, which had been begun by Chersiphron or Ctesiphon and his son Metagenes. v. Daphnis of Miletus. — -With Pjeoniiis, temple of Apollo at Miletus, vi. Eupalinus of Megara. — Tunnel for the aqueduct, and some edifices at Samos. tie Chikosophus of Crete. — Temple to Ceres and Proserpine ; another to the Paphian Venus, and one to Apollo ; all at Tegea. viii. Mandrqcles of Samos. — Bridge of boats over the Thracian Bosphorus, for King Darius. lx. Memno of Persia. — A magnificent palace at Ecbatana for Cyrus. 5th. Century. x. Pythius of Priene. — Mausoleum at Halicarnassus; the temple of Minerva *at Priene, and wrote a treatise on it. In the former he was assisted by Satyrus. xi. Spintharus of Corinth. — Rebuilt the temple of Apollo at Delphi, which had been destroyed by fire. xii. Libo of Elis. — Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Olympia. xiii. Ictinus of Athens. — Parthenon at Athens, and wrote a treatise upon it ; perhaps the temple of Ceres and Proserpine at Eleusis ; temple of Apollo Epicurius near Phigaleia. xiv. Callicrates of Athens. — Assisted Ictinus in the erection of the Parthenon. xv. Mnesicles of Athens. — Propylea of the Acropolis at Athens. xvi. Antistates of Athens. — A temple of Jupiter at Athens. xvn. Scopas of Paros. — One side of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus; a column cf the temple at Ephesus. Employed on temple of Minerva at Tegea. tviii. Hippodamus of Miletus. — Laid out Munychia in the Pir$us and Rhodes, xix. Cokcebus and Metagenes Xypetius of Athens. — Perhaps the temple of Ceres at Eleusis. xx. Polyclitus. — A theatre with a dome at Epidaurtis, highly praised by Pausanius. xxi. Archias of Corinth. — Many temples and other edifices, at Syracuse. xxii. Callias of Aradus.— Machinery. -lx in, Takchf.sius and Aiigelius. — Wrote treatises on Architecture ; the former is supposed to have erected the temple to iEsculapius at Tralles. ■ xxiv, Mnestues, — Pseudodipteral temple of Apollo at Magnesia. 1130 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, BEFORE C [1 1! 1ST. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. XXXIV. XXXV. and xxxvi. xxxviii. XXXIX. XL. XLI. X 1. 1 1. XLIII. JLIV. 4 th. Century Deinocrates or Dinochares of Macedonia. — Rebuilt the last temple of Diana a Ephesus ; laid out the city of Alexandria, and designed many edifices there proposed to transform Mount Athos into a colossal figure of Alexander. Callimachus of Corinth. — Reputed inventor of the Corinthian order. Vitruviu- b. iv. chap. 1 . Sostratus of Cnidus. — The Pharos near Alexandria. E u pole. \t us of Argos. — Several temples and a theatre at Argos. The Herein near Mycenae. 3rd. Century. Phjeax of Agrigentum. — Var'ous buildings at Asrrigentum. Cleodamas of Byzantium. — Restored, with Athenaeus, the cities destroyed b the Scythae and others. 2nd. Century. Cossutius of Rome. — Additions to the temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, for Antiochus Epiphanus, king of Syria, and afterwards destroyed. Philo of Athens or of Byzantium. — Enlarged the arsenal and the Piraeus Athens ; erected the great theatre, rebuilt by order of Hadrian. Wrote c Architecture. Hermodorus of Salamis. — Temple of Jupiter Stator in the Forum, and tempi I of Mars in the Circus Flaminios, at Rome. Caius Mutius of Rome. — Temples to Honour and Virtue near the trophies < Marius at Rome. 1st. Century. Batrachus and Saurus, of Laconia. — These two architects built the tempi enclosed by the portico of Octavia, at Rome. The name of the first (Sen payos| signifies a frog ; and that of the latter ( cravpos ), a lizard. They are coi sidered to have perpetuated their names by the representation of those anima in the eye of the volutes of the Ionic order, of which a capital has been found and in the churches of St. Eusebius and of St. Lorenzo fuori le Mura, Rome, are pedestals sculptured with them. Dexiphanes of Cyprus, or Cnidos.— A causeway ; and rebuilt or repaired tl Pharos at Alexandria, erected by Sostratus. Valerius of Ostium. — Covered in a theatre at Rome. Cyrus of Rome. — Architect to Cicero and his brother. Posthumius of Rome. — Many works at Rome and Naples. Lucius Cocceius Auctus of Rome.- — Grotta della Sibella from Lacus Avernus Bairn; a temple at Pozzuoli ; tunnel of Cumae, near the Lacus Avernus. Fussitius or Fufitius of Rome. — Several buildings at Rome. The first Roma who wrote copiously on architecture. Messidius and Philoxenus. — Formed an aqueduct near Rome for Ciceros brother. Numisius. — Theatre at Herculaneum ; buried a.d. 79. AFTER CHRIST. 1st. Century. 1. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio of Fano. — Basilica Justitiai at Fano. Writer on arcliiti ture, the oldest work extant on the art. 2. Vitruvius Cerdo of Verona.- — Triumphal arch at Verona. 3. Celer of Rome. — Golden house of Nero, with Severus of Rome. 4. Rabiuius of Rome. — Palace of Domitian and works connected therewith, on Mur Palatine. 5. Musti us of Rome. — Temple to Ceres at Rome. 2nd. Century. 6. Julius Fkontinus of Rome. — He has left a work on aqueducts. 7. Apollodorus of Damascus. — The forum of Trajan, the column of Trajan, and of buildings at Rome; a stone bridge over the Danube in Lower Hungary, remains of which are still vi able. AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 1 191 A FT HR CHRIST. Caiiis Julius Lac er of Rome. — Bridge over tlie Tagus at Alcantara, in Spain ; a temple there, now dedicated to San Giuliano. . Detrianus of Rome. — Moles Hadriani and the Pons Aelins; now called the Castello and Ponte Sant’ Angelo ; removed the colossal statue of Nero for Hadrian. . Antoninus, Senator, of Rome. — Pantheon at Epidaurus ; baths of /Esculapius, in the same city. 4th. Century. . Metrodorus of Persia.— Many buildings in India, and some at Constantinople. The first known Christian architect. Alypius of Antioch. — Employed by Julian to lay the foundation of a new temple at Jerusalem. 5th. Century. . Cyriades, Consul, of Rome. — A basilica and bridge for Theodosius, carried on by Auxentius, senator, Symmachus, prefect, and Afrodisius, consul. Sennamar of Arabia. — Sedir and Khaovarnack, two celebrated palaces in Arabia. THE SCYTHIAN DEVASTATIONS. Aloisius of Padua or Rome. — Buildings for Theodoric ; assisted Daniel in the erection of the celebrated mausoleum at Ravenna, the cupola of which is of one stone, 36 feet diam. outside, 30 feet inside, and hollowed within. 6th. Century. zEtherius of Constantinople. — The vestibule called Chalce in the Imperial Palace ut Constantinople, for Anastatius I ; and a wall in Thrace 54 miles long. Anthemius of Tralles. — Sta. Sophia at Constantinople ; he was assisted by Isidorus of Miletus. Chryses of Alexandria. — Constructed the embankments along the Euripus, near Dara, in Persia, to keep the river in its channel, and to keep out the sea. 7th. Century. and 20. Isidorus of Byzantium, and Joannes of Miletus.- — The city of Zenobia, on the river Euphrates, in Syria, for Justinian. 8th. Century. 1 Abuelrrahaman I. of Spain. — Gave the designs for the mosque at Cordova. 9th. Century. 2 Romualdus of France. — Cathedral at Rheims, the earliest example of Gothic archi- tecture. 2 Magnus Eginhardus of Odenwald, in Germany. — Prarfect of buildings to Charle- magne. The monastery at Mulinheim, now Seligenstadt ; drawing of monastery for Gozpertus, abbot of St. Gall in Switzerland. 2 Tioda of Spain. — Palace for King Alphonso the Chaste, at Oviedo, now the epis- copal palace; churches of St. Salvador (since destroyed), St. Michael, and St. Mary, and St. Julius outside the walls. lOth. Century. 2 ..Eberhard, abbot, of Switzerland. — Church and monastery at Einsiedlen, in Swit- zerland, and completed by Tietland, abbot. -• Abdallah ben Said of Spain. — Eastern aisles of the mosque at Cordova. 11th. Century. -‘Busketus or Buschetto. — Church of S. Paolo at Pistoja, 1032. Duomo at Pisa, the earliest example of the Lombard style of architecture'. It was built in 1063. ’ Humbert, archbishop, of Lyons. — Erected the stone bridge over the Saone at Lyons, and is recorded as the architect. 29 Pietro di Ustamber of Spain. — Crypt of the cathedral at Chartres, or by bishop Fulbert ; rebuilt the church of St. Isidorus at Leon, and erected a bridge there jOOarilepiio, bishop of Durham, of England. — Began the cathedral church of Durham, “on a plan which he had brought with him from France,” where he had been abbot of St. Vincent, in Normandy. 12th. Century. '1 jAnfrancus of Italy. — The cathedral at Modena, 1099-1108. 52. jandfriijus of Normandy. — Erected the castle of Pithiviers in Normandy, and then that of Ivry; after which this “architect ” was beheaded, that lie might not erect another elsewhere. 1 132 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHI! 1ST. 33. Gundulphus, bishop of Rochester, of England. — Considered tohave designed Roches Castle; his house, and the abhey for nuns at Mailing in Kent; White Tower the Tower of London, and western portion of Rochester Cathedral ; the east) portion erected later by Bishop Ernui.f. SI. Odo, prior of Croyland, of England. — Church of Croyland Abbey. Arnold, a brother of the abbey, was employed as mason. 35. Lalys of the Land of Canaan. — Neath Castle, Glamorganshire, and other ca ! monasteries, and churches; built Lalyston ; appointed architect to King Henry 36. Raymundo of Montfort, of France. — Cathedral at Lugo, in Spain, all but the 1x1 and facade. 37. Dioti Sai.vi, or D. de Petroni, of Italy. — Baptistry at Pisa, in the Lombard sty] 38. Buono of Ravenna. — Palaces and churches at Ravenna ; tower of St. Mark at Yen which is 330 feet high, and 40 feet square, built 1148-54 ; the Castel del l and the Castle Capuano, at Naples ; and palazzo de’ Signori at Arezzo. 30. GauAMpss of Pistoia. — Part of churches of St. Andrea and of St. Giovanni Pistoia. 40. Alvar Garcia of Estella, in Spain. — The reputed designer of the cathedral at A del Rey, in Spain. 41. Sugger, ot France. — Built parts of his abbey church of St. Denis, near Paris. 42. Pietro Cozzo of Limena in Italy. — Sala della Ragione at Padua, which is about ; feet long, 88 feet wide, and 87 feet high inside. The roof was burnt in 1420, . restored by ltizzio and Piccino, of Venice; it was dismantled by a whirlwind 1756', and restored by B. Ferracina. 43. Wilhelmls of Germany. — Campanile at Pisa, 178 feet high, with Bonano of 1’ Tomaso, also of Pisa, completed it in the 14th century. 44. William of Sens. — Choir of Canterbury Cathedral, after the fire of 1174; complc by William the Englishman. 13th. Century. 45. Isenbert of X ainctes, in France. — Bridges at Xainctes and Rochelle. Recomrner by King John to the citizens of London as a proper person to finish London Bru begun by Peter of Colechurch, in 1176. 46. Helyas de Berham or Derham, canon of Salisbury, of England. — Overseer twenty years of the works at Salisbury Cathedral, from its foundation. lie succeeded bv a certain Robert. He may be the same person who is called K the Engineer, in records of the reigns of Kings Richard I. and John, rrlatin; the repair of the king s houses at Westminster. 47. Edward FiTZ-Ono of England. — Supposed master of the works at Westminster Ai Church for King Henry III. 48. Robert de Luzarches of France. — Cathedral of Amiens; continued by Thoma Cormont, and finished by his son Regnault, as stated in the labyrinth in the na h 9 . Estienne de Bonnueill of Paris. — Church of the Trinity at Upsala, in Swi built after the model of Notre Dame at Paris, with ten companions and as n pupils. 50. Wilars de Honecort of France. — Author of a vellum sketch hook, preserve l Paris ; published by Lassus and Darcel in 1858, and translated by Prof 1 Willis 1859. Church of St. Elizabeth at Cassovia, now Kascliau, in Hungary 1 of St. Yved de Braine ; and one at Cambray. 51. Pierre de Corbie of France. — Many churches in Picardy, and perhaps the ap - 52. 53. 54 chapels at Rheims Cathedral. Jacopo or Lapo of Florence (there were st'eral other artists of this name).— Co 11 de’Monaci Cassinensi (afterwards the Ves*ovado, and now the cathedral ) at An , continued by Margaritone. The piers of the ponte della Carraja at Florence Jean de Chelles of France. — Gabled fronts of the transept and first chapels o! e choir at the cathedral of Notre Dame at Paris. Pierre de Montereau or de Montreuil, in France. — The first Sainte Chapel t Vincennes ; the refectory, dormitory, chapter-house, and chapel of the Virg 11 the monastery of St. Germain des Pres, near Paris ; the Sainte Chapelle at 1 >> and other churches. 55. II ues Lirergiers of Rheims, in France. — Church of St. Nicaise at Rheims, no stroyed. He was succeeded by Robert de Coucy. It is one of the early speci , || > of pure Gothic in France. 56. San Gonsalvo of Portugal. — A bridge and a church at Amaranto. 57. San Pietro Gonsalvo of Tui, in Portugal. — Stone bridge at Tui. 58. San Lorenzo of Portugal. - Stone bridge at Cavez. AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 1 133 AFTER CHRIST. l, Jacoto of Germany. — Remodelling the buildings of the monastery of St. Francisco at Assisi ; the Palazzo del Barjello ; and the fajade of the archbishop’s palace, both at Florence. ;). Nicola of Pisa. — Monastery and church of the Dominicans at Bologna; church of San Micheli ; some palaces ; and the octagonal campanile of the Augustins at Pisa; church del Sail Antonio at Padua; church of Santa Maria at Orvielo ; church de’ Fratri Minori at Venice ; abbey in the plains of Tagliacozzo, near Naples, as a memorial of the victory by Charles I. over Conrad; design for the church of San Giovanni at Siena, and for the church and monastery della Santis- sima Trinita at Florence; Dominican monastery at Arezzo, carried out by Mag- lione, his scholar. Repairs and alterations to the duotno at ''f'olterra, and the Dominican monastery at Viterbo. . Henri de Narbonne of France. — Cathedral at Gerona, in Spain, which city he undertook to visit six times a year. . Jacobus de Favariis of Narbonne, in France. — Succeeded him at Gerona. . Fuccto or Fucius of Italy. — Perhaps restored the church of Santa Maria sul’ Arno at Florence. The gate and towers near the river Volturno at Capua. Finished the Castel Capuano, now the Vicaria, and Castello dell’ Uovo, at Naples, commenced by Buono. . Ferrante Maglione of Pisa. — Cathedral and church of San Lorenzo at Naples. Palazzo Vecchio and many churches at Naples, in conjunction with Giovanni Benincasa. Dominican monastery at Arezzo, from the designs of Nicolo da Pi.a. , Masuccio of Naples. — Completed the Castel Nuovo, and the church of Santa Maria della Nuo\a; designed the churches of San Domenico Maggiore and San Giovanni Maggiore ; restored the cathedral of San Gennaro ; designed the Palazzo Sant’ Angelo and Palazzo Colombrano; all at Naples. . Giovanni da Pisa, in Italy (son of Nicola da Pisa). — Campo Santo or public cemetery, and the tribune of the Duomo, at Pisa; Castel Nuovo, and the church of Santa Maria della Nuovo at Naples ; facade of the cathedral at Siena ; many buildings at Arezzo and other towns in Italy. He was the first architect in the modern style of fortification. Erwin von Stf.inbach, in Germany.— The portail of the cathedral at Strasbourg, from 1277 till his death in 1318. His son continued the work. ( Stefano Masuccio of Naples. — Church of Santa Chiara at Naples. The lower part of the campanile is attributed to him or to his pupil Giacomo de Sanctis. ( Pedro Perez of Spain. — Commenced the cathedral at Toledo. 14tb. Century. 7 Arnolfo di Cambio or Arnolfo di Lapo of Florence. — Restoration of the ponte di Trinita; the church of Santa Croce; the w'alls of the city, with the towers; the loggia of the Or San Michele; the principal chapel of the Badin, enlarging the church and the campanile ; Palazzo della Signori, now Pallazzo Veccnio ; design, model, and foundation of the cathedral of Sta Maria del Fiore, with the Loggia and the Piazza dei Priori ; all at Florence. 7 Johannes de Middelton, of Durham. — As mason erected the lower part of the dor- mitory of the monastery ; completed by Peter Dryng in 1401. • Andrea da Pisa in Italy. — Designed the Castello della Scarperia at Mugello, at the foot of the Apennines ; designed the church of San Giovanni at Pistoja ; fort . lied and enlarged the ducal Palazzo Gualtieri at Floience. 7 Agostino Da Siena, or da Pisa, in Italy, and his brother Angelo da Pisa. — N orth and west facades of the cathedral at Siena, and two gates ; church and monas- tery of San Francisco; Palazzo de’ Nove Magistrati ; grand fountain in the piazza opposite the Palazzo della Signoria ; hall of the council chamber, and Palazzo Publico ; church della Santa Maria in Piazza Manetti, all at Siena, and all built by him in conjunction with his brother; also seteral works at Assisi, Orvieto, and other towns. ■ William Boyden of England. — Chief architect (or master mason) for the chapel of the Virgin at St. Albans Abbey Church. Henry (Lutomus, or stonemason) of Evesham, in England. — Chapter-house, refec- tory, abbot’s hall, and kitchen of the monastery at Evesham. t Walter de Weston of England. — Clerk of the works at Westminster, kept the rolls of expenses of the erection of St. Stephen’s Chapel. 7 Thomas of Canterbury, in England. — Master mason, 1330, at St Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster. 1 134 LIST 01' ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHRIST 78. Raimond du Temple of France. — Great staircase at the Louvre at Paris. 7 9. Richard de Farleigh of England. — Master mason at Bath and Reading; at Sal bury Cathedral he worked with Robert, the mason. (See No. 46). 80. Nicolas Bonaventura of Paris. — Employed on cathedral at Milan 1388, follow by Jean Campomosia of Normandy, and bv Jean Mignot in 1399. 81. Giacomo Lanfrani of Italy. — Church of San Francesco at Imola ; church of S Antonio di Castello at Venice, and some tombs at Bologna. 82. Jean Raw or Raut of Fiance. — Finished the church of Notre Dame at Paris. 83. II A NS Hi i.ts, Hiltz, or Hultz, of Cologne. — Conducted the works, after the den of the Steinbachs, at Strasburg Cathedral, to the four winding staircases up lo t cupola. His son Hans completed the tower. 84. .Tost Dotzincer of Worms. — Succeeded Hiltz; he made the font, repaired the cli and the vaulting. He had sufficient influence to cause, 1452, the confederacy the masons’ lodges in Germany, and is considered by many as thus commence the modern Freemasonry. 85 Alfonso Domingues of Lisbon. — Said to be the first architect engaged on the mom tery at Baialha in Portugal. 86. David Hacket, or Aquete, or Ouguet, of Ireland. — Commenced the chapel of i founder at the Batalha, in Portugal. 87. William of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester, in England. — Supposed to haver signed New College, Oxford, and the College at Winchester, both founded by bin j rebuilt or cased the nave of Winchester Cathedral; and erected some portions Windsor Castle. 88. William de Wvnford, of England. — Master mason ; was employed by Wykeham many ofhis buildings. 89. Alan de Walsing ham, sacrist and prior at Ely, in England. — The Lantern Tow and accessory portions, and the Lady Chapel, at Ely Cathedral. 90. William Reade, bishop of Chichester, of England. — First library at Merton Colic: Oxford ; Amberley Castle, Sussex ; an eminent mathematician. 91. Andrea di Cione, called Orcagna, ot Florence, and his brother Jacopo di Cione. Additions to the Gran-ducal palace, and the Loggia de’ Lanzi, at Florence. I brother built the tower and gate of San Piero Gattolino at Florence. 92. Gainsborough, or Gaynisburg, of England. — Employed at Lincoln Cathedral, win his gravestone still exists. 92a. Henry Yevele or Zenei.ey, and Stephen Lote, of London.— Contracted for stonewoik of the tomb of the first wife of Richard II. ; and devised the form a model for raising the walls of Westminster Hull, London. 15th. Century. 93. Filippo ni Ser Brunellesco dei Lapi of Florence. — Dome of the cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence. A council of artists Irom all parts was li in 1420, to advise on this scheme. The Palazzo Pitti, begun and half built him, completed by Luca Fancelli ; great part of the church of San Spirito ; fb ter- house and a chapel to the church of Ste. Croce ; the church degl’ Angeli, ne completed ; the fortress of Milan, and several works about that city ; a model the fortress of Pesaro ; the old and new citidels at Pisa ; some other works th as well as at Trento, and in other pans of Italy ; and the drainage of the coui round Mantua. Lie set the first example of a purer style in the architecture ot lu 94. Michelozzo Michelczzi of Florence. — Palazzo di Medici, now Riccardi, the I building in Florence on modern rules ; Palazzo Cafaggiolo, at Mugello; B" liican monastery and church of S. Marco; Noviziata della Santa Croce; cliapt the church dei Servi ; Villa MeJicea di Careggi, now Orsi ; Palazzo Tornabi" now Corsi ; with several other buildings at Florence. Library at the monaster' the Black Benedictines at Venice; Palazzo at Fiesole ; some buildings at Trei a beautiful fountain at Assisi, the old citadel at Perugia; alterations to the pa. at Milan presented by Francisco Sforza to Cosmo di Medici ; and other g 1 works in various towns in Italy. 95. Juan Alonso or Alfonso of Spain. — Directed the construction of the castle ji Mouraon in the Alemtejo ; and designed the sanctuary church of the monaster Guadalupe in Spain. 96. Giui.iano da Majano, near Fiesole. — Succeeded Lapi at the Duomo at Floren Palazzo del Poggio Reale at Naples, and many works in that city, lies s fountains. An edifice in the first Cortile in the Vatican at Rome; palace of Marco at Rome; and restored the church. Began to enlarge the church of Casa, at Loreto, completed by his nephew Benedetto da Majano. ANI) THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 1 135 AKTUIt CHRIST. 7. Norton or Morton, of England (follow and warden). — Restored St. Mary ItedclifTe church, Bristol, after the fall of the spire in 1446'. 8, John Dryeli, or Dayell or Druell, of England. — Surveyor at the erection of All Souls’ College, Oxford, of which he was a fellow. I 9. Roger Keyes, of England. — Fellow ami warden of the college, succeeded to Dryeli ; he had been master of the works of Eton college, Berkshire. jO. Wim.iam IIoRwon (freemason) of England. — Nave, aisles, and tower of the Collegiate chapel at Fotheringay, Northamptonshire. I, Nicholas Cloos, or Close (afterwards bishop of Lichfield) of England. — Supposed to have designed King’s College chapel, Cambridge ; though, according to some, his father was the architect. 1 2. Christodou los. — Mosque of Mahommed 1 1. on the site of the church of the Apostles with eight schools and eight hospitals, all at Constantinople. !. Baccio Pintelli of Florence. — Church and monastery of Santa Maria del Popolo ; the celebrated Capella Sistina in the Vatican; the hospital of Santo Spirito in Sassia ; Ponte Sisto ; the church of San Sisto; the church of St. Agostino ; the church of San Pietro in Vincola ; palace for the Cardinal del Rovere in Borgo Vecchio, all at Rome. Repaired the church and monastery of San Francesco at Assisi. The palace for the Duke Federigo Feltre at Urbino is attributed to him. He first set the example of grandeur in the architecture of chapels. II. Bartolomeo Suardi, II Bramantino, of Italy. — Many works at Milan, and other parts of Italy. ji. Giovanni del Pozzo, of Cuenca, in Spain. — Dominican monastery, and a great bridge over the Huexar, near Cuenca. It. Andrea Ciccione of Naples. — Monastery and church of Monte Oliveto, now San Carlo Borromeo ; great portal of the church of San Lorenzo; church of Sta. Marta; Palazzo of Bartolomeo Riccio, now Ercolense; and several other con- vents and palaces, all in the city of Naples. 1 Akistotile Alberti or Ridolfo Fioravanii of Bologna. — Restored the tower of the church of S. Biagio, at Cento, to its perpendicular position; removed the Campanile of Santa Maria del Tempio, at Bologna, several feet; rebuilt a bridge over the Danube in Hungary; built the Church of the Assumption at Moscow, in tvl 'ch city he is supposed to have built the Kremlin, and other works. 1 William Orchyearde of England. — Master mason of Magdalen College, Oxford. b Francesco di Giorgio of Siena. — The ducal palace at Urbino, attributed also to Alberti, Luciano, and Pontelii. 1 To.mmaso Formentone of Brescia. — Palazzo Municipale or Della Loggia, at Brescia, one of the four chief town-halls in Italy; continued by Sansovino aud completed by A. Palladio. I Luciano di Martino or L. ni Lauranna. — Falazzo for the Duke Federigo Feltre at Urbino, completed by Pontelii. II Leone Battista Alberti of Florence. — Church of San Francisco at Rimini; churches of San Sebastiano and of San Andrea, at Mantua. The principal facade of Santa Maria Novella, at Florence, has been attributed to Alberti, but from the circum- i stance of its being Gothic, it is more probably bv Bettini ; the gate and Corinthian loggie are, however, from the designs of Alberti. Palazzo Rucellai; and the choir and tribune of the church della Nunziata, both at Florence. At Rome he altered the papal palace for Pope Nicholas V., and repaired the aqueducts of the Aqua Vergine, and decorated the fountain of Trevi. Many buildings in Italy are attributed to him, but are by his pupils. I ; Jan Keldermans of Germany. — Completed the old Hotel de Ville at Louvain, now the council chamber. ‘ Mathieu de Layens of Louvain — Hotel de Ville at Louvain; choir of the church of Ste. Waltrude at Mons; Tabernacle, bapthtry, and altar of the Virgin in the church of S. Leonard at Leau ; completed the church of S. Sulpice at Diest, begun by S. van Vorst, and erected the tower. Hass Boebi.inger and Matthaeijs Bjeblinger. — Commenced the Fratienkirche at Esslingen, near Stuttgart, continued by his son, who built the Katherinenkirche and the Spitalkirche. Employed on the cathedral at Frankfort-sur-Maine, and on that at Ulm. HSRichard Beauchamp, bishop of Salisbury, in England. — Built the great hall, parlour, and chamber ofthe palace at Salisbury ; appointed masterand supervisor of the works of St George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle (where he was succeeded by Sir Regi- nald Bray, who was comptroller ot the roval works to Ilenry VII ); and built a chantiy chapel in Salisbury Cathedral. \1 S6 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, Al 1'lCli CHRIST. 117. John Kendale of England. — Supervisor of the king’s works throughout the realn 1 Edw. IV. 1 18. John Ashfield of England.— Master of the new works, 1473, at Bristol Cathedral Prior John Martyn succeeded him. 119. Donato Lazzari, usually called Bramante d’Urbino, from the town near his bird place. — The octagonal church of Sta. Maria Incoronata at Lodi ; two churclu and a palace at Casale ; church at Canobbio. At Milan, the church and sacrisi of St. Satiro; chapel of the large lazaretto, and part of that building itself; tb monastery of San Ambrogio and its cloisters, and the cupola of the church of Si. Maria della Grazie. Designed and commenced the building of St. Peter’s Rome; many works in the Vatican, particularly the library and the Belveder court, &c., for Julius II. ; the circular Doric chapel in the convent of San Pieti Montorio; the palaces of S. Giacomo Scossacavalli, afterwards Giraud and Tot Ionia, del Duca de Sora, della Cancelleria (if not due to the brothers Giamber Sangallo), dell’ Nuovo dell’ Imperiale ; the churches of SS. Euloy de’ Orfan Lorenzo, and Damaso ; cloisters of the monastery della Pace. &c„ at Rome ; tl Sirada Julia in that city; ducal palace at Urbino; Palazzo Publico at Brescia church of Sta. Maria del Monte, near Forli ; cathedrals at Citia di Cartel! Faenza, and Foligno ; fortress at Civita Vecchia, and other engineering works ; Milan ; marble exterior to the Santa Casa at Loreto; Villa Imperiale near Pecan: churches of San Sepolcro and of Santa Maria della Campagna at Piacenz. church of the Madonna, outside Todi, in the form of a Greek cross, in imitation il his design for St. Peter’s; and many other works. 120. Ventura Vitoni of Pistoja. — Church dell’ Urnilta at Pistoja, after the design Bramante, whose pupil he was. 121. Martino Lombardo of Venice. — Scuola or confraternita di San Marco at Venice, ai perhaps the church of S. Zaccaria in same city, but the interior is consider! earlier. Other palaces there are attributed to him. 122. Simone Pollaiuolo, or II Ckonaca, of Florence. — Facade and additions in t cortile to the Palazzo Strozzi, begun by Majano ; convent of the Padra Servit sacristy of Santo Spirito ; and the Council Hall, all at Florence; church of S Francisco, at S. Miniato, near Florence. 123. Novello pa San Lucano of Naples. — Palace of Prince Robert Sanseverino, duke Salerno, now a church; and restored the church of San Domenico Maggio both at Naples. 124. Pietro Lombardo of Venice. — Tomb of Dante, the poet, and its chapel in i church of San Francisco; the two great columns in the piazza, at Ravenna; ek tower to the church of San Marco; Palazzo Loredano-Vendramin-Calergi ; chu of Sta. Maria de’ Miracoli ; works at the ducal palace; besides many others j Venice ; a cloister in the monastery of Santa Giustina at Padua; the Cathedral Cividal del Friuli. 16th. Century. 125. John Alcock (bishop of Ely) of England. — Comptroller of the royal works, tei TIenry VII.; his chapel in Ely Cathedral ; supposed to have designed St. Mary’s the University Church, Cambridge; Collegiate Church of Saint Giles at Malvi William Bolton, prior of St. Bartholomew, Smithfield, in London. — Master of works at the chapel of King Henry VII., at Westminster, and is supposed to h designed it. Gabriello p’Agnolo of Naples. — Church of S. Giuseppe; church of Santa M 1 Egiziaca ; palace of Ferdinando Or-dni, duke of Giavina, at Naples. Gian Francesco Mormando of Mormanno. — Church of San Severino; Palazzo 1 marini ; Palazzo Canlalupo ; the small church della Stella, at his own expense at Naples. John Cole of England. — Master mason of the spire at Louth church, Lincolnshi John HylmeR and William Vertue of England. — Freemasons, erected the vau! , r of the choir of St. George's Chapel, Windsor. Giijliano Giaxiberti, called San Gallo, of Florence. — Part of the cloister of 1 monastery of Santa Maddelena de’ Pazzi at Florence; cloister for the Iratri mitani di S. A gostino ; the Poggio Imperiale; fortress near the Porto a I ’> and other works, at Florence; a magnificent palace at Poggio a Cajano for renzo di Medici, with a hall 163 feet by 68 feet by 65 feet high, having a cc ~ the widest then known ; repaired the cupola and roofed the church della Mad 1 at Loreto ; restored the roof and decorations of the ceiling of the church of ■ 1 Maria Maggiore; restored ihe church dell’ Anima ; Palazzo Rovere, near “ Pietro in Vincola, and oilier works at Rome; church of Madonna dclle Caro 126 . 12 128 . 129 . 130 . 131 . AN1) Til E I It PRINCIPAL WORKS. nr , 7 A l'THR CHRIST. Prato; Palazzo Itovcre at Savona; an unfinished palace at Milan; fortress and Doric gate of San Marco at Lucca; works at Pisa ; fortifications at Ostia. : 2. Martin Chambiches or Chambiges of Cambrai, in France. — Employed to construct the portail of the cathedral at Troyes. Directed with Jean Vast the erection of the transepts to the cathedral at Beauvais, and was succeeded by M. La i.ye. 1 3. Pierre Gadyer of Paris. — Probably designed for Francis I. the Chateau de Boulogne or Madrid, near Paris, now destroyed. 4. Domenico Boccadoro, called Dominique de Cortone. — Remodelled the Hotel do Ville at Paris to an Italian de ign. 1 5. Tui.no Lombardo of Venice. — Assisted his father Pietro in the Cappella Maggiore in the Cathedral at Treviso. At Venice, the palazzo Corner- Spinelli ; the church of Sta. Maria de’ Miracoli, and several other buildings and fine tombs. Cathedral at Belluno. The transept, if not the whole of the church of the Madonna della Grazie at Treviso, completed with the help of his kin-men Giul o and Santo. 5. Leonardo da Vinci, near Florence. — Aqueduct of the Adda and other engineering works at Milan; various machines, plans, and works on architecture. It. Fra Giovanni Giocondo of Verona, called Joconde in France. — “Diviseur des batimens ”; bridge of Notre Dame at Paris ; fortifications at Trevino ; built the Fondaco de’ Tedesclii, cleansing of the Lagunes, and made a design for the Ponte Rialto, all at Venice. After the death of Bramante, he was engaged with Ilaf- faele and G. da San Gallo in erecting St. Peter’s at Rome. Several works at Verona are attributed to him. .i’,. Hans Holbein of Basle. — Gateway at Whitehall; ceiling of Chapel Royal at St. James’s Palace; Wilton House, Wiltshire. Died 1543. 1 . Kombaut Kei.dermans, of Malines. — Staircase to Hotel de Ville at Oudenaarden ; works to the lower portion of Hotel de Ville at Gaud; house for Grand Conseil at Malines ; and chapel of the palace of the dukes of Brabant at Bruxelles. 1 . Ludovico Beretta of Brescia (?). — Facade of the church of Santa Maria dei Mira- coli at Brescia, in a florid cinqueccnto arabesque style. 1 Raffaello Sanzio of Uibino. — Continued the church of St. Peter at Rome, after the death of Bramante, his master in architecture; engaged at the Palazzo Far- nese, and stabling near thereto; repaired and altered the church of Santa Maria in Navicella ; Palazzo Cafifarelli, now Stoppani ; the gardens of the Vatican ; the fa 5 ade of the church of San Lorenzo, and of the Palazzo Uggoccioni, now Pan- dolfini, all at Florence. 14 John of Pauda in Italy. — Deviser of buildings to Kings Henry VIII. and Edward VI. of England. Supposed to have designed Somerset House; and Sion House, Middlesex. Also attributed to J. Thorpe (175). and J. Shute (200). 14 Hector Asheley of England. — Master mason and supervisor in the erection of Hunsdon House, Hertfordshire. ■4 Roger Amice of England. — Surveyor to King Edward VI. ; Aimes Knight’s lodgings at Windsor Castle. !4 Andrea Contucci of Monte Sansavino, in Italy. — The cappella del Sagramento in the church of Santo Spirito at Florence ; palazzo della Canonica, and fortifications at Loreto; church della Nunziata at Arezzo; chapel for the monks of St. Agostino, and his own house at Sansavino ; buildings at Venice ; and a palace at Evora, with some other buildings in Portugal. 4' Bartolommeo Buono of Bergamo, in Italy. — Three chapels in the church of S. Rocco ; bell chamber, attic and spire to the Campanile of San Marco; andsuperir- tended the works at the Procurazie Vecchie, all at Venice. 4', Guglielmo di Bergamo, called 11 Bergamasco, of Italy. — Cappella Emiliana, near the Camaldolese in the island of Murano ; palazzo di Calmerlenghi, near the ponte Rialto at Venice; palace at Portagruaro, at Friuli; porta di Santo Tom maso at Treviso ; porta del Portello at Padua. It Giovanni di Ololzago of Biscay, in Spain — Cathedral of Huesca, in Arragon. -I Pedro de Gumiel of Alcala, in Spain. — Monastery of Sta. Engra^ia at Saragossa; college of S. Ildefonso at Alcala de Henares ; and church of SS. Justo y Pastor. -C Tuan Camfero of Spain. — Church and convent of S. Francis at Torrelaguna, in Spain ; commenced the cathedral at Salamanca, under Gil de Hontanon ; and the aqueduct. Removed a cloister at Segocia to the site of the new rathedial; and heightened the tower of the monastery of St. Maria del Parral, in that city. I \ntonio Giamberti (da San Gallo) of Florence. — Churches of the Madonna at Montefiascone ; the Canonica, with a double loggia ; fortifications at Civita Vec- chia, Civita Castellana, Montefiascone, Perugia, and many other strong places in ms LIST OF ARCHITECTS. AF'Hill CHRIST. Italy. Al.ercd the tomb of Ilactrum at Rome to its present foim as the castle < S. Angelo, and its fortifications 152. Antonio Picconi (da San Gallo) of Mugello, near Florence. — Completed the churc of Sta. Maria di Loreto, near Trajan's column at Rome; the cupola is by G d Duca. Palazzetto of ihe Counts of Parma, near the gate of Venice, and other palact in Rome and repaired some rooms in the Vatican. Palazzo at Gradoli.and restore the fortress of Capo di Monte near thereto. Made a design for the fortress ; Caprarola. Palaces for Bart. Fcrratino, and Cardinal di Santa Prassediaj church for Cardinal Alborense ; continued the erection of St. Peter’s on a new pla after the death of his uncle Giuliano da San Gallo; church of the Florentine and of Santa Maria di Monferrato, all at Rome. Fortifications at Civita Veechi Parma, Ancona, Piacenza, Perugia, and Florence. Church of the Madonna i Loreto, nearly rebuilt. At Castro he built tile fortress, Palazzo l’Osteria, and tin Mint. At Rome, triumphal arch of wood at the palace of S. Marco for the end of Charles V. ; the bastions to the walls and the gate of Santo Spirito; the Ca| ella Paolina; the staircase at the Sistine Chapel, and the Palazzo Farnese nc the Campo di Fiore, are among his numerous works. 153. Bai.dassare Peruzzi of Volterra. — Plan and model of the cathedral at Carpi ; d signs for the facade of San Petronio, and for the gate of San Michele in Boseo Bologna; fortifications at Siena. At Rome, the little palace for Agostino Chig now called the Farnesina, in the Lungara ; palazzo Massimi, near the church San Pantaleo ; villa di Papa Giulio III. ; cortile of the palazzo d’Altemp: casino at the palazzo Cliigi ; tomb of Pope Hadrian IV. in the church del Anima; palazzo Spinosa, now the hospital degli Eretici convertiti; and assisted the erection of St. Peter’s. 154 . Marco di Pino of Siena. — Modernised the church della Trinita di Palazzo, and bu the church and convent of Gtsti Vecehio at Naples. 155. Pietro Berretini, or Pietro da Cortona. — Port.co of the church of Sta. Mai; della Pace at Rome ; made a design f >r ihe facade of the Eouvre ; palazzo Sa:| chetti at Ostia; several chapels; the facade of the church of Sta. Maria Via Lata, and the church of SS. Maria Martina and Luca Evangelista, I masterpieces ; and ihe cupola and other parts of the church of San Ambrogio a Carlo in the Corso. 155. Andrea Briosco, or Riccio, of Padua. — Church of S(a. Giustina, and loggia a council house in the Piazza degli Signori, at Padua. 157. Giovanni Meuliano of No'a.in Italy. — At Naples, Strada di Toledo; churches of Giorgio de’ Genovesi and of S. Giacomo degli Spagnuoli ; palazzo of the Princ di Sansevero, and palazzo of the Duca della Torre ; the Castel Capuano, altered t court of law ; a fountain at the extremity of the Mole ; and triumphal arches: Naples for the entrance of Charles V. 158. 1’erdinando Manlio of Naples. — Third cortile to the palazzo Reale; church hospital della Nunziata ; Strada di Porta Nolana, and di Capua, with other slrt and palaces at Naples ; a bridge at Capua. 159. Juan Gil de Hontanon of Rasines, in Spain. — ‘‘ Maestro principal” at the catheo of Salamanca, erected from the designs of A. Rodriguez and A. de Egas. 160. Rodrigo Gil de Hontanon of Spain.. — Continued the cathedrals of Salamanca of Segovia ; works at Seville ; church at Valladolid ; rebuilt the dome of cathedral at Seville ; and commenced the cathedral at Segovia. 1 G 1 . Baccio d'Agnoi.o of Florence. — Several triumphal arches for the visit of Pope X., and of Charles V., at Florence. Campanile of San Miniato in Monte » executed, and that of Santo Spirito commenced, by him ; designed the cntalda: and gallery round the bottom of the cupola of Sta. Maria del Fiore, the great a r and choir of which was built by his son Giuliano; palazzo for Giovanni Bart: t on the Piazza della Santa Trinita, and the palaces, all at Florence. J62. Giovanni Maria Falconetto of Verona. — Loggia of two storeys at the pal 1 Cornaro ; and a music hall ; commenced the church of Sta. Marla chile Gra • Doric portal to the palazzo del Capitanio ; gates of S. Giovanni, and of Sa arola. all at Padua ; palazzo Savorgnano at Usopo in Friuli. 163. Pietro de Ukia of Spain. — Bridge of Almaraz, over the Tagus, having two an -> one about 150 feet, and the other 119 feet 164. A ton 7 ,o de Covarrubias de Leiva of Spain. — Worked for, or was consulted i 11 the cathedrals at Toledo, Salarr.anca, Plasencia, Segovia, and Seville. Archiepisc ‘ palace at Alcala de Henares. With Luis de Vega rebuilt and enlarged the pa at Madrid and Toledo for Charles V With A idana he designed the ce t » AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 1 139 AFT!’ It CIIIUST. Hieronymite church and monastery of S. Miguel de los lleyes at Valencia, and commenced the cloister of it; and other works. 1)5. Diego Siloe of Toledo. — Cathedral and Alcazar at Granada; church and convent ol S. Jerome in the same city. lid. Girolamo Genga of Urbino. — Repaired the ducal palace at Urbino ; built another on the Monte lmperiale, near Pesaro ; church of San Giovanni Battista at l’esaro; fayade of the cathedral, and restored the bishop's palace at Mantua ; convent de' Zoccolanti at Monte Baroccio; and the church of St. Maria delle Grazie, and the episcopal palace, at Sinigaglia. 1 1 is son Bartolomeo assisted him, and also prac- tised at Pesaro, Urbino, and other places. 7. Michele San Micheli of Verona. — Cathedral at Montefiasconc ; church of S. Do- menico at Orvieto ; fortresses in the Venetian territory, in Corfu, Lombardy, and the ecclesiastical states, as at Legnani, Orzi Nuovo, and Castello; palazzo di Canossa, dell’Gran Guardia on the Bra ; Pellegrini de’ Verzi ; the prefteturate and fayide of the palazzo Bevilacqua ; chapel Guareschi in the church of S. Bernardino; design for the campanile of tlie Duonio ; churches of Santa Maria in Organo de' Monaci, di Monte Oliveto, di S. Giorgio, and della Madonna della Campagna ; gates Nuova, del Pallio, di S. Zenone. del palazzo l’retoi io, and del palazzo Pre- fettizio, all at Verona ; as well as fortifications of the same city, where triangular bastioi.s were first introduced, that of della Madcllcna being erected in 1527. 8. Philibert iie L'Oeme of France Commenced the Tuileries; built the chateaux of St. Maur, Anet, Meudon, and many others. Wrote on architecture. 9. Galeazzo Alessi of Perugia in Italy. — Directed the works at the monastery of S, Pietro ; entrance gateway of the fortress and the governor’s residence ; chapel del Sacramento in the cathedral, and the front of the church of' Sta. Maria del Popolo, and several palazzi, all at Perugia. Works at the arsenal and the haven and mole at Genoa, where he executed the public granaries ; loggia dei Banchi with a large hall; Palazzo Ileale; cupola, choir, and other works of the dunmo of S. Lorenzo; the church of Sta. Maria di Carignano ; the Stradi nuova and nttovissima, with most of the palazzi in them, and other palaces in the Borgo di S. Pier d’Aretia. At Bologna, at Milan, and other cities, he designed many palaces and churches; later he made a design for the church del Gesu at Rome, and for the Escuiial in Spain. Sante Lombardo of Venice. — Assisted his father Giulio in the Scuola di S Ilocca ; palazzi Trevisani and Gradenigo; the church of S. Georgio de’ Greci with Chiona; all at Venice. Michel Agnolo Buonarroti Simone of Florence. — Chapel and cupola of the new sacristy to the church of San Lorenzo ; part of the facade of the church; library of the Medici, generally called the I, aurenlian Library ; all at Florence. Church of San Giovanni, which he did not finish; Fortifications at Florence, and at Monte San Miniato. Monument of Julius II. in the church of San Pietro in Vincola ; the Campidoglio, with the palazzo de’ Conservatory the building in the centre, and the flight of steps; the celebrated cornice and other portions to the palazzo Farnese ; and several gates, particularly the Porta del Popolo and the Porta Pia, all at Rome. Plans for many other palaces, churchts, and chapels. He was employed on St. Peter’s, after the death of Ant. Picconi da San Gallo, making many alterations in the design, and giving the model for the great dome, which was followed out, except as to the lantern. Giacomo Barozzi, of Vignola in Italy. — Various buildings at Bologna ; Farnese palace ; church of S. Agostino ; palazzo di S. Giorgio dei Scotti, all at Piacenza. Received the charge of the Acqua Vergine at Rome, and the works at the Vigna of Pope Julius HI. (or his villa), and other buildings for him and his family. Constructed the celebrated palace at Caprarola, near Viterbo, for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese. Became architect to S. Peter’s after the death of Buonarroti, when he designed the lateral cupolas ; and many other works in that city, inclu- ding the church del Gesu up to the cornice. The large church of Sta. Maria degli Angeli at Assisi. Consulted on the designs for the Escurial in Spain, and made one which was highly approved. Giulio Pifpi of Rome, called Giulio Romano. — Villa Madama ; Palazzo Lar.te at San Pietro ; church della Madonna del Orto ; Palazzo Ciccia porci alia Strada di Banchi; Palazzo Cenci sulla Piazza S Eustachio, and other buildings in Rome. The celebrated Palazzo del Te at Mantua; palace at Marmiruolo near that city; modernised the ducal palaces, the Duomo, and many other buildings in Mantua; fayade of San Petronio at Bologna; and works at Vicenza. Eustace MascaLl or Makshai i. or Maliolm of England. — Clerk of the works at 4 D2 1 HO LIST 01 ARCHITECTS, Al' I KK CHRIS!’. the building of Christchurch College, Oxford ; and chief cleik of accounts for ail the buildings of Iienry VIII. within twenty miles of London. 175. John Thorpe of England. — A long list of his supposed works will be found in Book 1 , England. 176. IIenricx of Flanders. — Foreman at the first Royal Exchange, London, erected foi Sir T. Gresham, who “ bargained for the whole mould and substance of his work manship in Flanders.” 177. Damian Forment or Morlanes, of Valencia, in Spain. — Facade of the church u Sta. Engrayia, at Saragossa. 178. Martin de Gainza of Navarre, in Spain Carried outworks at the Cathedral a Seville, and made the design for the capilla real attached to it, and finished by F. ltuiz 179. Alonso Berruguete, of Paredes de Nava, in Spain Has given his name to tint phase of the Renaissance style, which was the fashion of the sixteenth centnn > Spain, also called the Plateresque style; but it is unknown what works he design, other than shrines, altar-pieces, and tombs. 180. Juan Sanchez of Spain. — “Maestro mayor” of the works of the city of Seville, is sup posed to have designed the Casa del Ayuntamiento in it. 181. Pedro m Valdevira of Spain. — Chapel of S. Salvador, at Ubeda ; palace in tin' same place ; hospital and chapel of S. Jago at Bacza. 182. Pedro Ezguerra of Ojebar, in Spain. — Works at the cathedral at Plasencia; clturiT of S. Mateo at Caceres; that at Robledillo ; and commenced that at Malpartida. 183. Ferdinando Ruiz of Cordova, in Spain.- — Continued the capilla real, and heightened the Torre della Giralda of the cathedral, at Seville. 184. Pedro Machuca of Spain. — Royal Palace of the Alhambra at Granada. Succeeds by bis son Luis. 185. Antonio Fiorentino of I h Ho Cava near Florence. — Church of Santa Cattcrinn Formello at Naples. 186. Jacopo Tatti, called Sansovino, of Florence. — Commenced the church of S. Mm cello, and built that of S. Giovanni de’ Fiorentini ; Loggia on the Via Flamini close to the Porto del Popolo ; Palazzo Gaddi, now del Nicolini, at Rom* Church of San Francesco della Vigna, finished by Palladio; continued the Scuo begun by M. Lombardo; the Zeeca or mint ; Palazzo Cornari on the Grim Canal; and otherpublic buildings; besides repairing many domes of the churches San Fantino, of San Martino, of the Incurables, and of San Geminiano; all at Vt nit 187. Theodore Haveus or Heave, of Cleves. — Caius Court of Caius College, Cumbridg with its gateways. 188. Domingo Teotocopuli of Greece. — College of the Donna Maria d’Arragona Madrid ; church and convent of Dominican nuns ; also of the Ayuntamienlo Toledo ; church and convent oftlie Bernardine nuns at Silos. 189. Ei. Padre Bartolome Bustamente of Spain. — Gave the plans for the Jcsui college at Cadiz, Caravaea, Segura, Trigueros, and Murcia; and hospital of 8 Juan Bautista, near Toledo. 190. Juan Bautista de Toledo in Spain. — Designed the Escurial completed by Juan Herrera; assisted in planning the Strada di Toledo at Naples; church of S. Giacomo degli Spagnuoli in the same city ; and palace at Posilippo. 191. Juan de Herrera, of Mobellan, in Spain. — Continued the Escurial after the res< west fayade of the Tuileries. The palace, and the Sorbonne, for Cardinal Hi<" lieu, and his chateau in Poitou ; completed the church of the Peres de l'Oralo rue S. Honore, begun by C. Metezau ; continued the church of the abbave Val of Grace, began by F. Mansart ; church of S. Roch, completed by H. Cotte; all at Paris; many other works there and elsewhere. Thomas LIolt of York, in England. — Bodleian Library; Wadham College; large quadrangle of the Public Schools; garden quadrangle of Merton Colli and other works ; all at Oxford. — Marsh, or March, of Lincolnshire, in England. — Additional buildings at I over castle, in Nottinghamshire, sometimes attributed to J. Smithson; ami ' 1 names are given to Nottingham Castle. Sir Christopher Wren, of East Knoyle, in England. —After the Fire of Lon 1666, he presented a plan for rebuilding the City. The Cathedral of St. began and completed by him 1675-1710. The churches of St. Andrew, St. Bride, Fleet-street; Christ Church, Newgate-street; St. Dunstan’s in the St. James, Westminster; St. Lawrence, Jewry ; St. Mary Aldermary, Bow- St. Michael, Cornhill ; and St. Stephen, Walbrook ; all masterly works, aino * large number of other churches. College of Physicians, Warwick-lanc ; Li Theatre at Oxford; Chelsea College; Marlborough House; part of IL" |¥>i Kilt: | hi i inn. i&lil I dial I id In palm I* win I ^lisi! ptiTi Plffi;| fell; 4 8tij I Si! Stfe. ! ''W •"‘dt : — Court Palace; the colonnades and other portions of Greenwich Hospital ; library of Trinity College, Cambridge ; the Monument of London ; repairs at Wes.minstei Ahbey ; and many other buildings. ]). Robert Hooke of England. — Old Bethlehem Hospital in Moorfields ; Aske’s Alms- houses at lloxton ; Duke of Montague’s house in Bloomsbury, but being burnt was rebuilt bv P. Puget. He gave a plan for rebuilding the City of London after the Fire of 1666, and was appointed one of the surveyors for laying out the land. . Henry Aldrich of Westminster, in England. — Three sides of the quadrangle o( Christ’s Church, called Peck water-square ; chapel of Trinity College ; and Church of All Saints, all at Oxford. Published Elementa Architecture Civilis. '. Jules Hardouin Mansart of Marly, in France. — Dome of the Hotel ties Invalides ; Galerie du Palais Royal; the Place Louis le Grand, and that des Victoires; Royal Chateau de Clagny; additions to the Royal Chateau at Versailles; chateau de Marly ; staircase and other works at S. Cloud; Maison Royale de S. Cyr ; new chateau at Meudon ; decoration of the choir of Notre Dame at Paris; altera- tions at Chambord ; and many other works. *. a. Carlo Fontana of Bruciato, near Como. — Completed with Bernini the churchet built by C. Rainaldi in the Piazza del Popolo at Rome; several chapels; aque- duct and supply of water to the Vatican. &c., with some of the fountains; Palazai Grimani and Bigazzini, now Torlonia; all at Rome. Completion of the cathedral at Bergamo ; designs for college and church of the Jesuits near Azpeitia in Spain. Baptistry chapel at S. Peter’s at Rome ; entrance, campanile, and cortile to the paiazzo della Camera Apostolica; and many other works, in which he was assisterl by his son, two nephews, and several pupils. He published several works. J Juan Bautista Monegro of Spain. — Archiepiscopal palace at Alcala finished by J. ; Gomez de Mora. 2 Clement Metezau of Dreux, in France — Made des’gns for the Luxembourg; commenced the church of the Peres de l’Oratoire; hotel de Chevreuse ; the famous dyke at La Rochelle; Chateau Neuf at S. Germain en Laye, and some otheis. South transept of church at Dreux. - John Abel of England. — Market houses of Brecon, Hereford, Weobliy with its schoolhouse, Kington, and Leominster; the timber work of the church at Abhey- dore, Herefordshire; appointed “carpenter” to King Charles 1. 2. Nicodemus Valentinson Tessin of Stralsund — Crown architect of Sweden. Palace at Drottningsholm, completed by his son ; the Royal villa of Stromsholm ; and the mausoleum of Charles Gustavus. 18th. Century. 2 Nicodemus Tessin (Count) of Nykoping. — Royal palace at Stockholm after the fire of 1697; laid out the grounds at Drottningsholm and at Ulriksdal ; cathedral at Calmar; design for rebuilding palace at Copenhagen, curtailed after his death, 1728. ! Johann Bernhard Fischers of Prague, called von Eriach, and his son Joseph Emanuel Fischers, baron von Erlach. — Designed the hunting-seat at Schdn- brunn, and additions at the palace ; winter palace now the mint ; and palace in the S. Ulrich Yorstadt, at Vienna. The palace in the old town at Prague ; church of the Virgin at Salzburg ; church of S Carolus Borromceus at Vienna ; and many other buildings. His son assisted him in most of them, besides the Hof Bil.liothek at Vienna; tire Reichs Kanzlei in the Burg platz ; the lteit Schule; and the front of the stables for 400 hoises. h liupfo 1 vara, or Juvara, of Messina. — Royal palace in the environs of Messina; church of the Carmelites in the l’iazza di San Carlo ; church of the Virgin on the Monte di Superga ; church of the Virgine del Carmine ; and an interior stair- case at the palace; all at Turin. Design for the monastery and palace at Mafra in Portugal; finished cupola of Sant’ A ndrea at Mantua; paiazzo Birago di Borghe at Turin, and a number of other works. - ■t Sir John Vanbrugh of England. — Blenheim in Oxfordshire; Caslle Howard, York- shire ; Easthury, Dorset; King’s Weston, near Bristol; Clarendon Printing Office at Oxford; the Opera House of the time ; part of Greenwich Hospital, and a few other buildings. 241 John Campbell of Scotland. — The front great gate and street wall of Burlington House. Piccadilly; Rolls House, Chancery lane, London; Houghton Hall, Nor- folk, finished by T. Ripley; Goodwood, near Chichester; and part of Greenwich Hospital ; Wanstead House, Essex ; Mereworth Castle, near Maidstone. Com- piler of the Vitruvius Britannicus, 3 vols. 1144 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHRIST. 242. Robert de Cotte of Paris. — Continued Mansait’s woiks at the dome of il Invalides; the chapel at Versailles, and the house at Trianon. Decorations at Not Dame; new buildings at St. Denis; many hotels. Designs for foreign princes. 243. Nicholas Hawksmoke of East Drayton, in England. — Assisted his master, Sir Wren, in many of his works. The churches of St. George, Bloomsbury; S Anne, Limehouse; St. George-in-the-East ; St. Mary Woolnoth ; and Chr Church, Spital Helds ; part of Greenwich Hospital, &c. Assisted Sir J. Vanbru; at Castle Howard, and at Blenheim. 244. Jean Baptiste Alexandre le Blond of France. — L’Hotel de Clermont or Sessac, at Paris. Employed in Russia by Peter the Great, on his residence! Peterhof and at Strehlna, Part of the archbishop’s palace at Audi. Edited t second and improved edition of D’ Aviler’s ‘‘ Cours and published works architecture. 245. Alessandro GALiLEr of Italy. — Facade of the church of S. Giovanni de’ Fiorentii and of that of' S. Giovanni Laterano, with the splendid capella Corsini therein ; Rome. 2 16 . Jacques Gabriel of Paris. — Buildings at Bordeaux, Rennes, Paris, &c. Comple! the Pont Royal at Paris, under F. Romain; Episcopal palace at Blois; desip for the new street facades at Rennes, and the places Louis XIV. and XV.; brid over the Loire at Blois, and many other bridges. The place at Nantes; to hall, chapel, and Hall of States at Dijon; portails of the cathedral at La Rochell and at Orleans; and commenced the great sewer at Paris, finished by his son. 247. John James of Greenwich, in England. — St. George’s Church, Idanover-squai mansion for Sir Gregory Page, Bart., at Blackheath ; employed at Greenw Hospital, St. Paul’s Cathedral, and Westminster Abbey. 248. Giacomo Leoni of Venice. — Dover House, Old Burlington-street ; Bramliam-pa near Leeds; Moor-park, near Rickmansworth ; Lathom House, I.ancasliiil Lyme Hall, rear Manchester; Bold Hall, near Warrington ; and olher eoun seats in England. Published a translation of Palladio’s Architecture. 249. Germain de Roffrand of Nantes, in France. — Much employed in Paris and G many ; rebuilt the Palais du Petit Bourbon ; built three houses for himself, wl he sold to noblemtn ; restored the Arsenal, and the Grand Chambre of the Pa de Justice; restored vaulting of the transept, and other works at Notre Dai many buildings in the provinces, in Germany ; and in Lorraine, as the hotel Craon at Nancy, the chateau at Luneville, and the chateau called the l’a'ais d i Malgrange, near Nancy, one of his best wotks ; several bridges; the chapel main buildings of the Hopital des Enfans Trouves; new buildings for the liosp de Bicetre, of the Salpetriere, and at Cipion ; and the chateau de Bossetie, Melun. He published a Livre d’ Architecture. 250. Michel d’Ixnard of Nismes. — Reconstructed the premiere abbey ot St. Blaise ol Benedictine order, in the Black Forest; Hotel Sekingen at Freibourg, in Bresp Palace of Clemensburg at Treves ; Hotel de Miroir at Strasburg. 251. James Gibbs of Aberdeen, in Scotland. — Bartholomew Hospital, Smitbfield ; 1 elide Library at Oxford; St. Mary’s, or the New Church in the Strand; tha f St. Martin’s-in-the- Fields ; the Fellows’ Buildings, Library, and Senate II u of King’s College at Cambridge; Canons, Middlesex, for Duke of Chan ; circular colonnade at Burlington House, Piccadilly ; and a number of t r edifices. Published his “ Designs, &c.” 252. William Adam of Maryburgh, in Scotland — Designed upwards of thirty residen I town house at Dundee ; three hospitals at Edinburgh; library and universe R Glasgow; church at Hamilton; Hoptone House; Castle Kenmtire, and I' ™ Castle, all in Scotland. He was assist! d by his son John, who completed 1 George, and designed Dumfries House, Douglas Cattle, &c. Robert, Janies William were other sons, and architects of repute. Published Vitruvius Scott 253. William Kent of Rotherham, in England. — Additions at Kensington Palace; |C out Hyde-park ; royal residence at Kew ; modernised Rainham House, Nor • several houses in London ; Library in the Green-park for Queen ( aro • Devonshire House, Piccadilly; range of buildings in Margaret-street,Westim r - now the Law Courts ; and the Horse Guards, St. James’s- pat k. He pub Inigo Jones’s designs. 2.74. Thomas Ripley of England. — Houghton Hall, Norfolk ; Admiralty. Whitehall 255 Charles Labelye of Vevay, in Switzerland. — Westminster Bridge, London; | u down 1861. 256. Ferdinando Galli Bihiena of Bologna. — Celebrated for theatrical decoration ■' painted architecture. Theatre of Parma. Published L' Architecture Civile AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. I 145 A FT Ii II CHRIST. 1711. Great hall or theatre at Prague for Charles VI. His three sons, Giuseppe, Alessandro, and Antonio, practised as architects. >57. Giuseppe Gali.i Bibiena of Parma. — An amphitheatre at Prague for 8,000 persons. Some large buildings in Silesia ; works at Dresden and Berlin. 158. Alessandro Gali.i Bibiena of Parma. — Great theatre, and the church of the Jesuits at Mannheim. 159. Antonio Galli Bibiena of Parma. — Theatrical decorations ; various works in Italy, Vienna, and in Hungary. Published “ Varie Opere.” Theatres at Pistoja, Siena, Treviso, Pavia, and Bologna. Enlarged that of La Pergola at Florence. !60. Francesco Galli Bibiena of Italy, brother of Ferdinando. — Theatrical decorations ; riding school, &c., at Mantua ; theatres at Vienna, Nancy, Verona, and Rome. 61- Giambattista Sacchetti of Turin. — Royal Palace, Madrid. .'62. John Wood of Bath. — Large improvements at Bath — the Crescent, Circus, Queen Square, &c. ; Prior Park for Mr. Allen; Buckland Pat k for Sir John Throck- morton ; Exchange at Bristol. ’63. Jean Nicholas Servandoni of France. — Facade of the church of St. Sulpice at Paris; staircase of the Hotel du Cardinal Auvergne; round chapel of M. de Live; Rotunda with twelve Corinthian columns, for Marshal de Richelieu ; parish church of Coulanges in Bourgogne ; and many other works, besides theatres and theatrical decoration--, and designs for foreign princes. 64. George Dance, sen., of London. — Mansion House ; the churches of St. Luke’s, Old Street; St. Leonard’s, Shoreditch; and St. Butolph, Aldgate ; all in London. 65. Luigi Vanvitelli of Italy. — Palace at Caserta, near Naples. |66. Jacques Francois Blondel of Rouen, in France. — Opened the first private academy of architecture; design for the Imperial Academy at Moscow; street and square opposite the cathedral at Rouen ; other works both there and at Strasbourg; im- provements at the city of Metz, including the round church of the Royal Abbey of St. Louis, the Episcopal Palace, facade of the building occupied by the Parliament, the Hotel de Ville, Coips de Garde, &c. Improvements of the city of Cambray ; and many country houses in France and Germany, and in Flanders. Published “ Architecture Franyoise” and a “ Cours d'Architecture.” >7. John Brettincham of England.- — Finished Holkham Hall, Norfolk ; Norfolk House, St. James’s Square. |38. Robert Furze Brettingham of England. — Erected the gaols at Reading, Hert- ford, Poole, Downpatrick, and Northampton; Winchester House, St. James’s Square; No. 9, Berkeley Square; Maidenhead Bridge; and made many alterations at noblemen’s mansions in the country. : 9. Ferdinando Fuga of Florence Completed the Fabbrica della Consulta on the Quirinal ; the great addition to the wing of the Pontifical Palace at the corner of the Via delle Quattro F’ontane; church of Sta. Maria dell’ Orazione ; completed the Palazzo Petroni and the Palazzo Corsini; all at Rome. Church and nunnery of Sta. Caterina della Ruota at Aquila; restored the church of Sta. Maria Maggiore ; enlarged the hospital of Sto. Spirito in Sassia ; and other works at Rome. The great hospital and the public cemetery, the Palazzo Giordani, and the very large Palazzo Caramanica; commenced the Granili, to contain a granary, artillery arsenal, and storehouse ; and other works at Naples. 0. M. Aug. Simonetti of Italy. — Museo Pio Clemenlino in the Vatican at Rome. 1. Jacques Ange Gabriel of France. — Continued his father’s works. The Ecole Mili- taire and Champ de Mars ; and Garde Meultle, all at Paris ; theatre at Versailles ; chateau at Compiegne ; additions to that at Choisy; and north and west faqades to the court of the Louvre. |2. Jean Rodolphe Peiikonet of France. — Director of the bridges and roads of France ; bridge of Neuillv, and many others. Jacques Germain Soufflot of Iranev, near Anxerre, in France. — Hospital, Exchange, Concert- room, and Theatre, all at Lyons; fayade,nave, and towers of the church of St. Genevieve, at Paris. 1 1. Sir William Chambers of Ripon, in England. — Visited China, and published works on Chinese architecture and Oriental gardening. Pagoda and other build- ings at Kew ; villa at Iioehampton for Earl of Besborough ; Duddingston, neas- Edinburgh, for Lord Abercorn ; and mansions for other noblemen ;. Casino near Dublin for Lord Charlemont; Somerset House, in the Strand, Ldhdon. Pub- lished “ The Decorative Part of Civil Architecture.” ' Robert Adam of Kirkaldie, in Scotland. — Screen at the Admiralty in London ; Kedlcstone for Lord Scarsdale; Register Office at Edinburgh; Infirmary at Glas- gow; the Edinburgh University ; Luton House; Lansdowne House, Berkeley 1146 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHRIST. 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 245 286. 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. Square ; Adelphi Terrace, Portland Place, and other houses in London- Ken Wood H oust-, Ilighgate; entrance screen at S on House, Middlesex, llis brother James assisted in most of the later works. Published “ The Ruins at Spalatro,”anJ “ Work- in Architecture'.” Stir Robert Taylor of London. — Parts of Bank of England now taken down ; vilii at Richmond for Sir Charles Asgill ; Duke of Grafton’s house, Piccadilly; mansion for Lord Howe in Hertfordshire; Stone Buildings, Lincoln’s Inn; Ely House, Dover Street; Lord Grimstone’s at Gorhamluiry ; and many others, which are engraved in his “ Designs, James Paine of London. — Mansion House at Doncaster; Wardour Castle; and Worksop Manor House. Designs published. Victor Louis of Paris.- — Designed a palace at Warsaw; employed at Nancv and Luneville; church at Besan^on, and at Dunkirk; theatre at Bordeaux for 4,000 persons (published); Galleries at the Palais Royal, and the Theatre des Varietes, introducing framing in iron ; both at Paris; the Hotel de la Prefecture, the Banque, and Maison Fonfrede at Bordeaux. Jacques Denis Antoine of Paris. — Hotel des Monnaies; new buildings at the Palais de Justice ; Greek portico to the Hospice de la Charite, all at Paris; Mint at Berne, and other works. Claude Nicolas Ledoux of Dormans, in France. — Hotels d'Halleville, d’Uzes, of the Prince de Montmorency, de Montesquieu, de Thelussoti, and de Guimard ; five blocks or maisons Holstein, and many maisons, all at Paris; theatre at Marseilles; Chateau Benouville in Normandy, and other works, which with many designs are given in Krafft’s Receuil, and in his own fine publication. Henry H olland of London. — Carlton House for the Prince Regent ; Claremont for Lord Clive. Large additions at Trentham, Staffordshire ; Sloane Street and Hans Place, Chelsea; portico in Whitehall; improvements at Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire; the Albany in Piccadilly, and additions to the Assembly Rooms at Glasgow ; Old Drury L ine Theatre, Ac. Joseph Bonomi of Rome. — Dale Park, Sussex; Gallery for the Townlev collection j in Lancashire; Church at Packington, Warwickshire, solidly vaulted throughout; additions at Langley Hall, Kent; Eastwell House, Kent; Mausoleum at Bliek- ling Park, Norfolk; Longford Hall, Shropshire; additions to Lamhton Hall, Durham, for Earl of Durham ; and an Italian mansion at Iloseneath, Dumbar- tonshire, his most celebrated work; the portico, projecting for carriages to set down under it, is remarkable for having a central column. Jacques Guili.aume i.e Grand of Paris — Theatre Feydeau; Halle au Drap; roof to Halle au Ble (burnt) at Paris; and other works. Karl Gotthard Langhans of Landshut, in Silesia. — Government House, Theatre, Exchange, Church, and many Houses, all at Breslau ; Great Poor House at Kreuzburg ; the Brandeubmger-Thor ; tower of St. Mary’s Church, Hercules Bridge, Naiiotial Theatre, Palace of Prince Wilhelm, all at Berlin; the Palace Theatre at Charlsttenburg. Robert Mvlne of Scotland. — Blackfriars Bridge, pulled down 1864; Inverart Castle, Ac. Jacques Gondoin of S. Ouen sur Seine, in France. — Ecole de MGlecine, Paris, and published a description of it. The Colonne de la Grande Airnee was erected in conjunction with Letkre. II K IN rich Karl von Fischer of Mannheim, in Germany. — Theatre, Infirmary Hall of Antiquities at the Academy, and several mansions, all at Munich. Opv House at Vienna George Dance, Jun. of London. — New'gate Prison; St. Luke’s Hospital; ( oil y of Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, all in London; and many country mansions. James Gandon of London. -Custom House, &c. ; Exchange ; Four Courts, in Dublin. Published with Woolfe, Vitruvius Britannicus. Designs for Excluuig at Dublin ; and for St. Luke’s Lunatic Asylum, London. New Docks, Stores, an Custom House ; East Portico, Ac., to Houses of Parliament, now the Bank; ifi Four (Law) Courts; Screen Arcade and Wings, with additions to House < Commons, Carlisle Bridge; and Inns of Court; all at Dublin; Court lion and Gaol at Waterford. Sir John Soane of London. — Bank of England; Board of Trade; Slate lap' Office; Entrance to House of Lords; and many works in London, besides I own house in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, now his Museum. Published “ Desigvn,' Ac. Ch a rles Percier of Paris. — Restorations, Ac. at the Louvre and Tuileries ; ( bapi Expiatoire. Published “ Recueil de Decorations, 1 ’ and otliei Looks ot oinarm with Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine. I i ;« ii] | W *:i * I f ■ *ll; Ifi r a i fes I'Hti Mt | S liillll *fcnt *» li S S? 'Su S; . ^ Sllrw AND TIIEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. I 1 17 AFTER CHRIST. 2. Domfnico Merlini of Brescia.-- Several apartments in the Palace at W..rsaw ; anil villas near that city. 3. John Kenuali. of Exeter, in England. — ‘‘Mason and Architect” to the new works at Exeter Cathedral, lt-05-30. 4 . Thomas Cjoley of England — Royal Exchange; Chapel in Phoenix Park ; Hiber- nian Marine School' ; Newgate Prison; the western wing of the Four (Law) Courts; all at Dublin. 5 . James Essex of England — Tbe earliest in modern times who practised solely mediaeval art; restoration of Ely and other cathedrals; alterations at various colleges at Cambridge and Oxford. fi. T. Thomond of France.-— The great Theatre, and the Exchange, at St. Petersburg. 7. James Wyatt of England. —The Pantheon Assembly Rooms; Palace at Kew; Fontbill Abbey ; Doddington Hall ; Asbridge House; and many restorations. 3. Johann Aman of St. Blasien, in Baden. — Building for the reception of the Mueller Cullection ; interior of the Chapel of the Palace, a Theatre, Hohe Markt, Dorothea-ITof, a new Court Theatre, all at Vienna. New Theatre at Pesth ; repairs to the Cathedral at Vienna; restorations, &c„ at the Palace of Schon- brunn, with the Conservatories. 4. John Carr of Ilorbury, called Carr of York. — Kirby Hall near York, and the Race Stand; Harewood House near Leeds for Earl of Harewood ; Tabley House, Cheshire, for Lord de Tabley : Lvtbam Hall near Preston; Constable Burton near Hull; Thoresby Lo go, Notts, for Duke of Kingston; east front of Went- worth Castle for Earl of Strafford; Aston Hall, Rotherham; Basildon Park, Berkshire; Town Hall, Newark ; Court House at Yoik; County Lunatic Asylum ; Crescent and perhaps the Stahl ng at Buxton Baths; Mausoleum at Wentworth ; aird many other buildings and houses. : i. Don Josef Martin de Aldehuela of Manzaneda iir Valencia. — Church and College of the Jesuits at Teruel ; completed Church of San Filipe Neri at Cuenca; with other Churches, &c., in that city; Aqueduct, 6 miles long, to Malaga ; great Bridge at Ronda over the Tajo, and water supply. Werrt to Granada to design tire Palace for Charles V. £ . Giuseiwe Piermarini of Foligno. — As pupil of Vanvitelli Ire assisted iir the Palace at Caserta ; and in the alterations at the Palazzo Imperiale at Milan, which latter work was transferred to him; and iir which city he designed the l'eatro “La Scalar” Monte di Pieta ; Teatro della Canohbiana; Porta Orientate ; the extensive f.gade of the Palazzo Belgioioso; several palarzi, with many extensive im- provements. IStb. Century. 3 Vincenzo Brenna of Russia. — Carried out Bazhenov’s design for the Palace of it. Michael, now the Schcol for Engineer Officers; Obelisk of black granite ; the Exercising House, 540 ft. by 120 ft., at St. Petersburg. Designs publishe I. 3ij Henry William Inwood of England.- — St. Pancras New Church ; St. Martin’s Chapel ; Regent Square Chapel ; Somers Town Chapel ; all in London. Published “The Erechthieon at Athens.” 3(1 Jean Nicolas Louis Durand of France. — Published “Ilecueil et Parallels dcs Edifices,” and other works 3(1 Augustus Pugin of England. —Published ‘’Specimens of Gothic Architecture,” “ Examples of Gothic Architecture ;” “Antiquities of Normandy,” and other works. ; ( John Nash of England. — Brighton Pavilion; Haymarkei 'Theatre; Buckingham Palace; Regent’s Park, and its terraces of dwellings; Regent Street and the Quadrant; many residences, & c. i Sir Jeffry Wyatville of England. — Extensively rebuilding and altering Windsor Castle. •C William Whkins of England. — Sr. George’s Hospital; London University; National Galiery ; University Club House ; in London. Downing College, Cambridge. Published a translation of part of “ Vitruvius.” >0i Benjamin Henry Latroee of Fulnec near Leeds, in England. — Several mansions in Surrey and Sussex, &c. Visited America, where be rendered lire Janies river I navigable; Water Supply at Philadelphia; and Bank of Pennsylvania; com- pleted the exterior of the north wing of the Capitol at Washinglon, added corrc~ sponding wing, &c. ; designed tire central portion, and the Hall of Representatives; at this building Charles Buleincii succeeded biin, and erected the Rotunda, &c. Water Supply to New Orleans; Exchange and Cadiedial at Baltimore; Bank of United States at Philadelphia. 11-18 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHRIST. 310. 3M SI 2. 3 1 3. 314. 315. 516. S17. 318. 319. 320. 321. 322. 323. 324. 325. 326 . Thomas Harrison of Richmond, Yorkshire. — Bridge over the river Lune at I.ar caster ; rebuilding of the Castle there as a Gaol ; new County and Crown Courts Bridge over the Derwent at Derby, and others; Prison, County Courts, Announ &c„ at Chester, wholly of stone; Broom Hall, Fifeshire, for E irl of Elgin Athenaeum, Lyceum, and Library of the Literary Society, at Liverpool; Theatr Athenaeum, and Exchange, at Manchester ; Grosvenor Bridge at Chester over tit river Dee, 200 feet span ; and many other works. Designed a Palace for Coun Michael Woronzow, to be built in the Ukraine on the Dnieper. Il Marchese Luigi Cagnoi.a of Milan. — Porta del Sempione or Arco della Pact Porta di Ticino ; Ca-ino de’ Nobili ; all at Milan. Many magnificent projects and the Palazzo for himself at Inverigo, with a central salone of 45 ft. diameter. Stefano and Luigi Gasse of Naples. — Observatory ; additions to Villa Reale Reale Edifizio di San Giacomo, or Palazzi de’ Ministeri ; and the Dogana; all a Naples. Thomas Rickman of England. — New Court of St John’s College, Cambridge restoration ot the Bishop of Carlisle’s Palace, Cumberland; upwards of twenty five churches in the Midland Counties; several private dwellings. Publislie 1 “Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture in England.” Carl Friedrich von Sciiinkel of Prussia. — Hauptwache, Theatre, and Museum Werder- Kirche ( Gothic) ; Bauschule, and Observatory, all at Beilin; Theatr at Hamburg; Sehloss Krzescowice, Charlottenhof, and the Nicolai-Kirche . Potsdam. Published his designs, many of which were not executed. Joseph Michael Gandy of England. — Phoenix and Pelican Assurance Offices, additions to the prisons at Lancaster ; buildings at Liverpool. Published “ Designs for rural buildings. Better known for his artistic conceptions of architectur. restorations. Friedrich von Gartner of Bavaria. — Facade of the Porcelain Establishment Ludwigs- Kirche, Bibliotliek, and Record Office; and many other buildings ; Munich. The Befreiungshalle at Kehlheim; Pompeian House at Aschaffenbur &c. Published his designs. Sir Richard Morrison and William Vitruvius Morrison of Dublin. — Alter tions of cathedral at Cashel; County Court House, Clonmel; Shelton Alike' Kilruddery Hall; Bally fin ; Court House, Carlow; Longford Castle; & c. Harvey Lonsdale Elmes of England. — Collegiate Institution; St. George’s ILI at Liverpool. Peter John Gandy-Deering of England. — Associa'ed with Wilkins in the Cli House, and University. St. Mark’s Church, North Audley Street; and Kxct Hall, at London. Published “ Pompeiar.a ” with Sir W. Gell, and many Clas; Antiquities for the Society of Diletianti. Jacob Gay of France. — Extensive fortified warehouse for grain at Novogeorglevs near Warsaw, and the Greek church of the Alexandrian colony. Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin of England. — His residences at Salisbu; and at Ramsgate with a chapel adjoining. No less than thirty six Rom Catholic churches, including the cathedral of St. George, Southwark, and tin; at Killarney and Enniscorthy , the church at Cheadle; and extensive alteratio at Alton Towers. Published “ Contrasts,” “True Principles, &c.,” “ Designs I Metal and Timber,” &c. Pietro Aigner of Gallizia, in Austria. — Churches of St. Alexander, and of Andrew; Observatory, said to be the finest in Europe; Guard House, Gove ment Palace completion of the Mint, University Library, Radzivill Palace a great Bazaar, all at Warsaw. Cathedral at Szuwalkach in Lithuania; and on works. William Porden of England. — Stables at the Pavilion at Brighton, with the Rid' Houses, &c. Eaton Hall, Cheshire, for the Marquis of Westminster, &c. John Haviland of Taunton, in England. — Pittsburgh Penitentiary; Eastern U temiary at Cherry Hill; Hall of Justice, New York; Naval Asylum, Norfo 1 New Jersey State Penitentiary, and many others, with gaols, asylums, and cou halls, all in the United States. . Guillaume Abel Bi.ouet of Passy, in France.- — Completed the Arc de 1 Etoi works at the palace at Fontainebleau. Published “ Expedition Scientifiquc Moree; ” supplement to Rondelet’s “ I.’ Art de Batir;” and revised the h edition of that work. James Gillespie-Graham o f Orchil, in Scotland. — Culdees Castle, Perthshire; Priory, Dumbartonshire; Dtinse Castle, Berwickshire; and many country 1 deuces; Victoria or Assembly Hall, at Edinburgh ; chapels there and at Glass- (to I kin Ci I diet IlffiTn I lion I House. I "0® hi. [Ibis 1: ■tcli at to pws I (*til MH Mm Mu ‘Jim AND I'll El It PRINCIPAL WOIIKS. 1 M9 A FT K II CHRIST. 7. William Hkniiv Playfair of Scotland. — St. Stephen’s Church; Royal Institution; National Gallery; Donaldson’s Hospital ; Free Church College; Surgeons’ Hall; all at Edinburgh. 8. John Britton of England. — Published the “Cathedra] Antiquities ’* 14 volumes; “ Architectural Antiquities,” 5 vols.; ‘‘Edifices of London,” 2 vols. ; and many others. Began the restoration of ltedclifle Church, Bristol. 9. Luigi Canina of Rome. — Published many works on the History of, and Discoveries connected with, Classic Architecture. 0. Loins Tullius Joachim Visconti of France. — Completed the Palace of the Louvre ; Monument of Muliere in the Rue Richelieu ; Fountain on site of the old Opera House, Place Louvois ; Fountain in Place St. Sulpice ; facade of the angle of two streets in the Rue Neuve des Petits Champs; tomb of the Emperor Napo- leon 1. at the Invalides, all at Paris. 1. Thomas Hamilton of Scotland. — The High Schools; College of Physicians; and some churches ; Pavilion for the Grey Festival, 1894 ; all at Edinburgh. Monu- ment to Burns, near Ayr. 2. Alphonse Ricard he Montferrand of France. — Column to the Emperor Alex- ander; and Church of St. Isaac, at St. Petersburg. Both published. S. Sir Charles Barry of London. — The Travellers’ Club House (published); the Reform Club House; Bridgewater House; the Houses of Parliament; Privy Council Office; laid out Trafalgar Square ; three churches at Ball’s Pond, Cloudesley Square, and Holloway; all in London. The Grammar School at Bir- mingham. Clifden House, near Reading. Trentham Hall, Derbyshire. St. Peter’s Church at Brighton. A church, the Athenaium, and the Royal Institu- tion, at Manchester. I. Ernst Friedrich Zwirner of Prussia.- — Restoration of Cologne Cathedral. Church at Retnagen. |). David Hamilton of Glasgow. — Hutcheson’s Hospital ; Nelson Monument; Royal Exchange; Western Club House, and other buildings, all at Glasgow. Castle Toward; Dunlop House; Airtli or Kier Castle; Hamilton Palace ; and Lennox Castle, all in Scotland. . Robert Mills of Charleston, South Carolina. The Congregational Church at Charleston, with a dome 90 feet diam. inside, the first in that country. Several edifices at Philadelphia, includingthe Bank (the first building in the Gothic style), and the timber bridge over the Schuylkill, about 340 feet span. The Court House and other buildings at Richmond ; Monument to Washington at Balti- more, and two churches there; Lunatic Asylum at Columbia; Penitentiary at New OrUatis; and buildings at Charleston. The Bunker Hill monument. Many works for the Government at Washington. He largely introduced a fire-proof system into the construction of his buildings. H. Leo von Klenze of Prussia. — The Glyptolhek, and other public and private works at Munich. The Walhalla, near Ratisbon. Buildings at St. Petersburg. De- signs published. 3 James Bunstone Bun-ning of England. — City of London School. Highgate and Nunhead Cemeteries; Bethnal Green Workhouse; Freemason’s Orphan School-, Brixton ; the Coal Exchange; City Prison, Holloway; Billingsgate Market ; Metropolitan Cattle Market, Islington ; Alterations in Newgale Prison ; Pauper Lunatic Asylum at Stone ; with many improvements in the City of London. J: Ludwig Forster of Austria. — Published the AUgemeine Bauzeitung, 38 volumes (to 1873). Buildings in Vienna. 3* Charles Robert Cockerell of London. — Philosophic Institution at Bristol. Hanover Chapel, Rigent Street. St. David’s College, Lampeter. National Monument, Calton Hill, Edinburgh. University Library and Museum, Cam- bridge. Westminster Life Office, Strand. Dividend Pay Office, and the Private Drawing Office, in the Bank of England ; and Branch Banks at Manchester, Bristol, and Liverpool. Sun Fire Assurance Office. Taylor and Randolph Galleries and Library at Oxford. Liverpool and London Insurance Buildingsat Liverpool. Completion of the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, commenced by G. Basevi ; and of St. George’s Hall at Liverpool, commenced by H. L. Elmes. 4 i Joseph Gwilt of London. — Compiler of the “ Encyclopasdia of Architecture,” and writer of many other works. 4 Luigi Canoni- a of Milan. — Anfiteatro Diurno for 30,000 spectators, for Napoleon I. ; Teatro Carcano, Re, and Fiando ; the interior of Palazzo Orsino, and Casa Canonica, all at Milan. Theatres at Brescia, Mantua, and Parma. 1 Louis von Zanth of Wurtemburg. — The Wilhelma near Stuttgardt, in a Moorish 1150 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHRIST. Mi, 345. S46. 347 . style; design for a large village and its buildings in Hungary; published “ Tli Antiquities of Sicily ” with J. 1. Hittorff. Sir Joseph Paxton of Milton Bryant, Bedfordshire. — Tiie Conservatory fur (h Victoria Regi i at Chatsworth, and other buildings there. The suggestion for ill building of the Industry of All Nations 1851. Village of Edensor near Chat; worth ; Mentmore for Baron Mayer A, de Rothschild. Mansion at Ferricres i France for Baron James de Rothschild. Alterations at Lismore Castle, Irelanr for Duke of Devonshire. Laid out Parks at Liverpool, Birkenhead, Glasgow and elsewhere. Cait. Francis Fowke of Belfast, in Ireland. — Raglari Barracks, Devonport. Addi tions to South Kensington Museum ; Picture Galleries for the Sheepshank' Vernon, and Turner collections therein. Industrial Museum, Edinburgh. Nev buildings for South Kensington Museum. National Gallerv, Dublin. Desi" for Gardens, Conservatory, and south arcades, Royal Horticultural Gardens; tl, building for 1862 Exhibition, and entrances to the Gardens. Design for Nalur; History Museum. Original design for the Royal Albert Hall. Jacques Ignace II iTToRFF of Cologne. — Practised at Paris, where, with Lecointe, li conducted several funeral pomps, and many festivities; reconstructed th interior of the Salle Favart, and rebuilt the Theatre of the Ambigu Com in u; Published with Zanth, ‘‘Architecture Modcrne de la Sicile,” and “ Architecturi Antique de la Sicile; ” and with Olivier, an edition of the “ Inedited Antiquitii of Athens.” Designed the circular Panorama in the Champs Elvsees ; Gran Cirque Olympique ; Cirque on the Boulevard des Filles du Calvaire; assisted i raising the Obelisk of Luxor, and designed its pedestal; and the Fountains i the Place de la Concorde: with Lepere, the basilican church of St. Vincent < Paul : Mairie on the Place du Pantheon; another, with a suite of buildings clot to the Church of S. Germain l’Auxerrois; laid out part of the Bois de Hot logne ; designed the circular edifices in the Place de l’Arc de 1’Etoile ; and Te minus of the Great Northern Railway of France. Sir Robert Smirke of London. — Large additions at the Royal Mint, London Covent Garden Theatre ; General Post Office ; Penitentiary, Millbank ; Brito Museum up to 1S47 ; King’s College, London ; Central Portion, alterations, & c at the Custom Flouse ; Restoration of York Minster, 1828; Belgrave Cltapi and many churches; Wellington Testimonial, Dublin; Courts of Justice at sj cities, and other similar buildings. Lowther Castle, Cumberland, lor Earl Lonsdale ; East nor Castle, Ledbury, Herefordshire, for Earl Soirers ; Drayt Manor, f . r Sir Robert Peel; and many other mansions, and additions to then Union, Carlton, and Junior United Service Clubs; several of the interiors of t Dining Halls to the Inns of Court; Serjeants’ Inn; Approaches to Lord Bridge. Philip Hardwick of London. — House and Warehouses at St. Katherine’s Dock New Hall of the Goldsmiths’ Company ; Entrance portico, the large hall, a hotels, at the Railway Station, Euston Square; New Hall and Library for Soil of Lincoln’s Inn ; all at London. Charles Texier of Versailles, in France. — Restored Arch at Rheiins, Publish “ Description de l’Asie Mineuie,” and “ L’Armenie, la Perse, et la Mesopotami Sent to Algeria, he measured all the Roman works in that country. Publish ‘‘Byzantine Architecture,” and ‘‘Principal Ruins of Asia Minor,” both " R. P. Pulian. 350. Si t James Pennethorne of Worcester. — Assisted Mr. J. Nash in carrying out London, the improvements in the Strand; Carlton House Terrace ; St. Jam Park ; various impiovements in the streets of the Metropolis, for the Gove ment. The St. James’s Bazaar; St. Julian’s, Sevenoaks, for C. J. Herries; 1 lington House, llminster, for Mr. J. E. Lee; Swithland Hall for Mr. Iitn Danvers; Christ Church, Albany Street; and Trinity Chinch, Gray’s Inn K‘ Formed and laid out Victoria and Battersea Parks, and Kensington Palace < dens. Museum of Economic Geology, Piccadilly. General Record 01 Chancery Lane. State Ball Boom, Supper Room, and Galleries, at Bucking! Palace. Additions to Somerset House, fronting Lancaster Place. Alteration the National Gallery; and at Marlborough House for the Prince of " University of London, Burlington Gardens ; and many other works for the Go\ ment. . Sib Thomas Deane of Monkstown, near Dublin. — Banks, with other buildings, the Court house with a fine portico, at Cork ; Queen’s College, Cork; Em Asylum at Killamey ; addition to Trinity College, Dublin, iu the Venetian st Museum at Oxford with his son Thomas and Mr. Woodward. 348 . 349. 351. AM) THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 1151 AFTER CHRIST. 52. Edward Walters of Lordon.— Many large warehouses in the Renaissance style at Manchester; and numerous Ileuses in the suburbs ; Free Trade Ida 1 ; Manchester and Salford Rank; stations on the Midland Railway; church in Cavendish Street; Fire Insurance Office, King Street; Warrington Public Hall, &c. ; all at Manchester. Died January 22, I 872, aged 63. 153. Sir William Tite of London. — Restored, with David Liing, the church of St. Dunstan’s-in-the-East. Designed the Scotch Church, Regent Square; the Royal Exchange; London and Westminster Bank, Lotlibury, with C. R. Cockerell, R.A. ; several railway stations; all in London. The termini and most of the stations on the Caledonian and Scottish Central Railways; and on the line from Havre to Paris Memorial Church, Gerrard’s Cro^s. Largely employed in the valuation, purchase, and sale of the land required tor the extensive railway and improvement works of his time. Died April 20, 1873, aged 75. 14. Owen Jones of London. — Designed St. James’s Hull and its decoration ; the decora- tion of the Hall of the Fishmongers’ Company; that of Fonthill House, near Salisbury, for Mr. Alfred Morrison, and of his residence in Carlt n House Terrace; of Preston Hall, for Mr. Henry Brassey ; of the Exhibition of Industry of All Nations, 18.51 ; and of the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. Designed furniture, &c. Published “ Plans, &c., with Details, of the Alhambra,” in colours, fol. 1836-45; “Designs for Mosaic and Tesselated Pavements,” 4t.o. 1842; “An Apology for the Colouring of the Greek Court at the Crystal Palace,” 8vo. 1854 ; “The Grammar of Ornament,” 100 plates, fol. 1856; 112 plates, 1865. Many other works on colour and ornament. Died May 1 (?), 187), aged 65. '5. Alexander Thomson of Bulfron, Scotland, called “ Greek Thomson,” after the style to which the bent of his studies entitled him. — Designed the Ciledouian Road United Presbyterian Church ; the St. Vincent Street U.P. Church ; and Queen’s Park U.P. Church ; the Egyptian Hall, Union Street ; two buildings on north side of Sauehiehall Street; all at Glasgow. Died March, 22, 1875, aged nearly 58. 6. Pierre Francois Henri Labrouste of Paris. — With Visconti, superintended the decorations for the funeral ceremony consecrating the return of the remains of the Emperor Napoleon I. to Paris. OpeDed an atelier. Designed the Library' of Ste. Genevieve ; the enlargement of the National Library', with new reading room, &c. Appointed general inspector of diocesan edifices. Died June 24, 1875, aged 74. 7. David Bryce of Edinburgh. — Designed many public offices, banks, &c., in Edinburgh, in various styles ; as Fett> s College ; the Sheriffs' Court ; Edinburgh Royal Infirmary ; Lanark Infirmary; several churches in Edinburgh, Dalkeith, Dundee, Falkland, St. Mungo’s, &e. In a long list of mansions, and of additions and alterations, are mentioned Panmure, for Earl of Dalhousie ; Kinnaird Castle, for Earl of Southesk ; Langton, for Marquis of Breadalbane ; aud the mausoleum for the Duke of Hamilton. Died May 7, 1876, aged 73. A. Raphael Brandon of London. — With his brother Arthur, who died December 1847, published “Parish Churches,” sixty- three iD number, 8vo. 1848. Then “ Analysis of Gothic Architecture,” seven hundred examples, 4t,o. 1849; “Open Timber Roofs of the Middle Ages,” thirty-five examples, 4to. 1849. Designed the church in Gordon Square for the members of the Catholic Apostolie Church, in conjunc- tion with Mr. Ritchie. Church in Great Windmill Street, Haymarket; and one I at Knightsbridge. Died October, 1877. ■ j- Sidney Smirke of London. — With his brother Sir Robert, designed the Oxford and Cambridge Club, Pall Mall. He restored the Temple Church, and published an account of it, 1845. A block of buildings in the Temple ; the Conservative Club, St. James’s Street ; Carlton Clubhouse, Pall Mall ; the circular Reading Room, and other parts, at the British Museum ; the Exhibition Booms for the Royal Academy of Arts, Burlington House. Died December 8, 1877, aged 77. ■' - Sir Matthew Digby Wyatt of Devizes. — Travelled for two years, and on his returned published “The Geometric Mosaics of the Middle Ages,” fol. 1849. Reported, 1849, on the Industrial Exposition at Paris. Published “Industrial Arts of the Nineteenth Century,” fol. 1853; “Metal Work and its Artistic Design,” fol. 1852. As superintendent of the Fine Arts department at the erection of the Crystal Palace, he, with Owen Jones, designed several of the Courts, and wrote tl.e descriptions. He designed the Court and interior finishings of the new India Office, Whitehall ; Addenbroke’s Hospital, Cam- bridge; the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College at Cooper’s Hill ; restored the hall of Clare College, Cambridge; designed the Crimean Memorial Arch at Chatham, for the Royal Engineers, &e. ; the manrion for Louis Huth, Esq., 1152 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHRIST. 301 362. 863. 361. 365. at PossiDgworth, Sussex ; the red brick house for Lady Marian Alford at Kensington Gore, lie published his “Lectures” as Slade Professor iu 1876. Died May 21, 1877, aged 57. Sib George Gilbert Scott of Gawcott, near Buckingham. — W.B. Moffatt. was partner for some years ; they designed, 1841, the Martyrs’ Memorial at Oxford ; St. Giles's Church, Camberwell ; and the Infant Orphan Asylum, Wanstead. He designed the St. Nicholas Church at Hamburg ; Cathedral at St. John’s, Newfoundland ; 1854, the Parish Church of Doncaster, Yorkshire; from 1849, as architect u the dean and chapter of Westminster, he continued the restorations of tho church, and restored the chapter-house. Designed the Foreign Office, including the exterior of the India Office, Whitehall ; the Memorial to the Prince Consort, Hyde Park ; and the new Cathedral at Edinburgh. Restored portions of nearly every cathedral in England, and some in Wales; Tewkesbury Abbey choir, &e. : and St. Alban’s Abbey. Designed the Albert Memorial Chapel, at Windsor; St. Mary Abbott's Church, Kensington ; chapel of St. John’s College, Cambridge ; Glasgow University Buildings; Leeds Infirmary; Preston Town Hall; houses in the Broad Sanctuary, Westminster ; and very numerous new churches ; also numerous rebuildings and restorations. He wrote “ Gleanings from Westminster Abbey,” 1861 ; “ Remarks on Secular and Domestic Architecture,” 1857 ; “Lec- tures on the Rise and Development of Mediaeval Architecture,” 2 vols., 1870 ; and many papers and essays. Died March 27, 1877, aged 67. Edward Blore of Derby. — Designed, 1816, Abbotsford, for Sir Walter Scott; was employed for many years in making drawings for antiquarian and other publica- tions; and published “The Monumental Remains of Noble and Eminent Persons,” 1824-26 ; and was among the first to stimulate the revival of Gothic architecture. Restorations at Peterborough, Glasgow, Ely, and Winchester Cathedrals; Merton College Chapel, Oxford ; Barfreston Church, Kent; Thorney Church, Cambridgeshire ; Ramsey, Huntingdonshire ; and several others. Rebuilt the residence, restored the hall and chapel of Lambeth Palace. Designed the Palace of Aloupka, in the Crimea, for Prince W r oronzow ; Worsley Hall, Lancashire; Haveringland Hall, Norfolk ; Cranford Hall, Dorset; and others. Made exten- sive alterations at Wadham and St John’s Colleges, Oxford ; and at Windsor Castle. Designed the new front, &c., to Buckingham Palace; and works of restoration, &c., at Westminster Abbey for several years. Died September 4 1879, aged nearly 90. Joseth Louis Due of Paris. — Designed, 1833-40, the Colonne de Juillet; am after 1840, the buildings of the Palais de Justice, including the new Salle dot Pas Perdus, all at Paris. In 1869 he received the Grand Prix of 1 00,000 franc; decreed every five years by Napoleon III. Died January, 1879. Gottfried Semper of Altona, in Denmark.— Designed, 1834, the Court Thealri and the Synagogue, at Dresden; and 1847, began the new Museum. He retire to Paris, and then to London, where, 1853, he designed the Wellington funerii car. After some years he went to Zurich as Professor of Architecture; designs the large Polytechnic School; the town hall; the railway station. The ri, building of the Court Theatre, at Dresden, was carried out by his son Manfrm Designed the Exchange ; new Museum ; additions to the Imperial residence; am with von Hasenauer, the Imperial Court Theatre ; all at Vienna. Died at Rom May 15, 1879, aged 76. Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc of Paris. — In 1840 he was nominated, wii Lassus, in the restoration of the Ste. Cliapelle, at Paris. He restored theAbm Church of Vezelay ; the churches of St. Pierre, Montreale ; the Hotel de Villc, ■ Narbonne ; the church at Poissy, of St. Nazare in Carcassonne, and at Semu With Lassus, 1846, the restoration of Notre Dame, at Paris ; works at the A > 11 of St. Denis ; 1849, commenced the restoration of the fortifications at Careassonm at the Cathedral at Amiens, and the Syndical Hall at Sens; Notre Dame, ^ Chalons-sur-Marne ; the Cathedral at Laon ; the Ch&teau de Pierre om Designed the Protestant Cathedral at Lausanne; and the Chateau d hu, for 1, Comte de Paris. Besides the important “ Dictionnaire Raisonne de 1 Arc i t 366 . ture Fran9aise,” 1853-68, he published “ Essai sur l’Architecture Mihtairi 1854; “Dictionnaire du Mobilier Francjais,” 1 855 ; “ Entretiens sur 1 Archn ture,” 1858-68 ; and others. Died September 17, 1879, aged 65. Edward Middleton Barry of London. — Designed, 1857, St. Saviours C uri Haverstock Hill; the schools in End ell Street, for St. Giles’s-in-the-l'ields, Covent Garden Theatre, for Mr. Gye, with the Floral Hall adjoining , '' appointed, 1860, to complete the new Palace at Westminster, after the c,i lari 1 ilia] ‘Rita I X-Wl I kjsi | l %Ri ! A uJili AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 1153 AFTER CHRIST. Sir C. Barry. Designed the Halifax Town Hall ; new Opera-house at Malta ; the staircase to the Royal Academy rooms at Burlington House; the new chambers, “ Temple Gardens the Cannon Street and the Charing Cross Hotels, with the Queen Eleanor Cross; the Hospital for Children, Great Ormond Street; the Birmingham and Midland Institute. Rebuilt Crewe Hall, Cheshire ; designed the decoration of St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster ; and the additional galleries to the National Gallery of Pictures. Died Januaty 27, 1880, aged 49. . Jean Pierre Cltjysenaar of Li5ge. — Designed the March£ de la Madeleine; the Hotel du Conservatoire ; and the GaleriesSt. Hubert, all at Bruxelles. He pub- lished “Batiments des Stations, &c.,” 4to., 1862; “ Mai sons de Compagne, Chateaux, &c.,” 4to., 1862. Died January (?), 1880, aged 69. Johann Heinrich Stracx of Buckeburg, in Holstein. — As a student of Schinkel’s he assisted in designs for the then Crown Prince, afterwards Frederick William IV., at the new Palace at Berlin ; 1828, in the erection of the Palace of Prince Carl, and the Palace of Prince Albrecht. He completed the Palace of Babelsberg, near Potsdam, as well as the present Imperial Palace. At Berlin, he designed the Palais Raczynski, 1843; the churches of St. Peter and St. Andrew; the National Gallery, 1866-76; the Column of Victory in the Thiergarten, 1871-75; and the Villa Borsig. He published several works, including his discovery, 1862, of the Theatre of Dionysius at Athens. He was lecturer at the Academies, and also “ baumeister ” from 1838 to the Emperor of Germany. Died June 13, 1880, aged 75. c . Benjamin Fehrey of Christchurch, Hampshire. — Laid out the estate of Sir Geo. Gervis, and designed the Bath Hotel, with several rows of villas, at Bournemouth. Restored the nave and transepts and the Lady Chapel of Wells Cathedral ; and the Bishop’s palace and chapel. Designed the Church of St. James, at Morpeth ; of St. Stephen, Rochester Row, Westminster; the town halls at Dorchester and Luton; the church at Buckland St. Mary; Wynnstay, for Sir W. W. Wynn; Bulstrode, for Duke of Somerset ; mansion for the Duke of Connaught at Bagshot Park, &c. Ilis invention of stamping plaster was carried out at Macclean Church, near Ampthill ; at All Saints’, Blackheath ; at Streatham Parish Church, and other churches. Died August 22, 1880, aged 70. 3 Thomas Henry Wy'ait of Loughlin House, Roscommon.— He practised in London in partnership with David Brandon from 1838 to March 17, 1851, and designed the Assize Courts at Winchester, Devizes, Usk, Brecon and Cambridge. Among numerous hospitals, &c., those at Malta ; for Norfolk and Norwich; Wiltshire Lunatic Asylum ; and the Buckingham Lunatic Asylum ; the Exchange Buildings at Liverpool ; the cavalry barracks at Kniglitsbridge, London ; railway station at Florence; Adelphi Theatre, London; St. Aidan’s College, Birkenhead ; Oatland Park Hotel, Surrey ; mansion in Park Lane, for Sir Dudley Majoribanks ; with many others ; and alterations. Among the numerous new churches, in Wiltshire, that of Wilton, near Salisbury ; memorial church to George Herbert at Bemerton, &c. ; in Dorsetshire, in London, in Cambridgeshire, &c. ; the Garrison Church at Woolwich ; also the earlier restorations at LlandafF Cathedral, and at Wimborne Minster. Died August 5, 1880, aged 73. 7 William Burges of London. — Gained, in conjunction with Mr. Clutton, the first premium for Lille Cathedral ; was occupied in the decoration of the Chapter House at Salisbury ; also the first premium for the Memorial Church at Con- I stantinople ; designed Brisbane Cathedral, and the Cathedral at Cork ; restorations ' at Waltham Abbey; at Cardiff Castle, for the Marquis of Bute; decoration of chapel of Worcester College, Oxford; designed the Art School at Bombay; made designs for Hartford College, United States ; carried out his own house in MelburyRoad, Kensington; designed AVoreester College Hall ; and new churches ( at Studley and Skelton, near Ripon. Died April 20, 1881, aged 53. 'TIUecimus Burton of London. — Designed, 1824-26, the Colosseum, Regent’s Park, and the Hyde Park improvements, including the Ionic facade and the triumphal arch; the Calverley Park estate at Tunbridge AA r ells, for Mr. John Ward ; Grove House, Regent’s Park ; Royal Naval Club, and the Athenaeum Club, Pall Mall ; Holford House, St. Dunstan’s Villa, and St. John's Lodge, Regent’s Park ; AVorth Park, Sussex; Stapleton Palace, near Bristol; the new town, church, hotel, lighthouse, &c., at Fleetwood ; the Union Club, United Service Club, and Junior United Service Club, London ; palm house, winter garden, &c., at Kew ; and numerous private houses. Died December 14, 1881, aged 81. 73 Anthony Salvin of Sunderland Bridge, Durham. — Designed Mamhead, near Exeter ; MorbyHall; restored the hall at Braneepeth Castle ; designed MethleyHall; 4 E 1164 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AFTER CHRIST. 374 . 375 . Parham Court, and many others ; Peekforton Castle ; restored the Beauehairi Tower and Traitors’ Gate at the Tower of London ; also Carnarvon Castle, wit numerous others; the Curfew Tower and other works at Windsor; Alnwic Castle, Northumberland. Designed Keele Hall, Staffordshire ; Thoresby Ha' Nottinghamshire. Restored Petworth House ; Birdsall House ; Fernhurst Churc Sussex ; Kilndown Church ; the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge, &c and Dunster Castle. Died December 17, 1881, aged 82. George Edmund Street of Woodford, Essex. — Designed Hadley Church, Esse: others at Constantinople, Rome, Genoa, Lausanne, Vevay, Miirren, and Pari All Saints’ Church, parsonage, and schools, at Boyne Hill, Berkshire ; Church St. James the Less, Garden Street, Westminster; St. Peter’s Church, Bourn mouth ; and the nave to Bristol Cathedral. Restored south transept and tl reredos at York Minster. Designed the Courts of Justice, London ; the church, of St. Margaret at Liverpool ; All Saints at Clifton ; St. Mary Magdalene Paddington ; St. Saviour at Eastbourne ; St. John at Torquay ; St. Philip and 8 James at Oxford ; the Theological College at Cuddesdon ; Dulecht House ai Chapel. Restored Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin. He published “ Brick ai Marble Architecture in Italy,” 8vo., 1855 ; “ Gothic Architecture in Spain,” 8v 1865; and wrote numerous papers and lectures. Died Dec. 18, 1881, aged 57 Conte Commendatore Virginio Vespignani of Rome.— Architect to the Church St. Peter’s at Rome. Died December 3, 1882. 376. David Rhind of London. — At Edinburgh, designed the Commercial Bank Building ' Life Association of Scotland ; Normal School, Chambers Street ; Stewar Hospital; addition to the Assembly Hall on Castle Hill; and the Commerc Bank, Glasgow. Died April 26, 1883. 377. Signor Emilio de Fabris of Florence. —Designed the new faqade to the Cathedi of Santa Maria, at Florence, ordered 1869. Died (on the eve of the day ; pointed for uncovering this great work) June 28, 1883. 378. Heinrich Freiherr von Ferstei, of Vienna. — At Vienna, the Votivkirche; t new University ; the Palace of the Grand Duke Charles Ludwig Victor ; a several other works therein. Died July 15, 1883, aged 55. 379. Jean Baptiste Ciceron Lesueur of Clairefontaine, near Rambouillet, Prance Designed the Parish Church at Vincennes ; Conservatoire deMusiqueat Genei at Paris, a great number of princely mansions; 1840, extension and complct of the Hotel de Ville (burnt 1871), &c. Published, with F. Callet, “ Edifices P liques, &c., de Turin etde Milan,” 1855 ; “ Vues Choisies des Monuments Antiq de Rome,” 1827; “ Chronologie des Rois d’Egypte,” 4to., 1848; “ Histoire Th5orie de T Architecture,” 1879. Died December 25 (?), 1883, aged 89. 380. Theodore Ballu of Paris At Paris, he completed the Church of St. Clotilde Gau); carried out the reconstruction of the Hotel de Ville after 1873 ; desig the churches of La Trinitd and St. Ambroise ; restored the ancient Tower of Jacques de la Boucherie ; and the ancient Church of St. Germain l’Auxerii Died May 23, 1885, aged 68. 311. Thomas Leverton Donaldson of London. — Designed the Church of the J Trinity, South Kensington ; the town mansion of Mr. H. T. Hope, in Piccad , with M. Dusillion of Paris ; mansion for Mr. H. Hippisley at Lambourn, II - shire ; University Hall, Gordon Square ; the library and laboratory at. Univer f College, Gower Street ; Gordon Street Church; Scotch Church, Woolwich ; Scottish Corporation Hall, Crane Court, Fleet Street. He published “ Exan - of Doorways from Ancient and Modern Buildings in Italy and Sicily, 1833-36; “ Lime, Mortar, Stucco, &c.,” 4to., 1 840 ; •‘ArchitecturaNumism.it 4to., 1859; read a vast number of papers at the Royal Institute of hr t Architects, of which he was the first secretary, and one of the chief founder jii 1835 ; and was for many years Professor of Architecture at University Col j. Died August 1, 1885, aged 90. 382. Theodore Labroustk of Paris. — Designed the Mai son Municipale de Sante, bourg St. Denis. Died November 28, 1885, aged 86. , 383. James Fergussgn of London. — Designed the picture gallery for Miss Ni 8 paintings in Kew Gardens, illustrating his theory of lighting temples. ; lished “ Rock-cut Temples of India,” 1845 ; “ True Principles of Beauty m ■ 1849 ; “ Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient Architecture of Hindostan, “ Handbook of Architecture,” 2 vols. 1855 ; “Modern Styles,” 1862; “Hist Architecture,” 2 vols. 1865 ; “ History of Indian and Eastern Architei ■ 1876 ; “ Topography of Jerusalem,” 1847 ; “Palaces of Nineveh and Pers 18 restored,” 1851; “Mausoleum of Halicarnassus,” 1862; “Rude Stone. 1 M I fade I ferae ■it- Jaw fei AID' Jjjiii *Bs!. »fe a. AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. 1 153 AFTER CHRIST. merits,” 1873 ; “ Tree and Serpent Worship,” 1873 ; “ Temples of the Jews,” 1878 ; “ Cave Temples of India,” 1880, with Mr. James Burgess; “ The “ Parthenon, an Essay on Lighting Temples,” 1885; and many lectures and papers. Died January 9, 1886, aged 78. 4. Henry Hobson Richardson of Louisiana, U.S.A. — Educated at Harvard Uni versity, he proceeded, 1859, to Paris, where ho studied; settled at New York for three years, and then at Boston, where he designed Trinity Church and two others ; 1878, Sever Hall, and 1881, Austin (Law School) Hall, both for Harvard Uni- versity ; the New York State Capitol at Albany from 1868, at an estimated cost of four million dollars, but will probably cost double that amount; in 1878, Messrs. Eidlitz, Richardson, and Olmsted were appointed joint architects, but to Richardson is due, after 1875, the south side, with a central staircase seventy feet square, and the Senate chamber, opened March 1881. He also designed, 1884, the County Buildings and the Jail at Alleghany, Pennsylvania ; 1885, the Field Building or Store at Chicago, 325 feet long; the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, Ohio ; with several libraries, dwelling-houses (including his own), railway stations, &c. He exercised great influence upon the architectural art of his country. Died April 27, 1886, aged 48. i. R. Kyrye Penson of Oswestry. — He held several appointments in Carmarthenshire and Cardiganshire, and designed a large number of churches, residences, schools, bridges, and other works, especially St. Mark’s Church, Wrexham; and Dynevor Castle, Llandilo, for Lord Dynevor ; with numerous restorations of churches, &c. Died May 22, 1886, aged 70. ■ i. John Prichard of Llandaff. — Was a pupil of A. W. Pugin, and held the position of diocesan architect for nearly forty years. Superintended the restoration of many churches, as well as that of the cathedral in conjunction with Mr. J. P. Seddon, the general restoration with Mr. T. H. Wyatt, and subsequently by himself. He remodelled, about 1865, Eatington Hall, Warwickshire ; and designed the mauso- leum of the Bute family at Cardiff Castle. Died Oct., 1886, aged 68. 3). George Vulliamy of London. — A pupil of Sir C. Barry ; travelled much abroad, returned in 1843. Succeeded Mr. Marrable at the Metropolitan Board of Works as superintending architect in 1861, and for whom he designed the group of buildings on the south side of Queen Victoria Street, near Bucklersbury ; addi- tional story, &c., to the offices of the Board ; several of the Fire Brigade stations, &c. Amongst his private works are the French Protestant Church, Bloomsbury; church, &c., at Queenhithe ; the memorial tower to the Earl of Ellesmere ; Dyffryn in Merionethshire ; the restoration of the north transept of Rochester Cathedral; All Saints’ Church, Ennismore Gardens; the pedestal and sphinxes for the Cleopatra’s Needle, &c. Died November 12, 1886, aged 69. 3! George Goldie of York. — He was pupil, and then partner with Messrs. Hadfield and Weightman of Sheffield. He removed to London, and designed the Church of St. Wilfrid, at York ; the Pro-Cathedrals at Kensington, at Durban in Natal, and at Middlesborough ; the Cathedral at Sligo ; the Church of St. John of Jeru- salem, in Great Ormond Street ; Upsall Castle, and Weston Manor in the Isle of Wight; and many Roman Catholic churches, &c. Died March 1, 1887, aged 59. 38 Victor Marie Charles Rcprich-Robert of Paris. — He designed the Church of Flers ; the restoration of the Chateau d’Amboise ; the Church of Ste. Trinity at Caen ; the Church of Ouistreham in the Calvados diocese. Besides “ Flore Monu- mentale,” 1 866, and the monograph on the Church and Monastery of Val de Grace, 1875, he had nearly completed a great work on “ Norman Architecture in Normandy and England.” Died May 7, 1887, aged 67. '9 Sir Horace Jones of London. — Commencing practice in 1846, he designed the British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company’s offices, Threadneedle Street ; the Sovereign Assurance office, Piccadilly ; Royal Surrey Music Hall ; Cardiff Town Hall ; Caversham Park, and other buildings, warehouses, residences, &c. ; and was surveyor to several estates. In February 1864 he was appointed archi- tect to the Corporation of the City of London, which office he held for twenty- three years, for whom he designed, 1868, the Central Meat Market; 1875, the Poultry and Provision Market ; 1883, the Fruit Market ; 1871, the Foreign Cattle Market at Deptford; 1877, the reconstruction and enlargement of Billingsgate Market; and 1882, the rebuilding of Leadenhall Market, with large additions, &c., to the Islington Cattle Market. He also completed, 1864, the City Lunatic Asylum at Dartford ; designed, 1864, the new r.>of and other works to the Guild- hall; 1872, the library and museum, and 1884, the new council chamber. Several stations for the City police; artizans’ dwellings in Farringdon Road; the bascule bridge over the river Thames beyond the Tower, commenced 1885, with 4 E 2 115(3 LIST OF ARCHITECTS, AND THEIR PRINCIPAL WORKS. AFTER CHRIST. J. W. Barry as engineer ; the Guildhall School of Music, on the Embankment and the Temple Bar Memorial, are among his later designs. In 1882-83 he wa President of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Died May 21, 1887 aged 68. 391. Daniel Ramee of France — Much occupied for the “ Monuments Historjques ” o France. Restored the Palais de Justice at Beauvais ; the Church of St. Vulfra at Abbeville, Notre Dame de Noyon, the Church of St. Riquier, that at Senlc and many others. He published many works, especially “ Histoire Gdndrale d 1’ Architecture,” 8vo , 1843 ; 2nd edit. 1862; and others named in the list ofpubl cations. Died September, 1887, aged 81. 392. Edward I’Anson of London. — President of the Royal Institute of British Arch: tects at the time of his death, January 30, 1888, aged 76. 393. George Godwin of London. — Edited “The Builder” from 1845 (vol. iii.), f nearly forty years, retiring in October 1883. — Died January 27, 1888, aged 73. INDEX THE PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS. The numbers refer to figures which precede each name in the List. Ate, N., 196 Alallah ben Said, 26 1 lelrrahaman, 21 /‘l, J., 235 A m, R., 275 - - VV., 252 Aerius, 16 Aimedes, i. A olo, B. d’, 1G1 - 6. d’, 127 Ajstino da Siena, 73 A her, P„ 322 Aa de Walsingham, 89 Ahrti, A., 107 - Leo B., 112 Aick, J., 125, 210 A huela, J. M. de, 300 A |ich, H., 231 A tti, G. B., 212 A hi, G.,169 A rdi. A., 216 Aaius, 15 A, iso, J. de, 95 Aljius, 12 Ai:n, J., 298 Ai]:e, R., 144 Ai ianato, B., 195 Ai ea da Pisa, 72 — idi Cione, 91 ■ilouet du Cerceau, J . B., 205 - J., 206 Arho da Siena, 73 Ar.Umius, 17 An Ar An Ap Aq Ar Arj An tates, xvi ne, J. D., 279 linus, 10 odorus, 7 e, D., 86 as, xxi ms, xxiii Id, 34 An jto di Cambio, 69 As) iv, H., 143 As! hid, J., 118 Lacj, d’ Agnolo, 161 Baud da Vignola, G., Bar , Sir C., 333 Batphus, xxxv Bazhenov, V. I., 302 Beauchamp, R., 116 Bergamasco, 11. 147 Bergamo, B., 147 Berham, H. de, 46 Bernardino, A., 219 Bernini, G. L., 217 Berretini, P., 155 Berretta, L., 140 Berruguete, A., 179 Bibiena, F. G., 256 G. G., 257 A. G., 258 A. G., 259 F. G., 260 Blond, J. B. A. le, 244 Blonde], F., 224 J. F., 266 Blouet, G. A., 325 Boccadoro, P., 134 Boeblinger, FI. and M., 115 Boffrand, G„ 249 Bolton, W., 126 Bonano, 43 Bonaventura, N., 80 Bonomi, J., 282 Borromini, F., 215 Boyden, W., 74 Bramante, 119 Bramantino, 104 Brar’, Sir R., 116 Brenna, V., 302 Brettingliam, J., 267 R. F., 268 Briosco, A., 156 Britton, J., 328 Brosse, J. de, 208 Brunellesco, 93 Bulfmch, C., 309 Bunning, J. B., 338 Buonarroti, M. A., 171 Buono, 38 B., 146 Buontalenti, B., 198 Busketus, 27 Bustamente, B., 189 Cagnola, L., 311 Callias, xxii Callicrates, xiv Callimachus, xxvii Cambiche, J., 194 Campbell, C., 241 Campero, J. de, 150 Canina, L., 329 Canonica, L., 342 Canterbury, T. of, 77 Carilepho, 30 Carr, J., 299 Celer, 3 Chambers, Sir W., 274 Chambiches, M., 132 Chelles, Jean de, 53 Chersiphron, iv Chirosophus, vii Chryses, 18 Ciccione, A., 106 Cione, A. di, 91 Cleodamas, xxx Cloos or Close, N., 101 Cocceius Auctus, L., xli Cockerell, C. R., 310, 353 Cole, J., 129 Colechurch, P. of, 45 Contucci, A., 145 Cooley, T., 294 Corbie, P. de, 51 Cormont, T. de, 48 Coroebus, xix Cortone, D. de, 134 P. da, 155 Cossutius, xxxi Cotte, R. de, 226, 242 Coucy, R. de, 55 Covarrubias, A. de, 164 Cozzo, P., 42 Cristodoulos, 102 Cronaca, II., 122 Ctesiphon, iv Cyriades, 13 Cyrus, xxxix Dance, G., 264 Jun., G., 283 Daniel, 15 Daphnis, v Deane, Sir T., 351 Demetrius, iv 1.158 INDEX TO THE LIST OE THE PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS. Detrianus, 9 Dexiphanes, xxxvii Dinocrates, xxv Dioti Salvi, 37 Domingues, A., 85 Dotzinger, Jost, 81 Dry ell, J., 98 Du Cerceau, J. B., 205 J., 200 Durand, J. N. L., 304 Eberhard, 24 Eginhardus, M., 23 Limes, H. L., 318 Elyas, 46 Erlach, J. B. F. von, 238 Ernulf, 33 Erwin von Steinbach, 08 Essex, J., 295 Estienne de Bonneuill, 49 Eupalinus, vi Eupolemus, xxviii Ezguerra, P. de, 182 Falconetto, G. M., 162 Farleigli, R. de, 79 Favariis, J. de, 62 Ferracini, B., 42 Fioravanti, R., 107 Fiorentino, A., 185 Fischer, C. von, 287 Fischers, J. B., 238 J. E., 238 Fitz-Odo, E., 47 Foix, L. de, 204 Fontana C., 232a D., 199 Forment, D., 177 Formentone, T., 110 Forster, L., 839 Francesco di Giorgio, 109 Frontinus, 6 Fowke, F., 345 Fuccio, 63 F'ufitius or Fussitius, xlii Fuga, F., 269 Fulbert, 29 Gabriel, J. A., 271 J., 246 Gadyer, P., 133 Gaertner, F. von, 316 Gainsborough, 92 Gainza, M. de, 178 Galilei, A., 245 Galli Bibiena, 256 to 260 Gandon, J., 289 Gandy, J. M , 315 Deering, P. J., 319 Garcia, A., 40 Gasse, S. and L., 312 Gay, J., 320 Genga, G. and B., 166 Giamberti, G., 131 A., 151 Gibbs, J., 251 Gil de Hontanon, J., 159 R., 160 Giocondo, 137 Giorgi, F. di, 109 Giovanni da Pisa, 66 Giulio Romano, 173 Gomez de Mora, J., 233 Gondoin, J., 286 Gonsalvo, San, 56 Graham, J. G., 326 Grand, J. G. le, 283 Gruamons, 39 Gunnel, P. de, 149 Gundulphus, 33 Gwilt, J., 341 Hacket, D., 86 Hamilton, D., 335 T., 331 Hardwick, P., 348 Harrison, T., 310 Haveus, T., 187 Haviland, J., 324 Hawksmore, N., 243 Hawthorne, II., 201 Heave, T., 187 Heinricx, 176 Helyas de Berham, 46 Henry Latomus, 75 Hermodorus, xxxiii Hermogenes, iii Herrera, J. de, 191 Hilts, Hans, 83 Hippodamus, xviii Hittorff, J. I., 346 Holbein, Hans, 138 Holland, H., 281 Holt, T„ 227 Honecort, W. de, 60 Hooke, R., 230 Horwod, YV., 100 Ilultz, IL, 83 Humbert, 28 Hylmer, J., 130 Ictinus, xiii Inwood, H. \Y., 303 Isenbert, 45 Isidorus of Miletus, 17 of Byzantium, 19 Ixnard, M. d’, 250 Ivara, or Juvara, F., 239 Jacopo of Florence, 52 of Germany, 59 James, J., 247 Jansen, B., 218 Jean de Chelles, 53 Joannes of Miletus, 20 Johannes de Middelton, 71 John of Padua, 142 Jones, Inigo, 211 Juvara, F., 239 Iveldermans, J., 113 R., 139 Kendale, J., 1 1 7 Kendall, J., 293 Kent, W., 253 Keyes, It., 99 Klenze, L. von, 337 Labelye, C., 255 Lacer, 8 Lalye, M., 132 Lalys, 35 Landfridus, 32 Lanfrancus, 31 Lanfrani, G., 81 Langhans, K. G., 284 Lapi, F. dei, 93 Lapo, A. di, 69 Lazzari, D , 1 19 Latomus, Henry, 75 Latrobe, B. II.. 300 Lauranna, L., 1 1 1 Layens, M. de, 1 14 Le Blond, J. B. A., 214 Ledoux, C. N., 280 Le Grand, J. G., 283 Le Muet, P., 213 Leoni, G., 248 Lepfere, J. B., 286, 346 Lescot, P., 192 Libergiers, Hues, 55 Libo, xii Ligorio, P., 220 Lombardo, M., 121 P., 124 Sante, 170 T., 135 Lorenzo, San, 68 L’Orme, P. de, 168 Lote, S., 92a Louis, V., 278 Lucano, N. da San, 1 23 Luzarches, R. de, 48 Machuca, P., 184 Maderno, C., 209 Maglione, F., 64 Majano, G da, 96 Malcolm, E., 174 Mandrocles, viii Manlio, F., 158 Mansart. F., 258 J. H., 232 Marsh, or March, 228 Marshall, E., 174 Martino, L. da, 111 Mascal, or Marshall, H., I Masuccio, 65 Stephano, 68 Memno, ix Menesicles, xv Mercier, J. le, 222, 226 Merliano, G., 157 Merlini, D., 292 Messidius, xliii Meta, M. de, 219 Metagenes, iv, xix Metezau, T., 214 C., 226, 234 Metrodorus, ii Michael Angelo, 171 Michelozzi, M., 94 Middelton, J. de, 71 Mignot, J., 80 Mills, E., 336 Muesicles, xv Mnesthes, xxiv Modena, N. da, 196 Monegro, J. B., 233 Montereau, P. de, 54 Montferrand, A. R. d( Morlanes, D., 177 Mormando, G. F., 128 Morrison, Sir R. and W 317 Morton, — , 97 Muet, P. le, 213 Mustius, 5 Mutius, Cains, xxxiv Mylne, R., 285 Narbonne, II. de, 6 Nash, J., 306 Nicola of Pisa, 60 Norton, — , 97 INDEX TO THE LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARCHITECTS. 1159 . vello da S. Lucano, 123 0 of Crovland, 34 I ilzago, Gr. di, 148 cagna, 91 chyearde, W., 108 me, P de 1’, 1G8 guet, D., 86 dua, J. of, 142 ■onias, v ine, J., 277 lladio, A., 197 utre, A. le, 225 xton, Sir J., 344 J nnetbome, Sir J., 350 icier, C., 291 rez, P. 69 rrault, C., 223 rronet, J. R., 272 ruzzi, B., 153 ter of Colechurch, 45 troni, Dioti de’, 37 iieax, xxix \ilo, xxxii liloxenus, xliii ccino, — , 42 cconi, A., 152 ermarini, G., 301 erre de Corbie, 51 letro Gonsalvo, San, 57 no, M. di 154 ntelli, B., 103 ppi, G., 173 sa, A. da, 72 — G. da, 66 \vfair, W. H., 327 liajuolo, S., 122 lvclitus, xx nte, G. da, 221 rden, W., 323 stumius, xl zzo, G. del, 105 get, P., 230 gin, A., 305 - A. W. N., 321 thius, x brius, 4 ffaello d’Urbino, 141 imond du Temple, 78 vy, J., 82 1 ymundo, 46 lu, T., 380 J -ry, E. M„ 366 ] re, E., 362 J indon, R., 358 i 'ce, D., 357 J -ges, W., 371 1 ton, D., 372 < ysenaar, J. P., 367 Lialdson, T. L., 381 I. 1 , J. L., 363 Hris, E. de, 377 1 gusson, J., 383 Frey, B., 369 ! Reade, W., 90 Rhoecus, ii Ricard do Montferrand, A, 332 Riecio, A., 156 Rickman, T., 313 Ripley, T., 254 Rizzio, — , 12 Robert, 46, 79 Robert de Luzarches, Romain, F., 246 Romano, G., 172 Romualdus, 22 Ruiz, F., 183 Sacchetti, G. 261 Sanchez, J., 180 Sanctis, G. de, 68 San Gallo, A., 151, 152 G., 131 San Lorenzo, 58 San Lucano, N. da, 123 San Micheli, M., 167 San Pietro Gonsalvo, 57 Sansavino, A., 145, 186 Sante Lombardo, 170 Sanzio, R., 141 Satyrus, x Saurus, xxxvi Scammozzi, V., 207 Sehinkel, C. F. von, 314 Scopas, xvii Sennamar, 14 Sens, W. of, 44 Serlio, S., 193 Servandoni, J. N., 263 Severus, 3 Shute, J., 200 Siloe, D., 165 Simonetti, M. A., 270 Smirke, Sir R., 347 Smithson, R. and H., 203 Soane, Sir J., 290 Sostratus, xxvii Soufflot, J. G., 273 Spintharus, xi Steinbacb, E. von, 68 Suardi, B., 104 Sugger, 41 Tarchesius, xxiii Tatti, J., 186 Taylor, Sir R., 276 Teotocopuli, D., 188 Tessin, N. V., 236 Count N., 237 Texier, C., 349 Theodorus, ii Thomas of Canterbury, 77 Thomoud, T., 296 Thorpe, J., 175 Tietland, 25 Tioda, 24 Tite, Sir W., 353 Toledo, J. B. de, 190 Tomaso, — , 43 Tresham, Sir T., 202 Trophonius, i Uria, P. de, 163 Ustamber, P. de, 29 Yaldevira, P. de, 181 Valerius, xxxviii Vanbrugh, Sir J , 240 Vanvitelli, L., 265 Vertue, W., 131 Vinci, L. da, 136 Vignola, 172 Visconti, L. T. J., 330 Vitoni, V., 120 V itruvius Cerdo, 2 Vitruvius Pollio, M., 1 \V alsingbam, A. de, 89 Walter de Weston, 76 Walters, E., 352 Warren, J., 210 Weston, W. de, 76 Wilhelmus, 43 Wilkins, W., 308 William de Wynford, 88 ot Sens, 44 of Wykeiiam, 87 the Englishman, 44 Wood, J., 262 Wren, Sir C., 229 Wyatt, J., 297 Wyatville, Sir J., 307 Wykeham, W. of, 87 Wynford, W. de, 88 Yevele, or Zeneley, H., 92a Zanth, L. von, 343, 346 Zwirner, E. F., 334 ADDITIONAL LIVES (1888). Ferstel, H. von, 378 Godwin, G., 393 Goldie, G., 388 PAnson, E., 392 Jones, O., 354 Jones, Sir H., 390 Labrouste, P. F. H., 356 Labrouste, T., 382 Lesueur, J. B. C., 379 Penson, R. K., 385 Prichard, J., 386 Ramde, D., 391 Rhind, D., 376 Richardson, H. H., 384 Ruprich-Robert, V. M. C., 389 Salvin, A.. 373 Scott, Sir G. G., 361 Semper, G., 364 Smirke, S., 359 Strack, J. H., 368 Street, G. E., 374 Thomson, A., 355 Vespignani, V., 375 Viollet-le-Duc, E. E., 365 Vulliamy, G., 387 Wyatt, Sir M. D., 360 Wyatt, T. H., 370 A CATALOGUE OF THE PRINCIPAL AND MOST USEFUL PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO ARCHITECTURE. ARRANGED UNDER THE FOLLOWING CLASSES: PAGE I. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE . . 1161 II. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE . .1162 III. OTHER COUNTRIES : ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE : A. Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, &c 1164 B . Africa, Asia, Spain . . . 1164 C . Egypt, Holt Land, &c. . .1165 l ). India, &c 1165 E . Great Britain, Russia, France, &e 1166 F. North and South America . 1166 IV. GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE : A. Great Britain and Ireland . 1166 B . Other Countries . . „ 1169 V. MODERN ARCHITECTURE : A. Great Britain and Ireland . 1172 B . France and Belgium .1174 C. Germany, &c 1175 D. Spain, Italy, Russia, &c. . 1175 VI. THEATRES 1177 VII. RURAL ARCHITECTURE, GAR- DENS, STABLING, &c. „ . 1178 VIII. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, THEORY, &c 1179 IX. ELEMENTARY WORK, ORDERS, DETAILS, MOULDINGS . . 1180 X. MATERIALS .... 1181 PAGE XI. STATICS, STRAINS, STRENGTH, MECHANICS, TABLES, &c. . 1182 XII. PRACTICAL WORKS OF CON- STRUCTION 1184 XIII. FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION AND PROTECTION . . . 1186 XIV. BRIDGES AND ARCHES . .1180 XV. SPECIFICATIONS, GUIDES TO TRADES, OFFICE WORK . .1188 XVI. DESIGN, DRAWING, PERSPEC- TIVE 1188 XVII. ORNAMENT, DECORATION, BRASSES, &c 1189 XVIII. COLOURED DECORATION, STAINED GLASS, PAINTS, HERALDRY, &c 1193 XIX. SURVEYING, MENSURATION, LEVELLING, QUANTITIES, PRICES, ESTI MA TING . . 1195.' XX. LAW, DILAPIDATIONS, FIX- TURES, LIGHT AND AIR, ESTATES, &c 1195 XXI. SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS, &c. . 1196 XXII. SANITARY, VENTILATION, WARMING 1>9? XXIII. DICTIONARY, BIOGRAPHY, JOURNAL l |s; N.B .— All the works are published in London, unless otherwise stated. 1161 PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO ARCHITECTURE. I. GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE. >erdeen, Earl of. Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in Grecian Architecture. 8vo. kin, E. Essay on the Doric Order. Folio. 1810 [1822. rfes. Th&orie du Module d&luite du texte de Vitruve. 8vo. Nismes, 1862. ule, E. L’Acropole d’Athenes. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1853. met, A. Expedition Scientifique en Mor4e. 3 rols, folio. Paris, 1826-39. tticher, A. Olympia. 8vo. Berlin, 1883. nina, L. L’ Architettura Antica. 5 rols. 8vo. and folio. Rome, 1 834-43. rapanos, C. Dodone et ses Ruines. 4to. Paris, 1878. oiseul-Gouffier. Voyage Pittoresque de la Groce. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1782-1809. irke, J. T. American Explorations at Assos. 4to. Uambridgo, U.S.A., 1883. ekerell, C. R. Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Agrigentum. Folio. 1825. The Temple at iEgina and at Bass®. Folio. 1860. vid. F. A. Antiques Etrusques, Grecques, et Romaines ; with explanations by Hugues id’Hancarville. 5 vols. Paris, 1787. ■lagardctte, C. M. Les Ruines de Paestum, ou Posidonia. Folio. Paris, 1799. Inaldton, T. L. Collection of the most approved Examples of Doorways from Ancient (Buildings in Greece and Italy. 2 vols. 4to. 1833. [8vo. 1859. ; Architectura Numismatica, or Architectural Medals of Classic Antiquity. Plates, . Ikener, E. Daedalus ; or, the Cause and Principles of the Excellence of Greek Sculp- ure. 8vo. 1860. Ephesus and the Temple of Diana. 8vo. 1862. . so Pietrasanto, D. (Duca di Serradifalco). Le Antichita della Sicilia. 5 vols. folio. Palermo, 1834-42. . 'gusson, J. The Parthenon ; an Essay on the Mode by which Light was introduced nto Greek and Roman Temples. 4to. 1883. •urtner, F. Monuments of Greece and Sicily. Folio. Munich, 1819. •l-muller, H. de. Samothrace. 8vo. Paris, 1882. ' lilt, J. Essay on Grecian Architecture, to his edition of The Decorative Part of Civil Architecture, by Sir W. Chambers. 8vo. 1825. i rris, W., and Angell. S. Metopes of the Temple at Selinus. 4to. 1826. 1 torff, J. l., and Zanth, L. Architecture Antique de la Sicile. Folio. Paris, 1825-37 nd edition. Text, 4to. Plates, folio. Paris, 1870. Ijir, S. Raccolta degli Antichi Edificj di Catania. Folio Catania, 1812. I 11, — . On the Doric Style : 24 tables by Stall. 1870. Lrouste, H. Les Temples de Paestum. Folio. Paris, 1877. I I Roy, J. B. Les Ruines des plus beaux Monuments de la Grece, considerees du cot6 de Histoire et du cote de 1’ Architecture. Folio. Paris, 1758. lines (le Due de), and Debacq, F. J. Metaponte. 10 plates, folio. Paris, 1833. A or, T. Ruines de Paestum. 24 plates, folio. 1768. Mhaelis, A. Der Parthenon. Folio. Leipzig, 1870. k ler, K. O. Ancient Art and its Remains ; or, a Manual of the Archaeology of Art. 2nd ;lition, 8vo. 1852. [Chambers. Folio. 1826. P worth, J. B. Essay on Grecian Architecture, to his edition of the Work by Sir W. P aethorne, J. Elements and Mathematical Principles of the Greek Architects and rtists, &c. 8vo. 1844. The Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture, illus- ited by examples from Thebes, Athens, and Rome. Folio. 1878. ose, F. C. Principles of Athenian Architecture ; with reference to the Optical Re- ements of the Ancient Buildings at Athens. 42 plates, folio. 1851. istein, O. Das Ionische Capitell. 4to. Berlin, 1887. -remere de Quincy, A. C. Jupiter Olympien. Folio, plates. Paris, 1815. — Restitution des deux frontons du Temple de Minerve a Athenes. 4to. Paris, 1825. 'cjemann, H. Troy and its Remains. 8vo. 1875. Mycenae: A Narrative of Re- aches and Discoveries at Mycenae and Tiryns. 8vo. 1878. Ilios : the City and the untry of the Trojans. 8vo. 1880. Exploration of the Boeotian Orchomenus. 8vo. 11. Troja: Results of the latest researches, &c. 8vo. 1884. Prehistoric Palace. >. 1886. h, W. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1848. ty of Dilettanti. Unedited Antiquities of Attica, comprising the Architectural mains of Eleusis, Rhamnus, Sunium, aud Thoricus. Edited by Wilkins, Gandy- ering, and Bedford. Folio. 79 plates. 1817,1833. [1840, and 1881. - Antiquities of Ionia, by Chandler, Revett, and Pars. Folio, 4 vols. 1769-97, 1162 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Stanhope, J. S. Olympia ; or, Topography of the ancient State of the Plain of Olympia and of the Ruins of the City of Elis. Folio. 1821. [1842 Stewart, J. R. Ancient Monuments still existing in Lydia and Phrygia. 20 plates, folic Stuart, J., and Revett, N. Antiquities of Athens. 4 vols. folio. 1762,1787,1794. An. a supplementary volume edited by J. Woods in 1816. A second edition, with con siderable additions ; edited by W. Kinnard, with a supplement of Antiquities i Greece, Sicily, &c., by C. R. Cockerell, W. Kinnard, T. L. Donaldson, W. Jenkins, an others. 4 vols. folio. 1825-30. The plates in the three first volumes of this editio are from the coppers of the French edition, by J. J. Hittorff. Folio. Paris, 1808-22 Visconti, E. Q,. Ouvrages de Sculpture du Parthenon. 8vo. Paris. 1818. West, W. R. Grecian Temples, how roofed and lighted. 4to. Philadelphia, 1866. Wilkins, W. Antiquities of Magna Graecia. Folio. Cambridge, 1807. Prolusiones Architectonic® ; or, Essays on Subjects connected with Grecian an. Roman Architecture. 2nd edition, 4to. 1837. Topography and Buildings of Athens. 8vo. 1816. Williams, II. W. Select Views in Greece, with Classical Illustrations. 4to. 1827. Wood, J. T. Discoveries at Ephesus, including the site and remains of the Great Tempi of Diana. 8vo. 1877. II. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Adam, R. Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia Adler, F. Das Pantheon zu Rom. Berlin, 1872. [Folio, 61 plates. 1764 j Allason, T. Picturesque Views of the Antiquities of Pola. Folio, 14 plates. 1817. Bartoli, P. S. Gli Antichi Sepolchri ovvero Mausolei Romani ed Etrusehi. Folio, 11 plates. Roma, 1727. Colonna Trajana, a P. Bellori. 128 plates. Bellori, J. P. Veteres Arcus Augustorum Triumphis insignes ex Reliquiis qus Rom: adhuc supersunt, per J. J. de Rubeis. Folio. Roma, 1690. and Causseo, M. A. Picturse Antiquae Cryptarum Romanarum et Sepulct Nasonum delineate. Folio. Roma, 1750. [Folio. Roma, 181 Bianchi di Lugano, P. Osservazioni sull’ Arena, e sul Podio dell’ Anfiteatro Flavib Bianconi, G. L. Descrizione dei Circhi. Folio, 20 plates. Roma, 1789. Burn, R. Rome and the Campagna. History and Topographical Description of the Sit Buildings, and Neighbourhood of Ancient Rome. 4to. 1871. Cameron, C. Baths of the Romans explained. Folio, 75 plates. 1772. Canina, L. Gli Edifizi di Roma Antica coguiti per alcune importanti reliquie. 6 vol folio. Roma, 1848-56. [medesima 2nd edition, folio. Ruma, 184 Ricerche sull’ Architettura, piu propria dei Tempj Cristiani e applicazione del L’ Architettura Antica. 5 vols. 8vo. and folio. Roma, 1834-43. L’ Antica Etruria Marittima compresa nella Dizione Pontificia. 2 vols. fob Roma, 1846-49. Caristie, A. Plan et Coupe d’une parti e du Forum Romain et des Monuments sur Voie Sacrde. Atlas folio. Paris, 1821. Cassas, L. F. le. Voyage Pittoresque de l’lstrie en Dalmatie. Folio. Paris, 1802. Castell, R. Villas of the Ancients Illustrated. Large folio. 1728. Choisy, A. L’Art de Batir chez les Romains. Folio. Paris, 1873. Ciampini, J. Rom® Vetera Monumenta. Folio. Romse, 1690-99, 1747- Cipriani, G. B. Monumenti di Fabbriche Antiche. 4to. Roma, 1796. Cockburn, Col. J. P., and Donaldson, T. L. Pompeii Illustrated. 2 vols. Folio, 1825 David, F. A. Antiques Etrusques, Grecques et Romaines ; with explanations Hugues d’Hancarville. 5 vols. Paris, 1787. Davis, N. Carthage and its Remains. 8vo. 1860. Dennis, J. The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. 2 vols. 8vo. 1848. Desgodetz, A. Edifices de Rome, dessines et mesur^s trfes exactement. Folio, upvrar of 300 plates. Paris, 1682. Dodwell, E. Views and Descriptions of Cyclopean or Pelasgic Remains in Greece a Italy. Folio. 1833. Donaldson, T. L. Temple a, la Victoire; monument comm^moratif a MessJne: rl geometral et Vue avec explication historique. 4to. 1876. Dyer, T. Pompeii; its History, Buildings, and Antiquities. 2nd edit. 8vo. 1868. Gell, Sir W., and Gandy, J. P. Pompeiana ; the Topography, Edifices, and Orname of Pompeii. 2 vols. 8vo. 1824. Geymuller, H. de. Documents Inedits sur les Thermos d’Agrippa, le Pantheon, les Thermes de Diocletien. 4t,o. Lausanne, 1883. Grangent, M. M., Durand, C., et Durant, S. Description des Monuments Antiques Midi de France. Folio, plates. Paris, 1819. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1 163 .utensohn, J. G., and Knapp, J. M. Henkmale der christlichen Religion &c., oder Basiliken Roms. Folio, Stuttgart, 1822-27 ; and folio, Roma, 1823. audebourt, L. P. Le Laurentin ; Maison de Campagne de Pline le Jeune. Plates, 8vo. Paris, 1838. ordan, H. Tempel der Vesta. 4to. Berlin, 1886. abacco, A. Libro d’ A. L. appartenente all’ Architettura nel qual si figurano alcune notabile Antiquita di Roma. Plates, folio. Roma, 15.52, 1558. [1829. and 1838. iazois, F., and Gau, F. C. Les Ruines de Pompdi. 4 vols. folio. Paris, 1812, 1824, iddleton, J. H. Ancient Rome in 1885. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1885. ibbv, A. Del Foro Romano, della Via Sacra, dell’ Anfiteatro F'lavio, e dei Luoghi adjacenti. 8vo. Roma, 1819. [Napoli, 1854-65. iccolini, F. and F. Le Case ed i Monumenti di Pompei. Vols. 1 and 2, &c. Folio, illadio, A. I Quattro Libri d’ Architettura : the last book treats of ancient Roman Architecture. Figures on wood blocks. First edition, folio. Venice, 1570. Several later editions. [Folio. Milano, 1803. II Tempio di Minerva in Assisi confrontato colie Tavole di Giov. Antolini. Les Thermes des Romains, dessindes par 0. B. Scamozzi, d’ pres l’Exemplaire du Lord Burlington. Folio. Vicenza, 1785. oli, P. Ravine della Citta di Pesto. Folio. Roma, 1784. [Oxford, 1883. irker, J. H. The Archaeology of Rome. 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. 8vo. The Twelve Egyptian Obelisks in Rome ; their History explained by translations of the Inscriptions upon them. 2nd edition, 8 vo. Oxford, 1879. anethorne, J. The Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture: Thebes, Athens, and Rome. F'olio. 1878. rret, L. Catacombes de Rome. 6 vols. 327 plates, folio. Paris, 1851. ranesi, Giov. Bapt. The works of (the son) subsequent to the death of John Baptist Piranesi. 29 vols. imperial folio. Roma, 1756-1807. An abbreviated list of them is tubjoined : — Vol. 1. Ruins of ancient Edifices of Rome, with the Explanation, Aqueducts, Baths, the Forum, &c. &c. Vol. 2. Funeral Monuments, Cippi, Vases, &c. &c. Vol. 3. Ancient Bas-reliefs, Stuccoes, Mosaics, Inscriptions, &c. &c. Vol. 4. The Bridges of Rome, the Ruins of the Theatres, Portieoes, &c. &c. Vol. 5. The Monuments of the Scipios. Vol. 6. Ancient Temples, the Temples of Vesta, of Honour and Virtue, Statue of the Goddess Vesta, Altar to Bacchus, the Pantheon of Rome, &c. &c. Vol. 7. The Magnificence of the Ancient Roman Architecture, Pedestals of the Arches of Titus and Septimus Severus, Portico of the Capitol, &e. &c. Vol. 8. Grecian, Etruscan, and Roman Architecture, Arches of Triumph, Bridges, Temples, Amphitheatres, Prisons, &c. Vol. 9. Fetes and Triumphs, from the Foundation of Rome to Tiberius, Temple of Castor and Hercules, and other simple Monuments of the Ancient City of Cora, &c. &c. Vol. 10. The ancient Campo Marzio, Ruins of the Theatre of Pompeii, Portico of Octavius, Reservoir of the Virgin Water, Mausoleum of Augustus, Palace of Aurelius, the Pantheon, the Cave of the Archives of the Romans, Baths and Tombs of Adrian, Apotheosis of Antonine the Pious, Arch of Marcus Aurelius, Baths of Sallust, Plan of the Roman Senate House, &c. &c. Vol. 11. Antiquities of Albano, Temple of Jupiter, Sepulchral Attributes to the Horatii, Amphitheatre of Domitian, ancient Baths, &c. Vol. 12. Ancient Candelabra and Vases, Urns, Lamps, &c. &c. Vol. 13. Ancient Candelabra and Vases, Urns, Lamps, &c. &c. Vol. 14. The Trajan and Antonine Columns. Vol. 15. Ruins of Psestum, Temple of Neptune, Temple of Juno, &c. &c. Vol. 16. The Principal Modern Edifices of Rome, Monuments, Palaces, Fountains, Aqueducts, Bridges, Temples, Porticoes, Amphitheatres, Baths, &c. &c. Vol. 17. The Principal Modern Edifices of Rome, Monuments, Palaces, Fountains, Aqueducts, Bridges, Temples, Porticoes, Amphitheatres, Baths, &c. &c. Vol. 18. The Principal Ancient Statues and Busts of the Royal Museum of France, the Vatican, of the Capitol, Villa Borghese, Villa Ludovici, Farnesian Palace, the Gallery of Florence, &c. &c. Vol. 19. Theatre of Herculaneum. [&o. &c. Vol. 20. Egyptian, Grecian, Etruscan, and Roman Chimney Pieces, Ornaments, Vol. 21. Forty-four Plates after Guercino, by Piranesi, Bartolozzi, &c. Vol. 22. Italian School of Painting. [neum, &c. &c. Vcl. 23. Twenty-four grand Subjects from Rafaelle, Volterra, Pompeii, Hercula- Vol. 24. Twelve Paintings of Rafaelle, in the Vatican, &c. &c. 1161 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Vol. 25. Fourteen Paintings of Rafaelle, in the Vatican, &c. &c. Vol. 26. Thirteen Paintings of Vasari, after the Designs of Michael Angelo, &c. &c. Vol. 27. The Destruction of Pompeii, its Tombs, Utensils, Ornaments, &c. &c. Vol. 28. Antiquities of Pompeii, its Houses, Tombs, Vases, &c. Vol. 29. Antiquities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, &c. &c. Pistolesi, E. Antiquities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. English, French, and Italian text. 2 vols. 4to. Naples, 1842. Pollen, W. II. Column of Trajan. 8vo. 1875. Ponce, N. Description des Bains de Titus. Folio, plates. Paris, 1786. Roller, T. S. Clement de Rome; Description de la Basilique souterraine rdcemment decouverte. 8vo. Rome, 1873. Rossi, De. La Roma Sotterranea. 40 plates, folio. Roma, 1865. Rossini, L. Le Antiehita Romane. 100 large plates, atlas folio. Roma, 1820, & c. Roux, H., Boucbet, A., et Barre, M. L. Recueil d’Herculaneum et Pompei. 8 vols. 4to. Paris, 1837-40. Smith, R. M., and Porcher, E. A. History of the recent Discoveries at Cyrene in 1860- 1861. 60 plates, folio. 1864. Taylor, G. L., and Cresy, E. Architectural Antiquities of Rome. 2 vols. folio. 1820- 1822. Second edition with additions, folio. 1874. Valadier, G. Raccolta delle piu insigni Fabbriche di Roma Antica e sue Adjacenze, illustrata con Osservazioni Antiq. de F. A. Visconti. Plates. Roma, 1810-26. Vasi, G. Magnificenze di Roma Antica e Moderna. 3 vols. Roma, 1747. Vaudoyer, A. L. T. Description du Th^&tre de Marcellus a Rome. 4to. Paris, 1812. AYey, F. Rome ; with an Introduction by AV. W. Story. 4to. 1872. Winckelman, J. J. Remarques sur l'Architecture des Anciens. 8vo. Paris, 1783. Histoire de l’Art chez les Anciens. 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 1790. Monumenti Antiehi Inediti. 2 vols. folio. Napoli, 1820. AVood, R. Ruins of the Balbec and Palmyra. 2 vols. folio. 1753-57. Zestermann, A. Die antiken und christlichen Basiliken. 4to. Leipzig, 1847. III. OTHER COUNTRIES : Ancient Architecture. A. Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, &c. Bonomi, J. Nineveh and its Palaces. 8vo. 1852. Botta, P. E,, and Flandin, E. Monuments de Ninive. 5 vols. folio. Paris, 1849-50. Fergusson, J. The Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis restored. 8vo. 1851. Flandin, E., and Coste, P. Voyage en Perse. 6 vols. folio. Paris, 1851. Layard, A. H. Researches and Discoveries in Nineveh, and an Enquiry into the Art: &e., of the Ancient Assyrians. 4th edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 1850. Monuments oj Nineveh, from drawings made on the spot. Folio. 1849. The Palace of Sennacherib Folio. 1853. Loftus, AV. K. Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana. 8vo. 1857. Perrot, G., and Chipiez, C. Histoire de l’Art dans l’Antiquite. Chaldde et Assyrio. 8v Paris, 1884. Place, V. Ninive et l’Assyrie. 8vo. and folio. Paris, 1867-70. Rich, C. J. Ruins of Babylon and Persepolis. 8vo. 1816. Texier, C. Description de l’Asie Mineure. 3 vols. folio. Paris, 1839. Description de l’Armenie, la Perse et la Mesopotamia. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 184 and Pullan, R. P. Byzantine Architecture : being a collection of Monuments ■ the earliest times of Christianity in the East. Folio. 1864. . Principal Ruins of Asia Minor. 63 plates. Folio. 1865. B. Africa, Asia, Spain. Berbrugger, L. A., and others. L’Algerie historique, pittoresque et monumental Algiers, Oran, Bona, and Constantine. 3 vols. folio. Paris, 1844. Bourgoin, J. Les Arts Arabes ; Architecture, Menuiserie, Bronzes, &c. Folio. Pun 1868-73. Carmona, M. S. Antigiiedades Arabes de Granada y Cordoba. Folio. (Madrid), 18f Girault de Prangey. Monuments Arabes et Moresques de Cordoue, Seville et Grenan Folio. Paris, 1840. Essai sur l’Architecture des Arabes et des Mores en Espagne, en Sicile et Barbarie. 8vo. Paris, 1841. Monuments Arabes d’Egypte, de Syria et d’Asie Mineure. Folio. Paris, 1846-4 Grimm, D. Monuments d’ Architecture en Georgie et en Armdnie. Folio. Petersbui 1864. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1165 iones, 0., and Goury, J. Plans, &c., of the Alhambra. 2 vols. folio. 1838-42. e Bon, G. La Civilisation des Arabes. 4to. Paris, 1884. lurphy, J. Arabian Antiquities of Spain. 97 plates, folio. 1828. (alzenberg, W. Altchristlicho Baudenkmale Constantiropels vom V. bis XIII. Jahr- hundert. Folio. Berlin, 1854. panisli Government. Monumentos Arquitectonicos de Espana. French and Spanish text. 2 parts, folio. Madrid, 1859-86. aylor. L’Alhambra. 10 coloured plates, folio. Paris, 1853. C. Egypt, Holy Land, &c. elgrado, Ab. di. Architettura Egiziana. 4to. Parma, 1786. ianina, L. L’ Architettura Arnica ; Egiziana, &e. 5 vols. folio ; text 4to. Roma, 1834-43. lassas, L. F. de. Voyage Pittoresque de la Syrie, de la Phenicie, de la Palestine, et de la Basse-Egypte. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1798. esnola, L. P. di. Cyprus: ii s Ancieut Cities, Tombs, and Temples. 8vo. 1877. joste, P. Architecture Arabe ; ou Monuments de Caire. Folio. Paris, 1820-22. enon, V. Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute-Egypte. Folio. Paris, 1802. Translated by Aikin. 4to. 1803. [4to. 1878. lergusson, J. Temples of the Jews and other Buildings in the Haram area at Jerusalem, au, F. C. Ant'quitds de la Nubie; ou Monuments inedits des Bords du Nil, situes entre la premiere et la seconde Cataracte. Folio. Paris, 1824-25. ay. R. Illustrations of Cairo and Egypt 30 plates, folio. 1840. -psius, C. R. Denkmiiler aus Aegypten und Aethiopen, &c. New edition, 6 vols. folio. Berlin, 1849-59. Letters from Egypt, translated by L. and J. C. Horner. 8vo. 1853. )ng, G. Egyptian Antiquities in the Britisli Museum, viz. monuments, obelisks, temples, sculpture, statues, pyramids, &e. 2 vols. Svo. 1832. ariette Pacha, F. A. F. Le Sirapeum de Memphis. Folio. Paris, 1857-63. Choix de Monuments et de Dessins decouverts, pendant le d^placement du Sera- phim. 4to. Paris. 1856. Abydos; Vol. 1, Ville Antique, Temple de Seti. Folio. Paris, 1869. Monuments divers recueillis en Egypte et en Nubie. Folio. Paris, 1872. The Monuments of Upper Egypt. 8vo. Alexandria, 1877. rker, J. H. The Twelve PIgyptinn Obelisks in Rome; their History explained by translations of the Inscriptions upon them. 2nd edition, 8vo. Oxford, 1879. nnethorne, J. The Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture. Folio 1878. rring, J. E., Andrews, E. J., and Vyse, Col. The Pyramids of Gizeh, from actual survey in 1837. Folio. 1839-42. rrot, G., and Cbipiez, C. Histoire de l’Art dans l’Antiquite. L’Egypte. 8vo. Paris, 1882. Phenicie, Cypre. 8vo. 1885. Judee, Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce. 8vo. 1887. sse d’Avennes. L’Art Arabe d’apres les Monuments du Kaire depuis le VII e Siecle a, a fin du XVIII 6 . Folio. Paris, 1869-73. I atremere de Quincy, A. C. L’Architecture Egyptienne consider^. 4to. Paris, 1803. 1 sellini, I. I Monumenti dell’ Egitto e della Nubia illustrati. New edition, lo vols. !vo., 3 vols. folio. Pisa, 1835-47. ■'.rpe, S. History of Egypt from the Earliest Times till the Conquest by the Arabs, 40 a.d. 2 vols. 8vo. 1859. Pnard, F. Egypte et Nubie; Sites et-Monuments. Folio. Paris (1858). l upp, J. F. Ancient Jerusalem. History, Topography, and Plan of the City, Environs, nd Temple. 8vo. Cambridge, 1855. Iirnefort, J. P. de.^ Voyage into the Levant. 2 vols. 4to. 1718. Vdie, M. de. Les Eglises de la Terre Sainte. 4to. Paris, 1860. — — Le Temple de Jerusalem ; Monographie du Haram -ech-Cherif. Folio. Paris, 1864. 1 kinson, Sir J. G. Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Two series, vols. 8vo. 1837-46. V liams, G. The Holy City : Notices of Jerusalem ; with Professor Willis’s Arehi- 'Ctural History of the Holy Sepulchre. 2nd edition, 2 vols. 8vo. Cambridge, 1849. V son, E. Cleopatra’s Needle, with Notes on Egypt and Egyptian Obelisks. Svo. 1878. Our Egyptian Obelisk. 4th edition, Svo. 1877. D. India, &c. O , H. TI. Ancient Buildings in Kashmir. .Photog. 4to. 1869. C ningham, A. On the Aryan Order of Architecture as exhibited in the Temples of ashmir. 8vo. Calcutta, 1848. i ,: ell, T. and W. Oriental Scenery. 9 vols. folio. 1813. iJ’Li, — . Orissa and its Temples and Rock-cut Caves. Folio. 1860. 1166 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Fergusson, J. Illustrations of the Rock-cut Temples of India. 8vo. and folio. 1815. Picturesque Illustrations of Ancient Architecture in Hindostan. 17 plates folio 1847. Tree and Serpent Worship ; or, Illustrations of Mythology and Art in India in the first and fourth centuries after Christ, from the Sculptures of the Buddhist Topes at Sanchi and Amravati. 4to. 1868. and Burgess, J. The Cave Temples of India. 8vo. 1880. Kaye, J. W. Simpson’s India, Ancient and Modern, after his Water-colour Drawings. 2 vols. folio 1870. Langles, L. Monuments, anciens et modernes, de l’Hindostan. 2 vols. folio. Paris. 1818. Sewell, R. Report on the Amaravati Tope, and Excavations on its Site in 1877. 4to. 1880. Taylor, M., and Fergusson, J. Architecture in Dharwar and Mysore. Folio. 1866. Tennent, Sir J. E. Ceylon : an Account of the Island. 2 vols. 8vo. 1859. Wilsen, F. C., and Brumund, J. F. G. Boro Boedoer op het Eiland Java. Dutch and French text. Plates, 4 vols. folio. Leyden, 1873-74. E. Great Britain, Russia, France, &c. Brash, R. R. Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland to the close of the Twelfth Century. 4to. 1875. [Paris, 1870. French Government. Dictionnaire Archeologique de Gaule; Epoque Celtique. Folio. Imre, H. Mouumenta Hungarise Archeeologica. 4to Pest, 1869. Kanitz, F. The Byzantine Monuments of Serbia. Vienna, 1862. Masked, A. Russian Art; for South Kensington Museum. 8vo. 1885, Radel, P. Recherches sur les Monuments Cyclop^ens, etc. 8vo. Paris, 1841. Stephens, G. Old Northern Runic Monuments of Scandinavia and England, now fi st. collected. Folio. Copenhagen, 1866. Stroganov, S., Zagoskin, M. N., Snegirev, J. M., and Veltman, A. T. The History of Architecture in Russia. Russian text. 6 vols. 4to. and folio. Moscow, 1849-53. Verneilh, L. de. Architecture Byzantine en France; St. Front de Perigueux et les Eglises a coupoles de 1’ Aquitaine. Plates, 4to. 1851. Waring, J. B. Stone Monuments, Tumuli, and Ornaments of Remote Ages ; Remarks on the Early Architecture of Ireland and Scotland. Folio. 1870. F . North and South America. Bollaert, W. Antiquarian, &c., Researches in New Granada, Eqnador, Peru, and Chili, with Observations on the Monuments. 8vo. 1860. Gualdi, P. Monumentos de Mejico, Folio. Mexico, 1841-42. Norman, B. M. Rambles in Yucatan: a Visit to the Ruins of Chi-Chen, Kabah, Zayi and Uxmal. 8vo. New York, 1843. Squier, E. Travels in Central America, particularly in Nicaragua. 2 vols. 8vo. Nev York, 1853. [ton. 1848 j . and Davis, E. II. Ancient Monuments in the Mississippi Valley. 4to. Washing ; Waideek, F. de. Voyage Pittoresque et Archeologique dans la Province d’Yucatau en 1834 et 1836. Folio. Paris, 1838. IV. GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE. A. Great Britain and Ireland. Architectural Association Sketch Book. Folio. 1867-87. [8vo. 1837 Bardwell, W. Temples, ancient and modern ; or, Notes on Church Architecture. Larg Bentham, J. History and Antiquities of the Church at Ely. 4co. 1771. Essay on Gothic Architecture. 8vo. Billings, R. W. Architectural Illustrations of Carlisle Cathedral. 4to. 1839. Illustrations of the Architectural Antiquities of the County of Durham. 4to 1846. [4 vols. 1848-52 The Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland Illustrated. 240 plates Wore, E. Monumental Remains of Noble and Eminent Persons. 8vo. 1824-26. Bowman, II., and Crowther, J. S. The Churches of the Middle Ages. 2 vols. folio 1845-53. Brandon, R. and .1. A. Analysis of Gothic Architecture. 2 vols. 4to. 1847-49. Parish Churches ; being Perspective Views of English Ecclesiastical Structure, 8vo. 1848-51. _ , Britton, J. Cathedrals, comprising Canterbury, York, Salisbury, Norwich, Oxtoro Winchester, Lichfield, Hereford, Wells, Exeter, Worcester, Peterborough, Glouceste, and Bristol. 4to. 1821-35. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1167 ritton, J. Architectural Autiquities of Great Britain. 4 vols. 4to. 1807-14. Vol. 5, 1826; 2nd edition, 1835 ; containing Chronological and Historical Illustrations of the Ancient Ecclesiastical Architecture of Great Britain. History and Antiquities of Bath Abbey. Royal 8vo. 1825. History and Antiquities of Redclyflfe Church, Bristol. 4to. 1813. and Brayley, E. W. History of the Ancient Palace and late Houses of Par- liament at Westminster. 8vo. 1836. irter, J. Ancient Architecture of England. 2 vols. folio. 1837. iveler, W. Select Specimens of Gothic Architecture. 4to. 80 plates. 1839. ;layton, J. Ancient Half-timber Edifices of England. 26 plates, folio. 1846. lose, S. P. Holycross Abbey, co. Tipperary. Measured drawings. Folio. Belfast, 1868. pHie, J. Plans, &c., of Glasgow Cathedral. 34 plates, folio. 1835. oiling. J. K. Details of Gothic Architecture. 2 vols. 200 plates, 4to. 1851-56. otman, J. S. Architectural Antiquities of Norfolk. Folio, 60 plates. 1818. Architectural Antiquities of Normandy. 2 vols. folio. 1820-21. jjttingham, L. N. Plans, &c., and Details of Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster. 72 plates, 2 vols. folio. 1822-29. allaway, Rev. James. Observations on English Architecture. 8vo. 1806. Notices of Ancient Church Architecture in the Fifteenth Century. 4to. 1824. Discourses on Architecture. 8vo. 1833. pllman, F. T. Examples of Ancient Pulpits in England. 30 plates, 4 to. 1849. , Examples of Ancient Domestic Architecture; illustrating the Hospitals, Be.de- houses, Schools, &c., of the Middle Ages in England. 4to. 1856-58. and Jobbins, J. R. An Analysis of Ancient Domestic Architecture in Great Britain. 2 vols. 4to. 1861-64. learel, A. C. Anglo-Norman Antiquities. Plates, folio. 1767. igdalo, W. History of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London. Folio. 1688. stlake, C. L. History of the Gothic Revival. 4to. 1872. linburgh Architectural Association. Sketch Book. Folio. Edinburgh, 1886-7. rrey, E. B. South Winfield Manor House : Plans, &c. 4to 1870. eeman, E. A. History of the Cathedral Church of Wells, as illustrating the History jf the Cathedral Churches of the Old Foundation. 8vo. 1870. ge, J. History and Antiquities of Hengreave in Suffolk. Royal 4to, plates. 1822. ' isgow Architectural Sketch Book. Folio. Glasgow, 1885. 'ynne, S. R. Notes on the Churches of Kent. 8vo. 1877. '[ugh, R. Sepulchral Monuments in Great Britain 5 vols. folio 1796. ipse, F. Essay on Gothic Architecture. 8vo. 1800. I nston, A. P. Kelso Abbey : Plans, &e. Folio. 1881. J bershon, M. Ancient Half-timbered Houses of England. 4to. 1830. Jldfield, J. Ecclesiastical, Castellated, and Domestic Architecture — of Essex. I I plates, folio. 1848. Lfpenny, J. Gothic Ornaments in the Cathedral of York. 4to. 105 plates. 1795. Fragmenta Vetusta; or, Remains of Ancient Buildings in York. Royal 4to. 4 plates. 1807. [59 plates. 1813. 11, Sir J. Essay on the Origin, History, and Principles of Gothic Architecture. 4to. 1 vkins, J. S. Origin and Establishment of Gothic Architecture. Plates, large 8vo. 1813. 1 1, A. Monograph of Cormac’s Chapel, Cashel. 4to. Cork, 1874. -i — Ardfert Cathedral, co. Kerry. 4to. Cork, 1870. - — Ancient Irish Architecture ; Kilmalkedar Church, co. Kerry, and Temhlenahoe hurch, co. Kerry. 4to. Cork, 1870. I -am, J. Memorials of Oxford. 3 vols. 4to. Oxford, 1837. T ason, J. Outline Views of Beverley Minster. 10 plates, folio. (1845.) Reliques of Ancient English Architecture. 4to. 1852-53. [Devizes, (1876). I is, Rev. W. H. The Saxon Church of St. Laurence, Bradford-on-Avon. 8vo. B dall, J. Elucidation of the Principles of English Architecture usually denomina' ed othic. 8 vo. 1818. B x, J. Le. Memorials of Cambridge. 2 vols. 4to. Cambridge, 1845. B ’, E. Munimenta Antiqua. 4 vols. folio, plates. 1799-1805. B ;, R. J. Handbook to the Cathedrals of England, 6 vols. 8vo. 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Military Architecture of the Middle Ages. Translated from French by M. Macdermott, with Notes on English Castles, by C. A. Hurtshorne. 8 Oxford and London, 1860. et Lassus, J. B. A. Moncgraphie de Notre Dame de Paris et de la Nuuv Saeristie. 63 plates, &e. folio. Paris, 1858. Viten, L. Monographie de l’Eglise Notre Dame de Noyon. 4to. Paris. Vogue, Comte M. do. Syrie Centrals : Architecture Civile et Religieuse du I er au 1 Siecle. 4to. Paris, 1867. Waring, J. B. Architectural Studies in Burgos and its Neighbourhood. Folio. 18 i • Illustrations of Architecture and Ornament. Folio. 1865. and Macquoid, T. R. Examples of Architectural Art in Italy and Spain, chi in the Xlllth and XVIth centuries. Folio 1850. Webb, B. Sketches of Continental Ecelesiology ; or, Church Notes in Belgium,! many, and Italy. 8vo. 1848. [Folio. Berlin, 11 Weerth, E. and M. Kunstdenkmiiler des Christlichen Mittelalters in den Rheinlatr • Whewell, W. Architectural Notes on German Churches; with Notes on a Tou r; i Picardy and Normandy. 3rd edition, with Notes on the Churches of the Rhine, by • F. de Lassaulx. 8vo. 1852. Whittington, G. D. Ecclesiastical Antiquities of France. Large 8vo. 1811. YViebeking, C. F. von. Analyse Historique et Raisonu5e des Monumens de l’Antiq > des Edifices les plus remarquables du Moyen Age, etc. Text, 4 vols. 4to. Plates, t >• Munich, 1821-26; and 1838-40. Wild, C. Examples of Architectural Grandeur in Belgium, Germany, and France. 1 series, new edition. Folio. 1846. Winkles, B. French Cathedrals. 4to. 1837. Woillez, E. Arch4ologie des Monuments Religienx de l’Ancien Beauvoisis, depu e V" jusque vers la fin du XII e Siecle. Folio. Paris, 1842. Yriarte, C. Florence; Histoire, etc. Folio. Paris, 1868. Transl. by C. B. P< j- Eoiio. 1882. Venise ; Histoire, etc. Folio. Paris, 1878. Transl. by F. J- Sit I !• 4to. 1880. F. de Rimini, etc. 4to. Paris, 1883. Zanotto, F. II Palazzo Ducale di Venezia. New edition, 4to. Venezia, 1846-58. V. MODEBN ARCHITECTUBE. — A , Great Britain and Ireland. Adam. W. Vitruvius Scoticus ; a Collection of Public and Private Buildings in Scot J* Folio, 160 plates. Edinburgh, 1720-40, and 1810. Adams, M. B. Artists’ Homes. Folio. 1883. I Ashpitel, A., and Whichcord, J. Baths and Washhouses. 3 rd edition, 8vo. 1852. Baly, P. P. Baths and Washhouses. 4t.o. 1852. Appendix, 4to. 1853. Brace, H. G. Middle-class House Architecture. 8vo. 1881. Brettingham, M. Plans, &c., of Holkham, in Norfolk. Folio. 1763. Buraett, H. C. Cottage Hospitals. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1880, TO ARCHITECTURE. 1173 rn, R. S. Architecture and Building ; a series of Working Drawings and Designs, vith Essays by eminent Architects. 55 plates, folio. Edinburgh, 1853-65. npbel], C. Vitruvius Britannicus. 5 vols., the two last being a Continuation by Voolfe and Gandon. Folio. 1715,1725,1731,1767,1771. >e, G. A. Baths and Washhouses. 4to. 1854. imbers, Sir W. Plans, Elevations, Sections, &c., of the Gardens and Buildings at tew. Folio. 1757. rke, J. Schools and Schoolhouses. 27 plates, folio. 1852. yton, J. Parochial Churches of Sir C. Wren. 60 plates, folio. 1849-52. [1870. jitt, J. Church Design for Congregations; its Developments and Possibilities. 8vo. vnes, C., and Cowper, C. The whole Construction of the Building for the Great Ex- libition of 1851. 4to. 1852. [8vo. 1850. . tilings of the Labouring Classes ; their arrangement and construction ; by the Society. ) tlake, C. L. Hints on Household Taste in Furniture, &c. 8vo. 1872. 1 tcher, B. Model Houses for the Industrial Classes. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1877 J Eton, J. Public Buildings erected in the West of England. 4to. 1838. ! , W. Baths and Washhouses. Folio. Liverpool. 1849. flarton, A. Grammar of House Planning. 4to. Edinburgh, 1864. i irdson, G. New Vitruvius Britannicus. 2 vols. folio. 1802; 1808. J h rts, H. Dwellings for the Labouring Classes. 3rd edition, 8vo. 1850. ~~i — Description of H.R.H. Prince Albert's Model Houses for Families. 8vo. 1851. heps, E. C. Technical School and College Building. 65 plates, 4to. 1887. ason, J. B. Shop Fronts of a plain and elaborate character. 4to, Derby, 1870. It ltd 1174 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Robson, E. R. School Architecture ; or, the Planning, Designing, and Furnishing Schooluouses. 8vo. 1875. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1877. Snell, H. S. Charitable and Parochial Establishments. 4to. 1881. Circular Hospital Wards. 8vo. 1885. and Smith, W. and J. Aberdeen Royal Infirmary. 4 to. 1887. Starforth, J. Designs for Villa Residences. 40 plates, 4co. Edinburgh, 1865. Des'gns for Villa. Residences and Farm Architecture. 102 plates, 4to. Ed burgh, 18o6. Stevenson, J. J. House Architecture. 2 vols. 8vo. 1880. Street, W. C. Steam Laundry Buildings and Machinery. 8vo. 1879. Taylor, A. T. The Towers and Steeples designed by Sir C. Wren. 8vo. 1881. Truefitt, G. Designs for Country Churches. 4to. 1850. Watts, W. Views of the Seats of the Nobility, &c., in England. 4 to. 1779-90. Whittock, N. Shops Fronts of London ; their construction, decoration, &c. 4to. 18 (See The Civil Engineer ; The Builder ; The Building News ; The Architect ; audoti Illustrated Journals in Class XXIII.) V. MODERN ARCHITECTURE. — B. Fbance and Belgium. Adam — , Leviel — , and Leblan. Reeueil des Maisons modernes les plus remarquab executees a Paris. 66 plates, folio. Paris, 1858. Alhoy, M., et Purine, L. Les Prisons de Paris. 8vo. Paris, 1840. Armand, A. Plans, Coupes, et Elevations du Grand Hotel construit a Paris en 1861 Folio. Paris. Baltard, L. Paris et ses Monumens. Folio. Paris, 1803-5. [1 Si Baltard, V., et Callet, F. Monographio des Halles Centrales de Paris. Folio. Par Barqui, F L’ Architecture moderns en France. 120 plates. Folio. Paris, 1864-68. Baudot, A. de. Eglises de Bourgs et Villages. 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1867. Berty, A. La Renaissance Monumentale en France. Specimens de Composition d'Ornement.ation Architectoniques ; Charles VIII a Louis XIV. 4to. Paris, 1851 -i Blandot. L. Maisons et Ecoles Communales de la Belgique. Folio. Paris, 1869. Blondel, J. B. Plan, Coupe, Elevation et Details du nouveau Marche St. Germain. Fol Paris, 1813. [Folio. Paris, 18 Brogniart, A. T. Plans du Palais de la Bourse de Paris et du Cimeti&re Mont-Lui Calliat, V. Parallele des Maisons de Paris, de 1850 a 1860. Folio. Paris, 1851-64 • et Leroux de Lincy. Hotel de Ville de Paris. 44 plates, folio. Paris, 18 Decorations Int&rieures. New edition, 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1860. et Lance, A. Encyclopedie d’ Architecture. 12 voR. 4to. Paris, 1851-62. Casterraans, A. Parallele des Maisons de Bruxelles, etc., construites depuis 1830. Fh Bruxelles, 1850-54. [Marseille, 18 Coste, P. La Cathedrale de St. Petersbourg. La future Cathddrale de Marseille. 8 Palais de la Bourse de Marseille. 8vo. Marseille, 1874. Daly, C. LArchitecture Privee au XIX e Sifeele; Maisons de Paris. 3 vols. fo Paris, 1863-65. Second series, 3 vols. folio. Paris, 1872. Third series. Decorations. Architecture Funeraire; Specimens de Tombeaux, Chapelles Funeral Mausolees, Sarcophages, Stales, Croix, etc. Folio. Paris, 1871. Dardel, R. Monographie du Palais de Commerce 6difie a Lyon. Folio. Paris, 1868. DAlaux. Chambre de Marie de Medicis au Palais du Luxembourg. Folio. Paris, It Desjardins, J. Monographie de 1’Hotel de Ville de Lyon. Folio. Paris, 1867. Gisors, A. de. Le Palais du Luxembourg. 8vo. Paris, 1847. Goetghebuer, J. P. Choix des Monuments, Edifices et Maisons les plus remarquabbs Pays-Bas. 150 plates, folio. Ghent, 1827. P 5 , Gourlier, C. Des Voies Publiques et des Habitations Particuli&res a Paris. 8vo. Pm Grantham, R. B. G. Description of the Abattoirs of Paris. 8vo. 1850. Grim, A. Reeueil de Maisons de Ville et de la Campagne. 4to. Paris, 1847-53. Here, E. Plans, etc., de la Place Royale de Nancy. 14 plates, folio. Paris, 1753. Isabey, L., et Leblanc, M. Villas, Maisons de Ville et de Campagne, composes sur motifs des Habitations de Paris Moderne, des XVP-XIX C Sieelee. Folio. Pm 1864. _ [1821- Jolimont, F. G. T. de. Les Mausolees Franqais dans Pere-Ia-Chaise. 4to ; ^ Pa Krafft, J. C. Reeueil de Architecture Civile, contenant les Plans, Coupes, et Iilevati des Chateaux, Maisons de Campagne, et Habitations Rurales, etc. Folio, 121 pla Paris, 1812. , L 18 Legrand, J. G., etLandon, C. F. Description de Paris et de ses Edifices. 2 vols. 1 a Mariette, P. J. LArchifecte Franqais, etc. Folio. Paris, 1727. Vol. 2. Paris, 17 Continuation by Marot, J. Paris, 1727. ^ [Paris, 18 Moisy, M. Fontaines de Paris, anciennes et nourelles, par Duval. Polio, 59 pla TO ARCHITECTURE. 1175 arjoux, F. Architecture Commumde; Hotels de Ville, Mairies, Maisons d’Ecole, Salles d’Asile, e°c. 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 1870-81. lormand, A. L’Architecture des Nations Etrang&res, Exposition Universelle de Paris, 1867. Folio. Paris, 1870. ! L. M. Monuments Funeraires, choisis dans les Cimeti^res do Paris et des Prin- ciples Villes de France. 3 parts, folio. Paris, 1832-36, (1847), arid 1850. L., et La Croix. Paris Moderne ; ou Choix de Maisons. 3 vols. 480 plates, 4to. Paris, 1837-38-45. iris. Les Eglises de Paris. 8vo. Paris, 1843. Maisons les plus remarquables de Paris construites pendant les trois dernieres annees. Folio. Paris, 1870. itte, P. Etudes d’Architecture. 4to. plates. Paris, 1755. enot, A. Les Cites Ouvrieres de Mulhouse et du Departement du Haut-Rhin. 8vo. Mulh., 1867. ■nor, R. Monographie du Palais de Fontainebleau. Folio. Paris, 1861 and 1866. Architecture, Decoration et Ameublement de l’epoque de Louis XVI. Folio. Paris, 1864. jameo, D., et Roguet, F. Palais de Fontainebleau depuis les XVI 0 et XVII e Si&cles. Folio. Paris, 1 859— SI . [Folio. Paris, 1858. iguet, F. Choix de Chateaux, Palais et Maisons de France du XV 0 au XVI I I e Siecle. iliault de Fleury, C., fils. Museum d'Histoire Naturelle a Paris. Folio. Paris, 1844. add, J. B. Collection de Plans, etc., des Principaux Monuments de la Ville de Bruges depuis le XIV° jusqu’au XVII 0 Sifecle. 28 plates, folio. Bruges (1824). uvageot, 0. Palais, Chateaux, Hotels et Maisons de France, du XV 0 au XVIIP Si&cle. 4 vols. plates, folio. Paris, 1867. [1874-75. ollet-le-l)uc, E. E., and Narjoux, F. Habitations Modernes. 2 vols. folio. Paris, V. MODERN ARCHITECTURE.— C. Germany, &c. atrauneuf, A. de. Architeetura Publiea. 14 plates, folio. Berlin, 1860. rtner, F. von. Sammlung der Entwiirfe ausgefuhrter Gebaude. 2 vols. folio. Munich, 1844-47. ideloff, C. A. von. Architeetonische Entwiirfe und ausgefiihrte Bauten im Byzantin- ischen und Altdeutschen Styl. 2 vols plates, folio. Niirnberg, 1851. v’hstetter, J. Architeetonische Ausfiihrungen. 5 parrs, folio. [1866. ■ffmann, A. AV. Chemical Laboratories in the Universities of Bonn and Berlin. 4to. lenze, L. von. Anweisung zur Architectur des christlichen Cultus. 36 plates, folio. jMiinchen, 1837. Sammlung architectonischer Entwiirfe. 50 plates, folio. Miinchen, 1847. aoblauch, G., and Hollin, F. Die neue Synagogue in Berlin. Folio. Berlin, 1867. tzger, E. Formenlehre zur Rundbogen-Architectur. Folio. Miinchen, 1851. Her, G. Entwiirfe ausgefiihrter und zur Ausfiihrung bestimmte Gebaude. 29 plates, olio. Darmstadt, 1825-31. - issian Government. Vorlegeblatter fur Baumeister. 4to. and folio. Berlin, 1844. lozynski, A. Histoire de 1’ Art Moderne en Allemagne. 3 vols. folio. Paris, 1836-41. Linkel, C. von. Sammlung architectonischer Entwiirfe. Large folio. 174 plates. 3erlin, 1819-48. 1 ‘glitz, C. Plans et Dessins tires de la Belle Architecture (England and France). 113 dates, folio. Liepzig and Moscow, 1801. |C ler, A. Das neue Museum in Berlin. Folio. Potsdam, 1850. Das neue Univer- itiits-gebaude zu Konigsberg. Folio. Berlin, 1865. Die burg Hohenzollern. [olio. Berlin, 1866. [1847. % E. Architeetonische Mittheilungen aus der Neuzeit Berlins. 2 parts, folio. Berlin, ’d;er, J., and Voigt. Collection of Sketches of Private Houses and Municipal Buildings, rincipally executed at Munich. Folio. Munich, 1850. V. MODERN ARCHITECTURE.— D. Spain, Italy, Russia, &c. ‘ . I do, .T. de S. J. do. Monumento sacro da Fabrica do Real Convento de Mafra. Folio, isbna, 1751. Ezynsk-, A. Les Arts en Portugal. 8vo. Paris, 1846. — Dictionnaire Historico-Artistique de Portugal, pour faire suite a l’ouvrage ayant our titre Les Arts en Portugal. 8vo. Paris, 1842. 1 an. G. Scenery of Portugal and Spain. 31 plates folio. 1839. ’ ltt > Sir M. D. An Architect’s Note Book in Spain, principally illustrating the omcstic Architecture of that Country. 4to. 1872. 1176 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Bonanni, P. P. Templi Vaticani Historia. Folio. Romoe, 1696. [1808-15 Callerari, 0. Disegni e Seri tt i d ’Opere di Architettura. 90 plates, 2 vols. folio. Vicenza Caljet, F., et Lesueur, J. B. C. Architecture Italienue; ou Palais, Maisons, et autre.- Edifices d'lt die. Folio. Paris, 1827. C’assina, F. Le P'al)briche pin eo^picue di Milano. Folio. Milan, 1840-44. I’ Italia Monumenta'e ; Galleria delle principali Fabbriche Antiche e Mcderm d’ Italia. 2nd edition. Folio. Milan, 1870. Cicognara, L. Le Fabbriche piu cospicue di Venezia, misurate, illustrate, ed intagliate 2 vols. large folio. Venezia, 1816 Glochar, P. Palais, MaisoDS, et Vues d’ltalie. Folio, 102 plates, Paris, 1809. CosLi, G. Delizie del Fiume Brenta, espresso ne’ Palazzi e Casini situate eopra le rue Sponde. Folio. Venezia, 1750. [Folio. Paris, 1 7(55 Dumont, G. M. GSuvres d’Arcliitecture ; contenant les Details de St. Pierre de Rome. F’ontana, C. Templum Vaticanum, et ipsius Origo. Folio. Romae, 1694. Gauthier, M. P. Les plus beaux Edifices de la Ville de Genes et de ses Environs. Fo'io Paris, 1824-1830. Geymiiller, H. de. Les projets primitifs pour la Basilique de S. Pierre de Rome. 4tu and folio. Paris, 1875-80. Grandjean de Montigny, A., et Famin, A. Architecture Toscane. Folio, 73 plates. Paris 1837. New editions, 1846; and 1875. Guarini, G. Architettura Civile. 2 vols. folio. Turin, 1737. Guarino, C. G. Disegni d’ Architettura. Folio. Turin, 1686. Gwilt, J. Notices of the Buildings of Architects of Italy. 8vo. 1818. [1825-39 Ilittorff, J., et Zanth, L. Architecture Moderne de la Sicile. Imperial folio. Pin- Isabelle, C. E. ParallMe des Salles Rondes de l’ltalie. 2nd edition, folio. Paris, 1 863 Landi, — . Raceoltadi alcune Facciate di Palazzi e Cortili di Bologna. Folio. Bologna. Letarouilly P. Edifices de Rome Moderne. 3 vols. folio, text 4to. Paris, 1829-55. Le Vatican et la Basilique de Saint Pierre de Rome. 3 vols. folio. Paris, 1882. Magriui, A. II Palazzo del Museo Civico in Vicenza. 4to. Vicenza, 1855. Les B&timens et Desseins receuillis et illustres, par Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi In French and Italian. 4 vols. folio. Vicenza, 1787. Palladio, A. L’ Architettura di. Folio. Venezia, 1642. Parker, C. Villa Rustica ; selected from Buildings in the Vicinity of Rome and Florence and arranged for Lodges, Dwellings, and Schools. 3 vols. 4to. 1849. Percier, C., et Fontaine, P. F. L. Choix des plus cMfebres Maisons de Plaisance de Rnmt et de ses Environs. 75 plates, folio. Paris 1824. [Firenze, 1830 Pieraccini, F. La Piazza del Granduca di Firenze co’ suoi Monumenti. Folio, plates Price, L. Interiors and Exteriors in Venice. Folio. 1843. Ronzani,F,e Luciolli, G. San Michele; Fabbriche Civile, Ecclesiastiche e Militar 147 plates, folio. Venezia, 1832. Rossi, G. J. Raccolta di Fontane liell’ alma Citta di Roma, Tivoli e Frascati. 4lo. Rorm Rossini, L. Scenografia deg! Interni delle piu belle Chiese e Basiliche antiche di Ronm: Folio. Rome, 1843. I Monumenti piu interessanti di Roma dall’ X. Sec. 6ino al XVIII. Folio j Rome, 1818. Rupp, L. Chiese Principali d‘ Europa (11 buildings). Folio. Milan, 1824. Sacchi, A. Architettura Practica — le Abitazioni. Folio. 1874. Sanmichele, M. Porte di Citta e Fortezze, Depositi Sepolerali, ed altre principali Fal briche pubbliche ed private, da F. Albertolli. Imperial folio. Milan, 1815. Suys, F. T., et Ilaudebourt, L. P. Palais Massimi a Rome ; Plans, Coupes, Elevations Profiles, Voutes, Plafonds, etc. 43 plates. Paris, 1818. Tosi, F. M., and Beeehio, A. Altars, Tabernacles, and Sepulchral Monuments of tu XIVth and XVth Centuries existing at Rome. Italian, French, and English text i Mrs. S. Bartlet. Folio. Lagny, 1843. Valentini, A. Le Quattro principali Basiliche di Roma. 2 vols. folio. Rome, 1836-45 Yriarte, C. See IV. B. Coste, P. Monuments Modernes de Perse. Folio. Paris, 1866. Domidoff, A. de. Excursion Pittoresque et Archeologique en Russie, etc., en 183' Folio. Paris. P®® Kiprianoff, V. Histoire Pittoresque do l’Architecture en Russie, etc. 8vo. Petersburg Quarenghi, G. Edifices construites a St. Petersbourg. Folio. St. P5ters., 1810. Fabbriche e Disegni. Folio. Milano, 1821. [1846-41 Ricard de Montferrand, A. Cathedrale de St. Isaac a St. Petersbourg. Folio. Pat 1 Rusca, L. Recueil des Dessins de dififerens Batimens construits a St. Petersbourg, et 180 plates, large folio. St. Petersburg, 1804-10. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1177 Denmark. Danmark Fremstillet i Billeder. 74 plates, folio. Kjobedhaven, 1860. jraffenried und Stiirler, M. von. Schweizerische Arckitektur. French and German text. 2nd edition, folio. Berne, 1847. Hochstetter, J. Sckweizerische Architectur in perspectivischen Ansichten, etc. Folio. Carlsruhe, 1863. Varin, A. et E. L’ Architecture Pittoresque en Suisse, ou Choix de Constructions Rus- tiques prises dans toutes les parties de la Suisse. 4to. 1860. 3arnard, II. School Architecture, with Illustrations of the most approved Plans. 5th edition, 8vo. Hartford, U.S. 1854. itrickland, W. . Public Works in the United States of America. 8vo. 1841. VI. THEATRES. Vrnaldi, Conte E. Idea di un Teatro nelle principali sue Parti simile a’ Teatri Autichi all’ Uso moderno accomodato. 4to. Vicenza, 1762. |!eccega, T. C. Sull’ Architettura Greco-Romano applieata alia Costruzione del Teatro moderno Italiano e sulle Macchine Teatrali. Folio. Venezia, 1817. jiorgnis, J. A. Des Machines Imitatives et des Machines Theatrales. 4to. 27 plates. Paris, 1820. ioullet. Essai sur l’Art de construire les Theatres, leurs Machines et leurs Mouvemens. 4to. plates. Paris, 1801. avos, A. Traits sur la Construction des Theatres. 21 plates, 4to. Leipzig, 1849. Grand Theatre de Moscou. 1860. ontant, C., et Filippi, J. de. Parallele des Principaux Theatres Moderne« de 1’Europe, et des Systemes de Machines ThdUtrales Franqaises, Allemandes et Anglaises. 134 plates, 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1840-42. 'aly, C., et Davioud, G. Theatre Imperial du Chatelet. Theatre Lyrique. Folio. Paris, 1871. escrizione del Nuovo Sipario dell’ Imperials Regio Teatro della Scala in Milano. Small folio. Milano, 1821. mnet, A., et Kauffman, J. A. __ Architectonographie des Theatres de Paris ; ou Parallels Historique et Critique de ces Edifices, consideres sous le Rapport de 1’ Architecture etde la Decoration. 2 vols. 8vo., plates 4to. Paris, 1837. imont. Parall&le de Plans des Salles de Spectacle d’ltalie et de France, avec des Details de Machines Theatrales. Imperial folio, 61 plates. Paris, 1774. ntanesi, C. F. Decorations for Theatres; or, Desigus for Scene Painters. Fulio, 24 plates. 1813. Uiari. Decorations de Theatre. Folio, 24 plates. Milan. rnier, C. Le Nouvel Opera de Paris. Text 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1878-81. Plates (3 vols. folio. Paris, 1875-80. ugi Felice. Descrizione Istorica del Teatro di Tor di Nino. 4to. 9 plates. Rome, 1795. vsset, A. Construction des Theatres. Folio. Paris, 1886. : mmerling, H. Das Victoria-Theater zu Berlin. Folio. Berlin, 1861. J Fez, T. Acoustique et Optique des Salles de Reunions Publiques, Theatres et Amphi- heatres, etc. 8vo. Paris, 1 848. J idriani, P. Osservazioni sui Defetti prodotti nei Teatri dalla cattiva Costruzione del ■’alio Scenico, e su alcuue inavvertenze nel dipingere le Decorazioni. 4to. 9 plates, jlilano, 1815. Iighans, C. F. Das Victoria-Theater in Berlin. 4 plates, folio. Berlin, is, V. Salle de Spectacle de Bourdeaux. Atlas folio, 21 plates, containing plans of ine, A. Monographic du Theatre du Vaudeville £rig6 par la Ville de Paris sous la irection de. Folio. Paris, 1871. 'elli, C. Pianta e Spaccato del nuovo Teatro d’lmola. Folio, 19 plates. Roma, 1780. '.e, P. Essai sur l’Arehitecture Theatrale. 8vo, Paris, 1782. nders, G. Treatise on Theatres. 4to. 13 plates. 1790. Of little value. s nkel, C. F. von. Theatre at Hamburg. 6 plates. Berlin, 1828. '" per, G. Das konigliche Hoftbeater zu Dresden. Folio. Brunswick, 1849. ck, J. H. Das altgriechische Theatergebiiude, nach siimmtlichen bekannten Ueber- sten. Folio. Potsdam, 1843. , E. Das neue Victoria-Theater in Berlin. 24 plates, folio. 1861. e, S. Remarks on Theatres, and on the Propriety of Vaulting them with Brick and one. 8vo. plates. 1809. G, B. On the Rebuilding of Drury Lane Theatre. 4to. plates. 1812. 1178 PUBLICATIONS RELATING VII. RURAL ARCHITECTURE, GABDENS, STABLING, &c. Alphand, A. Les Promenades de Paris, Bois de Boulogne, et de Vincennes, etc. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1874. [8vo. 18.72. Andrews, G. II. Construction of Agricultural Buildings of every Description. 3 vols. Birch, J. Examples of Labourers’ Cottages. 8vo. Ib71. Blaekburne, E. L. Suburban and Rural Architecture; English and Foreign. 1865 Chateauneuf, A. de. Architectura Domestica. Folio. 1839-40. [1849. Dean, G. A. Construction of Farm Buildings and Labourers’ Cottages. 4 to. Stratford, Series of Selected Designs for Country Residences, Lodges, &c., erected for the Prince Consort, Earl of Leicester, &e. 4to. 1867. Denton, J. B. Farm Homesteads of England. 2nd edition, 75 plates, 8vo. 1865. Downing, A. J. Architecture of Country Houses; with Remarks on Furniture, &c., and Warming and Ventilating. New edition 8vo. New York, 1852. [York, 1853. Architecture of Cottage Residences, with Additions, &c. New edition, 8vo. New Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening; with a view to the Improvement of Country Residences ; with Remarks on Rural Architecture. 4th edition, 8vo. New York, 1849. Fawkes, F. A. Horticultural Buildings. 8vo. 1881. Gray, W. J. Rural Architecture; Plans, &c., of Farmhouses, Cottages, Schools, Gates, Railings, &c., with Specifications. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1853. [ton, 1849. i Hartshorne, C. H. Labourers’ Cottages on Estates of Duke of Bedford. 8vo. Northamp- Hmts on Ornamental Gardening; Designs for Garden Buildings, &c. 8^o. 1823. Hughes, J. A. Garden Ar hitecture and Landscape Gardening. 8vo. 1866. [ciet.y. 1857- Isaac, T. W. P. Essay on Labourers’ Cottages ; premiated by the Royal Agricultural So- 1 Isabey. L., and Leblanc. Villas, Maisons de Ville et de Campagne, composes sar les [ motifs des habitations de Paris Modernes. Folio. Paris, 1864-67. Kemp, E. How to lay out a Garden : Plans, &c. New edition, 8vo. 1864. Kerr, R. A small Country House ; the Planning of a Residence to cost from 2,000/. to Knightley, T. E. Stable Architecture. Folio 1862. [5,000/. 8vo. 1873. Krafft, J. C. Plans des plus beaux Jardins Pittoresques de France, d’Angleterre, et d’Allemagne, et des Edifices, Monumens, Fabriques, etc., qui concourent a leur Em bellissement, dans tous les Genres d’ Architecture. 2 vols. oblong 4to. Paris, 1809. Recueil d’ Architecture Civile, contenant les Plans, Coupes, et Elevations det ! Chateaux, Maisons de Campagne, et Habitations Rnrales. F’olio. Paris, 1809. Loudon, J. C. Encvclopa-dia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture. 8vo. 1839 Encyclopaedia of Gardening, &c. New edition, 8vo. 1850. Macintosh, C. The Book of the Garden. 2 vols, 8vo. Edinburgh and London, 1852. Major, J. Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening. 4to. 1852. Menzies, W. Cottages for Rural Districts. 8vo. 1885. Miles, W. General Remarks on Stables and Examples of Stable-Fittings. 8vo. I860 Morton, T. C. The Prince Consort’s Farms. 4to. 1863. Normand, C. Recueil varie de Plans et de Facades, Motifs pour des Maisons de Ville c de Campagne. Folio, 53 plates. Paris, 1815. Papworth, J. B. Rural Residences: a Series of Designs for Cottages, Decorated Cottage" small Villas, &c. 8vo. 1832. [8vo. 182« Hints on Ornamental Gardening; Designs for Garden Buildings, &c. 29 pla'i- Repton, H. Landscape Gardening, &c. The entire works, edited by J. C. Lomloi New edition, 8'vo. 1842. [bird. 3rd edition, 8vo. 18a. Rham, W. C. Dictionary of the Farm, with Supplement. Revised by W. and H. liayn Richardson, C. J. Englishman’s House, from a Cottage to a Mansion. 8vo. 1870. Robinson, P. F. Rural Architecture; or, a Series of Designs for Ornamental Cottage* 4 to. 1823. Ornamental Villas. 4to. 1837. Village Architecture. 4to. 183/ Farm Buildings. 4to. 1837. Robinson, W. Parks, Promenades, and Gardens of Paris, described and considered relation to wants of our own cities 8vo. 1869. Robson, G. Modern Domestic Building Construction. Folio. 1876. Siebeek, R. Art of Landscape Gardening, represented in a Plan and elucidated by tl Determining Motives. Translated by R. H. Westley. 6 plates, 4to. 1862. ■ Picturesque Garden Plans. 24 coloured plates, folio. 1864 Smith, C. II. J. Parks and Pleasure Grounds; Practical Notes on Country Residence Villas, &c. 12mo. 1852. Standish, J., and Noble, C. Practical Hints on Planting Ornamental Trees. 8vo. 18a Starforth, J. Architecture of the Farm ; being a Series of Designs for Farmhousi Factors’ Houses, Agricultural Labourers’ Cottages, and Farmsteadings. 4to. 18 o 3 . Stephens, H., and Burn. R. S. Book of Farm Buildings : their Arrangement and Co struction. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1861; and 1871. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1170 Striek’and, C. W. Cottage Construction and Design. 18 plates, 8vo. 1861. Tattersall, G. Sporling Architecture. Ito. 1842. Thomson, J. Retreats: a Se.ies of Designs. 4to. 1833. Vaux, C. Villas and Cottages: a Series of Designs prepared for Execution in the United States. 8vo. New York and London, H57. Villa and Cottage Architecture. Published by Blackie. Ito. Edinburgh, 1869, 1880. Vincent, J. Country Cottages ; Designs for Improved Dwellings lor Agricultural Labourers. 20 plates, 2nd edition, 4to. 1860. [1846. Walter, T. U., and Smith, J. J Cottage and Villa Architecture, &c. 4to. Philadelphia, Wearer, H. Hints on Cottage Architecture; Designs for Labourers’ Cottages, singly, in pairs, and in groups. 2nd edition, folio. Bath, 1850. Hints on Villa Architecture; Selection of Designs for Schools, Cottages, and Parsonage Houses. 1U plates, folio. Wickes, C. Haudybook of Villa Architecture. 61 pbttes, 4to. 1887. Wilkinson, W. English Country Houses; Practical Treatise on House Building. 4to. Oxford, 1870, 1875. VIII. HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE, THEORY, &c. Barry, E. M. Lectures on Architecture ; with Memoir. 8vo. 1881. A Batissier, L. Histoire de l’Art Monumental dans l’Antiquite et au Mojen Age, suivio d'un Trait 5 sur la Peinture sur Verre. 2nd edition, revised, 8vo. Paris, 1860. Charteau, L. Histoire et Caractferes de T Architecture en France depuis Tepoque Druidique jusqu’a nos jours. 8vo. Paris, 1864. Oousin, J. G6nie de l’Architecture. 4to. 60 plates. Paris. Donaldson, T. L. Architectural Maxims and Theorems. 8vo. 1847. Durand, J. N. L. Recueil et Parallfele des Edifices de tous Genres, anciens et modernes. Folio, 90 plates, and 8vo. text by Le Grand. Paris, 1801-9. [8vo. 1855-62. ‘ergusson, J. Handbook of Architecture ; a History and Description of all Styles. 3 vols. Historical Inquiry into the True Principles of Beauty in Art. 8vo. 1849. History of Architecture in All Countries, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. 2 vols. 8vo. 1862-67. Modern Architecture. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1874. Rude Stone Monuments in All Countries; their Age and Uses. 8vo. 1873. reeman, E. A. History of Architecture. 8vo. 1849. ailhabaud, J. Monuments anciens et modernes, consisting of plans, &c., of the most remarkable edifices in the world. Four series, 4to. Paris. 1842-52. L’Art dans ses Diverses Branches, ou l’Architecture, la Sculpture, &c., chez tous les Peuples et a toutrs les Epoques jusqu’en 1789. 4to. Paris, 1861. arbett, E. L. Treatise on the Principles of Design in Architecture. 12mo. 1850. wilt, J. Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical. 8vo. 1826. enszlmann, Dr. Theorie des Proportions appliquees daDs l'Architecture depuis la XII 6 Dynasiie des Rois egyptiens jusqu’au XVI e Sibcle. Folio, text 4to. Paris, 1860. Part 1 only. ope, T. Historical Essay on Architecture. 3rd edition, 8vo. 1840. ubelle, C. E. Les Edifices circulaires et les Domes. 77 plates, folio. Paris, 1843-55. igler, F. Denkmaler der Kunst ; by Voit, Guhl, and Caspar. Folio. Stuttgart, 1845. , Handbuch der Kunstgesehichte. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1848. Geschichte der Baukunst. 3 vols. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1859. w, H. Rudiments of Civil Engineering. 12mo. 1852. febre. Marvels of Architecture, translated by R. Donald. 8vo. 1870. Grand, J. G. Essai sur l’Histoire Generale de 1’Architecture 8vo. Paris, 1819. This is the text to Durand’s “ Parallele.” iueur, J. B. Histoire et Theorie de l'Architecture. 8vo. Paris, 1879. yd, W. W. General Theory of Proportion in Architectural Desigu. 4to. 1863. oke, W. Geschichte der Architectur. 2nd edition, 8vo. Cologne, 1858. Translated y F. E. Bunnett. 2 vols. 8vo. 1868. ntfauijon, B. de. L’Antiquite Expliquee et R<-present5e en Figures. 5 vols. folio, upplement, 5 vols. folio, 964 plates. Paris, 1729-33. I holson, P. Principles of Architecture. 3 vols. 8vo. 1836. , H. Handbuch der Kirchlichen Kunst: Archaologie des Deutschen Mittelalfers. ■o. Leipzig, 1854. [1845. in, J. Manuel d'Archeol gie Religieuse, Civile et Militaire. 2nd edition, 8vo. Paris, y, F. A. Manual of Gothic Architecture. 8vo. 1846. e, P. Memoires d’Architecture. 4to. Paris, 1769. t, J. L. Remarks on Architectural Character. Folio. Oxford, 1846. e, G. A. History of Ecclesiastical Architecture in England. 8vo. 1848. [1852. — Churches, their Structure, Arrangement, and Decoration. 3rd edition, 18mo. 1180 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Pugin, A. W. N. The True Principles of Pointed or Christian Architecture. 4to. 1841. Contrasts ; or, a Parallel between the Edifices of the XIVth andXVth Centuries and the Present Day. 13 plates, new edition, 4to. 1841. [Paris, 1870-72. Ramee, D. Manuel de l’Histoire Generate de T Architecture. 2nd edition, 2 vols. 12mo. . Histoire de T Architecture en France depuis les Romains jusqu’au XVI 0 Siecle. 12mo. Paris and Leipzig, 1846. [York, 1887. Reber, F. vod. History of Ancient Art: and History of Mediaeval Art. 8vo. New Reynaud, L. Traite de l’Architecture, contenant des Notions G6nerales sur les Principes de la Construction et sur 1’Histoire de l’Art. 82 plates, folio. Paris, 1850. Rieknim, T. Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture. 6th edition, with additions by J. H. Parker. 8vo. Oxford; 1862. 7th edition, 1881. The 4th K . 1 6 vols. folio. Paris, 1823. edition of 1835 contains the Topographical List of Buildings. Royal Institute of British Architects. Transactions. 2 parts, 4to. 18 7 and 1842. Sessional Papers. 31 vols. 4to. 1853-84. New series, 4to. 3 vols. 1885-87. Ruskin, J. Seven Lamps of Architecture. 8vo. 1849. Scott, L. The Renaissance of Art in Italy. 4to. 1883. [1859. Scott, Sir G. G. Remarks on Secular and Domestic Architecture. 2nd edition, 8vo. Lectures on the Rise and Development of Mediaeval Architecture. 2 vols. 8vo. 1879. Se-oux, D’Agincourt. Histoire de l’Art par les Monumens. Smith, T. R. Gothic and Renaissance. 8vo. 1884. and Slater, J. Classic and Early Christian. 8vo. Viollet-le-Duc, E. E. Entretiens sur l’Arehitecture. 2 Plates, folio. 1864. Translated by B. Bucknall. 8vo. Compositions et Dessins. Folio. 1881-84. . Habitations of Man in all Ages. Transl. 8vo. 1876. Histoire dun Hotel de Ville et d’une CatMdrale. 8vo. Paris, 1882. [1885. White, W. H. The Past, Present, and Future of the Architectural Profession. 12mo. Architecture and Public Buildings; their Relation to School, Academy, and State, in Paris and London. 8vo. 1884. [Munich, 1827-31. Wiebeking, C. F. von. Architecture Civile. Text, 7 vols. 4to., and plates folio, Winckelman, J. J. Remarques sur l’Architecture des Anciens. 8vo. Paris, 1783. ■ Histojre de l’Art chez les Anciens. 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 1790. Monumenti Antichi Inediti. 2 vols. folio, 184 plates. Napoli, 1820. Woods, J. Letters of an Architect. 2 vols. 4to. 1828 1882. vols. 8 vo. 1877. Paris, 1863-72. ■ Y ftC.F. Lllv lit: k.i 1 kc. ( bn fair, ‘ E K -Hi Set fu 0 pii IX. ELEMENTARY WORKS, ORDERS, DETAILS, MOULDINGS. Alberti, Leo Bapt. Libri de Re iEdificatoria. Folio, 1st edition. Florence, Numerous later editions. . Translated into English by G. Leoni. Folio. 1726-55. Androuet du Cerceau, J. Livre d’ Architecture. Folio, 50 plates. Paris, 1662. Antoine, J. Traite d’ Architecture. 4to plates. Treves, 1768. Aviler, C. A. d’. Cours d’Architeeture. 4to. Paris, 1760. Barozzi da Vignola, G. (Euvres completes. Folio. Paris, 1823. Ordini d’ Architettura Civile. 4to. 44 plates. Milano, 1814. Blondel. J. F. Cours d’Arcliitecture. 9 vols. 8vo. 300 plates. Paris, 1 771-1777. Bullet, P. Architecture Pratique. 8vo. Paris, 1774. Edited by Mazois. Paris, 1824 Chambers, Sir Wiiliam. The Decorative Part of Civil Architecture; with Essay o Grecian Architecture, and other Additions, by J. Gwilt. 2 vols. imp. 8vo. 66 plates. 182- Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil Architecture ; with Essay on Greci i Architecture, by J. B. Papworth. The original plates. Folio. 1 826. Clerc, S. Le. Treatise on Architecture, translated by Chambers. 3 vols. 8vo. 1732. Detournelle, A. Projets d’ Architecture. Folio, 60 or 120 plates. Paris, 1805-6. Durand, J. N. L. Lemons d’Architeeture. 2 tom. 4to plates. Paris, 1819. Partie Grapihique des Cours d’Architecture. 4to. 34 plates. Paris, 1821.^ Evelyn, J. Parallel of Ancient and Modern Architecture ; translated from R. Frear Folio. 1680. Folio. 1723. Felibien, M. Principes de l’Architecture, de la Sculpture, et de laPeinture. 4to. plate Paris, 1697. ,[ 8v0 - I 86 Freeman, E. A. Essay on the Origin and Development of Window Tracery in Enghuej Gallaccini, T. Trattato sopra gli Errori degli Architetti. Folio. Venezia, 1 767. Goldmann, N., Architecture of, by L. C. Sturm. German text. Folio. Augsburg, 1 7 1 6—. HofFstadt, F. Gothisches A-B-C Buch. Text 8vo. ; 43 plates, folio. Frankfurt, 1843- 1845-64. Translated into French. Folio. Paris, 1851. _ I Kinross, J. Details from Italian Buildings, chiefly Renaissance. Folio. E-mburg TO ARCHITECTURE. 1181 Leeds, W. H. Rudimentary Treatise on the Orders of Architecture. 12mo. 1849. L'Eveilld, C. J. Considerations sur les Frontons. 4to. Paris, 1824. L’Orme, P. d«. GSnvres d’Architecture. Folio, 2 vols. in 1. Paris, 1G26; Rouen, 1618. The Treatise on Architecture, in 9 books, was first published in Paris, 1567. The tenth book, on Carpentry, entitled, “ Nouvelles Inventions pour bien BAtir et a petit Frais,” folio, Paris, 1561-68, and 1576. [edition, 4to. Edinburgh, 18i6. Mahan, D. H. Elementary Course of Civil Engineering. Edited by P. Barlow. New Mandar. C. F. Iiltude d’Architecture Civile ; ou Plans, Elevations, Coupes, et Details n^cessaires pour Mover, distribuer, et d^corer uneMaison et ses Dependauccs. Imperial folio, 122 plates. Paris, 1830. Manetti, G. A. Studio degli Ordini d’Architettura. Folio, 25 plates. Firenze, 1808. Mauch, J. M. von. Neue systematische Darstellung der Architektonischen Ordnungen der Griechen, Romer und neuern Baumeister. 100 plates, 4to. Potsdam, 1850. Nicholson, P. Principles of Architecture. 3 vols. 8vo. 1795-8. 183G. Normand, C. Nouveau Parallels des Ordres d’Architecture des Grecs, des Romains et des Auteurs Modernes. Folio, 63 plates. Paris, 1819. Translated by A. Pugin. 1829. Palladio, A. See Class II. Perrault, C. Ordonnance des Cinq Esp&ces de Colonnes. Folio. Paris, 1683. Robson, E. R. School Architecture ; being Practical Remarks on the Planning, Design- ing, Building, and Furnishing School Houses. 8vo. 1874. Scamozzi, V. L’ Idea dell’ Architettura Universale. 2 vols. folio. Yenetia, 1615. (Serlio, S. Architettura. 4to. Yenetia, 1567. Later editions. Serrure, E. Cours Classique d’Architeeture. Folio. Gand, 1874. [2 vols. 8vo. 1849. Sharpe, E. Treatise on the Rise and Progress of Decorated Window Tracery in England. The Seven Periods of English Architecture defined and illustrated. 8vo. 1851. i- The Mouldings of the Six Periods of Gothic Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation. 4to. 1871. Shute, John. The First and Chief Groundes of Architecture. Folio. 1563. rhiollet, F. Legons d Architecture, Theorique et Pratique, comprenant l’Histoire des Ordres, etc. 6 vols. 4to. Paris, 1843. Trimen, A. One Thousand authenticated Mouldings of Mediaeval Architecture, from the best examples. 53 plates, 8vo. 1863. ’isentini, A. Osservazioni sopra gli Errori degli Arehitetti ; contin. al Trattato di T. Gallaccini. Folio. Venezia, 1771- I’itruvius. De Architectura, cum notis Variorum, a J. de Laet. Folio. Amst. 1649. Architettura di, tradotta ed comentata da B. Galiani. Folio. Siena, 1790. Trad, et coment. da Barbaro. Folio, woodcuts. Venezia, 1556. Architecture of; by Poleni and Stratico. 8 parts in 4 vols. 4to. Utini, 1825-30. by A. Marinio. 4 vols. folio. Rome, 1836. [3 vols. 4 to. Paris, 1837. by Perrault. Folio. Paris, 1684. Augmentee par E. Tardieu et A. Coussiu. Traduction Nouvelle, par Maufras. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847. Translated by J. Gwilt. Imperial 8vo. 1826. Ifiebeking, C. F. Architecture Civile, Theorique, et Pratique ; l'Histoire descriptive des -fclditices anciens et modernes les plus remarquables. 7 vols. 4to.; 260 plates, folio. Munich, 1823. X. MATERIALS. ustin, J. G. Preparation, &c., and Application of Limes and Cements, &c. 12mo. 1862. tie, M. P. Wood-working Machinery; Saw Mills ; Stone-working Machinery. 8vo. 1885. agrove, G. H, Marble Decoration, and the Terminology of British and Poreign Marbles. 8vo. 1888. " [185 7- jirnell, G. R. Limes, Cements, Mortars, Concretes, Masticks, and Plastering. 12mo. irnham, S. M. History and Uses of Limestones and Marbles. 8vo. Boston, U.S. A., 1883. un, F. M. le. Sur l’emploi du Beton. 4to. Paris, 1843. ignet, F. BMon AgglomOre pour Fortifications, Fonts, etc. 8vo. Paris, 1862. vis, C. T. Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks, Tiles, and Terra- cotta, &c. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1884. [Process. 8vo. 1868. y, St. J. V. Manufacture of Malleable Iron, with special reference to the Richardsou ibson, E. Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks and Tiles. 12mo. 1850. ake, C. Building in Concrete. 8vo. 1874. ja, II. Portland Cement for Users. 8vo. 1881. [edition, 8vo. 1869. irbairn, W. Iron; its History, Properties, and Processes of Manufacture. 3rd - vraday, M. Prevention of Dry Rot in Timber. 8vo. 1836. [chat, E., Barrault, A., and Petiet, J. Traite de la Fabrication du Fer et de la jfonte, etc. 3 vols. 4to. and folio. Liege, 1852. 1 132 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Gilmore. Practical Treatise on Limes, Hydraulic Cements, and Mortars. Svo. New Godwin, G. Nature and Properties of Concrete. 4to. 1833. [York, 1803. Hodgkinson, E. Experimental Researches on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron, &c. Svo. 184-6. Holtzapffel, C. Descriptive Catalogue of the Woods commonly employed for the Mechanical and Ornamental Arts. 8vo. 1843. Hull, E. Treatise on Building and Ornamental Stones of Great Britain and Foreign Countries. 8vo. 1872. Hutchinson, J. New Experiments in Building Materials, in reference to their Conduct- ing Power, Dryness, and Resistance to the Progress of Fire. 8vo. 1843. Hyatt, T. Experiments with Portland Cement Concrete, combined with Iron, as a Building Material. 4to. 1877. Keily, J. Expansion of Structures by Heat. Svo. 1887. Kirkaldy, D. Experimental Inquiry into the Tensile, Strength, &e., of Wrought Iron and Steel. New edition, 8vo. Glasgow, 1863. Results of an Experimental Inquiry into the Mechanical Properties of Steel. Laslett, T. Timber and Timber Trees. 8vo. 1875. [4to. 1SJ3. Lee, A. Marble and Marble Workers. 8vo. 1888. Lingard, J. Inquiry into the Nature and Construction of Timber, including the Causes of Dry Rot. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1842. Lockwood, H. Concreting and Asphalting. 4to. Manchester, 1886. Metropolitan Board of Works. Regulations for the Construction of Concrete BuildTigs under the Metropolitan Building Act, 1 S55. Folio. 1882. Mushet, D. Papers on Iron and Steel, Practical and Experimental. 8vo. 184 0. Papworth, J. Essay on the Causes of Dry Rot in Buildings. 4to. 1803. Pasley, C. W. On Limes, Calcareous Cements, Mortars, Stuccoes, Concrete, and Puzr.no- lanas, &c. 8vo. 1838. 2nd edition, Part I. only. 1847. [Enlarged, 187 • > • Percy, J. Metallurgy; or, the Art of Extracting Metals from their Ores. Svo. 1859-01. Potter, T. Concrete; its use in Building. 8vo. (1877). Reid, II. Practical Treatise on Concrete, and how to make it ; with Observations on the uses of Limes, Cements, and Mortars. 12mo. 1869. The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement, with some Constructive Appliances. 8vo. 1877. [Svo. 1857. Rogers, S. B. Treatise on Iron Me’allurgy, up to the manufacture of Puddled Bars. Sm-ith, C. II. Lithology; or Observations on Stone used for Building. 4to. 1845. Stone. Report and Investigation into the Qualifications and Fitness of Stone for Building Purposes, particularly for the New Houses of Parliament. New edition, 4to. 1845. Geological Survey of Great Britain. Mineral Statistics of Great Britain, &c. By R. Hunt. Part II. for 1858. 8vo. 1860. Timber and Timber Duties Commissioners’ Report. Folio. 1835. Treussart, Gen., Petot, M., and Courtois, M. Essays on Hydraulic and Common Mortars, and on Lime, Burning. Translated by J. G. Totten. *8vo. New York, 181.’. Truran, W. The Iron Manufacture of Great Britain. Revised edition, 4to. 1862. United States. Report on the Building Stones of that country. 4to. New York, 1883. Unwin, W. C. Bate of Hardening of Cement and Cement Mortars. 8 Vo. 1886. Testing of Portland Cements. 12mo. Manchester, 1886. Testing of Materials of Construction. 8vo. 1888. Vieat, L. J. Recherches expdrimentales sur les Chaux de Construction, les Bctons, ct Mortiers ordinaires. 8vo. Paris, 1819. Transl. by ,T. T. Smith. Svo. 1837- Whiehcord, J. Kentish Ragstone as a Building Material. 8vo. 1846. XI. STATICS, STRAIN, STRENGTH, MECHANICS, TABLES, &c. Adamson, D. The Mechanical and other Properties of Iron and Mild Steel. 8vo. (1878-j Adcock, H. Engineer’s Pocket Book. 8vo. 1862, &e. Anderson, J. Strength of Materials and Structures. 5th edition, 12mo. 1880. 1-™°- Baker, B. On the Strength of Beams, Columns, and Arches. 8vo. 1870. Baker, T. Principles and Practice of Statics, and Dynamics. l2mo. 1851. Barlow, P. Treatise on the Strength of Timber, Cast Iron, [Malleable Iron, and other Materials, &c. New edition. Edited by J. F. Heather. 8vo. 1851. Beardmore, N. Hydraulic Tables. 2nd edition, 12mo. Bourdais, J. Traite Pratique de la Resistance des Materiaux appliques a la Construction des Ponts, des Batimens, etc. 8vo. Paris, 1859. i °V Bow, R. II. Treatise on Bracing, with its Application to Bridges, &e. 8vo- Edinburg', Box, T. Practical Treatise on the Strength of Materials, including their Elasticity, ^ Svo. 1883. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1183 runet, F. Dimensions de Fers qui doivent former la Coupole de la Halle anx Grains, ampin, F. Engineers’ Pocket Remembrancer. 8vo. 1861. [Folio. Paris, 1809. irgill, T. Strains upon Bridge Girders and Roof Trusses. 8vo. 1873. 'arke, G. S. Principles of Graphic Statics. 4to. 1880. itterill, J. H. Applied Mechanics. 8vo. 1884. ngineers’, Architects’, and Contractors’ Pocket Book. 8vo. (Weale.) 1863, &c. airbairn, W. Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes, with Treatise on Wrought Iron Bridges. 4th edition, 8vo. 1870. Useful Information for Engineers. 4th edition, 3 vo's., 8vo. 1864-67- nnwick, S. Mechanics of Construction, including the Theories of the S-trength of Materials, Roofs, Arches, and Suspension Bridges. 8vo. 1861. raham, R. H. Graphic and Analytic Strains in Theory and Comparison ; also a chapter on Wind Pressures. 8vo. 1883. ■ier, W. The Mechanic’s Calculator. 4th edition. 12nio. 1841. }gg, J. Merchant and Iron Trader's Guide, &c. Tables of Weights and Measurement of Metals, Stone, and Timber. 12mo. 1869. amber, W. Strains in Girders and similar Structures, and their Strength. 12mo. jrst, J. T. Handbook of Formulas, &e. 13th edition, sm. obi. 1882. [1868, 1880. wood, W. Tables for the Purchasing of Estates, Freehold, Copyhold, &c . ; Annui- ties, &c. 7th edition. By F. Thoman. 12mo. 1859. rk, Balfour, and Ward. New Zealand Timber. 8vo. Wellington, 1875. rkaldy, D. Results of an Experimental Inquiry into the Comparative Tensile Strength, &c., of various kinds of Wrought Iron and Steel. 8vo. 1862. Results of an Experimental Inquiry into the relative properties of Wrought Iron Plates. 4to. 1876. a, W. Tables of Strength and Deflection of Timber. 8vo. 1860. ilpas, II. Builder’s Pocket Book of Reference : Tables of Strength of Timbers, Wood, and Iron Beams, &c. 18mo. 1852. jilesworth, G. L. Pocket Book of Useful Formulae and Memoranda. 21st edition, 16mo. 1882. Tin, A. J. Lemons de Meeanique Pratique. 4 vols. 1846-50. 2nd edition, 8vo. 'Paris, 1855. Aide-memoire de Meeanique Pratique. 5th edition, 8vo. Paris, 1861. fundamental Ideas of Mechanics, and Experimental Data. Translated, &c., by J. lennett. 8vo. New York, 1860. [edition. 8vo. 18V.\ . seley, H. Mechanics applied to the Arts, including Statics and Hydraulics. 3;d Mechanical Principles of Engineering and Architecture. 2nd edition, 8vc. 1855. 1 ss, N. A. Strength of Materials and Strains in Structures ; treats of Girder and suspension Bridges only. 8vo. 1887. Ikille, J. Hydraulic Tables, Coefficients, and Formulae for finding the Discharge of Vater from Orifices of all kinds. New edition, 8vo. 1860. tjnder, E. New Method of Graphic Strains applied in the Construction of Wrought ron Girders ; Series of Working Drawings of Modern Type. Vol. I. Folio. 1880. I die, A. The Practical Measurer, or Wood Merchant’s Assistant ; with Tables. New edition, 8vo. Glasgow, 1862. Bn, S. Tables showing the Weight of different lengths of Round, Square, Flat Bar ron, &c. 5th edition. Liverpool, 1843. I|iat, P. Pratique do la Meeanique appliquee a la Resistance des Mat&riatix. 8vo. laris, 1887. I :t, J. H. Mathematical Principles of Mechanical Philosophy, and their Application • Elementary Mechanics and Architecture, &c. Svo. Cambridge, 1845. I'jkine, W. J. M. Manual of Applied Mechanics. 3rd edition, 8vo. Glasgow, 1864. hoards, J. Wood-working Factories and Machinery. Svo. New York, 1873. h :er, N. C. Elementary Graphic Statics and the Construction of Trussed Roofs. Svo. ew York. [1882. R erts, J. The Pressure of Wheat stored in elongated cells or bins. 8vo. Liverpool, d ertson, F. Tables for Arches. 8vo. 1871. [Students. 8vo. t mson, II. Hydraulic Power and Machinery, for the use of Practical Engineers and R a, E. Hydraulic Tables: Discharge of Water through Pipes, &c. 8vo. 1852. on, H. C. Tables on the Strength of Timber. 8vo. Chatham, 1881. •81 Ids. F. W. Strains on Structures of Ironwork, with Remarks on Iron Construction. o. 1861. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1867. 5 , G. Stability of Arches. Svo. 1846. ey, B. B. Theory of the Strains in Girders and similar Structures; Tables of rength of Materials. Svo. 1869. : «' uck, E. L. Handbook of House Property; a Practical Guide, including the Law of lapidations, Fixtures, and Valuations, &c. 4th edition, enlarged, Svo. 1887. Ia :, E. W, Scienco of Building; Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construe- u. 8vo. 1870. 1181 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Tate, T. Strength of Materials; original Formulae, applied to Tubular Bridges, Iron Beams, &e. 8vo. 1860. Timmins, T. Examples of Iron Roofs, &c. Vol. 1, 4to. 1882. Obtaining by Diagrams the Strains in, and Strength of, Riveted Girders and Curved Roofs. Vol. 2,lto. 1882. Tomlinson, C. Mechanics. 12mo. 1859. Toussaint, C. J. Traite de GeomMrie et d’ Architecture Th4orique et Pratique simplific 4 vols, 4to. Paris, 1811-12. Tredgold, T. Practical Treatise on the Strength of Cast Iron and other Metals. Revised, &c., by E. Hodgkinson. 8vo. 1860. Turnbull, A. II. Tables of Compound Interest, and Annuities; Yearly, &c., Payments. 8 vo. Edinburgh, 1863. Turnbull, W. Essay on the Construction of Cast Iron Beams. 8vo. 1833. Unwin, W. C. Formulae for Flow of Water in Pipes. 4to. Manchester, 1886. Warr, F. Dynamics, Construction of Machinery, Equilibrium of Structures, and the Strength of Materials. 8vo. 1851. [1867. Weir, II. F. Land Measuring Tables, showing the area, of any sized Plot. 8vo. Glasgow. Whewell, W. Elementary Treatise on Mechanics. 7th edition, 8vo Cambridge. 1347. Willich, C. M. Popular Tables for ascertaining the Value of Lifehold, Leasehold, and Church Property. 4th edition, 8vo. 1859. Woodbury, D. P. Treatise on the various Elements of Stability in the well-proportioned Arch. 8vo. New York, 1858. XII. PRACTICAL WORKS OF CONSTRUCTION.— See also Class X. Adams, H. Joints in Woodwork. 8vo. 1877. Adhemar, J. Traite de Charpente. 2nd edition, 8vo. Paris, 1854. Traite de la Coupe des Pierres. Test 8vo., plates folio. Paris, 1859. Ardant, P Sur la Charpente a Grande Portee. Folio. Paris, 1853. Ashpitel, A. New Guide, or Book of Lines for Carpenters, geometrically explained. New edition, 4to. 1857. Handrails and Staircases; a Simple Method of Finding the Lines. 4to. 1851. Bancroft, R. M. and F. J. Tall Chimney Construction. 8vo. Manchester, 1885. Bankes, L. Joiner’s Instructor in the Construction of Staircases and Handrailing. 4tn. Blagrove, G. H. Shoring and its Application. Svo. 1887. Borgnis, J. A. Trait6 Elementaire de Construction appliques a TArchitecturo Civile. 2 vols. 4to. 30 plates. Paris, 1823. 3rd edition, 4to. Li6ge, 1840. Brandon, R. and J. A. Open Timber Roofs of the Middle Ages. 4to. 1849. Brees, S. C. Railway Practice: a Collection of Working Plans, &c. 4 series, 4to. 1837, 1810, 1847. Brown, G. Healthy Foundations for Houses. 18mo. New York, 1885. Brunet, F. Dimensions des Fers de la Coupole de la Halle au Grain. 4to. Paris, 180!). Bruyere, L. Etudes relatives a l’Art des Constructions. Folio. Paris, 1823-28. Building Construction. Notes on. 3 vols. 8vo. 1875-79. Burn, R. S. New Guide to Carpentry, general Framing, and Joinery, theoretical am, practical. 4to. 1871. Bury, T. Remains of Ecclesiastical Woodwork. 21 plates, 4to. 1847. Christy, W. J. Practical Treatise on the Joints made and used by Builders. 12mo. 1882 Collings, G. Circular Work in Carpentry and Joinery : A Practical Treatise on Circuit Work of Single and Double Curvature. 8vo. 1887. Dempsey, G. D. Examples of Iron Roof, spans from 20 to 153 feet. Folio. 1 850. Dobson, E. Rudimentary Treatise on Masonry and Stone-cutting. 12mo., 4to. 1 84 !■ Rudiments of the Art of Building. 12mo. 1881. On Foundations and Concrete Wort 12mo. 1850. Douliot, J. P. Traite special de Coupe des Pierres. 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1825. Durand-Claye, A. Etude sur la Stabilite de la Coupole projet^e par Bramante pour I Basilique de S. Pierre de Rome. 4to. Paris, 1879. Eek, C. L. G. Traite de l’Application du Fer, de la Fonte, et de la Tole, dans les Coi structions Civiles, etc. Folio. 1841. Memoire sur la Construction de Nouveaux Planchers, destines a rendre les cat ments Ineombustibles. Folio. Paris, 1841. [Liege, 181 Emy, A. R. Traitb de l’Art de la Charpenterie. 2 vols. 8vo. 157 plates, f° 1 . Description du Nouveau Systeme d’Arcs pour les Grandes Charpentes. Foil Li&ge, 1852. . | Fairbairn, W. Treatise on Mills and Millwork. Part I. Principles of Mechanic 3rd edition, 8vo. 1871. Part II. Machinery and Construction and Arrangement Mills. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1865. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1185 ontenay, T. Notice on the Construction of the Tunnels of St. Cloud and Motretout ; with General Observations on Subterranean Passages, and the Dimensions and Prices of Sixty-six Tunnels in France, England, and Belgium. 8vo. Paris, 1847. ourneau, H. Art du Trait de Charpenterie. 4 vols, folio, 87 plates. Paris, 1820. ox, H. H., and Barrett, G. Construction of Public Buildings and Private Dwelling- Houses on a Fireproof Principle, without increase of cost. 12mo. 1849. rezier, M. Theorie et la Pratique de la Coupe des Pierres et des Bois. 3 vols. 4to. plates. Paris, 1757. alpin, J. Joiner’s Instructor : Staircasing and Handrailing. 2 vols. 4to. 1 853. Joiner’s Own Book, and Builder’s New Guide, showing the Improvements upon Carpentry and Joinery since the days of the, late Mr. Nicholson. 39 plates, 4to. 1856. lauthey, E. M. Dissertation sur les Degradations survenues aux Piliers du Dome du Pantheon, et sur les Moyens d’y remedier. 4to. plates. Paris, 1798. oodwyn, H. Wrought-Iron Roofing, as applicable to every description of Building, and showing the modification necessary to adapt the system to European dwellings in India, &c. 4to. Calcutta, 1844. assenfratz, J. H. Traite de l’Art du Charpentier. 4to. Paris, 1804. iusse, M. Ouverture de 1’Art du Serrurier, Charpentier, etc. 2 vols. folio. Fleche, 1627. Be Secret d’ Architecture. Folio. 1642. L’Art de Charpente. 3rd edition, folio. Paris, 1702. raift, J. C. Trait6 sur l’Art de la Charpenterie ; Plans, Coupes et Elevations, de diverses Productions. Folio. Paris, 1820. isvinges, H. et L. CatheJrale de Bayeux : Reprise en sous-ceuvre de la Tour Centrale ; Description des Travaux. 25 plates, 4to. Paris, 1861. xton, H. Examples of Building Construction, being a Series of Working Drawings to a large Scale. 27 parts, folio. 1853-56. itheson, E. Works in Iron ; Bridge and Roof Structures, with a Vocabulary. 8vo. 11873. lirrifield, C. W. Determination of the Form of the Dome of Uniform Stress. 8vo. isauge, M. Trait d de Charpenterie et des Bois de toutes Espdces. 2 tom. Paris, 1753. gnard, B. R. Guide des Constructeurs ; Traite. 3rd edition, by A. F. Chellv. 2 rols. 8vo. ; 87 plates, folio. Paris, 1866. >rey, P., et Roux, H. Charpente de la Cathedrals de Messine. Folio. Paris, 1841. irris, T. British Carpentry : History and Principles of Gothic Roofs. 8vo. 1871. . wland, J. Carpenter’s and Joiner’s Assistant, &c. 2 vols. folio. Liverpool, 1860. i cholson, P. Carpenter and Joiner’s Assistant. 4to. 1815. Carpenter’s New Guide, tto. 1819. Practical Treatise on the Art of Masonry and Stone-Cutting. 8vo. 1832. Cham. Report on the Fall of the Cotton Mill. Folio. 1845. < permann, C. A. Nouvelles Annales de Construction. In progress, folio. Paris, 855-87. Jjvell, G. T. Foundations and Foundation Walls ; Pile Driving; Building Stones and lricks. With Foundations and Isolated Piers as followed in Chicago, by F. Baumann, vo. New York, 1887. lice, F. British Carpenter. 4to. plates. 1753. I die, R. Staircasing, Handrailing, Carpentry, &c. 1860. 1 )erts, T. Mode of Scarfing Timber. 8vo. Devonport, 1852. Iitson, G. Modern Domestic Building Construction. Folio. 1876. I ison, R. Mason’s, Bricklayer’s, and Decorator’s Guide ; containing Examples of oundations, Domes, Lighthouses, Bridges, &c. 4to. 1862. I fe, C. Chancel Screens and Roofs. 8vo. Reading, 1876. [1846-50. Lfiberg, S. A. Die Zimmerwerk-Baukunst in alien ihren Theilen. Folio. Leipzig. I delet, J. Traite Theorique et Pratique de l’Art de Batir. 5 vols. 4to. and 207 lates, folio. Continuation of G. A. Blouet. Paris, 1858. 10th edition. As great use was made of this work by Gwilt, we notice here that he had the edition of 1835. It was first published in 1805-10, which edition is in the library of the Institution of Civil Engineers; the second, of 1812-14, is in the library of the Institute of British Architects, and in Sir John Soane’s Museum ; while the British Museum contains .the edition dated 1830-2. In this one some of the plates have been re-engraved and rearranged. [Paris, 1814. — Mdmoire Historique sur le Dome du Pantheon Francois. 10 plates, 4to. — — Mdmoire sur la Reconstruction de la Coupole de la Halle au Ble de Paris, o. 3 plates. Paris. R , C. F. le. Traii4 de Stereotomie ; a la Theorie des Ombres, la Perspective lindaire, Gnomonique, la Coupe des Pierres, et la Charpente. 2 vols. folio and 4to. Lifege, 145. dfilon, H. C. Building Trades and Building Construction. 2nd edition, folio. Chatham, ~i — Builders’ Work and the Building Trades. 8vo. 1886. [1877. 4 G Sganzin, J. Lemons d’un Cours i!e Constructions, avec des applications tirees speeiule- ment de l’Art de l’lngdnieur des Ponts et Cliaussees. 5th edition, by M. Eeibell. 180 plates, folio. Text 3 vols. 4to. Paris, 1845. [I860. 8vo. 1877. Simms, P. W. Practical Tunnelling. Revised by W. 1). Haskoll. 2nd edition. 4to. Simunin. Trait e El&mentaire de la Coupe des Pierres. 4to. Paris, 1792. Sirr, H. English Stall Work, Canopies, and Rood Screens of the XY T th century. 2 vols. 4 to. 1883-85. [1878. Small, J. W. Scottish Woodwork of XVIth and XVIIth century. Folio. Edinburgh, S^ock, C. H. Shoring and Underpinning. 8vo. 1882. Tarbuck, E . L. Encyclopaedia of Practical Carpentry and Joinery, &c. 4to. 1857-69. Tarn, E. W. Elementary Principles of Carpentry and Joinery, from the work by Tredgold. Plates, 4to. 8vo. 1873. On the Construction of Roofs. 12mo. 1882. Thierry. Recueil d’Esealiers en Pierre, Charpente, Menuiserie et Fonte. 4to. Paris. 1844 . Timmins, T. Iron Girders and Roofs. Yol. 1, 2nd edition, 4to. 1883. Yol. Graphic Strains. 4to. 1882. Tregold, T. Elementary Principles of Carpentry, by P. Barlow. 4to. 50 plates. 1853. j Revised by T. Hurst. 3rd edition, 8 vo. 1880. 5th edition, revised by E. W. Tarn. 4to. 1885. Trendall. E. W. Examples for Roofing, &c., for Show-Rooms, Theatres, Warehouses, Churches, Chapels, Schools, Villas, Greenhouses, &e. New edition, 4to. 1860. Walker, T. L. Architectural Precedents. 65 plates, 8vo. 1841. Walmisley, A. T. Iron Roofs. Folio. 1884. Willcocks, G. W. Roads and Roadways. 8vo. 1879. XIII. FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION, &c. • . A Ashpitel, A., and Whichcord J. Fireproof Houses in Flats. 8vo. 1855. Bellamy, T. Fireproof Construction. Folio. 1872. Boult, J. Structural Requirements of the Fire Prevention Acts. &c., in Liverpool. Svo. Liverpool, 1869. Braidwood, J. Fireproof Buildings. 8vo. 1850. — - — Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction. 8vo. 1865. Fox, H. H., and Barrett, G. Construction of Public Buildings and Private Dwelling Houses on a Fireproof Principle, without increase of cost. 12mo. 1849. Hornblower, L. Improvements in the Construction of Fireproof Buildings ; Specific;) tions, &c. 8vo. 1874. Merryweather, J. C. Fire Protection of Mansions. 8vo. 1881. Papworth, W. Notes on the Causes of Fires; or, which is the safest of the various modi of Warming Buildings. 16mo. 1853. Notes on Spontaneous Combustion. 16mo. 1855. Shaw, E. M. Fire Surveys; or, Principles in Estimating Risk of Buildings. 8vo. 1S7‘. Young, C. F. T. Fires, Fire-engines, &c. ; with Remarks on Fireproof Constructioi 8 vo. 1866. XIV. BRIDGES AND ARCHES. Adli5mar, J. Traite Theorique et Pratique des Ponts Biais. Folio. Paris, 1857. Anselin, N. J. B. Experiences sur la Main d'CEuvre des differens Travaux depeudans d Service des Ing5nieurs des Ponts et Chauss5es, etc. 4io. Boulogne, 1810. [180 Atwood, G. Dissertation on the Construction and Properties of Arches. 4to. 18<’l Aubry. Memoire sur la Construction d'un Pont de Bois de 450 Pieds d Ouverture <1 1 . seul Jet, etc. 4to. Paris, 1790. [Bridge. 4to. 188 Baker, B. The Strength of Beams, Columns, and Arches. 8vo. 1870. The D>j B ashforth, P. Practical Treatise on the Construction of Oblique Bridges with Spiral ai with Equilibrated Courses. New edition, 8vo. 1855. Bauernfeind, C. M. Vorlegebliitter zur Briiekenbaukunde. Folio. Munich, 1 853- 54 . Blackfriars Bridge. 7 plates of the machines used in its construction and the centre of the middle arch. Oblong folio. Blair and Phillips. Construction of Viaducts, Bridges, &c. 8vo. 1846. Boistard, L. C. Recueil sur les Ponts de Nemours, &c. 4to.. 19 plates. Paris, 1821 Bow, R. H. Treatise on Bracing ; with its Application to Bridges, &o. 8vo. but burgh, 1851. Cargill, J. Strains upon Bridge Girders and Roof Trusses. 8vo. 1873. Clark, E. Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges, with General Inquiries on Bean 2 vols. 8vo. 1850. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1187 Cresy, E. Practical Treatise on Bridge Building and on the Equilibrium of Vaults and Arches. Plates, folio. 1839. ■ Dompsey, G. D. Ma.leable Iron Tubular Bridges. 4to., plates folio. 1850. Brick Bridges, Sewers, and Culverts. 4to., plates folio, 1850. Emmery, H. C. Pont d’lvry en Bois, sur Piles en Pierre, traversant la Seine pres du I confluent de la Marne. 2 vols. 4to. plates. Paris, 1832. Etzel, C. von. Briicken und Thaliibergange Schweizerischer Eisenbaknen. Folio. Basel, 1856. Supplement, 1859. ^Exchaquet, H. Dictionnaire des Ponts et Chaussees. 8vo. 12 plates. Paris, 1787. [Fairbairn, W. Account of the Construction of the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. 20 plates, 8vo. 1819. IGrauthey, E. M. Traite de la Construction des Ponts ; Mdmoires sur les Canaux de Navigation, etc., public par M. Navier. 4 vols. 4to. plates. Paris, 1816. lautier, H. Trait6 de la Construction des Ponts et Chaussees. 8vo. Paris, 1721-65. jJoury, G. Reicueil d’Observations, M^moires et Projets concerrant la Navigation Int^rieure. 2 vols. 4to., plates folio. Paris, 1827. Iwilt, Joseph. On the Rebuilding of London Bridge. 8vo. with 1 plate. 1823. Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches. 8vo. plates. 1826. The editions of a later date are spurious, being without additions or corrections by the author, itlann, J., and Hosking, W. Theory, Practice, and Architecture of Bridges of Stone, Iron, Timber, Wire, and Suspension. 4 vols. 8vo. 1843. Supplement, by G. R. Burnell. 8vo. 1850. [Iron. Folio. 1864. laskoll, W. D. Examples of Bridge and Viaduct Construction of Masonry, Timber, and laupt, H. General Theory of Bridge Construction, containing Demonstrations of the Principles of the Art, the Strains upon Chords, Ties, Braces, &c. New edition, 8vo. New York, 1853. lodges, J. Great Victoria Bridge at Montreal in Canada. Text 4to., plates folio. 1860. lumber, W. Complete Treatiso on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridges and Girders, as applied to Railway Structures and Buildings generally. Plates, 4to. 1860. ! — _ — Complete Treatise on Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction, including Iron Foundations. 80 plates, 2 vols. 4to. 1864 and 1870. lutton, C. Principles of Bridges. 8vo. 1772. atham, J. H. Construction of Wrought Iron Bridges, embracing the Practical Application of the Principles of Mechanics to Wrought-Iron Girder Work. 8vo. Cambridge, 1858. eSage, P. C. Recueil de divers Memoires des Ponts et Chaussees. 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1810. arquand, C. On the Different Constructions of Bridges, and Improvements to secure their Foundations. 4to. 1749. aw, W. H., and Dredge, J. Modern Examples of Road and Railway Bridges. 4to. 1872. ilne, J. Theory and Principles of Bridges and Piers. 8vo. 36 plates. 1806. olinos, L., et Pronnier, C. Traite Theorique et Pratique de la Construction des Ponts Metalliques. 4to., plates folio. Paris, 1858. hvier. Memoire sur les Ponts Suspendus. 4to. Paris, 1830. cholson, P. Guide to Railway Masonry, containing a complete Treatise on the Oblique Arch. 3rd edition, revised by R. Cowen. 8vo. 1860. rronet, M. GSuvres de. 4to., plates folio. Paris, 1793. lonceau, A. R. Notice sur le nouveau Systeme de Ponts en I'onte, suivi dans la Con- struction du Pont du Carrousel. 4to. Atlas folio, plates Paris, 1839. nt en Pierre a construire sur la Seine a Rouen. 4to. plates. Paris, 1815. ony, M. do. Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique. 2 vols. 4to. plates. Paris, 1790. gemortes, M. de. Description du nouveau Pont de Pierre construit sur la Rivi&re 1’Allier a Moulins. Folio. Paris. 1771. bertson, F. Tables for Archps. 8vo. 1 871 - ndelet, A. Essai Historique sur le Pont de Rialto. 4to. plates. Paris, 1837. tward, J. Observations on the Rebuilding of London Bridge. 8vo. plates. 1824. : piin, A. Des Ponts en Fil de Fer. 8vo. plates. Paris, 1824. : nple, G. Treatise on Building in Water. 63 p'ates, 4to. Dublin, 1776. ■ mahan, M. Plans and Elevations of Bridges in France, Switzerland, Italy, and jlavoy. Oblong folio. Plates only. No date. Ml, G. Stability of Arches. 8vo. 1846. [1882. 'J ford, T. Reports on the Holyhead Roads, Harbour, Bridges, &e. Folio, with plates. Lnbull, W. Mathematical Investigation of Dredge’s Principle for Bridges. 8vo. 1841. ^ at, L, J. Description du Pont Suspendu construit sur la Dordogne a Argental. 4to. lates. Paris, 1830. ' re, S. Treatise on the Properties of Arches, and their Abutment Piers. 1809. beking, Le Chevalier. Architecture Hydraulique fond6e sur la Thdorie et la Pratique. | vols. 4to. Atlas vol. of plates. Munich, 1814-24. 4 u 2 1188 PUBLICATIONS RELATING XV. SPECIFICATIONS, GUIDES TO TRADES, OFFICE WORK. Bartholomew, A. Specifications for Practical Architecture, preceded by an Essa on the Decline of Excellence in the Structure and in the Science of Modern Englis Buildings. 8vo. 1840. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1846. Beckett-Denison, Sir E. Lectures on Church Building ; with Remarks on Bells an Clocks. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1856. A Book on Building ; including Church Restoration. 2nd edition, 12mo. 188( Bienkarn, J. Architectural and Engineering Specifications of Works, Roads, an Sewers, with Agreements and Reports. 8vo. 1865. Burn, R. S. Handbook of the Mechanical Arts in Building; with Hints on Roar making and Enclosing of Land. 2nd edition, 8vo. Edinburgh, 1860. Claudel, J. Formules, etc., on Aide Memoire des Ingenieurs, des Architectes, etc. 2n edition, 8vo. Paris, 1857. Dempsey, G. D. The Builder's Guide : A Practical Manual. 8vo. 1851. Dobson, E. Rudiments of the Art of Building. 12mo. 1849. Student’s Guide. 3rd edition, with additions by E. L. Garbett. 8vo. 1858. Donaldson, T. L. Handbook of Specifications, &c. ; with a Review of the Law of Coi tracts, by W. C. Glen. 2 vols. 8vo. 1860. Haskoll, W. D. Clerk of the Work’s and Young Architect’s Guide. 12mo. 1849. Houba, E. Code a l’usage de Proprietaires, Ingenieurs, Architectes. 8vo. Brux., 1881 Hurst, J. T. Handbook of Formulae, Tables, and Memoranda for Architectural Su- veyors, &c. 13th edition, sm. obi. 1882. [edition, 8ro. 188( Jenkins, E., and Raymond, J. A Legal Handbook for Architects. 8vo. 1873. 3r Mathews, J. D. Architect’s and Contractor’s Handbook. 8vo. 1883, 1885. Noble, J. Professional Practice of Architects, and that of Measuring Surveyors ; at; Reference to Builders. 8vo. 1836. [W. Young. 8vo. 187f Pewtner, W. Comprehensive Specifier: a Guide to Practical Specification. Edited l Rankine, W. J M. Manual of Civil Engineering. 3rd edition, 8vo. Glasgow, 1864. Roberts, J. B. Short Hints to the Student in Architecture on entering the Office, mal ing Drawings, &c. 16mo. 1852. Rogers, F. The Architect’s Guide: a Text-Book of Useful Information for Architect Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of the Works, &c. 8vo. 1877. Ryde, E. Text-Book for the constant use and reference of Architects, &e. Land- Property, by J. Donaldson. 8vo. 1854. [tory and Diary for 188 I Sears, J. E. The Architect, Surveyor, and Engineer’s Compendium, Specialist’s Dire Seddon, H. C. Notes on the Building Trades and Building Construction. 2nd editio- folio. Chatham, 1877. Builder’s Work and the Building Trade, 8vo. 1886. Science and Art Department. Notes on Building Construction. 3 vols. 8vo. 1875-71 Spons’ Architects’ and Builders’ Pocket Book, &c. 14th edition, by W. Young. 32mo. 188; Walker, T. L. Architectural Precedents ; with Essay on Architectural Praciice. 8vn. 184 Ware, W. R. Examples of Building Construction. 8vo. and 4to. Boston, U.S.A., 1877—8 Wheeler, W. H. Construe! ion, &c., of Roadways. 8vo. 1877. Wightwick, G. Hints to Young Architects. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1860. New editit; by G. H. Guillaume, 12mo. 1880. XVI. DESIGN, DRAWING. PERSPECTIVE. Adhemar, J. Tiaite de Perspective. 8vo. Paris, 1838. [4to. Paris, 18. Armengaud, C. Cours dHmentaire de Dessin industriel a l’usage des Ecoles premier Nouveau Cours raisonn^ do Dessin industriel applique principalement a Mecanique et a l’Architecture. Folio. Paris, 184 8. Billings, R. W. The Infinity of Geometric Design exemplified. 4to. 1849. The Power of Form applied to Geometric Tracery. 8vo. 1851. Burchett, R. Linear Perspective. 18th edition, 8vo. 1878. Burges, W. Architectural Drawings : Measured Drawings from France, England, a,| Italy, illustrating 13th century work. Folio. 1870. Davidson, E. A. Projection. 12mo. (1868.) Other works on Drawing for Trades. Edwards, M. A Guide to Modelling in Clay or Wax. Svo. 1879. [Paris, 18 Grand, A. le. Dessin lineaire, base sur la Geomdtrie pratique et la Perspective, lo Griffith, W. P. Ancient Gothic Churches ; their Proportions, &e. 3 parts, 4to. 1 84 7 Gwilt, J. Sciography ; or, Examples of Shadows; with Rules, &c. 8vo. 24 plates. IS Harding, J. D. Elementary Art; or, the Use of the Black-lead Pencil advocated and plained. 28 plates, 4to., 4th edition. 1858. Lessons on Art. 2 vols. 48 pH 2nd edition, 8vo. 1854. Principles and Practiceof Art; treating ofBeautyof Foj} Imitation, Composition, Light, Shade, Effect, and Colour. 4to. 1845. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1189 Jousse, M. Secrets d’Architocture et des Traits Geom^triques. Folio. Fleehe, 1642. Mahan, D. II. Industrial Drawing; Use of Drawing Instruments, Plane Figures, Solids, &c. &c. 8 vo. New York, 1862. Malton, J. Young Painter’s Maulstick. 4to. 1806. Practical Treatise on Perspective. 4to. 1800. Malton, T. Complete Treatise on Perspective. Folio, 2 vols. 1778. Minifie, W. Text-Book of Geometrical Drawing, for the use of Mechanics and Schools ; Drawing Plans, &c., of Buildings and Machinery, Isometrical Drawing, Linear Per- spective, and Shadows. New edition, 8vo. Baltimore, 1851. Motige, G., et Brisson, M. G6om6trie Descriptive ; suivie d’tine Th^orie des Ombres et de la Perspective. 7th edition, 4to. Paris, 1847. Normand, L. M., et Rebout, A. E. M. Etudes d’Ombres et de Lavis. Folio. Paris, 1845. Ogle, C. C. The Centrolinead. 8vo. 1873. Pasley, C. W. Course of Practical Geometry and Plan Drawing. 8vo. 1838. Portlock, E. J., and others. Geometrical Drawing. 4to. 1863. Prout, S. Hints on Light, Shadow, and Composition, &c. 4to. 1838. [4to. 1854. Pyne, G. Rules for Drawing ; Outline, Orders, Perspective, Light and Shade, Colour. Roy, C. F. le. Traite de Geometric Descriptive. 3rd edition, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1850. Ruskin, J. Lectures on Architecture and Painting. 8vo. 1852. The Elements of Perspective. 8vo. 1859. Simms, F. W. Mathematical and Drawing Instruments. 12mo. 1847. Smith, J. Projection and Artistic Drawing. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1843. Sopwith, T. Isometrical Drawing. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1843. Spiers, R. P. Architectural Drawing. 4to. 1887. [1878. Stanley, W. F. Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical Instruments. 5th edition, 8vo. Tarn, E. W. Practical Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Mechanic. 8vo. 1871. , [Paris, 1853. Tripon, J. B. Etudes progressives et completes d’Architecture et de Lavis. Folio. Twining, H. Nature and Application of Perspective and Foreshortening. 8vo. 1850. Ware, W. R. Modern Perspective. 8vo. and 4to. B ston, U.S.A., 1883. Warren, S. E. Shades and Shadows : General Problems formed both by Parallel and by Radial Rays. 8vo. New York, 1867. Willson, H. Use of a Box of Colours : Composition, Light and Shade. 8vo. 1842. Wilme, B. P. Handbook for Mapping, Engineering, and Architectural Drawing. 8vo. 1846. XVII. ORNAMENT, DECORATION, BRASSES, &c. Adams, L. G. Recueil de Sculptures Gothiques d’apres les plus Beaux Monuments en France depuis le XI" jusqu’au XV B Siecle. 192 plates, 2 vols. 4to. Paris, 1856. Decorations Interieures et Meubles des Epoques de Louis XIII. et XIV., d’apres les Compositions de C. de Passe, etc. 100 plates, folio. Paris, 1862-64. [1805. Albertolli, F. Corso Elementare di Ornament^ Architettonici. Folio, 28 plates. Milan, Ame, E. Les Carrelages Emailles du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance. 4to. Paris, 1859. Antonelii. Collezione de’ Migliori Ornamenti Antichi nella Citta di Venezia. 130 plates, 4to. Venezia, 18" Architectural Ornaments. A Collection of Capitals, Friezes, Roses, Entablatures, Mould- ings, &c., drawn on Stone from the Antique. 100 plates. (Ackermann), 1824. Arundel Society. Sculptured Ornament of the Monastery of Batalha. Folio. 1868. j^sselineau, C. Meubles et Objets divers du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance. Folio. Paris, 1854. budsley, W. J. and G. A. Outlines of Ornament in the Leading Styles. Folio. 1881. , G. A., and Bowes, J. L. Keramic Art of Japan. Folio. 1875. laldus, E. Palais du Louvre et des Tuileries; Motifs de Decoration Interieure et Ex- terieure. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1874. — - — Recueil d’Ornements d’apres les Maitres les plus celfebres des XV" au XVIII" Si&cles. Folio. Paris, 1869. lasoli, A. Raccolta di Diversi Ornamenti. 100 plates, folio. Bologna, 1 838. Compartimenti di Camere. 100 plates, folio. Bologna, 1827. leauvallet, P. N. Fragmens d’Architecture, Sculpture, et Peinture dans le Style Antique. Folio. Paris, 1804. ilashfield, J. M. History and Manufacture of Ancient and Modern Terra Cotta, and of its Use in Architecture. 12mo. 1855. lock, translated by Suckau. Les Tresors Sacres de Cologne. 48 plates, coloured, lordeaux, R. Serrurerie du Moyen Age. 4to. Paris, 1853. lorsato, G. Opera Ornamentale ; con Cenni Storici dell’ Ornato Decorativo Italiano di Vallardi. 60 plates, folio. Milano, 1831. 1190 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Boutell, C. Monumental Brasses of England. 8vo. 1849. Boutowski, V. de. Histoire de l’Ornement Russe du X e an XVI' Siecle, d'apr&s les manu- scrits. 200 plates, folio. Paris, 1870-72. Charles, R. Decorative Designs by Robert Adams. Folio. ,1883. Choix des Monumens les plus remarquables des Anciens Egyptiens, des Persans, des Grecs, des Volsques, des Eirusques, et des Romains, consistans en Statues, Bas-Reliefs, et Vases. 2 vols. folio, 244 plates. Rome, 1788. Cicognara, L. Monumenti Sepolcrali cospicui eretti alle Memorie degli Uomini Celebri in Venezia, &c. Folio. Turin, 1858. Clarkson, D. A. Ancient Ironwork from the 13th century. 4to. 1860. Colette, J. Livre de divers Ornemens pour Plafonds, Cintres, Surbaissdes, Galeries. Folio, 10 plates. Paris. Colling, J. K. Art Foliage for Sculpture and Decoration. 72 plates, 4to. 1865. Gothic Ornaments of Great Britain. 200 plates, 2 vols. 4to. 1848-56. Examples of English Mediaeval Foliage, taken from Buildings of the 12th to 15th century. 4to. 1872 Columbani, P. Capitals, Friezes, and ^Cornices, &c. 4to. Cramer, J. O. Ornements du Moyen Age en Italie et en Sicile. 4to. Ratisbon, 1842. Greeny, W. F. A Book of Fac-similes of Monumental Brasses on the Continent of Europe. Folio. Norwich, 1884. Cu'ler, T. W. A Grammar of Japanese Ornament and Design. 65 plates, 4to. 1880, 1887. Cutts, E. L. Manual for the Study of Sepulchral Slabs and Crosses of the Middle Ages. 8 vo. Oxford, 1849. Daly, C. Motifs Historiques d’ Architecture et de Sculpture d’Ornement des Monuments | Franqais de la Renaissance a la fin de Louis XVI. Two series, folio. Paris, 1 8G6- 68; 1874. Motifs Historiques d’ Architecture, etc., pour la Composit ion et la Decora- tion exterieure des Edifices publics et prives. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1870. Davidson, E. A. Amateur House Carpenter. 8vo. 1875. Day, L F. The Anatomy of Pattern. 8vo. 1886. Degen, L. Constructions en Briques. 48 plates, 4to. Paris, 1859. Constructions en Bois; Motifs de Decoration et d’Ornement. 48 plates, 4to. Destailleur, H. Recueil d’Estampes relatives a TOrnementation des Appartemc-nts aux XVD-XV1ID Siecles. Folio. Paris, 1865-71. Didron, A. N. Manuel des CEuvres de Bronze et d’Orfevrerie du Moyen Age ; drawn by L Gaucherel. 4to. Paris. 1859. Dietterlein, W. Architectura von Au c stheilung, etc. der fiinff Seulen. Folio. Nurem- berg, 1593, 1598. 5 Biich, 1655. New edition, folio. Li£ge, 1862. Drawing-Book of the Government School of Design. Folio. 1842-43. Dresser, C. Modern Ornamentation. 50 plates, 4to. (1866.) Art of Decorative Designs. 8vo. 1862. Japan: its Architecture, Art, &c. 8vo. 1882. Duchene, Lacroix, et Sere. Le Moyen Age et la Renaissance ; Histoire des Moeurs, des Arts, etc., a.b. 500-1600. 300 plates, 5 vols. 4to. Paris, 1848-51. Eastlake, E. Recueil de Meubles et d’Ornements Interieurs de differents Styles depuis l’Epoque Louis XIII. 2 vols. folio. Bruxelles. Ebbetts, D. .T. Examples of Decorative Wrought Ironwork of XVIIth andXVUItli; centuries. Folio. 1879. Eggert, F. Sammlung Gothischer Verzierungen. Plates, folio. Munich. Eisenlohr, F. Ornamentik in ihrer Anwendung auf verschiedene Gegenstar.de derBaugc- werke. Folio. Carlsruhe and Leipzig, 1851 . Mittelalterliche Bauwerke im sudwestlichen Deutschland und am Rhein. — r und Feederle, F. Holzbauten des Schwarzwaldes, &c. Folio. Carlsruhe, 1851. Fabre, A., and A r eslay, L. de. L’ Architecture au Salon; Art Antique, Moyen ge, Re- naissance, etc. Folio. Paris, 1872. Fergusson, J. Tree and Serpent Worship. 4to. 1868. Feuehere, L. L’Art Industriel ; Recueil de Dispositions et Decorations Interieures. p>lates, folio. Paris, 1839-48. Fowler, W. Collection of Mosaic, Roman and Norman Tesselated Pavements, andancien Stained Glass, discovered in different parts of England. Folio. Various dates, from 1798 to 1821. Collations and Notes, 4to. 1883, by Lord Lindsay. Gaucherel, L. Exemples de Decoration appliques a 1’Architecture et a la Peintur'e. 12' plates, 4to. Paris, 1 857- Haines, H. A Manual of Monumental Brasses. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1861. Havard, H. L’Art dans la Maison. 8vo. Paris, 1881. Heideloff, C. A. von. Art Specimens of Nuremberg, for Turners, Pottery and Porcelan Manufacturers, Jewellers and Goldsmiths, Woodoarvers, Carpenters, &c. 4 parts, 4to . Nuremberg, 1851. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1191 A Ie id el off, C A. von, and Gorged, C. Les Ornemonts du Moyen Age (Byzantine and Gothic Styles). Ill plates, 4 parts, 4to. Nuremberg, 1813-52. lessemer, F. M. Arabisehe und Alt-ltalienische Bauverzierungen. 120 plates, large folio. Berlin, 1842. Iill, A. G. Organ Cases and Organs of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Folio. 1883. linz, A. Die Schatzkammer der Marienkirche zu Dantzig. 8vo. 1871- lulme, F. E. Suggestions in Floral Design. Folio. 1886. Iusson, F. L’ Architecture Ferroniere : Exemples de Construction et d’Ornementation ancienncs e.t modernes. 4to. Paris, 1872. : acquemart. A. History of the GVramic A't — of all Ages and all Nations. Translated by Mrs. Bury Palliser. 8vo. 1873. alembier, C. A. Principes d’Ornemens pour F Architecture. 40 p'ates. Paris, enkins, W ., and Hosking, W. Selection of Architectural and other Ornaments, Greek, Roman, and talian. 25 plates, folio. 1829 ombert, C. A. Repertoire des Artistes; ou Recueil de Compositions d'Architecture et d'Ornemens, antiques et modernes, de toute espece, par divers Auteurs. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1765. ones, Owen. Examples of Chinese Ornament. 4to. 1866; and 8vo. 1867. The True and the False in the Decorative Arts. 8vo. 1863. ulienne, E. L'Ornemaniste des Arts Industriels. Folio. Paris, 1810. ulienne, M. E. L’Orfevrerie Fran^aise, les Bronzes et la Ceramique. Folio. Paris, 1868. Ping, T. II. Orfevrerie et Ouvrages en Metal du Moyen Age. 200 plates, 2 vols. folio. Bruges, 1853-60. Kinross, J. Details from Italian Buildings, chiefly Renaissance. ,Folio. Edinburgh, 1882. abarte, J. Hist-oire des Arts Industriels au Moyen Age et a I’Epoque de la Renaissance. 2 vols 4to. Paris, 1848-51. .achave. Nouvelle Collection de Menuiserie en Batiments. Folio. 1864. St-rrurerie. Recueil contenant Balcons en fer corroye et d’autres en fonte, lits en fer, etc Folio. 1864. avedan, B. Guide Pratique de S rrurerie Usuelle et Artistique a l usnge des Archi- tectes, etc. 3 vols 4to. Paris, 1867. efttel. Palais du Louvre et des Tuileries ; Motifs de Decorations. Folio. Paris, 1870. e Noir, A. Nouvelle Collection d' Arabesques propres a la Decoration des Appartemeus dessinees a Rome par L. Poussin 4to. Paris. o Pautre, A. CEuvres d'Architecture; emtenant Ps Frises, Feuillages, Montans ou Pdastres, Grotesques, Moresques, Panneaux, Placarts, Trnmeaux, Lambris, Amortisse- mens, Plafonds, et generalement tout ce qui concerne 1’Ornement. 3 vols. folio. Paris, 1751. evy, E. Meubles Religieux et A Civils conserves dans les Principaux Monasteres et Musees de l’Europe du Moyen Age et de la Renaissance. Folio. 1863. “wis, T. C. Organ Building and Bell Founding. 4to. 1878. [Munich, 1872. etzger, E. Ornaments designed from Flowers, for Architects, Decorators, &c. Folio, oreau, C. Fragmens et Ornemens d’Architecture dessines a Rome d’apr&s F Antique, formant un Supplement a FGSuvre d’Architecture de Desgodetz. Large folio, 36 plates. Paris, 1802. yhols, J. G. Essay on Encaustic Tiles, with Examples. 4to. 1842-45. prmand, C. Le Guide de l’Ornemnniste etde Decoration. New edition, folio. Liege, 1847. Nouveau Recueil en divers Genres d'Ornemens, et autres Objets propres a la Decoration. Folio, 46 plates. Paris, 1803. dham, T, Ancient Irish Pavement Tiles. 4to. Dublin, 1842. ■nament. Collezione dei Migliori Ornament-i Antichi, sparsi nella Citta di Venezia, con alcuni F'rammenti di Gotica Architettura. Folio. Venezia, 1843-45. Cours Fllementaires de Lavis appliqu£ a l’Ornementation. Folio. Paris, 1853. pworth, J. W. and W. Specimens of Decoration in the Italian Style, selected from the Designs of Raffaello in the Vatican Palace at Rome. 14 plates, 4to. 1844. quenot. Architecture, Sculpture, Cheminees. Plafonds, Decorations Interieures, d’apr&s les Maitres. 200 plates, 4to. Paris. rcier, C., et Fontaine, P. F. L. Recueil de Decorations Interioures, comprenant tout ce qui a rapport a l’Ameublement. Folio, 72 plates. Paris, 1812. rgolesi, M. A. ■ Designs for Arabesques, Large folio, 30 plates. 1777-85. tit, V. Nouveau Portefeuille de FOrnemaniste. 50 plates, folio. Paris, 1864. et Bisiaux. Motifs de Decoration. 1st series, 50 plates, folio. Paris, 1864. nor, R, Architecture, Decoration et Ameublement de l'Epoque de Louis XVI. Folio. Paris, 1864-65. Ornementation usuelle de toutes les Epoques dans les Arts Industrielles et eu Architecture. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1867-68. ■ oli, T. Monumens Antiques du Musee Napoleon. 4 vols. 4to. 40 plates. Paris, 1804. 1192 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Pompeii. Gli Ornati delie Pareti ed i Pavimenti delle Stanze dell’ Antica Pompeia. Atlas folio, 21 plates. Napoli, 1796. Pugin, A. W. N. Glossary of Ecclesiastical Ornament and Costume. 3rd edition, 4te 1868. — Floriated Ornament. A Series of 31 Designs. 4to. 1849. Pullan, R. P. The Designs of William Burges. Folio. 1886. Queverdo, F. M. Decorations Interieures ; Epoque de Louis XVI. Folio. Paris. Eam6e, D. Sculptures D6coratives, Motifs d'Ornementation reeueillis en France, Alln- magne, Italie, et Espagne, dans les plus Beaux Monuments Mev^3 du XII" au XVP Siecle. 4to. Paris, 1863-64. Meubles Religieux et Civils, conserves dans les principaux Monuments et Mus6es de l’Europe, pendant Moyen Age — de Louis XVI. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1864. Reynard, 0. Ornemens des Anciens Maitres des XV 0 du XV1IP Siecles. Folio. Paris 1 844. Richardson, C. J. Studies of Ornamental Design. 2 vols. folio. 1849-51. Rigollot. Ilistoire des Arts du Dessin, depuis l’Epoque Romaine jusqua la fin du seizifeme Si&ele. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1861. Romagnesi. Recueil d’Ornemens en Sculptures. Folio. Paris, 1843. Rottman, L. Ornaments from the Interiors of Celebrated Buildings of Munich. Folio. Munich, 1849. Rouyer, E„ et Darcel, A. L’Art Architectural en France depuis Francis I cr jusqu'it Louis XIV ; Motifs de Decoration. 184 plates, 4to. Paris, 1862-65. Rungo, L. Essais sur les Constructions en Briques en Italie. Text French and German 2 series, folio. Berlin, 1846-53. Schmidt, C. W. Baudenkmale in Trier und seiner Umgebung. 5 parts, folio and 4to. Treves, 1836-45. Scott, Sir G. G. Guide to the Architectural Museum. 8vo. 1876. Scott, W. B. The Ornamentist; Designs selected from the Works of Dietterlin, Berain, Blondel, Meissonier, Le Pautre, &e. 4to. Edinburgh, 1845. Sharpe E. The Ornamentation of the Transitional Period of British Architecture, 1145- 1190. 4to. 1871. Shaw, H. Handbook of Mediaeval Alphabets and Devices. 8vo. 1 853. Decorative Arts of the Middle Ages. 8vo. 1851. Specimens of Tile Pavements. 4to. 1852. Silvestre, J. Collection d’ Alphabets ; Histoires et Fleuronn6s tires des Principales Biblio- th6ques de l’Europe. Folio. Paris, 1 §43. Sommerard, A. du. Les Arts du Moyen Age, en ce qui concerne principalement le Palaif de Paris; l’Hotel de Cluny, etc. 11 vols. 8vo. and folio. Paris, 1838-46. Talbert, B. J. Gothic Forms applied to Furniture, Metal Work, Decoration, &e. Folio Birmingham, 1868. Tatham, C. H. Grecian and Roman Ornaments. Folio, 101 plates. 1825. Thiollet, F. Modules de Serrurerie et Fonte de Fer. Folio. Paris. Tyrwhitt, R. St. J. Christian Art and Symbolism. 8vo. 1872. Um6, G. L’Art Deeoratif; Modeles de Decoration et d’Ornementation de tousles Styles 4to. Paris, 1862. A Ungewitter, G. G. Plans, etc. Meubles du Moyen Age, composes par G. U. 48 plates folio. Leipzig, 1856. . Sammlung mittelalterlieher Ornamentik in Geschichtlicher. Folio. Liepzig, 1863 Vatican. Recueil d’Arabesques ; contenant les Loges du Vatican, gravies d’apr5s Raphae et grand Nombre d'autres Compositions du meme Gout dans le Style Antique. Larg folio. Paris, 1802. Viollet-le-Duc, E. E. Dictionnaire Raisonne du Mobilier Franqais de l’Epoque Carlovu- gienne a la Renaissance. 4 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1858-72. Volpato, J. Raphael’s Loggie del Vaticano. 3 vols. folio. Rome, 1772-77. Vulliamy, L. Examples of Ornamental Sculpture in Architecture. 40 plates, folio. 1S28 Waller, J. G. and L. Monumental Brasses from Edward I. to Elizabeth. Folio. Waring, J. B. Illustrations of Architecture and Ornament. 4to. 1868. Stone Monuments, Tumuli, and Ornaments of Remote Ages. 4to. 1870. Weale, J. Ornamental Ironwork, Gates, Ledges, Palisading, &c., in the Royal Parks, &< 4to. 1840. Wornum, R. N. Analysis of Ornament ; Characteristics of Styles. 8vo. 1856. Zach. Ornements d’ Architecture du Moyen Age d’Angleterre et de France. 4k Munich, 1842. Zahn, W. Select Ornaments for Architects and Workmen. Folio. 1844. Zanetti, G. Study Architettonico-Ornamentali. Folio. Venezia, 1846. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1193 XVIII. COLOURED DECORATION, STAINED GLASS, HERALDRY, &c. dams, E. Polychromatic Ornament of Italy. 4to. 18-17. rrowsmith, W. and A. House Decorator’s and Painter’s Guide ; Designs for Decorating Apartments. 4to. 1840. e itord, W. K. R. The Blazon of Episcopacy. 8vo. 1858. enson, W. Manual of the Science of Colour. 8vo. 1871. ; erg, A. R., and P. van der. School of Painting for the Imitation of Woods and Marbles. 36 plates, folio. lackburne, E. L. History of the Decorative Painting applied to English Architecture during the Middle Ages. 4to. 1847. 'ourgoin, J. Les Arts Arabes. ArchEecture, Menuiserie, Bronzes, Plafonds, Marbres, Pavements. Vitraux, etc., et lo trait general de l’Art Arabe. Folio. Paris, 1873. urke, Sir B. Encyclopaedia of Heraldry or General Armory. 8vo. 1842. New edition. 1878. uhier, C., et Martin, A. Vitraux Pients de Saint-Etienne de Bourges ; Recherches d4taeh£es d’une Monographie de cette Caihedrale. Verrieres du XIII 0 Siecle. 74 plates, folio. Paris, 1841-44. Suite aux Melanges d’Areheologie. Ser. I' 6 . Carrelages et Tissus. 8vo. Paris 1873. ineto, F. Saiote-Marie d’Auch ; Atlas Monographique de cette Cathddrale. 60 plates of glass, folio. Paris, 1857. bevreul, M. E. De la Loi du Contraste Simultane des Couleurs, etc. 8vo. Paris, 1829. Plaies, 4to. 1839. Translated by C. Martel. 8vo. London, 1854. Translated by J. Spanton. 8vo. 1860 and 1883. urch, A. H. Colour: an Elementary Manual for Students. 8vo., new edition. 1887. lily, C. Decorations Interieures Peintres. Salons, Salles a Manger, Chambres a Goucher, etc. etc. 3rd series of L’ Architecture Privde. Folio. Paris, 1874. vidson, E. A. House Painting, Graining, Marbling, &c. 12mo. 1876. scamps, H. P. V., et Le Maistre-d’Anstaing, I. Vitraux de la Cathedrale de Tournai, llessines par Capronnier. 13 plates, folio. Paris, 1846-48. . ville, A. Histoire de l’Art de la Verrerie dans l’Antiquite. 4to. Paris, 1873. pont-Auberville. Art Industriel. L’Ornement du Tissus, Recueil Historique et Pra- ique de l'Art Ancien, du Moyen Age, de la Renaissance, et des XVII 6 et XVIII” Isiecles. 100 plates. Folio. Paris, 1874-77. iger, L. P. Dorische Polyohromie. 4to. 1886. J Id, G. Chromatography ; or, a Treatise on Colours and Pigments, and of their Powers a Painting. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1841. Revised by T. W. Salter. 8vo. 1869. Rudiments of the Painter's Art ; or, a Grammar of Colouring. 12mo. 1850. 1 der, W. Collection of Pavements, &c. (See List XVII.) 1 nek, G. H. Hints on the Arrangement of Colours in Ancient Decorative Art. 2nd iition, 8 vo. Manchester, 1850. C cherel, L. Exemples de Decoration appliques a l’Architecture et a la Peinture depuis intiquite jusqu’a nos jours. 4to. Paris, 1857. Guilt de Prangey. Choix d'Ornemens Moresques de l’Alhambra. Folio. Paris, 147. Gjthe, J. W. von. Theory of Colours. Translated from the German by C. L. Eastlake. ho. 1840. G der, L. Fresco Decorations and Stuccoes of Churches and Palaces in Italy during the Vth and XVItli Centuries. Text by J. I. Hittorff. 4to. plates, folio. 1844. New ition, 1854. —I — Ornamental Designs for Decorations and Manufactures. Published for the pvernment School of Design. Folio. 1848. -G D. R. Nomenclature of Colours, Hues, Tints, and Shades. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1845. — — Principles of Beauty in Colouring Systematised. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1845. dijins, W. M. The House Decorator, or Decorator’s Companion; a Complete Treatise the Art of House Painting, Graining, Marbling, &c. 4to. rff, J. I., et Zanth, L. von. L’Architecture Polychrome chez les Grecs. Folio, .is, 1852. 11 . W. H. The Present System of obtaining Materials in use by Artist Painters, as 1 ipared with that of the Old Masters ; read before the Society of Arts, &c. Journal, 116. ‘ 0l O. Attempt to define the Principles which should regulate the Employment of 1 our in Decorative Arts. 8vo. 1852. — I- Grammar of Ornament, Folio. 1857. 4to. edition, 1865-66. 1191 PUBLICATIONS .RELATING Langlois, E. II. Essai Historique Descriptif sur la Peinture sur Verre, Ancienno e' Moderne, et sur les Vitraux les plus Remarquables. 8vo. Rouen, 1832. Latilla, E. Fresco, Encaustic, and Tempera Painting. 8vo. 1842. Levy, if., et. Capronnier, J. B. Histoire de la Peinture sur Verre on Europe. 37 plate.- folio. Bruxelles, 1860. Paris, 1865. Linton, W. Ancient and Modern Colours ; with tlieir Chemical and Artistical Properties 8vo. 1852. Magne. L. L'OEuvre des Peintures Verriers Fran^-ais. 8vo. 1887. Mandelgren, N. M. Notes sur 1 Execution technique de nos vieilles Peintures d’Eglist et sur le Moyen de les Eestaurer. 8vo. Stockholm, 1873. Merrifield, Mrs. M. P. Art of Fresco Painting, as practised by the old Italian air Spanish Masters. 8vo. 1846. Miller, F. Interior Decoration : Surface Decoration, with Notes on Colour, Stencilling and Panel Painting. 8vo. 1887. Moore, G. B. Principles of Colour applied to Decorative Art. 8vo. 1851. Morton, II. History of Paperhangings ; with a Keview of other Modes of Mur.; Decoration. 8vo. Liverpool, 1875. Papwortli, J. W., and Morant, A. An Alphabetical Dictionary of Coats of Arms belonr ing to Families in Great Britain and Ireland; or, Ordinary of British Armorials. 8n 1874. Eacinet, A. L’Ornement Polychrome; Eecueil Historique et Pratique — 17th and 18tlj Centuries. 100 plates, folio. Paris, 1870-72. Eossi, G. B. de. Musaici Christiani e Saggi dei Pavimenci delle Chiese di Eoma ant<-| riore al Secolo XV. Folio. Roma, 1872. Science and Art Department, South Kensington. A List of Buildings in England havin ; Marble or other Painted Decorations, of dates previous to the middle of the 16t century. By E. H. Smith. 8vo. 1872. 3rd edition, 8vo. 1883. Eeport on Mosaic Pictures for Wall-decorations, and Notes of Objects in Itn! suitable for reproduction by various methods. 8vo. 1872. Sere, F., et Louandre C. Les Arts Somptuaires ; Histoire du Costume et de l'Amenbl ment en Europe, et des Arts et Industries qui s'y rattachent. 4 vols. 4to. Pari 1852-58 Standage, H. C. The Artist’s Manual of Pigmerts, showing their Composite ; Conditions of Permanency, non-Permanency, Adulteration, &c., Tests of Purity. 8v' 1887. Texier, C. Histoire de la Peinture sur Verre en Limousin. 8vo. Paris, 1817. Vacher, S. Fifteenth Century Italian Ornament. Folio. 1886. AA aring, J. B. Arts connected with Architecture; Stained Glass, Fresco Ornamen, Inlay, &c., during 13th to loth century in Central Italy. 41 plates, folio. 18)8. "Warrington, W. History of Stained Glass from the Earliest Period. Folio. 1848. "Weale. J. Divers AVorks of Early Masters in Stained and Painted Glass. 2 vols. fob 1846. Westwood, J. 0. Distinctive Character of the various Styles of Ornamentation empl y by the Early British, Anglo-Saxon, and Irish Artists. 8vo. 1854. Facsimiles of Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Ml" Folio. 1868. Whitaker, H. Materials for a new Style of Ornamentation, consisting of Botanical Su jects and Compositions drawn from Nature. 4to. 1849. Willement, T. Eoyal Heraldry. 4to. 1821. Wilme, B. P. Manual of Writing and Printing Characters, both Ancient and Modi' 4to. 1845. W(inston), C. Inquiry into the Difference of Style in Ancient Glass Paintings, espeeni in England; with Hints on Glass Painting. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1847. Introduction to the Study of Painted Glass, with Eemarks on Modern vri Painting. 8vo. 1849. Memoirs Illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting. 8vo. 1865. Wyatt, M. D. Metalwork and its Artistic Design. Polio. 1852. Geometrical Mosaics of the Middle Ages. Folio. 1858. Zahn, W. Die sehonsten Ornamentc und merkwurdigsten Geiniilde aus Porapeji lanum und Stabise. 3 series, 250 plates, folio. Berlin, 1829-54. Oruamente aller klassisclien Kunst-Epochen. 100 plates, 2 vols. folio. 1838-42, 1843-48, 1849-63. Sl-l Li m Ni _il' ^ 8 in Her “ !m Bor Nf&ti $ L TO ARCHITECTURE. 1195 XIX. SURVEYING; MENSURATION; LEVELLING; QUANTITIES; PRICES; ESTIMATING. nslie, J. Comprehensive Treatise on Land Surveying. New edition, by W. Galbraith. 8vo. and 4to. Ediuburgh, 1849. ker, T. Land and Engineering Surveying. 12mo. 1883. Mensuration. 12mo. 1859. stle, II. J. Treatise on Land Surveying and Levelling. 8vo. 1845. hson, E. Student’s Guide to Measuring and Valuing Artificers’ Work. Enlarged by E. L. Garbett. 8vo. 1853. New edition, by E. W. Tarn. 8vo. 1871. ;tcher, B. Quantities; a Text-Book for Surveyors. 4th edition, 8vo. 1884. ming, J. Quantity Surveying. 8vo. 1880. 2nd edition, 1886. Lrell, J. R. Euclid Simplified in Method and Language. lGmo. 1875 sbit, A. Practical Mensuration, with Key. New edition, 12nio. 1852. Practical iband Surveying. 10th edition, revised by T. Baker. 8vo. 1855. holson, P. Principles of Architecture. 3 vols. 8vo. 1834. d, J. Young Surveyor’s Preceptor : Art of Architectural Mensuration. 2nd edition, Ito. 1859. phenson, G. Estimating: a Method of Pricing Builders' Quantities. 8vo. 1883. uns, F. W. Principles and Practice of Levelling. 3rd edition, 8vo. 1856. 8vo. 1875. >ns’ Architects’ and Builders’ Pocket-book of Prices, &c., for 1887. Edited by J. foung. 14th edition, 32mo. 1887. ting. J. R. Mensuration in Theory and Practice. 8vo. 1853. ir, H. F. Land Measuring Tables, showing the Area of any sized Plot. 8vo. Glasgow, 857. X. LAW; DILAPIDATIONS; FIXTURES; LIGHT AND AIR; ESTATES, &c. ~ Alison, C. G. Treatise on the Law of Contracts, aod Rights and Liabdities ex con- ■actu. 5th edition, 8vo. 1862. £ os, A., and Ferard, J. Treatise on the Law of Fixtures. 8vo. 1847. 1 ldon, J. S. Art of Valuing Rents and Tillages, and Claims of Tenants upon quitting arms. 8th edition, by J. C. Morton. 8vo. 1862. Bjcon, E. G. Ecclesiastical Dilapidations. 2nd edition, 12mo. Oxford, 1865. Handybook on the Ecclesiastical Dilapidations Act, 1871, with the Amendment jet, 1872. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1873. C nbers, T., and Taftersall, G. Law relating to Buildings, Fixtures, Irsurance, Actions i Builders’ Bills, Dilapidations. 12mo. 1845. C by, J. Treatise on the Law of Contracts. 6th edition, by -J. A. Russel), 8vo. 1857. C H. Law and Science of Ancient Lights. 8vo. 1869. 0 i, G. A. Enfranchisement and Commutation of Copyhold Property considered with 3 Copyhold Enfranchisement Bill. 8vo. 1851. — The Lind Steward ; Hints on Choice of Landed Estatrs, Principles of Drainage, rigation, arrangement of Farm Buildings, Walls, Roads, &c. 8vo. 1851, Di nidations. Report of Select Committee of Royal Inst, of Brit. A rchitects. 8vo. 1844. Lc siastical Dilapidations Act. Report of the Select Committee. Folio. 1876. d|S, J. On Dilapidations. 8vo. 1829. — — Practical Treatise on Architectural Jurisprudence. 8vo. 1827. a n, A. The Law relating to Building, Building Leases, and Building Contracts, h. 1882,1885. — I— Metropolis Management and Building Acts Amendment Act, 1882. 8vo. 1882. kjier, B. Dilapidations. 3rd edition, 8vo. 1883. Compensations. 8vo. 1874. Hit and Air. Revised, 2nd edition, 8vo. 1886. Metropolitan Building Acts, &c., 1 5-82. 8vo. 1882. Arbitrations. 8vo, 1875. I ns, D. Law of Fixtures. 8vo. 1836. - Law of Dilapidations and Nuisances. New edition, 8vo. 1849. - Law of Contracts for Works and Services. 12mo. 1857. bocj.rd, J. L. Treatise on the Law of Easements. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1877. >l| raw, W. Manual of the Building Regulations in force in Liverpool. 8vo. Liver- P Gra Hoi Hud fo , 1882. S. G. The Law of Fixtures ; Law of Dilapidations. 3rd edition, 8vo. 1876. i, J. Easements and Rights of Light. 8vo. Manchester, 1885. n, It. Land Valuer’s Best Assistant ; being Tables on a very much improved plan lalculating the Value of Estates, &c., for laying out Plots of Land. 8vo. (1859.) 1196 P UP LIGATION S PE LATINO Ingram, T. D. Compensation to Land and House Owners. 12mo. 1861. Jackson, C. The Practical Arbitrator. 8vo. 1879. Jenkins, E., and Raymond, J. A Legal Handbook for Architects. 3rd edition, 8 1880. Building Contracts. 8vo. 1873. Kerr, R. On Ancient Lights, and the Evidence of Surveyors thereon. 8vo. 18< The Consulting Architect. 8vo. 1886. Lanktree, J. Elements of Land Valuation, and Instructions as to the Qualifications a Duties of Valuators. 8vo. Dublin, 1853. Lathom, F. G. Law of Window Lights, 12mo. 1867. Law, T. J. Acts for Building Churches. 8vo. 1817. Lewin, T. A Practical Treatise on the Law of Trusts. 7th edition, by F. A. Lew 8vo. 1879. Low, D. Landed Property and the Economy of Estates. 8vo. 1856. Lumley, W. (I. Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act, 1848 ; with Notesa the Amending Act: and ditto of 1855. 2nd edition, 12mo. 1860. Law of Parochial Assessments. 4th edition, 1 2mo. 1858. Lyon, G. Compendium of the Law of Landlord and Tenant, as applicable both to Ag cultural Leases and to those of Urban Tenements. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1848. Macdonald, D. G. F. Estate Management. 8vo. 18 >9. McGovern, J. H. Liverpool Compensations. 8vo. Liverpool, 1882. Marwick, T. P. Valuation of Heritable and Landed Estate. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1887 Morris, T. Clue to Railway Compensation, Value of Estates, and Parochial Assessmei ; &c. 2nd edition, 12mo. 1866. Morton, J. L. The Resources of Estates; the Agricultural Improvement and Gene Management of Landed Property. 8vo. Price, R. On Reversionary Payments and Annuities ; by Morgan. 6th edition, 2 v- 8vo. 1803. Roscoo, E. S. Digest of Building Cases. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1883. Digest of Law Light. 1881. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1886. Rouse, R. The I radical Man ; or, Pocket Companion for Solicitors, Valuers, and Owi : of Property. 4th edition, 8vo. 1841. Russell, F. The Power and Duty of an Arbitrator. 8vo. 1878. St. Leonard, Lord. Handybook on Property Law. 7th edition, 8vo. 1866. Scratchley, A. Copyhold, Life Leasehold, and Church Property. 4th edition, 8vo. 1 Scriven, J. Law of Copyhold, Customary, Freehold, and Ancient Demesne Tenure, edition, 2 vols. 8vo. 1849. Smith, J. W. Law of Contracts. 8vo. 1855. Law of Landlord and Tenant. 8vo. 1 Smith, T. R. The Practice of an Archittct. 8vo. 1880. Tarbuek, E. L. Handbook of House Property ; Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, ancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land, &c. 12mo. 1875. Handbook of House Property. 2nd edition, 12mo. 1880. Watson, W. H. Law of Arbitration and Awards. 8vo. 1846. Wily, W. Law of Dilapidation in Ireland. 8vo. Dublin, 1850. Woodfall, W. Law of Landlord and Tenant. 8vo. 1856. Woolrych, H. W. Law of Party Walls and Fences, with Building Act. 8vo. 184.'i Treatise of the Law of Ancient and Modern Window Lights. 12mo. 1864. The Metropolis Local Management Acts. 8vo. 1880. Yool, G. W. Waste, Nuisance, and Trespass. 8vo. 1863. Compensation to Landowners. 8vo. 1864. XXI. SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. Anderson, R. Lightning Conductors ; their History, Nature, and Mode of Applici ”• 3rd edition, revised, &c. 8vo. 1887. Ansted, D. T. Elementary Course of Geology, &c. 2nd edition, 12mo. 1856. Arnott, N. Elements of Physics. 8vo. 1828. Beard more, N. Manual of Hydrology. 8vo. 1862. Brande, W. T. Manual of Chemistry. 4th edition, 8vo. 1836. Dalemagne, L. La Silicatisation appliquee a la Conservation des Monuments, &e. Paris, 1867. Donkin, W. F. Acoustics. Part I. Theoretical. 8vo. Oxford, 1870. Edwards, F. On Smoky Chimneys, their Cure and Prevention. 4 th edition, 8vo. Electric Light : Phoenix Fire Office Rules for Eloetric Light Installations. 7th ei 8vo. 1887. . , i n Fownes, G. Manual of Elementary Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical, "tn 01 8vo. 1863. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1197 lanot, A. Elementary Treatise on Physics. Translated by E. Atkinson. 9tli edition, 8vo. 1863. lynn, J. Construction of Cranes and Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies. 12mo. 1849. oslin, S. B. A Review of Fa ts and Records in connection with Kitchen Boiler Explosions, &c 8vo. 1881. [edges, K. Useful Information on Electric Lighting. 8vo. 1882. Precautions to be adopted on introducing the Electric Light, &c. 8vo. 1886. 'itghes, S. Treatise on Gas Works and Practice of Manufacturing Coal Gas, &c. 8vo. 1853. umble, W. Dictionary of Geology and Mineralogy. 3rd edition, 8vo. 1840. eily, J. Expansion of Structures by Heat. 8vo. 1887. ightning-Rod Conference — Report. 8vo. 1882. yell, Sir C. Elements of Geology. 5th edition, 8vo. 1855. Supplement, 1857. age, D. Introductory Text-Book of Geology. 11th edition, 8vo. Edinburgh, 1877. Advanced Text-Book of Geology; Descriptive and Industrial. 5th edition, 8vo. Edinburgh, 1876. nrnell, A. The Action of Lightning, and the Means of Defending Life and Property from its Effects. 12mo. 1882. 'mnethorne, J. The Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture; illustrated by examples from Thebes, Athens, and Rome. Folio. 1878. ■schel, C. F. Elements of Physics. Translated by E. West. 2nd edition, 3 vols. 8vo. 1854. iiscee, H. E. Elementary Chemistry : Inorganic and Organic. 12mo. 1S69. ni h, T. R. Acoustics of Public Buildings. 12mo. 1861. mlmson, C. Introduction to the Study of Natural Philosophy. 12mo. 1859. ndall, J. Sound; eight Lectures. 8vo. 1869. Heat as a Mode of Motion. 6th edition, 8vo. 1880. Light.; six Lectures. 1873. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1875. Iquhart, J. W., and Webb, F. C. Electric Light; its Production and Use. 8vo. 1880. Aster, A. W. On the Principles of Sound; their Application in the Construction of ■Public Buildings. 8vo. 1840. Aster, T. Principles of Hydrostatics ; or, Law of Fluids. 3rd edition. 8vo. 1847. ’ lkinson, G. Practical Geology and Ancient Architecture of Ireland. 8vo. 1845. Uliamson, A. W. Chemistry for Students. 8vo. Oxford, 1868. 1 1son, G. Chemistry. 12mo. Edinburgh, I860. ’ight, M. R. Sound, Light, and Heat. 8vo. 1888. XXII. SANITARY; VENTILATION; WARMING. I hs and Washhouses. See Class IV. Euan, W. History and Art of Warming and Ventilating Rooms and Buildings, vols. 8vo. 1846. T|idel et Ser, L. Rappwt sur les Hopitaux Civils de la Ville de Londres. 4to. Paris, 162. 3 Inois, H. P. The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer’s Handbook. 8vo. 1883. B|vn, G. Water Closets. 12mo. New York, 1884. - — Experiments in Trap Siphonage. 8vo. Washington, 1886. 'Plan, W. P. A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art and Craft of the Plumber. P76. 4th edition, 8vo. 1883. 3’kton, C. M. Our Dwellings, Healthy and Unhealthy. 8vo. 1885. C< ns, H. H. Hints on Home Sanitation. 8vo 1881. Gc eld, W. H. The Laws of Health. 5th edition, revised, 12mo. 1887. — Water Supply, Sewerage, and Sewage Utilisation. Folio. Chatham, 1874. ivell, C. E. Ventilation of Sewers and Drains. Folio. 1884. es, P. J. Standard Practical Plumbing ; a complete Cyclopaedia. 8vo. vol. 1. 1887. osey, G. D. On the Drainage of Towns and Buildings. 12mo. 1849. J. B. The Sewage Que-.tion ; explaining the several Processes that have been )pted for the Treatment and Utilisation of Sewage. 8vo. 1871. — I— Sanitary Engineering. 8vo. 1877. ■ — E. F. B. Handbook of House Sanitation. New edition, 8vo. 1882. )r lale, J., and Hayward, J. H. Health and Comfort in House Building ; or, Ventila- . ( t|i with Warm Air by Self acting Suction Power. 8vo. 1872. W. Healthy Houses: a Handbook to Defects and Remedies of Drainage, Ven- ation, Warming, and kindred subjects. 12mo. 1872. 8vo. 1876. ad'irdg, F., jun. The Ventilation of Dwelling Houses, and the Utilization of Waste |d from Open Fireplaces. 2nd edition, revised, 8vo. 1881. 1198 PUBLICATIONS RELATING Ellic.e-Clarke, E. B. Further Remarks on Ventilation of Servers. 8vo. Liverpool, 1ST Gatliff, C. Improved Dwellings, and their Effect on Health and Morals. 8vo. 18;.; Galton, D. On the General Principles to he observed in the Construction of HusO' Svo. 1S69. Grantham, R. F. The Separate System of Sewerage. Svo. 1886. Hellyer, S. S. The Plumber and Sanitary Houses. Svo. 2nd edition. 1880. Lectures on the Science and Art of Sanitary Plumbing. Svo- 1SS2. Hennicke. Berieht fiber Sehlachthauser und Viehmarkte. Folio. Berlin, 1866. Hood, C. Practical Treatise on Vanning Buildings by Hot Water ; and Laws Radiant and Conducted Heat. 1S55. 5th edition. Svo. 1879. Hosking, W. Healthy Homes : Guide to the Proper Regulation of Buildings, Street Drains, and^Sewers. New edition, 8vo. 1S49. Husson, A. Etude sur les Hopitaux, consideres sur le rapport de leur Construct!, etc. 4to. Paris, 1862. Inman, W. On Ventilation, Warming, and Transmission of Sound. Svo. 1336. Isaacs, L. H. Practical Treatise on Sewerage and Drainase. Svo. 1S59. Jacob, A. On the Designing and Construction of Storage Reservoirs. Svo. 1867. Judge, M. H. Sanitary Arrangements of Dwelling Houses. 2nd edition. Svo. 1881. Knight’s Annotated Model Bye-Laws ; Local Government Beard. 8vo. 1883. Krepp, F. C. The Sewage Question; being a general Review of all Systems a: Tlethods for Draining Cities and Utilizing Sewage. 4to. 1867- Lanchester, H. J. How to make a House Healthy and Comfortable. Svo. 1873. Latham, B. Sanitary Engineering : a Guide to the Construction of Works of Seven and House Drainage; with Tables. Svo. 1873. 2nd edition, Svo. 1878. Law. H.. and Clark, D. K. The Construction of Roads and Streets. 12mo, 1877. Morris, T. Hydrosthetics of the Cistern, Drain, and Sewer. Svo. IS78. Newt> n, H. R. Sewering and Purification of Sewage. Svo. 1S87. Nightingale, F. Notes on Hospitals ; with Plans. 3rd edition, 4to. 1863. Oppert. E. Hospitals, Infirmaries, and Dispensaries ; their Construction, Arrangeraei and management. Svo. 1S67. Parkes, E. A. manual of Fraetical Hvgiene. Edited by Dr. de Chaumont. 6th edi'i Svo. 1SS3. Peclet. E. Traite de la Chaleur eonsideree dans ses Applications. 3rd edition. Par 1SG0-61. Folio. Liege, 1S45. Perkins, A. m. Apparatus for Warming and Ventilating Buildings. 8vo. 1840. Rawlinson, R. Designs for Tall Chimney Shafts, Ventilating Towers, &c. Folio. 18- Reid, A. Theory and Practice of Ventilation; with Remarks on Warming. Light and the Communication of Sound. Svo. 1S4L Ritchie, R. A. Sanitary Arrangements of Factories; with Remarks on the Pres Method of Warming and Ventilation. Svo. 1844. Schmidt, E. W. C. F. Hew Not to Build a House, &c. Svo. Eastbourne, 1884. Shone, J. Alain Drainage of the Houses of Parliament. Svo. 1SS7- Smyth, P. Method of Cooling the Air of Rooms in Tropical Climates. 4to. 1851. Snell, H. S. Charitable and Parochial Establishments. 4to. 1881. Tanner, E. Ventilation in India. Svo. Loodiana, 1869. Tattersall, W. Hints to Houst holders. Svo. 18.... Ventilation of Factories • Workshops. Svo. 1887. Teale, T. P. Dangers to Health; a Pictorial Guide to Domestic Sanitary Dtfe 2nd edition, Svo. 1S79. Tomlinson, C. Warming and Ventilation. 8th edition, 12mo. 1S78. Trelat, E. Influence exercee par la Porosite des Murs sur la Salubrite des Habit.vn Svo. Geneva, 1883. Turner, E. The Sanitary Work of an Architect, Svo. 1881. Vandoyer, L. Instructions sur les Moyens de prevenir ou de faire cesser les Ef=- THumidite dans les Bailments. 4to. Paris. 1S44. Ventilation and WarmiDg of the Houses of Parliament : Report of the Select t mittee. Folio. 1835. I Westgarth Prize Essays on Reconstruction of Central London. By W. Ves'g W. Woodward, H. H. Bridgman, and J. Corbett. Society of Arts. 8vo. 188'' Workhouses in Ireland. Report on Inquiry into Execution of Contracts for eer Union Workhouses. Eolio. 1844. WorthiDgtOD, T. Hospital Construction; the Chorlton Union Hospital, near - Chester. 4to. 1867. t , Wyman, M. Practical Treatise on Ventilation. New edition, Svo. Newlork. TO ARCHITECTURE. 1199 XXIII. DICTIONARY; BIOGRAPHY; JOURNAL. rchitect, The. A weekly magazine. In progress. 4to. 1868-87. rchitectural Publication Society. Detached E-says, with Illustrations. Polio. 1849-53. Dictionary of Architecture, A-S. In progress. Folio. 1853-87. udsley, AY. J.. and G. A. Popular Dictionary of Architecture and the Allied Arts. : Vols. 1 to 3, 8vo. 1881-2. atissier, L. Elements d’Archeologie Rationale. 8vo. Paris. 1843. loxam, M. H. Principles of Gothic Ecclesiastical Architecture Elucidated ; with Explanation of Terms. 11th edition, 3 vols. 12mo. 1882. osc, E. Dictionnaire Raisonne d'Arehitecture et des Sciences et Arts qui s'y rat- i tachent. 4 vols. 8vo. Paris. 1877-80. rees, S. C. Illustrated Glossary of Practical Architecture and Civil Engineering. 2nd edition, 8vo. 1853. ritish Arcbitecr, The. A weekly magazine. In progress. 4to. 1874-87. cittern J. Dictionary of the Architecture and Archaeology of the Middle Ages. 8vo. 1838. uilder, The. A week'y magazine. In progress. 4to. 1843-87. biding News, The. A weekly magazine. In progress. 4to. 1856-87- Jliat, A T ., and Lance, A. Encyclopedic d’Arehitecture. 12 vols. 4to. Paris, 1851-62 Contmued as Gazette des Architectes et du Batiment. 1863-71. Again as Encyc. d’Areh., 2nd series, 1872. In progress. umont, A. de. Abecedaire, ou Rudiments d'Archeologie. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1851-62. abat, P. Dictionnaire des Termes employes daDs la Construction, etc. 2 vols. 8v ■. Paris, 1875-75. •il Engineer and Architect’s Journal, The. 29 vols. 4to. 1837-74. esy, E. Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering ; with Supplement. 8vo. 1861. ly, C. Revue Generale de PArchitecture, etc. 4to. Paris, 1840-45; 1847; 1849; 851-87. In progress. - -nonary of Terms used in Architecture (AYeale). Svo. 1849-50. New edition, by :1. Hunt. 12mo. 1873. Ipter, L. Allgemeinc Bauzeitung. Text 4to. and plates folio. Hamburgh, 1837-87. jn progress. t-dissal and Tolhausen. Technological Dictionary in French, English, and German. vols. 8 vo. - miiller, H. de. L. da Yinci as Architect ; in J. P. Richter. Literary Works. Folio. *83. Raffaello Sanzio come Architetto. Folio. Milan, 1884. - — Les Du Cerceau, leur Yie et leur CEuvre. 4to. Paris, 1887. Gssary of Terms used in Grecian. Roman, Italian, and Gothic Architectures. :h edition, 3 vols. Svo. Oxford, 1862. y win, H. The English Archaeologist’s Handbook. Svo. 1867 L;uno y Amirola, E., and Caen Bermudez. J. A. Noticias de los Arquitectos y rquitectura de Espafia. 4 vols. 4to. Madrid, 1829. qlon, J. C. Architectural Magazine. 5 vols. Svo. 183S. i geant, M. Journal de Menuiserie specialement destine aux Architectes, aux enuisiers, etc. 4to. Paris, 1863-72. Isia, F. Memorie degli Architetti antichi e moderni. 2 vols. Svo. Bassano, 1785. ih edition, translated by Mrs. E. Cresy. 2 vols. Svo. 1826. 1 hell, T. Rudimentary Manual of Architecture, with Glossary. 8vo. 1870. ■Mol son, P. Architectural Dictionary. Edited by Lomax. 2 vols. 4to. 1853. Payorth, W. The Renaissance and Italian Styles of Architecture in Great Britain , ed examples, 1450 to 1700. 8vo. 1883. Phjips, L. B. Dictionary of Biographical Reference. 8vo. 1871. 1 ‘ i ber and Decorator, and Journal of Gas and Sanitary Engineering. 4to. 1879-87. - u remere de Quincy, A. C. Dictionnaire historique de PArchitecture. 2 vols. 4to. -'is, 1832. - - Histoire de la Yie et des Ouvrages des plus celebres Architectes. 2 vols. 4to. J : s, 1830. - v-nski, A. Dictionnaire dArtistes. pour servir a 1‘Histeire de l’Art medeme en iamagne. 8vo. Berlin, 1842. - 11 -, D. Diet. Gen. des Termes d’Arehitecture. Four Languages. Svo. Paris, 1868. a The Illustrated Companion to the Latin Dictionary and Greek Lexicon, &c. S- 1849. A Dictionary, &c., 1860; 3rd edition, 1873. ■ r 11 ■ Y ., and Cheetham, S. Dictionary of Christian Antiquities. 2 vols. Svo. 1877. 1200 PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO ARCHITECTURE. Stephens, L. Dictionary of National Biography, A-D. 1,5 vols. In progress. 8vo. 1835 Surveyor, Engineer, and Architect. Edited by Mudie. 4 vols. 4to. 1840-42. Vasari, G. Vite de’ piii eccedenti Pittori, Scidtori ed Arehitetti. 3 vols. Bologna 1647. 13 vols. 8vo., Firenze, 1822. 12 vols. 12mo., Firenze, 1846-56. Translate, by Mrs. J. Foster. 5 vols. 8vo. 1850. Viollet-le-Due, E. E. Dietionnaire Raison ne do 1’ Architecture Fransaise du Onzieme ni Seizifeme Si5cle. 10 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1853-68. Dietionnaire Raisonne du Mobilier Fran^ais do l’epoque Carlovingienne a 1; Renaissance. 6 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1872-75. Viollet-le-Duc, fils, et Corroyer. Gazette des Arch-itectes et du BAtiment. 4 series, 4to Paris, 1862. Virloys, C. F. R. le. Dietionnaire d’ Architecture Civile, etc. 3 vols. 4to. Paris. 1770 Walcott, M. E. C. Sacred Archaeology: a Popular Dictionary of Ecclesiastical Ar and Institutions, from Primitive to Modern Times. 8vo. 1868. Walpole, H. Anecdotes of Painting, &c. New edition, by R. N. Wornum. 3 vols. 8vo 1862. Weale, J. Quarterly Papers on Architecture, 4 vols. 4to. 1843-45. Westropp, H. M. Handbook of Archaeology ; Egyptian, Greek, Etruscan, Roman. 8v< 1867. Willis, R. Architectural Nomenclature of the Middle Ages. 4 to. Cambridge, 1844. GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN AECHITECTUEE AND IN BUILDING. Note.— Further explanations, illustrations, &c., of many of the terms herein will he pained in the Encyclopaedia by reference to the Index; and many publications on the >jeets described will be found in the List prefixed hereto.] .[iciscns. A word sometimes used as synonymous with abacus, but more correctly Applied to a square compartment enclosing a part or the entire pattern or design of a Mosaic pavement. .acts. (Gr. Ai8a|, a slab.) The' upper member of the capital of a column, and serving is a crowning both to the capital and to the whole column. It is otherwise defined by |ome as a square table, list, or plinth in the upper part of the capitals of columns, specially of those of the Corinthian order, serving instead of a drip or corona to the lapital, and supporting the nether face of the architrave, and the whole trabeation. In lie Tuscan,. Doric, and ancient Ionic orders, it is a flat square member, well enough lesemblingthe original title ; whence it is called by the French tailloir , that is, a trencher, nd by the Italians credenza. In the richer orders it parts with its original form, the jour sides or faces of it being arched or cut inwards, and ornamented in the middle of ach face with a rose or other flower, a fish’s tail, &c. ; and in the Corinthian and Com- osite orders it is composed of an ovolo, a fillet, and a cavetto. The word is used by ,camozzi to signify a concave moulding in the capital of the Tuscan pedestal. A ton. (Gr. AfSarov, an inaccessible place). A building at Rhodes, mentioned by iitruvius, lib. ii. , entrance to which was forbidden to all persons, because it contained a i'ophy and two bronze statutes erected by Artemisia in memory of her triumph in sur- mising the city. Aittoir. (Fr. Abattre, to knock down.) A building appropriated to the slaughtering 'cattle. All private slaughtering-houses, in large towns at least, should be abolished, id public ones, under proper supervision, established, as lately effected at Edinburgh, anchester, and a few other towns. A ey. (Fr. Abbaie.) Properly the building adjoining to or near a convent or monas- ry, for the residence of the head of the house (abbot or abbess). It is often used for e church attached to the establishment, as also for the buildings composing the whole tablishment. In such e-tablishments the church was usually grand, and splendidly corated. They had a refectory , which was a large hall in which the monks or nuns d their meals ; a guest hall, for the reception and entertainment of visitors ; a. parlour | locutory, where the brothers or sisters met for conversation ; a dormitory, an almonry, I ierefrom the alms of the abbey were distributed ; a library and museum ; a prison r the refractory, and cells for penance. The sanctuary was rather a precinct than a ilding, in which offenders were, under conditions, safe from the operation of the law. 'ranges, or farm buildings, and abbatial residences. Schools were usually attached for p education of youth, with separate accommodations for the scholars ; a singing school. \comnion room, with a fire in it, for the brothers or sisters to warm themselves, no her tire being allowed, except in the apartments of the higher officers. A mint for ming, and a room called an exchequer. The abbey was always provided with a | irchyard, a garden, and a bakehouse. The sacristy contained the garments of the tests, and the vessels, &e. ; vestiaria or wardrobes being assigned for the monks. ny of the ordinary duties of these persons were performed in the cloisters where they i livered their lectures. 4- II 1202 GLOSSARY. Abheuvoir. (Fr.) In masonry, the joint between two stones, or the interstice to be fil up with mortar or cement, when either are to be used. Absciss, or Abscissa. A geometrical term, denoting a segment cut off from a strai< line by an ordinate to a curve. Absis. See Apsis. Absorption. The penetration of a gas or liquid into any substance; or the taking up moisture by capillary attraction. A principle seriously affecting the durability of building materials. The rapidity of absorption is not a criterion as to durability, 1 the comparative durability of stones of the same kind may be tested by the smallness the weight of water which a given weight of stone is capable of absorbing. The acti absorption of water by bricks of various qualities has thus been stated : — Malm pi. brick, 62 ounces of water ; white Surrey, 58 oz. ; white seconds, 52 oz. ; red facin 51 oz. ; pickings, 50 oz. ; stocks, 27 oz. ; Workman’s waterproofed, 2 oz. The follow table of the absorbent powers of certain stones, when saturated under the exhaus receiver of an air-pump is given in the Report of the Commissioners on Building Stoi 1839:— Sandstones. Oolites. Magnesian Limestones. Limestones. Craigleith . 0-143 An caster . 0-180 Bolsover . 0-182 Barnack 0*2(1 Jieddon 0*156 Bath Box . . 0*312 Hnddlestone . 0*239 Chilniark 0*0/ Kenton 0-143 Portland . 0*206 Roach Abbey . 0-248 Ham-Hill 0 1 Mansfield, red 0-151 Ivetton . 0-241 Park Nook . . 0-240 The granites, though closely granulated, take up much more than the grauwacke, 1 , less than the sandstones ; while the grauwacke resists the water four times that granite, and thirty-six times that of Yorkshire sandstones. Abstract. A term in general use among artificers, surveyors, &c. to signify the col 1 e ing together and arranging under a few distinct heads the various small quantities ' different articles which have been employed in any work, and the affixing of a price ' determinate portions of each, as per square, per foot, per pound, &c. for the purpose ' more expeditiously and conveniently ascertaining the amount. Abuse. A term applied to those practices in architecture which, arising from a dee of innovation, and often authorised by custom, tend to unfix the most establisl principles, and to corrupt the best forms, by the vicious way in which they are us Palladio has given a chapter on them in his work. He reduces them to four prinei ones: the first whereof is the introduction of brackets or modillions for supportin weight ; the second, the practice of breaking pediments so as to leave the centre p , open ; third, the great projection of cornices ; and, fourth, the practice of rusticat columns. Had Palladio lived to a later day, he might have greatly increased his of abuses, as Perrault has done in the following list : — the first is that of allow . columns and pilasters to penetrate one another, or be conjoined at the angles oft building. The second that of coupling columns, which Perrault himself in the Lou > has made almost excusable ; the third, that of enlarging the metopie in the Doric on for the purpose of accommodating them to the intercolumniations ; the fourth, thui f leaving out the inferior part of the tailloir in the modern Ionic capital ; the fifth, t of running up an order through two or three stories, instead of decorating eaeli si > with its own order; the sixth, that of joining, contrary to the practice of the anciei , the plinth of the column to the cornice of the pedestal, by means of an inverted cavet , the seventh, the use of architrave cornices ; the eighth, that of breaking the entablat ; of an prder over a column, &c., &e. Abutment. The solid part of a pier from which an arch immediately springs. M - ments are artificial or natural : the former are usually formed of masonry or brickw< . and the latter are the rock or other solid materials on the banks of the river, in the c ' of a bridge, which receive the foot of the arch. It is obvious that they should 1 f sufficient solidity and strength to resist the thrust of the arch. Abuttals. The buttings or boundings of land. Acanthus. (A tcavdos, a spine.) A spiny herbaceous plant found in various parts of e Levant. Its leaf is said by Vitruvius to have been the model on which the Grei i architects formed the leaves of the Corinthian capital. Acer. A genus of trees comprehending the maple and sycamore, the wood of which is it of much value. That of the acer campestre furnishes the cabinet makers with wit they call bird’s-eye maple. Access. See Passage ; also Adit. Accidental Point. In perspective, the point in which a straight line- drawn from a eye parallel to another straight line cuts the perspective pilane. It is the point whe.’jiu the representations of all straight lines parallel to the original straight line coijr GLOSSARY. 1203 when prod.ieed. Its name is adopted to distinguish it from the principal point or point of view. Acoustics. (Gr. Akovw, to hear.) The doctrine or theory of sounds, as applicable to buildings. See Theatres, book iii., chap, v., and Churches in the same book. The subject is one presenting great difficulty. Tho statements of various professors, and a comparison of buildings themselves, have been collected in a work by Mr. T. R. Smith. It was stated by Professor Lewis, at a lecture given in 1 8G 1-6.1, that in con- sulting one of the most eminent Scottish philosophers respecting the plan for a church, the reply was, that in his opinion the principle adopted would most probably answer ; but he added that he had studied acoustics probably as much as any man, and the conclusion he arrived at was that in applying theory to actual practice he knew nothing about it, and he believed nobody else knew more. Acropolis. (Gr. Aicpos and noAis, city.) The upper town or citadel of a Grecian city, usually the site of tho original settlement, and chosen by the colonists for its natural strength. The most celebrated were those at Athens, Corinth, and Ithome ; the two latter were called the horns of the Peloponnesus, as though their possession could secure the submission of the whole peninsula. Acroteria. (Gr. A/cpoiTijpioj/, the extremity of anything.) The pedestals, often without base or cornice, placed on the centre and sides of pediments for the reception of figures. Vitruvius says that the lateral acroteria ought to be half the height of the tympanum, and the apex aeroterium should be an eighth part more. No regular proportion, how- ever, is observable in Grecian buildings. The word aeroterium is applied to the ridge of a building ; it has also been used to signify the statues on the pedestals; but it is only to these latter that it is strictly applicable. The word has, moreover, been given to the small pieces of wall in balus- trades, between the pedestal and the balusters, and again to the pinnacles or other ornaments which stand in ranges on the horizontal copings or parapets of buildings. Acute Angle. A term used in geometry to denote an angle less than 90°, that is, less than a right angle. Acute-angled Triangle. A triangle having all its angles acute. Every triangle has at least two acute angles. Adhesion. (Lat. Adhsereo.) A term in physics denoting the force with which different bodies remain attached to eaeh other when brought into contact. It must not be con- founded with cohesion, which is the force that unites the particles of a homogeneous body with each other. Tho following is an account of some experiments recorded iu the Technical Repository for 1824 : — ■ The insertion of a nail is accomplished by destroying the cohesion of the wood, its extraction by overcoming the force of adhesion and fric- tion. We will consider it here solely as a ease of adhesion. Fine sprigs, of which 4560 weighed one pound, ^ of an inch long, forced four-tenths of an inch into dry Christiania deals at right angles to the fibre, required a force of 22 lbs. to extract them. The same description of nail having 3200 in the pound, ^ of an inch long, and forced ■fio of an inch into the same kind of wood, required 37 lbs. to extract it. Threepenny brads, 618 to the pound weight, one and a quarter inch long, forced half an inch into the wood, required a force of 58 lbs. to draw them out. Fivepenny nails, 139 to the pound weight, two inches long, and forced one inch and a half into the wood, required a force of 320 lbs. to extract them. Sixpenny nails, 73 to the pound, two inches and a half long, and forced one inch into the wood, required 187 lbs. to extract them. The same kind of nail forced one inch and a half into the wood required 327 lbs. to draw it 4 H 2 1204 GLOSSARY . out; and one forced two inches into the wood required 530 lhs. to extract it. In thi last experiment the nail was forced into the wood by a hammer of cast-iron weighin 6'27o lbs. falling from a height of twelve inches, four blows of which were necessary t force the nail an inch and a half into the wood. It required a pressure of 400 lbs. t force the nail to the same depth. A sixpenny nail driven one inch into dry elm aerot the grain or fibres required 327 lbs. to draw it out by direct force ; driven endwise int dry elm, or parallel with the grain, it required only 257 lbs. to extract it. The sam sort of nail driven into dry Christiania deal was extracted by a force equal to 257 lbs and by one of 87 lbs. from a depth of an inch. The adhesion, therefore, of a nail drive into elm across the grain, or at right angles to the fibres of the wood, is greater tha when it is driven with the grain, or parallel with the fibres, in the proportion of 100 t 78, or 4 to 3. And under the same circumstances, in dry Christiania deal, as 100 to 4( or nearly 2 to 1. The comparative adhesion of nails in elm and deal is between 2 aii< 3 to 1. To extract a sixpenny nail driven one inch into green sycamore required 312 lbs. from dry oak, 507 lbs. ; and from dry beech, 667 lbs. A common screw of one-fifth c an inch had an adhesion about three times as great as that of a sixpenny nail. . common sixpenny nail driven two inches in dry oak would require more than half a to to extract it by pressure.’ Adit (Lat. Adeo), or Aditus. The approach or entrance to a building, &c. Amon the ancients the aditus theatri, or adits of a theatre, were doorways opening on to t.li stairs, by which persons entered the theatre from the outer portico, and thence descends into the seats. Upon the same principle were the adits of a circus. Adjacent Angle, in geometry, is an angle immediately contiguous to another, so that on side is common to both angles. This expression is more particularly applied to denot I that the two angles have not only one side in common, but likewise that the other tv sides form one struight line. Adytum. (Gr. ASvroy, a recess.) The secret dark chamber in a temple to which non but the priests had access, and from which the oracles were delivered. Seneca, in lii tragedy of Thyestes says — “ Hinc orantibus Responsa dantur certa, dum ingenti sono Laxantur adyto fata.” Among the Egyptians the secos was the same thing, and is described by Strabo. Tli only well-preserved ancient adytum that has come to our knowledge is in the lift temple at Pompeii; it is raised some steps above the level of the temple itself, and t without light. adze or Addice. An edged tool used to chip surfaces in a horizontal direction, tl axe being employed to chop materials in vertical positions. The blade, which is i iron, forms a small portion of a cylindric surface, in both its sides, and has a wood handle fixed into a socket at one of its extremities, in a radial direction, while the oth extremity, parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and therefore at right angles to the hand is edged with steel, and ground sharp from the concave side. The adze is chiefly en ployed for taking off thin chips from timber or boards, and for paring away irregnlai ties at which the axe cannot come. It is also used in most joinings of carpentr particularly when notched one upon another, scarfings, thicknesses of flooring boan opposite to the joists, &c. Aerial Perspective. The relative apparent recession of objects from the foregroun owing to the quantity of air interposed between them and the spectator. It acconipanii the recession of the perspective lines. ^Esthetics. (Gr. AiadrjTiKos, having the power of perception by means of the senses. - ) is in the fine arts that science which derives the first principles from the effect whl certain combinations have on the mind as connected with nature and right reason, b pp. 795 and 922. jEtiaioi. (Gr. Aeros, an eagle.) The name given by the Greek architects to the sla^ forming the face of the tympanum of a pediment. This word occurs in the Athens inscription now in the British Museum, brought to England by Dr. Chandler, ai relating to the survey of some temple at Athens. .TEtoma, or 2Etos. (Gr. AeTos.) A name given by the Greek architects to the tympana of a pediment. It seems derived from the custom of decorating the apex or ridge oft roof with figures of eagles, and that the name thence first given to the ridge was aft,< wards transferred to the pediment itself. Air Drains, or Dry Areas. Cavities between the external walls of a building protect by a wall towards the earth, which is thus prevented from lying against the said wa 1 and creating clamp. Thoy may be made with the walls battering against the ground, ai covered over with paving stones, or with their walls nearly perpendicular, and arch on the top. This covering should be above the ground, and sloped to throw off t wet. The bottoms should be paved, and the areas should be well ventilated. GLOSSARY. 1205 Am Holes. Holes made for admitting air to ventilate apartments : also for introducing it among the timbers of floors and roofs for the prevention or destruction of the dry rut. Air Trap. A trap formed so as to prevent foul air from rising from sewers or drains into the atmosphere. There are various sorts, all depending upon a certain amount of water in them. Aisle, or Aile. (Lat. Ala.) A term chiefly used by the English architect to signify the side subdivisions in a church, usually separated from the nave or centre division by pillars or columns. Among different nations, as applied to architecture, it bears different significations. Strabo states that among the Egyptians the alee of the temple were the two walls that enclosed the two sides of the pronaos, and of the same height as the temple itself. The walls, he observes, from above ground, were a little further apart than the foundations of the temple, but as they rose, were built with an inclination to each other. The passage, however, is not clearly to be under- stood. In Gothic, as well as in many modern, churches, the breadth of the church is divided into three or five parts, bv two or by four rows of pillars running parallel to the sides ; and as one or other is the ease, the church is said to be a three- aisled or five-aisled fabric. The middle aisle is called the nave or chief aisle, and the penthouse, which joins to each side of the main structure containing the aisles, is called a wing. St. Mary’s, Taunton ; Chichester Cathedral ; St. Helen’s, Abingdon ; and Elgin Cathedral, perhaps comprise all tho five-aisled churches in Great Britain, except a building at the west end of the cathedral at Durham. On the Continent there are many such buildings, among which is the cathedral at Milan. It is somewhat remarkable that in Westminster Abbey and in Redcliff Church at Bristol the aisles are continued on each side of the transept, and in Salisbury Cathedral on one side only, a circumstance not met with in any other churches in this country. Ajutage. (Fr.) Part of the apparatus of an artificial fountain, being a sort of jet d’eau, or kind of tube fitted to the mouth or aperture of a vessel, through which the water is to be played, and by it determined into the form to be given to it. Alabaster. A white semi-transparent variety of gypsum or sulphate of lime, a mineral of common occurrence, and used for ornamental purposes, as screen work, and for sculp- ture. It was much used formerly for monuments in churches and the like, and has been re-introduced of late years for similar purposes. Albarium Opus. (Lat.) In ancient Homan architecture a term imagined by some to have been nothing more than a species of whitewash applied to walls, but, as we think, incorrectly. In the passage of the tenth chapter of the fifth book of Vitruvius, where he recommends the use of the albarium opus for the ceilings of baths, he allows tectorium opus as a substitute ; so perhaps it was a species of stucco. Its employment at the baths of Agrippa, seems to prove it to have been superior to the other, and it is by no means improbable that it was susceptible of a high polish. Alcove. A wide and deep recess in a room. That part of a sleeping chamber wherein the bed is placed. The use of alcoves, though not by that name, is ancient. They were frequently designed in the form of a niche ; such, for instance, as those that Winkelman notices at Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli, of which sort are some at Pompeii. They were often formed by enclosures or balustrades, of various heights, and by means of draperies the alcove was separated from the large chamber of which it was a part. Some idea may be formed of it from many of the ancient bassi relievi, especially from the celebrated one known by the name of the Nozze Aldobrandini. In modern works this part of a room differs according to the rank and taste of the proprietor. In Eng- land it is rarely introduced, but in France and Italy it often forms a beautiful feature in the sleeping apartments of palaces and large houses. Alder. (Ang. Sax. Ellarn.) A tree belonging to the order Betulacese. It is used for piling and any similar work under water. Aieatorium. In ancient Homan architecture, a room in which games at dice were played. Alifterion. In ancient Roman architecture, a room used by the bathers for anointing themselves. Alkoranes. In Eastern architecture, high slender towers attached to mosques, and surrounded with balconies, in which the priests recite aloud at stated times prayers from the Koran, and announce the hours of devotion to worshippers. They much embellish the mosques, and are often very fantastical in form. They are also called Minarets. Alley. (Fr. Allee.) An aisle, or any part of a church left open for access to another part. In towns, a passage narrower than a lane. An enclosed walk in a gardon. Almery or Aumurye. A recess or cupboard for holding the sacred vessels, &c., used in the mass. An example, dating circa 1200, is seen in Lincoln Cathedral. 1206 GLOSSARY. Almonry. Properly a closet or repository for the reception of broken victuals set apart as alms for the poor. It is more generally used to denote a house near the church in abbeys, or at their gates, provided with various offices for distributing the alms of the convent, and for tlr; dwelling of the almoner. Almshouse. A house devoted to the reception and support of poor persons, and generally endowed for a particular description of persons. Altar. The name given to a flat stone found in Celtic erections. Altar. (Lat. Altare.) A sort of pedestal whereon sacrifice was offered. According to Servius there was among the ancients a difference between the. ara and altare , the latter being raised upon a substruction, and used only in the service of the celestial and superior divinities, whereas the former was merely on the ground, and appropriated to the service of the terrestrial gods. Altars to the infernal gods wer9 made by excavation, and termed scrobiculi. Some authors have maintained that the ara was the altar before which prayers were uttered, and that the altare was used for sacrifices only. There is, however, from ancient authors no appearance of such distinctions, but that the words were used indiscriminately. The earliest altars were square polished stones, on which were placed the offerings to the gods. Whilst the sacrifice consisted only of libations, perfumes, and offerings of that nature, the altar was small, and even portable ; when man, however, began to consider he was honouring the divinity by an offering of blood, the altar necessarily expanded in dimensions. Different forms of it were adopted, according to the nature of the sacrifice, and on it the throat of the victim was cut and the flesh burnt. Of this sort is the circular altar of the Villa Pamphili at Rome, one of the largest and most elegant of the class. On it appears the cavity for holding the fire, and the grooves for carrying off the blood. The varieties of altars were suitable in form, ornament, and situation to the service to which they were appropriated : some, as we have already observed, being for s lcrifices of blood, others for receiving offerings and the sacred vessels ; some for burning incense, others for receiving libations. Many were set up as mere monuments of the piety of a devotee, whilst others were raised to perpetuate some great event. They served for adjuration as well as for an asylum to the unfortunate and evil doer. In form they varied from square to oblong, and from tri ingular to circular. Those of metal were commonly tripodial. When of brick or stone their plan is generally square. According to Pausauias they were occasionally made of wood. They do not appear to have been of any regular standard height, for they are sometimes found on bassi relievi reaching but little above a man’s knee, whereas in others they appear to reach his middle; but it seems that in proportion lo its diameter the circular altar was generally the highest. Vitruvius says that they should not be so high ns to intercept the statues of the gods, and he gives the relative heights of those used for different divinities. Thus, he says, those of Jupiter and the celestial gods are to be the highest; next, those of Vesta and the terrestrial gods; those of the sea gods are to be a little lower, and so on. On festivals they were deco- rated with such flowers and leaves as were sacred to the particular divinity. Put be- sides this casual decoration, the ancient altars furnish us with some of the most elegant bassi relievi and foliage ornaments that are known. According to Vitruvius, their fronts were directed towards the east, though very frequently but little regard was paid to their position, as they were occasionally placed under the peristyle of a temple, and not unfrequently in the open air. In the larger temples were often three different altars. The first was in the most sacred part, in front of the statue of the god ; the second before the door of the temple ; and the third (called anclabris ) was portable, and on it the offerings and sacred vessels were placed. The altars of the Catholic church are either attached or isolated. The former generally stand against a wall, and are so decorated as to appear quite independent of it. The decorations are. either of painting or sculpture, or both. The isolated altar lias in- sort, of connection with any part either of the building or of its decorations. The high altar is always isolated, whether placed at the end of the church or in its centre, as in the well-known example in St. Peter's at Rome. Whatever the situation of the high altar, it should be grand and simple, and raised on a platform with steps on every side. The holy table of the Protestant churches of England was generally of wood, but some of stono (but not affixed) have been put up of late years ; they are usually covered with a cloth more or less decorated. Above it is the Reredos. The altars of the Greek church, though in other respects the religion vies in splendour with the Romish church, are destitute of painted or sculptured ornament. In Calvinistic churches the name as well as the uses of an altar are unknown either as an appendage or a decoration. Altar Piece. The entire decorations of an altar. See Reredos. Altar Screen. The back of an altar, or the partition by which the choir is separated from the presbytery and Lady chapel. The date of its introduction into English churches " we believe to have been about the close of the thirteenth century It is generally of GLOSSARY. 1 207 stone, and composed of the richest tabernacle -work, of niches, finials, and pedestals, supporting statues of the tutelary saints. Those to the high altars of Winchester Cathe- dral, of St. Alban’s Abbey, and of New College at Oxford, are fine examples. Many were destroyed at tho Reformation, or filled up with plaster and covered with, wainscot. In many altar-screens a door was placed on each side of the altar for the officiating priests, whose vestments were deposited in an apartment behind tho screen. Altar Tomb. A tomb of a square box-like form, raised some 3. to 6 feet in height above the ground. On it is usually seen a sculptured recumbent representation of the deceased. These effigies are often placed under an arch, sometimes richly canopied. Aj.to Relievo. See Relievo. Ai.ure. A gutter, passage, or gallery, as on the top of a wall or building, being ono in which a person could walk. Lydgate used tho word for covered walks in the streets. Ambitus. A space which surrounded a tomb, and was held sacred. In descriptions of subterranean tombs, it denoted a small niche made in the wall for the reception of an urn or body. When the corpse was placed in it, to the mouth of the niche a slab was fixed, so fitted and cemented as to prevent noisome effluvia. The slabs were sometimes inscribed with the name and quality of the paity. If they received an urn, either upon that or over the niche the inscription was placed. Much decoration was occasionally I used in the recesses themselves. Ambo. (Gr. A/u/3u)e.) The elevated place or pulpit in the early Christian churches, which, according to Ciampini, fell into disuse about the beginning of the fourteenth century. The last erected ambo in Romo is supposed to have been that of S. Panerazio, on which appears the date of 1249. It was an oblong enclosure, with steps usually at the two ends. Two ambones are described by Eustace in tho cathedral at Salerno. They are placed on each side of the nave before the steps of the chancel, and are both of marble, the largest being covered with mosaic work and supported by twelve Corinthian granite columns. Amurey. See Aumbrye. Ambulatio. (Lat.) See Pteroma. |Ambulatory. (Lat.) A sheltered place for exercise in walking ; a cloister; a gallery. Amphifrostyle. (Gr. A/nfx, both or double, irpo, before, axcAos, a column.) A term ap- plied to a temple having a portico or porch in the rear as well as in the front, but with- out columns at the sides. This species of temp'e never exceeded the use of four columns in the front and four in the rear. It differed from the temple in antis, in having columns instead of antae at the angles of the portico. Such was the temple of Nike Apteros at Athens. See T emple. iAmfhitheatre. (Gr. A/r$i, about, and Bcarpoi/, a theatre.) An edifice formed by the junc- tion of two theatres at the proscenium, so as to have seats all round the periphery, a ] contrivance by which all the spectators being ranged about on seats rising the one above the other, saw equally well what passed on the arena or space enclosed by the lowest range of seats, whose wall towards the arena was called the j oedtum. The origin of the amphitheatre seems to have been among the Etruscans, to whom also are attributed the first exhibitions of gladiatorial fights. It was from this people that the Romans acquired a taste for such shows, which they communicated to every nation which became subject to their dominion. Athenseus says, “Romani ubi primum ludos facere coepe- ruut, liuic asciti artifices ab Etruscis civitatibus fuerunt, seroautem ludi omnes qui nunc a Romanis celebrari solent sunt instituti.” Lib. iv. c. 17. The most extraordinary edifice remaining in Rome, we may indeed say in the world, is the amphitheatre gene- rally called the Coliseum. It was commenced by Vespasian, and completed by Titus his I son. Words are inadequate to convey a satisfactory idea of its stupendous and gigantic dimensions. Ammianus says that it was painful to the eye to scan its summit ; “ ad cujus summitatem aegre visio humana conscendit.” Martial, in one of his epigrams says, “Omnis Cassareo cedat labor amphitheatro, Unum pro cunctis fama loquatur opus.” The greater axis of the ellipsis on which it is planned is ahont 627 feet, and the lesser 520 feet, the height of the outer wall about 166 feet, such wall being decorated by the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian Orders, and pierced with arcades between the columns. Covering five English acres and a quarter, it was capable of containing the vast number of 87,000 persons. It has suffered much from having been used actually as a quarry for many of the modern edifices of the city ; but in the present day its pre- servation is strictly attended to by the papal government, A description of this building has been given in p. 94 et seq. Besides the Coliseum, there were three other amphi- theatres in Rome : the Amphitheatrum Castrense, on the Esquiline, built probably by Tiberius ; that of Statilius Taurus, and that built by Trajan in the Campius Martius. The other principal amphitheatres were those of Otricoli; on the Garigliano, of brick ; 1208 GLOSSARY. Puzzuoli, Capua, Verona, at the foot of Monte Casino, Psestum, Syracuse, Agrigentum Catanea, Argos, Corinth, Pola in Istria (seefy. 1362.), Hipellain Spain, Nisrnes, Arles Prejus, Saintes, and Autun. This last has four stories, in that re- spect like the Coliseum. That which remains in the most perfect condi- tion is at Verona; its age has not been accu- rately determined, some placing it in the age of Augustus, and others in that of Maximian ; of these, Maffei thinks the first date too early, and the latter too late. The silence of Pliny upon it, seems to place it after the time of his writing. In the reign o. Gallienus, it was not only built, but began to suffer from dilapidation, for many of tlipj stones belonging to it are found in the walls of Verona, which walls were erected in the | time of that emperor Many of these were keystones, and the numbers cut upon tlioni still remain. Prom the silence of authors that it was the work of any of the emperors, it seems probable that, like that at Capua, it was erected at the expense of the citizens The length is about 514 feet, and the breadth about 410 ; the long diameter of the arena | 242 feet, the short diameter 147 feet. The audience part or visorium contained forty- seven tiers of seats, and the building was capable of containing about 22,000 seated spectators. In the profile of the walls of this amphitheatre the diminution in thickness upwards is made on the inside, which is also the case in that at Pola. In the Coliseum i the diminution is on the outside. The amphitheatre at Nisrnes contained about 17,000 persons, and was about 400 feet in length and 320 feet in breadth. The first amphitheatres, as we learn from Pliny, were constructed of wood, and usually placed in the Campus Martius, or in some place out of the city. Accidents occurring from their insecurity, they were abandoned for the more substantial species of fabric 1 of which we have been speaking. ' The first person who is said to have erected an amphi theatre in Romo was Cains Scribonius Curio, on the occasion of the games he gave U the people at the funeral obsequies of his father. Determined to surpass all that had! hitherto been seen, he constructed two theatres of w T ood, back to back, which, after the theatrical representations had been finished, were turned round with the spectators h them, leaving the stages and scenery behind. By their opposite junction, they forme a perfect, amphitheatre, in which the people were gratified with a show of gladiators. The part in which the gladiators fought was called the arena , from being usually! covered with sand to absorb the blood spilt in the conflicts, for which it was used. 1 was encompassed by a wall called the 'podium , fifteen or sixteen feet high, immediate!' round which sat the senators and ambassadors. As in the theatres, the seats rose at tlx* back of each other ; fourteen rows back from the podium all round being allotted ti the equites, and the remainder to the public generally, who sat on the bare stone cushions being provided for the senators and equites. Though at most times open t< the sky, there were contrivances for covering the whole space with an awning. Tic avenues by which the people entered and retired were many in number, and were callei vomitoria. Anamorphosis. (Gr. Ava, backward, and poptpri form.) A term employed in perspeetivi to denote a drawing executed in such a manner that when viewed in the common wn\ it presents a confused and distorted image of the tiling represented, or an image of some thing entirely different ; but when viewed from a particular point, or as reflected l>y curved mirror, or through a polyhedron, it recovers its proportions and presents ; distinct representation of the object. Anchor. In decoration, an ornament shaped similarly to an anchor or arrow head. I is used with the egg ornament to decorate or enrich mouldings. By some it is called ; tongue, from its supposed resemblance to the forked tongue of a serpent. It is used i; all the orders, but only applied to the moulding called the echinus or quarter round. Ancones. (Gr. A yicuv, the joint of the elbow.) The trusses or consoles sometimes em ployed in the dressings or antepagmenta of apertures, serving as an apparent support t the cornice of them at the flanks. In ancient doors the ancones were sometimes broade at the top than at the bottom, and were not in contact with the flanks of the architravi but situated a small distance from them. The term is also used to signify tho corner; or quoins of walls, cross beams, or rafters. Andron. (Gr. A rip.) In ancient architecture, the apartment appropriated to the receptiu GLOSSARY. 1209 of the male branches of the establishment, and always in the lower part of the house ; the gynoecia , or women’s apartments, being in the upper part. Angle. (Lat. Angulus.) The mutual inclination of two lines meeting in a point, called indifferently the angular point, vertex, or point of concourse : the two lines are called legs. Angle Bar. In joinery, the upright bar at the angle of a polygonal window. Angle Bead, or Staff Bead. A vertical bead, commonly of wood, fixed to an exterior angle and flush with the intended surface of the plaster on both sides, for the purpose of securing the angle against accident, serving also as a guide fur floating the plaster. The section of these beads is about three-quarters of a circle, with a projecting part from the other quarter, by means whereof they are made fast to the wood bricks, plugging, or bond timbers. Angle beads of wood round the intradosses of circular arches are diffi- cult to bend without cutting or steaming them. The former has a very unsightly appearance, and the latter method is at once inconvenient and troublesome. The plaster itself is the best material in this case, and at the height generally placed will be out of the reach of accident. In good finishings, corner beads which are unsightly should not be used, but the plaster should be well gauged and brought to an arris. ] Angle Brace. In carpentry, a piece of timber fixed to the two extremities of a piece of quadrangular framing, making it partake of the form of an octagon. This piece is also called an angle lie and a diagonal tie. By the use of this piece wall plates are frequently braced. In constructing a well hole of a circular section through a roof or floor for a skylight &c. the framing is first made in a quadrangular form ; braces are then fixed opposite to each angle, and the aperture becomes of an octagonal form ; finally, pieces are fixed at each angle of the octagon, meeting each other in the middle of its sides, so as to transform the section of the aperture into a circle, or oval. Angle Bracket. A bracket placed in the vertex of an angle, aDd not at right angles with the sides. See Bracketing. Angle Capital. In ancient Greek architecture, the Ionic capitals used to the flank columns which have one of their volutes placed at an angle of 1 36° with the planes of the front and returning frieze. As an example may be cited the aDgle capitals of the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens. This term is also applied to the modern Ionic capital, in which the whole of the four volutes have an angular direction. Angle Chimney. A chimney placed in the angle of a room. Angle Iron. A plate of iron rolled into an [_ shape, and used for the purpose of secur- ing two iron plates together by rivets, as Y Y in the beam of the plate girder, fig. 1363, and the box-beam,/^. 1364. ^ Angle Modellion. A modillion placed in a direction parallel to a diagonal drawn through a cornice at its mitring. It br is an abuse seen only in the buildings erected during the decline of Homan architecture, as in the ruins of Balbec and Palmyra, and in the palace of the Emperor Dioclesian Y Jill at Spalatro. _ (Angle of Vision. In perspective, that angle under which Fig. 1363. an object or objects are seen, and upon which their ap- parent magnitudes depend. In practical perspective it should not exceed sixty degrees. Angle of a Wall. The angle contained by the vertical planes of two walls which form ' the angle of the building. The term is sometimes used to denote the line in which the two sides of the angle meet, which by workmen is commonly called the arris : the arris, however, is not the angle, but the line of concourse formed by the two sides or planes which contain the angle. Angle Rafter. The piece of timber in a hipped roof placed in the line of concourse of the two inclined planes forming the hip. It is more often called a hip rafter. jiNGLE Rib. A piece of timber of a curved form placed between those two parts of a coved or arched ceiling or vault which form an angle with each other so as to range with the common ribs on each side or return part. j^NGLE Staff. See Angle Bead. I-ngle Stones. A term used by some authors to denote quoins. |.ngle Tie. See Angle Brace. .nglo-Saxon Architecture. Bede mentions one Benedict called Biscop, as the first person who introduced builders of stone edifices and makers of glass into England, a.d. 672. The principal characteristics of the style is a debased imitation of the Roman works, long and short masonry', absence of buttresses, semi-circular and triangular arches, rude balusters, hammer-dressings, and unchiselled sculptures. Ingclar Capital. See Capital. nnular Mouldings. Generally those having vertical sides and horizontal circular sections. nnular Vault. A vault springing from two walls each circular on the plan; such as that in the temple of Bacchus at Rome. Fig. 1364. 1210 GLOSSARY. Annulate!) Column. Slonder shafts clustered togethor or joined by bands of stone, sometimes of metal, to a central pier or to a jamb. They wore much employed in Early English Gothic architecture, and were very often of Purbeck marble. Annulet. (Lat. Annulus.) A small fillet whose horizontal section is circular. The neck or under side of the Doric capital is decorated -with these thin fillets, listels, or bands, -whose number varies in different examples. Thus in the Doric of the theatre of Mar- cellas there are three, whilst in the great temple at Peestum they are four in number and iu other cases as many as five are used. Anta, je plur. (Lat. Anta.) The jambs or square posts supporting the lintels of doors The term ant* we think only applicable to pilasters or pillars attached to a wall, though some authors, as Perrault, have thought otherwise. Vitruvius calls square pilasters when insulated parastatm. There are three kinds of ant* : those of porches or jamb ornaments; angular antse, being such as show two faces on the walls of a temple ; and those on the longitudinal walls of its cell. Ant* are only found in temples as wings to the ends of the walls of the pronaos to give a finish to the terminations the ends of the walls would otherwise present. It might have been this view which led the Greeks to treat them rather as distinct objects than to assimilate their finishings to tlioso of columns. The pilasters in Roman architecture diffbr only from the column in being square instead of round. A rule in the use of antse was, that their projection should always be equal to that at least of the mouldings used on them. Some beautiful examples of antse capitals exist iu the temple of Minerva Polias, and the temple of ; Apollo Didymseus, in Ionia. Ante-chamber or Ante-room. An apartment through which access is obtained to an- other chamber or room. One in which servants wait and strangers are detamed till the i person to be spoken with is at leisure. In the distribution of many houses the pecu- liarity of the plan forces upon the architect the introduction of ante-rooms: in most cases, indeed, they add both elegance and dignity to a design. Ante-cour. A French term, sometimes, however, used by English authors. It is the approach to the principal court of a house, and very frequently serves for communica- tion with the kitchen, cellar, stables, &c. Antefixjs. (Lat. Anti and Figo.) The ornaments of lions’ and other heads below the eaves of a temple, through perforations in which, usually at the mouth, the water is. cast away from the eaves. By some this term is used to denote the upright orna- ments above the eaves in ancient architecture, which concealed the ends of the hanni or joint tiles. Antepagmenta. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the jambs or moulded architraves of :v) door. The lintel returning at the ends with similar mouldings down upon the ante pagmenta was called supercilium. Antependium. The frontal hangings of the altar. Anterides. In ancient architecture, buttresses or counterforts for the support of a wall The Italians call them speroni (spurs). Anthemion. (Gr. Avdeniov.) It is considered to mean the honeysuckle, palmette, c fleuron ornament in the necking of some columns of the Ionic order. Antjcum. (Lat.) A porch to a front door, as distinguished from posticum, which is tin porch to a door in the rear of a building. It was the space also between the front columns of the portico and the wall of the eella. The word has been sometimes impro perly used for anta. Antiquarium. Among the ancients an apartment or cabinet in which they kept the! ancient books and vases. Antique. A term applied to pieces of art woikedby the Greeks and Romans of the clas- sical age. Apartment. (Lat. Partimentum.) A space enclosed by walls and a ceiling, which latte: distinguishes it from a court or area. Aperture. (Lat. Aperio.) An opening through any body. In a wall it has usually thre straight sides, two whereof are perpendicular to the horizon, and the third parallel to it connecting the lower ends of the vertical sides. The materials forming the verfcica sides are called jambs, and the lower level side is called the sill, and the upper part tin head. This last is either a curved or flat arch. Apertures are made for entrance, light, or ornament. In Greek and Egyptian architecture, but especially in the latter the jambs incline towards each other. Sometimes apertures are made circular, ellip . tical, or portions of those figures. “ Apertures,” says Sir Henry Wotton, “ are inlets fo i air and light; they should be as few in number, and as moderate in dimensions, a may possibly consist with other due respects ; for, in a word, all openings an weakenings. They should not approach too near the angles of the walls ; for 1 were indeed a most essential solecism to weaken that part which must strengthen all the rest.” Apiary. (Lat. Apis.) A place for keeping beehives. Sometimes this is a small Lout GLOSSARY. 1211 with openings for the Lees in front, and a door behind, which is kept lockod for security. Sometimes it is an area wherein each particular beehive is chained down to a post and padlocked. Apodyterium. (’AvoStrOat, Gr., to strip oneself.) The apartment at the entrance of the ancient baths, or in the Palaestra, whero a person took off his dress, whether for bath- ing or gymnastic exercises. In the baths of Nero, these apartments were small, but in those of Caracalla the apodyterium was a magnificent room with columns and othir decorations. IApophyge. (Gr., signifying flight.) That part of a column between the upper fillet or annulet on the base and the cylindrical part of the shalt of a column, usually moulded into a hollow or cavetto, out of which the column seems as it were to fly or escape upwards. The French call it conge, as it were, leave to go. Mpotheca. (Gr.) A storehouse or cellar in which the ancient Greeks deposited their oil, wine, and the like. (Approach. A curved or graduated road leading to a building situated some distance within the grounds. ( Apron, or Pitching Piece. A horizontal piece of timber, in wooden double-flighted stairs, for supporting the carriage pieces or rough strings and joistings in tho half spaces or landings. The apron pieces should be firmly wedged into the wall. (Apsis, or Absis. (Gr., signifying an arch.) A term in ecclesiastical architecture, denot- ing that part of the church wherein the clergy was seated or the altar placed. It was so called from being usually domed or vaulted, and not, as Isidorus imagines, from being the lightest part (apta). The apsis was either circular or polygonal, and domed over ; it consisted of two parts, the altar and the presbytery or sanctuary. At the middle of the semi-circle was the throne of the bishop, and at the centre of the diameter was placed the altar, towards the nave, from which it was separated by an open balustrade or railing. On the altar was placed the ciborium and cup. The throne of the bishop having been anciently called by this name, some have thought that thence this part of the edifice derived its name ; but the converse is the fact. The apsis gradata implied more particularly the bishop’s throne being raised by steps above the ordinary stalls. This was sometimes called exhedra, and in later times tribune. [Aquarium. A case to contain sea or fresh water, in which to preserve living objects of natural history. From a small glass case for a drawing-room, they have increased in size until buildings are erected to contain a number of crystal tanks for the purpose of exhibition — such are those at Brighton, and at, the Crystal Palace, in England ; and at 1 Hamburgh. London, Liverpool, and other cities are now seeking to establish them. The term is also used for the tanks formed for growing the Victoria Regia and other plants, as at Syon, Kew, Botanic Gardens in the Regent’s Park, and elsewhere. Aqueduct. (Lat. Aquae ductus.) A conduit or channel for conveying water from one place to another, more particularly applied to structures for the purpose of conveying the water of distant springs across valleys, for the supply of large cities. The largest and most magnificent aqueducts with the existence of which we are acquainted, were constructed by the Romans, and many of their ruins in Italy and other countries of Europe still attest the power and industry of that extraordinary nation. The most ancient was that of Appius Claudius, which was erected in the 442nd year of the city, and conveyed the Aqua Appia to Rome, from a distance of 11,190 Roman paces (a pace ' being 58'219 English inches), and was carried along the ground, or by subterranean lines, about 11,000 paces, about 190 of which were erected on arches. The next, in order of time, was the AnioVetus, begun by M. Curius Dentatus, about the year of Rome 481. The water was collected from the springs about Tivoli ; it was about 43,000 paces in 1 length. In the 608th year of the city, the works of the Anio Vetus and Aqua Appia had fallen into decay, and much of the water had been fraudulently abstracted by individuals, the praetor Martins w r as therefore empowered to take measures for increas- 1 ing the supply. The result of this was the Aqua Martin, the most wholesome water ! with which Rome was supplied. It was brought from the neighbourhood of Subiaco, twenty miles above Tivoli, and was 6.1,710 Roman paces (about 61 miles), whereof 7,463 paces were above ground, and the remainder under ground. A length of 463 paces, where it crossed brook and valleys, was supported on arches. To supply this in (dry seasons, was conducted into it another stream of equal goodness by an aqueduct | 800 paces long. About nineteen years after this was completed, the Aqua Tepula was brought in, supplied also from the Anio ; but not more than 2,000 paces in length. In ,the reign of Augustus, Agrippa collected some more springs into the Aqua Tepula. but i the latter water flowing in a separate channel, it preserved its name. This was 15,426 iptces long, 7,000 above ground, and the remainder of the length on arcades. To this was given by Agrippa tho name of Aqua Julia. In the year 719 of the city, Agrippa ■restored the dilapidated aqueducts of Appius, of Martins, and of the Anio Vetus, at his 1 own expense, besides erecting fountains in the city. The Aqua Virgo, which receives 1212 GLOSSARY. its name from a girl having pointed out to some soldiers the sources of the stream fmn which it was collected, was brought to Rome by an aqueduct 14,105 paces in lenffli 12,865 of which were under ground, and 700 on arches, the remainder being abuv ground. The Aqua Alsietina, called also Augusta, was 22,172 paces from its source t the city, and 358 paces of it were on arcades. The seven aqueducts above mentionei being found, in the time of Caligula, unequal to the supply of the city, this emperor, ii the second year of his reign, began two others, which were finished by Claudius am opened in the year of the city 803. The first was called Aqua Claudia, and the secom Auio Novus, to distinguish it from one heretofore mentioned. The first was 46,40( Roman paces, of which 10,176 were on arcades, and the rest subterranean. The Anic ' Novus was 58,700 paces in length, 9,400 whereof were above ground, 6,491 on arches and the rest subterranean. Some of the arches of these are 100 Roman feet high. A1 the aqueducts we have mentioned were on different levels, and distributed according^ to those parts of the city which suited their respective elevations. The following is th. order of ’their heights, the highest being the Anio Novus, 159 feet above level of” Tiber Aqua Claudia, 149 feet; Aqua Julia, 129 feet; Aqua Tepula, Aqua Martia, 125 feet Anio Vetus, Aqua Virgo, 34 feet ; Aqua Appia, 27 feet ; and the Aqua Alsietina on the lowest level. The Tiber at Rome being 91 '5 feet above the level of the Mediterranean the mean fall of these aqueducts has been ascertained to be about 0T32 English inehe- for each Roman pace (58'219 English inches), or 1 in 441. Vitruvius directs a fall oi 1 in 200, but Scamozzi says the practice of the Romans was 1 in 500. The quantity of water furnished by six of the aqueducts, as given by Frontinus from a measurement at the head of each aqueduct, is as follows : — * Anio Vetus - 4,398 quin. I Aqua Virgo - 2,524 quin. I Aqua Claudia - 4,607 quin. f Aqua Martia - 4,690 „ | Aqua Julia - 1,368 „ | *Anio Novus - 4,738 „ The whole supply is given as 14,018 quinarise, after much fraudulent diversion of tin water by individuals ; but the diminished quantity is supposed to have been 27,743,101 English cubic feet, or, estimatii g the population of Rome at one million of inhabitants 27’74 eubic feet per diem for each inhabitant, or about 170 gallons English. * Tbesi were used for the street and sewer flushings, the baths, and scenic representations f This was used for drinking purposes, and is still so used. Parker, Aqticducts of Borne, says 24,805 quin, was the exact quantity of water dail poured into Rome in Trajan’s time, equal to a stream 20 feet wide by 6 feet dee; constantly running in, at a fall six times as rapid as that of the river Thames. R calculated that when the Trajan and the Aurelian aqueducts were finished, the dail supply was quite 332J millions of gallons, or at least 832 gallons per head. There are remains of Roman aqueducts in other parts of Europe eveD more magnificen than those we have mentioned. One, or the ruins of one, still exists at Metz, and anotlu at Segovia in Spain, with two rows of arcades, one above the other. This last 1 about 100 feet high, and passes over the greater part of the houses of the city Th Romans do not appear to have been aware of the fact of water rising at a distance t its level at the fountain head. Arabesque. The term is commonly used to denote that sort of ornament in Saracen architecture consisting of intricate rectilinear and curvilinear compartments and mosaic which adorn the walls, pavements, and ceilings of Arabian and Saracenic buildings. I is capricious, fantastic, and imaginative, consisting of fruits, flowers, and other objects, I the exclusion in pure arabesques of the figures of animals, which the religion forbad' This sort of ornament, however, did not originate with the Arabians ; it was understoo and practised by the ancients at a very early period. Foliage and griffins, with orh; ments not very dissimilar to those of the Arabians, were frequently employed on ft friezes of temples, and on many of the ancient Greek vases, on the walls of the batl of Titus, at Pompeii, and at many other places. To Raffaele, in more modern tiny wo are indebted for the most elaborate and beautiful examples of a style of decor;. f: called Arabesque, which he even dignified, and left nothing to be desired in it. Sin the time of that muster it has been practised with varying and inferior degrees ij merit, especially by the French in the time of Louis XVI. Arabesques lose their ch racter when applied to large objects, neither should they be employed where gravity the style is to be preserved. Arabian Architecture. See Saracenic Architecture. Arabo-Tedesco. A term used chiefly by the Italians. An example of this style may quoted in the baptistery at Pisa (fig. 152), erected by Dioti Salvi in 1152. It is circular edifice, with an arcade in the second order composed of columns with Corintlii; capitals and plain round arches. Between each arch rises a Gothic pinnacle, and abo' it is finished by sharp pediments enriched with foliage, terminating in a trefoil. Akh:ostyle. (Gr. Apaios, wide, and otvAos, a column.) One of the five proportions useil I GLOSSARY. ] 2 1 ft the ancients for regulating the intercolumniations or intervals between the columns in porticoes and colonnades. Vitruvius does not determine precisely its measure in terms of the diameter of the column. His commentators have tried to supply the deficiency ; and, following the progression observable in the intercolumniations he does describe, : each of which increases by a semidiametcr, the a neostylo would be three diameters and a half. Perrault, in his translation of Vitruvius, proposes that the interval be made equal to four diameters, which is the interval now usually assigned to it. It is only, or rather ought only to be, used with the Tuscan order. | Arasoststyle. (Gr. Apatos, wide, aw, with, cttvAos, a column.) A term used by the French architects to denote the method of proportioning the intervals between columns coupled or ranged in pairs, as invented by Perrault, and introduced in the principal | facade of the Louvre. It was also adopted by Sir Christopher Wren in the west front of St. Paul’s. ;Arc. In geometry, a portion of a circle or other curve line. The arc of a circle is the measure of the angle formed by two straight lines drawn from its extremities to the centre of the circle. Arc-boutant. (Pr.) An arch-formed buttress, much employed in sacred edifices built in the Pointed style, as also in other edifices, and commonly called a flying buttress, whose object is to counteract the thrust of the main vault of the edifice ; it is also called arched buttress and arched butmcnt. It was used in the Baths of Diocletian. jArc Doubleau. (Fr.) An arch forming a projection before the sofite of a main arch or vault, in the same manner as a pilaster breaks before the face of a wall. Arcade. (Fr.) A series of apertures or recesses with arched ceilings or sofites. But the word is often vaguely and indefinitely used. Some so designate a single-arched aperture or enclosure, which is more properly a vault-, others use it for the space covered by a continued vault or arch supported on piers or columns ; and, besides these, other false meanings are given to it instead of that which we have assigned. Behind the arcade is generally a walk or ambulatory, as in Covent Garden, where the term piazza is igno- rantly applied to the walks under the arcade instead of to the whole place (Ital. piazza) or square. The piers of arcades may be decorated with columns, pilasters, niches, and apertures of different forms. The arches themselves are sometimes turned with rock-worked, and at other times with plain rustic, arch stones or voussoirs, or with a moulded archivolt, springing from an impost or platband ; and sometimes, though a practice not to be recommended, from columns. The keystones are generally curved in the form of a console, or sculptured with some device. Scamozzi made the size of his piers less, and varied his imposts or archivolts, in proportion to the delicacy of the orders he employed ; but Vignola made his piers always of the same proportion. .rcade. In mediaeval architecture, an ornamental dressing to a wall, consisting of colon- nettes supporting moulded arches. Sometimes they stand sufficiently forward to admit of a passage behind them. bcje. In ancient Roman architecture, the gutters of the cavedium ; area signifying a beam of wood with a groove or channel in it. rcella. (Lat.) In mediaeval architecture, a cheese room. RCH. A mechanical arrangement of blocks of any hard material disposed in the line of some curve, and supporting one another by their mutual pressure. The arch itself is formed of voussoirs or arch stones cut iu the shape of a truncated wedge, the uppermost whereof is called the keystone. The seams or planes, in which two adjacent voussoirs are united, are called th & joints. The solid extremities on or against which the arch rests are called the abutments. The lower or under line of each arch-stone is called the intrados, and the superior or upper line the extrados. The distance between the piers or abutments is the span of the arch, and that from the level line of the springing to the intrados its height, or versed sine. The forms of arches employed in the different styles and periods of architecture will be found described under the several heads. RCHiTECT. (Gr. A pxos and t€ktuj/, chief of the w'orks.) A person competent to design and superintend the execution of any building. The knowledge he ought to pcssess forms tile subject of this work ; whatever more he may acquire will he for the advantage of his employers ; and when we say that the whole of the elements which this work con- tains should be well known and understood by him, we mean it as a minimum of his qualifications. To this we may add, that with the possessions indicated, devotedness, faithfulness, and integrity towards his employer, with kindness and urbanity to those whose lot it is to execute his projects, not however without resolution to check the dishonesty of a builder, should he meet with such, will tend to insure a brilliant and happy career in his profession. rchitecture. The art of building according to certain proportions and rules determined ! and regulated by nature and taste. ncHiTBAYE, (Gr. Apx*w to govern, and Lat. Trabs, a beam.) The lower of the three 1214 GLOSSARY. principal members of the entablature of an Order, being, as its name imports, the chit beam employed in it, and resting immediately on the columns. It is called in Grecia architecture, Epistylium, from e-m, upon, and ; cutting it vertically, the edge being employed in forming horizontal surfaces. The ax differs from the joiner's hatchet by being much larger, and by its being used with onl one hand. Axes of various sizes, depending upon the quality of the material, areuseij by stone-cutters and bricklayers. The adze is used to horizontal surfaces. Axis. The spindle or centre of any rotative motion. In a sphere a line passing throng 1 the centre is the axis. B Babylonian Architecture. See Assyrian Architecture. Back. The side opposite to the face or breast of any piece of architecture. In a recei upon a quadrangular plane, the face is that surface which has the two adjacent plane: called the sides, elbows, or gables. When a piece of timber is fixed in a horizontal c in an inclined position, the upper side is called the back, and the lower the breas Thus the upper side of the handrail of a staircase is properly called the hack. Tl same is to be understood with regard to the curved ribs of ceilings and the rafters of roof, whose upper edges are always called the backs. Back of a Chimney. The recessed face of it towards the apartment, &c. See Chimne' Back of a Hand-rail. The upper side of it. Back of a Hip or other Rafter. The upper side or sides of it in the sloping plane < the side of the roof. Back Fillet. The return to the face of the wall, of the margin of a projecting quoii as in a plain architrave to an opening. Back Lining of a Sasii Frame. That parallel to the pulley piece and next to the jam on either side. Back Puttying. The cleaning off of the putty in the rebate of a sash bar on tl inside after the glass has been put ir., and the outer putty left a while to harden. Back Shutters. Those folds of a shutter which do not appear on the face being foldi within the boxing. Back of a Stone. The side opposite to the face. It is generally rough. Back of a Wall. The inner face of it. Back of a Window. The piece of wooden framing in the space between the lower pa of the sash frame and the floor of the apartments, and bounded at its extremities rigl and left by the elbows of the window. The number of panels into which it is framed dependent on what may be necessary for carrying out the design; it rarely, howevt consists of more than one. Backing of a Rafter or Rib. The formation of the upper or outer surface of either such a manner as to range with the edges of the rafters or ribs on either side of it. T formation of the inner edges of the ribs for a lath and plaster ceiling is somotim called backing , but improperly, since contrary to the true meaning of the word. Backing of a Wall. The filling in and building which forms the inner face of the wo’ In this sense it is opposed to facing, which is the outside of the wall. In stone wa the backing is unfortunately too often mere rubble, while the face is ashlar. Badigeon. A mixture of plaster and freestone sifted and ground together, used by st tuaries to repair defects in their work. The joiner applies this term to a mixtuif sawdust and strong glue, with which be fills up the defects of the wood after it has be GLOSSARY'. 1217 wrought. A mixture for the same purpose is made of whiting and glue, and some- times with putty and chalk. When the first of these is used it is allowed to remain until quite hard, after which it may bo submitted to the operation of planing and smoothing. Without this precaution it may shrink below the surface of the work. iAGNio. (It.) An Italian term for a bath, usually applied by the English to an estab- lishment having conveniences for bathing, sweating, and otherwise cleansing the body : and now called a Turkish bath. The term is applied by the Turks to the prisons whore their slaves are confined, in which it is customary to have baths. Iaguette. (Fr.) A small moulding of the astragal species. It is occasionally cut with pearls, ribands, laurels, &c. According to M. Le Clerc, the baguette is called a chaplet when ornaments are cut on it. Iailey. See Castle. IaKehoose. An apartment provided with kneading troughs and an oven for baking. Ialaneia. A Greek term for a bath. alcony. (It. Balcone.) A projection from the external wall of a house, borne by columns or consoles, and usually placed before windows or openings, and protected on the extremity of the projection by a railing of balusters or ironwork. In the French theatre, the bahon is a circular row of seals projecting beyond the tier of boxes imme- diately above the pit. 'aluachino. (It.) A canopy supported by columns, generally placed over an altar in Roman Catholic places of worship. Sometimes the baldachino is suspended from tho roof, as in the church of St. Sulpice at Paris. It succeeded to the ancient ciborium, which was a cupola supported on four columns, still to be seen in many of the churches of Rome. The merit of its invention seems to belong to Bernini. That erected by him in St. Peter's is 128 feet high, and being of bronze weighs near 90 tons. It was built by order of the Pope Barberini, from the robbery of the Pantheon, and occasioned the bitter observation, “ Quod non fecerint Barbari feceruut Barberini.” The decision of the Arches Court against issuing a faculty for the erection of a baldachino in St. Barnabas Church, Pimlico, is given in the journals of the early part of 1874. alection or Bolection Mouldings. Mouldings which project beyond the surface of a piece of framing. alistraria. An opening, sometimes in tho form of a cross, in the wall of a Gothic castle or turret, through which archers could discharge their missiles without being per- ceived. They were usually in the form of a cross, the vertical slit or opening being made longer than the horizontal one which crossed it in the middle. Sometimes the ends were formed circular instead of square. ALK.S or Baulks. (Dutch.) Pieces of whole fir, being the trunks of small trees of that species, rough-squared for building purposes. In the metropolis the term is applied to short lengths, from eighteen to twenty-five feet, mostly under ten inches square, taper- ing considerably, and with the angles so lelt that the piece is not exactly square. all flower. An ornament resembling a ball inclosed in a flower of a circular shape, the three petals of which P>rm a cup round it. It is usually placed in a hollow moulding, and is considered one of the chief characteristics of the Decorated period of Gothicarchitecture. .llium. In the architecture of the middle ages, the open space or court of a fortified castle. This has acquired in English the appellation Bailey ; thus St. Peter's in the Bailey at Oxford, nnd the Did Bailey in London, are so named from their ancient connection with the sites of castles. lloon. A round ball or globe placed on a column or pier, by w T ay of crowning it. The same name is given to the balls on the tops of cathedrals, as at St. Peter's, which is 8 eet in diameter, and at St. Paul’s in London. [lteus. (Lat. a girdle.) The wide step in theatres and amphitheatres, which afforded a passage round them without disturbance to the sitters. No one sat on it ; it served merely as a landing-place. In the Greek and Roman theatres, every eighth step was a Calteus. Vitruvius gives the rules, in the third chapter of his fifth book, for properly setting it out; The term baltcus is also used by Vitruvius to denote the strap which seems to bind up he coussinet, cushion, or pillow of the Ionic capital. Iluster. A species of small column belonging to a balustrade. See Coltoiellai. This erm is also used to denote the lateral part of the volute of the Ionic capital. Vitruvius •alls it ‘pulvinafa , on account of its resemblance to a pillow. fig. i:t6G. 1218 GLOSSARY. Baluster Shaft. A small shaft or pillar in the shape of a baluster dividing an opening seen in thewindow of belfries in the Romanesque towers in England. They have general! an elliptical or pear-shaped entasis or swelling in the lower half. The illustration is from Wykham Church, Derbyshire. Balustrade. A parapet or protecting fence formed of balusters, sometimes employed for real use, and sometimes merely for ornament. Band. (Fr. Bande.) A flat member or moulding, smaller than a fascia. The face of a band is in a vertical plane, as is also that of the fascia; the word, however, is applied to narrow members somewhat wider than fillets ; and the word fascia to broader members. The cinctures sometimes used round the shafts of rusticked columns are called bands. In this case the column is called a banded column. Bandages. A term applied to the rings or chains of iron inserted in the corners of a stone wall, or round the circumference of a tower, at the springing of a dome, &e., which act as a tie on the walls tokeepi them together. Bandelet, or Bandlet. A small band encompissing a column like a ring. Banding Plane. A plane intended for cutting out grooves and inlaying strings am bands in straight and circular work. Banister. A vulgar term for baluster, which see. Banker, A bench, on which masons prepare, cut, and square their work. Banquet. (Fr.) The footway of a bridge when raised above the carriage-way. Baptistery. (Gr. fianrifa.) A detached building, or a portion of a church, destined for administration of the rite of baptism. It has been contended by some that th baptistery was at first placed in the interior vestibules of the early churches, as are i many churches the baptismal fonts. This, however, was not the case. The baptist.er was quite separate from the basilica, and even placed at some distance from it. Unt. the end of the sixth century, it was, beyond doubt, a distinct building; but after thn period the font gradually found its way into the vestibule of the church, and the prac : j tice became general, except in a few churches, as at Florence, Ravenna, ofS. Giovam Laterano at Rome, and in those of all the episcopal cities of Tuscany, and some fev| other places. The Roman example is perhaps the most ancient remaining. There wa a baptistery at Constantinople, of such dimensions that, on one occasion, it held very numerous council. That at Florence is nearly ninety feet in diameter, octagona and covered with a dome. It is enclosed by the celebrated bronze doors by Lorenz Ghiberti, which Michel Angelo said were fit to be the gates of Paradise. The baptistcr, of Pisa, designed by Dioti Salvi, was finished about 1 160. The plan is octagonal, abor 129 feet in diameter and 179 feet hich. Bar. In a court of justice, an enclosure, three or four feet high, in which the couns. have their places to plead causes. The same name is given to the enclosure, or rathe! bar before it, at which prisoners are placed to take their trials for criminal offences. Bar. A piece of wood or iron used for fastening doors, window shutters, &c. Bar or Barred door. The term used in Scotland for pledged door. Bar of a Sash. The light pieces of wood or metal which divide a window sash ini compartments for the glass. The angle bars of a sash are those standing at the mtei section of two vertical planes. Bar Iron. Iron made of the cast metal after it comes from the furnace. The sows an pigs, as the shapes of the metal are technically termed, pass through the forges an chaufery, where, having undergone five successive heats, thpy are formed into bars. Bar-posts. Posts driven into the ground for forming the sides of a field gate. They ai mortised, to admit of horizontal bars being put in or taken out at pleasure. Bar-tracery. A name given to the completely developed form of Gothic tracery, froi its fancied resemblance to bars of iron wrought and bent into the various forms exhibits Barbacan. A watch-tower for descrying an enemy ; also the outer work or defence ot castle, or the fort at the entrance of a bridge. Apertures in the walls of a fortress, f firing through upon the enemy, are sometimes called by this name. The etymology the word has been variously assigned to French, Italian, Spanish, Saxon, and Arabia origin. See Castle. Baroe Boards. The inclined projecting boards placed at the gable of a building, ai hiding the horizontal timbers of a roof. They are frequently carved with trefoil quatrefoils, flowers, and other ornaments and foliage. Fig. 1JG7. Wykham Church, Derby- shire. GLOSSARY. 121 !) Barge Coupi.ks. (Sax. BjiTnn to bar.) Two beams mortised and tenoned together .for the purpose of increasing the strength of a building. Barge Course. The part of the tiling which projects over the gable of a building, and which is made good below witli mortar. Barn. (Sax. Berm.) A covered farm-building far laying up grain, hay, straw, &c. The situation of a barn should be dry and elevated. • It is usually placed on the north or north-east side of a farm-yard. The barns, outhouses, and stables should not be far distant from each other. They are most frequently constructed with wooden framing of quarters, &c., and covered with weather boarding; sometimes, in superior farms, they are built of stone and brick. The roofs are usually thatched or tiled, as the materials for the purpose are at hand ; but as the grain should of all things be kept dry, to pre- 1 vent it from moulding, the gablo ends should be constructed of brick, and apertures left in the walls for the free admission of air. The bays, as they are called, are formed by two pairs of folding doors, exactly opposite to each other, and, as well as for thrashing, afford the convenience of carrying in and out a cart or waggon load of corn in sheaves, or any sort of bulky produce. The doors in question must be of the same breadth as the threshing-floor, to afford light to the threshers, and air for winnowing the grain. It is a good practice to make an extensive penthouse over the great doors sufficiently large to cover a load of corn or hay, in case of the weather not permitting it to be im- mediately housed. Barrack. A building erected for the housing of soldiers. jBARRACK-RO0M. A name given to a long room in some houses in the country, and intended for the sleeping place of a number of men who may have to stay a night or two, the house not affording a room for each. Barrel Drain. One in the form of a hollow cylinder. Barrel Vault. A cylindrical vault, presenting a uniform concave surface not groined or ribbed. /•arrow'. In Celtic antiquities a sepulchral mound, and called by different names according to the shape of it. artisan. A turret on the summit of a tower, castle, or house, whereon was generally hoisted the standard or flag proper to the place. •rycas or Barycephalas. (Gr. Bap vs. low or flat, and /cetgaArj, head.) The Greek name I for an arseostyle temple. •se. (Gr. Bacm.) In geometry, the lower part of a figure or body. The base of a solid is the surface on which it rests. \se of a Column. The part between the shaft and the pavement or pedestal, if there be any to the order. Each column of the Romans has its particular base, for which see Fig. 1371. For the Attic base, see also under that word. The Grecian Doric order did not have a 'base, the shaft standing on the pave- ment. Two examples of Greek Ionic oases are given in Figs. 1368 and 1369. Bases are also used to the shafts in mediaeval architecture, of which Fig. 1370 illus- trates an example. se op a Room. The lower projecting part. It consists of two parts, the lower of 'which is a plain board adjoining the floor, called the plinth, and the upper of one pr more mouldings, which, taken collectively, are called the base-mouldings. In oetter sort of work the plinth is tongued into a groove in the floor, by which means the timinution of breadth created by the shrinking never causes any aperture or chasm between its under edge and the floor, and the upper edge of the plinth is rebated upon he base. Bedrooms, lobbies, passages, and staircases are often finished without a dado 4 i 2 - Til-can, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, Attic, Fig. 1371. Homan bases. 1220 G LOSSARY. and surbuse, and indeed the fashion has extended the practice to rooms of the highei class, as drawing-rooms, &c. Basement. The lowest story of a building, whether above or below the ground. Basie. Among carpenters and joiners the angle to which the edge of an iron tool ii ground so as to bring it to a cutting edge. If the angle be very thin the tool will cu more freely, but the more obtuse it is the stronger and fitter it is for service. Basilica. (Gr. BauiAeus, a king.) Properly the palace of a king; but it afterward: came to signify an apartment usually provided in the houses of persons of importance where assemblies were held for dispensing justice. Thus in the magnificent villa o the Gordian family on the ViaPrenestina there were three basilicse, each more thai one hundred feet long. A basilica was generally attached to every forum, for th summary adjustment of the disputes that arose. It was surrounded in most case with shops and other conveniences for traders. The difference between the Greciai and Roman basilica is given by Vitruvius in the fifth chapter of his first book. The term basilica is also applied by Palladio to those buildings in the cities of Ital similar in use to our town halls. Basis. See Base. Basket. A term often applied to the vase of the Corinthian capital, with its foliage, &< Basket-handle Aech. ( Fr. Anse de panier.) An arch whose vertical height is less thai half its horizontal diameter, such as an elliptic arch. Bass. A trough containing mortar, used in tiling, &c. Basse Coub. (Fr.) A court destined in a house of importance for the stables, coach houses, and servants attached to that part of the establishment. In country houses i is often used to denote the yard appropriated to the cattle, fowls, &c. Basso-belibvo. See Relievo. Bastard Stucco or Trowelled Stucco. Fine stuff mixed with sand to form a surfac in plastering to receive p lint. Bat. In bricklayer’s work, a piece of a brick less than one half of its length. Batardeau. (Fr.) The same as Coffer Dam. Batement Light. A window having upright sides, but the bottom of which is not level Bath. (From the Saxon, Bab,) An apartment or series of apartments for bathing. Amon the ancients the public baths were of amazing extent and magnificence, and contained vast number of apartments. These extraordinary monuments of Roman magnificent seem to have bad their origin in many respects from the gymnasia of the Greeks, hot being instituted for the exercise and health of the public. The word thermcB (hot baths was by the Romans used to denominate the establishment, although it contained in th same building both hot and cold baths. In later times a house was incomplete unlesj provided with hot and cold baths ; and, indeed, it was not till the time of Augustus til; public baths assumed the grandeur which their remains indicate. Different authoi reckon nearly eight hundred baths in Rome, of which the most celebrated were those (j Agrippa, Antoninus, Caracalla. Diocletian, Domitian, Nero, and Titus. It appeal from good authority, that the baths of Diocletian could accommodate no less than eigl hundred bathers. These stupendous edifices are indicative of the magnificence, no lei ill. in the luxury, of the age in which they were erected. The pavements were mosai the ceilings vaulted and richly decorated, and the walls encrusted with the rarest marble, From these edifices many of the most valuable examples of Greek sculpture have bet restored to the world ; and it was from their recesses that the restorers of the art dre their knowledge, and that Rafaelle learnt to decorate the walls of the Vatican. See p. 9 Batten. (Probably from the Fr. Baton, from its small width.) A scantling or piece 1 stuff from two to six inches broad, and from five-eighths of an inch to two inches thic Battens are used in the boarding of floors and also upon walls, in order to receive t laths upon which the plaster is laid. See Boarded Floor. Battening. The fixing of battens to walls for the reception of the laths on which ti plaster is to be laid. It a'so signifies the battens in the state of being fixed for th purp se. The battens employed are usually about two inches broad and three-fourt of an inch thick ; the thicknesses, however, may be varied according to the distances th the several fixed points are from each other. Their distance in the clear is from elev inches to one foot. To fix the battens, equidistant bond timbers were formerly built the wall : the wall is now plugged at equal distances, and the plugs cut off flush wi its surface, or the battens are spiked into the wall. The plugs are generally placed twel or fourteen inches from centre to centre in the length of the batten. Battens up external walls, the ceiling and bridging joists of a naked floor, also the common jolt for supporting the boarding of a floor, are fixed at the same distance, viz. from elev to twelve inches in the clear. When battens are fixed against flues, iron holdfasts i, of course employed instead of bond-timbers or plugs. When they are attached to a w they are generally fixed in vertical lines, and when fixed to the surface of a stone brick vault, whose intrados is generated by a plane revolving about an axis, they oup to be placed in plum s tending to the axis ; as in this position they have only to be tu GLOSSARY. 1221 in straight lines, in case the intrados is straight towards the axis, which will he the case when it is a portion of a cone or cylinder ; and when the intrados is curved towards the axis they will bend the easiest possible. Great care should be taken to regulate the fans of the battens, so as to be as nearly as possible equidistant from the intended surface of the plaster. Every piece of masonry or brickwork, if not thoroughly dry, should be battened for lath and plaster, particularly if executed in a wet season. When windows are boarded, and the walls of the room not sufficiently thick to contain the shutters, the surface of the plastering is brought out so as to give the architrave a proper projec- tion, and quarterings are used for supporting the lath and plaster in lieu of battens. This is also practised when the breast of a chimney projects into the room, in order to covor the recesses and make the whole side flush, or all in the same surface with the breast. Batter. (Probably from the Fr. Ilattre.) A term used by artificers to signify that a body does not stand upright, but inclines from a person standing before it ; when, on the contrary, it leans towards a person, its inclination is described by saying it overhangs. Battlement. An indented parapet on the top of a wall. They were first used in ancient fortifications, and subsequently applied to other buildings as mere ornament. Their outline is generally a conjunction of straight lines at right angles to each other, each indentation having two interior right angles, and each raised part two exterior right angles. The solid parts are called merlons and cops ; the intervals crenelles or embra- sures. In Irish architecture a battlement occurs very frequently, the merlons being graduated in height. Battle-embattled. A term applied to the top of a wall which has a double row of battlements formed by a conjunction of straight lines at right angles to each other, both embrasures and rising parts being double, the lower part of every embrasure less than the upper, and therefore the lower part of each riser broader than the upper. Baulk. See Balk. Baulk Roofing. Roofing in which the framing is constructed of baulk timber. Bay. (Dutch, Baye.) The division of a barn or other building, generally from fifteen to twenty feet in length or breadth. For the bay of a nave or choir of a mediaeval church, see Navf.. Bay. In plasterer's work, the space between the screeds prepared for regulating and working the floating rule. See Screed. Bay of Joists. The joisting between two binding joists, or between two girders when binding joists are not used. Bayof Roofing. Thesmall rafters and theirsupportingpurlinsbetwcentwo principal rafters. Bay Window. A window placed iu a bay or projection in a room. It is also called an oriel window. See Bow Window. Bay of a Window. See Day. Bazar. A species of mart or exchange for the sale of divers articles of merchandize. The word is Arabic, signifying the sale or exchange of goods or merchandize. Some of the Eastern bazars are open, like the market-places of Europe, and serve for the same uses, more particularly for the sale of more bulky and less valuable commodities. Others are covered with lofty ceilings and even domes, which are pierced for the ad- mission of light. It is in these that the jewellers, goldsmiths, and other dealers in rich wares have their shops. The bazar or meidan of Ispahan is one of the finest in Persia. ■ Beacon Turret. The turret of an angle of a tower, sometimes in Border counties used for containing the apparatus for kindling at the shortest possible notice the need-fire. Bead. (Sax. Beafee.) A moulding whose section is circular. It is frequently used on the edge of each fascia of an architrave, as also in the mouldings of doors, shutters, skirtings, imposts, and cornices. When the bead is flush with the surface it is called a quirk bead, and when raised it is called a cock-bead. Iead and Butt Work. Framing in which the panels are flush, having beads slack or run upon the two edges ; the grain of the wood being in the direction of them. Iead, Butt, and Square Work. Framing with bead and butt on one side, and square on the other, chiefly used in doors. This sort of framing is put together square, and the bead is stuck on the edges of the rising side of the pannel. Iead and Flush Work. A piece of framed work with beads run on each edge of the included paDnel. Iead, Flush, and Square Work. Framing with bead and flush on one side, and square on the other, used chiefly in doors. >ead and Quirk. A bead stuck on the edge of a piece of stuff, flush with its surface, with only one quirk or without being returned on the other surface. Bead and double quirk occurs when the bead appears on the face and edge of a piece of stuff in the same manner, thus forming a double quirk. 'Eak. A little pendent fillet left on the edge of the larmier, forming a canal behind to prevent the water from running down the lower bed of the cornice. The beak is some- times formed by a groove or channel recessed on the soffite of the larmier upwards. 1222 GLOSSARY. Beak-head. An ornament often used in Norman mouldings, resembling the beak of a bin Beak Moulding. See Bird’s-beak Moulding. Beam. (Sax. Beam, a tie.) A piece of timber, or sometimes of metal, for supporting a weigh or counteracting two opposite and equal forces, either drawing it or compressing it i the direction of its length. A beam employed as a lintel supports a weight; if en ployed as a tie beam, it is drawn or extended ; if as a collar beam, it is compressed. Tb word is usually employed with some other word used adjectively or in opposition, whir word implies the use, situation, or form of the beam ; as tie beam,, hammer beam, draqo beam, straining beam, camber beam, binding beam, girding beam, truss beam, summer bean &c. Some of these are, however, used simply, as collar for collar beam, lintel forlinti beam, &c. That which is now called the collar beam was by old writers called win, beam, and strut or strutting beam. A beam is lengthened either by building it i thicknesses, or by lapping or splicing the ends upon each other and bolting them through which is called scarfing. See Collar Beam. Beam Compasses. An instrument for describing large circles, and made either of woo; or metal with sliding sockets, carrying steel or pencil points. It is used only when tb circle to be described is beyond the reach of common compasses. Beam Filling. The brickwork or masonry brought up from the level of the under to the up per sides of the beams. It is also used to denote the filling up of the space from the top o the wall plate between the rafters to the under side of the slating, board, or other covering Bearer. That which supports any body in its place, as a wall, a post, a strut, &c. Ii | gutters they are the short pieces of timber which support the boarding. Bearing. The distance or length which the ends of a piece of timber lie upon or an inserted into the walls or piers; thus joists are usually carried into the walls at least I nine inches, or are said to have a nine-inch bearing. Lintels of an aperture should ir like manner harm a similar bearing, the object being to prevent any sagging of the piece i acting on the inner horizontal quoins of the Avail. Bearing of a Timber. The unsupported distance betAveen its points of support without any intervening assistance. A piece of timber having any number of supports, one being placed at each extremity, will have as many bearings, Avanting one, as there arc supports. Thus a piece of timber extended lengtliAvise, as a joist OA’er two rooms, will I have three supports and two bearings, the bearers being the tAvo outside walls and tin partition in the midst between them. Bearing Wall or Partition. A wall or partition built from the solid for the purposi of supporting another wall or partition, either in the same or in a transA'erse direction When the latter is built in the same direction as the supporting wall, it is said to haA’i a solid bearing ; but when built in a transverse direction, or unsupported throughout its whole length is said to have a false bearing, or as many false bearings are there art intervals below the wall or partition. Beater. An implement used by plasterers and bricklayers for beating, and thereby temper ing or incorporating together the lime, sand, and other ingredients of a cement or plaster Beaufet. See Buffet. Bed. (Sax. Beb.) The horizontal surface on Avhich the stoues, bricks, or other matter; in building lie. The under surface of a stone or brick is called its under bid, and thr.j upper surface its upper bed. In general language the beds of a stone are the surfaces Avhere the stones or bricks meet. It is almost needless to inculcate the necessity oi every stone being Avorked quite straight, and not dished or hollowed out, which masons are A r ery apt to do for the purpose of making a fine joint. Stones thus worked are very liable to flush and break off at the angles. Bed Chamber. The apartment destined to the reception of a bed. Its finishings o. course depend on the rank of the party who is to occupy it. Bed-mouldings. The mouldings uuder a projection, as the corona of a cornice. Bed of a Slate. The under side of a slate, or that part in contiguity with the boarding 01 rafters. Beds of a Stone, in cylindrical A r aulting, are the two surfaces intersecting the intrado: of the vault in lines parallel to the axis of the cylinder. In conic vaulting, where the axis is horizontal, they are those two surfaces which, if produced, would intersect tlu axis of the cone. In arching the beds are called summerings by the workmen. Bedding of Timbers. The placing them properly in mortar on the Avails. Beech. One of the forest trees, but not often used in building. Beetle. (Sax. Bytel.) A large wooden hammer or mallet with one, two, or tlire< handles for as many persons. With it piles, stakes, wedges, &c., are drh’en. Selection Moulding. See Balection Moulding. . Belfry. The upper part of the steeple of a church for the reception of the bells. It " the campanile of the Italians, though amongst them a building often altogetke' unconnected Avith the body of the church. It is sometimes used more especially n respect of the timber framing by Avhich the bells are supported. GLOSSARY. 1223 Bell. The naked vase or corbeille of the Corinthian and Composite capitals round which the foliage and volutes are arranged. Its horizontal section is everywhere a circle. Bull Roof. One whereof the vertical section, perpendicular to the wall or to its spring- ing line, is a curve of contrary flexure, being concave at the bottom and convex at the top. It is often called an ogee roof from its form. (Bell Turret. A small tower formed specially for holding a bell. A “bell-gable” is a gable-like wall perforated to hold a bell. I Belt. In masonry, a course of stones projecting from the naked, either moulded, plain, fluted, or enriched with pateras at regular intervals. Belvedere (It.) A raised turret or a lantern for the enjoyment of a prospect ; also a small edifice in gardens, not uncommon in France and Italy. IBenatura. The holy water vessel placed at the entrance of churches, generally on the right hand of the outer, or inner, porch door, or both. The sprinkler, originally made of the herb hyssop, is called aspergillum. Bench. A horizontal surface or table about two feet eight inches high, on which joiners prepare their work. 'Bench Hook. A pin affixed to a bench for preventing the stuff in working from sliding out of its place. |Bent Timber Roof. A roof of large span, in which the principals are formed of timber bent to the required form, and secured by bolts or bands. Beton. (Fr.) Concrete made according to the French system. IBevel. (Bat. Bivium.) An instrument used by artificers, one leg whereof is frequently curved according to the sweep of an arch or vault. It is moveable upon a pivot or centre, so as to render it capable of being set to any angle. The make and use of it are much the same as those of the common square and miter, except that those are fixed, the first at an angle of ninety degrees and the second at forty-five ; whereas the bevel being moveable, it may in some measure supply the office of both, and yet supply the deficiency of both, which is, indeed, its principal use, inasmuch as it serves to set off or transfer angles either greater or less than ninety or forty-five. Any angle that is not square is called a bevel anyle, whether it be more obtuse or more acute than a right angle; but if it be one half as much as a right angle, viz. forty-five degrees, the workman calls it a miter. They have also a term ha[f miter , which is an angle one quarter of a quadrant or square, that is, an angle of twenty-two degrees and a half. |Bier. A portable carriage for the dead. Hearse or Herce. Billet Moulding. (Fr. Billet.) A moulding used in Norman architecture, in string courses and the archivolts of openings. It con- sists of short, small, cylindrical pieces, two or three inches long, placed in hollow mouldings at intervals equal to about the length of the billet. See fig. 1372. Binding Joists. Those beams in a floor which, iu a transverse direction, support the bridging joists above, and the ceiling joists below. When they are placed parallel to that side of a room on which the chimney stands, the extreme one on that side ought never to be placed close to the breast, but at a distance equal to the breadth of the slab, in order to allow for the throwing over the brick trimmer to support the hearth. Jinding Baiters. The same as purlins. Iinn for Wine. The open subdivision in a cellar for the reception of wine in bottles. The average diameter allowed for green bottles is 3o6 inches. Thus a binn 6 ft. 2| in. long will take twenty-one bottles. If they are laid in double tiers the depth should be 32 inches. Imn’s-EEAK Moulding. A moulding which in section forms an ovolo or ogee with or without a fillet under it, followed by a hollow. It is usual in Greek work, especially in the cap of the anta of the Doric order. Iird’s-eve Maple Wood. The wood of the acer macrophyllum, or broad-leaved maple. It is scarcely inferior in grain to the finest satin wood. It is largely used in cabinet work. ird’s-eye Perspective. A representation of any place or building taken from a great height. The lines can only be found geometrically. It differs from the ordinary perspective representations only' in that the horizontal line is very much above the object to be shown. ird's Mouth. An interior angle cut on the end of a piece of timber, for the purpose I of obtaining a firm rest upon the exterior angle of another piece. ■it. An instrument, for boring holes in wood or any other substance, so constructed as to admit of being inserted or taken out of a spring. The handle is divided into live Fig. 1372. Billet Moulding. 1224 GLOSSARY. parts, all in the same plane ; the middle and the two extreme parts being parallel. The two extreme parts are in the same straight line, one of them having a brass end with a socket for containing the bit, which, when fixed, falls into the same straight line with the other end of the stock ; the further end has a knob attached, so as to remain stationary, while all the other parts of the apparatus may be turned round by means of the projecting part of the handle. There are various kinds of bits; as shell bit , used for boring wood, and having an interior cylindrie concavity for containing the core; entire bit, used to form a large cylindric hole or excavation ; countersink bit, for widening the upper part of a hole in wood or iron, to take in the head of a screw or pin, so that it may not appear above the surface of the wood ; rimer bit, for widening a hole ; and taper shell bit, used also fur the last-named purpose. Bitumen. A mineral pitch used in former ages instead of mortar. The bricks of the walls of Babylon are said to have been cemented together with it. Blade. (Sax. Blue's.) A name sometimes given to the principal rafter of a roof. Blade of a Chisel. The iron or steel part of it as distinguished from the wooden handle. Blade of a Saw. The thin steel part on the edge of which the teeth are cut. The chief properties of a good saw are, that it should be stiff and yet bend equally into a regular curve, well tempered, equally thick on the cutting edge, and thinner towards the back edge. Blank Door. A door either shut to prevent a passage, or one placed in the back of a recess, where there is no entrance, having, nevertheless, the appearance of a real door. Blank Window. One which has the appearance of a real window, but is merely formed in the recess of the wall. When it is necessary to introduce blank windows for the sake of uniformity, it is much better to build the apertures like the other and real windows, provided no flues or funnels interfere; and instead of representing the sashes by painting, real sashes should be introduced with the panes of glass painted black on the back. Blind. The ordinary white linen material for draw-down blinds, now also made buff, blue, or red in colour. Also quadrangular forms of wood or metal, covered wiili an opaque substance, stretched between the framing, so as to cover either the whole or part of the sashes of a window. They are used for the purpose of diminishing the intense effects of the sun’s rays, or of preventing persons from seeing into the in terior of an apartment. Helioscene. Venetian. Block (Teutonic) of Wood. A piece of wood cut into some prescribed form for a par- ticular purpose. Block of Stonf. or Marble. A piece rough from the quarry before it has received any form from the hand of the workman. Blocking or Blocking Course. In masonry, a course of stones placed on the top of a cornice and forming the crown of a wall. Blockings. Small pieces of wood fitted in and glued to the interior angle of two boards, or other pieces, for the purpose of giving additional strength to the joint. In gluing up columns the staves are glued up successively and strengthened by blockings ; asalsi the risers and treads of stairs and all other joints that demand more strength than then own joints afford. Blockings are always concealed from the eye. Board. (Sax. Bojiu.) A piece of timber of undefined length, more than four inches in breadth, and not more than two inches and a half in thickness. When boards are of a trapezoidal section, that is, thinner on one edge than the other, they are called feather edged boards. Boards when wider than nine inches are called plan ks. The fir board: called deal (because they are dealt or divided out in thicknesses) are generally imported into England ready sawn, being thus prepared cheaper by saw mills abroad than the) can be here Fir boards of this sort, one inch and a quarter thick, are called whole deal and those a full half inch thick, slit deal. See Batten. Board for Valleys or Valley Board. A board fixed on the valley rafters, or a piece for the leaden gutter of the valley to rest on. Boarded Floor. A floor covered with floor-boards. The laying of floors usually com mences when the windows are in and the plaster dry. The boards should be planed on their beet face and set up to season, till the natural sap is expelled. They are then tc be planed smooth, shot, and squared on the edge. The opposite edges are brought to n } breadth by drawing, with a flooring gauge, a line on the face parallel to the other edge After this they are gauged to a tliickne-s, and rebated down on the back to the liner drawn by the gauge. The next thing is to try whether the joists be level, and if not. either the boards must be cut on the under side to meet the inequality, or the joistf must be furred up by pieces to bring the boards, when laid, to a level. The boards em ployed in flooring are either battens or deals of greater breadth. The quality of battent is divided into three sorts. The best is that free from knots, shakes, sap wood, orcross N jjjlLhl ii liuH | rfili JifiSS J ifsr | sides jiiuerel |»KR sal toe cl toi A It :lojs ST: ! H drill! ::r ft: ' 'iMs l E ?Jp ►waR 'tjsf, ,%8- GLOSSARY. 1225 grained stuff, well matched, and selected with the greatest care. The second best is that in which only small but sound knots are permitted, but it is to be free from sapwoed and shakes. The most inferior kind is that left from the selection of the other two. Boarding Joist. Jii naked floorings the joist to which the boards are to be fixed. Boarding for Lead Flats and Gutters. That which immediately receives the leu.1, rarely less than one inch and an eighth, or one inch and a quarter thick. It is usually laid merely with rough joints. Boarding for Pugging or Deafening, also called Sound Boarding. Short boards dis- posed transversely between the joists of floors to hold some substance intended to prevent sound being transmitted from one story to another. These boards are supported by fillets fixed to the sides of the joists, about three-quarters of an inch thick and an inch wide. The substance, often plaster, placed between them to prevent the transmission of the sound, is called the pugging. Boarding for Slating. That nailed to the rafters, in place of laths, for the reception of the slates, usually 2 to J of an inch in thickness ; the sides commonly rough; the edges either rough, shot, ploughed and tongued, or rebated and sometimes sprung, so ns to prevent the rain from passing through the joints. The boarding for slating may be so arranged as to diminish the lateral pressure or thrust against the walls by disposing the boards diagonally on the rafters. On the lower edge of the boarding is fixed the eaViS board, as also against all walls either at right angles to or forming an acute angle with the ridge, or a right or obtuse angle with the wall plate. The eaves board is lor raising the lower ends of the loW'er row of slates that form the eaves. Those placed against walls are for raising the slates to make the water run off from the wall. The boarding for slates should be of yellow deal without sap. Boarding for lining Walls. The boards used for this purpose are usually from five- eighths to three-quarters of an inch thick, and are ploughed and tongued together. Boaster. A tool used by masons to make the surface of the work nearly smooth. It is two inches wide in the cutting part. Boasting in Masonry. The act of paring the stone with a broad chisel and mallet, but not in uniform lines. In Carving, it is the rough cutting round the ornaments, to reduce them to their contours and profiles, before the incisions are made for forming the raffels or minuter parts. See Ashlar. Body of a Niche. That part of it. whose superficies is vertical. If the lower part be cylindrical and the upper part spherical, the lower part is the body of the niche, and the upper part is termed the head. Body of a Room. That which forms the main part of the apartment, independent of any recesses on the ends or sides. Body Range of a Groin. The wider of two vaults which intersect and form a groin. Bolection Moulding. See Balection Moulding. Bolster or Pillow. The baluster part of the Ionic capital on the return side. See Baluster. Bolt. (Gr. BoAis, a dart.) In joinery, a metal fastening for a door, and moved bv the hand, catching in a staple or notch which receives it. Bolts are of various sorts, of which plate spring and flush bolts are for fastening doors and windows. This name is also given to large cylindrical iron or other metal pins, having a round ' head at one end and a slit at the other. Through the slit a pin or forelock is passed, whereby the bar of a door, window shutter, or the like is made fast. These are usually called round or window bolts. The bolt of a lock is the iron part that enters into a staple or jamb when the key is turned to fasten the door. Of these the two sorts are, one which shuts of itself when the door is shut to, called a spring bolt ; the ether, which is only acted upon by applying the key, is called the dormant bolt. In carpentry, a bolt is usually a square or cylindrical pifee of iron, with a knob at one end and a screw at the other, passing through holes for its reception in two or more pieces of timber, for the purpose of fastening them together, by means of a nut screwed on the end opposite to the knob. The bolt of carpentry should be proportioned to the i size and stress of the timbers it connects. Boltel. See Boultink. Bond. (Sax.) Generally the method of connecting two or more bodies. Used in the plural number, it signifies the timbers disposed in the walls of a house, such as bond tim- b rs, lintels, and wcdl plates. The term chain bond is sometimes applied to the bond timbers formerly placed in one or more tiers in the walls of each story of a building, and serving not only to tie the walls together during their settlement, but afterwards for nailing the finishings thereto. These bond timbers are now not allowed to be used in buildings in the metropolis. In masonry or brickwork, is that disposition of stones or bricks wdiich prevents the vertical joints falling over one another. Heart bond is that bond which occurs when two stones being placed in a longitudinal position extending the exact thickness of the wall, another stone is put over the joints in the centre of the wall. Bond Masonry. See Bound Masonry. Bond Stones. Those whose longest horizontal direction is placed in the thickness of tho work. Bonding, or Boning. (Etym. doubtful.) The act of judging of, or making, a plane surface or line by the eye. It is also performed by joiners with two straight edges, by which it is seen whether the work is out of winding, that is, whether the surface be plane or twisted. Booth. (British, Bwth.) A stall or standing in a fair or market. The term is also applied to any temporary structure for shade and shelter, as also for wooden buildings for itinerant players and pedlars. Border. (Fr. Bord.) A piece of wood put round the upper edges of any thing, either for use or ornament. Such are the three pieces of wood, to which the term is more usually applied in architecture, which are mitred together round the slab of a chimney. Boring. The art of perforating any solid. For wood, the various sorts of bits are described under Bit. Buss. (Fr.) A projecting mass or prominency of material, to be afterwards cut or carved. It is placed at the intersection of the ribs in groined vaulting. The bosses in the later mediaeval styles were beautifully carved with foliage and figures. See Oru. Boss. Among bricklayers, a wooden vessel used by the labourers for the mortar used in tiling. If has an iron hook, by which it hangs on the laths or on the rounds of a ladder. Bossage (Fr.) Projecting stones laid rough in building to be afterwards cut into mould- ings or carved into ornaments. The term is also used to signify rustic work, which seems to advance before the naked of a building, by reason of indentures or channels left at the joints. The cavities or indentures at the joints are sometimes bevelled or chamfered, and sometimes circular. Boudoir. A French term used in England to designate a room in a large mansion especially appropriated to the mistress of t he house as her sitting-room. Boulder Walls. Such as are built of round flints or pebbles laid in strong mortar. This construction is used w here there is a beach cast up by the sea, or where there is an abun- dance of flints in the neighbourhood. Boultine or Boltel A name sometimes given by workmen to a convex moulding, such as an ovolo. See Bowtel. Bound or Bond Masonry. That wherein the stones of each succeeding course are laid so that the joint which mounts and separates two stones always falls directly over the middle of the stone below. Bow. (Sax. BuXen.) The part of any building which projects from a straight wall. It is sometimes circular and sometimes polygonal on the plan, or rather formed by two exterior obtuse angles. Bows on polygonal plans are called canted boics. Bowl Among draughtsmen, denotes a beam of wood or brass, with three long screws that direct a lath of wood or steel to an arch. It is used in drawing flat arches of large radius. Bow Compasses. Instruments for describing small circles Bow Room. A room having a bow on one or more sides of it. flow Saw. One for cutting the thin edges of wood into curves. Bow Window. A semicircular or polygonal projection from a building, and containing a window. The supports are either carried up from the ground, or in the case of an upper story, they are formed of projected suites of mouldings springing from a corbel. They are most frequently seen in the later modiawal and the Italian styles. Bowlers cr Borders. See Pavement. Bowtel or Boltel. The mediaeval term for a plain moulding or shaft of a circular shape. See Boultine. Box. (Sax.) Generally, a case for holding anything. Box for Mitering. A trough for cutting miters. It has three sides, and is open at the ends, with cuts on the vertical sides at angles of forty-five degrees with them. Box of a Rib Saw. Two thin iron plates fixed to a handle, in one. of which plates an opening is made for the reception of a wedgo, by which it is fixed to the saw. Box of a Theatre. One of the subdivisions in the tiers round the circle. Boxed Shutters. See Boxings of a Windowl Boxings of a Window. The cases opposite each other on each side of a window, into which the shutters are folded or fall back. The shutters of principal rooms are usually in two divisions or halves, each subdivided into others, so that they may be received within the boxings. The subdivisions are seldom more in number than three, and are -so contrived that the subdivision whose face is visible, which is called the front shutter, GLOSSARY. 1227 is of the exact breadth of the boxing, and also flush with it; the next, hidden in the boxing, is somewhat less in breadth than that last mentioned, and the third still less. Suppose, for instance, a window four feet wide, standing in a two-brick or eighteen-inch wall ; we may thus find the number of leaves each of the halves must have, as follows : — To the thickness of the wall add that of the plastering, say 2 inches, and we have 20 inches. Now the sash frame = 6 inches in thickness, being added to the reveal or dis- tance = 4.) inches of the sash frame from the face of the wall = 10^ inches, which, subtracted from 20, the thickness of the wall and plaster, leaves 9,j inches. This will give three leaves, or subdivisions, and as it is usual to make the back flaps, or those fob leu within the boxings, less than the front shutter, whose face is visible and flush with and of the exact breadth of the boxings, the arrangement may be as follows : —Front shutter 9-J inches, the next 8 inches, and the third 6 J inches ; in all, 24 inches, the half of the opening of the window. It will be perceived that no allowance lias been made for the shutters being rebated into each other, as is usually the case ; and for this half an inch more must be allowed for the two rebates of the three leaves, and one-eighth of an inch for the rebate at the meeting of the two principal divisions in the middle of the window, making, with the breadth of the three subdivisions, 24 + § ; the flaps, there- fore, may be thus disposed : — Front leaf 9J inches, second leaf inches, and the third leaf 6§ inches; in all 24f inches, being fully the width of each principal division. To find the depth to be given to the boxings, to the thickness of each of the leaves add one- i sixteenth of an inch, and if there be a back lining add also the thickness of that. The second and third flaps are almost always thinner than the front leaf ; thus, say front leaf 1^ inch, second leaf 1^- inch, and third leaf 1 j inch ; to which add ^ for the three leaves, and the amount will stand thus : — 1 i + 1^- + H 4^ inches for the depth of the boxings. If the walls are only a brick and a half thick, or the window very wide, the architrave is made to project before the face of the plaster, for the purpose of obtaining width for the boxings, or the plaster is brought out from the internal face of the wall by means of battening. Irace. (Fr. Embrasser.) An inclined piece of timber used in trussed partitions and in framed roo r s, in order to form a triangle, by which the assemblage of pieces composing the framing are stiffened. When a brace is used to support a rafter, it is called a strut. When braces are used in roofs and in partitions, they should be disposed in pairs, and ; introduced in opposite directions. See Angle Brace. racket. (Lat.. Brachium.) A supporting piece for a shelf. When the shelf is broad the brackets are small trusses, which consist of a vertical piece, a horizontal piece, and a strut; but when narrow the brackets are generally solid pieces of board, usually finished with an ogee figure on their outer side. racket for Stair. It is sometimes used under the ends of wooden steps next to the well-hole, for the sake of ornament only, for it gives only the appearance of a support. racketing to a Cornice. The wooden ribs nailed to the ceiling, joists, and battening for supporting the cornices of rooms when too large for security, by the mere dependence on the adhesive power of plaster to the ceiling. It consists of vertical ribs whose rough outline is that, of the cornice, and to which the laths are nailed for sustaining the plaster in which the mouldings are run. The bracketing for coves is only an enlargement of the scale which occurs in ordinary cornices, the operation being that of obtaining a set of ribs to which the laths may be nailed for the reception of the plastering. The ribs in question are usually cut out of deals, whose thickness must necessarily vary with the weight of plaster they have to support. iAD. (Etym. uncertain.) A thin nail used in joinery without the spreading head which other nails have, the projection of the head being only on one side. There are various sorts of brads, such as joiners' brads for hard woods; batten brads, for softer woods; and bill, or quarter brads, used for a hastily laid floor. When brads are used they are generally driven below the surface of the wood through the medium of a punch, and the 1 hole is filled up with putty to prevent an appearance of the nailing. uANches. The ribs of a Gothic vault, rising upwards from the tops of the pillars to the apex. They appear to support the ceiling or vault. andering. Covering the underside of joists with battens about an inch square and from twelve to fourteen inches apart, to which to nail laths, in order to secure a better 'key for the plastering of the ceiling. andrith. A fence or rail round the opening of a well. \ss. A metal much used in building. It is an alloy of copper and zinc, whose pro- portions vary according to the required colour. Four parts of copper and one of zinc form a good brass. The common process for making it is by heating copper plates in i mixture of native oxide of zinc, or calamine and charcoal. I Ass. A sepulchral metal plate, generally sunk into a grave-stone; sometimes with a piers inscription, but very frequently with effigies, armorial bearings, and other devices uigraved upon it. 1228 GLOSSARY. Brattishinq. An ornamental cresting. The carved open work over a shrine. Brazing. The union of pieces of copper by heating and hammering them. See Solium, ing and Welding. Breadth. The greatest extension of a body at right angles to its length. Break. The recess or projection of any part within or beyond the general face of the work. In either case it is to be considered a break. Break in. In carpentry, it is the cutting or breaking a hole in brickwork with the ripping chisel for the purpose of inserting timber, or to receive plugs, the end of a beam, or the like. Breaking down. Sawing a baulk of timber into boards. Breaking Joint. In masonry or brickwork, it is the placing a stone or brick over the course below, in such a manner that the joint above shall not fall vertically immediately above those below it. Breast of a Chimney. The projecting or facing portion of a chimney front towards a room which projects into it, or which, from other construction, may not have a break. It is, in fact, the wall carried up over the front of a fireplace, whether projecting or not. See Chimney. Breast of a Window 7 . The masonry or brickwork forming the back of the recess or parapet under the window sill. Breeze. Small ashes and cinders used instead of coal in the burning of bricks. Bressummer or Breast Summer. That is, a summer or beam placed breastwise for the support of a superincumbent wall, performing in fact the office of a lintel. It is prin- cipally used over shop windows to carry the upper part of the front and supported by iron or timber posts, though sometimes by stone. It the interior of a building the pieces into which the girders are framed are often called summers. Brewhouse. An establishment for the manufactory of malt liquors. A brewhouse is generally provided as an appendage to dwelling-houses in the country, for brewing the beer used by the family. Brick. (Dutch, Bricke.) A sort of fictitious stone, composed of an argillaceous earth, tempered and formed in moulds, dried in the sun, and finally 7 burnt to a proper degree of hardness in a clamp or kiln. The method pursued by the ancients in making un- burnt bricks is described by Vitruvius, book ii., chap. iii. That author describes the three different sorts in use: — Didoron (SiSwpoi/), being one foot long and half afoot wide ; the other two sorts are called Pentadoron and Tetradoron. By the word Dorm i the Greeks mean a palm, because the word 5 upor signifies a gift which can he borne in the palm of the hand. That sort, therefore, which is five palms each way is called Pen- tadoron ; that of four palms Tetradoron. The former of these two sorts is used in public buildings ; the latter in private. Each sort has lialf-bricks made to suit it. Towards the decline of the Republic, the Romans made great use of bricks as a building material. According to Pliny, those most in use w 7 ere a foot and a half long, and a foot broad. This agrees nearly with the Roman bricks used in England, which are gener- ally found to be about seventeen inches in length, by eleven inches in breadth. Ancient bricks are generally very thin, being often no more than one inch and a half thick, and are often called tiles. From the article in the Encyo. Mefhodique, it appears that in the researches made among the buildings at Rome, bricks of the following sizes were found. The least were 7| inches (French) square and 1^ incli thick ; the medium one 16j inches square and from 18 to 20 lines in thickness. The larger ones were 22 inches square by 21 or 20 lines thick. The smaller ones were used to face walls of rubble work ; and for making better bond with the wall, they were cut diagonally into two triangles, the longer side being placed on the outside, and the point towards the in- terior of the work. To make the tie more effectual between the rubble and the facing, there were placed at intervals of four feet in height, one or two courses of large square bricks. The larger bricks were also used for the arches of openings to discharge the superincumbent, weight. Bricklayer’s Work. The art of bricklaying. Brickwork. Any work performed with bricks as the solid material. Bridge. (Sax. Bmsse.) A structure for the purpose of connecting the opposite hanks of a river, gorge, valley. &c., by means of certain materials, forming a roadway from one side to the other. It maybe made of stone, brick, iron, timber, suspended chains or ropes, or the roadway may be obtained by means of boats moored in the stream. In the bridges of the ancients the arches were semicircular; in those erected during, the mediaeval period the arches were obviously made pointed, and generally of smal spans, although there are a few good exceptions; while in those of modern date they have been segmental or semi-elliptical. The last two forms are very much more suitable, because of the freer passage for the stream, especially in the case of floods We would refer the student to the brick railway bridge at Maidenhead, over the n\ei Thames, carried out in 1835, by Sir I. Brunei, as a daring effort of work; the twe largest arches, elliptical in form, are each 128 feet span, with a riso of 24 feet 3 m GLOSSARY. 1229 only; to the elliptical stone bridge over the Arno at Florence, 1567 -70, by Bart. Ammannato, for its acknowledged beauty, the largest arch of which is 95 feet 10 in., with a rise of 15 feet 2 in.; and to the Grosvenor bridge at Chester, over the Dee, executed 1825-27, by Thomas Harrison, architect, for its design and good construction, as well as for being the largest span of any bridge yet erected in Great Britain, and almost in the world, consisting of only one segmental arch of 200 feet span, with a rise of 42 feet. In the brick bridge at Pavia, over the Ticino, which is of an early period, and also a covered bridge (a practice useless perhaps, but not uncommon in Italy and other parts of the Continent), the arches, 70 feet in span, are Pointed ; a form very favourable in every respect and most especially so in rivers subject to sudden inundations, but unfavourable certainly in cases where the span of the arch (here having a rise of 64 feet) is required to have a large width in proportion to its height. There are two rules respecting bridges which ought not to be neglected : the prin- cipal one is, that their direction must, if possible, be at right angles to the stream ; the other that they must be placed in the line of the streets which they connect on the opposite banks of the stream. From a want of regard to these points many unfortunate blunders have been committed, which a prodigal expenditure will not afterwards rectify. The position of a bridge should be neithor in a narrow part nor in one liable to swell with tides or floods, because the contraction of the waterway increases the depth and velocity of the current, and may thus endanger the navigation as well as the bridge itself. It is the common practice to construct a bridge with an odd number of arches, for the reason, among many others, that the stream being usually strongest in the middle, egress is there better provided by a central arch. If the bridge bo not perfectly horizontal, symmetry results by the sides rising towards the middle, and the roadway may be made one continued curve. When the roadway of a bridge is horizontal, the saving of centering for the arches is considerable, because two sets of centres will perhaps be sufficient for turning all the arches. If, however, the bridge be higher in the middle than at the extremities, the arches on each side of that in the centre must diminish similarly, so that they may be respectively symmetrical on each side of the middle. From this disposition beauty necessarily results, and the centering for one of the sides equally suits the other. A bridge should be constructed with as few arches as possible, for the purpose of allowing a free passage for the water, as well as for the vessels ; if the bridge can bo constructed with a single arch not more should be allowed. The piers should be of sufficient solidity to resist the thrust of the arch, independent of the counter thrust from the other arches; in which case the centering may be struck without the impendent danger of overturning the pier left naked. The piers should also be spread on their bases as much as possible, and should diminish gradually upwards from their foundations. In brick bridges of small plan, an inverted arch is often formed between the piers, to form a support, as well as to prevent any ill effects to the piers or abutments from a scour. The method usually employed for forming the foundations is by means of coffcr-dans. When, however, the ground is loose, this method cannot so well be used ; and then caissons have been employed. On this system the piers of old Westminster and old Blackfriars bridges were constructed ; both bridges have been rebuilt. It is now universally admitted to be defective and inefficient, principally from the liability of the piers being undermined by increased scour. Waterloo, Southwark, and London bridges were all built with the coffer-dam, laying the foundation dry. At new West- minster bridge another plan was adopted, avoiding the expense of coffer-dams. The principal bearing is on elm piles, cut off below low water. These are surrounded by iron piles wirh cast iron plates driven between the piles, thus forming a complete ' casing which surrounds and includes the elm bearing piles, and the interstices are filled in with concrete, makit g the whole solid. The next system of foundation is that of iron cylinders open at bottom and sunk into the bed of the river by excavating first inside by divers ; and afterwards, when watertight strata are reached, by pumping out and working dry ; the interior, when a sufficient depth has been reached, beiDg filled solid with concrete or brickwork. Some other examples of bridges are noticed in this work. ridge Board, otherwise called Notch Board. A board into which the ends of the steps of wooden stairs are fastened. 'Ridge-over. A term used when several parallel timbers occur, and another piece is fixed transversely over them ; such piece is theD said to bridge-over the parallel pieces. Thus in framed roofing, the common rafters bridge-over the purlins ; so, in framed flooring, the upper joists, to which the flooring is fixed, bridge-over the beams or binding- joists, and for this reason they are called bridging-joists. 1230 GLOSSARY. Bridge Stone. A stone la id from the pavement to the entrance door of a house over a sunk area and supported by an arch. Bridged Gutter. One made with boards supported by bearers and covered above with lead or zinc. Bridging or Bridging Pieces, also caliel Strutting or Straining Pieces. Pieces placed between two opposite beams to prevent their nearer approach, as rafters, braces, struts, &c. When a strut.ting-piece also serves as a sill, it is called a strciininy sill. Bridging Floors. Those in which bridging-joists are employed. Bridging Joists. Those which are sustained by transverse beams below, called binding joists ; also those joists which are nailed or fixed to the flooring-boards. Bridging to Floors. In some parts of England and in Ireland this term is applied to what is usually called Herring-bone Strutting, or Herring boning between the joists of a floor. Bringing-Forward. Priming and painting new work mixed with old, so that the whole shall have the same appearance when finished. Bringing-Up or Carrying-Up. A term used by woikmen to denote building-up. Thus bringing-up a wall four feet means building it up. Broach. An old English term for a spire, and si ill so employed. Sometimes it is used to designate a spire rising from the tower without any parapet, as in the Early English period. Broached Work. See Droved and Broached. Broad Stone. The same as Free Stone. Broken-joint Flooring. The s tine as floor-boar’s laid. folding. See Floor. Bronteum. (Gr.) In ancient Greek Architecture, that part of the theatre under the floor in which brazen vessels with stones in them were placed to imitate the sound of thunder. Bronze. A compound metal applied to various useful and ornamental purposes. The composition consists of 6 to 12 parts of tin and 100 parts of copper. This alloy is heavier and more tenacious than copper ; it is also much more fusible, and less liable to be altered by exposure to the air. Budget. A small pocket used by tilers for holding the nails in lathing for tiling. Buffet. (Fr.) A cabinet or cupboard for plate, glass, or china. Some years back it was the practice to make these small recesses very ornamental, in the form of niches, and left open in the front to display the contents. At present, when used, they are generally closed with a door. Buhl Work. Formerly called Boule work from the name of its inventor. It consists of one or more metals inlaid upon a ground of tortoise shell, alone or with coloured woods, or of these last-named materials inlaid upon grounds of metal. The process is as follows : — Two pieces of veneer are placed together, with paper between them, each being glued to the paper. Upon the surface of the upper one is placed the drawing of the pattern to be cut, a.nl then the outlines of it are cut through by means of a very fine watch-spring saw. The parts are then separated, that which is taken from the darker wood is let into the lighter wood and vice versa. See Beignier Work. Builder. A person who contracts for performing the whole of the different artificers' works in a building. Building. Used as a substantive is the mass of materials shaped into an edifice. As a, participle, it is the constructing and raising an edifice suited to the purposes for which it is erected; the knowledge requisite for the design and construction of buildings being the subject of this work, in which it is treated under its various heads. A “new building” is the re-erecting of any building pulled down to or below the ground floor or of any frame building of which only the framework is left down to the ground floor or the conversion into a dwelling house of any building not originally constructed for human habitation, or the conversion into more than one dwelling house of a building originally constructed as one dwelling house only. Public Health Act, 1875. Building Act. An Act passed for regulating the construe ion and use of buildings in any town or city. Building of Beams. The same as Scarfing. A “built-beam” is a beam or girdei formed of several pieces of timber fitted and bolted or strapped together, in order to obtain one of a greater strength than usually obtainable in one balk of timber. Bulker. A term used in Lincolnshire to signify a beam or rafter. Bullen Nails. Such as have round heads with short shanks turned and lacquered. They are principally used in the hangings of rooms. Bull's Eye. Any small circular aperture for the admission of light or air. The name is also applied to the knob in a pane of common glass, left in its manufacture, which was formerly used fur cheapntss, and lately as a sort of ornament or for the sake ot obscurity. Bull’s Nose. The external or other angle of a polygon, or of any two lines meeting <• an obtuse angle. GLOSSARY. 1231 Bullock Sheds. Houses or sheds for feeding bullocks, in which the main points to be observed are good ventilation, facility in feeding and cleaning the animals, perfect diainage, and a good aspect. They ought not to be less than nineteen feet wide. Bund. A Persian term for a dam or dyke. Bundle Pillar. In Gothic architecture, a column consisting of a number of small pillars round its circumference. Bungalow. The Hindoo name for a thatched house ; or generally fur a house. Butment. The same as Abutment, which see. Butment Cheeks. The two solid sides of a mortise. The thickness of each cheek is usually equal to the thickness of the mortise, but it happens that circumstances arise to vary this thickness. Butt-end op a piece of Timber. That which was nearest the root of a tree. Buttery. A store-room for provisions ; it should be on the north side of a building. .Butt-hinges or Butts. Those employed in the hanging of doors, shutters, casements, ! &c. They are placed on the edges with the knuckle projecting on the side in which the closure is to open, an I the other edges stopping against a small piece of wood left in the thickness of the closure so as to keep the arris entire. Workmen generally sink the thickness of the hinges flush with the surface of the edge of the closure, and the j tail part one-half into the jamb. Stop butt-hinges permit the closure to open only to a right angle, without breaking the hinges ; rising butt-hinges, which are those that turn upon a screw, cause the door to rise as it opens, so as to clear the carpet in the apartment; slip off butt-hinges are used where a door or window-blind is required to be taken otf occasionally Butting Joint. That formed by the surfaces of two pieces of wood, whereof one is per- pendicular to the fibres, and the other in their direction, or making an oblique angle with them, ns, for example, the joints made by the struts and braces with the truss posts. Button A small piece of wood or metal, made to turn al out a centre, for fastening a door, drawer, or any other kind of closure. The centre is generally formed by a screw. Buttress. (Fr. Aboutir, to lie out.) A mass of brickwork or masonry to support the side of a wall of areat height, or pressed on tile opposite side by a bank of earth or body of water. Buttressis are employed against the piers of Gothic buildings to resist the thrust of the vaulting. See Arc Boutant, or flying buttress. The buttress called the pillared buttress is formed by vertical planes attached to the walls themselves. These sometimes form the upright terminations of flying buttresses. 3yzantine. The style of architecture and art established under the Eastern division of the Roman Empire. It, contains moro of the Greek element than Romanesque Art, which was developed in the Western division. 0 AUiN. (Brit. Chabin.) A term applied to the huts and cottages of poor pimple and lo those of persons in a savage state of life. abinet. (Fr.) A retired room in an edifice set apart for writing, study, or the preser- vation of anything curious or valuable. The term is also applied to an apartment at the end of a gallery in which pictures are hung, or small pieces of sculpture, medals, bronzes, and other curiosities are arranged. able Moulding. A convex circular moulding used in Norman Architecture, as in fig. 1373. abling. A moulding of a convex circular section, rising from the back or con- cave surface of a flute of a column, so that its most prominent part may be in the same continued circular surface as the fillet on each side of the flute. Thus the surface of a flute is that of a concave cylinder, and that of the cable is the surface of a convex cylinder, with the axes of the cylinders parallel to each other. The cable seems to represent a rope or staff laid in the flute, at the Fig. 1373. lower part of which it is placed about one third of the way up. Cabling of flutes was not frequently used in the works of antiquity. At the arch of Constantine the cables rise to about one third of the height of rhe shaft. In Imodern times an occasional abuse has been practisedof cabling Avithout fluting, as in the church della Sapienza at Rome. er. A term in British antiquity, which, like the Saxon term Cluster, denotes a castle, find is generally prefixed to the names of places fortified by the Romans. ' ge. In carpentry, is an outer work of timber surrounding another. Thus the cage of t stair is the wooden inclosure that encircles it. 1232 GLOSSARY. Cairn. A pyramidal pile of stones heaped up by the ancient races, for monumental or memorial purposes. Caisson, (hr.) A large and strong chest of timber, water-tight, used in large and rapid rivers for building tne pier of a bridge. The bottom consists of a grating of timber, contrived in sucli a manner that the sides, when necessary, may be detached from it. The ground under the intended pier is first levelled by divers, or other means, or piles driven in whereon the caisson may lodge ; the caisson is then launched and floated into (U kWmteti its proper position, and the pier built therein ; it sinks, and the work is continued as high as the level of the water, or nearly so. The sides are then detached. The objection to the system is that a perfectly level bed cannot be obtained, and the caisson rests on limited portions; increased weight and time may no doubt produce a more even bearing, but settlement is involved to some extent. Old Westminster and old Blackfriars Bridges were so constructed. The tonnage of each of the caissons used at Westmin- ster Bridge was equal to that of a forty-gun ship. Caisson. A sunken panel in ceilings, vaults, and cupolas. See Coffer. Calcareous Earth. A species of earth which becomes friable by burning, and is after- wards reduced to an impalpable powder by mixing it with water. It also effervesces with acids. It is frequently met with in a friable or compact state in the form of chalk. Caldarium. (Lat.) In ancient architecture a close vaulted room, in which persons were brought into a state of profuse perspiration, by hot water or heated air. It was one of the apartments attached to ancient baths. Calfpen. A place for nourishing calves. It is generally a small apartment within the cowhouse ; but the practice is not to be recommended, as it keeps the cow in a restless and agitated state, and prevents her from feeding well and giving that quantity of milk she would otherwise furnish. Caliber. (Spanish.) The greatest extent or diameter of a round body. Caliber Compasses. Those made with bent legs for taking the diameter of a convex or concave body in any part. See Mould. Caliducts. (Lat.) Pipes or channels disposed along the walls of houses and apartments. They were used by the ancients to convey heat to the remote parts of the house from one common furnace. Caliper. See Caliber. Calotte. (Fr.) A concavity in the form of a cup or niche, lathed and plastered, serving to diminish the height of a chapel, alcove, or cabinet, which otherwise would appear too high for the breadth. Camarosis. (Gr.) An elevation terminated with an arched or vaulted head. Camber. (Gr.) An arch on the top of an aperture cr on the top of a beam. Hence camber windows. Camber Beam. That which forms a curved line on each side from the middle of its length. All beams should, to some degree, if possible, he cambered; but the cambered beam is used in flats and church platforms, wherrin, after being covered with boards, these are covered with lead, for the purpose of discharging the rain-water. Camerated. (Gr.) The same as arched. Cames. Small slender rods of cast lead in glazing, twelve or fourteen inches long, of which when drawn separately through a species of vice, forming a groove on each side, of the lead, the glaziers make the patterns for receiving the glass of casements, and for stained glacs windows. Camp Ceiling. A ceilir.g whose form is convex inwardly. Campanile. (It.) A tower for the reception of bells, usually, in Italy, separated from the church. Many of the campaniles of Italy are lofty and magnificent structures. That at Cremona is much celebrated, being 395 feet high. It consists o c a square tower, rising 262 fpet, surmounted by two octagonal open siorios, ornamented with columns ; a conical shaft and cross terminate the elevation. The campanile of Ilorence, from the designs of Giotto, claims admiration for its richness and workmanship. _ It is 267 feet high, and 45 feet square. The most remarkable of the campaniles in the country mentioned is that at Pisa, commonly called the “Leaning Tower.” It it cylindrical in general form, and surrounded by eight stories of columns, placed over onr another, each having its entablature. The height is about 150 feet to the platform whence a plumb line lowered falls on the leaning side nearly 13 feet beyond the base o the building. Camp-sheeting or Camp-shot. The sill or cap of a wharf wall. Canal. (It. Canale. ) A duct for the conveyance of a fluid ; thus the canal of an aqueduc is the part through which the water flows. _ r Canal. A term sometimes used for the flutings of a column or pilaster. I ho canal n, the volute is the spiral channel, or sinking on its face, commencing at the eye, ant following in the revolutions of the volute. The canal of the larmier is the channe o> I litatsi si W* i Idviii Mtlieire a, (Gr. Kt wild tbuif! W^proh' & at-, rw Hnli' lit '‘•‘Be GLOSSARY. 1283 groove sunk on its soffite to throw off the rain, and prevent it from running down the bed mould of the cornice. Ianceli.1. (Lat.) Latticed windows, or those made with cro=s bars of wood or iron. The balusters or rails which close in the bar of a court of justice, and those round the altar of a church, are also so called ; hence the word chancel. Iandei.abrum. (Lat. Candela.) A stand or support on which tho ancients placed a lamp. Candelabra varied in form, and were highly decorated with the stems and leaves of plants, parts of animals, flowers, and the like. The etymology of the word would seem to assimilate tho candelabrum to our candlestick ; it is, however, certain that the word candela was but a lamp, of which the candelabrum was the support. In the works of Piranesi some of the finest specimens are to be found. The most curious, however, as respects form, use, and workmanship, are those excavated at Herculaneum and Pompeii. They are all of bronze, slender in their proportions, and perfectly portable as they rarely in height exceed fivo feet. On none of the candelabra hitherto found is there any appearance of a socket or pipe at top, from which an inference as to the use of candbs could bo made. ankphorjj. (Gr. Kayi]. In i _ . RM BWstri, f-siie V 'N “■tail tin GLOSSARY. 123r h \ Off tU - // \ / / >■ ' (J / / /V"" . H 7 Fig. 1379. a chain of similar and equal links of homogeneous matters, as flexible as possible, from any two points not in a perpendicular line, nor so distant from each other as the length of the chain. Prick the plane through the links as nearly as possible in the middle of the chain, and through the points draw the catenary {fig. 1379.) Let the chord FBD or Fi bd be given, and the abscissa BA or h A intersecting it (fig. 1379 ) in B or b at a given angle. Draw the vertical line BA and FBD or F bd at the given angle on the plane. Fix one end of the chain at F, and from the point D or d, with another part of the chain, raise or lower the chain until the lower part coincides with A, and through points, made as before, draw the curve. To draw a tangent to the catenary: let DBF be a horizontal lino, and at right angles to BA from A draw AR equal to the curve DA, obtained as before, and draw BR, which bisect in o. At right angles to BR draw oC intersecting BA continued in C. Draw CR, and make the angle BDT equal to the angle ACR. DT is the tangent required, and BO equals CR; OA is the tension at the point A, or the horizontal draft, which, in a cate- nary, is in every point the same, and is therefore a constant quantity ; as DB : BT : : CA : AR : or as DB : BT : : the constant quantity CA: AR, equal to the length of the chain A D. If CH be drawn through C at right angles to BC it is called the directrix, and DH drawn parallel to BO, intersecting the directrix at H, is the tension at the point D, being always equal to the sum of the abscissa and constant quantity. With the centre C and radius = the tension DH at D = CB, cut the tangent at the vertex A in R, then AR is the length of the chain AD. AC is the semi-axis of an equilateral hyperbola, and also the radius of curvature of a circle equicurved with it and the catenary. In the triangle CAR, when CA is the radius, then the tension equals CR, the secant of the angle ACR ( = BDC). The chain AD equals AR, the tangent of the same angle and the absciss AB equals CR — CA = SR. Hence, ACR being a right-angled triangle, it is manifest that when two of the five quantities, viz. the angle, the absciss, the length of the chain between the vertex and points of suspension, the constant quantity or tension at the vertex, and the tension at the points of suspension, are known, the other three may be obtained geometrically, or from a table of tangents and secants. athedral. (Gr. KaOeSpa, a seat or throne.) The principal church of a province or diocese, wherein the throne of archbishop or bishop is placed. It was originally applied to the seats in which the ' bishop and presbyters sat in their assemblies. In after times, the bishop’s throne was, however, placed in the centre of the apsis, on each side whereof were inferior seats for the presbyters. In the present day the bishop’s throne is placed Ion one side of the choir, usually on that towards the south. : therine Wheel Window also called Marigold Window. In mediaeval buildings a window or '■ompartment of a window of a circular form i.vith radiating divisions or spokes. Examples lire seen at Patrixbourne, York, St. Davids, of a mall size; while at Westminster (fig . 1380) ''OUth transepts of St. Ouen at Rouen, and of Amiens cathedral, and at the cathedral of Strasbourg, they are of larger sixe. Vindow. Vhetus. (Gr. KaSeros, let down.) A perpendicular line passing through the centre of cylindrical body as a baluster or a column. It is also a line falling perpendicularly, nd passing through the centre or eye of the volute of the Ionic capital. ( vle Shed, or Cattle House. In agricultural buildings, an erection for containing jattle while feeding, or otherwise. The cattle shed is, of course, most economically con- rrueted when built against walls or other buildings. If cattle sheds are built in iso- :ted situations, the expense of a double shed will be much less than that of a single :.ie, to contain the same number of cattle. Buildings of this description should be well .entilated, and be so constructed as to require the least possible labour in supplying the >od, and clearing away the dung. The stalls should be placed so as to keep the cattle Fig. 1380. Westminster Abbey. See Rose 1238 GLOSSARY. dry and clean, the floor level and with sufficient drains to receive the ordure, and to be readily flushed. There should be good provision of air holes in the roof; aDd, if the Duilding have gables, a window should be placed in each as high as possible with movable luffer-boards, which may be easily opened and shut. A cubical space is required of not less than 1000 feet for each animal, whether there are inhabited rooms over the shed or not. The cattle plague first broke out in the central districts of London, where the space allotted did not exceed 450 cubic feet. Many of the model farms and stockbreeders now use iron cow-stalls, to assist in preventing the spread of rinderpest. A bullock averages 7 feet 6 inches in length, 5 feet in height, and 2 feet 6 inches in width. The stall should be 5 feet wide for each milch cow, or 6 feet if kept indoors all the year, the building being 16 feet wide; the top of the manger not more than from 12 to 18 inches above the floor, 18 inches broad, and 12 inches deep, with three divisions, for moist and dry food and water. See Bullock Shed. The infectious effluvia from the private slaughter-houses often causing contagions maladies in their neighbourhood, the French government in 1811 removed all such buildings from the heart of their capital. For this purpose five open airy spots were selected in the outskirts of the city; those at Menilmontant and Montmartre are the most considerable and extensive. These five establishments were later merged into one large abattoir. Happe was the architect of the former; and the cost was some- thing above 120,0007. The Metropolitan Cattle Market was designed by the late Mr. J. B. Bunning, City Architect, and opened in 1855. Several additions have since been made by the late Sir Horace Jones, City Architect. A market and abattoir was designed 1870—71, at Deptford, by the same architect, for the City of Loudon, where foreign cattle are lauded, inspected, sold, and slaughtered. The cost of the market, including 95,0007. paid for the site of 22 acres, was 2 1 0,0007. Of late years several such buildings have been erected, as at Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Bradford ; and a carcase market with butchers’ slaughter-houses adjoining, at Manchester. A description of this building, erected from the designs of Mr. A Darby- shire, was read by him at the Royal Institute of British Architects, Feb. 1, 1875; and as it is considered a well-arranged structure for its purposes, a few details will be given. It is in the shape of the letter J_- la the long side fronting Water Street are the entrances, and the carcase market, 418 feet long and 55 ftet 6 inches wide, paved with asphalte. Behind this are the wholesale slaughter-houses, twenty-one in number, each being 24 feet by 17 feet 6 inches inside, with a lair attached in rear, 22 feet by 17 feet 6 inches. Both of these are open to the roof, but entirely separated, and the former well lighted by rows of glass slates, which light is superior to side windows for the several operations necessary. The former has a glazed enamelled brick dado, 5 feet high, and a plentiful supply of water. They are paved with Yorkshire stone. In rear oi part of the above are placed nineteen retail slaughter-houses similar to the above. In rear of these latter is the condemned meat department, consisting of a lair, slaughter- house, meat store, and boiling-house. The blood department consists of a storing- room, drawing-off room, and drying-room. The pig slaughtering department is adjacent, and contains a large pig slaughter-house, open yard, and piggeries. The two lodges at the gates (through which all cattle must enter the abattoir) contain residences for the porter and the inspector, with rooms for the convenience of the markets committee. The site also contains a large general lair for cattle, a manure pit, and a common room for drovers and others ; suitable conveniences at various points ; and a stable and gig-house for the inspector. The total cost was somewhat over 30,0007. Space prevents us from following the author through his explanation in detail of the uses to which the various buildings are applied, but one very important feature remains to be noticed. A simpie and effectual apparatus has been provided by the engineer, Mr. John Meiklejohn, of Dalkeith, by which the carcase when ready is placed on a hoist, and moved along rails across the roadway into the market, or placed into the carts ; this apparatus also allows the seller to detach any particular carcase from the others, and deposit it in the cart of the buyer, without in any way disturbing the other carcases hanging on the beams. A considerable amount of manual labour is saved ; and, in addition, the meat intended for human food receives as little handling as possible after being dressed, and is not transferred at any time to the dirty and greasy backs and shoulders of the slaughterers. The private slaughter-houses have the same hoisting apparatus, but the carcase is placed at once in carts and removed to the butcher’s shop. At the Edinburgh abattoir a central crane and semicircular hanging beam is in operation ; while at Bradford an hydraulic lifting power is in use. A very interesting discussion followed the reading of the piper, in reference to private slaughter-houses ; the best mode of lighting; the pavmg ; the use of a tnpery at the abattoir; blood stores ; a place for salting hides ; and other apparatuses. An important fact was stated, tending to the greater introduction of killing animals in GLOSSARY. 1239 the country and sending the carcases up to the “ dead meat” markets in cities and towns: — that it has been proved that if an animal be slaughtered in Edinburgh, near where it was fed, and another be taken from the same herd and sent as carefully as possible to London by railway, and slaughtered there, tho latter loses at least three stones in weight as compared with the former, and this represents a sovereign. Jattus. A moveable shed usually fixed on wheels. Iatjl. An implement used hot in veneering to keep the glue moist, while at the sarno time it presses down the veneer until it cools. !aumcol^3 or Caulicoli. (Lat. Caulis, a stalk.) The eight lesser branches or stalks in the Corinthian capital springing out from the four greater or principal caules or stalks. The eight volutes of the capital of the order in question are sustained by four caules or leaves, from which these caulicolic or lesser foliage arise. They have been sometimes confounded with the helices in the middle, and by others with the principal stalks whence they arise. aulkino or Cocking. The mode of fixing the tie-beams of a roof or the binding joists of a floor down to the wall-plates. Formerly this was performed by dovetailing in the 1 following manner : — A small part of the depth of the beam at the end of the under side was cut in the form of a dovetail, and to receive it a corresponding notch was formed in the upper side of the wall-plate, across its breadth, making, of course, the wide part of the dovetail towards the exterior part of the wall, so that the beams, when laid in their notches, and the roof finished, would greatly tend to prevent the walls separating, though strained by inward pressure, or even if they should have a tendency to spread, through accidents or bad workmanship. But beams so fixed have been found liable to be drawn to a certain degree out of the notches in the wall-plates from the shrinking of the timber. A more secure mode is that of forming a sort of pin out of the upper side of the plate, with a notch in the beam, which obviates all hazard of one being drawn out of the other. ; austic Curve. (Gr. Kaiw, to burn.) The name given to a curve, to which the rays of light, reflected or refracted by another curve, are tangents. The curve is of two kinds, the calacaustic and the dia-austic ; the former being caused by reflection, and the latter by refraction. 'AV.EDIUM. (Lat.) In ancient architecture an open quadrangle or court within a house. The cavaedia described by Vitruvius are of five species : — Tuscanicum, Corinthium, Tetrastylon (with four columns), Displuviatum (uncovered), and Testudinatum (vaulted). Some authors have made the cavaedium the same as the atrium and vestibulum, but they were essentially different, j we, (Lat. Cavum.) A hollow place. weje. (Lat.) In ancient architecture the subterranean cells in an amphitheatre, wherein the wild beasts were confined in readiness for the fights of the arena. In the end the amphitheatre itself (by synecdoche) was called cavea, in which sense it is em- ployed by Ammianus Marcellinus, lib. xxix. cap. i. wetto. (Lat. Cavus.) A hollowed moulding, whose profile is the quadrant of a circle. It is principally used in cornices. '.bar. (Gr. KeSpos.) The pinus cedrus of Linnaeus, a forest tree little used in this country, except for cabinet work. iling. (Lat. Ccelum.) The upper horizontal or curved surface of an apartment op- iposite the floor, usually finished with plastered work. iling Joists. Small beams, which are either mortised into the sides of the binding joists, or notched upon and nailed up to the under sides of those joists. The last mode jdiminishes the height of the room, but is more easily executed, and is by some thought i not so liable to break the plaster as when the ends of the ceiling-joists are inserted nto pulley mortises. ll. [Lat. Celia.) In ancient architecture the part of a temple within the walls. It vas also called the naos, whence the word nave in a church. The part of a temple in 'ront of the cell was called the pronaos, and that in the rear the posticum. See Vimana !if the Hindoos. It is also the chamber in which a prisoner is confined. i.lar. (Fr. Cellier.) The lower story of a building, wholly or partly under the level [>f the ground, and not adapted for habitation, but merely for lumber, storage purposes, oals, wine, and such like : and having openings into the outer air for ventilation nly. Coal cellars in the metropolis are arched vaults under the street paving. 1 .LULAR Beams. Beams made of wrought iron plates, rivetted together, and whose trength depends upon the system of cells placed at the top of the web or over he cell, which takes the place of it in a larger beam or girder. In very large mes, cells are also placed under it. < tic Erections. The manner of building adopted by the early inhabitants of the lorlhern part of Europe, comprising chiefly the erection of large stones in a variety of orms, and of -tumuli in which are found chisels and adzes of bronze or hard stone, 1240 GLOSSAEV. Thej hence the name of celts derived from celtet, the ancient Latin word for a chisel, are discovered in great quantities in England, Ireland, and France. Cement. (Lat. Cementum.) The medium through which stones, bricks, or any othei materials are made to adhere to each other. See Mortar. Cemetery. (Gr. Koi/xda>, to sleep.) An edifice or area where the dead are interred. Tin most celebrated public cemeteries of Europe are those of Naples, that in the vicinity o Bologna, of Pisa, and the more modern ones of Paris, whereof that of Pere-la-Chaisi is the principal. That of Pisa is particularly distinguished by the beauty of its fora, and architecture, which is of early Italian Gothic. It is 490 feet long, 170 feet wide and 60 feet high, cloistered round the four sides. Cenotaph. (Gr. Kerbs, empty, and Tatpos, a sepulchre.) A monument erected to the memory of a person buried in another place. Centering. The temporary woodwork or framing, whereon any vaulted work is con structed, and sometimes called a centre. Centre. (Lat. Centrum.) In a general sense denotes a point equally remote from the ex tremes of a line, superficies, or body, or it is the middle of a line or plane by which a; figure or body is divided into two equal parts ; or the middle point so dividing a line plane, or solid, that some certain effects are equal on all its sides. For example, in a circle the centre is everywhere at equal distance from the circumference ; in a sphere the centre is a point at the same distance from every point in the surface. Centres of a Door. The two pivots on which the door revolves. 1‘jltS ¥1 I Sri, is el inside ®a or Centrolinead. An instrument for drawing lines converging to a point at any required imToi distance, whether accessible or inaccessible. It is used for making drawings in per- spective. Ceroma. (Gr.) An apartment in the Gymnasia and baths of the ancients, where the bathers and wrestlers were anointed with oil thickened by wax, as the name imports. Cesspool, or Sesspool. A small well sunk below the mouth of a drain to receive the sediment which might otherwise choke up its passage, in its course to its outfall. A cesspool is also a well sunk to receive the soil from a water-closet, or kitchen sink, drain hole to a path, &c. It is sometimes built dry so that the water percolate!' through the joints of the stone or brickwork into the surrounding soil ; or it is built in' mortar, and a drain formed to carry off the surplus water from near the top of it. When found to be full, the cesspool is emptied and the contents carted away, or used fui garden manure, &c. Chain Moulding. An ornament of the Norman period, carved in imitation of a chain. Chain Timber. See Bond. Chair Bail. A piece of wood fastened to a wall, to prevent the backs of the chairs in juring the plastering when placed against it. This result is often better effected b) fixing a fillet of sufficient projection on the floor, next the skirting, for the feet of the chain to 6trike against, similar to that frequently put to cover the nails securing the carpet. Chaitya Cave. The name given to a class of rock-cut Buddhist temples in India. Chaitya meaning an object of worship, whether an image, a tree, an edifice, or mountain They resemble in almost all particulars, both of form, size, and purpose, the choirs o Gothic churches of the eleventh or twelfth centuries: the dagoba occupying the placi of the altar, and being like it, simply a relic shrine. They are seen at Karli, Ajuntn and other places. Chalcidicum. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a term used by Vitruvius to denote a larg building appropriated to the purpose of administering justice, but applied sometimes ti the tribunal itself. Chalk. (Germ. Kalk.) Earthy carbonate of lime, found in abundance in Great Britain and, indeed, in most parts of the world. It is insoluble in water, but decomposed 1 1 heat, and sometimes used in building for the same purposes as limestone. Chamber. (Fr. Chambre.) Properly a room vaulted or arched, but the word is nov generally used in a more restricted sense to signify an apartment appropriated to lode ing. With the French the word has a much more extensive meaning; but with us tin almost only use of it. beyond what is above stated, is as applied in a palace to the roon in which the sovereign receives the subject, which room is called the Presence Chamber Chamber of a Lock. In canals the space between the gates in which the vessels risi and sink from one level to another, in order to pass the lock. Chamber Story. That story of a house appropriated for bed-rooms. Chambranle. (Fr.) An ornamental bordering on the sides and tops of doors, window and fireplaces. This ornament is generally taken from the architrave of the orde of the building. In window frames the sill is also ornamental, forming a four!' side. The top of a three-sided chambranle is called the transverse , and the side ascendan ts . Chamfer. (Fr. Chamfrein.) The arris of anything originally right-angled, cut aslope, o bevel, so that the plane it then forms is inclined less than a right angle to the otbe P®. (la 1 58 We; liolijear o (lat 5fceat» h Tit ijfc' k?-. 11 Nskip GLOSSARY. 1241 planes with which it intersects. If it is not carried the whole extent of the piece, it is returned and then is said to be ‘ stop chamfered.’ Champain Line. In ornamental carved work formed of excavations is the lino parallel to the continuous line, either ascending or descending. Chancel. That part of the eastern end of a church in which the altar is placed. Seo Cancelli. This is the strict meaning ; but in many cases the chancel extends much farther into the church, the original divisions having been removed for accommodating a larger staff of clergy. The word is also used to denote a separate division of the ancient basilica, latticed off' to separate the judges and council from the audience part of the place. The chancel of a Protestant church is now raised two or three steps above the pave- ment of the nave, and provided on each side with two rows of benches or stalls for choristers ; on the north side in a sort of chapel or recess is placed the organ, and be- hind which is sometimes the choristers’ vestry, attached to the vestry for the clergy. Beyond, is the part called the sacrarium, railed off, with a step for the communicants, and inside which is the altar or communion table placed on a platform raised two or three steps. In a large chancel, the space will allow of two or three chairs or perhaps sedilia for the clergy on the south side, with an aumbry for the church utensils, and a credence table or shelf for the bread and wine before being placed on the table. Chandry. An apartment in a palace or royal dwelling for depositing candles and other lights. Channel of the Larmier, and of the Volute. See Canal of the Larmier, and of the Volute. Channel. (Fr. Canal.) A long gutter sunk below the surface of a body, as in a street, and serving to collect and run off the rain water with a current. Chaori. A great porch or hall, as used in India, usually attached to the Vimana with its mantapa and antarala, all three forming the temple properly speaking. This porch in lower India is called a maha mantapa, and is generally used for marriage ceremonies and religious ceremonies performed in public. Ohantlate. Apiece of wood fastened at the end of rafters, and projecting beyond the wall, to support several rows of slates or tiles, being so placed as to throw off' the rain- water from the face of the wall. Chantry. (Lat. Cantaria.) A little chapel in ancient churches with an endowment for one or more priests to say mass for the release of souls out of purgatory. In the four- teenth year of Edward VL, all the chantries in England were dissolved : at this period there were no less than forty-seven attached to St. Paul’s Cathedral. Chapel. (Lat. Capella.) A building for religious worship, erected separately from a church, and served by a chaplain. In Catholic churches, and in cathedrals and abbey churches, chapels are usually annexed in the recesses on the sides of the aisles. These are also called chantries. It is also the name of the building erected for worship by the dissenters and others. Chapiter. The same as Capital. |0haplet. (Fr. Chapelet.) A moulding carved into beads, olives, and the like. See Baguette. Chapter House. In ecclesiastical architecture the apartment (usually attached) of a cathedral or collegiate church in which the heads of the church or the chapter meet to transact business. These council chambers date back in England as far as the time of Archbishop Cuthbert at Canterbury. On the Continent the chapter houses, for the most part, are square or oblong rooms with timber roofs. In the ninth century, the east alley of the cloister was used as a chapterhouse, but in the tenth, a distinct build- ing was formed for it at Fonteneile. In the eleventh century king Edward the Con- fessor erected around and vaulted chapter house at Westminster. It is a remarkable fact that the Benedictine monks almost invariably built polygonal, while the Seculars erected rectangular, chapter houses. The two exceptions to the rule are those of Wor- cester and Westminster. From the commencement of the thirteenth century a polygonal shape was adopted ; a decagon as at Hereford, St. Paul’s at London, Bridlington, Lichfield, and Lincoln, and at Worcester though it is a circle internally; an octagon at Wells, York, Salisbury, and Westminster. At Westminster, Wells, and St. Paul’s, it was built over a crypt. Bates. Diameter. Bates. Diameter. Lincoln 1186-1203 60 ft. Worcester 1263-1372 48 ft. York completed about 1350 57 ft. Salisbury 1263-1270 58 ft. Wells 1293-1302 55 ft. by 42 ft. Westminster 1250 58 ft. Lichfield about 1240 44 ft. by 26 ft. kaptrel. (Fr.) The same as Impost. harcoal. Bones or vegetable matter decomposed by heat without the free access of air. Its sanitary properties consist in its power of absorbing gases, which is most efficient 1212 GLOSSARY. when the charcoal is powdered. Animal charcoal is better than that of wood, cr of peat, for the purposes of disinfection. When cleansing cesspools, the charcoal should be mixed with the soil. When used to destroy foul air, the charcoal requires to be exposed in thin films, presenting the greatest possible surface. It is essentially necessary to the proper filtration of water. It is a bad conductor of heat, but conducts electricity. Charged. A term used to denote that one member of a piece of architecture is sustained by another. A frieze is said to be charged, with the ornament cut on it. Charnel House. A place where the bones of the dead are deposited. Chartophylacium. A recess or apartment in an ancient building, for the preservation of records or valuable writings. Chase. An upright indent cut in a wall for the joining another to it. It also means an indent cut in a wall, into xvhich a pipe or some such article is placed. 1 Chase Mortise, or Pulley Mortise. A long mortise cut lengthwise in one of a pair of parallel timbers, for the insertion of one end of a transverse timber, by making the latter revolve round a centre at the other end, which is fixed in the other parallel timber. This may be exemplified in ceiling joists where the binding joists are the parallel tim- bers first fixed, and the ceiling are the transverse joists. Chateau. The modern French form of the word castle, and used for a castle, fort, or country mansion. Cheeks. Two upright, equal, and similar parts of any piece of timber-work. Such, for instance, as the sides of a dormer window. Cheeks of a Mortise are the two solid parts upon the sides of the mortise. The thick- ness of each cheek should not be less than the thickness of the mortise, except mould- ings on the stiles absolutely require it to be otherwise. Cheese Room. A room set apart for the reception of cheeses after they are made. The Avails should be lined, and fitted up with shelves with one or more stages, according to the size of the room, and proper gangways for commodious passage. In places where much cheese is manufactured, the dairy-room may be placed below, the shelf- room directly above, and lofts may be built over the shelf-room, with trap-doors through each floor. This will save much carriage, and will be found advantageous for drying the cheeses. Chequers. In masonry, are stones in the facings of walls, which have all their thin joints continued in straight lines, without interruption or breaking joints. Walls built in this manner are of the very worst description ; particularly when the joints are made horizontal and vertical. Those which consist of diagonal joints, or joints inclined to the horizon, were used by the Homans. Chesnut or Chestnut. The fagus castanea. A large tree chiefly grown in England in ornamental grounds. It has often been stated that its timber has been used in building, but no satisfactory proof has been adduced. Where wide planks can be procured without a fault, they have perhaps been used for panels and carving, as the wood is yery similar to wainscot, but is without the flower. Chest. The same as Caisson. Chevet. A term used by French architects and antiquaries to denote the surrounding aisles to the choir of a cathedral, from their resemblance on the plan to the form of a bolster. Chevron Moulding. A zigzag ornament used in the archivolts of Saxon and Norman arches, similar to fig. 1381. Chimjera. A monster of the Grecian mythology, described as having a lion’s head, a goat’s body, and the tail of a dragon. Out of the back grows the head and neck of a goat. One such piece of sculp- ture, brought to England by Sir Charles Fellowes from Asia Minor, is now in the British Museum. Chimney. (Fr. Cheminde.) The place in a room where a fire is burnt, and from which the smoke is carried away by means of a conduit, called a funnel or a flue. Where the walls are sufficiently thick, the chimneys are formed in the substance of them, but they are usually made by a projection from a wall and a recess in the same from the floor ascending within the limits of the projection and the recess. That part of the opening which faces the room is properly called th e fireplace, the stone, marble, or metal, under which is called the hearth. That on a level with and in front of it is the dab, though often called the hearth. The vertical sides of the opening are called y'amis. The head of the fore-plate resting on the jambs is called the mantel. The tube or cavity from the fireplace upwards is called the funnel or fine. The part of the funnel which contracts as it ascends is termed the gathering, by some the gathiring of the wings. The part between the gathering and the flue is called the throat. The part of the wall facing the room, and forming one side of the funnel parallel thereto, or the part of the wall Fig. 1381. ijr; ■Mum, I© Tint ■[> iwAll 1, ■ (few' 1 ■h-itiiK, r GLOSSARY. 1243 forming the sides of the funnels whore there are more than one, is the breast. In ex- ternal walls, that side of the funnel opposito the breast is called the back. When there is nioro than one chimney in the same breast, the solid parts that divide them are called withs or withes', and when soveral chimneys are collected into one mass, it is called a stack of chimneys. The part which rises above the roof, for discharging the smoke into the air, is called a chimney shaft, whose horizontal upper surface is termed the chim- ney-top ; on this is placed the chimney-pot, or contrivance for dissipating the smoke, or for creating a draught. The covings were formerly placed at right angles to the face of tho wall, and the chimney was finished in that manner; but Count Rumford showed that more heat is obtained from the fire by reflection when the covings are placed in an oblique position. Ho likewise directed that the fire itself should be kept as near to the hearth as possible, I and that the throat of the chimney should be constructed much narrower than had been practised, with tho view of preventing the escape of so much heated air as happened with wide throats. If the throat be too near the fire, the draught will bo too strong, and the fuel will be wasted ; if it be too high up, the draught will be too languid, and there will be danger of the smoke being occasionally beaten back into the room. The ! chimney of large furnaces and for boilers is called a stalk, and built very tall in order j to create sufficient draught for tho fire. himnet Piece. The assemblage of architectural dressings around the open recess con- , stituting the fireplace in a room, and within which the fuel is burnt, either immediately upon the hearth itself, or in a raised grate, or open stove. Formerly fireplaces were provided only in tho principal rooms of a house; those in public rooms, as town halls, became fine pieces of architecture. Iiinuse Architecture. In the tent is to be found the type of this architecture. A characteristic quality is gaiety of effect. The coloured roofs, porches diapered with i variegated tints, the varnish with which the woodwork is covered, the light forms of the buildings, all unite in producing a style very different to that seen in other coun- tries. The towers called pagodas, and the arches, are two of the peculiar erections of that country. | tip. A piece of any material cut by an acute-angled instrument. iisel. An instrument used in masonry, carpentry, and joinery, and also by carvers and (statuaries, for cutting either by pressure or by impulse from the blows of a mallet or hammer. There are various kinds of chisels ; the principal ones used in carpentry and (joinery are the former, the paring chisel, the gouge, the mortise chisel, the socket chisel, and the ripping chisel. •tsKLKD Work. In masonry, the state of stones whoso surface is formed by the chisel. [it. An instrument used for cleaving laths. oir. (Gr. Xopos.) The part of a church in which the choristers sing divine service. In former times it was raised separate from the altar, with a pulpit on each side, in which the epistles and gospels were recited, as is still the case in several churches on he Continent. It was separated from the nave in the time of Constantine. In nun- neries, the choir is a large apartment, separated by a grate from the body of the church, where the nuns channt the service. In churches in Italy, the cors is moveable, and is held sometimes in one part of the church, and sometimes in another. See Chancel, oir Screen or Rood Screen. An ornamental open screen of wood or stone, dividing the choir or chancel from the nave, yet so as not to obstruct sight or sound. The modern •lioir screen at Hereford Cathedral has been formed of wrought iron and decorated. See Jube. oragic Monument. (Gr. Xopos.) In Grecian architecture, a monument erectod in honour of the choragus who gained the prize by the exhibition of the best musical or heatrical entertainment at the festivals of Bacchus. The choragi were the heads of he ten t-ibes at Athens, who overlooked and arranged the games at their own expense, "he prize was usually a tripod, which the victor was bound publicly to exhibit, for which purpose a building or column was usually erected. The remains of two very fine monuments of this sort, viz. of Lysicrates and Thrasyllus, are still to be seen at Athens. • ord. In geometry the straight line which joins the two extremities of the arc of a urve ; so called from the resemblance which the arc and chord together have to a bow nd its string, the chord representing the string. moultry (proper'y Chaturam ). A Tatar term for a post house, lodge, or hall for ravellers. It is only used in the Madras Presidency. There are various sorts, from a aere shed (chauvadi), one in which images are sometimes placed ( mandapam ), to the rue choultry, built expressly as an inn or caravanserai. f ttSMATORY. A recess resembling a piscina, near the spot where the font originally ood, to contain the chrism, or holy oil, with which, after baptism, infants were anointed. CJjrch. (Gr. Kvpiavov, from Kupios, Lord.) A building dedicated to the performance f Christian worship. The basilic* were the first buildings used for the assembly of 1244 GLOSSARY. the early Christians. Among the first of the churches was that of St. Peter at Rome •about the year 326, nearly on the site of the present church ; aud it is supposed tha t lie first church of St. Sophia at Constantinople was built somewhat on its model That which was afterwards erected by Justinian seems, in its turn, to have afforded tin model of St. Mark’s, at Venice, which was the first in Italy constructed with pendeutive; and a dome, the former affording the means of covering a square plan with a hemi- spherical vault. The four most celebrated churches in Europe erected since the revival of the arts are, St. Peter's at Rome, which stands on a area of 227,069 feet superficial , Sta Maria del Fiore at Florence, standing on 84,802 feet; St. Paul's, London, which stands on 84,025 feet, and St. Genevieve at Paris, 60,287 feet. The churches on the Continent are usually ranged under seven classes; pontifical, as St. Peter’s, where the pope occasionally officiates \ patriarchal, where the government is in a patriarch. metropolitan, w'here an archbishop is the head ; cathedral, where a bishop presides collegiate, when attached to a college; parochial, attached to a parish; and conventual when belonging to a convent. In this country the churches are cathedral, abbey, and parochial, and those Le’onging to the numerous classes of dissenters, which until late years were called chapels, aud by sjme denominations are still so called. A list of large churches in England is given in the Builder journal, i 865, page 123, and 1867, page 701. The designs of the temples of the ancients are given in this Glossary. The early Christian worship, attended by large congregations, required for its 6xerciso edifices whose interiors were of great extent and well lighted. Nothing was so well adapted for this purpose as the basilic®, which, bearing the name from their resem- blance to the ancient courts of justice, were raised for the purpose. Such was that of St. Paul without the walls of Rome (figs. 141. and 142.). That of St. Giovanni Laterano was divided by lour ranks of columns, which supported the walls, carrying the roofs of five aisles formed by the ranks of columns, the middle one or nave being wider and higher than the others. Each aisle being lower than that adjoining it, allowed windows to be introduced in the several walls. The direction of the length of the nave and aisles was from east to west, and was crossed by a transverse nav e, called a transept, from north to south. In front was an ample porch or portico. The uso of the modern church being the same as that of the first Christian basilic®, it may be doubted whether for extremely'large assemblies a better di.-posiiion could be chosen. Bramante imitated the Temple of Peace in the design for the new church of St. Peter. The desire of gatheriig into a single edifice the beauties of several, induced the architect to crown the edifice imitated from the Temple of Peace with another, imitated from the Pantheon. Tho obstruction to seeing and hearing caused by the large piers of the later churches is a great defect when compared with the little obstruction that the columns of the basilicae present. The cost of the Italian churches is another serious objection to them, especially in the construction of the domes, which are, with their tambours, buildings deficient in real solidity, from the large portion of false bearing they must involve; creating a very different sensation to that experienced in viewing the lantern, as at Peterborough and Ely Cathedrals. The smaller parish church, with its nave and an aisle on each side, is not only the most economical, but the best lorm of plan. It was that which best pleased Sir Christopher Wren, whose churches are generally so planned ; and we shall here give a short account of one of his best of this form, that of St. James’s, Westminster, whose interior is worthy of all praise. It is an excellent example of Wren’s love of harmony in proportions; the breadth being half the sum of its height and length, its height half its length, and its breadth the sesquialtera of its height: the numbers are 84, 63, and 42 feet. The church is divided transversely into three unequal parts, by a range of six columns on each side of the nave, forming aisles which are each one-filth of the whole breadth, the remaining three-fifths being given to the breadth of the nave. The roof is carried on these columns, and is as great a proof of the consummate skill of the archi- tect as any portion of the fabric of St. Paul’s, on account of its extreme economy and durability. It is not further necessary to describe the building; but the observations of its architect with regard to it are of the utmost value, emanating from such a man. “ I can hardly ihink it possible,” says the architect, “ to make a single room so capacious, with pews and galleries, as to hold above two thousand persons, and all to hear thesor- vice, and both to hear distinctly and see the preacher. I endeavoured to effect this in building the parish churih of St. James’s, Westminster, which, I presume, is the most capacious, with these qualifications, that hath yet been built; and yet at a solemn time, when the church was much crowded, I could not discern from a gallery that two thousand were present. In this church I mention, though very broad, and the middle nave arched up, yet as there are no walls of a second ordei - , nor lanterns, nor buttresses, but. the whole roof rests upon the pillars, as do also the galleries, I think it may be^ found beautiful and convenient, and, as such, the cheapest of any form I could invent.” On the place of the pulpit in a church of this class, the same architect continues: “ Con- tois :!ii ITeli 1 : 1 ::; : A: f -i'Hiws. ;l Biari- ■wend f IDlM pi plain «n '■fen '-•satrai a (( ■«whis ISitltltll' RKttbec *'«! tanas filktE Fiioites it hit fwito FBlltl Wtlt Mtiif. Nfe, pfijlj •ttptotl hit I pit at ptljijt. GLOSSARY. 1245 cerning the placing of the pulpit, I shall observe, a moderate voice may be heard fifty feet distant before the preacher, thir y feet on each side, and twenty behind the pul- pit; and not this, unless the pronunciation be distinct and equal, without losing the voice at the last word of the sentence, which is commonly emphatical, and if obscured spoils the whole sense. A Frenchman is heard farther than an English preacher, because he raises his voice, and not sinks his last words.” Speaking of the dimen- sions of a church, Wren, a ‘ter stating that a proposed clturch may be 60 feet broad, and 1 90 feet long, “ besides a chancel at one end, and the belfry and portico at the other,” says: “ These proportions may le varied; but to build more room than that every j person may conveniently hear and see, is to create noise and confusion. A church ! should not be so filled with pews but that the poor may have room enough to stand and •it in the alleys, for to them equally is the gospel preached. It were to be wished here were to be no pews but benches ; but there is no stemming the tide of profit , and he advantage of pewkeepers ; especially, too, since by pews in the chapels of ease the ninister is chiefly supported.” — ‘‘As to the situation of the churches, I should pro- pose they be brought as forward as possible into the larger and more open streets, not n obscure lanes, nor where coaches will be much obstructed in the passage. Nor are Iwe, I think, too nicely to observe east or west in the position, unless it falls out iroperly : such fronts as shall happen to lie most open in view should be adorned with porticoes, both for beauty and convenience ; which, together with handsome spires or lanterns, rising in good proportion above the neighbouring houses (of which I have given several examples in the city, of different forms), may be of sufficient ornament o the town, without a great expense for enriching the outward walls of the churches, in which plainness and duration ought principally, if not wholly, to be studied.” Churches are usually constructed on the plan of a Greek cross, which is that wherein he length of the transverse part, or transept, is equal to that of the nave; of a Latin •ross, wherein the nave is longer than the transept ; of a Lorraine cross, where here is a transept given to the long choir, as in a cathedral; in rotondo, where the plan is a circle; simple, where the church has only a nave and choir; with aisles, when a ubdivision occurs on each side of the nave; and those with aisles may have more than ne of such aisles on each side of the nave. The church be'ng a building in which to do work, the work to be done in one is to arry out the distinctive worship of the body to which it belongs. Hence the church f every communion, if true to its nature, must vary as the worship of that com- munion varies. As the English Reformation involved no breach of continuity, the ncient churches of this land have in the main served well for present use. But the im of that Reformation was to reduce the many services of the older ritual into an rder at once simple and congregational, and the modern English church ought there- tre to be simple in its plan and congregational in its working arrangements, absorbing s many of the people into the more active work of worship as possible. Therefore with great town congregation the building should be broad and high, as well as long, and did and dignified in every part. It must be broad in proportion to the number for hich it is intended, for if the nave be narrow many will not see or hear sufficiently, light not the nave be sometimes polygonal or circular, as at the Temple Church, and ie decagon of St. Gereon at Cologne? — era wide nave with proportionately narrow sles, serving rather as passages than omitted altogether ? Chairs or benches are both | >od in their respective ways. The bap’ istery should be emphasized. The choir or mncel proper ought not to bo much elevated above the nave; practically the raising ill be found inconvenient, and artistically many steps at the chancel arch can seldom p successfully managed. The great rise might be between the chancel and the sanctuary lading up to the table. The elevation compensates for the necessary distance, and places e table in full sight of the whole church. The choir or chancel screen is claimed as distinctly and emphatically Anglican.” A low screen of stone or with metal rails is pquently introduced in place of it. The Ecclesiologist journal, 1845, p. 135, contains ■ elaborate paper on the division of a church into nave, chancel, and sacrarium. The chancel sh. uld also be broad; usually one or perhaps two rows of seats or tils on each side are provided ; but might not three, and four rows even, be appro- iately introduced for the necessary choir, and made without encroaching on the ngway in the middle? A useful paper on the Choral Arrangements of Churches -s read at the Northampton Architectural Society, in Oct. 1870. In a large town urch the usual three sed.ilia sometimes provided may be found too few; a stone bench either side may suit better. An apse or a square end to the chancel must depend on |9 circumstances of the case. It is now the fashion to place the “organ chamber” the north or south side of the chancel, hiding away the instrument and muffling the jund. With a large choir and a lofty chancel, it might with advantage project over e stalls on one or both sides. It has been proposed to place the Litany desk, tde capable of containing two or three clerks, in a space left free of sittings at the i-iternmost bay of the nave, or in the central crossing where there are transepts. The .i 1 2 4 G GLOSSARY. lectern, where the church is small, may well he placed iu the chancel ; but where the church is intended for a large congregation, and the choir must have ample room, then the lessons had best be read at the extreme end of the nave; thus the Litany desk in the middle and the pulpit on the other side, as suggested by Mr. Beresford Hope at Brighton, in 1874, most of whose remarks are used by us herein; and who advo- cated the construction of a triforium where it was essentially necessary to have galleries. The experiment of such an arrangement has been tried in a new Roman Catholic church at Amsterdam, with, he said, a telling effect ; and one has been adopted in the memorial church at Cawnpore. In such a case the table must be well raised, and the chancel screen just so high that those below may be under its tracery, and those aloft, above it. Complaints are often made as to “ the difficulty of seeing and hearing in some of our new churches.” Exeter Hall has been greatly improved by substituting a gently curved wooden ceiling for the original ceiling intersected by wide spaces; and “one of the best churches for facility of hearing is that of St. Pancras in Euston Square which accommodates 2,500 persons; it has a flat ceiling, and no massive arches and columns to intercept the siund, which travels freely round the walls of the spacious building.” Mr. Spurgeon’s Tabernacle at Newington, is also praised. The subject of Church arrangement during the mediaeval period has been elucidated by Mr. W. H. Dykes, architect, in a paper read before the Y’orkshire Architectural j Society, in 1852 ; and the Rev. M. E. C. Walcott, On Church and Conventual Arrange- \ went, 1861, 8vo., describes the conventual plans adopted by the various religious orders. CiuoRiiM. (KrjSarpior.) An insulated erection open on each side with arches, and having! a dome of ogee form, like the bowl of a reversed cup, carried or supported by four columns, the whole covering the altar. In later times the name was transferred to a tabernacle, coffer, or case, in which the host was deposited ; whence the covering was thence called umbraculum or baldacchino. The earliest known instance of a ciboriumj appears to have been one in the church of St. George at Thessalonica, and supposed to have been in use about a.d. 325. It is also the name for the vessel in which the bread is placed at the Communion, instead of on a paten when many persons are present at it. Cilery. The drapery or foliage carved on the heads of columns. Cill. (Sax. Cill.) The timber or stone at ihe foot of a door, &c. Ground cills are the timbers on the ground which support the prsts and superstructure of a timber building. The term also applies to the bottom piece which supports quarter partitions. Cimiua. A fillet string, list, or cornice. Cimeliarch. The apartment in old churches where the plate and vestments were deposited, Cincture. The ring, list, or fillet at the top and bottom of a column, which divides die shaft of the column fr< m its capital and base. Cinque-Cento .Architecture. Literally 500, but used as a contraction for 1500, the century in which the revival of ancient architecture took place in Italy. The term is applied to distinguish the style of architecture which then arose in that country. In Trance the style as introduced there is called Style Fran gois premier, and Renaissance and in England the Revival, and Elizabethan. Cinquefoil. An ornameDt used in the Pointed style of architecture ; it consists of five cuspidated divisions or curved pendents inscribed in a pointtd arch, or in a circular ring applied to windows and panels. The cinquefoil, when inscribed in a circle, forms a rosette of five equal leaves having an open space in the middle, the leaves being formed by the open spaces, and not by the solids or cusps. Cippus. A small low column, sometimes without a base or capital, and most frequent!' bearing an inscription. Among the ancients the cippus was used for various purposes when placed on a road it indicated the distance of places ; on other occasions cipjn were employed as memorials of remarkable events, as landmarks, and for bearing I is lie (5 iititmij dial to it anti Kit libsiltili fcklkiii : 'fit. Kii Isttcou 1*1 of the ■cosaect ■- v- i life! sepulchral epitaphs. Circle. (Lat. Circulus.) A figure contained under one line called the circumference to which all lines drawn from a certain point within it, called the centre, are equal It is the most capacious of all plain figures. Circle. The name given to one of the megalithic remains, as at Stonehenge, Avebury and other places. Circular Buildings. Such as are built on a circular plan. When the interior also n circular, the building is called a rotunda. Circular-Circular, or Cylindro-cylindric Work. A term applied to any work wine) is formed by the intersection of tw 7 o cylinders whose axes are not in the same direction The line formed by the intersection of the surfaces is termed, by mathematicians, a uii of double curvature. Circular Winding Stairs. Such as have a cylindric case or walled enclosure, with the planes of the risers of the steps ending towards the axis of the cylinder. Circular Work. A term applied any work w'ith cylindric faces, as roofs, &c. Circumference. The boundary lino of a circular body. J hi! GLOSSARY. 1247 Circumvolutions. The turns in the spiral of the Ionic capital, which are usually three, but there are four in the capitals of the temple of Minerva Rolias. Circus. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a straight, long, narrow building, whose length to its breadth was generally as 5 to 1. It was divided down the centre by an orna- mented barrier culled the spina, and was used by the Romans for the exhibition of pub- lic spectacles and chariot races. Several existed at Rome, whereof the most celebrated was the Circus Maximus. Julius Ciesar improved and altered the Circus Maximus, and that it might serve for the purpose of a naumachia, supplied it with water. Augustus added to it the celebrated obelisk now standing in the Riazzo del Ropolo. Of this circus no vestiges remain. Resides these at Rome were the circi of Flaminius, near the Rantheon ; Agonalis, occupying the site of what is now called the Riazza Navona ; of Nero, on a portion whereof St. Reter’s stands; of Antoninus and Aurelian, of which no portion whatever exists ; and of Caraealla, which was 738 feet in length, and is at the present time sufficiently perfect to exhibit its plan and distribution in the most satis- factory manner. The spectacles of the circus were called the Circensian Games, and consisted of chariot and horse races, of both whereof the Romans were passionately fond, but particularly of the former, which in the times of the emperors excited so great an interest as to divide the whole population of the city into factions, distinguished by the colours worn by the different charioteers. The disputes of these factions often led to serious disturbances. Cissoid.^ In geometry, a curved line invented by Diodes. Its name is derived from Kitraos, ivy, from the curve appearing to mount along its assymptote, as ivy climbs on the trunk of a tree. The curve consists of two infinite branches above and below the diameter of a circle, at one of whose ends a tangent being drawn, the curve approaches the tangent without ever meeting it. The curve was invented by its author with a view to the solution of the famous problem of the duplication of the cube, or the insertion of two mean proportionals between two given straight lines. Its mechanical construction may be found in, Newton’s Arithmitica Universalis. Cist. (Gr. KioTr;, a chest.) A term used to denominate the mystic baskets used in pro- cessions connected with the Eleusinian mysteries. It was originally formed of wicker work, and when afterwards made of metal, the form and texture were preserved in imi- tation of the original material. When sculptured on ancient monuments, it indicates some connection with the mysteries of Ceres and Bacchus. Cist, or Cistvaen. In Celtic or Druidical buildings, the chamber formed of laterally recumbent blocks of stone. Cistern. (Gr. Kktttj.) A reservoir for water, whether sunk below or formed of planks of wood above ground. In the construction of an earthen cistern, a well-tempered stratum of clay must be laid as a foundation for a brick flooring, and the bricks laid in terras mortar or Parker's cement. The sides must be built with the same materials; and if in a cellar or other place near a wall a space must be filled with clay, from the foundation to the top of the cistern contiguous to the wall, by which means it will be preserved from injury. Cisterns above ground are usually formed of wooden planks lined with lead-or zinc, and carried by bearers; but the cistern formed of slates, now much used, is the best for adoption. Civic Crown. A garland of oak leaves and acorns, often used as an architectural ornament. Civil Architecture. The art of erecting every species of edifice destined for the use of ipan, the several matters necessary to the knowledge whereof forms the subject of the Encyclopaedia. Ilamp. In brick-making, a large mass of crude bricks generally piled quadrangular on the plan, and six, seven, or eight feet high, arranged in the brick field for burning, which is effected by flues prepared in stocking the clamp, and breeze or cinders laid between each course of bricks. ■lamp. In carpentry and joinery , is a piece of wood fixed to another with a mortise and tenon, or a groove and tongue, so that the fibres of the piece thus fixed cross those of the other,, and thereby prevent it from casting or warping. 'lamp and Clasp Nails. See Nails. lassic Architecture. The term applied in a broad sense to the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The term classic is applied sometimes to a style, but none such exists. The Greek and Roman styles of architecture being so different in principle, they cannot correctly be described under one name. Of late years the term has con- stantly been misapplied to the modern Italian schools of architecture. lathri. ■ In ancient Roman architecture, were bars of iron or wood which were used to < secure doors or windows. ■ay. In ordinary language, any earth which possesses sufficient ductility to admit of being kneaded with water. Common clays may be divided into three classes, viz. unc- tuous,, meagre, and calcareous. Of these the first is chiefly used in pottery, and the I second and third are employed in the manufacture of bricks and tiles. 1248 GLOSSARY. Claying. The operation of spreading two or three coats of clay and incorporating them, for the purpose of keeping water in a vessel. This operation is also called puddling. Cleam. A term used in some places with the same signification as to stick or to glue. Clear. The nett distance between two bodies, where no other intervenes, or between their nearest surfaces. Clear Story or Clere Story. The upper vertical divisions of the nave, choir, and transepts of a church. It is clear above the roof of the aisles, whence it may have taken its name ; but some have derived the name from the clair or light admitted through its tier of windows. .Nearly all the cathedrals and large churches have clear stories, either as tiers of arcades, or of windows over the triforia. There is no triiorium in the priory church of Bath, but a series of large and lofty windows constitute the clear story. The choir at Bristol Cathedral has neither triforium nor clear story. Examples are given in figs. 1416 to 1426. Cleats. Small wooden projections in tackle to which to fasten the ropes. Cleaving. The act of forcibly separating one part of a piece of wood or other matterfrom another in the direction ot the fibres, either by pressure or by percussion with some wedge-formed instrument. Cleft. The open crack or fissure which appears in wood which has been wrought too groan. The carpenter usually fills up these cracks with a mixture of gum and sawdust, but the neatest way is to soak both sides well with the fat of beef broth, and then dip pieces of sponge into the broth, and fill up the cracks with them ; they swell out so as to fill the whole crack, and so neatly as to be scarcely distinguishable. Clepsydra. (Gr. from KAeimc, to conceal, and 'Tdwp, water). A water clock, or vessel for measuring time by the running out of a certain quantity of wafer, or sometimes of sand, through an orifice of a determinate magnitude. Clepsydras were first used in Egypt under the Ptolemies; they seem to have been common in Rome, though they were chiefly employed in winter. In the summer season sundials were used. Clinching. The act of binding and driving backward with a hammer the pointed end of a nail after its penetration through a piece of wood. Clinkers. Bricks impregnated with nitre, and more thoroughly burnt by being nearer the fire in the kiln. Cloaca. The name given to the common sewer of ancient Rome for carrying off into the Tiber the filth of the city. The chief of these, called the cloaca maxima, was built, by the first Tarquin of huge blocks of stone placed together without cement. The top was arched, and consisted of three rows of stones one above another. It began in tile Forum Romar.um, was 300 paces long, and entered the Tiber between the temple of Vesta and the Pons Senatorius. There were as many principal sewers as there were hills in the city. Cloak -pins and Rail. A piece of wood attached to a wall, furnished with projecting pegs on which to hang hats, great-coats, &c. The pegs are called cloak pins, and the board into which they are fixed, and which is fastened to the wall, is called the rail. Clock Tower. A tower specially designed to hold a clock with its quarter and hour bells. Bells which are to be rung should properly be placed in a distinct erection, as the vibration injures the clock. Cloister. (Lat. Claustrum.) The square space attached to a regular monastery or large church with a peristyle or ambulatory round, usually with a range of building over it. The cloister is perhaps, ex vi termini, the central square shut in or closed by the surrounding buildings. Cloisters are usually square on the plan, having a plain wall on one side, a series of windows between the piers or columns on the opposite side, and arched over with a vaulted or ribbed ceiling. It mostly forms part of the passage of communication from the church to the chapter house, refectory, and other parts of the establishment. In England all the cathedrals, and most of the collegiate churches and abbeys, were provided with cloisters. On the Continent they are commonly appended to large monasteries, and are often decorated with paintings, and contain tombs. A common appendage to a cloister was a lavatory, or stone trough for water, at which the monks washed their hands previous to entering the refectory. Close String. In dog-legged stairs, a staircase without an open newel. Closer. The last stone in the horizontal length of a wall, which is of less dimensions than the rest, to close the row. Closers in brickwork, or pieces of bricks (or ba/s), less or greater than half a brick, that are used to close in the end of a course of brickwork. In English as well as Flemish bond, the length of a brick being but nine inches, and its width four inches and a half, in order that the vertical joints may be broken at the end of the first stretcher, a quarter brick (or bat) must be interposed to preserve the con- tinuity of the bond, this is called a queen-closer. A similar preservation of the bond may bo obtained by inserting a three-quarter bat at the angle in the stretching course; this is called a king-closer. In both cases an horizontal lap of two inches and a quarter is left fur the next header. Closet. A small apartment frequently made to communicate with a bed-chamber, and GLOSSARY. 1249 used as a dressing room. Sometimes a closet is made for the reception of stores, and is then called a store closet. Clough or Oloysb. The same as paddle, shuttle, sluice, or penstock. A contrivance for retaining or letting out the water of a canal, pond, &c. Clough Arches or Paddle-holes. Crooked arches by which the water is conveyed from the upper pond into the chamber of the lock of a canal on drawing up the cloiujh. I Clout Nail. See Nails. Clustered. The combination of several members of an Order penetrating each other. (Clustered Pillar. Several slender pillars or shafts attached to each other so as to i form one. In Roman architecture the term is used to denote two or four columns | which appear to intersect each other, at the angle of a building, or of an apartment to answer to each return. Poarse Stuff. In plastering, a mixture of lime and hair used in the first coat and float- , ing of plastering. In floating, more hair is used than in the first coat. 1 'oat. A thickness or covering of plaster, paint, or other work done at one time, j loB- walls. Such as are formed of mud mixed with straw, not uncommon in soma districts of England, hut the best are to be found in Somersetshire. ! ‘ocking or Cogging. Seo Caulking. poCKLE Stairs. A term sometimes used to denote a winding staircase. J 'oiidings. A Scotch term for the base or footings on which chimney jambs are set in the ground floor of a building. '(enaculum. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architecture, an eating or supper room. In the I early period of their history, when the houses rarely consisted of more than two stories, it denoted generally the upper story. The word also signified lodgings to let out for hire. Also the upper stories of the circi, which were divided into small shops or , rooms. (exatio. An apartment in the lower part of the Roman houses, or in a garden, to sup or eat in. From Suetonius it would appear that it denoted a banqueting and summer house. In the Laurentine Villa a large coenatio is described by the younger Pliny, and it seems, from the description, that it was placed in the upper part of a lofty tower. offer. (Sax. Corpe.) A sunk panel in vaults and domes, and also in the soffite or under side of the Corinthian and Composite cornices, and usually decorated in the centre with a flower. But the application of the term is general to any sunk panel in a ceiling or soffite. See Caisson. iffer Dam. A case of piling, water-tight, fixed in the bed of a river, for the purpose of excluding the water while any work, such as a wharf wall, or the pier of a bridge, is carried up. A coffer clam is variously formed, either by a single enclosure or by a double one, with clay, chalk, bricks, or other materials between, so as effectually to exclude the water. The coffer dam is also made with piles only driven close together, and sometimes notched or dove-tailed into one another. If the water be not very deep, • piles may be driven at a distance of five or six feet from each other, and grooved in the sides with boards let doum between them in the grooves. For building in coffer dams, a good natural bottom of gravel or clay is requisite, for though the sides be made •Efficiently water-tight, if the bed of the river be loose, the water will ooze up through t in too great quantities to permit the operations to be carried on. It is almost unnecessary to inculcate the necessity of the sides being very strong and well-braced m the inside to resist the pressure of the water. Cgtng. feee Caulking. C esion. See Resistance. Cw. (Fr.) The same as quoin. The angle formed by two surfaces of a stone or brick hiding, whether external or internal, as the corner formed by two walls, or of anarch | id wall, the corner made by the two adjacent sides of a room, &c. C ! sl, Cockle, or Coakel. A furnace made of very thick iron for generating heated j u of great intensity, the iron often being made red-hot. Ci seum. The name given to the amphitheatre built (a.d. 72) by Vespasian. ar or Colarino. (It.) A ring or cincture; it is another name for the astragal of a lumn. It is sometimes called the neck, gorgerin, or hypotrachelium. C ar Beam. A beam used in the construction of a roof above the lower ends of the fters or base of the roof. The tie beam is always in a state of extension, but the lllar beam may be either in a state of compression or extension as the principal rqf'ers . ie with or without tie beams. In trussed roofs, collar beams are framed into queen sts; in common nofs, into the rafters themselves. In general, trusses have no more than one collar beam ; yet, in very large roofs, they |iy have two or three col'ar beams besides the tie beam. The collar beam supports or ' usses up the sides of the rafters, so as to keep them from sagging without any other pport, but then the tie beam would be supported only at its extremities. In common rlin roofing, the purlins are laid in the acute angles between the rafters and the upper ges of the collar beams. 4L 1250 GLOSSARY. College. An establishment properly so termed for the education of youth in the highei branches of study. It generally consists in this country of one or more courts or quad- rangles, round which are disposed the rooms for the students, with the chapel, library and eating-hall ; apartments for the head of the establishment and for the fellows aud students ; a combination room, which is a spacious apartment wherein the lattei assemble after dinner ; kitchen, buttery, and other domestic offices, latrines, gardens &e. On the Continent the college diSers very materially. At Rome, the college, formerly that of the Jesuits, now the Roman college, is a vert large edifice, simple in character, as this species of building seems to demand. Its length is 328 feet, and its height, without the attic, 87 feet. The other buildings in Rome which pass under the name of colleges are not to be considered as establishment: for education, being destined to the study of theology and other sciences ; such are the Propaganda and the Sapienza : the latter is one of the finest buildings of that city At Genoa is a magnificent college, which was formerly the palace of the Balbi family by whom it was given to the Jesuits for a place of education. Of the many colleges in I Paris hardly one, says the author of the article “ College ” in the Encyclopedic Metho- clique, deserves notice. The same writer says that in England alone are found ex am pies of what a college ought to be. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge form good examples ; many are irregulai in plan, but are convenient in disposition, and highly picturesque. Merton College, ai Oxford, erected for secular priests, 1270-77, was the earliest in England ; only asmal- portion of it remains, such as the stone treasury, and the chancel, an exquisite speci- men, and one of the earliest, of the Decorated period. Several colleges were founder, both in Oxford and Cambridge within a few years afterwards ; but no other collegiatt| buildings were erected in either university until near the end of the fourteenth cen tury, when the magnificent foundation of William of Wykeham arose, emphatically termed New College, because it was to a great extent on a new system ; he also erected the college at Winchester, both founded between 1380 and 1390, and although belong ing more to the monastic than to the strictly domestic character, they yet affor, valuable examples of the style of building of their period. In Oxford the most regular college in plan is Queen's College, commenced a: late as 1710, and in the Italian style. The accommodation afforded is for about 17* persons, including the provost and fellows, whose apartments, of course, occupy a con tiderable portion of the space. A bed and sitting room, both of moderate dimension: are as much as can be afforded to the students. Nicholas Uawksmore, the architect completed the first quadrangle and library in 1759. Of the colleges in Oxford, Christ church is past question the most magnificent. Its extent, towards the street, is 40 feet. What is called Christchurch Meadow, attached, affords delightful walks for tb exerciso and recreation of the members, being bounded on the east by the Cherwell, o the south by the Isis, and on the west by a branch of the same river. The who] establishment is worthy of the princely founder. Such a magnificent foundation cat not elsewhere be referred to. Keble College, by W. Butterfield, 1867-70, doe not appear to have been yet illustrated ; it encloses the greater part of a quadrangl 243 feet by 220 feet. The chapel (1875) has been erected at a cost of about 82,000 in a decorated style, with mosaic work, stained glass, marbles, &c. In Cambridge, the library and court of Trinity College, the former one of the fine works of Wren ; and the extraordinary and beautiful chapel of King’s College, are tl principal features of this university. The chapel is, inside, 289 feet long, 42 feet broa: and 80 feet high to apex of the vaulting. Besides the modern Queen’s colleges in Ireland, Trinity College, Dublin, is the on one requiring notice. It was first designed by Sir William Chambers, and carried o' by G. Meyers. The front is 300 feet in length, with a total depth of 600 feet, wb.i encloses two quadrangles ; it was erected 1759-80. The campanile, in the middi 95 feet high, was erected 1853, by Sir C. Lanyon. The number of students is iipwar of 500. Near to the library is another court, erected 1818, with the anatomy hunt 1824. Beyond these are the new museum buildings, 1852-5, designed by J. MaeCurd with Messrs. Deane, Son, and Woodward. In Scotland, among the latest buildings of this sort, is the extensive one erect- 1864-1870 for the university of Glasgow, at a cost of about 420,000k, from t designs of Sir G. G. Scott, R.A. The plan is given in the Builder journal, xxvi 1870, to which work the student is referred for a description of it. This pubbcatr also gives, xxiii., 1865, the Malvern Proprietary College, by C. F. Hansom; xxv 1868, the College of St. Nicholas at Lancing, by R. C. Carpenter, with its chap by Messrs. Slater and Carpenter ; andxxix., 1871, Owens College at Manchester, 1 scientific purposes, by Alfred Waterhouse. In this class there have sprung up a number of buildings specially designed for t purposes of technical education, having lecture rooms and work rooms fitted with t requisite apparatus for working scientifically or according to trades. These are GLOSSARY. 1251 numerous and special that the student is at once referred to tho work by Mr. E. C, Robins, on Technical Schools and College Buildings, 1887. Colonei-li. (It.) Tho Italian namo for the posts employed in any truss framing. Colonnade. (It. Colounata.) A range of columns. If tho columns are four in number, it is called ietrastyle ; if six in number, hexastyle ; when thore are eight, octastyle ; when ten, decastyle ; and so on, according to the Greek numerals. When a colonnade is in frout of a building it is called a portico, when surrounding a building a peristyle , and when double or more polystyle. The eolonnado is moreover designated according to tho nature of the intercolumniations introduced as follows: pycnostyle, whon tho space between tho columns is ono diameter and a half of the column ; systyle, when it is of two diameters; eustyle , when of two diameters and a quarter; diasty/e, when three; and aneostyle when four. Columbarium. (Lut.) A pigeon-house. The plural of tho word ( columbaria ) was applied to designate the apertures formed in walls for tho reception of cinerary urns in the ancient Roman cometeries. Columella. A name sometimes used for balusters, i Iolumen. The ridge piece of a roof. pOLt'MN. (Lat. Columna.) Generally any body which supports another in a vertical direc- , tiun. See Pier, Pillar, and Shaft. There are various species of columns, as twisted, \ spiral, and rusticked. Cabled or rudented columns are such as have their fiutings filled with cables or astragals to about one-third of tho height. Caro/itic columns have their shafts foliated. Columns were occasionally ueed as monuments. The following list comprises the best known ones ; tho heights in feet are to the top of tho abacus : — Antoni ne, Rome Trajan, Rome . Monument, London Napoleon, Paris 136 feet Pompey, Alexandria 115 „ Alexander, St. Petersburg 174 „ Napoleon, Boulogne 116 „ York, Loudon 98 feet 121 „ HI „ 95 „ By the side of the Halle au Ble at Paris there is a gnomonic column for showing tho time, erected by Catharine di Medicis. The Columna Bellica at Rome was near the temple of Janus, and at it the consul proclaimed war by throwing a javelin towards the enemies’ country. The chronological column w f as rather historical, bearing an inscription to record an event. The crucijeral column is one bearing a cross ; the funereal one, an urn ; the zoophoric, an animal ; and the itinerary one pointed out the various roads diverging from its site. There was among the Romans what was called a lacteal column, which stood in the vegetable market, and contained on its pedestal a receptacle for infants abandoned by their parents. (Juvenal, Sat. vi.) On the legal column were engraved the laws ; the boundary or limitative column marked the boundary of a province ; the manidnal column was for the reception of trophies or spoils ; and the rostral column, decorated with prows of ships, was for the purpose of recording a naval engagement. The triumphal column i was erected in commemoration of a triumph, and the sepulchral one was erected on a tomb. The milliariam aureum, or midiary column of the Romans, was originally a I column of white marble, erected by Augustus in the Forum, near the temple of Saturn. From it the distances from the city were measured. It is a short column with a Tuscan I capital, having a ball of bronze (formerly gilt) for its finish at top, and is still pre- served in the Capitol. ilumniation. The employment of columns in a design. imitium. (Lat.) A building which stood in the Roman Forum, wherein assemblies of the people were held. It occupied the whole space between the Palatine Hill, the , Capitol, and the Via Sacra. mmissure. (Lat.) The joint between two stones, or the application of the surface of one stone to the surface of another. I mmon Centring. Such as is constructed without trusses, but having a tie beam at its inds. Also that employed in straight vaults. mmon Joist. One in single naked flooring to which the boards are fixed. Such joists' lire also called boarding joists, and should not exceed one foot apart. mmon Rafter. One in a roof to which the boarding or lathing is attached. umon Roofing. That which consists of common rafters only, which bridge over the nirlins in a strongly framed roof. 1 mparted. (Fr. Compartir, to divide.) That which is divided into several parts is said •o be comparted. • ^partition. The distribution of the ground plot of an edifice into the various passages and apartments. ( apartment. A subdivisional part, for ornament, of a larger division. To this alone |s the term properly applicable. (j.iPARTMENT Ceiling. One divided into panels, which are usually surrounded by . houldings. 4 L 2 1252 GLOSSARY. Compartment Tiles. An arrangement of varnished red and white tiles on a roof. Compasses. (Fr. Conipas.) A mathematical instrument for drawing circles and measuring distances between two points. Common compasses have two legs, moveable on a joint. Triangular compasses have two legs similar to common compasses, and a third leg fixed to the bulb by a projection, with a joint so as to be moveable in every direction. Beam compasses are used for describing large circles. Proportional compasses have two pair of points moveable on a shitting centre, which slides in a groove and thereby regulates the proportion that the opening at one end hears to that of the other. They are useful in enlarging or diminishing drawings. Compass Saw'. One for dividing boards into curved pieces; it is very narrow and with- out a back. Compass Window. An old English term for a projecting window of a circular plan. Complement. The number of degrees which any angle wants of a right angle. The complement of a parallelogram is two lesser parallelograms, made by drawing two right lines parallel to the sides of the greater through a given point in the diagonal. Compltjvium. (Lat.) An area in the centre of the ancient Roman houses, so constructed that it might receive the waters from the roofs. It is also used to denote the gutter oi eave of a roof. Compo. A name often given to Parker's cement, or the so-called Roman cement. It if also the name of the material used for making imitation carved- work for frames, &c. and made of glue and whiting : it is the short for “ composition.” Composite Arch. The same as the pointed or lancet arch, but better appropriated toai arch of four centres. Composite Numbers. Such as can be divided by some other number greater than unity whereas prime numbers admit of no such divisor. Composite Order. The fifth order used in Roman and Italian architecture, and buinfl of a more decorative character than the Corinthian order. The capital is somewha similar to the Corinthian ; the volutes are larger, hut not so large as those in the Ioui capital. The base is shown in fig. 1368. Composition in Architecture. The student will find that in most cases a good distri; bution of plan will lead to good sections and elevations. Upon the adaptation of tli different fronts of the building to sort with the internal convenience, the greatest car should be bestowed ; and then the decoration of such an edifice becomes a seconder and comparatively easy work, though requiring, of course, the early cultivation of tb taste of the architect, and an intimate acquaintance with the parts of the design. Fi the thorough comprehension of a projected edifice, a plan, section, and elevation ai.J required; these comprise the whole elementary part of the mechanical process necessan for making a design or composition. To carry out such a design, working drawing may be required showing the parts at large. See Design. Composition of Forces. The combination or union of several forces for determining tl result of the whole. Compound Pier. A term sometimes given to a clustered column. Compressibility. The quality of bodies which permits of their being reduced to small' dimensions. All bodies, in consequence of the porosity of matter, are compressibl but liquids resist compression with immense force. Concamerata Sudatio. An apartment in the ancient gymnasium, between the laconien, or stove, and the warm bath. To this room the racers and wrestlers retired to wipe c the sweat from their bodies. See Caldarium. Concamerate. (Lat.) To arch over. Concavity. (Lat. Concavus, hollow.) Of a curve line is the side between the two poh of the curve next its chord or diameter. The concavity of a solid is such a curved si face, that if any two points in it be taken, the straight line between them is in a vi space, or will coincide in only one direction with the surface. Concentric. (Lat.) Having a common centre, as are the radii of a circle. Conchoid of Nicomedes. A name given to a curve invented by that mathematician solving the two famous problems of antiquity — the duplication of the cube, and the t section of an angle. It continually approaches a straight line without meeting though ever so far produced. Concrete. (Lat. Conerescere.) To coalesce in one mass. A mass composed of stc Clippings, or ballast, cemented together through the medium of sand and lime, or cement, and usually employed in making foundations where the soil is of itself too hi or boggy, or otherwise insufficient for the reception of the walls. It is likewise u to cover the ground under a building to keep damp from rising. Also to form aback to a wharf w r all, or one at the side of a railway cutting, for extra strength. Of 1 years it has been used in lieu of bricks or stone wherewith to build houses ; for inc< Fustible flooring; and a church has been built of it near Paris. Large concrete bio are used for the interior work of piers to harbours, and similar extensive erections. Conduit. (Fr.) A long narrow walled passage underground, for secret communion i GLOSSARY. 1253 between different, apartments. It is a term also used to denote a canal or pipe for tho conveyance of water, and is also applied to the structure to which it is conveyed for delivery to tho public. Conwy's Patent Fluid. Callod, from its mode of action and effectiveness, “Nature’s Dis- infectant ; it puritios, deodorises, and disinfects, by the agency of nascent or ozonic oxygen, its active priuciplo. It combines powerful purifying properties with a whole- some nature. Cone. (Gr. Kiovos). A solid body, having a circle for its base, and terminating in a point called its vertex; so that a straight line drawn from any point in tho circum- ference of the base to the vortex will coincido with the convex surface. If the axis or straight lino drawn from the centre of the base to tho vertex bo perpondicular to tho baso, it is termed a right cone ; it not, it is an oblique cone. Confessional. (Lat.) In Catholic churches the small cell wherein the priest sits to hear the confession of, and give absolution to, tho penitent. It is usually constructed of wood and in three divisions, tho central one whereof has a seat for tho convenience of the priest. Configuration. The exterior form or superficios of any body. Conge. (Fr.) The samo as Apophyge. Conic Sections. The figures formed by the intersections of a plane with a cone. They are five in number: a triangle, a circlo, an ollipso, a parabola, and an hyperbola; the three last, howevor, are those to which the term is usually applied. Conical Roof. One whose exterior surface is shaped like a cone. Conistebium. (Gr. Kovitxrnpiov.) In ancient architecture a room in the gymnasium and palaestra, wherein the wrestlers, having been anointed with oil, were sprinkled over with dust, that they might lay firmer hold on one another. Conjugate Diameters. The diameters in an ellipsis or hyperbola parallel to tangents at | each other's extremities. Conoid. (Gr. KovoeiSys.) Partaking of the figure of a cone. A figure generated by the revolution of a conic section round one of its axes. There are three kinds of conoids, the elliptical , the hyperbolical, and the parabolical, which are sometimes otherwise denominated by the terms ellipsoid or spheroid, hyperboloid, and paraboloid. Conservatory. A building for preserving curious and rare exotic plants. It is made with beds of the finest composts, into which the trees and plants, on being removed from the greenhouse, and taken from the tubs and pots, are regularly planted. With respect to its construction, it is very similar to the greenhouse, but it must be more spacious, loftier, and finished in a superior style. The sides, ends, and roofs should be of glass for the free admission of light, and for protection of the plants. It should be, moreover, seated on a dry spot, and so as to receive during the day as much of the sun’s heat as possible. It is to be provided with flues, or hot-water pipes, to raise the temperature when necessary ; there must also be contrivances for introducing fresh air when required. In summer time the glass roofs are taken off, and the plants exposed to the open air ; but these are restored always, if taken off, on the slightest indication of frost. The chief point in which conservatories differ from greenhouses is, that in the latter, the plants and trees stand in pots placed upon stages, whereas, in the former, they are planted in beds of earth surrounded with borders. See Greenhouse. Console. The same as Ancones. Construction. Literally, the building up from the architect's designs ; but amongst architects it is more particularly used to denote the art of distributing the different forces and strains of the parts and materials of a building in so scientific a manner as to avoid failure and insure durability. The second book of the Encyclopaedia is devoted to the subjects involved in the science of construction. 'ontact. (Lat. Contactus.) In geometry, the touching any figure by a line or plane which may be produced either way without cutting it. ontent. (Lat. Coutentus.) The area or superficial quantity contained in any figure. joNTEXTURE. (Lat. Contextus.) The inter-disposition, with respect to each other, of the different parts of a body. ontignatio. In Roman carpentry, the same as that now called naked flooring. ontinued. A term used to express anything uninterrupted. Thus, an attic is said to be j continued when not broken by pilasters ; a pedestal is continued when, with its mould- ings and dado or die, it is not broken under the columns ; so of a socle, &e. intour. (It. Contorno.) The external lines which bound and terminate a figure. jntract. An agreement, attached to a specification for the performance of certain works in accordance therewith, and with the drawings accompanying it, if any. invent. (Lat. ConventusA A building for the reception of a society of religious persons, but more properly applied to one for the habitation of nuns. inyentual Church. One attached or belonging to a convent. 1254 GLOSSARY. Convergent Lines. Such as, if produced, will meet. Convex. (Lat. Convexus.) A form which swells or rounds itself externally. A convex rectilinear surface is a curved surface, in which a point being taken, a right line passing through it can only be drawn in one direction. Coping. (Dutch, Cop, the head.) The highest andcovering course of masonry or brickwork in a wall. Coping equally thick throughout is called parallel coping, and ought to be used only on inclined surfaces, as on a gable, for example, or in situations sheltered from the rain, as on the top of a level wall, which it is intended to cover by a roof. Coping thinner on one edge than on the other serves to throw off the water on one side of the wall, and is called feather-edged coping. Coping thicker in the middle than at the edges is called saddle-backed coping. This, of course, delivers each way the water that falls upon it. It is commonly used on the w r alls of a sunk area, on dwarf walls carrying an iron railing, and in the best constructed fence walls. In Gothic architecture, coping is either inclined upon the faces or plumb ; in the former case the sides of the vertical section are those of an equilateral triangle with an horizontal base. It is some- times in one inclined plane, terminated at top by an astragal, and at others in two inclined planes parallel to each other, the upper one being terminated at top by an astragal and projecting before the lower, which, like that on one inclined plane, changes its direction at the boitom into a narrow vertical plane proj’ecting before the level sofite before the parapet. The inclined coping is occasionally used without the astragal. Hie sofite of a projection is said to cope over when it slants downwards from the wall. Copper. (Cuprum, a corruption of Cyprium, having been originally brought from the island of Cyprus.) One of the metals used in buildiDg, but not now to the extent to which it was employed a few years back. Cokbeil. (Lat. Corbis, a basket.) A carved basket, with sculptured flowers and fruit, used as the finishing of some ornament. The name is given to the basket placed on the heads of Caryatides, under the sofite of the architrave cornice. The term is also applied to the bell of the Corinthian capital. Corbel. A range of stones projecting from a wall for the purpose of supporting a parapet or the superior projecting part of the wall. Their fronts are variously moulded cr carved. They perform the same office as the modillions of an order, but the term is chiefly confined to Pointed architecture. The word corbel is sometimes used to denote a projection from a wall to carry a statue or bust. It also signifies a horizontal range of stones or timber fixed in a wall or in the side of a vault, serving to sustain the timbers of a floor or of a vault: In old buildings many of the timber floors or contignations were thus supported. Corbel Table. A series of small arches for carrying a battlement, parapet, or cornice, and resting on corbels. Also any projection borne by corbels, as figs. 1382 to 1384. Fig. 1382. Nebuly Corbel Table. Fig. 1383. Wavy Corbel Table. Fig. 1384. Corbel Table. Corbie Steps. Steps in the gables of old buildings, especially as used in Scotland. Cordon. The edge of a stone on the outside of a building. Core. The interior part of anything. In walls of masonry there should be thorough stones at regular intervals, for strengthening the core, which is commonly composed of rubble stones, or, when they are not procurable, two bond stones lapped upon each other may be used, one from each face of the wall. Instead of each thorough stone two stones may be laid level on the upper bed, and one large stone in the core lapped upon both, observing that the tails of the two lower stones be right-angled; by this means the two sides of the wall will be completely tied together. The core of a column is a strong post of some material inserted in its central cavity when of wood. Bricks or tiles brought out for the formation of cement cornices or other projections. It is also the interior part of a lump of lime, which has not been sufficiently burnt In slaking lump lime these “ cores ” will not disintegrate, consequently they can be removed; but when lime is ground, these lumps are ground up with it; the result is an inferior mortar. Corinthian Order. The fourth order used in Roman and Italian architecture. It is richer than the Ionic order; and its capital is composed of a bell-shaped vase, surrounded GLOSSARY. 12.55 with leafage, and having small volutes projecting at each angle of it. The base is shown in fig. 1368. The two following capitals, figs. 1385 and 1386, are those to which our knowledge is confined of the use of this order in Greece. The first one can, however, scarcely be considered Corinthian, and the second one not very strictly so : the monu- ment was erected about 330 b.c. See Choragic Monument. Fig. 1385. Fig. 1386. Temp'e of the Winds at Athens. Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at Athens. Cornice. (Fr. Corniche.) Any moulded projection which crowns or finishes the part to which it is affixed; as the cornice of an order, of a pedestal, of a pier, door, window, house, &c. The cornice of an order is a secondary member of the order itself, being the upper subdivision of the entablature. Corona. (Lat.) A member of the cornice, with a broad vertical face, and usually of considerable projection. The solid, out of which it is formed, is commonly recessed upwards from its sofite, and this part by theEnglish workmen is called the drip, because it facilitates the fall of the rain from its edge, by which the parts below it are sheltered. The situation of the corona is between the eymatium above, and the bed-moulding below. Corona Lucis. A crown or circlet suspended from the roof or vaulting of a church, to hold tapers or gas jets. Corridor. (It. Corridore.) A gallery or passage round a quadrangle leading to the various apartments. Also, any gallery of communication to them. Corsa. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the namo given by Vitruvius to any platband or square fascia whose height is greater than its projection. Cortile. (It.) A small court or area, quadrangidar or curved, iu a dwelling-house, which is surrounded by the buildings of the house itself. Cottage. (Sax. Cot.) A small house or dwelling for a poor person. Cottage Ornee. A small villa erected in the country, emulating the houses of a rural character, and not affecting to display exteriorly any particular style. They were very fashionable at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Counter Drain. A drain parallel to a canal or embanked water-course, for collecting the soakage water by the side of the canal or embankment to a culvert or arched drain under the canal, by which it is conveyed to a lower level. Counterfort. (Fr.) A buttress or pier built against and at right angles to a wall to strengthen it. Counter Gauge. In carpentry, the measure of the joints by transferring , as, for instance, the breadth of a mortise to the place on the other timber, where the tenon is to be made to adapt them to each other. Counter Lath. One placed between every couple of gauged ones. Counterparts of a Building. The similar and equal parts of the design on each side of the middle of the edifice. Counter Sink. The sinking a cavity in a piece of timber or other material to receive a projection on the piece which is connected with it, as for the reception of a plate of iron, or the head of a screw or bolt. Coupled Columns. Those arranged in pairs half a diameter apart. Couples. A term used in the North to signify rafters framed together in pairs with a tie fixed above their feet. The main couples answer to the trusses. Course. (Lat. Cursus.) A continued level range of stones or bricks of the same height throughout the face or faces of a building. Coursed masonry is that therefore wherein the stones are laid in courses. The course of the face of an arch is the face of the arch stones, whose joints radiate to the centre. The course of a 'plinth is its continuity in the face of the wall. A bcsxd course is that whose stones are inserted into the wall far- 1256 GLOSSARY. ther than either of the adjacent courses, for the purpose of binding the wall together. A coursing joint is the joint between two courses. Court. (Fr. Cour.j An uncovered area before or behind the house, or in the centre of it, in which latter case it is often surrounded by buildings on its four sidts, and is more often called a quadrangle, as at Somerset Houso in the Strand. CouxtT of Justice, Law Court, Assize Court. The apartment arranged for a trial. It is also sometimes applied to the building containing it and the necessary accommo- dation for the persons privileged to attend in it at the trial. Thus the designs must provide apartments and accommodation for the robing, and occasional refreshment, of the judges, the bar, and the different officers attached to the court, also suitable accommodation for the jury, for the witnesses, for the attorneys whose instructions to counsel are from instant to instant necessary for the proper conduct of a case, and though last, not least, ample space for the public, who have an undoubted right to be present ; also refreshment and waiting rooms for them. The architect must be careful to supply such accommodation as shall render the office of all parties en- gaged a pleasing duty rather than an irksome task. To every court of law should be attached a vestibule or saloon, sufficiently large to afford a promenade for those of all classes engaged in the courts. In Westminster, bad as the courts were, this was well piovided m the magnificent saloon called Westminster Hall. In courts for the trial of felons it may be necessary, if the prison has no communication with the court, to add accommodation for the police and other officers, as likewise some cells for criminals. In these, as in ether buildings where there is often congregated a great number of persons, the entrances, and at the same time outlets, should be increased iu number as much us convenience and the situation will permit ; and another indispens- able requisite is, that the court itself should be so placed iu the design that no noise created on the outside of the building may be heard in the interior, so as to interfere with the attention of those engage.d on the business before them. The assize or law courts at Manchester, erected 1859-64 by Mr. Alfred Water- house, architect, in the Pointed style of architecture, have received the highest approbation for the accommodation provided, not only for all those immediately interested in the administration of justice, but for the public. This edifice has been described by its architect in the Sessional gapers of the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1864-5, p 165, from which we gather that the cost, limited to 70,000k, did not exceed 110,000k, or nearly 9 d. per foot cube ; the furniture was about 10,000k more. It consists of two almost distinct parts, the inner structure containing the courts, public offices, and arrangements for business. This is separated by a court- yard in front, but connected by a corridor at back, from the judges’ residence or “lodgings.” In the basement of the main building, which is 256 feet long by 166 feet deep, and three stories or about 60 feet in height, are cells for the prisoners under trial, chambers for heating and ventilating, kitchens, refreshment rooms, &c. On the principal floor, which is about 17 feet above the level of the street, and close to the entrance, is the central hall, 100 feet long, 48 feet 6 in. wide, and 75 feet high; beyond it are the assize courts, and the sheriffs’ or additional court at one end; also the various rooms for the accommodation of the bench, the bar, the different officers of the court, witnesses, and jurors. The crown and civil courts are each 59 feet by 45 feet and 39 feet 6 in. high, being among the largest courts in the kingdom. In them the bar is placed as usual opposite the bench, the jury is on the judge’s left hand, the witness-box on his right and brought close to the bench. To each of the courts there are eight entrances, and also two to the ladies’ gallery above. AU tbeso are approached from the corridors, 10 feet wide, which, diverging from the central hall, run round the building, and return to the hall again. The barristers’ corridor at the rear of the courts is 184 feet long, and shut off so as to keep it for the exclu- sive use of the bar. Opposite the main entrance, but quite in the rear, is a door leading from this corridor into the library, 60 feet by 25 feet, another into the robing room, beyond which are the lavatories, placed round a ventilating shaft. The rooms for the prothonotary, clerk of the crown, and indictment office, all also open into this corridor. Other rooms on this floor are devoted to the witnesses, who are classified as much as possible, to jurors, attorneys, and barristers’ clerks, to the various officers of the assizes, and to purposes of consultation. On the upper floor are situated the Chancery court for the County Palatine ol Lancaster, 41 feet by 23 feet; the gran jury room, 40 feet by 25 feet; the magistrates’ board room; and the barristers mess room, 55 feet by 22 feet. The article Town Hall gives references to many similar buildings of modern erec- tion, and of various sizes, but the above is probably still the best of its class. The Courts of Justice in London; the foundations were commenced in 187L ana 0 GLOSSAEY. 1257 building was nearly completed in 1881, at tho death of the architect, George Edmund Street, K.A. They were formally handed over to the First Commissioner of Public Works in October, 1882, on their completion by his son, Mr. A. E. Street, with Mr. A. Blom- field. The journals since that period have illustrated many portions of this large work. Coussinet (Fr.) or Cushion. A stone placed upon the impost of a pier for receiving the first stone of an arch. Its bed is level below, and its surface above is inclined for receiving the next voussoir of the arch. The word is also used for the part of the Ionic capital between the abacus and quarter round, which serves to form the volute, and it is in the capital thus called because its appearance is that of a cushion or pillow seemingly collapsed by the weight over it, and has a band called baHeus. Baluster is the side of the volute. Cove. Any kind of concave moulding or vault ; but the term in its usual acceptation is the quadrantal profile between the ceiling of a room and its cornice. Cove Bracketing. lhe wooden skeleton for the lathing of any cove; but the term is usually applied to that of the quadrantal cove, which is placed between the fiat ceiling and the wall. Cover. That part of a slate which is hidden or covered. See Gauge. Cover AVay. In roofing the recess or internal angle left in a piece of masonry or brick- work to receive the roofing. Coving. In old buildings, the projection of the upper story over the lower ones. Coving of a Fire-place. See Chiainey. Cow-house. See Cattle-shed. Cowl. See AVindguard. Crab. A species of crane much used by masons for raising large stones ; it is a wheel and axle mounted on a pair of sloping legs, three or four feet apart, the legs being inserted into a frame at the base, whereon, opposite to the weight to be raised, a load may be placed for gaining so great an amount of leverage as to overcome the weight to be raised. The rope for the tackle works round the axle, which is turned by pinion wheels to gain power. Cradle. A name sometimes given to a centering of ribs and lattice for turning culverts. Cradle Vault. A term used, but improperly, to denote a cylindric vault. Cradling. The timber ribs and piecesfor sustaining the lathing and plastering of vaulted ceilings. The same term is applied to the wooden bracketing for carrying the entabla- ture of a shop front. Cramp. An iron instrument about four feet long, having a screw at one end, and a move- able shoulder at the other, employed by carpenters and joiners for forcing mortise and tenon work together. Crampern or Cramp Iron, usually called for shortness cramp. A piece of metal bent at both extremities towards the same side, for fastening stones together. AVhen stones are to be connected with a greater strength than that of mortar, a chain or bar of iron with different connecting knobs is inserted in a cavity, cut on the tipper side of a course of stones across the joints, instead of single cramps across the joints of each two stones. Cramps are commonly employed in works requiring great solidity; but in common works they are applied chiefly to the stones of copings and cornices, and generally in any external work upon the upper surface or between the beds of the stone. All external work, liable to the injuries which weather inflicts, should be cramped. The most secure mode of fixing cramps is to let them into the stone their whole thickness, and to run them with lead ; but in slight works it is sufficient to bed them in plaster, as is ' practised in chimney-pieces. In modern buildings iron is chiefly used for the cramp. The practice is bad, from the liability of iron to rust and exfoliate; hence cast-iron is better than wrought, and should be of somewhat larger size than when wrought iron is employed. Copper cramps are also used in best works. The Homans wisely used cramps of bronze, a material far better than either cast or wrought iron. Irampoons. Hooked pieces of iron, something like double calipers, for raising timber or i stones. Irane. (Sax. Cpan.) A machine for raising heavy weights, and depositing them at some distance from their original place. The crane may be constructed of immense power, ! and worked by human strength or by steam power. rapaudine Doors. Those which turn on pivots at top and bottom. Ireasing or Tile Creasing. Two rows of plain tiles placed horizontally under the coping of a wall, and projecting about an inch and a half on each side to throw off the rain water. ! ekdence. (It. Credenza, a buttery or pantry.) The slab whereon, in the sacrifice of the mass, or before the Communion Service, the elements are deposited previous to the oblation. Sometimes a plain recess, sometimes a slab on a bracket ; it is in all cases placed on the south side of the altar. uenelle. In Gothic architecture, the opening in an embattled parapet. 1258 GLOSSARY. Crenellated Moulding. A moulding used in Norman architecture, carved into a resem- blance of battlements, notchings, or indentations. Crepido. (Lat.) The projecting members of a cornice, or other projecting ornament. Crescent. A building, or rather a series of buildings, which on the plan is disposed in the arc of a circle. Crest The. That on the ridge of a house. In Gothic architecture, crest tiles are those which, decorated with leaves, run up the sides of a gable or ornamented canopy. Crib. The rack of a stable ; sometimes applied to the manger. It is used also to express any small habitation ; and moreover the stall or cabin of an ox. Crocket. (Fr. Croc, a hook.) One of the small ornaments placed on the inclined sides of pinnacles, pediments, canopies, &c. in Gothic architecture, and most commonly dis- posed at equal distances from each other. The crockot seems to have had for type the buds and boughs of trees in the spring season, from the great resemblance it bears to those periodical productions : examples, moreover, of the same ornament have great resemblance to the first stage of the leaves when the buds begin to open ; sometimes, however, animals are substituted in the place of leaves. Cromlech. A mass of large flat stones laid across others in an upright position. Examples of cromlechs are found in the southern districts of England, in Brittany, and in many other parts of the world. Cross. (Lat. Crux.) A figure consisting of four branches at right angles to each other, or a geometrical one, consisting of five rectangles, each side of one rectangle being common with one side of each of the other four. It is a figure more particularly used for the plans of churches than for those of other edifices. In Ecclesiastical architecture, there are two kinds of plans having the form of a cross. The first is that wherein all the five rectangles are equal, or wherein each of the four wings is equal to the middle part formed by the intersection: this form is called a Greek cross, as fig. 1387. The second has only the two opposite wings equal, the other two are unequal, and the three rectangles in the direction of the unequal parts are of greater length than the three parts in the direction of the equal parts ; this is the Latin cross, as fig. 1388. The middle part in each direction is common. Fig. 1387. rSL Fig. 13!)2. The cross, the symbol of Christianity, has very naturally been extensively used in the monuments of the Middle Ages. It is unnecessary to give the ornamental and pro- fusely decorated examples which the student everywhere finds, therefore the simple forms by which crosses are distinguished will only here be noticed. When the two branches of the cross are equal in length, as in fig. 1387, the cross is called a Greek cross, and when the stem is longer than the arms, as in fig. 1388, it is a Koman or Latin cross. When the figure has two arms, one longer than the other, as in fig. 1389 (the upper one meant as a representation of the inscription which was placed over the head of Christ), it is known by the name of the Lorraine cross, and has received that name from its being a bearing in the arms of the Dukes of Lorraine. By our own heralds this is called a patriarchal cross. The next cross, whose arms are triple, as fig. 1390, is the papal cross, and is one of the emblems of the papacy, signify- ing, perhaps, like the triple crown or tiara, the triple sovereignty over the universal Church, the suffering Church, and the triumphant Church. The great majority of the western churches, with transepts, are constructed in the form of a Latin cross, those in the form of the Greek cross being very rare. Those in the form of the Lorraine cross GLOSSARY. 1 250 Fig. 1390. are still rarer, and yet rarer are those constructed with triple transepts. There is another form called the truncated or tau cross, as fig. 1391, having the form of that letter, on which, as a plan, a few churches have been built. Considered as respects the contour, the cross in blason has been variously shaped and named. Thus, fig. 1392, in which the extremities widen as they recede from the centre, is called a cross fade. This is met with moro frequently than any of the others. It is seen in the nimbus, on tombs, on shields, upon coins, etc. ; and is the usual form of the dedication cross found in religious structures. Fig. 1393 is by the French called ancrie, the extremities forming hooks, but by our own heralds it is called a cross moline. Crosses flory are those in which the ends are formed into trefoils, as is seen in fig. 1390, the papal cross above mentioned. Fig. 1394, is a cross potent, and fig. 1385 is the cross elichee, as respects the outer lines of its form ; when it is voided, as shown by the inner lines, the ground or field is seen on which it lies. Fig. 1396 is the cross of the Russian Greek Church. Cnoss. In Gothic architecture, an erection of various kinds, which may be classed as follows : — those used for marking boundaries, those which were memorials of remarkable events, monumental or sepulchral, as that at Waltham, and others of that nature ; for preaching, as the ancient St. Paul’s Cross; and market crosses, as at Winchester, Leighton Buzzard, etc. Cross- handed. A term applied to handrailing, which is said to be cross-banded when a veneer is laid upon its upper side, with the grain of the wood crossing that of the rail, and the extension of the veneer in the direction of its fibres is less than the breadth of the rail. Cross Beam. A large beam going from wall to wall, or a girder that holds the sides of the house together. Crossettes. (Fr.) The same as ancones. In architectural construction the term is applied to the small projecting pieces aaf~P-~ia in arch stones, which hang upon the adjacent stones. Cross Garnets. Hinges having a long strap fixed close to the aperture, and also a cross part on the other side of the knuckle, which is fastened to the joint. See Garnet. C uuss-QR ainkd Stuff. Wood which has its fibres in a contrary direction to the surface, and which consequently cannot be perfectly smoothed by the operation of the plane, without turning either the plane or the stuff. This defect arises from a twisted dis- position of fibres while in the act of growing. Cross Springers. 'The ribs in the Pointed style that spring from the diagonals of the pillars or piers. Cross Vaulting. That formed by the intersection of two or more simple vaults. When each of the simple vaults rises from the same level to equal heights, the cross vaulting is denominated a groin ; but when one of the simple vaults is below the other, the inter- section is called an arch of that particular species which expresses both the simple arches. For example, if one cylinder pierce another of greater altitude, the arch so formed is termed a cylindro-cylindric arch ; and if a portion of a cylinder pierce a sphere of greater altitude than the cylinder, the arch is called a sphero-cylindric arch, and thus for any species of arch whatever, the part of the qualifying word which ends in o denotes the simple vault having the greater altitude, and the succeeding word the other of less altitude. Crow. A bar of iron used in bricklaying, masonry, and quarrying, and serving usually as a lever in its employment. Crowde, Croude, or Croft. The old term for the crypt of a church. | Crown. (Lat. Corona.) The uppermost member of any part. Thus, the upper portion of a cornice, including the corona and the members above it, is so called. Crown of anArch. The most elevated line or point that can be assumed in its surface ; it is also called the extrados. Crown or Joggle Post. The same as a king post, being the truss post that sustains the tiebeam and rafters of a roof. |Crown Glass. A common sort of window glass cut from a sheet blown into a disk form having a bull’s eye in the centre of it. Crowning. The part that terminates upwards any piece of architecture, as a cornice, pediment, etc. Crypt. (Gr. Kpuirru, I hide.) The under or hidden part of a building. It is used also to signify that part of the ancient churches and abbeys below the floor, appropriated to monumental purposes, and sometimes formed into chapels. There are only four apsidal crypts in England ; Winchester, 1079; Worcester, 1084; Gloucester, 1089; and Canterbury, 1096. In all these the side aisles run completely round the apse. See Crowde. .'rypto-Porticus. In ancient architecture a concealed portico, also one that for coolness 12G0 GLOSSARY. is enclosed on every side. Some of them were sunk some way into the ground. It also is a term applied to subterranean or dark passages and galleries in the Roman villas, often used as cool sitting rooms. Cube. (Gr. K uf 3 os , a die.) A solid bounded by six square sides. It is also, from its six sides, called hexahedron. Cubic feet (as the quantity necessary to be allowed for health under varying circum- stances). From 60 to 100 feet superficial is recommended for each bed. It is stated that a healthy man respires about twenty times in a minute, and inhales in that period about 700 cubic inches of air. Fresh air contains rather more than 23 per cent, of oxygen, and about 1J per cent, of carbonic acid ; by the process of respiration the oxygen is reduced, in round numbers, to 1 1 per cent., and the carbonic acid is increased to rather more than 8 per cent. Now, 3A per cent, of this gas renders air unfit to sup- port life; so that a man, in respiring 700 cubic inches in a minute, vitiates about 1630 cubic inches, without taking into account the effect produced by the exhalation from the skin. Cubic Feet. Fever Hospital, Islington, allows j ^ er be.) In practical geometry, an instrument for describ- ing the arc of a circle to any chord and versed sine, but chiefly used in flat segments, or those whose curvatures approach to straight lines. Cycloid. (Gr. KwcAoeiSrjs.) A figure described by rolling a circle upon a plane along a straight edge, until the point on the circle which touches the straight edge return again to it after a revolution. The point traces the curve called the cycloid or trochoid. Cyclopean Masonry. Works constructed of large rude stones arranged without mortar are called by this name ; also Megalithic, and Pelasgic. It is considered there were four distinct periods, illustrating the changes from the rude constructions to more refined masonry. 1. Vast misshapen masses piled one upon another without order, the interstices filled up with pebbles and small stones. 2. Polygonal hewn blocks cut to fit each other ; some interstices filled in with pebbles. 3. Courses of stone trape- zoidal in appearance, but broken, as two courses equal in height to one adjoining; joints not always vertical, and the stones of irregular size. 4. Continuous coursed trapezoidal arrangement, the beds continued horizontally throughout, but the joiuts rarely vertical. Cylinder. (Gr. KvMvbpov.) A solid whose base is a circle, and whose curved surface is everywhere at an equal distance from the axis or line supposed to pass through As middle. Its formation may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of a rectangu- GLOSSARY. 1263 lar parallelogram about one of its sides. The eone, sphere, and cylinder have a remark- able relation to each other, first discovered by Archimedes, namely, that the cone is one third the cylinder having the same base and altitude; and the inscribed sphere two thirds of the cylinder ; or the cone, sphere, and cylinder are to each other as the numbers 1, 2, 3. It is termed a right cylinder when the axis is at right angles to the base, but if at an oblique angle the cylinder is said to be oblique. Table of the areas of cylinders from 9 to 15 inches diameter: — Diameter of Cylinder. Area of Cylinder. Diameter of Cylinder. Area of Cylinder. Diameter of Cylinder. Areu or Cylinder. Inches. Square Inches. Inches. Square Inches. Indies. Square Inches. 9 6358 m 103-84 134 143 02 10 78-5 12 11307 14 153-96 10£ 86-56 m 122-65 144 165-04 11 95 01 13 132-66 15 176-62 Note. — T he areas of cylinders are as the squares of their diameters. Cylindrical Celling or Vaulting. Vulgarly called a waggon-head and cradle. One in the shape of the segment of a cylinder. This form appears to have been first used by the Romans. It admits of being pierced by lunettes for the admission of light, which form cylindro-cylindric arches, and is usually formed into panels or coffers. Cylindrical Work. Any kind of work which partakes of the shape of a cylinder, of whatever material it be formed. Cylindroid. A solid which differs from a cylinder in having ellipses instead of circles for its ends or bases. Cyma. (Gr. Ku/aa, a wave.) A moulding taking its name from its contour resembling that of a wave, being hollow in its upper part and swelling below. Of this moulding there are two sorts, the cyma recta V thus, just described, and the cyma re versa X, thus, wherein the upper part swells, whilst the lower is hollow. By workmen, each is called an ogee. Gymatium. (Gr.) The name commonly applied to the upper moulding of a cornice or I capping. Cymbia. The same as Fillet. Cypress. (Lat. Cupressus.) The wood of the cypress was valued for its hardness and durability by the ancient architects. Cyzicends. In ancient architecture, a large hall decorated with sculpture. See Glypto- THECA. D Tabbing, Daubing, or Pitching. Working the face of a stone after it has been broached and draughted , with a pick -shaped tool or the patent axe, so as to form a series of minute holes. >ado. The die, or that part of the pedestal of a column between the base and the cornice. It is of a cubic form, whence the name of die. Large rooms are sometimes decorated with a base, dado, and cornice, representing a pedestal, and the term dado is often applied to the whole. See Base. aghoba or Dagoba. The Eastern topes or tumuli mostly contained relics, the worship of these objects being one of the principal characteristics of Budhism. These were designated dagobas, of which the word “pagoda” appears to be a corruption. In a Bud- hist temple, the dagoba is a structure which occupies the place of an altar in a Christian church. It consists of a low circular basement or drum surmounted by a hemispherical or elliptical dome that supports a square block covered by a roof called a tee. airy. An apartment in a house, or a separate building, for the preservation of milk, aiid the manufacture of it into butter, cheese, or other dairy produce. When on a small I scale, where the milk is only used for butter, the dairy may be a room on the Dortli side of the dwelling, or form one of the offices connected with the kitchen court. The tem- perature of a dairy should be within the range of forty-eight to fifty-five degrees of i Fahrenheit, with sufficient ventilation to discharge all smells and impurities of the air. A dairy on a large scale should be a detached building, in which case it should contain a milk-room, a churning-room, and a dairy scullery or place for scalding the utensils. 1261 GLOSSARY. If cheese he to be made, a room is required for the cheese-press, and another for drying and storing the cheeses. Dais. (Fr.) The platform or raised floor at the upper end of a dining-hall, where the high table stood ; also the seat with a canopy over it, for the chiof guests who sat at the high table. Dam. See Coffer Dam. Damp Course. In order to prevent the damp rising up the walls from the soil on which a house is built, a course of some impermeable material is laid on the foundation walls a short distance (about a foot) above the level of the outside soil. This damp course, as it is called, is formed of a layer of powdered charcoal mixed with pitch or resin and powdered pitcoal ; or of two courses of slates set in cement; of asphalte ; or of the stoneware hollow tile manufactured for this purpose. Dampness. A moisture generally attendant on buildings finished hastily on account of the materials not being dry ; or the walls not being made of good well-burnt bricks ; or with bad mortar; or the joints not flushed up. and allowing wet to come through. Dancette. The chevron, or zigzag moulding, in Norman architecture. See fig. 1381. Day or Bat. Ia Gothic architecture, the compartment in windows formed by the tran- soms or horizontal pieces and mullions or vertical pieces. Dead Shore. A piece of timber worked up in brickwork to support a superincumbent mass until the brickwork which is to carry it has set or become hard. Deafening Sound-boarding. The pugging used to prevent the passage of sound through wooden partitions. See Boarding. Deal. (Sax. Delan, to divide.) Properly the small thickness of timber into which apiece of any sort is cut up ; but the term is now, though improperly, restricted in its signifi- cation to the wood of the fir tree cut up into thicknesses in the countries whence deals are imported, viz. Christiania, Dantzic, &c. Their usual thickness is three inches, and their width nine. They are purchased by the hundred, which contains 120 deals, be their thickness what it may, reduced by calculation to a standard thickness of one inch and a half and to a length of twelve feet. Whole deal is that which is one inch and a quarter thick, and slit deal is half that thickness. Clean deal refers to picked or selected deal, which is always used for stair treads for good work. See Board, Decagon. (Gr. Ae/ea, ten, and rWia, an angle.) A geometrical figure having ten sides and ten anglps. If the sides and angles are all equal, the figure is a regular decagon, and capable of being inscribed in a circle. Decastyle. See Colonnade. Decimal. (Lat.) A term applied to a system of arithmetic in which the scale of numbers proceeds by tens. Decimal Equivalents of Inches, Feet, and Yards ; and of a Shilling. Fractions of an Inch. Decimals of an Inch. •0000 •9375 •9165 •8750 •8125 •7500 •7199 ■6875 •6250 •5833 •5625 •5000 •4375 •4166 •3750 •3333 •3125 •2500 •1875 •1666 •1250 •0833 •0625 Decimals of a Foot. •08333 •07812 ■07638 •07291 •06771 ■06250 •06249 •05729 •05208 •04860 •04688 •04166 •03645 •03472 •03125 •02777 •02604 •02083 •01562 •01388 •OlOtl •00694 •00521 Inches. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Decimals of a Foot. •0833 •1666 •2500 •3333 •4166 •5000 •5833 •6606 •7500 •8333 ■9166 1 0000 Decimals of a Yard. 0 0277 •0555 •0833 •1111 T389 •1666 •1944 •2222 •2500 ■2778 •3055 •3333 Decimals of a Shilling. a 4 1 H 2 21 3 n 4 44 I « N. d . 0116 64 0833 7 1249 74 •1666 8 •2082 »i 2500 9 2916 9) •3333 10 •3750 101 •41CG 11 •4583 111 ■5000 12 •5416 •5833 •6250 •6666 •7083 •7500 •7916 •8333 •8750 •9166 •9583 1-0000 GLOSSARY. 1265 Decimal Parts of a Pound. 1 d. Decimal. d. Decimal. d. Decimal. 1 . d. Decimal. 4 •00208 6 •02500 114 •04791 10 0 •5000 1 •00416 6.J •02708 s. d. 11 0 •5500 14 •00625 7 02916 1 0 •0500 12 0 ■6000 2 ■00833 74 •03125 2 0 •1000 13 0 •6500 24 •01041 8 •03333 3 0 T500 14 0 •7000 3 •01250 84 •03541 4 0 •2000 15 0 •7500 34 •01458 9 •03750 6 0 •2500 16 0 •8000 : 4 •01666 0.4 03958 6 0 3000 17 0 •8500 4 4 ■01875 10 ■04166 7 0 •3500 18 0 •9000 1 5 •02083 104 •04375 8 0 ■4000 19 0 •9500 54 •02291 li •04583 9 0 •4500 20 0 1--0000 Ibcorateb Period. A term applied to the Mediaeval architecture in England prevailing during the reigns of the three first Edwards, wherein the decorative features grew out of, or became embodied in, and formed part of, the construction. It succeeded to the Early English period. Decoration. The combination of ornamental objects which the desire for varying a form or forms brings together in many ways for embellishing those subjects which are the objects of art. Dedication Cross. See Cross, fig. 1392. Ieliqui^:. (Lat.) A term used by Vitruvius to designate the rafters which formed the ridge of the roof and threw the water on each side. 'bnsity. (Lat. Densus, thick.) A term used in physics to denote the quantity of matter which a body contains under a given or determinate surface ; for example, a cubic foot. The quantity of matter in a body is called its mass, and is measured by the weight of the body, to which it is always proportional ; hence the density of a body is great in proportion as its weight, is great and its volume small ; or the density of bodies is directly as their masses, and inversely as their volumes. bntils or Dentels. (Lat. Dentes, teeth.) The small square blocks or projections in the bed mouldings of cornices in the Ionic, Corinthian, Composite, and occasionally Doric orders ; their breadth should be half their height ; and. as Vitruvius teaches, the inter- val (Metoche) between them two thirds of their breadth. In the Grecian orders they are not used under modillions. iodorisation and Disinfection. The Summary of the “ Hastings Prize Essay, 1865,” on these subjects, states that: — I. For the sick room, free ventilation, when it can be secured, together with an even temperature, is all that can be required. II. For rapid leodorisation and disinfection, chlorine is the most effective agent known. III. For steady and continuous effect, ozone is the best agent known. IV. In the absence of ozone, iodine exposed in the solid form to the air, is the best. V. For that of fluid and bemi-fluid substances undergoing decomposition, iodine is the best. VI. For the leodorisation and disinfection of solid bodies that cannot be destroyed, a mixture of bowdered chloride of zinc or powdered sulphate of zinc, with sawdust, is the best. After this, a mixture of carbolic acid and sawdust, ranks next in order; and following m that, wood ashes. VII. For that of infected articles of clothing, etc., exposure to beat at 212° Fahr. is the only true method. And, VIII. For the deodorisation and isinfection of substances that may be destroyed, heat to destruction is the true method. Carbolic acid, Condy’s fluid, Burnett’s fluid, and Charcoal are among the materials nnufactured for this purpose. 1 tBY or Darby. A two-handed float used in plasterers’ work. I cription of a Building. The same as Specification. Lcriptiye Geometry. That which consists in the application of geometrical rules to lie representation of the figures, and the various relations of the forms of bodies, cording to certain conventional forms. It differs from perspective, on account of the bpresentation being made in such a manner that the exact distance between the different bints of the body represented can always be found, and consequently all the mathe- matical relations resulting from the form and position of the body may be deduced from e representation. Lign. (Lat. Designo.) The idea formed in the mind of an artist on any particular sub- ct, which he transfers by some medium, for the purpose of making it known to others, very work of design is to be considered either in relation to the art that produced it, ■ the nature of its adaptation to the end sought, or to the nature of the end it is des- eed to serve; hence its beauty is dependent on the wisdom or excellence displayed in 4 M 1236 GLOSSARY. the design, on the fitness or propriety of the adaptation, and upon the utility for the end. See Composition. Details. A term usually applied to the drawings on a large scale for the use of builders, and generally called working drawings. Determining Line. In the conic sections, a line parallel to the base of the cone ; in the hyperbola this lino is within the base ; in the parabolic sections it forms a tangent to the base, in the elliptic it falls without it. In the intersecting line of a circle, the determining line will never meet the plan of the base to which it is parallel. Diaconicum. A place contiguous to the ancient churches, wherein were preserved the sacred vestments, vessels, relics, and ornaments of the altar. In modern language, the sacristy. The sacristy is now also called the vestry. Diagonal. (Gr. Aia, through, and IWia, angle.) A straight line drawn through a figure joining two opposite angles. The term in geometry, is used in speaking of four-sided figures, but it is nevertheless properly applied with reference to all polygons whereof the number of sides is not less than four. The term diameter is used by Euclid in the same sense ; but modern geometers use the term diameter only in speaking of curve lines, and diagonal when speaking of angular figures. Diagonal Scale. A compound scale formed by vertical and horizontal subdivisions with diagonals drawn across them, whereby very small parts can be measured oif by means of equidistant parallels crossing others of the same kind. Diagram. (Gr. Aiaypappa, from A la, through, and Tpacpm, I write.) The figure or scheme for the illustration of a mathematical or other proposition. Diameter. (Gr. Aia, through, and Merpoc, a measure.) A straight line passing through the centre of a geometrical figure, as that of a circle, ellipse, or hyperbola. The term is architecturally used to express the measure across the lower part of the shaft of a column, and is usually divided into sixty parts called minutes, which form the scale for the measurement of all the parts of an order. See Diagonal. Diamicton. The Roman method of building a wall, with regular ashlar work on tho outsides and filled in with rubble between. It is similar to Emplecton, but without the diatom or binding stones which go through the thickness of the walls, showing on both sides. See Masonry. Diamond Pavement. One disposed in squares arranged diagonally. Diaper Work. The face of stone worked into squares or lozenges, with a leaf therein ; as overarches and between bands. It is gene- rally done only in interior work for decorating a plain surface. The illustration (fig. 13i)8) is from Can- terbury Cathedral, and of the Perpendicular period. Diastyle. (Gr. Aia and SruAor, a column.) Thatdistance be- tween columns which con- sists of three diameters, or, according to some, of four diameters. The term is sometimes used adjectivelv, to signify that the building is arranged with those inter- vals between the columns. Diaioni. (Gr. Aia and T ovos, an extension.) In Greek architecture, the stones of a Fig. 1398. Diaper work in stone, wall wrought on two faces, which, from stretching beyond the stones above and below them, that is, going throug the wall, made a good bond or tie to the work. Diazoma. (Gr. Aia through, and Zw/xa, a cincture.) In ancient architecture, the landing or resting places which, at different heights, encircled the amphitheatre like so mat bands or cinctures, whence the name. Dicasterium. (Gr. Aikij, justice.) In ancient architecture, the name of a tribunal or In of justice. Dictyotheton. (Gr. Ai ktvov, a net, and Ti0tj/u, I place.) In ancient architecture, ma^om worked in courses, like the meshes of a net. Also open lattice-work, for admittn light and air. GLOSSARY. 1267 Didoron. (Gr.) See Rrick. I>ie of a Pedestal. That part included between the base and the cornice. See Dado. Digging. In soft ground, one man with a spade will throw up, per hour, a cubic yard of twenty-seven feet. If a mattock must be used, the same quantity will require two men, and in a strong gravel, three. It will require three men to wheel thirty cubic yards of gravel in a day to the distance of twenty yards. Diglypii. (Gr. Air, twice, and r \ u < pu , 1 carve.) A projecting face or femur, with two panels or channels called glyphs, sunk thereon. See Triglyph. Dilapidation. The state of neglect into which a building has been permitted to fall. Dimension. (Lat. Dimetior.) In geometry is either longth, breadth, or thickness. Thus a line has one dimension, as of length ; a superficies has two, length and breadth ; a solid has three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness. Diminished Ahch. One lower or less than a semicircle, called by the French voute surbaissee . See Suriused Arch. Diminished Bar of a Sash. Ono thinner on the edge towards the room than on that towards the glass of the window. Diminished Column. A column whereof the upper diameter is less than the lower. (Diminishing Rule. A board cut with a concave edge, so as to ascertain the swell of a Column, and to try its curvature. Diminishing Scale. A scale of gradation used in finding the different points for drawing ( the spiral curve of the Ionic volute, by describing the arc of a circle through every three preceding points, the extreme point of the last arc being one of the next three. Each point through which the curve passes is regulated so as to be in a line drawn to the ! centre of the volute and the lines at equal angles with each other. Diminution of a Column. The continued contraction of the diameter of the column as it rises. Most of the modern authors make the diminution to commence from one-third the height of the column; but in all the ancient examples the diminution commences from the bottom of the shaft. See Entasis. In Gothic architecture neither swell nor diminution is used, all the horizontal sections being similar and equal. Iining or Dinner Room. Generally one of the largest rooms in a dwelling-house. In large buildings it extends to forty or fifty feet in length, and the breadth is from half to three-fourths the length. In middle-sized houses, dining-rooms run from twenty-four down to eighteen feet in length by eighteen to sixteen feet in width, and thirteen or fourteen feet in height. Iioci.etian Window. Usually called a Venetian Window. Apteral. (Gr. Aim-epos, double-winged.) In ancient architecture, a temple having a double range of columns on each of its flanks. See Temple. 'irect Radial. In perspective, a right line from the eye perpendicular to the picture. trecting Line. In perspective, the line in which an original plane would cut tho directing plane. irecting Plane. In perspective, a plane passing through the point of sight, or the eye, parallel to the picture. irecting Point. In perspecUve, that in which any original line produced cuts the directing plane. [rector of an Original Line. In perspective, the straight line passing through the directing point and the eye of a spectator. [rector of the Eve. In perspective, the intersection of the plane with the directing plane perpendicular to the original plane and that of the picture, and hence also per- pendicular to the directing and vanishing planes, since each of the two latter is parallel to each of the two former. rectrix. In geometry, the name given to a certain straight line perpendicular to the axis of a conic section. One of the properties of these curves is that the distance of any point of the curve from the directrix is to the distance of the same point from the focus in a constant ratio. The name is sometimes applied generally to any straight or curved due required for the description of any curve. scharge. (Fr. Decharger.) The relief given to a beam, or any other piece of timber, 'too much loaded by an incumbent weight of building. When the relief is given, the weight is said to be discharged. scharging Arch. An arch built over a wood lintel, whereby the bearing upon it s taken off. The chords of discharging arches are not much longer than the lintel, jieing the segments of very large circles. A temporary arch is frequently introduced, and removed on completing the building. Sometimes the arches are built without any intel under them. hung Out. The same as Cradling. j pluviatum. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a place from which the rain is conveyed avay in two channels. According to Vitruvius, a cavcedium displuviatum w'as an open ourt exposed to the rain. 4 m 2 12G3 GLOSSARY. Disposition. (Lat.) One of the essentials of architecture. It is the arrangement of the whole design by means of ichnography (plan), orthography (section and elevation), and scenography (perspective view). It differs from distribution, which signifies the par- ticular arrangements of the internal parts of a building. Distance of the Eye. In perspective, the distance of the eye from the picture in a line perpendicular to the plan thereof. Distance, Point of. In perspective, the distance of the picture transferred upon the vanishing line from the centre, or from the point where the principal ray meets it; and thus it is generally understood to be on the vanishing line of the horizon. Distance of a Vanishing Line. The length of a perpendicular falling from the eye per- pendicular to the vanishing plane. Distemper. (Fr. Detemper.) In house painiing, whiting mixed with size and water, with which ceilings are generally done; plastered walls when not painted or papered are also so covered, and are called coloured when a tint is used in it. Distribution. (Lat.) The arrangement of the various apartments of a building. Dodecagon. (Gr. Ac oSeica and IVna, an angle.) A regular polygon of twelve equal sides. Dodecahedron. (Gr. AwSeua and 'E5pa, a seat.) One of the five platonic bodies, or regular solids, its surface being composed of twelve equal and regular pentagons. Dodecastyle. A colonnade or portico consisting of twelve columns. Dog-legged Stairs. Such as are solid between the upper flights, or such as have no well-hole, and in which the rail and balusters of both progressive and retrogressive flight fall in the same vertical plane. The. steps are fixed to strings, newels, and car- riages ; and the ends of the steps in the inferior kind only terminate on the side of the string without any housing. Dog-tooth Ornament. This ornament (Jig. 1399 is a common representation of it), so greatly used in First Pointed or Early English work, appears in the abacus of one of the capitals in the cloister at Monreale, in Sicily, 1182-94; and it is noted by J. G. Wigley as occurring in the jambs of the little church of the Ccenaculum at Jerusalem, now known as the mosque of the tomb of David, erected early in the fourteenth century. Fig. 1399. He assigns the origin of the ornament, as well as of the “ ball flower,” to the Holy Land, the types being obtained from the cyclamen or gazelle's horn, and the red anemone. The use of it in Western architecture, 1090-1187, curiously corresponds with the period of the first Ciusades. Dolmen. The French name for a Cromlech. Dome. (Lat. Domus.) The spherical, or otherwise formed, convex roof over a circular or polygonal building. A surbasid or diminished dome is one that is segmental on its vertical section, a surmounted dome is one that is higher than the radius of its bas;. There is great variety in the forms of domes, both in plan and section. In the former, they are circular and polygonal ; in the latter, we find them semicircular, semi-elliptical, segmental, pointed, sometimes in curves of contrary flexure, bell-shaped, & c. The oldest dome on record is that of the Pantheon at Rome, which was erected under Augustus, and is still perfect. Below is a list of the principal domes. Place. FeetDiam. Lutheran Church at Warsaw (?) 200 Pantheon at Rome (ancient) . 1424 British Museum, London (iron) 140 St. Peter’s at Rome 139 Duomo, oi' Sta. Maria del Fiore, at Florence 1 34i Gol Goomuz, Beejapore . 124 Sta. Francesca, Naples . 124 Baths of Caracalla (ancient) . 112 Sta. Sophia at Constantinople 106} S. Carlo Borromeo, Milan 105 Mosque of Suleimanieh, Constantinople 104 Church at Darmstadt 102 St. Paul’s, London .... 100 Capitol at Washington (iron) 100 Hall of Liberation at Kehlheim 96 S. Isaac at S. Petersburg (iron) 96 Chapel of the Medici at Florence . 94 Church of the Invalidcs at Paris . 92 Possagno, Church .... 91 Halle aux Bl£s at Paris (iron) 90 Baptistery at Florence . 83} Cathedral at Gran .... 82 Place. Minerva Medica at Rome (ancient) St. George, Salonica .... Mosque of Ahmedith at Constantinople Jumma Musjeed. Be japoie Ispahan, Mesjid Shall Madre di Dio, at Turin . Santa Maria della Salute, Venice . S. Lorenzo, Milan .... St. GCndvibve at Paris (Pantheon) . Superga, Turin .... Madonna di Campagna at Verona . Mosque of Hassan at Cairo St. Gereon at Coljgne . . Duomo at Siena .... Santa Maria della Grazie, Milan Val de Grace at Paris Radcliffe Library, Oxford . . San Vitale at Ravenna . II Redentore. Venice . . . Museum of the Vatican at Rome San Marco, Venice .... Feet Diam. 8IJ 80 80 75 75 74 70 70 09 64 64 63 60 67 57 65 62 50} 50 60 45 Domus Conversorum. The day-room and dormitory of the convcrsi of a Cistercian mo- nastery. They performed all the agrarian, artificers’, and menial work incidental to t 6 cultivation of the land, and the clothing and daily service of the whole community, taking part only’ occasionally in the daily service of the Church. GLOSSARY. 1269 Donjon. (Fr.) Tho massive tower within ancient castles to which tlio garrison might retreat ill case of necessity. It was centrally placed, and frequently raised on an arti- ficial elevation. Dook. (Scotch.) The same as Wooden Brick. Door. (Sax. Dog, Gr. &vpa.) The gate or entrance of a house or other building, or of an apartment in a house. It must be proportioned to the situation and use for which it is intended. Thus, for an ordinary dwelling-house, a door should not be less than seven to eight feet, high, and three to four feet broad ; but to churches and public buildings the entrance doors should be much wider, to allow of a multitude passing out. So in stately mansions, the doors must be from six to twelve feet in width, and of proportionate height. Door Frame or Case. The wooden-frame enclosing a door. Door Plane. The plane between the door proper, and the larger opening within which it may be placed. It is often richly ornamented. Door Stop. The slip of wood against which a door shuts in its frame. See Rebate. Doorway. The framework of an opening for a door, the shape of which is determined by the style of architecture of the building. The Greek doorway was always square-headed, and generally less in width at top than at bottom. The Roman and the Romanesque doorways are somotimes round-arched ; the Mediaeval ones are pointed in shape. Doric Order. The first of the orders used in Grecian architecture, and the second as used in Roman and Italian architecture. Its capital is composed of straight lines and mouldings. In the frieze is used the triglyph, with mutules in the cornice and corre- sponding to them. Dormant Tree or Summer. The lintel of a door, window beam, &e. A beam tenoned into a girder to support the ends of joists on both sides of it. Summer, in some loca- lities, is the common term for a girder. See Brkssttmmbr. Dormer. A window placed on the inclined plane of the roof of a house, the frame being placed vertically on the rafters. Dormitory. (Lat. Dormio, I sleep.) A large sleeping-room, capable of containing many beds. A range of cells for sleeping in. Doron. The Greek for a palm. See Brick. Dossel. See Reredos. Double Cone Moulding. A moulding used in the arches of the Norman period. (Fig. 1400.) Double Curvature. The curvature of a curve, whereof no part can be brought into a plane, such as the cylindro-cylindric curve, &e. Double Floor. One constructed of binding and bridging joists. Double-hung Sashes. A window opening with two sashes, one for lifting up, the other for drawing down, fitted into the sash frame of a window opening. Double Vaults. Two vaults of brick or stone carritd up separately with a cavity between them. Doubles. A sized slate used iu roofing. Doubling. A term used in Scotland to denote eaves’ boards. Doucine. The French term for the cyma recta. Dove-house, or Dove-cot. A building for keeping tame pigeons, the only essential dif- ference between which and a common poultry house is that the entrance for the birds must be placed at a considerable height from the ground, because of the flight of pigeons being so much higher than other birds. Dove-tail. A joint, so called from its being formed spreading like a pigeon’s tail, used by carpenters and joiners in connecting two pieces of wood, by letting one into the other. It is the strongest method of joining masses, because the tenon or piece of wood widens as it extends, so that it cannot be drawn out, because the tongue is larger than the cavity through which it would have to be drawn. The French call this method queue dlhironde, or swallow’s tail. 'ove-tail Moulding. An ornament formed of running bands, as Example 3, Jig. 188. It is sometimes called a triangular fret. I'OWEL. A pin of wood or iron used at the edges of boards in laying floors to avoid the appearance of the nails on the surface. Floors thus laid are ca'led dowelted floors. The drums of columns were steadied by the insertion of dowels of wood, cube in shape, as found in the remains of Greek and Egyptian architecture. Slate dowels are now often used in preference to iron, on account of the latter material tending to split the stone with rust. rag. (Verb.) A term applied to anything bearing down or rubbing on another. Thus, < a door is said to drag when its hinges become so loosened that the lower edge rubs upon the floor. Fig. 1400. 1270 GLOSSARY. Dragging. The operation of completing the surface of soft, stone by means of an instru- ment called a drag, ■which is a thin plate of steel with fine teeth on one edge, moved backwards and forwards by the workman. Dragon Beam or Piece. In carpentry, a short beam or piece of timber lying diagonally with the wall-plates at the angles of a roof for receiving the heel or foot of the hip rafter. It is fixed at right angles with another piece called the angle tie, which is sup- ported by each returning wall plate, on which it is cocked down. It may be a corruption of “dragging.” Drain. A subterraneous or other channel for waste water. Draught or Drawing. The representation of a building on paper, explanatory of the various parts of the interior and exterior, by means of plans, elevations, and sections, drawn to a scale, by which all the parts are exhibited in the same proportion as the parts of the edifice intended to be represented. Working drawings show the parts in detail, or serve as directions to the artificers. Draught. In masonry, a part of the surface of the stone, hewn to the breadth of the chisel on the margin of the stone according to the curved or straight line to which the surface is to be brought. When the draughts are framed round the different sides of the stone, the intermediate part is wrought to the surface by applying a straight edge or templet. In very large stones, when the substance needs much reduction, it is usual to make several intermediate parallel draughts, and thus the intermediate parts may bo hewn down nearly by the eye, without much application of the straight edge or templet. In carpentry, when a teuon is to be secured in a mortise by a pin, and the hole in the tenon is made, nearer the shoulder than to the cheeks of the mortise, the insertion of the pin draws the shoulder of the tenon close to the cheeks of the mortise, and it is said to have a draught. See Draw Bore Pins. Draught Compasses. Those with moveable points. Draw Bore. (Verb.) The pinning a mortise and tenon, by piercing the hole through the tenon nearer to the shoulder than the holes through the cheeks from the abutmei.t in which the shoulder is to come in contact. Draw Bore Pins. Pieces of steel in the shape of a frustrum of a cone, rather tappr, and inserted in handles with the greatest diameter next to the handle, for driving through the draw bores of a mortise and tenon in order to bring the shoulder of the rail close home to the abutment on the edge of the style. When this is effected, the draw bore pins, when more than one are used, are taken out singly, and the holes immediately filled up with wooden pegs. Drawbridge. One made with long and heavy levers to be raised or let down, at pleasure. Drawing. See Draught. Drawing Knife. An edge tool used to make an incision on the surface of wood along which the saw is to follow. It prevents the teeth of the saw tearing the surface. Drawing Room, perhaps more properly Withdrawing Room. The apartment to which the company withdraw after dinner. Dressed. A term in masonry which expresses the operation a stone has undergone before building it in the wall, whether by the hammer only or by the mallet and chisel, and then rubbing the face smooth. In Scotland the term is used to signify hammer dressing 01 ll y- ... Dresser. A long table placed against a wall in a kitchen, usually with drawers, and having shelves over it for plates, stopped by a Cut Standard. At the edges of the shelves hooks are driven to carry jugs and cups. Under the drawers is a shelf raised a few inches above the floor, and called a pot board, for holding pots used in cooking. Dressing Room. A room generally adjoining to and communicating with the sleeping room, used, as the name implies, for dressing in. It should have a separate door to open on the lobby or passage of communication. Dressings. All kinds of mouldings beyond the naked walls or ceilings are called by the general name of dressings. In joinery it is a term applied to the architraves or other appendages of apertures. Drift. (Sax. Dpipau.) The horizontal force which an arch exerts with a tendency to overset the piers from which it springs. Drip. See Corona. Dripstone. The moulding in Gothic architecture placed over an opening to throw rfl water. It is also called a weather moulding, or mere properly hood mould ; and labc< when it is returned square. Dripping Eaves. The lower edges of a roof from which the rain drips or drops to the ground. Droog. A Sanscrit term for a hill fort, a term used in Hindostan. GLOSSARY. 1271 Drop or Obtuse Ancir. A pointed arch of less height than that formed by an equilateral triangle, similar to Fig. 1401. Drops. (Sax. Dpoppan.) The frusta of cones in the Doric Order, used under the triglyphs in the architrave below the tania. Thoy are also employed in the under part of the mutuli or modillions of the order. In the Greek examples they aro sometimes curved a little inwards on the profile, and were called Guttle. Droved Ashi.ar. A term used in Scotland for chiselled or random-tooled ashlar. It is the most inferior kind of hewn work in building. What is in that country called broached work is sometimes done without being droved ; but in good broached work the face of the stone should be previously droved, and then broached. Droved and Broached. A term used in Scotland to signify work that has been roughed and then tooled clean. Droved and Striped. Work that is first droved and then striped. The stripes are shallow grooves done with a half or threo-quarter inch chisel, about an eighth of an inch deep, having the droved inter- stices prominent. This and the two preceding sorts of work are not much used in the southern part of England. Druidical Architecture. The Celtic erections were formerly so called. Drum. (Dan. Tromme.) The upright part under or above a cupola. The same term is sometimes applied to the solid part or vase of the Corinthian and Composite capitals ; as well as to the block of stone composing part of the shaft of a column. Druxy. Timber having decayed spots or streaks of a whitish colour in it. Dry Rot. A disease of timber which destroys the cohesion of its parts; it is usually ascribed to the attacks of fungi, such as the Polyporus destructor and Merulius lacrymans, whose spawn appears upon the suiface overspreading it like a tough thick skin of white leather; and there is no doubt of its being often connected with the appearance of such fungi. Dry rot is, however, in some cases to be identified with the presence of fungi of a more simple kind than those just mentioned, such as those of the genus Sporotrichum. Dubbing out. A term used by plasterers to signify the bringing of an uneven surface in a wall to a plane, by pieces of tile, slate, or the like, beforo it is plastered over. Duchesses. A sized slate used in roofing. Dwang. A term used in Scotland to denote the short pieces of timber employed in strut- ting a floor. Dwarf Wainscoting. Such as does not reach the whole height of a room, being usually three, four, five, or six feet high. Sometimes called a Dado. Dw’arf Walls. Low walls of less height, than the story of a building; sometimes the joists of a ground floor rest upon dwarf walls. The enclosures of courts are frequently formed by them with a railing of iron on the top; and indeed any low wall used as a fence is a dwarf wall. See Fender. Dwelling House. See House. Dynamics. (Gr. Avrafus, force or power.) As generally understood, the science which treats on the motion of bodies, because it is only known to us by the motion it produces in the body on which it acts. It is however usually restricted to those circumstances of motion in which the moving bodies are at liberty to obey the impulses communicated to them ; the opposite cases, or those in which the bodies, whether by external circum- stances or by their connection with one another, are not at liberty to obey the impulses given, being within the science of mechanics. E Iagle. See .ZEtiaioi. Arly English Period. The name given to the first, or Lancet period of mediteval architecture in England. It succeeded that of tho Norman towards the end of the twelfth century. The accompanying illustration, fig. 1402, is a fine example of the work of that period. lars. The same as Crossettes. i arth Closet. A convenience for the use of the occupants of a house, in lieu of a water closet, lately suggested by Rev. H. Moule, of Dorchester. Though adaptable to every dwelling, it is more appropriate to a country habitation. Two tubs aro required, one i being the store for dry common garden mould ; the other, the receptacle for the deposits, over each of which is to be placed half a spadeful of the mould; this prevents any smell arising. When the tub is full, it may either be set aside for about a week or fortnight to dry, when the mould is then fit to be rc-used, cr employed for gardon vm GLOSSARY. purposes. Liquid sewage will require to be disposed of separately, as it saturates a large quantity of earth. Earth Tabj.e, or Ground Tabj.f, and Grass Table. The plin'li of a wall (usually in Gothic work), or lowest course of projecting stones immediately above the ground. See Foot-stall. Faster, or Holy, Sepulchre. A recess for the reception of the holy elements consecrated on the Ccena Domini or Maunday Thursday, till high mass on Easter-day. The few examples in England remaining are gene- rally shallow, under an arch of obtuse or broad ogee form, rising about three feet from the slab, and are placed on the north side of the church. Eayes. (Probably Fr. Eaux.) The lowest edges of the inclined sides of a roof which project beyond the face of the walls, so as to throw the water off therefrom, that being their office. Eaves’ Board, Eaves’ Lath, Eaves’ Catch. See Arris Fillet. Ebony. The wood of a natural order of shrubby or arborescent, exogens, chiefly inhabiting the tropics. Some species are re- markable for the hardness and blackness of their wood, which is principally used for furniture. Eccentricity. The difference of centre from another circle. The distance between the foci of an ellipse. Echea. (Gr. Hyew, I sound.) In ancient architecture, sonorous vessels of metal or earth, in the form of a bell, used in the construction of theatres for the purpose of reverberat- ing the sound of the performer’s voice. They were distributed between the seats, and are described in the fifth book of Vitruvius, who states that Mummius introduced them iu Rome, after the taking of Corinth, where he found this expedient used in the theatre. Echinus. (Gr. Exmos.) The same as the ovolo or quarter round, though the moulding is only properly so called when carved with eggs and anchors. (See Anchor.) It is the shell or husk of the chesnut, though the ornament does not seem to bear much resemblance to it. Ecphora. (Gr. Ek, out, tyepu, I bear.) A word used by Vitruvius (lib. iii. cap. 3.) to signify the projecture of a member or moulding of a column, that is, the distance of its extremity from the naked of the column, or, according to others, from the axis. Ectype. (Gr. Ektuttou.) An object in relievo, orembos.-ed. Edge. (Sax. 6eje.) The intellection of two planes or surfaces of a solid, which therefore is either straight or curved according to the direction of the surfaces. See Arris. It is also that side of a rectangular prismatic body which contains the length and thick ness ; but in this sense of the term, the body to which it applies is generally under stood to be very thin ; thus we say “ the edge of a door,” “ the edge of a board,” meaning the narrow side. The edge of a tool is the meeting of the surfaces when ground to a very acute angle. Edge Tools. Those which clip or shave in the operation of working. Edging. In carpentry, the reducing of the edges of ribs or rafters, whether externally or internally, so as to range in a plane or in any curved surface required. Backing is a particular use of edging, and only applies to the outer edges of ribs or rafters; but edging or ranging is a general term, and applies either to the backing or internal sur face. See Backing. Edifice. (Lat. JEdificium.) A word synonymous with fabric, building, erection ; the word is, however, more usually employed to denote architectural erections distinguished for grandeur, dignity, and importance. Effect. (Lat, Efficio.) That quality in works of art whose nature is to give particular efficacy U) other qualities, so as to bring them out and attract the eye of the spectator. Fig. 1402. West Front and Towers Of Ripon Cathedral, 1215-55. GLOSSARY. 1273 Ego and Tonotjf.. Ornaments used in the echinus, supposed by Quatrem^re de Quincy to hare had thoir origin in the head of Isis, and, as he imagines, representing a mystical collar or necklace of the mundane egg and the tongue of the serpent of immortality ; but as we think, in the representation of much more simple objects, those of nature herself. See Echinus. Egyptian Architecture. In analysing the architecture of Egypt, three points offer themselves for consideration; construction, form, and decoration. If solidity be a merit, no nation has equalled the Egyptian. Uniformity of plan characterises all their works; they never deviated from t he straight line and square. The decorations of the buildings were chiefly incised, or painted on plaster. The pyramids, temples, obelisks, statues, and rock-cut tombs, all attest the duration of a style doomed to become eternal. Egyptian Hall. See (Ecus. El.eothesium. (Gr. EAaiop, oil.) In ancient architecture, an apartment in the baths wherein, after leaving the bath, the bathers anointed themselves. Elastic Curve. In mechanics, the figure assumed by an elastic body, one end of which is fixed horizontally in a vertical plane, and the other loaded with a weight which, by its gravity, tends to bend it. Elasticity. (Gr. EAarm is generally used to denote the upper curve of the voussoirs or stones. See Intrados. Eve. A general term signifying ihe centre of any part: thus the rye of a pediment is a circular window in its centre. The eye of a dome is the horizontal aperture on its summit. The eye of a volute is the circle at the centre, from whose circumference the spiral line commences. See Bull’s Eye. Eyehrow. A name sometimes given to the fillet. Faiiric. (Lat.) A general term applied to a large and important building. Facade. (Fr.) The face or front of any building towards a street, court, gardon, or other place; a term, however, more commonly used to signify the principal front. Face Mould. The name applied by workmen to the pattern for marking the plank or board out of which ornamental hand-railings are to be cut for stairs or other works. Face op a Stone. The surface intended for the front or outward side of the work. The back is usually left rough. Stones should be faced in the opposite direction of their splitting grain. Facettes. (Fr.) Flat projections between the flutes of columns. F'acia or Fascia. (Lat.) A flat member of an order or of a building, like a flat band or broad fillet. The architrave, when subdivided for instance, has three bands called fascia, whereof the lower is called the first fascia, the middle one the second, and the upper one the third. Facino. That part in the work of a building seen by a spectator; but the term is usually employed to signify a better sort of material, which masks the inferior one used internally. Factabling. The same as Coping. Faldstool. A moveable reading desk provided with a kneeling shelf at the foot thereof. Fall of Land. A measure used in Scotland, equal to 36 square yards. Falling Moulds. The two moulds applied to the vertical sides of the railpiece, one to the convex, the other to the concave side, in order to form the back and under surface of the rail and finish the squaring. False Attic. An attic without pilasters, casements, or balustrades, used for crowning a building, as at the gates of St. Denis and of St. Martin, at Paris. False Bearing. See Bearing Wall. False Roof. That part between the ceiling of the upper floor and the covering of the roof. Fan Tracery or Vaulting. A system of vaulting used in the 1’erpendicular period, in which the ribs spring from slender shafts or corbels at the side, and then diverge and Fig. 1405. Tor.g Church, Shrop shire. spread themselves over the vaulting, presenting an appearance similar to the frame- work of a fan. This fan sometimes also springs from a pendent in the vaulting meet- jmg the other fan work, as in fig. 1405. See Pendent. 1278 GLOSSABY. Fang. The narrow part of the cutting iron of any tool which passes into the stock. Fanum. (Lat.) A place consecrated to religion, including the building and ground belonging to it. Those temples erected to the memory of distinguished persons were called fana by the ancients. Farraria. See Granary. Fascia. See Facia. Fastigium. (Lat.) See Pediment. Fathom. (Sax.) A measure of six feet, taken from the extent of both arms when stretched out in a right line. It is chiefly used in measuring the depth of water, quarries, wells, or pits. Feather -edged. A term applied to any thin body whose section is trapezoidal ; that is, thicker on one edge than on the other. See Board ; Coping. Featherings. The cusps, plain or decorated, at the ends of a foil in tracery. Feeder. A cut or channel by which a stream or supply of water is brought into a canal. Sometimes the supply itself of the water is so called. Feeding House or Shed. A farm-building for stalling and fattening neat cattle. It should be in a dry warm situation, capable of free ventilation, and supplied with proper conveniences for food and water. Felt Grain. That position of splitting timber which is cloven towards the centre of the tree, or transversely to the annular rings or plates. The transverse position, or ratlier that which is in the direction of the annular plates, is called the quarter grain. Felting. The act of splitting timber by the felt grain. Femtjr. See Triglyph. Fence. (Lat. Defensio.) Any sort of construction for the purpose of enclosing land, as a bank of earth, a ditch, hedge, wall, railing, paling, &e. Fender. A dwarf wall in the basement of a house, built up to carry the front hearth of a fireplace. Fender Piles. Those driven to protect work, either on land or in water, from the con cussion of a moving body. Fenestration. A design in which the windows are arranged to form the principal feature. Festoon. (Fr.) A sculptured representation of floivers, drapery, ard foliage, looped or suspended at intervals on walls. The festoon was much used on friezes, altars, tablets, also over or under niches, as well as in many other situations. Figure. In a general sense the terminating extremes or surface of a body. Nobody can exist without figure, or it would be infinite, and all space solid matter. Figure, in geometry, is any plane surface comprehended within a certain line or lines. Fillet. (Fr. Filet.) A narrow flat band, listel, or annulet, used for the separation of one moulding from another, and to give breadth and firmness to the upper edge of a crowning moulding, as in a cornice. The small bands between the flutes of a column are called fillets. See Annulet, Band, and Facktte. Fillet. In carpentry or joinery, is any small timber scantling equal to or less than battens. Fillets are used for supporting the ends of boards by nailing them to joists or quarters, &c., as in sound boarding, and in supporting the ends of shelves. Fillet Gutter. A sloping gutter, with a loarboard and fillet thereon, to divert the water. Filling in Pieces. In carpentry, short timbers, less than the full length, fitted against the hips of roofs, groins, braces of partitions, which interrupt tho whole length. Fine Set. When the sole of a plane iron only projects sufficiently to take off a very thin shaving of wood. Fine Stuff. Plaster used in common ceilings and walls for the reception of paper 01 colour. It is composed of lime slaked and sifted through a fine sieve, then mixed with a due quantity of hair and fine sand. 1’iNiAL. In Gothic architecture, the top or finishing of a pinnacle or gable, as it is now generally un lerstood ; but in ancient documents the term was used to denote an entire pinnacle. The carved topis of bench ends are also called finials. Finishing. A term frequently applied to the termination of a building; but more espe- cially to the interior in the plasterer’s work for the last coat, and often to the joiners work, as the architraves, bases, surbases, &c. Fir. A forest tree, extensively used in building, both for beams and for deals. Fir Poles. Small trunks of fir trees, from ten to sixteen feet long, used in rustic build- ings and outhouses. ■ j Fir in Bond. A technical expression to denote lintels, bond timbers, wall plates, and all timbers built in walls. See Bond. Fir framed. Bough timber framed, but which has not undergone the action of planing. Fir wrought. That planed on the edges and sides. Fir wrought and framed. That which is both planed and framed. Fir wrought, framed, and rehated. That which is planed, framed, and rebated. GLOSSARY. 1279 Fir wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded. The same as the preceding article, with the addition of beading. Fir no Labour. Rough timber employed in walls, without planing or framing. Fire-place. See Chimney. Fire-stone. That which resists the action of the fire. A species of it is used in joinery for rubbing away the ridges made by the cutting-edge of the plane. Firmer Tool. A chisel used by joiners with a mallet, by which the sides of mortises are formed. Firring. See Furring. First Coat. In plastering, the laying the plaster on the laths, or the rendering, as it is called, on brickwork, when only two coats are used. When three are used, it is called ‘pricking-up when upon laths, and roughing -in when upon bricks. First Floor. Generally the floor over the ground floor. Where there is a basement to a building as in a country mansion, the floor over is often called the “ principal floor.” Fish. (Verb.) To secure a piece of wood by fastening another piece above or below it. and sometimes both to strengthen it. Fished Beam. A long beam formed of two short beams placed end to end, and covered by a long piece of wood placed over and under the joint, the whole being secured together by bolts. Sometimes these latter pieces are indented to the beams as a further security. Scarfing is a somewhat similar operation. FiSTUCA. (Lat.) A pile-driving instrument with two handles raised by pulleys, and guided in its descent to fall on the head of a pile so as to drive it into the ground, being what is by the workmen called (but improperly so) a monkey. Fixture. A term applied to all articles of a personal nature affixed to land. This annex- ation must be by the article being let into or united with the land, or with some sub- stance previously connected therewith. Flags. Thin stones used for paving, from one and a half to three inches thick, and of various lengths and breadths, according to the nature of the quarry. See Landing. 1 Flake White. In painting, lead corroded by the pressing of grapes, or a ceruse prepared by the acid of grapes. It is of Italian manufacture, and for the purity of its white far surpasses the white lead of this country. Flamboyant Period. The term applied to a period of mediaeval architecture in France, in which the mullions and tracery terminate in waved lines of contrary flexure in flame- I like forms. Examples of it occur about the beginning of the loth century, and con- tinue down to the middle of the 16th, being coincident nearly witli the latter part of the period of our Ornamental English, and the whole period of the Florid English, or Tudor, style. Flange. A projection round the edge of a pipe or other article of metal, to admit of its being fastened to a similar projection by screws, rivets, or bolts. The |_-shaped pieces of wrought iron, used in girder work, are also called “flanges,” and are employed for securing iron plates at right angles to each other, and for suspending one piece of work to another. Flank. (Fr. Flanc.) That part of a return body which joins the front. In town houses the party-walls are the flank walls. Same as End. Flashing. (Probably from Fr. Plaque, a splash.) Pieces of lead or other metal let into the joints of brickwork so as to lap over the metal of gutters, or along the slating of a roof, and thus prevent the rain getting access behind the latter, and so injuring the interior works. !, 'lat. That part of the covering of a building laid horizontal, or sufficiently sloping to throw otf the water, and finished with lead or other material, perhaps to be walked upon. latting. In house painting, a mode of painting in oil, in which the surface is left, when finished, without any gloss. The material or paint is prepared with a mixture of oil of turpentine, which secures the colours, and when used in the finishing, leaves the paint quite dead. The process is of use where it is desirable that the surface painted should retain the colour. It is only used for inside work and in the best apartments. Nut oil ! and poppy oil may be used for the purpose, both of which are good media for the colour. lemish Bond. In brickwork, the layi ng of each course of bricks as headers and stretchers, one course breaking joint with that over and under it. jOEMiSH Bricks. A species of bricks used for paving, whereof seventy-two will pave a square yard ; they were originally imported from Flanders, are of a yellowish colour, and harder than common bricks. .eur-de-lis. An ornament like a lily, and often used as a finial ; it is a favourite form jin decoration. I.sxibility. (Lat. Flecto.) That property of bodies which admits of their bending. It ns opposed to stiffness on the one hand, and brittleness on the other; stiff bodies being jsuch as resist bending, and brittle todies those which cannot be bent without a disrup- tion of their paits. 1280 GLOSSARY. Flexure. The bending or curve of a lino or surface. The point of contrary flexure is that point of a curve where the curvature alters from convex to concave, or the reverse, as respects the first direction of the curve. Flight of Steps. In a staircase is the series of steps from one landing place to another. Thus, the same staircase between one floor and another may consist of more than one flight of steps ; the flight being reckoned from landing to landing. See F'loor. Flint. A material used in building walls where chalk abounds. Common flints are nearly pure silica. They usually occur in irregular nodules in chalk. Their origin is still an unsolved geological problem. Float. In plastering, a long rule with a straight edge, by which the work is reduced to a plane surface. Floated Lath and Plaster. Plastering of three coats, whereof the first is pricking-up, the second, floating or floated work; and the last, of tine stuff. Floated Work. Plastering rendered perfectly plane by means of a Float. Floating Screeds. Strips of plaster previously set out on the work, at convenient inter- vals, for the range of the floating-rule or float. Floor. (Sax. Flope.) The pavement or boarded lower horizontal surface of an apartment. It is constructed of earth, brick, stone, wood, or other materials. Carpenters include in the term the framed timber work on which the boarding is laid, as well as the boards themselves. In carpentry, it denotes the timbers which support the boarding, called also naked flooring and carcass flooring. The term floor is, moreover, applied to the stories of a building, as basement floor, ground floor, &c. When there is no sunk story, the ground story becomes the basement floor, and the next floor the principal flour, containing the principal rooms ; in many country houses they are on the ground floor, but in those of the town mostly on the one pair floor. The expressions, one pair, two pair, &c., imply .a story above the first flight of stairs from the ground, and so on. Floor. Folding or Folded. One in which the floor boards are so laid that their joints do not appear continuous throughout the whole length of the floor, but in bays or folds of three, four, five, or more boards each. Floor. Straight Joint. That in which the floor boards are so laid that their joints or edges form a continued line throughout the direction of their length ; in opposition to folding floor, wherein the joints end in folds. Floor Cloth. Stout canvas covered with coarse oil paint, and then printed with a pattern, more or less elaborate. It should be thoroughly dry before being used, else it soon wears out. Kamptulicon , a preparation of caoutchouc and ground cork ; and Linoleum, produced from oxydised linseed oil mixed with ground cork, and rolled on to strong canvas, are late and good substitutes for the common floor cloth. Corticine, and Cork Carpet are other similar materials; while Boulinikon, or buffalo hide floor-cloth, is a late candidate for public favour. Floor Joists. The joists supporting the boards of the floor ; but when the floor consists of binding joists, which are secured into the girders, and bridging joists, the bridgings are never called floor joists. Floriated. Carved in imitation of flowers or leaves, either conventional or natural, and generally applied to decorated capitals, corbels, and bosses. Florid period of English mediaeval architecture is the same as the Perpendicular period, and is also called the Tud >r style. Flue. The long open tube of a chimney from the fire-place to the top of the shaft, for voidance of the smoke. See Chimney. Fluing. The same as Splayed. F lush. (Lat. Fluxus.) A term used by workmen to signify a continuity of surface in two bodies joined together. Thus, in joinery, the style, rails, and muntins are usually made flush ; that is, the wood of one piece on one side of the joint does not project or recede from that on the other. Flush. In masonry or brick-work, the aptitude of two brittle bodies to splinter at the joints where the stones or bricks come in contact when contiguous in a wall. Flush. (Verb.) A term to denote the complete bedding of masonry or brick-work, in the mortar or cement used for the counection of the stones or bricks, so as to leave no vacant space where the stones or bricks do not nicely fit in their places. Flush bolt. A bolt of iron or brass let into the woodwork so that it does not project beyond the face of it. The bolt has to be worked by the thumb or a finger. Flutes or Flutings. Upright channels on the shafts of columns, usually ending homi- spherically at top and bottom. Their plan or horizontal section is sometimes circular or segmental, and sometimes, as in the Grecian examples, elliptical. The Doric column has twenty round its circumference ; the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite have twenty- four. The Tuscan column is never fluted. Flutes are occasionally cabled. See Caulk. Flyers. Steps in a flight of stairs that, aro parallel to each other. See Winder. GLOSSARY. 1281 Flying Buttress. A buttress in the form of an arch, springing from a solid mass of masonry, and abutting against the springing of another arch which rises from the upper points of abutment of the first. It is employed in most of the cathedrals, and its office is to act as a counterpoise against the vaulting of the navo. If flying buttresses were built solid from the ground, it is obvious that they would interfere with the vista along the aisles of the church ; hence the project of continuing a resistance by means of arches. Their stability depends on the resistance afforded by the weight of the vertical buttress, whence they spring. See Arc-boutant and Buttress. Focus. In geometry and the conic sections, a point on the concave side of a curve, to which the rays are reflected from all points of such curve. Fodder or Fother. A weight among the plumbers of London of 19£ ewt. Fienilia. (Lat.) See Granary. ; Foil. The small arcs in the tracery of Gothic windows or panelling. See Cusp. (Folded Floor. See Floor. (Folding Doors Such as are made to meet each other from the opposite jambs to which they are hung; and when they arc rebated together, their edges meet folding over each other, with a bead at the joint, to give the appearance of one entire door. Folding Joint. A joint made like a rule-joint or the joint of a hinge. Foliage. A sculptured group of the leaves of plants and flowers, so arranged as to form architectural ornaments, as in friezes, panels, &c., and in the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders. Foliation. The use of small arcs or foils in forming tracery. Font. A vessel, generally of stone or metal, for containing the water of baptism in the Christian Church. The body of the font is usually a large block of stone hollowed out, and supported by a short column, single or clustered, and elevated on a base psometimes two or three steps lead to the platform on which the font may be fixed. Ancient examples occur where they are made of metal. Some of the early fonts are extremely beautiful, and wrought, with great richness of decoration. The singular inscription frequently found on the walls of baptisteries occurs also occasionally on ancient fonts : NITON ANOMHMATA MH MONAN OTTO, which, reading equally well both ways, admo- nishes the reader to cleanse himself from sin, not less than to use the outward ceremony of baptism. oot. (Germ. Fuss.) A measure of length, but used also in a sense which expresses sur- I face and solidity. Thus we say, a foot superficial and a foot cube. As this term is used in almost all languages as a linear measure, it has doubtless been derived from the length of the human foot. It seems in all other countries, as in England, to be divided into twelve equal parts, or inches. See Measures. The English standard foot (31 Edw, 1.) is = 12 lineal English inches = 36 barley- corns=16 digits = 4 palms = 3 hands = 5^ nails = lg- spans = 1*5151 Gunter's links = '938306 ft. of France = '3047 met. of France. The foot is divided by geometricians into 10 digits, and each digit into 10 lines, &c. The French, as the English, divide the foot into 12 inches, and the inch into 12 lines. The foot square or superficial is a foot each way, and contains, therefore, 12x12=144 superficial inches = 2'295684 square links. The glazier’s foot in Scotland = 64 square Scotch inches. The Scotch foot is to the English foot as 1 066 to 1*000, being in fact the. French foot. The length of the foot varies in different countries. The Paris royal foot exceeds hat of England by 9£ lines. The ancient Roman foot of the Capitol consisted of 4 palins= 11^ English inches. The Rhinland or Leyden foot, used by the northern nations of Europe, is to the Roman foot as 950 to 1000. The following table exhibits he length of the foot in the principal places of the Continent, the English foot being : ivided into 1000 parts, or 12 inches : — Ft. In. Lines. London Amsterdam - Antwerp - iologna |a*emen Cologne 'penhagen - ■ antzig fort - Irankfort-on-the-Mai no prrain antua 1000 942 946 1204 964 954 965 944 1184 948 958 1569 0 12 11 11 2 1 1 0 2 3 4 6 4 11 6 11 3 2 2 11 i 0 115 1 6 8 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 4 N 1282 GLOSS'AK Tarts. Ft. In. Lines. Mechlin -------- 919 0 110 Middleburgh 991 0 119 Paris royal foot, according to Greaves 1068 1 0 9-7 according to Bernard ... 1066 1 0 9-4 according to Graham, from the mea- sure of half -the toise of the Chatelet, the toise being six Paris feet ------ 1065-416 according to Mounier - 1065-351 from the two last 1065-4 1 0 9-4 Prague 1026 1 0 3 Rhinland or Leyden ...... 1033 1 0 4 Riga -------- 1831 1 9 9 Rome --------- 967 0 116 Strasbourg -------- 920 0 110 Spanish -------- 1001 1 0 0 Toledo 899 0 10 7 Turin --------- 1062 1 0 7 Venice --------- 1162 1 1 9 Greek --------- 1007 1 0 1 Old Roman, according to Greaves - - - - 967 0 116 from the monument of Statilius ------- 972 0 117 Mr. Raper ( Philos . Trans, vol. li.), from various authorities, determines the mean o the Roman foot to he nearly 968 parts of the London foot ; and he considers that befon the reign of Titus the Roman foot exceeded of the London foot, and afterwards in the reigns of Severus and Diocletian, it fell short of 965. Cagnazzi, from examina tion of the monuments of antiquity in Herculaneum and Pompeii, determines the Romai foot at -29624 metre, which, the metre being 3-2808992 English feet, would make th old Roman foot ^5 of the English foot. List of feet of all countries as drawn up by Dr. Thomas Young from Hutton, Cavalh Howard, Vega, and others : — English Feet. Altdorff foot - ■775 Hutton. ( -027 H. Amsterdam foot - i 930 Ciivallo. ( -931 Howard. Amsterdam ell - 2-233 C. Ancona foot - - 1-282 H. Antwerp foot - •940 H. Aquileia foot * - M28 H. Arles foot •888 H. Augsburg foot Avignon = Arles. •972 H. Barcelona foot •992 H. Basle foot •941 H. Bavarian foot - •908 Beigel. Bergamo foot - - 1-431 H. Berlin foot •992 H. Berne foot •902 Howe. Besani: le [ 2-195 ‘ 1 1165 H. English Feet. Copenhagen foot - 1-049 H. Cracow foot - 1169 H. V. Cracow greater ell - - 2-024 V. Cracow smaller ell - - 1-855 V. Dantzic foot - •923 H. DauphinG foot - 1-119 H. Delft foot •547 H. Denmark foot - - 1-047 H. Dijon foot - 1-030 H. Dordrecht foot •771 H. Dresden foot - •929 Wolfe. Dresden ell = 2 feet - - 1-857 V. Ferrara foot - - - - 1-317 H. Florence foot - •995 H. Florence braccio Tranche Comte foot - 1172 H. Frankfort=Hamburgh - - H. f -812 H. Genoa palm - - - . J -809 (-817 Cavnllo, Genoa canna - - 7-300 C. Geneva foot - Grenoble = DauphinG. - 1-919 H. Haarlem foot - - - •937 H. Halle foot ... •977 H. Hamburgh foot •933 H. Heidelberg foot •903 H. Inspruek foot - - 1-101 H. Leghorn foot - •992 H. Leipzig foot - . 1034 H. Leipzig ell - 1-833 H. Leyden foot - - 1-023 H. Liege foot •944 H. Lisbon foot - •952 H. Lucca braccio - Lyons = Dauphini. - 1-958 H. H. How. Madrid foot - ( -915 ‘ 1 -918 Madrid vara - . 3-263 C. fir li % n GLOSSARY. 1283 English Feet. English Feet. Maestricht foot Malta palm - Mantua brasso Mantuan braccio= Brescia Marseilles foot Mechlin foot - Mentz foot Milan decimal foot Milan aliprand foot Milanese braccio Modena foot - Monaco foot - Montpellier pan Moravian foot - Moravian ell - Moscow foot - Munich foot - Naples palm • Naples eanna - Nuremburg town foot Nuremburg country foot Nurembu g artillery foot • Nuremburg ell , Padua foot jPalermo foot - Paris foot {Paris metre - Parma foot Parmesan b 'accio - Pavia foot ’lacentia= Parma - Prague foot Prague ell roveuce=Marseilles. hinland foot - iga=Ham burgh. Oman palm - oman foot .... oman deto, 1-1 6th foot oman oncia, l-12th foot oman palmo - oman palmo di architettura Oman canna di architettura - |iman staiolo - I. man canna dei mercanti (8 I palms) I vertical plane passing through the eye and the centre of the picture, or of a vertical Line. In perspective, that point in the intersecting line which is made iby a vertical plane passing through the eye and the centre of the picture. .or Pace or Half Pace That part of a staircase whereon, after the flight of a few steps, a broad place is arrived at, on which two or three paces may be taken before oming to another step. If it occur at the angle turns of the stairs, it is called a uarter pace. 1 >ting Beam. The name given, in some of the provinces, to the tie-beam of a oof. I 'tings of a Wall. The projecting courses at the base of a wall to spread it, and thus ive security to the wall. I t-stall. The base or plinth of a building. See Earth Table. I ce. In mechanics, the course of motion in a body when it begins to move, or when it langes its direction from the course in which it was previously moving. While a body mains in the same state, whether of rest or of uniform and rectilinear motion, the use of its so remaining is in the nature of the body, which principle has received the ime of inertia. ? :er. In mechanics, a solid piston applied to pumps for the purpose of producing a nstant stream, or of raising water to a greater height than it can be raised by the. jessure of the atmosphere. F( - Pront. The principal or entrance front of a building. Pc : Plane. In carpentry and joinery, the first plane used after the saw or axe. Fc ^shorten. In perspective, the diminution which the representation of the side or rt of a body has, in one of its dimensions, compared with the other, occasioned by obliquity of the corresponding side or part of the original body to the plane of jeetion. •01 6 H. Roman braccio dei mercanti (4 j 2-7870 F. •015 H. palms) j 2-850 C. 1-521 H. C. Roman braccio di tessitor di | tela [ 2-0868 F. •814 H. Roman braccio di architettura 2 561 C. •753 H. Rouen = Paris - - H. •088 •855 H. H. Russian arschine 1 2-3625 1 2-3333 C. Phil Mag. 1*426 H. Russian verechok(l-16th arsch.) •1458 1-725 (J. Russian foot = to the English. 2-081 H. Savoy = Chamber}' - - H. •771 H. Seville = Barcelona - - H. •777 H. Seville vara .... 2-760 C. •071 V. Siena foot - 1-239 H. 2-504 V. Stellin foot .... 1-224 H. •028 •047 H. H. Stockholm foot 1-073 •074 ir. Celsius. ( -861 1 -850 H. Strasbourg town foot •956 H. C. Strasbourg country foot - •967 H. 6-008 C. Toledo = Mad. id - H. f -006 H. Trent foot - 1-201 H. 1 -007 V. Trieste ell for woollens - 2-220 H. •007 H. Trieste ell for silk - 2-107 H. •061 2*166 V. V. Turin foot .... I 1-676 1 1-681 H. C. 1-40G tf. Turin ras .... 1-958 C. •747 H. Turin trabuco .... 10-085 C. 1-066 ir. Tyrol foot - 1-096 V. 3-2808002 Tyrol ell 2-639 V. 1-809 H. Valladolid foot ... •908 H. 2-242 c. (1-137 H. 1-540 H. Venice foot - ' 1-140 How. c. (] 167 C. | -987 H. Venice braccio of silk 2-108 C. 1 -972 V. Venice ell 2-080 V. 1-948 V. Venice braccio of cloth - 2-250 C. Verona foot - 1117 H. 1-023 FT. Vicenza foot .... 1136 H. 1-030 Eytelwein. Vienna foot .... ( 1036 i 1-037 K. How. ■733 H. Vienna ell 2-557 V. •946 Folkes. Vienna post mile 24-888 V. •0004 F. Vienne in Dauphin6 foot 1058 H. •0805 F. Ulm foot •826 H. •2515 F. Urbino foot - 1-102 H. •7325 F. Utrecht foot - •741 H. 7-325 F. Warsaw foot - 1169 H. 4-212 F. Wesel= Dordrecht - . H. 6 5365 F. Zurich foot ... . ( -979 l -984 H. Phil. Slag. . In perspective, that point in the directing line made by a 4 N 2 1284 GLOSSARY. Form. The external appearance or disposition of the surfaces of a body, in which sense it is synonymous with Figure. P'ormeret. The arch rib, which in Gothic groining lies next the wall, and is consequently less than the other ribs which divide the vaulting. Forum. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, a public market ; also a place where the common courts were held, and law pleadings carried on. The fora of the Romans were large open squares surrounded by porticoes, parts whereof answered for market-places, other parts for public meetings of the inhabitants, and other parts for courts of justice ; the forum was also occasionally used for shows of gladiators. There were in Rome seven- teen ; of these fourteen were for the sale of goods, provisions, and merchandise, and called Fora Venalia ; the other three were for civil and judicial proceedings, and called Fora Civilia et Judicialia. Of the latter sort was the forum of Trajan, of which the Trajan column formed the principal ornament. Foundation. The ground prepared for the footings of a wall to be placed thereon. The concrete and footings of a wall are sometimes called the “ foundations.” Foundry. A building in which various metals are cast into moulds or shapes. Fountain. (Lat. Fons.) Any natural or artificial apparatus by means whereof watei springs up. In natural fountains the ascensional effect is produced by the hydrostatic pressure of the water itself ; in artificial fountains, by the same sort of pressure, oi by that of compressed air, and sometimes by machinery. Fox tail Wedging. A method of fixing a tenon in a mortise by splitting the end of the tenon and inserting a projecting wedge, then entering the tenon into the mortise, anc driving it home. The bottom of the mortise resists the wedge, and forces it fartherintc the tenon, which will expand in width, so as not only to fill the cavity at the bottom but be firmly compressed by the sides of the mortise. Frame and Framing. (Sax. Fpamman, to form.) The rough timber work of a house 1 including floors, roofs, partitions, ceilings, and beams. Generally, any pieces of wool fitted together with mortises and tenons are said to be framed, as doors, sashes, &c. Franking. A term used by the mak-rs of window-sashes, and applied to the mode o forming the joint where the cross-pieces of the frame intersect each other, no more wooi being cut away than is sufficient to show a mitre. Freeing Beads. The beads formed on the elbows of the boxings of a window, to allov of the shutters rising high enough to come on to the head of the window sill. Free Stone. It is an old term that has no very distinctive meaning, but one which i commonly employed when speaking of any stone, whether it he a sandstone or a lime stone, that is capable of being easily tooled, quite irrespective of its chemical compi sition, such as Portland stone, Bath stone, Yorkshire stone, some Scotch stone. &c. French Casements. Windows turning upon two vertical edges attached to the jamb and, when shut, lap together like folding doors upon the other two parallel edge and are fastened by means of a long holt called an Espagnolette bolt, extending the whole height. French casements are made in the form of the old English windo' the two meeting styles, which lap together, forming a munnion about four inches breadth. The lower part only of the window is moveable, the upper being fixed, ar having a corresponding munnion ; the lower rail of the fixed part and the upper n of the moveable part forming a transom. The upper part is now sometimes made open on centre pivots at the sides, to allow of ventilation to the apartments whilst t casement is closed. Fresco Painting. (It. Fresco, fresh.) A system of wall or ceiling decoration in which painting is executed by incorporating the colours on the plaster before it is dry, I which it becomes very permanent. Frette or Fret. A species of ornament consisting of one or more small fillets meeti Fig. 1406. in vertical and horizontal directions. (See fig. 1406.) The sections of the chann between the fillets is rectangular. Fret-work. Ornameutal decoration ra : sed in protuberances. Friction. (Lat. Frieo, I rub.) The resistance produced by the rubbing of the surfa of two solid bodies against each other. Fkieze, Freeze or Frize. (Ital. Freuio, adorned.) That member in the entablature an order between the architrave and cornice. It is always plain in the Tuscan : or mented with triglyphs and sculpture in the Doric (See Metopa)1 in the modern Italian Ionic it is often swelled, in which case it is said to he jnilvinatcd or cushion and in the Corinthian and Composite it is variously decorated with figures and folia GLOSSARY. l'2«o according to the taste of the architect. The illustration is from the western end of the Parthenon at Athens, pre- senting a portion of the Panatheiac frieze. It is one of the fine specimens of Grecian art of the Elgin collection in the British Museum. {Fig. 1107.) Frieze of the Capital. The same as the IIypotkachk- L1TJM. : Frieze Panel. The upper panel of a six-panelled door. Frieze Rail. The upper rail but one of a six-panelled door. i Frigidarium. In ancient ar- chitecture, the apartment in which the cold bath was placed. The word is some- times used to denote the cold bath itself. |Front. (Lat. Irons.) Any side or face of a building, but more commonly used to denote the entrance side. Frontal. The cloth hung in front of the altar, also called antependiuvi. Frontispiece. (Lat. Frous and Inspieio.) The face or fore-front of a house, but the term is more usually applied to the decorated entrance of a building. ■’ronton. The French term for a pediment. Frosted. A species of rustic-work, imitative of ice, formed by irregular drops of water. Fruwey Timher. Such as works freely to the plane without tearing, whose grain there- fore is in the same direction. Frustum. (Lat.) In geometry, the part of a solid next the base, formed by cutting ofl the top, or it is the part of any solid, as a cone, a pyramid, &c., between two planes, which may be either parallel or inclined to each other. olcrum. (Lat.) In mechanics, the fixed point about which a lever moves. I vnnei, (Lat. Infundibulum.) That part of a chimney contained between the fire-place and the summit of the shaft. See Chimney. orniture. (Fr. Fournir, to furnish.) The visible brass work of locks, knobs to doors, window-shutters, and the like. juRRiNG. (Fr. Fourrer, to thrust in.) The fixing of thin scantlings or laths upon the edges of any number of timbers in a range, when such timbers are out of the surface they were intended to form, either from their gravity, or in consequence of an original deficiency of the timbers in their depth. Thus the timbers of a floor, though level at first, oftentimes require to be furred ; the same operation is frequently necessary in the reparation of old roofs, and the same work is required sometimes in new as well as old floors. rhinos or Firrings. Pieces of wood used to bring a surface to a level with others. sarole. (It.) A member whose section is that of a semicircle carved into beads. It is generally placed under the echinus, or quarter round of columns in the Gone, Ionic, jxnd Corinthian orders. st. (Fr. Ffxt.) An old term for the shaft of a column or trunk of a pilaster. It is dso a term used in Devonshire, and, perhaps, in some other counties, to signify the idge of a house. G < ble. (Brit. Gavel.) The vertical triangular piece of wall at the end of a roof, from he level of the eaves to the summit ( 3LET. A small gable, or gable-shaped decoration, as intro luced on buttresses, &c. ( ie. See Gauge. ( n. In carpentry, the bevelled shoulder of a binding joist, for the purpose of giving iditional resistance to the tenon below. Ci.ilee. A porch usually built near the west end of abbey churches. The galilees of lurham and Ely are found in the situation here described. The last mentioned is still iied as the principal entrance to the church. The porch, south-west of the great ansopt, at Lincoln Cathedral is also sometimes called a galilee. The word has been ■equently used, but improperly, to designate the nave of a church. Many conjectures 1280 GLOSSARY. have been made on the origin of this term, hut the most commonly received opinion, founded on a passage in the writings of St. Gervase of Canterbury, is, that when a female applied to see a monk, she was directed to the porch of the church, and answered in the words of Scripture, “ He goeth before you into Galilee, there shall you see him.” Gallery. (Fr. allee couverte.) The name given to one of the structures called Celtic and Megalithic, and formed of upright stones covered with flat ones. Gallery. (Fr. Galerie.) An apartment of a house, for different purposes. A common passage to several rooms in any upper story is called a gallery. A long room for the reception of pictures is called a picture gallery. A platform on piers, or projecting from the wall of a church and open in front to the central space is also called a gallery. The Whispering Gallery at St. Paul’s is another example of the various uses of the word. The whole or a portion of the uppermost story of a theatre is likewise called a gallery. Gallet. See Garreting. Gaol. A prison, or place of legal confinement. Garden Sheds. Erections for containing garden implements, flower-pots, hot-bod frames, and glass sashes, &c. ; also for working in during bad weather. They are best placed on the back wall of the greenhouse, and thus hold the furnaces, fuel, and other articles. Gargouille, or Gurgoyle. The carved representations of men, monsters, &c., on the exterior of a church, and especially at the angles of the tower, serving as waterspouts, being connected with the gutters for the discharge of the water from the roof. Garlands. (Fr.) Ornaments of flowers, fruit, and leaves anciently used at the gates of temples where feasts or solorun rejoicings were held. Garnets, Cross A species of hinge used in the most common works, formed in the shape of the letter X turned thus |— , the vertical part being fastened to the style or jamb of the doorcase, and the horizontal part to the door or shutter. Garret. The upper story of a house taken either partially or wholly from the space within the roof. It is also an epithet applied to rotten wood. Garreting, or Galleting. Inserting small splinters or chips of stone or flint, called gallets , in the mortar joints of rubble work, after the walls are built. Gate. (Sax. Deac). A large door, generally framed of wood. The width of gates should be from eight and a half to nine feet, and the height from five to eight feet. The materials of gates should be well seasoned previous to use, otherwise they will be soon injured by the sun and wind. The parts should be also very correctly put together. For durability, oak is the best ; but some of the lighter woods, as deal, willow, and alder, are, on account of their lightness, occasionally used. These, however, are more for field-bar gates than close gates. Gatew'ay. A passage or opening formed through an enclosure wall or fence. It is also given to a building placed at the entrance of a property, and through which access is obtained, and guarded by a gate, or formerly by a portcullis drawbridge. Gathering of the Wings. See Chimney. Gauge, or Gage. In carpentry or joinery, an instrument for drawing one or more lines on any side of a piece of stuff parallel to one of the arrisses of that side. Of this tool there are four sorts ; the common gauge and the flooring gauge (which are both applied to the drawing of a line parallel to an arris), the internal gauge, and the mortise and tenon gauge. This term is also used to signify the length of a slate or tile below the lap ; also the measure to which any substance is confined. Gauged Arch. One having the bricks or stones formed radiating to a centre. The bricks have to be cut, and, in very good work, they are also rubbed, to get a fine joint. Gauged Stuff. In plasterer’s work, stuff composed of three parts of lime putty and one part of plaster of Paris, to set quicker. In bricklayer’s work, it. is the same proportiu'. of mortar and Roman or Portland cement, used for filletings and in setting chimney- pots. Gavel. The same as Gable. Gemmels. A mediaeval term for hinges. See Gimbals. Generating Curve. See Evolute. Generating Line or Plane. In Geometry, a line or plane which moves according to a given law, either round one of its extremities as a fixed point or axis, or parallel to itself, in order to generate a plane figure, or solid, formed by the space it has gone over. Genesis. (Gr.) In geometry, the formation of a line, plane, or solid, by the motion of a point, line, or plane. See Generating Line. ; Geometric Proportion. A building designed by geometrical figures, as the squaro, the triangle, &c. Geometrical. That which has a relation to geometry. GLOSSARY. 1287 ' Geometrical Decorated. The period of mediaeval architecture in which the tracery and other ornamentation consisted entirely of distinct geometrical forms, and in which the principle of vcrticality and unity by a subordination of parts was fully developed. Geometrical Staircase. That in which the flight of stone stairs is supported by the wall at only one end of the steps Geometry. (Gr. Tr;, the earth, and Merpoi. I measure.) That science which treats of the objects of figured space. Its etymology implies the object of measuring land. The invention of the science has been referred to a very remote period: by some, to the Babylonians and Chaldeans; by others to the Egyptians, who are said to have used it for determining the boundaries of their several lands after the inundations of the Nile. Cassiodorus says that the Egyptians either derived the art from the Babylonians or invented it after it was known to them It is supposed that Thales, who died 548 b.c., and Pythagoras of Samos, who flourished about 520 b.c , introduced it from Egypt into Greece. Whatever the origin, however, of the term, the occasions on which it is neces- sary to compare things with one another in respect of their forms and magnitudes are so numerous in every stage of society, that a geometry more or less perfect must have existed from the first periods of civilisation. Geometry, descriptive. The art of representing a definite body upon two planes at right angles with each other, by lines falling perpendicularly to the planes from all the points of concourse of every two contiguous sides of the body, and from all points of its contour, and, vice versa, from a given representation to ascertain the parts of the original objects. Geometry, practical. The method of working problems in geometry. Ghaut. A Hindoo term for a landing place, steps on the banks cf a river, a pass between mountains, and the mountains themselves, especially the eastern and western ranges, which cut off from the upper or table land the narrow strips of low coast that intervene, between them and the sea. Iiblea Cheque, Giblet Cheek or Check. A term used by Scotch masons to denote the cutting away of the right angle formed by the front and returns of the aperture of a . stone door-case, in the form of a rebate or reveal, so as to make the outer side of tli© door or closure flush with the face of the wall. Gilding. The practice of laying gold leaf on any surface. Gimbals, Gimbols, or Gimbles. (Lat. Gemellus.) A piece of mechanism consisting of two brass hoops or rings which move within one another, each perpendicularly to its plane, about two axes at right angles to each other. A body suspended in this manner, ; having a free motion in two directions at right angles, assumes a constantly vertical position. See Gemmels. i meet, or perhaps more properly Gimblet. (Fr. Guimbelet.) A piece of steel of a semi-cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross handle at one end and a worm or screw at the other. Its use is to bore a hole in a piece of wood. The screw draws i the instrument into the wood when turned by the handle, and the excavated part, form- ing a sharp angle with the exterior, cuts the fibres across, and contains the core of the wood cut out. It is used for boring holes larger than is effected by the bradawl. irdbr. (Sax. Dyptan, to enclose.) The principal beam in a floor, for supporting the binding or other joists, whereby the bearing or length is lessened. Perhaps so called because the ends of the joists are enclosed by it. An iron or timber girder carries a wall or assists to carry a floor. See Bressumer. rule. A circular band or fillet surrounding a part of a column. RT. The length of the circumference of an object, whether rectilinear or curvilinear, on its horizontal section. In timber measurin'?, according to some, it is taken at one-fourth of the circumference of the tree, and is so taken for the side of a square equal in area to the section of the tree cut through, where the pierimeter is taken in order to obtain the girt. ass. (Germ.) A transparent, impermeable, and brittle substance, of which there are lifferent sorts used in building. The “ Times ” paper of February 6th, and others in May, 1875, stated that a Frenchman had discovered that glass heated to redness, and then tooled or annealedin oil, greatly increased its toughness, while its transparency remained he same. Thus a plate of glass supported at the ends would resist a weight falling wo feet, but when treated as above it would resist the same weight falling six or eight eet. See Crown Glass, Sheet Glass, Plate Glass. < iss Painting. A decoration frequently used in buildings. It is the method of painting in glass in such a manner as to produce the effect of the drawing, which has to be pre- pared by an artist for it. A French painter of Marseilles is said to have been the first vho instructed the Italians in this art, during the pontificate of Julius II. It was, owever, practised to a considerable extent by Lucas of Leyden and Albert Durer. See Itained Glass and Pot Metal. Gazier. An artisan whose employment is that of fitting and fixing glass. 1288 GLOSSARY. Glue. (From the Lat. Gluten.) A tenacious viscid matter made of the skins and hoofs of animals, for cementing two bodies together. Glue is bought in cakes, and is better the older the skin of the animal from which it is made. That which swells without dis- solving when steeped in water is the best. To prepare glue it should be broken into small fragments and then steeped in water about twelve hours. It should be theu heated in a leaden or copper vessel till the whole is dissolved, stirring it frequently with a stick. After this it is put into a wooden vessel and remains for use. A water- tight, joint in wood can be obtained by grinding glue and white lead in equal propor- tions, boiled in linseed oil, so as to make the liquid of a whitish colour, and strong but not thick. It is also useful for external work. “ Marine glue” is a very strong liquid matter, the material often giving way before the joint. Glyph. (Gr. rAixpaj, I carve.) A sunken channel, the term being usually employed in reference to a vertical one. From their number, those in the frieze of the Doric order are called triglyphs. Glyptotheca. (Gr. rAvtpu , and ©ijko?, deposit.) A building or room for the preservation of works of sculpture. See Cyzicenus. Gneiss. A species of granite which, from excess of mica, is generally of a lamellar or slaty texture. It is a term used by the miners of Germany. Gnomon. (Gr. Tvufxoiv.) An instrument for measuring shadow's, and thereby determining the sun’s height. In dialling, it is the style of the dial, and its shadow marks the hour. Tt is placed so that its straight edge is parallel to the axis of the earth’s rotation. In geometry, a gnomon is that part of a parallelogram which remains when one of the parallelograms about its diagonal is removed ; or the portion of the parallelogram com- posed of the two complements- and one of the parallelograms about the diagonal. Tim term is found in Euclid, but is now rarely used. Gobbets. Blocks of stone; and also squared blocks of stone. Gocciolatoio. (It.) The same as Cokona. Godown. The Bengalese term for a warehouse or cellar. Godroon, or Gadroon. An ornamented moulding, consisting of headings or cablings. Gola, or Gula. (It.) The same as Cyma. Goniometer. (Gr. Tocria , an angle, and M erpa , I measure.) An instrument for measuring solid angles. Gopura. The Indian name for a gate-tower in the wall enclosing the space of ground in which are the cell and porch forming a temple in the south of Hindostan. In elevation it is pyramidal like a pagoda ; but instead of being square like the temple in plan, the gopura is merely a pylon, sometimes 130 feet wide by 100 feet deep, pierced in the mid- dle of the longer sides by a gateway which occupies a seventh or even a fourth of the width of the tower. The pile is covered by a crested roof, resembling a boat with the keel uppermost. Among the finest examples are those at Seringam, at Combaconum, and at Cliillambaram, dating about 990-1004. Gorge. The same as Cavktto. The gorgerin is a diminutive of the term. Gorgoneia. (Gr.) Key-stones carved with Gorgons’ heads. Gothic Architecture. The name given about the end of the seventeenth century to the Pointed architecture of the mediaeval period, and now called Mediaeval Architecture. Gottfing Foundations. A Scotch term, signifying a mode of securing unsound walls by driving wedges or pins under their footings. Gouge. A chisel whose section is of a semicircular form. Gradetti. (It.) The same as Annulets. Gradient. Good lists are given in Builder, 1863, p. 818 ; and xvii. p. 214. Gr^ecostasis. A hall or portico adjoining the Roman comitia, in which foreign ambas- sadors waited before entering the senate, and also whilst waiting the answer that was to be given to them. Grain. The line of direction in which some materials can be split transversely. Graining. The imitation of the grains or texture of certain ornamental woods, by means of paint worked over by a comb and other implements required to represent the various sorts. It is also called “ combing.” Granary. (Lat. Granum.) A building for storing corn, especially that intended to be kept for a considerable time. Vitruvius calls those buildings intended for the preserva- tion of grain granaria, those for hay foenilia, and those for straw farraria. The term horreum was used by the Romans for denoting buildings not only for the preservation of corn, but for various other effects. Grand. A term used in the fine arts, generally to express that quality by which th' highest degree of majesty and dignity is imparted to a work of art. Its source is, it form, freed from ordinary and common bounds, and to be properly appreciated require an investigation of the different qualities by which great and extraordinary object! produce impressions on the mind. Grangf. A farm-yard or farmery, consisting of a farm-house and a court of offices to) the different animals and implements used in farming, as also of barns, feeding houses poultry houses, &c. GLOSSARY. 128!) Granite. This word is apparently a corruption of the Latin word gcranitcs, used by Pliny to denote a particular species of stone. Tournefort, in the account of his Voyage to the Levant in 1699, is the first of modern writers who uses the name. The constituent parts of true granite are concretions of felspar, quartz, and mica, intimately joined together, but without any basis or ground. They are variable in quantity. Granites vary in colour, as the white, red, pink, blue, &c. See Gneiss. Grass Table. See Earth Table. Graticulation. The division of a design or draught into squares, for the purpose of reducing it to smaller dimensions. Gravel. A term applied to a well-known material of small stones, varying in size from a pea to a walnut, or something larger. It is often intermixed with other substances, as sand, clay, loam, flints, pebbles, iron ore, &c. It is used for roads and for concrete. Grave-stone. A flat stono placed over the grave of a deceased person, on which the name, dates, &c., are engraved. Gravity. See Specific Gravity. Grecian Architecture. The refined works of the ancient Greeks, as exhibited in the buildings at Athens and numerous other cities of Greece, Asia Minor, Sicily, &c. The chief principle of construction was the entablature and columns. Greco-Roman Style. The style of architecture adopted by many architects in England at the end of the last century, in which the severity of the ancient Greek stj’le is modi- fied by the richness and elaborate details of that of the Roman, together with the intro- duction of features such as the arch, adapted to the requirements of the style and of the present era. Gree, Grees, Grese, or Gryse. An old word, signifying a step, steps, or degrees. Greek Cross. See Cross, jig. 1387. Greek Masonry. The manner of bonding walls among the Grecians. See Masonry. Greenhouse. A building for sheltering in pots plants which are too tender to endure the open air the greater part of the year. It is constructed with a roof and one or more sides of glass, and being erected for luxury should not he far away from the dwelling-house, so that the greatest enjoyment may be had from it. At the same time it should, if possible, be near the flower garden, as being of similar character in use. The length and breadth can only be determined by the wealth and objects of the proprietor. The best aspects are south and south-east, but any aspect may, in case of necessity, be taken, if the roof be entirely of glass, and plenty of artificial heat be supplied. In those greenhouses, however, which face the north, the tender plants do not in winter succeed so well, and a greater quantity' of artificial heat must then be supplied, and the plants should, in such case, be chiefly evergreens, and others that come into flower in the summer season, and grow and flower but little during the winter. The plants in greenhouses are kept in pots or boxes on stages or shelves, so as to be near and follow the slope of the roof, and thus made more susceptible of the action of the sun’s rays immediately on passing through the glass. An orangery, from being constructed with a ceiled roof, differs from a greenhouse; it is. moreover, chiefly devoted to plants producing their shoots and flowers in the summer season, and in the open air ; the use of the orangery being merely to preserve them during the winter. The structure is more properly called a conservatory, though this term is now applied to buildings with glass roofs, wherein the plants are not kept in pots, but planted in the free soil, and wherein some are so reared as to grow and flower in the winter months. Grey Stocks. Bricks of the third quality of the best or malm bricks. Urinding. The act of taking off the redundant parts of a body, and forming it to its destined surface. Grindstone. A cylindrical stone, mounted on a spindle through its axis, with a winch- handle for turning it, to grind edge-tools. Grit Stone. One of various degrees of hardness ; mostly of a grey, sometimes of a yellow- ish colour. It is composed of a siliceous and micaceous sand, closely compacted by an argillaceous cement. It gives some sparks with steel, is indissoluble, or nearly so, in acids, and vitrifiable in a strong fire. It is used for millstones more than for building. Groin. (Sax. lipoptn, to grow.) The line formed by the intersection of two arches, which cross each other at any angle. See Cross Vaulting. Iroined Ceiling. One formed by r three or more curved surfaces, so that every two may form a groin, all the groins terminating at one extremity in a common point. roined Vaulting. A vault which is formed by groins springing from various points and intersecting. The varieties are described in Book II. Chap. 1, p. 388 ; and Chap. 3. p. 608. ■roove. (Sax. Gpapan, to dig.) A sunken rectangular channel. It is usually employed to connect two pieces of wood together, the piece not grooved having on its edge a projection or tongue, whose section corresponds to and fits the groove. 1290 GLOSSARY. Grotesque. (Fr.) A term applied to capricious ornaments which, as a whole, have no type in nature, consisting of figures, animals, leaves, flowers, fruits, and the like, all connected together. Ground Floor. The floor of a building level, or nearly so, with the surface of the chief thoroughfare or the land around it. It is not always the lowest floor, the basement being frequently beneath it. A floor, -if on such a level, as in some country mansions, becomes a ground floor, though generally called a basement. Ground Glass. The white effect given to glass by grinding it with emery powder, and thus obscuring it, so that it cannot be seen through. Ground Joists. Those which rest upon sleepers laid upon the ground, or on bricks, prop stones, or dwarf walls ; they are only used in basement and ground floors. Ground Line. In perspective, the intersection of the picture with the ground plane. See Ground Plane. Ground Niche. One whose base or seat is on a level with the ground floor. Ground Plan. The plan of the story of a house level with the surface of the ground, or near to it. Ground Plane. In perspective, the situation of the original plane in the supposed level of our horizon. It differs from the horizontal plane, which is said of any plane parallel to the horizon ; whereas the ground plane is a tangent plane to the surface of the earth, and is supposed to contain the objects to be represented. The term ground plane is used in a more confined sense than that of original plane, which may be any plane, whether horizontal or inclined. Ground Plate or Ground Sill. The lowest horizontal timber on which the exterior walls of a building are erected. It chiefly occurs in timber buildings, or in buildings whose outside walls are formed of brick panels with timber framings. Ground Plot. The plan of the walls of a building where they first commence above the foundation, though more properly it is the piece of ground selected to receive the building. For dwellings, its chief requisites are a healthy situation, a convenient supply of water, good drainage, a pleasant aspect, &c. If for trade or manufacture, it should be conveniently placed for receiving the raw material, and for exporting the articles manufactured. Grounds. In joinery, certain pieces of wood attached to a wall, to which the finishings are fastened. Their surface is flush with the plastering. Narrow grounds are those whereto the bases and surbases of rooms are fastened. Grounds are used over apertures, as well for securing the architraves as for strengthening the plaster. That the plaster may be kept firm, should the wood shrink, a groove is sometimes run on the edge of the ground next to the plaster, or the edge of the ground is rebated on the side next to the wall, so that in the act of plastering the stuff is received into the groove or rebate, which pre- vents it from shifting when it becomes dry. Wide grounds are framed. Grouped Columns or Pilasters. A term used to denote three or more columns placed upon the same pedestal. When two only are placed together they are said to be couplod. Grout. (Sax. G/iut.) A semi-liquid mortar, composed of quicklime and fine sand, poured into the joints of masonry, and those of large masses of brickwork at every four courses or so, in order to fill up the joints well, which process is called grouting. It is not required when the joints are properly flushed up. Growing Shore. See Dead Shore. Gudgeon. The axle of a wheel, on which it turns and is supported. To diminish friction gudgeons are made as small as possible in diameter, consistent with their weight. They are often made of cast iron, on account of its cheapness, but wrought iron of the same dimensions is stronger, and will support a greater load. Guilloche. (Fr.) An ornament in the form of two or more bands or strings twisting over each other, so as to repeat the same figure, in a continued series, by the spiral returning of the bands. The term is applied, but improperly so, to a Fret. Gula, or Gola, or Gueule. (It.) Synonymous with Cymatium. Gunter’s Chain. One used for measuring land, and taking its name from its reputed inventor. It is 66 feet, or 4 poles, long, and divided into 100 links, each whereof is joined to the adjacent one by three rings ; the length of each link, including the adja- cent rings, is therefore 7'92 inches. The advantage of the measure is in the facility it affords to numerical calculation. Thus the English acre, containing 4,840 yards, and Gunter’s chain being 22 yards long, it follows that, a square chain is exactly the tenth part of an acre, consequently the contents of a field being cast up in square links, it is only necessary to divide by 1 00,000, or to cut off tlie last five figures, to obtain the con- tents expressed in acres. Gtrgoyle. See Gargoyle. Guttje. See Drops. Gutter and Guttering. A canal to the roofs of houses, to receive and carry off rain- water. Gutters are made of metal or of tiles, which are either plain or concave ; these GLOSSARY. : 201 last are called gutter tiles, and so adapted to each other as to he laid with great ease. The Romans had gutters of terra-cotta along the roofs of their houses, and the rain- water from them ran out through the heads of animals and other devices placed in the angles and in convenient parts. Zinc is often used for gutters, but should only be fixed to temporary erections. An Arris Gutter is formed of wood. The channels on each side or in the middle of a roadway to carry off water, are called gutters. Gymnasium. (Gr. rvfivamov, from r 'v^vos, naked.) Originally a space measured out and covered with sand for the exercise of athletic games, the gymnasia in the end became spacious buildings, or institutions, for the mental as well as corporeal instruction of youth. They were first erected at Lacedseruon, whence they spread through the rest of Greece, into Italy. They did not consist of single edifices, but comprised several buildings and porticoes for study and discourse, for baths, anointing rooms, palsestras, in which the exercises took place, and for other purposes. It is also a building for the practice of physical games, and instruction in gymnastic exercises ; and in Russia and Germany it is the school below the academy or university, where the scholar receives a superior education and learns its application in life. &yn.*:ceum. (Gr. ruvaKaof.) In ancient architecture, that portion of the Grecian house set apart for the occupation of the female part of the family Gypsum. (Probably from I' 17 , earth, and Eipui, I concoct.) Crystals of native sulphate of lime. Being subjected to a moderate heat to expel the water of crystallisation, it forms plaster of Paris, and when water is applied to it, it immediately assumes a solid form. Of the numerous species, alabaster is, perhaps, the most abundant. II Habitable Rooms. These are required by the Metropolis Local Management Act, 1 85.5, c. 120, to be not less than 7 feet high. When placed in the roof they must be of that height at least, throughout not less than one half of the area of such room. When under- ground, they must be of that height at least, 1 foot of which must be above the surface of the footway of the street. They must have, for their entire frontage, an open area irom 6 inches below r the level of the floor to the surface of the footway and 3 feet wide in every part; they must be effectually drained ; have a fire-place with a proper chim- ney or flue ; and an external glazed window of at least 9 superficial feet in area, clear of the frame, and made to open in an approved manner. There must be appurtenant to such room or cellar a water-closet or privy, aud an ashpit furnished with proper doors and coverings. Hack. In brickmaking, the row in which crude bricks are laid to dry after being moulded, and before being placed in the clamps or kilns to be burnt. Hacking. In walling, denotes the interruption of a course of stones, by the introduction of another on a different level, for want of stones to complete the thickness. Thus making two courses at the end of a wall of the same height as one at the other. The last stone laid is often notched to receive the first stone of the other whore the two heights commence. Hacking is never permitted in good work. The term is used more in Scotland than in England. Taking down old plastering from a wall or ceiling, is called “hacking off.” Hacking-out Knife. An implement used in cutting old putty out of the rebates of a bar of a light, before inserting a new pane of glass. As this operation injures the bars, a liquid preparation is now often used for softening the putty. Hagioscope. (Gr. ayms, holy, and aKoirbs, mark.) An aperture made in the interior wmlls or partitions of a church, generally in the sides of the chancel arch, to enable per- sons in the aisles, or side chapels, to see the elevation of the host. They are techni- cally called squints, and sometimes elevation apertures ; and now written Agiossope. Half-pace. See Foot Pace. Half Round. A semicircular moulding which may be a bead or torus. Half-timber Building. A structure formed of studding, with sills, lintels, struts, and braces, sometimes filled in with brickwork, and plastered over on both sides. Cottages were usually lathed and plastered on the outside only, the upright timber work showing on the inside. The outside woodwork was sometimes painted black. Hall. (Sax. Hal.) A name applied indifferently to the first large apartment on entering a house, to the public room of a corporate body, a court of justice, or to a manor house. Vitruvius mentions three sorts of halls ; the Tetrastyle, which has four columns sup- porting the ceiling ; the Corinthian, which has columns all round, and is vaulted ; and the Egyptian, which has a peristyle of Corinthian columns, bearing a second order w ith a ceiling. These were called ceci. In magnificent edifices, where the hall is larger and loftier than ordinary, and is placed in the middle of the house, it is called a saloon ; and a royal apartment consists of a hall or chamber of guards, a chamber, an ante- chamber, a cabinet chamber, and a gallery. 1292 GLOSSARY. Halting. A method of joining timbers by letting them into each other. It is preferable to mortising, even where the timbers do not pass each other, as they are less liable to be displaced by shrinking. IJam. (Sax.) Properly a house or dwelling place ; also a street or village, whence it has become the final syllable to many of our towns, as Notting^u?;;, BuckingAn»i, &c. ; hence, too, hamlet, the diminutive of ham, is a small street or village. Hammer Beam. A beam acting as a tie at the feet of a pair of principal rafters, but not extending so as to connect the opposite sides. Hammer beams are used chiefly in roofs constructed after the Gothic style, the end which hangs over being frequently supported by a concave rib springing from the wall, as a tangent from a curve, and in its turn supporting another rib, forming an arch. The ends of hammer beams are often decorated with beads and other devices. The finest example of such a roof is at "Westminster Hall. Hance. The small arch which often joins a straight lintel to a jamb. Hence the term Hance arch. Hand-rail of a Stair. A rail raised upon slender posts, called balusters, to prevent per- sons falling down the well hole, as also to assist them in ascending and descending. Handspike. A lever for raising a weight, usually of wood, and applied to the holes in a capstan head. Hang over. (Verb.) A term used to denote the condition of a wall when the top pro- jects beyond the bottom. Hangings. Linings for rooms of arras, tapestry, paper, or the like. Paper hangings were introduced early in the seventeenth century. Hanging Stile of a Door. That to which the hinges are attached. Hardware. Ironmongery is so called. Harmonic Proportion. That which, in a series of quantities, any three adjoining terms being taken, the difference between the first and second is to the difference between the second and third, as the first is to the third. Harmus. (Gr. ' Ap/xos .) In ancient architecture, a tile used for covering the joint between two common tiles. Harness Room. A room wherein harness is deposited. It is absolutely requisite that it be dry and kept clean. Its situation should be near the stable it is destined to serve. Hasp. The fastening to a common casement. See Snacket and Staple. IIassack. The provincial name for Kentish rag stone. Hatchet. (Fr. Hachette.) A small axe used by joiners for reducing the edges of boards. Haunches of an Arch. The parts between the crown and the springing. Hawk. A small quadrangular tool with a handle, used by a plasterer, on which the stuff required by him is served, for his proceeding with the work in progress. He has always a boy attendant on him, by whom he is supplied with the material. The boy in ques- tion is called a Hawk boy. Head. See Aperture. Head and Foot Stones. The upright stones placed to the grave of a deceased person, and on which the name, dates, &e., can be engraved. Header. In masonry and brickwork, the stone extending over the thickness of a wall. Hence the term Heading c rnrse. Heading Joint. In joinery, the joint of two or more boards at right angles to the fibres, or in handrailing at right angles to the back ; this is so disposed with a view of con- tinuing the length of the board when too short. In good work the heading joints are ploughed and tongued, and in dadoes are, moreover, connected with glue. Headway of Stairs. The clear distance, measured perpendicularly, from a given landing- place or stair to the ceiling above, whether of the stairs or landing. Heart Bond. In masonry, that in which two stones of a wall forming its breadth, have one stone of the whole breadth placed over them. See Bond. Hearth. See Chimney. See Slab. Heather Roof. A covering used in Scotland, by some considered superior to straw. Hecatompedon. (Gr.) A temple one hundred feet in front. A term applied to the Parthenon. Fig. 1458, 99 and 100. Mr. Penrose’s measurement gives the length of top of upper step as 10P341 English feet = 100 Attic feet. Length of the same 228’141 English feet. Heek. The same as Rack. Heel. A term used by workmen to denote a cyrna reversa. Heel of a Rafter. The end or foot that rests on the wall plate. Height. The perpendicular distance of the most remote part of a body from the plane on which it rests. Height of an Arch. A line drawn from the middle of the chord or span to the intrados. It is also called the versed sine. Helical Line of a Handrail. The spiral line twisting round the cylinder, representing the form of the handrail before it is moulded. GLOSSARY. 1293 II kuocami.vus. (Gr. 'HAtoj, the sun, and Ka/xivos, a furnace.) A chamber in the Roman houses which depended on the rays of the sun for warming it. Hkliosckne. An outside blind invented of late years, formed like the louvres of a venti- lator, which keeps out the rays of tho sun, ensures ventilation, and permits a clear view from the inside of the room to the window of which it is applied. Helix. (Gr. “HAif, a kind of ivy whose stalk curls.) A small volute or twist under the abacus of the Corinthian capital, in which there are, in every perfect capital, sixteen, called also urillce-, viz., two at each angle, and two meeting under the middle of the abacus, branching out of the caulicoli or stalks, which rise from between the leaves. Hem. Tho spiral projecting part of the Ionic capital. Hemicycle. A semicircle ; the term is used architecturally to denote vaults of the cradle form, and arches or sweeps of vaults, constituting a semicircle. Hemisphere. In geometry, the half of a globe or sphere, when divided by a plane pass- ing through its centre. Hemituiglyph. A half triglyph. Heptagon. (Gr.) A geometrical figure of seven sides and angles. Hermitage. A small hut or dwelling in an unfrequented place, occupied by a hermit. Imitation buildings in a park, as a resting place, are so called. Herring Bone Work. In paving, a disposition of bricks or stones laid diagonally (see diagram in the margin), each length receiving tho end of the iSvVxY adjoining brick or stone. In walling, courses of stone or bricks laid angularly in the face of a wall, in a similar manner. Sometimes there is a horizontal N/' course of stones or bricks laid between each angular course. See Ashlar. Hewn Stone. That which is reduced to a given form by the use of the mallet and chisel. Hexagon. ('E| and ruvia, angle.) In geometry, a plain figure bounded by six straight lines, which, when equal, constitute the figure a regular hexagon. Hexahedron or Cube. (Gr 'E£ six, and ‘E5pa, seat.) One of the five regular solids, so called from its having six faces or seats. Hh.xastyle. (Gr. ‘E| and SruAos, column.) That species of temple or build- ing having six columns in front. (Fig. 1408.) See Colonnade. Hick-joint Pointing. That species of pointing in which, after the joints are raked out, a portion of su- perior mortar is inserted between the courses, and made perfectly smooth with the surface. See Pointing. Hieroglyphics. (T epos, sa- cred, and rAu<(>a>, I en- grave.) Sculpture or pic- ture-writing, which has obtained the name from being most commonly found on sacred buildings. They consist in the expression of i a series of ideas by representations of visible objects. Tho name, is, however, more particularly applied to a species of writing used by tho ancient Egyptians, of three different varieties of characters: — 1. The hieroglyphic, properly so called, wherein the representation of the object conveys the idea of the object itself. 2. That in which the characters represent ideas by images of visible objects used as symbols. 3. That consisting of phonetic characters, in which the sign does not represent an object but a sound. Hindoo Architecture. See Indian Architecture. Hinges (from Hang.) The metal joints upon which any body turns, such as doors, shutters, &c. There are many species of them, as described under the names. Hip. A piece of timber placed between every two adjacent inclined sides of a hip roof, for the purpose of receiving what are called tho jack rafters. Hip Knob. A finial, placed at the end of the ridge piece of a roof, or apex of a gable, and against which abuts the barge board of a gable ; it is often finished with a pi ndant. Hip Mould. A term used by some workmen to denote the back of the hip ; by others it is used to signify the form or pattern by’ which the hip is set out. Hip or Hipped Roof. A roof whose return at the end of a building rises immediately Fig. 1408. Temple of Theseus at Athens. 1294 GLOSSARY. from the wall plate with the same Inclination as the adjacent sides. The hack of a hip is the angle made on its upper edge, to range with the two sides or planes of the roof, between which it is placed. The jack rafters are those short rafters which are shorter than the full-sized ones to fill in against the hips. Hip or Corner Tiles are those used at the hips of roofs ; they are ten inches long, and of appropriate breadth and thickness, and bent on a mould before burning. Hippodrome. (Gr. '\7rn0s, a horse, and Apo/wos, a course.) In ancient architecture a place appropriated by the Greeks to equestrian exercises, and one in which the prizes were contended for. The most celebrated of these was at Olympia. It was four stadia (.^ach 625 feet) long, and one stadium in breadth. Hoard. (Sax. Ho rn, to keep.) A timber enclosure round a building, in the course of erection or under repair. IIod. A utensil employed by labourers for carrying mortar or bricks. Hogging. That curve upwards or convexity which is given to the middle of a long line, as the ridge of a roof, to prevent it appearing to have sunk in that part of it. It is carrying out the scamilli impares recommended by Vitruvius for the same purpose. Holdfast. A long nail, with a flat short head for securing objects to a wall. Hollow. A concave moulding, whose section is about the quadrant of a circle; called, sometimes, by the workmen a casement. Hollow Newel. An opening in the middle of a staircase. The term is used in contra- distinction to solid newel, into which the ends of the steps are built. In the hollow newel, or well hole, the steps are only supported at one end by the surrounding wall of the staircase, the ends next the hollow being unsupported. Hollow Quoins. Piers of brick or stone made behind the lock gates of canals. Hollow Wall. One built in two thicknesses leaving a cavity between them, for the purpose of preventing rain being drifted through the brickwork into the apartment, or for preserving a uniform temperature therein. They are tied together at intervals by iron ties, square slate, &c. A lining of slate in the cavity has lately been added. IIomestall and Homestead. A mansion, or seat in the country. Homologous. In geometry, the corresponding sides of similar figures. The areas ami solid contents of such figures are likewise homologous. Hood Mould. The projecting moulding forming a drip to protect the other mouldings to a door or window. See Label. Hook. (Sax. Hoee.) A bent piece of iron, used to fasten bodies together, or whereon to hang any article. They are of various kinds. Hook Pin. The same as Draw-bore Pin. Horizontal Cornice. The level part of the cornice of a pediment under the two inclined cornices. Horizontal Line. In perspective, the vanishing line of planes parallel to the horizon. Horizontal Plane. A plane passing through the eye parallel to the horizon, and pro- ducing the vanishing line of all level planes. Horizontal Projection. The projection made on a plane parallel to the horizon. This may be understood perspectively, or orthographically, according as the projecting rays are directed to a given point, or perpendicular to a given point. Horn. A name sometimes given to the Ionic volute. Horreum. See Granary. Horse Block. A square framo of strong boards, used by excavators to elevate the ends of their wheeling planks. Horse Run. A contrivance for drawing up loaded wheelbarrows of soil from the deep euttings of foundations, canals, docks, &c., by the help of a horse, which goes back- wards and forwards instead of round, as in a horse-gin. Horseshoe Arch. An arch which, being higher than a semicircle, the radius is continued down on to the capital. It is chiefly used in Saracenic architecture. Hospital. A building erected for the care of sick persons. It is also given to one for infirm persons, as Greenwich Hospital, but that is properly an infirmary. Hostel or Hotel. (Fr. Hotel.) This word is used to denote a large inn, or place of public entertainment; but on the Continent it is applied to a large house, either of a private or public nature. One of the most interesting of the former class in Paris, is that of the ce’ebrated Hotel de Cluny (.fig. 1409), now containing a museum of medieval antiquities. It was erected at the end of the 15th century, the works being resumed in 1490, after some interruption, by Jacques d’Amboise, Abbd of Cluny. (See page 239.) Hot House. A general term for the glass buildings used in gardening, and including stoves, greenhouses, orangeries, and conservatories. Pits and frames are mere garden structures, with glass roofs, the sides and ends boing of brick, stone, or wood, but so low as to prevent entrance into them ; they cannot therefore be considered as hot- houses. House. (Germ. ITav.s ' A human habitation or place of abode of a family. Among the GLOSSARY. 1295 i i nations of the east and of the south, houses are flat on the top, to which ascent is general on the outside. As we proceed northward, a declivity of the roof becomes requisite to throw off the rain and snotv, which are of greater continuance in higher latitudes. Amongst the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Jews, the houses usually enclosed a quad- rangular area or court, open to the sky. This part of the house was by the Romans called the impluvium or cava- dium, and was provided with channels to carry oflf the waters into the 6ewers. Both the Ro- man and Greek house is described by Vitru- vius, to whose work we must refer the reader for further information on these heads. The word house is used in various ways ; as in the phrase, “a religious house,” either the build- ings of a monastery, or the community of per- sons inhabiting them may be designated. In the middle ages, when a family retired to the lodge connected with the mansion, or to their country seat, it was called “ keeping their secret house.” Every gradation of building for habitation, from the cottage to the palace, is embraced by the word house, so that to give a full account of the re- quisites of each would occupy more space than can be devoted to the subject in this place. Housing. The space taken out of one solid for the insertion of the extremity of another, for the purpose of connect- ing them. Thus the string board of a stair is most frequently notched out for the reception of the steps. Ioyel. An open shed for sheltering cattle, for protecting produce or materials of different kinds from the weather, or for performing various country operations during heavy rains, falls of snow, or severe frosts. 1 Iovelling. A mode, of preventing chimneys from smoking, by carrying up two sides higher than those less liable to receive strong currents of air ; or apertures are left on all the sides, so that when the wind blows over the top, the smoke may escape below. Iue. In painting, any degree of strength of colour, from its deepest to its weakest tint. Iundred of Lime. A denomination of measure which, in some places, is equal to thirty- five, in others to twenty-five, heaped bushels or bags, the latter being the quantity about London, that is, one hundred pecks. The hundred is also used for numbering, thus deals are sold by the long hundred , or six score. Pales and laths are sold at fivo score to the hundred if five feet long, and six score if only three feet long. Th e hundred weight is 112 lbs. avoirdupois ; the long hundred weight is 120 lbs. ; so that the former is to the latter as '93333 to 1. ung, double and single. A term applied to sashes; the first when both the upper and lower sash are balanced by weights, for raising and depressing ; and the last when , only one, usually the lower one, is balanced over the pulleys. urricane. A violent storm of wind, calculated at a velocity of from 80 to 100 miles per hour ; and to exercise a force of from 31 A to 49 lbs. per superficial foot. In places Fig. 1409. Hotel de Ciuny, Paris. 1296 GLOSSARY. where buildings are subject to destructive hurricanes, the precautions to be observed have been described in the Papers, &c., of the Corps of Royal Engineers, new series, 1851, vol. i. The whole of the roof should be fixed down to the wall-plate, and the wall-plate to the wall; the wall being made strong enough to resist the powerful cur- rent of air rushing against it. Where buildings are of wood, the framework should be tied into the ground, or into stone piers fixed in the ground. During the hurricane at Rarbadoes, on the 11th August, 1831, buildings having substantial partitions at short intervals, withstood the blast, whilst others without them were blown down. Inside buttresses would answer the purpose. Shutters should be made to open on pivots at top and bottom. Joists used in galleries and verandahs, when let into the wall, tend to upset it. All brickwork should be English bond well grouted throughout, the bricks having first been well saturated with water, and the mortar made of four parts of sand care- fully selected, mixed with one of coral lime ; this mixture sets very strong. In the hurricane mentioned, a small building arched like a gunpowder magazine was uninjured; and a hospital building, well tied with iron, also withstood the storm. Roofs when reconstructed had diagonal bracing inserted to stiffen the rafters ; parapet walls were found to protect roofs. Flat roofs, such as those used in the Mauritius, are perhaps the best to use. Hut. A small cottage or hovel, generally constructed of earthy materials. Hydraulics. (Gr. 'TSup and A uAos, a pipe.) That branch of natural philosophy which treats of the motion of liquids, the laws by which they are regulated, and the effects which they produce. By some authors the term hydrodynamics is used to express the science of the motion of fluids generally, whilst the term hydraulics is more particularly applied to the art of conducting, raising, and confining water, and to the construction and performance of waterworks. Hydrostatics. (Gr. 'Thwp and Sraco, I stand.) The science which explains the properties of the equilibrium and pressure of liquids. It is the application of statics to the pe- culiar constitution of water, or other bodies, existing in the perfectly liquid form. The following is the fundamental law whereon the whole doctrine of the equilibrium and pressure of liquids is founded : when a liquid mass is in equilibrium under the action of forces of any kind, every molecule of the mass sustains an equal pressure in all directions. Hyptkthral. (Gr. 'Tiro, under, and AiB-pp, the air.) A building or temple open to the air. The temples of this class are arranged by Vitruvius under the seventh order, which had ten columns on each front, and surrounded by a double portico as in dipteral temples. The cell was open, whence the name, but it generally had round it a portico of two ranges of columns, one above the other. See Temple. Hyperbola. (Gr. ' Twtp , over, and BaAAw , I throw.) One of the conic sections, being that made by a plane cutting the opposite side of the cone produced above the vertex, or by a plane which makes a greater angle with the base than the opposite side of the cone makes. Hyperbolic Conoid, or Hyperboloid. A solid formed by the revolution of an hyper- bola about its axis. See Conoid. Hyperbolic Cylindroid. A solid formed by the revolution of an hyperbola about its conjugate axis or line through the centre, perpendicular to the transverse axis. H yperthyrum. (Gr. ‘Yirep and &vpa, a door.) The lintel of the aperture of a doorway. Hypocaustum. (Gr. 'Two, under, and Kata, I burn.) In ancient architecture, a vaulted apartment, from which the heat of the fire was distributed to the rooms above by means of earthen tubes. This contrivance, first used in baths, was afterwards adopted in private houses, and is supposed to have diffused an agreeable and equal temperature throughout the different rooms. Hypoqajum. (Gr.) A term applied among the ancients to those parts of a building which were below the level of the ground. IIypopodium. A footstool used in the ancient baths. IIyposcenium. In ancient architecture, the front wall of the theatre, facing the orchestra from the stage. Hypostyle. (Gr.) Work supported by columns ; a covered colonnade, or a pillared hall. Hypotrachelium. (Gr. 'T no, under, and Tpa^pAo?, the neck.) The slenderest part of the shaft of a column, being that immediately below the neck of a capital. I Ice House. A subterranean depot for preserving ice during tho winter. The most im- portant advice that can be given to the builder of an ice house is, that it be so thoroughly capable of drainage, from the lowest point of its floor, as to permit no water ever to collect upon it; this accompilished, no difficulty will, with common precaution, prevent the preservation of the ice. The aspect of such a building should be towards the south- GLOSSARY. 1297 east, that tho morning sun may expel the damp air which is more prejudicial than warmth. If possible it should be placed on a declivity for the facility of drainage. At the end of the drain which is to carry away the water arising from tho melted ice, a perfect air trap should be placed, to prevent all communication between the external and internal air, from which trap the water should bo carried off without the possibility of obstruction. With respect to the dimensions and form of the ice houso, the former may be of a medium diameter, from fifteen to twenty feet ; a moderate size would be from eight to fifteen feet. The best form is the frustum of an inverted cone, ten to twenty feet deep, bricked round, and with double walls, a cavity of four inches being left between them. The ice is sustained on a grated floor, through which the water is rapidly carried off by the drainage first mentioned. The ice is best collected during the severest part of the frost, and should be pounded as laid in the ice house, besides being well rammed down as it is put in. Snow however, hard rammed, will answer when ice can- not be obtained. The entrance may be at the top by double flaps well covered over with straw ; or near the top at the side by a lobby with a door at each end, and filled with trusses of straw to keep out the air. , Ichnograpiiy. (Gr. I x»"w, a model, and Vparfxo, I draw.) The representation of the i gi ound plot of a building. In perspective.it is its representation, intersected by an horizontal plane at its base or groundfloor. i Icosahedron. (Gr. Ei/cotn, twenty, and ‘E5 pa, seat.) One of the five regular or platonic bodies, bounded by twenty equilateral ami equal triangles. It may be regarded as con- sisting of twenty equal and similar triangular pyramids, whose vertices all meet in the | same point; and hence the content of one of these pyramids, multiplied by twenty, gives tho whole content of the icosahedron. Image. In perspective, the scenographic or perspective representation of an object. Imbow. (Verb.) To arch over or to vault. 'Imbricated Tracery. A pattern formed like the tiles on a roof. pipages. A term used by Vitruvius (lib. iv. c. 6.), which has usually been considered as meaning the rails of a door. mperial. (Fr.) A species of dome, whoso profile is pointed towards the top, and widens towards the base, thus forming a curve of contrary flexure. mperials. A sized slate used in roofing. mpetus. (Lai.) In mechanics, the same with momentum or force. mpluvium. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the uncovered court of a house. In the ; summer time it was the practice to stretch an awning over it. The term is also applied to the sinking in the floor to receive the water. iipost. (Lat. Impono, I lay on.) The capital of a pier or pilaster which receives an arch. It varies in the different orders ; sometimes the whole of the entablature serves as the impost to an arch. The term is applicable to any supporting piece. An impost is said to be mutilated when its projection is diminished, so that it does not exceed that of the adjoining pilaster which it accompanies. ibond Jambstone. A bondstone laid in the joint of an aperture. ,;certum. (Lat.) A term used by Vitruvius to designate a mode of building which con- sisted of small rough stones and mortar, and whose face exhibited irregularly formed masonry, not laid in horizontal courses. See Masonry. ch. A measure of length, being the twelfth part of a foot, and is usually subdivided jinto eighths and sixteenths. See Foot. , cised Slab. A memorial to a deceased person, sometimes plainly lettered, and occa- sionally ornamented with brasses; they usually formed the pavement of ancient churches. See Mural Slab. 'Clination. (Lat.) The approach of one line, which if continued will meet another or |the same of two planes. lined Plane. One of the five simple mechanical powers, w-hose theory is deduced ’rom the decomposition of forces. ■ , rustation. (Lat.) Anything, such as mosaic, scagliola, &c., applied by some coll- imating medium to another body. 1 definite. (Lat.) Anything which has only one extreme, whence it may be produced nfinitely as it is produced from such extreme. 1 ented. (Lat.) Toothed together, that is, with a projection fitted to a recess. 1 tan Architecture. The Buddhist and Mahometan buildings of Hindostan are omprised under this title. Rock-cut temples, temples, pillars, monumental tombs, i alls, tanks, &c., show the energy and skill of these people, many of the works being Irofusely covered with sculpture and carvings, the earlier works chiefly having reference > their religion. L oration. (Lat.) A term applied to the firmer consistence which a body acquires from jirious causes. Lull a. (Lat. Iners.) A term applied to that law of the material world which is known 4 O 1298 GLOSSARY. to predicate that fill bodies are absolutely passive or indifferent to a state of rest or motion, and would continue in those states unless disturbed by the action of some extrinsic force. Inertia is one of the inherent properties of matter. Infinite. (Lat. Infinitus, boundless.) In geometry, that which is greater than any assignable magnitude ; and as no such quantities exist in nature, the idea of an infinite quantity can only, and that most imperfectly, exist in the mind by excluding all notions of boundary or space. Infirmary. A public building for the reception of infirm persons ; but the term is more generally used to denote a sick ward attached to some public establishment. Inlaid Work. Work in which the surface of a material is cut away to allow of the substitution of mefal, stone, cement, wood, ivory, tortoiseshell, mother-of-pearl, or other substance, with a flush surface. Such is Buhl Work, Marquetry, &c. Mosaic Work in stone is also inlaid work. The inlaying of metal on metal is called damascening. Veneering is also a species of inlaying. Inner Plate. The wall plate, in a double-plated roof, which lies nearest the centre of the roof; the side of the other wall plate, called the outer plate , being nearer the outer surface of the wall. Inner Square. The edges forming the internal right angle of the instrument called a square. Inserted Column. One that is engaged in a wall. Instruments, Mathematical. Those used for describing mathematical diagrams and drawings of every description, when the figures or elementary parts of them are com- posed of straight lines, circles, or portions of them. The indispensable instruments for such operations are a drawing pen, a pair of plain compasses, commonly called dividers, a pair of drawing compasses, a port crayon and pencil foot, a pair of bow, of triangular , and of proportional compasses, a protractor in the form of a semicircle or rectangle, and graduated on the edges, a plain scale, and a parallel ride. Insular, or Insulated Building. Such as stands entirely detached from any other. Insulated Column. One detached from a wall, so that the whole of its surface may be seen. Intaglio. (It.) Sculpture in which the subject is hollowed out, as for a seal, so that the impression from it would present the appearance of a bas-relief. Intavolata. The same as Cyma. Intercepted Axis. In conic sections, that part of the diameter of a curve comprehends between the vertex and the ordinate. It is also called the abscissa, and forms an arcl of a peculiar kind. Intercolumniation. (Lat. Inter, between, and Culumna, a column.) The distance hetweci two columns measured at the lower part of their shafts. It is one of the mostimportan elements in architecture, and on it depends the effect of the columns themselves, thei pleasing proportion, and the harmony of an edifice. Intercolumniations are of fiv species, pycnostylos, systylos, diastylos, ara-ostylos , and eustylos, which see. Interdentels. The space between two den tel s. From a comparison of various exam pit it seems that the Greeks placed their dentels wider apart than the Romans. In tb temple of Bacchus at Teos, the interdentel is two-thirds the breadth of the dentel, and i that of Minerva Polias at Priene, t'le interdentel is nearly three-fourths. In the tempi of Jupiter Stator at Rome, the interdentels are equal to half the breadth of the deute Interduce. The same as Intertie. Interior Angle. An angle formed within any figure by two straight lined parts of tl perimeter or boundary of the figure, the exterior angle being that which is formed i producing a side of the perimeter of the figure. The term is also applied to the tv angles formed by two parallel lines, when cut on each side of the intersecting line. Interior and Opposite Angles. An expression applied to the two angles formed by line cutting two parallels. Interlacing Arches. Semicircular aches as in an arcade, the mouldings of whic intersect each other, as frequently seen in Norman architecture. Milner supposi the Pointed style to have had its origin from them. Internal Angle. See Interior Angle. Intertiks. Short pieces of timber used in roofing to bind upright posts together, roofs, in partitions, in lath and plaster work, and in walls with timber framework. Jntonaco. (It.) The term often applied to the whole coating of plastering upon wall or ceiling ; but properly it means the finishing coat only. Intrados. The intorior and lower line or curve of an arch. The exterior or upper cur is called the extrados. See Arch. Invention. (Lat. Invenio, I find.) In the fine arts, the choice and production of su objects as are proper to enter into the composition of a work of art. “Strictly spea ing,” says Sir Joshua Reynolds, “invention is little more than a new combination those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in the inemoi Sft ^ If i A GLOSSARY. 1299 nothing can eomo of nothing; he who has laid up no materials can produce no com- binations.” Though there be nothing new under the sun, yet novelty in art will be at- tainable till all the combinations of the same things are exhausted, a circumstance that can never come to pass. Inverted Arch. An arch turned with its back and keystone downwards. It is used in foundations, to distribute the weight of particular points over the whole extent of tho foundation, and hence its employment is frequently of the first importance in construc- tive architecture. Such an arch has been used in some of the English cathedrals to form a buttress between tho piers of the central tower when they appeared to be giving way from the weight above. Involute. See Evolute. Inward Angle. The re-entrant angle of a solid. See Interior Angle. Ionic Order. The second of those employed by the Greeks, and the third used by the Romans and in Italian architecture. The capital is known by the volutes. Dentels are used in the cornice. The proto-Ionic is considered to be found in the capital of the columns at Persepolis. The Anthemion is an ornament peculiar to this order. Iron. One of the chief metals. The metallic products of the iron manufacture are of throe kinds: malleable or wrought iron, being pure or nearly pure iron ; cast iron; and steel, being certain compounds of iron with carbon. In all cases cast iron is best for exterior, and wrought iron for interior purposes— as the former is not acted upon so greatly by atmospheric influences. Ironf,d-in. Ashlar work, when acted upon by water, is sometimes set in hydraulie cement, the joints being filled and rubbed up so as to make the stuff curl out, which is then to be neatly struck off and ironed-in to secure a good water-tight joint. Ironmongery. The articles in iron and other ware, required by the builder during the execution of his works ; such as bolts, locks, and other fastenings, hinges, nails, spikes, screws, and such-like. Irregular Figure. One whose sides, and consequently angles, are unequal to each other. Isagon. (Gr. I roof are fastened. Knobblino. Knocking ofl the rough protuberances of hqrd rock stone at tho quarry. It is called also skiflling. Knocker. A movable sort of hammer, more or loss of an ornamental character, hinged to the face of a door or gate by which attendance is claimed to the demands of those requiring admittance. The knob which is struck upon is sometimes called a door-nail. Knot, or Knob. A bunch of leaves or flowers, as the bosses at the ends of a label ; at the intersection of ribs ; and in capitals. Knotting. The preliminary process in painting, to prevent tho knots appearing, by cover- ing them with a coat composed cf red read, then white lead and oil, and lastly, a coat of gold size. Sometimes leaf silver is used. Also a knotting size. Knuckle. The joint of a cylindrical form, with a pin as an axis, by which the straps of a hinge are fastened together. v nulling. A moulding nearly flat, and similar in character to a bead and reel orna- ment. It is chiefly used in cabinetwork. loss. A measure of length used in India, which varios in different provinces ; generally about two mil-s. vuitB Stone. See Curb Stone. L abkl. In Gothic architecture, the drip or hood moulding over an aperture when it is returned square. abour. (Lat.) A term in masonry employed to denote the value of a piece of work in consideration of the time bestowed upon it. abyrinth. (Gr. A aSvpnSos.) Literally a place, usually subterraneous, full of inextri- cable windings. The four celebrated labyrinths of antiquity were the Cretan, Egyptian, Lemnian, and Italian. The first has the reputation of being the work of Daedalus to secure the Minotaur; tho second is said to have been constructed under the command of Psammeticus, king of Egypt ; the third was on the island of Lemnos, and was sup- ported by columns of great beauty ; the fourth is reported to have been designed by Porsenna, king of Etruria, as a tomb for himself and his successors. ibyrinth Fret. A fret, with many turnings, in the form of a labyrinth. See Fret, vconicum. (Lat.) One of the apartments in the ancient baths, so called from its having been first used in Laconia. cquer. A yellow varnish, consisting of a solution of shell-lac in alcohol, coloured by gamboge, saffron, annotto, or other yellow, orange, or red colouring matters. The use of lacquer is chiefly for varnishing brass, and some other metals, in order to give them a golden colour and preserve their lustre. ctarium. (Lat.) Strictly a dairy-house. In ancient architecture, it was a place in he Roman herb market, indicated by a column, called the Columna Lactaria, where foundlings were fed and nourished. 1 cunar. (Lat.) The ceiling or under surface of the member of an order. Also the |.mder side of the larmier or corona of a cornice. The under side also of that part of the architrave between the capitals of columns. The ceiling of any part in archi- ecture receives the name of lacunar only when it consists of compartments sunk or lollowed, without spaces or bands, between the panels ; if it is with bands, it is called | aquear. 1 ay. A sized slate used in roofing. Ivy Chapel. The name given to a chapel dedicated to the Virgin, generally, in ucient cathedrals, placed behind the high altar. 1302 GLOSSARY. Lagging, or Laggins. The planks laid on the ribs forming the centreing of an arch, to carry the stone or brickwork. Lancet Arch. One whose head is shaped like the point of a lancet, and generally applied to long narrow windows. Fig. 1410. Landing. The terminating floor of a flight of stairs, either above or below it. Lantern. (Fr. Lanterne.) A structure either square, circular, elliptical, or polygonal, on the top of a dome. It is also the upright windows placed over the ceiling of an apartment, to give light. The internally polygonal tower over the in- tersection of the nave with the transepts of a church, as at Ely Cathedral ; St. Helen’s, York, &c., is also so called. Lap. The part of one body which lies on and covers another. Laquear. Seo Lacunar. Lararium. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the apartment in which the lares or household gods were deposited. It frequently contained also statues of the proprietor's ancestors. Larder. The place in which undressed meat is kept for the use of a family. Larmier. (Fr.) The same as Corona. Lit, or Lath. The Sanscrit term for a pillar. Latch. The catch by which a door is held fast. Latent Heat. That which is insensible to the thermometer, upon which the liquid and aeriform states of bodies depend, and which becomes sensible during the conversion of I vapours into liquids and of liquids into solids. Lateral Strength. The resistance which a body will afford at right angles to its grain, Lateral Thrust. The weight, or rather pressure, of materials sideways, as in an arch. Lath. (Sax. Lsetra.) A thin piece of wood used in slating, tiling, and plastering For the hitter, there are tivo sorts, double and single, the former being about three- eighths of an inch thick, and the latter barely a quarter of an inch. Laths for slatei and for pantiles are pieces of fir, about three inches by one inch thick, to which tlu former are nailed, and on to which the latter are hung. Lath Brick. A species made in some parts of England. They are twenty-two inche; long and six inches broad. Lath floated and set fair. Three-coat plasterers’ work; the first is called prickm up ; the second floating ; the third, or finishing, done with fine stuff, is the setting coai Lath laid and set. Two-coat plasterers’ work, except that the first is called laying and is executed without scratching , unless with a broom. When used on walls, thii sort of work is generally coloured ; when on ceilings, it is whited. Lath plastered, set, and coloured. The same as lath laid, set, and coloured. Lath pricked up, floated, and set for Paper. The same as lath floated and set fair Lattice. (Fr. Lattis.) A reticulated window, made of laths of wood, strips of iron, o other materials, and only used where air, rather than light, is to be admitted, as 1 cellars and dairies. Laundry. It should bo spacious and well supplied with every convenience for washing drying, mangling, and ironing the linen of a family or of an establishment. Horses, o frames of wood, should be provided for hanging the linen upon to dry, which shouh be suspended to the timbers of the ceiling by pulleys, by which they may be raise' and lowered, unless a drying closet heated by a stove or hot water be provided; thi is fitted up with horses running on iron rails backwards and forwards. Lavatory. (Lat.) Besides the reference to the monks’ lavatories, as noticed f ' Cloister, this term is now employed to designate a closet or small room fitted u with basins and other apparatus for washing hands ; it sometimes includes urinals an ■water-closets, or communicates with another room fitted up with them. Law Courts. See Court of Justice. Layer. In brickwork and masonry, it is synonymous with Course. Layer Boarding. The same as Gutter Boarding; the boards being fixed to tl bearers to carry the leadwork of a gutter to a roof. Laying. In plastering, the first coat on lath of two-coat work, the surface whereof roughed by sweeping with a broom. The difference between laying and rendering bein that the latter is the first coat upon brick. Lazariiouse, or Lazaretto. (Ital.) A hospital for the reception of the poor and tho? afflicted with contagious diseases. There are many in the southern states of Euro] for the performance of quarantine, into which those only are admitted who arrive fro 1 countries infected by the plague, or suspected of being so. An account of the princip- lazarettos of Europe was published by the celebrated Howard. GLOSSARY. 1303 Lead. (Sax. La?b.) The heaviest metal next to gold, platina, and mercury, being elevou times heavier than its own bulk of water. Leaf. One side of a door, upright slab of stone, &c. Lkanto. A building whose rafters pitch against or lean on to another building or wall. Lear Board. The plank fastened on the feet of the rafters to carry the side piece of the lead of a gutter under the bottom rows of the slating or tiling. Leaves. (Sax. Laeap.) Ornaments imitated from natural leaves, whereof the ancients used two sorts, natural and imaginary. The former were those of the laurel, palm, acanthus, and olive; but they took great liberties in the representations of all of them. Lectern. The reading desk placod in the choir of mediaeval churches. It was made in the shape of a pillar, with a slab for the book, and was usually of brass, sometimes elaborately carved. It was superseded by the reading desk after the Reformation. Lectorium. The ancient name for the place where the epistle was read in a church ; hence lectern nnd lettern for the desk itself. The lectorium in the German churches is now of rare occurrence, but one is to be seen in Meissen Cathedral. Lecture. Hall. A building erectod for the special purpose of affording good accommoda- tion for a lecturer nnd his audience. It is sometimes a large room c< mbined with others; thus, in a village or small town, a building containing a lecture hall aboutfi ty feet by thirty feet, might have a reading room about twenty feet by eighteen feel, a class-room, with a vestibule and the usual necessaries. Ledge. A surface serving to support a body either in motion or at rest. Ledges of doors are the narrow surfaces wrought upon the jambs and sofites parallel to the wall to stop tile door, so that when it is shut the ledges coincide with the surface of the door. A ledge, therefore, is one of the sides of a rebate, each rebate being formed of two sides. In temporary work the ledges of doors are formed by fillets, likewise called a slop. Also the horizontal planks in common doors, to which the vertical planks are nailed. Ledgement. The development of a surface, or tho surface of a body stretched out on a plane, so that the dimensions of the different sides may be easily ascertained. A string course or horizontal moulding. Ledgement table is applied to any of the pro- jections of a plinth in Gothic architecture, excopt the lowest or earth table. Ledgers. In scaffolding for brick buildings are horizontal pieces of timber parallel to the walls. They are fastened to the standards, or upright poles, by cords, to support the put-logs, which lie at right angles to and on the walls as they are brought up, and receive the boards for working on. Leos of an Hyperbola. The two parts on each side the vertex. Legs of a Triangle. The sides which inclose the base. Length. (Sax. L 0115 .) The greatest extension of a body. In a right prism the length is the distance between the ends ; in a right pyramid or cone, the length is the distance between the vertex and the base. Lesche. (Gr.) A public, building among the Greeks, consisting of open courts with por- ticoes, the walls covered with paintings. It was used principally as a lounging place. The nearest modern approach to it appears to be the Ruhmeslialle, or mercantile exchange, at Munich. Ancient writers state that these public meeting-places were so much in request that there were no less than 360 in Athens alone. Lettern, or Lectern. A desk in a church from which the lessons are read. See Amho in the ancient church. An eagle with wings displayed, that bird being symbolical of S. John the Evangelist and his Gospel, was often used as a book board in the Middle Ages ; and is also seen in the cathedrals and in some large churches in England. Leucomb. See Lookum. Level. (Sax. Lcefel.) A line or surface which inclines to neither side. The term is used substantively to denote an instrument which shows the direction of a straight line parallel to the plane of the horizon. ' The plane of the sensible horizon is indicated in two ways : by the direction of the plummet, or plumb line, to which it is perpen- dicular ; and by the surface of a fluid at rest. Accordingly, levels are formed either by means of the plumb line, or by the agency of a fluid applied in some particular manner. They all depend, however, upon the same principle, namely, the action of terrestrial gravity. The carpenter’s level consists of a long rule, straight on its lower edge, about ten or twelve feet in length, with an upright fixed to its upper edge, perpendicular to and in the middle of the length, having its sides in the same plane with those of the rule, and a straight line drawn on one of its sides perpendicular to the straight edge of the rale. The mason's level is formed of three pieces of wood, joined in the form of an isosceles triangle, having a plummet suspended from the vertex over a mark in the | centre of the base. Levelling. The art or act of finding a line parallel to the horizon, at one or more sta- tions, in order to determine the height of one place with respect to another, for laying 1304 GLOSSARY. ground? cvon, regulating descents, draining morasses, conducting waters for the irriga- tion of land, etc. In the practice of levelling, it is evident that the level line, B D carried on by means of a spirit level or other instrument used for the purpose, is a tangent to the earth : it is therefore necessary to make an allowance for the difference between the true level B 0 and the apparent level B I). This difference is, of course, equal to the excess D 0 of the secant of the arch of distance above the radius of the earth. Hence, from station to station, accordingly, allowance must be made. The subjoined Table exhibits the corrections or values of the length C D. Distance or BC. DifE. of Lev. or CD. Distance or BC. Diff. of Lev. or CD. Distance or BC. DifE. of Lev. or CD. Distance or BC. Liff. of Lev. or CD. Yards. Inches. Yards. Inches. Miles. Feet. In. Miles. Feet. In. 100 0-026 900 2-081 4" 0 0> 6 23 11 200 0123 1000 2570 i 0 2 7 32 6 300 0-231 1100 3-110 0 41 8 42 6 400 0-411 1200 3-701 l 0 8 9 53 9 500 0-643 1300 4-344 2 2 8 10 66 4 600 0-925 1400 5 038 3 6 0 11 80 3 700 1-260 1500 5-784 4 10 7 12 95 7 800 1-645 1600 6-580 5 16 7 13 112 2 Lever. In mechanics an inflexible rod, moveable about a fulcrum, or prop, and having forces applied to two or more points in it. The lever is one of the mechanical powers, and being the simplest of them all, was the first attempted to be explained. Lever Boards. A set of boards so fastened that they may be turned at any angle to admit more or less light, or to lap upon each other so as to exclude all air or light through apertures. See Louvre Boards. Lewis, or Lewissox. An instrument used by builders to raise stones of more than ordi- nary weight to the upper part of a building. It was revived by a French artisan in the reign of Lcuis XIV., and is now generally employed. It operates by the pieces forming its dovetail end being held in their corresponding places in a hole sunk in the stone, by a middle straight piece, kept in its situation by a pin passing through it and the dovetail pieces at top, and the combination of the whole is effected with a large ring, which is attached to the rope or chain, and the stone lifted to its place. Lias. A provincial name adopted by geologists for an argillaceous limestone, which, together with its associated bed, is characterised by peculiar fossils. Lihrary. An edifice or apartment for the reception of a collection of books. The most ancient and celebrated library in existence is that of the Vatican : in the latter respect, as well on account of its size as of the number of valuable manuscripts it contains. It occupies in the suite of its apartments one of the sides of the Vatican 900 feet in length. In the architecture or arrangement there is nothing particularly to admire, and indeed it was not originally intended for the purpose to which it has been appropriated. The Medicean library at Florence, the work of Michael Angelo, has grand proportions, hut the details are as capricious as that great man could possibly have invented. The library of St. Mark at Venice has already been described in the First Book. Sansayino had to encounter many difficulties in respect of its site and connection with other buildings, but Palladio considered the success of its design to have been so great as to have made it worthy of any age. Although a public library would seem to require a grave and simple style of treat- ment, it is, nevertheless, properly susceptible of much richness, if the funds admit, and it comports with the surrounding buildings to use much decoration. Security againtt fire is the first important consideration in its construction ; and the next is to ensuro the perfect quiet necessary for study. There can scarcely be too much light, because there are always modes of excluding the excess in the brightest days of summer. The light should not be placed high up for the purpose of obtaining more room tor the presses which are to receive the books, because even a greater space may be obtained, as in the magnificent library at Trinity College, Cambridge, by Wren, by making the presses stand against the piers at right angles with the longitudinal walls, and placing the windows between them. Moreover, the presses, when placed longitudinally against the walls, the windows being above, have the titles of the books they contain in- distinct, from being too much in shadow. The library just mentioned is in every respect one of the finest works of Sir Christopher Wren; it is 190 feet long, 40 feet GLOSSARY. 1305 wide, and 38 feet, high, floored with marblo. and decorated with pilasters and an enta- blature of the Corinthian order. This library is adduced as a perfect model of the mode of distribution, which might be carried in principle to any extent. If the readers be very numerous, a separate reading-room becomes a necessary addition, which should be placed as ceDtrally as may be to the whole mass of building, so that the labour of the attendants may be lessened, and the readers at the same time more readily served with the books wanted. The best mode of warming the apartments is by hot water in pipes carried round the apartments, or pumped up through the floor. Efficient means of affording ventilation to the room or rooms is also necessary. At Paris the Biblioth&que Nationals is, though of immense extent, little more than a warehouse for holding the books. The library of St. Genevieve, in the same city, is a well-conceived and well-designed building, and particularly suited to its destination. This ornamental edifice was designed by M. Labrouste in 1843. Perhaps one of the most absurd distributions of plan for the buildings under consideration is to be seen in tho Radcliffe Library, at Oxford. It is circular on the plan, and hence vast loss of room is experienced, but nevertheless it is a noble building. In London the only library of any size to which reference can be made is that of the British Museum. With so many clubs and institutions, each possessing its own library, it may probably be many years before an edifice, similar to the Free Library and Museum at Liverpool, is erected in London ; especially as the parishes have not yet had sufficient courage to tax themselves for the establishment of free libraries, which the Act of Parliament has for some years past enabled them to do. Tho king’s library at the British Museum is situated in the east wing, and was erected, 1825-28, by Sir R. Smirke, R.A. The chief room is 300 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 30 feet high. Little was done for the accommodation of the readers, largely increasing in numbers, until 1857, when the new reading-room was opened, affording desks for three hundred readers, which are very often fully occupied, who have free access to about 20,000 volumes ranged around it. The room is 140 feet diameter and 106 feet high, having a central light of 40 feet diameter in the dome, with tall side lights in the springing of the dome. It was designed by Mr. Sydney Smirke, R.A. The arrange- ments for economising the space around it for holding the annual accession of new books in narrow and well-lighted corridors, are admirably managed. The Builder journal, xv. p. 229, and the Building News journal, iii. 157, 449-55, contain full details of these fine additions to the national establishment. The library attached to the London University, Gower Street, designed by Professor T. L. Donaldson, is 91 feet long by 21 feet 6 inches wide, 45 feet through the recesses, and 45 feet high in the centre. It is a good example of such a room, planned as a nave and aisles, with cases projecting from the outer walls up to the piers. The library erected by the Corporation of the City of London, and attached to the Guild- hall, is 98 feet by 65 feet, and museum, with reading room 54 feet by 20 feet, is a well-designed edifice, by Sir Horace Jones, the City architect. Liebne Rib. A short rib in vaulting. Lift, or Hoist. A machine introduced into warehouses, to raise goods from the lower to the higher floors of the building, and worked either by manual or by hydraulic power. Lately it has been placed in large houses and in hotels, for the purpose of raising fuel, luggage, &c., to each floor; in some instances the platform has been formed into a room for the accommodation of persons while being hoisted to an upper, or lowered to an under floor, without the fatigue of walking up and down long flights of steps. For lifting stones, see Lewis. Light, Diffusion of. Light passing into a room through obscured glass or a blind, by means of which the intensity of the light is broken. If the glass be placed flush with the outside of the wall, the obscured side being placed outside, the effect is very great in diffusing light. jIGht, Obstruction of. The raising a building opposite a neighbour’s windows, whereby he is deprived of a certain amount of light. It used to be held that all per- sons building on old foundations in the City of London could carry their buildings to any height they pleased ; that the intervention of a street or public way justifies the raising of a building to any extent; that a building may be raised providing the rais- ing is not to a height beyond a line drawn at an angle of 45 degrees from the window opening or openings, the light of which is affected by the raising of an adjoining build- ing; that skylights or horizontal roof lights are not subject to tho same law as ordinary vertical windows ; but these are all fallacious notions. However distant the obstruc- tion, or however brought about, if an ancient light which has existed twenty years is injuriously affected by reason of the works of an adjoining owner, there is a cause for action. 1306 GLOSSARY. Light, Reflected. Light thrown by means of a light and polished surface into the win- dows opposite to it. This may be effected in some degree by limewhiting the wall; also by building it of white glazed bricks ; also by white tiles being affixed to the wall. “ Reflectors " are also provided for this purpose, made of a white metal, fixed in a frame and covered with glass, which is suspended and fixed at an angle which will throw the light to the point required. Lighthouse. A lofty building, on the top whereof artificial lights are placed to guide ships at sea. The lighthouse dates from the earliest period, and appears to have consisted of a tower of masonry, sometimes of a circular form, but usually square, and consisting of various apartments, as the establishment was greater or less, wherein was n raised altar upon which the beacon was established. Fire-towers or lighthouses wero common on the shores of the Mediterranean, the Archipelago, the Bosphorus, and Red Sea. Among the most celebrated of these was the Pharos of Alexandria. It was accounted one of the seven wonders of the world. In England, the Eddystone lighthouse, by the celebrated Smeaton, was not only an object of beauty, but of that soundness of con- struction which is the most essential requisite in works of this kind. The general form is seen in fig. 1411. This is a fine illustration of fitness producing beauty. The resistance it afforded against the waves arose from the beautiful curved line which leads them up it instead of being broken against it. Indeed, in stormy weather, the waves actually rolled up the side, and fell in a contrary curve over the top of the lighthouse. The beds of the masonry were so laid and dove- tailed and joggled as to become a part of the rock on which it was erected, between June 12, 1757, and October 16, 1759. A narrative of the work was published by Mr. Smeaton. This elegant structure was pulled down and a new light- house built between August 19, 1879, and June 1, 1881, when the first and last stones were laid. The old lighthouse was re-erected on land. The most architectural of modern lighthouses is that of Corduan on the coast of France, which stands on a large rock, or rather on a low island, about three miles from land, at the entrance of the river Garonne. Founded about the year 1584, in the reign of Henry II. king of France, it was carried on under the reigns of three successive monarchs, arriving at its completion in 1610, in the reign of Henry IV. It stands upon a platform of solid masonry, and is surrounded by a parapet about 145 feet in diameter, which is equal to the height. The lightkeepers’ apartments and store rooms are not in the main Fig. 1411. tower, but form a detached range of buildings on the great platform, the interior of the tower itself being finished in a style of magnificence too splendid for the use of common persons. Over the fuel cellar, which is formed in the solid masonry of the platform, is the great hall, twenty-two feet square, twenty feet high, with an arched ceiling. On this floor are two wardrobes and other conveniences. Above the last-men- tioned room is the king’s room, twenty-one feet square and twenty high, with an ellip- tical ceiling. There are on this floor a vestibule, two wardrobes, and other con- veniences. On the third floor is placed the chapel, for a priest who occasionally says mass is attached to the establishment, and this is twenty-one feet in diameter, domed, and forty feet high, and lighted by 7 eight windows. There is an eye in the dome through which is seen the ornamental roof of the room above, and that is fourteen feet diameter and twenty-seven feet high. This is used by the lightkeepers as a watch room. Over it rises an apartment, which is immediately under the light room, used for holding sufficient fuel for one night’s consumption, and capable itself of being converted into a pilace for the exhibition of a light in case of repairs being required to any extent in the main light room, which, as we have said, is immediately over it, and is sur- rounded by a balcony and circular stone parapet. The height from the floor to the top of the cupola of the original lantern or light room was 17 feet, and being unglazed, the smoke was carried out on either side in the direction of the wind. The roof, moreover, formed a kind of chimney in the form of a spire, terminating with a ball. The height GLOSSARY. 1307 of tho light room, which was entirely of stone, was thirty-one feet from the light, room floor to the ball on the top of the spire. The fuel first used for the light was oak, after which pit coal was introduced; but in modern times lamps and reflectors have succeeded the last, and the light is now seen at a proper distance. The attempt to make lighthouses resemble columns is intolerable; they should possess, according to the different situations, a character peculiar to themselves : hence the application of a column for the purpose is the worst of abuses. The North Foreland lighthouse, whose plan is polygonal, would be a good example had the details been pro- perly attended to in the design. Lighting. The quantity of daylight admitted by windows and skylights into an apart- ment. The superficial area of light may be equal to one-half the area of one wall of the room, if tho room is lighted on one side only, and does not exceed more than one and one-half times its height in depth. A room more than twice its height in depth, i.c. in distance back from the side from which it receives the light, cannot be efficiently lighted from one side only. The aspect of a window makes very considerable difference in the amount of light, as also the presence of buildings or trees in the vicinity. It should be remembered that the higher the top of the window is in the room tho better will be the light at the back of the room. A line at an angle with the wall of 60° from the top of the window to the floor will cut off all the depth than can be freely lighted. The quantity of light admitted by a skylight is considered to be equal to about thirty times that by a window— thus, if one foot square of vertical light placed centrally be sufficient for 100 cubic feet of room, one foot of horizontal light will suffice for upwards of 3,000 cubic feet, as proved by the Pantheon at Rome; see sect. 2747. Lightning Conductor. A metal rod fixed to the highest part of a building, carried ■ down the face of it, and into the earth, for the purpose of attracting the fork of light- ning, and carrying it away from the other metal-work of the structure. Newall sup- plies copper rope of §, §, and § inch diameter, with copper points and fittings. A con- ductor requires fixing with proper isolators and attachments, to pi event the interruption of the electric current. Hart and Son supply a sort of wire chain under Spratt's patent. Lights. A term sometimes used to denote the openings whether of doors, gates, or win- dows, or unenclosed places, and through which air and light have passage. Like Arcs. In the projection of tho sphere, the parts of lesser circles containing an equal number of degrees with the corresponding arcs of greater circles. Like Figures. In geometry, such as have their angles equal, and the sides about the equal angles proportional. Like Solids. Those which are contained under like planes. Lime. (Germ. Leim, glue.) A most useful earth, obtained by exposing chalk, and other kinds of limestones or carbonates of lime, to a red heat, an operation generally con- ducted in kilns constructed for the purpose, by which the carbonic acid is expelled, and lime, more or less pure, according to the original quality of the limestone, remains, in which state it is called quicklime. Limekiln. One for the purpose of burning lime. They are constructed in a variety of ways, to save expense, or to answer to the particular nature of the fuel. Limestone. A generic term for those varieties of stone containing carbonate of lime, which are neither crystallised nor earthy, the former being calcareous spar, the latter chalk. When burned they yield quicklime. Line. (Lat. Linea.) In geometry, a magnitude having only one dimension, and defined by Euclid to be that which has length without breadth. The term is also used to denotea measure of length used formerly in France, namely, the twelfth part of an inch, or yL of a foot. Line of Direction. In mechanics, the line in which motion is communicated. Line of Station. The intersection of a plane passing though the eye, perpendicular to the picture, and to the geometrical or primary plane with the plane itself. I Line, Geometrical. In perspective, any straight line in the geometrical or primary line. Line, Horizontal. A line parallel to the horizon. In perspective it is the vanishing line of horizontal planes. Line, Vertical. The intersection of a vertical plane with the picture passing along tho I station line. Line, Visual. A ray of light reflected from the object to the eye. Lines of Light and Shade. Those in which the light and shade of a body are sepa- rated. Thus, on a curved surface, it is the line determined by a tangent to tho surface in the direction of the rays of light. Lining. The covering of the surface of any body with another thin substance. Thus the lining of a wall is a wooden boarding, whose edges are either rebated or grooved and 1 tongued. Lining is distinguished from casing, the first being a covering in the interior of a building, whilst the latter is the covering of the exterior part of a building. Lining out Stuff. (Participle.) The drawing lines on a piece of board or plank so as to cut it into thinner pieces. 1308 GLOSSARY. Lininos of Boxings. The pieces of framework of a window into which the window shutters are folded back. Linings of a Door. Those of the sides of apertures of doors called the jambs or jamb- linings, that which covers the top or head being the soffite. Lintel. (Span.) A horizontal piece of timber or stone over a door, window, or other opening to discharge the superincumbent weight. If a wall be very thick, more than one lintel piece will be required, unless scantling of sufficient width be found. In some old books on carpentry, lintels are classed under wall plates, but the word is now never used in this sense, unless the joisting or tie beams rest upon it, in which case it is both a lintel and a wall plate. List, or Listel. The same as Fillet. Listed Boards. Such as are reduced in their width by taking off the sap from the sides. They are also explained as boards, sorted and matched, so as to make the floor appear all of one colour. Listing. (Participle.) Cutting the sap wood out from both edges of a board. Loam. A soil in which clay prevails. It is called heavy or light as the clay may be more or less abundant. Lobby. (Germ. Laube.) An enclosed space surrounding or communicating with one or more apartments, such as the boxes of a theatre, for instance. By it also is understood a small hall or waiting room, or the entrance into a principal apartment where there is a considerable space between it, and a poitico or vestibule; but the dimensions, especially as regards the width, will not allow of its being called a vestibule or ante-room. Lock. (Sax. Loc.) A well-known instrument, consisting of springs and bolts, for fasten- ing doors, drawers, chests, &c. A good lock is a masterpiece in smithery, requiring much art and delicacy to contrive and vary the wards, springs, bolts, and other parts whereof it is composed, so as to adjust them to the places where they are serviceable, and to the various purposes of their use. The structure of locks is so varied, aud the number of inventions of their different sorts so extended, that we cannot attempt to enumerate them. Those placed on oufer doors are called stock-locks, those on chamber doors spring locks, and rim locks, and such as are hidden in the thickness of the doors to which they are applied, mortise locks. The padlock is too well-known to need description here, Lockrail. The middle horizontal rail of a door. Locutory. An apartment in a monastery in which the monks were allowed to con- verse when silence was enjoined else- where. Lodge. A small house, situated in a park or domain, subordinate to the mansion. Also the cottage placed at the gate leading to the mansion. Loft. An upper platform, as in Scotland. It has been applied to the gallery in a church. In modern usage it is limited to the place immediately under the rafters, as cockloft in a house, hay -loft in a stable, &c. See Solar. Logan. See Rocking Stone, Logarithms. Artificial numbers used to facilitate arithmetical calculations. Loggia. (It.) In its strict meaning a lodge; but usually signifying a gallery open to the air, and used for shelter, or from which to obtain a prospect. Log-house. A hut constructed of the trunks of trees. Logistic Spiral. One wdiose radii are in continued proportion, and in which the radii are at equal angles; or, in other words, a spiral line whose radii every- where make equal angles with the tangents. Fig. 1412. Tower of Earl's Barton Church. Lombard Architecture. The class of Romanesque architecture which prevailed in the Northern parts of Italy. Long and Short Work. A rough sort of building, consisting of quoin stones placed flat and upright alternately. Many writers consider such masonry as a mark of tlio work of the 11th century, or previous to it, and call it Saxon work. See fig. 1412. GLOSSARY. i:i09 Longimetry. A term used to denote the operation of trigonometry for measuring lengths, whether accessible or inaccessible. Lookum, or Leucomb. A word used for tho projection on the upper floor of a warehouse or mill, to cover a wheel and fall, or a crane, and has a trap-floor to it. It may, pro- bably, be derived from the French term lucarne. Loop. (Fr.) A small narrow window. A loophole is a term applied to the vertical series of doors in a warehouse, through which the goods in craning are delivered. Loophole. A narrow aperture formed in walls, and sometimes in the merlon of a battle- ment, through which the defenders discharged their bows or firearms. See Balistrarla. Lotus. A plant of the water-lily species much used in the architectural ornaments of the early nations, and especially in the capitals of Egyptian columns. See fig. 54. Louvre. A turret or lantern over a hall or other apartment with openings for ventila- tion and to allow the escape of smoke or steam. Louvre, Duffer, or Lever Boarding. (Fr. Louvre.) Boarding, with intervals between the boards, nailed horizontally in an inclined direction, on the sides of buildings or lanterns, so as to admit a free current of air, and at the same time to exclude the rain. They are used for air-drying lofts. Each set, if required, is made to open and shut by the action of a lever. Low Side Window. A small opening like a window, usually placed in the south chancel wall, and lower than the other windows, for what purpose is not strictly known. It has been called a Lychnoscope. Lozenge. A quadrilateral figure of four equal sides, with oblique angles. Lozenge Moulding. An ornament used in Norman architecture, presenting the appear- ance of diamond-shaped lozenges laid in the hollow of the moulding. Lucarne. The same as Dormer. Lumber. Timber sawn ready for use. It is a term used chiefly in America. Lune or Lunula. The space between two equal arcs of a circle. Lunette. (Fr.) A cylindric, cylindroidic, or spherical aperture in a ceiling. As an example of the term, we may refer to the upper lights in the nave of St. Paul’s Cathedral. Luthern. The same as Dormer. Lych-Gate, or Corpse-Gate (from the Anglo-Saxon Leich , a dead body). A gate at the entrance of a churchyard, where the coffin was set down for a few minutes before burial. It is generally of wood, and often thatched. Lych-gates are not of frequent occurrence in England. In Wales many of them may be seen. Lychnoscope. See Low Side Window. Lying Panels. Those wherein the fibres of the wood, or the grain of it, lie in a hori- zontal direction. Lysis. (Gr.) A plinth or step above the cornice of the podium of ancient temples, which surrounded or embraced the stylobate; an example of it may be seen in the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. M M Roof. A roof formed by the junction of two common roofs with a valley between them. The letter inverted represents this species of covering. Machicolations. (Fr. Machicoulis.) In castellated architecture are, according to Grose, the projections, supported by' brackets or corbels, through which melted lead and stones were dropped on the heads of assailants. They were not probably, however, projecting works, but sometimes were considered as the series of square holes in the vaultings of the portals used for the same purpose. Machine. (Gr. Maxartj.) In a general sense, anything which serves to increase or regu- late the effect of a given force. Machines are simple or compound. The former are the simple mechanical powers, six in number ; viz. the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the wedge, the screw, and the funicular machine. The latter are formed by the combi- nation of two or more simple machines, and are classed according to the forces by which they are put in motion, as hydraulic machines, pneumatic machines, electric machines, &c., or the purposes they are intended to serve, as military machines, architectural machines, &c. :Mabnhir, or Menhir. A loDg upright stone in Celtic works, called by the Norman writers peulvan, and by country people hoarstone. Magnesian Limestone. An extensive series of beds lying in geological position imme- diately above the coal measures ; so called because the limestone, which is tho principal member of the series, contains magnesia. Magnitude. (Lat.) A term by which size, extent, or quantity is designated. It was originally applied to the space occupied by any figure ; or, in other words, it was applied to objects strictly termed geometrical, and of three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness, but it has gradually become enlarged in its signification, so as to be given to 1310 GLOSSARY. every kind of quantity that admits of mensuration, or of which greater or less can be predicated ; in which sense it was used by Euclid. Mahogany. A wood used for doors, window-sashes, and ornamental work, especially cabinet work. The Jamaica mahogany is the hardest and most beautiful, and is distinguished from that of Honduras by the chalky appearance of its fibres. The latter has very little flower. Main Couple. See Couple. Malleability. (Lat. Malleus, a hammer.) The property of being susceptible of extension under the blows of a hammer. It is a characteristic of some of the metals, most particu- larly in gold. Common gold-leaf is not more than a two-hundred-thousandth part of an inch in thickness. Five grains may be beaten out so as to cover a surface of more than two hundred and seventy square inches. Malleable Iron. The same as pure Wrought Iron, being iron that can be worked by the hammer and tongs. The name has also lately been given to a soft quality of iron more easily worked for ornamental purposes. Mallet. (Lat.) A large kind of wooden hammer much used by artificers who work with a chisel, as masons, stonecutters, carpenters, joiners, &c. Maltha. (Gr.) A native bitumen used by the ancients for plastering the walls of their dwellings, &c. An artificial kind was made of pitch, wax, plaster, and grease; another sort was composed of lime slaked with wine, and incorporated with melted pitch and fresh figs. Manger. The trough in the stall of a stable wherein is placed the corn or other short food given to live stock, and more especially to horses. Manhole. An opening formed over a sewer, or by the side of it, large enough to admit a man to enter to do repairs, &c., when requisite It is also formed on the top of large boilers, to give access to clean out the interior; and also over a cesspool for the same purpose. A manhole has usually a close-fitting cover, well set to prevent the escape of steam, foul air, &c. Mansard Roof. (So called from the name of its supposed inventor, the French archi- tect, Franqois Mansart.) The same as Curb Roof. Mansion. A large house ; a term more usually applied to one in the country. The origin of the word and its application is supposed to be derived from the mansiones, or stationary camps of the Roman soldiers. Mantapa. The Hindoo term for the porch attached to most vimanas or temples beyond the antarala. It is a square building, having a door on each of its four sides ; the roof is generally pyramidal. If there should be two porches, the outer one is called the maha mantapa. Mantel Piece. The horizontal decoration in stone or marble in front of the mantel tree, and supported by the jambs or boxings of a chimney-piece. Mantel Shelf. The slab lying on the mantel piece, and secured at the back into the plastering of the wall. Mantel Tree. The wood lintel or brick arch to the openings of a fire-place. Marble. (Gr. Mapyaipw, to gleam, to sparkle.) A term limited by mineralogists and geologists to the several varieties of carbonate of lime, having more or less of a granu- lar and crystalline texture. Among sculptors, the word is used to denote several compact or granular kinds of stone susceptible of a very fine polish ; the varieties of it are very numerous. Ancient Marbles The most valuable sort, and the grandest quarry of the Greek white marbles, was the Pentelican, obtained from mount Penteles, in Attica. It was used in the Parthenon and other buildings in Athens, and was in great repiute with the sculptors. This marble is overlaid in the quarries with large figured red and green Cipollino. The base rock of the Acropolis at Athens, a mass of richly coloured marble — rose, reds, browns and greys — was discarded by the Greeks. The Parian was obtained from the island of Paros. Mount Marpesus yielded the best, which was called Marpessian ; it was also termed Lychneus, because of its use for candelabra, and Lygdineum, from the promontory of Lygdos. It consists almost en- tirely of carbonate of lime; and Dr. Clarke states it has lasted better than the Pentelican, which has veins of extraneous substances intersecting the quarries, and which appear, more or less, in all works executed in this sort of marble. The Parian has a waxy appearance when polished, and hardens by exposure to the air; the statues of the Venus di Medici, the Diana Venatrix, the collossal Minerra Pallas of Velletri, and the Capitoline Juno, were carved in this material, and the tomb of Mausolus was built of it, the remains of which are now in the British Museum. Other white marbles were of mount Hymettus, in Attica, of Thasus and Lesbos, in great repute; of Lunar, in Etruria, of a white even whiter than that of Paros; the Phcllense, from mount Phellens; the Coraliticum, found near the river Coralios in Phrygia, which was also termed Sangarium, from another name of the same river; GLOSSARY. 1311 Cyzicum , from Cyzicus in Asia Minor, one of the three marbles of which the temple at Ephesus was to be built ; also called Proconnesian marble. Chernites was another sort of marble, which resembled ivory in its colour. The Phengites of Capadocia was white with yellow spots. The black marbles were : Trenarus, highly esteemed ; one from the island of Lesbos ; Lybicum or Numidian, called also Luculleum-, Chium, from Mount Pelineus, in the island of Ohio, of a transparent chequered black colour ; Obsidianum, from Ethiopia ; Synnadicum, or Marmor Phrygium, from near Synnas, in Phrygia, having small circles in its black ground ; Africanu , from the island of Scio, so called from its dark colour by Pliny, who was wrong. The rose Africano, from Porta Santa, in the island of Scio, a grand quarry, yielding six or more different kinds (Brindley); the old quarries of llosso antico were discovered at Laconia ; quantities were obtained from Egypt. Taygetum supplied the green porphyry, or serpentine, of the Italians. Carystus, in Eubsea, gave the green Cipollino, one of the marbles most appreciated by the Romans, of which in Rome alone .500 columns still remain ; it was a mingled dark green ; Memphites and Ophites, resembling the skin of a serpent, and from the city in Egypt, near where it was found ; it is the Serpen/ino antico of the Italians ; Laeonicum, from Mount Taygetes, the well-known Verd antique of the antiquaries ; the green Tiberian and Augustan marbles were obtained from Egypt. Yellow marble was found at Corinth; the Rhodian marble was marked with spots resembling gold ; that of Melos was excavated in Mount Acynthus. Atraciiun, from Mount Atrax, in Thessaly, was a mixture of white, green, blue, and black. The Romans seem to have introduced coloured marbles in monumental works after their conquest of Egypt, whence they derived their first ideas of monolith columns. Their early buildings contained few varieties of coloured marbles, the number in- creasing as the colonies matured. The monoliths in St. Peter's and St. Sebastian were cut from the quarry of Porta Santa, in the island of Scio, as was also the basin, 15 feet diameter and 4 feet thick, discovered by Mr J. T. Wood, at Ephesus. The ancient quarry in Tunis supplied the Giallo antico, and varieties of rose and orange Breccias ; this marble was reserved for Rome, where 172 columns of it are still extant. Most of the pavement in the Basilica Julia, and thecolumns in St. John Lateran, the Pantheon, the Arch of Titus, are of this marble ; as well as the wall-lining, half an inch thick, in the palaces of the Caesars. The first paper read by Mr. Brindley names forty-six of the principal quarries of various countries worked in the time of the Romans ; the second one refers to the stones and marbles found in Egypt. Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Archi- tects, 1887-88 and 1888-89. The building and decorative stones of Egypt, including limestone, sandstone, granite, porphyry, opus Alexandrinum. verde Augustus, Oriental alabaster, Breccia verde, gem stones, &c., are described by Mr. Brindley, 1887, Nov. 24. See Porphyry and Syenite. The Numidian marble of the Romans, obtained from North Africa, is coloured marble of various shades and tints, but does not include white marbles or shades of white, of which there are numerous quarries in North Africa. Marmor Numidicum appears to be a misnomer, for the only known quarry in the ancient province of Numidia is at Filfilla, near Philippoville. The only yet discovered quarries are those at Chemtou in Tunisia (Simirtu Colonia in Africa Provincia of the Romans), and at Kleber in Algeria, north-east of Oran (in the ancient kingdom of Mauretania). The former quarries are much in the condition in which they were left by the Romans. The quarries at Kleber cover an area of over 1,500 acres. Breccias, from dark brown to blood red ; Giallo antico of different hues, designated as Canarino, Avorio, and Pavonazzo ; Cipollino rosso, and more than one quality of white marble. Specimens of some of these are now to be seen in the new mausoleum room of the British Museum. Great and beautiful varieties are to be seen in the prayer chamber of the great mosque at Kairouan, and other mosques (Alex. Graham, in Proceedings Royal Institute of British Architects, | 1886-87). A useful list of ancient and modern marbles, with references to works of art, is con- tained in the work by the Count de Clarac, and translated in the Civil Engineer, 30,0001. The Eitzwilliam Museum, at Cambridge, was commenced in 1837 by George Basevi, and partially completed after his death in 1845 by C. It. Cockerell. It. A. ; but it has since received several additions and alterations for the increased collections. The South Kensington Museum, as it is called, com- bining works of art and manufacture of modern date, has many portions to be highly commended. The Art Museums at Dublin, Edinburgh, in the castle at Nottingham, Manehe-ter, and numerous other towns, afford examples for the future designer of such useful edifices for general purposes. The Natural History Museum at South Kensington, designed 1873-81 by Mr. Alfred Waterhouse, R.A., affords one of the latest examples of a building for a special purpose. It is probably the largest modern building in which terra-cotta has been exclusively used for external and internal sur- faces, including architectural and decorative features, except ceilings and floors. It is 670 feet long and 290 feet deep. The public museum and library erected at Havre, by M. L. Fortune Brunet Debaines, about 1848, is exceedingly meritorious. It consists of a central hall for sculpture ; on either side, and separated from it by an open arcade, by means of which the hall is lig .ted, is a gallery and museum, the floor of which is six or eight feet above the floor of the hall, so as to afford rooms for attendants, &c., beneath. Access to these galleries is had from the hall by a flight of steps on each side of the entrance in front. A long flight of steps from the centre of the back of the hall, with other flights right and left, conduct to a picture gallery over the hall, and to a library, containing 20,000 volumes, over the side galleries. It is a square of about 100 feet, not including the principal staircase. The budding, without the fittings, cost about 40,000f. It is of stone. Mushhebeeyeh. The Arabic term for a projecting balcony enclosed with lattice work, in which the occupiers of a house can sit without being seen from the street and enjoy the air. Musjid. The Arabic for a mosque; the jumma musjid is the chief mosque of a city- Mutilated Cornice and Pediment. One that is broken or discontinued. Such works were much used during the worst period of the Renaissance, and may still be seen occasionally introduced in modern buildings Mutilation. (Lat.) The defacing or cutting away of any regular body. The word is applied to statues and buildings where any part is wanting. Mutule. (Lat.) A projecting ornament of the Doric cornice, which occupies tlio place of the modillion in the other orders, and is supposed to represent the ends of rafters. The mutule has always been assumed as an imitation of the end of a wooden rafter; hence, say the advocates for a timber type, they are properly represented with a decli- nation towards the front of the coronas. N Nail. (Sax. Ntegel.) A small metal spike for fastening one piece of timber to another. The sorts of nails are very numerous. Those of most common use in building are known by the names of ten-penny, twenty-penny , and two-sldlling nails. Boss nails are drawn square in the shank. Brads are long and slender nails without heads, used for thin deal work to avoid splitting. Tacks, the smallest sort of which serve to fasten linen or paper to wood ; the middling for medium work ; the larger size are much used by upholsterers. Out nails, or nails cut by machinery instead of being wrought by hand as formerly, are now much used, especially for securing flooring boards to tlio timbers. See Adhesion. Nail-head Moulding. One used in Norman buildings, and so called from being formed by a series of projections resembling the heads of nails or square knobs. Naked. A term applied eiiher to a column or wall to denote the face or plain surfaco from which the projections rise. Naked Flooring. The assemblage of timbers for the floor of a building, whereof there are three sorts, viz., single flooring, double flooring, and double-framed flooring. Naked of a Wall. The remote face whence the projections take their rise. It is gene- rally a plain surface, and when the plan is circular the naked is the surface of a cylindir •with its axis perpendicular to the horizon. Nads. (Gr.) See Cell. GLOSSARY. 1323 Narthex. An inclosed space in the ancient basilica when used as a Christian church ; and also of an ante-temple or vestibule outside the church ; it is thus used as synonymous with porch and portico. Some modern churches have a narthex with a lean-to roof, so as to form a kind of large porch the whole width of the building, or of the nave only. Na .ural Bed of a Stone. The surface from which the laminae were separated. In all masonry it is important to its duration that the laminae should be placed perpendicular to the face of the work, and parallel to the horizon, inasmuch as the connecting sub- stance of these laminae is more friable than the laminse themselves, and therefore apt to scale off in large flakes, and thus in !uee a rapid decaj' of the work. Naumachia. (Gr. from Nans, a ship, and Max’?, a battle.) In ancient architecture, a place for the show of mock sea engagements, little different from the circus and amphi- theatre, since this species of exhibition was often displayed in those buildings. One was erected at Milan under the orders of Napoleon I. Nave. (Gr. Naos.) The body of a church reaching from the rail or partition of the choir to the principal entrance. See Church. By far the most important feature of Romanesque architecture is the greater elevation obtained for __ the interior of churches beyond the mere walls of previous times. This resulted in the triple range of Pier arrh, dividing the nave from the — - aisles, as 1 in fig. 1417 ; the Triforium, contain- ; ing sometimes a gallery over the aisles, as 2; and the Clerestory, or row of windows admitting light to ike nave, as 3. The string courses are unbroken, and give the appearance of the build- ing being divided into layers or stages ; the _ arches also do not harmonise, and the whole F presents the characteristics of the horizontality of ancient types. The first stage of transition to the verticality of Pointed architecture Fig. 1423. Fig. 1424. Fig. 1425. Fig. 1426. Fig. 1427. triforium and clerestory into compartments, as in fig. 1418. The style advanced, as is jshown in fig. 1419, being an example < f the treatment of a bayof anave orchoirin the E ar[y English or Lancet period ; fig. 1420 in that of the Geometrical Decorated ; fig. 1421 m that of the Flowing or Late Decorated ; and fig. 1422 in that of the earlier part of 1324 GLOSSARY. the Rectilinear or Perpendicular period. In the later portion may be noticed the flatten ing of the arches, the four-centred arch being that most frequently used. Tho ogee arch {Jig. 1427) was also much used at the same period. The above representations ( Jigs. 1424 to 1427) of a bay of a nave or choir, exhibit the additions of a Perpendicular clerestory on a lower portion of earlier character ; and the extinction of the triforium as a gallery, it being transformed into a wall decorated with panels. The priory church at Bath has not a triforium, but a lofty clerestory, like jig. 1426; while the choir at Bristol has neither triforium nor clerestory. Nebuie Moulding. (Lat. Nebula.) An ornament in Norman architecture, whose edge forms an undulating or wavy line, and introduced in corbel tables and archivolts. Fig. 1382. Neck of a Capital. The space, in the Doric order, between the astragal on the shaft and the annulet of the capital. Some of the Grecian Ionic capitals are with necks below them, as in the examples of Minerva Polias and Erechtheus, at Athens. But the Ionic order has rarely a neck to the capital. Needle. A horizontal piece of timber serving as a temporary support to some super- incumbent weight, as a pier of brickwork, and resting upon posts or shores, while the lower part of a wall, pier, or building is being underpinned or repaired. Nervures. A name given by French architects to the ribs bounding the sides of a groined compartment of a vaulted roof, as distinguished from the ribs which diagonally cross the compartment. Net Measure. That in which no allowance is made for finishing, and in the work of artificers, when no allowance is made for the waste of materials. Neutral Axis. That plane in a beam in which theoretically the tensile and compressive forces terminate, and in which the stress is therefore nothing. Newel, The upright cylinder or pillar, round which, in a winding staircase, the steps turn, and are supported from the bottom to the top. In stairs, geometrical for instance, where the steps Are pinned into the wall, and there is no central pillar, the staircase is said to have an open newel. Niche. (Fr. probably from Netnnria, a nest.) A cavity or hollow place in the thickness of a wall for the reception of a statue, vase, &e. Nidged Ashlar. A species of ashlar used in Aberdeen. It is brought to the square by means of a cavil or hammer with a sharp point, which reduces the roughness of the stone to a degree of smoothness according to the time employed. When stone is so hard as to resist the chisel and mallet, the method described is the only way in which it can be dressed. Nog. The same as a Wood Brick. Nogging. A species of brickwork carried up in panels between quarters or studs, and in which manner partitions called “ brick-nog partitions” are made. Nogging-piece. A horizontal board laid in brick-nogging, and nailed to the quarters for strengthening the brickwork. They are disposed at equal altitudes in the brickwork. Nonagon. (Gr.) A geometrical figure having nine sides and nine angles. Normal Like. In geometry, one which stands at right angles to another line. Norman Architecture. This term comprises the architecture of the Normans ns seen in Sicily and adjoining countries; and is applied to the round arch style which was carried out chiefly in Normandy, and thence taken over into England soon after Edward the Confessor’s time, and more prominently in the reign of William I. It is a variation of Romanesque architecture. See Jigs. 1417 and 1418. Nosing of a Step. The projecting part of the tread-board or cover which stands before the riser. The nosing is generally rounded, so as to have a semicircular section ; and in the better sort of staircases a fillet and hollow is placed under the nosing. Notation. In the early periods of the Roman notation, four was written IIII., this has been changed into IV. ; nine was written VILLI., now IX. ; forty was written XXXX., now XL. Five hundred was originally written Iq., now D. ; a thousand CIq., now M. The number Iq = 500, is increased in value ten times for every q annexed. Thus Iqq = 5,000 ; IqOQ = 50,000, and so on. The number CIq = 1,000 is increased in value tin times for every C and q prefixed or annexed to it. Thus CCIqq = 10,000, &c. This notation is not now in use, but will be found in works of the 17th century. Notation, Architectural. The method adopted of placing signs to figures when mark- ing dimensions on drawings. Thus, in lieu of writing feet, inches, and parts of an inch, certain dashes are used, ' for feet, '' for inches, and for parts ; or 0 for feet, ' for inches, and " for parts. There is no settled method for using these marks. Notch-board. A board which is grooved or notched for the reception and support of tho ends of steps in a staircase. | Notching. A hollow cut from one of the faces of a piece of timber, generally made rectangular in section. , , Nucleus. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the internal part of a floor, which consisted of a strong cement, over which the pavement was laid with mortar. Nuoqer, or Nagar. The Sanscrit name for a city ; as Ahmednugger, properly Aliniad- nagar, the city of Ahmad. GLOSSARY. 1325 Nuhaghe. The name of a species of very ancient structure in Sardinia, resembling and used for a similar purpose as the cromlechs or dolmens. They are supposed by some writers to be the work of tho ancient Phoenicians. NrMPHjECM. (Gr.) A name used by the ancients to denote a picturesque grotto in a rocky or woody place, suppostd to be dedicated to, and frequented by, the nymphs. The Romans often made artificial nymph* in their gardens. In Attica, the remaiys of a nymph*um are still to be seen decorated with inscriptions and bassi-rilievi, from the rude workmanship of which it may be presumed that the grotto is of very aucientdate. O Oak. (Sax. Ac, JEe.) A forest tree, whose timber is, from its strength, hardness, and durability, the most useful of all in building. Obelisk. (Probably from ofic\bs, a spit, brooch, or spindle, or a long javelin.) A lofty pillar of a rectangular form, diminishing towards the top, those of Egypt often having inscriptions and hieroglyphics. The upper part finishes generally with a low- pyramid, called a pyramidion. The proportion of the thickness to the height is nearly the same in all obelisks ; that is, between one ninth and one tenth, and their thickness at top is never less thaD half, nor greater than three fourths, of that at bottom. The following table exhibits a list of the principal obelisks; and with the dimensions must be taken with some reservation. Builder, 1877, xxxv., 1U76, gives a plate of eleven. Situation, (fee., of the Obelisk. Height. Thickness. At top. Below. Eug. Feet. Eng. fret Eng. Feet. Two, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus 158*2 7*9 11-8 Two, of Nuncoreus, son of Sesostris, according to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny 121-8 C-G 10-5 Two, attributed by Pliny to Smerres and Eraphius - 106-0 5*9 9-8 Of Nectanabis, erected near the tomb of Arsinoe by Ptolemy Pliila- delphus 105*5 5*3 9*2 Attributed to Sotliis, mentioned by Pliny ------ 63*3 4*5 5-1 Karnak ; Thebes : two in the ruins, raised on a block - 72-8 & 90-0 5*0 7-5 „ „ two iu the ruins, raised on a block ... 63-3 & 70-0 4*5 51 . ,, ----------- 105-0 — — Rome : Piazza del Laterano ; taken to Alexandria by Constantine, aud to Rome by Constantius, where it was placed in the Circus Maximus ; broken in three pieces, repaired and raised, 15S8, bv Fontana. Weighs 445 tons ; the longest 105-5 6-2 9-0 & 9 81 Rome: Piazza del Popolo ; Seti and liis son Ramoses II.; brought from Heliopolis bv Augustus, B.c. 10, aud placed iu Circus Maxi- mus; raised 1589 by Fontana 78*2 4*5 7-4 Rome: Piazza di Monte Citorio ; Psammeticus II., B.r. 594-588; brought from Heliopolis by Augustus to act as a gnomon ; re- moved 1702 71*9 4-9 7-9 Rome : Piazza of St. Peter ; Maneplithah ; from Heliopolis, b.c. 1400, by Caius Caligula ; erected about 1590 (plain) - 82-4 5-8 9-4 Rome : Piazza Navona ; cut for Domitian ; placed iu Circus Caraca la or Maximus; raised 1G51 by Bernini; also called Pamphi.iau obelisk - -- -- 29 1 4-5 Rome: Piazza Sta Maria Maggiore ; cut bv Claudius; formerly in i front of the mausoleum of Augustus ; (made about B.c. 2000 ? ) ; raised 1587 by Fontana (plain) 48-3 2-9 4-3 Rome : Quirinal Hill ; also cut by Claudius, and set up by Augustus, as its fellow; raised 1786 by Antinori (plain) - - - - - 47 — — Rome : Trinity de’ Monti ; brought by Hadrian ; set up 1789 43-6 — — „ in front of the Pantheon ; from Circus Maximus ; set up 1711 20*1 2-1 2-4 „ Villa Mattei, on the Cceli'in 26*4 2-2 2-7 „ on the Pincian (called the Anrelian) ; raised for Pius VI 1. - 29*9 — — „ Piazza della Miuerva ; by Pharaoh Haphra, Be. 588-69 ; raised on an elephant 1667 by Bernini 17-6 2-0 2-6 „ Villa Medici - 16-1 19 2-4 „ the Barberini - 30-0 2*2 3-9 „ from Thebes : by Thothmes III. or IV. - — — — leliopolis : only one now remains cut of three pairs ; it is the oldest, by Osirtesen. about 3000 B.c. 67-1 5-1 8-1 .ondon : Thothmes II]., b.c. 1600 ; it was originally on a block of granite 5*2 feet high, on three steps 6 it. 6 in., pieds de Paris ; re moved b.c, 23 to Alexandria ; removed 1878 to London, and raised for E. Wilson, by John Dixon, C.E. ; called Cleopatra's Needle 68-51 4 0 & 5-0 7-5 & 7-101 rles : found buried there in 1389, and raised 1675 .... 50*1 4*5 7*4 aris : from Luxor ; removed and raised 1831-36 by Lebas 76*6 — — uxor : still there 79-1 5-3 8-0 onstantinople : in the At-Meidan; moved by Emperor Theodosius - 59-7 ffices. The apartments wherein the domestics discharge the several duties attached to the service of a house ; as kitchens, pantries, brewhouses, and the like. 'ffset. The horizontal projection from the faces of the different parts of a wall where it increases in thickness. 1 gee. A moulding, the same as the Cyma revkrsa. gee Arch. A pointed arch, the sides of which are each formed with a double curve. (See fig. 1429.) It frequently appears in the Decorated period of Gothic architecture, and occasionally in that of the Perpendicular ; chiefly in small ornamental work, as shrines and canopies ; its inflected curves weaken it too much for supporting great weights. In some late work, this arch is also made to curve forward. liiVE. A term used by French architects to denote the Gothic arch, with its ribs and cross springers, &c. The word is used (by them to denote the pointed arch. 'iLLETS, or Oyletts. Small openings or eyelet holes seen in medi- eval military buildings, through which missiles could be dis- charged without exposing the soldier. * ,e pair of Stairs. An expression signifying the first story or floor above that floor jevel with, or raised only by a few steps, above the ground, which latter is thence called |lie ground floor, hfx Marble. See Marble. 1328 GLOSSARY. Opie. (Gr. Owr/.) The beds of the beams of a floor or roof as in a Grecian temple, the space between which are called the MetoPjE. Open Newel Staius. See Newel. Opening. (Sax.) That part of the walls of a building which is unfilled, for admitting light, ingress, egress, &c. See Aperture. Opisthodomus. (Gr.) The same as the Roman posticum, being the enclosed space in the rear of the cell of a temple. Opposite Angles. Those formed by two straight lines crossing each other, but not two adjacent angles. Opposite Cones. Those to which a straight line can be applied on the surfaces of both cones. Opposite Sections. The sections made by a plane cutting two opposite cones. Optic Pyramid. In perspective, that formed by the optic rays to every point of an object. Optic Rays. Those which diverge from the eye to every part of an original object. Orangery. A gallery or building in a garden or parterre opposite to the south. See Greenhouse. The most magnificent orangery in Europe is that of Versailles, which is of the Tuscan order, and with wings. Oratory. (Lat.) A small apartment in a house, furnished with a small altar, crucifix, &e., for private devotion. The ancient oratories were small chapels attached to monas- teries, in which the monks offered up their prayers. Towards the sixth and seventh centuries the oratory was a small church, built frequently in a burial-place, without either baptistery or attached priest, the service being performed by one occasionally sent for that purpose by the bishop. Orb. (Lat. Orbis.) A knot or foliage of flowers placed at the intersection of the ribs of a Gothic ceiling or vault to conceal the mitres of the ribs. See Boss. Orchestra. (Gr. O px^o/xai.) In ancient architecture, the place in the theatre where the chorus danced. In modern theatres it is the enclosed part of a theatre, or of a music room, wherein the instrumental and vocal performers are seated. Order. (Lat.) In Grecian, Roman, and Italian architecture, an assemblage of parts, consisting of a base, shaft, capital, architrave, frieze, and cornice, whose several services requiring some distinction in strength, have been contrived in five several species — Tus- can, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite; each of these has its ornaments, as well as its general fabric, proportioned to its strength and use. These are the five orders of architecture, the proper understanding and application of which constitute the foundation of all excellence in the art. Ordinate. In geometry and conics, a line drawn from any point of the circumference of an ellipsis or other conie section perpendicular to, and across the axis, to the other side. Ordonnance. (Fr. from the Lat.) The perfect arrangement and composition of any ar- chitectural w r ork. It applies to no particular class, but the term is general to all species in which there has existed anything like conventional law. Organical Description of a Curve. The method of describing one upon a plane by continued motion. Oriel, or Oriel "Window. (Etym. uncertain.) A large bay or recessed window in a hall, chapel, or other apartment. It ordinarily projects from the outer face of the wall either in a semi-octagonal or diagonal plan, and is of varied kinds and sizes. In large halls its usual height is from the floor to 1 lie ceiling internally, and it rises from the ground to the parapet on the outside ; sometimes it consists only of one smaller window supported by corbels, or by masonry projecting gradually from the wall to the sill of the window. A bow window projects circularly, and was formerly called a compass or embowed window ; whilst the projection of the oriel is made up of angles and straight lines forming generally the half of a hexagon, octagon, or decagon, and was better known by the name of bay window , shot window, or outcast window, a distinction, how- ever, not generally observed. Orientation. (Lat. Oriens.) The deviation of a church from due east, it being supposed that the chancel points to that part of the east in which the sun rises on the day of the patron saint. This point, however, has not been fully investigated. Original Line, Plane, or Point. In perspective, a line, plane, or point referred to the object itself. Orle. (Ital.) A fillet under the ovolo or quarter round of a capital. When the fillet is at the top or bottom of the shaft of a column it is called a cincture. Palladio uses the word orle to express the plinth of the bases of the columns and pedestal. Ornament. The smaller and detailed part of the work, not essential to it, but serving to enrich it ; it is generally founded upon some imitation of the works of nature. Ornamented Engi.ish Architecture. That phase of mediaeval architecture in England which is generally called the Decorated period ; it was comprised chiefly in the reigns of the three first Edwards. GLOSSARY. 1329 Orthography. (Or. OpQos, right, and rpcapw, I describo.) The elevation of a building show- ing all the parts in their proper proportions ; it is either external or internal. The first is the representation of the external part or front of a building showing the face of the principal wall, with its apertures, roof of the building, projections, decorations, and all other matters as seen by the eye of the spectator, placed at an infinite distance from it. The second, commonly called the section of a building, shows it as if the external wall were removed and separated from it. In geometry, orthography is the art of representing the plan or side of any object, and of the elevation also of the principal parts : the art is so denominated from its etymology, because it determines things by perpendicular right lines falling on tne geometrical plan, or because all the horizontal lines are straight and parallel, and not, as in perspective, oblique. Orthostyle. A columnar arrangement, the columns being placed in a straight line. Osculating Circle. That, the radius of whose curve, at any particular point of another curve, is of the same length as that of the curve in question at that particular point. Hence it is the kissing circle, and that so closely that there is no difference in the cur- vature of the two curves at that particular point. Oundy, or Undy Moulding. A moulding with a wavelike outline, fee fg. 1.383. Out and In Bond. A Scotch term for alternate header and stretcher in quoins, and in window and door jambs. Outer Doors. Those common to both the exterior and interior sides of a building. Outer Plate. See Inner Plate. Outline. Tho line which bounds the contour of any object. Out of Winding. A term used by artificers to signify that the surface of a body is that i of a perfect plane ; thus when two straight edges in every direction are in the same piano they are said to be out of winding. Out to Out. An expression used of any dimension when measured to the utmost bounds of a body or figure. Outward Angle. The external or salient angle of any figure. Ova. (Lat.) Ornaments in the shape of an egg, into which the echinus or ovolo is often carved. )val. A geometrical figure, whoso boundary is a curve line returning into itself; it includes the ellipsis or mathematical oval, and all figures resembling it, though with diffirent properties. Iverhang. See Batter. 'veristory. The clear- or clerestory of a building. I'volo. (Ital.) A convex moulding whoso lower extremity recedes from a perpendicular line drawn from the upper extremity. xidation. The corrosion of iron by the atmosphere. Paint is one of the best preserva- tives, renewed as necessary. Lime-whiting is another ; and lately it has been urged to pickle the wrought iron in dilute sulphuric acid, so as to remove the scaly oxide before painting. P ce A portion of a floor slightly raised above the general level : a dais. It is also applied to a landing in a staircase ; its prefix, half ox quarter, determines the size of it. See also Measure. . cking. Small stones imbedded in mortar, used to fill up the interstices between the arger stones in rubble work. ) ddle, A small sluice, similar to that whereby water is let into or out of a canal lock. IjODA. A name given to the tall pyramidal structure of several stones, forming one of lie peculiar features of Chinese architecture. It is said to be derived from the Hindoo vord dagoba. I ntkd Glass. Glass painted with ornaments or pictorial representations, and then put pto a kiln and the paint burnt in. See Stained Glass, with which it is sometimes used p painted windows. I nter. An artificer who combines the knowledge of colours and the application of them p decorative purposes. F ster’s Work. The work of painting, with different coats of oil colour and turpentine, jie parts of a building usually so treated. P'a. As one-pair, two-pair, &c., story. See Floor, and One-pair. PiACE. (Lat. Palatium.) In this country, a name given to the dwelling of a kino: or teen, a prince, and a bishop. On the Continent, it is a term in more general use, most all large dwellings of the higher nobility and government offices being so nominated. A palace is properly an edifice destined not only for the residence of the vereign or prince, but for the reception also of persons who have the privilege of public or T Q 1330 GLOSSARY. private audience. It being impossible for the whole of the parties to be present together, there must be, besides the apartments which are occupied by the sovereign and his or her family, ample room and accommodation for the attendants in waiting of everv degree, and the consequent accessories. A palace should be disposed with porticoes, vestibules, galleries, halls of waiting suited to every season, wherein those to be admitted may wait with convenience and comfort till their turn of admission arrives. It is evident that, from the nature of such an edifice, much magnificence should be displayed in it. The site on which a palace is to be seated must be open and free in every respect, so that a large expanse of gardens should be attached to it for the use of the public as well as the sovereign, in which respect the palaces of the Tuileries and Versailles are unparalleled. All should have a royal bearing, parsimony being inadmissible in works of this nature. The palaces of the Escurial, Versailles, and the Tuileries are, though extremely spacious and imposing, but ill-disposed and imperfect examples of a palace. Perhaps the most perfect in Europe is that at Caserta, near Naples, commenced in 1752, which is described by Milizia as follows : — “ The plan of this palace is a vast rectangle, 731 feet long from east to west, 569 from north to south, and 106 feet in height. The interior is divided into four courts, 162 feet by 244. The depth of building that surrounds these courts, in which are the apartments, passages, &c., is 80 feet, including the thickness of the walls, which are in some instances 15 feet. The two principal fa 9 ades have five stories besides that below the ground, and each contains thirty-seven windows. There are three entrances, one in the centre, and the others at equal distances between it and the extreme angles, where, as well as in the centre, the building breaks forward a little, is carried up to the height of 60 feet, and formed into pavilions by columns 42 feet high. Thus the whole height of the building is 102 feet from the foundation to the top of the pavilion, at the angles 162 feet, and in the centre 190 feet. The basement, which is rusticated, comprises the lower offices, the ground floor, and its mezzanine. Above is placed an Ionic order of columns and pilasters, which contains the two ranges of state apartments; the lower windows are ornamented with pediments; in the frieze are introduced the windows of the upper mezzanine. The centre entrance leads to a superb portico, which traverses the building from north to south, and is sufficiently spacious to allow carriages to pass under from either facade to the centre of the building, where is a large octangular vestibule, which unites the arms of the cross produced by dividing the plan into four courts : two sides of the octagon are open to the portico, four to the four courts, one to the grand staircase, and the eighth is occupied by a statue of Hercules crowned by Virtue. “ The grand staircase, which is on the right, is lighted by twenty-four windows, and decorated in a beautiful style. At the first landing it is divided into two flights; the hundred steps of which it is composed are 18 feet long, and each of one piece of marble; it is lighted also from the top by adouble skylight. The upper vestibule is also octangular, and surrounded by twenty-four columns of yellow marble 18 feet high. Four doors lend from thence to the apartments : the one opposite the landing to the chapel, that to the right to the apartments of the king, which comprehend the south-west angle of the build- ing, overlooking the sea and the plains of Naples and Capua. To the left are the apart- ments of the queen, occupying the north-west angle, the remainder of these floors being occupied by the princes. The chambers throughout are vaulted, and admirably arranged ; the apartments of the king and queen are separated by a gallery 138 feet long, 42 wide, and 52 high. The palace contains a small elegant theatre, on a circular plan, divided into nine compartments, with four tiers of boxes. The chapel is rectangular in its plan, with the end terminated semicircularly, and decorated with isolated Corinthian columns on pedestals, with an entablature, in which the cornice is not omitted. The marbles and sculptures throughout are of the richest kind ; the apartments generally well arranged and distributed, of magnificent dimensions, and of various forms. The whole is a rare as>emblage of vastness, regularity, symmetry, richness, ease, and elegance. The multi- plicity of windows may certainly be a little at variance w-ith propriety. “But the most wonderful part of this grand work has not as yet been desciibed. There are ranges of aqueducts of a great height, and of sufficient length to unitethetwo Tifati mountains near the Furehe Caudine. The waters on the mountain are collected in f o a canal for the purpose of supplying these acqueduets, and conducted to various lakes and fountains of every description. To the embellishments,” adds Milizia, “ ot this royal residence are added a convenience and solidity that throw into shade all that has been done before or since.” The plans, &c. of this palace are given in Durands Parallele des Edifices, and also in the work by Vanvitelli, its architect. The palace at Whitehall projected by Inigo Jones, and published in Kent’s Designs (see fig. 207, supra), consisted of six courts, with greater beauties of composition ; and had the edifice, of which the “ banquet! ng-house ” is not the hundredth part, been carried to completion, it would have eclipsed the one at Caserta, which contains the ta ! triti llu, I ! A fcciB] p, pure 'sunn % 1% j ltd Boii Doobj Wd GLOSSARY. 1331 leading, .and, indeed, governing principles upon which the palace for a sovereign should be constructed. Many useful remarks on this subject will be obtained in perusing Brewer’s Descriptive and Historical Account of the various Palaces and Public Buildings, English and Foriii/n, 4to., London, 1821. We regret that in this country no model of a palace can be offered for the student. Windsor Castle, with all its beauties, which consist, however, more in site and scenery than in the disposition of a palace, is not to be commended ; St. James’s Palace is said to be planned with many advantages for holding courts, but the exterior is far from what a palace should be. Paljestra. (Gr. na\ai», I wrestle.) A part of the Grecian gymnasium, particularly appropriated to wrestling and other gymnastic exercises; it was some imes used to denote the whole building. It contained baths which were open for the use of the public. According to the authority of Vitruvius no palaestra existed in Rome. Pale. A small pointed stake or piece of wood, used for making landmarks, and enclosures, place! vertically. Pale Fencing, or Pale Fence. That constructed with pales. Palisade. A fence of pales or stakes driven into the ground, set up for an enclosure, or for tho protection of property. Palladian School of Architecture. A manner of designing, taking its name from its introducer, the celebrated architect Andrea Palladio. It is a sort of medium between that vigorous severity which some exclusive minds abuse in the endeavour to imitate the Classic style, and the licentious anarchy of those who refuse to recognise rules, which rules allow of exceptions. In the conception and execution of the edifices by Palladio there is always a clear intuition, a simple method, a sufficiently perceptible accord between need and pleasure, and such harmony in this accord that it would be difficult to say which gave the law to the other. His manner offers to all countries a model easy of imitation. The talent of the author of it is doubtless the principle whence this facility emanates, but this facility of adapting itself to everything and being adopted by all, is what distinguishes his tale' t and generalises its influence. In fact, it may be said with truth, that Palladio has become tho most universally followed master in all Europe, and in some sort the chief of the modern scho >1 in civil build- ings. This school has been reproduced in England with the greatest success, as in the case of Inigo Jones and others. Quatremere do Quincy, Diet. Arch. See also Gwilt’s criticism in Book I. Palm. A measure of length. See Measure (Ancient), and Foot. Pampre. (Fr.) An ornament composed of vine leaves and bunches of grapes wherewith the hollow of the circumvolutions of twisted columns are sometimes decorated. Pan. A square of framing in half-timbered houses, the uprights being filled in with work. It is called post and pan, or post and petrail work, in the north of Ei gland. Pancarpi. (Gr.) Garlands and festoons of fruit, flowers, and leaves, for the ornament of altars, doors, vestibules, &c. Pane. A term applied to the side of any object, as a square, octagon, &c., which would be said to have four, eight, &c., sides. Panel. (From the low Latin panellum.) A board whose edges are inserted into the groove of a thicker surrounding frame, as in a door. A panel in masonry is one of the faces of a hewn stone. Panier. (Fr.) An upright corbel fixed against a pilaster and under a beam to break the angle so formed. ’antameter. A graduated bevel. ’antile. The curved die used for roofing. ’antograph. An instrument for copying, diminishing, or enlarging drawings. aver. A substance made by the maceration of linen rags in water and spreading them by hand or machinery into thin sheets ; on this the drawings of the architect are usually made; its Usual sizes, as made by Whatman, being: — Demy - - - - 20 inches by 15 inches. Medium - 22 i m — Royal - - 24 — 19 — Super-royal - - - - 27 — 19 — Imperial - - - - - 30 22 Colombier ... - 34 - 23 — Atlas ... - . 33 _ 27 — Double Elephant . 40 — 27 — Antiquarian - - 53 — 31 — Extra Antiquarian - - 56 — 38 — Emperor - . 68 — 48 — Imperial 90 and 110 lbs. 4 q 2 1332 GLOSSARY. “ Cartridge ” is a stronger sort for working drawings. For rough sketching, a thin paper, the “ lining paper" of the paperhangers, is much used, and is obtained in a roll of twelve yards in length. Continuous cartoon paper is 3 ft. 4 in., 4 ft., and 5 ft. wide. Tinted papers can also be so obtained. For mapping or such work a strong continuous paper is made, and ready mounted on holland for extra strength. See Tracing Paper. Paperhangings. The paper prepared, either plain or with a pattern printed upon it, for covering the walls of rooms. The varieties are very numerous. The better sort are still printed from wood-blocks, but the inferior kind are printed by machinery. Papyrus Capital. A species of capital seen in some of the temples of Egypt. See fig- 59. Parabola. (Gr. Ilapa, through, and Ba\Ao>, I throw.) In geometry, a curved line formed by the common intersection of a conic surface, and a plane cutting it parallel to another plane touching the conic surface. Parabolic Assymptote. In geometry, a line continually approaching the curve, but which, though infinitely produced, will never meet it. Parabolic Curve. The curved boundary of a parabola, and terminating its area, except at the double ordinate. Parabolic Spinal, or Helicoid. A curve arising from the supposition of the axis of the common parabola bent into the periphery of a circle, the ordinates being portions of the radii next the circumference. Paraboloid. See Conoid. Parallel. (Gr. Uapa \\ t )\ os .) In geometry, a term applied to lines, surfaces, &c., that are in every part equidistant from each other. Parallel Coping. See Coping. Parallelogram. (Gr.) Any four-sided rectilineal figure, whose opposite sides are parallel. Parallelopiped. In geometry, one of the regular bodies or solids comprehended under six faces, each parallel to its opposite face, and all the faces parallelograms. Parameter. (Gr. Tlapa , through, and Merpoi, L measure.) In conic sections a constant right line in each of the three sections, called also lattes rectum. Parapet. (Ital. Parapetto, breast high.) A small wall of any material for protection on the sides of bridges, quays, or high buildings. Pabascenium. Another name for the postscenium in the ancient theatre. ParastatjE. See Ant.®. Pabclose. The screen which separates chapels (especially at the east end of the aisles) from the body of the church. They are usually of wood, but are also sometimes of stone. Pabget. A name given to the rough plaster used for lining chimney flues, and formed of lime and cow's dung. Parge AVuhk; Pargetting. A particular sort of plaster work, having patterns and ornaments raised upon it or indented ; much used in interior decorations, and often on the exterior of halt-timber houses, during the Elizabethan period. Parker’s Cement, also called Roman Cement in 1796. It is manufactured princi- pally from nodules found in the Isle of Sheppey and at Harwich, being septaria from the London clay. When burnt, it is ground into powder, and mixed with sand, and water being applied to it, it sets fast and very hard, and is impervious to water. Parlour. (Fr.) A room for conversation, which in the old monasteries adjoined the buttery and pantry at the lower end of the hall. At the present day it is used to denote the room in a house where visitors are commonly received, and often serves as a dining-room. Parados. (Hr.) The grand entrance of the scene of an ancient theatre that conducted on to the stage and orchestra. Parpkyn. See Perpeyn-Wall. Parquetry. Inlaid work, made of thin plates or veneers of hard coloured woods, and secured to a framing of deal, well-dried and seasoned, to form the flooring of an apart- ment. They are arranged in patterns. Of late years solid, and thick, parquetry has been introduced. The floor may be left plain, but is more frequently polished. There is also a thin substance, about |tlis of an inch thick, which is secured to the old floor by a patent cement, or by brads. The old method of covering a floor by a carpet, which collects the dust and covers t-he furniture with it when swept, is now abandoned in many houses, and parquetry substituted, with rugs, or square carpets, or Indian matting, so as to be easily removable for cleansing A “ parquetry border ” has also taken the place of the common, but still useful, stained and varnished border, arouud a square carpet. See Marquetry. Parsonage House. A building, usually near the church, occupied by the incumbent ot ' ;■ fes f f®; fact i it i I ttti I i, j s i fcli; * hi-,, 1 wen * |®$ii J til? sloping parts of the roof. See Temple. Itis sometimes placed over an opening as part of the decoration of the dressings; it should never be used under cover. In Gothic architecture this triangular piece is much higher in proportion to its width, and is denominated a Gable. The illustration {fig. 1430) exhibits the centre portion of the sculpture in the pediment of the temple at Egina, which is among the earliest examples of Grecian art. See fig. 1457, which shows the elovation of the temple. bit ;fc: ' *» •Hi j J Jjjfc ’ lert i j Ifiaiii •^(Ti GLOSSARY. 1335 Pediment Arch. Seo Mitre Arch. Pelasgtc Building. Walls of cities and houses formed of huge stones scarcely more than piled together, without the connecting medium of mortar or cement. It is also called Cyclopean building. Pellet Moulding. A flat band on which are cir- cular flat d sks forming an ornament, used in Nor- man architecture. Soo Jig. 1431. Pendent. (Lat.) An ornament suspended from the summit of Gothic vaulting, very often elabo- rately decorated. Tho mode in which stone pendents are constructed will be immediately understood by a consideration of the annexed figure (Jig. 1432). Tho pendent was also used very frequently to timber-framed roofs, as in that of Crosby Hall, which has a series of pendents along the centre of it. Pendents are also attached to the ends of the hammer beams in Gothic timber roofs. Pkndrntive. Tho entire body of a vault suspended out of tho perpendicular of the walls, and bearing against the arch boutants, or supporters. It is defined by Daviler to be tho portion of a vault between the arches of a dome, commonly enriched with seulpturo. Folibien defines it as the piano of the vault contained between the double arches, the forming arches, and the ogives. Pendentive Bracketing, or Cave Bracketing. That springing from the rectangular walls of an apartment upwards to tho ceiling, and forming the horizontal part of tho i ceiling into a circle or ellipsis. |Pendentive Cradling. The timber work for sustaining the lath and plaster in vaulted , ceilings. Penetrale. (Lat.) The most sacred part of tho temple, which generally contained an altar to Jupiter Hereaeus, which appellation, according to Festus, was derived from ipitos, an enclosure, and supposed him the protector of its sanctity. Penetralia. (Lat.) Small chapels dedicated to the Penates, in the innermost part of the Roman houses. In these it was the custom to deposit what the family considered most valuable. Penitentiary. In monastic establishments was a small square building, in which a penitent confined himself. The term was also applied to that part of a church to which penitents were admitted during divine service. The word, as used in the present time, implies a place for the reception of criminals whose crimes are not so heinous ui to deserve punishment beyond that of solitary confinement and hard labour, and where means are used to reclaim as much as possible those who have become subject to the laws by transgressing them. Penstock. A small paddle, working up and down vertically in a grooved frame, for pen- ning back water. ?entacle. A figure whose basis is a double triangle ; it is not unfrequent in early orna- mental art. °entadoron. (Gr.) A species of brick used in ancient architecture, which was five palms long. ’entagon. (Gr. TUvre, five, and rWia, an angle.) In geometry, a figure of five sides | and five angles. When the five sides are equal, the angles are so too, and the figure is called a regular pentagon. i’entagraph. See Pantograph. ’entalpha. A figure formed by a continuous line, making a five-pointed star, not un- frequent in mediaeval decoration and window tracery. See fig. 1293. ’entastyle. A portico or colonnade having five columns in front. ent-house. A sued having a lean-to roof. eppercorn Rent. A rent for land, being one of the smallest possible value. A rose is sometimes named ; also a flag or banner. A farm in St. Saviour's, Southwark, was let, at the price of 17 lbs. of pepper at ‘Is. per pound. Also an acre of land at Lambeih “ for 2s. for the price of one pound of pepper by the year beyond all rents resolute.” erch. A measure for brickwork used in Ireland in piece of the Rod in England. It is 21 feet in length, by 1 foot high, and 1 foot thick. It equals 15f cube feet. One thousand bricks, a quarter cart of sand, and one and a quarter hogshead of lime, will serve for four and a half perches. It is also there used for masonry, as well as in some counties in England. eriacti. (Gr. Utpiayeiu, to revolve.) The revolving scenes in an ancient theatre, called by the Romans scents versatiles. eribolus. (Gr.) The wall bounding an enclosure. It has become applied to the enclosure itself, more particularly around a temple. It was frequently ornamented Fig. 1431. j 1336 GLOSSARY. with statues, altars, and monuments, and sometimes had smaller temples or a grave. The peribolus of the temple of Jupiter Olympius, at Athens, was four stadia in cir- cumference. Peridrome. (Gr. Uepl, about, Apo/uos, a course.) The space, in ancient architecture, between the columns of a temple and the walls enclosing the cell. Perimeter. (Gr.) The boundary of a figure. Periphery. (Gr. nepicppecv, I surround.) The circumference of a circle, ellipsis, para- bola, or other regular curvilinear figure. Peripteral. (Gr.) A building encompassed by columns. See Temple. Pekiptery. (Gr.) The range of insulated columns round the cell of a temple. Pekistylium. (Gr.) In Greek and Roman buildings, a court, square or cloister, which sometimes had a colonnade on three sides only, and therefore in that case improperly so called. Some peristylia had a colonnade on each of the four sides ; that on the south being sometimes higher than the rest, in which case it was called a Rhodian peristylium. The range of columns itself was called the peristyle. See Colonnade. Peeithyrides. The same as Ancones. Peritrochium. (Gr.) A term in mechanics applied to a wheel or circle concentric with the base of a cylinder, and together with it moveable about an axis. Pkrpen Ashlar. A provincial term, being probably a corruption of perpendicular, as the stone in the form of 4, 6, 8, or 10 inches thick, in 10, 12, or 14 inch courses, and from 30 inches to 54 inches long, is placed on edge, and must of course be set very plumb or perpendicular; the edge or bed also must be truly square with the upright face. Perpendicular. In geometry, a term applied to a right line falling directly on another line, so as to make equal angles on each side, called also a normal line. The same definition will hold of planes standing the one on the other. A perpendicular to a curve is a right line cutting the curve in a point where another right line to which it is perpen- dicular makes a tangent with the curve. Perpendicular Period. The last period into which the Gothic style in England has been divided. Its name is derived from the pre- dominance of vertical or recti- linear lines. Fig. 1433 is a fine example of the style. Perpend Stone, or Perpender. A long stone reaching through the thickness of the wall, so as to be visible on both sides, and therefore wrought and smoothed at the ends. Pkrpeyn wall. A kind of pier or buttress projecting from a wall. Perron. (Fr.) A staircase, lying open or outside the building; or more properly the steps in the front of a building which lead into the first story, when it is raised a little above the level of the ground. Pebsian or Persepclitan Archi- tecture. The ancient style presents many features similar to the Assyrian remains; they are chiefly seen at the ruins at Persepolis. The modern buildings much resemble those of other Mahommedan countries. Persians. See Atlantes. Perspective. (Lat. Perspicio.) The science which teaches the art of representing objects on a definite surface, so as from a certain position to affect the eye in the same manner as would the objects themselves. See Bird’s-eye Perspective; Isometrical Projection. Pest House. A lazaretto or infirmary where persons, goods, &c., iufeetedwit.h the plague or other contagious disease, or suspected so to be, are lodged to prevent communication with others, and the consequent spread of the contagion. Plilyan. See Maknhir stone. GLOSSARY. 1337 Pf.w. (Fr. Piou.) An enclosed seat in a church. Pews were in use long before the Reformation in England. PiiALANQjK (Gr.) A name applied by Vitruvius to a species of wooden rollers, used to transport heavy masses from one spot to another. Pharos. (Gr. from 4>t«f, a light, and Opau >, I see.) See Lighthouse. Pheasantry. A building or place for the purpose of breeding, rearing, and keeping pheasants. Phonics. The doctrine of sounds, which has not yet been so reduced in its application to architecture as to justify more than its definition. See Acoustics. Photo-Lithography. A process of reproducing line engravings and drawings, either copied, enlarged, or reduced, not exceedingone-sixth, and in some cases one-tenth, of the expense by other processes. Photometer. (Gr.) An instrument for measuring the different intensities of light. Piazza. (Ital.) A square open space surrounded by buildings. The term is very frequently and very ignorantly used to denote a walk under an arcade. Picture Gallery. A room or rooms for the exhibition of pictures, drawings, and en- gravings, and designed to suit either the wealth of the nation or the means of a private person. The arrangement of the collection has to be first decided by the proprietor or curator of the gallery. Thus: Whether in one or more rooms — Miscellaneously — Grouped according to the class of objects — Divided according to the different schools of painting — The largest size of any picture to enter the collection — The admission of water-colour pictures, chalk drawings, and of prints — The arrangements as to the admission of the public — The amount and nature of accommodation for students, and any other rooms required for the keeper, for the cleaner, packing, and other similar occupations. The miscellaneous arrangement of a collection is certainly the most common, as well as the most gratifying to the public. The amateur and artist would prefer the division of pictures by schools, which obtains on the Continent, particularly in Germany. The Munich Gallery affords information as to the proportion of space which was allotted to each of the groups into which the collection is divided. In the Pinaeotheca at Munich the paintings are grouped according to schools, perhaps more perfectly effected than at Berlin, and a corridor runs the whole length, 420 feet, of the building. The large pictures are placed in very large rooms, 42 ft. wide and 31 feet 6 inches high to the cornice. Some of the large rooms are 93 feet long. The smaller pictures are placed in lesser rooms, formed on the other side of the larger ones, and with a side light from the north, which is admitted to be the best light for all pictures and for painting-rooms. The museum and picture gallery at Berlin, by Herr Schinkel, is formed on three sides of ft central vestibule; all the rooms are 39 feet 9 ins. wide and 2(5 feet high, with a flat ceiling, and the light throughout is admitted by common windows down to the dado on the side. Screens about 16 feet high by 20 feet loDg divide the galleries into rooms about 30 feet by 18 feet, for grouping the paintings. r lhe number of lineal feet of wall in the great picture galleries is as follows: — Munich, 1600; Louvre, 1300; Berlin, 1116; London (on the principal floor), 670, but of late years increased to more than double that quantity ; and Dresden, which as much exceeds the extent of Munich or of Berlin as did these th .t of London. It has been urged by the Messrs. Papworth, in their work on Museums, Libraries, and Picture Galleries, 8vo. London, 1853, that a skylight to a room, with divisions or presses projecting from the wall, is the most economical mode of arranging a building to receive an unformed collection of works of art. They also direct the picture gallery to be on the first floor ; the ground floor being devoted to objects of art, not in relief. Galleries for oil paintings, large or of a moderate size, must be lighted from above. But when they are of the small cabinet size, a side light, being a suitable side light, is well adapted to their display. In the first case, the lights were formerly placed in square or polygonal tambours, whose sashes were vertical or slightly inclined inwards, their forms following the plan of tfce rooms; as at the Dulwich Gallery, by Sir John Soane, R.A. Of late years, for large rooms, a long skylight having obscured glass iu it has been preferred, with a coved ceiling under to prevent shadows falling on the pictures. This is occasionally hidden by a flat skylight having ground or obscured glass, the upper skylight having clear glass, but the necessary framework causes some shadows. It will be in the memory of many how miserably lighted, for exhibiting the pictures, is the long gallery of the Louvre at Paris, which of late years has had some dormer windows formed to admit more light. The walls should be boarded throughout for facility in hanging the pictures. Many galleries fail of success from being over-lighted. A roof all glass would be as bad for the pictures as open air. The glare of light, as it is termed, would be too great. The Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge, a library, picture, and statue gallery, affords an example of the mode of lighting for pictures, as also the effect of sculpture as 1338 GLOSSARY. seen by a low side light obtained from one side only. This is also to be found at the galleries in Dublin ; in both cases not with the happiest results. Professor Magnus, of Berlin, proposed a gallery for small paintings, to be lighted by windows on both sides, and not opposite one another, reaching nearly to the ceiling, and about 5 feet from the floor, each about a fourth of the breadth of the room. Between these were to be placed screens at an angle of 62 degrees with the wall. As the pictures required to be removed 5 or 6 feet from the wall, the useless space served for doorways from one compartment to another. The professor proposed a circular building for such an arrangement, perhaps somewhat similar to that described under Museums, but where the inner space was formed by a double circular staircase, to lead to several stories, and where the upper room might have the advantage of a skylight. A principle of lighting a picture gallery, namely, that the window or source of light by which a picture is seen, and the picture itself, ought not both to come within the range of vision at the same time, was exemplified in the gallery built cir. 1825 by Sir Benjamin West. P.R.A., expr. ssly for the purpose of exhibiting his paintings. Another on the same principle was designed at Clapham, by the late Mr. J. B. Papworth, and with an equally successful result. It consists in forming a side light opposite to the picture wall and above the ceiling; thus all the light is thrown upon the painting, and the source of the light is quite invisible to the spectator. This system is perhaps better adapted for a private than for a public gallery, on account of the difficulty attending the construction of the roof. The peculiar arrangements of the small picture gallery in Sir John Soane’s museum should be seen and studied. The grand gallery at the National Gallery, by the late Sir James Pennethorne (a perspective view of which is given in the Builder for 1861); the new galleries for the same national structure, erected 1875-76, from the designs of E. M. Barry, R.A., with the new entrance and suite of galleries beyond, erected 1886-87, from the designs of John Taylor, principal surveyor of H.M. Works and Public Buildings ; the Art courts and the picture galleries at the South Kensingion Museum ; the picture galleries erected for the Exhibition of Industry, 1862 ; the exhi- bition rooms of the Royal Academy at Burlington House, may all be referred to for the latest improvements. Piece-work. Work done and paid for by measure, of quantity, i.e. so much for the piece or job ; in contradistinction to work done and paid for by the measure of time, i.e. by day work. Piedroit. (Fr.) A pier or small pillar, partly hid within a wall. It differs from a pilaster in having neither base nor capital. Piend. An arris; a salient angle; a hip. It is a northern appellation. Piend Check. The rebate formed on the piend or angle at the bottom of the riser of a stone step of a stair, to catch upon the angle formed at the top of the under step. Pier. (Fr.) A solid between the doors or windows of a building. The square or other formed mass or post to which a gate is hung. Also the solid support from which an arch springs. In a bridge, the pier next the shore is usually called an abutment pier. Pier Akcii. An arch springing from a pier, as large shafts are usually termed in mediaeval architecture. See Jigs. 1417 to 1427. Pierced Stone, Tolmen or holed stone. One of the consecrated stones of the Celtic people Pilaster. (Fr.) A sort of square column, sometimes insulated, but more commonly en- gaged in a wall, and projecting only a fourth or fifth of its thickness. See Anta. Pile. (Lat.) A large timber driven into the earth, upon whose head is laid the founda- tion of a building in marshy and lo 'Se soils. Amsterdam and some other cities are built wholly upon piles. The stoppage of Dagenham Breach was effected by piles mortised into one another by dovetail joints. They are best and most firmly driven by repeated strokes ; and for the saving of time, a pile engine is generally used, in appear- ance and effect very much like a guillotine; this raises the hammer to a certain height, which, pressing the clasps or monkey that carry it up, suddenly drops down on the pile to be d”iven. Pillar. (Fr. Pilier.) A column of irregular form, always disengaged, and always de- viating from the proportion of the orders, whence the distinction between a column and a pillar. In any other sense it is improperly used. Pin. In carpentry, a cylindrical piece of wood driven to connect pieces of framing together. It is also called a trenail. Pinacotheca. (Gr.) An edifice for the preservation of pictures. A picture gallery. Pinnacle. (Low Lat. Pinnaculum.) A summit or apex. In mediseval architecture, the crown of a buttress or vertical abutment, more or less ornamental, terminating in a cone or pyramid. It was intended to assure the stability of a vertical abutment by its weight; it arrests the sliding of the coping stones of gables; it serves as an attach- ment to the balustrade; and also, by a well-composed outline, it helps to give to build- GLOSSARY. 1339 ings a particular elegance. Pinnacles should have a bold and aspiring outline, and should receive the parapets and copings against their plinths (as fig. 1216), and not, as often done, against their shafts. Good examples are to be seen at St. Nicholas, Great Yarmouth; Magdalen College, Oxford ; and St. Sepulchre’s, London. A Hip knob to a gable is a sort of pinnacle. 3 innkv. Also called “green beds” of the Chilmark quarry; they are situate below the tro gh beds. They are small but very durable. Pinning up. In underpining, the driving the wedges under the upper work so as to bring it fully to bear upon the work below. The term pinning is used to denote the fastening of tiles with pins of iron or of heart of oak in roofs. Pipe. A conveyance for water or soil from any part of a building, usually of lead or iron. When for the supply of water to a building it is called a service pipe ; when for carrying off water, a waste pipe-, and when for carrying off soil, a soil pipe-, and those which carry away the rain from a building are called rain-water pipes. When a cistern or reservoir is supplied in such a way that those who labour to fill it should be made aware that it is full, the pipe which discharges the overflow is called a warning pipe. Also for the conveyance of gas, when it is usually of iron, or of a sottish white metal, called composition. A pipe through which the voice is sent to communicate with a distant apartment, is called a “ speaking tube.” Pipe. The following rule has been given to ascertain the strength requisite to be given to a pipe of the metals named. Let d= internal diameter ; t = thickness of metal both in inches ; h head of water in feet required to burst the pipe ; c = constant, wrought iron, 200 ; cast iron, 73 ; copper, 87 ; brass, 83 ; and lead 10. Thene4=A; and— =t. In d c practice, the thickness of cast-iron water pipes is taken as= * ^/diameter. Hurst, Sur- veyors' Hand Book. Piscina. (Lat.) Among the Romans this term was applied to a fish-pond ; to a shallow reservoir for practising swimming; and to a place for watering horses and washing clothes. The piscina in ecclesiastical architecture was a shallow bowl for water, generally in a niche in the south wall of the chancel, wherein the priest laved his hands before the performance of the sacred rites, and for rinsing the chalice at the t ; me of the celebration of the mass. A hole at the bottom allowed for the escape of the water, so as not to be reused. The variety of their form is great ; some are quite plain, others very richly decorated ; and they often occur in pairs. Pise. A species of walling, of latter years used in the south of France, made of stiff earth or clay rammed in between moulds as it is carried up. This method of walling was, however, in very early use. ( Plin . lib. xxxiv. chap. 14.) Pit. A place from whence chalk, gravel, and such like are obtained. See Quarry. j it of A Theatre. Formerly the part on the ground-floor between the lower range of boxes and the stage ; but it is now much reduced for the stalls and reserved pit seats. ’itch. See Tar. ’itch. A term generally applied to the vertical angles formed by the inclined sides of a roof. Roofing. ‘itch of an Arch. The versed sine, or height from the springing line up to the under- side of it. 'itching Fiece. See Apron Piece, which is at the bottom, as the pitching piece is at the top, of a flight of steps, to carry the rough strings. ivot. (Fr.) The sharpened point upon which a wheel whose axis is perpendicular or inclined performs its revolutions. lace Bricks. The commonest sort of bricks, being those near the outside of the clamp and therefore not much burnt. lafond or Platfond. (Fr.) The ceiling of a room, whether flat or arched; also the Linderside of the projection of the larmier of the cornice ; generally any sofite. lain or Plane Angle. One contained under two lines and surfaces, so called to dis- tinguish it from a solid angle. .ain Tiles, properly Plane Tiles. Those whose surfaces are planes. They are used for roofing purposes ; forming copings, tiles in cement flats, etc. See Weather-tiling, .an. (Fr.) The representation of the horizontal section of a building, showing its distribution, the form and extent of its various parts. In the plans made by the archi- tect, it is customary to distinguish the massive parts, such as walls, by a dark colour, so as to separate them from the voids or open spaces. In a geometrical plan, which is that above mentioned, the parts are represented in their natural proportions. A per- spective plan is drawn according to the rules of perspective. . anceer. The same as the sofite or under-surface of the corona ; the word is, however, very often used generally to mean any sofite. See Plafond. ■ ane. (Lat. Planus.) A tool used by artificers that work in wood for the purpose of producing thereon a flat even surface. There are various sorts of planes. 1340 GLOSSARY. Plane. In geometry, a surface that coincides in every direction with a straight line. Plane, geometrical. In perspective, a plane parallel to the horizon, whereon the object to be delineated is supposed to be placed. It is usually at right angles with the per- spective plane. Plane, horizontal. In perspective, a plane passing through the spectator’s eye, parallel to the horizon, and cutting the perspective plane in a straight line, called the horizontal line. Plane, inclined. One that makes an oblique angle with a horizontal plane. Plane, objective. Any plane, face, or side of an original object to be delineated on the p> rspective plane. Plane, perspective. That interposed between the original objects and the eye of the spectator, and whereon the objects are to be delineated. Plane Trigonometry. That branch of mathematics whose object is the investigation and calculation of the sides and angles of plane triangles. It is of the greatest impor- tance to the architect. Planimetry. That branch of geometry which treats of lines and surfaces only, without reference to their height or depth. Plank. (Fr.) A name given generally to all timber, except fir, which is less than four inches thick and thicker than one inch and a half. See Board. Plank Roof. A roof, the trusses of which are formed principally of planks cut to a curved shape, as in de Lorme’s system ; or bent to the shape required, as in Emy's system. Planted. When a moulding is wrought on a separate piece of stuff, and is fastened in its place, as around a panel, it is said to be planted (on the stuff). Plaster. Lime properly prepared for the plasterer. Plasterers’ Work. The laying of ceilings; the finishing to walls to give a fair face ; the making and fixing of ornamental work ; and cementing to walls. Plaster of Paris. A preparation of gypsum, originally procured in the vicinity of Mont Martre, near Paris. The plaster stone, or alabaster, is, however, found in many parts of England, as at Chelaston near Derby, and Beacon Hill near Newark. The former pits yield about 800 tons a year. It is ground and frequently used for manure, or rather as a stimulant for grass. It is calcined into the plaster used by the modeller, plasterer, &c. When diluted with water into a thin paste, plaster of Paris sets rapidly, and at the instant of setting, its bulk is increased. Mr. Boyle found by experiment that a glass vessel filled with this paste, and close stopped, bursts while the mixture sets, a quantity of water sometimes issuing through the cracks ; hence this material becomes valuable for filling cavities, &e., when other earths would shrink. The gypsum is pre- paid either by burning or boiling, and loses from four to six cwt. in a ton. After burning, it is ground into powder in a mill. Plat or Plot. A late mediaeval term for a design or drawing. Platband. Any flat and square moulding whose projection is much less than its height, such are the fasciae of an architrave, the list between flutings, &c. The platband of a door or window is the lintel, when it is made square and not much arched. Plate. A general term applied to those horizontal pieces of timber lying mostly on walls for the reception of another assemblage of timbers. Thus, a wall vlate is laid round the walls of a building to receive the timbering of a floor and roof ; a gutter plate under the gutter of a building, &c. Plate Glass. Glass cast in sheets or plates, and polished. Plate glass is superior in quality and colour to both “ crown ” and “ sheet ” glass. The best kind may be tested by its perfect freedom from colour, blemishes, specks, and striae of every sort. It is not subject to dampness or “ sweating.” That which is tinged is of inferior quality, and cannot be used where it is intended to exhibit coloured articles behind it. The usual thickness is one quarter of an inch. The better sort of plate glass is used for looking-glasses, and is charged a higher price than for glazing purposes. There is also an inferior sort of plate glass, called “patent plate,” which consists of blown glass of an extra thickness, which is then opened and polished. For large sizes the price is about the same as plate glass. Plate Rack. A fixturo over the sink in a scullery for the reception of dinner plates and dishes after washing. Plate Tracery. The earliest form of tracery, used at the commencement of the Early English period of mediaeval architecture, as Fig. 1431; it consists of the openings being formed or cut in the stonework, and showing no projecting mouldings. Platform. An assemblage of timbers for carrying a flat covering of a house, or the Fig. 1434. GLOSSARY. 1341 flat, covering itself. A terrace or open walk at the top of a building. The raised dais on which the altar stands, aod also that on which the font stands. Plinth. (Gr. nA.iv0os, a brick.) Tho lower square member of a base of a column or pedestal. In a wall the term plinth is applied to two or more rows of bricks at the base of it, which project from the face. Plotting. The art of laying down on paper the angles and lines of a plot of land by any instrument used in surveying. Plough. A joiner's grooving plane. Plough and Tonqurd. This is a continued mortise and tenon along the edges of two boards, the one having a groove cut in it, and the other formed into a projection ; such work is used to linings and floors. Sometimes both edges are grooved, and a thin piece of wood or of hoop iron lot into both, while being fixed up or laid. Seo Heading Joint. Plug. A piece of timber driven perpendicularly into a wall with the projecting part sawn away, so as to be flush with the face. Plug and Eeathbb, or Key and Featiikr. A name given to a method of dividing hard stones by means of a long tapering wedge called the hep, and wedge-shaped pieces of iron called feathers, which are driven into holes previously drilled into the rock for the purpose, and thus forcibly split it. Plumbing. (Lat. Plumbus.) The art of casting and working in lead and using it in build’ng. Plumb Rule, Plumb Line, or Plummet. An instrument used by masons, carpenters, &c., to draw perpendiculars or verticals, for ascertaining whether their work be upright, horizontal, and so on. The instrument is little more than a piece of lead or plummet at the end of a string, sometimes descending along a wooden or metal ruler raised j perpendicularly on another, and then it is called a level. See Level. Plumber. The artificer who works in lead and zinc. The fittings for water-closets, cisterns, pumps, gutters, &c., come under his care. Pocket. The space in the pulley style of a sashed window. It is also a space closed up, ; or nearly so, formed out of a larger space. Pockets are often found in the flues of old houses, and form one of the great causes of fires, by accumulating the soot, which at last heats and ignites adjoining woodwork. Podium. (Lat.) A continued pedestal. A projection which surrounded the arena of tho ancient amphitheatre, See Amphitheatre. Point. (Lat. Punctum.) In geometry, according to Euclid, that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. Point, accidental. In perspective, a term used by the old writers on the science to signify the vanishing point. 5 oint of Distance. In perspective, the distance of the picture transferred upon the vanish- ing line from the centre, or from the point where the principal ray meets it, whence it is generally understood to be on the vanishing line of the horizon. See Distance. Point, objective. A point on a geometrical plane whose representation is required on the perspective plane. ’oint of Sight. The place of the eye whence the picture is viewed, according to Dr. Brook Taylor, but, according to the old writers on perspective, is what is now called the centre of the picture. It is also called th e point of view. ’ointed or Lancet Arch. An arch formed by a radius equal to the span of the opening, and struck from both sides of it on the springing line. A lancet arch of a higher pitch is formed by the radius being struck as much beyond the opening as may be desired. See Tierce Point, ointed Architecture. The mediaeval styles of architecture in which the pointed arch is adopted as a principle of construction. dinting. The raking out the mortar from between the joints of brick work, and replacing the same with new mortar. ole Piate. A plate fixed to the lower ends of a truss of a roof, to receive the ends of the common rafters, as B in Fig. 688. olishing. The act of imparting to fancy woods, as wainscot, mahogany, bird’s-eye maple, &c., a brilliant surface to show off their flower to advantage. This is done by rubbing on them a spirit varnish with great care. Varnish, wax, and a common polish are rubbed or laid on with a brush for cheapness. See Marble. illard. A tree which has been frequently lopped or polled of its head and branches, a practice very injurious to good timber. jlycilromy. The decoration of exteriors and interiors of buildings, with colours and tints. When executed in a single colour, it is called monochrome painting. xlygqn. (Gr. IIoAuy, many, and Teona, an angle.) A multilateral figure, or one whose perimeter consists of more than four sides and angles. If the sides and angles be equal the figure is called a regular polygon. Polygons are distinguished according to the number of the sides ; thus those of five sides are called pentagons, those of six 1342 GLOSSARY. hexagons, those of seven heptagons, and so on. The subjoined is a table of the arms and perpendiculars of polygons, the side being = 1. ; and of the lengths of sides of poly- gons to Radius 1. See also par. 1219. r * Number of Sic.es. Names of Polygons. Area. Perpendiculars. Circumscribed. Inscribed. 3 Trigon •433013 •2886751 3-4641 1-7321 4 Tetragon 1-000000 •5000000 2 0000 1-4142 0 Pentagon D720177 •6881910 1-4530 1-1756 G Hexagon 2-598076 •8660254 11548 1-0000 7 Heptagon - 3-633912 1 0382617 0-9630 08677 8 Octagon 4-823427 1-2071068 0-8284 0-7654 9 Enneagon - 6 181824 1 3737387 0-7278 06840 10 Decagon 7-694209 1-5388118 0-6498 0-6180 11 Endeeagon - 9-365610 P7028437 0-5872 0-5634 12 Dodecagon - 11196152 1-8660251 0 5358 0-5176 From the above, to find the area of a regular polygon, multiply one of the sides of the polygon by the perpendicular from the centre on that side, and multiply half the pro- duct by the number of sides ; or, multiply the square of the given side of the polygon by the number opposite to its name under the word Area. Polygram. (Gr.) A figure consisting of many lines. Polyhjedron. (Gr.) A solid contained under many sides or planes. If the sides of a polyhsedron be regular polygons, all similar and equal, it becomes a regular body, and may be inscribed in a sphere, that is, a sphere may be drawn round it, so that its sur- face shall touch all the solid angles of the body. Pulystyle. (Gr. IloAos and StvAos.) Of many columns. See Colonnade. Pomkl. (Lat. Pomum.) A globular protuberance terminating a pinnacle, &c. Poplar. (Lat. Populus.) A tree sometimes used for rafters m common buildings. Poppy Heads, or Poppies. The termination of the ends of open seats, often carved as heads, foliage, &e. Porch. (Fr.) An exterior appendage to a building, forming a covered approach to one of its principal doorways. Porphyry. (Gr.) A very hard stone, partaking of the nature of granite. It is not so fine as many of the ordinary marbles, but far exceeds them in hardness, and will take a very fine polish. It is generally of a high purple, which varies, however, from claret colour to violet. Its variations are rarely disposed in grains. The purple porphyry was obtained by the Romans in Egypt, the quarries of which were only discovered, between the River Nile and the Red Sea, about 1885-87, by Burton, Schweinfurth, and lastly by Brindley. Columns of it wrought 1900 years since still retain the freshness of colour. It had been obtained of very large sizes, for tombs, &c. It must not be confounded with the Syenite of Egypt. The red-lead coloured porphyry, which abounds in Minorca, is variegated with black white, and green, and is a beautiful and valuable material. The pale and red porphyry variegated with black, white and green is found in Arabia Petrsea and Upper Egypt, and in separate nodules in Germany, England, and Ireland. The sorts best known are what the Italians call the porfido rosso (red), which is of a deep red with oblong white spots; the lat- ter are of fdd spath, which resembles schorl. There are two varieties of black porphyry, the porfido nero, or black porphyry, and that called the serpentino nero antico. The first has a ground entirely black, sp itted with oblong white spots like the red porphyry; the other has also a black ground, with great white spots, oblong, or rather in the form of a parallelopipedon, nearly resembling in colour what the French call serpentin vert antique. The brown porphyry has a brown ground with large oblong greenish spots. There are several sorts of green porphyry, which the Italians principally distinguish by the names of serpentino antico verde, found in great abundance and in large blocks in the neighbourhood of the ancient Ostia, of a green ground with oblong spots of a lighter shade of the same colour ; and the porfido verde, which is of a ground of very dark green, almost approaching to black, with lighter shades of a fine grass green. Portal. (Lat. Porta.) The arch over a door or gate ; the framework of the gate ; the lesser gate, when there are two of different dimensions at one entrance. The Fr. portail is given to the entrance facade of a building. This term was formerly applied to a small square corner in a room separated from the rest of the apartment by wainscoting. Portcullis. (Fr.) A strong grated framing of timber, resembling a harrow, the vertical pieces whereof were pointed with iron at the bottom, for the purpose of striking into the ground when it was dropped, and also to break and destroy that upon which it fell. R GLOSSARY. 1343 was mado to slide up and down in a groove of solid stone-work within the arch of the portals of old castles. It was introduced into the early Norman castles. Poktico. (Lat. Porticus.) See Colonnade. Portland Cement. A quick-setting cement made from limestone and clay. It is calcined at a very great heat; w'll take a larger quantity of sand than Roman cement; and is much lighter in colour, rendering it more agreeable for decorative purposes. Poutland Stone. A dull white species of stone brought from the island of Portland. It stands the action of the Loudon atmosphere better than any other stone. Portuguese Architecture. See Spanish Architecture. Position. In geometry, the situation of one thing in regard to another. Speaking architecturally, it is the situation of a building in respect of the four cardinal points of the horizon. Post. (Fr.) An upright piece of timber set in the earth. Any piece of timber whose office is to support or sustain in a vertical direction, as the king and queen posts in a roof, is so called. , Post and Paling. A close wooden fence constructed with posts fixed in the ground and pales nailed between them. This kind of fence is sometimes called post and railing, though this latter is rather a kind of open wooden fence, used for the protection of young quickset hedges, consisting of posts and rails, &c. Postern. A side door or gate usually employed in castellated architecture. i Posticum. (Lat.) See Cell. |l Postscenium or Parascenium. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the back part of the theatre, where the machinery was deposited, and where the actors retired to robe themselves. ; Pot Metal. See Stained Glass. Poultry House. A building for the shelter and rearing of poultry, of which, perhaps, the finest example is that at Wilmington in Cheshire. The front is one hundred and forty feet in length, with a pavilion at each end, united to the centre by a colonnade of small cast-iron pillars, supporting a slated roof, which shelters a paved walk. In the centre of the front are four strong columns, and as many pilasters, supporting a slated roof, with an iron gate between them, from which a large semicircular court is entered, with a colonnade round it, and places for the poultry. On one side of the gate is a small parlour, and at the other end of the colonnade a kitchen. Pow r ER. In mechanics, a force which, applied to a machine, tends to produce motion. If it actually produce it, it is called a moving power, if not, it is called a sustaining power. The term is also used in respect of the six simple machines, viz. the lever, the balance, the screw, the axis in peritrochio, the wedge , 'dn&x.\xQ pulley, which are called the mecha- nical powers. Poyntell. A pavement consisting of small lozenge-shaped tiles, or square tiles laid diagonally. Pozzuolana. See Puzzuolana. J PuyiiciNCTio (Lat.) or Balteus. A wide seat, or rather step, round the audience part of the ancient theatres and amphitheatres. It was termed SiaCw/aa by the Greeks. Preaching Cross. A cross erected in the highway, at which the monks and others preached to the public. Preceptory. A manor or estate of the Knights Templars, on which a church was erected for religious service, and a convenient house for habitation, and generally placed under one of the more eminent members of the fraternity, called th & pmceptores templi, to have care of the lands and rents of the place. The preceptories were nothing more than cells to the Temple, or principal house of the knights in London. Presbytery. That part of the church reserved for the officiating priests, comprising the choir and other eastern parts of the edifice. > Pricking up Coat. The first coat of plaster in three-coat work on lathing. Prick Post. The same as a Queen Post of a roof. Also the posts in a wooden building placed between the principal posts at the corners. Also the posts framed into the breastsummer, between the principal posts, for strengthening the carcass of a house. Prime. (Lat.) A figure in geometry that cannot be divided into any other figures more simple than itself, as a triangle in plane figures, and a pyramid in solids. A prime number is one that cannot be divided by another number without a remainder. Priming. In painter’s work, the first colouring of the work, which forms a ground for the succeeding coats. Principal Brace. One immediately under the principal rafters, or parallel to them, in a state of compression, assisting, with the principals, to support the timbers of a roof. >„ Principal Point. In perspective, a point in the perspective plane upon which a line will fall drawn from the eye perpendicular to that plane. It is, in fact, the intersection of the horizontal and vertical planes, or \.\\e point of sight or of the eye. 1341 GLOSSARY. Principal Rafter. One whose size is larger than that of a common rafter, and is framed in such a manner, as in a truss, as to bear the principal weight of the latter. Principal Ray. In perspective, the line passing from the eye to the principal point on the perspective plane. Priory. A monasfery, the head of which was called a prior or prioress. Prism. (Gr. Upicrga.) In geometry an oblong or solid body contained under more than four planes, whose bases are equal, parallel, and similarly situate. Prismoid. A solid figure, having for its two ends any dissimilar parallel plane figure of the same number of sides, and all the upright sides of the solid trapezoids. If the ends of the prismoid be bounded by dissimilar curves, it is sometimes called a cylindroid. Prison. A building erected for the confinement, or safe custody, of those who have trans- gressed the laws of their country, until, in due course of time, they aro discharged. In considerable cities and towns, humanity, and inleed justice, demands that the same building which confines the convicted felon should not enclose the debtor and the untried prisoner, as well as him whose offence is not of an aggravated nature. In small towns, where there may be only one, perhaps small, prison, the separation of the prisoners is more difficult to accomplish. The separation of the sex is indispensable. For whatever class of prisoners a building is erected, salubrity and ventilation are as essential as the security of those confined. It is now unnecessary to reprint the whole of the requisites which the celebrated Iloivard specified for prisons : modern rules have necessitated great alterations since his time. Prison discipline is a problem the wisest of our legislators have not yet been able to solve. When Pentonville Prison was erected it was thought that complete separa- tion, by its severity, would lessen crime. Tho result, however, has scarcely justified the belief. The Government have had ample opportunity of forming an opinion upon the merits of the separate system, consequently about 1851 some relaxation was made, and about ten per cent, were placed in association. The City authorities adopted a middle course, and they have tho means of confining the vicious in separate cells ; and have sufficient number of workrooms for classified association. One of the prisons erected for the metropolis is the Model or Pentonville Prison in the Caledonian Road, erected 1840-42 by Major R. Jebb for 1,000 prisoners, and to which additions have been made. A Report was published at the time giving all the details of the cells, which are 13 feet by 7 feet by 9 feet high, and intended for solitary confinement. Another, the new City Prison, in the Camden Road, erected 1849-52, by the City architect, Mr. J. B. Bunning, has 418 cells. It is constructed on tho radiating principle, having four wings diverging from the centre, with two others in front of the former. Each is twelve cells in length, or about 100 feet long, and three stoiies high. The corridors are 16 feet wide, and are open up to the arched ceiling, with galleries leading to the upper cells. One of the latest prisons erected is that at Edinburgh. It is described in the British Architect for October 14, 1887, p. 291. Problem (Gr.) In geometry, a proposition in which some operation or construction is required, as to divide a line, to make an angle, to draw a circle through three points not in a right line, &c. A problem consists of three parts : the proposition, which states what is required to be done ; the resolution or solution, wherein are rehearsed the step or steps by which it is done; and the demonstration, wherein it is shown that by doing the several things prescribed in the resolution the thing required is obtained. Prodomos. In ancient architecture, the portico before the entrance to the cell of a temple. See Cell. Producing. In geometry, the continuing a right line to any required length. Profile. The vertical section of a body. It is principially used in its architectural sense to signify the contour of architectural members, as of bases, cornices, &c. The profile of an order is in fact the outline of the whole and its parts, the drawing whereof is technically called profiling the order. PuoiECTiON. The art of representing a body on a plane by drawing straight lines through a given point, or parallel from the contour and from the intermediate lines of the body, if any, so as to cut the plane. When the projection is made by drawing straight lines from a point, it is called a perspective representation ; but if formed by parallel lines, it is called an orthographical representation. Projecture. An out-jetting or prominence beyond the naked of a wall, column, &c. By the Greeks projectures were called iKopcu, by the Italians sporti, by the French saiiUes ; our workmen called them sailings over. Prolate. (Lat.) An epithet applied to a spheroid when generated by the revolution of a semi-ellipsis about its longer diameter. GLOSSARY. 1315 ’ronaos. Seo Cell. ’hop. A support, or that on which anything rests. See Range and Shore. ’roportion. The just magnitude of each part, and of each part to another, so as to he suitable to the end in view. See Harmonic, and Geometric, Proportion, ’roportional Compasses. See Compasses. ’ropylasum. (Gr. npo, before, and nvArj, a portal.) Any court or vestibule before a building, or before its principal part ; but more particularly the entrance to such court or vestibule. ’roscenium. (Gr.) That part in the ancient theatre whereon the actors performed in front of the scene, being what we call the stage. The Romans called this part the pulpitum. ’rostyle. (Gr. ITpo, and SruAo?, a column.) A portico in which the columns stand in advance of the building to which they belong. ’rothesis, Table of. See Credence. ’rothyuis. (Gr.) A word used in ancient architecture to signify a cross beam or over- thwart rafter, as likewise a quoin or course of a wall. See Console. ’rothyrum. (Gr.) A porch at the outer door cf a house ; a portal. ’rotractor. (Lat. Protraetus.) An instrument for laying down an angle in drawing or plotting. “secdisodomum. See Isodomum. ’seudodipteral or False Dipteral. A disposition in the temples of antiquity wherein there wore eight columns in front and only one range round the cell. It is called false or imperfect, because the cell only occupying the width of four columns, the sides from the columns to the walls of the cell have no columns therein, though the front and rear present a column in the middle of the void. See Temple. ’seudoperifteral or Imperfect Peripteral. A disposition in the ancient temples, in which the columns on the sides were engaged in the wall, and wherein there was no portico except to the facade in front; such are the Maison Carree at Nismes, and the temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome. ’tera. In Grecian architecture, is the colonnade which surrounded the cell of the temple, the monoptercs temple being tlie only species which had columns without a wall behind them. The peripteral had one tier of columns round the cell, the dipteral two, and the pseudo or false dipteral, invented by Hermogenes, was that in wjiieh the ptera was single, but occupied the same space on the sides of the cell as the dipteral, though one of the tiers of columns was left out. Thus, by metaphor, the columns were called the wings of the temple. See Temple. 'teroma. (Gr. Urepou, a wing.) The space between the wall of the cell of a temple and the columns of the peristyle, called also ambulatio. jBLic Building. Every building used as a church, chappl, or other place of public worship ; also every building used for purposes of public instruction ; also as a college, public hall, hospital, theatre, public concert room, public ball room, public lecture room, public exhibition room, or any other public purposes. Metropolitan Building Act, 1885. tddling. The filling behind a wall, filling up a cavity, or banking up with clay Tempered with water, and carefully rammed down with the repeated strokes of beaters tor beetles, in order to make it solid. See Claying. 'gging. A coarse kind of mortar laid upon rough boarding placed between joists, to prevent the transmission of sound from the apartment above to that below, jo— mill. A stone, or a pair of large circular stones, in a vertical position, worked by machinery to roll round as a wheel and also in and round an iron pan, for the purpose bf grinding up clay for brickmaking, and also the lime and bricks in making mortar. ' g-piling. The same as dovetailed piling, or pile planking. .illey. (Fr.) One of the five mechanical powers, consisting of a wheel or rundle, laving a channel around it and turning on an axis, serving, by means of a rope which noves in its channel, for the raising of weights. 1 -ley Mortise. The same as Chase Mortise. Jlpit. (Ital. Pulpito.) An elevated place, an enclosed stage or platform for a preacher n a church. The ancient arnbo served the same purpose. liLPnuM. (Lat.) See Proscenium. L.vinaria. (Lat.) Cushions in the ancient temples whereon the statues of the gods 'ere sometimes laid. I vinata. (Lat.) A pillow ; as applied to the volute of the Ionic order. I .vinated. See Frieze. I ip. A machine for raising water; there are many varieties of them. 1 tCHEON. (Fr. Poin$on.) A name common to iron instruments used in different trades ir cutting, inciding, or piercing a body. In carpentry, it is a piece of timber placed 4 R I 1346 GLOSSARY. upright between two posts whose bearing is too great, serving, together with them, to sustain some heavy weight. The term is also applied to a piece of timber raised upright under the ridge of a building, and in which are jointed the small timbers. Also to the arbor or principal part of a machine on which it turns vertically, as that of a crane. Puhbeck Stone. A species of stone obtained from the island of Purbeck in Dorsetshire, of avery hard texture, and used for paving. See Pavement. Purfled. (Fr. Pourfiler.) Ornamented work in stone, or other material, representing embroidery, drapery, or lace work. Purlin. A horizontal piece of timber lying generally on the principal rafters of a roof to lessen the bearings of the common rafters. Locally called side timbers, and side wavers. Puteal. The marginal stone of a well. The celebrated one of Scribonius Li bo was erected by order of the senate to mark the spot where a thunderbolt had fallen near the statues of Marsyas and Janus by the Comitia. Putlog. See Ledger. Putty. A sort of paste consisting of whiting, with or without a small portion of white lead, and linseed oil, beaten together until it assumes a kind of tough consistency like dough. In this state it is used by glaziers for fixing in the squares of glass to sash windows, etc., and also by house-painters to stop up holes and cavities in woodwork before painting. Puzzuolana. A grey-eoloured earth deriving its name from Puzzuoli, whence it was originally brought. It is a volcanic matter found in many other parts of Italy, and generally in the neighbourhood of volcanoes active or extinct, from which it has been thrown out in the form of ashes. It immediately hardens when mixed with one-third of its weight of lime and water, forming an admirable water cement. Pycnostyle. (Gr. Uvkvos, close, StuAos, column.) See Colonnade. Pylon. The mass of building on either side of the entrance to an Egyptian temple. It is pyramidal in form and sometimes as much as 100 feet in length and 32 feet in width. Pyramid. (Gr. flap, fire.) A solid standing on a square, triangular, or polygonal basis, and terminating at top in a point; or a body whose base is a regular rectilinear figure and whose sides are plain triangles, their several vertieles meeting together in one point. It is defined by Euclid as a solid figure consisting of several triangles whose bases are all in the same plane and have one common vertex. The principal properties of pyramids are as follow: — 1. All. pyramids and cones standing on the same base and having the same altitude are equal. 2. A triangular pyramid is the third part of a prism, standing on the same base and of the same altitude. 3. Hence, since every multangular may be divided into triangulars, every pyramid is the third part of a prism standing on the same base and of the same altitude. 4. If a pyramid be cut by a plane parallel to its base, the sections will be similar to the base. 6. All pyramids, prisms, cylinders, etc., are in a ratio compounded of their bases and altitudes ; the bases therefore being equal they are in proportion to their altitudes, and the altitudes being equal, they are in proportion to their bases. 6. Similar pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, etc., are in a triplicate ratio of their homologous sides. 7. Equal pyramids, etc., reciprocate their bases and altitudes, i.e. the altitude of one is to that of the other, as the base of the one is to the base of the other. 8. A sphere is equal to a pyramid whose base is equal to the surface, and its height to the radius of the sphere. See Frustum. Tlie name of the structure erected over a tomb, as commonly seen in Egypt. Pyramidion. The small flat pyramid which terminates the top of an obelisk. Q Quadra. (Ital.) A square border or frame round a basso-relievo, panel, etc. ; the term is not strictly applicable to any circular border. The term is also applied to the bands or ill lets of the Ionic base on each side of the scotia ; and also to the plinth or lower mem- ber of the podium. Quadrangle. Any figure with four angles and four sides. This term is in architecture m England applied to the inner square or rectangular court of a building, as in the college courts of Oxford, etc. Quadrant. (Lat.) The quarter of a circle, or an arc of it containing ninety degrees within its enclosed angle. Quadrature. (Lat.) The determination of the area of a figure in a square, or even any other rectilinear form. Quiadrel. An artificial stone perfectly square, whence its name, much used formerly by the Italian architects. Quadrels were made of a chalky or whitish and pliable earth, and dried in the shade for at least two years. Quadrifores. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, folding doors whose height was divided into two parts. When they opened in one height, they were termed fores valvatce or valets. Quadrilateral. In geometry, a figure whose perimeter consists of four right lines mak- ing four angles, whence it is also called a quadrangular figure. li Ii it fa t ii > tu o J sill [ U V Wi Uni k GLOSSARY. 1347 Quarrel, vulgarly called Quarry. (Fr. Carre.) A square or lozcngo-sliapcd picco of glass used in lead casements. Quarry. (Irish, Carrig.) A place whence marbles, stones, or slates are procured. Quarrying. The operation of extracting the produce of a quarry is one which requires much practical knowledge to render it beneficial to its owner; but in respect of the details t hey are not required to be noticed in this work. Quarter Grain. See Felt Grain. Quarter Pace. See Foot Pace. Quarter Partition. One consisting of quarters, or upright pieces of timber receiving the lath and plaster work. Quarter Round. The same as Ovolo and Echinus, being a moulding whoso profile is the quadrant of a circle. Quarters. Small vertical timber posts, rarely exceeding four by three inches, used to form a partition instead of walls for the separation or boundary of apartments. They are placed, or ought to be, about twelve inches apart, and are usually lathed and plastered in the internal apartments, but if used for external purposes are commonly boarded. A series of such posts is called Quartering. Quartz. (Germ.) A mineral production better known by the name of rock crystal. It includes a variety of stones with which wo have nothing here to do, and the only motive for mentioning it is its occurrence in the granites, wherein it is immediately recognised, from its glass-like appearance. Quatrefoil. (Fr. Quatrefeuille.) A modern term denoting a form disposed in four segments of circles, and so called from its imagined resemblance to an expanded flower of four petals. It is only found in the windows, panels, etc., of Gothic architecture. Quay. (Fr.) A bank formed towards the sea or on the side of a river for free passage, or for the purpose of unloading merchandise. Queen-post. A suspending post where there are two in a trussed roof. Queen. A size slate used in roofing. Quicklime. Lime in lump or in powder, ready for water to be added to it. See Lime. Quirk. A piece taken out of any regular ground-plot or floor ; thus, if the ground plan were square or oblong, and a piece were taken out of the corner, such piece is called a quirk. See Re-entering angle. Quirk Moulding. One whose sharp and sudden return from its extreme projection to the re-entrant angle seems rather to partake of a straight line on the profile than of the curve. Of this class are a great number of the ancient Greek mouldings. Quoins. (Fr. Coin.) A term applied to any external angle but more especially applied to the angular courses of stone raised from the naked of the wall at the corner of a building, and called rustic quoins. See Rustic Quoins. R Rabbet. See Rebate. Rack. The case, enclosed by bars, over the manger in a stable, wherein the hay is placed for the horses. Rad and Dab. A substitute for brick nogging in partitions, consisting of cob or a mix- ture of clay and chopped straw filled in between laths of split oak or hazel. It is also called wattle and dab. Radial Curves. In geometry, those of the spiral kind whose ordinates all terminate in the centre of the including circle, and appear like so many radii of such circle Radius. In geometry, the semidiameter of a circle, or a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference. Radius of Curvature. The radius of the osculatory circle at any point in a curve. See Osculatory Circle. Raffle Leaf. A leaf in ornamental foliage formed of small indentations at the edge. The acanthus leaf is so called. Rafters. (Quasi, Roof-trees.) The inclined timbers of a roof, whose edges are in the same plane which is parallel to the covering. Rag Slate. A slate obtained from Wales, and sold by the ton, which will cover about one square and a half of roofing. Rail. (Ger. Riegel.) A term applied in various ways, but more particularly to those pieces of timber or wood lying horizontally, whether between the panels of wainscoting, or of doors, or under orover the compartments of balustrades, &c. ; to pieces, in framing, that lie from post to post in fences; in short, to all pieces lying in a horizontal direc- i tion which separate one compartment from another. Tainfall. To calculate the quantity of water that will accumulate over a given area, multiply the inches of rainfall by 2,323,200, which will equal the cube feet per square mile. If by 14|, it will equal millions of gallons per acre, If by 3,630, it will equal cube feet per acre. ( Mo'.esworth .) 4 E 2 1318 GLOSSARY. Rain-water Pipe. One usually placed against the exterior of a house to carry off the rain-water from the roof. Raising Piece. One which lies under a beam and over the posts or puncheons. The term is chiefly used in respect of buildings constructed of timber framework. Raising Weights. See Lewis. Rake. A slope or inclination, as of a roof. Raking. A term applied to any member whose arisses lie inclined to the horizon. Ramp. (Pr.) In handrails, a concavity on the upper side formed over risers, or over a half or quarter pace, by a sudden rise of the steps above, which frequently occasions a knee above the ramp. The term is also applied to any concave form, as in coping, &c., where a higher is to be joined by a continued line to a lower body. Rampant Arch. One whose abutments or springings are not on the same level. Rance. A prop or shore ; a term used in Scotland. Random Tooling. In Scotland called droving, is a mode of hewing the face of a stono either as preparatory to some other process, or as a finishing operation. A chisel two to four inches broad at the cutting edge,- is advanced along the stone at about ^ inch pet stroke, the result being a series of indentations on the surface of the whole stone-- The excellence of the work depends upon the regularity of these flutings and the absence of ridges between the draughts. Range, or Ranging. (Fr.) A term applied to the edges of a number of bodies when standing in a given plane. Thus, if the edges of the ribs of a groin were placed in a cyliudric surface, they would be said to range. It is also used in respect of a work that runs straight without breaking into angles. Rank Set. When the sole of a plane iron projects greatly below the plane. Ray, Principal. In perspective, the perpendicular distance between the eye and the perspective plane. Rayonnant. (Fr. Radiating.) A term applied in France to a period in Gothic archi- tecture, wherein the mullions and tracery terminate in forms founded on the divergence of rays from certain centres. It prevailed from the latter end of the thirteenth until near the end of the fourteenth century. Rebate. (Fr. Rebattre.) A channel or small recess cut in a piece of wood, longitudinally, to receive the edge of a body, or the ends of a number of bodies that are to be secured to it. The depth of the channel is equal to the thickness of the body ; so that when the end of the latter is let into the rebate, it is in the same face with the outside of the piece. See Door-stop. Rebate Plane. One used for sinking rebates. Recess. (Lat. Recedo.) A cavity left in a wall, sometimes for use, as to receive a side- board, bed, &c., or to add to the quantity of floor room, and sometimes for ornament, as when formed into a niche, &c. Reciprocals. A term in mathematics, mostly applied to the fraction made by inverting another fraction ; thus f- is the reciprocal of | and | of |. Rectangle. In geometry, a figure whose angles are all right angles. Solids are called rectangular with respect to their position, as a cone, cylinder, &c., when perpendicular to the plane of the horizon. A parabola was anciently called a rectangular section of a cone. Rectification. In geometry, the finding of a right lino that shall be equal to a given curve, or simply finding the length of a curve. Rectilinear. A figure whose boundaries are right lines. Rectilinear Period. A name given by some writers to the Perpendicular period of mediaeval architecture in England, from the predominance of rectangular or straight lines. Deduct. A quirk or small piece taken out of a larger to make it more uniform and regular. Reduction of a figure, desigu, or draught. The copying it on a smaller scale than the original, preserving the same form and proportions. For this purpose a pair of propor- tional compasses are generally used, by which the labour is much lessened. Reed Mouiding. A moulding formed by three or more beads worked side by side. Re-entering angle. An angle returned (A), in eontrailistinc- tion to a square or solid angle (B), by the former of which much space is often lost in small houses, it being sometimes adopted from its picturesque qualities. See Quirk. Refectory. (Lat.) A room for taking refreshments. See Abbey. Reflector. A polished surface so placed at an angle that it will any required position. See Light, Reflected. Reflex. The light reflected from a surface in light to one in shade. Refuge. The name given to a building prepared for the reception of destitute people, where they are boarded and clothed and have to work, or if young are taught some trade, such as the “Boys’ Refuge Farm School and Country Home,” at Bisley, near Woking, in Surrey. Reglet. (Fr.) A flat narrow moulding, used chiefly to separate the parts or members of compartments or panels from each other, or to form knots, frets, and other ornaments. B reflect light towards GLOSSARY. 1349 Regrating. In masonry, the process of removing the outer surface of an old licwn stone, so as to give it a fresh appearance. Hegula. (Lat.) A band below the taenia in the Doric architrave. Regular. An epithet applied to a figure when it is equilateral and equiangular. A body is said to bo regular when it is bounded by regular and equal planes, and has all its solid angles equal. Regular Architecture. That which has its parts symmetrical or disposed in counterparts. Regular Curves. The perimeters of conic sections, which aro always curved after the same geometrical manner. Rkignier Work. Ornamental figures or patterns inlaid in wood in the manner of buhl work, with le ives &c. of different colours. Reins of a Vault. The sides or walls that sustain the arch. Rejointing. The filling up the joints of stones of old buildings when the mortar has been dislodged by age and the action of the weather. Relation. The direct conformity to each other, and to the whole, of the parts of a building. Relievo (It.) or Relief. The projeeture from its ground of any architectural ornament. Among sculptors there are three degrees of relievo ; namely, alto relievo, when tho figure stands quite out from its ground ; mezzo relievo, when one half of the figure projects ; and basso relievo, when the figures aro raised from the ground in a small degree. Relieving Arch. See Discharging Arch. Render. To plaster on walls, slates or tiles, without the intervention of laths. Renaissance Architecture. The name given to the style which studied to revive the forms and ornaments of Roman art and partly of the Grecian. It was commenced under the best efforts of the artists of the sixteenth and seventeentli centuries. The style is called “ Cinque Cento” in Italy ; and the “ Rovival ” or “ Elizabethan ” in Great Britain. Rendering. The act of laying the first coat of plaster on brickwork. Replum. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, tho panel of a framed door. See Impages. Rkredos. A screen placed behind an altar in mediaeval architecture, and decorated with niches, statues, paintings, or other work, in accordance with the period of the style employed. See Altar Screen. Reservoir. (Fr.) An artificial pond, basin, or cistern for the collection and supply of water. Resistance. That power which, acting in opposition to another, tends to destroy or diminish its effect. There are several sorts of resistance, arising from the various natures and properties of the resisting bodies, as the resistance of solids, fluids, air, & c. The following is a synopsis of the most important results that have been drawn by different writers on the sul ject, Loth practical and theoretical : 1. The resistance of a beam or bar to a fracture by a force acting laterally is as the solid made by a section of the beam in the place where the force is applied, into tho distance of its centre of gravity from the point or line where the breach will end. 2. In square beams the lateral strengths are as the cubes of their breadths and depths. 3. In cylindric beams, the resistances of strengths are as the cubes of the diameters. 4. In rectangular beams the lateral strengths are conjointly as the breadths and squares of the depths. o. The lateral resistances of any beams whose sections are similar figures and alike placed are as the cubes of the like dimensions of those figures. 6. The lateral strength of a beam, with its narrower face upwards, is to its strength with the broader face upwards, as the breadth of the broader face to the breadth of the narrower. 7. The lateral strengths of prismatic beams, of the same materials, are as the areas of the sections and the distance of their centre of gravity directly, and as their lengths and weights reciprocally. 8. When the beam is fixed at both ends, the same property has place, except that in this case we must consider the beam as only half the length of the former. 9. Cylinders and square prisms have their lateral strengths proportional to the cubes of their diameters or depths directly, and their lengths and weights inversely. 10. Similar prisms and cylinders have their strength inversely proportional to their ! linear dimensions. The relative resistance of wood and other bodies is shown in the following table: — Proportional Resistance. ,'?ox, yew, plum-tree, oak - - 11 51m, ash .... 8i |iValnut, thorn - - - l\ lied fir, holly, elder, plane, crab- tree, apple-tree ... 7 (leech, cherry-tree, hazel - - 6| Alder, ash, birch, white fir, willow Iron Brass Bone Lead Fine freestone - Proportional Resistance. 6 107 50 22 H i 1350 GLOSSARY. The following table shows the cohesive force of a square inch of different substance?, from the experiments of Professor Robinson: — Gold when cast lbs. - 20 lbs. Razor steel - - - 15 Fir lbs. - 8 Silver - - 40 Oak and beech in the Cedar - - - - 5 Cast iron - 40 to 60 direction of their fibres Ivory - - - - 16 Wrought iron - 60 to 90 from - - - 8 to 1 7 Bono - - - - 5 Soft steel - 12 Willow- - - - 12 Rope - - 20 Responds. Half-piers at the east or west end of the nave, transepts, or choir. They are sometimes formed in the shapie of corbels. Ressault. (Fr.) The recess or projection of a member from or before another, so as to be out of the line or range with it. Retable. A shelf, temporary or otherwise, between the altar and the east wall. A series of receding shelves or retables, behind and separate from the altar, is thought convenient for placing thereon vases of flowers and candlesticks. Retaining Wall. Such as is built to retain a bank of earth from sliding down. It is is also called a revetment, or revetement., wall. The term is usually restricted to a wall built to retain an artificial bank. One erected to sustain the force of solid ground is called a breast wall. Reticulated. Like the meshes of a net. The rcticulatum opus of the ancients is described under the article Masonry. Return. The continuation of a moulding, projection, &e., in an opposite direction. A side or part which falls away from the front of a straight work. Return Bead. See Bead and Double Q,u[rk. Reveal. (Lat. Revello.) The vertical side of an aperture between the front of the wall and of the window, or door, frame. Revolution. In geometry, the motion of a point or line about a centre. Thus, a right- angled triangle, revolving round ono of its legs as an axis, generates a cone in its revolution. Rhenish Architecture. The species of Romanesque practised in the Rhine countries, differing only in subordinate fea- tures from that of other parts of Germany. Fig. 1436. Rhomboid. (Gr.) A quadrilateral figure whose opposite sides and angles are equal. Rhombus. (Gr.) A quadrilateral figure, whose sides are all equal, and whose opposite angles are respectively equal, two being obtuse and two acute. Rib. (Sax.) An arch-formed piece of timber for supporting the lath and plaster work of a vault. Ribbing. An assemblage of ribs for a vault or coved ceiling. Ridge. (Sax.) The highest part of a roof. The term is more particularly applied to the piece of timber against which the upper ends of the rafters pitch. Ridge Tile. A convex tile made for covering the ridge of a roof. Slate ridging and terra cotta ridging are often employed. Right Angle. One containing ninety degrees. A ready mode of obtaining a right angle in set- ting out buildings and for other purposes, is : make the vertical line equal to six divisions, the base line equal to eight similar di- visions, then the distance between each point should be equal to ten such divisions, to make the angle to be obtained a right angle. Glossary. 1 3o t Right Circle. A circle drawn at right angles with the plane of projection. Right Line. A line perfectly straight. Riser. The upright face of a step, from tread to tread. Rising Hinge. A hinge so formed as to raise the door as it opens, that it may pass oyer a carpet or mat; and thus having an inclination causing the door to close of itself. See Saddle. Rivet. Riveting. A small holt of metal forged with a head. When required for use in joining plates together, or a plate with an angle iron as in a girder, the holt is made red hot, placed into the holes propared for it, and maintained there hy one person, whilst another hammers at the opposite end until its superabundant length has been driven flat against the plate. Such work is called riveted. See Angle Iron. Road Rolling machine. Two steam locomotives, invented respectively by Lemoine and Ballaison, the latter having been approved as the better of the two, have been lately employed in Paris to crush and consolidate the broken granite laid on the roadways in that city. This machine has two rollers, the engine- being placed between, and the boiler on one of them. With fuel and water, the weight of the Ballaison steam roller is 13.}- tons with springs; and an iron framework 1 tons. Its strength is 10 horse- power, and its consumption of coal about 16 lb. per horse. It does its work in half the time and at half the cost that would be required were the work done by rollers drawn by horses, besides that it is performed more rapidly and completely. Over the Pont Royal, the roadway was covered with granite at ten o'clock in the evening, the rolling con- tinued all night, and the roadway opened for traffic in the morning. Roadway. In relation to any road, pissage, tr way, the word shall mean the whole space open for traffic, whether carriage traffic an 1 foot traffic, or foot traffic only. Metropolis Management and Building Acts Amendment Act, 1878. Street. Rocking Stone, or Logan. A large rough stone so placed on a small part of its bed that it can be moved to and fro with a slight force. It is classed in the Celtic period. Rococo. A debased variety of the Louis XV. stylo of ornament. It is also applied to anything bad or tasteless in decoration. Rod. A measure of length equal to 16} feet. A square rod is the usual measure of brickwork, and is equal to 27-2 s d" are and in London is calculated at 1} bricks in thickness. .Roe Stone or Oolite. A kind of limestone, found under chalk in various parts of England. Roll. A piece of wood prepared for the plumber to turn the lead over it, where the sheets join, so as to protect the flat roof or edge from the admission of water, i Roll Moulding. A moulding in the shape of a cylinder. It occurs chiefly in the Early English and Decorated periods of Gothic architecture. When it has a slight edge at one part, it is a scroll or edge moulding, or a rcssant lorgmcr. When there is a fillet, it is a roll and fillet moulding ; this is seen in the Decorated period. See Keel. Rolls or Rollers. Among workmen are plain cylinders of wood, seven or eight inches diameter and three or four feet long, used for the purpose of moving large stones, beams, and other heavy weights. They are placed successively under the fore part of the masses to be removed, and at the same time are pushed forward by levers applied behind. When blocks of marble, or other very heavy weights, are to be moved, they use what are called endless rolls. Those, to give them the greater force and prevent their bursting, are made of wood joined together by cross-quarters, double the length and thickness of the common rollers, and girt with iron hoops at each end. At a foot from the ends are two mortises pierced through and through, into which are put the ends of long levers, which the workmen draw by ropes fastened to the ends, still changing the mortise as the roll has made a quarter of a turn. Roman Architecture. The style adopted by the ancient Romans from that of the Greeks. It was based upon the principle of the round arch. Roman Cement. The common name for Parker’s cement. It is now very often called “ brown cement,” to distinguish it from Portland or “ white cement.” Roman Order. The same as Composite Order. Romanesque Architecture. The style which was based upon a Roman form, and which led on to the Pointed or mediaeval styles. There are many varieties of Romanesque, as Lombard, Rhenish, French, and English Norman, &c., each having its own independent developments. Rood. (Sax. Robe.) A cross, crucifix, or figure of Christ on the cross placed in a church. The holy rood was one, generally as large as life, elevated at the junction of the nave and choir, and facing to the western entrance of the church. The rood loft was tile gallery on which the rood and its appendages were placed. This loft, or gallery, w'as commonly placed over the chancel screen in parish churches. In Protestant cathedrals the organ used to occupy the original place of the rood loft, but is now almost always | placed on the North side of the chancel. The rood tower or steeple was that which stood over the intersection of the nave with the transepts. ! -V - ■■ ' 1352 GLOSSARY. Rood. A measure equal to 36 square yards, by -which rubble masonry is valued in Scot- land. Rubble walls at and below 18 inches thick are reduced to one foot ; and above 18 inches thick, to 2 feet. It is also a measure of land. See Measure. Roof. The covering to a building. Roofing. The assemblage of timbers, and covering of a roof whose pitch in this climate, for different coverings, is shown in the following table : — (See table 20405.) Species of Covering. Inclination to the Horizon. Height of Roof in Part of the Span. Copper or lead - - 3° 50 - - one forty-eighth. Large slates - - 22 0 - - one-fifth. Common slates - - 26 33 - - one-quarter. Stone slates - - 29 41 - - two-sevenths. Plain tiles . - - - 29 41 - - two-sevenths. Pan tiles * - 24 0 - - two-ninths. Thatch - - 45 0 - - one-half. Room. fSax. Rum.) An interior space or division of a house, separated from the remainder of it by walls or partitions, and entered by a doorway. Habitable Room. Rose or Rosette. An ornament of frequent use in architectural decorations. The centre of the face of the abacus in the Corinthian capital is decorated with what is called a rose. Rose Window. A circular window with compartments of tracery not branching from a centre. The illustration ( fig . 1437) is an outline from Lincoln Cathedral. Other examples may be seen at St. Ouen at Rouen, and at Beauvais in the south transept. See Book III.. Chap. III., Sect. 14. Rostrum. (Lat.) Literally, the beak of a bird ; also the beak or fore-part of a ship. The elevated platform in the Borum of ancient Rome, whence the orators addressed the people, so called from its basement being decorated with the prows of ships. The term is now used generally to signify a platform or elevated spot from which a speaker addresses his audience. Rot. See Dry Rot. Rotunda or Rotondo. (Ital.) A building circular on the interior and exterior, such as the Pantheon at Rome. See Circular Buildings. Rough-cast. A species of plastering used on external walls, consisting of a mixture of lime, small shells or pebbles, occa- sionally fragments of glass and similar materials. This is usually applied to cottages. Round Church or Building. See Circular Buildings. Rubbing or Polishing. Erasing the tool marks (after boasting or scabbling ) on the faco of a stone, by the agency of a piece of Yorkshire, or grit, stone, used as a rubber, first with sand and water, and then with water only, by which a smooth surface is obtained, rendering the stone less liable to be affected by the atmosphere. Rubble Work. Walls built of rag or rubble stones, in coursed or uncoursed work. In the former, the stones are roughly dressed, and laid in courses of equal height ; in the latter they are used as they occur, small and large stones together as they may fit in. This last is more applicable to Gothic than to Italian architecture. See Masonry. Rudenture. (Lat. Rudis, a rope.) The same as Cabling. Ruderation. (Lat. Ruderatio.) A method of laying pavements, mentioned by Vitru- vius, and according to some, of building walls with rough pebbles and mortar. The mortar called statumen by Vitruvius was made of lime and sand. Rule. An instrument for measuring short lengths. Of rules there are various sorts, each adapted to the class of artificers for whose use they are made. Thus, there are stone- cutters’ rules, masons’ rules, carpenters’ rules, sliding rules, parallel rules, &e. The sliding rule is, however, of more general use, as it solves by inspection a number of questions from the change of the position of the slider, and therefore of much importance to the less educated artisan. Rural Architecture. A style of architecture suited for country places, and not strictly conforming to any rules but that, perhaps, of the picturesque. GLOSSARY. 1353 Russian Architecture. The ancient buildings nro designed after tho Byzantine school of art ; the modern ones after the German, French, and Italian masters. Russian Cross of the Greek Church. See Cross. Rustic Order. A species of -work where tho faces of the stones are hatched or picked with the point of a hammer. Rustic Quoins or Coins. The stones placed on the external angles of a building project- ing beyond the naked of tho wall. The edges are bevelled, or more or less moulded, or the margins recessed in a plane parallel to tho face or plane of tho wall. Rustic Work. A mode of building masonry wherein the faces of the stones are left rough, the sides only being wrought smooth where the union of the stones takes place. It was a method much practised at an early period, and re-introduced by Brunelleschi at the revival of the arts. The most common sorts of rustic work are the frosted, which has the margins of the stones reduced to a plane parallel to that of the wall, the intermediate parts having an irregular surface ; vermieu! ated rustic work, wherein the intermediate parts present the appearance of having been worm-eaten; chamfered rustic work, in which the face of the stones being smoothed and made parallel to the surface of the wall, and tho angles bevelled to an angle of one hundred and thirty-five degrees, with the face of the stone, where they are set in the wall, the bevel of the two adjacent stones forms an internal right angle. IIybat. Tho Scottish term for a Reveal. S Sacellum. (Lat.) In ancient Roman architecture, a small inclosed space without a roof. Small sacella, too, were used among the Egyptians, attached frequently to the larger temples. In old church architecture, the term signifies a monumental chapel within a church, also a small chapel in a village. Sacrarium. (Lat.) A small sacred apartment in a Roman house, devoted to a particular deity ; also the cell a, penetrate or adytum of a temple. The name is now given to the place in a chancel enclosed by the altar rails : also called “ Sanctuary.” Sacristy. A vestry attached to a church, in which the vestments, plate, and other furniture used in divine worship are kept. It was anciently called Diaconicum. Saddle. A thin board of wood, placed on tho floor in the opening of a doorway, the width of the jambs. The door being made to shut upon this piece of wood passes clear over the carpet, and does not therefore require rising hinges, used for achieving the same object. Saddle-backed Copino. See Coping. Saddle-back Roof. A tower having a top in the form of a common roof-gable. This form appears on a few old English towers (as at Brookthorpe Church, Northampton- shire, cir. 1260), and in many Continental churches. Sag or Sagging. The bending of a body by its own weight when resting inclined or horizontally on its ends. Sagitta. (Lat. an arrow.) A name sometimes applied to the keystone of an arch. In geometry, it is often employed to signify the abscissa of a curve ; and in trigonometry it is the versed sine of an arc, which, as it were, stands like a dart upon the chord. Sail over. See Projecture. Saint. See Symbols of Saints. Saliant. (Fr.) A term used in respect of a projection of any part or member. Sally. A projecture. The end of a piece of timber cut with an interior angle formed by two planes across the fibres. Thus the feet of common rafters, and the inclined I pieces which support the flying steps of a wooden stair, are frequently cut ; as are, like- wise, the lower ends of all inclined timbers which rest upon plates or beams. Salon, or Saloon. (Fr.) A lofty and spacious apartment, frequently vaulted at top, and usually comprehending the height of two floors with two tiers of windows. Its place is commonly in the middle of a building, when it is sometimes lit from the top ; or at the head of a gallery, etc. In palaces it is the state room. Sanatary measures. Precautions taken for curing diseases. Sancte-bell Cot. A small erection at the east end of the nave for the reception of the bell that gives notice of the Sanctus being commenced, and also to warn the people of the approaching elevation of the Host. Sanctuary. The extreme eastern part of the chancel, containing the communion table, seats for the clergy, &c. See Sacrarium. Sanitory measures. Precautions taken for preserving the health. Sand. There are three sorts, river, sea, and pit sand. They are mixed with lime and cement in varying proportions. When they can be only procured mixed with earthy and clayey particles, they must be repeatedly washed until the sand becomes bright in colour and feels gritty under the fingers. Sea sand must be very well washed in fresh 1354 GLOSSARY. water, and it is doubted by some practitioners whether it can ever be freed from particles of salt, which would prevent the plaster or cement drying. Sandstone. In mineralogy, a stone principally composed of grains, or particles of sand, either united with other mineral substances or adhering without any vis'ble cement. The grains or particles of sandstone are generally quartz, sometimes intermixed with feldspar or particles of slate. When lime is the cementing matter the stone is allied calcareous sandstone. The cementing matter is not unfrequently oxido of iron inter- mixed with alumine. The particles of sand in these stones are of various sizes, some being so small as to be scarcely visible. Sap. The juice or pith of trees that rises from the earth and ascends into the arms, branches, and leaves, to feed and nourish them. Also that part of the stem or wood of the body of a tree that is soft, white, etc. The term is used also as a verb, to denote the undermining a wall by digging a trench under it. Sauacenic Architecture. See Moresque Architecture. Sarcophagus. (2ap£, flesh, and (payee, to eat.) A tomb or coffin made of one stone. From Pliny it appears to have been originally applied as the name of a stone found in the Troad, which, from its powerful caustic qualities, was selected for the construction of tombs. From its frequent application to this purpose the name became at length used for the tomb itself. Sarcophagi were made of stone, marble, alabaster, porphyry, etc. The Greeks sometimes made them of hard wood, as oak, cedar, or cypross, which resisted moisture ; sometimes of terra cotta, ancl oven of metal. The form was usually a long square, the angle being rounded. The lid varied both in shape and ornament. Those of the primitive Christians often enclosed several corpses, and were ornamented with several sets of bassi relievi. Those of higher antiquity were frequently sculptured with great taste and beauty of design, the figures being those of the deceased, or parties con- nected with them, allegorical or mythological. The Egyptian sarcophagi are sculp- tured with hieroglyphics. Those of the Greeks and Romans sometimes represent Sleep and Death with their legs crossed, one hand supporting the head and the other holding an inverted torch ; sometimes Mercury is represented conducting the Souls, and Charon ferrying them over in his barque. Occasionally groups of bacchanals and bacchic scenes are found upon them. Sarking. Thin boards for lining, etc. Boarding for slating is so called in Scotland. Sash. (Fr. Chassis, a frame ; more probably the Dutch Sas, a gate.) A frame for holding the glass of windows, and so formed as to be raised and depressed by means of piulleys. Sashes are single or double hung ; the casement is hung with hingps. Sash Frame. The frame in which the sashes are fitted for the convenience of sliding up and down. See Casement. Sash lines. The rope by which a sash is suspended in its frame. They are often math of common cord, which soon untwists and breaks ; the “imperial patent flax sash lines” are made in four qualities. The sash lines made of jute have neither strength nor durability. The modern brass chains are liable to break with sudden jerks. Saw. (Dutch, Sawe.) A tool made of a thin plate of steel, formed on the edge into regular teeth for cutting wood, stone, etc. Saws are of various kinds. Saw-pit. A pit excavated for sawing timber. The sawing is performed by two persons called sawyers, one standing above and the other below. Much of the labour, however, is saved by the use of a saw-mill, or machine moving a circular saw, which by ils revolutions and keeping the timber close up, performs the work quicker and better than can he done by the labour just described. Saxon Architecture. The term used to designate the early architecture used in England before the introduction of the Romanesque or Norman. The long and short work is considered the mode of building of that period. See fig 1412. Scahellum. (Lat.) A species of pedestal anciently used to support busts or statues. It was high in proportion to its breadth, ending in a kind of sheath, or in the manner of a baluster. Scaffold. (Fr. Eehaufaud.) An assemblage of planks or boards sustained by pieces of wood called ‘putlogs or putlocks placed on others called Ledgers, which are made fast to vertical poles called standards, by means of which workmen carry up a building of brick, or plasterers complete their work in the interior of houses. Stone-faced build- ings have an inner and outer series of standards and ledgers, so that the work shall not be injured. Framed scaffolding is much used in large works, which is formed of square timbers, and on these a train is placed for a moveable platform, or a steam crane. Suspended scaffolds are useful in repairing or painting a front. They are formed of a sort of open trough for the workmen to stand in, who raise and lower it by means of ropes attached to pulleys fixed at the end of beams secured out of upper windows or to the roof. Scagliola. (Ital.) A species of pilaster or stucco invented at Carpi, in the .state of Modena, by Guido Sassi, between 1600 and 1649. It is sometimes called tr.ischia, from GLOSSARY. 1355 the mixture of colours introduced in it. It was not, however, till the middle of the eighteenth century that the art of making scagiiola was brought to perfection. It is used to decorate the walls of a staircase, and for columns and pilasters to a room. When well done it resembles marbles of great beauty, and to great perfection, and the best can be obtained at a less cost than the real marble. Scale. (Sax.) A line divided into a certain number of equal parts, usually on wood, ivory, or metal, for laying down dimensions in mathematical and architectural drawing. There are various sorts of scales; as, the p'ane scale, Gunters scale, diagonal scale, &c. Scalene Triangle. (S/caAijj'os, oblique.) In geometry, one whose sides are all unequal. Scale Papee. Paper having woven in it divisions at certain distances ; or it is so pre- pared by printing the divisions upon it. It can be used for writing, squaring dimen- sions, or even for drawing in proportionate parrs, or axial lines, a system of designing used by Bramante and other early Italian artists. Scallage or Scallenge. A term used in Herefordshire and the west of England for a lychgate. Scalpturatum, Opus. According to Pliny it resembled inlaid work, the pattern being chiselled out of the solid ground, and filled up with thin leaves of coloured marble. A beautiful example was found at Pompeii ; it was first introduced into Italy after the beginning of the third Punic war, b.c. 117-103. Scamilli impares. A term used by Vitruvius, which has puzzled all the commentators until the investigations of Mr. Penrose, when he found that the horizontal lines of the Parthenon were inclined almost imperceptibly from the ends to the centre. These slight risings are held to explain the term. See Hogging. The term was formerly supposed to mean a small plinth below the bases of the Ionic and Corinthian columns. Scandulhs. (Lat) In early buildings of the Romans, shingles or flat pieces of wood used for covering instead of tiles. According to Cornelius Nepos, this was the only covering used in Rome till the war with Pyrrhus in the 470th year of the city. Scantle. A gauge for regulating the proper length of slates. Scantling. (Fr.) The dimensions of a piece of timber in breadth and thickness. It is also a term used to denote a piece of timber, as of quartering in a partition, when under five inches square, or the rafter, purlin, or pole plate of a roof. In masonry, scantling is the length, breadth, and thickness of a stone. Scape or Scapus. (Gr.) The shaft of a column ; also the little hollow, above or below, which connects the shaft with the base, or with the fillet under the astragal. Scapling or Scabbling. A method of tooling the face of a stone. Scarfing. The joining of two pieces of timber transversely together, so that the two appear but one. Large timbers are likewise bolted together. Scene. (Gr. Skijfi).) Strictly an alley or rural portico for shade or shelter, wherein, according to Cassiolorus, theatrical pieces were first represented. When first applied to a theatre, it signified the wall forming the back of the stage, but afterwards came to mean the whole stage, and is now restricted to the representation of the place in which the drama represents the action. According to Vitruvius, the Greekscene u r as occupied, in the middle by a great door, called the royal door, because decorated as the gate of a palace. At the sides were smaller doors, called hospitalia, because representing the entrances to habitations destined for strangers, which the Greeks commonly placed on the two sides of their houses. Scenography. (Gr.) The method of representing solids in perspective. Schedule of Prices. A document forming part of a contract, and intended to be used for ascertaining (after execution) the sum to be paid for works performed, wdiether by measurement or by daywork. Where a “bill of quantities ” has not been prepared, or where the extent of work cannot be exactly settled beforehand, a schedule is usually aoop’ed. For certain works a schedule is fully priced out, and tenders invited at a percentage above or below such prices, either over the whole, or on or off each parti- cular trade. Scheme or Skene Arch. One which is a segment of a circle. Schenk. (Gr.) The representation of any design or geometrical figure by lines so as to make it comprehensible. ; Scholium. In mathematics, a remark after the demonstration of a proposition, showing how it may be done some other way, or giving some advice or precaution to prevent mistakes, or adding some particular use or application thereof. School of Art. See College and Museum. School. A building for elementary, practical, general, or special education, and preli- minary to university institutions. In Germany, compulsory education is a fact, and absentees are fined. The schools are so arranged that a child can pursue a course of training which will most fit him for his future career. There are Elementary schools ; 1356 GLOSSARY. next the Burgher schools, at which children of the lower middle classes are educated ; the Realschulen, consisting of three kinds of instruction ; the Practical school, in which scientific subjects are taught ; then the Gymnasium, which forms a stepping-stone to the University or the Polytechnic school, to qualify for any business or profession. Sciagraphy or Sciography. (Gr. Svia, a shadow, and rparpoo, 1 describe.) The doctrine of projecting shadows as they fall in nature. Sconcbeon. (Fr. Ecoingon.) The portion of the side of an aperture, from the back of the jamb or reveal, to the interior of the wall. Scotia. (Gr. 2/ccma, darkness.) The hollow moulding in the base of a column between the fillets of the tori. It receives the name from being so much in shadow. The scotia was, from its resemblance to a pulley, called also rpoxiAos. It is most frequently formed by the junction of arcs of different radii, but it ought rather to be profiled as a portion of an ellipsis. Scratch Work. (It. Sgraffiata.) A coloured plaster being laid on the face of the build- ing, it is covered with a white one, which being scratched through to any design with an iron bodkin, the coloured work appears through and makes the contrast. It is an Italian method of decorating a plain surface, and is now being much carried out in England. Screed. In plastering or cementing large spaces, a ledge of about 4 inches and of the proper thickness is carefully formed, every 4, 5, or 6 feet apart, to form a gauge for the remainder of the work, which is then applied in the panel, a long float being worked over it, forcing off the superfluous plaster, and a clear and even face is obtained. Screen. (Lat. Excerno.) An instrument used in making mortar, consisting of three wooden ledges joined to a rectangular frame at the bottom, the upper part of which frame is filled with wire-work for sifting the sand or lime. This term is used in eccle- siastical architecture to denote a partition of wood, stone, or metal, usually so pkaced in a church as to chut out an aisle from the choir, a private chapel from a transept, the nave from the choir, the high altar from the east end of the building, or an altar tomb from a public passage of the church. In the form and ornamental detail of screens, the ancient artists appear to have almost exhausted fancy, ingenuity, and taste. Screw. (Dutch, Seroeve.) One of the six mechanical powers, chiefly used in pressing or squeezing bodies close, though sometimes also in raising weights, as a screw-jack. Scribing. Fitting the edge of a board to a surface not accurately plane, as the skirting of a room to a floor. In joinery, it is the fitting one piece to another, so that their fibres may be perpendicular to each other, the two edges being cut to an angle to join. Scroti.. A convolved or spiral ornament variously introduced. Also the volutes of the Ionic and Corinthian capital. The subjoined woodcut is called a Vitruvian scroll. Scullery. The apartment for washing up dishes and utensils wherein the scullion works. Sculpture. (Lat. Sculpo, to carve.) The art of imitating forms by chiselling and work- ing away solid substances. It is also used to denote the carved work itself. Properly, the word includes works in clay, wax, wood, metal, and stone; but it is generally re- stricted to those of the last material, the terms modelling, casting, and carving being applied to the others. See Frieze, Pediment, and Metope. Sealing. The fixing a piece of wood or iron on a wall with plaster, mortar, cement, lead or other binding, for staples, hinges, joints, &c. Seasoned Timber. Timber that has undergone a proper process of air or hot air drying so as to render it fit to be used in building. Secant. (Lat.) A line that cuts another. In trigonometry, the secant is a line drawn to the centre from some point in the tangent, which consequently cuts the circle. Secos. . (Gr.) See Adytum. Section of a Building. A geometrical representation of it as divided or separated into two parts by a vertical plane, to show and explain the construction of the interior. The section not only includes the parts that are separated, but also the elevation of the receding parts, and ought to be so taken as to show the greatest number of parts, and those of the most difficult construction. Of every building at least two sections should be made at right angles to one another, and parallel to the sides. A section of the flues should also be made, in order to avoid placing timbers near them. Section of a Solid. The plane of separation dividing one part from the other. It is understood to be always a plane surface. Sector. An instrument for measuring or laying off angles, and dividing lines and circles into equal parts. _ ' Sector of a Circle. The space comprehended between two radii and the arc terminated by them. Sedilia. (Lat.) Seats recessed in the south wall of the sanctuary of a church, ana formerly provided for the clergy in the sacrifice of the mass, during that part of the office in which the “Gloria” and “Credo” are sung. They are now also provided in GL0SSA11 V. 1357 Tig. 1438. Fig. 1430. Frot< stnnt churches for the officiating clergy, usually three — priest, deacon and sub- deacon. Segment of a Sphere. A portion cut off by a plane in any part except the centre, so that the base of such segment must be always a circle, and its surface a part of the sphere. Segment. (Lat.) A part cut off from anything. Thus, fig. 1438 shows a segmental arch. The area contained by the arc of a circle and a chord. In the segment of a circle the chord of the arc is called the base of the segment, and the height of the arc the height of the segment. Seel. See Cill and Aperture. Semicircle. The half of a circle contained by the diameter and circumference. Semicircular Arches. Those whose arcs are semicircular, as in fig. 1439. Sepulchre. (Lat. Sepelire, to bury.) A grave, tomb, or place of interment. The cenotaph was an empty sepulchre raised in honour of a person who had had no burial. See Easter, or Holt Sepulchre ; and Mausoleum. Seraglio. (Pcrs. Serai.) A large hall or house. The palace of an Eastern prince, but more particularly that in which the females are lodged. Serpentine. See Porphyry. Sesquialteral. In the proportion of one and a half. Sesspool. See Cesspool. Sett. In piling, a piece placed temporarily on the head of a pile which cannot be reached by the monkey or weight from some intervening matter. Setting. The hardening of mortars and cements. The term is also used in masonry for fixing stones in walls or vaults, in which the greatest care should be taken that the stones rest firmly on their beds, and that their faces be ranged in the proper surface of the work. Settlng-out Rod. One used by joiners for setting-out frames, as of windows, doors, &c. Settlements. Those parts in which failures by sinking in a building have occurred. Sett-off. The projecting part between the upper and lower portion of a wall where it diminishes in thickness. Seyery. A compartment or division of scaffolding. It is also a separate portion or divi- sion of a building corresponding with the modern term compartment, being as it were severed or divided. Sf.wer. A large drain or conduit for carrying off soil or water from any place. Sexagesimal. The division of a line, first into sixty parts, then each of these again into sixty, and so on. as long as division can be made. It is principally used in dividing the circumference of a circle. Sgraffito (Ttal.) See Scratch "Work. Shadows and Shadowing. In drawing, the art of correctly casting the shades of objects and representing their degrees of shade. Shaft. The cylindrical part, or rather body, of a column, between the base and the capital. It is. properly, the frustum of a conoid, and is also called the fust, trunk, or body of the column. The term is also applied to the pier supporting arches in mediaeval architecture, as in the nave of a church. Shaft of a Chimney. See Chimnf;y. Shaft of a King Post. The part between th e joggles. Shake. A fissure or rent in timber by its being dried too suddenly, or exposed to too great heat. Any timber, when naturally full of slits or clefts, is said to to be shaky. Shamble. The old name for a place for slaughtering cattle, now called abattoir. Shank. (Sax.) The space between two channels of the Doric triglyph, sometimes called the leg of the triglyph. The Homans called the shank, femur. Shearing. The action of cutting short off, as a pair of scissors acts upon paper. It is applied to a plate of metal acting upon a bolt or rivet. Sheet Glass. Glass blown into a “ muff,” which is slit on one side, and opened out flat. A superior sort of sheet glass is “ flattened ” by a rubbing whilst it is in the annealing kiln, and hence its name. Sheet Lead. Lead cast into a sheet, in contradistinction to lead rolled out by a mill. Shelf. (Sax.) A board fixed against a wall, the upper side being horizontal, for receiving whatever may be placed upon it. A shelf is usually supported by brackets, or by pieces at the end, called standards. See Sink Shelf. Shilf. Slate broken into small pieces, as employed for mending roads in Cornwall. 1358 G LOSS A II Y. Shingles. (Germ. Schindel.) Loose stories sifted from gravel for making concrete. Also the small slab of oak bark or split pieces of wood, used instead of tiles in former times, and still usually so employed in the backwoods of America and other countries. They are about eight to twelve inches long, and about four inches broad, thicker on one edge than the other. The process of making a roof of this kind is called shingling. Shoe. The inclined piece at the bottom of a rain-water pipe for turning the course of the water, and discharging it from the wall of a building. Shooting. Planing the edge of a board straight, and out of winding. Shooting Boards. Two boards joined together, with their sides lapped upon each other, so as to form a rebate for making short joints. Shore, or Shoar. (Sax.) A prop or oblique timber acting as a brace on the side of a building, the upper end resting against that part of the wall upon which the floor is supported, and both ends received by plates or beams. A dead shore is an upright piece built up in a wall that, has been cut or broken. through for the purpose of making some alterations in the building. The terms “ needle,” “ tossle,” “joggle,” and “ stud ” are used among workmen to denote the piece of wood inserted in a wall above the head of a raking shore. A “waling” is a piece of timber placed horizontally against the side of a trench and strutted across it ; a “ settirg ” is a rectangu'ar frame holding all four sides of an excavation.- “ Cleadings ” used with “ settings ” serve the same pur- pose as “ poling boards ” in connection with walings. Shoulder of a Tenon. The plane transverse to the length of a piece of timber from which the tenon projects. It should be at right angles to the length, though it does not always lie in the plane as here defined, but sometimes in different planes. Shouldering. In slating, a fillet of haired lime laid upon the upper edge of the smaller and thicker kinds of slates, to raise them and prevent their being open at the lap ; it also makes the joint weathertight. Sometimes the whole surface under the heads of any sized slates is so done, to prevent the slates cracking when stepiped on. Shread Head. The same as Jerkin Head. Shreddings or Furrings. In old buildings, short slight pieces of timber fixed as bearers below the roof, forming a straight line with the upper side of the rafters. Tilting fillet. Shrine. (Sax. Sefnn.) A desk or cabinet; a case or box, particularly one in which sacred things are deposited : hence applied to a reliquary and to the tomb of a canonised per- son. The altar is sometimes called a shrine. Shrinking. The contraction of a piece of timber in its breadth by drying. The length does not change. Hence in unseasoned timber mitred together, such as the architraves of doors and windows, the mitres are always close on the outside and open to the door, forming a wedge-like hollow on each side of the frame. Narrow boards called battens are used in floors, as the shrinking, if any, is less. Shutters. The framed boards which shut up the aperture of a window, or of a light. Side Posts. Truss posts placed in pairs, disposed at the same distance from the middle of the truss. Their use is not only to support the principal rafters, &c., but to suspend the tie beam below In extended roofs two or three pair of side posts are used. Side Timbers or Side Wavers. The same as purlins, the first term being used in Somersetshire and the last in Lincolnshire. Silicate Cotton or Slag Wool. A pure mineral fibre made from blast furnace slag. It is white and like spun glass. It is extremely light, a cube foot weighs only from 16 to 18 lbs., and one ton covers about 1800 to 2,400 square feet one inch thick. It is a good non-conductor of heat and sound. Sill. See Cill and Aperture. Silt. The muddy deposit of standing water. Sima. See Cyma. Similar Figures. Those whose several angles are respectively equal, and the sides about the equal angles proportional. Sine. A right line drawn from one end of an arch perpendicular upon the diameter, or it is half the chord of twice the arch. The sine of the complement of an arch is the sine of what the arch wants of ninety degrees. The versed sine is that part of the diameter comprehended between the arc and the sine. Single Frame, Single Joist, and Naked, Floor. One with only one tier of joists. Single Hung. An arrangement in a pair of window sashes, in which one only 7 is movable. Single Measure. A term applied to a door that is square on both sides. Double measure is when the door is moulded on both sides. When doors are moulded on one side, and are square on the other, they are accounted measure and a half. Single Span Church. A church having a very wide nave. Such is the church of the Dominicans at Ghent, 1240-75, with a nave of 53 feet between the piers slightly pro- jecting from the wall, covered by a wooden vaulting on curves of 60 teet radius. (See par. 557.) The reader is referred to the Builder journal, for 1867, pp- 661, 687, 700 716, for many notices of such structures. GLOSSARY. 1359 Site. (Lat. Situs.) The situation of a building ; the plot of ground on which it stands. Skew. The sloping top of a buttress where it slants off into a wall, or the coping of a gable. Skew Back. In a straight or curved arch, that part of it which recedes beyond the springing from the vertical line of the opening. Skew Corbel. See Summer Stone. Skiffling. See Knobbling. Skirting or Skirting Board. The narrow board placed round the margin of a floor which, where there is a dado, forms a plinth for its base ; otherwise, it is a plinth for the room itself. Skirting is either scribed close to the floor or let into it by a groove ; in the former case a fillet is put at the back of the skirting to keep it firm. Skirts. Several superficies in a plane, which would cover a body when turned up or down without overlapping. Skirts of a Hoof. The projection of the eaves. Skreen. See Screen. Skylight. A frame consisting of one or more inclined planes of glass, placed in a roof to light passages or rooms below. See Lantern light ; Lighting. Slab. An outside plank or board sawed from the sides of a timber tree, and frequently of very unequal thickness. The word is also used to express a thin piece of marble, consisting of right angles and plane surfaces. Slab. Th e front hearth of a fireplace. The Metropolitan Buildings Act, 1855, requires that “ There shall be laid, level with the floor of every story, before the opening of every chimney, a slab of stone, slate, or other incombustible substance, at theleast twelve inches longer than the width of such opening, and at the least eighteen inches wide in front of the breast thereof : — That on every floor, except the lowest floor, such slab shall be laid wholly upon stone or iron bearers, or upon brick trimmers ; but on the lowest floor it may be bedded on the solid ground : — and That the hearth or slab of every chimney shall be bedded wholly on brick, stone, or other incombustible substance, and shall be solid for a thickness of seven inches at the least beneath the upper surface of such hearth or slab.” Such precautions are too frequently neglected in country houses, to their ultimate destruction by fire. No timbers should be placed under the hearths on any account. See Timbers. Slate. A species of argillaceous stone, an abundant and very useful material. It can be sawn to a very large size or split into thin plates, of any required thickness ; being non- absorbent it is used for roofing, and for water cisterns. There are varieties of blue, red, and green in colour. Slaters’ Work. Laying slates on roofs ; forming water cisterns ; and a few other matters connected therewith, constitute this artificer’s work. See Shouldering. Sleepers. Horizontal timbers disposed in a building next to the ground transversely under walls, ground joists, or the boarding of a floor. When used on piles they are laid upon them, and planked over to support the superincumbent walls. Underground joists either lie upon the solid earth, or are supported at various parts by props of brickwork or stones. When in the former position, having no rows of timber below, these ground joists are themselves called sleepers. Old writers on practical archi- tecture call those rafters lying in the valley of a roof, sleepers ; but in this sense the word is now obsolete. j Sliding Rule. One constructed with logarithmic lines, so that by means of another scalp sliding on it, various arithmetical operations are performed merely by inspection. Slit Deal. See Board. Slope of a Rhof. See Roofing ; and Pitch. Of a Road, see Gradient. ;| Sluice. A stop against water for the drainage or supply with water of a place. It is hung with hinges from the top edge when used merely as a stop against the water of a river : but when made for supply as well, it moves vertically in the groove of its frame by' means of a winch, and is then called a penstock. i Smithery. The art of uniting several lumps of iron into one lump or mass, and forming them into any desired shape. The Foundry is a branch ot it. Smoothing Plane. The plane last used by the joiner to give the utmost degree of smooth- ness to the surface of the wood, and is chiefly for cleaning off finished work. It is 71 inches long, 3 inches broad, and 2| inches in breadth. ; Snacket. A provincial term for the hasp of a casement. Snipe’s Bill Plane. One with a sharp arris for getting out the quirks of mouldings. Socket Chisel. A strong tool used by carpenters for mortising, and worked with a mallet. Socle or Zocle. (It.) A square member of less height than its horizontal dimension, serving to raise pedestals, or to support vases, &e. The socle is sometimes continued round a building, and is then called a continued socle. It has neither base nor cornice. Soffita, Soffit, or Sofite. (Ital.) A ceiling; the lower surface of a vault or arch. A term denoting the under horizontal face of the architrave between columns ; the under surface of the corona of a cornice. Soil. The same as ground and earth : it is also used to denote the deposit in a cessp ol from* water-closet or privy. 1360 GLOSSARY. Soils. A provincial term, chiefly, however, used in the north, signifying the principal rafters of a roof. Solar, or Sollar. A mediaeval term for an upper chamber : a loft. Solder. A soft metallic composition used in joining together or soldering metals. See Brazing and Welding. Solid. (Lat.) In geometry, a body which has length, breadth, and thickness : that is, it is terminated or contained under one or more plane surfaces as a surface is under one or more lines. Regular solids are such as are terminated by equal and similar planes, so that the apex of their solid angles may be inscribed in a sphere. Solid Angles. An angle formed by three or more angles in a point, and of which the sum of all the plane angles is less than three hundred and sixty degree* otherwise they would constitute the plane of a circle and not of a solid. Solid Shoot. See Water-Shoot. Sommering. See Summering. Sortant Angle. The same as Salient Angle. Sound-board. The canopy or type fixed over a pulpit, to reverberate the voice of the speaker. Sound-boarding. In floors, consists of short boards placed transversely between the joists, and supported by fillets fixed to the sides of the latterfor holding pugging, which is any substance that will prevent the transmission of sound from one story to another, such as a mixture of mortar and chopped straw, or sawdust. The narrower the sound-boards the better; the fillets on which they rest may be three-quarters of an inch thick and about an inch wide, nailed to the joists at intervals of afoot. It has been suggested to put an india-rubber washer of about the same width as the joist, between the ceiling joist and the joist, having a thickness of half an inch when properly screwed up, to effect the same object. See Boarding for Pugging. Souse, (Pr.) or Source. A support or under prop. Spalls. Stone broken up into shapeless lumps. “Spawled masonry” in Ireland, consists of these lumps, about 6 to 14 inches, worked up in a wall, the joints of each stone matching those of the others around it ; the faces of the stones are usually rough dressed with the hammer. It is the “uncoursed rubble work” of England. See Spawled. Stan. An imaginary line across the opening of an arch or roof, by which its extent is measured. The width of a vault or arch between the springing. Span Church. See Single Span Church. Span Roof. One consisting of two inclined sides, in contradistinction to a shed or lean -/ j roof. It may be with simple rafters, with or without a collar beam, or when of increased span it may be trussed, the term only applying to the external part. Spandrel. The irregular triangular space between the outer curve or extrados of an arch, a horizontal line from its apex, and a perpendicular line from its springing. In mediaeval architecture they are often filled with figures, medallions, shields, as at York cathedral, or diaper work as at Westminster Abbey. In the Italian style, they are often filled with figures, or compositions relating to the purposes for which the building is erected. Spandrel Bracketing. A cradling of brackets fixed between one or more curves, each in a vertical plane, and in the circumference of a circle whose plane is horizontal. Spanish Architecture. The styles adopted were those introduced by the ancient Romans, the Moors, by French and German mediaeval practitioners, and by the Italian masters brought into the country by the monarehs and others. Spar-piece. A name given in some places to the collar beam of a roof. Spars. The common rafters of a roof for the support of the tiling or slating. Spawled. A block of stone after the chips or spawls have been knocked off. See Spalls. Specification. A description at length of the materials and workmanship to be used and employed in the erection of any building. Specific Gravity. A gravity or weight of every solid or fluid compared with the weight of the same magnitude of rain water, which is chosen as the standard of comparison, on account of its being subject to less variation in different circumstances of time, place, &c., than any other solid or fluid. By a fortunate coincidence, at least to the English philosopher, it happens that a cubic foot of rain water weighs 1,000 ounces avoirdupois ; consequently, assuming this as the specific gravity of rain water, and comparing all other bodies with this, the same numbers that express the specific gravity of bodies will at the same time express the weight of a cubic foot of each in avoirdupois ounces, which affords great facility to numerical computations. Hence are readily deduced the following laws of the specific gravity of bodies : — 1. In bodies of equal magnitudes the specific gravities are directly as the weights or as their densities. 2. In bodies of the same specific gravities the weights will be as the magnitudes. 3. In bodies of equal weights the specific gravities are inversely as the magnitudes. 4. The weights of different bodies are to each other in the compound ratio of their magnitudes and specific gravities. GLOSSARY. 13G1 Thus, it is obvious, that if of the magnitude, weight, and spocific gravity of a body any two be given, the third may be found ; and we may thus arrive at the magnitude of bodies which are too irregular to admit of the common rules of mensuration ; or, by knowing the specific gravity and magnitude, wo may find the weight of bodies which are too ponderous to be submitted to the action of the balance or steel yard ; or, lastly, the magnitude and weight boing given, we may ascertain their specific gravities. Si’ecus. (Lat.) In ancient architecture, the canal in which the water flowed in aque- ducts raised above the surface of the ground, and constructed of hewn stones or bricks. It was covered with a vault to preserve the water from the sun, and from being mixed with rain water. The speeus was sometimes covered with flat stones, laid horizontally, as in the Aqua Martia, part of the Aqua Claudia, and the aqueduct of Segovia. Some- times the same arcade carried several of these canals one above the other. Spkroni. See Anterides. Sphjeristkrium. A building for the exercise of the ball; a tennis court. The aneierts generally placed sphaeristeria among the apartments of their baths and gymnasia. They wore also placed in large villas, as in those of Pliny the younger. Sphere. (Gr. 2(f>atpu.) A solid, whose surface is at every point equally distant from a certain point within the solid, which point is called the centre of the sphere. Every sphere is equal to two-thirds of its circumscribing cylinder, that is, it is equal to a cylinder whose ends are circles, equal to a great circle of the sphere, and whose height is equal to the diameter of the same. Spherical Bracketing. That so formed that the surface of the plastering which it is to receive forms a spherical surface. Spheroid. See Conoid. Spheroidal Bracketing. That formed to receive the plastering of a spheroid. Spina. See Circus. Spiral. A curve which makes one or more revolutions round a fixed point, and does not return to itself. See Volute. Spire. (Gr. Siraipa, a twisting.) In ancient architecture, the base of a column, and some- times the astragal or torus. The termination of the tower of a church, generally dimi- nishing, and either pjramidally or conically. See Steeple. A spire which is octagonal, the sides facing the cardinal points being continued to the eaves which project over the lower work, and the diagonal faces being intercepted at the bottom by seniipyramidal projections whose edges are carried from the angles of the tower upwards, terminating in points on the corresponding oblique faces of the spire, is called a broach (Fr. Broche, a spit). The following table gives the heights of many of tho chief Towers and Spires, but it is liable to correction, for it is very difficult to obtain accurate dimensions of any struc- ture or parts of one. Strasburg - feet. - 468 Grantham . feet. - 274 Salisbury - - 400 or 404 Lichfield - - - - - - 252 St. Paul’s, London 343, 36.5, 356 or 404 Wakefield - - - 247 Milan - - 400 Boston - - - - 268 Amiens - 422 Lincoln - - - - 262 Coventry - 320 Canterbury - - - 229 Norwich - 309 or 313 Gloucester - - - 225 Louth - - 294 Westminster - - - - 225 Chichester was - 271 Ely and Durham - - - 215 Splay. A slanting or bevelling in the sides of an opening to a wall for a window or door, so that the outside profile of the window is larger than that of the inside; it is done for the purpose of facilitating the admission of light. It is a term applied to whatever has one side making an oblique angle with the other : thus, the heading joists of a boarded floor are frequently splayed in their thickness. The word fluing is sometimes applied to an aperture, in the same sense as splayed. Bpring Bevel of a Rail. The angle made by the top of the plank, with a vertical plane touching the ends of the rail piece, which terminates the concave side. Bpringed or Sprung. In boarding a roof, the setting the boards together with bevel joints, for the purpose of keeping out the rain. See Boarding for Slating, jphinger. The impost or place where the vertical support to an arch terminates, and the curve of the arch begins ; the term is sometimes used for the rib of a groined roof. cringing Course. The horizontal course of stones, from which an arch springs or rises ; or that row of stones upon which the first arch stones are laid. pudds and Rings. A method adopted in Ireland of securing the posts of a door, in a basement story, by a ring of iron into which the post is placed, with a projection or spud for insertion into a corresponding bole in the sill or step. 4 S 1362 GLOSSARY. Spite. Carved timber-work at the doorway of old houses, to support a projecting upper 6tory ; some fine examples of the fourteenth century exist in York and other old towns. Square. (Lat. Quadra.) A figure of four equal sides, and as many equal angles. An area of such form surrounded by houses, and ornamented in the centre with a lawn, shrubs, trees, &c. In joiuery, a work is said to be square framed, or framed square , when the framing has all the angles of its styles, rails, and muntins square without being moulded. The word is also applied to an instrument for setting out angles square. See Cab penteb’s Square. It is also a measure used in building, of 100 superficial feet. Square Shoot. A wooden trough for discharging water from a building. Square Staff. A piece of wood placed at the external angle of a projection in a room, to secure the angle, which if of plaster would be liable to be broken, and at the same time to allow a good finish for the papering. Squaring a handrail. The method of cutting a plank to the form of a rail for a stair- case, so that all the vertical sections may be right angles. Squaring a piece of stuff. The act of trying it by the square, to make the angles right angles. Squinch. A small arch, or set of arches, formed across an angle, as in a tower, to form a base for an octagon construction above it. Squint. See Hagioscope. Stable. Lat.) A building for the accommodation of horses. Stack of Chimneys. See Chimney. Stadium. (Gr.) In ancient architecture, an open space wherein the athlete or wrestlers exercised running, and in which they contested the prizes. It signifies also the place itself where the public games were celebrated, which often formed a part of the gymnasia. The word also denotes a measure of length among the Grecians, of 125 paces. Staff Bead. See Angle-Bead ; Square Staff. Stage. A floor or story. In a theatre, the floor on which the performers act. The stage of a buttress is, in ecclesiastical architecture, the part between one splayed projec- tion and the next. Stained Glass. Glass stained throughout its thickness during its manufacture is known as “pot metal” glass. White glass is sometimes coloured on the surface only, whence it is called “flashed” glass. Both sorts are used for decorating windows in patterns, as in churches. See Painted Glass. Staircase. That part or subdivision in a building containing the stairs, which enable persons to ascend or descend from one floor to another. Stairs. (Sax. Scaesep, to step.) Stones, or other material forming steps, ranged one above and beyond another, by which a person can ascend a height. A series of steps or stairs for ascending from the lower to the upper part of a building, when enclosed, is c died a staircase. Stalk. (Sax.) An ornament in the Corinthian capital, which is sometimes fluted, and resembles the stalk of a plant ; from it spring the volutes and helices. Stall. (Sax.) A place or division in a stable wherein one horse is placed forfeeding and sleeping. According to their number in a stable it is called a one-stall, two-stall, &c., stable. This word is also used to denote the elevated seats in the choir or chancel of a church appropriated to ecclesiastics. The precentor’s stall is the first return stall on the left on entering the choir. The dean’s stall is the first return stall on the right. Stanchion. (Fr. Estanqon.) A prop or support. The upright iron bars of a window or open screen. Also a Puncheon. Standards. The upright pieces in a plate rack ; or above a dresser to support the shelving. When the edges of standards are cut into mouldings, according to the widths of the shelves, and across the fibres of the wood, they are called cut standards. Staple. A small piece of iron pointed at each end, and bent round, so that the two ends may be parallel to each other, and of equal lengths, to be driven into wood or into a wail, thus forming a loop for fastening a hasp or bolt. Star Moulding. One of the usual decorations of a surface in Norman architecture. Fig. 1440. Starlings or Sterlings, sometimes called Stilts. An assemblage of piles driven round the piers of a bridge to give it support. Statics. See Mechanics. Kg- 1440. Statuary Marble. The pure white marble, such as is obtained from Carrara, and used by sculptors and carvers for their best works. Statumen. A mortar of lime and sand used by the Romans for pavements, as stated by Vitruvius, vii. 1. See Ruderation. Staves. Small upright cylinders, sometimes called rounds, for forming a rack to contain the hay in a stable for the supply of it to the horse. Inal prep; fen tat, ItatED | lift 4 met \ j piniii j I P»ject; *{iri #11)81 »Wit ‘inlets * (Gr fit* •it. n tastof * other GLOSSARY. 1363 Stay. A piece performing the office of a brace, to prevent the swerving of the piece to which it is applied. The term is general, and applies to all materials. Steel. (Sax. Seal.) Iron which possessed the properties of hardening and tempering, those properties depending essentially on the presence of carbon with the iron. Steel now, however, generally includes many varieties of materials, which can be no more tempered or hardened than many qualities of wrought iron. The only difference between cast iron and steel was the proportion of carbon ; pure iron contained no carbon. The steel generally used for girder-work and plates contained perhaps -j* 7 per cent, of carbon, and directly it got to 1 and 1 b per cent, it became cast iron. It is also cheaply made, for great masses, by abstracting carbon from cast iron. The process for converting iron into steel was known to the ancients. Steening. The brickwork laid dry (that is, without mortar), for forming the cylin- drical shaft of a well or cesspool, to prevent the irruption of the surrounding soil. Steeple. (Sax. Ste-pel.) A lofty erection attached to a church, chiefly intended to con- tain its bells. The word is a general term, and applies to every appendage of this nature, whether tower or spire, or a combination of the two. •Step. A block of any material, and of such a height as is within a moderate lift of a person’s foot, say, seven inches at most. A series of steps form stairs. Stereobata. See Pedestal. Sereookaphic Projection. That projection of the sphere wherein the eye is supposed to be placed on the surface. Stereography. (Gr. Srepeor, solid, and rpa, to draw.) A machine working with four pulleys. Letrastyle. (Gr. T erpa, and StuXos, a column.) See Colonnade. Thatch. The covering of straw or reeds used on the roofs of cottages, barns, and such buildings ; and sometimes the cottage orne is so finished for a picturesque effect. 1376 GLOSSARY. Theatre. (Gr. @eao/j.ai , to see.) A place appropriated to the representation of dramatic spectacles. Theodolite. An instrument used in surveying for taking angles in vertical or horizontal planes. Theorem. A proposition which is the subject of demonstration. T'HERMiE. See Bath. Thorough Framing. The framing of doors and windows, a term almost obsolete. Thorough Lighted Room. A room having windows on opposite sides. Threshold of a Door. The sill of the door frame. Throat. See Gorge and Chimney. Ihrough or Thorough Stone. A bond stone ; a heading stone going through the wall. Thrust. The force exerted by any body or system of bodies against another. Thus the thrust of an arch is the power of the arch stones considered as a combination of wedges to overturn the abutments or walls from which the arch springs. Tie. (Sax. Tian, to bind.) A timber-string, chain, or iron rod connecting two bodies together, which have a tendency to diverge from each otlior, such as tie-beams, diagonal ties, truss-posts, etc. Braces may act either as ties or straining pieces. Straining pieces are preferable to ties, for these cannot be so well secured at the joints as straining pieces. See Angle Brace. Tie Beam. The beam which connects the bottom of a pair of principal rafters, and prevents them from thrusting out the wall. Fig. 1459 is an illustration of a late mediaeval example of a species of such a roof. Tin Rod. The iron rod securing the feet of the principal rafters in the manner, and in lieu, of the tie-beam. Tierce Point. The vortex of an equilateral triangle. Arches or vaults of the third point, which are called by the Italians di terzo acuto, are such as consist of two arcs of a circle intersecting at the top. See Pointed Arch. Tigna. The tie beam of an ancient timber roof. Tii.e. (Sax. Tigol.) A thin piece or plate of baked clay or other material used for the external covering of a roof. A thicker sort serves for paving. The flat tiles are called plain tiles, the curved ones ar & pan-tiles ; these latter, if made with a double curvature, are called Bridgewater tiles. Fig. 1400. GLOSSARY. 1377 In ancient buildings two forms of tiles were used. Tlio imbrex, placed in regular rows to receive the shower, and the tegula, which covered and prevented the rain from ponetrating tho joints. The latter were fixed at the eaves with upright ornamental pieces called antefixee, which were also repeated along the ridge at the junction of the tiles. The present common tiles of Italy are on this principle, and are shown by fig. 1460. Similar tiles have of late years been manufactured in England, but the joints require to be set in mortar to prevent wet and snow drifting into the roof. Tile Creasing. See Creasing. Tiling. The act of putting tiles on to roofs of buildings. The work itself is also so called. Tiling Fillet. A chamfered fillet laid under slating or tiling, to raise it where it joins the wall, and prevent water from entering tho joint. See Shreading, Furring. Timber. (Sax, Timbpan, to build.) Properly denotes all such wood, either growing or cut down, as is suited to tho purposes of building. A single piece of wood similarly employed is so called, as one of tho timbers of a floor, roof, etc. Timbers. It is advisable, as directed by the Metropolitan Buildings Act 1855, that no timber or woodwork be placed in any wall or chimney breast, nearer than 12 inches to the inside of any flue or chimney opening: — Under any chimney opening within 18 inches from the upper surface of the hearth of such chimney opening : — Within two inches from the face of the brickwork or stonework about any chimney or flue, where the substance of such brickwork or stonework is less than 8.) inches thick, unless the face of such brickwork or stonework is rendered : — and that no wooden plugs be driven nearer than 6 inches (not enough) to the inside of any chimney opening. Tip (verb.) To discharge a barrow or waggon load of anything by turning it on end or on one side. Tolmen, or Holed Stone. One of the many stones attributed to the Celtic inhabitants. Tomb. (Gr. T ufifios .) A grave or place for the interment of a human body, including also any commemorative monument raised over such a place. The word embraces every variety of sepulchral memorial, from the meanest grave to the most sumptuous mausoleum. Wingue. See Groove. Tools. (Sax.) Instruments used by artificers for the reduction of any material to its intended form, and with which they are assisted in fixing and ornamenting it. Tooth. The iron or steel point in a gauge which marks the stuff in its passage, or draws a line parallel to the arris of the piece of wood. Toothing. A projecting piece of material which is to be received into an adjoining piece. A tongue or series of tongues. See Stoothing. Top Beam. The samo as Collar Beam. Top Rail. The uppermost rail of a piece of framing or wainscoting, as its name imports. Tope. A Buddhist monument in a temple for preserving relics. Also the large mound enclosed and having gateways, as the celebrated Sanchi tope, dating about 600 b.c. Torsel. The same as Tassal. Torsion. The twisting strain on any material. Torus. (Lat.) A large moulding whose section is semicircular, used in the bases of columns. The only difference between it and the astragal is in the size, the astragal being much smaller. Touch Stone. A smooth black stone like marble. It was much used for tombs in tho 16th and 17th centuries, as in that of Henry VII. Tower. (Sax.) A lofty building of several stories, round or polygonal. See Steeple. Town Hall. (Fr. Hotel de ville. Ger. Stndtkans and Rathhaus.) A building in which the affairs of a town are transacted. It will necessarily vary with its extent and opu- lence. In towns of small extent it should stand in the market-place; in many of the j towns of this country the ground floor has usually columns or piers, and forms the | corn market, the upper floor being generally sufficiently spacious for transacting muni- cipal business. Where the sessions and assizes, as in cities, are held at the town hall, it is necessary to provide two courts, one for the civil and the other for the criminal i trials. In cities where much municipal business occurs, the number of apartments must of course be increased to meet the exigencies of the particular case; and, if pos- sible, a large hall should be provided for the meetings of the corporation. On the ground floor of the first class of town halls, courts, porticoes, or arcades, or spacious staircases, should prepare for and lead to the large apartments and courts of law. 1 Every means should be employed in providing ample egress and ingress to the persons assembling. Fire-proof muniment rooms should be provided for the records and accounts. Court of Law. For the disposition of these buildings the student may turn with profit to the examples abroad in which, generally, apartments are provided for every branch of the 4 T 1378 GLOSSARY. government of the city. Durand, in his Parullcle des Edifices, lias given several examples. We have chosen the Belgian examples, as most splendid, to remark, upon ; but it is not to be understood that fine speci- mens are only to be found in that country. France and Germany (see Builder for 1866') abound with such edifices, and a very volumi- nous work might be pro- duced on the subject. On the four princi- pal hotels de ville, that of Bruges is the earliest. Its date is 1377, and it is chieflv remarkable for the original wooden roof to the great hall. The Hotel de Ville of Brussels is, as an edifice, the first of the class, whether considered by it- self, or as the dominant feature of a place surrounded by build- ings of the most unique and varied appearance, the most in- teresting that we recollect any- where to have contemplated. It appears to have been com- pleted in 1445. Fig. 1460a. is a view of the east facade. An ancient building which occupied this site, has not been entirely removed ; for in the northern Fig. 14C0(i. HOTEL DE VILLE; BRUSSELS. side from the tower, the piers of the loggia, which on the basement extends along the front, consist, at least three of them, of columns whose date is evidently a century earlier, and which it is probable were left when the main front of the building was carried up Indeed, it seems highly probable that when the architect Jean van Ruysbroeck undertook the tower, his part of the work, the hotel was in existence as high as the one-pair floor. The whole of the tower seems rather later than the date above given, which accords well enough with the northern wing. The authorities we have looked into scarcely, however, admit us to doubt its correctness. As the building stands executed, taking one of the bays on the northern side as a measuring unit, there are three measuring the central space for the tower, ten for the north wing, and eleven for the south wing ; the height, to the top of the parapet, nine; to the ridge of the roof, thirteen ; to the top of the spire, thirty- three. The tracery on the spire is very elegant, and is pierced throughout. It is 364 feet high, and crowned with a copper gilt colossal statue of St. Michael, the patron of the citv, 18 feet high, which is so well balanced upon the pivot on which it stands that it is susceptible of motion with a very gentle wind. The interior of the edifice has a quadrangular court, with two modern fountains, statues of river gods with reeds and vases, as usual in GLOSSARY. 1379 such cases. Besides the Grande Salle , there are many interesting apartments, some whereof possess ceilings of great beauty. This fine monument is perhaps the most admirable example of the adaptation of the style to secular architecture that can he quoted. Smaller in plan, but more beautiful and symmetrical, is the hotel de ville of Louvain. It is the most perfect, in every respect, of this class of buildings in Europe. Nothing can surpass the richness and deli- cacy of the tracery upon it Like that at Brussels, it consists of three stories, but has no tower. Commenced in 1448, it was not completed till 1453 by De Layens. It stands on a site of about 85 feet by 42 feet ; so that it derives little advan- tage from its absolute magnitude, and per- haps appears less than it really is, from the great height of the roof, which is pierced by four tiers of dor- mers or lucarnes. The angles are flanked by turrets, of which some notion may he formed by reference to fig. 1 450 b. and the ridge of the roof is received at each end by another turret corbelled over from the gables. The facade towards the Place extends rather more than the height, and is pierced with twenty-eight windows and two doorways, be- ing ten openings in each story, the spaces between the windows being decorated with canopies, and groups of small figures from the Old Testament, some whereof are rather licentious. This charming edifice, which in its delicate rich tracery had suffered much from time and the elements, has, at the joint expense of the town and government, undergone a complete renovation. This has, stone by stone, been effected with great care and artistic skill by M. Goyers. The new work being executed in very soft stone, which, however, hardens with exposure to the air, it has been saturated with oil. Tn form, though not in features, totally different from the hotels de ville we have just left, is that at Ghent, never completed, but exhibiting, in what was executed of the design, a choice example of the last days of the flamboyant period. It was begun in 1481 ; in it are all those indications of change in the sotites and curves, as well as in the linesof the foliage and tracery, that eventually proved its downfall; and the style is now out of character with the habits of the age, from which alone a real style of architecture can ever spring. The subdivision of the building as to height is into two stories as to effect, though in 4 t 2 IIOTEI, TE VILLE ; LOUVAIN 1380 GLOSSARY, reality there are more ; and the transoms, ■which abound in the apertures, Seem to reign in accordance with the horizontal arrangement of lines which was so soon to supercede the flaming curves that had prevailed for nearly half a century. The elegant turret or tribune at the corner, with the part adjoining, in the richest flamboyant Gothic, is by Eustace Polleyt, 1527-60; the other facade, 1600-20, has columns of three different orders superposed. The most celebrated of town halls in Europe was that of Amsterdam, erected during the first half of the 17th century by Van Campen. The design is given in Durand’s Parallele, and it also forms the subject of a volume, in folio, published in Holland, in 1661-64. The town halls at Antwerp and at Maestricht may be also referred to, but these have now been surpassed by modern structures ; amongst them may be mentioned the town hall at Berlin, 1881. The Hotel de Ville at Paris was commenced 1533, and continued from 1649 or 1559 on the designs of Domenico Boecadoro, called by the French Dominique de Cortone, in what is now termed the style of the Renaissance. The additions which became necessary in consequence of the extended business of the city were executed in the same style, and the building presented one of the finest and most picturesque features of the city, until 1870-71, when it was destroyed by lire ; its reconstruction was carried out by Theodore Ballu. St. George’s Hall, at Liverpool, with the town halls at Leeds, Halifax, Man- chester, and other towns, large and small, are modern examples. Such a building, for a moderate-sized market town (as referred to previously), might require, on the ground floor, a wide entrance vestibule, out of which would be a room for the police, with four or five cells for prisoners; an office for the board of health, witnesses’ room, magistrates’ room, with a staircase to the first floor, to consist of a common hall, at one end of which, or in the middle of one side, would be arranged the courts for any local purposes, as a county court perhaps, with a retiring room for its chief. This hall would require a staircase for the public, entering at once from the main thoroughfare. Apartments for the resident policeman, and the usual conveniences, will also be necessary. Trabeation. Another term for Entablature. Trabs. The Latin term for a wall-plate. Teacery. In Gothic architecture, the intersection, in various ways, of the mullions in the head of a window, the subdivisions of groined vaults, &c. See Window Teaceey. Trachelium. (Lat.) The neck or space immediately below the capital in the Roman orders. Tracing Cloth. A fine white cloth, prepared in a similar way to paper for render- ing it transparent. Having a very greasy surface it is not so easy to work upon it; and as it shrinks much if wetted, no large washes of colour can be put on it; even many small tints are detrimental to accuracy. Lines made in error can be erased by gently using a brush damped with some soapy water. The cloth ronders this paper much stronger than tracing paper, and it is now constantly used for working drawings. Tracing Paper. A tissue piper made transparent by a preparation of turpentine and wax, slightly washed over it and then allowed to dry. Formerly resin and oil were used, as may be seen in the old sketch books, where the paper has turned a dark brown colour, and sometimes sticks to the leaves. In England it is made in sizes of 60 in. by 40in. ; 40 in. by 30 in. ; and 30 in. by 20 in. The last-named size is also made of a thicker paper. The following are the sizes of modern French-made tracing paper. It is also made 40 in. wide, and 21| yds. in length: — Romain Telliere Couronne Serpente Ecu ins. ins. - 16 by 12 - 17 „ 13i - 18 „ 14“ - 22 „ 14 - 20 „ 16 Carre Grand raisin Jesus Colombier Grand aigle ins. ins. - 22 by 17 - 24 „ 18 - 30 „ 22 - 30 „ 23 - 45 „ 27 Besides this, J. Poore and Co. make a ferro-prussiate paper, which gives white lines on a blue ground, and supplied in rolls thirty and forty inches wide, of thin, thick, and extra thick paper. This not having been considered a very satisfactory process, a “ black-line process,” by Bemrose and Sons, of Derby, has lately been brought out (1888), by which copies of the original drawings can be produced; they can also be coloured and treated as ordinary drawings. It is called “Perfection Brand Sensitized Paper” (black-line process). Tracings. An aniline process of photographic printing was patented a few years since by Mr. Willis, whereby fac-simile copies of tracings are obtained, of the same GLOSSARY. 1381 sire as tlic originals, however largo their dimensions, and copies can be supplied in a few hours. Delicate tinting as well as the black outlines are faithfully reproduced. By this process no cost is incurred for drawing, engraving, or lithographing. Drawings on thin drawing paper and on parchment can also be copied by this process. Trammel. An instrument for describing an ellipsis by continued motion. Transept (quasi Transseptum). The transverse portion of a cruciform church ; that part which is placed between and extends beyond those divisions of the building containing the nave and choir. It is one of the arms projecting each way on the side of the stem of tho cross. Transition. A term used to denote the passing from one period of a style to another, exhibiting features peculiar to both, some of which have not quite been given up, and some of which were beginning to bo introduced. Transom. A beam or beams across a window to divide it into two or more lights in height. A window having no transom was formerly called a clear-story window. Transtra. (Lat.) The horizontal timbers in the roofs of ancient Roman buildings. Transverse. Lying in a cross direction. The transverse strain of a piece of timber is that sidewise, by which it is more easily bent or broken than when compressed or drawn as a tie in the direction of its length. Trap. In drainage and water escape, an article formed in any material to prevent the escape of foul air ; such as a bell trap , syphon trap, D trap, &c. Trapezium. (Gr.) In geometry, a quadrilateral figure, whose opposite sides are not parallel. Trapezoid. (Gr.) A quadrilateral figure having one pair of opposite sides parallel. Traverse. A gallery or loft of communication in a church or other largo building Tread. The horizontal part of the step of a stair. It can be greatly protected where there is much traffic, by squares of hard wood inserted grain upwards into a light cast- iron frame, which is then secured to the original tread. Trefoil. In Gothic architecture, an ornament consisting of three cusps in a circle. Trellice. A reticulated framing mado of thin bars of wood; it is used as a screen to windows where air is required for the apartment, &c. Trenail. A large cylindrical wooden pin, used in roof work and framing. Tressel or Trussel. Props for the support of anything the under surface of which is horizontal. Each tressel consists of three or four legs attached to a horizontal part. When the tressels are high the legs are sometimes braced. Tressels are much used in building for the support of scaffolding; and by carpenters and joiners while ripping and cross-cutting timber, and for many other purposes. Triangle. (Lat.) A plane rectilineal figure of three sides, and consequently of three angles. In measuring, all rectilineal figures must be reduced to triangles, and in con- structions for Carpentry all frames of more than three sides must be reduced to triangles to prevent a revolution round the angles. Triangular Compasses. Such as have three legs or feet by which any triangle or any three points may be taken off at once. Tribune. See Apsis. Triclinium. (Lat.) The room in the Roman house wherein the company was received, and seats placed for their accommodation. It was raised two steps from the peristyle, and had therein a large window, which looked upon the garden. The aspect of winter triclinia was to the west, and of summer triclinia to the east. Triforium. (Lat.) The gallery or open space between the vaulting and the roof of the aisles of a church, generally lighted by windows in the external wall of the building, and opening to the nave, choir, or transept over the main arches. It occurs only in large churches, and is varied in the arrangement and decoration of its openings in each suc- ceeding period of architecture. See figs. 1117 to 1422. There is no triforium in Bath abbey church, nor to the choir at Bristol cathedral. Triglyph. (Gr. Tpeis, and rAt iiece of workmanship fitted between others previously executed, which is then said to be trimmed in between them. Thus, a partition wall is said to be trimmed up between the floor and the ceiling ; a post between two beams ; a trimmer between two joists. Trimmed out. A term applied to the trimmers of stairs when brought forward to receive the rough strings. Trimmer. A small beam, into which are framed the ends of several joists. The two joists, into which each end of the trimmer is framed, are called trimming joists. This arrangement takes place where a well-hole is to be left for stairs, or to avoid bringing joists near chimneys, etc. Trine Dimensions. Those of a solid, including length, breadth, and thickness; the same as threefold dimensions. Tripod. (Gr. Tpeis, and nous', a foot.) A table or seat with three legs. In architectural ornament its forms are extremely varied, many of those of the ancients are remarkable for their elegance and beauty of form. Triptych. A picture with folding doors, the inside of which is either also painted, or else decorated with diapers, etc. When the picture has only one door, it is called a diptych. Trisection. The division of anything into three equal parts. Triumphal Arch. A building of one arch erected first by the Roman people in memory of the victor, his trophies being placed on the top. Subsequently they became enriched and loaded with ornaments, and later w r ere penetrated by three apertures, a cen- tral and two smaller ones. The arch of Trajan at Ancona, and that of Titus at Rome, have one arch ; an arch at Verona has two openings ; while those of Constantine, Septimius Severus {fig. 1162 as restored) and others, have three. There are numerous modern examples, such as the arc de l’etoile at Paris ; the areo dalle pace at Milan ; the marble arch at London, etc. Trochilus. (Gr. T pox'^os, a pulley.) An annular moulding whose section is concave, like the edge of a pulley. It is more commonly called a scotia, and its place is between the two tori of the base of a column. Trochoid. (Gr. T poxos, a wheel, and EiSos, shape.) A figure described by rolling a circle upon a straight lino, such circle having a pin or fixed point in its circumference upon a fixed plane, in or parallel to the plane of the moving circle. It is also called a cycloid. Trophy. (Gr. Tpowaior.) An ornament representing the trunk of a tree charged with various spoils of war. Trough. (Sax. Tpoh.) A vessel in the form of a rectangular prism, open on the top for holding water. Trough Gutter. A gutter in the form of a trough, placed below the dripping eaves of a house, in order to convey the water from the roof to the vertical trunk or pipe by which it is to be discharged. It is only used in common buildings and outhouses. Truncated. (Lat. Trunco, I cut short.) A term employed to signify that the upper por- tion of some solid, as a cone, pyramid, sphere, etc. has been cut off. The part which remains is called a frustum. Trunk. That part of a pilaster which is contained between the base and the capital. Also a vessel open at each end for the discharge of water, rain, etc. Truss. (Fr. Trousse.) A combination of timber framing, so arranged that if suspended at two given points, and charged with one or more weights in certain others, no timber would press transversely upon another except by strains exerting equal and opposite forces. Truss Partition. One containing a truss within it, generally consisting of a quadrangu- lar frame, two braces, and two queen posts, with a straining post between them, opposite to the top of the braces. Truss Roof. A roof formed of a tiebeam, principal rafters, king post or queen post, and other necessary timbers to carry the purlins and common rafters, etc. Trussed Beam. One in which the combination of a truss is inserted between and let into the two pieces whereof it is composed. GLOSSARY. 13S3 Trussing Pieces. Those timbers in a roof that are in a state of compression. Try. (Verb.) To plane a piece of stuff by the rule and square only. Turk. (Lat.) A substance perforated longitudinally ; generally quite through its length. Tuck Pointing. In old brickwork, after it has been well washed and the mortar raked out, the joints are filled with new mortar; the face of the work is then coloured yellow or red, as desired. Lines to mark the joints are made by putting on a ridge of lime putty with the point of the trowel over the new mortar, and cutting it straight and to the required width by means of a straight edge and knife. Tudor Style. A name given to the late portion of the Perpendicular Gothic, from the line of sovereigns in England who reigned during its prevalence. The arch is of a four-pointed obtuse shape. Tufa. A mass of volcanic earth, consolidated. Tnfo is a mass of agglomerated sand without volcanic character. Tufaceous, mixed with tufo. Tumbled in. The Bamo as trimmed in. See Trimmed. Tumulus. A barrow or artificial earth mound. Among the Celtic works the former was sepulchral, and the latter perhaps erected for beacons or for a memorial purpose. Tunnel. (Fr.) A subterranean channel for carrying a stream of water under a road, hill, etc., or through which a road or railway is run. Tun of Water. See Water, Weight of. Turning Piece. A board with a circular face for turning a thin brick arch upon. Turpentine. Turpentine is obtained by exudation and hardening of the juice flowing from incisions iuto pine trees. To obtain the oil of turpentine, the juice is distilled in an apparatus like the common still, and water is introduced with the turpentine. Turret. (Lat. Turris.) A small tower often crowning the angle of a wall, etc. Tuscan Order. The first of the five orders used in Roman and Italian architecture. See Jig. 1454. Tusk. A bevel shoulder made above a tenon, and let into a girder to give strength to the tenon. Tympanum. (Gr.) The naked face of a pediment (see Pediment) included between the level and raking mouldings. See -32tiaioi and jEtoma. The word also signifies the die of a pedestal, and the panel of a door. Type. (Gr. Tuiros.) A word expressing by general acceptation, and consequently appli- cable to, many of the varieties involved in the terms model, matrix, impression, &c. It is, in architecture, that primitive model, whatever it may have been, that has been the foundation of every style, and which has guided, or is supposed to have guided, the forms and details of each. What it was in each style is still only conjecture. Type. The canopy over a pulpit, also called a sound board. U Undercroft. A vault under a church or chapel. See Crypt, Croft, and Shrowds. Underpinning. Bringing a wall up to the ground sill. The term is also used to denote the temporary support of a wall, whose lower part or foundations are defective, and the bringing up new solid work whereon it is in future to rest. See Gouflng. Underpitch Groin. See Welch Groin. Ungula. The portion of a cylinder or cone comprised by part of the curved surface, the segment of a circle, which is part of the base, and another plane. University. An assemblage of colleges under the supervision of a senate, etc. Uphers. Fir poles, from four to seven inches in diameter, and from twenty to forty feet in length. They are often hewn on the sides, but not entirely, to reduce them square. They are chiefly used for scaffolding and ladders, and are also employed in slight and common roofs, for which they are split. Upright. The elevation of a building ; a term rarely used. Urilla. See Helix. Urn. (Lat.) A vase of a circular form, destined among the ancients to receive and pre- serve the ashes of the dead. With the vase, it often forms a decoration to the pedestal of a balustrade on a terrace, top of a wall, etc. V Vagina. (Lat.) The lower part of a terminal in which a statue is apparently inserted. Valley. (Lat.) The internal meeting of the two inclined sides of a roof. The rafter which supports the valley is called the valley rafter or valley piece, and the board fixed upon it for the leaden gutter to rest upon is called the valley board. The old writers called the valley rafters sleepers. Valve. (Lat.) Anything which opens on hinges or pivots as a door. Vane. A plate of metal shaped like a banner fixed on the summit of a tower or steeple, to show the direction of the wind. 1384 GLOSSARY. Vanishing Line. In perspective, the intersection of the parallel of any original plane and the picture is c 1 1 led. the vanishing line ot' such plane. The vanishing point is that . to which all parallel lines in the same plane tend in the representation. V aporarium. (Lat.) The same as Caldarium. Variation of Curvature. The change in a curve by which it becomes quicker or flatter in its different parts. Thus, the curvature of the quarter of an ellipsis terminated by the two axes is continually quicker from the extremity of the greater axis to that of the lesser. There is no variation of curvature in the circle. Varnish. A glossy coat on painting or the surface of any matter. It consists of dif- ferent resins in a state of solution, whereof the most common are mastic, sandarac, lac, benzoin, copal, amber, and asphaltum. The menstrua are either expressed, or essential . oils, or alcohol. Vase. (Lat. Vas.) A term applied to a vessel of various forms, and chiefly used as an ornament. It is also used to denote the bell, or naked form, to which the foliage and volutes of the Corinthian and Composite capitals are applied. The vases of a theatre in ancient architecture were bell-shaped vessels placed under the seats to produce re- , verberation of the sound. See Echea. Vault. (It. Volto.) An arched roof over an apartment, concave towards the void, whose section may be that of any curve in the same direction. Thus a cylindric vault has its surface part of a cylinder. A fall-centred vault is formed by a semi-cylinder. When a vault is greater in height than half its span, it is said to be surmounted ; when less, sur- i . based. A rampant vault springs from planes not parallel to the horizon. The double vault occurs in the case of one being above another. A conic vault is formed of part of the surface of a cone, as a spherical vault consists of part of the surface of a sphere. The plane of an annular vault is contained between two concentric circles. A vault is said to be simple when formed by the surface of some regular solid round one axis, and compound when formed of more than one surface of the same solid or of two different solids. A cylindro-cylindric vault is formed of the surfaces of two unequal cylinders ; and a groined vault is a compound one rising to the same height in its surfaces as that of two equal cylinders, or a cylinder with a cylindroid. The reins of a vault are the sides or walls that sustain the arch. See Fan Vaulting. The following table gives the clear breadths and heights in English feet, of the most remarkable vaulted avenues, as given by Mr. Garbett in his “ Principles of Design in Architecture” : — Date. ‘ Name. Breadth. Height. Proportion. Tarquin I. Cloaca Maxima .... 16 26 1 1-625 1st cent. Temple of Peace, Rome ... 83 121 1 1-46 2nd or 3rd Second Temple at Baalbec 63 93 "1 L47 11th Cathedral at Speyer - 45 107 1 2-35 13 th Salisbury - 35 84 1 2-3 Amiens - 42 147 1 3-5 Cologne ... 41£ 145 1 3-5 Westminster Abbey - - - 33 99 1 3 11th Cathedral at York (not vaulted) 46 92 1 2 Milan - 55 165 1 3 Choir at Beauvais Cathedral 48 167 1 3-5 loth Chapel of King’s College, Cambridge 40 80 1 2 16 th Cathedral at Florence - 55 140 1 2-54 17 th of St. Peter’s, Rome - 84 147 1 1-74 St. Paul’s, London - 41 82 1 2 Thus St. Peter's has the same external height as Amiens but gives twice the breadth ; yet both are considered well proportioned avenues in their respective styles. Vaulted Ceiling. A ceiling built of stone, bricks, or blocks of wood, supporting itself on the principle of the arch. Vaulting Shaft. A pillar, sometimes rising from the floor, or only from the capital of a pier, or even only from a corbel, from the top of which spring the vaulting ribs of the groining. Velarium. (Lat.) The great awning, which by means of tackle was hoisted over the Roman theatre and amphitheatre to protect the spectators from the rain or the sun’s rays. Vellar Cupola. A term used by Alberti to denote a dome or spherical surface termi- nated by four or more walls, frequently used over large staircases and salons, and other lofty apartments. GLOSSARY. 1385 Veneer. A very thin loaf of wood of a superior qualify, for covering furniture, etc, made of an inferior wood. Wafers of wood thirty-two inches wide were made about 1824. Venetian Doth. A door having side lights on each side of its frame. Venetian Style. That style of modern Italian architecture formed by the architects of the Venetian states in the fifteenth to the early part of t ho seventeenth centuries. Venetian Window. One formed with three apertures separated by slender pierk from each other, whereof the centre one is much larger than those on the sides. Vent. The flue or funnel of a chimney ; also any conduit for carrying off that which is offensive. Ventiduct. A passage or pipo for the introduction of fresh air to an apartment. Ventilation. The continual change of air to an apartment, or portion of an edifice, See. The architect has to provide means for letting off or taking away the foul air, generally by apertures at the upper part of the room, etc., to which the hot air will ascend, as well as to provide for the admission of fresh air in sufficient quantities to take its place or to force it out without any appreciable current. Verandah. An open gallery having a roof supported by light pillars, and placed over the windows of the principal rooms of a house to shelter them from tho rays of the sun, and under which persons can promenade for fresh air. It is sometimes enclosed with glass screens to form a conservatory. Verge Boards. See Barge Boards. Vermiculated Work. (Lat.) A term applied to rustic-work which is so wrought as to have the appearance of having been eaten into by worms. Vertex. (Lat. the top.) A term generally applied to tho termination of anything finishing in a point, as the vertex of a cone, etc. Vertical Angi.es. The opposite ones made by two straight lines cutting each other. Vertical Plane. One whose surface is perpendicular to the horizon. Vesica Piscis. (Lat. a fish’s bladder.) A form which may be produced in the endeavour to gain two lines at right angles with each other. Ares of circles inclosing two equi- lateral triangles drawn on the same base line will also produce it. It was a monogram, which has been supposed to be connected with the plan and form of churches erected during the mediaeval period. Many mediaeval seals of ecclesiastical and other communities wero designed on the same form, and have been imitated of late for those of some archaeological societies. See Symbolism. Vestibule. (Lat. Vestibulum.) An apartment which serves as the medium of communi- cation to another room or series of rooms. In the Roman houses it appears to have been the place before the entrance where the clients of the master of the house, or those wishing to pay their court to him, waited before introduction. It was not considered as formi ng a part of the house. The entrance from the vestibulum led immediately into the atrium , or into the cawedium. Vestry. (Lat. Vestiarium.) An apartment in, or attached to, a church for the preserva- tion of the sacred vestments and utensils. A sacristy ; see Diaconicum. Vibration. A motion or combination of motions. The theory of the vibrations of the particles of an elastic fluid is the key to what is known of the phenomena of sound and light: and it is supposed that the causes of the sensible phenomena of heat, electricity, and magnetism will be found in the vibrations of matter of some kind. It is stated that iron kept constantly in a state of vibration oxidates less rapidly than that which is at rest, as exemplified in railway rails. It is recorded that the greatest vibration on the timber temporary bridge over the river Thames at Blackfriars was produced by empty four-wheel cabs. The vibration on the top platform, though it appeared con- siderable, was in fact only a quarter of an inch. Vice or Vis. (Fr.) An old term applied to a spiral or winding staircase. In mechanics, a machine serving to hold fast anything -worked upon, whether the purpose be filing, bend- ing, riveting, etc. Villa. A country-house for the residence of an opulent person. Among the Romans there were three descriptions of villa, each having its particular destination, namely, the Villa urbana, which was the residence of the proprietor, and contained all the conveniences of a mansion in the city. The Villa rustica, which contained not only all that was essential to rural economy, such as barns, stables, etc., but comprised lodging apartments for all those who ministered in the operations of the farming esta- blishment. The Villa fructuaria was appropriated to the preservation of the different productions of the estate, and contained the granaries, magazines for the oil, cellars for the wine, etc. Village Hospital. A class of building lately recommended to be formed in small locali- ties for the purpose of preventing the spread of fevers, &c., by at once placing the sick under proper treatment. V t m an a The name for the temple of the Hindoos, in front of which is the mantapa or porch, and again the gopura or pyramidal entrance gateway. Vlnery. A house for the cultivation of vines. See Conservatory. 1386 GLOSS Alt Y. V isorium. (Lat.) See Amphitheathe. Visual, Point. In perspective a point iu the horizontal line in which the visual rays unite. Visual Rat. A line of light supposed to come from a point of the object to the eye. Vitkuvian Scroll. See Scroll. Vitrification. The hardening of argillaceous stones by heat. See Brick. ; Terra Cotta. Vivo. (Ital.) The shaft of a column. Volute. A spiral scroll which forms the principal feature of the capital of the Ionic order in Greek and Roman architecture. The capital of the Corinthian order has one smaller in size (Helix), which is enlarged in that of the Composite order. Several methods have been put forward of describing the spiral lines of the Ionic volute. The returns or sides are called pulvinata or pillows. Balteus is the outer fillet on the side of the volute. VoMiroRruM. (Lat.) See Amphitheatre. Voussoir. (Fr.) A wedge-like stone or other matter forming one of the pieces of an arch. See Arch. The centre voussoir is called a keystone.’ Vulcanised India Rubber. A material perhaps only brought into requisition by the architect for the purpose of excluding draughts from doors and the entry of dust into closets or cases. As a tube, with or without a spiral wire in it, it is greatly used for movable gas-lights. W Waggon-headed Ceiling. The same as cylindrical ceiling. See Vault. Wainscot. (Dutch, Wayschot.) A term usually applied to the oak or deal lining of walls in panels. The wood originally used for this purpose was a foreign oak, and called wainscot, hence the name of the material became attached to the work itself. Wall. A body of material for the enclosure of a building and the support of its various parts. “ External wall ” shall apply to every outer wall or vertical enclosure of any building, not being a party wall (Metropolitan Building Act, 1855.) “Cross wall” shall apply to every wall used or built in order to be used as a separation of one part of any building from another part of the same building, such building being wholly in one occupation. (Idem.) See Party wall. Walings. See Shoring. Walls of the Ancients. See Masonry. Walls, Cased. Those faced up anew round a building, in order to cover an inferior material, or old work gone to decay. Walnut. A forest tree used in cabinet work. Washer. A flat piece of iron, or other metal, pierced with a hole for the passage of a screw, between whose nut and the timber it is placed, to prevent compression on a small surface of the timber. Also the perforated metal plate of a sink or drain, which can be removed for letting off the waste water, and thus more easily cleansing it. Wasting. Splitting off the surplus stone from a block, with a point or a pick, reducing it to nearly a plane surface. In Scotland it is called clouring. Water. See Weight. Water Joint. A joint between two stones in the paving of a terrace, where each side of the joint for about an inch is made level and then rounded off into a sinking of the stones, to prevent water lodging in the joint, especially if occasionally covered with it, as a river landing-place. Water Joint Hinge. A hinge made into a sort of loop at the turning part, whereby it is less likely to stiffen by rusting, as it is generally used in out-door work. Water Shoot. See Square Shoot. Water Supply. See Plumbery. See Aqueduct. Water Table. An inclined plane where a wall sets off to a larger projection, for the purpose of throwing off any water that may fall upon that plane, and is principally used to buttresses and other similar parts of mediseval buildings : but in all styles it is an efficient way of attaining the above desirable object. Where a stone entablature occurs, the top is often covered with lead to prevent water soaking through. Waves. In many engineering works, the weight of the stone to be employed is of the utmost importance, especially for low buildings occasionally under water, where there is a rapid current, or where they are subject to the influence of powerful waves. Such circumstances will require a heavier stone to be used than may at first have been con- sidered necessary, because all bodies immersed are reduced in weight by so much as is equal to that of the bulk of water which they displace. The force of the waves at Skerry vore lighthouse was found to be 4,335 lbs. per square foot ; that at Bell Rock GLOSSARY. 1387 lighthouse was 3,013 lbs. The highest force observod was 6,000 lbs. For weight of water, seo Weight. Weather Boarding. Boards nailed with a lap on each other, to prevent the penetration of the rain and snow. The boards for this purpose are generally made thinner on one edge than on the other, especially in good permanent work. The feather edged board is, therefore, used in such cases, the thick edge of the upper board being laid on the thin edge of that below, lapping about an inch or an inch and a half, and the nails being driven through the lap. Weather Moulding. A moulded string course. The projecting moulding of an arch, having a weathered or sloped surface at top, serving to throw otf the rain, and to pro- tect the other mouldings. See Hood Mould. Weather Tiling and Slating. The covering an upright wall with tiles, or with slates. Wedge. (Dan. Wegge.) An instrument used for splitting wood or other substances ; it is usually classed among the mechanical powers. Weight. (Sax. Wilir.) In mechanics, a quantity determined by the balance ; a mass by which other bodies are examined. It denotes anything to be raised, sustained, or moved by a machine as distinguished from the power, or that by which the machine is put in motion. Weight, in commerce. A body of given dimensions, used as a standard of comparison for all others. By an act of parliament passed in June, 1824, all weights were to remain as they then were, that act only declaring that the imperial standard pound troy shall be the unit or only standard measure of weight from which all other weights shall be derived and computed ; that this troy pound is equal to the weight of 22'815 cubic inches of distilled water weighed in air at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the barometer being at 30 inches, and that there being 6760 such grains in a troy pound, there will bo 7,000 grains in a pound avoirdupois. Trot Weight. 24 grains = 1 pennyweight. 480 ... = 20 = 1 ounce. 6760 . . . =240 =12 . . . = 1 pound. Avoirdupois Weight. 1 6 drams = 1 ounce. 256 . . . = 16 . . . = 1 pound. 7168 . . . = 448 . . . = 28 . . . = 1 quarter. 28672 . . . = 1792 ... = 112 . . . = 4 . . . . = 1 cwt. 5' 7 3440 . . . = 3584a . . . =2240 ... =80 ... . =20 . . = 1 ton. The avoirdupois pound: pound troy :: 175 : 144, or : : 1 1 : 9 nearly ; and an avoirdu- pois pound is equal to 1 lb. 2 oz. 11 dwts. 16grains troy. Atroyouuce=l oz. 1’55 dr. avoirdupois. The following is a table of weights according to the French system. Names. Millier, Quintal, Kilogramme, Hectogramme, Decagramme, Gramme, Decigramme, French value. 1000 kilogrammes = 1 French ton - = 100 kilogrammes - - - - = { Weight of one cubic decimetre of water of the temperature of 39° 12' Fahrenheit." of kilogramme - - - - = 555 of kilogramme 5^5 of kilogramme of kilogramme - English value. 19 - 7 cwts. 1-97 cwt. f 2‘6803 lbs. troy. \ 2 , 2055lbs. avoirdupois. f 3 2 ounces troy, b 3'52 ozs. avoirdupois. 6'43 dwts. troy. 15438 grains troy. 0'643 pennyweight. 0'032 ounce troy. 1 '5438 grain troy. The following table exhibits the proportion of weights in the principal places of Europe to 100 lbs. English avoirdupois. 100 lbs. English = 91 lbs. 8 ozs. for the pound of Amsterdam, Paris (old), &c. — =96 8 — Antwerp or Brabant. — =88 0 — Eouen (the Viscounty weight). — =106 0 — Lyons (the city weight). — =90 9 — Rochelle. — =107 11 — Toulouse and Upper Languedoc. — =113 0 — Marseilles or Provence. — =81 7 . Geneva. — =93 5 — Hamburgh. — =89 7 — Frankfort, &c. 1388 GLOSSARY. 100 lbs. English = 96 lbs. 1 ozs. for the pound of Leipsic, &c. — = 137 4 — Genoa. — = 132 1 — Leghorn. — = 153 11 — Milan. — = 152 0 — Venice. — = 154 10 — Naples. — = 97 0 — Seville, Cadiz, &c. — = 104 13 — Portugal. — = 96 5 — Liege. — = 112 Oil — Russia. — = 107 n_L * 2-i — Sweden. — = 89 0i — Denmark. The Paris pound (poids do marc of Charlemagne) contained 9216 Paris grains; it was divided into 16 ounces, each ounce into 8 gros, and each gros into 72 grains. It is equal to 7561 English troy grains. The English troy pound of 12 ounces contains 5760 troy grains = 7021 Paris grains. The English avoirdupois pound of 16 ounces contains 7000 English troy grains, and is equal to 8538 Paris grains. To reduce Paris grains to English troy grains, divide by "1 Or, to reduce English troy grains to Paris grains, multiply by j To reduce Paris ounces to English troy, divide by 1 To reduce English troy ounces to Paris, multiply by J Weight of Man. As guidance in providing sufficient strength in a floor loaded with human beings, the following weights aro subjoined : — Mean weight of a Belgian - - 140-49 lbs. Mean height, 6 feet 65 inches. „ Frenchman - 136 89 ,, „ 5 „ 4 ,, „ Englishman - 150'98 „ „ 5 „ 9£ „ The weight in travelling carriages usually taken is 165 lbs. Supposing, therefore, each individual in standing to occupy 2 5 superficial feet, which would be close to one another, and indeed closer than pleasant, on a square of flooring there would be jlf = 40 persons, and 40 x 150-98 lbs. = 2-96 tons. The average surface of a man’s body is usually considered about 15 superficial feet, which would give a cubic content of 3'95 feet, and a consequent specific gravity of 612. Weight of Materials. As, in the construction of warehouses, it is essential for tho architect to know the probable weight of merchandise which his client may probably put upon the respective floors, the following tables may be found useful. The second one is taken from the Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers, 1832, iii. 192, contri- buted by Major Harry D. Jones. Articles. Weight of a cubic ft. lbs. Cubic feet = one ton. Articles. Weight of a cubic ft. lbs. Cubic feet one ton. Ashes ... _ 37 60-5 Hay, well pressed 8 — 52 feet = 1 chaldron Indigo ... 46-6 Brimstone - 19-8 Iron, cast - 450 5 Chalk, from 140 15*5 — wrought 487 45 — to - 1(16 13-75 Lime, stone 53 42? Clay, from - 120 l8‘(j(i — chalk - 44 51 — to - 135 17 Marl .... 120 18 Coal, Cannel 54 26-66 Mortar, from (old) - 88 254 — Welch - 58 39 — to (new) 119 19 — Newcastle 50 45 Nightsoil - IS — Navy allowance 48 Sand, from ... 90 234 to 25 Coals, average - 45-3 — river ... 118 19 — solid 80 Shingle - 89 25.4 Coke ... 47 48 Slate ... - 180 124 Cork - 149-34 Straw .... 34 Truss=36 lbs. Concrete - 120 18-66 — well pressed - 6J Barth, from 05 23-5 Sugar - - - 69-0 — to - 126 18 — hogshead 3-11 in Fir - 65-16 middle = 15| cwt. Flint - 164 13-66 Tallow 38-0 Class, crown 157 14-25 Thames ballast - 20-0 — Flint - 187 12 Tiles, average - 112 20 — Plate 184 12-166 Oil of Turpentine 54? 41 Gravel 112 12-75 — Linseed - 58? 38 • — Coarse - 120 18-66 — Whale - 67? 38-8 Gum - 24-69 Warehouse, mean for 40-0 Hay - - - 5 Truss:=56 to 60 lbs. Shipping, ditto - 35-0 GLOSSARY. 1389 A i tides. Description. Weight or Number. Articles. Description. Weight or Number. Ashes - Barrel 6 = 1 ton Linen, cloth _ Box - . Bleaching powders Cask 2J to 7 cwt. „ yarn - Bale - 10 cwt. Bacon - Barrel 6*1 ton Linseed meal . Cask 10 cwt. „ Bale - 2& cwt. Machinery - - Package - 3A cwt. Barley - Sack 20 stone Muriatic acid - Carboy 00 lbs. ,, - • Quarter 4 = 1 toil Oatmeal Bag - 2 cwt. Barra - Cask 8 cwt. Oats - . Sack 24 stone Beans - Hogshead - 5 j cwt. „ . - Quarter 4- by 6 for tons „ Quarter 4 = 1 ton Oil . Cask 8 cwt. Beer or Ale - Barrel 3£ cwt. Oxen - _ Number 5 A cwt. Hogshead - 5| cwt. l - Number -f- by 3 for ton Beef - Barrel 3 cwt. 7 lbs. Paper - - Bale - 20 lbs. Books - Case - 1 to 5 cwt. Peas Bag- Bran - Sack 1 cwt. Pork - - Tierce, Cask 4 A to 5 cwt. Bread - Bag - 1 cwt. Pigs - - _ £ cwt. or 80 lbs. Butter - Cask 90 lbs. ,, 1st class - . Candles Firkin j cwt. „ 2nd class . Box - 20 to 40 lbs. ,, 3rd class . . Cattle, 1st class - - H = 1 ton „ 4th class - _ 23 = 1 ton „ 2nd class - - 2 = 1 ton Poultry - Crate 2 cwt. ,, 3rd class - - 3=1 ton Quills - - Bale - 2 cwt. „ 4 th class - - 4 = 1 ton Hags - . Bag - 2 cwt. Coal - Ton 24 cwt. Rum - - Hogshead - 56 to 58 gals. Coffee - Barrel ( . Gallon “i“ Cotton, manfetrd. Package 3 A cwt. - Cask „ - • . Yards -5- by 6,000 for tons Runnet - Cask 1 cwt. Drugs Package - 2 cwt. bale - - Bushel Earthenware ,, 3A cwt. Silk - - Bale- 1A cwt. Eggs ... Box - — - 10=1 ton ,, manufactured Yard 4- ... Number 4- t«y 28,000 for tons Sheep - ] Number - Crate or Kish 6 cwt. 1 44 -T- by 33 for tons Flax ... Bale- 10 cwt. average Sugar - - Hogshead - 10 cwt. „ Bushel 48 lbs. 1 qr. Tallow, Irish - Cask 10 cwt. Flax seed Cask 3A cwt. ,, Foreign - Cask 8 to 13 cwt. Feathers Bag - 2 cwt. Tanners’ waste - I’ackage - 3 cwt. Fish - - - Glass - Barrel Cask 3£ cwt. 1 cwt. Timber - ( Log, 40 to ) t 120 feet j 1 to 3 tons Cine - Hogshead - 10 cwt. Tinned plates . Box - 3 A cwt. Haberdashery Package 3A cwt. Tongues - Firkin 1 cwt. Hair - Bale 3 cwt. Tow - - Bale - 1 cwt. Hams - Barrel 34 cwt. Vetches - Sack 2 cwt. . Cask 12 cwt. Vine-iar - Cask 8 cwt. Hardwares - Package 3 A cwt. Vitriol - Carboy 60 lbs. Hides, untanned - Number 40=1 ton Wine - - Cask 12 cu t. Honey - Bundle 70 lbs. Wheat - Barrel 20 stone Cask i cwt. „ - Quarter 4 cwt. Horses - Number 10 cwt. Whiskey - Puncheon - 10A to 12 cwt. | Horn tops - Hogshead - 8 cwt. Wool - Bale < 3 to 10 cwt. Iron, wrought Package 3£ cwt. V aver. 6 cwt. Leather Package - 5 cwt. ,, - Package - 3 cwt. Linen - Box - 3 A cwt. ,, - Bag - 2£ to 9 cwt. „ - - - Yard 4- by 6,000 for tons ■Woollen goods - Yard by 6,000 for tons Tea, Bohea - ,, Congo - „ Hyson - ,, Souchong „ Twankay lbs. per Cube ft. Cube. Weiuht. ft. cube per ton. 2- 9 x 1T0 x 1-84 = 8-609 = 224 lbs. = 26-02 = 86 09 1-104 x I' 84 x 1-4J = 4-403 = 111 lbs. = 25-21 = 88-87 1. » X 1- 6 x 1 9 = 4 048 = 80 lbs. = 19-76 = 113-34 1- 7i X 1- 74 x 1-7 = 4-180 = 108 lbs. = 25 84 = 86-70 1-lljr X 1- 6 x 1-8 = 5-140 = 104 lbs. = 20 23 = 110-70 Mean 5276 23'41 = 97-14 A heaped Bushel of 4Yheat=60 lbs. per foot cube, and 48-13 cube feet in a ton. A ditto of Barley=47 ! to 50 lbs. A ditto of Oats=38 to 40 lbs. A ditto of Coal=88 to 94 lbs. Weight of Water 1 quart of -water 4 quarts = 1 gallon 2 gallons = 1 peck 4 ditto = 69-3185 cubic inches = 24 lbs. weight. = 277-274 cubic inches =r 1 d lbs. "weight. = 554-548 cubic inches — 20 lbs. weight. = 1 bushel = 221S-192 cubic inches — 80 lbs. weight. Sea water, 1 cubic foot = 64 lbs. ; 35 cubic feet = 1 ton. A cubic metre of water is equal in volume to 35-3174 feet English or to 220-0967 imp. gallons. As it is nearly equivalent to the old English tun of four hogsheads, holding 35-248 cubic feet, and as it has been for some time in use on the Continent for measuring sewage and water supply, It is now employed for the same purpose in England. Weights of a Sash. Two weights, one on each side of a sash, by which the sash is sus- pended and kept in the situation to which it is raised hy means of cords, passing ( over pulleys. The vertical sides of the sash frames are generally made hollow- in order to receive the weights, which, by this means, are entirely concealed. Thus, to keep the sash in suspension, each weight must be half the weight of the sash. The cords should he of the bestquality, or they soon fret to pieces. Wire sash line, leather eash line, and copper sash chains, are late inventions to supersede the hempen cords. 1390 GLOSSARY. Welch Groin. A groin formed by the intersection of two cylindrical Vaults, one of which is of less height than the other. Also called an underfitch groin. Welding. The union.of two pieces of iron by heating and hammering them. It requires great care that the joint shall be of the same strength as the remainder of the metal. Malleable cast iron does not weld. In all but the very thinnest castings, although the surface has been converted into a malleable form, there remains an inner core which at the temperature required for welding falls to pieces immediately the object is struck with the hammer. Good specimens may be bent double when cold, although they will probably break if bent back again. The metal can also be forged to a limited extent at a moderate red heat, although if heated above this point it falls to pieces under the hammer. It may be burnt together at a temperature approaching fusion, or may be brazed with hard solder to either tren or steel. See Soldering and Brazing. The cheapening of oxygen by Brin’s process of manufacture caused Mr. Tlios. Fletcher, of Warrington, to make some experiments with the compressed oxygen and eo. il gas, whereby with a half-inch gas supply a joint could be brazed in a 2-ineh wrought iron pipe in about one minute, the heat being very short, the redness not extending over one inch on each side of the joints. Welding is not possible with ordinary coal gas and air, owing to magnetic oxide on the surfaces. As a good weld was obtained on an iron wire | inch diameter, with an air jet about jL inch diameter, the matter should be taken up and tried further (January 1888). Well. A deep circular pit, or sort of shaft, sunk by digging down through the different strata or beds of earthy or other materials of the soil, so as to form an excavation for the purpose of containing the water of some spring or internal reservoir, by which it may be supplied. Well-hole. In a flight of stairs, the space left in the middle beyond the ends of the steps. Wheel. (Sax.) In mechanics, an engine consisting of a circular body turning on an axis, fur enablmg a given power to move or overcome a given weight or resistance. This machine may be referred to the lever. Wheelbarrow. An implement for carrying bricks, soil, &e. from one place to another, which has a wheel attached in front of a box-like carriage, to which two handles are affixed behind ; by these the man raises the box, pushing it forward on the wheel. Wheel Window. See Catherine Wheel Window. Whetstone. A stone of fine quality by which tools for cutting wood are brought to a fine edge, after being ground upon a gritstone, or grinding-stone, to a rough edge. Whinstone. The name by which the marl of the lower greensand is distinguished in Western Sussex ; probably of Saxon origin, remarks Dr. Mantell. White Lead. A material forming the basis of most colours in house-painting. Th9 common method of making it is by rolling up thin leaden plates spirally, so as to leave the space of about an inch between each coil. These are placed vertically in earthen pots, at the bottom of which is some good vinegar. The pots are covered, and ex- posed for a length of time to a gentle heat in a sandbath, or by bedding them in dung. The vapour of the vinegar, assisted by the tendency of lead to combine with the oxygen which is present, corrodes the lead, and converts the external portion into a white substance which comes off in flakes. These are washed and dried in stoves in lumps, and form the white lead of the painters. It is much improved in quality by keeping. Wicket. A small door made in a gate. Wind-beam. An obsolete name for a Collar-Beam. The term is now applied to a piece of wood laid diagonally under the rafters of a long roof, from the foot of one truss to the head of another to strut them, so as to prevent the roof racking with the wind. Winders. The steps in a stircase which radiate from a centre, and are therefore nar- rower at one end than another. Wind-Guard. One of the many names given to inventions professing to cure a down draught or a smoky chimney. Amongst these are reckoned Boyle’s patent chimney cowl, “ a most effectual cure ” for either a sluggish chimney or a blow-down. Milhurn’s patent noiseless chimney cowl has all the fittings made of copper and brass, and will last for a long time, is easily swept, and the oil box only requires refilling every six years. Banner advertises a “ Wessex chimney cowl” as most efficient. “Day’s Windguard,” and the “ Prince ” chimney pot for preventing down-blow, are manufac- tured by Ewart and Son. Hammond’s patent glazed stoneware chimney terminal is reasonable, and stated to ensure ‘‘a perfect cure,” Winding. The same as casting or warping. GLOSSARY. 1391 Windlass or Windlacb. A machine for raising weights, in which a rope or chain is wound about a cylindrical body moved by levers; also a handle by which anything is turned. Window. An aperture in a wall for the transmission of light. See Bull’s-eye; Sky- light; Lantern light; Venetian Window'. Window Tracery. Tho ornamental stonework in the heads of windows in mediieval architecture. The earlier windows during the early English or First Pointed period of mediaeval architecture, wore as a rule very narrow {fig. 1163) and without a dripstone. Later on, however, a dripstone, or perhaps more correctly, a hood mould, was used, which was often continued on from window to window {Jig. 1465). As the style advanced, these narrow pointed openings were placed in couplets or triplets, the centre one being highest {Jig. 1466) ; and the first approach to window tracery was developed by tho piercing of the wall above the couplets with a circular or lozenge shaped opening {fig. 1467). The next step in the development of the traceried window was the grouping together of two or three of these lancet windows and enclosing them under a label or arch {fig. 1468). The triplet window, however, contributed much less to the development of Gothia tracery than the couplet, as there was no necessity for the circular opening to fill up the spaces between tlie tops of the windows and the enclosing arch, as that space was already occupied by the central light {fig. 1469), which was much taller than the others. The combination of couplets with a circular opening between the tops is therefore the fundamental principle of a Gothic window, and the result produced thereby was the earliest form of Elate tracery (fig. 1470). The east window of Lincoln Cathedral (shown in the illustration fig. 1472), which is perhaps the largest one in existence belong- ing to this style, consists of two large pointed compartments, each of which is divided into four smaller compartments or lights, called hays or days, placed in couplets with foliated circles between their heads. These couplets have also larger foliated circles between their heads, and in the spandril between the heads of the two large compartments isa large circle enclosing seven smaller foliated circles, one being in the centre and six sur- rounding it. Themullions or divisions between the lights are fronted by slender shafts with floriated capitals. This window exhibits the transitional progress of tracery from the Early English to the Geometrical Decorated period. Fig. 1472. Outline of East Window, Lincoln. In the perfect form of tracery which was developed during the Decorated period, the slips of wall between the narrow- windows became reduced into mullions or upright bars of stone dividing the lights, while the tracery of the upper part of the window, of the same thickness as the mullions, consists of perfect geometrical forms resting upon the arches of the lights, the spandrils between which are pierced, and all combined or enclosed 1392 GLOSSARY. under one arch. A common form in earlier examples consists of three lights of equal height (fig. 1473), the head of the window containing three circles placed pyramidally, the insides of which are trefoiled. But as already seen, the form which served most to develope thetraceried window was the couplet with a circle above, combinations of which are shown in the accompanying diagrams (figs. 1474, 1 475). The windows of the nave of Kxeter Cathedral are for the most part pure specimens of this style ; although they are all perfectly uniform with each other, no two are alike on the same side. The ogival forms introduced into the tracery, in the next period, instead of circles, trefoils, etc., caused the mullions instead of terminating with the arch of the lights, to be continued upwards in intermingling, wavy, or flowing lines to the top of the window (figs. 1476, 1477), melting as it were finally into the mouldings of the window arch, and forming by their intersections elongated and pear-shaped apertures, which are usually foliated or cusped. The introduction of the ogee arch (fig. 1477) formed anewprinciple identical with the Flamboyant period in France, of which there are many examples in Eugland. The Perpendicular or Rectilinear period succeeded, as it was found that the extension up- wards could be effected by vertical lines as well as by flowing or curved ones, and with much greater ease (fig. 1478). The. mullions are continued upwards to the head of the windows so as to form perpendicular divisions, which are again divided into com- partments by horizontal transoms, and are trefoiled or cinquefoiled at top. These transoms were necessary to prevent the tall mullions from being pressed out of their verticality by the weight of the masonry above. They at last presented the appearance of being a huge screen of open panelled stonework. (See figs. s. v. nave.) The Pointed arch became flatter, and at last, in the case of small windows, became quite straight, the tracery finishing against the head. Wine Cellar. The apartment, generally placed on the basement story, between front and back rooms, or else formed underground, for stowing wine. The most important point in its construction is its being kept at a cool equal temperature at all times of tho year. See Binn. Wings of a Building. The side portions of a facade which are subordinate to the prin- cipal and central divisions. A small building attached to the centre or main portion by an arcade or passage, is also called a whig. Wire. A small flexible bar of any sort of metal, elongated by means of a machine called a draw-bench. Wove iron wire is used for the floor of malt kilns ; and the size of four meshes to tho inch is useful to place before openings in a building to prevent the access of flames from a fire opposite. Wire Gauges, Birmingham. These area scale of numbers extensively employed, both in this country and abroad, to designate a set of arbitrary sizes of wire, varying from about half an inch down to the smallest size usually drawn. There is no authorised standard in existence, and a great number of gauges have come into practical use, differing materially from each other. It is a mode of measuring to a great nicety very small thicknesses of metal. The usual marks are 00000 for half an inch, 1 stands for 4L, 3-4 for 11 for 16 for^, 31 for jig, and so up to 36. Wire Cloth. A very fine lattice work of wire used for blinds. Withe. (Sax. ) The partition between two chimney flues in the same stack. Wood. (Sax.) A fibrous material much used in building, and formed into shape by edge tools. It is timber cut up for use by the different trades. See Timber. GLOSSARY. 1393 Wood Bhick. A block of wood cut to the form and size of a brick, and inserted in a wall to which to fasten the works in joinery. Working Drawings. Drawings of a design showing the details, and serving as instruc- tions to the several artificers. Wreathed Column. That which is twisted in tho form of a screw, also very appropri- ately called a contorted column. Wreathed String. The circular portion of a string to a stair where there is a hollow newel. Wrought or Malleable Iron. Iron in its perfect condition, a simply pure iron. Its strength is in general greater or less according to the greater or less purity of the ore or fuel employed in its manufacture. It is distinguished by the property of welding. The proof strength of wrought iron is almost exactly one third of thebreaking load. Wyatt's patent Slating. A mode of slating with thin squared slates, laid on rafters of less elevation than usual and with the breadth of the laps much less ; Imperial slates were used by the architect, James Wyatt, and having their lower edges sawn smooth, the roofing so done has consequently a much neater appearance than common roofing. Wyatt Window. The form so designated in Ireland, is the square-headed Venetian window, or a wide opening divided into three lights. X Xenodochium. (Gr. Eeror, a guest, and Aex®M“‘, to receive.) A name given by the ancients to a building for the reception of strangers. Xystus. (Gr.) In ancient architecture, a spacious portico wherein the athletae exercised themselves during winter. The Romans called, on tho contrary, their kypmthral walks xysti, which walks were by the Greeks called ireptSpopides. Y Yard. A well-known measure of three feet. The term is also applied to a paved area, generally placed at the back of a house. It is also used for the ground belonging to a workshop, as a “ builder’s yard,” etc. A long piece of timber was formerly so called. See Measure. Yellow Pine or Deal. The produce of the Finns sylveslris, or Scotch fir. This is a better and more lasting wood than white deal, which is the produce of the Abies excelsa, or communis, or Norway spruce. Z Zax. A slater’s axe, corrupted into zax. An instrument for cutting slates. Zigzag Moulding. An ornament used in mediaeval architecture of the Norman period. It is the same as chevron and dancette. See Jig. 1381. It is also to be seen in the architecture of Diocletian’s palace at Spalato. Zinc. A metal now much used in building. Zinc White. A paint preferred by some as keeping its colour longer, and being less detri- mental to the workmen’s health. Rut there is difficulty in working it, and a coat or two more than is usual with white lead paint are required to produce a good surface. Zooco, Zoccolo, and Zocle, (Ital.) The same as Socle. Zophorus. (Gr. Zuio, 1667 m?. In spec., 2284 Baths ; supply to, 2223 1 . Material f r, 2223m. Of copper, in spec., 2288a. Of slate, 221 1 q. Marble, in spec., 2284c. Wood framing, in ditto, 2285p. Fittings, &e., complete, in spec., 2288a. For industrial dwellings, 3025. Heating, 22232 ; number of, at Rome ; those of Cara- calla, 234, 235. Of Titus, Diocletian, Agrippa, Nero, and Domitian, ib. Highly decorated with painting and sculpture, 237. Those of Agrippa, ib. None erected after the removal of the empire, 238. Of Titus, paintings in, 239. Of Caracalla, 241, 282. Of Diocletian, 264, 2547. Of Nero, 240 Battening of walls ; in spec., 2285a. How measured, 2338 Battens in slating, 22105 Battista, Giovanni ; architect, 370 Battlements, p. 983, p. 984 Bauer, Johann ; architect, 579, 580 Bay window, 427 INDEX. 1399 BAY JBaveux ; cathedral, 540, 545. Set out with the perch, p. 1057. New works at cathedral, 16664. I'orch, 534. Spires p. 1000 Beacons to towers, p. 1002 Bead and butt, 2131. And double quirk, 2127. And flush, 2131. In cement, 2287 Beaded brick for garden walls, 1831c Bead or baguette, 2532 Beam, use of the word, 1628c. Best propor- tion of, 1628«. Supporting two weights, 16292. To obtain bread h and depth, 1630a, 16305. Cut in to various depths, strength of, 1630(1 tilling to roofs, 2211m. In spec., 2282a Beams and pillars, 1593 — 1682a. Woods used for, 1593 — 1595. Weights of wood in the same tree, 1597. Timber, experiments on, 1598 et seq. Cohesive force of timber iu directi' n of its h ngth, 1598. Strength of wood in an upright position, 1600 — 1602. Horizontal pieces of timber, 1603 — 1608. Strength of timbers in an inclined position, 1628. For classes of buildings, 16z8 d. Strains, 1628c. Transverse strain, 1628^. Shapes, 1628/a Various laws, 1628s. Transverse sections, 1628r. Condition of Breaking weight, 1629^. Tension, 1630c. Neutral axis, ib. Deflection, 1630e. Modu- lus of elasticity, 163Ci. Impact or Col- lision, lOSOo. Tensile Strength, 1630/). Cohesive power, 1630c. Compression, 1630a>. Pillars, 1630(0. Stancheons and Struts, 1631i. Detrusion or Shearing, 1631«. Torsion, 1631a-. Working strength of materials, 1632. Table of strength of various timbers, 1632a. Bearers ; in spec., 22855 Beart’s pierced bricks, 1831 f Beaulieu palace, Hampshire, 426 Beaumaris, Isle of Anglesey ; castle, 402 Beaumont’s heating system, 2279e Beau [ire, Gloucestershire ; castle, 452 Beauty in architecture ; partly from suitable forms, 2495. Source of, 2492 et seq. In mediaeval architecture, p. 964 et seq. Beauvais ; cathedral, 541, 549. Apse, p. 1007. Rose window of south transept, p. 1034. Church of St. Etienne, lintel to north door, 19255 Bee, Normandy ; abbey, 310 Beckford, William ; house for, 528 Bed ; of a slate, 2210. Of a stone, 1922 Bedding; stones in brickwork, 1890. Of stones, 1667a. Slates in mortar, 2210. Timbers, in spec., 2282a Beddington, Surrey ; hall roof, 2052< Bedford, Bedfordshire ; castle, 394 , duke of ; house for, 440, 524 Bedroom for a poor man, 3014 Beech, 1701 Beejapore, 1499o, 1499/) Beer stone, 1666 Beeston, Cheshire ; castle, 391 , 398 Beffroi ; of Belgium, 561. At Tournai, ib. Ghent, ib. Ypres, ib. Bruges, ib. Lierre, ib. Nieuport, ib. Alost, ib. Beja ; castle, 601 Belem ; fort of San Vicente, and monastic buildings, 607 Belfry at Zaragoza, 598 Belgian sheet glass, 1874 Belgium ; Pointed architecture in, 553 et seq. Beffroi of. 561. Marbles of, 1679 BIR Bell ; introduced, 390. Common and electrio 2262a. Metal, 1791 - — - Rock lighthouse, 1671e towers, p. 1001 et seq. trap, 222098 Carisbrook, Isle of Wight; castle, 398 Carita, La ; convent of Venice, 354 Carlisle, Cumberland ; cathedral, 406. Foun- ders and dimensions, 434. Proportion of, p. 1012. Window, 1502c Carlow, in Ireland ; Bruen Testimonial church, p. 966 Carlton house, London, 524 Carnac, Brittany ; remains of Druidica! monument, 14, 40 Carnak, Egypt ; temple, 73, 77, 81 Carpenter’s boast, 2041. Tools of the car penter, 2003 Carpenter’s work ; in spec., 2285. Wages, 315. Measurement of, 2330 — 2365 Carpentry, 2003 et seq. System in use among- the Chinese, 102 Carpintero, Macias ; architect, 597 Carr, John ; architect, 514 Carrara marble, 16667, 1677 — 1677c, 2002 /i/j C arreno, Fernando de ; architect, 596 Carriage of stairs, 2026 Carron grate, 2279 d Carrying up work, 1223, 1925a Carson’s anti-corrosion paint, 2273a Cart, Pieter ; architect, 365 INDEX. 1403 CAR Carter, Edward ; architect, 319, 4G4 Carthusian nunnery at Mirntiores, 590 Cartmell, Lancashire ; choir, 398 Carton pierre ; enrichments, 2251 Carving ; in Italy, COO. Wood carving, 2124c Caryatides, 85. Account of their origin, 105. Used in other than the classic styles of architecture, 100. Probable origin, 108 Caryatides and Persians, 2082 et seq. By Jean Gougeon, 2083, 2093. Those designed for Whitehall, 2085. Bv Michel Angelo, 2087, 2088, 2691 By Biffi, at Milan, 2689. By Quellinus, at Amsterdam, 2090. At the Louvre, 2093. P rom the arch of the Gold- smiths at Rome, 2094 Case hardening, 1771 Casement ; moulding, 2532, p. 970 frames ; in spec., 2285 d in lendwork, 2227. Wrought iron, 2255 d. Hopper, in spec , 2280a Casing, to protect stone dressings ; in spec., 2285. P'or pipes, in spec., 22854 Cast iron, 1704, 1705 et seq. Strength, 1630/-. Experiments on, 1628 /h. Breaking weight in the middle, 1029t. To fracture it, 2223«\ Columns, 2255. Cast lead, 1783 et seq. Steel, 1773 Castel San Angelo, Rome, 250 Castella, of aqueducts, 225 Castellnmare castle, 025 Castings ; in iron, 2265c, 22G5y. Testing, 22054 Castle Coote, in Ireland, 528 Rushen, Isle of Man, 1681 Abbey, Northamptonshire, 425 Howard, Yorkshire, 494 Rising, Norfolk ; church, 398. Castle, ib. Castles encouraged by William I., 393. By William II. ib. Description and list, 394. Gateway, 410. Of Benevento, Penatiel, and Tordesiilas, 128. At Beja, 001. At P'reixo, ib. At Almeida, 603. At Ourem, ib. Obidos, ib. At Bracciano, 024. At Andria, Castellamare and Teano, 025. At Arrayolos, 003. At Estremos, ib. Castletown, Derbyshire ; castle, 391 1 Castor, Norfolk ; castle, 391 Castor and Pollux ; temple at Agrigentum, p. 946 ; at Rome, 208, 262 Catalonian forge, 1702 Catenarian curve, contained in walls of Gothic buildings, 1583/", p. 1047 Cathedrals, English ; Publications on, 434. Having parts of Norman erection, 396. Devoid of symmetry, p. 1006. Proportion, p. 1013 — p. 1015 Catledge, Cambridgeshire ; house, 440 Caudebec, Normandy ; houses, 539. Sacristy of church, 546. Lady chapel, 149946, 2002a, 2002a’, p. 1053 Caumont, M. de ; his division of French styles. 537 Cavseilium of a Roman house, 246 Caves; of Ellora, 56. Of Indra Subba, ib. Cavetto, Mouth, or Hollow ; ornament, 2532. In Norman architecture, 397 Cavil or stone axe, 1913 Cawston, Norfolk ; church window, 990 Cecil, William, Lord Burleigh ; house for, 440 Sir Thomas ; house at Wimbledon, 440 C Cedar, 1705; or deal doors, 2145c. From Florida, 1727d CHA Ceiling joists, 2019 — 2022 Ceilings; 2815 et seq. Timber framing the type for firming panels in, 2810. Coves to, ib. Examples of ornaments for, ib. Exam- ples of subdivisions, 2817, 2818. Cornices to, proportions of, 2819. Of wood in medi- aeval period, 2023a. And decorated, ib. Finishings to ; in spec., 2287, 2290. In plastering, how set, 2246. Ribbed ; how measured, 2339. Divided in wood, in spec., 2285c Celia domestica et familiarica of a Roman house, 253 Cellar, arch ; in spec., 2282a. Doors ; in spec., 2284e. To chimneys, 2255 Craigleith stone ; analysis, &c., 1000 Crail church, Fifcshire, p. 1 003. Cramps and dowels, 1195, 1857, 2224, 2255. In spec., 228L1, 2286. For hollow walls, 1902c. To ashlar work, 19257. In a spire, p. 1004 Crate of glass, 1871a Creasote, or oil of tar, 1752«, 1752c Creesing ; in spec., 2282a Cremona ; cathedral, 0 1 3 Crennels ; of a castle, 391 Cresting; to thatched roofs, 2211s Cresy, Edward ; architect, on proportion, p. 1015 Creuilly stone, 1000m, lOGOo. In spires, p. 1005 Crewe hall, Cheshire ; scagliolu floors, 22506 Croce, Francesco ; architect, 021 Croisiie d'Ogive, 1499c Cromlechs, 23. On the Malabar coast, ib. Cross ; church designed on that form, 2870, p. 1000. See “ Church ” Cross garnet hinge, 2258a Crossettcs or joggles, 1925e et seq. Crow, iron; bricklayer’s, 1890 Crown Assurance Company’s office, lGGOe Crown glass, 1808a, 1870a, 1871. Steeples, p. 1002. Or plain tiles, 1835 Croxton ; church roof, 20522 Croydon, Surrey ; palace ball roof, 20522. Railway station roof, 2043 Croyland, Lincolnshire ; monastery. 312,319. Expenses for building ; how raised, 392. Conventual church, 421. Bridge, 419 Cruciform plan ; for a church, p. 1006 Crusades of the twelfth century, 310 Crushing weight of several materials, 1500, 1502. Of timber pillars, 1630a; et seq. Of iron pillars, 1030y Crystal Palace, 1851, at London ; proportion of, p. 1 062 et seq. At Sydenham ; proportion of, 16716, 1728 d, p. 1057, p. 1005 Crystal white sheet glass, 1874 Ctesiphon ; palace, 305 Cube ; in proportion, p. 1000, p. 1057 Cubes, &c. ; Tables of, 2297p, 22976. Of materials ; in testing, 1502d, 1502m Cubic feet of air in wards, 2975c. In rooms, 3032. See Glossary ! Cubiculum of a Roman house, 253 1 Cubing dimensions, 2297e, 2297 f. Tables of, p. 780 — 787 Cuenija ; cathedral, 308. Dominican church of S. Pablo, 698 Cues ; hospital church, 579 Cuise ; church of St. Martin, 534 Cul de Four, 1995 Cundv’s ventilating stoves, 2279 d Cunci of the Roman theatre, 226 Cuci or Cunco ; church of San Francesco, G13 Cupboard fronts ; in spec., 2285p. Lock, 2201 Cupola; in Belgium, 555. See “Dome” Curb for circular windows , to form, 2005. F’or story posts, in spec., 2281c. For sky- light, in spec., 2285e or Mansard roof, 2035 Current ; in plumbery, 2213 Currev, Henry ; architect, 2975e Curtail step, 2186, 2190 — 2192 Curtain ; at theatres, 29716 Curved ribs; in spec., 2285a Cushion capital, p. 977 Cusp ; broken-backed, p. 990 Cusped ogee arch ; to draw, 19I3i Cutters ; species of bricks, 1821 Cutting knives; plumber’s, 2212 Cyanite paint, 2273 j Cyclopean buildings ; four eras of, according to Mr. Hamilton, 32 Cyclopes, the seven ; Bryant’s opinion on 31 Cylinders; deflection of, 10-06. Strength of, 1030y. In foundations, 1885a Cylindrical tubes for beams, 1629a surfaces ; to form in joinery, 2198, 2205 Cyma, Cyma recta, or Cymatium, 2129, 2532 D ADO ; in spec., 22856. How measured, 2350 Daines’s process, 1067m Dairy and fittings ; in spec., 2284c Dais, 394 Dallaway, Rev. James ; writer on architec- ture, p 1055 Damascus ; houses, how built, 131. Mosque, 30G Damp ; cause of decay in timber, 1740, 1750 Walls, 2251 y. Paint for, 2273p. Drying, 22502 Damp-proof courses, 18805 et seq. Tn spec., 2282, 2284 Dance, George, sen. ; architect, 313, 521 George, R A., jun. ; architect, 523 Danckers de Ry, Cornelis ; architect, 2940 Dantzic timber, 1729/ Danvers, Sir John ; house for, 440 Darbishire, H. A. ; architect ; model dwell- ings by, 3026 Darby, lady ; a London house for, 440 Darley Dale stone ; analysis, &c., 1666 Darmstadt ; theatre, 2972 Dartington, Derbyshire ; Manor house, porch, p. 999 David I., king of Scotland ; his zeal in erect- ing religious buildings, 392 Davison and Symington’s process of drying timber, 1749a. Furnace, 227 9/" Dawnay’s fireproof floor, 1903a Day, length of; longest in different countries of Europe, 1030 Daywork; materials and labour, how charged in, 2322 — 23-9. Bricklayer’s, 1901 Dead lock, 226 1 Deal, 1710. Sizes of, 2125c. Standard of, 1729. How to reduce, 2303. Table of values of, 2364 — 2365. Battens, 2362. Left plain, in spec., 2290 Decagon ; to form, 1021 Decay of stone, 1640, 16606, 1607 et seq. Of timber, 1745 et seq. Decomposition of granite, 1670a Decorated Gothic ; or ornamented English architecture, 410, p. 967. Characteristics of, 420. Proportion in, p. 1017. Mouldings, 1408 INDEX. DEC p. 973. Piers, p. 976 Capitals, p. 978. P>ase, p. 979. Ribs, p. 980. Hoodmoulds, p. 982. Plinths, p. 982. Parapet, p. 983. Wood mouldings, p. 985. Windows, p. 989. Win- dow jambs, p. 982. Doorways, p. 997. Porches, p. 998. Towers, p. 100 L Decoration, 2513. Arises from desire of va- riety, 2515. Analogy in, 2517, 2518. Alle- gory in, 2520. Example-, 2521, 2522. Gothic, p. 994. Or sculpture at Amiens cathedra', p. 1002 Decorative work in tints, 22517 ■ appliances, 2277* Deflection ; of a beam, 1628c, 1630e. Of pil- lars, 1628e, 1630ic. Correction of formula, 1630a Delhi ; mosque of Kootub, 306 Delorme, Pnilibert ; architect, 357, 358. Ilis work translated into English, 438. His mode of framing domes, 2052 Delphi ; temple of, 136 Delta metal, 1791a Denbigh castle, Denbighshire, 398 Denderah, 71 Denham, Sir John ; architect, 319 Denmark ; buildings erected by Inigo Jones, 456 Denmtt arch, 1903r7 Dentils, centres of, 2612 Derby ; All Saints’ church, p. 1002. Lunatic asylum, 2278 y lady ; house for, 440 plasterer’s, described, 2242 Derbyshire marbles, 1681a et seq. Derick, John ; architect, p. 966 Desach 3 T ’s fibrous plaster, 2251 Descriptive geometry, 1110 — 1211 Design ; see “Architectural Design.” Method in proceeding to make one, 24906 Detrusion, lG28e, 1631«. Of stone, 1602o Devisor. 312, 319 Devonshire granite, 1669. Marbles, 1502//, 1681c house, Piccadilly, 2994 Diagannatba ; temple at Ellora, 56 Diagonal braced roof, 2052tf, 2052/7 of a square ; system of proportion, p. 1017 Diamond ; glazier’s, 2226 Diaper work ; in plaster, 585. To walls, 302 Diaphragm ventilator, 2278r Diarbekr ; palace of Tigranes, 305 Diastvle intercolunmiation, 2605, 2609, 2611 Dickenson, Barnard ; house for, 528 Die of a pedestal, 2603 Dieppe ; church of St. Jacques, 547 Die.-t; church of the Be'guinage, 558. Of St. Sulpice, 558 Dig out ; in spec., 2281 Dijon; cathedral, 540. Church of St. Benigne, 289. Palace, 548 Dilapidations, p. 1098 Dimensions; squaring and cubing, 2297 Diminution of columns, 2543 et seq. Vignola’s method, 2545. Blondel’s method, 2546. In ancient examples, 2547. According to their height, 2548 Dinant; church of Notre Dame, 567 Dinkelsbuehl ; church of St. George, 580 Diocletian, emperor ; desirous of reviving the art, 198. His palace at Spalatroor Spalato,76. Dionysiaca of the Greeks, 172 Dioscuri ; temple of, at Rome, 208, 262 Director, 312, 319 Discharge of air through a tube, 2278 c, 2278 p DOR Disconnector to drains, 2220 i Dishing out the beds, 1925a Dispersion of mankind from a central spot 11—14, 21 Distemper, 2274 et seq. Painting, 2274c/. In spec., 2290 Distribution of plan, 2489 Di triglyph, 2611 Djenonasia, temple of ; at Ellora, 56 Dockyards ; graving docks, 16716 Dodecagon ; to form, 1022 Dog-legged staircase, and mode of forming, 2182 Dome ; pointed, 533. Construction of, 1499/;. Not an arch, 1499 /j. Stability of, 1499c/. Mode of framing, by Delorme, 2052. Cir- cular and polygonal, to determine ribs of, 2064. To cover with boards, 2070 — 2073. Construction of, in timber, 2089. How to regulate caissons in, 2837. Lead to ; in spec., 2288. Vaulting, in masonry, 1956 et seq. of Pantheon, p. 958. Of St, Paul’s, London, 2049 Domestic architecture, 539, 545. Of the Ro- mans, 242 — 255. Gothic, 2489. Of t he Tudor period, 423 — 425. In Belgium, 564. In Germany, 582. In Spain. 585. In Italy, 613. In Sicily, 626. At San Gimignano, 622. At Venice, 76. At Aquila, Popoli, and Solmone, 625. Porch in, p. 999 Domical covering, 535 Domingues, Alonso ; architect, 604 Dominican church, 545. At Burgos, 595. At Valladolid, 596. At Salamanca, 598. At Cuenga, 598. At Monza, 624. At Ratisbon, 569. At Palma, 586. At Ghent, 557. At Louvain, 76. At Antwerp, 76., 560 monastery at Guimaraens, 603. At Bntalha, 604. At Amarante, 607 Domma, temple of ; at Ellora, 56 Doncaster, Yorkshire ; parochial church, 421 Door cases, etc. ; in spec., 2285c. Linings, in spec., 2285c chains and barrels, 2263 Doors ; described as variously moulded, 2130 — 2144. In spec., 2285e, 22rl5 f et seq., 2293c. Of the mediaeval period, 2145a. and frames of wrought iron ; sizes of, 2255e. In spec., 2286. Fireproof, 2970a, 29716 Doorways ; profiles of, 2729 et seq. Con- sidered in respect of masses and voids, 2730. Dimensions, 2731. Places and numbers, 2732. Decorations, 2733. Gates and piers, 2734. Of St. Peter’s Baptistery at Florence, and San Giovanni Laterano, 2735. Manu- facture of, 2736. Examples of doorways, 2737 — 2739. At the Caucellaria, 2739. By Michael Angelo, 2740. By Vignola, 2741. By Cigoli, 2742. By Inigo Jones, 2743. By Serlio, 2744. Gothic, p. 997 et seq. Divided by a post, 553 Dorbay, Frangois ; architect, 357 Dorian architecture, p. 912 Doric arcade, 2623. With pedestal, 2629 order, Grecian. Relative antiquity of examples determined from intervals between the columns, &c., 140. Dorus, imagined inventor of, 140 — 142. Table of examples of, 142. First used in Paris hv Antoine, 360. Used in Germany by Langbans, 366. In the Parthenon, 2570. Table of its parts, 76. Principal buildings of, 2572. Propor- tions, p. 948 et seq. INDEX. 1409 DOR ECO Doric order ; Roman, 258. Of the theatre of Marcellus, ib. At baths of Dioclesian, ib. order; of the Italian architects, 258. Vignola’s commended by Daviler, 2851. Mutular Doric on larger scale, 2582. Table of heights and projections, ib. Difficulties in arranging entablature. 2563. How em- ployed by the ancients, 2564. Denticular Doric, and parts of, on larger scale, 2565. Table of heights and projections, ib. Vi- truvius’s profile, 2566. Palladio’s profile, 2567. Serlio’s profile, 2568. Scamozzi’s profile, 2569. Intercolumniations, 2605 • temples ; general proportions of plan ex- amined, 152. At Corinth, early specimens, 146. At Selinuntum, p. 943 et seq. Dorking lime, 1843 Dormers ; in spec., 2285a. Lead to ; in spec., 2288 Dormitory ; of an infirmary, 29765 Dorrell, Sir Thomas ; house for, 440 Dorsett and Blythe’s patent for preparing timber, 17526 Dortmund ; church of St. Reinold, 579 Dotzinger, Iodoque ; master of the works at Strassburg, 322a Double bead, 2128 floor, 2019. Framed flooring, 2013, 2020, 2021 — — glazing to partitions, 2231. Windows, 3037 Doulton’s smoke and air flue, 2278/! Joint for pipe drain, 1888a. Fireproof floor, 19035 Douvres ; church spire, p. 1000 Dover castle, Kent, 391, 393, 394 Dovetailed backing to grounds, 2166 Dowel, 1495, p. 990. Of wood in columns, 1925a. In spec., 2284rf Dowelled floors, 2171 — 2173 Dowelling in a spire, p. 1004 Dozen of paper, 2277e Drag ; mason’s tool, 1915a Dragon beam, 2009 Drainage ; of foundations, 1887. Of land, 1888e. Of dwellings, 3022, 3026. In spec., 2282a Drains, 1887, 1888a et seq. Combined and separate systems, 1888/. Special recom- mendations, 1888r, 1888s Drake & Co.’s concrete construction, 1903a: Drammen deals, &c., 1729 d Drawback lock, 2261 Drawer handles, 2263 Drawing ; in general, 2381. As anplied to landscapes, 2404. Methods of teaching, 2383 et seq. Method of Dupuis, 2385. An- cient method, 2387 et seq. ■ knife; joiner’s, 2114 Drawings, 2491. Necessary in composition, 2490a et seq. In making a design, how to proceed, 14906. Ought not to be coloured nor highly finished in shadow, 2490c. Of caissons in vaulting, 2002a. Of horizontal and vertical combinations, 2839 et seq. By interaxal divisions, 2842. Prevention of false bearings, 2843. Working, 2491, p. 1008 Dresden ; theatre, 2972 Dresser ; in spec., 2285c. Top, in spec., 2285y Dressing and flatting tool ; plumber’s, 22 l2 Dressings to doors and windows, in spec., 22846 Driers, and drying oil, 2275 Drilling holes for rivets, 1631* Drips ; in flats and gutters, 2214 Droving; in masonry, 1914 Druidical and Celtic building; introduced into Britain by the Canaanites of Tyre and Sidon, 14 Druids of the British Isles ; a colony of the first race of people, 11 Drums of columns ; to work, 1925a Drury Lane theatre, London, 524, 2958. Wyatt’s principles in constructing, 2957. Drury Lane in olden times, 2967. Old roof, 2048 Dry area or drain, 1886a. In spec., 2282a Dryburgh ; abbey, 431 Drying oil, 2274. Timber, 1749a. Damp walls, 2250i Dry rot ; cure of, 1753 soil closet, 2218a Dublin ; custom house, &c., 526. Houses of Parliament, ib. Four courts, ib. Carlisle Bridge, ib. Inns of Court, ib. Royal Ex- change, ib. Du Cerceau, Jacques Androuet ; architect, 357 Ducv ; church spire, p. 1000 Dumfries stone, 1666z Dung pit ; in spec., 2282c. Iron coping to, in spec., 2286a Dungeon of a castle, 394 Duodecimals ; to use, 2297a et seq. Durand’s Paralle'e des Edifices, noticed in several pages Duresco, 2274c Durham ; castle, 394, 398, 414. Cathedral, 406. Founders and dimensions of, 434. Vaulting, 1499-r. Kitchen, 149966. Pro- portion of churches in county, p. 1012 Dust bin, 1907d. In spec., 2282c destructor, 1907e Duster ; glazier’s, 2226 Dutch clinker, 1828, 1905c. Terras, 1859e Dwarf closets ; in spec., 2285g Dwellings for industrial classes, 3012 I JARL’S Barton, Northamptonshire; tower J at, 398 Early English architecture, 399 et seq., p. 967, Characteristics of, in arches, trefoil and cinquefoil heads, columns, windows, roofs, walls, ornaments, and plans, 405. Exam- ples, 406. Proportion in, p. 1017, p. 1023. Mouldings, p. 972. Piers, p. 976. Capitals, p. 977. Base, p. 979. Ribs, p. 980. Hood moulds, p. 981. Plinths, p. 982. Parapet, p. 983. Wood mouldings, p. 985. Windows, p.988. Window jambs, p. 992. Doorways, p. 997. Porches, p. 998. Towers, p. 1001 Earth closet, 2222 slope of, 1585 table, p. 980 Earthenware; glazed, 1839rjr. Pipes 1888a East Barsham hall, Norfolk ; porch, p. 999 end ; forms of, p. 1006 India house, Leadenhall street, 524 Eastbury house, Essex ; porch, 1908a, p. 999 house, Dorsetshire, 495 Eastwell house, Kent, 525 Eaves gutter ; of wood, in spec., 2286a. Of lead, in spec., 2287. Of zinc, in spec., 2294 Ecclesiastical dilapidations, p. 1098 Echinus, or quarter round, 2532 Ecole de Me'decine, Paris, 363.- Des Beaux Arts, at Bruges, 563 4 X 1410 INDEX. ECO Economiser grate, 2279 d Ecouen ; chateau, 357. Church, 549 Edfoo, near Thebes ; temple at, 77 Editar the Peaceable, king ; his care of the Anglo-Saxon buildings, 386 Edge roll moulding, I4ddgg, p. 972 Edinburgh ; St. Giles’s church spire, p. 1002. High church, 485 Edlingham, Northumberland; castle, joggled works at, 1925e Edmundsbury. See “Bury St. Edmund's” Eecken, Jan ver der ; architect, 559 Efflorescence, 1667c, 1667m Egas, Henrique de ; architect, 598 Egina ; temple, p. 943, p. 945 Egl, Andreas ; architect, 576 Egypt; architecture of, 9. Earlier than Greek architecture, 10. Its analysis and develop- ment, 70 et seq. Considered in respect of style, taste, and character, 76 et seq., 84 et seq. Temples and tombs; t e principal works in it, 67. Form and disposition of temple, 76. Monotonous, 88. Physical causes which affect it. 63 et seq. No cir- cular temple in it, 69. Principal edilices and map of the Nile, 91 Eheotherrmn ; of the Greek gymnasir.m, 175. Of the Roman baths, 235 Elasticity ; modulus of, 1628e, 1030i. Of timber, 1610 Elbeuf ; tower of St. Jean, 547 Eleanor crosses, p. 1037 Electric appliances, 2264Z et seq. Danger of, 2264m. Systems, 2264«, 2264o. Bells, 2264

    FlOOce, 2002a-, Fancelli, Luca, architect, 323 fancy colours, in painting, 22724 Fanlight frames ; in spec., 22854 Fano; forum, 218 f araday’s ventilation to gas lights, 2978„ To3 n S ’, ^ se * distribution of, 3003. On large scale, 3001 ’ r ascia, brick, in spec., 2282, 2282a fastenings ; iron to joints, 1631p f auces ; of a Roman house, 250, 253 Faustina, temple at Rome, 2547 feather or rib; on a cast-iron beam to be , avoided, 16294 ’ t0 be *’ e . e ®’ t0 pay ; in spec., 2280/1 r eiber, Johann ; architect, 580 ° hmt Felspar ; in granite, 1669 felt; under slating, 22104, 2210c 291 Felt grain ; in wainscot, 21255 fence walls ; in spec., 22825, 2282c fencing, oak ; in spec., 22855 f ernach, Johannes Petrus ; architect n 1 nna Fernandez, Matheos and Son ; architects 605 Ferrey s stamped plastering, 2245a ’ F ^,l“ Arabian cit J i described gene- Fibres ; of iron, 17645 et sea Fibrous plaster, 22465, 2251. Slab, 75., 29714 Asphalte or folt, 22104 ‘ Fiesole ; walls of, 179 F^amras, near Gerona; parochial church, Fi 958-968 n deC ° ration ’ 2519 > 2521 - Similar, Filarete. See “ Averlino, Ant. - ’ nlippo, Maestro ; architect, 367 nllet; listel or annulet, 2129 2539 n q-o Moulded to roofs, 2173a ’ ' P ' 9, °- 4x2 Filleting; to a roof, 22115 To oW .spec., 2283a 10 B)ates > m ’ lic• 2 ^* stone, 15. Household; ib 04 Sdlceou8 fine stuff; plasterer’s, 2236 — - axed, to granite, 1915c finger-plates, 2261 f inishings ; interior, timber for, 1729T F of IT WeIlin Stonia, 1726. 'strength Stone, 166 Goa! linck, 182^1826 cotta, 1908s 1826- Terra- - extincteurs, 29711 ' ™«. n«», 2| J6i Paints, 2273/ 29714 a? f. u,umn9 > 2255. Jo protect gauzes, & c ., 2971^ Theat e 297U Rooms, 2889, 2971a. Floors, 1903 22 ^- *- S?2-Sf • FiwtT’ house for, 440 KtotS"!?’ 567 - H8 > «»■ »»■ At F »f, 2 “"' 2 “ 6 ’ IM3 '- I" tPe«., Flachat, E.; architect, 16665 F ambard, bishop ; as builder, 321 At cC gif V" Fr ““- « 6 ' P- »• Mouldings, p. 974. raMrj ’ m Spain, 591. Flanders ; proportion of churches c 1006 flange ; for box m slate cistern, 2223a To plate girder, 162 9n ’ iii9 ' a0 Flanged beams, 1628g F ashed glass, 22315 flashings ; in plumbery, 2213. In spec 2288 To slate, 22115, 2214 pec ‘> F «cLd r t9035 r T rtiOn ^ r ’ 1925A ’ P'oors 1903a ’ nr Seq ■ T,le roofs in India apec % 2282a “or’ 1 . 903 “ Ti! G in pec., zzeza. oi zmc, m spec 2’94 nr f d 1°- flitches > '629a. P In spec 4 ' 2285a for, 2224e D SPeC ‘’ 2288 ' Wetterst edt metai -- in bouses, 2995 a, 3012 et seq. f lattened sheet glass, 1872 * f latting ; in spec., 2290 Flemish bond, 1892 et seq. I a SDec ooo. Bricks, 1828. Tiles, 18o'8 P ’ ?282 ' f ietcher s warming and cooking 2’79a Fliers ; in stairs, 2186 S ’ Flint work 16664; 19225 et sea n 983 r spec., 22844 ? ’ p> 983> In l!S:;,°n rl ' 0Ugllt ir °n, 2255a. Beams 1629u F htcroft, Henry ; architect, 512 ’ f ioat stone ; bricklayer’s, 1890 ffoated work; plasterer’s, 2242. Quantity, Floor ; under oven or stove, 2279n lloor or floor boards, 2168 et seq. How 1412 INDEX. FLO measured, 2352, 2361. Laying, 2168. Nail- ing, 21735. Varieties, in spec., 2285 6 Floorcloth ; injurious to a floor, 1747 Flooring; 2013 et seq. How measured, 2334. Single, 2014 et seq. Double, 2019. Double- framed, 2020. Framed, 2022. Constructed with short pieces of timber, 2023. Timber for, 1729 f. In spec., 22856. Loads and weights placed on, 1628(7. ‘‘See Boarding ” Floors; arched, in brickwork, 19036 et seq. Fireproof, 1903 1 et seq. Of cement, 1905e. Of concrete, 1093 r et seq. Plain tiles, in cement, 1903e. Of scagliola, 2250/e. Of Parian cement, 22516. Other cements, 2251m et seq. Wood blocks, 2173c. In mediieval period, 2023a. Their ornamen- tation, ib. et seq. Of churches, in spec., 22856. For industrial dwellings, 3016. Florence ; church of Sta Maria del Fiore, 323, 327, 477, 616 ; dome, 1499 /j ; apse, p. 1007. Proportion of campanile, p. 1057. Church of Sta Maria Novella, 616. Of Sta Croce, ib. Choir of church of the Annunziata, 325. Pal. Gondi, cornice, 2725. Pal. Pitti, 325, 329, 331. Pal. Riccardi, 327. Palaces, 358. Pal. Pandolfini, 329, 2725, 2767. Pal. Strozzi, 327, 329; cornice, 2725. Bridge, 313. Walls ; at church of Sta Spirito, 1535, 1551, 1554 ; at San Lorenzo. 1535. 1550, 1554 Florentine school of architecture, 329. Prin- ciples of, 330. Principle churches of, ib. Byzantine architecture traced in works of, 332. Period and principal masters of, 333 Florid English or Tudor style ; its ®ra, &c., 422 et seq. Examples in Scotland, 431. In England, 432 Flowers ; used in decoration, p. 994, p. 995 Flue; 1905a, 19056, 2793. In spec., 2282a. See “ Chimney ” Fluo-silicic acid, 1667y F'lush rings, 2263. Bolt, 2259 Flushing ; 18876, 18886. Tank, 2220 p. See “ Water waste preventer” Fluted sheet glass, 1872d Flntes of columns ; their nature arid probable origin, 145, p. 948 Flying buttresses, p. 1024, p. 1047, p. 1048 Foix, Luigi de ; architect, 371 Folded floor, 2168 Folding doors, 2130. In spec., 2285/ Foliation ; in windows, p. 989 Fontaine le Henri, near Caen ; chateau, 548. Stone, 166666 Fontana, Carlo ; architect, 365 Domenico ; architect, 336, 344 Fonthill, Wiltshire ; abbey, 528 Footings ; of a wall, 1882 et seq., 1916a. Stone, in spec., 22846 Foots Cray, Kent ; villa, 3000 Force of the wind, 1592a et seq., 1667/ Forest of Dean ; stone, 1666e Fork ; thatcher’s, 2211s Formation of bodies by glue in joinery, 2193 —2208 Formeret, 1499u Fortified houses ; in Spain, 586 Fortuna Virilis, at Rome; temple, 212, 261, p. 953, p. 1057 Forum; of the Romans, described, 218. Civilia and Venalia, ib. Of Pompei, 212 Fotheringay, Northamptonshire ; church, as- similating work, p. 968. Spire, p. 1002 Foul air in rooms, 3032 FRO Foundations, 1881 et seq., 19166, 3032. Vi- truvius’s advice on, 1881. Best soils for, 1882, 1883. Their depth, 1884. Spread of, 1581. Use of inverted arches in, 1885. Cylinders in, 1885a. Walls above, should be kept dry, 1886. Drainage of, 1887. In- sufficient, 1502c. In spec., 2281, 2293a. For iron columns, p. 1065 Foundery, 2265 et seq. Work; in spec., 2286. Estimating, 2374 Fountain at Batalha, 605. At Rouen, 548. At Clermont, ib. At Viterbo, 614 Fountains, Yorkshire ; conventual church, 398, 407, p. 971 et seq. Fractures ; in an arch, 1496, 1497 Framed flooring; weight cf, 2022 roofs ; single, 2052m, 2052a. Double, 2052s Frames ; for windows, in spec., 2285/ Framing; of joinery, 2174 — 2175a. Timber for, 1729/ 2125c. Angles in joinery, 2174 et seq. Franc, Juan ; architect, 594 France; oldest buildings in, 289. Marbles of, 1679. Pointed architecture in, 530 et seq. Francis I., of France ; patron of arts 358 Frankenberg; church of St. Mary, 567 Franking sash bars, 2165 Franklin's calorifere stove, 2279c Frascati ; houses, 614 Fratres pontis, 310, 313 Freeholds ; valuation of, p. 1094 Freeman, Edward A.; writer on architecture, p. 965 Freemasons: Company of, 308 et sen., 401, p. 1055, p. 1057 Freemasons’ hall, London, 1681c Freemasonry; histories of, 310, 2629 Free seats ; in sp c., 22856 Freiberg; cathedral, 567, 579. Spire, p. 1005 Freiburg an der Unstrut ; church, 579 Freiburg-im-Breisgau ; mUuster, 570, 579. Apse, p. 1007 Freideberg; church, 572 Freixo d’Espada a Cinta ; walls, towers, castle and church, 601 French architects; attached to Venetian in preference to Roman schools, 358. The first in Europe, 360 French ; building stones, 166666 et seq. Case- ment, 21656 et seq., 2278 m; in spec., 2285d. Mouldings and details, p. 1035. Polishing ; in spec., 2290a. Sashes, 2164, 21656. School of architecture, 357 et seq., p. 1035. Slates, 22116 Fresco painting ; not treated, 22736 Frette-cmbattled ornament, 397 Frette-triangular ornament, 397 Fretwork ; in glazier’s work, 2229a Freudenstadt ; church, 583 Fribourg ; mason’s mark at, 322 Friction, 1331 — 1341. Observations on, 1364 —1389 Frieze ; to cornice, in spec., 2285e. Panels of a door, 2130. Rails of a door, ib. Frigidarium ; of the Greek gymnasium, 175. Of the Roman baths, 235 Frisone, Marco da; architect, 619 Frit; in glass-making, 1868 Frobel, F. ; “zimmerman,” 579 Frog, or hollow of a brick, 15026 Frogmore ; mausoleum, 1671a, 16716, 1671/ 16716, 1680 INDEX. 1413 ^5/2250* ° f ’ ° n lilate > 1808 ‘ 0" a build. I' rver’s refuse destructor, 1907e private’buS5;niVK-2989 t0 Funnels ; of chimneys, 2793 Fuwes, Belgium ; Church of Ste. Walburge, hurness, Lancashire; conventual church 398 Masons’ marks, 32 26. Doorway n 973 Furniture ; inlaying, 2173c. For'lod^ 226 1 For doors, in spec., 2285f ’ ° Furring joints of floors, 2169 Gr A Saddi L Tad C | qUeS At l ge ; arehite <*. 360 of s “ c “ h ”“. « Gallego, Juan ; architect, 596 h uTes’ 440 ig In°n’ , In Elizabethan r nil; ST- / nnave of church, 601 Gal i-Bibmna, Antonio ; architect 2950 Gallo, Fommaso; abbot, 611 ml, 1922n 01 garret : StoBe dipping, Oal ton ventilating stove, 2279 d alvanic action; in metal roofs, 2224 2224 f' Ga van, zing iron, 1780c, 1796 et sen. ’ J Galway marble, 1683c 1 Gamondia, Enrico di ; architect, p. 1008 Gandon, James ; architect, 504, 526 Gankoffen, Joerg ; architect, 579 Garcia, Pedro ; architect, 595 Gargoyle, 553 Garigiiano ; amphitheatre on banks of 29s Garret or gallet; sec “ Gallot ’’ ’ 8 G^; gove^rs, 2264 Lighting buildings, Leakage, 2264/. fires 2’?795 Utionol m% : Dail & er of > 2264 h. VentL fit . ter > 2264 et seq. I n spec., 2293. 9204 lp n 22^3?, 2264a, 22645. Flexible D ^ h '- e ''N Per hour through pipes’ 22b4a. Mode of fixing, 22646 * * ’ - — stoves, 2264/, 2279e G-tses, noxious ; diffusion of, 3032 Gates ; and coachhouse doors in spec 2985c And piers, 2734 1 ’ “ r r si “ |g«. Stull, 2237, 22&T„i ten”; G ’lX;:f 2 f 2 W5 ‘- «»''»>«, 2311. Gault clay, 1831/ Gauthier, M. P. ; architect, 2975 Gayfere, Thomas ; mason, 528 Geber ; architect, 368 Geezeh ; pyramids, 74, 304 General joiner; machine, 21246 Geneve, Simon de ; priest and architect 561 Genius in architecture, 2492 ’ Genoa ; church of San Lorenzo, 319 Genoese Gothic, 608 Geometric forms ; in tracery, p. 995 n loro - — piers, 976 1 ’ p ’ lu -° Geometrical drawings, 2490c principles of proportion, p 1006 tracery in England, p. 968. In Spain, Ge ""\ etri f. 1 staircase, 1927 et sen. In joinery mode of forming, 2184 1 J ler T * J p'‘“ etr ' % 874 sc 9 . Definitions, 875. Right cl es 908- -928 lla s aI f" U1 ' eS ’ 878 — 907. (fir, ues, 9U8— 928. Surfaces, 929—934. Pro- portion 93,-957. Similar figures, 958- J \ anes > 969 — 078. Solids, 979 995 ractieal J96—1032. Descriptive, 1110— S Udied in V f ? p !' 0|,0rtion - P- 1038 et seq. o ncued in England, p. 1037 1 309 rtj “ unk aad P ope Sylvester II., Gerbier, Sir Balthazar ; architect, 465 German architecture, 365 et seq. Details and mouldings 0 f Gothic architecture p 975 Gothic in Italy, 608. Spires, p. OOi' German sheet glass, 1874 F Germanic symmetry, p. 1008 Germany ; early architects of, 365. Em- ployed in other countries, ib. Italian archi tects employed in, ib. Two different styles n its ancient churches, 283. Pointed" ar clutecture in, 565 et seq., p. 975 Gerona ; cathedral, 586, 592, 595 Baths 306 Gerwin of Wesel ; architect, 577 ’ Ghent ; church of St. Nicolas, 554, 559 St Of th^Dom- Ba -° D ’ 55a ’ 557 > 559 > 560* Dominicans, 557 - Of St. Michel ib GinHo a I asp,,;i1 of La %loque, 557. ’ ’’ Giallo Antico marble, 200 266 GS«VhTi.“ 1 «‘' 501 - 503 Gilding, 2277 a, 2379 ’ Gilt mouldings; in spec., 2291 Gimlet, 2110 Giotto or Bondone ; architect, 323, 616, p. Giraida; bell tower at Seville, 320 368 Girder ; use of the word, 1628c ~ec“ f 2286 ir ° n ! ShapCS ° f ’ 1628 *’ ^ 2 °' 20 ’ Scantlings for, 2021. 1729F d n, USS1 " S ’ 2021a - Timber for, U4Jf. Flow measured, 2335 G gfntum ” 48 ‘ H ° USeS at ’ 626- See “ A S*'i' G church, 42i ri0,T ’ Y ° rkshire ; conv entual Gisborough castle, Yorkshire, 398 Gizeh ; see “ Geezeh ” Glaetzel, Conrad ; architect, 579 Glasgow ; works at, 1671? ^rvo 8 f 6 lslo^'r PJiay ’f aCC ° Unt of disc °- ITds ib 1I7, Cl „°, wn S la fs. 1870a. Knob- 18726 7’i 81a • S , Cet ’ 1872 - Latent plate, lOiZb. German sheet. 1874 Plof* ougli plate, ] 877. Quarries, 187$. Broken’ gg? 2226a. 223w - lQ — pSr"2276rf°" SaXOn buildin ^, 385,386 G1 389 0 43 U 5 ry ’s! 0 rt, rS | tSh , !re ’ monastery of, n. ’ Johu s ciiurch tower, p. 1002 Chapel of St. Joseph, 398 P i a 83D b E CkS f,; White and other colours, 1839a Eartheuware , !839?. Tiles; white! GI fng? 2378 8 ' W ° rk ’ iD SpeC ’’ 2289 ’ LstimaG Glazier’s vice, 2228. Knife, 2226 INDEX. 1414 GLA Glazing, 2225 et seq. Large roofs and areas, 2226c Globe ; in glass making, 1870a. Lights, 3042 Gloucester cathedral, 396, 397, 421. Founders and dimensions of, 434. Proportion of nave, p. 1012. Shafts, p. 1023. Tower, p. 1002. South porcli, p. 998. Cloisters, p. 1037 Groined ceiling of ditto, 2023p. Masons’ marks at, 3226 Glover, Moses; architect, 442 Gloves; to workmen, 317. Thatcher’s 2211s G1 e, 2125 d. Glued work, 2175 Glueing-up work in joinery, 2193 — 2208 Gm Lin den, Heinrich von ; architect, 620 Gneiss, 1669 Godstone, Surrey ; house corridor, 440 Going of stairs, 2179 Gold leaf, 2277a. Paint, 22776 Gombao, Gabriel ; architect, 598 Gondouin, Jean Jacques ; architect, 363 Gontard, Karl von ; architect, 366 Gores of boards for covering domes, groins, &c., 2068—2078 Gorges, Sir Thomas ; house for, 440 Gorhambury house, Hertfordshire, 446 Gosfield hall, Essex, 426 Gothic arch ; history of, 294 et seq. In masonry, to draw and find the joints, 1938 et seq. « architecture, 294, 3076, 530 — 627, p. 964 et seq. See “ Pointed Architecture.” Details more than principles have occupied attention, 1583c. Style for houses, 527 dome, 1499o vaulting, 2002 d et seq. Gouge, 2 J3. Bit, 2107 Gougeon, Jean ; sculptor, 358 Gowns or robes to workmen, 317 Goyers, M. ; architect, 289C6 Gradus; of the Roman theatre, 226, 227 Grafton, duke of ; house for, in Piccadilly, 515 Graining, 2276 Granada ; church, 368. Palace, ib. Granby church, Notts., 1908a Granite, 1668 et seq. Constituent parts of, 1669. Not decomposed by acids, 1670. Varieties; English, 1671. Scottish. 1671d. Irish, 167 \j. For paving, 1672. Weights of, 1672c. Crushing weight of, 1500, 1502, 15026. Working of, 19156 ■ in Spanish churches, 585. In Normand 3 T , 1666o paper; to manufacture, 2278 Granitic Breccia stone, 1903o, 1905c. Paint, 2273.7 Granolithic stone, 1905c Grantham, Lincolnshire ; church, 408, 421 Granulated steel, 1775 Grass table, p. 980 Grate, form of ; for heating, 2279c/ et seq. Grating, cast iron ; in spec., 2286a. To stable yards, in spec., 2286a Gratz, Johann von ; architect, 620 Grauwacke, 1672c . Gravity; centre of, 1242. See “Centre of gravity.” Grease traps, 2220n Grecian architecture ; strict meaning, as dis- tinguished from Roman, 134. No arches used in, ib. Identical with columnar ar- chitecture, 133. In its decline, 177. His- GUT tory and proportion of, p. 942. Orders, 2570 et seq. Style for houses, 525 Grecian temple ; origin of, 139 Grecians, early buildings of ; were palaces of princes, 137. Described, ib. Greco-Roman style, 524 Greek churches ; distribution of, described, 375 — 377. Cross, for a plan for, p. 1006 marbles, 1676 mouldings, 268, 2532 Green ; arsenical, 2278 Greenheart timber, 1728c Green marble or serpentine, 1683c Greenwich, Kent; church, 505. Hospital, 2973a ; interior of chapel, by Stuart, 516 ; roof of chapel, 2047. Palace, 423. Queen's house, 462 Gregoire, Mons. ; architect, 550 Gregory III., pope ; arts under, 281 Greville, Sir Fulke ; house for 440 Grey cast iron, 17656. Stone limes, 1843 Griffith, W. P. ; architect, on proportion, p. 1016 Grimsthorpe, Lincolnshire ; palace, 426 Grinding stone ; bricklayer’s, 1890 Gritstone; thatcher’s, 2211s Groined arches in brickwork, 1903 ceilings of timber, 2023p et seq. vaulting, 1444 — 1446. Ready method of equilibrating, 1457, 1458. Applied to churches with naves and aisles, 1459 — 1463. In pointed architecture, 1499a Groins, in masonry ; various, 1945 et seq. To describe parts where the arches are of unequal and of equal heights, 2059, 2060. Ribs for, 2058—2077 Groove, 2023, 2104, 2171 Ground; glass, 2231c. Rents; valuation of, p. 1095, p. 1096, p. 1097. Table, p. 980 Grounds; in joinery, 2166, 2167. In spec., 2285c Group ; of mouldings, p. 97 1 Grout ; or liquid mortar, 1860 Grouting ; a cause of decay in timber, 1746. In spec., 2282 Grozing irons ; plumber’s, 2212 Gruenberg ; church, 567 Grundy’s warm air grate, 2279rf. Warming apparatus, 2279e Guadalajara ; palace of Mendoza, 597 Guadalupe ; Hieronymite monastery, now a barrack and parish church, 594 Guards to windows, in spec., 2286a Guarini, Camillo; architect, 365 Guebwiller church ; octagon steeple, p. 1004 Guildford, Surrey ; castle, 394, 398 Guildhall, London, 414, 523 Guild of masons, 313 et seq. Guiloches, 2817 Guimaraens ; Dominican cloisters, 603. Nossa Seuhora da Oliveira, ib. Guisborough priory, Yorkshire; mullions, p. 991 Gully traps, 2220k Gumiel, Pedro ; architect, 367, 598 Gundulph, bishop, 321. Introduced ornament into Norman architecture, 395 Gun metal ; strength of, 1630r Gutta-percha, 2223r. Experiments on pipes, ib. Gutter ; tiles, 1837. In filleting, 2211/ boards, in spec., 2285a Gutters, 2255. In spec., 2285 a, 2286a, 2293/. Of zinc, in spec., 2294. Arris of deal, in INDEX. 1415 f GUY spec., 2285//. Lead, in spec., 2288. Of copper, 2224, 2224a Guy’s hospital ; ventilation, 2278y Gyddye hall, Essex, 440 Gymnasia of the Greeks ; parts of them and plan, 17G Gypsum, 1866c. Used for walls in Paris, 2249a et seq. H and HL hinges, 2258 a Hack, in brickmaking, 1815 llacket or Ouguet, David ; architect, G04.G05 Hacking knife; glazier’s, 222G 11 addon hall, Derbyshire, 42G Haden and Co.’s system of ventilation and warming, 2278/. Hadleigh, Essex ; church beacon, p. 1002 Hadrian's villa ; walls at, 1535 Hal, or Halle ; church of Notre Dame, 559. Of St. Maurice, 5G7 Halberstadt; cathedral, 6G9 Half paces, in stone stairs, 1929 Halkin mountain lime, 1843c Hall: at Westminster ; Guildhall, London ; Goodrich ; Chester ; Bristol ; Woodstock ; Eltham ; Kenilworth ; Darlington ; Crosby, in London ; Durham ; Conway ; Raby ; Swansea (2) ; Castle hall, in Leicester ; Spofforl.h ; Caerphilly ; Warwick ; Slay- field ; Berkeley, 414 Halle, or hall of companies ; at Ypres, 561. Bruges, ib. Louvain, ib. Diest, ib. Ghent, ib. JIala at Barcelona, 595 Halle an der Saale ; church of St. Marv, 583 Halle anx bleds, at Paris ; roof, 2051 Hallmann, Anton ; architect, 377 Halnacre, Suffolk, 428 Ham Hill stone ; its analysis, &c., 16G6 Hamelin’s cement, 1865 Hamilton palace, Scotland, 1683 Hammer; bricklayer’s, 1890. Plumber’s, 2212. Slater’s, 2209 ■ beam roofs ; Gothic, p. 987, 2052/, 2052/, 2052m, 2052s. In spec., 2285a blocked, to granite, 1915c Hampton Court, Herefordshire, 423 Hampton Court, Middlesex; palace, 42G, 1683, 1908a. Roof, 2052/. Gateway, 427 Handlinch house, Wiltshire; portico, 516 Handpick ; slater’s, 2209 Handrail, 2176, 2187 et seq. In spec., 2285d. Of glass, 2231a Hanging sashes, 2165a. Tiles, 19076 Hanwell, District schools infirmary, 2976c Hardening steel, 1776 Hardwick, Philip, R.A. ; architect, 1666c/ Hardwick hall, Derbyshire, 446 Hare, A. ; architect, 561 Hare-hill stone, 1667 w Harewood, lord ; house for, 514 Harlaxton hall, Lincolnshire, 426 Harlech castle, Merionethshire, 402 Harmony in architecture, 2509 Hart, Sir Percival ; house for, 440 Hart’s ventilator, 2278o Harwich cement, 1863 Haselwode stone, p. 1045 Haseridge, Sir William ; house for, 440 Hassock ; in ragstone, 1666/, 1922c Hatched ornament, 397 Hatchet ; joiner’s, 2117 Hatfield, Hertfordshire ; house, 445, 451,452 Hatfield lodge ; plan for, 440 HIP Hatton, Lord Chancellor ; house for, 440 Haunch of an arch ; to fill up, 1497 Hawarden castle, Flintshire, 398 Hawk ; plasterer’s, 2234 Hawkhurst ch irch, Kent ; east window, p. 1015 Hawkins, John S. ; amateur writer, p. 1012 Hawksley’s patent treads, 2180 Hawksmoor, Nicholas ; architect, 499 Ilav and moss for setting tiles, 1906 Hayrack ; in spec., 22856 Head of iron; in casting, 22656 Header ; bricks, 1894. Slates, 2211c Health; cubic feet allowed; for hospitals, 2975a et seq. For infirmaries, 2976u et seq. Generally, p. 1226. Conditions of a house, 3027 et seq. Heart wood ; densest and strongest, 1628 a Hearths; in spec, 2282a. Back, in spec., 2284d Heating, 2279 et seq. Insecurity of apparatus; 2279 p. In spec., 22826 Hecke, Van ; ventilation, 22786, 2278z Ileckington, Lincolnshire ; church, 421. Tower and spire, p. 1001. Mouldings of doorway, 1020 Heckler, Johann Georg ; architect, 570 Heddon stone ; its analysis, 1666 Hedgerley bricks, 1826 Hedingham castle, Essex, 394, 398 Hegge marble, 2002/7 lleightof columns, 2543 et seq. Ofbuildings, use of square and triangles, p. 1015, p. 1016 Heilbronn ; church of St. Kilian, 583 Heinzelmann, Conrad ; architect, 579, 580 Hempstead Marshall, Berkshire ; house at, 465 Ileneage, Sir Thomas ; house for, 440 Hengrave hall, Suffolk, 426 Henry III. ; many religious buildings founded in his reign, 401 Heuszlmann, Dr. E. ; architect, on proportion, p. 1017 Heraclid® ; colonies of, p. 943 Herbert, Henry, earl of Pembroke ; amateur architect, 508 Hercules ; temple at Agrigentum, p. 946 Hereford; cathedral, 398, 421. Founders and dimensions of, 434 Hermogenes; architect, p. 951 Herodes Atticus ; his munificence in archi- tectural expenditure, 193 Herrera, Giovanni de ; architect, 371 Hever castle, Kent, 425 Hexastyle ; temples, 2528 et seq. Porticoes, p. 944 et seq. Hexham, Northumberland ; cathedral, 385 Hexpartite vaulting, 1499_/f Hieroglyphics ; in Egyptian architecture, 86 llieronymite monastery ; at Lupiana, 592. At Guadalupe, 594. Segovia, 596. Of La Pena at Cintra, 607 Higham Ferrar-, Northamptonshire ; church, 408, 421. Roof, 2052 o. Porch, p. 998 Highgate, Middlesex ; house at, 440 High-pitched roof ; adopted from vaulting, 2052/ High-pressure water supply, 22186 et seq. Hill hall, Essex, 426 Hingeing, 2149 et seq. Hinges, different sorts, 2258 et seq. In spec., 2285/ and g, 2286a Hiorne, Francis; architect, 514 Hip rafter, 2009, 2035a. Tiles, 1836 1416 HIP INDEX. Ilips, to find back of, 2054. Lead, in spec., 2288 Hitchin’s fibrous slab, 22466 Hoarding; in spec., 2284 e Hud and Board ; slater’s, 2200. Bricklayer’s, 1890. Hodgkinson’s form of girder, 1628y, 16296 Iloeflich, Claus; architect, 580 Hoffmann, Nikolaus ; architect, 583 Huff'atadt, F. ; architect, on proportion, p. 1020 Ilolbeach, Lincolnshire ; church, 21456 Holbein, Hans ; painter and architect, 427 Holdcnbv, Northamptonshire; banqueting house, 440 Holkham, Norfolk ; house, 511, 2822, 2997 Holland, Henry ; architect, 524 Holland house, Kensington ; for Sir Walter Coap or Cope, 440, 452 Hollington stone, 1666o Hollow bricks, 1830, 1831c. In mortar, 19006. In partitions and arches, 19026, 19037 cement blocks, 1902(7 moulding, 2532, p. 970, p. 973 walls, 1902c et seq., 3029. In spec., 2282c Holt, Sir Thomas ; ground-plan for, 440 • Thomas ; architect, 443 Holyrood chapel, Edinburgh, 431 Homan and Rodgers’ fireproof floor, 1903o Homan’s quartz, &e. paving, 1905c Homogeneous metal, 1773. Strength of, 1630r Hone, Kent ; church windows, p. 1030 Honecort, Wilars de ; architect of 13th cen- tury, p. 969, 1008 H oneyntan’s diaphragm ventilator, 2278 r Honfleur ; Church of Ste. Catherine, 547 Hontanon. See “ Gil de Hontanou” Hood mouldings, p. 981 et seq. Hoogstraeten ; brick church, 560 Hoop-iron ; weight of, 2254. Bond, 1899a. Cramps for hollow walls, 1902e Hope, H. T. ; house of, in Piccadilly, 1666r Hopper casements ; in spec., 2286a. Water- closets, 2220c. Ventilator, 2278»i Hopton Wood stone, 16667, 16776 Horizontal courses to vaults, 1925(1, 2C02/, 2838 Hornblende; granite, 1669, 1671 j Horse Guards, London, 511 Horseheath house, Cambridgeshire, 465 Horsemonden, Kent ; church porch, p. 985 Horsepower, 1346. Horticultural Society, London ; roofs, 2052 Hospital church at Cues, 579 — - of La Byloque at Ghent, 557. At San- tiago, 598. Of San Giovanni Battista, near Toledo, 370. At Vercelli, 611. At Angers, vaulting, 1499gp Hospitals, 2973 et seq. Examples at Milan, 2974. Of Greenwich and Chelsea, 2973a. La Roquette at Paris, 2974. At Bordeaux, 2975. Lariboisifere at Paris, 76., 2278*. At Netley, 2975a. Hotel Dieu at Paris, and ethers, 29756. size of wards, 2975c. Ventilation of, ib. New French hospitals, 22786. London, 2278 q. Separation of wards, 2975d. St. Thomas’s hospital, London, 2975e ; its warming and ventilating arrangements, 2975g. St. George’s hospital, 22786. Cir- cular, 29756. For villages, 29756. Con- valescent, 2975 1. Imbecile, 2975m HYD Ilospitium of a Roman house, 251 Hot-air flues or channels, 2279e. In America, 2279g. In spec., 22826. Hot blast, 1758. Iron, strength of, 16281 et seq., 1630r Hot water ; low-pressure system, 22796, 22796. High pressure, 22797. Cistern, 2223 q Hotel; des Ambassadeurs at Dijon, 548. De Bourgtheroulde, at Rouen, 550, 551, 552. De Cluny, Paris, 548. Du Franc, Bruges, 663. Des Invalides, Paris, 359 Hotel de Ville ; St. Quentin, 548, 550. Coin- pifegne, 549. Orleans, 548. St. Oilier, 545. Alost, 562. Bruges, ib. Bruxelles, ib. Louvain, ib. Mons, ib. Ghent, ib. Audenaerde, ib. Courtrai, ib. Leau, ib. Casa de Ayuntamiento at Palencia, 596. Valladolid, ib. Hou, of the Chinese, 106 Houghton, Durham ; church, proportion of, p. 1012 hall, Norfolk ; water-house, 508 House ; of the Forest of Lebanon, 53 House of Commons ; Reid’s system of venti- lation, 2278 g Houses, first ; according to Vitruvius, 6. First, of the Egyptians, Peruvians, ib. Present, of the Abyssinians, ib. In the East, consisting of more than a single story, 140. 'Terrace on the tops of them, ib. Designed by John Thorpe, 440. Private, 2994. Supply of water to, 22237. Sanitary aspect of construction, 3027 et seq. of Parliament; London, 527. River wall, 16716. Roofs, 1796. Stones used in building, 1666. In Dublin, 526 Household of the King, 319 Housing; of principal rafters, 2033. Of steps, in spec., 2285c How ard : Henry, earl of Northampton ; house built for, 442 Howarth’s screw ventilator, 227 Sg Howden, Yorkshire ; conventual church, 407, 421, p. 971 et seq. Ilubbuck’s zinc white, 2272c Huddlestone stone, 1681c, p. 1045. Analvsis, 1666 Huerta, Juan de ; sculptor, 548 Huesca ; cathedral, 598. Doors, 2145c. Church, 59 L Hugo de Goldclif ; master mason, 312 Hull, Yorkshire; bricks used early at, 416 Hiiltz or Hiltz, John, senior and junior ; architects, 305, 570 Human figure ; proportions of, 2394. Ac- tions of, 2396 et seq. Centre of gravity of, 76. Motion of, 2397. In running, 2398. In preparing to strike, 2399. In bearing a weight, 2400. In leaping, 2401. In lean- ing, 2402. In flying and falling, 2403. Drawing, 2383d Hundred of lime, 2308 Hunsdon house, Hertfordshire, 426, 446 Huppeau ; church spire, p. 1000 Hurlers, the ; circle of stones in Cornwall, 16 Hurstmonceaux, Sussex ; house, 423 Hurwood’s window, 2278o Hutchinson’s process for preserving stone, 1667m Huy ; church of Notre Dame, 558 Hyatt’s patent sheets for floors, 1903r Hydraulic ; concrete, 1862d. Lift, 2223». Limes, 1843d. Mortar, 18597. Ram, 2219 INDEX. 1417 HYG Hygeian rock composition, 188G Hypjethrnl temple, at Parstum, 149 Hyperbola, 1083 — 1094 Hypnerotomachia ; or Songe de Poliphile, a work so called, by F. Colonna, 32G Ilypo-nitro kali, 2276c Hythe church, Kent ; columns, 16816. T B A R R A , Pedro de ; architect, 597 L Ichnographia, of Vitruvius, p. 971 Ictinus ; architect, p. 901 Ifflev, Oxfordshire; parochial church, 398 Ilissus; Ionic temple on the, 153, p. 951 Illescas ; church and monastery of San Do- minico di Silos, 309. Palace of San llde- fonso, 372 Imbecile asylum, 2975 m Imitation in German churches, 5G8 Imitations in painting, 2270 Imitative Gotldc, p. 905 Impact or collision, 1028e, lG30r>. To beams, 1628c, 1630o. To stone, 1 502/) Impluvium of a Roman house, 247 Impost level, 2002ri Imposts and archi volts of arcades, 2032 Impulse of the wind, 1592a et seq., 1007 f Inch tool ; mason's, 1910 Incised plaster work, 2245a Inclination of roofs in various climates, 2027 —2030 Inclined; tower, 598. Plane, 1293 — 1300. Timbers. 1022. Beam, 1028t, 1629y. Indestructible paint, 22737 Indian architecture ; similarity of, to Perse- politan, 55. Sir W. Jones’s opinion on, ib. Induction ; system of ventilation, 2278a’ Induration ; of stone, 10G7a, 10G7r Industrial classes; town dwellings for, 3012 et seq. Infirmaries ; definition, 297G. Workhouse, 2970a. Requirements of Local Board, 29766. Of the schools, at Hanwell, 2970c. At Blackburn, 2976 d Ingegneri ; in Italy, 619, 620 Ingelramme ; architect, 510 Ingeniator, 312, 319 Ingoldstadt ; church of St. Mary, 579 Ingot copper, 1788a Inlaying of furniture, 2173c Inlet brackets for ventilation, 2278s Insecurity of heating apparatuses, 227 Op Inside bead of sash frames, 2147. Linings of sash frames, 2147 Inspection chamber to drains, 18887. Insula ; in Roman architecture, 253 Interaxal divisions ; in a design, 2852. Pre- vent false bearings, 2843. Applied to the Villa Capra, ib. Great use in, 2844. Used by Gothic architects, 2845. Obligations to Durand for introduction of, 2840. Number of, in different apartments, 2848. Columns of, how arranged in apartments, 2849. Applied in designing churches, 2875 Interceptor to drain, 18887, 2220r Intercolumniation ; different species of, 2605. Of the Doric order, ib. Of the Tuscan order, 2606. Of the Ionic order, 2607. Of the Corinthian order, 2608. Vignola’s practice, 2610. Cases of wide, 2613. To be of equal width, 2614—2616 Interest ; calculation of, p. 1101 et seq. So- lution of problems in, p. 1102 5 Interior cements, 2251rf et seq. ISA Interiors of buildings, beauty of, 2504, 2505 Interpenetration, 578. Of mouldings, p. 974 Intertieof a partition, 2025 Intrados ; of a Gothic arch, 1925 d Inverted arch ; in foundations, 1885. In spec., 2282c Jona marbles, 1682 Ionia; colonies in, p. 950 Ionic order ; origin of, according to Vitru- vius, 140. Of the Greeks ; height of its columns, 154. Entablature, ib. Bases, 150. Volute, 157. Proportions, p. 950 et seq. Principal examples, 2581. In the temple on the Ilissus, ib. ; Table of its parts, ib. order of the Romans, 260. Table of ex- amples, ib. General proportion, 201. Pro- portions, p. 950 et seq. of the Italians, 2573 et seq. Vignola’s profile of, 2574. Table of parts of, ib. Parts of, to a larger scale, 2575. Volutes of, described, 2570. Profile of, by Vitruvius, 2577. By’ Palladio, 2578. By’ Serlio. 2579. By Scamozzi, 2580. Intercol anima- tions of, 2607. Arcade, 2624. With pedes- tal, 2630 Ipsambool, 92, 166. Temple, 71 Ipswich, Suffolk ; college, 426 Irish ; a colony of the first race of people, 11 granites, 1671 j et seq. Marbles, 1683 et seq. Slates, 1806. Towers, p. 1003 Iron, 1754 et seq. Species of ore, 1755. Mode of smelting, 1756 — 1759. Bar iron. 1760, 1761. Malleable iron, 1720 et seq. Observations on iron, 1704 — 1760. Fibrous and crystalline irons, 17046. Plate iron, 1764/. Cast iron, 1764 et seq. Security for supporting weight, 1708. Soft grey, best sort, 1705. Test of goodness of cast, 1707. Corrosion, 1779. Galvanizing, 17806 Weight of 1 foot cube of bar iron, 2254 ; of wrought iron, ib. ; of cast iron, ib. ; of 1 foot in length of square iron, ib.; of round iron, ib. ; of close hammered/at bar iron, ib. ; and of Art cast iron, ib. In stonework ; decay of, p. 1004 bark wood, 1728(7 - — cast and wrought ; strains on beams, girders, and pillars, 1628 et seq. Crushing weight, 1630. Qualities of, for castings, 2265 a. Weights of varieties, 2254a, 2205(7 construction in rear of warehouse for light, 2255 d drains, 1888a joists and girders, 1628a: et seq. Special lengths, &c., 1629/ , sulphate of, 1752. Oxide of, ib. Pyro- lignite, 1752a. Paints for, 22736 et'seq. Minium paint, 2273 d Iron spire, p. 1005 ; and roof, at Cologne, 574 stairs, 2255. Doors, 2255e. Columns, 2255. Shop fronts, 2255/. Wine bins, 2255 g ties in Italian Gothic, 609 wire, 1779 d. Cords, 2260 Ironmonger, 2255r ; in spec., 2286, To joiner's work, in spec., 2285/ Irons ; use of the word, 1628c Ironwork ; how preserved from action of moisture, 1779, 2263a, 22736 et seq. Treated decoratively, 22556, 2264. Fixing, in spec., 2293/ Irtblingborougli, Warwickshire ; churehwiu- dow, p. 988 Isacoustie curve ; for a lecture room, 2598 — 2902 1413 INDEX. ISTV Isle of Man marbles. 1G81 Issoire ; doorway, 539 Italian; architecture, 323 et seq. Gothic, 61G. Tiles, 1835 Italy, pointed architecture of, G08, p. 1040 Itchenor, Sussex ; proportion of church, p. 1018 Iturriza, Pascual ; architect, p. 1 0 1 9 Ivan IV., of Russia, emperor ; patron of the arts, 375 Ivan Veliki ; clock tower in Moscow, 375 I vara, Filippo. Nee “Juvara” TACK plane ; plumber’s, 2212 ’< Jack rafters, 2035a Jacobus; architect, G12 Jacopo da Campione ; architect, G19 Jacopo or Lapo ; architect, G13 James, John ; architect, 505 Jammet, Mons. ; design for house at Paris, 440 Jansen, Bernard; architect, 412 Jarmin’s house, St., near Paris, 440 Jedburgh abbey, Roxburghshire, 431 Jedding axe, 1913 Jennings; at St. Paul’s cathedral, 4G9 Jerusalem ; temple of, constructed by Solo- mon ; notion of, by Villalpanda, 52. Church of Hoty Sepulchre, 305. Mosque of Calif Walid, 306 Jib door, 2130 Jimon, at Seville ; architect, 595 Jobbing work ; in spec., 2284c. By carpenter and joiner, in spec., 22851 Joffred, abbot ; of Croyland, 392 Joggles; in carpentry, 2009. Iu stone stairs, 1927 et seq. Joggling, 1925e et seq. Johann ; architect, 581 John, king of Portugal ; chapel at Batalha, 604 John VI , pope ; arts under, 281 John of Gaunt’s gateway at Lancaster castle, 416 John of Padua and his followers, 425 et seq. John’s stucco wash, cement, and paint, 1866a Joiner’s work and mode of measuring, 2351 et seq. In spec., 2285 ; 2293c. Of med'arval period, 2125 et seq. Tools used in, 2102 — 2124. Mouldings, 2126 — 2129. Wood used for, 2124. Machinery in, 2124a. Formation of bodies by joining with glue, 2193 — 2208. Joinery, 2100 et seq. Jointer ; bricklayer’s, 1890, 1900e Jointing rule; bricklayer’s, 1890 Joints, embossed or hollowed, 1499. Fasten- ings to iron, 1631p. In drain pipes, 1888a. To lead pipes, 2223o. Of mortar, 1900. in brickwork, lOOOe. In stonework, in spec., 2284 d. In carpentry, see “ Scarfing.” See “ Glue ” Joists, 2014 et seq. Spacing of, in spec., 2285. See “ Ceiling,” “ lhnding,” “ Bridg- ing,” “Trimming,” “Common,” &c. Jones, Inigo; architect, 319, 335, 440, 454 — 464, 425. Door by, 2743. Window by, 2770 Jordan’s wood and stone carving machine, 2124d Julian, pope; patronised architecture, and extent of his patronage, 203 Juno; temple at Samos, 153. At Agrigentum, p. 946 Jupiter; temple at Olympia, 141 KIR Jupiter Panhellenius ; temple at Egina, 146, p. 943 Stator (now the temple of the Dios- curi) ; temple at Rome, 208, 262 Ti nans (now the temple of Vespasian) ; temple at Rome, 209, 262 Justin, emperor; architecture under, 272 Ju-tinian, emperor ; architecture under, 272. Ilis architects, Anthemius and Itidorus, ib. Restored Byzantine palace, ib. Fortifica- tions in Europe and Asia, ib. Juvara, or lvara, Filippo ; architect, 372, G23 TJ AILAC 4 ; temple of. at Ellora, 56 IV Kaolin or China clay, 1670a, 1071a Kallkolith stain, 227 Gf Kaschau ; church of St. Elizabeth, 572 Kedlestone home, Derbyshire, 517, 2996 Keene’s cement, 1866. Use of, 2251c. In spec., 2287 Keep ; of a castle, 394 Keeper; of the Fabric, 312, 319. Of the works, ib. Keldermans. Nee “ Mansdnle ” Kelso abbey, Roxburghshire, 431 Kelston house, Somersetshire. 446 Kenilworth castle, Warwickshire, 398, 414, 423, 438, 446 Kenninghall, Norfolk ; mansion, 425 Kennington, Surrey ; palace, 423 Kenon disconnecting trip, 2255 Kensington, Middlesex ; p lace, 1683 Kent, William; architect, 511, 17275. Win- dow by, 2772 Kentish rag stone, 1663s et seq., 1922c et seq. In spec., 2284 Kenton stone, analysis, 16G6 Kerb ; see “ Curb ” Kerby, Northamptonshire; house, 440 Kerr, Robert, architect ; his work, The English Gentleman s House, 3001 Kerrich, Mr. ; on proportion, p. 1013, p. 1014 Ivetton stone, 1666s. Analysis, 16o6 Kew, Middlesex; palace, 527 Keyham dock yard, grauite us id at, 1671a Keys and wedges, 163 1 u to bib-cocks, 2223s Keystone; diminution of arch, 1498. In vaulting, 2002s Kiddington, Oxfordshire ; church, roof of south chapel, 2052o Kief ; church built at, in the time of Vladimir, 375. Convent of Petchorsky, ib. Of St. George and St. Irene, ib. Kilkenny; cathedra', windows, p. 988. Black alibev, tower, p. 1003. Franciscan church, ib Round tower, 1499«t Killing knots ; in painting, 2268. In spec., 2290 Kiln-burnt bricks, 1817 Kilns; in brick-burning, 1817, 1819. In lime- burning, 1846 Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire; palace, 426 King, bishop ; at Bath, p. 1052 King closer ; in brickwork, 1896 post, 2031. Roof, 2035a, 2052rf King’s College, chapel. See “Cambridge” King’s College, London, 520 King’s Langley, Herts ; palace. 426 Kirby or Kerby, house, 440 Kirchheim-im-Ries ; church, 572 Kirkaldy testing machinery, 22665 Kirkham, Yorkshire; conventual church, 421 INDEX. 1419 1 ! KIR Kn-kstall, Yorkshire; conventual church, ^ gaVin^Glf a?a ’ 602 ‘ VaUlUtl - ^ v'^ h ^ ner ’ in spec., 2286a KnlL COty i 0 ^ 6 ’ near Rochester, 23 Knapton, Norfolk; church, 20527 Roof mouldings, p. 987 1 00 ‘ Knife; thatcher’s, 2211s Knob glass, 1871 Knobbled ; in mason’s work, 19->9 f ; Knocker, in spec., 2286 2°290 : iD Painti ' lff ’ t0 kill > 2268 - spec., Knowle house, Kent, 446 Kreglinger, W. ; architect, 580 Kue_melke, Johann and Matthias; architects, Kuhimann’s process for preserving stone, Kuttenberg ; church, 567 1752 S Pr ° CeSS f ° r P le P ai 'ing timber, 1742, %las or Kailaca, at Ellora, 56 LIC Lathing 2238. To inside of roof in snec 2287 Wire lathing, 2971tf. ’ lns Pec., 228/. L‘ A i(S? } abbey church > two apsides, p. Labour and materials, 2343 Labourers’ dwellings, 3012 Labra ; of the Roman baths, 235 Lacing courses; in flint work, 1922« Lacomcum; of the Roman baths 235 236 Ladles; plumber’s, 2212 ’ ’ 6 Lake Albano ; niches in buildings at, 2775 -— Lady ; house for, 440 b ’ 10 La Maladrerie quarries, 16667 Lambton hall, Durham, 52o Lamego ; cathedral, 603 Laminated ribs ; in roof, 2052 6 -Lancet-headed windows, p. 988 Lancet style ; origin of the term 405 Pm portion of, p. 1023 ’ 11 °‘ Landau ; church, 580 Landings ; in stone stairs, 1929. Of slate 2 Alq. In wood stairs, in spec 2285/7 ’ anwcost, Cumberland; conventual" church, Langeberg, Johann von ; architect 577 Langhans, Carl Gotthard ; architect 366 Langrune ; church spire, p. 1000 p 1004 Lansdowne house, Berkeley squareVl? Lantern ; at Elv, p. 1001 q ’ ' 534, 5 54 a -: hedraI ’ 540 ' CWb St. Martin, Lap ; of a slate, 22i0 Lapo or Jacopo ; arciiitect, 303a, 365 Lapo, Arnolfo di ; architect, 32.3 }j”l7‘'' ,BOm " h “"’ 253 l1rte r T WingS ! * n SpeC - 2285/i T Llt’i ; 5 surve J°i', p. 1035 L a Assant C °K Cret , e ^ruction, 1903* i/Assant ; church of St. Pierre 534 Lastringhan^ Yorkshire ; capital 390 Latches ; different sorts, 2262 ’ a iff : f °f tilin K> 23 °L 2302. Plasterer’s- diff- rent sorts, 2238. In sdbc 99S7 ’ gjng, 22105. Quantity p e ? square^ Latterkin ; glazier’a, 22 9 8 Sr“r?« MOnl ‘'"' rwksliire , church Launceston, Cornwall ; castl*, 398 Greek C v„. 3018*3025 2i3< ‘ Iq ln£ Iuitrial dwellings, ■*£•; parochial church. 42,. r ova ’ ’ K mouldings p 987 Laves s girder, 1630c, 202U ^ P ‘ J8 Lavoute-Cbilhac in France ; gates 9145,, Layens, Matthew de ; architect 562 Layer Marney, Essex ; hall, 426 1908a La' fon- ln .L mljer ; as regards strength 1G^8 m , ng . ’ J® Plasterer’s work, 2239 Lead a 'rM O r t0 ' “ Bramante” “«t a’tirel Specifif: S ravi ty, &c., 1781 1789 p e , d b T exposure to air and water* L82. Cast and milled, 1783 1784 ri ’ of usmg water with it 1 785 ’ m • ^ ger 1?86. See I W,L th j ckness of- 22 1 5a In sS 2288 1 Weight of, 2215a 22155 p— P ’ . 8 ‘ spec 2284/7. Old or waste, 22lTT^ -2og. Traps in pipes, 22186 P ’ colours, 2272 cl covering, 2216 Leads used in glazing, 2228, 2299 a Leadwork ; in glazing, 2227 2217° 10 ° f ’ m SpeC- ’ 2288 ‘ Ornamental, Leaf of a lead, 22’9a 2 » 52 * * 2 -. «« Leaseholds; valuation of p 1097 Leases held on lives ; valuation of p 1097 Lean ; church of St. Leonard, 557 r a w f eh,a cades, 2618, 2619 y S res P e °f s ar - Le 603 d ° Bal '° ’’ fortified ^wer and church, Ledgement tables, p. 980 Lee priory, Kent, 528 Leicester ; Roman wall, 382. Church of St Martin ; roof, 2052« ICU ot St. Le Merrier, Jacques ; architect, 359 Leo the Isaurian ; destrovs statues 9 72 Leon ; cathedral, 588, 589, 20026 ’ “ Leou; in Chinese architecture described 10ft Lenda ; cathedral, 588 ut; scrioea, 100 Le Roulet ; church, 535 Lescot, Pierre ; architect, 357, 358 Lethicium, 2276c Letters , glass, 223 la. On parapets, 442 Le \ eau, Louis ; architect, 357, 359 Level ; bricklayer’s, 1890 Lever ; properties of, 1265—1269 fo e 999 St ° n ’ Cambri, ' geshir e i church porch, Lias, blue, 1843 L 'l hbeld ’ Staffordshire ; cathedral, 421. F 0U n ders and dimensions, 434. Choir p loot; Door t° chapter h0USC; p _ 99g _ Ba J- ■ 1420 INDEX, LIE Liege ; cathedral of St. Paul, 557, 500. St. Croix, 558. St. Jacques, 560. St. Martin’s, ib. St. Barthelemi, ib. St. Jean-en-Lle, ib. Episcopal palace, 5G3 Lierne ribs in vaulting, 2002u> Lierre ; church of St. Gommaire, 559 Life ; annuity tables, p. 1 12G et siq. Expecta- tion of, ib. Lift ; worked by hydraulic, gas, steam, and hand power, 2223a Lifting shutters, 2148a Light; curve for reflection, 1107. Quantity of, 2747. In hospitals, 29/5e diminution o', through glass, 2226e Lighting ; by gas, 2264 et seq. Comparison of materials, 2264p. In spec., 2293 i. By elec- tricity 22647 Lightning conductor; 2264/;. Cords for, 22G0. In spec., 22865 Lights ; leadwork for, 2227 Ligorio, Pirro ; architect, 345 Lily ; iD decoration, 87 Lime; 1840. Varieties of limestone, 1811 — 1842. Dorking and Merst ham, 1843. Lias formation, 1843a. Hydraulic, 1843d. Brown most esteemed, 1844. Measures of, 2303. Effect on iron, 1780a. Best, that which heats most in slaking, 1848. Use of fresh, 1849. Forming mortar, 1854 et seq. Ex- amined by Smeaton, 1850. • putty joints, 1900 a. Water, 18 '3 Limehouse, London ; church of St. Anne, 499 Limestone, 1841, 1842. How to analyse 1845. Kilns for burning, 1846, 1847 Limewhiting, 2273 q. In spec., 2287 Limoges ; cathedral, 547 Lincoln ; earthenware tile pipes found at, 2223 p. Cathedral, 396, 406, 42 1. Founders and dimensions of, 434. Proportion of nave, p. 1016. Window, p. 988. East window, p. 991. Purbeck columns, 168 13. Cloister, groined ceiling, 2023p. Chapter-home, 149935. Castle, 394, 398 Lincoln’s Inn ; new hall and library, lOCGd - Lincrusta Walton, 2277 h Lindisfarne, Durham ; church, 388 Lindsay & Co.’s fireproof floor, 1903/> Line pins ; bricklayer’s 1 890 Linings ; to doors, in spec., 2285c. To damp walls, of slate, 2211. Analysis, 1666 Port Philip granite, 1672a Portsmouth ; docks, 1671e Portugal ; architecture of, 367 et seq. Pointed architecture of, 600 Post office, London; ventilation, 2278 h Posts in warehouses ; in spec., 22856 Pot metal glass, 22316 Potash ; to soften putty and paint, 2226a Potassi, J. ; architect, 607 Pots and jars ; in arched work, 1903/ Potter's bar ; house at, 440. Wheel, 1839/" Power of a number, 22976 Poyet, — ; architect, 2974 Povnter, Ambrose ; architect, table of French and English architecture, 537 Pozzo, A ndrea ; architect, 365 Pozzuoli, amphitheatre, 228 Practical building, 1881 et seq. Carpentry, 2003 et seq. Geometry, 999 et seq. Praecinetio ; of the Roman theatre, 226. Of the amphitheatre, 228 Prague ; cathedral, 567, 572. Proportion of, p. 1013 Prato; cathedral, 616, 626 Prebendalhou-e, Westminster; staircase, 2797 Prenzlau ; church of St. Mary, 572 Presence or privy chamber, 415 Preservation of stone, 16676, 1739 et seq., 1779 et seq., 2273 i. Of Iron, 22736. Of timber, 1730 et seq., 1748 et seq. Pressure ; piers, vaults and arches, 1351 it seq. Walls and piers, 1500 et seq. Earth against walls, 1584 et seq. Wind against walls, 1592a. See l ' Crushing,” “ Compres- sion,” &c. Priam’s palace had fifty chambers, 140 Pricking-up ; plasterer’s, 2240 Priene ; tempie, 153 Priests ; ridicule of, 311 Primary Gothic, 537 Priming coat, 2268, 22736, 227 Gf Principal rafters in a roof, 2035a Princip'es of composition, 2825 Prior park, near Bath, 513 Prisons ; Newgate, 523. The steen at Ant- werp, 563 Private buildings ; general observations on, 2983 et seq. In towns, 2990 et seq. Common i houses of London, 2992. Of a grade higher, INDEX. 1429 PRI 2993. First class of, 2994. Duke of Devon- shire, Piccadilly, ib. Burlington house, 2995. In the country, 2996. Keddlestone, ib. Holkham, 2997. Villa, smallest size of, 2999. At Foot’s Cray and Mereworth, 3000 Private houses of the Romans, 242. Earliest, only one story, ib. Later houses, 243. Splendour of them, ib. Parts of which they consisted, 244 — 255. Parts of, reserved for the family, 245 Probus, Cornwall; proportion of church, p. 1018 Proeoeton ; of a Roman house, 252 Profiling an order, 2523, 2551 Projection ; in geometry, 1130 et seq. Property ; valuation of, p. 1094 et seq. l’ropigneum of the Greek gymnasium, 175 Proportion (Grecian and Roman) ; principles of, 2825 et seq. ; by E. Cresv, p 942. (Me- dieval), p. 1005 et seq. ; by E. Cresy, p. 1020 et seq. in geometry, 935 — -937. In archi- tecture, based upon fitness, 2496 — 2499. Of the orders deduced from the loads and supports, 2524 et seq. Of rooms, 28-9 et seq. Of mouldings, 2629, p. 1019 et seq. Propylseum ; at Athens, 150 Proscenium ; of the Roman theatre, 226. Of the Greek theatre, 172. Modern, 2958 Protecting or preserving stonework, 1667a Prothyrum ; of a Roman house, 246, 253 Provisions in spec. ; for bricklayer's work, 2282c. For mason's, 22845 and e. For car- penter’s, 2285. For smith’s, etc., 2286. For plumber’s, 2288 a Prudham quarry, 1666m Public and private buildings, 2861 et seq. way ; arch over and under, 1903a Tuddled steel, 1775. Strength of, 1630r Puddling furnace, 1760 Pugging ; to floors, 2247, 2971c. In spec., 22855, 2287 Pugin, Augustus VVelby ; architect, on Pointed architecture, p. 964 Pugmill ; for mortar, 1854 Pugwash deals, & c., 1729c Pulham, Norfolk ; church roof, 2052 p, 2052r. Roof mouldings, p. 986, p. 987 Pulley, 1315—1320, 2260. mortises, 2019, 2020 Pulpit ; in spec., 2285t Pulpitum ; of a Roman theatre, 226. Of the Greek theatre, 172 Pulsometer, 22195 Pump ; various sorts, 2219 — 2224. In spec., 2288a Pumping out, in spec., 2281a Punch ; mason's tool, 1914 Punching holes for rivets, 1631t Purbeck marble, 16665, 1681<7 et seq. p 979 Purimachos cement, 18665 Purlin, 2035, 2035a. Scantling, 2040. Gothic, p. 986 ■ rafters, 2043, 2210a. In spec., 2285a Purveyor of the works, 319 Putty ; glazier’s, 2226a. Painter’s, 2275a. To remove, 22266 Puy ; cathedral, 535 Puzzuolana, 1859/ Puzzuoli ; amphitheatre, 228 Pycnostyle intercolumniation, 2605 — 2609 Pyramids ; of Ktoube el Meuschich, of brick, 72. Of Cheops, and Chepheren, and Myceri- RED nus at Saccara, 74. Generally, 83. Of Mexico, 111; of Choluln, 112 ; of Papautla, 113. At Meroe and Geezeh, 304 Pyrodeue paint, 2273 j, 297 le Pyrographic woodwork. 21736 Q uadripartite vaulting, 1499m, i499jf Quantities, 2280 d Quarter pace in stone stairs, 1929 round, 2129. 2532 Quartered partitions, 2024, 2025. In spec., 2285a. How measured, 2313 Quarry glass, 1 879 Quarrying stone, 73, 1666/ Quartz in granite, 1669 Quebec deals, &c., 1729a Queen closer, 1896 post roof, 2042. Posts, 2034 Quellinus, Artus ; sculptor, 2690 Quirk, 2106 Quirked bead, 2126 Quoin stones ; in spec., 2284« R adiation of heat, 2279 Radnor, Earl of ; house for, 440 Racs, Georges; architect, 561 Rafters, 2033, 2035a. Common, 2035. Ilip, ib. Jack, ib. Gothic, p. 986 Raglan castle, Monmouthshire, 426 Ragstone, 1922c et seq. Railing ; ornamental, in spec., 2286a Rails of a door, 2130 Railway compensation, p. 1094 Rainfall, 2222e, 2223 Rain water, 2223c. Pipes, heads, &c., 2255. In spec., 2286a, 2288. Of lead, in spec., 2288. Of zinc, in spec., 2294. Formed in columns, p. 1065 Rake ; plasterer’s 2233. Thatcher’s, 2211s Raker; bricklayer’s 1890 Raking arches, 1413 — 1416 Raleigh, Sir VV alter ; house for, 440 Ramee, Daniel ; writer on proportion, p. 1006 Ramichouer ; temple at Ellora, 56 Rammer; bricklayer’s, 1890 Rampant pointed arch ; to draw and find the joints, 1943 Random walling ; in spec., 2284 Ranger's artificial stone, 190366 Ranging lath ; in glazing, 2226 Ransome’s ; process, 1667/, 1667m. Siliceous stone, 1667 q. Concrete stone, 1667r, 1667s. Experiments on, 1667<— 1667m Ranville stone, 1666m, 1666o, 1 666q Ratisbon ; cathedral, 569, 576. Proportion of, p. 1016. Dominican church, 569. Church, 309 Raunds church, Northamptonshire; roof, 2052o. Porch p. 998 Ravaccione marble, 1667 et seq. Ravenna, 272. Church of San Apollinaris, 278. Of San Vitalis, 282. Joggled arch at, 1925e Rayonnant period in France, p. 990 Reading, Berkshire ; abbey, 435 Reading abbey concrete stone, 1903o Rebated boards, 2173a Red ; bricks, 1825. Cedar from Australia, 1728rf. Granite, 1915c. Marble of the Apennine, 615 — — short iron, 1764 Redmund’s hinges, 22586 1 130 INDEX. REE ReeO thatching, 2211s Keedham, Norfolk ; church, 2052 q Reeds; moulding, 2129 Refinery furnace, 1761 Reform club house ; seagliola at, 2250 g. Lighting, 2264/'. Ventilation of, 2278 6 Refuse destructor, 1907e Reid, Dr. ; system of ventilation, 2278 Rivets, 1631r. Iron for; strong h of. 1639a Road scrapings, 1839i, 18526. Making, 18396. Drains ; in spec., 2286a Roadway ; in spec., 2281 Roanne, house near ; window, p. 975 Robert the Pious, king of France ; archi- tecture under, 289 Robin Hood stone, 1666t Robins, E. C. ; architect, on technical schools, 3038 Roche Abbey stone ; analysis, 1666 Roche lime, 2250/' Rochester, Kent ; cathedral, 396, 406. Founders and dimensions, 434. Proportion of, p. 1016. Joggled work at, 1925e. Castle, keep, 394, p. 1057 Rock concrete tubes for sewers, 1887a Rocking stones. See “ Logan stones ” Rock- worked rustics, 2669, 2670 Rod of brickwork ; decimal parts of, 2320. How to ascertain value of, 2314. Table of value of, at different prices, 2319 bolts, 2259. Of iron, stretching and breaking, 1630a Rodario, T. ; architect, 623 Rodrigo, Alonzo ; architect, 595 Rodriguez, Juan ; architect, 595 Roelandt, — ; architect, 2981 Rolbrich, Oxfordshire ; circle of stem s, 16 Roll and fillet ; moulding, p. 972 ; and triple fillet moulding, ib. ribbing ; slates, 221 li Rolled irons or bars, 1629r Rollers ; brass, 2263 Rolls; in plumbery, 2213 Rolls chapel, 1908a Roman architecture ; character of, and ob- servations on, 258. Not an original species, 182. Its succinct history to 309 b.c., ib. Time of Appius Claudius, 183. Under Cajsar, 186. Augustus, 187. Tiberius to Claudius, 191. Galba to Vitellius, 192. Vespasian and Titus, ib. Domitian to Nerva, ib. Trajan, 193. Hadrian, ib. The Auto- nines, i94. Decline, 195 et seq. Under Diocletian, 198 et seq. Revived but littlo under Valentinian II., 204. Honorius raised or repaired some basilic® at Rome, 204. Roman empire in the West ended in 476 A.D., 205. Destruction of Roman em- pire, p. 963 brickwork ; ancient, 1895 cement, 1863. Use of, 2251a. In spec., 2287 mosaic, 2231 e school ; its character, 334. Period of, 346. Principal masters of, ib. temples, p. 963 et seq. Of the quadran- gular species, 208 et seq. Of the circular species, 214 et seq., 217. Houses, 245 Romanesque or Byzantine architecture, 270 et seq. In France, 639. In Germany, 568, 570, 584. In Spain, 584, 587 INDEX. 1431 ROM Rome; cathedral of St. Peter, 33.' — 341. Doors of, 2735. Nave of, 2773. Niches and sta- tues in, 2779. Points of support of, 1581. Windows at, 2757 — — church cf San Carlo alle quattro fontanc, 342. Of San Carlo on the Corso, 342. Walls at San Chrysogono, 1535. Of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura, 281. Sta Maria Maggiore, niches at, 2779 ; walls at, 1535, 1549. Sta Maria sopra Minerva, 616. Sta Maria in Trastevere ; walls at, 1535. San Paolo fuori Ie Mura, 281, 1534 — 1546, 1553; points of support of, 1581 ; roof of, 2051. Walls at San Pietro in Vincolii, 1535. Walls at Sta Sabina, 1535, 1548, 1554. Chapel of San Pietro in Montorio, 335. San Stefano Kotondo, 1628. See “ Pan- theon ” — — Temple of Peace, 217, 2547. For other temples, see the names Palaces, 343, 344, 2735. Bracciano palace, window, 2768. 1 heatres, 226, 258. Farnese palace, cornice, 2725 ; door, 2744 ; window, 2763. Massimi palace, arcade, 2632. Mattei palace, windows, 2758. Argentino theatre, 2958, Villa Pia, near, 345. i See “ Arch ” taken by Totila, and again united to Eastern empire, 279 Romsey, Hampshire ; church, 396 Roof ; examination of strains in, 2031. Names of parts, ih. Scantlings of timbers for dif- ferent spans, 2035 — 2040. Mode of framing for different spans, 2042 — 2045. Mode of forming, in the mediaeval period, 2052c/ et seq. Mouldings of, p. 986 et seq. Lines for framing, 2053. Hip, to find the back of, 2054. Lines of, to find, 2053 — 2057. Incli- nation of ; in various climates, 2027 — 2030. Heights of roof in parts of span, 20405 glazing for skylights, &c., 2226c. In spec., 2289 ■ ; of stone, p. 998, p. 999. Of zinc, 22245. Exposed to wind, 1592c/ et seq. Weights of materials used for coverings, 20406. In spec., 2283, 2285a, 22856 Rooting ; how measured, 2337. Of Athens and Rome, 176 Rooms ; proportions of, 2820 et seq. Height of, 2821. Height of galleries, 2822. Pal- ladio’s rules, 2823, 2824 Rope and cables ; breaking weight of, 1630s yarn in thatching, 2211s Roriczer, Mathias ; architect, his work on Pin- nacles, p. 1008, p. 1019 Roritzer, Conrad; architect, 579, 580 Rose ; of lead, to cistern in gutter, 2214. In spec., 2288 - - window, p. 993 et seq. At York cathedral, p. 1015. At Ypres, 557, 658. At St. Ouen, p. 1032, p. 1036. At Rouen cathedral, p. 1033. At Beauvais cathedral, p. 1034. At Amiens cathedral, p. 1035, p. 1037, p. 1062 Rosel church ; spire, p. 1000 Rosellini, Bernardo ; architect, 335 Roseueath, Dumbartonshire ; house, 525 Roslvn chapel, near Edinburgh, 431, p. 1038. W idth, p. 1058 Rostock ; church of St. Mary, 567 Rot ; in timber, 1746 et seq. Rothenburg, 580 Rouen ; its secular and ecclesiastical archi- tecture, 552. Many churches, 549 , cathedral, 541, 549. Apse, p. 1007. SAI Clerestory window, p. 990. Rose windows, p. 1032, p. 1033. Iron spire, 1005 Rouen, St. Ouen, 544, 545 ; de.-igned, p. 1009. Set out with the perch, p. 1057 ; Nave and transepts, 547 ; Piers of nave, p. 1 040 ; Win- dow, p. 989 ; Rose windows, p. 994, p. 1009, p. 1032, p. 1036. Church of St. Nicaise, 550. St. Vincent, 547. St. Maelou, 544. Palais de Justice, 550; roof, 2052 1 . Fontaine do la Croix, 548. Stone cross, p. 974. Hotel de Bourgtheroulde, 550 Roughcast, 2249. In spec., 2287 Rough plate glass, 1877, 1878. In spec., 2289 Round churches, p. 1006 towers of Ireland, 149 9w, p. 1003 Routh, Yorkshire ; proportion of church, p. 1014 Royal exchange, London, 1855. Granite at, 1671a. Steps at, 16716 Polytechnic institution, London, 2278/, 1786 Rozier, — ; architect, 579 Rubbed returns, 1890 Rubbing stone; bricklayer’s, 1890 Rubble ; masonry, 1666/. In footings, 1886c. Work, 1922a et seq., 3030. In Spanish churches, 585 Rudstone pillar, Yorkshire, 14 Ruesga, J uan de ; architect, 596 Ruffden, Sir William ; house for, 440 Ruiz, Ferdinando; architect, 368 Rule; glazier’s, 2226. Plumb, 1890. For castings, 2265/ Rules ; adopted by Freemasons ; in proportion, p. 1057. Of proportion, p. 1013 Rumford grates, 2279 d Rumsey, Hampshire ; church, 396 Running loads over bars, 1628a Ruprecht, George and Fitz ; architects, 572 Ruremonde ; Notre Dame, 555 Rushdon, Northamptonshire ; church tower, p. 1002 Rushton hall, Northamptonshire ; lodge at, p. 1009 Ruskin, John ; writer, describes Gothic, p. 965 Russell, John S. ; his principles in the con- struction of buildings for seeing and hear- ing in, 2958a et seq. Russian architecture, 374 et seq. Churches built in the eleventh century, 375 ; type of, 377 Rustic work ; in spec., 2284a Rustics to joints of columns, 1925a Ruysbroek, Jan van ; architect, 562 n ABICUE wood, 1728rf O Sacchetti, Giambattista ; architect, 372 Sackville, Thomas, Earl of Dorset; house for, 440 Sacrificial stones, 22 Sacristy ; Felkirk church, p. 999 Saddle bar ; in glazing, 2227, 22296. In spec., 2286a Safe loads, 1618 Safety brick, 1905c Saffron Walden, Essex ; church, 421 Sagging, 2021a, 2031 , 20526. Prevented, 2031 Sagres ; Villa do Infante, ^107 Saint Alban’s, Hertfordshire ; cathedral, 312, 398, 407. Founders and dimensions, p. 196. Assimilating work, p. 968. Ceiling of nave and east end, 2023a. Ceiling of choir and 1432 INDEX. SAI lady chapel, 2023y. Window, p. 987, p. 988 Saint Amand ; church, 534. Chateau de Med- iant, 548 Saint Contest ; church spire, p. 1000 Saint Cross, Hampshire, 396. Ceiling in tower, 2023a. Porch, p. 998 Saint Cyr ; two apsides, p. 1007 Saint David’s, Pembrokeshire ; cathedral, cir- ( ular window, p. 993, p. 994 Saint Denis ; abbey, 539. Doorway, 539. Church, 540, p. 1028. Steeple, fall of, p. 1004 'Saint Edmundsburv. Gee “ liury Saint Edmunds ” Saiut George ; convent in Russia, 373 -Saint George Bocherville ; set out with the English perch, p. 1057 Saint George’s hall, Liverpool, 1671e Saint George’s hospital ; ventilation, 2278 6 •Saint Germain de Blancherbe; quarries, 1066/ Saint Germain’s, Cornwall ; monastery, 389 Saint Germain’s, near Paris, 440 Saint Honorine granite, 1669 Saint Hubert ; church, 559, 560 Saint James’s hall ; lighting, 2264/ Saint- James’s palace, Westminster, 426 Saint Jean aux Bois ; church, 540 Saint John’s deals, &.<•., 17296 Saint Leonard ; church tower, p. 1003 Saint Louis, king ; great number of eccle- siastical buildings erected under, 310 Saint Loup ; church spire, 1000 S lint Luke’s hospital, Old St>eet, 523 Saint Maximin ; church, 540 Saint Petersburg; founded, 378. Palaces of, ib. Church of Our Lady of Kazan, ib. Saint Pierre Canivet ; quarries, 16666 Saint Pierre-lez-Bitry ; church, 534 Saint Poole, Sir George ; designs for, 440 Saint Quentin ; chuich, 547. A use. p. 1007. Hotel de Vi lie, 548, 550 Saiut Riquier ; church, 547 Saint Rombaut ; cathedral, 558, 559 Saint Thomas’s hospital, 2975e et seg. Saint Trond ; church of St. Martin, 554 Sainte Kadigonde ; masons’ marks in church, 3226 Saintes ; amphitheatre, 228 Sakkarah, pyramids, 74, 75 Salamanca ; cathedral, 587, 597, 599. Domi- nican church of S. Esteban, 598. Colegio mayor de Santiago el Zebedeo or del arzo- bispo, 597. University, 595 Salisbury, Wiltshire ; cathedral, 542. Foun- ders and dimensions of, 434 ; Proportion of, p. 1016, p. 1023, p. 1058. Vaulting, 2002 g, 2002m. Buttresses, p. 1048. Window, p. 988. Spire, p. 1001 ; strengthened, p. 1005. Chapter-house, 149966 Saloons, 549 Salsette, excavation of ; near Bombay, 57 Saltpetring, 1667c, 1667m Salzburg ; cathedral, 3'55 Salzdorf, Johann von; architect, 580 San Bernardino ; chapel at, 350 Sand; measures, 2304. River, 1851. Pit, 1852. Sea, 1852a. Metallic, 1852c. For moulding, 2265c, 2265e. In cement, 2251a. Paper, 2276c/. How measured, 2304 Sand 1 or samel bricks, 1823 Sanding in painting ; outside work, 2277 Sandstones ; 1664. Buildings, 1665. Crush- ing force, 15021 Sangallo, Giuliano di ; architect, 335 SCH Sangallo, Antonio, architect, 343 San Gimignano, 614. Houses, 622 San Miehe’i, Michele; architect, 350 San Pedro de Rates, 600 Sanitary appliances ; closets, 22206. Papers, 2277c, 22776 arrangements for a house, 3036 et seg. aspect of house construction, 3027 et teg. specification for a villa, 22946. Sansovino, Jacopo ; architect, 351, 355 Santa Maria de Val de Dios ; church, 589 Santa Maria el Real de las Huelgas, near Burgos ; Cistercian nunnery, 587 Santarem ; capture of, 602. San Francisco, COO. Sta Maria de Marvilla, ib., 607. The Concei<;ao Velha, 607 Saracenic or Arabian architecture, 118 et seg. Decline of, 128 Saragossa ; church of Sta Engracia. 367 Sarcophagus of Duchess of Kent, 1671/ Sarinena, J uan ; architect, 598 Sarking ; to a roof, 2210 Sarzana ; cathedral, 618 Sarum, Old; cathedral, 396 Sash bars ; of zinc, 2224y. Of metal, 2255/ Door, 21656 ; in spec., 2285/ Frames, 2164, 2165. In spec. 2285 d. Lines, 2165a, 2260. Pulleys, 2260. Weights, 2165a, 2263. Mountings, 2165a. Pocket and fittings, 2165u. Tools ; glazier’s, 2226 Sashes, 2164. Removal of, 2165a. In spec., 2285d. Cast iron, in spec. 2286 Sashwork, 2226 Saturn, temple to (now of Vespasian), at Rome, 213, 260, 2547 Saul or sal timber, 1728a Savoy, London ; palace, 423. Chapel ceiling, 2023c Saw ; not known to the Greeks, 7. Carpen- ter’s, 2003. Ripping, half ripper, hand, panel, tenon, sash, dovetailed, compass, keyhole or twining, 2115. Teeth of, 2116. Sawing iron, 1767 Saw bench, 2124a, 21246 Saxon and Norman styles ; difference be- tween, 397 Saxons; arrival of, in Britain, 383. Manner of building, p. 1021. Cathedrals, propor- tion of, p. 1065 Scabbling hammer, 1913 Scaffolding ; in spec., 2282c. Framed, in spec., 2284c Scagliola work, 22506 et seg. Scales of iron ; in mortar, 1858, 18596 Seales and weights ; plumber’s, 2212 Scamozzi, Vincenzo ; architect, 355, 365 Scantle ; slater’s, 2209 Scantlings; for joists, 2015 — 2022. For gir- ders, 2021 Scappled blocked ; to granite, 1915c Scappling hammer, 1913 Scarborough museum, 2916 Scarfing, 2007 Scena ; of the Greek theatre, 172 Scenographia ; of Vitruvius, p. 1013 Scheiner, Johann ; architect, 583 Schelestadt church ; octagon steeple, p. 1004 Scliinkel ; architect, 2923 Schneeberg ; parochial church, 583 Schnellmeier, Heinrich ; architect, 579 Schomberg house, Pall Mall, 10666 Schonbrun ; palace, 365 School, Hanwell district, 2976c Schorl;- in granite, 16G9 INDEX. 1133 SCH Schwerin ; cathedral, 5G7 Sciography', 2458 — 2484. Nee “Shadows” Scoria; ; in mortar, 1859J Scotch granites, 1070. Slates, 1805 Scotgate Ash stone, 166G.r Scotia or Trochilus, 2532 Scotland ; architecture of, in time of the Saxons, 383, 388. Stone buildings in, of high antiquity, 388. Tudor examples of style in, 431. Spires of, p. 1003. Granites of, 1671 il et seq. Marbles of, 1682 Screen; Northtleet church, p.985 ; Lavenham church, p. Q8G. Aldenham church, ib. Screw, 1324 — 1330, 1631a. Varieties of, 2257 driver, 2110. Cheek, 2102 Screwdowns or valves, 2223s Scribe ; bricklayer’s, 1890 Scroll moulding, p. 972 Sculpture; in Gothic architecture, p. 971 et seq., p. 1028. Much used in the early' English style, 401. In France ; of the 14th century, 543 ; 15th and 16th centuries, 546. In France and Germany, 568. In Germany, 578 • rather than painting, allied to archi- tecture, 2522 Sea coal mortar, 1859a Se i sand, 1851 et seq., 2222 d. Inducing rot, 1746 Sea water ; effect of, on iron, 1779. On cement, 18625 et seq., 1864c Seams; in plumbery, 2213 Seasoning timber, 1748, 1751 Seats ; wood mouldings, p. 986. Of a church, in spec., 2285t Secqueville church ; spire, p. 1000 Section, 2490a Se< z ; cathedral, 540 Sefton, Lancashire ; proportion of church, p. 1016 Segeste ; temple, 149, p. 945 Segments of a circle ; Table of areas when the diameter is unity, 1225 Segovia ; bridge of, at Madrid, 371 — — cathedral, 367, 598. New cathedral, ib., 599. Masons’ marks, 3226. Casa de moneda, 526. Hieronymite monastery of Sta Maria del Parral, 596 Selby, Yorkshire; conventual church, 398, 421. Choir, groined ceiling, 2023y. Win- dows, p. 991 Selenitic mortar, 2250a Self-coiling shutters, 2148a Selin us; founded, p. 943. City, 147. Five temples, p. 946, p. 948, p. 949 Semiramis, queen ; works of architecture attributed to, 9 Semitas ; of the xy'stus, 175 Senlis ; cathedral, 540. Church of St. Pierre, 547. Church, 534 Sens ; cathedral, 540, 547 Septimus Severus ; arch at Home, 2547, p. 962 Seraglio ; reception room of the, 132 Serlio, Sebastien ; architect, 2744. Mode of relieving a lintel, 1925/. On proportion, p. 1058 Serpentine, 1681tf et seq., 1683c Servandoni, Niccola ; architect, 362 Service ; box to cistern, 2223c. Pipes, 2223 g Set ; produced by a straining force, 16286, 1630e Sets off, 1900tofano ; architect, 623 Solder ; for lead work, 2223a. For copper, iron, brass, and pewter, 2224(7 Soldering, 2223 f; 22236. Zinc, 1797 Solids, 979 — 995. Mensuration of, 1229 et seq. See “ Mensuration ” . to voids ; ratio of, in vertical sections of Gothic buildings, 1583e. See “ Points of Support ” Solmone ; aqueduct and house, 625 Solutions, fireproof, 2971/ Somerset house, London, 518 et seq., 2893. Old ; ground plan of, 440. Water front, 459 Somersetshire ; churches in the florid English style, 423 Sompting, Sussex ; church tower, p. 971 Soufflot, Jacques G. ; architect, 361, p. 1048 Souillac ; church, 307, 535 Sound boarding. See “ Pugging ” Sound. See “ Isacoustie curve ” and “Theatre.” Non-conductor of ; see “Slag wool.” Wood as a conductor, 2964 South Wingfield, Derbyshire ; mansion, 426 South Wraxhall, Somersetshire ; hall roof, 20527 Southampton ; new church, 525 Southfleet, Kent ; church roof, 2052 o Southwark, Surrey ; church of St. Mary Overies, or St. Saviour’s, 421 ; vaulting ribs, p. 980. Of St. Olave, 512 Southwell, Nottinghamshire ; collegiate church, 389. Founders and dimensions, p. 197. East windows, p. 988. Porch, p. 998 Sow ; of lead, 1782 Spain ; marbles of, 1680. Architecture of, 367 et seq., 584 Spalatro (properly Spalato); joggled arches, 1925c. Niches, 2775 Spandril ; in vaulting, 2002e Spanish white, 2274 Spazi, L. de’ ; architect, 623 Speaking tubes, 2262a Special subjects, 2861 et seq. Specifications, 2280 et seq. Spey, Johann von ; architect, 579 Sphreristerium ; of the Greek gymnasium, 175 Sphere; surface or segment, 1237. Solidity of a, 1238. Solidity of a spherical segmeut, 1239. Its resistance, 1592(7 Spherical surfaces ; to form in joinery, 2208. Vaulting, 1478 — 1493 Sphinx of Egypt, 74 INDEX. 1435 sri Spiders in roofs, 557 Spikes, 2253 Spina ; of the Roman circus, 240 Spindle ; self-adjusting, 2261 Spink well quarry, 16G6y Spiral stairs, 2808 Spires, p. 1000 et seq. Construction of, p. 1003. In spec., 22845. Of iron, p. 1005. Of zinc, 22245. With open tracery, p. 1005. Of wood, at Breslau, 579. Of stone, at Thomar, 007. At Salisbury, p. 1052 ; thickness of stone, 75. Lofty, in Belgium, 5G0. Of brick, ib. Gothic, wrought into Italian architecture, 484 Spires, or Speyer ; cathedral, 287 Splays, ramps, and chases; in spec., 22825 Split oak for pales, 21255 Splitting slates, 221 Id Sprinkler, automatic, 29717 Square; bricklayer’s, 1890. Bricklayer’s large, ib. Glazier’s, 2226. Joiner’s, 2118. Mitre, 2124 Squares ; use of, in proportion, p. 1005 et seq., p. 1008 et seq. And triangles, systems of, 620 Squares, &c. Tables of, 2297g, 22975 Squaring the rail of stairs, 2187. Dimensions, 2297 Squinch, p. 1001 Stability ; of piers or points of support, 1563 ; of buildings, 1583e et seq. In a roof, 2035 a. Source of fitness, 2500. Dependent on laws of gravitation, 2501 Stable ; and fittings, 22557. In spec., 22825, 22855, 2286a. Supply of water to, 22237. Mason’s work in, in spec., 2284d Stacking timber, 1730 et seq. Stadium ; of the Greek gymnasium, 175 Stafford, Duke of Buckingham ; his palaces, 426 Staffordshire tile, 1908c Stages of mouldings, p. 979 Stained glass, 22315 Stains for wood, 2276e. In spec., 2290a Staircases, 2796 et seq. Designing of, impor- tant, 2797. Light in, 2798. Of the Greeks and Romans, 2799. Few remains of, at Pompeii, 2800. Of the Trinna de’ Monti and Araceli, 2802. Palladio’s rules for forming, 2803, 2804. Various sorts, 2805. Winding or spiral, 2806. Palladio's rules for, 2806, 2807. Spiral, with solid newel, 2808. Spiral, with open newel, 2809. El- liptical, with open newel, 2810. Elliptical, with solid newel, 2811. Easiness of ascent in, 2813. Blondei’s rule, 2814. How measured, 2357 Stairs; iron circular, 2255. Back and prin- cipal of stone, in spec., 2284c. Of wood, in spec., 2285c, 2285 d ■ stone, 1926 et seq. With solid or open newel, 1926. Geometrical, 1927 — 1929. Landings, half paces and quarter paces of, 1929. Thickness of steps, 1928. Rules for risers and treads, 2177 — 2179. Carriage, &c. of, 2026. Deal, in spec., 2285e, 2293c Stall board ; in spec., 2285e. In stables, in spec., 22855. Dressings, in spec., 22855 Stalls ; in churches, 2192a. At Winchester cathedral, p. 984. At Selby, p. 985. At Lan- caster, ib. In Henry Vil.’s chapel, p. 986 Stamford, Lincolnshire ; parochial church, 421. All Saints church, porch, p. 999 Stamped or incised plaster, 2245a STO | Stancheons ; to windows, 2229c. Strength of, I 1631 i et seq. In spec., 2286a Stancliffe stone, 1666 Standard; of deals, 1729 Stanford's joint for drains, 1888a Staplehurst Kent ; church door, 2145a Starston, Norfolk ; church, 2052r Stassins, Jan ; architect, 559 Stationes ; of the Greek gymnasium, 175 Statues, 2773 et seq. Founding of, 2266. King William IV., 16715. At Portsmouth Aberdeen, &c., 1671/. See “ Niches” Steam; in warming, 22795, 2?79»i Steel, 1633 — 1635, 1764, 1769 et seq. Shearing of, 1631s. Plates, strength of, 1630c. Columns, 2255. Ornament, 2255o Steel decking for floors, 1903/1 Steely iron, or semi-steel, 1769a, 1773 Steen houkebelde, Thiery de ; architect, 559 Steening wells, 1829. In spec., 22825 Steeple ; octagonal, in Spain, 590. Of zinc, 22245. Nee “Spire” Steier ; church, 567 Steiubach, Erwin and Johann von ; archi'ects, 770 Stellar form of vaulting, 1499y et seq., 2002ic Stench trap ; to drain, 2220/. In spec., 2288a Stepping ; to flashing, 221 1 5 Steps. 2180a. And risers, to proportion, 2177, 2178a. Of slate, 22 1 1 . Lime, 1849 ; 18596. Coloured, 1 (>66e. Pipe, 2223/). In spec., 2282 a, 22936. Cutting; see* Masonry.” , Kent; church, p. 1020, p. 1028 , Nicholas ; mason, 313, 440, 402 buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, 515 Stonehenge ; account of, 18. By Inigo .Tones, 457 — 461. By Mr. Cunnington, 19, 40. Not built by the Britons, 380, 388 Stoneware, 1839e, 1908a. Pipes, 1888a, 2223/). Bonding bricks, 1902c Stop; to chamfers and mouldings, 21756 Stop-cock for gas; in spec., 2293 Stopping and picking out tools ; plasterer’s, 2233 in painter’s work, 2270. In spec., 2290a Story ; posts and curb for, in spec., 2284c, 2285a, 22856. Rod, for stairs, 2182 Stoves, 2279d, 2279e. For gas, 2264/, 2279e Stowting, Kent ; church, lead of glass, 2229 a Straight-edge, 2123. Plasterer’s, 2233 Straight-joint floor, 2168 Straining-piece, 2034 Strains; on beams and girders, 1628c et seq. On roof framing, 2031. On incliued timbers, 1662 Strap; in carpentry, 2011. To roofs, in spec., 2286, 2286a Stra.-sburg ; cathedral, 322, 567, 570. Pro- portion, p. 1011. Masons employed at, 312, 315. Spire, p. 1005. Carving at, 311 Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire; paro- chial church, 314, 408, 421 Straw; in thatching, 2211s Strelly, Nottinghamshire; church porch, p.999 Strength; of materials, 1500 et seq. In a beam, 1628c. Of bodies to resist deflection, 16306. Of various timbers, 1632a Stretchers, 1894 Stretching ; resistance to, 1630/ String courses, p. 981 et seq. Or bands to spires, p. 1003. In spec., 228 la Strings ; of stairs, 2026. In spec., 2285 cl Striped work ; in masonry, 1914 Striping; in masonry, 1914 Stripping walls before re-papering, 2277/1 The surface, in spec., 2281 Strode & Co’s ventilator for gas, 2278t> Stroking; in masonry, 1910 Strong closets ; in spec., 22826 Strong, Thomas ; master mason, 469 Struts ; in carpentry, 2009, 2021a, 2031. Strength of, 1631/ et seq. And braces, abut- ments for, 2010 Strutt, or Belper stove, 2279/ Strutting pieces, 2018 Stuart, .James; architect, 516, 525, 2047 Stuart’s granolithic paving, 1905c Stucco, 2250 d et seq. Bastard. 2236 ; 2243. Painting, 2269. In Ireland, 2250 g. In spec., 2287 Stuck work ; in joinery, 2105. In Gothic joinery, 2175c Stuff ; size of, in Gothic work, 2175c. Thick- ness, in Gothic work, 2175c/, p. 986 Stukely, or Stewkley, Buckinghamshire ; church, 389 Stump tracery, 578 Styles; of a door, 2130 TAB Styles of architecture, all dependent on fitness, 2508. Principles of, p. 1047 Sub-arch, p. 977 Subdivisions and apartments of buildings, and their points of support, 2848. Vaults for covering, how arranged, 2849 — 2854 Subiaco ; monastery of Sta Scolast ca, 614 Subterranean style of Egypt ; caused by the climate, 64 Sudatio ; of the Greek gymnasium, 175. Of the Roman baths, 235, 236 Sudely, Gloucestershire; house, 423 Suffolk ; bricks, 1820, 1831a. Latch, 2262 - — — Lord ; house for, 440 Sugar ; effect of, on iron, 1779c Sully-sur-Loire ; roof, 2052/, 2052 q Sulphate of copper, 1752c Summer ; building in, 1832a Summer hill, Kent, 452 Sun Fire office ; plinth, 16716 Sunium ; temple, p. 943, p. 945 Sun lights, 2264e Superficies ; mensuration of, 1212 — 1228. See “ Mensuration ” Superintendents of English buildings in the middle ages, 312 Supervisor. 312, 319, 320 Supplement ; of an arc, 1038 Support-. See “Points” Surfaces, 929 — 934 Survey of Gothic buildings ; system of not- ing, p. 975 Surveyor, 312, 319. General, 319 Susa ; arch of Augustus, p. 962 Suspending rods ; in roofing, 2043 Sussex marble, 168 1 c/ Sutton Place. Surrey ; 1908a Swansea, Glamorganshire ; eastJp, 413, 414 Swardestone, Norfolk ; church roof, 2052/) Swedish timber, 1729/ Swift, dean ; his ignorance of art, 491 Swinbrook, Oxfordshire ; bench end, p. 986 Sybil ; temple of the, at Tivoli, 214, 2547 S' camore, 1724 Sydenham, Surrey ; palace at, p. 1057 Syenite, 1669. Crushing weight of, 15026 Syenitic granite, 1669, 1671 g Sylvester’s process for protecting stone and brickwork, 1667 n. System of ventilat on, 2278y. Stoves, 2279c/, 2279e Symmetry ; in architecture, 2510, p. 958 Syphon trap, 2220c/ ; 2223/. In spec., 2288a Tank, 18886 Syphonage, 1888c/, 22206, 2223»t Syphonic aspirator ventilation, 2278 m S yracuse, 626. Temples, p. 943 Houses, 626 Systvle intercolumniation, 2605. Monotri- glyph, i6. Sz relmey’s process for preserving stone, 1667»t tPA ; sepulchral tower of the Chinese, 106 -L Tabary metallic cement, 1667n Tabernacle, or canopy ; plan of, p. 975 Tables, or stone courses, 1922o, p. 979 Tablinum ; of a Roman house, 248, 253 Tacks, 2257a, 2257c/ Tadmor or Palmyra ; extraordinary struc- ture, 196, 197 Tai ; of the Chinese, 106 Taking down, in spec., 2281 Talenti, Francisco ; atchitect, 323 Tall boy, 1905a INDEX. 1437 TAD Tail's concrete construction, 1903x Tangent ; of an arc, 1041 Tanjore ; pagoda, 59 Tanks and cisterns ; of iron, 2223 5. For water, 1785a, 22225 Taormina; houses, G26 Taper shell bit, 2102 Tar; as a paint, 22735. Asphalte, 1867r/, 19055. Paving. 19055. Oil of, 175 la Tarentum ; founded, p. 943 Tarnish, of copper, 1789a Tarouca ; Cistercian monastery, 600 Tarpaulin, 1908a Tarragona ; cathedral, 587, 592. Masons’ marks, 3225 Tarring fence, in spec., 22855 Tas de charge ; in vaulting, 2002e Tassels ; in a roof, 2052/ Taste ; in architecture, 2492. Standard of, 2506 Tattersball, Lincolnshire ; castle, 423. Door- way. p. 998 Tatti, Jacopo ; architect. See “Sansovino” Taunton ; St. Mary’s church, 421. Tower, p. 1002 Tayler, Mr. ; his house at Potter’s Bar, 440 Taylor, Sir Robert; architect, 313, 515, 523 Taylor’s new roofing tiles, 1835. Damp proof c urse, 1886rf. Facing block for walls, 1902e Teak wood, 1728. Strength of, 1630ot Teale, T. P. ; grate, 2279 d Teano ; castle, 625 Tearing materials asunder, 1630£ Tebbutt’s safety brick, 1905c Tectorium ; for walls, 22775 Technical schools and college buildings, 3037 et seq. Tee irons, 1629s Telekouphonon ; for speaking tube, 2262a Tempering iron, 1769a Temple Newsham, Yorkshire ; house, 452 Temp e, 76 et seq., 142 et seq., 196 et seq., 2547 et seq. Proportion of, p. 1057 et seq. Sec in Glossary Templet ; bricklayer’s, 1890. Or Mould, 1890, p. 1019. Carpenter’s, in spec., 2285 Tenons, 20C8 Tensile strain ; in stone and marble, 1502 o s rength, 1628e, 1628«, 1630/). Of cast iron, 1630s Tension, 1628e, 1630c. Rod to a beam, 20215 Tentvra ; temple at, 71, 78, 80, 91 Teocalli.t ; houses of gods of the Mexicans, 111,113 Teos ; temple, p. 951 Teotihuacan ; p - ramids of, 111 Teotoeopoli, Domenico ; architect, 369 Tepidarium ; of the Roman baths, 235 Terminus 2686 Terni ; church of San Francesco, 613 Terra-cotta. 1667o, 1839// et seq. l’or, us, 1903/-. Architectural use of, 1908. Colours in. 1908/. S rength of. 1908o. And brick church, 624. Work, in Spain. 585 ; and other places, 1908 Terras, 1859c, 1859c Terro-metallic ; tiles, 1835. Grooved bricks, 1905c Tertiary French Gothic. See “Flamboyant” Tessera:, 1839c Testing ; cast and wrought iron, and steel 2266a. A beam, 1630/. Stone, 1500 et seq., 2266d. Bricks, 15025. Drains, ’1888/). Timber, 1603 et seq., 22665. Cement, 2262c TIE Testing machines, 2266a et seq., 2266/ et seq. Tetburv, Gloucestershire ; church, 614 Tetrastyle temple, 2528 et seq. , Tettoje, or penthouse roof, 614 Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire ; monastery, 389. Conventual church, 421. Shafts of, p. 1023. Choir, p. 948 Thames; ballast, 1861. Embankment, 16715, 1671c Thaon, Normandy ; church, 547. Spire p. 1000 Thatching, 2211s Thaxted, Essex ; parochial church, 421 Theatre; in Rome, 185,226,258. Of A! mil ins Scaurus, ib. Tnat by Curio, ib. Of Mar- cellus, 226,258, 2547. That of Pompeii, 227 of the Greeks, 172. First constructed iu a temporary manner, ib. - — - roof of old Drury Lane, 2048 Theatres ; modern, 2947 et seq. By Bramante, ib. Their r vival, 2949. Piints for con- sideration in, 2952. Forms of. 2953, 2957. Wyatt’s principles, 2956. Siz -s of, and sch mes for hearing and seeing, 2957 — 2961. Use of semicircle in, 2965. Distance from stage to boxes, 2968. Seeing in, 2969. Foreign theatres, 2972 Late suggestions for improving, 2970 et seq. Ingress and egress, 2970, 2971. Cr sh room, 2970, 2971. Passages, ib. Staircases, ib., 29705. Openings, 2970a. Doorways, ib. Departments, 2n71. Fire- proof w rk at, 2971a. Curtain. 29715. Lighting, electric and gas. 2971nes, 534 Third Pointed work ; p oportion in, p. 1017 Thirds ; in proportion, p. 983 Thomar ; cloisters of the Templars, 600. Nossa Senho'a dos OLvaes, ib. Choir, 601. San Joao Battista, 607 Thornburv, Gloucestershire ; palace, 426. Bay window at castle, 428 Thornton coll ge ; for Sir Vincent Skynners, 440 Thorpe, John ; architect, his folio volume of drawings, 440. Observations on by Wal- pole, 441. Design for his own hou-e, ib. Tiiorpland, Norfolk ; hall porch, p. 999 Through stones, 1920 Thrust ; of an arch, 1408—1412, 1496 Thuin, Jean de, and his son ; architects, 559 Thumb ; screws, 2263. Latch. 2262 i, of ihe Greek theatre, 172 Tie-beam, 2031. Roofs, 2031 et seq., 2052 m, 2052» rods to a beam, 1629a’. And suspension bars, strength of, 1 603)- Titrceron; in vaulting, 1499/ 1438 INDEX, TIE . Ties of iron, 557, 558, 560. And chains, 1495 Tigranes; palace of, at Diarbekr, 305 Tile ; floor and roof, 1903e et seq. Arch or flat, in spec., 2282a. Floor, in spec., 228 2b, 2284c, 2293c. Faying, 1905d. To clean tiles, 19059 1834 et seq. Of ivhat composed, and how manufactured, 1834. Varieties of, 1835, 1906. llidge roof and hip tiles, 1836. Gutter tiles, 1837. Pan or Flemish tiles, 1838, 1907. Paving tips, 1839, 18395. Bridgewater double roll tiles, 1838. Lock- jaw tiles, 1838. Weights, 1839. Terro- metallic tiles, 1839a. Adamantine clinker, ib., 1905c. Mathematical tiles, 1839a. Of glass, 2231a. Glazed, 1839a ; in spec., 2284a Tiles ; Plain, Roman, and hollow ; proper slope of roofs for, 2030 Tiler's ; tools, 1908. Work, in spec., 2283. Trowel, 1908 Tiling, 1906 et seq. In spec., 2283. Measuring and estimating, 2301 Tdting cistern ; for flushing, 18885 Timber ; chief material in use among the Chinese, 98 not an element in Egyptian architec- tural composition, G3 — 71. Houses in Eng- land, short account of, 439. On the Con- tinent, ib. At Troyes, 2023d • different species of, 1684 et seq. Oak, 1685. Chestnut, 1696. Beech, 170 L. Wal- nut, 1703. Cedar, 1705. Fir, 1706. White fir, 1710. Spruce fir, 1711. American pine, 1712. Larch, 1717. Pop ar, 1718. Alder, 1719. Elm, 1720. Ash, 1723. Sycamore, 1724. Birch, 1725. Wellingtonia, 1726. Mahogany, 1727. Teak, 1728. Morung saul, 1728a. Morra, 17285. Greenheart, 1728c. Peon or poon, 1728d. Kowrie, ib. Red cedar, ib. Sa bicue, ib. Iron bark, ib. Borneo wood, ib. Bilian, ib. Table of weights of timber, 1597, 1728e. Woods as classed at Lloyd’s, 1728/. Standards of deals, 1729 - — - ports — Quebec, 1729a ; St. John’s, 17295; Pugwash, Miramichi, 1729c. Baltic ports ■ — Memel, 1729d ; Christiania, ib.-, Drammen, ib. Home trade 1729c ; mode of preserving, 1730 — 1738. Preservation, 1739 — 1744. Decay, 1745 — 1747. Prevention of decay, 1748 — 17525. Cure of dry rot, 1753. Drying, 1749a different species of strength, 1598. Co- hesive force, in the direction of length, 1598, 1599. Sirengtli, in an upright position, 1600. Resistance of a post 1602. Hori- zontal pieces of timber, experiments, 1603 — 1611. Strength, modified to its absolute and primitive force and its flexibility, 1611 — 1613. Strength of timbers in an inclined portion, 1622 — 1627. Timber injured by strains, 1628d. Ditto by action ofsun,1628e. Table of strength of various timbers, 1632a. Strains on beams and girders, 1628. Weights of, 1728e. Use of, in building, 1729/ pillar ; strength of, 1600 et teq., 1630u> Timbers; scantlings of, for roofs, 2037 — 2040. Should be measured when carcass of build- • ing is completed, 2314. Use of, in buildings, 172 9/ Conversion of, 2125a et seq. Cubic I TRA foot of ; to compute value, 2344, 2345. In spec., 2285. In circular work for roofs, 2052 et seq. Tin ; strength of, 1630r. Alloved with cop- per, 1791 saw; bricklayer's, 1890 Tinemouth. See “ Tynemouth ” Tinned iron ; effect of, 17805. Lead pipe, r 2223m Tinterne, Monmouthshire; conventual church, 407, p. 971 et seq. Tiryns ; walls of, 31, 33 Tisbury stone, 1G66. Of the Constable Fedro Fernandez de Velasco, 596. Of Aflbnso II. and 111., & c., and of Pedro I. and Ignez de Castro, at Alcobaija, 602. Ofthe Scaligeri, at Verona, 617 of Elizabethan architecture, 449. Of Batcliffe, Earl of Sussex, ib. Of Dudley, Earl of Leicester, ib. Of Carey, Lord Hunsdon, ib. Under James I., 453. Of Archbishop Stratford, at Canterbury, 1499(52 Tongres ; church of Notre Dame, 557, 560 Tongue; in joinery, 2191 Tonnage ; in valuation of warehouses, p. 1098 Tools for building ; used by the early Greeks, 7. See “ Painters ” and other trades Toothings ; of walls, 1900c Top rails of a door, 2130 Torbay iron paint, 2273c Torsion. 1628e, 1631a; Tortoise stove, 2'279e Torus, 2532. In Norman architecture, 397 Tote ; of a plane, 2104 Tothill Fields prison, 1855 Totila takes Rome, 279 Toughened cast iron, 17655 Toughness of bodies, 1630t Toulouse ; cathedral, 586. St. Sernin, 545 Toultecs ; architecture of the, 110 Tournai, 564. Cathedral, 557, 558. Church of St. Quentin, 553, 554. The Madeleine, 555. Sc. Jacques, ib. Tower of London, 394 — 398, 423 Towers and spires ; construction of, 961, p. 1000 et seq. In spec., 2284a, 22845. Mediaeval, domestic, at San Gimignano, 622. Three western, 583. Of brick, at Bruges, 557 ; at Bois-le-Duc, 560 Town drainage, 1888/ Town dwellings for industrial clastes, 3ol'2 et siq. Townley hall, Lancashire ; gallery, 525 Tracery bar, p. 990 INDEX. 1439 TEA Traccvy and geometric forms, p. 1028. At Amiens, geometrical stvle of, p. 1062. In German Gothic, 565. In windows, p. 980, p. 994 et seq. In spec., 2284a, 2286a Trajan’s ; Column, 193, 486, 2603. Bridge over Danube, 193, 222. Forum, 193. Arch at Beneventum, p. 963 Trams ; for paving, 1672 'I rani ; cathedral, 626 Transition ; of periods in Gothic architecture, 410, p. 969 Transparent wire-wove for glass, 2226(7 Transverse strain, 1028e, 1028(/ et seq., 16287. In stone, 1502o. Strength of bricks, 1833 et seq. Trap to drains, 22185. In spec., 2288a. To water closets, 2220a, 2220y. Of cast iron, in spec., 2286a doors ; in spec., 2285a Trass or terras, 1859e Traversing wood, 2121 Tread, for steps, 2178a. Hawksley’s patent, 2180 Tread; of metal, 2180. Of stoneware, 1908n. Of marble, 2002/in. In spec., 2285d Treasury, in Loudon; by W. Kent, 17276 at Mycenae, 36. At Orehomenos, 37 Tredgold’s form of beam, 1628a 1 , 16297 Tresham, Sir Thomas ; architect, 440 Treussart’s concrete, 18626 Treves or Trier ; church of St. Mary, 566 ; and of St. Matthias, 583 Trevi ; temple at, 211, 2672 Trevigi, Girolamo da ; architect, 427 Triangle ; use of in proportion, p. 1005 et seq., p. 1008 et seq. No definite theory of design carried out on it, p. 1018 Triclinium ; of a Roman house, 252, 253 Triforium, 286, 555, 602. None to chancel of Bristol cathedral, p. 1017, p. 1028. At Wells cathedral, p. 1024. At Amiens cathedral, p. 1061 Triglyphs ; origin of, 135. Regulate the dis- position of Doric order, 2605 Tngon ; proportion, p. 1013 Trigonometry; plane, 1032 et seq. Trimmers and trimming joists, 2017. How measured, 2340. To hearths, in spec., 2282a Trimming ; of slates, 2210 Tripoli ; described generally, 132 Triumphal arches ; different sorts, 220. Pro- portion of, p. 958 et seq. Trochilns or Scotia, 2532 Trough shape beams, 1629f • closets, 2220 o Trowel; bricklayer’s, 1890. Slater’s, 2209. Plasterer’s, 2233. Tiler’s, 1908 Trowelled or bastard stucco, 2236 — 2244 Troyes; doors in timber houses at, 2023(7 Trunch, Norfolk ; church roof, 20527 Truro, Cornwall ; parochial church, 408, 421. Cathedral; founders and dimensions, p. 196 Truss, -2031. System of trusses, 2032. For girders, 2021. In spec., 2285a Trussed ; partition in a roof, 2052 g. Rafter roofs, 2052m Trussing a beam ; formula for, 1629u, 1630n, 2021a Trying up, 2102. Plane, plumber’s, 2212 Tubes ; ventilation by, 2278 q et seq. Tubing, welded ; for gas, 22647( Tuck pointing ; in masonry, 1900, 1915a VAL Tuddington, Bedfordshire; house nt, 440 Tudela ; cathedral, 587, 588 Tudela do Duero ; parochial church, 598 Tudor style ; examples of, in Scotland, 431. In England, 422 et seq., 432. Character- istics of, in windows, ceilings, flying but- tresses, ornaments, canopies, pedestals, &c., 430 headed windows, p. 990 Tufa ; in panels of vaults, 1499cc, 2C026 Tuileries and Louvre, at Paris, 357 Tulle ; cathedral, 534 Tunbridge, Kent ; castle. 394. Sandstone, 16667, 1667m. Ware, 2173c Tungstate of soda, 2971/’ Turbine ; for ventilation, 22786 Turin ; Carlo Alberto statue, 1671a Turnbuckles. 2263 Turpentine, 2271 Tuscan Gothic architecture, 608 order ; inventors of, 258. The order, 2553. Admits of few ornaments, 2554. Method of profiling, 2555. Parts of, on larger scale, 76. 'fable of heights and pro- jections, 76. Whole height of, 2556. Pal- ladio's method of profiling, 2557. Ser.io’s method, 2558. Scamozzi's method, 2559. Intereoltimniation, 2606 — 2609. Arcade, 2621. With pede.-tal, 2628 Tusculum ; aqueduct, 304, 306 1 usk ; iu carpentrv, 2008 Tutbury church, Staffordshire; door, 2002ee Twisting or torsicn, 1631a 1 Tvmpauum, 2715. Face of, how dispo. ed, ‘2723 Tynemouth, Northumberland ; conventual church, 407 Types ; of architecture, in three states of lile, 2. Of the art, 258, 2507 TjFFINGTON, Berkshire; chancel ceiling, ' J 2023 g. Porch, p. 998 Ulm ; cathedral, 575. Apse, p. 1007 Ulric, ofUlm; architect, 365 Undercutting; to mouldings, p. 981 Underpinning; in spec., 2282c. Wedges for, iu spec., 2286 Undy-boltel ; moulding, p. 973 Unity ; in architecture, 2509 Upholsterers and decorators ; to be avoided in matters of taste, 2604 Uria, Pietro de ; architect, 367 Urinals ; of slate, 2221 Use and wear ; in dilapidations, p. 1094 Utenhove, M. ; architect, 559 Utrecht, bishop of ; killed by a freemason, 310 ACUUM sy'stem of ventilation, 22786 Vaison, churches, 307 Valencia; cathedral, 588, 594. Puerta de Serranos, 594. Tower El Micalete, 76. Vale Royal, Cheshire; conventual church, 407 Valladolid ; cathedral, 586. Casa del Avun- tamiento, 596. S. Benito, 598. Sta Maria Madalena, 599. Dominican college of S. Gregorio, 597. College of Santa Croce, 367 Valle Crucis, Denbighshire ; conventual church, 407 Vallfagona, Bernardo de ; architect, 587 Valmarana, palazzo, balustrades, 2698 1440 INDEX. VAL Valuation of property, p. 1094 et seq. Valve water i losets, 22206 to cisterns, 2223.5 Vanbrugh, Sir John ; architect, herald, and dramatist, 491 — 497 Van Ileeke’s ventilation, 2278 6, 2278z Vanes ; in spec., 2286a Variety, desire for ; cause of decoration, 2515 Varnish; in paint, 2271c Varnishing; 2274, 22766. To clean, 2276c. In spec., 2290a. Vasquez, M. ; architect, 605 Vaucelles ; church spire, p. 1000 Vault, 1499ja. Of stone, in India, 19036. For covering apartments, how arranged, 2849. Its weight and thrust, 2852. Springing of, 2849 — 2854. In Gothic architecture, terms employed in, 1499c. Different species of, 1499tc et seq. Prepared for, before piers were set out, p. 1059 Vaulting, cylindrical ; how to regulate cais- sons in, 2002 et seq. Compound and groined, 1444 — 1456. Coved, 1464 — 1477. Spheri- cal, 1478 — 4493. Intersecting, 1944 et seq. Roofing over, 205 'if examples of, 11996. Solid throughout, at Packingtou church, 525. At King’s College chapel, p. 1047, p. 1048. At Bath abbey church, p. 1052. In cloisters at Gloucester, il>. In east aisle of Peterborough cathedral, ib. At St. George’s chapel, Windsor, ib. Thickness of stone in, ib. In chapter-home, at Wells, p. 1026. To porches, p. 998, p. 999 shafts and ribs, p. 980 et seq . Velarium ; of the amphitheatre, 229 Velletri ; campanile, 625 Velocity ; of n falling body, 1630o Vendoiiie ; abbaye de la Trinite, tower, p. 1004 Veneers; gluing together in joinery, 2200 Venetian ; windows, 2756. Frames, in spec , 2285d. Mosaic, 223 le, 22316. Filters and tanks, 2223c et seq. Gothic architecture, 608. Details, p. 975 filter, 2222c school of Italian architecture ; its cha- racter, 349, 356, 463, 464 Venice; church of San Marco, 284, 307. La Garita, arcades at, 2655, 2656. SanFantino, and pal. Cornari, 351. San Salvadore, 355. Sat.ti Giovanni e Paolo, 613. Madonna del Orto, ib. Sta Maria Gloriosa de’ Frari, ib. Of the Redentore, 354. San Zaccaria and San Salvatore, proportion of, p. 1013. Rialto bridge, 356. St. Mark’s library, 357, 2910. Sal a del Consigio of ducal palace, 618. Piazza S. Marco, 355. Ca Contarini Fasan, 610. Pal. Grimani, 350. Vi nter ; of an aqueduct, 225 Ventdated slating, 2 10c, 2210/ Ventilation; of sewers, 18876. Of drains, 18887. Of hospitals, 2975c. Of rooms, 3035. Of buildings, 2278 et seq. Assists warming, 2279a. To gas burners, 22v8t>. To drains, 22206, 2223?n. At theatres, 29716 Ventilators 2278/t. Of glass, 2231a. Of per- forated zinc, 22246 Air bricks, in sp c., 2286. Tobin’s, 2278s. Table of cube feet of air through a ventilator, 2278s Vercelli ; monastery of San Andrea, 611. Hospital, ib. Chuivh, ib. WAD Verde Antico and Verde di Corsica marble, 20026 Verge] 5 stone, p. 1004 Verona ; Church of Sta Anastasia, 624. San Bernardino, ib. San Fernio Maggiore, 616. San Pietro, door, 2143c. Amphitheatre, 228. Pal. Pompei, 350. Porta del Pallio, ib. Porta Nuova, ib. Theatre, 29 0 Versailles ; arched floor at war office, 19036 Versed sine ; of an arc, 1040 Verueal ; cathedral, masons’ marks, 3226. Cistercian abbey, 587, 592 Vesica Piscis; use of, p. 1007, p. 1009, p. 1010, p. 1014, p. 1043 Vesinet, near St. Germain ; church, 1903/) Vespasian ; temple to, a t Rome, 209,213, 200, 212, 2547 Vesta; temple at Rome, 214, 2547 Vestibulum ; of a Koman house, 244 Vezelay ; church, 534. Doorway, 539 Viaduct; at Cuenca, 598 Vianden ; chapel of castle, 556 Vibration; affecting iron, 1779a Vice ; glazier’s, 2228 Vicenza; cathedral, 624. Arcades, 2641, 2663. Balustrades at Chiericato palace, 2698. At Porti pal., ib. Pal. Thienne ; window^ 2769. Arcades, 2650. Theatre, 2948 Victoria stone, 1667 z Vieille Montagne zinc works, 1792, 1795, 22246 Vienna ; cathedral, 567. St. Stephen’s, 576 ; spire, p. 1005 ; choir, p. 1006; proportion, p. 1011. St. Maurice, 532. Stables, venti- lation, 2278a Vignola, See “ Barozzi ” Villa; site on which it can be designed, 2999, 3000. Those of Rome, 345. Of the Romans, very extensive, 184. Of Cicero, 243. Of Lueulhts and of Pollio, ib. sanitary specification for, 22946 Village hospitals, 29756 Villaneuva, Baltasar, de ; architect, 371 Vtllers ; abbey, 555 Villers, St. Paul ; lintel to door, 19256 Vincennes; castle of, 311 Vine, The, Hampshire; portico at, 465 Vintimiglia ; cathedral, 608 Viseu ; tower of Don Duarte, 607 Viterbo; the palazzetto, 614. Fountain, ib. Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus; architect, manu- scripts of, 326. His precepts on the Doric order, 2610. Work appeared, p. 1037; and work cited in the midd'e ages, p. 1013 Vittoria, Alessandro; architect, 356 Volterra ; walls of, 179 Volute ; of the Ionic order, 151. Method of describing, 19256, 2576 Vomitoria; of the amphitheatre, 229 Voussoir, or keystone, 1943c W ADE, General ; house for, 510 Wages of workmen, 315 Waghemakere, Dominique de : architect, 563 Waiblingen ; outer church, 580 Wainscot, 1689,21256. In spec., 22856, 2285 f. How measured, 2354 Wakefield, Yorkshire ; chapel on the bridge, 421. Parochial church, tb. Wales ; early buildings in, 387 Walker’s system of hot-water blocks, 3057 AValkington, Yorkshire ; church, proportion of, p. 1015 INDEX. 1441 WAL Willing, 1916 c? *•<■