https://archive.org/details/rnanualofecclesia00mart_0 MANUAL OF Ecclesiastical Architecture. COMPRISING A STUDY OF ITS VARIOUS STYLES, THE CHRONOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF ITS ELEMENTS, AND ITS RELATION TO CHRISTIAN WORSHIP. BY PROF. WILLIAM WALLACE MARTIN. Wxt\j 550 Sllmtxatxom. CINCINNATI : CURTS & JENNINGS. NEW YORK: EATON & MAINS. 1897. COPYRIGHT BY CURTS & JENNINGS, ®0 ttjB REV. ALBERT S. HUNT, D. D. Corresponding Secretary of the American Bible Society, whose Christian Friendship and counsel, as God’s sunshine, have blessed my life, 3 gratefulhj bebicato tips book. PREFACE. HIS manual of Ecclesiastical Architecture was writ- ten with love, not alone for architecture, but also for the Christian religion. Therefore, expressions of de- light will be found in these pages wherever the architec- tural form seems the fitting embodiment of the faith and hope which animate Christian life. The noble teachings of the Christ have wrought loveliness in hu- man character, have also led to the rearing of edifices peerless in their beauty. The illustrations in the manual furnish the facts by which the statements in the text may be established in the main. Those illustrations belonging to the Medi- aeval styles were taken from German, French, and Eng- lish sources, and it would be impossible to indicate, gladly as I would, those who gave them first to the pub- lic. A few, belonging to the Modern styles, are used by the permission of Messrs. Ticknor & Co., Boston, publishers of the Architect and Builder , and foremost promoters of lofty architectural ideals in our own coun- try. Many of the illustrations belonging to the Modern styles were drawn specially for this work. I would thank Mr. A. W. Whelpley, Librarian of the Cincinnati Public Library, who placed at my service the valuable collection of architectural works under his charge. Every investigator in Cincinnati finds in him v VI Preface . a most valuable friend. I would also thank, first, Mr. Charles Crapsey, of Cincinnati, for a valuable collection of photographs and engravings upon Modern Church Architecture, and also Mr. S. R. Badgley, of Cleveland, for similar kindness. These two gentlemen are archi- tects of most approved and high reputation. Each illustration has been carefully selected and specially engraved for this work. They are so arranged that a study of them, apart from the text, will give a complete view of the development of ecclesiastical archi- tecture. Tables have been inserted which give the prin- cipal edifices of each style except the Modern style. A glossary is appended to facilitate the understanding of technical terms. The index is prepared according to topics and places. May the book teach its readers, that among the many evidences of Christianity, no student may ignore the mighty testimony to its truth and power which the noble cathedrals of Europe, belonging to other times, and the beautiful churches in which we worship, proffer to each thoughtful mind ! W. W. MARTIN. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE. Page. Chapter I. — The Inheritance of Ecclesiastical Architecture, 3 ARCHITECTURE with architrave and the round arch. Chapter II. — Basilican Style, Early Christian Architecture, . 42 Chapter III. — Byzantine Style, 66 A. Typical Examples, 69 B. Byzantine Characteristics, 77 C. Varieties of Byzantine Style, 79 ARCHITECTURE WITH THE ROUND AND POINTED ARCH. Chapter IV. — Romanesque Style, 92 A. Construction of the Romanesque Church, ... 94 B. Early Romanesque, 104 C. Perfected Romanesque, . . . . 117 D. Romanesque Transitional Style, 127 E. Striking Features of the Romanesque Style, . .131 Chapter V. — Romanesque Architecture in Europe, .... 141 I. In Italy, 14 1 II. In Germany, 147 III. In France, 153 IV. In England, 159 V. In Spain, 165 ARCHITECTURE WITH THE POINTED ARCH. Chapter VI. — Gothic Style, 171 A. Construction of the Gothic Church, 175 B. Early Gothic Style, 195 C. Perfected Gothic Style, 206 D. Late Gothic Styles, 217 (1) Perpendicular Style, 217 (2) Flamboyant Style, 225 E . Striking Features of the Gothic Style, 231 vii Table of Contents. viii Page. Chapter VII. — Gothic Architecture in Europe, 247 I. In France, 248 II. In England, 256 III. In Germany, 266 IV. Elsewhere in Europe, 276 Chapter VIII. — Elements of Mediaeval Architecture, Chrono- logically arranged, 288 I. Development of the Pier, 288 II. Development of the Nave-bays, 29c III. Development of the Vaulted Ceiling, 293 IV. Development of Decorative Forms, 295 V. Development of the Cornice, Balustrade, etc., . 301 VI. Development of the Buttress 305 VII. Development of the Window, 307 VIII. Development of Portals, 313 IX. Development of the Tower and the Spire, . . . 317 MODERN ARCHITECTURE WITH ARCHITRAVE AND ROUND ARCH. Chapter IX. — Renaissance Style, 322 A. Structural Features of the Renaissance, .... 325 B. Renaissance Exteriors, 328 C. Renaissance Interiors, 337 D. The Periods of the Renaissance, 344 (1) Early Renaissance, 344 (2) Perfected Renaissance, 351 (3) Late Renaissance, 357 (4) Late Classical Revival, 362 E. Renaissance Architecture in Europe, 368 MODERN ARCHITECTURE WITH ROUND AND POINTED ARCH. Chapter X. — Architecture of the Modern Church, 374 A. Development of the Protestant Church Edifice, . 377 B. Ground-plans of the Modern Church, 388 (1) Altar as Central, 388 (2) Pulpit as Central, 389 C. Types of Interiors in the Modern Church, . . . 393 D. Architectural Styles of the Modern Church, . . 399 (1) Modern Renaissance, 400 (2) Modern Romanesque, 403 (3) Modern Gothic, 408 E. The Architecture and Worship of Christians,. . 413 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS „ FROM CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE. FlG - Page. 1. Ground-plans of Grecian Temples, 5 2. Parthenon at Athens, . 7 3. Doric Column, 4. Doric Entablature, 8 5. Doric Painted Entablature, 9 6. Ionic Column, 7. Ionic Entablature, 8. An Attic Column Base, a Corner Capital, 12 9. Ionic Pilaster-capitals, 10. Erechtheum, Athens, !4 11. Atlantes, 15 12. Corinthian Capitals from a Pilaster and a Column, .... 15 13. Corinthian Entablature with Details, 16 14. Construction of Entablature, .18 15. Its Artistic Features, 19 16. Antae Capital and Wall-border, 20 17. Wall-border and Pilaster from Erechtheum, 20 18. Portal of the Erechtheum, 21 19. City Gate, Perugia, 23 20. Cloaca Maxima, Rome, 23 21. Arch of Titus, 24 22. Theater of Marcellus, . 25 23. Coliseum, Rome, 26 24. Vaults, Circular, Cross, Domical, 27 25. Baths of Caracalla, 28 26. Ground-plan of Pantheon, 30 27. Diagonal Section of the Pantheon, 31 28. Section of Temple at Nocera, 32 29. Section of a Roman Bacchus Temple, 33 30. Geometrical Patterns, 33 31. Grecian Decorative Elements, 34. 32. Decorative Arcade, 36 33. Acanthus-leaf Scroll, 36 ix x List of Illustrations. Fig. Page. 34. Acanthus Plants and Rosettes, 37 35. Vine Foliage, . . . 38 36. Leaf and Bead Decoration, 38 37. Leaf and Acorn Decoration, 39 38. Ancient Roman Frieze, ... 40 OF THE BASILICAN STYLE. 39. Relief of the Triumph of the Church, 45 40. Plan of St. Clement, Rome, 46 41. Arch of Constantine, 48 42. Plan of St. Paul’s Beyond the Walls, 49 43. Elevation of St. Paul’s Beyond the Walls, 50 44. Grecian Temples, 51 45. Interior of the Ancient St. Peter’s, . . . 53 46. Sanctuary of St. Paul’s Beyond the Walls, 55 47. Ground-plans of Baptisteries, 59 48. Baptistery of the Lateran, 60 49. Church of St. Apollinare, at Classe, 61 OF THE BYZANTINE STYLE. 50. Roman Domical Temples, 68 51. Plan of St. Vitale, 69 52. Longitudinal Section of St. Vitale, 70 53. Exterior View of St. Sophia, Constantinople, 71 54. Ground-plan of St. Sophia, 73 55. Domical System of St. Sophia, • • • 74 56. Interior View of St. Sophia, 76 57. Byzantine Capitals, 78 58. Ground-plan of Charlemagne’s Chapel, 80 59. Longitudinal Section of Charlemagne’s Chapel, ... .80 60. Exterior View of Charlemagne’s Chapel, 81 61. Church of the Assumption, Moscow, .... 82 62. Cathedral of Vassili Blanskenoy, Moscow, 84 63. Church of St. Taxiarchus, Cynthus, 85 64. Cathedral of Ani, Armenia, 86 65. Cathedral of Argish, Wallachia, 88 OF THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. 66. Ground-plan of Church at Dobrilugk, 95 •67. Plans of Cathedral at Parma, and Abbey Church, Konigs- lutter, 96 List of Illustrations. xi "Fig. Page. 68. Plans of Minster at Basle and Abbey at Heisterbach, . . 97 69. Plans of Cathedrals at Tourney and at Bamberg, .... 98 70. Transverse Section of Romanesque Church, 99 71. Tran verse Section of Notre Dame du Port, 100 72. Romanesque Ornamental Forms 101 73. The Wheel-window, 102 74. Elevations of Romanesque Churches, 103 75. Plan of Church at Rosheim, 104 76. Nave of Abbey Church, St. Albans, 106 77. Nave of Notre Dame du Port, 107 78. Nave of the Cathedral at Spires, 109 79. Cistercian Church at Riddagshausen, m 80. Church at Mauersmunster, 112 81. Church of Holy Trinity, at Caen, 114 82. Abbey Church at Laach, 115 83. Typical Romanesque Church, 116 84. Chapel at Palermo, 118 85. Nave of Cathedral of Santiago de Compostella, . . . .119 86. Nave of Cathedral at Durham, 120 87. Church of St. Jak, 123 88. Cathedral at Spires, 124 89. Choir of the Cathedral at Mainz, • • • 126 90. Bay of Ripon Cathedral, 129 91. Choir of the Church at Paffenheim, 130 92. Vaulted Crypt, 132 93. Nave of Church at Waltham, 133 94. Ornamental Patterns, 134 95. Romanesque Columns, 135 96. Decorated Columns from St. Peter’s, Northampton, . . 136 97. Monldings of the Vaults’ Ribs, . 137 98. Portal at Heilsbronn, 138 99. Portal of the Cathedral at Freiburg, 139 100. Cloister of St. Paolo, Rome, 140 101. Plan of St. Miniato, Florence, 142 102. Facade of St. Miniato, 142 103. Plan of St. Mark’s, Venice, 143 104. Church of St. Mark’s, 143 105. Plan of Cathedral at Pisa, 145 106. Cathedral of Pisa, 145 107. Cathedral at Piacenza, . 146 108. Pier and Arch of Convent Church near Jena, 148 xii List of Illustrations . Fig. Page. 109. Bay of Cathedral at Worms 150 no. Choir of Minster at Bonn, 151 in. Plan of Apostles’ Church, Bonn, 152 1 12. Choir of the Church of the Apostles, 152 1 13. Plan of Church of St. Front, at Perigueux, 155 1 14. Plan of Abbey Church at Frontevrault, 155 115. Plan of Notre Dame du Port, 156 1 16. Choir of Notre Dame du Port, at Cleremont, ..... 156 1 17. Six-parted Vault, 157 1 18. Plan of St. Etienne, at Caen, 159 1 19. Nave of St. Etienne, . 159 120. Plan of Cathedral at Durham, 160 121. Nave-bays from Peterboro Cathedral, 161 122. Nave of Canterbury Cathedral, 162 123. Tower of Castor Church, Northamptonshire, 163 124. Nave-bay at Stonehynge, 164 OF THE GOTHIC STYLE. 125. Frame-work of the Gothic Edifice, 176 126. Plans of the Cathedrals at Munich, Freiberg, Amiens, . 177 127. Plans of Cathedrals at Ulm, Paris, Cologne, 178 128. Nave and Choir, Lincoln Cathedral, 181 129. Facade of Freiberg Cathedral, ^ 182 130. Church of St. Pierre, Caen, 183 131. Cathedral of York, 185 132. The Forms of the Pointed Arch, 186 133. The Cross-section of a Gothic Pier, 187 134. Nave and Aisle-construction from Cathedral at Halber- stadt, 188 135. Transverse Section from Cathedral of Amiens, 189 136. Side View of Strasburg Cathedral, 191 137. Gothic Ornamentation, 192 138. Cross-section Cathedral at Halberstadt, 194 139. Cathedral of Coutances, 197 140. Cathedral of Chartres, 198 141. Notre Dame, at Paris, 200 142. Choir of Notre Dame, at Chalons, 202 143. Bay of Notre Dame, Paris, 203 144. Bay of Gloucester Cathedral, 203 145. Choir of Westminster Abbey, London, 204 146. Portal of St. Martin’s at Colmar, 205 List of Illustrations. xiii Fig. Page. 147. Cathedral of Rheims, 208 148. Cathedral at Strasburg, 210 149. Choir of St. Barbara’s, Kuttenberg, 212 150. Nave of Strasburg Cathedral, 213 151. Nave of Winchester Cathedral, 215 152. Portal of Church at Thann, ... 216 153. Novel Pointed Arches, 218 154. Choir of Gloucester Cathedral, 219 155. King’s College Chapel, 220 156. Divinity School, Oxford, 221 157. Fotheringhay Church, Northamptonshire, 223 158. St. Neot’s Church, 224 159. Church at Caudebec, 227 160. Cathedral of Orleans, 228 161. Screen of Altar in Madeleine Church, Troyes, 229 162. Cathedral at Alby, 230 163. Gothic Balustrades, 232 164. Details of the Gothic Buttress, 234 165. Spire of the Church at Esslingen, 1 235 166. Examples of Gothic Window- tracery, 236 167. Gargoyle Ornaments, 237 168. The Gothic Keystone of the Arch, 238 169. Gothic Arch Mouldings, 239 170. Gothic Clustered Columns, 240 171. Foliage on Gothic Capitals, 241 172. Foliage in the Gothic Frieze 243 173. Tomb of Edward III, Westminster Abbey, London, . 244 174. Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 250 175. Plan Noyen Cathedral, 252 176. Side View of Notre Dame, Paris, 253 177. Triforium of a Bay in Amiens Cathedral, 254 178. A French Gothic Chapel, 255 179. Old St. Paul’s, London, 258 180. Westminster Abbey, London, 260 181. Lichfield Cathedral, 261 182. Howden Church, 262 183. St. Mary’s, at Taunton, 264 184. St. Stephen’s, at Norwich, 265 185. Plan of Church at Schlettstadt, 268 186. Plan of Magdeburg Cathedral, 269 187. Church at Thann, 269 XIV List of Illustrations. Fm. Page, i 88. Cathedral of St. Stephen’s, Vienna, 271 189. Interior of St. Stephen’s, Vienna, 272 190. St. Mary’s, at Brandenburg, 273 191. Cathedral of Cologne, 275 192. Choir-bay of Cathedral at Toledo, 277 193. Plans of the Cathedrals at Barcelona and Palma, .... 279 194. Portal from Cloister Church at Batalha, 286 195. Cathedral of Sienna, 282 196. Gable from Cathedral of Florence, 283 OF THE ELEMENTS OF MEDIAEVAL ARCHITECTURE. 197. Pier Variations, 289 198. Romanesque Naves, 290 199. Gothic Naves, 292 200. Cross-vault, 293 201. Round and Pointed Arched Vaults, 293 202. Vault with Keystone, 294 203. Decorated Pointed Vaults, 294 204. Basilican Decorations, 295 205. Romanesque Geometrical Decorations, 296 206. Romanesque Lineal Decorations, 297 207. Early Gothic Foliage Designs, 298 208. Perfected Gothic Foliage Forms, 299 209. Foliage Ornament of Late Gothic, 300 210. Geometrical Designs of Late Gothic, 301 21 1. Cornices of the Basilican Style, 302 212. Romanesque Cornices, 302 213. Gothic Balustrades and Parapets, . 303 214. Flamboyant Parapets, 304 215. Romanesque Buttresses, 305 216. Gothic Buttresses, 306 217. Windows of the Basilican Style, 307 218. Early Romanesque Windows, 308 219. Perfected Romanesque Windows, 309 220. Early Gothic Windows, 31 1 221. Gothic Windows of the Perfected and Late Styles, . • . 312 222. Basilican Portals, 313 223. Norman Romanesque Portal, 314 224. Italian Romanesque Portal, 315 225. Late Romanesque and Transitional Portals, 3 J 6 226. Gothic Portals, 317 List of Illustrations. xv Fig. Page. 227. Romanesque Towers, 318 228. Transitional and Early Gothic Spires, 319 229. Perfected and Rate Gothic Spires, 321 OF THE RENAISSANCE STYLE. 230. Plan of S. Francisca, Ferrara, 325 231. Plan of S. Maria, Genoa, , . 326 232. Flan of St. Peter’s, Rome, 327 233. Plan of St. Paul’s, London, 327 234. Church of S. Maria, Milan, 328 235. Church of La Sorbonne, Paris, 329 236. Church of S. Maria, Genoa, 330 237. Church of the Invalides, Paris, 332 238. Cathedral de Vitry de Frangais, 334 239. Church of St. Bride’s London, 335 240. Church of Madeleine, Paris, 337 241. Interior of St. Peter’s, Rome, 338 242. Chapel at Versailles (Interior), Paris, 339 243. Church of St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London, 341 244. Choir of St. Paul’s, London, 342 245. Cathedral at Florence, 345 246. Certosa at Pavia . . 347 247. Choir of St. Pierre, at Caen, 349 248. S. Maria della Croce, 350 249. St. Savior’s, Venice, 352 250. St. Peter’s, Rome, 353 251. Interior of St. Peter’s at Rome, 355 252. Church of Val de Grace, Paris, 358 253. Church of St. Mary’s, Woolworth, 359 254. Section of Tomb in Rouen Cathedral, 360 255. Section of an Arch from Church of Gesu, Rome, .... 362 256. Plan of French Pantheon, Paris, 363 257. Pantheon at Paris, 364 258. St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, 366 OF MODERN STYLES. 259. Plan of St. Luke’s Protestant Episcopal Church, James- town, N. Y., 376 260. Plan of West Spruce Street Baptist Church, Pa., .... 377 261. McKendree Chapel, First Methodist Episcopal Church Beyond the Mississippi, 378 XVI List of Illustrations. Fig. Page. 262. Old Brick Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati, . . . 379 263. Morris Chapel Methodist Episcopal Church, Cincinnati, . 381 264. Old McKendree Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Nashville, 382 265. McKendree Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Nash- ville, 383 266. Memorial Presbyterian Church, Gettysburg, Penn., . . . 385 267. Methodist Episcopal Church at St. Augustine, Fla., . . . 386 268. Methodist Episcopal Church, Norwalk, O., 387 269. Plan of St. Martin’s Roman Catholic Church, New Haven, 388 270. Plan of St. John’s Roman Catholic Church, Jersey City, . 389 271. Plan of the Nave or Ark Church, 390 272. Plan of Memorial Presbyterian Church, Gettysburg, . . 391 272. Plan of English Lutheran Church, Cincinnati, 391 273. Plan of Methodist Episcopal Church, Washington Court House, O., 392 273. Plan of Methodist Episcopal Church, Norwalk, O., . . . 392 274. Interior of English Lutheran Church, Cincinnati, . . . 393 275. Longitudinal Section of Washington Court House Meth- odist Episcopal Church, 395 276. Interior of Epworth Methodist Episcopal Church, Cleve- land, O., 396 277. Interior of Calvary Presbyterian Church, Cleveland, O., . 398 278. English Lutheran Church, Cincinnati, O., 401 279. Methodist Episcopal Church, Washington Court House, Ohio, 402 280. Madison Avenue Methodist Episcopal Church, New York City, 403 281. Baptist Church, Newton, Mass., 405 282. First Presbyterian Church, Duluth, Minn., 406 283. St.John’s Roman Catholic Church, Jersey City, 407 284. St. Mary’s Roman Catholic Church, New Haven, .... 408 285. Memorial Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, 409 286. West Spruce Street Baptist Church, Philadelphia, . . .411 287. New Old South Church, Boston, 412 Htcbitectuce ...of tbe... Christian Cburcb. building, therefore, shows man either as gathering of governing; and the secrets of his success are his knowl- edge of what to gather and how to govern* These are the two great intellectual Lamps of Architecture ; the one consist- ing in a just and humble veneration for the works of God upon the earth, and the other in an understanding of the dominion over those works which has been vested in man* RUSK1N. STUDY OF ECCLESIASTICAL STYLES. Chapter I* THE INHERITANCE OF ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITEC- TURE. § Roman Architecture. The wealth of Grecian and Roman architecture became the inheritance of Chris- tians in the day of their triumph. Rome received the cardinal principles of art from Greece. But when she applied them, her hand raised mightier edifices than her teacher, and adorned them with greater magnificence. The ancient mistress of the world had brought all coun- tries under her tyrannical though beneficent sway be- fore she built her greatest temples, her largest theaters, and her marvelous baths. She first trained and equipped her legions, so that they were a better protection than for- tresses and walls. And later, when she would beautify her imperial city, she wrought out of stone a new maj- esty, and crowned herself with the splendors of a great architecture. § Grecian Architecture. Greece created her archi- tecture. She did not improve upon that of a noble pre- decessor. Her art was as simple in structure as the flowers which bloomed along her waysides and upon her hills. And, if as simple, also as beautiful. Flowers are not without colors; nor were Grecian temples without ornament. But the blossoms we most love are those wherein color and form blend simply and sweetly. This 3 4 Ecclesiastical Architecture. rare charm is in the Grecian art. Ornament but beau- tifies the form and heightens the attractiveness of the temples of Greece. Moreover, all parts of her edifices were governed by the laws of moderation, and the flower- world is no more under the dominion of symmetry than is Grecian architecture. § Method of Study. House-building requires a plan, the rearing of walls, and the roof-covering. Yet this all may be done and there be no architecture. Beauty of form and of adornment must first enter before the archi- tectural art can appear. As Greece places Rome under obligation, and as Rome places under obligation the Chris- tian world, when we consider these peoples in relation to architecture, it is simplest to study at first the compo- nent parts, first of the Greek, and afterward of the Roman architecture. Yet we may not enter into an ex- haustive study ; rather, we shall content ourselves with a statement of the geometrical figure, regardless of the dimensions of the plan of a temple ; with the form of the parts of a column, neglecting their mathematical re- lations. And generally, what the eye sees and should discern shall arrest our attention. § Grecian Temple. The Greek was essentially re- ligious ; but a glad contemplation of life, not broodings upon the grave, wrought sunshine in his faith, and he made his temples to look beautiful because he fashioned them in the light of his faith ; and where the sculptor carved his ideals, there the painter lured the eye by the charms of color. The typical plan of a Grecian temple was simply a rectangle, having more length than breadth. The style of a temple was determined by the positions of columns and their number in the columnar row which was iu front of the temple. There were four styles, dependent upon the position of the columns. Its Inheritance. 5 Fiq. I. ••••••• • • • • • • •• • • • m - n- • m • ♦ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • » • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • mmmm mmmm • • • • • • • •• © 1 • • • Posticnm • • • • • • r«u. • • • • • • • • — « • • Prontto« • • i !. . © ® 1 • GROUND-PEANS OF GRECIAN TEMPLES. The temple in antis (Fig. i, i ) has the ends of the walls built into pilaster-like piers, called antae. Col- umns, generally two in number, intervene between these antae. The prostyle has a series of columns, generally four 6 Ecclesiastical Architecture. in number, before the temple, making the pronaos or porch. When there is also such a series of columns at the back of the temple (Fig. i, 2 ), it is called amphi- prostyle. The peristyle or peripteral temple (Fig. 1, j), is sur- rounded on all sides with columns. Not unfrequently there are, at the front and back, two rows of columns. The dipteral (Fig. 1, /), is that modification of this style which has a double row of columns on each side. § Specific Designations. These four terms were generic terms with which to describe the temple. A further distinction was made when the Greeks combined with them a word, indicating the number of columns which stood before the temple. These specific terms were tetrastyle, hexastyle, octastyle, decastyle, and dodecastyle, indicating that there stood in front of the edifice four, six, eight, ten, twelve columns, respectively. The dipteral temple (Fig. 1, 4 ) shows also a series of columns on each side of its interior. A roof was ex- tended from these columns to the walls, forming a cov- ered colonnade, and leaving an open court within the temple. This arrangement was known as the hypae- thral. The parts of the temple (Fig. 1, 3 ) are the naos, or cella or interior ; the pronaos, or vestibule or portico ; the opistodomus, or posticum, which, perhaps, was the treasure-room. There were no windows in the walls of the naos. Tight was admitted at the top. § The Parthenon. The praises of the Parthenon (Fig. 2) have been rehearsed from age to age. This Grecian temple is most instructive. The walls of the naos, within which was the abode of divinity, are mostly hidden from view by the surrounding noble colonnades. The sunlight glows on the columns and throws between them bright bands upon the walls ; and Its Inheritance. 7 the columns cast thereon their own shadows. The edi- fice is an expositor of Grecian faith, simple, strong, beau- tiful, with the gloom of mystery, surrounded by alter- nating lights and shades. The Parthenon is of the Doric order, octastyle and peripteral. Fig. 2. PARTHENON, AT ATHENS. § Doric Order. The Grecians developed three orders of architecture. The earliest was the Doric, and it ex- pressed repose, solidity, strength. The members of the order are two, the column and the entablature. There is no base to the Doric column. Upon the platform of the temple it firmly stands. The shaft is short and powerful, a safe support for the weight of the massive entablature above. It is fluted and the edges, or arrises, are sharp. The column gently swells from base upward, but soon dimin- ishes in pleasing curvature toward the neck. The capital has two parts, the echinus (Fig. 3 , 1), which is convex, and has a diameter greater than the neck or upper part of the shaft; the abacus (a), which is a quadrangular block. The principal member of the capital is the echinus. The Doric mind left it simple, without sculptured orna- ment. The Ionic mind seized it and carved a necklace 8 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. of pearls upon it, ornamenting the colhmn as if it was a form graceful as a woman’s. The Corinthian mind beheld in the column other significance. The shaft to it was the tree-stem, and the capital was the place for the budding of leaves and the blossoming of flowers. Therefore the echinus becomes most im- portant in determining the order of archi- tecture. There are in the Doric entablature (Fig. 4) three parts: (1) the Doric archi- trave, which is a massive rectangular block reaching from column to column ; (2) the Doric frieze, which rests solidly upon the architrave. The two divisions within the frieze are rea- dily observed. doric column. Three beams, with their faces against each other, reach from the archi- trave to the walls of the tem- ple, and their three ends are seen, making the triglyph. Between the triglyphs the second division or metope (Jj) is found. The sculptor often carved alto-reliefs for these metopes, in which were cele- brated the deeds of gods and men. It was highest genius which wrought a chief beauty in the early Doric temple by transforming beam-ends into DORIC ENTABLATURE- triglyphs, and adorning metopes with splendid sculpture. (3) The Doric cornice Its Inheritance. 9 is the third member in the entablature, and it is composed of the corona, which is the lower por- tion, and the ogee, which is above the crown moulding and is deco- rated with gargoyles, re- sembling a lion’s head. Sometimes the ogee moulding, is sepa- rated and raised so as to form a gable, which is named a pediment. The triangular space within the pediment is the tympanum. hater Doric architects made imitations of the triglyphs, when they no longer represented the heavy stone beams resting on the architrave and entering into the temple’s walls in order to support the stone-ceiling pieces. It was done in this way : quadrangular blocks were carved to resemble the ends of three beams behind which were the smaller roof- beams which held up the rafters and tiling of the roof. § Polychromy. The practice of painting certain parts in party-col- ors (Fig. 5), which was called poly- chromy, had its finest development in connection with the Doric temple, Fig. 5. DORIC PAINTED EN- TABLATURE- IO Ecclesiastical Architecture. yet in the portions only where the Greek, with his chisel, had wrought beauty in stone. Polychromy, therefore, became a helpful guide to the eye in separating the members of the order. Transitions of parts were desig- nated by lines and angles, and here were painted beau- tiful fret-patterns, while designs with curved outlines adorned those parts of the different members of the order most pleasing to the eye. Hence the top of the shaft, the echinus, the upper part of the triglyph, and the ogee, had graceful ornamentation constructed out of curves. The prevailing color in these parts was blue. Backgrounds, such as those of the metopes and tympa- num, were of a brown red. The antefixae were very often beautified with painted embellishments. We are to re- member that most temples were built of marble, and that they crowned a hill. How lovely, then, must the Doric temple have looked to one when the clear sunlight of Greece set forth its strong and attractive proportions and touched the colors with which it was adorned into beauty ! § Ionic Order. Earliest Doric temple-architecture was truthful in its several parts. The triglyphs were then in fact ends of beams which sustained the roof. But this method of roof-support was cumbersome as well as heavy. So architects in later times retained the triglyphs for ornament, while they adopted another mode of roofing. Thus the triglyphs lost their truthfulness. Ionic architecture is richer than the Doric, more beauti- ful and more graceful. This order has the same members as the Doric. But its columns (Fig. 6) are lifted from the. temple-platform and set upon bases, and so, through this new feature, greater height is obtained. The Ionic base consists of two parts, the several cavetti and the torus, above them. The shaft is tall and slender. The chan- Its Inheritance. i neling in it is deeper and more numer- F,G * 6 - ous, and the annulets, which separate these channels, have considerable thick- ness. Sometimes the lower part of the shaft is richly sculptured. But the capital is what gives the most dis- tinctive characteristic to the Ionic col- umn. The echinus is carved into an ovolo and volutes in the Ionic capital. The ovolo is quarter-round, and be- neath it is a pearl-beading. Indeed, one might almost say that the neck of the column is ornamented with pearls. The volutes are spiral curves, like tresses curled upon the head of the column. The Ionians felt the beauty and grace of their columns, and they seldom permitted the observer to asso- ciate them alone with the plant-life. Rather, they will make us think also of the female figure and of its grace and beauty. A transformation takes place in the abacus, for, instead of being a quad- rangular block, it is circular and beauti- fully carved like a crown. There are three members in the entablature (Fig. 7) : the architrave, which is not one large block, as in the Doric, but consists of faciae, usually three in number, of which each upper one projects slightly over the one beneath it. A moulded band caps this architrave. The mem- ber above it is the frieze. There are no divisions here as in the Doric, but paintings were often wrought upon its surface, and often arabesques, beautifully colored. The ionic column. 12 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 7. cornice is the highest member in the entablature. Its corona had beneath what appeared to be small cubical blocks, which are called dentiles. Undoubtedly at first these blocks were but the ends of small beams, used to support the roof, and so were an expedient in place of the Doric triglyphs. Later, however, these dentiles were cut in a quadrangular block on its under side, and this block was placed upon the frieze. The ogee is the top- most moulding, and culmi- nates, with its beauty, in the entablature. IONIC ENTABLATURE). § Modified Columns. At- tention should be directed to the Ionic column (Fig. 8, 2 ), in regard to the modifications it suffered when it stood at 1 . ATTIC BASE. 2. CORNER CAPITAL. Its Inheritance. 13 one of the corners of the colonnade. Then two of its adjacent sides have spool-like forms, with central bands. The corner column necessarily terminates two colon- nades, and its capital was so made that its volutes corre- sponded to the volutes of each colonnade. Hence the peculiar form of this corner capital. And here mention may be made of the pilasters in the Doric and Ionic IONIC PirASTER-CAPITArS. styles. They were made to resemble columns, but not so as to deceive. The Ionic pilaster (Fig. 9) showed at its summit a kind of capital with volutes on its sides and carvings. The Attic order was essentially the same as the Ionic. However, a new base (Fig. 8, 1 ), named the Attic, usurped the place of the Ionic base. In this new base there were two tori, which a single cavetto sepa- rated. Attic columns had also, at their neck, what seemed to be almost lace-patterns, between strings of pearls. §The Erechtheum (Fig. 10). This noble building, which stood upon the acropolis of Athens, exhibits the Ionic style after it had culminated into its greatest ele- 14 Ecclesias tical A rchitecture. gance and splendor under the skillful hand of the Athe- nians. The appearance is that of a group of buildings : the central one is the southern end of the temple proper of Minerva ; the western side, before the temple’s portal, has a beautiful vestibule, which is surrounded with six Ionic columns; the eastern side has the hall, dedicated ERECHTHEUM. to the Nymph Pandrosos, the entablature of which is sustained by the much-praised caryatides, being female forms, sculptured in stone, and substituted for columns. It does not appear that this form of column found especial favor with the Greeks. Not the strength, but the fragile grace of the female figure, was a cardinal thought with the Grecian. Hence the caryatid was an affront to his taste. However, the skill of the sculptors, who gave to stone power to express the flowing drapery of a woman’s Its Inheritance. 15 garment, revealing also the mantled grace of her form, compelled the consistent Greek to accept this anom- aly in his architcture with admi- fig. II. ration. The Atlantes (Fig. 1 1) were more in harmony with the demands of architecture and the expectation of a Grecian. §The Corinthian Order. Its essential characteristic appears in the capitals of its columns, and also, among the Romans, in the gorgeous splendor of its entabla- ture. The astragal (Fig. 12) sepa- rates the capital from the shaft. Above it two rows of acanthus- atlantes. leaves rise, one row smaller and springing between the interstices of the other. Behind them there come up strong Fig. 12. CORINTHIAN CAPITALS OF A PILASTER AND A COLUMN. stems, which curl and form graceful volutes, which the taller acanthus-leaves touch and adorn. The capital is di- vided by the volutes into four faces, wherein are acanthus- i6 Ecclesiastical Architecture . leaves, a central one being higher than the adjacent ones, and above this tall leaf is a flower. The abacus is a square with incurving sides, whose corners rest upon the volutes of the four branches. Its center is supported by what appears to be a truncated stem. The Corinthian capital reminds us of a tree-growth, arrested in order Fig. 13. CORINTHIAN ENTABLATURE, WITH DETAILS. that its strength of stem may be employed for support. The top has been lopped off, the branches whirled into volutes, and the circle of fan-like leaves retained for their beauty. That the Corinthian capital is a flower- calyx is hardly an acceptable view, since we do not asso- ciate strength with a flower-stem. The Ionians indi- cated to us the grace and beauty of their columns by ornamenting the capitals with curls and placing upon their necks strings of pearls. The Corinthian pilaster (Fig. 12) tells its own nature. It stands at the wall- Its Inheritance. i 7 corners or spaces the walls into compartments. More- over, it is ornament, reminding the observer of the col- umns in front, resplendent with natural beauty. The entablature of the Corinthian order (Fig. 13), like the column, is most luxuriant in its beauties. The plain- ness of the architrave above the splendor of the capitals empties the mind of its admiration only that again it may become most enthusiastic in seizing upon the mar- vels of the frieze, whereon gifted artists arrayed all that their genius and hand could devise and execute. The cornice crowns the summit of the buildings, and is supported by the modillion, which is a scroll-bracket, ornamented beneath with the acanthus-leaf. The eye is constantly addressed by the Grecian artist. The charm of column and entablature makes the first appeal ; then the beauty of capital, and metope, and cornice ; then, as the beholder walks around the edifice, his eye catches the charms in the graceful lines of the border and the ceiling, enriched with both leaf and geometrical forms. The Greek carefully hides all mechanical contrivances. The spaces between beams he fills with a ceiling, which he decorates with embellished scrolls and other forms of exquisite designs. Where entablature and rafters meet, he marshals all the complex beauty of the cornice and the frieze, that he may conceal beam and rafter ends. Yet in all this he was led by no ignoble pride, but rather was actuated by a desire to confer just reward for service. Where the column begins to sustain, he adorns it with a capital; and where the entablature first lends support to the roof, he places the cornice. Greek architecture was ever noble in its spirit, and so it rules amid the architec- ture of other nations : it. was ever beautiful, through its proportions and decorations, and so it charms all after ages ; it was true in its principles, and so it abides. 1 8 Ecclesiastical Architecture. §Roof and Ceiling. The entablature of the Grecian orders was but the necessary stone construction upon which the architect purposed to rest securely the ceiling and the roof of his building. The architrave (Fig. 14, a), stretching from column to column, furnishes, with the wall of the cella, support for the stone beams ( b ) of the ceiling. The ends of these blocks formed, at first, the tri- glyphs. The metopes ( d ) are the intervening spaces. Flat stones slightly project over these triglyphs ( c ) and give support to the corona (/), which, in its turn, holds up the tiles. L,ater times displaced the heavy stone beams of the ceiling by lighter construction ; then the triglyph was represented by a cubical block having its outer face sculptured to imitate beam-ends. The difference be- tween the builder and the architect is apparent as soon Its Inheritance . 19 as this construction, when perfected (Fig. 15), is viewed. Between the triglyph-blocks are inserted the metope- slabs, whereon myths of gods or the battles of heroes were carved. Above and below the triglyphs, guttse were placed, and the tile, resting upon the cornice, was, Fig. 15. so to speak, bent upward to check the water. The outer face of it was there figured with leaf-patterns ; and where it is perforated to let the water in this gutter flow off, a gargoyle — here having the form of a lion’s head — is placed. The Grecian architect builds only to beautify, and hence the charm of his creation. § Wall Decoration. The wall-border and pilaster- capitals (Fig. 16) have, as ornaments, the acanthus-leaf and beautiful scrolls. Yet here invention was free to 20 Ecclesiastical Architecture. work its will, provided it gave forms of beauty to the eye. Sometimes the artist wrought in the border and the pi- laster (Fig. 17) animal ] forms. Yet such forms only as had passed through the land of myths and were asso- ciated with wonderful lllir/ . , „ stories. § Grecian Portal. The doorway was simply jambs united by the lintel (Fig. 18). The Greek, because of his love of the beautiful, recessed the jambs, cut rosettes in their front faces, placed a cornice, replete with beauty, above the lintel. The portal was simple in form, yet its splendor gave dignity to the huOiUPfcuieau*;'- muu ANTA^-CAPITAI, AND WAm-BORDKR. Fig. 17. WAI^-BORDER AND PILASTER (P ; RECHTHEUM). entrance of the temple. The ornaments of the lintel are the same as those of the capital, being ovolos and acanthus-leaves. And that we might not fail to com- pare the glory of the doorway with that of the column, the sculptor carves a kind of volute upon the corbel supporting its cornice. The three great orders, the Its Inheritance . 21 Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian, including the ornamenta- tion of the entablature, were a most precious inherit- ance for ecclesiastical architecture from Greece. They taught the architect of the Christian world that stone Fig. 18. PORTAL, OF ERECHTHKUM. could be fashioned into marvelous beauty, and that edi- fices of perfect symmetry, adorned with sculpture and painting, were one of the thank-offerings of the pagan world to their gods. § Etruscan Architecture. The Romans employed a fourth order, known as the Tuscan, which is traceable 22 Ecclesiastical Architecture. to the Etruscans and resembles the Doric order. They also formed the Composite order, where the capital ap- pears as a blending of the Ionic and Corinthian. Yet Roman architecture has not its great significance, nor did it achieve its greatest development, in the use of columnar orders for support and in the modifications of the capitals of these orders in order to secure new beauty for Roman structures. It was in the revolutionary em- ployment of these orders simply as decorative ornaments that Roman architects showed their transforming hand ; for what Greece required for support, Rome needed only for decoration. It may be said of Roman architecture that wherever the columns of the various orders entered into an edifice as essential elements for the purpose of support, the Ro- mans held strictly to the noble principles of construction which Greece had perfected. But the orders became simply decorative features of a building, when the Ro- mans began to use the arch for constructive purposes in- stead of the column and its architrave. Rome formed her government and conquered the world before she changed the brick buildings of her city into marble edi- fices. It was from Etruria that Rome obtained the es- sential features of her constitution. The official dignity of the Roman government was expressed by the purple robe, the pretexta, the twelve lictors and fasces, the curule chair, and triumphal processions. Yet these all are Etruscan. But the Romans united to these symbols of her government a majesty and a might wdiich the Etruscan originals scarcely foreshadowed. Likewise, when Rome adopted the arch and the arch-vault, both Etruscan in origin, she developed then the peculiar and all-important features of her architecture, all, indeed, which may be called Rome’s contribution to the archi- tectural art. In this period structures were produced in Its Inheritance. 23 Rome which have been the wonder and have called forth the admiration of all later times. For Christian archi- tecture these new features have the utmost signifi- cance. Rome received the gift of the three great columnar orders from Greece. Rome received also from the Etruscans the arch and the arch- vault. Then her architects dared to construct with the arch, to roof with the arched vault, and to rele- gate column and archi- trave to serve as deco- rative elements. The Etruscans used the arch in the walls of their cities. The gate at Perugia (Fig. 19) has, instead of a lintel, an arch. There is above the gate a semicir- cular window, ornamented with pilasters. The Romans saw immense significance in this mode of piercing walls. They extended the principle to cuoaca maxima, rome. the walls of public buildings, and built with the arch their baths, theaters, and public buildings. The Cloaca Maxima Fig. 19. 24 Ecclesiastical Architecture. (Fig. 20) was equally suggestive to the Roman architect. The Etruscans built this immense viaduct in the sixth century B. C. It was a circular vault spanning twenty- six feet. Fig. 21. § Roman Adaptations. The Romans lifted the cir- cular vault above ground, and wrought marvels of beauty in their edifices by means of the Etruscan circular arch and circular vault. The days of the Caesars witnessed the noblest employment of the arch and the arch-vaulting. The grandeur of her architectural works in this pe- riod, like the grandeur of her extensive government, will Its Inheritance. 25 §CircuIar Arch. The simplest use of the arch is beautifully shown in that triumphal arch (Fig. 21), which Titus, in perhaps 70 A. D., built over the principal highway of Rome. The solid, pier-like abut- ments, each set high on a mighty base, declare that a support other than the column is now em- ployed ; and the engaged Corinthian columns man- THEATER OF MARCEUUUS. ifest that the chief use of the orders now is to decorate. The arch supports the attic or half-story above. A compartment of the Theater of Marcellus (Fig. 22) will make clear how the arch was used in the elevation of the walls of a building. Re- move the attic from the Arch of Titus, and place above the arch another of similar kind, and all that is essential in the construction of the walls of this celebrated theater Fig. 22. always excite the intelligent observer to highest admira- tion. It is true that the exquisite perfections in every part and ornament of a Grecian building were unsought by the Roman emperors when they began to build with the help of the arch ; yet they made compen- sation by rearing colos- sal edifices and adorning them with luxurious ex- travagance. 26 Ecclesiastical Architecture . is obtained. Its decoration is obtained through the two orders, the Doric and the Ionic. Below is the substantial Doric order. All its parts are distinguishable, the archi- trave, the frieze — including triglyphs and metopes — the Fig. 23. CORISEUM AT ROME. cornice. The more graceful and slenderer Ionic order gives ornamentation to the second story. The coliseum (Fig. 23) shows most daring confidence in the strength of this mode of construction. Three arches are piled up- ward, one above the other, and as if to show the mighty strength in this arch-pierced structure, a story is made < Its Inheritance . 2 7 to surmount all, which is higher than the stories below, and almost a solid wall. As regards the decoration, the Fig. 24. lowest story is the Doric order; the second, the Ionic ; the third, the Co- rinthian ; and the fourth has slender pilasters, with Co- rinthian capitals. The Romans made another use of the circular arch. They formed them into graceful arcades for wall- deco ration, placing within them niches for statues of gods and heroes. The archi- tects of every age since, and so Chris- tian architects, are indebted to the Romans for the noble examples, which they gave to the world , of the use of the circular arch in wall-construc- tion, and of their use of the columnar orders in classical architecture for wall-decoration. § Kinds of Vaults. The circular-vault (Fig. 24, 1 ) is a series of semi-circular arches, set side by side, and CIRCULAR-VAULT. CROSS-VAULT. DOML-VAULT. 2 8 Ecclesiastical Architecture. having a continuous wall upon which the feet of the arches rest. The side-thrust of the vault is counteracted by buttressing. The cross-vault ( 2 ) is composed of two circular-vaults, cutting each other centrally and at right angles. The result is that there are four feet to this vault, and they rest on four piers or columns. The thrust is concentrated at these four points, and here is BATHS OF CARACAL, TA. built the buttressing. The dome-vault (j) is a series of contracting circles, laid one upon another until, at the top, a circular disk can close and complete the structure. A circular- vault roofs a passage-way, having on each side a wall ; the cross-vault roofs a square, having at the cor- ners piers for support ; the dome-vault roofs a circle, but the Byzantine architects compelled the dome to roof a square by means of arches and pendentives. Its Inheritance . 29 § Cross=Vaulting. The grand hall in the Baths of Caracalla (Fig. 25) was roofed over by means of the cross-vault. Beautiful Corinthian columns marked off squares in the length of the hall. Since the pressure of the cross-vault is concentrated at four points, there was no need of a continuous entablature upon these col- umns ; therefore it was cut away between each two col- umns. The sides of what remained were finished to correspond with the front. Here, then, is a column with an entablature of its own. The cross-vault was set upon these entablatured columns, and its ceiling was richly and beautifully ornamented. The transforming hand of the Roman is again visible in this construction. He was the first to employ the column-orders in a new way. The Greeks used them to give support to the roof; and they made the columns most beautiful, that they might be honored for their service. The Romans took these same orders and made them simply the external ornaments of their edifices. The Greeks required a continuous archi- trave to sustain their ceilings. The Romans, as if dis- daining such suggestion, removed the architrave from between columns, and rested their cross-vault for the ceiling on what remained. The cross-vault, as applied by the Romans, furnished a most essential element in that wonderful preparation for ecclesiastical architecture which Greece and Rome, more than all other nations, made, and in the midst of which, or else on its ruins, ecclesiastical edifices rose in beauty and splendor. % § Dome=Vaulting. The Pantheon is the peerless ex- ample of the dome-vault. Heretofore the dome had been used as a kind of canopy to cover a small space ; now, the Romans employed it to roof over a large area. Rome, after she conquered the nations, gave them laws ; but permitted them to retain their national religion. 30 Ecclesiastical Architecture . Hence the Roman empire was united through its uni- form laws, while there was within it great diversity of religion. It was a bold, indeed, a new thought to build a temple wherein all the gods of the empire should each have a shrine ; yet this thought inspired the build- ing of the Pantheon. The circle (Fig. 26), symbol of divinity, was the ground-plan. Stone- circle was laid upon stone-circle, until the elevation was builded. This cylindrical por- tion was the tambour. Then the stone-circles were decreased in di- ameter, until the roof- ing-dome was formed. There was a beautiful portico in front, with splendid columns; and from this portico there led an entrance- way, which was roofed with the cylinder vault. The interior wall (Fig. 27), be- GROUND- PI, AN OF PANTHEON. ^ ^ divided into two stories. The lower was encircled with a beautiful lofty colonnade, within which were niches for the statues of gods. Above was the second story, being a circle of columns, with niches within. The dome above this was richly paneled with circles of diminish- ing squares. Such was the Roman Pantheon, a struc- ture so new and beautiful, as well as daring, that Michael Angelo, when he was completing St. Peter’s at Its Inheritance. 31 Rome, the largest Christian church in the world, could invent nothing greater, and so he raised above the crossing in St. Peter’s a structure like the Roman Pan- theon. Fig. 27. §The Free Dome. There was a small temple erected at Nocera with most remarkable variations, so far as the support of the dome is concerned. Fourteen pairs of columns were placed upon the circumference of a circle, each pair with its own architrave. Row arches rest upon these separate architraves, and upon them were laid the dome-circular courses, each diminishing until they completed the dome. Outside of the dome, yet resting, like it, on the circle of double columns, there was built a hollow cylinder to the height of half the altitude of the dome. The dome-roof was supported by this cylinder. A circular wall was built around this central structure, and a tunnel-vault connected it with the dome-arches, which were above the double columns. The dome is thus set free from the exterior wall; and 32 Ecclesiastical Architecture. yet the tunnel-vaulting, with the outer wall, acts as a buttress to the side-thrust of the dome. It is a modest temple (Fig. 28) ; yet all the glory of the Pantheon had in it no suggestion comparable in importance to that given to later architects, when the builder of this crude structure bound together two columns with an architrave, placed fourteen of them in q circle, and set Fig. 28. thereon a free dome. A Roman Bacchus temple (Fig. 29) presents a free dome, to which is added a further and most significant modification. A hollow cylin- der is set with its base upon the arches, and the dome, pierced by twelve windows, is placed upon it. There is, in consequence, a new and beautiful grace given to the temple. Prophet truly, in the heathen world, is this dome, supported upon columns, of the coming of St. Sophia and St. Peter and England’s St. Paul, all of whose attractions culminate in the magnificent splendor of their domes. Its Inheritance . 33 § Geometrical Decoration. Some idea of the rich embellishment of ceilings in classical edifices may be Fig. 29. SECTION OF A ROMAN BACCHUS TEMPLE. obtained from Fig. 30. Here the beautiful pattern-work, formed of geometrical figures, was very attractive and Fig. 30. GEOMETRICAL PATTERNS. full of suggestion for later times, which imitated, but never excelled, the originals. Fig. 31. 34 Ecclesiastical Architecture. GRECIAN DECORATIVE ELEMENTS. Its Inheritance . 35 § Grouped Decorative Features. Two Doric entab- latures (Fig. 31) are centrally placed, showing the corona and the mutules of the cornice, the triglyplis and me- topes of the frieze, with the supporting columns. The drops under the mutules are the guttse. A strange modification is seen in one of these Doric entablatures. The triglyph is ornamented with a bull’s head, and the front half of the column is square, being surmounted with the busts of kneeling bulls. One corner column is turned so as to show the two sides of this modified Doric column. On the left are Ionic and Corinthian columns. The varieties in the foliation of the Corinthian capitals remind one of the experiments which the Greeks made before they achieved the symmetrical beauty of the acanthus-leaf capital ; for one of these capitals is bell- shaped, having a crude flower with a stem placed at intervals around it; another seems but a circle of pointed leaves bound about the capital ; while a third exhibits the rich beauty of the perfected Corinthian capital. On the left is seen also the caryatid, a female form, support- ing an entablature. Such a column would be grotesque if the beauty of the figure did not hide its absurdity. Greek altars are arranged at the right, and a square column, whose front is adorned with the human figure. Here also, upon another square column, are to be found the moldings, known as the ovolo ; above it, the cyma reversa ; and above this, the cyma recta. These, and many other forms, became familiar to the early Christians, who employed them to give the charm of ornament to their churches. § Decorative Arcade. A fragment of an arcade, taken from the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, is most important. It was part of the entrance-facade. Alter- nate arches held niches for statues of men or of gods. 36 Ecclesiastical Architeci ure. Fig. 32 DECORATIVE ARCADE. Two important suggestions are connected with this frag- ment (Fig. 32) ; namely, that the arcade made a most graceful mural embellishment, and that within its arches might be placed statues of saints and apostles. Fig. 33. § Decorative Foliage. Nature gave great and beau- tiful forms in its vines and leaves. Nor were the an- Its Inheritance. 37 cient artists unmindful of her innumerable suggestions through the plant-world. An ancient cornice ornamen- tation (Fig. 33) exhibits leaves artistically united to- gether, obliterating all natural lines ; yet there are hints of nature in the design. The leaf-receptacle is present, Fig. 34. and also the leaf-lobes and clefts. It is an artistic form, and in no sense imitative. A similar artistic treatment of the acanthus-plant is seen in Fig. 34. It is as if the outlines of a shadow of the plant had been copied by the sculptor and placed in the molding of a cornice. There is a chaste beauty in this mode of ornamentation which imitative forms lack ? and it appealed strongly to the Greek. 33 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 35. VINE-FOLIAGE. Otherwise is the foliage in Fig. 35. The vine-stem runs along the surface. Bracts, leaves, tendrils, clusters, all shoot forth from the vine. There is masterful imita- LEaf and bead decoration. Its Inheritance . 39 tion here. The maker takes from nature his forms, but he bends them as he will, in order to make the vine grace the surface of the frieze. In another ornament (Fig. 36), the leaves are plucked and arranged to suit the artist’s taste. Or the oak-leaf and the acorn (Fig. 37) are arranged in circles, and bound fast together by a spiral’ band. Fig. 37. DEAF AND ACORN DECORATION. Of boundless fertility were these Roman architects and sculptors, and their hands built with marvelous beauty their inventions. Stone seemed like clay in their hands, to be moulded into leaf or flower at their will. Stone Seemed, in their view, to have lost its weight ; for they raised story above story in their buildings, and gave the appearance of great solidity to the upper parts. A walk among the ruins of their forum, or through the halls of their public baths, or in the great circular area of the Coliseum, is sure to awaken in any intelligent observer ever-increasing wonder and admiration for them. 40 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 38. ANCIENT ROMAN FRIEZE- Its Inheritance . 41 An ancient Roman frieze (Fig. 38) will illustrate most suggestively the wonderful inheritance which was left to ecclesiastical architecture. The cornice, with its crown-molding, modillions, ovolo, dentiles, all richly ornamented; the frieze, with its ornamented border, and its broad face replete with the grace of symbolic female forms ; the architrave, with its borders upon the facise; the column, with its wonderful capital, — all were combined in rich harmony, and made the build- ing resplendent with all these marvels of art. The Christian architect despised none of these achievements of pagan Greece and Rome ; and, after centuries of ef- fort, he produced cathedrals which, for daring of con- struction and sublime effects, for beauty of ornament and symmetry of form, excel all edifices which the hand of man, in any age, has ever fashioned. Chapter IL BASILICAN STYLE— EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHI- TECTURE* § Method of Study. Some general statements rela- tive to ecclesiastical architecture as treated in Part First should be given. It is our purpose to study the type of the church-edifices ; also to notice modifications of this type when they were anticipatory of nobler devel- opments in later times. The great life of the Church, as it assumes new liturgical forms in order to give elaborate expression to its abounding fullness, will not come here in review; nor will it receive any mention except where it can not be avoided. Simply the study of structure is the aim of this division. Of course, the simplest form will come first under consideration. The actuating power, which first determined the form, will be sought. As we pass from century to century, there will appear new forces, which unite and form modifica- tions of the first type, culminating finally in the gorgeous splendors of the Romanesque church, or in the per- fected beauty of the Gothic cathedral. § Controversy Avoided. The settlement of ques- tions is in nowise undertaken. Whole books have been written upon such themes as, that the Christian basilica is but a transformation of the Roman basilica ; that the Gothic arch, or pointed arch, was no invention of Eu- rope ; that the noble vistas of Germanic forests were not the impelling suggestions which resulted in the Gothic nave ; that the term Gothic is a misnomer for the archi- 42 Basilican Style. 43 tecture which it characterizes. These are all interest- ing questions, but no answer to them is to be sought in these pages. Yet this we do say, that earliest Christian history affirms that Christians called their churches basilicas, because in them they worshiped God their King. This statement we count more authoritative than inapt and inconsequent analogies which have been drawn between the Christian and Roman basilicas. Also, when the daring Christian spirit of Western Eu- rope seized the pointed arch, and wrought undreamed effects through stone, we are sure that the Italians, in reproach, called the architecture Gothic ; for it com- pletely abandoned , the classic models, and what was not in harmony with these, to the Latin mind, was barba- rous; hence, Italy called the new architecture Gothic, or barbarous. And, finally, with truth it may be as- serted that there is nothing on earth which so resem- bles the majestic grandeur and form of the Gothic naves as those marvelous forest-ways where mighty trees, with their branches, arch the path high overhead. § First Assemblies. Christians at first held assem- blies (ecclesise) in private houses, in the lower or upper rooms. Those of Jerusalem went often to the temple, and in the shade of its porches held public conversa- tion ; or, when they were at a distance from the Holy City, they entered the Jewish synagogue, and became public expositors, by invitation, of the law and the prophets. In the second and third centuries, Christians suffered great antagonism, from the Jews first, and after- ward from the Romans. Still, they assembled in private houses when this was safe, or else in caves and cata- combs. The great apologists were wont to say that Christians had neither “temples nor altars.” Prior, then, to the time of Constantine, whatever Christian 44 Ecclesiastical Architecture. edifices might have existed were swept away in the fury of the persecutions. § Ark and Basilica Types. It was customary for Christians of the second and third centuries to speak of the church as the ark, and Christian symbolism by this figure represented the church. Truly, in those days, she sailed on troubled waters. So mightily was this figure of the ship impressed on Christian thought that in after times the body of the Christian church was called the nave, or ship. There is a remarkable relief (Fig. 39) which belongs to the first days after Constan- tine had made Christianity the religion of the empire. It is crude as sculpture, almost grotesque ; however, it is a graphic presentation of a scene illustrating the tri- umph of the cross. In the right-hand corner is a Chris- tian church in process of building. The nave is com- plete. On the sides are the shed-roofs over the aisles for the catechumens ; the semi-circular apses around the senatorium and the matroneum for the imperial family and nobility. The gables of the building are sur- mounted with the Greek cross. The eastern end alone is incomplete. The presbyterium for the clergy is want- ing. The chariot on the left, guided by the emperor, is bringing this new tribune, containing the ark-altar, sym- bol of the church. Two bishops are holding the sacred sign. The triumphal arch is seen before the tribune. The metropolitan bishop, holding the great cross, wel- comes the royal comer. The scene is so amazing that the martyred dead rise from their graves to behold. The relief is truly remarkable. It makes clear, at least, that the basilica of Constantine was composed of the nave for believers ; the side naves for catechumens ; and the triumphal arch, within which were the tribunes for the royal family and nobles, and the tribune for the presbytery. TRIUMPH OF THE CHURCH. Basilican Style. 45 Fig. 39 4 6 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fgi. 40. § Ground-plan of the Basilica. The ark-church was an oblong building, containing a long room, which was called the nave, and a semi-circular termination, called the tribune. The basilica was simply the ark- church with side naves, having the eastern portion of the whole church cut off for the ecclesiastical and civil authorities. A typical example of the basilica is found in the Church of St. Clement at Rome (Fig. 40), which was built in 872, and when destroyed in the twelfth century, was rebuilt according to its original plans. Two rows of columns extend lengthwise of the building, dividing it into the middle nave (a) and the two side naves ( b , c). At the extremities of each colonnade are strong pillars. And this basilica, in common with some others, has, midway in each row of columns, another and more mas- sive pier. Extending from the cen- ter of the middle nave to the screen before the raised platform of the altar- tribune, was a choir ( d ) for the lower clergy, and this was surrounded by a marble barrier. A marble pulpit was built on each side of the choir, from one of which was read the Gospels, and from the other the Epistles. These pulpits were called am- bones. The whole space, shut off by the screen, was the sanctuary. In front, under the triumphal arch (/), .stood the altar; and behind it, in the apse, and arranged in a semi-circle, were the presbyters; hence it was called the presbyterium. In the midst of these the bishop sat in his cathedra. A space at the left of the sanctuary (k) PLAN OF ST. CLE- MENT, AT ROME. Basilican Style. 47 was for men of high rank, and was named the seriato- rium; while a similar space (/) on the right was for women of rank, and was called matroneum. The left half of the nave was for men, and the right for women. The large hall before the nave in) is the atrium, where penitents remained who had no right to enter the church. The cantharus stood central in the atrium, and here worshipers washed their hands before entering the church, in token of inner purification. The plan shows the usual arrangement for the disposition of the worshipers in the Constantine basilicas. §The Triumphal Arch. The appropriate archi- tectural separation of nave and side naves and tribune, and the inclosure of this ground-plan with walls and roof, constituted the problem before the early Christians. Its answer at once gave to architecture a distinct type, to which there can be found no analogy in the edifices of Greece and Rome. Most fitting was it that the religion which overcame the strongholds of paganism by its beauty of creed and character and its enduring power, should develop, early in its career, an architecture in strongest contrast with the noble temples of the ancient religions, and yet which, when perfected, should excel all temple-structures ever erected by the genius of man for worship. The Senate and the Roman people dedi- cated an arch to Constantine, commemorating his vic- tory over Maxentius, in 31 1 A. D. The arch was a far more imposing form than that of Titus; for, instead of one, it had three archways, a high central passage, and a lower one on each side. The orna^ mentation is mainly taken from the Arch of Trajan, which stood at the entrance to Trajan’s Forum. This was the type for the triumphal arch which was placed in the early Christian basilicas. The triumphal arch, 48 Ecclesiastical Architecture. patterned after that of Constantine (Fig. 41), was placed over the altar ; the authorities of the Church sat in the presbyterium behind the altar; the authorities of the State sat on each side of the altar within the arch. The sanctuary was the altar and presbyterium, and it was Fig. 41. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. separated from the nave of the church by a screen. The side-naves were separated from the nave by rows of beautiful columns, carrying a splendid architrave, or a graceful series of arches, and terminated at the tri- umphal arch. They were separated from the senatorium and matroneum by the side archways of the triumphal arch. Basilican Style. 49 § Elevation of the Basilica. The ground-plan (Tig. 42) is that of a five-aisled basilica. The nave and the two double side-naves are separated by means of four colonnades. A triumphal arch of the Constantine type is placed over the al- tar, and at this arch the rows of columns termi- nate. Hence, standing within the colonnades, the eye sees at the sanctuary the front of a lofty, beau- tiful arch, while the arch over the side-nave is lower and not so imposing. Ampler accommodation for the increased number of catechumens in the cit- ies, immediately after im- perial favor was given to the Church, accounts for these double-aisled basil- icas. The elevation of basilicas and their roofing PIa ‘ cross ; but in the Romanesque CHURCH AT dobril,ugk. church the nave is the body of the church west of the transepts, which make the arms of the cross. § Rectangular Choir. Varieties of this cruciform type occur through the shape and surroundings of the choir. The variety just considered is distinguished by a rectangular choir, having a semicircular apse at its extremity. Modifications in this variety were effected by adding to the transepts one or several apses (Fig. 67, a). The high altar was in the front of the choir. Other altars were placed in the apses of the transepts. These g 6 Ecclesiastical Architecture. changes are abiding witnesses to a more complex wor- ship, where, not God alone, but saints were invoked. A very important modification, producing a new variety, is to be noticed in Fig. 67, b . The aisles pass across the transepts, and are continued along the length of the choir. Access to the crypt from the side of the choir, Fig. 67. [a) CATHEDRAL AT PARMA. : b) ABBEY CHURCH, KONIGS- LUTTER. perhaps, led to this change at first. Apses for altars were placed at the extremities of these extended aisles, and apses were also placed in the transepts. It was not uncommon to have the choir raised above the nave of the church (Fig. 67, a), because of the vaulted crypt be- neath. A glance at these plans clearly shows that the whole edifice is but the environment for the central cross. Romanesque Style. 97 § Polygonal and Circular Choirs. A striking va- riety had this remarkable modification : Instead of the side-aisles terminating along the side of the choir, they were continued until they met (Fig. 68), and in this manner a choir-aisle was formed. The general rule was Fig. 68. to make the exterior of the choir circular (Fig. 68, b) ; but there are occasional instances where both choir and the exterior wall are polygonal (Fig. 68, a). These va- rieties of the Romanesque style which have choir-aisles afford several great advantages. There is a more per- fect correspondence of the exterior with the interior. The nave and choir, which are the places for the laity and the clergy, are brought into greater harmony, so far, at least, that both are surrounded by aisles. There were secured, architecturally, great gains in this variety. Open arcades made the interior view of the choir similar 7 98 Ecclesiastical Architecture. to that of the nave, and through their arched openings the worshipers looked and saw the wondrous forms and colors in the windows of the eastern wall, and it seemed as if another world, beautiful and mysterious, sur- rounded the church. Chapels were arranged around the choir-aisle, and a walk about the choir was associated with the worship of those saints whom the Church had canonized, or with the grateful remembrance of those benefactors whose gifts enabled the builders to construct the beautiful edifice. § Sporadic Forms. The ground-plans, which we have considered, show clearly the L,atin cross within. Fig. 69. (a) CATHEDRAL, AT TOURNAY. [b) CATHEDRAE AT BOMBERG. They also exhibit the modifications about and around the choir. There were, however, two departures which Romanesque Style. 99 should be considered before entering upon the study of the elevation of the Romanesque church. Fig. 69, a , shows where the transepts were moved to the middle of the church. This modification was sporadic, in imita- tion of Byzantine basilicas, and had little general favor. The church with the double choir is seen in Fig. 69, b. Yet the church type is retained, the western choir in no ways obscuring the cruciform plan; for the nave of the church terminates toward the west at the steps of the western choir, and makes, with the transepts and the eastern choir, the L,atin cross. § Elevation of the Romanesque Church. The ele- vation of the church and its roofing was accomplished in the following manner : Tofty pier-columns (Fig. 70) were set at intervals along the nave and connected with arches ; pier-columns were erected along the choir and transepts and given the height of the nave-piers. Walls, one-half the height of the nave, were built parallel to the nave-piers, leaving aisles; and often similar walls were built about the choir. The elevation of the church, so far as the structural principles are involved, is complete when a ceiling is built over the nave, choir, transepts, and aisles, and when, a gable- roof covers the nave, transepts, and choir, and transverse action. shed-roofs cover all the aisles. The ceiling beneath this roofing might be either flat, cylindrical, or vaulted. Fig. 70. IOO Ecclesiastical Architeci ure. Fig. 71 . § Buttressing of the Nave=walls. The architects of the Romanesque style strove to attain as great height for the nave as was possible after the structural prin- ciples of their edifices were tested. There resulted, in consequence, two modes of buttressing this nave : one was to elevate the side-walls (Fig. 71), and place the aisles and the nave under one gable-roof. There was adopt- ed in the tran- sitional Roman- esque another mode of construc- tion for strength- ening this high nave-wall. It may be illustrated in this way : If the upper portion of the elevated aisle-walls and the roof over the aisles be cut away, there will remain half-arches abutting against the nave. Place now a shed-roof beneath these half-arches, and there results the elevated nave with flying buttress. SECTION NOTRE DAME DU PORT. § Romanesque Ornamental Forms. The columns of the Romanesque church show great variety in form as well as in enrichment. The single column was circular or polygonal, (Fig. 72, 1 , 2 , 4 ., 5 , 6 ) ; the clustered column consisted of four or more col- umns, (7, 8 ). Arcades were found in the windows ( 18 , 19 ), or on the walls (77). Surfaces were enriched ROMANESQUE ORNAMENTAL FORMS. Romanesque Style. ioi Fig. 72 102 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 73. with rosettes and other artistic designs. Those circular windows, which often pierced the walls of a Latin basil- ica, became trans- formed (Fig. 73) as soon as used in the Roman- esque church. The window- opening was filled with spokes, as of a wheel, and the intervening spaces assumed shapes like foli- ated forms. This change took place because this cir- cular window was used mainly as an ornament ; and it is the forerunner of those rose-win- dows, which give their colored magnificence and beauty to the Gothic cathedral. THE WHEEL-WINDOW. § Types of Exteriors. The exterior aspect of the Romanesque building may be reduced to four general types, according to the use of the tower. One type (Fig. 74) is where there is a tower over the cross- ing ; another is where there are one or two towers at the western fa?ade ; a third type is where there are towers at the western front and one over the crossing ; a fourth type has a double transept and central tower and two western towers. These, all except the fourth, are normal types. There are a few instances where there are four towers, two at the western front and two at the corners of the choir, and no transepts. Yet such Romanesque Style. 103 edifices are to be classed with those which have two towers at the west and no transept. All these exemplify . the type, but have certain parts wanting, and so are in- complete. Romanesque churches are structures which impress one as enduring because of the strength of their naves, well-buttressed on every side, and because of their mighty towers. They charm us because of their sim- plicity of structure and freshness of adornment. When, moreover, they began to assume, in the perfected style, the beauty of graceful forms in arch and column, and to be embellished with almost inexhaustible variety of or- namentation, they excite our highest admiration ; for they are structures endowed with strength and mantled with beauty. Therefore they become fitting symbols of the religion of the cross, whose manifestation in human life is through strength and beauty of character, present- ing a new type of manhood, simple, strong, and abound- ing in the graces of charity. Fig. 74. ELEVATIONS OF ROMANESQUE CHURCHES. 104 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 75 . B. EARLY ROMANESQUE, 1000=1100. § Constructive Proportions. The mason, as he builds, will be our best guide in comprehending the in- forming thought of the architect in the Romanesque edifice. The crossing is central and the unit of measure in the ground-plan of the Romanesque church. One similar square, on the east side, is the choir; one such square on the north side, and one on the south side of the crossing, form the transepts ; three or more, on the west side, make the nave. At the corners of these squares, along the nave (Fig. 75), great square pillars are placed ; walls are built about the choir and the transepts of the height of the nave, and also walls on each side of the nave, usually at a distance of half the breadth of the nave, and with half the height of the nave. The transepts and choir, with the nave, give within the form of the Tatin cross ; and, as these three parts of the church have the same elevation, the exterior is also cruciform. PL,AN OF CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. § Compared with Earlier Styles. Omitting the square of the choir, the plan becomes that of the ancient basilicas ; omitting all but one of the squares on the west of the crossing, and the plan is the same as that of the Byzantine basilica; and often it will be found that the constructive principles at the crossing and in the nave are the same as those of the Byzantine style. The mass- ive square piers of the nave (Fig. 75) are built almost roof-high. Then great arches are set upon these piers along the nave; and transverse arches across the nave if the cross-vault is employed over the nave. Then the Romanesque Style. 105 arch system of each square in the Romanesque church is like the arch-system which supports the great dome of St. Sophia. Another resemblance to the Byzantine style is present in the Romanesque style : the spaces between the piers of the nave are filled in after the manner of St. Sophia (vide Fig. 56), that is, by arcades upon col- umns. Here ends the obligation of the Romanesque style to the Byzantine. From here on the two styles are divergent. § Division into Periods. The same structural prin- ciples are present in the buildings of the early Roman- esque and of the perfected Romanesque periods. The ground of difference is to be found elsewhere than in structure. Nor can the distinction be maintained upon the kind of ceiling above the nave, since the flat, cylin- drical, and cross-vaulted ceilings are common to both. It is true, however, that the flat ceiling is more common in the early period. Nor is there any differentiating appearance in the form of the structures as seen from without. Yet a group of buildings have resemblances which set them apart as early Romanesque, and another, as perfected Romanesque. The earlier buildings have not so great luxuriance in ornamentation ; the various parts are not as harmoniously ordered together in the construction. There is traceable a gradual development in the piers, so that vault-mouldings and pier-mould- ings are in reciprocal relations. The towers become more and more organically connected with the nave and aisles. Yet it is not to be supposed that all later Ro- manesque buildings have the characteristics of the per- fected style ; for, where architects were not progressive, buildings, although built when the Romanesque style had become perfected, might yet resemble those of the early period. io6 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Flat Ceiling. The nave with the flat ceiling (Fig. 76) belongs to the early Romanesque. It is to be noticed that the nave- moulding on the piers extends to the ceiling. Also, all these mould- ings are the same on each pier. The breadth of the transept is indi- cated by the round columns at the choir. The nave terminates at the crossing with a moulded square column. The secret of the structure is re- vealed clearly: a series of square pillars, extending to the ceiling, and filled in with arches, consti- tutes the inclos- ure of the nave upon its sides. The chess-board NAVE OF ST. AEBANS ABBEY CHURCH. , , . ornament embel- lishes the archivolts. This nave is simple, massive, and lofty. The position of the pulpit in the nave, apart from the choir and connected with a nave-pier, marks a most significant change in the conduct of worship as Romanesque Style. 107 compared with the ambones of the earlier basilicas ; for the ambones were a part of the lower choir. § Cylindrical Ceiling. The nave with the cylindrical ceiling (Fig. 77) has the principal piers indicated by a Fig. 77. NAVE OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT. moulding, which extends above the height of the arches of the nave. There are two subordinate piers between the principal ones. The transverse arches, pierced by io8 Ecclesiastical Architecture. windows, designate the crossing. The principal piers at the crossing have the same front moulding as the prin- cipal piers in the nave. It is in this way that the squares in the plan of the nave are made apparent. Further, ornamentations like capitals are carved upon the mouldings of the piers. And there is a simple and chaste beauty in the arcades of the nave and the arcade windows above, which is most pleasing to the observer. This nave also is simple, massive, lofty. It is, more- over, very much more attractive than the nave with the hat ceiling. The church, which is Notre Dame du Port, at Clermont, has a choir-aisle. It is interesting to note that the arcades in the choir rest upon lofty and beauti- ful columns, and they support the half-dome of the apse, which is pierced with a circle of windows. When the sunlight touches the windows in the eastern walls and lights up their colors, then, beyond the choir, seen through its arches and windows, there is a splendor of color such as the sun, at its parting, often gives to clouds in the western sky. § Cross=vaulted Ceiling. The nave with the cross- vaulting (Fig. 78) is constructed in the following man- ner : At the corners of the squares, in the ground-plan of the nave, pillars are built, and arches are set upon these lengthwise with the nave, and also arches crosswise. And cross-vaults are then built upon these arches. Another series of squares, vaulted in this manner, makes the transepts and the choir. This vaulted construction is the cruciform church ; herein is all worship performed. These piers, which support the arches of the vaulting, are moulded. The appearance of this moulding is that of one column set above another. Between these prin- cipal pillars one of the same form and size is placed, in order to sustain the arches, which are used to fill in the Romanesque Style. 109 nave compartment. These secondary pillars are not so richly moulded. The upper arcades are cumbersome, but massive, having strength, but lacking in grace. Fig. 78. NAVE OF THE CATHEDRAE OF SPIRES. §The Early Romanesque Interior. This stern, solid, cross-vaulted, cruciform church, impressive through the imposing height of its nave, belongs to the early Roman- esque period. Walks were made around this cruciform church having half the width of the nave. Outer walls no Ecclesiastical Architecture . were built along these side paths, and were pierced with windows at points corresponding to the spaces between the nave -piers. These aisles were usually vaulted. The vast significance of the Romanesque church from within may now be understood if we take our stand at the crossing. The windows of the transepts flood the cross- ing with light ; the choir, through its windows, sends unobstructed light down the nave, while from the aisles between the great piers come bands of light, which alter- nate, with the shadows of these great piers, across the nave. A cross of light, in places touched with shadow, is the Romanesque church as viewed from the crossing. § Cruciform Exterior. Form, not finish, occupied the thoughts of the architects in the early Romanesque. They developed the type, retaining its characteristics in all varieties ; they left it to their followers to perfect the form and give to the structure its beauty through appro- priate adornment. The interior of the early Roman- esque church was constructed so as to keep in full view, when seen from the crossing, its cruciform plan. The ex- terior was moulded by the inspiring thought of the inte- rior, so that to the observer without, the edifice is a cross. Gable-roofs were set over the ceilings of the choir and nave, making the long arm of the cross; and gable-roofs over the ceilings of the transepts, making the shorter arm. Shed-roofs were built above the ceilings of the aisles and abutting onto the nave. The simplest form of the exterior is seen in Fig. 79. The lofty clerestory of the church is pierced with many windows, and so the nave, choir, and transepts, or the church proper, is filled with light. There is, above the crossing, a small cupola, hardly prophetic of the marvels of beauty which ap- peared here in the succeeding period of the Romanesque style. The two-storied buildings about the choir, or the Romanesque Style. iii eastern end, were the conventual dwellings. Here the brotherhood lived, guardians of the church. The edi- Fig. 79. CISTERCIAN CHURCH, AT RIDDAGSHAUSEN. fice is simple, without external ornament ; lofty, and so impressive ; symbolical, being a most noble elevation of the cross. § Type with Central Tower. The Tatin basilica has before the altar the triumphal arch, sign that the author- ities of the Church and the State were united ; the By- zantine basilica has above the crossing the glorious dome, sign that the greatest splendor of the building now extended over the nave, where the believers sat. A new sign was raised above the crossing of the Roman- esque church. The choir, the seat of the clergy, was separated from the nave, the place of the laity, by the transept-arms. The crossing was the place where choir 112 Ecclesiastical Architecture. and nave met, and above it rose the tower, symbol of strength through the union of the worshiping priests and people. The tower, like the Byzantine dome, rested on powerful arches. The Romanesque church with the The mural embellish- ment of the early Romanesque is to be noticed. The string- courses and the gables have beneath them the arch-moulding. A kind of blind arcade divides the facade into compartments, and, as if to instruct us that the arcade is in the mind of the architect, there is placed a most complete arcade un- der the two smaller gables. The Latin basilica had employed this mode of mural decoration. It is also to be noticed that the door, leading into the nave, is within the tripartite opening in the western facade. Hence, we see that now the western end, like the eastern, has its own distinctive completion. The ardica of the Latin basilica is developed in the early Romanesque into this western front. There are three parts to this facade : the central division, before the nave, and the side divisions, constructed out of two square towers, one before each aisle. Each division has its gable-roof. The side divisions have also small turrets central tower is seen in Fig. 80. Fig. 80. CHURCH AT MAUERSMUNSTER. Romanesque Style. 113 above. This facade has in it all the essential elements required in order to develop the wonderful towers of the perfected Romanesque church and the marvelous spires of the Gothic cathedral. The impression of this western front is most attractive, but there is lacking that pleasing recognition of the daring genius of man, which ever is made when the eye ranges upward along a tower’s front until high altitude is reached. § Type with Western Towers. The Romanesque church was an architectural style originated by the priesthood and paid for out of their enormous wealth. The clergy in this period were the protectors of the people against the usurpations of the feudal lords. The vast importance of believers in the view of the Chris- tian Church was manifested in this building of the clergy, for new splendor was given to the western front, where the people entered. When princes became allied with the people, in order to save the State from the domination of the priesthood, a witness to this change found expression in the fuller development of the west- ern fa£ade. Where turrets had been, towers were raised, signs of the might of the prince and the people. The western facade, as thus transformed, is as novel in its as- piring height as the idea of the sovereign right of rul- ers was unwelcome to the Popes of Rome. The Church of the Holy Trinity at Caen (Fig. 81), presents to the eye_a western facade with these lofty towers. Observe the mighty buttresses below. But the tower’s height and its embellishment occupied chiefly the thought of the architect. Story was raised above story, each with its own distinctive decoration. The top of the tower was crowned later, perhaps, with a spire or a group of spires. The daring height of the tower was its chiefest splendor in the early Romanesque period ; yet, as the 114 Ecclesiastical Architecture. eye ranged upward along its surface, the tower became more and more beautified. The transalpine nations loved the lofty grandeur of the towers of their churches. Some element seemed embodied in them kindred to that new aspiration within the soul, which Christian- ity planted and caused to grow, and which lifted them above the barbarism of their forefathers, en- larged their intel- lectual horizon, and led them to establish govern- ments which were independ- HOPY TRINITY, AT CApN. . ent of the domina- tion of a priesthood, and which have braved a thousand storms. The Romanesque type, unmodified except for its enrichment through more striking proportions and decorations, is an abiding type ; for the edifice is churchly in all its parts, and suggests by its form, within and with- out, the great symbol of the Christian religion. § Type with Eastern and Western Towers. These edifices have two choirs, the principal one at the east, and a secondary choir at the west. The Abbey Church Fig. 81 . Romanesque Style. 115 at Iyaacli (Fig. 82) is one of the earliest examples of this variation. Until imitation becomes the guide, the great features in an imposing edifice are but embodi- ments, expressive of sympathy with, or antagonism to, dominating thoughts in the body politic. Such we have Fig. 82. ABBEY CHURCH, AT EAACH. found to be the case when the towers at the west of the church were completed, not by small turrets, but by spires. The struggle between the Church and the State was a contest between gigantic powers, and naturally the clergy sought to remove associations with any parts of the church edifice, reminding all that the victory at times was with the rulers of the people in this con- flict. At least the new use of towers in the Abbey Church at Uaach seems to aim at the removal of any xi6 Ecclesiastical Architecture. new and significant associations connected with the western facade. The eastern choir and principal one has before it, and above the crossing, a beautiful octag- Fiq. 83. onal tower; and there is at the western front a choir, above which is a central tower of different shape, yet at- tractive. Towers were set at the corners of the western Romanesque Style. 117 facade, and in the eastern angles of the transepts. If the tower imports to the mind the idea of strength, then the use of towers in this church declares that strength is to be found near the altar ; for the eastern towers are mighty, while those near the entrance, away from the altar, are mere ornaments. The western entrance was also associated with the clergy by the presence of a western choir. § Typical Romanesque Church. Transepts at the east and towers at the west (Fig. 83) make the com- pleted type of the early Romanesque church. There is a simplicity in the structure, a chasteness in its few mural decorations, a charm in the circular form of its apses, a symbolism in the cruciform shape behind the massive and lofty towers, that fit this edifice to express, with pe- culiar appropriateness, the genius and the transforming power of Christianity. This early Romanesque church, unmodified, has become an abiding type in ecclesias- tical architecture. C. PERFECTED ROMANESQUE, 1100=1200. § Distinguishing Characteristics. The system of cross-vaulting is certainly most common in the churches of this second period. The cross-vault over the nave made the building seem compactly joined together, and practically resulted in making stone as pliable and more suitable for constructive purposes than wood. A further benefit came from this system of vaulting. It gave to the nave, through the ribs of the vaults, the appearance of a lofty vista, such as one sees when the branches of great trees meet over some forest highway. The vaulted nave of the Perfected Romanesque was the true forerunner of the Gothic nave. It is not the cross-vault over the nave that distinguishes the perfected Romanesque building. n8 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Rather, the distinctive signs will be found in a more symmetrical development of the interior and exterior characteristic features of the Romanesque style ; also, in a more elaborate ornamentation of the edifice. § Flat Ceiling. The nave-bay (Fig. 84) shows the greater artistic excellence in this period. The nave- arches are high, and. Fig. 84. . 6 ’ in consequence, there are no gallery -arcades above them. The clerestory is built upon this high arcade of the nave, and the beams of the roof are placed upon this wall. The whole arrange- ment of this bay is most pleasing. The beautiful columns, the piers of masonry upon them, ornamented with the richly-robed figures of Popes; the arches, resting on these ornamented piers, and their span- drels beautified with pictured story ; the wall-spaces also of the clerestory presenting, likewise, in symbols what saints had CHAPEL, AT PALERMO. wrought or suffered, — all combined to make a scenic dis- play of sacred history, not unlike that found on tho Romanesque Style. 119 walls of the L,atin basilica. But the lofty arcades, the greater light from the side-aisles, the graceful symmetry and harmony of all parts, make evident the new style as compared with the basilican ; and, when we compare the plain, solid features in the nave with the flat ceiling belonging to the early Romanesque period, these same artistic beauties discriminate between the early and the perfected periods of the same style. § The Cylindrical Ceiling. The example chosen to represent the advance of the perfected style in the cylin- drical ceiling (Fig. 85) has not the elegance which the correspond- ing example of early Romanesque (vide Fig. 76) possesses; yet there is discernible a greater progress in or- g a n i c construction. First the high piers supporting the longi- tudinal and the trans- verse arches of the nave are indicated by columnar moulding extending to the spring of the tranverse arch. The method of filling in the spaces between these piers is clearly shown by mouldings on the piers. The gallery is made to harmonize with the construction below, but the mouldings are lighter. The arches across the nave are visible on the ceiling. Fig. 85. NAVE OF CATHEDRAE OF SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTEEEA. 120 Ecclesiastical Architecture. The uniformity in the type of the piers along the nave, and the similarity in each nave-bay, combine to give the impression that, as compared with the earlier period, this cylindrically-vaulted nave of the perfected Roman- esque style is a more perfect organic structure. § Crosssvaulted Ceiling. The most signal triumph of genius, as displayed in the interior of a Romanesque church, was ac- complished when the architects of the perfected Ro- manesque style produced a nave in which all the parts were organ- ically constructed together and made beautiful by the glories of sculp- tured column and arch. Such a nave is given in Fig. 86. Notice, first, the principal pier. The base is, in form, like a Greek cross ; the body of the pier is built on the crossing of the arms. The two arms, extending into the nave and aisle, support the pilasters on which transverse arches are built ; the other arms carry the support for the longitudinal arches. The mouldings of Romanesque Style. 121 the pilaster on the nave-side are like tall, slender half- columns, which support transverse and diagonal ribs for the vaulting. The other mouldings of this nave-pier in- dicate the different archivolts resting upon them. The secondary pier is in marked contrast with the principal one, and rightly so, since it simply aids in filling in the spaces between the principal piers. Yet this filling-in is massive, like the work of Titans. The base of this secondary pier is a square ; on it is placed a huge colum- nar pier. The normal round capital is chamfered off so as to indicate, in a measure, the archivolts upon it. Thus the half-circular face of the capital fronting the nave, marks the impact of the outer archivolt of the longitudinal arches. The side circular face is where the inner archivolt of the longitudinal arch springs from. The third circular face is between these two, and is be- neath the ornamental archivolts of the longitudinal arch. The pier which supports the arches of the gallery above this secondary pier is polygonal, and receives mould- ings suggestive of the archivolts, which lean against it for support. Corbel-brackets furnish the rest for the moulded diagonal ribs of the vaulting, which are over the secondary piers. The triple arcade in the opening of the cross-vault makes a most beautiful clerestory. §The Perfected Romanesque Nave. The strength, the beauty, and the constructive unity and symmetry of this nave, combine to produce an impression upon the observer hardly surpassed by the contemplation of any interior wdthin the limits of ecclesiastical architecture. And it may be said that the cross-vaulted nave of the perfected Romanesque, with its lofty piers and its beauti- ful sculptured enrichment, furnished all the requirements for those astonishing architectural wonders which have rendered the Gothic nave of the Christian Church more 122 Ecclesiastical Architecture. impressive and more amazing than the massive and tall columns which made the columnar walk to the adytum of an Egyptian temple. Indeed, the sculptured beauty of a Grecian temple is the only worthy compeer of that beauty and grace which adorn this Romanesque nave, that noble highway before God’s high altar in the Chris- tian cathedral. § Exterior Beautified. The exterior of the Roman- esque church in the period of the perfected style at- tracted, likewise, the genius of the architect, and under the wizard touch of his hand became transformed into marvels of beauty. The exterior typical form, which is cruciform, and has a central tower above the crossing and two mighty towers at the west front, was modified and beautified according as the influence of the Church or of the State was dominant ; for, during this period, religious and civil authorities were still in a great struggle, striving to define the rights and draw the limits of these two great divinely-ordained authorities among the people. § Church with Western Towers. Sometimes the church at the eastern termination was left without any ex- terior attraction. This is remarkable, since for centuries the clergy had assembled all the splendor of the church about the choir. The early Romanesque style had marked the position of the choir by the transept-roofs and central tower. It was, therefore, no mere chance, but a bold defiance of established custom, when a church (Fig. 87) was built with most commanding towers on the west, and not even the transept to indicate the division within of nave and choir. The mural decoration is new, harmonious, and artistic. Instead of long, narrow, rec- tangular divisions upon the walls, the divisions of the Romanesque Style. 123 towers and the nave approach the square. Each com- partment of the towers has its own characteristic orna- ment. The low- est has sculpture ; the north tower, lions; the south, a lamb. The com- partment of the second story has beautiful circular windows. Bipar- tite windows of different height adorn the small- er square c o m - partments of the third and fourth stories. Pyra- midal roofs com- plete the towers. The culminating beauty of the western fagade is found at the portal. In structure it is a deeply recessed porch or a deeply re- cessed archway before the door of the church. Above the arch is a circle of niches, each sheltering the statue of a disciple, excepting the central niche, which contains the figure of the Christ. The series of receding arcades within the portal, rich in columns and sculptured archi- volts, give a new and remarkable beauty to the entrance- way into the house of God. § Church with Eastern and Western Towers. The impression which this arrangement of towers makes is that the tops of towers are merely used as ornaments for the church ; since the tall, slender bodies of the towers Fig. 87. CHURCH OF ST. JAK. 124 Ecclesiastical Architecture . are completely shut out from view (Fig. 88), hidden, in truth, in corners. This church has erected at the cross- Fig. 88. DOME AT SPIRES. ing an octagonal dome. A remarkable alteration in the western facade is to be observed. Every sugges- tion of a tower is banished from this front. The struc- ture is like the transept in appearance, having a similar Romanesque Style. 125 gable-roof and central dome. Thus further is empha- sized the hierarchical thought that the tower idea, in connection with the church, is not a significant, but rather an ornamental feature of the church. This west- ern porch is the ardica of the Tatin basilica, developed into a beautiful and imposing structure. Its front is tripartite, corresponding to the aisles and nave of the church. The side divisions are symmetrical. The low- est story has a deeply-recessed and richly adorned por- tal ; the middle story has a large window with attractive square stone-framing about it; the upper story has an arcade, within whose arched niches statues of saints are set. It is the central portion which is new in its cluster of beautiful forms. The central portal is deeply re- cessed, magnificent in size, most striking in the charm of its adornment. Five niches are placed above the archway, each holding an imposing statue. The division above the portal has a circular window, both large and beautiful ; the third story has niches within arcades, and the gable has the quatrefoil opening. Remove the or- namental towers from this facade, build above each side division great massive high towers, there would re- sult a church of the perfected Romanesque style, rival- ing, not unsuccessfully, the impression that comes to the observer when he beholds the imposing front of the Gothic cathedral. § Church with Central Tower. The Cathedral at Mainz has two choirs, the western one being a later ad- dition. The ceremonial worship of the Papal Church was always a splendid spectacle, finely adapted to impress the popular mind. The enhancement of this influence became increased by two choirs. Provision was made by this arrangement for antiphonal services, in which choral responses added their mysterious impressiveness. 126 Ecclesiastical Architecture . The choir of this cathedral (Fig. 89) will present the general features of the perfected Romanesque, although in its external constructions there are discernible modi- fications which belong to the transitional period. The octagonal form of the choir, windows with deep recesses, and the circular windows, are readily re cog- nized as familiar features. The cross-gable roof over the choir is new in the style; but the great central tower, called the Pas- tor’s Tower, chains to it all attention. The beautiful vari- ety in its main stories adds to its beauty. The surmounting cupola, a 1 - though modern, blends most har- The architect is willing to let us admire the charms of the structure un- aided by himself ; but he will not permit us, without as- sistance, to estimate its size. The equestrian statue at the crossing of the gables above the choir is strangely placed ; but it is set there as a measuring-rod, for all know the size of a man upon horseback. It seems small when elevated to this lofty pedestal ; but by it we may Fig. 89. CHOIR OF THK CATHHDRAF AT MAINZ. moniously with the whole structure. Romanesque Style. I2J measure the two turrets at the eastern termination of the choir. These small towers are thus seen to have considerable magnitude when brought into measurement by means of this equestrian statue. Yet these little towers are pigmies compared 'with the gigantic central tower. Externally, the greatest splendor of the edifice is this Pastor’s Tower above the crossing. And we feel it is the hand and masterly genius of the artists of the perfected Romanesque style, which wrought the beauty of the central tower, the charms of the clustered col- umns in the transept-windows, and of the choir-walls pierced with wheel-windows and graceful arcades. All these features blend in pleasing harmony, making the cathedral one of the most important and beautiful mon- uments of the Romanesque style. D. ROMANESQUE TRANSITIONAL STYLE, 1180=1250. § Constructive Principles. The culmination of ec- clesiastical architecture was reached in the Gothic style. Marvelous are the Gothic edifices through their sym- metry and grace of form and the lovely beauty of their ornamentation. The transitional style of the Roman- esque Church is the prophetic anticipation of Gothic architecture. The new constructive principles were the pointed arch and the buttress. In the transitional style this form of arch is employed for the most part in the vaulting and the arcades of the nave. Heretofore the round arch had prevailed in Christian architecture. When the round arch leaped from column to column, supporting the unbroken walls of the nave, it gave the constructive secret of the Christian basilica. When this lower arcade of the nave was raised as high as the roof, and below was filled in with secondary and ornamental arcades, then the constructive secret of the Byzantine 128 Ecclesiastical Architecture. and Romanesque churches was discovered. The Gothic church, likewise, placed its nave-arches upon columns, and built upon them the triforium and clerestory, or else it raised its piers roof-high, and built within them clere- story and triforium, using, however, everywhere the pointed in place of the round arch. The transitional style is Romanesque architecture in construction with new effects obtained through the pointed arch. § Pointed Arch and Buttress. The pointed arch was employed subordinately in the transitional style, ap- pearing in the lower arcades of the nave and in its vault- ing, while the windows and portals and towers retained the round arch. Important modifications followed this innovation, and so suggestive were these changes that ultimately the Gothic constructive system was developed, which was entirely dependent upon the mechanical ad- vantages of the pointed arch. The transitional style in- troduced also the use of the buttress, yet only as a means of strengthening a wall, while the distinctive and most important use of the buttress in the Gothic style was to make it the principal support of the aisle-piers, and the wall was simply filling-in of spaces between these but- tressed piers. § Nave of the Transitional Style. All piers of this nave (Fig. 90) are principal ones. They reach to the roof-level. The nave-ceiling is flat. The high-pointed arch in the lowest story of the bay permits the light to come from the side almost unobstructed. A glance within this bay will show how thick the aisle-wall was made. The arcade of each bay in the gallery has a cen- tral round arch with two pointed arches within. There are two pointed blind arches on each side of this cen- tral round arch. The clerestory introduces a beautiful Romanesque Style. 129 yet harmonious modification. All the arches are open, thus letting light enter more freely ; the side-arches of the triple-arched arcade are pointed, and in order to give the appearance of a continuous arcade in the clere- story, the upper part of the nave-piers have the mouldings of a pointed arch. It may be fairly doubted whether this substi- tution of the pointed arch for the round arch as a decorative element is anything more than an incon- gruity, an evidence that the architects were wrestling with the problem of new forms, desiring to cast aside the old. The beauty of the nave is not in its sculpturing, for there is no splen- dor of capital, frieze, and cornice. Simple moulding of arch and pier, and simplest capitals constitute the ornamentation. The beauty in the nave is in the new form of arch in contrast with the old ; for the pointed arch attains greater height with the same span than the round arch, and, in consequence, the masonry about the arch is less heavy, and so the nave looks less cumbersome. It has the beauty of promise. Gothic architecture was its fulfillment. Fig. 90. BAY OF RIPON CATHFDRAL,. 9 130 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Choir with Buttresses. The employment of the buttress is shown in Fig. 91. The polygonal choir is buttressed at the angles. The finish of the choir is Roman- esque; the round windows, the ar- cade beneath the eaves, the ar- cade-corbel tables, are all familiar. The buttresses are new, and antici- pate one of the most r e m a r li- able features of the exterior in the Gothic style. In passing, at- tention may be called to the crucifix beneath the central window of the choir, and the bowl for holy water against the adjacent buttress, evidence of that effort, in this period, to inspire al- ways reverence for the great and fundamental doctrine of Christian teachings, respecting the passion of our Ford. § Prophecy of a New Era. The transitional style indicated the entrance of a new spirit into ecclesiastical architecture. Old forms began to yield under its power : the promise of a new era began to dawn. We have traced the influence of this new force as it modified the Fig. 91, CHOIR OF CHURCH AT PAFFENHEIM. R OMA N ESQ UE STYLE. 1 3 1 nave and the exterior of the choir. It had strength only to modify, not to reform. Sometimes this new im- pulse exhausted itself when it had introduced the pointed arch in the nave; at other times it seemed to pervade every part of the edifice, changing arches and their grouping, shafts of columns and their capitals at the portal, as well as giving a new aspect to the external ap- pearance of the whole building. This transitional style of the Romanesque architecture was a protest against the tyranny of ancient forms, which had lost their worth to the people. These forms were associated with the priesthood ; they were developed under the fostering care of the clergy ; all but the towers witnessed to the dominance of the priest. The people came into spirit- ual power, and they changed, not alone the attitude of the priest, but even the outward appearance of the edi- fice in which he officiated. This movement culminated in Gothic architecture, being the new spirit which had entered into the people, made manifest in stone. E. STRIKING FEATURES OF THE ROMANESQUE STYLE. § The Crypt. The nave, with its side-aisles, the transepts, and the choir, are the essentials in a Roman- esque church where the type is unmodified. The exten- sion of the side-aisles across the transepts and along the choir has been described ; ultimately there was formed in this way a choir-aisle. The choir was pre-eminently for the clergy. There was built beneath the choir of many of the larger churches crypts, wherein were pre- served the relics of saints or the mortal remains of dis- tinguished prelates and persons of princely rank. These crypts extended along the choir’s length, and sometimes even beneath the crossing. Entrance to them was by flights of steps along the sides of the choir. Cross- 132 Ecclesiastical Architecture. vaultings, resting upon pillars (Fig. 92), made the roof of the crypt. The appointments of these crypts, having usually three aisles and an altar, made them a kind of un- derground church. The floor of the choir often became raised in conse- quence of the crypts. This ac- counts for the staircases in many churches which lead from the nave to the choir. Gen- erally, it may be said that an ele- vated choir has be- neath it a crypt. The later Roman- esque churches had in them no crypts, because chapels, dedicated to saints or consecrated as the place of interment for either bishops or nobles, were arranged along the aisles of the nave or of the choir. § The Nave. The impression which the nave of a Romanesque church makes is entirely different from that of the Ratin or Byzantine basilica. An observer is instantly aware of this fact. He feels the sense of secur- ity when his eye sees huge piers supporting massive arches to sustain the vaulting of the roof. He expe- riences the feeling of wonder when the reciprocal re- Fig. 92. vaulted crypt. Romanesque Style . i33 lation between the vault and pier is discerned, revealing a perfect organic construction ; and, as soon as the eye counts the numerous kinds of marvelous enrichment on the piers and arches, he gives to what he be- holds his fullest ad- miration. The pier- column (Fig. 93) is seen to be mass- ive and short as com- pared with its thick- ness. Great, heavy arches, to support the masonry of the gal- lery and clerestory, are set on these pier- columns. Spiral lines twine around their _ , . NAVE OF CHURCH AT WALTHAM. shafts, and zigzag lines adorn their archivolts. Foliage-decoration found but little favor in the Romanesque style. Endless va- riety in form and in rich lineal designs combined to give the charm of ornamentation to the edifice. As re- gards form, the column and capitals are circular, polyg- onal, or clustered, and are either plain or decorated; windows are made bipartite or tripartite by inserted columns and arches ; portals are constructed with re- ceding series of columns and arches. A glance at the Romanesque edifice shows a gorgeous array of lineal em- bellishment with which it is adorned. Scarcely were arabesques more characteristic of Eastern mosques than lineal decoration was of the Romanesque style. The luxuriance in its ornamental forms fairly bewilders one. 134 Ecclesiastical Architecture . § The Various Mouldings. The fertile resources of this style become evident when the lineal ornamentation Fig. 94. is separated into its varieties. The most common are given in Fig. 94. Beginning at the top, we see the diamond fret ; then, in order, comes a mould- ing that is composed of crowned heads. Below these are the embattled fret, the nail-head and star-moulding, the interlaced arches, the cable, the chevron, the chess- board moulding, the nail and star-moulding, a form of the lozenge, another variety of the cable, the chain-moulding. The lowest pattern is an archivolt having the triangu- lar and the embossed frets, and, in addition to these, the billet-moulding and those with scallop patterns, which are very common. These forms of ornament were wrought into symmetrical combinations upon shaft and archivolt. The patient fidelity of these builders astonishes us; they cease not to labor un- til they make beautiful their edifice. They did not borrow from nature suggestion of leaf and vine ; for, as if disdaining ORNAMivNTAi, patterns, all suggestion from the flow- Romanesque Style. i35 ers of the field and the trees and vines of the woods, they hold simply to geometrical forms and artistid de- signs. Or, if we insist that these laborers are also imita- tive in the ornaments which they used, we must go to the mineral world and find resemblances to their ornaments in those beautiful crystals which are buried in the heart of the rocks. Indeed, where the artistic forms assume the shape of stem and leaf, they carve on the stalks ornaments of jewels having facet-faces like crystalline shapes. In this way we are reminded that nature, through her botanical forms, contributes little or nothing to these architects when they seek to adorn their buildings. §Column=shafts and Capital. The ornamental col- umn, with its slender shaft and peculiar capital, is found in the jambs of windows and doors and in the arcades of galleries. The capitals were a great departure from the classical type. There are three forms (Fig. 95) to be Fig. 95. distinguished : the cubiform capital, in which the lower part of the cube is rounded off and curved toward the shaft, thus mediating between the curved surface of the shaft and the flat face of the upper part of the cube; 136 Ecclesiastical Architecture. tlie bell-shaped capital, in which the neck is narrow, and gradually expands, bell-like, into the capital itself. The third form is compound of these two, the lower part commencing as the bell-shaped capital, but the upper suddenly assuming the form of the cube. These cap- itals and shafts have received various enrichments. Fig. 96 gives an example .showing how shaft, capital, Fig. 96. CAPITALS FROM ST. PETER, NORTHAMPTON. and archivolt have each their own ornament, yet all are made to blend most harmoniously together. Where these masters of form obtained their first suggestions must ever be matters of speculation. It may be that they arrived at these forms of shaft and capital by trans- forming the great types which Grecian and Roman architects employed in their temples, or it may be that they owe to Byzantine art great obligation for them. Whichever may be the case, it is still true that the mod- ifications which these mediaeval artists made in them were little short of establishing them as new creations. Romanesque Style. i37 § Mouldings of the Cross=vaults. Often the ribbed arehes of the vaulting become the readiest means by which edifices are assigned to their period. Certain, it is, that a gradual progress from simple to richly-moulded vault-ribs is traceable. The early mouldings (Fig. 97) are flat in their faces or else made half-round ; the ribs of the later periods are more elaborately carved into half-rounds at the edges, with intervening flat or angular faces. The ceiling gave, by means of these carved ribs, a very pleasing impression. Yet the time was not far distant when the cross-vault was to be, not pleasing merely, but strikingly decorative because of the rib- mouldings, when, indeed, all the great supports of the building seemed designed to lead the eye upward to these same rib-mouldings ; for the pier-mouldings were simply guides to those of the vault. As long as the cross-vault was only the roof of a crypt it remained plain, for its abode was in darkness ; when it roofed the nave, it stood in the light, and was made beautiful. Fig. 97, MOULDINGS OF THF VAULTS. 138 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 98. § Portals. There is almost Grecian purity of taste in the Romanesque doorway (Fig, 98) before ornament- ation became redund- ant. The trefoil arch with the heart-shaped frets above, spans the doorway; the beveled jambs have against their sides or- na mental columns. The form of the shafts, not of the capitals, as in Grecian orders, constitutes their dis- tinctive features. The mouldings of the arch are simple, the outer one being the more elaborate. The com- bined effect is beauti- ful. This doorway is similar in its form and adornment to the windows and arcades within the church. When seriousness of purpose was lost, all this wealth of deco- rative details became the abbettor of a fan- tastic and grotesque taste. The golden door of the Cathedral PORTAI, AT HEITSBRONN. of Fre iberg (Fig. 99 ) exhibits the extravagance to which the taste for excess- Romanesque Style. i39 ive embellishment led. The columns upon high pedes- tals, and supporting each an architrave, are executed with all the refine- ment belonging to the best ex- amples. But there is incongruity in the grotesque forms above the heads of the saints, who are set be- tween these col- u m n s ; and the shapes above the architrave make a strange medley of mediaeval sphinx- es, saints, and lin- eal decoration. Christian symbol- ism is altogether foreign to this Ro- manesque mode of decoration; yet there is a symbol- P0RTAI ' OF CATHEDRAI - AT FREIBURG - ism, representing history and the sciences, especially as- tronomy, to which the mediaeval mind was devoted. § Cloisters. The remarkable variety in the deco- rative column is nowhere viewed to better advantage than in the Cloisters of St. Paolo, at Rome. These cloisters are covered passages which surround a quad- rangle. The court is planted with trees and flowers, and is separated by arcades from the cloisters. The columns of these arcades are twisted and fluted and 140 Ecclesiastical Architecture. wound with spiral cords, until the forms they assume make one doubt whether unpliable stone is the material out of which they are carved. Surrounded by all this Fig. 100. CLOISTER OF ST. PAOEO, ROME. princely splendor, ecclesiastics of all ranks walked, read- ing their prayers or meditating upon sacred themes, dur- ing the intervals of church service or in their hours of study. These clerics, who could own nothing by virtue of their vows, became, in truth, the possessors of luxu- rious surroundings, which earthly princes might vie to imitate, but must ever fail to surpass. Chapter V* ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE* I. IN ITALY. § Political Conditions. Italy, in the nth and 12th centuries, was part of the Holy German Empire. But the Italian possessions of the emperor were always scenes of strife between the imperial and papal parties. Italian traditions were cisalpine, not transalpine, and sovereigns of German extraction were simply endured. There were some divisions of Italy within which feudal lords ruled. Great cities, also, were in these Italian do- mains, with right to sustain armies for self-protection, and to wage war on their own account. These almost politically independent divisions corresponded with the ancient divisions of Italy; namely, Venetia, Tuscany, Eombardy, Campania, and the Sicilies. These provinces all belonged to the empire, yet each one was actuated by different aims, had diverse and long-standing tradi- tions, and represented different types of civic life. They all, however, had a common religious faith, and the pope was its supreme head. When, therefore, the new archi- tectural style, known as the Romanesque, began to be employed in Italy, the.se different divisions made modi- fications, giving varieties to the general Romanesque type so pronounced that these varieties have been called the Florentine, the Venetian, the Tuscan, and the Eom- bardic styles of the Romanesque. § Florentine Style. The Church of St. Miniato is a fine example of the Florentine style. The ground- 141 142 Ecclesiastical Architecture. plan (Fig. ioi) shows two piers on each side of the nave, which support transverse arches. The roof over the nave is an open timber roof, beau- tifully decorated with patterns of va- rious colors. The columns and arch- ivolts are marked by white and black bands of marble, a kind of decoration common to the Italian Romanesque. These features are all Romanesque ; but the shape of the ground-plan is the same as that of the Latin basilica, and the elevation of the church, so far as its exterior is concerned, re- minds one of the Constantine or Latin basilicas. It is, however, in the west- ern fagade, where the great peculiar- plan st. miniato. Florentine style (Fig. 102) becomes most conspicuous. Light and dark colored marbles are used to make inlaid work, producing a front which seems Fig. 102. like a colossal mosaic, rich in columns and arches, graced with stellar forms, and beau- tified with cir- cular, rectangu- lar, and triangu- larhgures. This mode of decora- tion required the painter’s eye, not the sculp- tor’s chisel. FACADE ST. MINIATO, FLORENCE- Fig. 101. Romanesque Style. i43 § Venetian Style. The Church of St. Mark’s, at Venice, exhibits the finest example in the Venetian style. In plan this church (Fig. 103) is a Greek cross, with a mag- nificent dome over the cross- ing and a smaller dome at each extremity of the equal arms of the cross. Great piers and powerful arches sustain the domes. Galleries are built be- tween the piers. The floor is a mosaic ; the pier-feces are in- crusted with marbles, rich in color; the spandrels and domes are beautified with mosaic pic- . _ , . . ^ f PI.AN OF ST. MARK’S. tures. All this is Byzantine, and reminds one only of the superior magnificence of St. Sophia, at Constantinople. The great porch (Fig. 104) on the west and north side is Romanesque, omit- Fig. 104. FACADE OF ST. MARK’S, VENICE. 1 44 Ecclesiastical Architecture. ting, however, the attic-story above, whose pointed arches and pinnacles are a Gothic addition of the 14th century. The high archways in the porch and before the western doors of the church are not Byzantine, but Romanesque. The massive piers and arches on the north side of the porch need but to be placed in the nave in order to fur- nish striking resemblance to those of the Norman Roman- esque nave. The decoration of these piers is Venetian, and consists in rows of engaged columns in stories, a style recalling the method of decorating flat surfaces, which was common in ancient Rome. § Tuscan Style. The group of buildings at Pisa, in- cluding the cathedral, the baptistery, and the campanile, were built when the Pisans were at the summit of their power, and when their victories brought countless wealth into their city. This mode of grouping ecclesi- astical buildings was common during the period of the Latin Catholic Church ; but the more common custom in the Germanic Church was to unite the baptistery to the nave as a chapel, and to build the campanile as a tower in connection with the church edifice. The plan of this Pisan Cathedral (Fig. 105) is cruciform, just such a plan as would be made by taking one of the five-aisled basilicas, which Constantine built, and adding transepts, then building above the crossing an elliptical dome. The only piers in the nave are the eight which support the dome. There are sixty-five ancient Greek and Ro- man columns in the nave and aisles, all taken by the Pisans as booty in war. One seems to be in a forest of beautiful classical columns as he walks up the nave of the church. The peculiar decoration of alternating light and dark marble, characteristic of the Italian Ro- manesque, is seen on the aisle-side of the arches and in the galleries. It is in the exterior (Fig. 106) that the Romanesque Style . i45 chief peculiarity of the Tuscan style is seen. The west- tern facade has in its lowest division a magnificent ar- cade, with engaged columns and arches, within three of whose arches are portals, where three ancient bronze gates once swung, these, also, being tro- phies of war. The upper divis- ions are four open galleries of different length, presenting a most brilliant array of arches and columns. The sides are ornamented with decorative ar- cades or with pilasters and hori- zontal entablature. The arcade, as a decorative feature, is splen- didly carried out in both the baptistery and the campanile. The influence of this group of buildings is traceable in the churches of Tucca and other cities of Tuscany. Fig. 106. FACADE) OF CATHEDRAL, OF PISA. IO Fig. 105. OF PISA. 1 46 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Lombard Style. Of all the Italian styles the Lombard presents most completely the typical interior of a Romanesque church. The nave, as well as the aisles, is vaulted, and the piers of the nave have mould- ings corresponding to the arches and ribs of the vault. The church of this style is a vaulted basilica with tran- septs. The distin- guishing character- istics of the Lom- bard style are seen in the facade. There are no high central portion and lower side-wings as in the fagade of the Romanesque church generally ; but the who 1 e church is placed under one gable- roof, and the divis- ions, answering to nave and aisles, are marked off on the western fagade by pilaster-buttresses, extending to the eaves. The cathe- dral at Piacenza (Fig. 107) will exhibit this style. The western fagade has also a highly ornate character, which is a characteristic of the Lombard style. There are ar- cades under the eaves, and arcades above the doorways of the side-aisle, and a great rose-window above the cen- tral portal. A projecting porch is before each entrance, with first and second story. Romanesque Style. i47 II. IN GERMANY. § The Empire and the Papacy. More than hah* the lands of Germany had been granted to Church- men, on condition of feudal obedience. Hence bishops were theoretically subject to the sovereign will. The Council of the Tateran, in the 12th century, dared to forbid clergymen receiving benefices from laymen or owing allegiance to them. To such colossal power had the papacy attained. The gauntlet to the civil power was thrown down first by Pope Gregory VIII. Henry IV deposed Gregory by the Diet at Worms. The Coun- cil at Rome excommunicated the emperor. But papal excommunication had more terror than imperial depo- sition. Therefore, Henry traversed the wildest passes of the Alps in midwinter, and stood three days barefoot and fasting in the snow at the gate of the Castle of Canossa, begging the removal of the papal sentence. A divided allegiance between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities was the disturbing spirit of the times. Cen- turies had taught obedience to the civil authority ; the demand of obedience to the papal power was new in the Western World. The Saxons figure prominently in the empire during this period. They were the most recent converts to Christianity. They were often converted by force, and as often returned to their ancient faith. They, for a time, were fickle papists. The Rhenish provinces in this period were governed by powerful bishop-princes, who owed their fiefs to the emperor. These ecclesias- tics had great influence in the conduct of the affairs of the realm, and they accepted slowly, and only by ecclesi- astical compulsion, the papal theory. Varieties in the Romanesque style, as developed in Germany, are chiefly traceable to the localities of the Saxon lands and the Rhine, where there was greater or less independence of Rome. 148 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § The German Saxon Style. This church had usu- ally transepts and low piers between the nave and aisles. The intercolumniation of the piers was determined by the breadth of the nave. Sometimes columns alternated with piers, giving variety to the appearance of the nave. This construction was the same as the colonnades of the Latin basilica, except that piers, not columns, sup- ported the arches, and so the whole Saxon construc- tion was more massive. The simple, bold outlines of the ornamentation of these piers are observable in Fig. 108. Engaged col- umns correspond to the in- ner and outer mouldings of the archivolt ; a single bold moulding divides, perpen- dicularly, the spandrel. And above the arch is a hori- zontal moulding of the same kind. The western front had a low vestibule, with an arcade-gallery above, opening into the nave. The flat roof for nave and aisles was usual. The chief Ro- manesque features in the interior were the pier and its intercolumniation, and PIER AND ARCH IN CONVENT CHURCH, AT BUERGEEIN, NEAR JENA. the apsidal chapels in the transepts, opposite the aisles. Western, and often Eastern towers, were common to the exterior, and gave their peculiar attraction to the edifice. The later buildings of this style assumed the ornamental Romanesque Style. 149 features of other styles, and lost thereby that stern sim- plicity which accorded most harmoniously with the low and heavy arches of the nave and the great weight of wall which they sustained. §The German Norman Style. The Germans de- veloped an architectural style in which the vaulted nave and the construction of towers at the four corners of the church were the most striking features. The ground- plan was sometimes without transepts, then the towers stood at each corner of the rectangular plan. At other times the towers were in the angles of eastern and west- ern transepts. The vaulted ceiling and the towers were suggestions obtained from the Norman French ; but a new disposition of towers and new proportions made an independent German style. That remarkable series of churches along the Rhine and in the Rhine prov- inces, as exemplified in the cathedrals of L,aach, Spires, Mayence, and Worms, present these marked variations from the Norman Romanesque churches of other lands, and the style may appropriately be called the Ger- man-Norman Romanesque. The wooden roof is oc- casionally found here as in Italy; but great piers in the nave, not columns, give it support. The use of piers in the nave associates this style with the Saxon ; but the greater height of the nave distinguishes often these styles. It is, however, in the vaulted nave that a great and distinguishing character of the German- Norman Romanesque comes full into view, and it is this characteristic which associates the edifices with the Norman type. A bay of the nave, taken from the cathe- dral at Worms, will make clear the construction. There are principal piers, richly moulded at the sides of this bay, from which are sprung longitudinal and transverse arches. Each vault is, therefore, sustained by sup- 150 Ecclesiastical Architecture. ports such as were employed to carry the dome of St. Sophia. The supporting piers (Fig. 109) are not square, like the dome-piers in the Byzantine church, but are clustered columns. A secondary pier is built between these prin- cipal ones ; then the bay of the nave is constructed. It is tripartite, consisting of a high nave-arch, within which the windows of the outer wall are in full view; a solid wall above these arches, which in other churches be- comes broken into gallery-arcades ; and thirdly, the clere- story. The cross and diagonal ribs of the vaults received prom- inent mouldings. The whole structure of the nave was cum- bersome; but the greater height, the somber shaped piers, the mighty arches, brightened with the abundant light from the unobstructed side-windows and those of the clerestory, produced an effect new and impressive, even before these cumbersome elements of structure were formed into beauty by the genius of the artist. Fig. no is the choir of the minster at Bonn. The tall, square towers, with the tapering polygonal Fig. 109. BAY OF CATHEDRAL, AT WORMS. Romanesque Style. 151 Fig roof at their summits, and the graceful circular apse, are immediately noticeable. The arcade-paneling of the facade and the open arcade under the eaves of the apse com- bine to make a facade which is most beautifully embellished. The west- ern front sometimes had a polygonal projection between the towers for the entrance. This style has indeed resemblance to the Norman French through these towers ; but the whole edifice is carried out in such pleas- ing symmetry, and orna- mented with almost classic exactness of taste in the series of churches wherein the German- Norman style reached its highest perfection, that the style may be claimed as a national develop- ment, having received perhaps only the typical forms and the structural principles from abroad; for the Germans modified typical forms so masterly that their churches, com- pared with the prototypes, are like cultivated flowers, whose beauty far outshines the same flowers when wild. MINSTER AT BONN. 152 Ecclesiastical Architecture. PLAN OF APOSTILS’ CHURCH. in g with circular was joined on the western side of the crossing. A vestibule (Fig. 112) was often built to the nave and aisle-portion as a transept, thus giving two transepts, one at the eastern and the other at the western extrem- ity of the church. Towers and tur- rets, both east- ern and western, were often added. § German Romanesque Style. It is not difficult to separate a group of churches found in Germany, France, and Italy, which have sim- ilar characteristics, and are Roman- esque, but which are distinct, as a variety, from the Norman style. These churches in Germany are ap- propriately called the German Ro- manesque. The dome (Fig. 111) above the crossing was the ruling thought in this variety. This fea- ture is Byzantine. Great arches on piers supported the dome, and the thrusts were counterpoised by the transepts and choir, all terminat- apses. A long nave with side-aisles CHOIR OF APOSTLES’ CHURCH, COLOGNE- Romanesque Style. i53 The exterior was decorated with the arcades and open galleries, and the whole edifice was a new variety, having, indeed, no less pleasing charms than the more imposing German Norman style. A group of these churches are in Cologne, and are named St. Mary in the Capital, Apostles’ Church, and Great St. Martin’s. III. IN FRANCE. §The Sovereign Power. The establishment of cit- ies with municipal privileges was a Roman institution. Fiefs, under the dominion of a feudal lord, was a Ger- manic custom. France was the first among the govern- ments of Europe to accomplish the adjustment of these two opposing systems. Her king, Eouis VI, protected the leagues of the common people against the barons, especially, by establishing communes, or towns with free charters. He was led in this movement by the great Churchman, Abbot Suger. The successors of this king increased the number of communal charters. This movement was abetted by those many cities in Southern France, which had municipal privileges granted them by the Romans, and which they claimed as peculiar rights even in the twelfth century. These free cities chose their own magistrates and armed their own citizens fol common defense. The growth of the sovereign’s power, because he favored free cities in his domains, subordi- nated the claims of the barons. Feudal customs gave way. The reign of Eouis IX (1226-1270) is a new era in French history, an era in which the regular and equal action of law began to replace the turbulent misrule of the feudal ages. The great Churchmen of France were the chief allies of the sovereign in this contest between the factions in his kingdom. The contention, therefore, between the king of France and the Pope never as- sumed such violent character as the strife between papal 154 Ecclesiastical Architecture. claims and the royal prerogatives assumed in the German Empire and in England. And, furthermore, France, in its language and spirit, had agreement with Rome, and so the papacy was not antagonistic to the dominant thoughts of her people. § Varieties in Style. There are three varieties of the Romanesque style which are distinguishable in France. A variety in which the influence of the Latin basilica is seen upon the Romanesque features, and which may be called the French Romanesque style ; a variety which has likeness to the German Norman style, probably was the prototype of this style, and called the Norman French style; and a variety which is altogether Byzantine in its features, and so rightly named the Franco-Byzantine style. It is thus seen that the Ro- manesque style in the Italian and German provinces of the German Empire, and in the Kingdom of France, embraced a struggle between the structural principles of the Latin basilica and the Byzantine basilica. The nave of the Latin basilica was built by means of columns, with arches or architrave upon them, whereon was placed the walls of the nave ; the nave of the Byzantine basilica was built by means of piers and arches upon them, while between the piers were placed beautiful ar- cades and galleries, and above them a dome. The Nor- man style in France made its appearance as a structural compromise between these two great systems. § The Franco=Byzantine Style. Central and South- ern France were richest in classic remains, and retained longest commercial relations with Venice and the East. There is, as a consequence, in these regions churches which reflect classic traditions and the Byzantine architec- ture. The Church of St. Front, at Perigueux (Fig. 113) Romanesque Style. i 55 is a-fl imitation of St. Mark, at Venice. Fig. 113. The ground-plan is a Greek cross; its roofing is accomplished through five domes. The dome piers have cross- passages through them, and the arches upon them are pointed. The inte- rior is plain as compared with the original. The principal value of this church to the student of ecclesias- tical architecture is to demonstrate the widespread influence of the By- zantine style when the Romanesque was being perfected. The Cathedral of PI < AN ST - front, at _ , . , „ . . , PERIGUEUX. Cahors is also another witness of the same fact, for its prototype is the Church of St. Irene, gFrench Romanesque. There were two distinct varieties of Romanesque churches, con- structed under the influences of the Tatin and Byzantine basil- icas. Both church varieties had the Tatin cross as the ground- plan. The first variety is shown by the Abbey Church of Fronte- vrault (Fig. 114) The church has a dome or cupola above the crossing, in the Byzantine man- ner, and the choir, chapels, and transepts buttress it. The choir- aisle has opening into it three most beautiful chapels. The nave has a series of domes for the roofing, and the piers for its at Constantinople. Fig. 114. ABBEY CHURCH AT FRONTEVRAUI/T. 156 Ecclesiastical Architecture. domes were built in the walls of the church. There were no aisles in these churches. The peculiar beauty of the plan of the church be- comes instantly apparent ; for the prominent transepts, because of the narrow nave, give to the ex- terior the boldest outline to its cruciform shape. This variety, therefore, is composed of a Ro- manesque choir and transepts, and a Romanesque nave, but the nave has the domical roofs of the Byzantine style. The second variety (Fig. 115) has, likewise, the dome above the crossing, and this determined the application of the structural principles which Byzantine art introduced. A series of chapels about the choir- aisle and the transepts gave the buttressing to this cen- tral structure, as in the Church at Frontevrault ( vide Fig. 1 14); but the Fig. 116 . nave, with aisles vaulted in the Ro- manesque style, gave the western counterpoise. The whole vaulting of the church nave is cylindrical. Two modes were em- ployed to resist the side-thrust of the cylindrical vault ’ above the nave : one was to meet the side-thrust by high Fig. 115. PLAN N. D. DU PORT. Romanesque Style. i57 half-cylinder vaults over the side-aisles; the other, by transverse cylinder vaults above the side-aisles. The ex- terior of the Church of Notre Dame du Port, at Cleremont (Fig. 1 1 6), shows a church in the French Romanesque style, beautified by the common Romanesque mode of decoration. These churches call to mind the German Romanesque churches, such as Apostles’ Church, at Cologne ( vide Fig. 112). The national taste is clearly defined in the exteriors ; but the structural principles in both are the same. The problem with the German and the French was to buttress a domical structure above the crossing. It was solved in each nation alike ; namely, by choir-chapels, transepts, and nave, built under the constructive principles of the Byzantine style. § Norman French Style. The groin-vault above the bays of the nave was as important an innovation for the development of the perfected Romanesque style as the dome with pendentives was for the Byzantine style. It is generally conceded that the Normans of France first employed this mode of vaulting for the nave, and as early as the close of the eleventh century. The groin- vault was then constructed either with four or six compart- ments, although later, four compartments in the vault became gen- erally in vogue. The six-parted vault (Fig. 1 17) had four piers at the corners of a bay in the nave, and between them two subordinate piers. Transverse arches (Fig 117, a) were SIX-PARTED VAUI.T. 158 Ecclesiastical Architecture. sprung over the aisles to opposite piers ; then longitu- dinal arches were built from pier to pier (b) , making two arches along the nave in one of its square bays. The framework for the vault was completed by two diagonal arches (c), extending from one corner-pier of the bay to its diagonally opposite corner-pier. The groined com- partments, six in number, were then filled in. The problem of poising a groin-vault high in the air was thus solved by the Normans. It proved of the highest im- portance for the perfecting of the Romanesque style and the development of the Gothic. The ground-plan of the Norman church was the Tatin cross (Fig. 1,18). A cupola was often over the crossing, buttressed round by the elevation of the tran- septs, choir, and nave. The choir had aisles along the sides, and had a circular termination. Circular apses were on the eastern sides of the transepts. Towers were built at the western front. The exterior aspect of this church was most striking and imposing. Its early appearance gave it a commanding influence upon subsequent Romanesque churches. The interior of the church was no less remarkable, and exerted no less in- fluence, than the exterior. The expression of the or- ganic relationship of its parts was quite completely attained. The piers (Fig. 119) which carried the great transverse arches were signaled out by massive mouldings on the transverse arches. Then the tri- partite division in the bay of the nave was effected, so that the lofty nave-arch let light more freely in from the windows of the walls, the triforium gave its graceful arcade to beautify the nave, and the clerestory above poured down into the church larger volumes of light. The Norman French style accomplished a more perfect organic structure within ; it secured a most impressive elevation of the nave with a roofing that seemed the Romanesque Style. i59 natural culmination to the arrangement of parts in the nave ; it gave, what was of great importance, better Fig 118. Fig. 119. PLAN OF ST. ETIENNE. NAVE ST. ETIENNE, CAEN. light in the church. The ornamentation was essentially the same as that found in the Romanesque churches oi the time. IV. IN ENGLAND. § The Norman Conquest. William conquered Eng- land, when Harold, the last of the Saxon kings, was de- feated at the Battle of Hastings. The Norman king and his nobles established the feudal customs of France and swept away the simple manners of the Saxon. The whole land was changed. The Norman soldiers were made feudal chiefs, and everywhere played the tyrants over the conquered. Foreign Churchmen became the abbots and bishops in England. There was no change 160 Ecclesiastical Architecture. in the religion, but change in the religious teachers. The civil and ecclesiastical creatures of the Norman con- queror riveted the chains tighter and tighter upon the defeated Saxons. Such was the social condition when the Norman architecture was introduced into England. The early Saxon style gave way to the Norman. The Norman style in the churches increased the bitterness of the bondage of the Saxons. Fig. 120. puan OF CATHFDRAF at DURHAM. east. The churches were width of the transept was Yet, when there arose adjust- ment, and the Saxons be- came willing subjects to the established order, having obtained concessions which gave them justice and equal rights, then the Nor- man style received an en- richment such as not even in France or in Germany the Norman style ever at- tained. There are, then, three distinct varieties, or better, two; for the first style had an early and a later period. § Anglo-Norman Style. These churches (Fig. 120) differed through some im- portant modifications in the ground-plan from the continental. There was no apsidal termination at the east end. The square com- pleted the choir on the longer and narrower. The greater than the nave, and Romanesque Style. 161 Fig. 121. an aisle was cut off on the east of the transepts in order to make the Latin cross by means of the transepts cross- in g the choir and nave. At the cross- ing a tower was raised upon massive piers. There were principal and subor- dinate piers along the nave, and the principal entrance was usually lateral. The form of the cross within was more like the Gothic type, which is long and narrow. The bay of the nave, how- ever, adheres closely to the type of the Norman French. Three compartments (Fig. 1 2,1 ) are in the nave ; and the clere- story window, like that in the Norman French, is connected with a tripartite ar- cade opening on the interior. The Anglo- Norman gives pref- erence to short round pillars of great diameter instead of the moulded pier ; yet where the pier is moulded, it has the simple half-round. The capitals are like small half- spheres, placed round the top of the pier. The col- BAYS FROM PFTERBORO CATHEDRAE. 162 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 122. umns of the triforium and clerestory are similar in form to the piers. The architecture is heavy and massive, and, owing to its great length, the church seems very low. The great thickness of the walls led to deeply re- cessed openings, all of which became ulti- mately most richly dec- orated. It would seem that this substantal nave, with its powerful piers and arches, and its thick wall, was designed to meet the greater thrusts of the cross- vaulting. Yet the abbeys and cathedrals of England had at first the fl a t wooden ceilings. The side-aisles were vaulted, and they were very low, so that when one stepped from them into the nave there seemed, by con- trast, much greater height to the ceiling above. The decorated Anglo-Norman cathe- drals (Fig. 122) have in them a beauty all their own, unique, unlike that of other edifices of the Romanesque style. And it may be doubted whether the impression of the Gothic cathe- dral is more churchly, although the wonders of Gothic art were never attained in the Romanesque style. The eye sees at every glance evidences of strength. A small NAVE) OF CANTERBURY CATHEDRAE. Romanesque Style. 163 moulding has its support on the summit of a pier ; you follow it upwards and it runs along the rib of the nave- vault. This moulding has no strength, but it draws the eye to the masonry in the gallery and clerestory, which support the roofing arch, and is as thick as the support- ing pier and as wide as the width of the aisle. The thickness of the massive side-wall of the church is known by the splayed windows of the aisle and the win- dows high up in the clerestory. There is beauty, also, in this house of God, not the colored glories of mo- saics, nor the sweet faces of saintly women, robed as queens or as angels, not such beauty as the artist’s brush paints on walls ; but such beauty as the sculptor works in stone. The sculptured forms were simple and few. Yet light and shade set them all into bold re- lief; for each separate ornament was given clear outline. Deservedly the decorated Anglo-Norman style is the pride of the English people. It may be deficient in grace, but it has the beauty of strength, simplicity, and truthful- ness. The towers of this Anglo-Norman style are re- plete with charms. Fig. 123 gives one ; but the parapet Fig. 123. TOWER OF CASTOR CHURCH, NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 164 Ecclesiastical Architecture. and spire seem later additions. It is simple in form, hav- ing the square as its plan. As it rises, it gains in beauty. Ornament begins as the height of the nave is reached ; the first story above the nave is enriched with ar- cades, having beautifully mould- ed and carved hoods above them; and the diamond adorns the rest of the story. The string course is rich in its corbels and in the squares which beautify its face. The upper story is more elab- orately embel- lished with orna- ment. The secret of this architec- ture is strength ; its moral is that strength assumes beauty as it rises in elevation above the earth. §The Anglo=Saxon Style. There are edifices which were built at this period which show a marked contrast with this Norman style. Yet one common feature is pres- ent : both styles are most solid in construction. The va- FlG. 124. NAVE AT STONEHENGE. Romanesque Style. 165 riety, shown in Fig. 124 has these characteristics. The columns are short and thick ; they support, with their arches, the thick nave-wall above, in which there is only a clerestory. Horizontal and perpendicular mouldings panel the walls. The building recalls those which the Saxons in France raised. The nave has an appearance like the Eatin basilica. The simplicity of the ornament, the strength of the structure, harmonize with all the great elements of the Saxon character. It is not diffi- cult to find explanation of these two varieties appearing at the same time. The bishoprics and abbeys were given by the Norman conquerors to foreign Churchmen. These came from the dominion of France, but were chosen from those who were friendliest to the con- querors ; some from Normandy, some from Saxony. These latter were better acquainted with the Saxon character, and could be most helpful in counseling sub- mission to the Norman. These foreign bishops built ac- cording to the style to which they were accustomed. Hence, in England there are churches which may be called the Anglo-Saxon Style. These churches were erected with features such as the Saxons loved, and from them were banished the more obtrusive Norman char- acteristics. V. IN SPAIN. § Political Condition. Spain was overrun in the 9th and 10th centuries by the Moors, and brought under subjection. ' Mohammedan proselytism touched, with its blighting hand, the Christian religion. The Moorish dominion in Spain received its first great blow when the Christians captured Toledo in the nth century. Chris- tian civilization now supplanted the Mohammedan in the northern provinces, and with its advance began the appearance of the Romanesque architecture, which at this time had spread over Europe. i66 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Architectural Type. Those characteristics, which are French, were present in these new cathedrals which were built in Spain during the nth and 12th centuries. Whether the use of the dome with pendentives was in- troduced from Southern France or came from places where Byzantine influences were more dominant, is but a matter of conjecture. The church at Compostella is Romanesque, having a choir with an ambulatory about it, lined with apsidal chapels. The vault over the nave, like the French style, was cylindrical, while the cross- vault was used over the aisles. The portals were es- pecially rich in their carvings. When the Norman princes conquered the Sicilies, they built Christian churches in form like those in which they were accus- tomed to worship, but ornamented them with Moslem arches and arabesques. On the contrary, the Christians who reconquered Spain, at first banished from their churches which they built every form and ornament which could remind them of the bitterly hated Moors. § Resume. The Romanesque church received mod- ifications as it was builded in the midst of different na- tions. The type, however, was one, and its construction was followed either by the method of the Latin basilica, with columns supporting a continuous wall, or of the Byzantine basilica, where high piers and arches held the roof, and between these piers arcades, or even solid masonry, were set in. The Romanesque church was in plan a cross. This symbol was the all-controlling one in the church. The decoration of this style was in revolt to that of the past ; the ancient temples furnished no parallels to the foliage forms in the Romanesque style ; and, indeed, not foliage, but geometrical and crystal forms, were the most common. The church was built at first by the clergy, but soon the princes of the people Romanesque Style. 167 and their sovereigns were important in all matters ec- clesiastical. Strife existed between the rival powers, that of the Church and State, or that of the Pope and the sovereign. The adjustment was heralded in the changes wrought in the exterior of the church buildings. The choir lost none of its splendor, but rather its cupola, or tower above the crossing, gave increased attraction to this portion of the edifice, which had, from the first, re- ceived most of the architect’s attention. But towers at the west end, as if princely guardians of the church, in- dicated the great change within the body politic. The Romanesque church is an edifice enshrining the form of the Roman cross, symbol of the mission of the clergy ; noble towers stand before the cross, declaring that princes and rulers, who are, according to the New Tes- tament Scriptures, ordained of God with authority, should protect the rights of all worshipers from every encroachment. Table of Romanesque Churches* I. IN FRANCE. PLACE. EDIFICE. PART. CENTURY. A. EARLY PERIOD. Arles. St. Trophime. Cloister. XI. Auxerre. St. John. Tower. XII. Bourges. Cathedral of. West portal. XII. Clermont. Notre Dame du Apse. XI. - Port. Ditto. S. Portal and Exterior XI. Details. Ditto. E. and S. View. XI. Lyon. Church of Aiuy. W. Facade. XI-XIII. Portiers. Ch. St. Hilaire. Apse. XI. N. D. la Grande. XI. Rosheim. Church at. Interior. XI. St. Lo. Ch. Santa Croix. Interior. XI. Toulouse. St. Sernin. Exterior View, N. W. X-XV. B. PERFECTED PERIOD. Arles. St. Trophime. Portal. XII. Bayeux. Cathedral of Bas-relief of Nave. XII. Ditto. Interior. XII. Bordeaux. Ch. St. Croix. W. Facade. XII. Chartres. N. D. Interior. XII-XI1I. Laon. Cath. of Second Gallery. XII. Senlis. Cath. of. Portal. XII. C. TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. Antun. Cath. of. S. E- View. XII-XVI. Arles. St. Trophime. Cloister. XII-XIII. Bayeux. Cath. of W\ Fagade. XII-XV. Caen. St. Etienne. Interior. XI. Laon. St. Martin’s. W. Portal. XII-XIV. Lonvier. Ch. of. Interior. XII. Nouvion. Ch. of. E. and S. View. XII. Noyen. N. D. N. E View. XIII. Paris. St. Denis. Interior. XIII. Rheims. St. Remy. Choir. XIII. Souvigny. Ch. of. W. Facade. XIII. Vezelay. St. Madeleine. W. Fagade. XII-XIII. II. IN ITALY. A. Early PERIOD. Milan. St. Ambrose. Tribune. XI. Parma. Cath. of W. Portal. XI-XII. Pavia. St. Michele. W. Fagade. XI. Pisa. Cath. of. Interior. XI. Baptistery of. Interior. XI-XII. Sienna. Cath. of. Interior. XIII. Venice. St. Marc. Interior. X-XI. Verone. Cath. of. W. Portal. XI-XII. St. Zenon. Parts of Portal. jXII. 1 68 Romanesque Style. 69 II. IN ITALY. -Continued. PLACE. EDIFICE, PART. CENTURY. B. PERFECTED PERIOD. Genoa. St. Laurient. W. Portal. XII. Lacques. St. Martin. Gallery of W. Fagade. xii-xiir. Lingiers. Cath. of. W. Fagade. XII. Pisa. Campanile. XII. Bastistery. Fountain. XIII. Rosheim. Ch. of. S. W. View. XII. Trent. Cath. of. E View. XIII. Verone. St. Zenon. Portal and S. W. View. XII. C. TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. Osti. Cath. of Madeleine. Facade. XI-XV. Padone. Cath of. W. Facade. XI-XIII. Sienne. Cath. of. Interior. XIII. S. W. View. XIII-XIV. III. IN GERMANY. A. EARLY PERIOD. Andernach. Church of. E. S. View. XI-XII. Bamberg. Cath. of. Interior. XI-XII. Bonn. St. Florentine. Interior. X-XII. Freiberg. N. D. of. View, S. E. XI-XVI. Mayence. Cath. of. W. View. XI-XIII. Spires. Cath. of. W. Fagade. XI. B. PERFECTED PERIOD. Basil. Cathedral. XII. Brunswick. Cathedral. XII. Coblentz. Church of. XII. Hildersheim. St. Godehard. XII. St. Michael. XII. Johannisberg. Church of. XII. Lubeck. Church of. XII. Rosheim. Church of. xir. Worms. Cathedral XII. Zurich. Cathedral. XII. C. TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. Cologne. St. Gereon. N. E. View. XII-XIII. Neuss. Ch. of St. Quintin. West Fagade. XII. Worms. Cathedral. S. Poi tal. XII. Zurich. Cathedral. Lateral View. XII. IV. IN ENGLAND. A. EARLY PERIOD. Carlisle. Cathedral. Nave and Transepts. End of XI. Durham. Cathedral. Gloucester. Cathedral. Nave. Hereford. Cathedral N. and Choir. Norwich. Cathedral. Rochester. Cathedral. Nave and W. Front. “ Ecclesiastical Architecture . 170 IV. IN ENGLAND.-Continued. PLACE. EDIFICE. PART. CENTURY. B. PERFECTED AND TRANSITIONAL. Canterbury. Cathedral. Choir. XII. Chichester. Cathedral. XII. Ely. Cathedral. Nave. XII. Hereford. Cathedral. Nave and Choir. End of XI. Norwich. Cathedral. XII. Peterboro. Cathedral. XII. Waltham. Abbey. XII. N. B. — 1. The parts indicated specially illustrate the period. 2. The dates given are approximate, usually being the time of com- mencement of the edifice. 3. Of course, the list is only partial, being designed to point out the quite contemporaneous appearance of Romanesque cathedrals and churches. Chapter VL GOTHIC STYLE. *2254500. § Various Designations. There is great difference of opinion as to the proper designation of that architec- tural style which finds expression in all edifices, mili- tary, civil, and religious, from the beginning of the thirteenth century. The constructive employment ex- clusively of the pointed arch characterizes the system. There are those, therefore, who call it the Pointed Style. This designation, apart from its accurate description of the dominant constructive form in this new style of architecture, has the advantage of awakening no national prejudice. The question as to whether the Germans, or the English, or the French have best right to name the style, is not raised when the designation, Pointed Archi- tecture, is used. Germans are pardonable when they seek to name it the German Style, basing their claim on the wonderful perfection of the edifices, and also the number, which people of Germanic stock erected. But, with equal right, it might be called the English Style, since on English soil cathedrals rise scarcely surpassed by any of those reared on the Continent. And it is con- ceded by both German and English that a pointed style of architecture appeared first in the North of France in the second half of the twelfth century. Therefore it may fairly be urged that the new architecture is the French Style. Several writers have proposed a name for the style which expresses, likewise, no suggestion that could arouse national antipathies. All Christian architecture, until the Gothic appeared, presented obli- gations to the great systems developed by the Greek and 172 Ecclesiastical Architecture. the Roman. But the Pointed style is independent, showing profounder constructive ability, and a series of edifices before which the most magnificent achievements of the Pagan world in architecture must be acknowl- edged inferior. It was within the pale of the Christian Church that this style was created and developed into faultless perfection. Hence, some claim that it is pre- eminently Christian architecture, and seek to designate it by this name. But the name Gothic Architecture has successfully held its place against all competitors. § Witness to Civil Freedom. The eleventh and twelfth centuries beheld the realization of Hildebrand’s fondest hope — a vast ecclesiastical organization under St. Peter’s successor, the vicegerent of Christ on earth. The Romanesque architecture is the monument of this triumph of the clergy. The most loyal Papists were cis- alpine. But beyond the Alps, in transalpine regions, some bishops dreamed of establishing episcopal sees, which were little less than ecclesiastical feudal king- doms, giving only a formal allegiance to Rome. This was a menace to the Pope. Beyond the Alps, also, the princes and kings struggled to be free from ecclesiastical domination. In the midst of these contending forces, the prelate against the Pope, the civil rulers against the successor of St. Peter, the Gothic style of architecture arose. The term Gothic was given to it in derision by the Italians ; but this despised architecture conquered prejudice through its noble forms and great beauty, and in its course of triumph scaled the Alps, and planted Gothic cathedrals at Milan and Vienna, and in other principal cities of Italy. §The Architecture of the Laity. Gothic architec- ture is a new type ; a new creative power brought it Gothic Style. i73 into existence. Yet not the priesthood, as in Roman- esque architecture, were the recipients of this new creative spirit, and then the promoters of this new architecture. The laity originated and built the Gothic style. There was deep, serious purpose in the social revolution of the thirteenth century. It was not an effort to cast off the obligations of the Christian religion. Rove of the Papal Catholic Church was as deep and absorbing as love of one’s city. But the bonds of its priesthood, irritating at every turn in life, meddling in all of the people’s affairs, neglectful of the proper and sacred duties of the serv- ants of the Church, were the evils against which the people set themselves in revolution. The might of the people was manifested in the changes which they ef- fected, through their princes or governors, in the claims of the Pope. Then, too, the magnificent constructive power among the people became manifest through cathe- drals which its own architects designed and builded. Fraternities or guilds of Masons were formed among the laity, to whom the principles of the new architectural type were confided. These guilds were established in all great cities, and were devoted to the extension of the Pointed style. § The New Triumphal Arch. It was a most mo- mentous revolution when the feudal lord in his castle, as the governing power, gave place to the walled city, wherein the people recognized civil authority and re- ceived the benefit of laws. Education was no longer confined to the priesthood ; but the people became pos- sessors of culture. And then religious life in the Papal Church had its best exemplars in the laity. Christian architecture was from the first strikingly symbolical. The whole church, in the days of persecution, was called the nave. When Constantine gave imperial recognition i 74 Ecclesiastical Architecture. to the triumph of Christianity over paganism, the new importance of the Christian religion was signalized by the triumphal arch before the choir : and within this arch the religious and civil rulers sat. The establish- ment of the supremacy of the Pope was the victory of the clergy over sovereign powers. Thereafter the choir was alone for the clergy. The crossing separated the choir from the nave, wherein the people and their civil rulers attended upon worship. The Romanesque church was a Christian symbol in being cruciform, was also the sign, through the crossing, of the separation of the clergy from the laity ; and the lesser number of the clergy led to the adoption of the L,atin cross, which gave the choir less length than the nave. The choir was the most splendid part of the edifice, and often above the crossing, the cupola or dome rose, adding new charms to the choir. The time came when careful attention was directed towards beautifying the western facade, the entrance of the people and their rulers to the house of God. Attractive decorative features above and about the portals, and lofty towers on each side of the central entrance began to appear, when the people, as a civil body, under authorities not ecclesiastical, began to have larger place in the popular mind. Then came the day of the triumph of the civil rulers and the people over the Pope and his priests. Gothic architecture is the memorial of this triumph. And the triumphal arch, which the people built, was placed at the entrance of the church, being a triple portal, the largest opening be- fore the nave. And most wonderful is this arch in beauty, daring, and grace : in beauty, because of its manifold blending of exquisite forms and ornament ; in daring, because of the amazing height of its spires; in grace, because of the harmony and charm of all its parts. Gothic Style. i75 A . CONSTRUCTION OF THE GOTHIC CHURCH. § Prior Structural Methods. The Latin basilica was a central structure, consisting of a nave and a choir, which was built first upon columns and architrave, then upon columns and arches, as the support for the super- imposed walls. This central structure had a side counter- poise to the thrusts in the shed-roofs which covered the aisles. The Byzantine church was a central structure, consisting of high piers with arches, upon which a dome was poised. Walls, meeting each other at right angles, were built around this central structure, and at some distance from the piers, making side-naves ; and from the summit of the walls to the central structure vaulted roofs were thrown, which acted as buttresses. The Ro- manesque church is a central cruciform structure, rest- ing its roof on either a wall, supported by colonnades, as in the Latin basilica, or upon arches resting upon lofty piers, as in the Byzantine church. The roofs of both arms of the cross are gable-roofs, and of the same height. This central cruciform structure of the Roman- esque church has walls built upon the sides of the long arm, forming side-aisles, and from their summit there is thrown shed-roofs to the nave- walls, and these roofs but- tress them. The Gothic architects had these edifices as teachers in the constructive principles of the new style, nor did they ignore instruction, but skillfully availed themselves of the help which earlier architecture prof- fered. § The Gothic Structure. It, too, has a central por- tion, built upon piers, and constituting the nave, cross- ing, and choir, the three parts which make the church proper. There are side-aisles and transepts, which, like- wise, are built upon piers. In this respect the edifice is different in its structure from that of the Roman- 176 Ecclesiastical Architecture. esque. Fig. 125 will make clear the Gothic construc- tion. This engraving presents the nave and the side- aisles. Observe the nave rests upon columns, support- Fig. 125. ing square piers. A moulding is seen along the face of the pier, extending to the transverse rib. Each step in the filling-in between piers is traceable. The piers of the nave and the aisle-piers with buttresses, the groined vault, the shed-roof, the flying buttress, are to be no- ticed. Such is the skeleton of the Gothic edifice. Gothic Style. 177 § The Ground=pIan. The simplest form of the Gothic church (Fig. 126, a) consisted of a choir for the officiating and worshiping clergy, and a nave for the worshiping people. There were side-aisles along the choir and nave. Sometimes chapels opened into them. Fig. 126. a. NOTRE DAME, MUNICH. b. MINSTER OF FREIBERG. c. CATHEDRAE OF AMIENS. This plan is a nave-church, like the ancient basilicas. Splendid length in the nave and the choir was the first requisite of the Gothic style. It is to be observed that there is also a change in the intercolumniation of the piers. The distance between two adjacent piers scarcely exceeds half the breadth of the nave, scarcely ever two- thirds the breadth of the nave. Hence, the floor-divis- ions of the nave are no longer squares, as in the Ro- manesque style, but are oblong. The Gothic church is more generally cruciform (Fig. 126, b). The parts of 12 Ecclesiastical Architecture. 178 the church then were choir, transepts, crossing, and nave. These had the same elevation, and their roofing was cruciform. But the exterior ground form was not necessarily so. The cross, made by the transepts of a Gothic church, was the Gothic cross. The arms met near the center, and so resembled the Greek cross ; but its chief characteristic is great length as compared with its breadth. The most perfect Gothic form is found in those churches (Fig. 127, c) which are cruciform, both within and without. The church, then, is symbolic throughout, a beautiful cross of most imposing propor- tions, within which men worship ; and there are walks, having chapels, along the sides of this cross, where worshipers may kneel in prayer or sit in religious medi- tation. The magnificent, almost colossal conceptions of these Gothic builders become evident by a thoughtful consideration of the three plans in Fig. 127. Notice that, a. CATHEDRAL OF ULM. b. NOTRE DAME, PARIS. C. CATHEDRAL OF COLOGNE. in form, each has its counterpart in Fig. 126; but the difference is, that here the aisles are double aisles. The Gothic Style. 179 building, therefore, assumes grander proportions. The interior bewilders by its multitude of columns. It is a veritable forest of branching piers, making noble vistas both in the nave and aisle. The Italians called this architecture Gothic, the architecture of barbarians ; but, walking among the columned splendors of a Gothic church, astonishing by their number as well as charm- ing by their beauty, one feels emotions kindred to those which come when, as an appreciative observer, he goes over the tree-lined paths of a forest, seeing arches of leafy branches overhead and long pathways before him, checkered with light and shade, and terminating in openings of glowing sunshine. § Gothic Nave. The Gothic church is only under- stood in its full import and seen in its greatest splendor when one stands within the western portal, and looks along the nave towards its eastern extremity. The long vista, and the beauty of the choir-windows, as the sunlight falls upon the colored glass ; the noble height of the nave, formed by the branching of columns and ornamented with the matchless art of sculptors who wrought under the inspiration of a new-born era, — all these objects conspire to create in the mind of the ob- server a vivid impression of the genius and the intel- lectual resources of men who could fashion stone into such peerless forms, and blend colors into such lovely combinations as greet his eyes and awaken his bound- less admiration. In the Romanesque church, which the clergy designed and builded, one stood at the crossing, in front of the choir, and from there the full greatness and beauty of the church became apparent. But in the Gothic church, which the people designed and builded, the observer stood in the portal, beneath the people’s triumphal arch, and beheld the expression of that genius i8o Ecclesiastical Architecture. with which God had endowed his people. A view of the nave and choir of Lincoln Cathedral (Fig. 128) will enable us better to understand the reason why the Gothic nave is peerless among architectural structures. It is such a view as one would have when standing at the western portal. The nave-piers and arches reach to comparatively great height, with no ornament but the flowers in the capitals of the clustered columns and the quatrefoil in the spandrels. The triforium has similar ornamentation in the capitals of its clustered columns, and, in addition, the archivolts are beautifully decorated. The clerestory is beautified, but its most striking orna- ment is the cluster of rib-mouldings, spreading grace- fully out, and making the high vault of the nave. The eye wanders down the nave and along the splendors of the choir. And the eastern windows of the choir, if their colors be touched with the sunlight, seem, to the observer, the jeweled portals to unspeakable splendors beyond. One feels that worship in this church is on God’s great highway, with his servants, the pastor and the flock, standing in awe before the visible splendors of God. The talismanic thought in this nave is, that “ ye are one in access unto the Father.” § Western Facade with Central Tower. The Gothic edifice is remarkable, not alone for the grandeur of its nave, but also for the majestic beauty of its towers. One type of Gothic church, as judged from without, has a central tower in the western front. The portal, through which the people enter into the church, consists of a single pointed and deeply-re- cessed doorway. It is an archway through a tower of imposing height and graceful form. Over one of the an- cient ways of Rome it would be called a triumphal arch, having, like that of Titus, but a single passage way. Gothic Style. 181 Fig. 128. nave; and choir, eincoen cathejdrad. 182 Ecclesiastical Architecture . Fig. 129. Freiberg Cathedral (Fig. 129) presents this type. The tower is the foundation for the octagonal spire, which below is a prism with' eight sides, above a pyramid with eight faces. The genius of the artist transformed these sides and faces. Each side was a frame-work, inclos- ing tracery like that in the windows of the church. Gables, with crockets and the cruciform flower, com- plete each side, and at the angles were placed pin- nacles. The faces of the pyramid are perforated with the quatrefoil and the trefoil. The top of the spire is a magnificent cru- ciform flower. Art, per- haps, never attained so sig- nal a triumph as in the perfected Gothic spire. Grace of form, daring height, strength, united to an apparently delicate and fragile structure — yes, such strength as defied the angriest of storms ; all these charms are combined in the Gothic spire in most beautiful harmony. And this spired tower is the Gothic archway through which the people enter cathedrae. into the house of God, Gothic Style. 183 Fig. 130. § Western Facade with Corner Tower. The Gothic architects were a class of the people. These architects had love in their hearts for their work ; had also knowledge of what other men had wrought in the domain of ar- chitecture ; there- fore, their works, inspired by love and perfected by knowledge, never cease to have in- struction for all beholders. The western facade, with a corner tower (Fig. 130), is a second type. The portal portion is a separate struc- ture, joined to the nave and the tower. This sepa- ration from the nave is evident from the decora- tive gable above the rose-window ; for behind it is the c , . r ST. PIERRE, AT CAEN. roof-gable of the nave. There is a noticeable lack of harmony in the three features of this western fagade. The south aisle of the church has its western termination in the great spire ; the north aisle has a windowed wall before it 1 84 Ecclesiastical Architecture. and a small tower at tlie corner. The central portion before the nave, has buttresses at its sides, corresponding to the tow r er and the small north turret. This facade is, therefore, three dissimilar constructions, united into a kind of unity. Often the three parts were made to blend harmoniously ; and then the fagade, with a corner tower, became very attractive; and always, the slender and powerful spire, with its sculptured beauty and dizzy height, made the observer feel that these Gothic archi- tects had learned the secret by which stone had lost both its hardness and its weight. § Western Facade with Two Towers. The per- fected Gothic portal is simply the Triumphal Arch of Constantine (vide Fig. 41), with tow r ers above the side archways. This two-towered western fagade is the most magnificent feature of Gothic architecture. Bach of the modern nations, except the Italian, loved this Gothic front. The western fagade of the Cathedral of York (Fig. 131) well represents this type. The central portal is deeply recessed, and its receding arches and its bev- eled door-jambs are adorned with sculpture. Some- times the head of the portal’s arch was filled with geo- metrical forms, but usually with a sculptured group representing our Lord in some one of the many scenes in which he “manifested forth his glory.” These scenes were fields of action for men, as when they took the Christ and crucified him, or else places of apocalypse, as when our Lord rose from the tomb. The Gothic por- tal records in stone these fundamental truths of the Christian Church, and, in so doing, follows the example set in the portal of the Romanesque church. Panel- work, formed by arcades with the pointed arch, deco- rates the flat surfaces of this western fagade. There was above the main portal either a splendid pointed wim Gothic Style. 185 dow, or else a magnificent rose-window, through whose painted glasses the sunlight streamed, in colored bands, along the length of the nave. Each tower was com- pleted in harmony with the center. The side doorways were smaller, but recessed and en- riched with sculp- ture. A pointed window above the door flashed light, broken up into brilliant colors, down the aisles or along the galleries. Nor was the upper face of the tower neglected; for often a beautiful pointed window adorned this part. The architect mar- shaled all his gen- ius to make splen- did this western facade of the Gothic cathedral. And it stands, for beauty and grace and wondrous height, an architectural feat unsurpassed. § Pointed Arch. A single constructive system is prevalent in all truly Gothic architecture. The pointed arch is the essential element of this system, and is the secret of its overpowering effects. It is, therefore, of Fig. 131. CATHEDRAL OP YORK. i86 Ecclesiastical Architecture. highest importance to understand the formation of this arch as well as its constructive use. There are three forms of the pointed arch (Fig. 132) employed in Gothic architecture : The equilateral, in which the nave-piers are the centers for the circles, of which the sides of the arch are the arcs. When the centers are within the points of support, the pointed arch is oblique ; when these centers are without the points of support, the arch is acute. The oblique arch is nearest in shape to the Fig. 132. FORMS OF THE POINTED ARCH. round arch. The pointed arch, with the same inter- columniation of the piers, had greater height than the circular arch. When, therefore, Gothic architects adopted it, the oblong, instead of the square, deter- mined the subdivisions of the nave. Also, that remark- able altitude was attained for the nave-walls by means of the pointed arch, which has ever been regarded as one of the most imposing features of the Gothic style. There was, further, most decided mechanical advantages arising from the employment of the pointed arch. As a support, the arch brought the superimposed weight nearer the vertical line than the round arch. It was this peculiarity which led to the use of the Gothic slender buttress. Early Gothic gave preference to the acutely pointed arch. The angle and vertical line is the secret of the ornamentation, the pointed arch the secret of construction in a Gothic edifice. Gothic Style. 187 § Cross-section of a Pier. The rich mouldings of the Gothic pier (Fig. 133) are really servants to the superimposed constructions. F|G- l33. Therefore, the Germans call them servants. The longitudinal and the trans- verse arches have mouldings equal in size and of the same shape. Be- tween them are the mouldings for the diagonal arch- es. The pier is a solid, massive cen- ter, surrounded by these various mouldings. Only in the richer character of mouldings do these piers dif- fer from those belonging to the Perfected Romanesque style. The structural principle in both is the same. A PIER’S CROSS-SECTION. § Pier and Its Arches. The construction of the pier is now to be considered. There is a center of solid masonry, around which are builded vaulting shafts. The capital of the vaulting shaft for the transverse arch over the nave is raised high above the capitals of the other vaulting shafts. The arches of the nave-arcades have their shafts the same height as the shaft of the aisle. The vaulting shaft upon the sidewall corresponds with its opposite shaft upon the pier. So far as the central mass and its moulding through vaulting shafts are concerned, i88 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 134. this pier-formation differs in no respect from that employed in the vaulted naves of the Ro- manesque style. But the great length of the nave-vaulting shaft (Fig. 134), and the addi- tional height secured by the pointed arch, gave the Gothic nave a distinct, and new, and most impressive character ; and our admiration increases as we discern how compactly all is builded, and how richly these moulded shafts decorate this essential support of the Gothic structure. § Gothic Constructive System. The great arcades of the Gothic church were the arcades of the nave, of the transepts, and of the choir. A system of pointed arches upon tall, slender shafts (Fig. 135) supported the roofs above the nave-arcades. The aisle-ar- cades were of lesser height, and assisted in solving the problem of how to make this central structure stable. Its longitudinal thrusts were counterpoised mainly by the western front and the choir at the east. The tranverse thrusts were met by the aisle- piers, buttresses, and flying buttresses to the nave-piers. New static laws were there- fore involved in this Gothic structure, revolutionizing, by obedience to them, all archi- tectural construction. NAVE AND AISLE CONSTRUC- TION, CATHHDRAL AT halberstadt. Gothic Style. 89 Fig. 135. §The Nave=bay and Vault. The filling-in between two adjacent nave-piers made the bay of the nave. It was divided (Fig. 135), like the bay of the Romanesque style, into the nave-arch, the triforium, and the clerestory. The greatest freedom is shown in the treat- ment of these three parts. Sometimes frieze separated the lower from the up- per, division ; some- times the triforium and the clerestory seemed to be but a single whole, a kind of magnificent win- dow, set above the nave-arch. Espe- cially is this impres- sion made in those cathedrals where the triforium is not a gallery, but trans- parent. Greatest variety is given to the mouldings of the nave-piers — now they seem to be but columns placed above columns, marking very clearly the several divi- sions of the bay; now the mouldings seem part of one tall shaft, supporting the arches of the nave, of the tri- forium, and of the clerestory. In the latter case the nave seemed a structure all harmonious, as if one principle of growth dominated, changing all it appropriated into a TRANSVERSE SECTION, CATHEDRAE OF AMTENS. iqo Ecclesiastical Architecture. consistent organism. The mullions, like columns, sup- ported arches, trefoils, quatrefoils, multifoils, making the beautiful window-traceries of the clerestory, or the grace- ful arcades of the triforium. Upon the mouldings of the nave-piers were set the transverse and diagonal ribs, on which was constructed the nave-vault. These ribs were richly moulded in the perfected style, and so the difference in the mouldings of the ribs, as well as the mouldings of the piers and the tracery of the windows, become most helpful in determining the period to which the edifice belongs. § The Aisle=bay and the Buttresses. The aisle- pier (Fig. 135) was a moulded pier, corresponding to the moulded pier of the nave. There were transverse and diagonal ribs, springing from these mouldings, for the vaulting of the aisle. The windows between these aisle- piers were beautified with tracery similar to the tracery in the clerestory. Above the aisle-vaulting is seen the shed-roof, which is not only a covering for the aisle, but a buttress for the nave. The clerestory was strength- ened by a device as daring as it was graceful and beauti- ful. The aisle-pier was first strengthened by a buttress in order to meet better the thrusts of the aisle-vault. These buttresses were extended upward, and from this upper part flying buttresses were sprung to the nave. The charm of the Gothic cathedral depends as much upon the buttresses and their decoration as upon any other feature which greets the eye. § Exterior of the Aisle and Nave. The buttress in its lower portion (Fig. 136) had water-tables corre- sponding to the wall-parts between them. Water-spouts, called gargoyles, often of fanciful forms, were built in the buttress at the height of the roof’s eave. The but- Gothic Style. 191 tress was then narrowed as it was builded upward. Often a tabernacle finial surmounted the buttress, shel- tering within its niche the effigy of some saint. A finial was set above the place where was the impact of the flying buttress upon the nave- wall. These beau- tiful finials, each having its summit adorned with the cruciform flower, made beautiful or- naments along the eaves of the nave. The windows of the aisle, and above them the windows of the nave, beau- tified the spaces between the wall- buttresses. Slen- der mullions, sup- porting foliated arch-heads, made the window-tra- cery. The exterior walls of the Gothic church are unique in all architecture. Necessary supports were transformed, given graceful forms and clothed with beauty. The openings through which light entered the edifice challenged attention, because it seemed as if the building was constructed in order to present as little ob- struction to the sunlight as it was possible. The shrine of pagan temples abode in darkness. But the highest Fig. 136. side; vie:w, strasburg cathedrae. 19 2 Ecclesiastical Architecture . GOTHIC ORNAMENTATION. Gothic Style. i93 type of the Christian church seemed to threaten the sta- bility of the structure in order that light might be poured in upon the choir and the nave, the altar-place and the great highway before the altar. These Gothic architects, laymen of the Church, loved the light, and sought to flood their edifice with its glory. The marvel of Gothic genius is, that it made the useful beautiful, that it transformed mere supports into ornaments, that it empowered the beauty within to permeate, with its own charms, the outer walls of the church. § Gothic Ornamentation. This Gothic structure, wherein all was compactly builded together, must needs have appropriate adornment. The Gothic architects em- ployed geometrical ornamentations, yet they seem en- tirely different from the cordate forms common to classical architecture, and different from the lace-like patterns of the Byzantine style. It was, however, in the sculptured forms and shapes (Fig. 137) that Gothic architecture pre- sented almost entire originality. It abandoned the clas- sical forms of the egg and pearl beading ; it rejected the nail-heads, the cable, the chain, the lozenge, and other shapes of the Romanesque style, and returned to the botanical forms of nature. The forest trees, the vines and plants of the field, yes, even vegetable forms of the garden, are sculptured in the archivolts, frieze, and cap- itals of the Gothic. Indeed, at every step in this Gothic construction, man paused to beautify his handiwork. He loved his toil, and its inspiring power called forth all his endowments. These men knew, in their hearts, that they were engaged in the greatest architectural construc- tion of all ages, and that coming centuries would utter their praises and be inspired by the work of their hands. Hence, they borrowed their forms from the Archi- tect of the universe, and built with patience and love. 13 194 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Pointed Architecture. A tranverse section of the Gothic church (Fig. 138) will make apparent the aptness of the expression Pointed Architecture to designate Gothic peculiarities. The nave is completed by a pointed Fig. 138. CATHEDRAL AT HARBERSTADT, CROSS-SECTION. arch ; so, too, are the aisles. The buttress, the aisle- pier, the nave-pier, are each terminated by a finial ; a cross-section of the gable-roof is a point. Classical arch- itecture is horizontal ; column and architrave were the unities of its strength. Gothic architecture is perpen- dicular : the buttress, the pier, the pointed arch, are the secrets of its daring height. Stability is present in each branch of architecture. But it was secured in the clas- sical buildings by the strength of great masses of stone, Gothic Style. i95 and from this source comes the impression which they give of solidity and massiveness. In Gothic buildings, however, stability was obtained by new static laws, in obedience to which a multitude of smaller blocks could be fashioned together into one whole, so strong that the shocks of storms and the decay of time were success- fully defied. It is now apparent through what means the lofty walls of the Gothic nave were sustained. The side-thrust was counterpoised by the flying buttress ; and the wall buttress, from which it sprung, had the mass increased by the superimposed pinnacle. Profound was the knowledge of static laws revealed in these Gothic churches. Infinite, almost, was the painstaking of those who chiseled out in stone their separate parts, and laid them in their appropriate places. Men must be serious and thoughtful to understand these workmen. A glance at their work will please the most superficial observer; a study of the symmetry and beauty of their churches will elevate and refine each faithful student. B. EARLY GOTHIC STYLE, 1225 = 1300. § The Designation. Early Gothic indicates a period of development in the Gothic style. Among the French, this period is called Ogival en Lancette , or the Lancet- pointed Style. The French indicate in this way the fact that early Gothic structures employed the acutely- pointed arch. It is not to be understood because Gothic architecture is divided into periods that therefore all Gothic edifices are to be classified into three groups. A single cathedral, not unfrequently, has parts belonging to each of these periods, because all great cathedrals were many decades in building; a few required even centuries. Yet there is a general uniformity of charac- ter in the great cathedrals which readily assigns them to some one of these three divisions. 3 96 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Obligation to the Romanesque. The Gothic type was new; nevertheless, the edifices of the early Gothic style show the influence of the Romanesque style. It could not be otherwise; for the authors of the Ro- manesque style, the clergy of the Christian Church, were the conservators of all arts in those days when the Ger- manic peoples were taking upon themselves the obliga- gations of religion and citizenship. Then the clergy built great churches, wherein architecture and sculpture could best be studied. Hence, these edifices influenced mightily early Gothic. Constructive principles, not the decoration of the supports and the ornamentation of the openings, occupy the mind of those w T ho originate a new type. The harmonious blending of all the features of an edifice is the w 7 ork of those architects who receive the new constructive principles and share the noble aims which inspired the originators. Those who per- fected the Gothic type inherited the new form and all the mutual relationships of its various parts ; then they, under an enthusiastic love for the new type, revealed the marvelous beauty with w 7 hich the new type might be clothed, and gave to men the perfected Gothic cathe- dral, an architectural structure so wonderful in its dar- ing and so graceful and lovely in its symmetry and orna- ment that it crowns man with glory and honor. § Early Gothic Facade with Arcades. The new adjustment between the State and Papacy brought about increased activity in church building. Old edifices were remodeled, new cathedrals w 7 ere erected. Those places most progressive threw off first the Romanesque features in their churches. Hence, it occurs that some churches of a late date show more of the Romanesque charac- teristics than do earlier churches. The Cathedral of Coutances (Fig. 139) is Gothic in the splendid altitude Gothic Style. i97 of its choir, nave, and spires; it is early Gothic in the comparative plainness of its flying buttresses and finials; the lancet- pointed arches are evidences of the early Gothic. But the long, narrow, perpen- dicular divisions of the tower- fronts are re- minders of the Romanesque rather than the Gothic style. The western fac- ade, it is true, has minor decorative details which be- long to the later Gothic, and the tower above the crossing was built in the pres- entcentury; still, the whole impres- sion of this edifice is Gothic. However, the Gothic principles and modes of decoration had not been emancipated from the influ- ences of the Romanesque style. As far as classification may be made of church edifices, this cathedral is early Gothic, having the lancet-arch ; the almost solid tower beneath the spires, with long, narrow arcades upon its face ; the appearance of the triple portal between the towers ; and a well-buttressed nave. Fig. 139. CATHEDRA!, OF COUTANCFS. 198 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Early Gothic Facade with Buttresses. The north tower is decorative Gothic; otherwise, the western facade (Fig. 140) is early Gothic, and shows evidence of advance upon the Cathedral of C011- tances. The face of the towers is divided, not by long, narrow ar- cades, but by huge buttresses. These same tower-faces are separated into stories, and all above the first have pointed win- dows in them. The triple portal is still built be- tween the towers, bu. the central portion is more richly adorned. A triple window is above the portal, and, higher still, is a beautiful rose-window. The kinship between the two fagades is at once evident — the Romanesque like- ness is seen in both ; yet the advanced Gothic develop- ment in this fagade seems to separate it distinct and clear from any Romanesque fagade. Perhaps no cathe- dral can offer better examples of the three periods of the Gothic than this same Cathedral of Chatres. The general character of the western fagade is early Gothic excepting the northern spire, which is the late Gothic, Fig. 140. CATHEDRAL OF CHATRES. Gothic Style. 199 or Flamboyant Decorative. The .south porch is one of the finest examples of perfected Gothic. Before leaving this early Gothic facade of the Cathe- dral of Coutances (Fig. 139), attention should be directed to the arcade between the two massive towers, making a series of niches for statues above the rose-window. This arcade answers to those arcades in the Romanesque style beneath the gable. The suggestion of this arcade may be traceable to the Romanesque, but the handling of it is Gothic, and becomes, in later edifices, one of the most remarkable beauties of the western facade. The light- apertures in this facade of the Cathedral of Chatres are most noticeable. They all open into the lofty nave. And there was peculiar impressiveness, as well as splen- dor, when, at the vesper service, the low western sun sent its last rays down this long and lofty nave, and up into the choir, touching, on its course, the gold and purple of the priestly vestments, and kindling with brightness 'the beautiful windows of the choir. The worshiper seemed, indeed, to be for a moment in a paradise of beauties, brief vision of the future glories awaiting the faithful. It is while under the influences of such impressive emotions that we may obtain an ade- quate understanding of the wonderful powers inherent in the religious faith which our Lord, the Christ, re- vealed. The churches of the Christian religion are not hedged round with mysterious and superstitious sanctity, but are gathering places, where all who come may be enriched with thoughts awakening profoundest medita- tions, and may have enkindled feelings and great hopes, which answer the deepest demands of our hearts and the loftiest anticipations of our ardent spirits, § Developed Early Gothic Facade. Early Gothic attained its highest development in the type of western 200 Ecclesiastical Architecture. NOTRE dame. PARIS. Gothic Style. 201 facade as presented in Notre Dame of Paris (Fig. 141). There are three perpendicular divisions, effected by but- tresses ; the central one corresponds to the nave, the side divisions to the aisles. There are three horizontal divisions, made by beautiful arcades. The upper arcade is open, and marks the place where each tower is set free and begins its bold ascent upward. The lower ar- cade indicates the transition from the aisle to the gallery, and it is a canopied arcade, having niches where the effigies of civil rulers are placed. They seem guards over the entrances of the people, while in the portals, each in his own canopied shelter, and in perilous atti- tude — defying, indeed, all laws of gravitation — the saints of the ages stand, witnesses of the faith to believers who enter the house of God. Then, in the arch-head, skillful hands have sculptured the form of the Master, establish- ing on the cross, or else in the resurrection, unspeakable hope for mankind. This is the Gothic western fayade, great in its embodied thought, magnificent in its stately grandeur. § The Early Gothic Buttress. The resistance to the thrusts of the arches within a Gothic edifice was met, not by thick wall, as 'in the Romanesque build- ing, but by buttresses external to the wall-piers. These buttresses were at first plain and massive. They there- fore become most helpful in assigning a Gothic church to the period in which it appeared. The first horizontal division is at the height of the window-sill; the second at the height of the aisle shed-roof; the third is at the height of the triforium, and extends to it in the form of a flying buttress. There is sometimes built upon this upper portion a second flying buttress to the clere- story. As yet, the chief thought of the architect was to make stable, not to beautify ; or, if a buttress is made 202 Ecclesiastical Architecture. ornamental, it seems rude compared with the buttresses of the perfected style. Generally, it may be said that the Fig. 142. exterior of the Gothic church (Fig. 142) has al- ways a most dis- tinctive charac- ter because of the buttresses and flying buttresses, which constitut- ed the strength of the walls, and that early Gothic constructed these supports with ap- parent forgetful- ness, or rather, with complete ig- norance of the op- portunity which they proffered for making the rar- est and most per- fect ornament ever placed upon the exterior of any edifice. The early Gothic buttresses were narrow in front and had disproportionate depth on the sides. They made this impression when viewed from base to summit. They were devoid of ornament. The lower buttresses had no paneling, and were without pinnacles, while the flying buttresses, which sprang over the roof of the aisles, were heavy and quite unattractive. CHOIR OF NOTRE) DAME), AT CHATONS. Gothic Style . 203 § Contrasted Nave=bays. The early Gothic bay (Fig. 143) shows resemblances, together with most marked dif- ferences, when compared with the bay of the Romanesque style (Fig. 144). The strong cylin- drical column for the lower support is common to both ; so, also, is the threefold division of the bay and the cross-vaulted ceiling. Yet the impression of the two bays is essen- tially different. The pointed arch of the Gothic enables the architect to attain most gracefully an impos- ing altitude in the bay, while the splendid light-apertures make it beautiful and bright. Fig. 144. BAY OF N. D., PARIS. BAY OF GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL- Fig. 143. 204 Ecclesiastical Architecture . § Early Gothic Columns. It was not long before the early Gothic style introduced the clustered column. The nucleus was a cylindrical column (Fig. 145), with its own capital at the summit. Around this central col- umn were set four half-columns, each with its own capital. The ribs of the vaulting are sustained by shafts upon the nave-walls, which rest upon the abacus of the cap- ital. Eater, these vaulting lines de- scended the side of the pier and became attached to the base. This change height- ened the impres- sion of organic construction from floor to roof. It may be said that early Gothic gives greatest preference to the half-round column on piers, to half-round shafts on walls, to the half-round mouldings, especially in vaulting ribs. Win- dows in this style were generally lancet-shaped, bipar- tite, with a circle in the head. The capitals of columns were ornamented sparely with leaves, imitating closely the forms of nature. The architects of the early Gothic Gothic Style. 205 received suggestions as to the partition of surfaces and the pier-supports from the Romanesque buildings; but the new indwelling spirit in every part seems to obliter- ate any Romanesque likenesses, transforming into one harmonious whole the old and the new. § Portal with the Pointed Arch. At first, the Gothic portal was deficient in the organic connection of its parts. This is at once appar- ent from the portal of St. Martin’s, at Col- mar. Indeed, the pointed arch (Fig. 146) might have been re- placed by the round arch ; for all the pointed archivolts rest upon a kind of architrave above the cap- itals. Engaged columns were also placed in the door-jambs, in the same fashion as is seen in the Romanesque portal ( vide Fig. 98). Sculp- tured figures, illustrating Scriptural events — especially the dramatic scenes in the life of Christ — fill the space above the transom. There is scarcely any indication of the magnificence with which Gothic architects sur- Fig. 146. PORTAL, CHURCH OF ST. MARTIN. 2o6 Ecclesiastical Architecture . rounded the later Gothic portals in those of the earliest style. The great constructive features of the edifice were the controlling thoughts with the builders of the early Gothic. So they did little more than to place the pointed arch above the Romanesque portal, removing the round arch. It was only slowly, step by step, that the great principles of Gothic architecture entered into every part of the Gothic edifice. C. PERFECTED GOTHIC STYLE, 1300=1420. § The Designation. Perfected Gothic Style is a designation which indicates the period in which Gothic architecture reached its most complete and perfect de- velopment. The Germans prefer to call this period the Radiating Pointed Style. This designation indicates a constructive feature present in the pier development and in the traceries of the cathedral. The pier seems to spring from the earth and to send forth lateral branches, forming the lofty and noble pointed arches of the nave. Continuing upward, the pier rises until it again branches into those offshoots which make the graceful vaulting ribs. The columns of the triforium arcade exhibit the same radiating principle, and the window-tracery, through branching wall-posts and mullions, seems but part of a luxuriant growth, which moves along lines of beauty, and never is suffered to become wild and irreg- ular. The favorite designation of this style among the English and French is the Decorated Gothic, by which expression attention is called to that marvelous and various ornamentation which, especially, is seen upon the exteriors of those cathedrals which are at once the glory and the perfection of Gothic architecture. § Classical and Pointed Architecture. It is only in the perfected Gothic that the correct understanding of Gothic Style. 207 these contrasted styles may be obtained. Classical archi- tecture is horizontal. It has the lintel above the open- ings of door and window, not the arch. It has the architrave upon columns, not the arch. Cornices mark the terminations of the stories and the edifice itself. All these features are horizontal. The Romans introduced the round arch into the apertures of buildings, and Con- stantine, in his churches, extended the use of the round arch by substituting it in place of the architrave. Still, with these changes, edifices had prominent horizontal features. The introduction of the wall-pilasters and pier-buttress gave vertical features to some Romanesque churches, and the wall-pilaster in Latin basilicas and in classical temples answered, in part, the same purpose ; but it was the triumph of Gothic architecture to banish almost entirely from a building the horizontal features which had reigned, almost undisturbed, in facades for twenty centuries. The vertical line is the dominant line in a Gothic cathedral ; the pointed arch, the substitute for all lintels and architraves ; the gable is the external covering for all roofed spaces, including those sheltered nooks where the statues of saints were set. The tower is completed only when it is surmounted by a spire, and the proper termination for a buttress is a finial. Gothic architecture interrupts everywhere the horizontal line by the pointed arch, the gable, the buttress, and the finial. Classical architecture charms because its beauties are near by, for its elevation is low. It also astonishes, because of the great masses of stone in the foundations, in the columns, and in the architrave. Gothic architecture creates as- tonishment because its roofs and towers and spires reach dizzy heights. Yet Gothic architecture charms by the beauties in its windows and portals; yea, even on the faces of its walls and towers and spires. 2o8 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 147. CATHEDRAL OF RHEIMS. Gothic Style. 209 § Perfected Gothic Facade with Towers. A com- parison of the western facade of the Cathedral of Rheims (Fig. 147) with that of Notre Dame of Paris (Fig. 141) will make evident the purpose of the architect to elim- inate the horizontal features from the perfected Gothic facade. The magnificent pointed archways before the portals in the decorated Gothic are completed with the crocketed pointed gables ; each window, except the rose- window, every niche, receives its completion through this same crocketed gable. Finials mark the meeting of each gabled canopy with its neighbor. Imposing orna- mented tabernacles make the upper corners of the tow- ers, and the faces of the towers are bipartite-pointed win- dows, each with its crocketed gable termination. These pointed terminations above portals, windows, and niches, on buttresses and on towers, indicate the new aims which were sought and attained in the perfected Gothic. The architectural grace and richness of this front illus- trate the triumph of pointed architecture over the hori- zontal, of Christian Gothic architecture over the pagan classical type ; for the horizontal features disappear, and all the prominent lines move toward the vertical, allur- ing the eye upward, from beauty to beauty, as they are revealed in portals and windows, and in those graceful tabernacles, within which some beneficent saint is safely sheltered. § Perfected Gothic Facade with Spires. The im- pression from the western facade of the perfected Gothic, having the spire, is that of a struggle upward, each step marked by grace and beauty ; and the admiring eye mounts these steps with wonder and admiration, only to leap, at last, from the apex of the cruciform flower, at the summit of the spire, into the vast expanse of the sky. Most beautiful among Gothic cathedrals is that 14 210 Ecclesiastical Architecture. CATHEDRA!, OF STRASBURG. Gothic Style. 211 of Strasburg, which was in process of building more than three centuries. The western facade of this cathe- dral (Fig. 148) presents the consummation of Gothic aims. Splendid pointed portals in the first story ; mag- nificent windows and arcades in the second ; both por- tals and windows are richly adorned with the crocketed gables above them. Then the eye follows the pointed windows of the towers, marking the belfries, each win- dow beneath a crocketed gable, and at the corners of the towers are beautiful polygonal turrets. Enthusiasm kindles increasingly in the observer as his eye climbs still upward along the sculptured triangular faces of the spires, which terminate, high in the air, with the grace- ful cruciform flower. § The Choir’s Facade. Perfected Gothic wrought the buttress and the flying buttress into exquisite forms of beauty. The wondrous splendor, given to these sup- ports of the nave, effect such charm that the exterior of the choir and nave seem to lose none of their attractive- ness when compared with the magnificent beauty of the western facade. The order of progress in the enrichment of a buttress enables any one easily to detect the con- scious and worthy pride of Gothic architects in this essen- tial element in their edifices. We may follow this prog- ress in the exterior view of the choir in the church at Kuttenberg (Fig. 149). The lowest stage of the buttress is quite plain as far as to the height of the aisle. Be- neath the water-table at this point the water-spout for the aisle-roof is placed, being curious gargoyles fash- ioned into distorted animal forms. The second stage upward is as far as the first flying buttress. This part is paneled with forms resembling window-tracery. The third stage begins where the second flying buttress is made to spring in order to reach the high clerestory. 212 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Here tabernacle work is found, and, within it, statuary. The beautiful finial surmounts the buttress. Along the roof of the nave and choir, mark- ing the lines of impact of the fly- ing buttress upon their sides, pin- nacles are raised, harmonious with those upon the summits of the buttresses. The care spent on these mere wall- supports of the greater cathe- drals, in order to beautify them, leads us to won- der at the genius of these archi- tects, who trans- formed the exter- nal bracings of walls into one of the most imposing and lovely features in their wonderful edifices. §The Nave=bay. The pier-arch, the triforium, and the clerestory (Fig. 150) compose the Gothic nave-bay. Consider first the pier-arch. Piers seem to spring from the ground, and to branch, forming arches and the groined ribs for the vault. The property of branching is the essential principle of the decorative Gothic pier. It is named, as in the Romanesque style, the clustered pier. A fine view of the aisle-side of this Gothic pier is Gothic Style. 213 seen in the engraving. Each archivolt, each groined rib, has its own corresponding column in the cluster. Also, a glance at the nave-side of this pier exhibits a cluster of columns, mounting as high as the clerestory, to give support to the vaulting of the nave. Through the ample archway of the nave is seen the inner View of the aisle-wall, built between mighty buttresses, opposite the nave-piers. No part here is neg- lected. The dado is beautifully pan- eled with half-col- umns, supporting the pointed arch ; „ . , . / NAVE), STRASBURG CATHEDRAL,. tall windows, with beautiful pointed tracery, throw their light across the aisle and nave, and richly-moulded groined ribs adorn the vaulting of the aisles. The triforium is often open, thus securing more ample window-apertures, in order to fill the interior with a greater volume of light. It is, however, the clerestory which is most open to the sun- shine, for it is merely a series of vast windows. The tracery work of the windows, both in the aisles and the clerestory, becomes one of the most efficient aids for the classification of the Gothic cathedrals. The perfected 214 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Gothic window has pointed arches upon mullions, divid- ing the space below and forming the window’s transom. Foliated forms fill in the window above the transom. Remembering that the windows were filled with stained glass of the richest and deepest colors, and often pre- sented through their colored splendor the precious events of Holy Writ, these windows, lighted by the sun- beams and framed by beautiful arches, seemed but beau- tiful screens, which separated the beholder from un- speakable glories beyond. § The Perfected Gothic Nave. Our example (Fig. 1 51) is taken from the Cathedral of Winchester, and shows the great window in the western fagade. We are impressed with the severe simplicity of this avenue of stately piers, reaching to the vaulting ribs of the nave. Then we admire the simple elegance in the form of the lofty pier-arches, within which the glory of the aisle- windows appear. The triforium seems diminutive be- tween the pier-arch below and the tall clerestory window above, which is ablaze with colors. Then the nave- vaults charm us by their branching ribs, woven into star-shaped patterns at their junction. The great west- ern window seems the appropriate beginning of this nave, opposite to which was the gorgeous beauty of the sanctuary ; for they who designed this great window for the western fagade, sought only to catch the last rays of the sun at its setting, and flash their colored beaut}^, at the vesper-service, along the nave unto the altar of this building, which is “ fitly joined together, and grow- eth into a holy temple unto the Lord.” What shall we say, then, when we see that these beautiful, vast naves are seldom peopled full with worshipers in these our times ? Simply, that at one time a city’s believers crowded these naves and bowed in reverent fear before the gorgeous Gothic Style. 215 services of the sanctuary, and that these people in wor- ship were then as impressive as their noble and charming Fig. 151. NAVE OF WINCHESTER CATHEDRAE. cathedrals ; simply, that now the pagan splendors of ritualistic worship do not captivate a modern city. 2X6 Ecclesiastical Architecture . Fig. 152. § Decorated Gothic Portal. One archway in the triple-arched portal of the church at Thann will suffice to make clear the wealth of beauty and the charming constructive unity in the perfected Gothic portal. Any arch substituted for the pointed arch here would destroy the unity of the structure. The arch’s support is not columns, but such groups as are found in the clustered piers of the nave. The spring of the arch is marked by no sign of capital. Three receding arches make the doorway, between the archivolts of which statuary is set. Imposing statues stand upon brackets in the door-jambs. The pointed arch in the panel-work and the abundant use of foliated fig- ures are evidences of the decorated style. Ornamentation is profuse. In- deed, signs of the decadent styles are traceable in the too ornate character of the arches, having a border of foliage on its outer face and cusps upon its outer curve. Comparison with Fig. 146 will reveal the advance in PORTAn OF CHURCH AT THANN Gothic Style. 217 constructive unity, as well as a new mode of ornamen- tation which is to be found in the perfected Gothic. D. LATE GOTHIC STYLE, 1420-1500. § A Decadent Style. The late Gothic style is also rightly named the degenerate Gothic Style. Men could not be content to imitate the noble examples of per- fected Gothic, confining themselves to a striving after greater excellence within the limits of the perfected Gothic art. They sought change. The result was novelties in arch-forms, whether at the portals or in the windows ; novelties in the vaulting-groins ; novelties either through excessive decoration or through poverty of ornamentation. In consequence, fagades became fan- tastic, a mere grouping of discordant forms; and inte- riors revealed everywhere lawlessless to Gothic tradi- tions. There were two distinct styles wrought out under this exertion for something new, without a correspond- ing advance in that nobleness of feeling in the architect which ever accompanies the origination of new and typ- ical architectural forms. The English developed one of these styles, and it has received the name of the Perpen- dicular Style. The other style had its origin among the French, and is called the Flamboyant Style. Both names have reference to alterations chiefly in the tracery. ( 1 ) perpendicular style. § Novel Pointed Arches. The early 'and the per- fected Gothic styles used only the pointed arch, which is constructed from two centers. This arch is either acutely pointed, obtusely pointed, or equi-angled. The novelty introduced into the late Gothic, especially in the perpendicular Gothic, is a compound pointed arch. There are several varieties of this compound arch, yet they have the common feature of being constructed 218 Ecclesiastical Architecture. from at least four centers. These (Fig. 153) are the triple and quintuple arches, the Tudor arch, and the ass-back arch, seemingly a satirical name, indicating an unsafe support. Fig. 153 § Perpendicular Tracery. The vertical line is the dominant line in all Gothic architecture. And in the two earlier periods there was present this distinctive feature, that if the eye followed a vertical line, the line led the eye to a pointed arch, or a pointed canopy, or the apex of a finial. But this feature vanished in the perpendicular style, for a vertical line was constantly in- terrupted by a horizontal one, as at doorways by labels, or in windows by transoms. Hence the perpendicular style has not the pointed idea in the tracery, found in the early style of English Gothic. The east window of Gloucester Cathedral (Fig. 154), having the remarkable dimensions of 38 by 72 feet, is one of the finest ex- amples of perpendicular window-tracery. The greatest illumination of the choir is secured through this win- dow, for the eastern termination of the choir is simply this wall of colored glass. Yet the window is more than the source of light — it is the place of apocalypse ; for Gothic Style. 219 the saints and apostles of the Church, arrayed in beauti- ful robes, bearing here as if at the gate of heaven, witnessing the of- fering of believers before the high altar of their Lord. It is not, there- fore, before such a magnificent win- dow of the per- pendicular style that we feel its limitations. The transoms of this style seem here appropriate sup- port for the feet of the heavenly visitants. Yet per- pendicular tracery in the windows of the aisle and the clerestory ever failed to awaken that feeling of aspira- tion which came to one while beholding the lofty win- dow-divisions, unbroken by transoms, which adorned the earlier Gothic cathedrals. § Ramiform Vault. The English architects in the perpendicular style developed a most remarkable modi- fication of the ribbed vault. The peculiarity in this new construction of the vault consisted in making the vaulting ribs many in number, springing from one point, like so many branches, as seen in Fig. 154. The the symbols of their service, stand Fig. 154. CHOIR, GLOUCESTER CATHEDRAL. 220 Ecclesiastical Architecture. interlacing of these branching ribs by means of shorter ribs produced what has been named the net-work vault- ing, which gives to the vaulted ceiling the appearance of open lace-work, woven in stone. Where the stone threads were crossed or knotted, the architect placed beautiful rosettes or other artistic designs. § Fan=shaped Vaulting. The most beautiful and graceful adaptation of the ramiform vaulting is found in FIG. 155. the fan - sha P ed vault. In fact, this vault is but the ramiform vault with hori- zontal circular ribs, binding to- gether the ver- tical branches, as seen in Fig. 155. The name given to this mode of vaulting arose from the resem- blance of the vault to a fan w T hen spread out and its ribs bent backwards, form- ing a kind of in- verted cone, with the line from apex to base a concave line. The skill of the architect is readily recognized when we dis- cern how he gathers together the central ribs of the fan- KINGS’S COLLEGE CHAPEL. Gothic Style. 221 vault and unites their extremities to those in the op- posite fan-vault, producing on the ceiling the form of the Tudor arch. This chapel at King’s College, Cam- bridge, is a gorgeous hall, and the rigid lines of the per- pendicular window-tracery blend, not inharmoniously, with the vertical and horizontal curvatures in the ceiling. §The Pendant Vault. The hall of the Divinity School, Oxford (Fig. 156), illustrates the chief charac- FlG. 156. DIVINITY SCHOOL, OXFORD. teristics of the perpendicular style. The clustered piers seem to be like a cluster of iron rods, a part of which are taken and bent across the hall for transverse arches ; a part is taken and bent for the arches above the win- dows. The form of all these arches is the Tudor form. There is no graceful bending in these curvatures sug- gestive of a growing stem, such as is found in the 222 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Gothic pointed arch ; for one feels, when looking at the Gothic pointed arch, that it would spring upright if only the force uniting the arch at the apex would release its grasp. But the keystone of a Tudor arch might be re- moved, and still the sides of the arch would remain stationary, just in the same shape as it was bent. The perpendicular tracery of the windows, the ogee arch above the door on the right-hand side, are evidences of this style. The pendant vault makes the ceiling. An appreciative student of Gothic architecture describes the Tudor stem and arch in the following words : “ Up rose the Tudor stems ; but their branches, instead of rising higher and higher still, and entwining in the skies, soon curved downward, and united themselves in the inverted apex of the pendant.” It is truly beautiful architecture, bent down from the skies to be admired of men. §Tudor Church with Clerestory. The Tudor Gothic church has been, since the 15th century, the typical church building in England. It is not a cathedral, but a parish church, and with the clerestory the edifice has impressive proportions. The Fotheringay Church, Northamptonshire (Fig. 157), built in 1434, exhibits the peculiar attractiveness of this style. The church is Gothic, being an inclosure built between buttressed piers, and haying also the flying buttress. There is no transept, but a noble central tower stands at the western entrance. The choir is terminated by a window, mag- nificent in its proportions. The aisle-window has a Gothic pointed arch; the window of the clerestory is the Tudor arch ; bar-tracery is found in both. This church stands as a witness that attainment of astonish- ing altitude had been given up, for the arches of the clerestory are of the low type. The towers and the roof-lines are completed with battlements, such as were Gothic Style. 223 common in castles. There is a simplicity in this struc- ture and a solidity which comport well with the English character. Fig. 157. FOTHERINGAY CHURCH. § Tudor Church without Clerestory. The fagade of St. Neot’s Church (Fig. 158) will make evident the change in the church edifice by the omission of the clerestory. The vertical and horizontal divisions indi- cate the perpendicular style. Some windows are with and some are without transoms. All windows have the pointed arch. Most noticeable is the tower, which as- sumes grander proportions because of the low nave, and 224 Ecclesiastical Architecture . Fig. 158. gives, therefore, a noble impressiveness to the whole structure, which is simple in form and strongly builded together. This style is in accord with the Engish people, among whom it had its origin, and with whom are present many examples of the style adorning its older towns. Simple, strong, no- ble, and devout are the people of this race. The parish church in the Tudor style may have but few architectural beauties beyond the windows through which the light en- ters to brighten the church and the tower whence goes forth the bell’s call unto the people to come for worship. Nevertheless, this parish church is a thousand times more churchly than the hall-churches of the Continent in the Flamboyant style, where gewgaws of ornament, within and without, make a church seem a kind of decorated jewel-casket, whither people go to deposit gems of Paternosters and Ave Marias, and then depart to visit places thronged with the gayeties of a fashionable world. ST. NICOT’S CHURCH. Gothic Style . 225 (2) FLAMBOYANT STYLE. §The Designation, Flamboyant. At heart, the movement which culminated in the Flamboyant style upon the Continent was an antagonism to the pointed Gothic style. The change in the tracery of the win- dows gave the name to this style. Instead of the pointed arch and the foliated forms of the earlier Gothic styles, the window-tracery was made as lawless as the curv- ings of flames. This resemblance suggested the name Flamboyant. The fish-bladder pattern is a common va- riety of this new tracery. Branch-work is found in some cases, and although it is an evident imitation of the interlacing of vine-stems, yet the unnatural stiffness often of this branch-tracery is anything but pleasing. The ruling curve in the Flamboyant style is a compound one, having its convex and concave parts. The numer- ous combinations of this compound curve, which was sub- stituted for the simple curve of the pointed arch and the foliated forms which were found in beautiful window- tracery of earlier Gothic styles, produced a great divers- ity of patterns. Fancy was maiden free in Flamboyant tracery ; for she cast off the Gothic forms, which had confined her ways within graceful limitations, and then moved unconstrained, making intricate paths in the tracery such as baffles the eye to follow. § The New Alliance of Rulers. That triple alliance of the three powers — the priests, the princes, and the people — received new adjustment, during the period of the Flamboyant style, which induced some changes also in the prevailing architecture. Guilds of the people, en- couraged by the princes, originated and constructed Gothic architecture. But the knowledge of the new im- portance, which the people acquired through the splen- dor of their Gothic cathedrals, led priests and princes to 15 226 Ecclesiastical Architecture. unite in order to excel or obliterate these objects of pop- ular pride by rivaling their edifices with others of greater splendor. Wealth was concentrated with the potentates of the Church and the State, and it may be doubted whether a king or emperor had more royal and imperial splendor than pope or bishop. The retinue of bishops suffer nothing when brought in comparison with the followers of princes. These holders of wealth, the spiritual and the temporal rulers, lavishly placed gor- geous extravagance of ornamentation upon cathedrals : upon their western facades, distorting or removing the features of pointed architecture ; upon the choir, reduc- ing to a decorative function the heretofore essential pointed arch ; upon the vaulting, dropping, as if in laughter, the keystone downward in form of a pendant. Thus these rich rulers smote the pride of the people. § The Distorted Gothic Facade. The western facade of the church at Caudebec (Fig. 159) will illustrate the antagonism to pointed architecture. This front is pro- fusely decorated, but without regard to the pointed style. The jambs of the doorways have upon them statues of saints, but there are no niches for them : rather, each is furnished below with an ornamental foot-stand, a kind of block richly carved and set in the column ; and above, is a canopy beautifully sculptured. The pointed arches of the doorways have a hood-moulding above them ; but it is not a pointed angle, whose sides are decorated with crockets. Instead, there is a kind of ogee arch with pe- culiar curvings. The rose-window above the portal is reduced, in all appearance, to a half circle. The great central buttresses are terminated, not by pinnacles, but by pyramidal roofs, such as are found on Romanesque towers. A flying buttress is seen, but it is made not to support a thrust, for its impact is against a tower. It is Gothic Style 227 rather built to hold the mass of ornament, which is placed above the buttress. Everywhere antagonism to pointed architecture and its principles is present in this Fig. 159. CHURCH AT CAUDEBEC. fagade. This new style is luxuriant, abounding in gro- tesque combinations ; yet it is well calculated to impress vulgar minds more than the peerless beauty of the per- fected Gothic style. 228 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Flamboyant Perpendicular Facade. The western fagade of the Cathedral of Orleans (Fig. 160) relegates to Fig. 160 . the realm of decora- tion the great features of the Gothic front, or else banishes them from the edifice. No- tice the lintels of the side portals. The pointed arches are set upon them as mere decorations. The sec- ond stage of this fa- gade has banished all reminders of the pointed style, substi- tuting the circular windows in their stead. The arcade- gallery above is simply made for orna- mentation ; it is no part of a harmonious constructive Gothic design pervading the whole fagade. The upper stories of the towers would stand strong and firm if the pointed win- dows and the arcade in them were removed ; hence, these are simply ornamentation. Yet the western fagade of the Flamboyant style, wherein the horizontal and perpendicular features usurp those of the pointed Gothic, is beautiful, and demonstrates its possibilities to win ad- miration scarcely inferior to the beauty that charms in the English perpendicular style. Gothic Style. 229 § The Pointed Arch as Decoration. The screen be- fore the high altar in the Church of St. Madeleine, Troyes (Fig. 161), as mere decora- tion. Alternate panels in the up- per border of this screen are orna- mented with flam- boyant tracery. The fringe, so to speak, is made up of three-pointed arches. They hang down ; they have no support be- neath their feet. The spandrels of the arches have a canopy in them, and the pendant, at the junction of the arches, is fash- ioned into a beau- tiful support for some statue. Here most noticeably is emphasized the purpose of making the pointed arch an aid in decoration. § Flamboyant Pendant Vault. The example of Flamboyant pendant vaulting is taken from the Cathe- dral of Alby (Fig. 162), built in 1512. It makes most manifest, when carefully considered, the movement afoot antagonizing pointed architecture. First, ob- sere the vault’s pendants. One is large, with many mouldings ; a second is smaller ; the third is of the exhibits the use of the pointed arch Fig. 161. SCREEN OF ST. MADEEEINE, TROYES. 230 Ecclesiastical Architecture. same size as the first ; the fourth is like the second. Again, observe that the third pendant — and so, of course, the first — have transverse arches sent from their sides. Indeed, if columns be set beneath the pendants, there will be formed two vaulted aisles, hav- ing the pointed arch in the vaults. The differences in the size of the pendants and the mouldings upon them correspond to the forms which are the principal and secondary piers of the Gothic. Further, between the great piers in the bay of the nave a pendant hangs down, and it is made to support the feet of pointed arches. Fresh evi- dence is given in this church that the pointed arch is no structural part of the edifice, but may enter in, to give ornamentation to the several parts of the build- ing. The two windows in the engraving show excel- lent examples of the flowing tracery, which is charac- teristic of the Flamboyant style. Generally speaking, all this gorgeous luxuriance in the tracery, and all the prodigal display of fancy in ornamentation, are irrever- Fig. 162. CATHEDRA!, at alby. Gothic Style . 231 ent, wearying one with its lawlessness. It is Gothic, but a Gothic which destroys the essential and noblest prin- ciples of Gothic architecture, and seeks to atone for its crime by ostentatiously displaying Gothic constructive forms as things suitable only for ornamentation. E. STRIKING FEATURES OF THE GOTHIC STYLE. § A Retrospect. Gothic architecture is Christian architecture set free from classic or pagan influences. The emancipation was accomplished only after centuries of struggle. In its general form the Gothic is simple, for it is either rectangular or cruciform in its ground-plan. Its creed gives stability, for it believes in mighty piers, pointed arches, and massive buttresses. It transforms into beauty the members upon which it depends for strength, so that the greatest charms of Gothic architec- ture are gathered around pier, arch, and buttress. The Gothic edifice is impressive because it has a wonderful vista in the nave and a mysterious loveliness in the graceful windows of its walls, all aglow with iridescent hues. The lofty height of the edifice, rendered still more wondrous by the long reach of the spires into the sky, gives grandeur of elevation. And the gorgeous- ness and variety of the ornamentation remind the ob- server of the floral world, wherein the Creator made marvelous forms and robed them in the richest garments of color. Yet nature’s forms, not her colors, are fash- ioned on stone by the Gothic architects. Polychromy, if it exist in the Gothic cathedral, can be found only in the windows, where transmitted light loses its dazzling brightness in colored glass, and enters the church with its softened rays. Gothic architecture is, indeed, the ennobling thoughts and hopes of the Christian faith, wrought out with beauty in imperishable stone. And he alone who believes may read. 232 Ecclesiastical Architecture. GOTHIC ROOF-BATUSTRADES. Gothic Style. 233 § The Roof = balustrade. Marked stages of develop- ment are traceable in pointed architecture along the junction of wall and roof. Early Gothic (Fig. 163, a) shows the frieze and cornice mouldings with a balus- trade above them, which is pierced with quatrefoils and surmounted with birds of serious aspect. Here the in- fluence of Romanesque architecture is apparent, not alone in the drollery of the birds, indicative of a vein of religious satire, but also in the unbroken horizontal lines of the cornice and balustrade. The deep, earnest pur- pose of the Gothic masters to banish all reminders of the Romanesque architecture from their edifices is mani- fested in the unique method they employed to give prominence to pointed forms where horizontal forms and lines seem inevitable. They omitted the frieze moulding (Fig. 163, b), and broke the horizontal line of the cornice with the crocketed gable of the window, and at the apex of this gable they set a finial, which inter- rupted the horizontal line of the balustrade. Fig. 163, c and ^ exhibit the fuller development of this idea, giv- ing at the eaves the charm and grace of beauty. The crocketed gable (c) was made to leap high above the balustrade, and the front of this gable was pierced with circular foliated forms. In this way the prominence of the cornice and balustrade, as horizontal features, was greatly reduced. The most ornamental development of this high crocketed gable is reached when the face (ct) is filled out with flamboyant tracery. § The Gothic Buttress. The development of the but- tresses into a more striking decorative feature of the edi- fice than the pilaster, which reflected the beauty of Gre- cian columns, was accomplished in the perfected Gothic style. Buttresses were paneled with pointed arches. Even the recessed pointed arch is found among these panels, 234 Ecclesiastical A rchiteci ure. such as is used in portals. Above the pointed arches are crocketed gables with their flower-finials. Some but- tresses (Fig. 164) have a tabernacle finial, within which is placed a statue. The flying buttresses are perforated with quatrefoils, and the upper side adorned with crockets. The continued exist- ence of a plant depends upon the seed-pro- ducing flower; the stability of the Gothic building is found in its resisting buttresses. The Creator gave to the flower beauty of form and splendor of color, and the Gothic archi- tect, in imitation, gave to the buttress grace- ful form and the charm of sculptured beauty. Fig. 164. details of the gothic buttress. Gothic Style. 235 Fig. 165. § Gothic Spire. The greatest height in a Gothic cathedral was reached through three magnificent steps. The square tower rose from the ground a mighty foun- dation ; the hexagonal belfry came next, an open clerestory, whence church bells uttered forth their warnings or else in- voked the city to worship ; the third story was the pyramidal spire. Fig. 165 shows the belfry and spire. It is a dazing height to which the spire ascends. Yet the Gothic builders hesitated not. Upward they climbed, weaving stone into lace-like patterns of geometric designs. They paused to set a crown at the termination of this lace- paneling of the spire. Then they built with solid faces until they completed the spire with the cruciform flower. It was not pride that led men to ven- ture such height and to beau- tify as they ascended. Rather, they were inspired by the Chris- tian faith, that approach to the heavenly must ever be in beauty and in holiness. Hence these builders pierced the sky with these spires, which grew in beauty as they neared unto the heavens, and in this beau- tiful structure they recorded a symbol of their faith. from church at fssuingf;n. 236 Ecclesiastical Architecture. § Window=tracery. The true Gothic window is the three-in-one style. The foliated figures indicate its con- struction. The encompassing pointed arch (Fig. 166, a) Fig. 166. £ a £ EXAMPLES OF WINDOW-TRACERY. has in its head the larger multifoil, having two pointed arches tangent to its circumference. Each smaller multi- foil has also two pointed arches within, tangent to their curves; hence the name three-in-one. This same style often had the quatrefoil (Ji) in the head of the encom- passing arches, and cusps adorned the concave of all Gothic Style. 237 pointed arches and foliated figures. The flamboyant tra- cery (< c ) expelled the geometrical forms, and seemed to consider the mullions as torches, whose flames made the tracery in the window-heads. The ogee-arched window (d) lacks either symbol or poetry in its make-up, being a pretty ornament. Perpendicular tracery (r by courses parallel to the ridge, as in the cylinder vault. § The French Gothic Chapel. A most beautiful ex- ample of French Gothic is presented in the Sainte Cha- pelle, of Paris (Fig. 174), erected in 1245. The church is a double church and simplest in form, being a choir for the priests and a nave for the worshipers. A massive continuous water-table around the building shows the height of the floor to the upper church. Below was the lower church, in which the common people met for service. The upper church is built between buttresses. The southern side is given in the engraving. The west- ern fa£ade has two engaged towers at its sides, com- pleted with low spires. A porch is built before it, and above the porch is a magnificent rose-window. Four 250 Ecclesiastical Architecture. FIG. 174. large windows between buttresses inclose each side of the nave, and the choir is semicircular, having seven lancet-windows in its walls. The spire above the junc- tion of the nave and choir was built in the pres- ent century, to re- place the original one. The win- dows give orna- mentation to the side, for the but- tresses are plain, being divided by simple water- tables. Rich dec- oration begins above the win- dows: First come the crocketed win- dow-gables, then the open-work of the parapet, then the pinnacles of the buttresses, and then the spires. The pious Louis built this splendid chapel to receive the original crown of thorns, which he had purchased of Baldwin, Emperor of Con- stantinople. Each western spire has sculptured upon it, half way in its height, a crown of thorns, thus indi- cating the sacredness of the church. The crown of thorns, as that one worn by the Christ, was an imposi- tion ; yet the love of Louis was genuine, and the place SAINTE CHAPEEEE, PARIS. Gothic Style. 251 this chapel has in Gothic architecture is a most fitting reward of this love; for this chapel was the edifice which suggested the chiefest splendors in the nave of the finest Gothic cathedrals. An architect need but remove the floor of the upper church, and complete the lower pointed windows as arches, and place aisles about the nave, over which the flying buttress leaps to the nave, and the great cathedrals are constructed in miniature. § Window=tracery and Stained Glass. The win- dows of the Sainte Chapelle are the three-in-one style of tracery. The expression means that under each larger pointed arch there are two smaller ones. This is the purest and best Gothic tracery. The transition from this style to the flamboyant was not difficult. The change expelled the beautiful foliated form above each pair of pointed arches, and extended the curve of the pointed arches as a double curve in order to fill up this space, and then the forms of the flamboyant tracery be- gan to appear. The lambent dartings of this tracery pleased only when taste had become degraded. Perhaps we best indicate the gorgeous splendor given to these windows by means of stained glass. The windows of the nave and choir are fifteen, and in them are portrayed the creation of the world ; the fall of man ; the history of the patriarchs ; the history of Moses ; scenes from Judges, Joshua, and Ruth; the history of the three great judges ; the prophecies of Isaiah ; histories of John the Evangelist, the Virgin, and the infancy of Jesus; the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus; the story of John the Baptist ; the prophecies of Daniel, of Ezekiel, of Jeremiah. These, and more events con- nected with the Christian religion, are set forth with brilliant colors in these windows, and the devout feel it to be most appropriate that those whose lives and deeds 252 Ecclesiastical Architecture. have inspired the human race for centuries to holy faith in God are worthily clad in raiment, by Gothic artists, more beautiful than the vesture of kings and princes. §The French Gothic Cathedral. The French cathe- dral is cruciform, and its nave and choir are surrounded prises which meet an observer in his walk about the choir, inspecting these chapels, a thought that will not down ; namely, that modern nations are indissolubly connected with the Christian religion. Costly monu- ments of kings and princes adorn chapels of sepul- ture in most of the Christian cathedrals. The French built cathedrals of most imposing dimensions. The length of Amiens is 521 feet; that of Rheims, 430 feet. All the smaller cathedrals are above 330 feet in length. A side view of Notre Dame (Fig. 176) will be most in- structive, as it will exhibit one of the earliest attempts of Gothic architects to buttress the lofty walls of the nave. Consider the magnitude of this structure. The PLAN NOYON CATHEDRA!,. Fig. 175. by single or double aisles. A marked pe- culiarity in these cathedrals (Fig. 175) is the choir-chapels. They are built be- tween the buttresses, usually polygonal in form and richly deco- rated. They were de- positories for the relics and treasures of the church. One thought constantly obtrudes it- self among the sur- Gothic Style. 253 roof is 356 feet in length; the width at the transepts is 144 feet; the ridge of the roof is 152 feet above the ground, and the towers rise 204 feet high. Flying buttresses, fronted by pinnacles, leap to the triforium and clerestory ; their upper faces are straight lines, and their side faces are not pierced with foliated figures. The windows of the choir-chapels are completed with the crocketed gable in the manner of the perfected Gothic. The southern facade is in view, and we see in Fig. 176 . NOTRE DAME, PARIS. the transept a great rose-window. Bas-reliefs ornament this southern portal. Here the history of St. Stephen is cut in stone, presenting him both as teacher and as martyr. These cathedrals are always magnificent mu- seums of Christian art, and, for the devout, they may become places of Christian worship. § The Triforium’s Beauty. Bach great Gothic church has its own peculiar charms in the triforium, and acquaintance with one form excites interest in all, for we see how much the architect loved this division 254 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 177. of the nave- wall. The example (Fig. 177) is transitional, showing the influence of the Romanesque style. Within the pointed arches of the gallery are round arches ; the circle also is prom- inent in the arch’s head. Not one high arcade, but two low ones, make the filling-in of the triforium space. Leaves, vines, ro- settes decorate re- spectively the lower, middle, and upper frieze. Stat- uary adorn the spaces in the upper arcade, and colored windows the spaces in the lower. Great painstaking is ap- parent in order to render the trifori- um beautiful. The French artist re- tained uniformity in the arches and ornamentation of the arcades ; but, in the pose of the figures within the upper arcade he gave the variety which ever accompa- nies an assemblage of persons in life. FROM CATHEDRAL, OF AMIENS. §The French Gothic Sepulcher. France has in- terred many of her illustrious dead, civilians as well as ecclesiastics, within the sacred precincts of her cathe- Gothic Style. 255 drals. The visitor to these revered places may not in- quire into the excellence of all of the lives of those who find the last resting-place within the sacred edifice. Fig. 178. FRENCH GOTHIC CHAPEt,. Enough is it for all to know that those who lie here en- tombed have been found worthy by the authorities of the Church for this honor. The sepulcher (Fig. 178) is late Gothic, a return to the earlier noble Gothic styles. 256 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Yet it is impressive. Statuary, with columns for pedes- tals, beautify the aisle-front of the tomb ; the walls of the chapel are niched for the reception of statuary; the canopy above the tomb is tabernacled, and in the cells is statuary. In this chapel for the dead the human figure is employed both as symbol and as ideal por- trayals of eminent saints. And, as if to instruct us, kneeling figures, with clasped hands and with faces to- ward the altar, are placed upon the tomb. Surely this is no parade of art, but an earnest endeavor to teach that death may be best met when the memories of saintly lives are present and the attitude of the human heart is that of prayer. II. IN ENGLAND. § The Parliamentary Constitution. The struggles which limited the English royal power were coeval with the rise and progress of Gothic architecture in England. John confirmed the Magna Charta in 1215, which was wrested from him “by a combination of all classes of free subjects, and it gave rights to them all.” Yet three centuries of conflict were necessary to interpret to the English nation this greatest of civil documents. The clergy, the barons, and the traders secured the concessions of the charter from the king. The limitations upon the kingly prerogative gave increased powers to the ruling classes, both civil and ecclesiastical. Hence, later kings espoused the cause of the people, in order to curb the influence of ecclesiastics and barons, and there resulted, out of the long period of struggle, an English nation under a constitution. The Romanesque architecture was built when the Saxons were being brought to sub- mit to the Norman conquerors, and these Norman rulers were being taught the language of the conquered peo- ple. Not strange is it, then, that in the period when Gothic Style. 25 7 kings and barons of Norman lineage had learned to love most the English nation, a new style of architecture should modify those ecclesiastical structures which stood as witnesses to times when the foreign king and baron loved the land of their birth above the country which they had won by the sword. Hence, many English cathedrals are a mixed Gothic. § Intermixture of Styles. Some Norman cathe- drals, such as Durham, Norwich, and Oxford, present changes in the interior only through the introduction of the Gothic vaults. A more striking modification is where the Norman nave, with its strength and redun- dant beauty, is completed with the graceful Gothic choir, abounding in the charms of lofty pointed arches, and flooded with sunlight softened into colors by magnifi- cent Gothic windows. Gloucester and Ely and Here- ford are examples of this change. Peterborough Cathe- dral is Norman entire, except the western fagade, which is early Gothic, and the second choir, which is built in the late Gothic style. Sometimes a Norman structure was untouched in its general form, but on all surfaces where Gothic features could be introduced as orna- ment, the architect placed them, even though he effaced Norman decoration. Such change the Cathedral of Winchester underwent, and presents now a Norman edifice, decked out with the details of the perpendicular style. Thus the Gothic style laid its hand upon most of the noble Norman cathedrals. § The English Gothic Choir. As compared with Romanesque choirs, all Gothic choirs have greater length. And because the English Gothic architect avoids in his structure such daring altitudes as are reached in the cathedrals of France and Germany, the *7 25 8 Ecclesiastical Architecture . length of English cathedrals becomes much more notice- able. Certain peculiarities are immediately discernible by considering the choir and transepts (Fig. 179) of old St. Paul’s Cathedral, Condon. The transepts are most prominent. The buttresses and flying buttresses excite no special attention, for they seem to be doing no re- Fig. 179. OLD ST. PAUIy’S CATHEDRAE. markable service, since the nave is low. Often the fly- ing buttresses of cathedrals were built beneath the roof over the aisle, thus declaring that they assumed no im- portant place in the mind of the architect as a decorative feature of his building. The square termination of the choir, however, commands notice. It seems a wall of glass ; below there are seen seven tall, slender, pointed windows, and above them a magnificent rose-window. Again, the square tower over the crossing is a peculiar- Gothic Style . 259 ity of English Gothic. As seen from the interior, these towers form lanterns above the crossing, and add a new beauty to the surroundings of the choir. Yet they con- tribute most effectively to the impression of the English cathedrals as made upon the observer when viewed from without. Canterbury, Ely, York, Eincoln, Durham, and Gloucester have the square tower above the crossing. Salisbury, Lichfield, and Chichester have these central towers completed with spires. They all were erected in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and have the decorative elegance which is characteristic of Gothic architecture in those times. §The Second Choir. The length of the choir some- times equaled the length of the nave in English cathe- drals. At least it seemed so when one viewed the ex- terior. Sometimes this increased length was secured by the addition of a chapel to the choir ; as the Chapel of Henry VII to the choir of Westminster Abbey, or the Chapel of the Nine Altars to the choir of Durham. The termination of the cathedral choir was sometimes marked by a second transept, as in the cathedrals of Salisbury and Lincoln. There is no example of double side-aisles in England, nor are aisle-chapels found. Canterbury and Westminster have apsidal chapels, yet, generally, these chapels were banished from the English Gothic edifice, perhaps because they were too prom- inent reminders of the Norman style. § Cathedral with Towers. The harmony of pro- portion in the dimensions of the great French cathedrals is wanting in the English. The western facade of West- minster, taken by itself, is imposing. Each tower seems but four lofty and beautiful buttresses, which are united into one structure by masonry, forming pointed and 260 Ecclesiastical Architecture. circular windows. Then these two towers are combined into the western facade (Fig. 180) by the masonry of the porch and that of the great western window. But the far-projecting transept interferes with the pleasing effect of this front. However, this fa- cade is, when taken by itself, a noble structure, and one which has found great favor with the architects; for, in general outline, it is the type for a Gothic front in many of the mod- ern denomina- tional churches. The facade of Lin- coln Cathedral is peculiar, being a high screen , higher than the eaves of the nave, extend- ing north and south beyond the boundaries of the nave, and pierced with lofty Norman doorways. With its paneling and the polygonal terminations at the north and south, the front is imposing, and its effect is in- creased by the two western towers of the nave, rising above it high in the air. The western facade of this cathedral is simply a transept, terminating the nave at the west, and may, perhaps, add to the general impress- iveness of the cathedral when viewed from a distance. Fig. 180. WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Gothic Style. 2b\ Fig. 181 . § Cathedral with Spires. Gothic architecture in theory completes all its towers with spires; yet com- paratively few Eng- lish cathedrals have spires, as some have been removed, and others were planned, but never built. The Cathedral of Eich- field (Fig. 181) has spires upon the western towers and the central one. It is a beautiful ex- ample of English Decorative Gothic. The towers are ma- jestic, not the portals which pierce them ; the arcading pleases, but creates no sur- prise ; the great west- ern window, how- ever, comports well with the majesty of the towers. The splendor and the size of the portals occupy the thoughts of an observer as he enters into the great European cathedrals, and these portals exclude the porch-idea. But English cathedrals have portals which seem insignificant, though beautiful ; but they admit into a porch, which surprises with the beauty of its LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. 262 Ecclesiastical Architecture. vaulting and the richness of its sculpturing. Inclement England as compared with sunny France, may, perhaps, account for the development, among the English, of the porch rather than the portal in their cathedrals. § Parish Church with Central Towers. Most at- tractive, indeed, are the small English Gothic churches. The Howden Church (Fig. 182) was built in 1310. The es- sentials of the Gothic structure are readily rec- ognized. There are four great buttresses in the western facade ; the two central ones have on their surface Gothic taber- nacles for stat- uary, and each is completed with a beautiful finial. The por- tal is deeply recessed, and above it is the great Gothic window, with long, slender mullions and striking quatrefoils. The triangular-crocketed hood is above it. The proportions in this parish church are better than in a cathedral. The Gothic parish churches without towers are many in England. They are finely Fig. 182. HOWDEN CHURCH. Gothic Style. 263 adapted to the forms of worship in the Established Church ; for the Anglican Church retains the altar-table and a variety of services by the side of and before the altar. Hence the plan of a parish church, which suited the needs of worship in the fourteenth century, meets all the demands of the Anglican Church in the nineteenth century. A century later the eastern tower was erected. The utility of the tower as a belfry, not its peculiar fitness to awaken admiration as an architectural feature, seems to have designated its posi- tion at the choir ; for to the architect the buttress, with its tabernacles and finials, the portal and western win- dows, had more charm than the height and the massive strength of the tower. A century later, taste had changed. Perpendicular Gothic reigned, and the beauty of pointed Gothic gave place to the depressed Tudor arch ; but the tower, with its strength and added beauty, survived. § Parish Church with Western Tower. Construct- ive unity in the whole edifice was attained by Gothic architecture in the Fotheringay Church (Fig. 157), which has the western tower incorporated in the struc- ture. There is also harmony of proportions : its length, breadth, and height combine with the dimensions of its simple, strong, beautiful tower, and produce a building most attractive and churchly. Another type of the church with western central tower is shown in St. Mary’s, of Taunton (Fig. 183), built about 1500. The nave has no clerestory ; its roof is elevated but slightly above the roofs of the aisles. Hence, the body of the church is low. The windows are broad, occupy- ing most of the space in the side-walls. The tower is external to the nave, not incorporated in the structure. The western face of the tower has a great pointed win- 264 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 183. dow in it, above the deeply- recessed portal. Eight en- ters through it into the nave. The low nave and the large western window before it are features which we have no- ticed as characteristic of the English cathedrals. The lofty tower of St. Mary’s, at Taun- ton, is profusely elaborated with decoration, and the gay splen- dors of its battlements and tur- rets harmonize but poorly with the general plainness of the church. If we remove the up- per story of the tower, or the two upper stories, the church becomes similar to many parish churches of England with which the richest associations of the English people are connected; for the Protestant Reforma- tion developed a rich religious life in Eng- land, produced the liturgy of the English Episcopal Church, formed the incompar- able litany in its prayer-book, and made parish churches the principal religious homes of the people for centuries. ST. MARY'S, AT TAUNTON. § English Gothic Ceilings. The multiplication of ribs, and the insertion of minor ones, formed with the ridge net-like patterns on the stone vault. This rami- form vault ( vide Fig. 154) is found, with beautiful varh Gothic Style. 265 ations, in the Cathedrals of Exeter, Gloucester, Win. Chester, and several others. From this vault the fan- shaped vault (vide Fig. 155) is a natural development, and is found especially in chapter-houses and a few chapels. The pendant- vault ( vide Fig. 156) is a variety of ceiling which was carried out with most remark- able effects by the English architects. But perhaps in the wood ceilings which they con- structed, the En- glish far surpass other nations. The hammer-truss beam (Fig. 184), not alone trans- ferred the strains of the roof low down on the wall, but was made a most strikingly decorative element. The French were the first to bring the buttress into a most distinguished ornamental feature ; the English may claim priority in bringing the truss-beams of the ceiling into most beautiful decorative aids. The parish church presents many varieties of the wooden ceiling, often having the beams most richly carved. The interior, rather than the exterior of an English church, received ornamentation. The foliage in the capitals and corbels were well shaped and deeply incised, standing out clear from the surface. The inner curve of an arch was adorned with cusps of various Fig. 184. ST. STEPHEN’S, AT NORWICH. 266 Ecclesiastica l Arc hit ec i ure. designs. Later, the paneling of surfaces became the custom. And one feels, when within these English cathedrals and churches, that their beauties are near by, for their naves do not astonish by their wondrous height, but charm by the loveliness all around and within reach. Fitting instructors they are to all believers that good works are to be done near by in the ordinary walks of life. III. IN GERMANY. §The Decay of the Sovereign’s Power. The age of Gothic architecture was coeval with the decline of the emperor’s power in Germany. Frederick II gave to the spiritual princes in 1222 a legal right to their usurped dominions, “ agreeing not to introduce into their territories,, without their consent, new coinage, or customs, or tolls.” Fifteen years later he granted the same rights to the secular princes. A few years prior to these concessions, the right to choose the emperor was transferred from all the immediate nobles to the spiritual princes, officially known as the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Treves, and to the secular princes belong- ing to the houses of Wittelsbach and Saxony, the mar- grave of Brandenburg, and the king of Bohemia. The Golden Bull, issued in 1356, gave clear definition to these electorates and their rights. By this bull three spiritual electorates were confirmed, belonging to the archbishops of Mainz, of Cologne, of Treves, and four secular electorates, belonging to the king of Bohemia, the Rhenish palsgrave, the duke of Saxony, and the margrave of Brandenburg. The electors were invested with full sovereign rights within their territories, and their subjects were allowed to appeal to the imperial tribunals only if the administration of justice should be refused. The territory of an elector was to be indi- Gothic Style. 267 visible, and inheritance was based on the principle of primogeniture. These sovereign prerogatives, which were enjoyed by the electoral principalities, awakened envy in the minor principalities, and led to endeavors to secure for them greater privileges. The free cities also wanted extension of powers. The great curb upon the princes was the diet, which was formed in most princi- palities. The mediate prelates, the mediate nobles, the mediate cities, composed the diet, and these bodies claimed the rights of sanctioning taxation, of advising in matters relative to the expenditure of public revenue, and of demanding the administration of justice. Ger- many, therefore, was governed by princes, with such restrictions as the diet imposed, and the emperor was sovereign lord only in name. § Transitional Architecture. When the old order, civil and ecclesiastical, began to change, the greatly be- loved Romanesque style began also to assume modifica- tions. The Apostles’ Church at Cologne had its interior remodeled by the use of pointed arches and Gothic vaults. The great nave of St. Peter and St. Paul’s, at Neuweiler, in Alsace, was transformed into almost a perfect Gothic nave. The transitional churches in Germany are very many ; for the powerful hierarchy of the papacy cher- ished the form of the Romanesque church as evidence, planted everywhere in Europe, of the triumphant march of the patriarch of Rome to a spiritual throne mightier than civil powers. Gothic churches, for a long time, were built after the outward form of the Romanesque, having low walls, small windows, the nave-bay square and corresponding to two bays in the aisle. The ground-plan of the Minster at Schlettstadt will show the influence of the Romanesque upon the Gothic style after the new style had become adopted in Germany. 268 Ecclesiastical Architecture. The six-parted vault (Fig. 185) is used in the nave. The apsidal chapels at the terminations of the aisles are strikingly Romanesque. The awk- ward extension of the choir shows how the edifice was planned to re- ceive the short choir of the Ro- manesque. Length in the choir, such as the Gothic demanded, was secured by this clumsy addition. This German Gothic church has a square eastern termination and no choir-aisle. There are also churches in this Gothic style with a western choir. These are all German Romanesque features, and witness, undoubtedly, not alone to the difficulty of the new style in supplanting the old, but to pe- culiar advantages in the Roman- esque plans for long-established features of worship in Germany which w T ere more difficult to change than are archi- tectural plans. § German Gothic. Gothic architecture in France and England had passed into the decorative period be- fore a distinctively Gothic building was erected in Ger- many. The ground-plan of Magdeburg Cathedral (Fig. 186) is the German early Gothic. The symmetry of proportion is like that of the French early Gothic. The German architect retained the choir-chapels and the choir-aisle as heirlooms from the Romanesque style. Germans began to build Gothic churches with the ideals of the French decorative Gothic in mind. This fact accounts for the comparatively few Gothic edifices be- Fig. 185. PL,AN OF CHURCH AT SCHUETTSTADT. Gothic Style. 26 9 longing to the early period in Germany. With these advantages it is not surprising Fig. 186. that Germany presents the most perfect Gothic cathe- drals and churches. Yet there are novel departures from the Gothic type, such as are seen in Gothic hall- churches ; and those brick churches, where Gothic ornamen- tation in the west- ern facade consists of slender buttress- es, rising plan magde BURG above the CATHEDRAL. rQof> with the intervening spaces em- bellished with geometric patterns rather than with pointed arcades and crock- eted gables and finials. § Gothic Parochial Church. The beautiful church at Thann (Fig. 187) is composed of a nave and choir without transepts. It is as if the church at thann. upper church of the lovely Sainte Chappelle, in Paris ( vide Fig. 174), were set upon German soil, with the ad- dition of an essentially German Gothic spire, placed at 270 Ecclesiastical Architeci urE. the north corner of the western fagade. The church was built in the middle of the fourteenth century, the tower about two centuries later. The whole edifice ex- hibits most remarkably the Gothic features which may be retained in a small edifice. The nave and choir con- stituting the church are inclosed by tall and narrow Gothic windows, separated by buttressed piers. These buttresses are made slenderer as they ascend ; the di- visions are marked by water-tables. Tabernacle-work adorns the upper stage. Gargoyles, parapet, and pin- nacles are retained, and also the steep roof. The tower seems but four massive buttresses, so united together as to form pointed openings, and these buttresses are pan- eled with the pointed arch. The lower stage of the spire is an octagon, with four of its sides turned into ornamental corners, and the remaining four are treated as window-apertures. A pyramidal termination com- pletes the spire, being beautiful and open tracery-work. This style of church is most attractive, and is the Gothic church which readily accommodates itself to any of the forms of Christian worship in our day. §The Gothic Hall=Church. The Church of St. Elizabeth, at Marburg (1235), marks the first appearance of the type known as the hall-church. The common features in them all were the absence of shed-roofs over the aisles, the absence of a clerestory, the absence of fly- ing buttresses, all of which departures from the ordinary Gothic edifice, as seen from without, may be traceable to the internal arrangement, according to which the side-aisles had the same height as the nave. The Cathe- dral of St. Stephen’s, Vienna (Fig. 188), is the finest ex- ample of this type. The western fagade is dwarfed by the high, steep roof, yet the front would be most impos- ing and novel before a nave which harmonized with its 271 Gothic Style. Fig. 188. CATHEDRAL, Ob' ST. STEPHEN’S, VIENNA. 27 2 Ecclesiastical Architecture. proportions. The side-buttresses are massive, and be- tween each pair two pointed windows are built, whose arches reach the height of the eaves. A gable, richly decorated, rises above each pair of windows, and gable- roofs extend from them to the great roof of the nave. The spire tapers from the ground upward to its summit. The example is the noblest of this type. § Interior of a HalNchurch. Piers, lofty arches, and a high ceiling met the eye as one gazed along the p !G> 139. nave of the hall-church. The beauty of the tri- forium, the beauty of the clerestory, were wanting. It is true that the piers seemed like branching trees, forming aloft the multi- ribbed ceiling; but this compensated but poorly for the typical Gothic nave with its threefold division. One almost wishes that the nave-piers might be re- moved and pendant- vaulting be left, that the vast room might be seen without obstruction. Ger- mans in the later period of Gothic architecture were fond of doing the unlooked-for, of effecting great surprises. They made tracery-work which seemed but the twisting of boughs, and even carved bark-knots, which are formed where boughs have been wrenched off. They often made shafts and mullions so slender that one feared lest the weight they carried would crush them down. Gothic Style. 273 Fig. 190. § The Brick Gothic Church. The electorates, and especially the leagues which were formed among the cit- ies and principal- ities of Germany, exerted great influence upon the development of Gothic architec- ture. So much so, indeed, that there are some who di- vide Germany into districts, and find the architecture, comprised in each, to have common characters. North- ern Germany is one of these dis- tricts, and there sprung up here an architecture built of brick and with most striking orna- mentation. The fagade of St. Mary’s, at Brandenburg (Fig. 190), will exhibit the chief peculiarities. It stands like a great screen in front of the church. This screen is perforated with pointed portals and windows and pointed arcades. Buttresses divide the structure into compartments. Pinnacles and gables, with circular win- dows below them, complete the upper termination of the screen. The free employment of geometrical tracery on the surface is a departure in Gothic ornamentation in Germany. Then this fagade is variegated by means of different colored bricks, principally black glazed 18 ST. MARY’S, AT BRANDENBURG. 274 Ecclesiastical Architecture, bricks on a background of red. Effects are in this way produced similar to the variegation of Italian fagades, through different colored marbles, in many Romanesque churches. Yet some of these brick churches are con- structed with simplest ornamentation, and are built in a most attractive Gothic style. § German Gothic Cathedral. The most perfect specimen of Gothic architecture is the Cathedral of Cologne. Its foundation-stone was laid in 1248; its completion was accomplished in our own century. One has well said that it is “ the most magnificent and stu- pendous edifice ever raised by human hands to the serv- ice of the Creator.” The plan {vide Fig. 127) is cruci- form within and without. The nave has double side- aisles ; the transepts and the choir have single aisles, and there are choir-chapels. The interior is 421 feet in length, making a splendid vista through the columns of the nave and choir. The breadth is 140 feet; the tran- sept, 234 feet long. The cathedral, according to this plan of most remarkable dimensions, rises from a plat- form 55 feet above the Rhine, and is the purest and noblest example of perfected Gothic in all the world. Other cathedrals are composite, furnishing the finest specimens of the various styles. Cologne Cathedral re- ceived no addition conflicting with its manifest designs. Decade after decade it stood, too magnificent in its de- mands for the generations of those times to complete. They beheld an incomplete structure, greater unfinished than it could be made with their means and capabilities. Three centuries it remained untouched except as decay and destruction threatened its ruin. But our century rescued the edifice. The liberality of Prussia’s king, the genius of her architects, completed the cathedral. All that is noblest in Gothic architecture is here preserved. Gothic Style, 2*75 Fig. \9h CATHEDRAI, OF COLOGNE. 276 Ecclesiastical Architecture. It is a Christian church full of majesty, so great that, unfinished, men with lesser aims than its originator dared not undertake to bring so colossal an enterprise to completion ; so beautiful in its promise that men dared not tear it down. Germany, possessing this per- fect Gothic cathedral, may ever claim precedence in the Gothic art above all other nations, for other nations have prophets only in their Gothic edifices ; Germany has in the Cologne Cathedral the fulfillment. IV. ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE. §The Gothic in the Netherlands. Belgium was fertile soil for Gothic architecture. The growing wealth of the burgher was lavished upon civil and ecclesiastical Gothic buildings. France, rather than Germany, fur- nished the types ; yet the remarkable spire of the Cathe- dral of Antwerp reminds us of Germany spires, sur- passing them, however, in gorgeous ornamentation. Departures on the part of the Flemish builders from ac- cepted types were often most audacious, if not pleasing. The seven aisles, counting the nave, in the Antwerp Cathedral is an attempt to astonish by the breadth of the edifice, and this feature is emphasized by the narrow transept. The Cathedrals of Tournay, Brussels, and Malines are excellent examples of pleasing Gothic. § The Gothic in Spain and Portugal. The fall of Cordova, Seville, and Cadiz, the chief seats of Moorish dominion in Spain, extended the southern boundaries of the kingdom of Castile as far as the sea coast. Granada alone was a possession of the Moors, and it became an ally to Castile. These conquests of the Christians were made before the middle of the thirteenth century. The wealth of these Moors was expended by their conquerors in building the great Gothic cathedrals of that age. Gothic Style . 277 Gothic and Romanesque features were intermixed in a few churches. But imitation of French models soon effected complete freedom _ Fig . 192. from the Romanesque in- fluence, and then there arose later a beautiful Spanish Gothic. § French Gothic in Spain. The Cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo were nearly contempo- rary, appearing about 1225. Removing the open spires of Burgos, there will remain a facade, which clearly was in- spired by the Notre Dame of Paris. Triple perpen- dicular divisions, which the buttresses effect, and triple horizontal divi- sions, are manifest resem- blances. The rose-win- dow, above the central portal, is another. A sec- tion of the choir, as seen through a nave-arch, in the Cathedral of Toledo (Fig. 192), will serve to indicate Spanish fidelity to the structural princi- ples of the Gothic, when cathedral of Toledo. they were merely imitators. The pier is a central col- umn, whereon are half-round mouldings with capitals. 2/8 Ecclesiastical Architecture. This pier was common in early Gothic. Yet there is seen, also, the clustered pier. The tabernacle work upon the sides of the choir near its entrance makes a very pleasing impression. And, without doubt, there is as great propriety in placing the statues of saints in tabernacles near to the altar as in facades, where they are exposed to the inclemency of the weather. The Christians inherited, not alone wealth from the over- thrown cities of the Moors, but acquired, through Moor- ish architecture, an extravagant taste for architectural adornments. The later cathedrals became more and more loaded down with Moorish Gothic ornamentation. § Spanish Gothic Plans. The Cathedrals of Barce- lona and Palma (Fig. 193) have ground-plans which are most instructive in regard to what Spain has contributed to Gothic architecture. The Cathedral of Barcelona is cruciform within, that of Palma is not; the one has a series of choir-chapels, the other has not. There are in both aisle-chapels. The originality of these plans may be at once recognized by comparing them with two Ger- man cathedral plans. The plans of the Cathedrals of Magdeburg and Barcelona (vide Fig. 186) should be compared with these. If we remove the side-chapels of the aisles from the plan of Barcelona, there will re- sult a plan essentially like that of Magdeburg. There will be, in both choir-ehapels, transepts projecting be- yond the nave with its aisles. The difference in both is simply in the ratio of the aisles to the nave. A com- parison equally instructive is furnished between the Cathedral of Palma and the Church at Schlettstadt. Remove all the side-chapels of the Cathedral of Palma except two on the north and the south side, there re- sult two plans essentially alike, except that beauty of proportion is with the Spanish cathedral. France may Gothic Style. 279 have given to Spain the suggestion of these side aisle- chapels ; it is certain however that Spain, through aisle-chapels, made harmony of proportions in her churches, and gave her cathedrals a new and quite orig- inal feature. A consideration of the Cathedral of Se- ville, built in 1401, w r ill further confirm this observation. This cathedral is of colossal size, being 415 feet long and 198 feet wide. The plan is a single rectangle. The nave is 56 feet wide. There are two aisles on each side of the nave, and, in addition, aisle-chapels. The many rows of uniform piers, diminishing in height as the side-chapels are brought in view, awaken a remarkable feeling of vastness. § Gothic Decoration in Spain. L,ater Gothic in Spain is too excessively embellished. It could not have 28 o Ecclesiastical Architecture. been otherwise, for the elaborate decoration of Moorish architecture incited Christian artists equally to beautify Gothic cathedrals. Vaulting ribs were made to form al- most arabesques upon the ceilings. Broken and com- pound curves were w T oven together above doorways, Fig. 194. PORTAL FROM CLOISTER CHURCH AT BATALHA. giving decoration, but defying all principles of structure. Lines were looped into exquisite shapes; spiral lines crept along the round mouldings ; curved lines made arabesque bands on surfaces. The chisel, not the brush, effected these artistic designs. Portugal was late in in- troducing the Gothic architecture. Hence the portal, connected with the cloister church at Batalha (Fig. 194), will show all that fanciful luxuriance which Spanish Gothic Style . 281 Gothic, as influenced by the Moors, presents in the cathedrals of Spanish cities. The portal is recessed, and the archivolts are a species of the multiple .arch. The outer archivolt is curiously compounded of two multiple curves, interlacing with each other, and minute, richly- varied carving adorn all the portal. It all is bizarre, but beautiful in each detail, a luxuriance that satiates as soon as it pleases. § Gothic Architecture in Italy. Rome, on her seven hills, was not friendly to the new style of architecture. The Roman pontiff listened to descriptions of wonder- ful transalpine cathedrals, which seemed more the work of genii than of men. He also heard of the decline of his authority beyond the Alps ; of kings, who no more trembled before the terror in papal bulls; of princes, who chose the State for the final authority rather than the Church ; of prelates, whose princely estates rested upon the breath of civil rulers. All these changes had taken place in the period when Gothic architecture was developed. Hence, the pontiff at Rome was no friend to the new architectural style. The great cities of Italy slowly adopted the Gothic, yet they built some imposing Gothic cathedrals. St. Petronius was planned to be the largest of Gothic edifices, but it was never completed. The dimensions of the ground-plan of the Cathedral of Milan are greater than those of any European Gothic church except the Cathedral of Seville. Nevertheless, Italian Gothic is practically a Romanesque structure with Gothic features as ornamentation. § The Italian Gothic Cathedral. The interior is distinguished from transalpine Gothic by a greater dis- tance between the piers and by a wider nave. A pier- column, rather than a moulded or clustered pier, was 282 Ecclesiastical Architecture. employed. The profile of the transverse arch was flat. The nave-arch was often so high, and the arches of the vaulting sprung from a point so low on the nave-wall, that the clerestory was simply a row of insignificant cir- cular windows. Not buttresses, which framed win- dows, but walls, which were pierced with openings, in- closed the church. These were all Romanesque fea- tures ; but the arch- es and the win- dow-apertures were pointed. The Cathedral of Si- enna (Fig. 195) will make clear how Italian Gothic is scarcely more than a Roman- esque building, adorned with Gothic trimmings. The portals have Romanesque round arches, but pointed gables are placed above them. The finial upon this pointed gable is a statue. Corner-but- tresses are completed as towers, and the central upper gable is supported by two small and slender turrets. Horizontal features are prominent. The campanile is wholly Romanesque, even so far as its position is con- cerned. The charm of Italian Gothic is not in the or- ganic relationship of every part, nor in the profound knowledge of static laws, which the construction of the Fig. 195. CATHEDRAI, OF SIENNA. Gothic Style . 283 edifice demanded ; nor in the beauty of the ascent in the nave from the foot, of the moulded pier to the keystone in the ceiling ; nor in the wonderful strength and deli- cate grace of the high spires. This is the charm of transalpine Gothic. Italian Gothic pleases by its ampli- tude of nave and aisles ; by massive piers adorned with colored marbles; by its carvings, and, above all, by the great vaults over the nave-bays. Fig. 196. IWinnm in- 1, .g|j|||inii,iiii l |mj|iiiii. l .ni,.i r . § Italian Gothic Window- gable. The Gothic window in Italy is a pointed opening in the wall; not, as in German Gothic, the space between two buttresses, which is filled in with the pointed arch and window-tracery. The Gothic window (Fig. 196) is taken from the Cathedral of Flor- ence. It is built within a frame, the lower stage of which is a twisted column, and the upper is a buttress only in appearance. The window has above it a crock- eted gable, but the point of the angle is lopped off in order to make a support for the pedestal of a statue. Every Gothic fea- ture here is reduced to mere orna- ment. The wealth of sculpture and the beautiful wall-paneling attract the eye of one who is more pleased with trimmings than with the structural elements of a Gothic building, even though these be transformed into most remarkable beauty by the genius of the artist, GABEE FROM CATHEDRAE OF FLORENCE. 284 Ecclesiastical Architecture. §The Close of the Middle Ages. Two great pur- poses actuated the Christian Church of Rome at the be- ginning of the eleventh century : the first was to extend the Christian faith among the barbarians of the West; the second was to establish the Roman patriarchate as a pontificate. Both purposes were accomplished. Apart from those mighty and terrible contentions, which ulti- mately co-ordinated the ruling powers and formed the modern nations, there was almost internecine strife be- tween the papacy and the ordained powers of the State. The outcome was, practicably, civil sovereignty in the State, and ecclesiastical sovereignty in the Church. Two great styles of architecture arose during the Middle Ages : the Romanesque, a style developed by the priest- hood ; the Cxothic, a style originated by the people. The edifices of both styles, as we have seen, are replete with evidences of the Christian creed, for our Scriptures and our doctrines could be reproduced from their sculptured forms and their stained-glass windows. These edifices also exhibit, through their statuary, the great Christian virtues and the fioble Christian saints, both men and women, who blessed the world with holy lives. Much else is in them, such as evidences of the pomp and van- ites of popes and kings, of bishops and princes. These great cathedrals abide with us. “ Their builders have taken with them to the grave their power# their honors, and theiT errors ; but they have left us their adoration.” Table of Gothic Churches* I. IN FRANCE. PLACE. EDIFICE. PART. CENTURY. Amiens. Cathedral. All. XIII. Angiers. Cathedral. Choir. XIII. Bordeaux. Cathedral. All. XIII. Coutances. Cathedral. All. XIII. Dijon. Cathedral. All. XIII. Noyon. Cathedral. Vaults. XIII. Paris. Notre Dame. West Front. XIII. Paris. Sainte Chapelle. Most all. XIII. Rouen Cathedral. Transepts and Portal. XIII. Senlis. Cathedral. Transepts. XIII. Alby. Cathedral. Nave. XIV. Bayonne. Cathedral. Nave and Vaults. XIV. Lyons. Cathedral. Nave. XIV. Montpellier. Cathedral. All. XIV. Rheims. Cathedral. West Front. XIV. Sens. Cathedral. West Front. XIV. Soissons. Cathedral. North Chapels. XIV. Tours. Cathedral. Transepts & Portals. XIV. Caen. St. Nicholas. Vaults. XV. Evreux. Cathedral. Central Tower. XV. Nevres. Church. South Portal. XV. Paris. St. Germain. All. XV. Troyes. Cathedral. Nave & Central Tower. XV. Laval. Church. Choir. XVI. Rouen. St. Macloii. XVI. II. IN ENGLAND. Canterbury. Cathedral. Nave. XIII. Chichester. Cathedral. All. XIII. Durham. Cathedral. Niue Altars. XIII. Ely. Cathedral. Choir. XIII. Glasgow. Cathedral. All. XIII. Lichfield. Cathedral. West Front. XIII. Lincoln. Cathedral. Vault. XIII. Peterborough. Cathedral. West Front. XIII. Ripon. Cathedral. Most. XIII. Rochester. Cathedral. All XIII. Salisbury. * Cathedral. Most. XIII. Wells. Cathedral. Most. XIII. Westminster. Cathedral. Most. XIII. York. Cathedral. Nave & S. Transepts. XIII. Edington. Church. All. XIV. Ely. Cathedral. Lady Chapel. XIV. Exeter. Cathedral. Nave. XIV. * Melrose. Abbey. All. XIV. Winchester. Cathedral. Nave and Aisles. XIV. York. Cathedral. Lady Chapel. XIV. Cambridge. King’s Chapel. All. XV. 285 286 Ecclesiastical Architecture. II. IN ENGLAND.-Continued. PLACE. EDIFICE. PART. CENTURY. Edinburgh. Roslyn Chapel. All. XV. Gloucester. Cathedral. Lady Chapel. XV. Manchester. Cathedral. All. XV. Stratford-on-Avon. St. Mary’s Chapel. All. XV. Warwick. Beauchamp Chapel . All. XV. Windsor. St. George’s Chapel All. XV. Westminster. Henry VII’s Chapel All. XVI. III. IN GERMANY. Altenberg. Cathedral. Choir. XIII. Cologne. Cathedral. Choir. XIII. Cologne. St. Gereon. Choir. XIII. Freiberg. Cathedral. Most. XIII. Halberstadt. Cathedral. Nave. XIII. Liibeck. St. Mary’s. All. XIII. Marburg. St. Klizabeth’s. All. XIII. Nuremberg. St. Lawrence. Most. XIII. Meissen. Cathedral. Choir. XIII. Strasburg. Cathedral. Facade. XIII. Augsburg. Cathedral. All. XIV. Cologne. Cathedral. Nave. XIV. Freiberg. Cathedral. Choir. XIV. Halberstadt. Cathedral. Choir. XIV. Kuttenberg. St. Barbara. Most XIV. Prentzlau. St. Mary’s. All. XIV. Metz. Cathedral. Rebuilt. XIV. Schlettstadt. Cathedral. All. XIV. Thatin. Church. All. XIV. Ulm. Cathedral. All. XIV. Vienna. St. Stephen’s. All. XIV. Berne. Cathedral. All. XV. Munich, Our Lady Church. All. XV. Nuremberg. St. Lawrence. All. XV. Osnabriick. Cathedral. Choir. XV. Stendal. St. Mary’s. All. XV. Ulm. Cathedral. Vaulting of Nave. XV. IV. ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE. A. NETHERLANDS. Brussels. Cathedral. All. XIII. Bruges. N. D. All. XIII. Tongres. N. D. All. XIII. Utrecht. Cathedral. All. XIII. Antwerp. Cathedral. All. XIV. Malines. St. Rotnbaut. All. XIV. Antwerp. St. Jacque. All. XV. Ghent. Cathedral. Tower. XV. Utrecht. St. Catherine. All. XV. B. SPAIN. Burgos. Cathedral. Most. XIII. Leon. Cathedral. Most. XIII. Tarragona. Cathedral. All. XIII. Toledo. Cathedral. Most. XIII. Valencia. Cathedral. Most. XIII. Gothic Style. 287 B. SPAIN.— Continued. PLACE. EDIFICE. PART. CENTURY. Burgos. Cathedral. Chapels. XIV. Oviedo. Cathedral. All. XIV, Toledo. Cathedral. Chapels. XIV & XV. Astorga. Cathedral. All. XV. Salamanca. Cathedral. All. XV. Seville. Cathedral. All. XV. Barcelona Cathedral. Facade. XVI. C. ITALY. Orvieto. Cathedral. All. XIII. Sienna. Cathedral All. XIII. Genoa. Cathedral. All. XIV. Florence. Cathedral. Campanile. XIV. Florence. St. Michele. All. XIV. Milan. Cathedral. All. XIV. Perugia. Cathedral. All. XV. Milan. S. M. delle Grazie. All. XV. N. B. — 1. The dates in the t ible are approximately correct, and will indicate the period in which the great cathedrals appeared. 2. The parts of an edifice referred to in the columns are those most conspicuous as illustrations. 3 The classification according to countries will show the relative degree of enthusiasm for the Gothic art. Chapter VIII ELEMENTS OF MEDIAEVAL CHURCH ARCHITECTURE, CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED, § Mediaeval Church Architecture. Because mediaeval ecclesiastical architects appropriated all the great feat- ures of the Byzantine and Basilican styles, some forms, which are prior to the eleventh century, are found in mediaeval structures. These early forms are referred to as belonging to the times in which they appeared, and so are classed in centuries not belonging to the Middle Ages. There should be found great utility and profit in viewing the elements of ecclesiastical architecture under a chronological arrangement, since thereby the slow progress in advancement may be seen, as well as those suggestions in early forms, out of which were de- veloped the most remarkable and beautiful types of later times. I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PIER. §The Pier and Its Modifications. The huge, tall, and square pier (Fig. 197, 1 ) is Byzantine, fitted to sus- tain the weight of those mighty arches which support the Byzantine dome. These piers appeared before the tenth century. Early Norman structures of the eleventh century have a short, thick, and round pier (^), with a capital which seems composed of several smaller ones. The round surface of the pier often had rich carvings. Eater in this century, when the cross-vault was used for ceilings, the transverse and longitudinal arches were represented on this short, solid pier by massive mould- ings (j), resembling half-columns. After the introduc- 288 Its Essential Elements 289 tion of the ribbed vault, at the close of the eleventh cen- tury, mouldings ( 4 ) were placed on this short, thick pier, representing the transverse, longitudinal, and diag- onal ribs. The tall, slender pier is a product of the twelfth century. One form is a column-pier (5), having the many archivolt mouldings resting on its summit. Another form is a cluster of four columns (< 5 ), from whose capitals the great vaulting-ribs ascended. In the Fig. 197. PIER VARIATIONS. thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, in which appeared the pointed groined vaults* there are two forms of the clustered pier: one (7) has four principal mouldings, with intermediate ones, corresponding to the arches and ribs of the vaulting; the other form (S) has a round, central mass, with four half-round columns upon it, answering to the longitudinal and transverse arches. The fifteenth century column (p) seems a cluster of many rods, starting from the ground, and they bend into arches or ribs without the intervention of capitals. 290 Ecclesiastical Architecture. Fig. 198. II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NAVE=BAYS. §Nave=bays of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. The Basilican nave-bay was tripartite, composed of the space between two eol- umns, the unbroken wall-space above them, and the clerestory, which was perforated by a small window. The bay of the Roman- esque style (Fig. 198, a) is different only by the piercing of the un- broken wall with an arcade. This portion became the gallery. Heavy mouldings from the piers separated the gallery-arcade into sec- tions. A bay of the transitional style (< b ) shows a mode of con- struction which is By- zantine. The piers are built up to the clere- story; arches, trans- verse and longitudinal, are sprung from their summit for the vault- ing. The space be- tween the piers was filled in to make gallery and clerestory. Both methods, that of the Basilican and that of the Byzantine, are em- ployed in the Romanesque bay. The tendency to more slender, graceful, and ornamental forms, emphasizing ROMANESQUE NAVE-BAYS. Its Essential Elements. 291 the idea of altitude and beauty, is traceable in these cen- turies. Yet there are no examples produced under this tendency, which can surpass in impressiveness the Eng- lish Norman bay, with its low, huge, round columns and heavy arch below, and the massive columns and arches of the gallery above ; for they are safe supports, adorned with most striking beauty because of their strength. The sturdy strength of this Norman bay in England always seems consonant with English genius. Yet the decorated bay of the Romanesque style, in which the high, slender column is employed, becomes, under the hand of the English architect, scarcely in- ferior to the Gothic bay. § Nave=bays of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries. The thirteenth century accepted the two modes of construction made familiar through the Romanesque style, for some Gothic bays seem but parts of a massive wall, built upon piers and arches, and perforated with Gothic openings, in order to make the triforium and clerestory, while other Gothic bays seem but the filling-in between lofty piers. The types of Basilican and Byzantine nave-walls are perpetuated in Gothic architecture. The Gothic bay, with clustered column (Fig. 199, a) is simply the space between two lofty piers, filled with the forms of Gothic architecture. The nave-arch is pointed ; the triforium-space, formerly the gallery-space, has a pointed arcade; the clerestory has the pointed windows. The Gothic bay, between lofty columns (£), supporting, through the medium of the pointed arch, the nave-wall, is the Basilican mode of construction. The wall above the nave-columns is pierced by a pointed arcade, forming the triforium ; above it is the clerestory. The bay of the perfected Gothic, with triforium transparent (c), belongs to the EC CLESIASTICA L ARCHITECTURE. 292 fourteenth century. The expression of organic unity is most completely attained in this bay, for the piers branch Fig. 199. a. b. c. GOTHIC NAVE-BAYS. and form all the arches of the bay. Then the triforium and clerestory make one magnificent aperture, beauti- fully divided, through which light pours in, flooding with its brightness the Gothic nave. Its Essential Elements. 293 III. DEVELOPMENT OF THE VAULTED CEILING. § Vaultings of the Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thir= teenth Centuries. The cross-vault (Fig. 200) was used Fig. 200. in the tenth century and earlier for the crypt. But in the eleventh century it was employed over the nar- row aisles. The surface of this vault was left plain. The twelfth century wit- nessed the introduction of the groined vault with the round arch (Fig. 201, a). A framework was made by means of diagonal ribs ; the vault was the filling-in of this skeleton. The arches and ribs of the vault received prominent round mouldings. The groined vault with the cross-vault. Fig. 201. a. ROUND ARCHED VAULT. b. POINTED ARCHED VAULT. pointed arch (Fig. 201, b ) was characteristic of the vault- ing in the thirteenth century. This vault had greater height, and the arches and mouldings were more graceful. 294 Ecclesiastical Architecture . § Vaultings of the Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Six- teenth Centuries. These vaults had the common prop- Fig. 202. erty of being groined vaults with the pointed arch. The vault of the fourteenth cen- tury (Fig. 202) had diagonal ribs with a keystone at their crossing. The mouldings were more elaborate and del- icate. The multi-ribbed vault (Fig. 203, a) was the favorite vault of the fifteenth century. The junctions of the ribs with the ridge were marked by bosses, and minor ribs were inserted, forming, in the crest of the vault, cer- tain shapes which have been Fig. 203. a. VAULT WITH LlERNES. b. DECORATED VAULT. Its Essential Elements. 295 named liernes. The net- vault and the fan-vault are va- rieties of the multi-ribbed vault. The vaulting of the sixteenth century (Fig. 203, b) was excessively orna- mented. Pendants fell from the junction of ribs; scrolls, leaves, or any artistic design which could be added to the face of the ribs, were employed. The vault was no longer an object of admiration because of its structure. The multiplicity of its decorative details alone allured the curious eye. IV. DEVELOPMENT OF DECORATIVE FORMS. § Decorative Details of the Tenth Century. The ornamentation of the tenth century was simple and Fig. 204. BASILICAN DECORATIONS. largely symbolical. The palm-leaf, instead of the acan- thus, was at the corners of the capitals, and between the palm-leaves the scallop-shell was sculptured, sign of the Holy L,and. The vine (Fig. 204, ^,5) was carved into archivolts; also the dove (< 5 , 8 ), and the cross ( d) were made with pointed leaves. Floral forms are found in bosses (7, f the pulpit and its sermon. The tower is strictly modern in its whole spirit, and is to be approved. The appearance of filigree-work on the dome might have been judiciously avoided. Some minor criticisms of this nature may be rightly urged against the architecture of this church. Still, as a monument of the independence of the modern architect, and also of his genius, this church is of the highest importance. The American cities are being beautified by lovely structures in these architectural styles, inspired by modern skill and genius. Every year the older church edifices are being torn down by growing Church societies, and rebuilt in nobler architectural forms. These churches are church-homes. Without, they are tastefully built; within, they are hand- somely adorned. There is a peculiar quiet in these sanctuaries; there is also lovely beauty. Such beauty is here as you find in those woodland retreats where no noble vistas of forest-trees are seen, but only the quiet fountain, the lovely shade, the sweet song-bird, and sun- shine streaming down through the branches above. E. THE ARCHITECTURE AND WORSHIP OF CHRISTIANS* § The Earliest Christian Creed. The bond of unity between all believers in Jesus Christ is their creed. The earliest formulated creed is that of Cyprian of Carthage (325 A. D). The creed is the following : These are the essentials of Christian faith ; they have inspired all the holy living of the followers of Christ ; they have inspired all the manifold types of Christian theology; they have inspired the various forms of Chris- I believe In God the Father, In his Son Christ, In the Holy Ghost. I believe in The forgiveness of sins And eternal life Through the Holy Church. 4 14 Ecclesiastical Architecture. tian worship; they have inspired the triumphs of Chris- tian architecture. §The Essential Requirements of Christian Wor= ship. The Church is composed of all believers in Jesus the Christ. Our L,ord set aside from among them the presbyter, to teach his doctrine and to baptize in his name. The Church chose for themselves deacons to care for the sick and the poor. Christian worship, in all of its manifold character, began with this threefold dis- tinction among believers. The sacraments instituted by Christ are two, those of the eucharist and baptism. Va- rious branches of the Christian Church have instituted other sacraments. Christian worship consists of giving and receiving instruction in the Holy Word, and of ad- ministering and receiving the sacraments. The earliest Christian service, like the earliest Christian creed, was simple. The presbyter, standing within the tribune at one end of the room, narrated to the congregation be- fore him instances in the life of Christ, then read the letters of the apostles, and gave a short homily. After- wards prayer was offered, a song sung, and then all be- lievers partook of the Tord’s Supper. § Worship and Architecture. The Apostolic Cath- olic Church, which continued until about 321 A. D., re- tained the simple forms of worship under the direction of the presbyter. The modern non-liturgical Protestant Catholic Churches also maintain this simple mode of worship with slight variations. The ancient Ark and Basilican styles (pages 42-61) and the modern styles (pages 374-416) represent the architecture fostered by this form of Christian worship. An elaborate liturgy was early developed in the Christian Church, as early as the sixth century. The Oriental liturgy is a sacred drama Modern Styles. 4i5 exhibiting the life of Christ. “ The prayers and the read- ing of the Scripture lessons are accompanied by symbol- ical acts performed by the priest and deacons; such as lighting and extinguishing candles, opening and closing doors, kissing the altar and the Gospels, crossing the forehead, mouth, and breast, swinging the censer. All this is accompanied with frequent changes of liturgical vestments, processions, genuflexions, and prostrations.” The Latin mass is the service around which gathers interest in the worship of the Latin Church and all its subsequent developments under the spirit of the Papal Church. The mass celebrates the passion of Christ, and the celebrants are clothed in rich vestments. A strict order of procedure, as well as certain symbolical acts, are prescribed by the Church authorities. All the most remarkable styles of Christian architecture have grown up in connection with these two great branches of the liturgical Churches. These styles are the Byzan- tine (pages 66-91), the Romanesque (pages 92-170), the Gothic (pages 171-287), the Renaissance (pages 322- 373). The Protestant Episcopal Church is a liturgical Church, but only so far as to have read at the altar the prayers, collects of the Church, and the Ritual connected with the celebration of the Lord’s Supper. The Tudor Gothic style and the Elizabethan Renaissance style, to- gether with many beautiful churches in the modern styles, represent the architecture of this great Protest- ant body. § Architecture and the Christian Life. That beau- tiful life which the Creator placed in the seed of the flowers of the field has little promise for the inquiring eye when only the husk of the seed is seen, or the tender shoot as it comes forth from the ground and puts forth its modest leaves. But continued growth must develop 4 i 6 Ecclesiastical Architecture. all its capacities, and soon it unfolds its petals, which gladden the eye, under the glow of sunshine, with rich colors, such as the raiment of Solomon in all his glory could not excel. So that beautiful life, which the Creator placed in the heart of man, the seed of the Christian re- ligion, in its first appearance hath no form nor comeli- ness, no beauty such as that we should desire it. But grow it must, grow in the beauty of holiness, transform- ing human life into the divine likeness. Also Christians build for themselves the house of God; at first it is simple and plain, but this house of God must also grow in beauty under the power of the Christian spirit. Then Christian architecture appears, an inflorescence of the Christian life made manifest in wood and stone. A BRIEF GLOSSARY OF TECH- NICAL TERMS. A. Abacus, the upper part of a capital or of a pier. AiseE, the walks adjacent to and at the sides of the nave; also any of the passways in a church. AeTar, the elevated table for the celebration of the eucharist; also the inclosed portion before the pulpit in the modern church, where the communion-table is placed. Ambo, a pulpit on the side of the choir in the early basilica, from which the Scriptures were read. Ant^E, the ends of a building formed into the shape of piers. Apse, the semicircular or polygonal termination to the church behind the choir. Arcade, a range of arches supported by columns or piers. Architrave, the chief beams which rest upon the capitals of columns ; the lowest part of an entablature. ArchivoeT, the architrave moulding of an arch, following its curvature. Attic, the half-story above an entablature, or above the cornice to the main part of an edifice. B. Baedachin, a vaulted canopy, supported by shafts or columns, and placed over an altar or portal. Baeustrade, an open wall at the edge of the roof in the Gothic style, constructed by means of balusters. Baptistery, a separate building, containing the baptismal font, and used for the celebration of the baptismal rite, espe- cially in the early church. Basieica, the name given to the type of church edifice which was built in the time of Constantine and to similar struc- tures of later times. Bay, a compartment of an arcaded wall, adjacent columns or piers marking the limiting lines. 27 4^7 418 Glossary of Technical Terms. Bead, a small cylindrical moulding common in most styles of architecture. Beefry, the stage or story of a tower in which the bells are hung. BieEET, a moulding much used in the Norman style, and resem- bling sections of a round stick. Boss, the keystone at the intersection of the ribs of a groined vault; often its face was sculptured with foliage, some- times with curious forms. Buttress, the masonry added to a wall, to offer, by its weight, a counter-resistance to the thrusts of a roof or vault. The flying buttress is the portion of an arch thrown to a wall from the summit of a pier or a buttress, in order to trans- fer a thrust to the resisting buttress. c. CampanieE, the name first used in Italy for the belfry tower. Canopy, the covering above a niche, or an altar, or a choir-stall ; also the covering above a tomb. Capitae, the upper part of a column, pier, or pilaster. Caryatides, piers or columns fashioned into the shape of a woman. Cathedrae, the church in which the throne of the bishop is placed. CavetTO, a concave moulding. Chamfer, the cutting off of the edge of any work in a slight degree. Chamfer-work was sometimes plain, sometimes hollowed out, often moulded. Chancee, the choir portion of a church, where is found the altar, a name used in connection with the modern litur- gical churches. Chapee, a smaller church, or a part of a greater edifice set aside for divine worship ; also the room for social gatherings in modern non-ritual churches. Choir, that part of a church where a liturgical service is per- formed by the clergy; also the place where the singers Ere stationed who furnish the music in a modern church. CeERESTOry, the portion of the nave-walls rising above the aisles and pierced with windows. Ceoister, a square plot connected with the mediaeval church, and surrounded with a walk for the use of the clergy ; it was covered with a groined roof. Glossary of Technical Terms. 419 Coffer, a deep panel in a ceiling. Consoe, a bracket of peculiar form, having contrasted volutes at the two ends ; the intervening lines are flowing curves. Corbee, a projecting stone from out of a wall, whose purpose is to support a vaulting shaft or any other weight. These ends were often beautifully carved. Corbee TabeE, the projecting cornice or parapet, supported by corbels. Cornice, the projecting upper termination of a wall, specially prominent in classical architecture. Corona, the deep, vertical hollow of the cornice between the upper and lower mouldings. Crocket, an ornament upon small gables, hood-mouldings, pin- nacles, having generally the form of a winding stem and leaves. Crypt, a vaulted chamber under the choir. Cupoea, a spherical covering to a building or to any part thereof. Cusp, the point of intersection made by the different foliations of a tracery. Cyma, a moulding whose curve is a wave-line, one part convex,, the other concave. D. Dome, the commanding cupola on the roof of a cathedral church ; also any spherical roof. E. Echinus, the egg-carved moulding beneath the capital, also called ovola. Entablature, the horizontal mass above a range of columns > composed usually of architrave, frieze, and cornice. F. Facade, any face to a building especially applied to the entrance front. FiEEET, a narrow lineal-like band separating various mouldings, such as hollows and rounds; also the narrow lines between the flutes of Corinthian and Ionic columns. Finiae, the pyramidal termination set upon a buttress, spire, or pinnacle. Flute, the vertical concave channel in the sides of a column. 420 Glossary of Technical Terms. Fresco, a method of setting colors in a wall before the plaster- ing has dried; it was combined with painting as an art and received the name of fresco-painting. Frieze, the portion of the entablature above the architrave and below the cornice; it received the greatest enrichment from sculpture. G. GabeE, the end of a roof- structure, closed up by the end wall of a building being carried up in a triangular shape; an orna- mental gable is called a pediment. Gargoyle, a projecting waterspout, carved usually into curious or grotesque forms. Groin, the line of intersection of two vaults; also the curved spaces between vaulting ribs; sometimes the system of ribbed vaulting. H. Hood-moulding, the drip-stone above a window or doorway. 1NTERCOEUMNIATION, the clear space between columns. J. Jamb, the side-posts of a doorway or window-aperture. L. Lantern, the open turret placed over the crossing or upon a dome, to transmit light within. LlERNE, a minor rib in the groined vault, introduced to form stellar and fan-patterns in the vaulting surface. M. Mausoleum, the splendid tomb or sepulchral chapel for the distinguished dead. Modieeion, the sculptured block or bracket under the cornice in the Corinthian style, found in a modified form in the Ionic style. Mosaic, decorative designs or pictorial representations executed by means of small blocks of colored stone or by squares of colored enamel. Glossary of Technical Terms. 421 Mouldings, auy one of the rounds or hollows which are wrought into the wall or affixed thereto in order to make transitions or to add beauty. Mueeion, the perpendicular stone pieces, sometimes resembling columns, sometimes slender piers, which make the bays or lights to windows. MutueE, the rectangular blocks under the corona of the Doric cornice. N. Narthex, the arcaded porch before the entrance of a Christian basilica. Nave, the part of the church leading toward the choir and for the use of the laity. Niche, a recess in the wall or buttress, or doorway, wherein was placed some statue. o. OGEE, a name applied to a compound curve, composed of a con- vex and a concave, which is found in mouldings, and even in arches. Oratory, a small chapel for prayer connected often with churches, often with private houses. Ovoeo, the name of a moulding resembling the convex part in the head of a Doric capital. P. PanEE, the space included within mouldings in doors or walls. They are compartments, shallow or deep, designed for or- namental effect. Parapet, a low wall along the edge of a roof, to lean against, often made very ornamental in the Gothic style. Pediment, the gable portion of a portico or portal, being ob- tuse angled in classical, but acute in pointed architecture Pendent, a kind of inverted cone set at the intersection 01 groins in fan tracery. Pendentive, the arch cutting off the corners of a square inter- nally, so that a foundation may be made for the superirm posed octagon or dome. PerisTyeE, a range of columns surrounding an edifice. A peri- style is circular or quadrilateral. PiERS, masses of masonry to support arches. 422 Glossary of Technical Terms. Pilaster, a projection on a wall or pier having resemblance to columns through a kind of capital for its upper termi- nation. Pillar, a pier with clustered columns upon its sides, being either round or polygonal. Pinnacle, pyramidal or conical caps to a buttress ; also placed along the lines of the parapet. The pinnacle was useful as increasing weight to resist thrusts; also ornamental be- cause of the forms given them. Porch, the structure before an entrance, forming a covered shelter. Portal, the deeply recessed and richly ornamented entrance to cathedral churches. Portico, the entrance to a building in which columns and en- tablature are the principal features. Presbytery, the earliest designation of the space behind the altar where the clergy sat. Q. OuatrEFOIL, a panel or perforation in the shape of a four-leafed flower. R. Rose-window, a circular window with radiating tracery, beauti- fully developed in the Gothic style. S. Screen, the ornamental structure separating the choir or an aisle-chapel from the rest of the building. Scroll, a spiral ornament found in the frieze band and else- where ; a word applied also to the volute of a column. Shaft, the portion of a column between base and capital ; also small, slender columns are called shafts. Shed-roof, a roof with one set of rafters falling from a higher to a lower wall. Soffit, the under face of an arch or an entablature. Spandrel, the space between an arch and the label or stone- course above. Spire, the pyramidal or conical termination to towers. String-course, horizontal mouldings dividing a wall into stories. Stylobate, the substructure upon which a colonnade rests. Glossary of Technical Terms. 423 T. Tabernacle, a niche or recess for a statue. Tambour, the cylindrical base upon which a dome rests. Tower, a strong and elevated structure attached to an edifice, usually quadrangular. Tracery, the ornamental filling in windows, panels, and else- where. Transepts, the portion of the church between and at right angles to the nave and choir. Transom, the horizontal construction dividing a window into its stages. Trefoil, an ornamental design imitating a three-leafed flower. Tribune, a name given to the presbyterium in a basilica. Triforium, the arcade between the nave-arches and the clerestory. Tympanum, the space included within the gable or arch to a door or window. V. Volute, the scroll in the Corinthian and Ionic capitals. GENERAL INDEX A. Aix-la-Chapelle, Chapel of Charlemagne, 80, 81. Alby, The church at, 230. Ani, Cathedral of, 86. Amiens, Cathedral, 177, 189, 254. Arcade as Decoration, With round arch, 36; with pointed arch, 229. Arch, Circular, 25; pointed, 132, 218. Architecture, Roman, 3; Gre- cian, 3 ; Etruscan, 21 ; Basil- ican, 44 ; Byzantine, 66 ; Ro- manesque, 94 ; Gothic, 171 ; Classical, 206 ; Renaissance, 324 ; Modern, 374. Architectural Orders, Doric, 7; Ionic, 10; Attic, 13; Corin- thian, 15; Tuscan, 21; Com- posite, 22. Arch - mouldings, Romanesque, 13 7 ; Gothic, 239. Argish, Cathedral of, 88. Ark-type, Church after the, 44. Assemblies, Christian, 43. Athens, Parthenon, 6; Erech- theuin, 13, 20, 21. Atlantes, 15. Attic Order, 13. B. Baltimore, Md., Brown Memo- rial, 409. Balustrades, Gothic, 232 ; devel- opment of, 301 . Baptistery, Plans of, 59; of the Eateran, 60. Barcelona, Cathedral of, 279. Baroque Style, 357, 360. Basilica, Plans of, 46, 49; eleva- tion of, 49; nave of, 53; sanc- tuary of, 54 ; symbolism of, 57 ; types of, 60. Basle, Minster, 97. Batalha, Cloister church, 280. Bay, Romanesque, 290 ; Gothic, 291. Bonn, Minster, 151. Boston, New Old South Church, 412. Brandenburg, St. Mary’s, 273. Burgelin, Convent church, 148. Buttress, Gothic, 234; develop- ment of, 305. Byzantine Architecture, A new architectural type, 66 ; one type with varieties, 66 ; its domical forms, 67. Byzantine Basilica, Varieties of, 66 ; plans of, 69, 73, 80 ; inte- • rior of, 70, 76, 80 ; exterior of, 71, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88; domical system of, 74, 80, 82, 84. Byzantine Style, 42 ; typical ex- amples of, 69 ; Byzantine char- acteristics, 77 ; varieties of, 79. C. Caen, Holy Trinity, 114; St. Eti- enne, 159 ; St. Pierre, 130, 349. Cambridge, King’s College Chap- el, 220. Campanile, 62. Canterbury, Cathedral, 162. Capitals, Classical, 12, 13 ; Byzan- tine, 78 ; Romanesque, 135, 136 ; Gothic, 240, 241. Catacombs, 56. Caudebec, Church at, 227. Chalons, Notre Dame, 202. Characteristics of Styles, By- zantine, 77 ; Romanesque, 13 1 ; Gothic, 231 ; Renaissance, 348, 361. Chartres, Cathedral, 198. Ceiling, Flat Ceiling , Classical, 34 ; Basilican, 53, 55 ; Roman- esque, 106, 1 18, 129, 145, 156, 161, 164 ; Renaissance, 340 ; Modern, 393 > Cylindrical Ceiling , Classical, 27 ; Byzantine, 75 ; Romanesque, 107, 119 ; Renais- sance, 338, 341 ; Domical Ceil- ing , Classical, 27, 31, 32, 33; Basilican, 46, 55 ; Byzantine, 67, 70, 74, 76. 80 ; Romanesque, 143, T 55 ; Renaissance, 325, 326, 339. 341, 342, 345. .355, 395! Cross-vaulted , Classical, 27, 28 ; Basilican, 56; Byzantine, 73; Romanesque, 109, 120, 132, 157 ; 425 426 General Index . Pointed-vaulted, Gothic, 181, 189, 215, 272, 277; Modern, 396; Wooden Ceilings , 265, 398 ; Development of Vaulted Ceil- ings, 293. Choir, Interior of, Basilican, 46, 54 ; Byzantine, 69, 70, 73 ; Ro- manesque, 94, 95, 97, 98 ; Goth- ic, 177, 204, 219, 229, 277 ; Re- naissance, 325, 327, 340, 342, 355 ; Modern, 375, 381, 388 ; «r- terior of, Romanesque, in, 115, 116, 126, 130, 15T, 152, 156; Gothic, 202, 212, 258; Renais- sance, 328, 349. Christian Church, Early Chris- tian Church, 43 ; Greek Church, 66, 92; Latin Church, 92; Pa- pal Church, 93 ; Roman Cath- olic Church, 374 ; Protestant Church, 374. Cincinnati, O., Old brick M. E. Church, 379; Morris Chapel, 381 ; English Lutheran Church, 39L 393, 4oi. Classe, St. Apollinare, 61. Clermont, Notre Dame du Port, 100, 107, 127, 156, 200, 203, 253. Cleveland, O., Epworth Meth- odist Episcopal Church, 396 ; Calvary Presbyterian Church, 397- Colmar, St. Martin’s, 205. Cologne, Church of the Apostles, 152 ; Cathedral, 178, 225. Composite Order, 22. Constantinople, St. Sophia, 71, 73, 74, 76. Corinthian Order, 15. Cornice, Classical, 9, 12, 16, 19, 21, 40; Basilican, 55; Byzantine, 88; Renaissance, 329, 332, 337, 338, 339, 342, 358, 366 ; Develop- ment of, 301. Coutances, Cathedral of, 197. Crema, S. Maria, 350. Crypt, 56, 131. Cynthus, Church St. Taxiarchus, 85- D. Decoration, Classical, 19, 29, 35, 37, 39 ; Basilican, 54, 55, 56, 58 ; Byzantine, 75, 77, 83 ; Roman- esque, 101, 118, 120, 128, 133, 140, 162, 163 ; Gothic, 180, 192, 220, 221, 229, 230, 232, 234, 239, 244, 255, 277, 283 ; Renaissance, 336, 339, 34L 347, 349, 355, 358, 360, 361 ; Modern, 393, 394, 396, 398. Decorative Arcade, Classical, 36 ; Basilican, 61 ; Byzantine, 82, 86; Romanesque, 112, 115, 129, 130, 142, 143, 152, 163 ; Gothic, 197, 200, 208, 273, 282; Modern, 387, 405. Decorative Columns, 136, 138, 139, 140. Decorative Foliage, Classical, 20, 36, 38, 39 ; Gothic, 241, 243. Decorative Forms, Development of, 295 ; Geometrical, 33, 135, 193, 235, 296; lineal, 134, 297. Dobrilugk, Church at, 95. Dome, Classical, 27, 31, 32, 33, 68; Byzantine, 67, 70, 71, 74; Re- naissance, 328, 329, 330, 333, 345, 350, 352, 353, 355, 358, 364, 367 ; Modern, 395, 401, 402. Doric Order, 7. Duluth, Minn., Presbyterian Church, 406. Durham, Cathedral, 160. E. Elements, Of Ecclesiastical Arch- itecture, 288. Entablature, Doric, 8; Ionic, 12, 18, 19 ; Attic, 13 ; Corin- thian, 17, 40. Etruscan Order, 21. Esslingen, Church at, 235. F. Ferrara, S. Francisca, 325. Flamboyant Style, 225. Florence, S. Miniato, 142 ; Cathe- dral, 283, 345. Eotheringay Church, 223. Freiberg, Cathedral, 139, 177, 182. Fresco Painting, 359, 361. Frieze, Classical, 8, 9, 12, 40; Re- naissance, 338, 343, 367. Frontevrault, Abbey Church, 155- G. Gargoyles, 23 7. Genoa, S. Maria, 326, 330. Gettysburg, Memorial Church, 384, 39i- Gloucester, Cathedral, 219. Grecian Architecture, 3. Grecian Temples, 4, 51. Grecian Decoration, 35. General Index. 427 Gothic Architecture, In France, 248 ; in England, 256 ; in Ger- many, 266; elsewhere in Eu- rope, 276. Gothic Basilica, Structure of, 175, 188, 189; plans of, 177, 252, 268 ; 279 ; nave of, 179, 203, 204, 213, 215, 272; facades of, 182, 183, 185, 197, 198, 200, 208, 21 1, 224, 227, 228, 250, 253, 258, 260, 261, 262, 264, 271, 273, 275, 282; ornamentation of, 193. Gothic Spire, 209, 235 ; develop- ment of, 319. Gothic Style, 171 ; construction of Gothic church, 175; early Gothic, 195 ; perfected Gothic, 206; late Gothic, 217 ; striking features of, 231. H. Halberstadt, Cathedral, 188, 194. Heilsbronn, Church at, 138. Heisterbach, Abbey church, 97. Howden, Church, 262. Humanism, 322. I. Invalides (Paris), 332. Ionic Order, 10. J. Jamestown, N. Y., St. Luke’s, 276. Jersey City, N. J., St.John’s, 389, 407. Jesuit Style, 360, 361. K. Konigslutter, Abbey church, 96. Kuttenberg, St. Barbara, 212. L. Laach, Abbey church, 115. Leaf Decoration, Classical, 20, 36, 38, 39 ; Gothic, 241, 243, 298, 299, 300. Lineal Decoration, 134, 136, 297. Lichfield, Cathedral of, 261. Lincoln, Cathedral of, 181. London, Westminster Abbey, 204, 260 ; Old St. Paul’s, 258 ; St. Paul’s, 327, 342, 367 ; St. Bride’s, 335; St. Martin’s, 341. M. Magdeburg Cathedral of, 269. Mainz, Cathedral of, 126. Mauersmunster, Church at, 112. Michael Angelo, 352, 369. Milan, S. Maria, 328. Modern Architecture, Develop- ment of church edifice, 377 ; ground plans of, 388 ; types of interiors, 393 ; styles of the modern church, 399 ; architec- ture and worship of Christians, 413 - Modern Church, Plans of, 376, 377, 388, 389, 390, 391 ; exteriors of, 378, 379 , 381, 382, 383, 385, 386, 387, 401, 402, 403, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 41 1, 412 ; interiors of, 393 , 395 , 396, 398. Mosaics, 56, 79. Moscow, Church of the Assump- tion, 82 ; cathedral, 84. Mouldings, Romanesque, 137; Gothic, 239. Mullions, Pointed style, 237, 312. Munich, Cathedral, 177. N. Nashville, Tenn., McKendree church, 382, 383. Nave, Basilican, 50, 52 ; Byzan- tine, 70, 76 ; Romanesque, 106, 107, 109, 118, 119, 120, 129, 133, 162, 164; Gothic, 179, 203, 213, 215 ; development of, 290 ; Re- naissance, 338, 339, 341, 355; Modern, 393, 396, 398. Net Vaulting, 214, 220. New Haven, Conn., St. Mary’s, 388, 408. Newton, Mass., Baptist Church, 405. New York City, Madison Avenue M. E. Church, 403. Nocera, Temple at, 32. Norman Romanesque Style, In Germany, 149 ; in France, 157 ; in England, 160. N O R T HAM PTONSHIRE, Castor Church, 163. Norwalk, O., M. E. Church, 387, 392 - Norwich, St. Stephen’s, 265. Noyen, Cathedral of, 252. O Orleans, Cathedral of, 228. Ornamental Forms, Classical, 20, 34; Romanesque, 101, 139; Gothic, 192, 232 ; Development of, 295; Renaissance, 341, 360, 361. Oxford, Divinity School, 221. 428 General Index. p. Paffenheim, Church at, 130. Palermo, Chapel at, 118. Palladio, 351. Palma, Cathedral of, 279. Pantheon, Roman, 30, 31 ; French, 263. Papacy, 147. Parapet, Development of, 301. Paris, Sainte Chapelle, 250 ; Da Sorbonne, 329 ; Invalides, 332 ; Madeleine, 337 ; chapel at Ver- sailles, 339 ; Val de Grace, 358 ; Pantheon, 363, 364. Parma, Cathedral of, 96. Pavia, Certosa, 347. Perigueux, St. Front, 155. Perpendicular Pointed Style, 217. Peterboro, Cathedral, 161. Phidadelphia, Penn., West Spruce Street Church, 377, 41 1. Piacenza, Cathedral, 146. Pier, Square, 69, 72, 75, 109 ; cylin- drical, 120, 153, 161, 162, 164; clustered, 107, 120, 129, 150, 187, 213, 240; development of, 289. Pigtail and Periwig Style, 357. Pisa, Cathedral of, 145. Pointed Architecture, 194, 206. Portal, Grecian, 20 ; Romanesque, 138, 139; Gothic, 205, 216, 280; development of, 313. Portico, Classical, 14 ; Renais- sance, 329, 333, 351, 358, 364. POLYCHROMY, 9. R. Ravenna, St. Vitale’s, 69, 70. Renaissance Architecture, In Italy, 368 ; in France, 369 ; in England, 370 ; in Germany and Spain, 370. Renaiss ance Basilica, Plans and vaulting, 325, 326, 32 7, 363; fa- ? ades of, 328, 329, 330, 333, 334, 335, 337, 315, 317, 35°, 352, 353, 35 8 , 359, 3 6 4, 367 ,' interiors of, 33 8 , 339, 34G 312, 355. Renaissance Style, Structural features of, 325 ; exteriors of, 328 ; interiors of, 337 ; Periods of, 344- Rheims, Cathedral of, 208. Rib-vaulting, 157, 346. Riddags hausen, Cistercian Church, in. Ripon, Cathedral, 129. Rococo Style, 359. Romanesque Architecture, In Italy, 141 ; in Germany, 147 ; in France, 153; in England, 159; in Spain, 165. Romanesque Basilica, Plans of, 95, 96, 97, 9 8 , 104, 142, 143, 145, 152, 155, 156, 159, 160; elevation of, 99, 100 ; interiors of, 106, 107, 109, 118, 119, 120, 129, 133; facades of, 103, in, 112, 114, 115, 1 16, 123, 124, 126, 142, 143, 145, 146, 150, 151, 152; decora- tion of, 101, 102, 1 18, 120, 133, 134, !36, 138, 139, 140, 163, 296, 297. Romanesque Style, Construc- tion of the Romanesque church, 94 ; early Romanesque, 104 ; perfected Romanesque, 117; Romanesque transitional, 127; striking features of, 131 ; tower, development of, 317. Roman Architecture, 3. Roman Domical Temples, 68. Roman Catholic Church, 323. Rome, Cloaca Maxima, 23 ; Arch of Titus, 24 ; Theater of Marcellus, 25; Coliseum, 26; Baths of Caracalla, 28 ; Pantheon, 30, 31 ; Arch of Constantine, 48; St. Clement, 46; St. Paul’s beyond the wails, 43, 49, 50, 54 ; An- cient St. Peter’s, 52; Lateran, 60; Cloister of St. Paul’s, 140; St. Peter’s, 327, 338, 353, 355. Rosheim, Church at, 104. Rouen, Tomb of Cardinal d’Am- boise, 360. S Santiago, Cathedral of, 119. Schlettstadt, Church at, 268. Sepulture, Place of, 244, 254. Sienna, Cathedral of, 282. Spires, Cathedral, 109, 124. St. Albans, Abbey church, 116. St. Augustine, Fla., M. E. Church, 386. St. Neot’s, Church of, 224. Stonehenge, Church at, 164. Strasburg, Cathedral, 191, 210, 213- Symbolism, 56, 57. T. Tables, Of Basilican style, 63 ; of Byzantine style, 90 ; of Roman- esque style, 168 ; of Gothic General Index. 429 style, 285 ; of Renaissance style, 372 . Taunton, St. Mary’s, 264. Thann, Church at, 216, 269. Toledo, Cathedral of, 277. Tournay, Cathedral of, 98. Troyes, Madeleine, 229. U. Ulm, Cathedral of, 178. . V. Vaults, Cylindrical 28 ; cross, 28 ; domical, 28 ; six-parted, 157 ; ramiform, 219; fan-shaped, 220; pendent, 221. Vault - mouldings, Romanesque 137; Gothic, 239. Venice, St. Mark’s, 143; St- Stephen’s, 271, 272; St. Sav- ior’s, 352. Vignola, 369. VlTRY DE FRANfAIS, 334. w. Waltham, Church at, 133. Washington Court House, O., M. E- Church, 392, 395, 402. Winchester, Cathedral of, 215. Window, Development of, 307. Window Tracery, 236. Wool worth, St. Mary’s, 359. Worms, Cathedral of, 150. Y. York, Cathedral of, 185. r GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 3 3125 00146 1785 OJ