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Architects may take advajitage sometimes of the 
 use of accidents to follow where they lead, and to improve 
 them, rather than alivays trust to a regular plan. It often 
 happens that additions have been made to houses at various 
 times, for use or pleasure. As such buildings depart from 
 regularity, they now and then acquire something of scenery 
 by this accident, which I think might not unsuccessfully 
 be adopted by an Architect in an original plan, if it does 
 not too much interfere ivith convenience. Variety and 
 intricacy is a beauty and excellence in every other of the 
 arts which address the imagination ; and ivhy not in 
 Architecture ? 
 
 Sir JOSHUA REYNOLDS' Discourses. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Rise of Domestic Architecture 1 
 
 Defensive Architecture ^ 
 
 Roman Villas 
 
 Alasonry of Roman Architecture 34 
 
 Architecture of the Middle Ages 48 
 
 Domestic Architecture of England 65 
 
 Architecture of the Italian Painters 71 
 
 Tuscan Architecture 61 
 
 Gothic Architecture 96 
 
 List, and Notices, of the Plates, Appendu'. 
 

 \ 
 
 
 .4*- 
 
 
RISE 
 
 OF 
 
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Architecture conveys the most imperishable records 
 
 of past ages, and hands down, from periods beyond the 
 reach of history, the power, the wealth, the degree 
 of civilization of fallen or extinct nations. Its rise and 
 progress beyond the mere hut, originated in all countries 
 from religious zeal ; and this most powerful motive, aided 
 by public spirit or national pride, has carried the art 
 to the highest state of perfection. By such influence 
 were produced the Temple of Minerva at Athens, the 
 Pantheon, the Dome Cathedral and its tower at Florence, 
 the churches of St. Peter at Rome, and St. Paul at 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 London, and the Minster of York. Public edifices 
 followed after temples ; in despotic governments, palaces 
 for kings ; in free states, buildings appropriated to 
 assemblies of the people or their representatives, to their 
 amusement or their comfort®. But whether in arbitary 
 or in free states, the advance from the rude dwelling of 
 the individual to the stately mansion, either in the city 
 or in the country, whether urged by convenience and 
 comfort, by luxury or pride, was tardy and slow 
 compared to the progress of public architecture. Under 
 the despotic governments of Asia, the palace stood 
 
 almost alone ; as the subject, however wealthy, dared 
 not construct the most distant resemblance to the 
 dwelling of the prince. In the ancient republics of 
 Greece and Borne, no citizen ventured to excel his 
 neighbour in domestic architecture. The accusation of 
 
 too splendid a house, was always greedily listened to 
 by the populace, and quickly punished^ “ During the 
 prosperous days of the republic,” says Demosthenes, 
 “ the houses of Themistocles and Aristides, undistin- 
 
 ^ Nec rortuitum spernei’e ce.spiteni 
 Lege.s sinebaiit, oppida publico 
 Sunitu jubente.s, et Deorum 
 Templa nova decorare saxo. 
 
 Horace, Ode. xv. 1. 2. 
 
 '' I*. Valerius was accused of a design against the liberties of 
 the people, because the house he built upon the Velian Hill had 
 a more than ordinary appearance of strength. 
 
ii 
 
 guished by the smallest appearance of superiority, bore 
 a perfect resemblance to those of their neighbours.” 
 But the rich and more polished of the Athenians 
 preferred a residence in the country, that they might 
 withdraw themselves from the jealous eyes of the poor 
 or envious citizens. Isocrates, however, in comparing 
 his own times with the period before the Peloponnesian 
 war, says, in his oration on reforming the government 
 of Athens, that “ the houses in the country, with all 
 their appendages, exceeded in elegance and splendour 
 even those within ’the walls of the city. Their happy 
 owners enjoyed contentment in their rural retirement, 
 and flocked not to the capitol to dissipate in feasts and 
 gluttony the treasury of the public.” The elegance and 
 splendour before the Peloponnesian war, was rather 
 rhetorical, as the city dwellings appear to have had, at 
 that time, little claim to such an advance in domestic 
 architecture'. 
 
 Of the villas of the Greeks, no description has been 
 
 ' The Helenic Greeks, as they advanced in civilization, adopted 
 in part the domestic habits of Asia, and lost those of their Gothic 
 ancestors, if they were of Gothic decent. The females were, till 
 marriage, carefully secluded and kept apart. “ My house,” says 
 Euphilitus, in Lycias’ Oration, “ consists of two lloors, both laid 
 out alike ; the upper is destined for the women, the lower for the 
 men, and the bath is on the ground floor. The deception practised 
 on Euphilitus by his wife exceeds in ingenuity any tale in the Italian 
 novels. Lyci.vs’ Oration : Eratosh: Dr. Gilles' Translation. 
 
4 
 
 transmitted to us** ; in villa gardening, however, consi- 
 derable progress at that time was made, borrowed 
 probably from Asia Minor : myrtles and roses adorned 
 them ; the box and lime tree were planted for topiary 
 works ; and Theophrastus tells us, that flowers and fruits 
 were cultivated in the winter ; and the violet more 
 particularly was in profusion in the market of Athens 
 while snow was on the ground. But the long and bitter 
 Peloponnesian war, drove within the walls of Athens the 
 whole population of the country, for which influx were 
 reared miserable huts, like bee-hives, in the many vacant 
 spaces left by the erazed houses of condemned citizens. 
 It was only on the decline of the republic, and on the 
 corruption introduced by the plunder of the distant pro- 
 vinces, that the rich Romans ventured to erect more 
 commodious houses. The people, fed by tributary corn, 
 and gratified by public exhibitions, lost their republiean 
 feelings ; and the plunderers of the provinces indulged 
 rapidly in magnificent villas and in a most luxurious life. 
 
 From the unguarded state of the country, and often 
 
 Although the learned Bartheleniy can give no precise description 
 of a Grecian villa, yet the town house of a Greek described by 
 Vitruvius, bore probably a near resemblance to the villa ; and the 
 Romans evidently copied their houses from the Greeks, with the 
 exception of the arrangement to keep the males and females of the 
 family apart. 
 
5 
 
 from the want of regular government, from the predatory 
 expeditions of mountaineers, or of wandering tribes in 
 the plains, the country residences of land-holders in the 
 earliest ages, were either fortified, or had annexed to 
 the dwelling a building of safety or refuge against 
 any sudden attack®. Towers and turrets are often men- 
 tioned by Greek authors as common in the country 
 districts^ We are informed by Xenophon in his Expedition 
 of the Ten Thousand, that the king of Persia had a 
 large hunting park in Phrygia stocked vuth wild beasts, 
 and near it a fortified palace, supposed to have been 
 built by Xerxes. Another such palace was passed on 
 the river Daradax, in the Syria of Mesopotamia, having 
 a large and beautiful park, “ producing every thing proper 
 to the season®.” On the retreat of the Grecian army on 
 the borders of Armenia, Xenophon notices a large village 
 with a palace in it belonging to the Satrap ; and upon 
 most of the houses were erected turrets, no doubt to 
 defend the inhabitants against the j)redatory incursions 
 
 ' These are the sons of Ishmael, and these are their names by 
 iheir towns and by their castles. Genesis xxv. 16. 
 
 ' In modern Greece these buildings still retain their ancient use, as 
 well as designation, w^yo;. GelVs Pompeiana. 
 
 s The Royal country palaces of Persia are at this day castellated, 
 and many villages have towers of defence. 
 
 See Porter s, and Sir W. Ousley’s Travels^ 
 
6 
 
 of the Carducians*’ ; a bold and warlike nation of moun- 
 taineers, dwelling on the other side of the river Contrides, 
 who had greatly annoyed the Greeks in their retreat 
 through this districts Near to Pergamus, Xenophon 
 made a plundering expedition against the Castle of 
 Asidates, a Persian noble. The building was large, high, 
 and well fortified with battlements. The Greeks made a 
 breach in the wall, which was eight bricks thick, but 
 were not able to seize the expected treasure. This was a 
 summer residence ; for in the winter, the Persian retired to 
 the mountain district with his family, his cattle, stores, 
 and household furniture. Among the paintings found at 
 Pompeia are some supposed to be of villas, each of which 
 has its tower of safety hard by. Some of these towers 
 are square, and one has a shed or awning over the top, 
 very similar to some of the towers in the buildings of 
 the great painters. One marine villa has near it a round 
 embattled tower which is surrounded by water. 
 
 '' The modern Kurdistan, the native country of Saladin. 
 
 ' Sir R. K. Porter passed through the greater part of the mountain 
 district of Carducia, and found the inhabitants nearly as rude as in 
 the days of Xenophon ; but the lamented Mr. Rich of Bagdad, and 
 his lady, resided in 1820 in some of the wildest parts of Kurdistan 
 and he writes, “ nothing can exceed the kindness and hospitality I 
 experienced from these worthy savages. Every where I surveyed with 
 my sextant, and have enough to fill a tolerable volume. 
 
 Po rler's Travels. 
 
A tower was a necessary appendage to the vineyard 
 or garden, in the east, at tlie most remote eera. 
 “ And he fenced it (a vineyard) and gathered ont the 
 stones thereof, and planted it with the choicest vine, and 
 built a tower in the midst of it.” Isaiah v. 2. Seven 
 hundred years thereafter the custom was preserved in 
 the holy land ; as in the parable of our Lord in Matt, 
 xxi. 33. ; and again in Luke xiv. 28. 
 
 Marcus Lanutus tells us, that the inhabitants of 
 Ptolemais beat down the towers of their gardens to the 
 ground, and removed the stones, upon the approach of 
 the Tartars, anno 1260. Sandy s saw many towers between 
 Jerusalem and Bethlehem ; and Maundrell mentions the 
 same kind of edifices in his account of the gardens of 
 Damascus, which confirms the description given by 
 William of Tyre, of the gardens of the Levant in the 
 twelfth century'". 
 
 The tomb of Cyrus is described by Strabo as in a 
 tower, and Arrian says, it is situated in the royal garden 
 amidst trees and running streams.' 
 
 Harmer’s Obs. ii. 261. 
 
 ' Sir W. Ousley’s Travels, xi. 418. 
 
DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 As defensive buildings are thus so intimately connected 
 with country residences, before entering into the nature 
 of Roman villas and of those of the middle ages, it 
 may be a subject of curious investigation to trace the 
 similiarity of construction in fortified towns and dwellings 
 throughout a wide extent of Asia and Europe. It is 
 uncertain when the great wall of China was begun, but 
 its completion Sir George Staunton decides, from the 
 most authentic Chinese annals, was effected three centuries 
 before the Christian aera. It resisted the Tartar hordes 
 for sixteen centuries, till the advance of the swarms 
 under Gengis Khan rendered every defence hopeless. 
 The wall is of earth raised between two walls of brick 
 masonry, terraced by a platform of square bricks. The 
 
0 
 
 retaining walls are carried above the platform and form 
 the parapets. The brick wall is founded upon a stone 
 basis. There are embrazures along the whole line of the 
 outward and inward parapets, with loop-holes between 
 them. Towers, with parapets and embrazures, are placed 
 at short distances from one another. These towers 
 project beyond the outside of the wall, so as to enfilade 
 it, and have an entrance off the platform. 
 
 Thueydides gives a very partieular description of the 
 fortifications raised by the Peloponnesians and Boeotians, 
 besieging the town of Plataea. The walls were built of 
 brick, in a double circle to hem in the fortified city. 
 The space between the two circles was filled with huts 
 for the guards, and these huts were so joined one to 
 another, that the whole appeared to be one thick wall, 
 with battlements on both sides. At every tenth battle- 
 ment stood a tower, of breadth to comprehend both 
 walls, from the outside of the outward, to the inside 
 of the inner wall ; so that there was no passage by the 
 side of the tower, but only through the middle of it. 
 
 The walls of ancient Sid6 on the coast of Karamania 
 are still entire in many parts. The height is thirty-eight 
 feet. There are two platforms from which missile weapons 
 may be thrown ; the lower is supported on arches, 
 
 c 
 
10 
 
 and furnished with a tier of loop-holes ; the uppei 
 one is adapted to the battlements, which have square 
 embrazures. At intervals of two hundred feet the 
 wall is flanked with towers. Captain Beaufort, from 
 whom this description is taken, adds in a note, “ I 
 have been informed that the construction of this wall is 
 exactly similar to that of Allahabad in India™.” Side is 
 probably an early Roman work of the empire. A fortress 
 on the Island of Korghas has the walls still entire ; twenty-* 
 five feet in height, eight feet in thickness, with lofty 
 towers of sixty feet at the angles, besides five others of 
 less size. An arcade along the inside of the wall 
 afforded cover to the garrison. Armenian inscriptions 
 are over the gateway. Joseph Barbaro, in his journey 
 to Persia, assisted the Venetians in 1471 in capturing 
 this fortress ; but so ancient was the construction, that 
 the Armenians then could not read the inscriptions'"™. 
 The castle of Anamour, on the Karamanian coast, bears 
 a strons: resemblance to some of the ancient castles of 
 Great Britain. The keep is placed on a small rocky 
 eminence, around are towers of all shapes, and both 
 the walls and towers are embattled. This castle is 
 perhaps the work of the Caliphs. Over the citadel gate 
 
 “ Allahabcicl is one of tbs mosl ancient cifics in Ind iu. 
 Beaufort’s Karamanla. 
 
11 
 
 of Selif-keh, the ancient Seleucia, is a machicolation 
 projecting as in our ancient castles. This town, Captain 
 Beaufort informs us, had no appearance of ever having 
 been held by the Knights of Rhodes. 
 
 Along the walls of Pompeii towers are placed at 
 intervals, projecting forward seven feet ; between them, 
 supported by a double wall, ranged the ramparts com- 
 municating through the towers by arched door-ways. 
 Embattled parapets were raised upon the outer and 
 inner edge of the rampart". A similar construction of 
 walls may be traced at the far more ancient town of 
 Paestum. But the most beautiful model of a fort, made 
 of bronze, (supposed to have been a brazier for heating 
 water), was found at Pompeii some years ago. It has 
 four square embattled towers at the corners, joined by 
 a rampart embattled on both sides ; the whole finely 
 proportioned". 
 
 But the most ancient medals of Europe and Asia 
 prove also a similarity in the mode of fortification. We shall 
 select some instances from different countries. There 
 are two very ancient silver Babylonian coins published 
 
 " Pompeiana by Cell and Gandy. 
 
 ® St. Non. Voyage Picturesque. 
 
12 
 
 by Sir R. K. Porter. On the reverse of one are three 
 pointed embattled towers joined by a wall, and two 
 outward walls beyond the towers. On the other coin 
 are five pointed embattled towers, and one outward 
 wall. In each, one tower stands forward as far as the 
 outward wall. These coins, perhaps the oldest known, 
 were fished up from the Euphrates, close to the ruins 
 of the palace of Babylon. They are without incriptions ; 
 and on the obverse are figures similar to those found 
 carved on the buildings at Persepolis. The colony of 
 Amisus, on the Euxine Sea, has left us a medal of a 
 female crowned with two towers, united by an em- 
 brazured wall. Doctor Clarke in his travels in Greece 
 found a very ancient silver nmdal in Macedonia, on 
 which are four round towers connected by a wall, the 
 whole having pointed, not square embattlements. On a 
 gold Sidonian medal of great beauty, in the collection of 
 the King of France, is a head crowned with an em- 
 battled castle. On the reverse of a brass medal of the 
 city of Ilyrgalia, supposed to have been situated in 
 Phrygia, is the goddess Cybele crowned with a round 
 parapetted tower ; and on a medal of one of the 
 Arsacidae, a Parthian king about the second century, a 
 female, crowned with a turretted tower with square 
 embrazures, presents a fillet to the king. An imperial 
 medal of Trajan, struck in the fortified city of Tripolis 
 
13 
 
 in Pontus, has a female head crowned with three em- 
 brazured towers, joined by an embrazured walP. 
 
 But perhaps the most ancient representation of a 
 fort or castle, is copied by Mr. Hamilton, in his intelli- 
 gent work on Egypt, from the cut-in representation on 
 the gateway of the Memnonion of Thebes. It is con- 
 jectured to represent a castle in Assyria. The Egyptian 
 hero is in a chariot, transfixing with his arrows the 
 defenders of the walls. Over his head is probably his 
 
 name in hieroglyphic characters, inclosed in two squares, 
 which the ingenuity of Dr. Young or M. Champolleon 
 might decypher. The castle has towers arising from the 
 upper part, and there are three, if not four different 
 heights of walls within each other. As the outline of 
 the second tier of walls, near the upper part of it, pro- 
 jects over the perpendicular, in the same manner as does 
 an overhanging parapet, it is clear that the wall had a 
 parapet, although no corbels or arches, are marked to 
 support it. The walls have no embrazures, but are 
 finished off at the top with a waved line of small semi- 
 circles, very like many buildings in the East Indies. The 
 bodies of the defenders of the fort, above the parapet, 
 are, therefore, completely exposed. This is the only 
 
 Guthrie’s Travels. 
 
14 
 
 ancient example, that has occured to us, of a strong- 
 hold without embrazures. But in the representation of 
 scenes in Egypt, on the mosaic pavement found at Pales- 
 trina, the ancient Prseneste, the buildings are embattled 
 with square embrazures. The pavement is supposed to 
 have belonged to a Serapion erected in the reign of 
 the Emperor Hadrian'’. 
 
 Over the widely spread portions of Europe and Asia, 
 in which we have found a similarity in defensive 
 buildings, at such remote periods, it is difficult to draw 
 the conclusion, that the one has been copied from the 
 other. An intelligent author remarks, “ that it is with 
 games as with stories and superstitions, they are nearly 
 the same all over the world ; and so narrow are the 
 bounds which limit human invention, that even where 
 there is no communication, and nations imagine for 
 themselves, there is very little variety in their discove- 
 ries'.” We have seen in modern times, that a very 
 useful invention has occurred in different countries with- 
 out the least communication between them. The bridge 
 of suspension of Penipe over the river Chambo in South 
 America, of one hundred and twenty feet in length, 
 
 ^ Memoires de I’Acaderaie des Inscriptions. 
 
 ' Rose’s Letters from the North of Italy. 
 
J5 
 
 and many others in that country, were in use before 
 the arrival of the Europeans®. Similar bridges are found 
 in the interior of Africa. One in Boutan in Asia rests 
 on five chains, covered with pieces of bamboo ; and 
 another of great dimensions, mentioned by Turner in 
 his journey to Thibet, in Tcheutcheu, can be passed 
 on horseback, although its length is one hundred and 
 forty feet. 
 
 An enquirer may trace the similarity of many other 
 inventions, adopted at different periods, in very distant 
 countries. Gun-powder and the mariner’s compass were 
 probably discovered both in Europe and in China. The 
 
 quippos, or knots of the Peruvians, were found in 
 
 Canada, in China, and in Lapland. The method of 
 
 keeping accounts and records by tables and notches on 
 sticks, is common to many nations remote from each 
 other ; as are the forms of the hatchet and arrow head, 
 whether of stone or of iron. The helmet of feathers of 
 the South Sea Islands is decidedly similar in shape to the 
 Grecian and Boman. A canoe found lately in an inland lake 
 in the county of Forfar, hollowed out of an oak tree and 
 finely shaped, cannot be distinguished from an American 
 canoe. The wooden key of doors at Lattakoo, in 
 
 * Humboldfs Travels. 
 
16 
 
 Southern Africa, is the same as the very anciently in- 
 vented wooden keys still used in Egypt. Even many 
 of the Etruscan borders on the antique vases of Italy, 
 may be found on the painted bark cloth of the South 
 Seas, and on the dressed leather side of a Hudson’s 
 Bay fur cloak. 
 
 It is by no means certain that alphabetical writing was 
 communicated from one nation to another throughout 
 Europe and Asia. We have hitherto taken for granted that 
 it was invented in one country, and gradually trans- 
 mitted to all others. But on a more extended enquiry 
 than has been given to the subject, similarity in the 
 method of representing sounds, may be found not to 
 imply a necessary communication between nations. We 
 have only of late admitted that alphabets of the fewest 
 letters are the most ancient. 
 
 If we reflect upon the way a wall surrounding build- 
 ings, or a simple building by itself, can be defended by 
 a few against many men, we are led to the necessity of 
 that construction which has been adopted in different 
 countries, without in general one having copied this art 
 of defence from another. The wall erected to prevent 
 an enemy plundering a cluster of houses, was required 
 to be high, but it might be scaled unless the defenders 
 
17 
 
 could mount upon the top to keep down the foe. By 
 reducing the upper part of the wall to half its thick- 
 ness on the inside, and by carrying up the thin outward 
 wall breast high, a platform was made, and a parapet 
 formed to protect the body ; but the dart could not be 
 thrown, nor the arrow shot from the wall, without leaning 
 over the parapet and exposing the defenders to the 
 weapons of the assailants*. Openings in the paraj)ets 
 were therefore necessary, from which the soldier could 
 throw his weapons with precision as he stood firmly on 
 the platform, and then retire instantly behind the pa- 
 rapet. As masonry improved, it was found not necessary 
 to carry up a very thick wall in order to form the 
 platform and parapet. One much thinner, but substan- 
 tially jointed, was adopted, the whole thickness of which 
 formed the platform ; and by laying a tier of long stones, 
 at short intervals, projecting over the outside, a parapet 
 was built overhanging the wall. This advance in the 
 art was of essential use in the defence of a place. By 
 projecting long stones over the gateways, by building a 
 thin safety-wall on them, and leaving open spaces be- 
 tween these stones, termed afterwards corbels, missile 
 
 * Parapets around the flat roofs of houses in the East, are of 
 the most ancient date. “ When thou buildest a new house, then 
 thou shalt make a battlement for thy roof, that thou bring not 
 blood upon thine house, if any man fall from thence. Deut. xxii. 8. 
 
 D 
 
18 
 
 weapons, or other annoyances, could be showered per- 
 pendicularly down upon the assailants when advanced 
 close to the gates. 
 
 But the object of all fortification is to render a town 
 or castle defensible by the fewest possible against a great 
 number. A mere straight or circular line of wall was not 
 adapted to effect this end. To enfilade the line of attack was 
 soon discovered to be the most destructive to the enemy. 
 Hence square towers, projecting beyond the line of the 
 wall, at distances within the reach of arrows, were 
 erected to annoy the advancing foe, who would thus, 
 when near the wall, be subject to a cross attack. Towers 
 were generally placed at every angle made by the walls; 
 but decided angles were, as much as possible, avoided, as 
 is the case in the walls of Pompeii, for Vitruvius con- 
 siders them as most favourable to assailants. A portcullis 
 at the gateway was in use at Pompeii ; and if a skilful 
 person were to examine the ancient fortifications and 
 castles in Asia Minor and other Eastern countries, many 
 of those constructions for defence in the castles of 
 Britain, so well developed by Mr. King, will probabljr 
 be found to have existed in a very early period”. 
 
 ” See King on Ancient Castles. 
 
10 
 
 Every castle, or fortified residence, not only was a 
 place of refuge, but possessed also the power of annoying 
 the enemy. There is only one exception known to the 
 contrary. In the Valley of Glenelg, and in the Shetland 
 Isles, are the remains of several conical buildings, which 
 are merely places of refuge without any means of 
 assailing an enemy. The most perfect of these is one in 
 Shetland, well described by Dr. Hibbert, called the 
 Burgh of Mousa, and is situated close to the sea-side*. It 
 is most ingeniously contrived for mere security. The wall 
 is double, and constructed of rude stones without cement, 
 and built in two concentric circles, each from four to 
 five feet in thickness, with a vacancy between them of 
 five feet. Thus the distance from the out to the inside 
 is fifteen feet at the base. The two walls are united by 
 long and broad stones which bind them together. These 
 stones are so placed as to form a staircase to the first 
 platform, and are continued half round the building on 
 a flat or horizontal line, so as to form a gallery between 
 the walls, when the stair is again resumed to the second 
 platform, and the gallery again formed half round ; 
 and in the same manner the stairs and galleries are 
 
 * Burges is the Persian for towers, evidently the same as the 
 Gothic Burgh, a fortified dwelling or enclosed town. Gird or Gard 
 is in Persian a city or fortress, which reminds us of Garth, an enclosure 
 in the Gothic, hence garden. But a castle, comprehending towers 
 and walls, is in the Persian, Calaa. See Ouseley's Travels, 
 
•20 
 
 continued to the top of the structure. The diameter of 
 the building at the base is fifty feet, the height forty- 
 two, and the building is erected in a conical form like 
 a glass-house ; but towards the top it leaves the conical 
 shape, bulges out, and is carried up in rather a per- 
 pendicular line^. This strong hold was quite open at the 
 top ; the galleries, having each a square opening to the 
 interior by way of window, served as chambers to the 
 inmates, as high up in the building as the distance of 
 the two walls would admit, for they gradually approached 
 till they joined at the top ; at the same time, the stairs 
 and galleries bound the walls from top to bottom. There 
 was no window on the outside. The only entrance was 
 a low door through the outward wall only ; then a 
 passage led half round the base, between the two walls; 
 and an opening or door through the second wall (thus 
 placed opposite the outward door) gave admittance into 
 the interior open area. It was impossible to scale the 
 building from its peculiar construction. If the only 
 door-way was well blocked up by large stones, no 
 entrance could be made; but if made, the inhabitants 
 in the galleries could shower down stones upon the 
 assailants. At Glenelg in Inverness-shire are several 
 remains of these singular towers near to each other ; 
 
 Description of Shetland by Dr. Hibbert. 
 
21 
 
 trom whence we may infer, that they were erected by 
 the united eftbrt of the population of a district of 
 country, and each was appropriated for the habitation 
 and refuge of several families. We have on record, that 
 Margarita, widow of an Earl of Orkney, fled with her 
 lover, Erlend, to this very strong hold of Mousa in 
 Shetland. Harald, her son, from Orkney, beset the 
 Burgh with his troops, and attempted to starve into 
 submission the inmates ; but after some time a compro- 
 mise took place and the parties were reconciled. These 
 buildings are decidedly Scandinavian. Coningsborough 
 Castle in Yorkshire is an improvement on this rude style 
 of buildings for mere security. The stairs are carried up 
 in the thickness of the wall, and in place of galleries 
 each stage was floored over except a hole in the centre. 
 The lower apartments received light and air only through 
 long narrow loop-holes, and by an aperture in the floors 
 and roof. The entrance to the castle was at the top of 
 a very high, steep, and narrow outward stair^ 
 
 A very singular tower in the Mahratta fort of Ahmed- 
 Nuggur reminds us of Mousa tower and Coningsborough 
 castle. Captain Seely describes it, in his account of 
 Ellore, as a large hollow stone edifice of an octagon figure, 
 
 ‘ King on Ancient Castles. 
 
‘22 
 
 placed on a high hill in the rear of the fort. The steps, 
 leading to the roof of the building, wind up through the 
 walls, a space being left between the stones. They are 
 very steep, seventy-two in number, and in two places 
 they finish, leading out to two stone galleries with large 
 windows, which encompass the building on the inside. 
 From the galleries the steps continue between the walls, 
 and an entrance leads to the roof. The whole edifice is 
 in a perfect state, and may be compared to a very 
 large, domed, high, and substantial stone tower. From 
 this description it appears that the dome must be open 
 in the centre to give light to the galleries, and a 
 parapet is probably carried round the base of the dome. 
 
 The singular buildings supposed to be of high antiquity, 
 inhabited by the shepherds in the pasturing country of 
 the Puglia in the Neapolitan territories, the ancient 
 Apulia, belong to this class of strong holds. They are 
 circular stone buildings without cement, covered by a 
 stone dome open at the top. Where the dome begins 
 there is a broad terrace round the building, taken from 
 the thickness of the circular wall. This was necessary 
 as a buttress to support the thrust of the dome. Two 
 outward stone stairs lead up to the terrace, and the 
 entrance is by a low door on the ground*. In the 
 
 ^ Lettres sur 1’ Italic par M. Castellan. 
 
23 
 
 Compagna near the mouth of the Tiber, Bonstettin found 
 the shepherds lodged in circular buildings of stone about 
 sixty feet in diameter, having a raised platform within, 
 eight or nine feet high, on which were placed the beds. 
 The roof, covered with reeds supported on the platform, 
 was a truncated cone of forty or fifty feet elevation above 
 the floor. 
 
 Qute fuerit nostri, si quoeris regia nati 
 Aspice, cle canna straminibusque domum. 
 
 Ovid, Fast. k. iii. v. 179‘’. 
 
 In travelling from Aleppo to Mousul on the Tigris, at 
 the village of Oktezun, Mr. Buckingham observes that 
 each dwelling had a high pointed dome of unburnt bricks, 
 raised on a square fabric of stone, so that at a little 
 distance these houses resembled a cluster of bee-hives 
 on square pedestals. Similarly domed buildings are 
 found in the plains of Tartary, in India, and even to 
 the borders of Chinas 
 
 *’ Latium par M. Bonstettin. 
 
 ' Buckingham’s Mesopotamia. 
 
24 
 
 ROMAN VILLAS. 
 
 The term Villa was applied to a cluster of buildings 
 
 in the country for the accommodation of the family of a 
 wealthy Roman citizen. Very extensive villas were 
 divided into three parts ; the Urbana, the Rustica, and the 
 
 Fructuaria^ The first contained the eating-room, bed- 
 chambers, baths, covered portico, walks and terraces. 
 The Villa Rustica was the division for the slaves*, 
 stables, &c. ; and the Fructuaria for wine, oil, and the 
 produce of the farm. Although the Roman villas were the 
 
 Villas are not mentioned in the laws of the Twelve Tables: 
 The Hortus is, however, and would be then a kitchen garden. 
 
 ® Vitruvius gives very precise directions for erecting all parts of 
 the Rustica. He refers to a town-house for the building of a fine 
 villa, allowing for the difference of site, light, and prospect. 
 
•25 
 
 boast and delight of poets and philosophers whose works 
 have fortunately reached us, yet no description has been 
 conveyed of their external architecture. From the mag- 
 nificent style of public buildings at Pome, moderns were 
 led to suppose that the villa architecture bore some 
 analogy in splendour of outward appearance ; but from 
 inspection of their remains, and from the late disinterment 
 of one on the outside of the walls of Pompeii, little doubt 
 now remains on the subject. It is true that the exten- 
 sive remains of Hadrian’s villa, and that of Mecaenas, 
 covered ground equal almost to a small town, but no 
 regular plan of architectural elevation can be traced with 
 all the ingenuity of even a Roman antiquary. 
 
 The Pompeian is the most complete example we have 
 of an ordinary sized Roman villa : situated on a sloping 
 
 bank, the front entrance opens, as it were, into the 
 first floor, below which, on the garden side, into which 
 the house looks, (for the door is the only aperture on 
 the road side) is a ground-floor, with extensive arcades 
 and open rooms, all facing the garden ; and above are 
 the principal rooms. It was spacious, and near the 
 entrance was a bath with all the necessary appendages ; 
 in the rear the best rooms opened upon a terrace, 
 running the whole width of the house, and overlooking 
 a garden, or xystus, about thirty yards square ; this was 
 
 E 
 
26 
 
 surrounded by a covered walk or portico continued 
 under the terrace. The lower apartments under the 
 arcade were paved with mosaic, coved, and beautifully 
 painted. One of the rooms had a large glazed bow 
 window; the glass was very thick, of a green colour, 
 and set in lead like a modern casement. The walls and 
 ceilings of the villa are ornamented with paintings of 
 elegant design, all of which have a relation to the uses of 
 the apartments in which they are. In the middle of 
 the garden is a reservoir of water surrounded by columns. 
 The cellars extended under the whole of the house and 
 the arcades ^ A French traveller describes a Roman 
 villa as a dwelling house and gardens arranged on two 
 or three parallel esplanades in form of steps, sustained 
 by strong substructions. On the highest terrace the 
 praetorium was erected, which was the principal pavillion 
 or body of the house, divided into summer and winter 
 apartments, containing bed-rooms, eating-hall, baths, 
 and covered walks. The rustic buildings of the farm 
 were distributed upon the sides of the lower terraces, or 
 at the end of the gardens. Sueh a villa leaned upon the 
 slope of a hill, had only one front, and one exposure. 
 But such as were elevated on the top of rising ground, 
 possessed varied views. The esplanades or terraces were. 
 
 ‘ MaUhew’s Diary of an Invalid and Pompeiana. 
 
27 
 
 on such sites, carried round, forming parallelograms one 
 above another. The main body of the building was 
 Hanked b}’ two towers, or often overlooked by a square 
 one, in which was an apartment for the guests to sup 
 in, and to enjoy the prospect. In the villa of Ventidius 
 Bassus, the tower was sixty paces square ; that of the 
 palace of Mecaenas was still larger®. Pliny’s Tuscan villa 
 has been planned out by several authors from his own 
 ample description ; but as they all disagree, we need not 
 attempt to solve the differences. The representation of 
 a marine villa on the wall of a room at Pompeii, given 
 in plate 60 of Sir William Gell’s Pompeiana, may be 
 likened to the splendid villa of Pliny. All the rooms 
 are behind ranges of covered porticos. Pliny’s “ spacious 
 portico” consisted of several members, particularly “ a porch 
 built after the manner of the ancients he had “ a 
 second portico,” and “ an inclosed portico.” These may 
 be found in the Pompeian painting, which in number 
 of porticos is perhaps exaggerated ; but in Pliny’s day 
 they were erected to an extravagant extent. He writes 
 to Clemens, that “ Regulus has retired to his villa 
 across the Tiber, where he has covered a vast extent 
 of ground with porticos.” Horace holds up to ridicule 
 
 " Lettres sur 1’ Italic par Castellan. 
 
 Pliny mentions two towers in the description of the Laurentine 
 villa. 
 
•28 
 
 both the extent of porticos, and the marine villas 
 built into the Tuscan and Apulean seas*'. The immense 
 quantity of pillars, which the ruins of these ancient villas 
 afforded, was probably transferred to the interior of cha- 
 pels, to private dwellings, and to the courts or cloisters 
 of monasteries 
 
 On the crowded shore of Baiae, the great “ elbowed 
 each others villas”, and built into the very sea. Pliny 
 dwells with pleasure upon two, out of many he possessed 
 upon the Larian lake, situated like those at Baiee ; the 
 one on a rock overlooking the lake ; the other, so close 
 to the edge that he might fish from his bed-chamber. 
 Another marine villa is painted on the M^all at Pompeii, 
 as placed at the water’s edge. Two ranges of arcades, 
 with a terrace on each, and a pavilion on the upper 
 terrace, form this villa*. From a landscape by Albano, 
 
 Nulla decempetles 
 Metala privatis opacum 
 
 Porticus excipiebat Arcton. Horack. 
 
 Caementis licet occupes 
 
 Tyrrhenum ornne tuis et mare Apulicum Horack. 
 
 Horace marks the extravagant extent of porticos, by applying 
 the land surveyor’s rod to measure them ; for twelve of these ten-foot 
 rods formed the side of the square of the Roman actus, or fundus ; 
 and double this area was the jugerum. 
 
 ‘ Sec plate 58 of Pompeiana. 
 
• 21 ) 
 
 is copied a building which is similar in construction and 
 situation, with this slight difference, that the pavilion, 
 of the same form with the Pompeian, is placed on the 
 lower terrace. The rest of the building behind is evi- 
 dently the work of the middle ages. 
 
 But there was no limit in the size, and no regularity 
 in the construction of a Roman villa. The opulent 
 patrician indulged in many, spread over the fairest 
 districts of Italy, in situations either adapted to the 
 changes of the season and to the taste of the owner, 
 or dictated by his caprice and the fashion of the times. 
 The arcaded substruction of numerous ancient villas still 
 remains, while the buildings above are in ruins, either 
 by the depredations of those who in after ages demolished 
 to erect other buildings, or by the silent waste of time 
 on such as were erected of the soft tufo. On many of 
 the Roman villas, convents and monasteries were erected, 
 as materials were at hand, and the arcades of the sub- 
 structions formed conveniently store-houses and cellars. 
 How long the Roman villas remained habitable after the 
 many invasions of Italy, is not easy to ascertain. 
 
 One of the celebrated villas of Lucullus, formerly be- 
 longing to Marius, and afterwards an imperial residence 
 of Tiberius, situated on the promontory of Misenum, 
 
30 
 
 (Capo Miseno,) existed in the year 480. To this retreat 
 was sent, by the clemency of Odoacer, king of the Heruli 
 Goths, the last feeble representative of the Roman 
 emperors of the west, called in derision Augustulus. 
 The villa had gradually been changed into a strong castle, 
 to protect it against the sea attacks of the Vandals ^ 
 These invasions by sea of the Vandals, and, subsequently, 
 of the Normans and Saracens, ruined probably the crowd 
 of Roman villas on the Neapolitan shores. The villas 
 on the fertile plains of Italy would suffer by the inva- 
 sions by land ; but many villa castles, or fortified resi- 
 dences, remained after the tenth century, in the hilly 
 districts of the Vicintine and Veronese territories ; as 
 their rural nobility descended into the cities of Padua, 
 Verona, Vicinza, and Trevisa, and took part with the 
 Guelph faction’. In the thirteenth century, one hundred 
 and fifty castles were computed to be in the Milanese. 
 It was probably to a Roman villa that Avitus, lieutenant 
 of the Emperor Maximus, and afterwards himself a short 
 lived emperor, retired in the year 460. It was situated 
 near Clermont in Auvergne, on the margin of a lake, 
 into which rushed a mountain torrent of cascades. The 
 villa contained baths, summer and winter apartments. 
 
 Gibbon, ch. xxxvi. 
 Sismondi Republiques Italieunes. 
 
.31 
 
 and porticos. Sidonius, the son-in-law of Avitus, has, 
 in imitation of Pliny, given a prolix but obscure de- 
 scription of it”. 
 
 The valley of the Rhone was, at an early period of 
 the empire, a favourite retreat of the Roman nobility, 
 as much for the fine climate, unalloyed by mal-aria, as 
 for its distance from the suspicion and wanton cruelty 
 of the many tyrants, successors of Augustus. No where 
 else out of Italy have such splendid remains of villas 
 been discovered as in the Provincia Narbonensis. The 
 author just mentioned has left a description of the 
 country life of the Roman or Gallic nobility in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Nismes. The mornings were spent in the 
 tennis court, or in the library, furnished with Latin au- 
 thors ; the profane for the men, the religious for the 
 ladies. Between dinner and supper, they slept, took the 
 air on horseback, and used the warm bath“. 
 
 At the distance of fourteen centuries, Paulus Jovius, 
 contemporary with the great painters, built a residence 
 on the Lake of Como, on the very site of the Larian 
 villa of Pliny, part of the foundations of which were 
 
 “ Gibbon, ch. xxxvi. 
 " Ibid. 
 
32 
 
 visible in the water. He describes his garden bathed by 
 the waters of the lake, his shady woods, the green slopes 
 and sparkling fountains. The villa, besides other rooms, 
 contained a hall, a library, and an apartment adorned 
 with Doric columns, in which hung a collection of 
 portraits of celebrated men whose lives he wrote. Of 
 
 the thirty Tiburtine villas of Latium, one has been 
 assigned without much reason to Horace, and on its 
 foundation was built the convent of Sant’ Antonio, now 
 in its turn deserted. It was here that Cains Cassius, 
 the republican, had a splendid villa, in which have been 
 traced the ruins of sixteen spacious apartments, and out 
 of which many beautiful statues have been dug”. The 
 striking similarity between the marine villa painted on 
 the wall of a Pompeian house, and one in a landscape 
 by AlbanoP, may induce us to conclude, that even in 
 the middle ages some Roman villas remained in rather 
 an entire state, and did probably serve, in some measure, 
 as models for villa architecture of the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries. There is a singular building, taken 
 from another fine landscape by Albano, situated on the 
 margin of a lake, which has a very ancient appearance. 
 It has a tower of safety, and out of two archways in 
 
 ° Kelsall’s Classical Excursions. 
 
 See Plate 1. 
 
33 
 
 the lake rush streams of water**. Castellan maintains 
 that several monasteries, built on the ruins of Roman 
 villas, retain the ancient distribution of the parts of the 
 buildings ; courts surrounded with porticos, which are 
 used for walks ; the rooms entering upon the portico 
 without communicating with one another ; the basins ; 
 with fountains in the courts, the terraces upon arcades, 
 the oratories in the gardens; all these have a striking 
 analogy to the ancient villa. At an ancient villa near 
 Brundusium our author found the ambulacrum, or covered 
 walk, pretty entire. 
 
 See Plate 2. 
 
 F 
 
31 
 
 MASONRY OF ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The early Roman architecture, both in public and 
 private buildings, was of far more durable materials, and 
 of more accurate masonry than such as was executed in 
 the decline of the empire. It began in uncemented 
 blocks of stone, passed into the reticular work of the 
 republic, thence into the travertine, and descended into 
 the mixture of tufo, and brick, and stucco facing'. 
 
 The polyhaedral wall, or, as it is often named, the 
 cyclopaean, is the oldest example of mason work in 
 
 ' See Forsyth’s admirable work on Italy. 
 
35 
 
 Italy, and in town walls only has this style of building- 
 been used. There is not a more obscure question in 
 history than the nations by whom they were constructed. 
 A large irregular block of stone, having three, four, five, 
 six, or more sides, hewn only on the irregular sides to 
 be built upon, begins a wall ; and to this mass others 
 are added, the sides of which are made to fit the 
 irregular sides of the first block ; and to these again, 
 others, as irregular and many sided, are to be jointed. 
 On the first consideration, such a wall must have caused 
 far more labour than one constructed of oblong blocks 
 with four sides hewn square. It may be conjectured, 
 that where such walls are found, large irregular lumps 
 of granite, basalt, or other unstratified stones were 
 scattered over the country ; and the primitive wall was 
 formed by heaping these upon one another, like the rude 
 stone fences in the mountain districts of the north of 
 England, and in Scotland. But in time masonry was 
 employed, (although only rudely) in hewing the touching 
 sides of these polygonal stones to fit, and thus these 
 walls acquired a most imperishable stability. These 
 gigantic polyhaedral walls are not confined to Italy and 
 Sicily ; they have been found in Asia Minor, in Greece, 
 and in some of the Greek islands. Those in Greece, 
 which surrounded Terynthia, a city extinct in the days 
 of Pausanias, and Mycene, appear not to have been 
 
36 
 
 hewn. The voids left in the walls, by heaping up such 
 huge masses, are filled with smaller stones. These walls 
 are often twenty feet in thickness*. But it is remarkable 
 that such walls have been erected in countries very sub- 
 ject to earthquakes ; and conjecture may attribute to such 
 a wall the quality of resisting, better than any other 
 construction, their destructive powers. 
 
 It is probable that the arch, and vault, and dome, were 
 not unknown to the nations in the East, beyond the In- 
 dus, in a very remote age ; but in Greece, and in Asia 
 Minor, there are no traces of them before their intro- 
 duction by the Romans'. To the Romans they were 
 familiar at a very early period of their history ; a know- 
 ledge of which they borrowed perhaps from the 
 Etruscans, or from the supposed extinct people who 
 possessed a city on the site of Rome itself, before 
 the Romans". 
 
 * Voyage d’ Anacliarsis. 
 
 ‘ Domes in Asia are probably more ancient than in Italy. At 
 Lanker-rood, at Dhay-Nain, at Sin-sin, five or six days’ journey 
 south of Teheran in Persia, towns now all deserted, there are above 
 a hundred large dwelling houses quite entire of a very singular 
 construction. Each edifice stands separate, and is constructed of 
 several central arches supporting a pointed dome ; while smaller 
 divisions project from the body of the building, also arched, and 
 the whole finished with the greatest neatness, having remains of 
 stucco painted walls within. These buildings are highly interesting 
 in the history of architecture. Sir R, K. Porter's Travels. 
 
87 
 
 The most brilliant and most useful discovery in 
 architecture, was that of the arch. However chaste and 
 beautiful the finest of its specimens may be, yet the 
 application of Grecian architecture is extremely limited. 
 But the arch, followed by the vault and dome, gave 
 birth to the boundless extension of the art to whatever 
 in construction was useful and magnificent, picturesque 
 and sublime. No nation like the Romans ever displayed, 
 for so many centuries, such unceasing energy, such na- 
 tional spirit. This energy and spirit, unaided by the art 
 from Greece, produced magnificent aqueducts in every 
 province from Italy to the borders of Parthia; bridges 
 of arches across the widest rivers, circular and vaulted 
 
 “ Livy confesses that the common sewers were not adapted to the 
 streets and the oldest buildings ; and it is difficult to imagine that these 
 immense works were constructed by Tarquin the elder, whose terri- 
 tories did not extend, in any direction, beyond sixteen miles. This is the 
 opinion of that accurate author, Ferguson, in a note to his “ Roman 
 Republic.” It has been supposed that the arching of the Cloaca 
 Maxima did not extend far in ; but the scavengers assured a friend 
 of ours, that they found it arched as far as they had penetrated. 
 Niebuhr admits the existence of a city far beyond our chronology, 
 and of a nation of inhabitants which had disappeared. He draws 
 not this inference, however, from the works of the Cloaca Maxima, but 
 from the discovery of a cyclopean wall below the old pavement of the 
 Colossaeum. 
 
 Rom. Hist, hy Niebuhr, translated by Walter, vol. ii. p. 529. 
 
 The magnitude of the Cloaca Maxima was far greater than could hare 
 been requisite for the town of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, or for 
 draining the swampy rallies of the seven hills. 
 
38 
 
 buildings, that united stability with the useful, the sub- 
 lime, and the picturesque. Most of the ancient edifices, 
 says Forsyth, now subsisting as churches, are round. In 
 mixt constructions, the circular part of the walls has 
 resisted time much better than the flat; and of the roofs 
 nothing remains that is not referrible to the circle. 
 “ Beautiful in itself, the circular form needs less decoration 
 than flat surfaces ; it is more capacious than angular 
 forms of equal perimeter, and more commodious for 
 any assembly, whether met for worship, or sport, or 
 deliberation.” Examples, drawn from the arch, the vault, 
 and the dome, have been a hundred-fold of more utility 
 to modern nations than all the remains of Grecian ar- 
 chitecture, without detracting in any degree from the 
 high merit of that perseverance in correct taste, which 
 at length produced the Parthenon. 
 
 The introduction of Grecian architecture, and its imme- 
 diate amalgamation, in numberless instances, with the 
 Roman in the works of the empire, formed a new style 
 destructive of the beauty and simplicity of both. Yet 
 amidst all the changes of Roman architecture, stability 
 in public constructions was ever kept in view". Even when 
 
 " See instances in the statesman-like letters between the £mpe> 
 ror Trajan and Pliny the younger, his Proconsul in Bythynia. 
 
 
39 
 
 squared stones ceased to be used, and small unhewn 
 stones were employed, depending upon the adhesive 
 powers of the cement, many curious devices in masonry 
 were invented to ensure duration. Whenever a great 
 mass of perpendicular masonry of common sized stones 
 was built, the walling was raised on tiers of blind 
 arches. The most imposing mass of plain ma«;onry we 
 have met with out of Italy, is the wall of the theatre 
 at Orange in France, nearly one hundred feet high, and 
 three hundred feet in length ; and the whole built on 
 ranges of blind arches. It stands without a fissure, a 
 noble monument of the durability of Roman masonry’'. 
 This application of arches to ensure stability in a wall, 
 has been entirely overlooked in modern architecture. 
 Its object was two-fold ; first, to secure the foundation 
 on a few well prepared points of support ; and next, if 
 a failure should take place, the fissure would not pass 
 
 The emperor’s ready attention to the wants and wishes of the 
 inhabitants of the different towns ; his care not to involve them in 
 heavy expenses for public works; his respect for their privileges; 
 for promises made to them by his predecessor, even Domitian ; 
 his strict adherence to the laws of Rome, and to the rights of Roman 
 citizens residing in that province , place the character of Trajan in 
 the highest rank. The correspondence might be a model to a 
 mother-country for the management of her colonies. 
 
 * We found our way into what must have been the green-room 
 and dressing-rooms of the actors. Some of these are yet inhabited. 
 The walls were bare, without any vestiges even of plaster. The 
 rooms were formed out of the thickness of the wall, and had rude 
 stairs, from the height of the stage, leading to them. 
 
40 
 
 higher up than the first range of arches ; and there 
 would be no danger of the wall being overset by the 
 centre of gravity, in consequence of a long break, falling 
 beyond the perpendicular line. This system of founding 
 on blind arches descended from the Romans to the 
 Saxons in Britain, in their earliest churches. There is 
 not a more certain indication of the great antiquity of 
 such fabrics than such arches, which were ornamented 
 with a variety of mouldings. 
 
 The same attention to these principles of stability 
 dictated their practice in masonry, when a building was 
 erected of such small stones as could not be used in 
 arching. What is called the palace of Gallienus at 
 Bourdeaux is built of small hard stones, squared, three 
 inches in front, and entering five inches into the wall. 
 Every three feet of this facing is divided by horizontal 
 ranges of flat bricks, three in height, which pass through 
 the thickness of the wall, and are carried round the 
 whole building. So well cemented is the whole, that 
 had not the walls been purposely dilapidated, the building 
 would have been perfect at this day^. Similar construc- 
 tions are quite common in Italy. Now the layers of 
 flat bricks serve each as a foundation, as it were, for 
 
 ^ Memoires de 1’ Academie des Inscriptions, vol. xii. 
 
41 
 
 the incumbent piece of three-foot wall of small stones. 
 Any fissure in the wall, from a failure in the foundation, 
 would not pass beyond the first or second layer of 
 bricks ; but in modern edifices, a slight yielding in the 
 foundation runs a crack in the wall to the very top of 
 the building. Orginally the belts, or bands, or strings 
 in the face of a building, were intended for the same 
 effect ; but they are become merely ornamental, and 
 never form now horizontal layers entirely through 
 the wall. 
 
 In the greater part of the round edifices of the Romans 
 are found alcoves, which the modern antiquary of Rome 
 decides to be parts of ancient baths ; but from the 
 numerous examples, there is probably some principle of 
 stability, that has given rise to this general construction. 
 A wide field is yet open for investigation, on what 
 mathematical principles, are founded the various expedi- 
 ents in Roman masonry to ensure stability. In erecting 
 domes and vaults, the Romans possessed the best possible 
 materials, the light travertine stone and the volcanic 
 cements. But as the material for building diminished in 
 size, the Romans paid minute attention to cements of 
 lime, and they formed bricks of a quality very superior 
 to any modern bricks. In the cement used in the 
 reservoir of the aqueduct at Lyons, which is perfectly 
 
 G 
 
42 
 
 entire at this day, we found the sand very coarse, and 
 a mixture of bricks pounded to pieces as large as peas. 
 On the floor, where the cement was thicker, the pounded 
 bricks were of a larger size ; no doubt to prevent 
 cracking, and to allow the setting of the mortar in 
 smaller divided portions. The proportions of the 
 cement were, one third of quick lime to two thirds of 
 rough sand\ 
 
 Of all materials used by the Romans in their build- 
 ings, the most durable appear to be the smooth homoge- 
 neous white lime-stone used in many works in Italy 
 and on the Rhone, and their excellent bricks. The 
 Roman brick forms a striking contrast to the bricks 
 now made in Britain. The Roman is solid, compact, 
 and sharp, at this day, at the corners. The brick of this 
 country is porous, half burnt, brittle, and wastes by 
 exposure to the atmosphere. Yet the Roman art of 
 making bricks was known to the builders of our early 
 monasteries ; for the brick in their pavements is nearly 
 equal to the Roman. It is highly probable that the 
 Romans never used sand, or cinders, or the like in brick- 
 
 * See Vitruvius on Cements, b. ii. cb. 4, 5, 6. Brick making had 
 not arrived at perfection in his day in Italy. The Romans had bor- 
 rowed the art from Greece, and there were few buildings of brick 
 of any consequence in Julius Csesar’s time. 
 
43 
 
 making, as we do to prevent shrinking and cracking, but 
 mixed the plastic clay with well burnt clay pounded to 
 a proper fineness. The reason is obvious ; for if the 
 clay contained some portion of lime, sand added, made 
 a fusible combination of earths, which would slag and 
 puft' out ; hence, the cellular quality, and often slag-like 
 appearance of our bricks ; but the pounded burnt clay, 
 added to the soft clay, and mixed thoroughly with it, 
 prevented the clay from either cracking before it was 
 burnt, or from shrinking while in the furnace. 
 
 As so large a portion of the richer provinces of England 
 is without stone for building, we may be excused for 
 dwelling a little upon the only substitute. “ The brick 
 remains,” says Forsyth, “ of the period of the Homan 
 empire, are more entire than the stone.” We our- 
 selves found the Roman bricks at the small circus near 
 Thoulouse, quite sharp at the edges and not altered by 
 time. Their lengths were fourteen inches long, nine 
 
 inches broad, and one and an half inch thick. These 
 bricks formed the foundation all around the building. 
 The arches were formed of them for entrances ; and 
 round large water-worn pebbles of quartz with mortar, 
 (apparently thrown in moulds set on each side,) formed 
 the walls of the circus resting on the brick arches. The 
 cement was so good, that we remarked one arch of 
 
44 
 
 brick which supported a mass, of apparently some tons 
 in weight, of pebbles and mortar. Labourers were trying 
 to pick out the bricks to use them in a new building. 
 The Romans made bricks of various sizes, from two feet 
 to one foot in length, from seven to nine inches in 
 breadth, and from three inches and an half to one and 
 a quarter in thickness. Mr. Webster compared the 
 Roman bricks found in the old Roman wall at Verulam 
 with modern bricks, and nothing can shew more clearljr 
 the superiority of the ancient compared to the modern. 
 There appeared to have been two qualities of these 
 Roman bricks ; the first. A, was red on the outside and 
 black inside ; the second, B, red throughout : the English 
 put in comparison were bricks, C, made one hundred 
 and fifty years ago, and the common modern bricks, D. 
 The specific gravity was A, .2224; B, .2215; C, .1923; 
 P, .2012. The modern brick was so heavy as it was so 
 imperfectly burnt. The weight gained by immersion in 
 water, is the most important trial of quiaity, and the 
 result was as follows, 
 
 A in air & dry weighed 54^ grs., after immersion 56|-, gained 2 
 
 B 
 
 561 
 
 60^ 
 
 
 4 
 
 C 
 
 m 
 
 71 
 
 
 H 
 
 D 
 
 8U 
 
 97i 
 
 
 16 
 
 Hence the 
 
 pores of A, were to the solid as 
 
 1 part in 
 
 27.2 
 
 parts 
 
 
 B, 
 
 in 
 
 14.1 
 
 
 c. 
 
 in 
 
 7.3 
 
 
 
 D, 
 
 in 
 
 5.9 
 
 
45 
 
 These Roman bricks were of two kinds, therefore, the 
 first had a red case, as it were, over a black vitrified 
 substance ; the second was of a fine red colour and close 
 texture throughout. The vitrified black part resisted the 
 file*. We cannot suppose any substance to be mixed 
 with the brick clay so likely to give this homogeneous 
 close texture, as burnt clay itself, pounded to proper 
 fineness and mixed intimately, as we have already no- 
 ticed**. In the chalk countries, why may we not renew 
 the flint-built walls of our ancestors, seeing that the 
 Roman circus at Thoulouse has endured so long ? To build 
 up in frames is neither expensive nor tedious. The 
 foundation should be on brick arches ; and the cement 
 requires no other management than thoroughly burnt 
 chalk, slacked with water merely, to reduce it to the 
 finest dry powder; sifted, and added to two parts of 
 rough sharp sand, with small sharp gravel stones. The 
 whole mixed together dry ; then water poured on to 
 make a liquid paste, which should be used immediately. 
 The slacking of the lime, the mixture, and the applica- 
 tion to the building, should follow one another without 
 delay. A quantity of the sand and powdered lime might 
 be at hand to throw into the moulds where the mortar 
 
 * Archaeologia, vol. ii. 
 
 *’ This discovery belongs to the late Dr. James Anderson. 
 
46 
 
 appeared too thin. By such management this cement 
 requires not age to harden it. On examination of the 
 oldest parts of the ancient castle at Hastings, we are 
 satisfied that the mortar employed was so formed, and 
 thrown in a very liquid state into the centre of the 
 thickest parts of the wall. Flint-built walls would pro- 
 duce an excellent effect in irregular buildings ; for the 
 roughness of the surface in towers, gives the impression 
 of strength and stability. The bricks of the palace in 
 the ruins of Babylon, are of a pale yellow colour, and 
 still perfectly entire. They are certainly the oldest 
 remains in the world of human art. “ The cement which 
 unites them does not exceed the twentieth part of an 
 inch in thickness, like a fine white line, subdivided by 
 another of a reddish brown, with a granulated sparkling 
 appearance, yet so inconceivably hard, that the bricks 
 break before the cement yields'"”. They are all impressed 
 Muth the nail, or arrow-headed, characters on one side, 
 which is uniformly turned downwards in the building. 
 The bituminous cement, mentioned by Vitruvius, is con- 
 fined to the substructions, apparently where damp might 
 affect the lime cement. 
 
 Although these bricks, with which were built the cities 
 
 ^ Sir R. K. Porter’s Travels. 
 
47 
 
 of Babylon, and Nineveh, and Susa, (the Shushan of the 
 prophet Daniel,) are to this day entire, and the cement 
 the strongest ever made, yet the whole edifices, of these 
 most ancient cities in the world, are involved in huge 
 masses of ruin, out of which nothing of form or plan 
 can be traced ; — no tower, nor wall, nor pillar, to 
 tell the story to posterity. — “All is finished; buried 
 under heaps of earth, the graves, not of the people 
 alone, but of their houses, temples, palaces, — all in death-* 
 like entombment 
 
 '* Sir R. K. Porter’s Travels. 
 
ARCHITECTURE of the MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 During the sixth century, Italy was a prey to con- 
 tending armies of Romans, and of various tribes of 
 Goths, till the fairest portion fell at length to the Lom- 
 bards, who stamped it with their name. The country 
 was divided into military fiefs, and every chief built his 
 castle. When no common enemy occupied their arms, 
 these barons turned them against one another, which left 
 so many picturesque ruins on the hills, and such desola- 
 tion around them. In the tenth century, the fierce Huns 
 broke into Lombardy, and the Saracens too, masters of 
 Sicily, ravaged the shores of Italy, and left their name 
 at this day to towers raised for protection against their 
 sudden attacks. 
 
49 
 
 But at length the free towns of Italy arose, established 
 their independence, and as wealth accumulated, the 
 Italians, alive to the memory and fame of their ancestors, 
 revived in their little republics the public spirit and 
 energy of the Romans. Unhappily for Italy, it was 
 divided into numerous independent cities bound by 
 no common tie. They quarrelled, fought, and settled 
 down into an hereditary hatred to each other. Each 
 was alternately ruled by some tyrant, or by the caprice 
 of a giddy populace, while again all Italy was divided 
 by the detestable factions of Guelphs and Ghibelines. 
 Yet to these petty republics do we owe the restora- 
 tion of learning, and of the arts ; of architecture, of 
 sculpture, and of painting. The Popes and the Medici 
 family have borne away the reputation of restoring letters 
 and the fine arts ; but it was long before prepared to 
 their hands in Pisa, in Florence, in Bologna, and in the 
 other free cities. 
 
 The dome cathedral of Pisa, the first model of that 
 Tuscan style of architecture, so solid, grave, and im- 
 posing, neither Greek nor Gothic, was begun in the 
 eleventh century ; and in the thirteenth was founded the 
 majestic church of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence, 
 of which the dome equals in size that of St. Peter 
 at Rome, and was its model. In the same aera, Arnolfo 
 
 H 
 
.50 
 
 de Lupo, and Andrea Pisano, both of Pisa, executed the 
 magnificent gates of the baptistery at Florence, with such 
 beauty and taste, as called forth the unbounded admira- 
 tion of Michael Angelo, after a lapse of two centuries. 
 The same Andrea and Nicolo adorned the cathedral of their 
 native city of Pisa with sculpture, after forming their 
 style from the study of ancient statues'. The Pisans 
 were the first who decorated public buildings with fresco 
 paintings : in the Campo Santo of that city, we can still 
 admire those early productions of Giotto, Orcagna, Ve- 
 neziano, and, at a later period, Gazzoli, whose female 
 figures are second only to RaphaeP. It was in the same 
 century, that the great canal, of thirty miles in length, 
 from the Tesino to Milan, was undertaken and finished, 
 to spread over an extensive district the fertilizing benefit 
 of water in a dry and hot climate®. The mole and the 
 
 ' Sismondi Republiques Italiennes. 
 
 ' The French were not the first who practised the art of transporting 
 fresco paintings to a distance. Vitruvius mentions, that the Romans 
 cut out plaster paintings on brick walls at Sparta, packed them up in 
 wooden cases, and transported them to Rome. 
 
 8 The rapid acquisition of wealth by the free cities of Italy, may be 
 safely ascribed to the early encouragement given to agriculture, and to 
 the few restraints on commerce and manufacture. Two of these sources 
 of wealth have passed away to other countries, yet if the governments 
 of Italy were such as they ought to be, its numerous cities and towns 
 might still be maintained in a prosperous way by agriculture alone, such 
 is the fertility and various produce of the soil, and such the benefit 
 derived from the immense works of the middle ages for the purpose of 
 irrigation. The most magnificent, and the most ancient cities, have 
 
51 
 
 magnificent aqueduct of Genoa, were completed at the 
 close of the thirteenth century; and the Pisans introduced 
 the language of Greece, and the Justinian Code, from 
 Constantinople. The emulation of the cities of Italy to 
 encourage the fine arts, demonstrates, says Sismondi, how 
 much more they are promoted under the influence of 
 free institutions, than under the luxury of absolute mo- 
 narchies. Each free city had its own historian, and 
 Dante arose in Florence. 
 
 The contending factions of the Guelphs and Ghibelines 
 engaged in constant warfare city against city, and 
 stimulated incessant tumults. While the free towns of 
 Lombardy were thus involved, ambitious nobles seized 
 the opportunity of such broils to usurp the power 
 of the people, and each became the tyrant of a city till 
 expelled by an opposite faction not less tyrannical. Yet 
 
 sprung up on tbe banks of rivers snbject to periodical overflowings over die 
 whole surrounding country. Sucb are tbe cities of Nineveh, Babylon, 
 Seleucia, and Ctesipbon on tbe Euphrates ; of Thebes, Memphis, Tentyra, 
 and many others on the Nile ; of Palebotbra, Agara, and Helabas, 
 known in modern times as Patna, Agra, and Allahabad, on tbe Ganges. 
 In warm climates, where these cities are placed, tbe periodical floods 
 give a vigour to vegetation that no rains can impart ; and, as this 
 supply of flooding w ater is perfectly regidar, food for man is raised with 
 an ease, certainty, and abundance far beyond any other district of 
 country. Hence these flooded districts became tbe granaries of suste- 
 nance to other countries. Tbe wealth thus acquired, by tbe surplus of 
 corn, or rice, gave birth to sucb magnificent cities at a very early 
 period of civilization. 
 
.52 
 
 amidst these incessant intrigues and warfare, the fine 
 arts revived ; each city rivalled its neighbour in archi- 
 tecture, and the very tyrants themselves, who usurped 
 power by murder and banishment, protected the arts and 
 patronized the historians and poets. Many of these 
 chiefs offered an asylum to the banished Dante. It was 
 at the hospitable table of Cane della Scala, chief of 
 Vicenza, that Dante became acquainted with Uguccione 
 de Faggiuola, (himself an exiled chief expelled from 
 Pisa,) to whom he dedicated the first part of his im- 
 mortal poem'’. 
 
 But by the introduction of mercenary troops in the 
 petty warfare of these free cities, the country districts, 
 hitherto exempted from the horrors of civil war, became 
 a prey to these free-booters. The peasantry were slaugh- 
 tered, or carried off to be afterwards hired out as 
 mercenaries ; their effects plundered, and their houses 
 burnt. 
 
 The consequence of such internal anarchy was the 
 erection of numberless towers and turrets to defend 
 dwellings, both in town and country. In Pisa the towers 
 could have been counted by hundreds ; and many exist 
 
 Sismondi. 
 
53 
 
 at this day in Florence and other of the cities. Castruccio 
 Castracani, recalled from banishment to Lucca, fortified 
 himself and his party in the houses of the families of 
 Honesti and Fatinelli ; and while the Guelphs, the ruling 
 party, attacked him, Ugguccione of Pisa arrives with his 
 troops at the gates, finds no opponent, makes a breach 
 in the wall, enters Lucca, and gives it up to plunder. 
 
 The necessity or desire of erecting towers of safety was 
 extended over Europe. Philip Augustus of France, in 
 1206, refused permission to the Countess of Frages to build 
 any towers in defence of her dwelling*. But when his 
 successors relaxed in their prohibition of these buildings, 
 the fashion became general, and their number was 
 indicative of the rank of the owner. Even convents 
 had towers, as shown in the examples we have given 
 from Giotto and Andrea del Sarto. But the evil became 
 intolerable in Italy. Machiavel observes that the passion 
 for raising castles and fortresses in the middle ages, did 
 more injury to society than any other of the disorders 
 of those times. Brancaleoni, the senator, called from 
 Bologna to assume the power of tribune or chief magis- 
 trate of Rome, to reform abuses and repress the licentious 
 nobles, demolished in the city and neighbourhood one 
 
 ‘ Ellis’ notes on Way’s Fabliaux. 
 
54 
 
 hundred and forty towers, the strong shelters of rapine 
 and mischief^ Many of the castles of the Italian nobility 
 fell into decay, from the jealousy of the free cities forcing 
 the owners to reside some months every year within 
 their walls. These lords soon transferred their influence, 
 power, and ascendancy, derived from birth and riches, 
 from their rural abodes to the city ; entered into all the 
 factions, and, ultimately, the most powerful acquired 
 supremacy, and destroyed the liberties of the citizens. 
 
 Yet, in spite of such a disasterous state of Italy, the 
 citizen’s love of a country life induced him to add to 
 the Lombard tower, or build upon the foundations of the 
 ancient villa ; and the tower, as a refuge, was connected 
 with the additional buildings. This combination of the 
 Lombard castle with the Tuscan style of building, and 
 of edifices founded upon the Roman arcades of a ruined 
 villa, which too had its towers sometimes remaining, 
 produced these picturesque groups of rural architecture 
 which we have selected, either from the landscapes, or 
 from the back ground of the historical works, of the 
 great painters of Italy ; from Giotto till the extinction 
 of fine painting in Italy. Of the identity of these 
 representations of buildings with the buildings actually 
 
 Gibbon, chap. Ixix. 
 
oo 
 
 existing in the days of the great painters, there can 
 be little doubt. They bear the appearance of that kind 
 of individuality which distinguishes in painting a portrait 
 from an ideal face ; and we may refer to the ancient 
 castles in Italy now existing, as displaying the same 
 character with many of the specimens we have selected'. 
 
 Several inhabited country seats have at this day the 
 tower of refuge connected with the more modern build- 
 ings. Attached to the palace of the Duke of Braschi on 
 the lake of Nemi, is a tower of great antiquity. It is 
 one hundred and twenty feet high, thirty feet in exterior 
 diameter, and the walls are five feet in thickness™. The 
 house of Torre-Paterno, belonging to a Florentine family, 
 is built round one of those old towers of the middle 
 ages, which are to be seen at short distances, throughout 
 all the campagna of Rome. The tower itself, repaired 
 a little, serves for the belvedere, and consequently rises 
 above the roof of the house". The palace of Prince Doria 
 at Nettuna, on the sea shore of the Roman territory, has 
 a portion of the building separated from the rest, and 
 connected only by a draw-bridge, which was the refuge 
 
 ' See the plate of the country residences of Solimini, the Neapo- 
 litan painter near Vesuvius, and that of the castle of Yaci near 
 Catania in Sicily. 
 
 “ Miss Knight’s Latium. 
 
 " Bonstelten, Voyage dans le Latium. 
 
66 
 
 of the family when the Saracens made an attack on the 
 coast". May not those unsightly excrescences on the top 
 of a modern Italian villa, called the Belvedere, have 
 originated from the look-out tower having been attached 
 to a country residence in the middle ages ? On viewing 
 the houses of Otranto, Castellan, himself an artist of 
 taste, recognizes in the simplicity of the mass of building, 
 in the low pitch of the roofs ending in a flat projection, 
 in their small windows placed at a distance, the style 
 in which the Italian buildings are given by its painters, 
 which differs so essentially from the constructions of 
 other countries. While in this the Italians have only 
 followed the taste of their ancestors, they have also 
 inherited their genius for that character of grandeur, 
 simplicity, and beauty, which is given to all their build- 
 ings, from the cottage to the palace 
 
 The last remains in Europe of fortified castles, yet 
 used for defence, are to be found in that wild part of 
 Greece which was the ancient Lacedaemonia. The country 
 is still full of them, the residences of independent chiefs. 
 At Bathi near Marathonesi, and not far from Mount 
 Taygetus, Anton’ Bey received most hospitably Mr. Galt 
 in his fortified castle, which is similar to our lesser 
 
 ” Miss Knight’s Latium. 
 
 Castellan, sur I’ltalie. 
 
57 
 
 baronial mansions. A scout was sent out to learn who 
 the travellers were, and conducted them to the castle. 
 In the gateway a number of retainers were assembled. 
 The court-yard was dirty with hogs confined, and poultry 
 at large. The guests ascended into the keep by a zig- 
 zag stair on the outside, so contrived as to be defensible : 
 the landing-place was moveable and served for a draw- 
 bridge : the door was narrow and opened into a hall 
 
 where soldiers were sitting : a stair led to the apartment 
 
 of the prince ; and the walls of the presence-chamber were 
 hung with arms, &c. A bed occupied the farthest corner; 
 along the sides of the room were benches covered with 
 cushions. Anton’ Bey, a strong hale carle, was sitting 
 near the bed, and beside him an old priest. He appeared 
 about sixty, and suggested the figure of Hardy-Knute : 
 opposite sat his lady ; on one side of her was a war-like 
 relation, and on the other her priest also. The old 
 chieftain received Mr. Galt with a kind, honest gladness, 
 and that military frankness which gains at once the 
 esteem of strangers. We have copied from Mr. Galt’s 
 travels the castle of Anton’ Bey; and it is to be regretted 
 that more examples of castles, and of the manners of 
 their inhabitants in this unexplored corner of Greece, 
 have not been given us''. 
 
 1 Mr. Morritt of Rockeby, passed through the district of Mauia ; 
 and SirWm.Gell was hospitably received by Anton’ Bey, who with 
 
 I 
 
58 
 
 Blit the anarchy and confusion throughout Italy, in 
 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, must have influ- 
 enced the style of architecture in the country. A fortified 
 outward wall surrounding the villa, the garden confined 
 to this enclosure, towers, with the lower windows 
 narrow, to which the family could fly from the more 
 spacious rooms of other parts of the buildings, would be 
 the character of the Italian villas during such times ; 
 and we see in many of the specimens striking evidence 
 of such architectural arrangements. It is not unlikely, that 
 the necessity of the times obliged the lord of the land 
 surrounding his villa, to admit within the enclosure of 
 his fortified wall the tenants and their families ; hence 
 those extended groups of buildings we so often meet with 
 in the old pictures, too small for a fortified village, and 
 too large for a simple villa. Many of the selected 
 examples have churches with steeples, connected with 
 the principal building. Whether these additions are of the 
 middle ages, or were erected by the early zeal of the Lom- 
 bard Baron, we cannot determine. Baths, probably, formed 
 
 his nephew is described as having bushy flaxen hair. This is most 
 singular, for flaxen hair is always accompanied with blue eyes, 
 (althougb the converse is not so certain) and these are undoubted 
 evidence of Gothic blood. If there be many with flaxen hair amongst 
 the Maniotes, either they are not Spartans, as De Paauw maintains, 
 or the Pelasgic Greeks were of Gothic descent. The Thessalians, 
 and Argonauts were decidedly of this race, if we trust to the descrip- 
 tion the poets give of Jason, Castor and Pollux, the Lapithae, &c. 
 
59 
 
 a part of the villa in those times, for the Roman custom 
 of bathing was quite general in the twelfth and thirteenth 
 century. Before knighthood was conferred, the cavalier took 
 a bath ; and it was usually offered to ladies before they sat 
 down to a festival. In the thirteenth century, the public 
 criers in Paris announced in the streets that the baths 
 were warm, and invited the passengers to enter ^ 
 
 In adopting the site for a villa close to the Lombard 
 castle, the situation would be in general upon a com- 
 manding height ; but the villa of the middle ages, founded 
 on the Roman, would be oftener on the slope of a hill. 
 That necessity of construction and situation in the middle 
 ages, influenced perhaps the style and taste of villas in 
 Italy in after times, when “ all was peace and har- 
 mony.” 
 
 “ An Italian wisely considers the architecture of a 
 house as connected with its position, precisely as he 
 meditates a picture with reference to the light in which 
 it is to be placed. In an elevated situation the formal 
 garden is inclosed with a low wall. In other situations 
 it is higher. Besides the iron gates, there are long 
 narrow windows in this wall, and what is without the 
 
 ^ Sec notes to Way’s Translation of the Fablieaux. 
 
60 
 
 garden, the Italian leaves to the farmer. The charac- 
 teristic of the Italian village, as well as the Italian town, 
 is picturesque elegance. The remote origin of this 
 elegance seems to have been the magnificence of the 
 Italians when “ wealth was theirs,” and the impulse 
 continued after the cessation of the cause. Architecture 
 has survived many of the sister arts. With plenty of 
 materials, and with cheap manual labour, every thing is 
 done with stability, and the climate comes in aid of the 
 art. Porticos and arcades form cheap and pleasant 
 apartments, and are conducive even to the purposes of 
 their husbandry ; but there is an hereditary passion for 
 architecture among the Italians, who are instinctively 
 picturesque, and are, properly speaking, an architectural 
 people*.” 
 
 The present country seats of the Italians have been, 
 more or less, copied by most civilized nations of Europe, 
 celebrated by poets, visited and admired by travellers : 
 they have not, however, been described or represented 
 as they deserve. They are arranged so as to produce 
 the best effect ; and advantage of the nature of the site 
 has been taken with admirable skill. The regularity of 
 the gardens is, as it were, an accompanying decoration 
 
 ’ Rose’s Letter from the North of Italy. 
 
01 
 
 and support to the architecture. The architecture, sculp- 
 ture, and gardens of these villas are often designed by 
 the same hand, and concur in the general eftect to 
 produce perfect harmony'. 
 
 Many of the great painters besides Michael Angelo 
 were architects. Raphael superintended the building of 
 St. Peter’s for a time. He built a few palaces and 
 churches ; and we hope to see published a collection of 
 his original architectural designs, found in the valuable 
 library at Holkham. Julio Romano planned several 
 buildings in Mantua : Dominichuino is said to have been 
 too picturesque in his city buildings : Paul Veronese was 
 an architect of great merit ; and even Pietro da Cortona 
 practised extensively in this branch of the fine arts. 
 
 The description of an Italian villa built in the time of 
 these painters deserves the notice of our architect^. The 
 palace of Caprarola is situated on the summit of Mount 
 Cimino near Viterbo ; below, is the village of the same 
 name, of which the principal street runs in a direct line 
 down the descent from the front of the building, but with 
 a sufiicient space between them. A double stair, partly 
 direct partly curved, with terraced landing-places. 
 
 ‘ Castellan sur I’ltalie. 
 
decorated with balustrades, leads to the palace. 
 Entrances under the terraces of the stairs conduct to 
 the under-ground parts of the building. The form of 
 the palace is a pentagon flanked by five bastions, 
 surrounded by a sunk area. Hence, there is a mixture 
 of civil and military architecture that has a good effect. 
 The palace is built in two orders of architecture; the 
 one Ionic, with semicircular-headed windows ; the upper, 
 Corinthian, comprehending both the first floor and the 
 mezzanini above. Within the pentagonal figure is included 
 a circle, comprehending the court, the porticos, the offices 
 and stairs. The decorations of the whole and the parts 
 are executed with much skill. Although the entire 
 edifice is not great, yet the parts are on a great scale 
 apparently. In this the architect has displayed much 
 talent ; but his skill is in the impression of solidity which 
 he has given to the building. Advantage is taken of the 
 site, as up to the first story he has made use of the 
 hill itself, which is of tufa. All the sunk areas and 
 under-ground parts are cut out of the solid rock. The 
 interior court, which is covered in, has its roof supported 
 by a hollow column, which receives all the rain water, and 
 all around is a grand circular corridore. This was pro- 
 bably copied from the ancient circular building near the 
 circus of Caracalla. 
 
03 
 
 The gardens, close to this palace, are laid out with 
 taste in different stages, following the slope of the hill, 
 and present a great variety of stairs, fountains, statues, 
 alleys of trees, and flower-plots, terminated by a fine 
 summer-house, or casino. 
 
 This palace is a model of elegance and solidity, 
 without any extravagance or caprice in the design, and 
 does the greatest credit to Vignola the architect, who 
 painted the interior perspective part, while the ceilings, 
 staircase, and rooms were executed by Zucchero and 
 Tempesta, under the direction of A. Caracci”. 
 
 In France, it was only in the reign of Louis XIV. that 
 royal palaces and pleasure-houses in the country were 
 erected, free from towers, and donjons, and draw-bridges. 
 Terraces and parterres, pleasure-grounds and parks, suc- 
 ceeded, which were enclosed with low walls and entered 
 by gates of open iron work, indicating rather the boundary 
 than the defence of the property. In the Netherlands 
 most of the ancient country houses are surrounded with 
 water, have a regular draw-bridge, a tower gateway 
 beyond it, leading into a square court. The principal 
 living rooms are on the first floor, and the windows of 
 
 “ See Milizio on the Fine Arts. 
 
G1 
 
 the ground floor are small, and secured by iron gratings. 
 Many examples may be seen in the fine etchings of Rade- 
 maker. Besides the well known castles on the banks of 
 the Rhine, there are said to be a very great number of 
 singularly fortified dwellings in Alsace and Lorraine, and in 
 parts of Swabia. The two first have been seldom visited 
 by our travellers, although Alsace is in the highest state 
 of very superior cultivation, and Lorraine comprehends 
 the most picturesque scenery in France, the district of 
 the Vosges. In Sweden there are very few stone- 
 built country residences prior to the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. Those erected since surprise us by their magnificence 
 and extent ; for many built on the banks of lakes, 
 have at the end of the parterre small harbours decorated 
 with parapets, stairs, and balustrades, which add much 
 to the grandeur of the building, and are united to it by 
 the offices and parterre*. 
 
 * V. Suecia Hodierna. 
 
05 
 
 DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE of ENGLAND. 
 
 After the cessation of the wars of the families of York 
 and Lancaster, the fortified style of architecture was 
 gradually abandoned in England ; and as we had no 
 other model of domestic architecture than the gable-end 
 cottage, by the duplication of this simple form, in various 
 positions, was constructed what has been called the old 
 English Manor-house style. If we take a common two- 
 floored English gable-end cottage, add to it one, two, or 
 three cottages, side by side, of the same size ; and, in 
 order to gain rooms out of the roof on the sides of this 
 double or triple cottage, raise gable-ends either pro- 
 jecting from the ground to the top of the roof, or merely 
 
 K 
 
raised from the eaves drop ; if we insert broad low windows, 
 divided by simple wooden or stone mullions, in these 
 projecting gable-ends, and similar windows at the ends 
 of this double or triple cottage ; ornament the inclined 
 sides of the gable-ends above the eaves drop, by steps, 
 or small pinnacles, or both; then add a parapet, plain 
 or embattled, we have a manor-house in the most florid 
 style. Many such houses came afterwards to be adorned 
 by a centre of architectural decorations, in which Roman, 
 Grecian, and Gothic were strangely mixed. There is, 
 however, a certain degree of antique-like grandeur in such 
 houses which produces a very striking impression. This 
 step towards a better style took place before the time 
 of Inigo Jones. 
 
 We have found only one example, from Paul Veronese, 
 of any house in ancient paintings similar to our gable- 
 end Manor-houses. But the reason is obvious : the 
 
 Italian roofs were of a very low pitch, and the part 
 directly under the roof was, and is still employed as, 
 a drying chamber, or for store rooms ; and in some 
 houses as cool chambers open all round to enjoy the 
 breeze and shade. It was unfortunate that the Italian 
 villa architecture of that period was not copied in Eng- 
 land. The Italian decorations of terraces and parterres 
 were imported through France and Flanders; but the 
 
G7 
 
 Manor-house style ill assorted with the accompanyment, 
 and when our taste improved, as we imagined, the de- 
 corations were sacrificed. But had the old English 
 mansion been more stately and grand, and the choice 
 of the site adapted to the decorations, we should have 
 regretted the destruction of those unjustly ridiculed gar- 
 dens. Inigo Jones, our first architect of taste and genius, 
 introduced the mixt Greek and Roman architecture, and 
 often added them to our own national style; but at a 
 long interval. Lord Burlington shewed us the beauty of 
 the pure Palladian architecture. 
 
 An original genius for picturesque effect arose in 
 Sir John Vanbrugh, whose character we transcribe from 
 one high in authority for taste and judgment. “ To 
 speak of Vanbrugh in the language of a painter, he had 
 originality of invention ; he understood light and shadow, 
 and had great skill in composition. To support his 
 principal object, he produced his second and third groups 
 or masses. He perfectly understood in his art, what 
 is the most difficult in ours, the conduct of the back 
 ground ; by which the design and invention is set off 
 to the greatest advantage. What the back ground is in 
 painting, in architecture is the real ground on which the 
 building is erected, and no architect took greater care 
 than he that his work should not appear crude and hard. 
 
r>8 
 
 that it did not abruptly start out of the ground without 
 expectation or preparation This character of Vanbrugh 
 has been more recently supported by Sir Uvedale Price, 
 another great authority in taste, as an architect who 
 boldly set rules, and purity of style, and elegance at 
 defiance, yet produced what will be admired as long as 
 the English nation shall continue to exist, Blenheim and 
 Castle Howard. But Vanbrugh as an architect was 
 not understood for nearly a century, and the line he 
 shewed was not followed up perhaps because unmerited 
 ridicule was thrown upon his works by the wits of the 
 day, who, swayed only by party motives, levelled their 
 satire against what they wanted taste to appreciate. To 
 the Palladian villas succeeded the Roman style, in which 
 the two brothers, the Adams, excelled beyond all com- 
 petitors. But when a taste for any particular style of 
 architecture passes away, it is too common to laud the 
 new and decry the old, without measure and reason. 
 We may safely allow the Grecian school the first place 
 in architectural rank; but for domestic application, the 
 Italian is decidedly more useful, and within the reach 
 of our comforts and habits ; and in these objects, we 
 consider the Grecian quite out of place for a country 
 residence. But in passing from the Italian decorated style. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds’ Discourses. 
 
 ft' 
 
 X 
 
we rail into the opposite extreme; and the most clumsy 
 mass of masonry, that any country ever produced, was 
 adopted. It was a tasteless lieavy cube, with no other 
 claim to any style than a pediment projecting' a few 
 inches beyond the centre division of the front wall, 
 generally unsupported either by columns or pilasters ; 
 and this architectural elevation was termed the Grecian 
 style. M’hile under the influence or fashion of this 
 
 wretched style, mere working masons started up as 
 
 architects; and the man of taste, who travelled to acquire 
 a knowledge of his profession, and studied on the spot 
 the models of Greece and Rome, was about to be set 
 
 aside. To this style, (not yet entirely banished,) have 
 
 succeeded the castellated, termed Gothic, and the priory- 
 styles ; and, in many cases, a mixture of both, where 
 the castle, the cloister, and the chapel arc joined 
 
 together in a manner not very intelligible ; where the 
 towers are mere stair-cases, the cloisters public rooms, 
 and the chapel is a good useful kitchen. Either on 
 account of the expense, or by the incongruity of the 
 building, this style also is at a stand, and the irregular 
 country house is likely to be in fashion. 
 
 Some few attem])ts,” says Mr. Payne Knight, have 
 lately been made to adaj)t the exterior forms of country 
 houses to the various character of the surrounding 
 
70 
 
 scenery, by spreading them out into irregular masses.” 
 “ In all marked deviations from the ordinary style of the 
 age and country in which we live, the great difficulty 
 is to avoid trick and affectation, which seem to be inse- 
 parable from buildings made in imitation of any obsolete 
 or unusual style ; for as the design of almost every age 
 and country, has a particular character, these imitations 
 are scarcely ever in perfect harmony and congruity 
 throughout ; but generally proclaim themselves, at first 
 sight, to be mere counterfeits ; which however beautiful 
 to the eye, necessarily excite unpleasant ideas in the 
 mind. A house may be adorned with towers and bat- 
 tlements, or pinnacles and flying buttresses ; but it should 
 still maintain the character of a house of the age and 
 country in which it is erected ; and not pretend to be a 
 fortress or monastery of a remote period or distant 
 country : for such false pretensions never escape detec- 
 tion, and, when detected, necessarily excite those sen- 
 timents, which exposed imposture never fails to excite^.” 
 
 '' Knight’s Principles of Taste. 
 
71 
 
 LANDSCAPE ARCH IT EC TURK 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ITALIAN PAINTERS. 
 
 It is due to the talents and taste of Mr. Payne Knight 
 to acknowledge, that this work has originated from the 
 following observation of his in the “ Analytical Inquiry 
 into the Principles of Taste.” “ The best style of archi- 
 tecture for irregular and picturesque houses, which can 
 now be adopted, is that mixed style which characterizes 
 the buildings of Claude and the Poussins : for as it is taken 
 from models which were built piece-meal, during many 
 successive ages ; and by several different nations, it is 
 distinguished by no particular manner of execution, or 
 class of ornaments ; but admits of all promiscuously, 
 from a plain wall or buttress, of the roughest masonr3^ 
 
72 
 
 to the most highly wrought Corinthian capital : and, in 
 a style professedly miscellaneous, such contrasts may be 
 employed to heighten the relish of beauty, without dis- 
 turbing the enjoyment of it by any appearance of 
 deceit or imposture. In a matter, however, which affords 
 so wide a field for the licentious deviations of whim 
 and caprice, it may be discreet always to pay some 
 attention to authority ; especially when we have such 
 authorities as those of the great landscape painters 
 above-mentioned ; the study of whose works may at once 
 enrich and restrain invention^” We could with advantage 
 extend our extracts from this author on taste, on the 
 choice of situations for a country house, and on those 
 studies of the picturesque, which our architects should 
 enter into, to qualify themselves to adapt the house to 
 the site, and to unite the building to the ground, and 
 both to the surrounding style of scenery. 
 
 Mr. Knight had not, perhaps, looked into the back 
 grounds of the historical works of the great painters, for 
 that mixed style of architecture he observed in the great 
 masters of landscape ; but from Raphael, Dominichino, 
 Titian, Julio Romano, and Michael Angelo, we have 
 extracted some picturesque examples worthy of the atten- 
 
 ' Knight’s Principles of Taste. 
 
73 
 
 tioii of our architects. It is not our meaning to recom- 
 mend any one example as a specimen of an irregular 
 building to be copied by our architects. We have made 
 the selection entirely in the view of supplying them with 
 a new source of studies, for the composition of irregular 
 dwellings, in that mixed style of architecture pointed out 
 by Mr. Knight. 
 
 In this style for country residences, there are impor- 
 tant advantages which deserve to be brought into notice. 
 Whether for comfort and convenience, for gratifying taste 
 or fashion, additional rooms appropriated for new pur- 
 poses are often requisite. Formerly a gallery, although 
 there were no works of art to fill it, was a necessary 
 part of a mansion. Of late years the billiard-room and 
 the conservatory enter into the arrangements of an archi- 
 tect ; and a suit of well planned nursery-rooms have 
 been made a necessary part of the plan of a country 
 mansion. The gallery is again about to resume its 
 importance ; and perhaps we may, hereafter, imitate the 
 Romans in having covered walks contiguous to the house, 
 in order to enjoy fresh air in the many rainy and snowy 
 days, at a country residence in an English winter. The 
 irregular style admits of such additions, and loses nothing 
 of the picturesque effect. The exterior decorations of 
 terraces, parterres, stairs of communication, and different 
 
 L 
 
74 
 
 gardens, filled with groups of the many flowering shrubs 
 and plants introduced lately into Britain, are admi- 
 rably in harmony with this style of architecture. While 
 we thus decorate closely around the house, it becomes 
 less necessary to sacrifice so much to the park®. 
 
 The masonry of such irregular architecture requires not 
 the expensive labour bestowed on a Grecian or Roman 
 mansion. The whole should be in rough rubble-work, 
 excepting the parapets, the corners, the windows, and 
 doors. Many very good designs of castellated dwellings 
 have been, in the execution, deprived of their effect by 
 being built of smooth hewn free-stone. If circular or 
 square towers are introduced in a composition of the 
 irregular style, they should, in every case, be of great 
 dimensions, as much for their being applied to useful 
 rooms, as to produce that grandeur of appearance 
 which bulk in towers always gives. In the groups of 
 buildings in some of these specimens will be found the 
 dome, but we have not been able to trace to what pur- 
 pose it was applied in the middle ages ; whether it was 
 the remains of the Roman villa, or an erection in the 
 
 * At Driimlaiirig in Dumfriessliire, a seat of the Duke of Buc- 
 cleugh, built in the Italian villa style about the year 1685, the 
 terraces, and flower gardens, immediately under the windows, have 
 been restored with the happiest effect. 
 
75 
 
 times of the painters : as a library, a picture gallery, 
 
 a music-room, or even dining-room, it might in the 
 present day be used ; and in picturesque effect, joined 
 to other buildings, nothing can be finer than the dome. 
 
 In selecting examples of landscape architecture from 
 the pictures of Italy, we have avoided those in the 
 foreground or in street architecture, as well as those, 
 (such as in Claude,) which had so much Grecian or Roman 
 ruins attached to them as gave them the air of compo- 
 sition architecture of the artist. Those taken from the 
 historical works of the great masters were, in their pictures, 
 placed in the back ground, either to connect the ground 
 and throw off the distance, or to fill up too much 
 vacancy in the off'-scape. 
 
 If we may judge of this incidental architecture of the 
 great painters of Italy, we cannot pronounce it either 
 Grecian, or Roman, or Gothic. It is evidently of 
 different periods, fortuitously formed by additions made 
 either to a tower, or to ranges of substructions of an 
 ancient date, as suited the convenience or habits of the 
 owners. Its picturesque effect is produced by contrast 
 and disposition of large broad masses and extended lines, 
 which inevitably lead to grandeur. In the outline against 
 the sky, there is a balanced variety, if we may so express 
 
76 
 
 it, but devoid of that over-done irregularity which hurts 
 the eye more than plain unvaried lines : nor are the 
 
 towers so crowded upon one another, as we have seen 
 in some modern irregular architecture ; but well placed 
 projections in the line of the buildings produce their full 
 effect of light and shade*'. In executing such a style 
 of rural buildings, there is more scope for the taste, 
 invention, and dexterity of the architect than in common 
 regular plans. On his taste, as he is not bound to any 
 rules, must depend the general effect of his composition, 
 adapted for the site ; on his invention, for the produc- 
 tion of those broad masses and varied outline ; and on 
 his dexterity, for the appropriation of so irregular a 
 building to the wants, convenience, and comforts required 
 in a country house, suitable to the habits and fortune of 
 the proprietor. Throwing aside the trammels of the 
 regular Greek and Roman school of architecture, an 
 
 endless variety opens up to the architect. In these 
 
 schools certain fixed proportions and arrangement of 
 
 parts are already laid down to him. He can only 
 
 slightly depart from the standard : he may transpose, 
 
 but cannot invent : he may load with ornament merely 
 
 A friend of taste and discernment has on this subject often 
 exclaimed, “ Give me but the management of the doors and 
 window, chimnies and sky-line of a house, although the front 
 be as flat as a cotton mill, I can contrive to make it picturesque.” 
 
77 
 
 to hide the copy : and thus the simple front is broken up 
 by columns, or half, or quarter columns, and pilasters, 
 supporting pediments raised up on arcades, or on a kind 
 of stylo-bate reaching to the first floor. The architect, 
 besides, can without difficulty indulge his employer in 
 that desire, which many have, to build a house not 
 exactly like to any other. This irregular style requires 
 no ornaments, yet they may be admitted in the 
 cornices, the windows, and door-ways, so as to accord 
 with the irregular style, and, at the same time, not 
 diminish the general effect of the edifice. Modern regular 
 architecture some years ago ran into excess of orna- 
 ment ; and such excess is sure to make great buildings 
 look small by dividing the whole into many parts, not 
 obviously connected. It is almost needless to add, that 
 what has been said of this irregular style applies entirely 
 to country residences. In city architecture, the Grecian, 
 the Roman, the Italian, and the Tuscan, can alone be 
 employed. 
 
 Although we have limited our examples of picturesque 
 buildings to the Italian masters, there are many of the 
 Dutch school of painting, who, having learnt their art in 
 Italy, have, in their best pictures, Italian scenery, and 
 peasantry dressed in the costume of that country; such 
 as Berghem, Both, Jan Asselyn, Bremberg, and others. 
 
78 
 
 But there is one of this school, who perhaps never 
 quitted his native country, from whose works we wished 
 to draw some examples. Rembrandt’s ideas of grandeur 
 in architecture kept pace with the solemn drapery of 
 his figures, and the imposing effect and vigour of his 
 colouring. Whenever he introduces buildings of stone, 
 they are always of the most massive nature. The door- 
 ways are in deep walls ; the porches, of heavy stone 
 work, boldly project ; the windows and alcoves are scooped 
 out of thick masonry ; and his columns are of the old 
 Doric proportions. In the interior of his buildings, he 
 has solid Saxon arches and columns, distributed in a 
 very picturesque manner, with heavy winding stairs. 
 But after a careful examination of a very complete col- 
 lection of his etchings, we have not been able to select 
 a detached building, or group of architecture. 
 
 There is no doubt that many of these buildings we 
 have selected, may have been improved from the fancy 
 of the painter ; but it is as probable, that he formed in 
 his mind these architectural combinations from what 
 he had seen in the country, and had committed to his 
 sketch-book. However that may be, from their works, 
 added to an actual examination of the remains of the 
 country architecture in Italy of the middle ages, our 
 architects may acquire a never failing store of picturesque 
 
79 
 
 buildings. In copying some of these sketches, as we 
 sometimes had little else given than the walls and towers, 
 without windows or doors, we have been obliged to add 
 them, but strictly according to the figure of the windows 
 used in the middle ages, and arranged from other 
 examples. Whenever, especially with examples from 
 Claude, the site of the villa was striking, we have 
 preserved a similar situation, but several of the specimens 
 from historical paintings had nothing marked in site, or 
 accompaniment of trees. The trees and ground without 
 the walls of the villa are, therefore, no part of the 
 painter’s work. 
 
 The additions to some of the old buildings in Claude’s 
 pictures, are evidently more modern than those in the 
 works of the older painters. To the finest buildings, the 
 painters sometimes added open wooden sheds, and low 
 mean buildings : these we have ventured to remove. 
 
 Few examples have been taken from the landscapes of 
 Nicolo Poussin, because his architecture is in a grand 
 regular style, and seldom partakes of that fortuitous 
 
 class of irregular buildings to which we limit our work. 
 
 There is a very important part of a building which 
 demands attention. Chimnies, in our northern climate, 
 are most necessary for every chamber, and as they 
 
80 
 
 must rise above the roof, and cannot be hidden, we 
 should convert a deformity into a source of picturesque 
 ornament. Our ancestors certainly managed to render 
 chimnies ornamental : their columns or groups are well 
 known, and even their various square chimnies, have 
 architectural designs of much merit. But the Italians 
 themselves, are alive to this decoration. Mr. Williams, 
 an artist of great merit, tells us, “ that the noble cornices 
 projected from the roof, supported on ornamental brackets, 
 are adopted by all the great Italian architects, and give 
 an air of great dignity to the buildings. In approaching 
 buildings so situated, that the lower part of them is 
 concealed, we find that their character depends chiefly 
 on the form of the roof and chimnies. This is more 
 particularly the case in Italy, where more variety and 
 taste is occasionally displayed in the chimnies, than in 
 the buildings to which they belong. The homely and 
 inelegant appearance of our chimnies, contrasted with the 
 beauty of the buildings, is extremely offensive to the eye 
 of taste. It is not easy to account for the neglect of 
 British architects, to this important part of our edifices. 
 In Calabria, and other parts of Italy, and the Ionian 
 Islands, we were forcibly struck with the consequence 
 which the beauty of chimnies impart to the character of 
 the whole building'.” 
 
 ' See Williams’ Travels in Italy and Greece. 
 
81 
 
 The numerous pictures and drawings of Claude, have 
 aftbrded several examples of picturesque buildings ; but 
 we have not been able to select many from the village 
 groups of buildings in the works of Caspar Poussin. 
 Indeed Sir Uvedale Price has, with much taste, already 
 remarked, that although Caspar’s grounds are the most 
 picturesque, we may venture to add, the most poetical, 
 of any painter, yet his buildings in general are extremely 
 plain : while Claude, on the other hand, selected most 
 picturesque buildings in landscapes of long extended 
 smooth scenery. Both of these great painters were in this 
 influenced by the effect of contrast. M. de Castellan 
 supposes, that the natural beauty of scenery in Italy 
 being so common every where in that country, — the very 
 elements of an English garden, — in order to form a 
 contrast, the Italian adopted around his villa the formal 
 style of pleasure ground ; alleys of trees, trimmed ever- 
 greens, fountains, and cascades : and by architectural 
 decoration of stairs, of built terraces, and balustrades, the 
 garden became united to the villa, and the whole was 
 in contrast to the natural picturesque scenery of the 
 country. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of Italy placed their dwellings 
 on high situations, or on an elevated site of abrupt 
 ground. The Italians of the middle ages followed their 
 
 w 
 
82 
 
 example in many of their towns and villages. The 
 
 motive was to combine security with health. Italy has 
 been subject to mal-aria from the earliest periods on 
 record. The master of a Roman villa enjoyed his 
 
 extensive views, and boasted of his varied prospect, in 
 despite of the lurking foe in the plains below. In 
 Elngland, the foot of a gentle slope was selected, when 
 mansions of consequence were erected after the destruction 
 of castles ; and a similar site was continued to a late 
 period. Shelter and warmth, objects of the first importance 
 in a northern climate, and frequently the command of 
 water for domestic use, influenced the position. Many 
 prefer walking to a prospect, and feel not the dull out- 
 look of a flat lawn meagrely sprinkled with trees : but 
 others again delight in extensive views from the windows 
 as varied as possible ; — delight too in the ever-varying 
 effects of clouds, throwing by their shadows the distant 
 landscape into an endless diversity of appearance, in 
 days when we can scarcely venture abroad. 
 
 Although our temperate climate is below the heat 
 requisite to form genuine mal-aria, we have still in 
 many situations our autumnal plagues, yet less fatal 
 than the plague of Italy. The slow running sedgey 
 streams, and meadows subject to floods, are too much 
 
83 
 
 connected with fever and ague in adults, and with that 
 fell foe, the croup, in children. 
 
 But the beauty and picturesque effect, which we wish 
 to create, must be founded on common sense. The 
 arrangement of the domestic landscape is a portion 
 of that art which determines the form and position of 
 the house, and should be made subservient to our comforts 
 and convenience ; hence we may include all gardens in 
 this space. The limitation of our decorations round the 
 house has the recommendation of cheapness, and of 
 coming into full effect in a short time. 
 
 The scooping out hollows, the raising mounts, levelling 
 inequalities, and the formation of artificial ground in 
 extensive parks, have never been practised in Italy; and 
 in the flat countries of England, such attempts to create 
 variety of surface, have brought landscape gardening into 
 repute only for unlimited and useless expense. What 
 may be effected in the tamest country by wood alone, 
 we may form some conception of, by a visit to any 
 remains of our ancient forests, where we may remark 
 the beauty of many varied lawns and recesses, cleared 
 out by accident. By such scenery, the proper study 
 of a landscape gardener, a small space of ground, beyond 
 the artificial decorations round the house, may give 
 
84 
 
 the impression of extent, (if extent be necessary to 
 be impressed upon the visitor,) and will generally be 
 found to produce more real satisfaction than the bound- 
 less park. 
 
 When unexpected effects are produced in other 
 countries, by means not at all in concordance with our 
 notions of garden scenery, they deserve, however, con- 
 sideration. We allude to the Persian gardens, as described 
 by Sir R. K. Porter ; but allowance should be made 
 for a clear and brilliant atmosphere, and the cooling 
 impression of water in motion, so grateful in a warm 
 climate. 
 
 “ The prevailing plan of Persian gardens is that of 
 long parallel walks, shaded by even rows of tall umbra- 
 geous planes ; interspersed with a variety of fruit trees, 
 and every kind of flowering shrub. Canals flow down 
 the avenues in the same undeviating lines, and generally 
 terminate in some large marble basins of square or octagon 
 shapes, containing sparkling fountains. Formal as this 
 may seem, and, therefore, the reverse of picturesque, 
 the effect was amazingly grand. The number of avenues 
 and canals formed so extended a sylvan scene, that, 
 when viewed from any point, it appeared a vast wood, 
 with thousands of brilliant rills gliding amongst thickets.” 
 
85 
 
 It should be observed, that the Persians are not 
 content with one fountain in a canal or basin, but often 
 have many small low jets, to keep the whole surface 
 of the water in agitation, and to heighten the sparkling 
 effects through the foliage. Would not a small canal 
 near the mansion, thus managed, and surrounded with 
 overhanging ever-green and other shrubs, become a most 
 interesting part of home scenery ? 
 
 In recommending to architects to study the picturesque 
 effects of buildings, the site adapted for them, and those 
 accompaniments of terraces, gardens, and other decora- 
 tions, to set off their architectural designs, we are 
 influenced by the desire to raise and extend the theory 
 and the practice to what we consider belongs to the 
 art. It was thus in Italy, when the fine arts werei n 
 perfection, in laying out great villas by artists who 
 often combined the practice of painting and architecture; 
 and until it be adopted in Britain, the designs of the 
 architect never will have justice done to them in the 
 execution. Our parks may be beautiful, our mansions 
 faultless in design, but nothing is more rare than to see 
 the two properly connected. We need not repeat the 
 just remarks of Sir Uvedale Price on this subject. Let 
 the architect, by study and observation, qualify himself 
 to include in his art the decorations around the immediate 
 
86 
 
 site of the intended building, and the extended taste 
 among the gentry of England will second him. Already 
 there is a strong inclination to banish the plans of 
 the ^jholsterer for the furnishing of a house. In several 
 houses recently built, both in town and in the country, 
 the taste of the architect has been called in, to give 
 designs for the arrangement of curtains, for grates, pier- 
 tables, chairs and sophas**. In every instance, we have 
 remarked the superior chasteness of the designs, and the 
 harmony of the whole with the architectural style of the 
 rooms, and with the different uses to which the rooms 
 are appropriated. For the encouragement of painting 
 and carving, we expect soon to see one very important 
 advance in interior decoration. Nothing strikes foreigners 
 more than the great want of architectural designs in our 
 living rooms. A flat white ceiling with a stucco cornice 
 prevails in all. Some little decoration round the doors 
 and windows are given ; but the walls in the dining 
 room are painted a plain colour; and in the drawing 
 room, an unmeaning gaudy-coloured paper, or pale scroll 
 figured one, occupies the wall from the ceiling to the 
 floor. If the decorations of the age of Louis XIV. 
 
 In the paintings of the Interior of a house by the great masters, 
 our architects will often find decorations of a room and its furniture 
 well worthy of tlieir study. 
 
87 
 
 were overcharged and expensive, too heavy or too 
 frittered, we certainly have gone into the opposite 
 extreme; and so strong is the current, that few architects 
 propose interior decoration, and but few have ever made 
 it their study. The walls of our rooms are therefore 
 never in harmony with the ceiling, which appears to 
 have no support, nor united in effect with the floor. 
 Strip our rooms of their gaudy carpets, of the tables, and 
 chairs, and sophas, crowded together like an upholsterer’s 
 shop, and there is not a more wretched looking ap- 
 pearance than the empty rooms of a fashionable house. 
 This is not the case in other countries : in Italy, the 
 ceilings are painted, the walls have, if not occupied by 
 pictures, fresco designs between architectural decorations : 
 In France, the principal hotels of Paris still retain the 
 ornamental work of Louis XIV. and XV'., and even in 
 Holland, in many houses, the painter is still called in 
 to decorate with landscapes in oil the principal rooms ; 
 the canvass being extended from the cieling to the 
 floor and round the whole room. Why may we not 
 employ also the artist, and decorate our living rooms 
 
 ' The splendid, perhaps too florid, interior decorations of the 
 St. James’s Club, in the early style of Louis XV., do much credit to 
 the architect, and may lead to a better style in rooms of great houses. 
 It shews at least that we have architects to design, and workmen to 
 execute, the most decorative embellishments. 
 
B8 
 
 with perspective designs in destemper? If the impulse 
 were once given, the pleasing effects in a suite of 
 rooms by candle light, would render the practice general. 
 If wealth continue to be so unequally distributed, and 
 to accumulate in, comparatively, few hands, there cannot 
 surely be a better application of the superfluity than 
 by thus giving support to the fine arts. But the culti- 
 vation of the highest style of architecture, whether for 
 public edifices or private dwellings, encourages sculpture, 
 painting, gardening, and many other of the decorative 
 arts. These arts have direct and important influence 
 
 on most branches of manufactures ; for design, combined 
 with taste, commands the approbation and ensures the 
 demand of other civilized nations for articles to which 
 it is applied : and we should ever bear in mind, that 
 in the workmanship of things required in common life, 
 taste is closely allied to utility. 
 
 The primitive times have been, from the dawn of 
 
 poetry, held up to the imagination as the days of 
 
 innocence and virtue ; and moralists have maintained, that 
 the absence of the fine arts is favourable to the morals, 
 and industry, to the energy, and independence of a 
 
 people ; while their cultivation laid nations open to the 
 inroads of enervating luxury, and debilitating refinement. 
 
89 
 
 But the history of these arts disprove altogether such 
 theories. 
 
 In Egypt, their cradle, they flourished most when she 
 was a powerful country, and had rendered her narrow 
 territory, the most fertile. In Greece, they arrived at 
 perfection when more energy of intellect and more splendid 
 deeds were displayed than perhaps the world may ever 
 again contemplate and admire. In Asia Minor, they 
 were maintained while the successors of Alexander, with 
 a handful of Greeks, kept in submission, and, at the 
 same time, enlightened the former subjects of the great 
 Persian monarchy. In Italy, they concentrated from 
 subdued states, and were cherished when “ the empire of 
 Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and 
 the most civilized portion of mankind when “ the 
 gentle, but powerful influence of laws and manners had 
 gradually cemented the union of the provinces^” And 
 again, after a dark period of intervening barbarism, the 
 descendants of the Romans restored to light, almost 
 miraculously, the treasures of ancient wisdom ; the phi- 
 losophy, the history, and jurisprudence, the poetry, and 
 oratory of Greece and of Rome : all Europe became 
 
 gradually enlightened by this collected knowledge, which 
 
 * Gibbon, chap. i. 
 
 K 
 
90 
 
 has left us ' little else to do on such subjects, than to 
 expand, to vary, and to imitate: — then did the fine arts 
 revive and flourish, while every petty state of Italy 
 displayed a vigour and energy, not unworthy of the 
 Grecian aera. 
 
 These are the periods most illustrious in the history 
 of mankind, and most brilliant in the annals of the 
 fine arts^ 
 
 ^ If we have dwelt but sparingly on landscape architecture, and 
 on the surrounding scenery ; on the effect of the mixture of trees and 
 picturesque buildings, it is because the ground has been most ably 
 preoccupied : and to abridge might only weaken the admirable 
 
 “ Essays on Decoration, and on Architecture,” by Sir Uvedale Price. 
 
 When the original picture or drawing of the building had no decided 
 scenery, our artist has indulged his taste in decorating the fore-ground. 
 
91 
 
 TUSCAN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 There is yet a style of architecture which has long 
 lain hid from us, and which can only be studied in the 
 country that gave it birth. It is the Tuscan architec- 
 ture, that took its rise in the north of Italy, on the 
 first revival of the arts in the free cities, and beyond 
 which it has never yet travelled. While the Grecian, 
 the Roman, the Gothic, the Indian, and even the 
 Chinese, have passed in review before us ; the Tuscan, 
 
 the most manly, firm, imposing, and on the large scale 
 
 ✓ 
 
 the most allied to grandeur and stateliness, is quite 
 unknown to us. This is the more remarkable, because 
 if architecture be in its style characteristic of the people 
 
92 
 
 who practise it, the Tuscan should peculiarly be adopted 
 and naturalized in Britain. 
 
 The Italians justly complain, that the rest of Europe 
 has never truly appreciated their merit in the restora- 
 tion of the arts and sciences after centuries of impene- 
 trable darkness. Is it because we pass over the period 
 of the middle ages, and form in our mind the contrast 
 between the best days of the ancient republic, and the 
 subdued, divided, nerveless descendants of the present 
 day ; and with a churchman too, ruler in the capitol ? 
 Even the great historian Gibbon has rather overlooked, 
 or only slightly noticed, the rise and progress of the 
 Italian republics, and their claim as revivers of literature 
 and the fine arts. 
 
 We may conjecture, without much indulgence of the 
 fancy, that this massive and commanding style of the 
 Tuscan architecture arose from the character of the 
 people. The Florentines were conspicuous among the other 
 ' Italians, as a bold and ingenious race ; but the dreadful 
 feuds which convulsed their city and stained their 
 annals, were perhaps the natural consequences of a high- 
 minded people contending for renown, and kept in a 
 constant agitation and struggle for independance. The 
 Tuscan style which began in Pisa, was adopted with 
 
93 
 
 energy in Florence, and carried at once to its full effect. 
 This architecture has been admirably described by one, 
 whose genius and taste leave us to regret that untimely 
 death, which deprived the public of many invaluable 
 remarks on the fine arts of Italy. 
 
 “ Each building has a superb architectural elevation of 
 a square and bulky form, of a grand and gloomy aspect, 
 with a plain front built of huge dark grey stones, each 
 measuring three or four feet. A coarse rubble-work rises 
 in a solid form to twenty or thirty feet in height. A 
 great grooved stylobate sets off the building from the 
 street, forming a seat which runs the whole length of 
 the front. The first range of windows are ten feet from 
 the ground. The front of the building has on the second 
 floor a plain and simple architrave. The windows are 
 high and arched, placed at a considerable distance from 
 each other ; the third story is like the second in plain- 
 ness and in size of the windows ; the roof is of a 
 flat form, with a deep cornice and bold projected soffits, 
 which give a grand, square, and magnificent effect to 
 the whole edifice. The chimnies are grouped into stacks, 
 the tops of which, increasing in bulk as they rise in 
 height, resemble a crown. The slates with which they 
 are constructed, are placed in such a manner, as to 
 produce the effect of ventilators, having a plaited form 
 
94 
 
 resembling the fan-heads of the inside of a mushroom. 
 This gives a rich and finished aspect to the most trivial, 
 or most undignified part of the building. Two or three 
 long flat steps lead to the porch of the palace, and the 
 entrance is by a high arched massive iron gate, the 
 doors of which are cross-barred, studded with iron and 
 bronze nails, and the ornaments of the pannels are richly 
 covered and embossed. The eflect of these gates is very 
 splendid ; they open into a cortile or court, the base of 
 which is encircled by a high arched colonade supported 
 by marble columns. Beautiful gardens often adjoin the 
 palace, and through a corresponding gate, or iron railings, 
 the eye rests on the luxuriant verdure of rich foliage. 
 Entering from this court, a great staircase leads to a 
 suite of noble chambers, halls, and saloons richly adorned. 
 The lofty ceilings are finely painted ; the beams are 
 always displayed, carved, ornamented and gilded. The 
 arcades of the court support the galleries, for paintings 
 and statues. One thing is particularly worthy of notice, 
 the divisions and chiselings of the rubble-work, with 
 which the base of these great edifices are ornamented, 
 are essential to the effect and composition. Were it not 
 owing to this, such vast edifices as the Strozzi and 
 Ricardi palaces, if smooth and fair as a villa, would 
 present a tame insipid front, vast without grandeur, and 
 requiring columns, or other massive enrichments to give 
 
95 
 
 relief. The hatching contributes to gravity as well as 
 ornament, uniting the whole, and giving the basis apparent 
 strength to support the weight above®.” 
 
 Such is Mr. Bell’s clear and animated description of 
 a Florentine palace of the Tuscan style ; and we 
 recommend to architects the rest of his tasteful remarks 
 on the public buildings of that city. These early Tuscan 
 architects appear to adhere to a most necessary rule in 
 architecture, which has been utterly neglected by modern 
 architects. It is to proportion the size of the stones 
 to the dimensions of the building. The small villa, 
 
 and the splendid country residence, are alike built 
 with stones of the same size. The effect of grandeur 
 never can be produced, unless the stones correspond to 
 the edifice ; and in small buildings, neatness, which 
 should be their character, is done away with where the 
 stones are too large. 
 
 Windows and door-ways, which are principals and 
 leading features in a building, have been too much neg- 
 lected. While adopting the Inigo Jones, and the Palladian 
 designs, every window was set, as it were, in frame 
 work, and gave character to the facade, or front elevation; 
 
 * Observations on Italy, by the late John Bell, Esq. 
 
9G 
 
 but for many years past, we have seen most expensive 
 buildings erected, of which the windows were mere 
 square vacancies in a smooth wall. The Tuscan style 
 of windows produces the best effect ; high and arched, 
 divided by a pillar, each division preserving the circular 
 top, and the unoccupied space of stone between the 
 arch and the top of the pillar pannelled in. In many 
 of their buildings, the windows have under them pro- 
 jecting massive stone balustrades. In Venice, where 
 too this architecture took root and flourished, the 
 windows, still of great dimensions, are grouped together 
 in the central part of the palace with the finest effect. 
 But we have a kind of conventional shape and size for 
 modern windows, whatever may be the size of the house, 
 or character of its architecture, and they must be square 
 at top and perfectly plain. The consequence is, that 
 such a shape and want of decoration, together with trimly 
 smoothed free stone, obliges the architects, as Mr. Bell 
 justly observes, to break the front with unmeaning pro- 
 jections, columns and pilasters ; heaping useless expense 
 upon the owner, and destroying all grandeur and 
 simplicity. Wherever the arch can be introduced with 
 effect in great buildings for doors or windows, it should 
 be adopted, were it only on the merit of stability. 
 
 In the Tuscan style just described, the stylobate. 
 
97 
 
 extending round the dwelling, and broad enough to form 
 a seat, united the building admirably with the ground ; 
 and the grand etfect of the deep cornice supported upon 
 brackets, or stone corbels, completes the character of 
 this imposing style of architecture. We have seen a few 
 drawings of this Tuscan style for houses of a moderate 
 size, and the effect, on paper at least, was excellent. 
 The stylobate for a basis; the semicircular-topped window 
 divided by the column, and the range of windows not 
 set at equal distances, but grouped two together, each 
 group based by one projecting balustrade; the projecting 
 cornice, and its soffit which hid the low pitched roof ; 
 a square tower rising at one end, or behind, and a 
 smaller sized one at a corner, both with massive parapets, 
 and roofed like the main building ; — the whole of these 
 leading features in this style combined to produce a most 
 striking building, well adapted to be the residence of a 
 gentleman of moderate fortune. But drawings only may 
 deceive us in the effects intended to be produced : 
 Michael Angelo should be an example to our architects : 
 he writes his friend Vasari, that he always makes models 
 of his architectural designs*'. 
 
 In many of the specimens we have given from the 
 
 Recueil des Lettres ecrites par les plus Grands Maitres. Paris, 1817. 
 
 Q 
 
08 
 
 old painters, the Tuscan style prevails in the additions 
 made to the original tower; but it is to be observed, 
 that not only the projecting cornice with its soffit belongs 
 to this style, but various bold and characteristic supports 
 to the parapets may be employed, examples of which 
 are numerous in Pisa and Florence ; such as the single 
 or double range of projecting arches under the parapet, 
 the cornice scooped out into small alcoves, or the hol- 
 lowed cornice, and many other forms to produce 
 grandeur in the upper line of the building, precisely in 
 that part which we have of late years most neglected. 
 
99 
 
 GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 It has been alleged that the Tuscan architecture was 
 mixed up with what has been called Gothic, for no 
 better reason than the insertion of pointed arched windows 
 in some early buildings in Italy. But the pointed arch 
 has no claim to give a designation to a building as 
 Gothic, unless its whole architecture partakes of that 
 singular style which constitutes a Gothic church. It is 
 probable that the pointed arch window was introduced 
 from Venice, and to Venice it came from the East. It 
 was with architecture as with painting; the remnants of 
 these arts still lingered in the capital of the descendants 
 of the emperors of the world. The commerce of Venice 
 
100 
 
 and Pisa in the eleventh century, would bring them 
 back to Italy, where the practice had been obliterated 
 by centuries of anarchy, foreign invasions, and consequent 
 poverty. 
 
 There cannot be a more narrow idea of Gothic church 
 architecture, than the form of a window or a door. The 
 castle style, or that defensive domestic architecture, we 
 have already seen, has no connection with the Gothic ; 
 for it was in use ages before the Goths were known. 
 
 To trace the discovery of the arch, would lead to 
 an interesting enquiry in architecture. Neither Greece 
 nor Egypt has any claim, nor can an arch be found 
 in Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, or Artaxata in Armenia, 
 all the most ancient of cities. Sir W. Ouseley indeed 
 supposes the arch was not introduced into Persia until 
 the third or fourth century. Sir R. K. Porter, however, 
 thinks it was used soon after the conquest of Alexander, 
 but gives no examples of so early a date. Ctesiphon, 
 on the Tygris, a Parthian city, contains in its palace 
 remains of semicircular arches, the largest of which has 
 eighty-two feet of span, and one hundred feet in height. 
 But the builder is conjectured to be Noushirvan, the 
 great Chosroes of the Romans, who flourished in the sixth 
 century ; and we learn from Pliny, that the Romans 
 
101 
 
 erected aqueducts and other specimens of arches in the 
 provinces of Asia Minor soon after their conquest, and 
 before the birth of Christ. 
 
 The singular bridge discovered at Spoleto some years 
 ago, is probably the oldest specimen of arches, approaching 
 the Cyclopean sera. It is formed of three arches, not 
 in a right line with each other, but curved : it is 
 constructed with large stones without cement, and the 
 arches have no key stones. The torrent, over which 
 
 the bridge had been built, now runs at a considerable 
 distance from its former bed : even the existence of 
 
 such a work was unknown when the gate of the town 
 was erected, under which it is. 
 
 The pointed arch was probably in use long before 
 the principle of the Gothic arch was known, or applied 
 to support masonry. Of the earliest churches built in 
 Italy, there remains that of St. Giovanni of Volterra 
 of the ninth century, and the next of importance was 
 the cathedral of Pisa, in the eleventh ; but in neither 
 of these are there Gothic windows'. But in Venice, 
 
 in the tenth and eleventh century, the application of the 
 Gothic arch was common. We see no reason why the 
 
 ' Viaggio Pittorica della Tuscana. 
 
102 
 
 Gothic arch may not have been invented in different 
 countries, upon the same theory of utility, as the art of 
 fortifying towns or castles'". The deficiency of light in 
 the Tuscan window in large lofty buildings as churches, 
 may have led to the formation of a window head by 
 the intersection of two circles, having the imposts at the 
 top of the window for their centres. The segments 
 would inclose an equilateral triangle, the base being the 
 distance between the imposts. This is the most correct, 
 the strongest, and most agreeable shape of the Gothic 
 arch. The light above the imposts of the Tuscan 
 window would, by this alteration, be increased nearly a 
 third. 
 
 In the Roman arch, it may be considered, that a 
 range of wedges forms the whole ; but 
 
 The very ancient cathedral of Usnmbar and other Armenian 
 churches in Georgia, have an arcade surrounding the outside of the 
 building, of which the arches are in the flattened Gothic style. 
 The same form prevails in the windows, doors, and in the body 
 of the church. These structures are of an earlier date than any 
 Gothic architecture in Italy. Sir I{. K. Porters Travels. 
 
 We regret that Sir li. K. Porter was obliged to make so hastv a 
 visit to the ruins of A uni, an ancient .Vrmenian city w ithin the 
 Turkish boundary with Kus.sia. The walls of the town, churches, 
 and houses are still entire, yet not an inhabitant remains. Anni, 
 or Annisi, is the Abnicum of the Byzantine historians, according 
 to J)’ Anville ; it was destroyed in the thirteenth century by the 
 I’artars. The masonry of the ruined Armenian cities is equal to 
 any Greek or Roman works, yet we have no description of the 
 architecture beyond the brief notices of Cliardin. 
 
103 
 
 “ 'Tis the last key stone 
 
 That makes the arch; the rest that there were put, 
 
 Are nothing- till that comes to hind and shut; 
 
 Then stands it a triumphal mark. Then men 
 Observe the strength, the height, the why and when 
 It was erected; and still walking under, 
 
 ^leet some new matter to look up and wonder ! 
 
 In the Gothic arch there is no key stone ; and the 
 pressure of each side, (the segments of the circle,) is 
 towards the centre of the respective circles. To load 
 the Gothic arch, much skill and science is recjuired ; 
 and still more is requisite when ranges of these arches 
 are to be built upon. So unskilled are we at this day 
 in this architecture, that it is doubtful if there be an 
 architect in Europe who could erect a Gothic cathedral 
 of large dimensions, having the tower rising from the 
 intersection of the transept. We recollect only one 
 attempt (not a church indeed,) on a large scale, and 
 twice did the central tower fall. 
 
 In Greek architecture, if the materials of the building 
 are rightly shaped and proportioned to each other and 
 to the whole design, there is no difficulty in the erection, 
 nor any force to consider but the perpendicular pressure of 
 one stone upon another'. In Roman architecture, by the 
 
 The observation is confined to the mere erection of the building. 
 
104 
 
 application of the arch, there was developed a new principle 
 in the art ; the balancing of forces, or pressure acting 
 out of the perpendicular. Although this was sufficiently 
 simple as long as the semicircular arch was employed 
 by the Romans, (and w© have few exceptions,) in bridges, 
 aqueducts, vaults, and domes, yet mathematical science 
 was necessary for a Roman architect”. But if we 
 maturely reflect on the construction of a Gothic church, 
 the principles of its arch, the immense tower resting on 
 the centre arches, and its great height and breadth, we 
 must admit that a very advanced knowledge of mathe- 
 matics, in theory and practice, was necessary to accom- 
 plish such a work as an English cathedral. So many 
 are the ingenious devices to overcome the mechanical 
 difficulties of this singular style of architecture, so happy 
 the invention of turning necessary balancing piles of 
 masonry to ornament, that we are led to the conclusion 
 
 “ The Greek architects must have possessed much science in the 
 formation of curves of every description. We cannot generate the 
 curve of the volute of an Ionic capital but by approximation ; but 
 the inventors of the order must have known how to generate this 
 and other curves in Greek architecture, on fixed principles ; so 
 must the artist in vases, &c., and the Gothic architects in the 
 various curves of their arches. A Mr. Jopling is said to have 
 made the discovery, how to generate different curves to a certainty 
 by the continued motion of a point: if so, he deserves a high 
 reward from the public. The application of eccentric motion in 
 
 machinery is daily becQming most important, and the accurate 
 formation of eccentric curved parts of machines is of the first 
 consequence. 
 
105 
 
 that this architecture was slowly developed, and must 
 have originated with most inventive and scientific men. 
 
 We have already remarked, that the mixture of Grecian 
 and Roman architecture was not fortunate. The pier in 
 the Roman arcade, changed to columns, single, double, 
 or quadruple, supporting the arch, was quite incongruous. 
 The simple Roman arcade was at once agreeable to the 
 eye, and gave the appearance of stability to the building. 
 The substitution of the Greek columns for the square pier, 
 had the very contrary effect. Our early Saxon builders 
 adhered to the remnants of Roman mixed architecture 
 left among them, by using the Roman arch supported 
 on immense thick columns. 
 
 Of the Italian churches, it is remarkable that the 
 front, or facade, is never true to the internal structure, 
 for it is always divided into two apparent stories, by 
 two heights of pillars, or pilasters, and of windows, or 
 alcoves; but the greater number of churches in Rome, 
 not excepting St. Peter’s, have the outward look of 
 large dwelling houses; a highly ornamented centre and 
 wings less so, with two or three ranges of windows, not 
 differing from a habitable house. But the Gothic 
 cathedral, in its external, declares its application at once, 
 and the front, or west entrance, the east, arid the two 
 
 p 
 
106 
 
 transepts, all have windows and a roof corresponding to 
 the height and breadth of the building within. The 
 
 Italian architects have no excuse for the striking dis- 
 sonance between the external and internal architecture 
 of their churches. They found the ancient shell of 
 many of their churches at Rome ; and added these most 
 incongruous facades. But it was far more simple, elegant, 
 and less expensive, to have restored the porticos 
 round these buildings, or copied the noble front of the 
 Pantheon. 
 
 We know that many early churches in Germany, 
 France, and England, were originally of wood. With 
 such a material it was easy to support a high roof, that 
 had only a covering of boards or thatch ; and large 
 vacancies might be left in the walls to give light. Setting 
 aside the theory of a Gothic stone church being entirely 
 an imitation of a wooden one, when masonry became 
 more in use, and the principles of building were slowly 
 established, the architects might attempt to gain in a 
 stone edifice those conveniences of height and light, which 
 had been attained in the primitive wooden church. The 
 leading object of our Gothic church builders, was to 
 erect the church in the form of a cross ; the entrance at 
 the west end, the altar at the east. The nave and aisles 
 were copied probably from the Roman Bazilica. But it 
 
107 
 
 was impossible to give light and elevation by ranges of 
 columns supporting semicircular arches with broad soffits, 
 for the necessary thickness of the Roman arch and its 
 support gave a gloomy dark nave and aisles. These 
 architects must have seen that the pointed windows, 
 then introduced into Italy, gave more opening in the 
 same breadth between the upright sides, than did the 
 semicircular headed windows. As soon as the pointed 
 arch was substituted for the Roman, many of the 
 difficulties in the erection of the stone church were 
 removed. Whatever support was given to the Roman 
 arch, whether square piers or round columns, much 
 greater thickness was necessary, because the mass of 
 masonry was far greater above the Roman, than above 
 the Gothic arches. The pressure on the Gothic arch, 
 from its construction, is more perpendicular than on the 
 Roman. To balance the latter, much heavier buttresses 
 are necessary, and of course a greater mass of materials. 
 In adopting, therefore, this pointed arch, the church 
 architects had much less quantity of materials to build 
 up, to balance the thrust of their arches, while they 
 gained lightness in the columnar supports to their arches, 
 and could place them at a greater distance from each 
 other. To balance the two long ranges of arches, 
 forming the nave and aisles at the entrance or west end, 
 sometimes they erected two ornamental towers, but 
 
108 
 
 much oftener two simple buttresses. On the east end 
 of the nave and aisles, in order to balance the thrust 
 of the last arches, directly where the transept crosses, 
 was more difficult. It was necessary, according to the 
 view of the projectors of such buildings, to have the 
 centre quite open, full of light, and from which could 
 be seen the whole length of the nave to the west, the 
 east end or choir, and the north and south ends of the 
 transept. This was accomplished by making the four 
 central columns of great thickness, and to act thus as 
 buttresses by their weight; but to prevent the arches 
 which connected these columns from springing upwards, 
 by the pressure of the range of arches at the four 
 opposite sides, it was requisite to load these four great 
 arches with masonry built upon them. This weig'ht of 
 masonry formed the tower or spire, called sometimes 
 from its lateral windows, the lantern, which, in a perfect 
 example of a Gothic church architecture, rises always 
 from the intersection of the transept". ' 
 
 Thus we see, that of all arches the Gothic was the 
 
 " Very few of the Gothic cathedrals on the continent have the 
 tower or spire springing from the centre of the cross, and resting 
 on four pillars to balance the thrusts of the ranges of arches 
 centering there ; neither those of Strasburgh, of Ulm, of Vienna, 
 of Orleans, nor of Antwerp. 
 
109 
 
 only kind that admitted great height for airiness and 
 light, the greatest distance between the supports, and 
 columns less heavy than the Roman. By throwing 
 
 diagonal or groined arches across the nave and the 
 
 aisles, the transept, and the choir, the Gothic architect 
 was enabled to close up the roof with stone; and the 
 
 balance against the outward thrust of these ranges of 
 
 arches, along the four parts of the building, was effected 
 by the rows of abutments or buttresses, raised around 
 the whole line of the exterior walls. By loading these 
 buttresses with pinnacles, they could thus diminish their 
 thickness towards the base, and such necessary masses 
 of masonry became ornamental. Any size of windows 
 might be introduced between the buttresses, for in a 
 simple Gothic church in the form of a cross, not deformed 
 or injured by side chapels, the whole of the side walls 
 between the exterior buttresses, may be entirely removed; 
 and the church, open on all sides, consisting of columns, 
 arches, tower, and buttresses, would stand entire, and 
 be the most picturesque object of human art. But on 
 the interior of a Gothic church, the architects lavished 
 all their invention to produce striking effects. Nothing 
 can be in finer taste than the clustered columns rising 
 to the fillets which bind the top, and the corresponding 
 ribs running along the side and cross arches, and all 
 centering in the master ribs of the roof; the columns 
 
no 
 
 proportionate to the breadth of masonry resting on them; 
 and that masonry expanding in a fine curve as it rises 
 towards the roof. 
 
 How rev’rend is the face of this tall pile 
 Whose ancient pillars rear their marble heads, 
 
 To bear aloft its arch’d and ponderous roof. 
 
 By its own weight made stedfast and immoveable ! 
 Looking tranquillity ; it strikes an awe 
 And terror to my aching sight. 
 
 Congreve. 
 
 The distribution of light in a Gothic cathedral is 
 admirably adapted to the grandeur of the edifice ; and 
 produces that effect which a painter aims at in his 
 picture. At the entrance at the west, the window being 
 placed high, there is a low toned light on the lower 
 part of the pillars, and a shadow on the pavement, which, 
 as we walk up the nave, graduates into light from the 
 choir. The east window, always the broadest and 
 highest, pours in a greater body of light than is to be 
 found in any other kind of building. The altar, rather 
 in shadow, surrounded by this strong light, gives additional 
 effect by contrast. The light from the transept windows 
 is softened down by painted glass. The small windows 
 placed high along the aisles enlighten their roofs, but 
 
Ill 
 
 the lower part of the pillars and floor remain in 
 shadow 
 
 Yet these admirable productions of science and of skill 
 in building, have been termed, as a mark of the lowest 
 state of the arts, the works of Goths. This name has 
 been strangely misused. The Goths are recorded as 
 truly the most original, the boldest, the most energetic, 
 and high minded of nations ; distinguished from every 
 other race of mankind, by “ the blue eye and fair 
 hairP,” and by institutions, which form the basis of every 
 free government in Europe. 
 
 But Muratori, Maffei, and Tiraboschi, who have care- 
 fully examined the subject, attest, that neither the 
 Lombards, nor the other tribes of Goths, introduced any 
 particular style of architecture, but employed such 
 architects as they found in Italy. Nor could the Goths 
 have brought with them from Germany, from the banks 
 of the Danube, or the shores of the Baltic, any type of 
 a peculiar style. The Gothic church architecture was, 
 most probably, the result of the combined talents, 
 
 ° Neeffs, Steenwyck, De Witt, &c., have often painted their interiors 
 of Gothic churches with the light and shadow thus distributed. 
 
 p Caerulei oculi, rutilse comae. Tacitus. 
 
 Caerula quis stupuit Germani lumiua, flavam 
 Caesariem. Juvenal, Sat. xiii. 
 
112 
 
 directed to attain particular objects, of learned church- 
 men, and of members of the ancient society of Freemasons. 
 They succeeded in producing solemnity and grandeur in 
 the interior of their stately edifices. 
 
 The late eminent Professor Robison, who had science 
 to appreciate, and taste to admire, the construction of a 
 Gothic cathedral, has left us the best definition of its 
 peculiar merit : “In every part there is such a balance 
 
 of pressure, such an ingenious transfer of thrusts of 
 arches, that Gothic architecture may be truly termed 
 carpentry in stone,” 
 
 The Gothic has been regarded as a corruption of the 
 Roman style, and the latter again of the Grecian; but 
 the three are quite different, each having its distinct 
 appropriation. To Grecian architecture belong chasteness, 
 simplicity, and beauty ; yet it is limited in use r the 
 Roman claims the most extensive application to the 
 wants and comforts, to the pride and magnificence of a 
 nation ; but from the Gothic alone have sprung the 
 noblest temples ever erected for the worship of the 
 Deity. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
113 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 In selecting specimens out of many in our possession 
 to illustrate this work, we have in view such as may be 
 useful to architects in the composition of irregular man- 
 sions. These may be arranged under single towers, 
 buildings of small size but simple in their form, and 
 large extensive edifices, picturesque in the disposition of 
 their parts, and those parts of such breadth as to im- 
 press, in general, grandeur on the whole composition. As, 
 however, the size of our prints are too small for proper 
 effect in architectural subjects, we earnestly recommend 
 to architects, who may wish to enter into our sugges- 
 tions, to try many of these designs by drawing them 
 on a large scale, and by placing the building in different 
 perspective points of view. After a trial of etching, 
 and on consulting persons of taste, we found, that in the 
 
 a 
 
114 
 
 limited size of the prints, the lithographic art would 
 suit better than any other. That excellent artist Mr. 
 H. W. Burgess undertook, amidst a pressure of profes- 
 sional duties, to draw our examples on stone, and we 
 acknowledge with pleasure our obligations to him for 
 the tasteful execution of this most essential part of the 
 work. His free broad style of pencilling* has given to 
 the architecture that character and effect which it was 
 so desirable to obtain. 
 
 Throughout the whole of these examples the architect 
 will observe, that there are no petty ornaments to detract 
 from the effect of simplicity and breadth in the archi- 
 tecture. There are none of the sky lines broken by 
 trifling turrets, or meagre pinnacles. The towers are 
 plain or simply embattled, and the varied line is produced 
 by the different heights of large massive parts. The 
 
 projections in the facade may be considered in many 
 of these buildings as too sudden and unconnected, owing 
 no doubt to the additions made at different times ; but 
 the architect has to study the value of bold breaks in 
 a picturesque composition, which may produce strong 
 light and shade in almost every position of the sun, 
 yet so as not to interfere with the interior convenience 
 of the mansion. The various forms of projections by 
 which the parapets, whether of towers or of the whole 
 
115 
 
 fa^’ade of the building, may be supported, deserve the 
 particular attention of the architect; and here the Tuscan 
 architecture of Florence, and that of many existing Italian 
 villas of the fifteenth century, will supply him with 
 excellent examples. These objects in irregular architecture, 
 combined with the power of the owner of the future mansion 
 to arrange his apartments in any way that his taste, or 
 fancy, or habits, may guide him, give to the architect 
 an endless variety of architectural compositions, in which 
 his genius has ample room for display. Such edifices 
 spread over the country would contribute most essentially 
 to the beauty of British landscape. But in following out 
 this style, our artists ought to work on a large scale. No 
 tower, round or square, should be elevated that cannot 
 be made into useful rooms of proper dimensions, so that 
 effect and utility may always be combined. The upper 
 parts of the towers should never be loaded with un- 
 meaning hanging watch turrets, nor the grandeur of the 
 general outline be broken down by ill placed tasteless 
 pinnacles. We must condemn the present taste for 
 pinnacles, rising above the simple square tower of the 
 new churches around the metropolis. In correct Gothic 
 architecture no pinnacle was uselessly introduced. 
 
 When arches were thrown from angle to angle of a 
 square tower of a church, it was often necessary to 
 
116 
 
 erect buttresses at the four corners. By carrying up 
 these to the base of the parapet, the Gothic architect 
 could diminish their thickness, and give them a more 
 elegant appearance ; but it never was necessary to ter- 
 minate the top of the buttresses of the tower by 
 pinnacles rising high above the parapet, and thus hiding 
 the fine effect of the simple square tower. There are 
 two examples of pinnacles above the parapet, which we 
 recommend to the consideration of artists. The architect 
 of Saint Giles’s church at Edinburgh, and of St. Nicolas 
 at Newcastle, raised above the square towers an orna- 
 ment not unlike a crown or tiara. This was formed by 
 four ribs of the Gothic curve, springing from the four 
 corners of the top of the tower, and uniting over the 
 centre. For abutments at the springs of the arches, four 
 pinnacles are raised on the corners ; and at the junction 
 of the ribs, a loaded tie was necessary, which is raised 
 in the form of a central pinnacle ; but the curves them- 
 selves required to be loaded to jirevent their springing 
 upwards ; and accordingly a pinnacle is erected on each 
 rib midway between the base and the central tie. Thus 
 the crown or tiara is formed of four ribs and nine 
 pinnacles, and the whole composition has an elegant 
 appearance, while every stone is necessary for the 
 stability of the work. In square towers of defence, 
 powerful buttresses were often built upon the corners, to 
 protect them against the various and most ingenious 
 
117 
 
 warlike engines, used for the destruction of works of 
 masonry before the introduction of battering cannon. In 
 the original castles, which were copied by the great 
 painters, many peculiarities of construction no doubt 
 existed, which it could not be expected to be detailed 
 in a picture of which the building was so secondary 
 a part ; yet in many of our examples we may trace some 
 vestiges of the lawless and barbarous times in which 
 they were constructed. 
 
 We meditate on the castle in ruins ; we delight in 
 the restoration of an ancient edifice made again habitable ; 
 but the best imitation of an old castle, or monastery, 
 calls up no recollections of days of yore. There is, 
 however, in this irregular architecture only one object in 
 view, picturesque buildings to embellish the landscapes of 
 our country. 
 
 “ The public at large has a claim over the architecture 
 of a country. It is common ])ro])erty, inasmuch as 
 it involves the national taste and character; and no 
 man has a right to pass himself and his own barbarous 
 inventions as a national taste, and to hand down to 
 posterity his own ignorance and disgrace to be a satire 
 and a libel on the knowledge and taste of his age.”“ 
 
 * Dr. Macculloch’s Highlands of Scotland, vol. i. p. 351). 
 
118 
 
 VIGNETTE— TITLE PAGE. 
 
 RAPHAEL. 
 
 The tower gate is taken from an old engraving of an 
 early landscape. Of Raphael it is impossible to avoid 
 saying something whenever his name is mentioned. He 
 stands as single in the art, as Shakespeare in the drama. 
 His inexhaustible invention, his intellect and learning, 
 his exquisite beauty and grace in forms, his taste to 
 combine and vary, and his playful imagination from hints 
 drawn from ancient examples, place this transcendant 
 genius far beyond all other painters ; and in contemplating 
 these qualities, we have faint hopes of ever again meeting his 
 like: yet he died in the prime of life; and had just 
 reached maturity in his works. 
 
 ’ Dr. Macculloch’s Highlands of Scotland, vol. i. p. 359. 
 
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119 
 
 No. 1. TITIAN. 
 
 Titian seldom introduced buildings of consequAice in 
 his landscapes, and to such as are given, sheds and 
 low mean buildings are joined. This building is in a 
 
 landscape of a mountainous country. It is difficult to 
 assign any period for its construction, or for what purpose 
 part of the building was destined. 
 
 No. 2. NICOLO POUSSIN. 
 
 We copied this from a small landscape. This edifice, 
 we think, is founded on the substructions of a Roman 
 villa, and part perhaps of the building on the terrace is 
 Roman. 
 
120 
 
 No. 3. PAUL VERONESE. 
 
 This is taken from an historical picture ; the site and 
 scenery are copied from the original. The whole has 
 a pleasing effect, and might, with little alteration, be 
 converted into a commodious mansion. 
 
 No. 4. CLAUDE LORRAINE. 
 
 This is a very extensive edifice, evidently built at dif- 
 ferent periods. The pillars and their architraves may 
 have been the remains of a Roman portico. 
 
 No. C. ALBANO. 
 
 To this building we refer in pages 29, 32, for its simi- 
 larity to a Roman villa in a painting at Pompeii. The 
 line of building behind may have been erected early in 
 the middle ages. 
 
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 No. 7. MOLA. 
 
 The building and scenery are copied from a rough pen 
 sketch. Mola seldom introduced buildings of any con- 
 sequence in his beautiful landscapes, and we regret we 
 have not met with another specimen. 
 
 No. 8. GASPAR POUSSIN. 
 
 The oldest part of this building was probably on the 
 hill, and the additions were continued till it reached the 
 bottom of the slope of the wooded height. 
 
 No. 9. CASTLE OF ANTON’ BEY. 
 
 It was in this castle that Anton’ Bey received Mr. 
 Galt in a very hospitable manner. He is an independent 
 chief, nominally under the Turks, on the coast of Mania. 
 The mountain Taygetus is in the back ground. The 
 castle is near the sea side, and is compared by Mr. Galt 
 to a secondary baronial castle of Britain. 
 
 R 
 
12*2 
 
 No. 10. RAPHAEL. 
 
 This is taken from the back ground of a picture of a 
 
 holy family. The additions have been made to the old 
 square tower at an early period, and the whole has a 
 pleasing effect. 
 
 No. 11. DOMINICHINO. 
 
 The building on the left is likely to be as early as the 
 main tower itself, and the gateway entrance is not less 
 so. This may be considered, perhaps, as a strong baro- 
 nial dwelling of a Lombard chief. 
 
 No. 12. DOMINICHINO. 
 
 It is difficult to decide what the round building has 
 been, unless we suppose it a round church, attached to 
 a baron’s castle. The round form of churches is most 
 ancient, because probably round heathen buildings were 
 found in good repair by the early Christians, who always 
 preferred a heathen temple or the site of one for a church. 
 
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 No. 13. DOMINICHINO. 
 
 This is a very singular tower, and was probably so 
 constructed to allow the upper apartment to be as large 
 as possible. We have met with a similar construction 
 in Scotland. The basement of the tower was round ; 
 and at a considerable height, by projecting stones one 
 beyond another a broad cornice was formed, and the 
 upper part of the tower was carried up in a square form ; 
 thus giving a square apartment larger than the base of 
 the building. 
 
 No. 14. DOMINICHINO. 
 
 The site and scenery do not belong to the original, 
 which was a sketch. The building represents probably 
 a very small early built monastery. 
 
 No. 15. NICOLO POUSSIN. 
 
 This picturesque building is only a small part of that 
 magnificent pile in the fine picture of the infant Moses 
 exposed. The scenery and site are by our artist, for the 
 
124 
 
 original had none of note near the extensive buildings. 
 It is to the architecture of this picture that Sir Uvedale 
 Price refers*’. The whole is evidently a composition; and 
 in the central tower Poussin had for his model the castle 
 of St. Angelo at Rome. 
 
 No. 16. ALBANO. 
 
 This i« the singular building mentioned in page 33. 
 It is copied exactly from a large landscape in the pos- 
 session of Mr. Hickman. Nymphs are bathing in a lake ; 
 the building is on the farther edge; and water gushes 
 out of the two arches. The shed is similar to one on 
 a pyrgosy or tower of defence, in a Pompeian painting. 
 
 No. 17. A. CARACCI. 
 
 This singular building is taken from a small picture of 
 the Magdalen at the feet of Christ, in the possession of 
 the Hon. D. Gordon Haliburton. The arch of entrance 
 
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 is, by an error, made Roman, but in the original it is 
 pointed and with so little curve, as not even to be 
 Gothic. The building is apparently most ancient. In the 
 picture there are figures under the sheds. 
 
 No. 18. SWANEVELT. 
 
 We introduce this building that architects may see an 
 example of an entry to a house being at one end; which 
 in this construction might pass through a conservatory, 
 and be an agreeable apology for the peculiarity of the 
 entrance. 
 
 No. 19. PHILIPPO LAURI. 
 
 The buildings on the left are of more recent date than 
 the rest. The shed over the tower is another example 
 of the continuance of old customs, as such a shed covers 
 a tower of defence in the paintings found on the walls 
 at Pompeii ; probably a portico had been anciently upon 
 the arcades of this building. 
 
126 
 
 No. 20. RAPHAEL. 
 
 This fine edifice deserves the attention of an architect. 
 The outline against the sky is very picturesque, and the 
 introduction of the column gives an agreeable pyramidal 
 figure. The whole is so well connected, that it has the 
 appearance of having been built at the same period. 
 Drawn on a large scale, the building would have a much 
 greater air of simplicity and grandeur. 
 
 No. 21. GUIDO. 
 
 We have in this chaste design a very beautiful 
 building, varied yet extremely simple, and having all the 
 parts well combined, which is owing much to the elevation 
 of the central square tower producing not only a fine 
 general figure, but uniting the whole into a connected 
 body. The large round tower as a termination adds the 
 character of firmness to the whole edifice. 
 
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 No. 22. DOMINICHINO. 
 
 This is a large extensive pile built at different periods. 
 The original structure was probably a baronial Appenine 
 castle, to which additions of a much later date had 
 been made. The square tower on the right, with two 
 open semicircular windows, is often introduced by Gaspar 
 Poussin in his village groups of buildings. The high 
 central tower of safety is likely to be the oldest part of 
 the building. 
 
 No. 23. MOIJCHERON. 
 
 In his best and genuine pictures Moucheron was a 
 landscape painter of much merit. His scenery is always 
 Italian and picturesque. In this specimen, the site and 
 scenery are copied from the painter. The central part of 
 this villa may be ancient. 
 
128 
 
 No. 24. CLAUDE LORRAINE. 
 
 To the original part of the building placed behind, 
 have been joined much more modern additions in front. 
 Here again the commanding elevation of the square tower 
 gives that consequence to the edifice, without which it 
 would have no effect. Hence architects may observe, 
 how important it is to have one bold well placed part 
 in an irregular pile of building. 
 
 No. 25. RAPHAEL. 
 
 This is a large building, having a very high tower of 
 safety on the left. The composition we think is pic- 
 turesque, and ample accommodations would be found in 
 such a construction. The tower of safety, as it is in the 
 drawing, would be too high for the rest of the edifice. 
 
 No. 26. MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 This edifice is taken from the picture of the Rape of 
 Ganymede. It has a very picturesque appearance; and 
 
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 into tlie Tuscan windows, when there was more security 
 in country residences in some particular districts ; and 
 in such instances, the defensive parts of the outworks 
 may have been removed for the benefit of air and pros- 
 pect. In the cinque cento villas, the rooms and doors 
 were most particularly arranged to obtain a thorough 
 current of air. Where water approaches so near to the 
 site of a mansion, we greatly prefer, as in this and other 
 specimens, the built terrace as far within the water-line 
 as possible, both as giving great effect to the edifice, as 
 well as avoiding the unsightly appearance of a changeable 
 water-line on grass or gravel. 
 
 No. 29. CLAUDE LORRAINE. 
 
 This group of towers is one of the many to be 
 found in the distance, or middle ground of Claude’s 
 pictures, or drawings, perched up on a high rock 
 or mountain. If, on the other side of the edifice, 
 
 similar buildings extended as far as on this side, the 
 whole pile would form a magnificent composition of castle 
 architecture. 
 
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 No. 30. BAPTISTA FRANCO. 
 
 This specimen is taken from a drawing by this master, 
 who was of Venice, studied both at Rome and Florence, 
 and died in 1561. It is a strong hold with an advanced 
 gateway. The roof is heavy and cumbersome, which, 
 if removed, would alter very much the effect of the 
 building. 
 
 No. 31. TITIAN. 
 
 We have here a singular group of towers taken from 
 a drawing by this great master. The whole is built for 
 strength and security. The superiority of round, over 
 square towers, against the attack of besieging engines 
 before the introduction of gunpowder, influenced, perhaps, 
 the builder of this castle. Here are no “ coines of 
 vantage” to begin upon the work of destruction. 
 
132 
 
 No. 32. PALMA VECCHIO. 
 
 This example is in a picture of the Holy Family by 
 this Venetian master. The entrance to the castle is 
 strongly defended, ‘ first by a gateway between two small 
 towers, then by a second through a square tower. A 
 long approach, over an arch across a road, leads to the 
 main entrance, defended by two lofty round towers. 
 There are walls of defence on the side of the building, 
 and the body of the edifice is high with narrow windows. 
 No later additions appear to have been made to the 
 original construction. 
 
 No. 33. CLAUDE LORRAINE. 
 
 This very extensive castle had probably a court on 
 the other side, and walls of defence in front. It does 
 
 not appear to have undergone much alteration from its 
 first erection. 
 
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133 
 
 No. 34. CLAUDE LORRAINE. 
 
 The buildings on the left and behind are likely to be 
 of a much later date than the rest of the castle. The 
 high central tower of safety is peculiar for having a 
 narrow platform supported on corbels to lead to the door 
 of the tower. The base is strongly buttressed, and on 
 the slope of the bank additional buildings are abutted, 
 to prevent the foundation of the tower on the slope from 
 being undermined. We remark, in many instances of 
 towers which have an abrupt slope at the foundation 
 on one side, that low round massive towers are built 
 closely abutting on the main tower for the object just 
 stated. 
 
 No. 35. BENAZZO GOZZOLI. 
 
 This painter contributed very essentially to the Fresco 
 paintings in the Campo Santo of Pisa, from one of which 
 Frescoes this building is taken. It is a beautiful and 
 compact Appenine castle with a lofty square keep. 
 Gozzoli died in 1478. In his female figures he made an 
 
134 
 
 advance in painting greatly beyond his time. In Lacinio’s 
 engravings of part of Gozzoli’s works in the Campo Santo, 
 we cannot avoid recognizing in attitude, grace, and dra- 
 pery, some of Raphael’s females ; yet we do not recollect 
 that any biographer mentions that this great genius made 
 a journey to Pisa to examine that precious series of 
 paintings begun by Giotto, about the year 1300, and 
 finished by Gozzoli in 1470. 
 
 No. 36. GIORGIONI. 
 
 We have not been able to select from this excellent 
 painter any other specimen than this plain tower and strong 
 hold, adapted for a cultivator, his family, and his flock. 
 
 No. 37. BREEMBERG. 
 
 Breemberg having studied in Italy, and having con- 
 fined his landscapes to the picturesque scenes of its 
 ruins, displayed such taste in his pictures, as to rank with 
 Italian painters. This very agreeable and picturesque 
 
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 edifice is one of the few we have found in his works ; 
 but the scenery belongs to our artist. 
 
 No. 38. PAUL VERONESE. 
 
 This singular building is taken from a small picture 
 in the collection at Knole. The open galleries might 
 have been built for a communication to the tower of safety, 
 and would be also a cool retreat in hot weather. By 
 a little alteration on the left of the gallery the whole 
 might have an agreeable effect, and these galleries could 
 be converted into conservatories with more architectural 
 taste than is commonly displayed when this modern inven- 
 tion is affixed to the end of a mansion. In the cinque 
 cento villas an aviary upon a large scale is always in the 
 flower garden; and has a regular facade of building, co- 
 vered entirely with wire work, ornamented within with 
 Fresco paintings and sculpture, and planted with shrubs 
 necessary for the birds. 
 
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 No. 39. CASTLE OF YACI. 
 
 This is a castle still in existence near Catania in 
 Sicily, which is introduced to show that many of our 
 examples are in the same style. The entrance gateway 
 on the left is below the rest of the building. Steps 
 must lead up to the low square tower through which 
 would be the second gateway into the open court, and 
 a third may be where the two small windows are placed. 
 A second court would lead to the grand entrance. 
 
 No. 40. ANDREA MANTEGNA. 
 
 Mantegna is a painter on whom perhaps sufficient 
 praise has not been bestowed. His Triumphs of Julius 
 Caesar may be compared with any works except those 
 of Raphael. This specimen represents an ancient fortress 
 to which apparently no modern additions have been made. 
 The arcades in front were perhaps sheds under which 
 strangers and horses might rest without entering the 
 castle gates. 
 
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 No. 41. JULIO ROMANO. 
 
 This building is taken from one of Julio’s freezes. It 
 is a strong and extensive castle, having a large court in 
 front. The walls of these courts had on the inside 
 ranges of sheds for the dwellings of the out-door ser- 
 vants, and stables for the horses attached to the castle. 
 This arrangement prevailed in many of our larger castles 
 in Britain. The round tower was the keep, or tower of 
 security. 
 
 No. 42. SERMONITA. 
 
 Sermonita or Siciolenta was born in 1504, and died in 
 1550. He followed in the school of Raphael. This 
 edifice is taken from a drawing. The main tower appears 
 to have on one side a semicircular shape which we have 
 not before met with. The sky line of the whole deserves 
 the notice of architects. We have here another example.' 
 of low circular towers on the left, built to abut upon 
 and protect the foundation of the large square tower. 
 
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138 
 
 . No. 43. GIOTTO. 
 
 Cimabue has been considered as the restorer of painting 
 in Italy, but Giotto may share with him the renown. 
 Both were probably instructed by Greek artists from 
 Constantinople, and both are said to have travelled for 
 instruction. It is not improbable that some lingering 
 remains of the ancient art were found by them in several 
 of the ancient towns of Italy. The first public work 
 of painting on the revival of the arts, was begun at Pisa 
 early in the fourteenth century. It was in the cloister 
 around the Campo Santo, or public cemetery of this city, 
 that Giotto began the series, of fresco paintings, illus- 
 trative of sacred history, which was continued for nearly 
 two hundred years. This example is apparently a mo- 
 nastery constructed on a more ancient edifice. Placed 
 on a commanding terrace, it acquires dignity from the 
 elevation. The building on the left of the round tower 
 is more forward than that part on the right ; hence, on 
 this side, the central tower is more detached, and becomes 
 thus the important centre of the whole edifice. Rising 
 high above the other parts, this tower removes the meagre 
 appearance of the three spires, and thus unites them 
 
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 round this centre. The almost detached tower on the 
 left has also an important place in the whole composition. 
 
 No. 44. CASPAR POUSSIN. 
 
 This is one of the largest edifices we have selected, 
 and appears to form two sides of a square. Both in the 
 facade and sky line, there is much variety of outline. 
 The other two sides of the square are formed by the 
 walls enclosing the garden. If these walls had originally 
 been higher and embattled, the whole would have been 
 a very strong baronial castle of the largest dimensions. 
 The building has a simple picturesque appearance, and 
 may be compared with advantage to many large irregular 
 structures lately erected in different parts of Britain. 
 
 No. 45. DOMINICHINO. 
 
 The round tower has been apparently the nucleus of 
 this mansion. The other parts are likely to be the work 
 of the fourteenth or fifteenth century; but whether the 
 portico be ancient, or merely the addition of the painter. 
 
140 
 
 we cannot determine. The scenery is similar in the 
 original picture. In calling the attention of architects to 
 the sky line of irregular buildings, we do not mean that 
 the upper lines should cut against the sky ; on the con- 
 trary, we think this has always a harsh effect. Buildings 
 appear most agreeable when backed by wood or rising 
 ground. 
 
 No. 46. CLAUDE LORRAINE. 
 
 This is apparently a very strong and massy building, 
 having the tower of safety, or keep, in the centre, which 
 probably was enclosed in a court by walls of defence. 
 The round tower in the corner is likely to contain a 
 stair, giving access to the upper rooms of both the 
 centre and wing on the right. With very little alteration 
 this building might be converted into a sufficiently com- 
 modious dwelling. 
 
 No. 47. LEONARDA DA VINCI. 
 
 This is one of the few we could select from the works 
 of this most celebrated painter. The site is similar to 
 
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 the original. If we may be allowed to conjecture, it 
 appears to have been a strong and ancient castle con- 
 verted into a monastery. From the depth of building on 
 the right hand, there must be a court behind the front, 
 and the steeple arises, not from the square tower, as it 
 appears to do in the drawing, but from a building within 
 the court. The steeple would be built to contain the 
 bells of the monastery, which were in use at a very 
 early period. The bell of the country monastery was "the 
 monitory of the whole district for morning and evening 
 prayers ; and the clock for beginning to, and retiring from 
 labour. 
 
 No. 48. PARMEGIANO. 
 
 This extensive building is so similar to one by Raphael 
 and another by Guido, that we think little doubt can 
 be left of their being copied from buildings then existing. 
 The keep is here a round tower; and we have remarked, 
 that in place of a hanging watch turret, many of these 
 Italian towers had a square building raised above the 
 parapet to serve as an outlook. The large square tower 
 on the right is probably ancient, but the projecting 
 
142 
 
 building which unites it with the keep is more modern. 
 The embattled walls appear to have enclosed all that was 
 then of a garden. 
 
 No. 49. PONTORMO. 
 
 Pontormo was of the Florentine school of painting, 
 and died in 1558. This is a most extensive edifice, 
 evidently enclosing a large court. The bold Tuscan 
 cornices of the back buildings have a good effect, and 
 the whole composition has a picturesque appearance. 
 
 No. 50. JULIO ROMANA. 
 
 This, like the other example, is from a freeze, and re- 
 presents a very strong castle, with a walled court in 
 front, in the interior of which buildings are raised against 
 the wall. The small tower in the centre has had a 
 steeple or spire added, the effect of which is to take 
 off from the want of a central building of importance, 
 to balance the solid square and round towers at the 
 ends. We may here observe, that irregular buildings 
 
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 should have the two sides terminated by substantial 
 parts. In a regular mansion of any extent, the wings 
 are much lower than the centre or main building, and 
 are far less ornamented. If the offices of such a house 
 are detached, the steeple is erected at the stables ; but 
 we have here an example of the good effect produced 
 by this very simple spire in the very centre of the 
 principal edifice. 
 
 No. 51. ANDREA DEL SARTO. 
 
 Pictures painted for monasteries had sometimes the re- 
 presentation of the monastery itself in the back ground, 
 like the fashion in full length portraits to insert the 
 country house of the person represented. This building is 
 in the landscape of a picture of the Holy Family, formerly 
 in the Giustiniani collection. It was probably built for 
 a monastery, yet Is partly embattled, and has a round 
 tower for defence. 
 
144 
 
 No. 52. SALVATOR ROSA. 
 
 In Salvator’s wild scenery, he seldom introduced any 
 building except a ruined tower. But he was less sparing 
 of architecture in the beautiful landscapes representing 
 “ that coast which was once the fairy-land of poets, and 
 the favourite retreat of great men.” We found this 
 building in such a landscape, and the architecture is 
 worthy of Salvator. Placed on a height for strength, 
 the central towers rise with grandeur above each other : 
 the strong outward wall encloses the garden, and two 
 round towers defend the gateway. 
 
 No. 53. SOLIMENE’S HOUSE. 
 
 Francesco Solimene was the last of the old school of 
 Italian painters. He succeeded at Naples to Luca 
 Giordano. After being many years the favoured painter 
 at'" the Neapolitan court, he retired to this picturesque 
 country house at the foot of Mount Vesuvius, and died 
 in 1747, at the age of 90. We have introduced this 
 
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 building, as bearing a resemblance, sufficiently striking, 
 to many examples taken from the early painters. 
 
 No. 54. GIOTTO. 
 
 We give another specimen of a building of this father 
 of the art of painting, copied from a fresco in the Campo 
 Santo. We have here a very early example of the Tuscan 
 window : Outward steps lead to the door from the plat- 
 form ; and the large windows, and of course the principal 
 rooms, are placed high in the building. These are in- 
 dications of the necessity at the period of defensible 
 country dwellings. 
 
 No. 55. CLAUDE LORRAINE. 
 
 This very extensive building may have originally been a 
 castle, but it has very apparently received, from time to 
 time, important additions, and become a large villa, still 
 retaining, however, the tower of safety. We know not 
 to what use the building with the dome has been appro- 
 priated. If the tower in the centre had been higher, 
 the picturesque effect would have been much improved. 
 
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146 
 
 No. 5. TINTORETTO.— omitted. 
 
 This is a large and strong baronial castle, taken from 
 a landscape of this great painter of Venice. The situation 
 is similar in the original, being built abutting upon a 
 high and steep bank. Within the gates must be a large 
 court. The walls are built around, as usual in the 
 
 interior with sheds, for the retainers of the baron. It 
 
 may be nearly as ancient as the time of the division of 
 Lombardy into feudal baronies. 
 
 Of the many buildings examined in Italian landscape 
 scenery, we have not met with a single example of the 
 ancient bay window, and very few of hanging watch 
 turrets. But in city architecture of the Italian painters, 
 balconies and an approach to this window may be often 
 seen. Yet, at the same period, in the fantastical archi- 
 tecture of the Albert Durer school in Germany, every 
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 Their architecture is the very opposite to the Italian school : 
 towers, turrets, gateways, spires, and projectings windows, 
 are crowded together in strange confusion, without a trace 
 of perspective : in short, they try to represent a kind of 
 abstract of a city. 
 
 THE END. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 3.— Note — for decent, read descent 
 
 43. — For lengths, read dimensions. 
 
 44. — For as, read because. 
 
 — For quiaity, read quality. 
 
 49. — Omit dome. 
 
 50. — For Raphael, read Raphael’s. 
 
 61.— For Dominichuino, read Dominichino. 
 
 89.— For disprove, read disproves. 
 
 32, and 33. — For Plate 1, and 2, read Plate 6, and 16. 
 
 In Appendix, the reference to Dr. M. on the Highlands, &c. has been 
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