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LIVING PICTURES. 
 
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iJ 
 
 IVING 
 
 D 
 
 m 
 
 RES: 
 
 THEIR HISTORY, PHOTO-PRODUCTION 
 AND PRACTICAL WORKING. 
 
 WITH 
 
 A Digest of British Patents and Annotated 
 Bibliography. 
 
 HENRY V. HOPWOOD. 
 
 "Our swift scene flies, in motion 01 no less celerity than that 
 of thought."— AT Henry V., Act iii., lines 1-3. 
 
 THE 
 
 OPTICIAN & PHOTOGRAPHIC TRADES REVIEW, 
 
 123-5, FLEET STREET, LONDON, E.G. 
 
 1800. 
 
 1016 
 
THE GETTY ^ENTER 
 LIBRARY 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface xi— xii 
 
 Chapter I. — Persistence of Vision and Continued 
 Perception of same Object. 
 
 Persistence— Colour Tops— Optic Wonder— Thaumatrope 
 invented jointly by Herschel and Fitton — Stereo- 
 Thaumatrope i— 8 
 
 Chapter II. — Illusion of Motion, produced by suc- 
 cessive Views of slightly varying Diagrams. 
 
 Wheel - Phenomena — Phenakistoscope— Anorthoscope — 
 Wheel of Life — Choreutoscope — Daedaleum — 
 Zoetrope — Praxinoscope— Alternate Views — Book- 
 form Apparatus — Mutoscopes— Viviscope 9 — 42 
 
 Chapter III. — Chronophotography and the Prac- 
 tical Development of the Living Picture. 
 
 Posed Photographs — Pure Chronophotography — Battery 
 Apparatus — Jansen's Photo -Revolver — Marey's 
 Photographic Gun — Early Attempts at Intermittent 
 Motion of Band — Kinetoscope — First successful 
 Machines — Jenkin's Phantoscope — Cinemato- 
 graphe — Kinetic Lantern 43—109 
 
 Chapter IV. — Present Day Cameras and Projection 
 Apparatus. 
 
 Classification of Intermittent Mechanism — Modern 
 
 Suggestions and Actual Machines — Nomenclature... 110 — 187 
 
x CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter V. — Films: their Production and Treat- 
 ment. 
 
 Celluloid — Perforation — Exposure — Development — 
 
 Printing Positives — Colouring— Repairing 188 — 206 
 
 Chapter VI. — Exhibiting Hints, Accessories, 
 Lighting, Accidents, etc. 
 
 Vibration — Flicker — Correct Adjustment of Film and 
 View — Reversing— Safety Appliances — Lighting — 
 Screens — Peep-show Apparatus ... 207—224 
 
 Chapter VII. — Past, Present, and Future. 
 
 Who Invented Living Pictures? — Gradual Progress of 
 
 Invention — Present Uses — A Flight of Fancy ... 225 — 234 
 
 Appendix I. — Chronological Digest of British 
 
 Patents ... ... ... 235—253 
 
 Appendix II. — Annotated Bibliography ... ... 254—265 
 
 General Index ... ... ... ... ... 266—275 
 
 Commercial Supplement ... ... ... ... i— xxvii 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In presenting this book to my readers I feel the necessity 
 of making a few remarks with regard to its scope. The 
 subject of which it treats is, in earlier years, so bound 
 up with researches on Persistence of Vision that I have 
 been sorely tempted to stray into many seductively 
 interesting bye-paths. Limitations of time and space 
 have, however, exercised a certain influence, and I have 
 been compelled to restrict my work in absolute con- 
 formity with the title of my book. Therefore, none of 
 the interesting apparatus for demonstrating persistence 
 of vision find a place within these pages, nor have the 
 various theories on the subject been discussed. I have 
 somewhat reluctantly confined myself strictly to the 
 description and history of apparatus for producing the 
 illusion of motion. At the same time, my book (within 
 its proper limits) commences early, and, at the conclusion 
 of a review covering over two thousand years, will be 
 found, I hope, fully "up to date." I have adopted the 
 practice of italicising the name of each instrument when 
 first met with in the Historical Section, and the Index 
 will be found to include, in alphabetical order, not only 
 names properly applied, but also such mis-spelled 
 variations as I may have met with, and also many which 
 have been erroneously used, they, like " the flowers 
 which bloom in the spring," having " nothing to do with 
 the case." The changes rung on Kine-, Cine-, and Vita- 
 are so numerous — one might say irritating — that I am 
 led to hope that the mathematical laws of permutation 
 may break down, and, in defiance of arithmetical rules, 
 thus create a necessity for radical changes in the 
 naming of later machines. The descriptions in the list 
 of British Patents must not be taken as full ; I see no 
 necessity to reprint a mass of Government Blue-books 
 
xii PREFACE. 
 
 which are available in full to the public, but I believe 
 that every specification pertinent to my subject is at 
 least mentioned, and I am convinced such a list is a 
 necessary complement to an historical review. Further- 
 more, these patents will be found to include many ideas 
 which may contain some useful germs, and although 
 many of these crude conceptions have not been prac- 
 tically carried out, they at least afford food for thought. 
 An acquaintance with the minuteness of the steps in 
 the evolution of the Living Picture has caused me to 
 attach value to even the slightest novelty, find it where 
 I might. With regard to the Bibliography, I do not 
 put it forward as exhaustive. Were it so, the valuable 
 papers would be hidden among a number of reprints 
 and comments. I merely append some of the more 
 important references I have collected in the course of 
 my reading, in order that others may pursue any point 
 on which they desire further information than I have 
 been able to supply in the space at my disposal. To this 
 end the Index is especially directed ; I believe its utility 
 will justify the labour I have expended upon it. In 
 conclusion, I would say that my aim has been to express 
 each fact as clearly as possible in a popular way, and 
 to present in a connected form as much information as 
 I could collect, in order that my book might not only 
 provide a few hours' pleasant reading, but also serve 
 as a standard of reference on its subject. Finally, I 
 should esteem it a favour if any reader who discovers 
 an error, either of commission or omission, in my work 
 would acquaint me with the fact, for " to err is human " ; 
 and I should be pleased to find my critics approach the 
 other extreme of the proverb cited. 
 
 HENRY V. HOPWOOD. 
 
 January, 1899. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 PERSISTENCE OF VISION AND CONTINUED PERCEPTION 
 OF THE SAME OBJECT. 
 
 IN all branches of applied science the reflective mind 
 derives pleasure from tracing a perfected instrument 
 back to its simplest form, thus separating its primary 
 and essential factor from those mechanical improvements 
 and additions which serve to render the apparatus 
 perfect in action and commercially practicable. For 
 instance, the telescope and microscope, the use of which 
 has carried man's sight farther and farther into the 
 boundless realms of the infinitely great and immeasur- 
 ably small, derive their utility, when all is told, from the 
 fact that a ray of light is bent out of its path when 
 passing through any point where a change of (optical) 
 density exists in the material universe. The reason of 
 this it is not necessary to enquire into ; the experimental 
 fact is accepted on its own merits while the possibility 
 is admitted of some underlying verity which may prove 
 the connecting link between this and other related 
 phenomena, and still further simplify the expression of 
 the natural laws governing them. And thus pursuing 
 our present subject and considering the marvellous 
 mechanism which brings the past in all semblance of 
 vivacity under present view, it is only necessary to 
 ascertain the fundamental fact which renders possible 
 so wonderful a result. But, instead of analysing the 
 finished apparatus for ourselves, it is best to take our 
 starting-point from others, and at once prepare to follow 
 from its primitive germ the growth of the Living 
 
 B 
 
•2 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Picture — a history which could never have been 
 written were it not for the physiological phenomenon of 
 Persistence of Vision, that basis upon which rests 
 every one of the mechanical appliances which will be 
 described. 
 
 The stock experiment which proves Persistence of 
 Vision is of so elementary a character that man must 
 be supposed to have noticed the effect long before he 
 was capable of theorising upon its cause. If a stick 
 with lighted or glowing point is taken and whirled in 
 a circle (an action doubtless performed in prehistoric 
 times), it will be at once noticed, if the speed is great 
 enough, that the glowing end of the stick is no longer 
 seen as a point ; but a luminous circle filling its whole 
 path is visible instead. Again, take a flat steel spring 
 and fix it at one end, strike the other so as to cause it 
 
 to vibrate, and the spring 
 
 ^ t ^^r^T^-. w iU appear to fill the 
 
 ^ "" whole of the space over 
 
 / J^ ~~--^M which it moves, as seen 
 
 in Fig. i. Now it cer- 
 
 FlG. I. 
 
 tainly does not require 
 much proof that neither stick nor spring can be 
 in two places at once ; and the only possible 
 solution of the mystery is that the luminous 
 point or spring is seen in any given spot after 
 it has moved away, and continues to be visible there 
 until its return to the same position, when its image 
 again falls on the same spot in the eye and thus gives 
 an impression of continuous presence. This taking 
 place all along the path of the moving object naturally 
 causes it in appearance to fill the whole space. For- 
 tunately this, as most other experimental facts, admits 
 of simple verbal expression — one sentence suffices — 
 we continue to experience the visual effect of light 
 after it has ceased to act. This phenomenon is called, 
 
PERSISTENCE OF VISION. 3 
 
 as already mentioned, Persistence of Vision, and from 
 this point we make our departure ; the investigations 
 and theories respecting the cause of this effect, whether 
 residing in the brain-cells' slow return (after their 
 excitation) to normal state, or connected with the 
 nature of the stimulus experienced by the terminal of 
 the optic nerve in the retina, are all interesting ; but 
 they do not alter the experimental fact of persistence, 
 which is certainly true, even though all the theories 
 hitherto promulgated with respect to it should prove 
 to be erroneous. 
 
 A sentence, which is probably the first written refer- 
 ence to persistence of vision, is contained in the fourth 
 book of " De rerum natura," by Lucretius, dated 
 about 65 B.C. He there says : " This [perception cf 
 movement] is to be explained in the following way ; 
 that when the first image passes off, and a second is 
 afterwards produced in another position, the former 
 then seems to have changed its gesture. This we must 
 conceive to be done by a very rapid process," etc. 
 Though seemingly so very a propos this passage is 
 in reality only a reference to a theory of dreams, and 
 its interest arises from the fact that Dr. Plateau found 
 it quoted against him (by Dr. Sinsteden) on the inven- 
 tion of the phenakistoscope ; and it seems of some 
 interest as being the first-quoted anticipation of the 
 first living picture apparatus. Indeed Lucretius only 
 expresses the fact of persistent vision and mentions no 
 apparatus for its demonstration. 
 
 This matter appears to have been first treated of two 
 centuries later in the second book of Ptolemy's Optics. 
 This work, written about the year 130 A.D., narrowly 
 escaped annihilation ; only two copies are known to 
 exist, and these are both Latin translations through the 
 Arabic. One copy is in the Bibliotheque Nationale in 
 Paris, the other and more perfect example is in the 
 
4 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Bodleian Library at Oxford. Ptolemy in this treatise 
 mentions that if a sector of a disc be coloured, the 
 whole will appear of that colour when rapidly revolved. 
 and if the sector be variously coloured at different 
 distances from the centre, the disc will appear ringed. 
 Alhazen, the great Arabian philosopher, refers to the 
 subject about A.D. I ioo, as do others, including Leonardo 
 da Vinci> who was born in 1452. Coming to later years, 
 Newton, Boyle, and others mention the matter, but 
 little practical investigation was done except the attempts 
 by Segner, d'Arcy, and Cavallo to measure the duration 
 of vision after the extinction of light. To conclude the 
 references on this subject, it is only necessary to 
 mention that the period of persistence is now accepted 
 as (on the average) from -^ to _u of a second, subject 
 to the degree of intensity, duration, and colour of the 
 light received by the eye. 
 
 Up to the end of the eighteenth century no progress 
 was made in the application of the principle of per- 
 sistence, and the character of last-century knowledge 
 is well summed up in Abbe Nollet's " Lecons de 
 Physique," 1765, tome 5, where he says : "When an 
 object moves very rapidly before our eyes, we often attri- 
 bute to it size and shape which it does not possess. A 
 polyhedron revolved on its axis seems to us a sphere ; 
 as does also a circle revolved on one of its diameters," 
 etc., etc. This statement merely implies the knowledge 
 that one object may be seen in more than one place 
 at once if it move fast enough ; and here may be 
 mentioned a very popular toy of thirty odd years ago, 
 brought out by the Stereoscopic Company under the 
 name of " The Optic Wonder." In this a piece of 
 wire bent to the outline of one side of a vase or the 
 like symmetrical figure was made to revolve rapidly 
 round its vertical axis, and thereby gave the impression 
 of a complete vessel. As an addition a glass rod, bent 
 
PERSISTENCE OF VISION. 5 
 
 to a half outline of a glass shade and mounted outside 
 the wire, caused the appearance of a complete trans- 
 parent covering. Later, a heavy metal top was used 
 to obtain rotation, the wires being inserted in a hollow 
 vertical spindle. This toy was manufactured in France and 
 known under the name of " La Toupie 
 eblouissante," or Dazzling Top (Fig. 
 2). These toys were, of course, 
 manufactured subsequently to the 
 date as yet reached in this review 
 of progress, but have most con- 
 nection with this stage of the whole 
 subject. 
 
 So, up to the year 1825, demon- 
 stration was confined to exhibiting 
 the same object in more than one 
 place at once ; but in 1 826 or thereabouts it was ren- 
 dered possible to see two different objects in the same 
 place at the same time. This was accomplished by 
 the Thaumatrope> the invention of which is attributed 
 by Brewster to Dr. Paris, who himself claimed it in his 
 book, " Philosophy in Sport made Science in Earnest." 
 It consists of a card having images on each surface, 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 inverted with respect to each other, as in Fig. 3, and 
 these images (when presented in rapid alternation by 
 the revolution of the card) both persist, and so appear 
 simultaneously and continuously present in the field of 
 view. With reference to the general acceptance of Dr. 
 
6 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Paris as inventor of this instrument (which Carpenter 
 attributes to Dr. Wollaston), it is well to notice the 
 following- little known story from Charles Babbage's 
 " Passages from the Life of a Philosopher " [Auto- 
 biography]. " One day Herschel [Sir John], sitting 
 with me after dinner, amusing himself by spinning- a 
 pear upon the table, suddenly asked whether I could 
 show him the two sides of a shilling at the same 
 moment. I took out of my pocket a shilling, and 
 holding it up before the looking-glass, pointed out my 
 method. ' No,' said my friend, ' that won't do ' ; then, 
 spinning my shilling upon the table, he pointed out 
 his method of seeing both sides at once. The next 
 day I mentioned the anecdote to the late Dr. Fitton, 
 who a few days after brought me a beautiful illustration 
 of the principle. It consisted of a round disc of card 
 suspended between two pieces of sewing-silk. These 
 threads being held between the finger and thumb of 
 each hand, were then made to turn quickly, when the 
 disc of card, of course, revolved also. Upon one side 
 of this disc of card was painted a bird ; upon the other 
 side, an empty bird-cage. On turning the thread 
 rapidly the bird appeared to have got inside the cage. 
 We soon made numerous applications, as a rat on one 
 side and a trap upon the other, etc. It was shown to 
 Captain Kater, Dr. Wollaston, and many of our friends, 
 and was, after the lapse of a short time, forgotten. 
 Some months after, during dinner at the Royal Society 
 Club, Sir Joseph Banks being in the chair, I heard Mr. 
 Barrow, then Secretary to the Admiralty, talking very 
 loudly about a wonderful invention of Dr. Paris, the 
 object of which I could not quite understand. It was 
 called the thaumatrope, and was said to be sold at the 
 Royal Institution, in Albemarle Street. Suspecting that 
 it had some connection with our unnamed toy, I went 
 next morning and purchased for seven shillings and 
 
PERSISTENCE OF VISION. 7 
 
 sixpence a thaumatrope, which I afterwards sent down 
 to Slough to the late Lady Herschel. It was precisely 
 the thing which her son and Dr. Fitton had contributed 
 to invent, which amused all their friends for a time and 
 had then been forgotten. There was, however, one 
 additional thaumatrope made afterwards. It consisted 
 of the usual disc of paper. On one side was repre- 
 sented a thaumatrope (the design upon it being a penny 
 piece) with the motto, ' How to turn a Penny.' On 
 the other side was a gentleman in black, with his hands 
 held out in the act of spinning a thaumatrope, the 
 motto being ' A New Trick from Paris.' " 
 
 To conclude the history of the Thaumatrope a refer- 
 ence to a suggestion made by Claudet in 1867 is alone 
 necessary. In the ordinary form both sides of the card 
 revolve around the same axis at the same distance, and 
 therefore appear on the same plane. But Claudet 
 suggested that if the card were of considerable thick- 
 ness or a substitute were provided (similar to a shallow 
 matchbox cover), and 
 
 the axis of rotation ■ r. " j ' 
 
 3 
 
 passed through one 
 side, as shown in Figs. 
 4 and 5, the picture- 
 drawn on the other ?•= ==$ 
 
 side (revolving at a 
 distance from the axis) 
 would come nearer to the eye (situated either at 
 A or B) than that through which the axis passed. 
 One object would thus appear to stand in front of the 
 other, giving an appearance of relief which would 
 convert the usual form into a Stereo-Thaumatrope. 
 This apparatus was designed by Claudet to demonstrate 
 rapid alternate convergent and divergent action of the 
 optical axes, but discussion of the questionable accuracy 
 of his conclusions is quite foreign to the subject of 
 
 Figs. 4 & 5. 
 
8 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 this book, and finds its proper place in a stereoscopic 
 treatise. 
 
 It is indeed strange that a toy which in the earlier 
 years of the present generation could be bought six on 
 a halfpenny card should have cost seven-and-sixpence 
 at the date of its inception, and should have tempted 
 the Royal Institution to enter commercial life ; but 
 stranger still is the thought of that shilling, carelessly 
 spun seventy years ago, being the first step in the long 
 series of persistent vision apparatus whose latest develop- 
 ments achieve results wonderful indeed when not under- 
 stood, more wonderful still when a just comprehension 
 is formed of the numberless details which are necessary 
 to the effective working of a living picture. However, 
 to return to the year 1826, the date of the publication 
 of the Thaumatrope's description. One stage in this 
 history is here complete ; Fitton's instrument set men 
 thinking, and only six years elapsed before the first 
 appliance was introduced for obtaining the illusion of 
 motion. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ILLUSION OF MOTION PRODUCED BY SUCCESSIVE VIEWS 
 OF SLIGHTLY VARYING DIAGRAMS. 
 
 The researches which led to further advance in the 
 illusive production of motion were distributed among 
 many scientific men, each to a great degree unaware 
 of the others' work. The starting-point on the 
 theoretical side was probably Dr. Roget's paper pub- 
 lished in 1825, on apparent distortion of the spokes of 
 a rotating wheel when seen through a fence (i.e., a series 
 of vertical slots) ; a subject later investigated by 
 Plateau. The latter, in 1836, invented the Anortho- 
 scope, an instrument which reversed the illusion 
 observed by Roget, and gave a correct image from a 
 distorted original. In this contrivance a back disc 
 bearing a distorted image revolves at a speed four times 
 greater than a front one which is pierced with four 
 radial slots at angular distances of 90 degrees. When 
 in motion this instrument shows four non-distorted 
 images formed from the one distorted original. Rose's 
 Kalotrope (shown in 1856 at the Polytechnic) further 
 modified this action, and caused beautiful symmetrical 
 designs in curved lines to be produced from originals 
 of very commonplace appearance. These instruments, 
 though in their first forms not strictly connected with 
 the illusion of motion, are so beautiful in their action 
 that, depending as they do on persistence of vision, they 
 deserve mention in case any reader cares to " look up " 
 a subject of so interesting a nature. But in the year 
 1849 Plateau himself suggested a modification of this 
 instrument which produced the illusion of motion in 
 
10 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 a most effective manner, and this matter will be referred 
 to somewhat later in its proper sequence. 
 
 Probably it was due as much to the invention of the 
 Thaumatrope as to Roget's researches on apparent 
 deformation of the spokes of revolving wheels that 
 attention was directed to the fruitful combined subjects 
 of persistence of vision and rotation of a series of 
 diagrams ; for in 1 83 1 we find several writers, including 
 Aime and Faraday, referring to the fact that when two 
 cogged wheels, with equal number of teeth, revolve at 
 equal speed in opposite directions, one in front of the 
 other, the eye, if placed at a distance, perceives a 
 stationary image of one wheel only. (Plateau had made 
 the same observation in 1828.) This illusive stationary 
 wheel merely results from the strong image perceived 
 each time the aspects of the two wheels coincide ; the 
 phase when the cogs of one wheel are passing over the 
 spaces in the other forming, so to speak, a blurred 
 background on which the strong stationary image 
 stands out. To illustrate this Faraday constructed 
 
 a demonstration apparatus 
 called Faraday's Wheel (Fig. 
 6), in which two discs with 
 notched edges were revolved 
 at equal speeds in opposite 
 directions by friction gearing. 
 Faraday and Plateau both 
 investigated the results of 
 revolving two cogged wheels 
 in the same direction and 
 looking through the cogs of 
 the front one at the other ; in 
 which case also an apparently 
 stationary wheel was seen, though from a far different 
 cause to that in the first case, as will be seen in the 
 following explanation of the action of a slotted disc. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 II 
 
 Faraday also pointed out that one wheel gave the 
 same result if revolved in front of a mirror, the image 
 taking the place of ..the second wheel ; the advantage 
 secured being that speed of object and image were 
 bound to be absolutely identical. 
 
 It was but a step from this discovery to the employ- 
 ment of a disc pierced with slots to look through and 
 bearing radial lines on its face, i.e. the side to be turned 
 towards the mirror. From this experiment strange 
 results followed. When the slots were equal in number 
 to the radii (Fig. 7), the image (as seen through the 
 slots and in the mirror) ap- 
 peared stationary ; when the 
 slots were slightly fewer than 
 the radii, the wheel appeared to 
 travel slowly forward (i.e. in 
 the same direction as the real 
 motion of the disc) and to 
 move in the backward direc- 
 tion if the slots outnumbered 
 the radial marks. Now it 
 must be understood that the 
 disc is revolved so rapidly 
 that if the image be viewed 
 directly (i.e. not through the 
 slots) the black spokes would 
 be confused into a gray circle. 
 
 Yet when seen through these small openings every 
 individual spoke appears distinctly, a fact which points 
 out the slots as the key to the mystery. The reason 
 is simple. Every time a slot passes the eye an impres- 
 sion is received of the image of the whole face of the 
 disc (as seen in the mirror), and though the whole image 
 is turning rapidly, the slot (if narrow) goes so quickly 
 past the eye that the image has not time to move far 
 enough to give any impression of motion, and therefore 
 
 Fig 
 
12 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 it appears to be standing still. If, now, when the second 
 slot passes before the eye the image presents a precisely 
 similar view to the previous one (and this is the case 
 when radii and slots are equal in number) it is obvious 
 that it will not appear to have moved at all ; for we 
 shall have combined two successive similar images, by 
 the action of persistence, into one permanent impression. 
 If, however, the slots are fewer in number than the 
 spokes (Fig. 8), when the second slot comes before our 
 eye the second spoke instead of falling in the same place 
 as the first, will be seen slightly in advance of that 
 spot, and will thus give the impression that the first 
 
 Fi« 8. 
 
 Fio. 9. 
 
 spoke has moved forward a little. If, however, the slots 
 are more numerous than the spokes (Fig. 9) we receive 
 our second view a little before the second spoke has 
 arrived at the spot where the first was seen, and we 
 therefore imagine the first spoke to have moved back 
 to that extent. It will now be clear that the whole 
 phenomenon depends on the fact of the moving image 
 being seen for so short a period that it appears to be 
 still ; during the time it is not seen another image takes 
 
BIA GRA M ILL US IONS. 1 3 
 
 its place, and this substitution is effected so rapidly that 
 the first image persists in the eye until the second one 
 is presented to view ; this order of things being re- 
 peated with succeeding images so long as the disc is 
 turned. 
 
 Suppose, now, instead of a series of similar images 
 we have a succession of slightly varying drawings (say 
 of a man) in which while the body agrees in all, yet 
 the arm is in different positions, such as lifted 
 gradually higher and then dropped so that the last 
 of the series nearly agrees with the first. In this case 
 repeated views of the body will all agree, but the arm 
 will be seen, first low down, then gradually rising, then 
 falling and rising again ; persistence of vision blending 
 the images, so that the action appears continuous 
 although we really see it in jerks. And here we have 
 the true living picture, capable of improvement no doubt, 
 needing instantaneous photography to confer accuracy, 
 requiring extreme mechanical perfection to secure a 
 sufficient number of pictures in a second and to again 
 combine the same into one continuous scene ; but yet, 
 from this point onward, there is little discovery to 
 record, though many ingenious inventions remain to 
 be described. These inventions naturally aimed at 
 one result, but by different methods, and therefore the 
 history of each class of device must be separately traced. 
 
 The instrument which has just been referred to as 
 the progenitor of all these species was invented simul- 
 taneously by Plateau of Ghent and Stampfer of Vienna ; 
 and though their instruments were identical they 
 naturally received different names from their respective 
 originators. Plateau forwarded an example of his 
 Phenakistoscope through Quetelet to Faraday in 
 November, 1832, his letter being printed in February. 
 1833. Stampfer first made his Stroboscope in December. 
 1832, at which date no description had been published 
 
II 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 of Plateau's previously, constructed Phenakistoscope. 
 As an early instance of confusion of terms it may be 
 mentioned that Snell, writing in 1835, calls the Strobo- 
 scope by the name of Phantascope or Kaleidorama. 
 Miiller in 1846 applied this instrument for the demon- 
 stration of wave-motion, and Poppe, Savart, and others 
 employed it for the synthesis of other natural motions. 
 One application is shown in Fig 10, where a pendulum 
 
 appears to swing as the 
 successive stages of that 
 action are momentarily 
 perceived through the 
 slots by means of a mirror. 
 It will be understood that 
 while the slotted disc is 
 of metal the diagrams are 
 drawn on a circular re- 
 movable card, in order 
 to allow the inspection 
 of varying subjects. One 
 late and very interesting 
 form of this instrument may 
 be mentioned here. Lom- 
 mel in 1881 suggested that 
 a strong beam of light 
 might be thrown, from behind, through the disc by 
 means of a lens bringing the beam to a focus in the 
 slot, In this way a powerful illuminating beam was 
 passed through a very narrow opening, and as it again 
 spread out a mirror reflected it on to the surface of the 
 disc, as seen in Fig. II. When the disc was in 
 rotation the light only fell on the designs in intermittent 
 flashes as each slot allowed the beam of light to pass. 
 The result of interrupting the light in this way, instead 
 of by a slotted disc between the eye and the design, was 
 to render it possible for a whole roomful of people to see 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 15 
 
 the entire disc at once, whereas with the older arrange- 
 ment only a single person could view the effect at one 
 time. 
 
 The slotted disc was, however, felt to be a great 
 disadvantage by reason of the small amount of light 
 which could reach the eye ; 
 an idea of the proportion 
 allowed to pass may be 
 formed from the relative 
 extent of slot and opaque 
 disc, for of course while 
 the latter is before the 
 eye no light is received. 
 Wheatstone endeavoured to 
 overcome this failing by 
 allowing the disc to be 
 viewed on its face instead 
 of in a mirror. By means 
 
 
 
 Fig. i i. 
 
 of a cog and snail motion the disc was kept at 
 rest for a comparatively long period and then rapidly 
 jerked into its next position. The eye was thus im- 
 pressed with a vigorous image which persisted over the 
 short period of blur caused by the rapid movement, and 
 then received the succeeding stationary image in its 
 full strength. 
 
 This crude apparatus is interesting because some of 
 the most effective of modern machines employ an inter- 
 mittent motion with so long rest and such rapid travel 
 that a shutter is dispensed with ; while one of the most 
 satisfactory forms of apparatus manufactured in France 
 actually takes its name of Heliocinegraphe from the 
 very same cog and snail motion employed by Wheat- 
 stone forty or fifty years ago. It was subsequently 
 suggested, in order to obviate the use of a mirror, that 
 a slotted disc might be mounted in advance of the 
 diagram but on the same axis, so that they both revolved 
 
1G LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 in the same direction at the same speed (Fig. 12), and 
 though this form of apparatus did not make its com- 
 mercial appearance till some- 
 what late in the day, it will 
 be seen from the drawing 
 that the arrangement is 
 exactly equivalent to view- 
 ing the back of a slotted 
 disc in a mirror. It, how- 
 ever, opened the way for 
 further improvement by ex- 
 hibiting clearly the shutter- 
 Fig. 12. like nature of the slotted 
 
 disc. 
 The first attempts at projection were founded on this 
 type of machine, the design wheel being transparent and 
 light thrown first through it, then through the slots, and 
 finally on to the screen by means of an objective. This 
 was done by Uchatius between 185 1 and 1853, but 
 Plateau himself had practically attacked the same 
 problem in 1849 in a modification of his Anorthoscope. 
 It will be remembered that the Anorthoscope produced 
 four non-distorted images from a distorted original. 
 Plateau placed sixteen images in progressive series 
 round the margin of a glass disc, and in front of this, 
 in a reverse direction, revolved, at a four times greater 
 speed, an opaque disc with four slots. The front of the 
 apparatus could be observed by many people at once, 
 and to prevent confusion the parts of the disc showing 
 the non-erect images were screened off. It will be seen 
 that as a slot passed the aperture in the screen one 
 image would be viewed and the light then cut off 
 while the transparent disc turned one-sixteenth of its 
 diameter and the opaque one one-quarter. The next 
 image would then be revealed, by its coincidence with 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 17 
 
 the slot, in the same position as that in which the 
 previous image was observed. 
 
 Plateau seemed very proud of the sensation caused 
 by his first design (drawn to his request, for by this 
 date he was unfortunately stone-blind). It represented 
 a devil Wowing up a fire, and the effect was so striking 
 that Plateau was led to further suggestions of a photo- 
 graphic character, which will be referred to in their 
 proper place. It is plain that to render this apparatus 
 available for projection it but required a condenser 
 behind the transparent disc and an objective in front 
 of the opaque one, but Plateau does not appear to have 
 suggested this, and the first application of differentially 
 speeded discs to the purpose of projection-work appears 
 to be the I antern Wheel of Life, an instrument of con- 
 siderably Inter date. The Austrian Lieutenant (subse- 
 quently General) Franz Uchatius wrote, on the 16th 
 February, 1851, a letter to Prokesch, the head of the 
 Viennese optical house now known by the name of 
 Fritsch. In this letter he refers vaguely to the glories 
 of the Ph nakistoscope having been surrendered, and 
 his subs quent papers show that the manufacture of his 
 instrumc s was entrusted to the above-mentioned firm. 
 The first form attempted was an arrangement exactly 
 similar in principle to Fig. 12, the light being thrown 
 through a transparent design disc on to a screen by 
 means of an objective, the slotted disc acting as a 
 shutter. The 1° S3 of light proved to be enormous ; 
 figures of greater size than six inches could not 
 be show 1 ; and Uchatius was led to invent, and 
 Prokesch to manufacture, an apparatus of an exceed- 
 ingly ingenious and interesting nature, which was shown 
 at the Vienna Academy of Sciences in 1853. 
 
 In this later form the diagrams were painted on the 
 circumference of a transparent disc, which remained 
 stationary. In front of each design a lens was placed, 
 
 C 
 
18 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 the whole circle of lenses being capable of adjustment 
 in order that all the optic axes should cross at the 
 place where the image was formed on the screen. The 
 separate lenses thus all threw their respective diagrams 
 in the same place, the succession of the series being 
 attained by revolving a limelight behind the diagrams, 
 only one of which was thus lit at a time. The interest 
 of this apparatus is great, not only from the fact that 
 the source of light was the only moving part, but also 
 because this appears to be the first suggestion of pro- 
 jecting successive pictures through more than one optical 
 system, a method which at the time of writing is 
 probably the novelty of the day. Instead of moving 
 the illuminant, it would have been simple to have 
 deflected the light by means of a rotating mirror, but 
 
 this multiple form 
 does not appear to 
 have been followed 
 up, and though in 
 any type of slotted 
 machine with con- 
 tinuously moving 
 diagrams the loss of 
 light must have been 
 enormous, yet it was 
 towards the improve- 
 ment of this type 
 that attention was 
 directed. To secure 
 increase of illumina- 
 tion it was necessary 
 to show the object for as long as possible, making the 
 change to the next diagram in a very short time. This 
 desire mainly arose because the need for a projecting 
 instrument was strongly felt, and it is certain that no 
 toy attains a great popularity whose use is confined to 
 one individual at a time. 
 
 Figs. 13 & 14. 
 
DIAGRAM ILL US IONS. 1 9 
 
 The most effective early device for this purpose was 
 the Ross Wheel of Life (Figs. 13 and 14), designed for 
 use in the Optical Lantern, and patented in 1871. 
 The disc bearing the figures is caused to revolve 
 slowly ; the opaque disc has one sector removed and 
 travels at such a speed as to make one revolution 
 while the transparent disc moves one stage. Thus in 
 Fig. 13 two figures are seen through the opening in 
 the opaque disc. Its revolution promptly cuts them 
 out of sight, and by the time the opening comes back 
 to the same place the next pair of figures (in slightly 
 different attitudes) are found to occupy the same vertical 
 line. This arrangement is practically a substitution of 
 a one-slot disc for a four-slot one as used by Plateau 
 in the instrument last described. The result of this 
 arrangement is that the lantern screen is full of figures 
 all in motion and in various phases of the same action ; 
 but this multiplicity of images is confusing, and attempts 
 were made to show only one figure on the screen at a 
 time. Mr. Beale, of Greenwich, devised a method 
 whereby a face could be shown in motion by means of 
 a series of sixteen pictures illuminated by intermittent 
 flashes. A painting of a human bust was made on u 
 screen, the face being replaced by a hole, behind which 
 could be brought sixteen views of a face in the various 
 stages of a grimace or smile by means of the revolution 
 •of a disc on the circumference of which they were 
 painted. A sixteen-holed shutter worked by gearing 
 admitted a flash of light to illuminate the painting for 
 a moment as each face arrived in its proper position, the 
 light being cut off during a quick change to the next 
 expression. By means of an ingenious contrivance 
 which allowed only every alternate opening in the 
 shutter to act, and was adjustable to show first one 
 series of eight and then another, the resultant grimace 
 was varied in a most amusing way. This arrangement, 
 
20 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 however, needed a full-sized painting for every effect, 
 and was not of the ordinary magic-lantern nature ; 
 the separate pictures not being projected., but only 
 illuminated intermittently. 
 
 A single and therefore larger figure than that given 
 by the Wheel of Life was subsequently projected on the 
 screen by the same inventor, whose " Dancing Skeleton " 
 was a great success. A disc was used, rotating in front 
 of a lantern condenser ; but this disc, instead of being- 
 formed of glass, was of thin sheet metal, the figures of 
 a skeleton in various attitudes being cut out, stencil 
 fashion, round the margin. These necessarily brilliant 
 white figures were projected on the screen in the usual 
 way by an objective, the light being cut off by an 
 interruptor (geared from the axle of the disc) during the 
 period of change. Mr. Beale also constructed this 
 instrument with the stencil figures on a long slip, 
 performing the necessary eclipses by a rising and falling- 
 shutter, the whole arrangement being called by him the 
 Choreutoscope. An improved form of this device was 
 patented by Hughes (1884), and is applicable to any 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 ordinary optical lantern. Fig. 15 shows the working 
 parts. Turning the handle revolves a disc, a pin on 
 which raises the shutter and so interrupts the light. 
 Teeth on the disc then come into play, shifting the long 
 slide one stage, and so soon as it comes to rest the 
 shutter drops and exposes the picture. A continuous 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 21 
 
 motion of the handle repeats these actions with 
 sufficient rapidity to throw an apparently permanent 
 and moving figure on the screen. A somewhat similar 
 arrangement to Beale's Rotary Choreutoscope was 
 patented in the United States by A. B. Brown in the 
 year 1869 (No. 93,594). This specification is mainly 
 of interest by reason of the construction employed in 
 the intermittent mechanism. It forms a very close 
 approach indeed to the modern cinematograph with 
 Maltese Cross motion ; a star-wheel and pin being used 
 to drive the design wheel periodically, while a two- 
 sector shutter is shown geared to eclipse the light during 
 the change of picture. From this point it would be 
 comparatively easy, by describing no more than two 
 machines, to bridge the gap of twenty years which still 
 remains to be traversed ere the first machine of distinctly 
 modern type appears. Mr. Heyl, in the year after 
 Brown's United States patent, exhibited a somewhat 
 similar apparatus, employing photographic images ; but 
 consideration of his machine must be deferred until the 
 next chapter, for many elementary forms of apparatus 
 remain to be described before the subject of chrono- 
 photography is discussed. 
 
 Of the simpler diagram apparatus, however, the 
 phenakistoscopic, or disc-and-slot machines, are prac- 
 tically exhausted, except so far as their principles may 
 recur in some form of photographic device, and it is 
 necessary now to consider the cylindrical apparatus 
 (directly derived from the Phenakistoscope), popularly 
 introduced about i860, and subsequently called the 
 Zoetrope, Zootrope, or Wheel of Life, the latter term 
 being a name also applied to a previously described 
 lantern slide (page 19). Desvignes patented the 
 Zoetrope, though not naming it, in i860. The year 
 1867, however, saw a patent (No. 64,117) issued in the 
 United States to William E. Lincoln, of Providence, 
 
22 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 U.S.A., for the selfsame contrivance under the name of 
 Zoetrope, apparently the first use of the word. But this 
 type of slotted machine takes its origin at a date far 
 anterior to those quoted above ; in fact, only a little 
 more than a twelvemonth elapsed between the invention 
 of the phenakistoscope (1833) and publication of the 
 following suggestion by W. G. Horner in " The Philo- 
 sophical Magazine." "The apparatus is merely a hollow 
 cylinder, or a moderately high margin, with apertures 
 at equal distances, and placed cylindrically round the 
 edge of a revolving disk. Any drawings which are 
 made on the interior surface in the intervals of the 
 apertures will be visible through the opposite apertures, 
 and if executed on the same principle of graduated 
 action, will produce the same surprising play of relative 
 motions as the common magic disk does when spun 
 before a mirror. But as no necessity exists in this case 
 for bringing the eye near the apparatus, but rather the 
 contrary, and the machine when revolving has all the 
 effect of transparency, the phenomenon may be dis- 
 played with full effect to a numerous audience. I 
 have given this instrument the name of Dxdaleum, as 
 imitating the practice which the 
 1 \ celebrated artist of antiquity was 
 U I U I I J Lj fabled to have invented, of creating 
 figures of men and animals endued 
 with motion. ... I have not 
 thought it requisite to give a more 
 particular description of the instru- 
 ment, having communicated every 
 needful part of the detail, some 
 weeks ago, to a respectable optician 
 of Bristol, Mr. King, jun." 
 
 This is an absolutely correct 
 description of the instrument patented by Desvignes 
 twenty-four years later, and known under the name of 
 
 Fig. 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 23 
 
 the Zoetrope, an instrument which is still 
 frequently to be seen for sale. The apparatus, 
 in its modern form, is shown in Fig. 16. A 
 band of figures having been placed inside the 
 cylinder, the whole is rotated, and the figures 
 are then seen in motion. The series of 
 figures is such as shown in Fig. 17, which 
 forms a very good example. The bodies, 
 being equal in number to the slots, appear 
 to remain in the same place although legs 
 and arms are in motion. But the number 
 of heads being one less than the slots, the 
 whole series appears to have a slow motion 
 in the reverse direction to that in which the 
 Zoetrope is turning [cf. Fig. 9). The effect 
 is therefore that of a row of dancing figures, 
 perpetually trying on heads and then passing 
 them to their neighbours, who repeat the 
 same antics. The variations between suc- 
 cessive figures are better seen in Fig. 18, 
 taken from Bradley's English Specification, 
 dated 1867. As shown in his engravings 
 the modern Zoetrope is a moderately high 
 cylinder, the slots being placed in the upper 
 part. The first commercial form, however, 
 though the same in principle, differed from 
 this plan in construction. No drawing of 
 Horner's Dasdaleum appears to have sur- 
 vived, but the Desvignes' designs are of 
 great interest, as foreshadowing many later 
 inventions, and reference will frequently 
 be made to his various suggestions. Fig. 
 19 shows his arrangement of the slots below 
 the designs, a kind of casing, T, in the 
 interior of the cylinder being fixed in such 
 a manner that it does not revolve, and 
 
 Fig. 
 
24 
 
 LiriXG r ICTUSES. 
 
 serves the purpose of limiting the field of vision. By 
 the simple expedient of turning the cylinder on its 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 side the apparatus was adapted for the exhibition of 
 stereoscopic views, as seen in Fig. 20, a suggestion being- 
 made that transparent images might be employed. 
 
 With the exception of placing the slots above instead 
 
 of below the designs, 
 
 Irfc 
 
 little alteration has 
 been made in this 
 type of instrument 
 up to the present 
 day, attention being 
 mainly directed to 
 the improvement of 
 the figures. Anschiitz 
 used this form of 
 apparatus to produce the appearance of motion from 
 series of animal move- 
 ments photographically 
 obtained. It will be seen 
 that when diagrams are 
 drawn the cycle of move- 
 ment can be completed 
 in a given number of 
 pictures, and the older 
 form of instrument was 
 therefore provided with a 
 fixed set of slots, the 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 diagrams being prepared 
 
DIA QUA M ILL US IONS. 25 
 
 with a sufficiency of figures to obtain the desired 
 result. It is very different in the photography 
 of moving animals. In taking these, six, eight, 
 ten, or more pictures may be necessary before 
 the same attitude re-occurs ; and this, of course, is 
 absolutely necessary to enable the last picture to run 
 on to the first and give an endless repetition of the 
 same movement. Anschutz was thus obliged to form 
 his Zoetrope (called by him the Tachyscope) as a very 
 shallow cylinder, into which could be inserted a long 
 strip bent round to form the walls. This strip bore 
 the required number of images to complete a cycle of 
 movements, and was pierced with the number of slots 
 necessary to give a correct effect with the number of 
 pictures in the series. Marey not only used photo- 
 graphs but also actual models, on a small scale, of such 
 animals as he desired to show in motion. One of these 
 Stereo-Zootropes is still preserved at the Paris Physio- 
 logical Station, and by the continued observation of 
 successive models in different attitudes the effect is 
 produced of an actual animal running, or bird flying 
 round the interior of the cylinder. In this connection 
 it is interesting to refer again to Desvignes, whose i860 
 Specification shows a Zoetrope employing solid models. 
 By the construction of his ,, 
 
 apparatus (Fig. 21) the figures , " -ft -&- -» \ 
 
 were placed on the margin of y> \ 
 
 the cylinder rather than in \_J 
 
 its interior, but the idea is 
 
 Flu. 21. 
 
 essentially similar to Marey 's. 
 
 Now, one great defect of this, as indeed of every 
 other instrument where the object is in motion while 
 seen through a slit, is distortion. When the object and 
 slit are travelling in the same direction (as in the 
 Phenakistoscope) the object appears elongated, when 
 the reverse is the case (as in the Zoetrope) it 
 
26 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 appears compressed in the direction of its length. 
 Plateau in 1849 had recognised this difficulty, 
 and therefore prepared his diagrams in a form 
 purposely distorted in an opposed sense to the 
 distortion caused by the revolving disc, one distortion 
 thus neutralising the other. This defect led Clerk- 
 Maxwell, in 1869, to propose the substitution of 
 concave lenses for the slots, their focal length being 
 equal to the diameter of the cylinder. The virtual 
 image of the design opposite the lens was thus formed 
 exactly midway between lens and picture, and this spot 
 necessarily coincided with the axis of rotation. That 
 being the case, the successive images were perceived 
 in one and the same spot, and remained stationary 
 during the whole time they were individually exposed 
 to view, the movement of the lens being neutralised by 
 the movement of the real object on the other side of 
 the cylinder. It will be seen that the distortion common 
 to all ordinary types of slotted machines was thus done 
 away with, and at the same time the images appeared 
 more brilliant— a wide lens being substituted for a 
 narrow slot. Maxwell used this device for combining 
 series of diagrams of many physical phenomena (such 
 as smoke-rings, etc.), in order to 
 show the resultant movement, but 
 the apparatus does not seem to 
 have come into general use. 
 
 In the year 1877, however, Rey- 
 
 naud patented a contrivance which 
 
 attained almost instant popularity 
 
 under the name of the Praxino- 
 
 scope (Fig. 22). In this instru- 
 
 lf; ' 22 ' ment the pictures are not directly 
 
 viewed, but are seen in a mirror, the picture under 
 
 observation thus being the one nearest the observer 
 
 instead of that on the opposite side of the cylinder. 
 
1)1 AG BA M ILL US IONS. 
 
 27 
 
 It will be seen that the pictures are arranged on 
 a slip placed round the interior of a drum much 
 more shallow than that of the Zoetrope, and 
 the centre of the cylinder is occupied by a set of 
 mirrors, equal in number to the diagrams, and arranged 
 in polygonal form, the said polygon having a diameter 
 half that of the cylinder. Now, as the picture is a 
 quarter diameter in front of the mirror, its image will 
 appear the same distance behind, exactly on the axis 
 of rotation, the one immovable spot in the whole 
 apparatus. A reference to 
 Fig. 23 will make the action 
 clear. O is the centre of 
 rotation ; A, B, E are two 
 mirrors, and C, D, F the 
 two pictures opposite them. 
 When a picture is in the 
 position S-, S, the mirror 
 T', T directly faces the eye, 
 and the image is perceived 
 as if it were at D'", O", its 
 vertical central line coincid- 
 ing with the axis of rotation. 
 It will also be seen that a 
 
 picture at C, D forms its image at D', C, and a picture 
 at D, F forms its image at D", C". In all these cases 
 the central lines of the various images agree, and mani- 
 festly they will not appear to shift their position as a 
 whole on the change from one attitude to another. 
 Further, when the apparatus is in the stage shown by 
 heavy lines (that is to say, with the eye looking between 
 the pictures on to the junction line of two mirrors) half 
 of one image will be seen in one glass and half in the 
 other, thus making up a complete image from the com- 
 bined halves ; the appearance given when in action being 
 that of a series of plain glasses passing between an 
 
28 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 immovable image and the eye. Here, then, there is no 
 interruption of the light, and the brilliancy of the image 
 is so much the greater, while its 
 stationary position obviates that 
 distortion which forms so great a 
 disadvantage in slotted machines. 
 Reynaud suggested an adaptation 
 for stereoscopic purposes (Fig. 24), 
 but this does not seem to have been 
 carried out. 
 
 Several ingenious additions to this 
 instrument were, however, subse- 
 quently made by the same inventor. One, shown in Fig. 
 25, and called the Praxinoscope Theatre, was designed 
 to show a moving figure on a stage. The praxinoscope 
 was screwed into position 
 in the bottom portion of a 
 box, through the lid of 
 which (standing at right 
 angles) an inspection open- 
 ing was provided. Between 
 this opening and the praxino- 
 scope a sheet of glass, bear- 
 ing a painted proscenium, 
 was held at a slight angle, 
 the opening of the stage being left clear. On the 
 interior of the lid changeable pictures of scenery could 
 be placed, and were seen reflected in the glass as if 
 they were really in position behind the stage-front. At 
 the same time the moving figures in the praxinoscope 
 (strongly illuminated and drawn on a black background) 
 were seen through the transparent mirror, and thus 
 appeared to be in motion on a stage provided with 
 scenery. This result was also obtained in another manner, 
 which permitted a large number of observers to see 
 the effect at once. A kind of double magic-lantern 
 
 Fig. 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 29 
 
 (Fig. 26) was used, one member of which threw some 
 scene on the screen in the ordinary way, while the other 
 projected a beam of light through pictures on a trans- 
 parent praxinoscope drum. On leaving the pictures 
 this light was reflected from the specially angled central 
 mirrors through a lens on to the screen, where it formed 
 an image of the moving figure superposed on the 
 scenery thrown by the other objective. This apparatus 
 
 F10. 26. 
 
 was called the Projection Praxinoscope, ox Praxinoscope 
 Theatre. 
 
 In 1889 M. Reynaud patented another form of instru- 
 ment, which permitted the employment of much longer 
 series of pictures. In the previous form the length of the 
 series was limited by the size of the drum. It will be seen 
 by Fig. 27 that the subsequent method permitted a long 
 band to be wound from one reel to another, passing 
 over a skeleton drum on its way. The principle of 
 projection was the same as in the earlier instrument, 
 the permanent scene being thrown by a lantern, L ; 
 while another source of light, L', projected a beam 
 through the picture on to the central drum (of the usual 
 
30 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 praxinoscope type) from which it was reflected, the 
 mirror M again diverting the light through the objective 
 O. Another mirror changed the direction of the rays 
 and threw the moving picture on the screen. An 
 endless band permitted the use of a comparatively long 
 repeating series, while the length of a non-repeating 
 scene was only limited by the size of the spools and 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 the cost of preparing so large a series of pictures. 
 Under the name, firstly of the Praxinoscope Projection 
 Theatre or Optical Theatre^ and subsequently under 
 that of the Theatriaxinoscope, this apparatus appeared 
 — in fact still remains — on the Paris boulevards. A 
 serious disadvantage of this form of Praxinoscope must 
 be referred to. The band is necessarily vertical, the ob- 
 jective sloping. This militates against the sharpness of 
 the projected pictures, while the light being reflected 
 from the drum, and again diverted by two more mirrors, 
 all tends to degrade the clearness of the final image on 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 31 
 
 the screen. But even with these imperfections this arrange- 
 ment marks the culminating point in the development of 
 the Praxinoscope type, another form of which instrument 
 devised by the same inventor, deserves mention from 
 its extreme simplicity. It was called La Toupfe- 
 fantoclie or Marionette-top, and, as seen in Fig. 28, 
 consisted of four mirrors arranged as a pyramid and 
 surmounted by an inter- 
 changeable card bearing 
 four designs. The whole 
 was placed on a spindle, 
 and, when rotated, gave a 
 moving image on exactly 
 the same principles as those 
 governing the more elabo- 
 rate devices previously de- 
 scribed. Although this type 
 of instrument has not been 
 further developed, it is 
 worthy of notice that 
 during the year 1897 two patents at least were applied 
 for having as their central feature a mirror which by its 
 movement rendered the continuously moving picture 
 optically stationary. But in the use of one mirror its 
 slow movement must be followed by a quick return in 
 order to register with the succeeding view ; and this 
 quick return, though it saves strain on the film, is yet 
 optically equivalent to a rapid removal of the picture 
 without that movement being covered by a period of 
 darkness. Still, ideas move slowly, and Reynaud's 
 polygonal revolving mirror may yet be applied to the 
 projection of series views of greater complexity than his 
 simple figures afforded. 
 
 In following out the cylindrical type of instrument 
 we have come nearly up to date ; but there is one other 
 class of device, employing diagrams with a view to 
 
 IMG 28. 
 
32 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 producing illusive motion, a search for the origin of 
 which necessitates a considerable chronological back- 
 ward movement. Returning to the Thaumatrope, it 
 will be remembered that both sides of the card are 
 
 perceived at one and the 
 same time ; the card re- 
 volves so rapidly that each 
 picture comes back before 
 its image has faded from 
 the eye, and therefore both 
 appear present at once. It 
 — » will be conceded that the 
 same effect would be pro- 
 duced if the axis of revo- 
 lution were vertical instead 
 of horizontal, and, in fact, 
 this form of Thaumatrope has been used for demonstra- 
 tion purposes (Fig. 29), while a penny street novelty of 
 June, 1898, shown in Fig. 30, is but»a similar instrument 
 rotated by vanes and a blowpipe. Now, it is apparent 
 that if the second 
 picture did not come 
 into view until just as 
 the first was dying out, 
 and remained in sight 
 after the first had 
 entirely faded away, 
 then, under such circum- 
 stances, the two views 
 would not be concurrently 
 perceived, and the first picture would have appeared to 
 have changed into the second. A toy based on this 
 principle was invented by Dr. Richard Pilkington, and 
 is described in " Cassell's Popular Educator " ; the date 
 of the invention is not given, and the toy does not 
 appear to have been referred to in any other publication. 
 

 ttr *^*»» 
 
 V h\ 
 
 )(5) 
 
 
 ' \ 
 
 
 
 0=1 
 
 y uj~ 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 1)1 A QUA M ILL US IONS. 33 
 
 As shown in Fig. 31 the Pedemascope is fitted with a 
 design giving the effect of jumping, an action from 
 which its name is derived. 
 A card bearing the two 
 extremes of a movement 
 printed on its two sides 
 was mounted in a wooden 
 holder by means of a 
 longitudinal groove, and 
 the holder was rapidly 
 twirled between finger 
 and thumb, backward and 
 forward, through a half- 
 revolution, by means of 
 an axial pin projecting through a handle. Stops were 
 arranged on this latter to prevent the card exceeding 
 the necessary half-turn, and the apparatus may be con- 
 sidered as one of the most simple for exhibiting the 
 illusion of motion. 
 
 In 1868 Langlois and Angiers invented and patented 
 a means of rapidly alternating two microscopic views 
 by means of a pushing-piece, the views returning by 
 
 the spring of a block of 
 rubber against which they 
 were mounted. This de- 
 vice they named the 
 Kinescope ; and a multiple 
 form, designed for a watch- 
 chain charm, is shown in 
 Fig. 32. Their specifica- 
 tion also refers to this 
 device as the Photoscope, 
 Another example of this 
 two-diagram class is the ordinary magic-lantern Slipping- 
 Slide. One glass bears a figure with, for example, his 
 legs in duplicate, one set being raised and the other 
 
 D 
 
 ' IG - ,S2- 
 
34 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. iu 
 
 lowered as seen in Fig. 33, wherein a clown is painted 
 on a black background and over him slides a second 
 glass bearing two black patches so arranged that one 
 of the legs is covered while the 
 other is in full view. By a to-and-fro 
 motion of the slipping glass the 
 two differently posed legs are alter- 
 nately shown, with the apparent 
 result of a gymnastic perform- 
 ance, which may be varied by the 
 action of a second slipping glass 
 arranged to alternately cover and uncover the duplicate 
 lower portions of the raised legs, which then appear to 
 work from the knee. 
 
 Another toy, shown in Fig. 34, is of a very simple 
 nature. A vertical spindle carries a set of four cards, 
 projecting radially at angles of 90 degrees, the whole 
 set being united and capable of rotation. In the four 
 angles between the cards 
 four successive positions 
 of the same figure are 
 shown. The set of pic- 
 tures is rapidly rotated 
 by the cards acting as 
 vanes when blown upon, 
 and it will be seen that 
 one figure is observed 
 when an angle is opposite 
 the eye, while a picture 
 compounded of the left- 
 hand of one design and 
 the right-hand of the next 
 is seen when a card stands 
 " edge-on." A further development of this was patented 
 in 1895. The cards are independent, and instead of 
 travelling at a fixed rate, are stopped back, but when 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 35 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 released fly over quickly by reason of their spring con- 
 nection with the central rotating shaft. Though the 
 inventor designed this apparatus as capable of rapid 
 action, it is not, in fact, so 
 employed. It may be seen 
 frequently, working slowly, as 
 a kind of revolving album in 
 photographers' windows. 
 
 When a large number of 
 leaves are used, apparatus of 
 this character naturally takes the 
 form of a book in which the 
 bent-back leaves bearing the 
 series of designs are presented 
 to the eye in rapid succession 
 by their escape from under a 
 slowly drawn-back thumb. The 
 first suggestion of this kind appears to be due to Linnett, 
 who, in 1868, patented his Kineograph (Fig. 35). He 
 also suggested the use of mechanical appliances for 
 turning over the leaves, but showed no such arrange- 
 ment. The book idea (patented again in 1886) had a 
 considerable revival of popularity in 1897 (in which year 
 another patent was granted for v.n 
 apparently similar device) under the 
 title of the Pocket Kinetoscope, half-tone 
 photographs being employed instead of 
 drawings. Book-form apparatus have 
 also been brought out in France by 
 M. Watilliaux under the name of 
 Folioscope. A kind of clip was 
 patented in 1896 (No. 20,136) as a 
 substitute for the thumb, and as a 
 means of providing more regular action. 
 A suggestion by Casler provides for 
 the cards being mounted radially on a wooden holder 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
36 
 
 LIVING PICTUBES. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 instead of being bound in close contact (Fig. 36), and 
 a bent wire lever bears on the upper portion of the 
 cards in order to gradually release theim as it passes 
 over. The most perfect, and at the saime time most 
 
 compact apparatus in book 
 form is Short's Filoscope. 
 The book is bound in a 
 metal clip pivoted in a 
 metal casimg, and may 
 be revolved by pressure 
 on an attaiched lever as 
 seen in F r ig. 37. The 
 leaves are released in regular successiom, and fly over 
 rapidly on their escape from the edge of the case, the 
 latter being so formed that the cards when not in use 
 possess a concave curve on 
 their face. By this means 
 their resiliency is preserved 
 and their rapid motion 
 when released is increased. 
 The form assumed by the 
 leaves when the apparatus 
 is closed is shown in *'" G - 3 8 - 
 
 Fig. 38. The views are small half-tone? prints on the 
 end of comparatively long leaves, the imcreased length 
 of the leaf serving to rapidly remove teach picture to 
 
 ^zzz^~^ ;;. ~„ \\;\^-::.^:\f 
 
 ""' ■:■■'::: ■■■v" *tt— 
 
 a considerable distance from the following one, thus 
 affording a very clear view. 
 
 A variation of this book-form tyjpe is Casler's- 
 Mutoscope, which consists of a receptaicle having an 
 
D I A G It A M ILL USIONS. 
 
 37 
 
 opening in its; face, under which a set of cards are 
 
 passed, these toeing arranged in a series on 
 
 a flat plate. 'This plate can be slid along 
 
 the interior of the receptacle by means of 
 
 a handle passimg through a slot, as seen in 
 
 Fig. 39, and eaich card is held back by a stop 
 
 in order to allow it to be inspected. When 
 
 the edge of thes card is drawn over the stop, 
 
 the whole rapicdly flies past the opening into 
 
 its normal posiition, leaving the next picture 
 
 in full view. AVnother form of this apparatus 
 
 is shown in Fig(. 40, where the cards are seen 
 
 mounted on a band in such a manner that 
 
 one only projects from the top of the casing Fig. 40. 
 
 at a time. Thee whole series may be pulled over at any 
 
 desired speed toy means of a ring shown at bottom, the 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 band of views beeing returned by the action of an opposed 
 spring. 
 
38 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 A more compact arrangement, and one permitting 
 continuous repetition of a series, is that in which the 
 pictures are mounted on a revolving axle. Fig. 41 
 is a view of an instrument invented by the same 
 man and called by the same name as the preceding 
 apparatus. A series of cards sufficiently numerous to 
 permit the representation of a continuous scene is 
 mounted radially from an axle. These cards bear 
 photographic enlargements 6 by 4 inches, and the whole 
 may be rotated at any desired speed by means of a 
 handle. Each picture is arrested momentarily by a 
 stop, thus allowing the picture to be distinctly seen, and 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 then permitting it to fly into its normal radial position 
 as the rotation of the axle sets its edge free. The patent 
 (No. 14,439 of 1895) provides that a longer series may 
 be mounted in helix on the axle, which then must be 
 so arranged that it moves slowly sideways. A sub- 
 sequent patent suggests the interposition of resilient 
 leaves between the picture cards in order to increase 
 and preserve their spring, and the same end may be 
 attained by the method of mounting shown in Fig. 42. 
 It will be seen that the form of card adopted carries 
 the picture at a tangent, and it therefore flies over rapidly 
 without requiring resiliency, a property not always 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 39 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 possessed by those materials best fitted for printing on, 
 and which is at the best somewhat difficult to maintain 
 in apparatus in constant use. A large number of these 
 Mutoscopes, worked on a 
 coin-freed principle, formed 
 one of the features of the 
 Photographic Exhibition at 
 the Crystal Palace in May, 
 1 898. Messrs. Lumiere's 
 Kinora (Figs. 43 and 44) 
 is very similar in principle, 
 but varies in a few de- 
 tails, mainly directed towards 
 the important matter of 
 resiliency. The pictures are 
 mounted on flexible supports, blackened on the back 
 to obviate reflection of stray light, and these supports 
 possess a curved form. The cylinder is rotated by a 
 clockwork motor, H, so as to bring the concave sides 
 of the pictures towards the inspection lens inserted 
 through the top of the casing. A stop, C, arrests the 
 pictures before they reach the lens, to the axis of which 
 they are held at right angles, the curve in the flexible 
 support straightening out to compensate for the rotary 
 
 movement of the axle. Each 
 picture therefore lies per- 
 fectly flat for inspection 
 f and then flies rapidly past 
 c the lens, returning to its 
 proper radial position and 
 curved form by virtue of its 
 elasticity. The apparatus 
 may also be set in motion by hand, and if more than 
 one scene is depicted in the series an automatic stop, J, 
 is provided. A simple form of this type which has 
 recently made its appearance in the shop windows is 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
40 
 
 L [ VIS G PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 shown in Fig. 45. The cards, tangentially mounted, are 
 held back by a guard, and when released fly into an 
 upright position for inspection, their vertical situation 
 being maintained by a wall against which they rest 
 
 until covered by the next 
 picture. Watilliaux' Folio- 
 scope is also made in rotary 
 form. 
 
 One early application of the 
 Phenakistoscope and Zoetrope 
 must be referred to, but the 
 idea never brought forth any 
 very practical results, though 
 many minds attempted a solu- 
 tion of the problem. A glance 
 at the Digest of British Patents, 
 and the Bibliography given at the end of this work, 
 will show that in early years great attention was devoted 
 to methods of attaining the simultaneous perception of 
 solidity and motion. Six patents were applied for 
 between 1853 and i860, all having this object in view, 
 and other methods than those therein described were 
 suggested in various periodicals. With but one excep- 
 tion no new principle was involved, the only suggestions 
 being either that the edges of two discs should be 
 viewed through ordinary stereoscopic eyepieces (the 
 vision being interrupted by passing slots on an 
 independent disc) or else that the two views should be 
 mounted side by side inside a horizontally revolving 
 cylinder slotted in the usual way, an arrangement merely 
 equivalent to a Zoetrope working on its side, as was 
 shown in Fig. 20. The exception referred to is the 
 principle of allowing only one eye to perceive one view 
 at one time, a slightly different design being presented 
 to the other eye just previously to the first being cut 
 off. Claudet, in making this suggestion in 1853, was 
 
DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS. 
 
 41 
 
 thus endeavouring to meet the same difficulty which 
 faces present-day constructors — namely, interruption of 
 light sensation. It will be seen the difference was that 
 he endeavoured to present a continuous yet progressive 
 image to the brain by means of images impressed 
 alternately on the two eyes and overlapping in point 
 of time ; while at the present day there appears to be 
 a tendency towards some method of projecting one 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 picture on the screen from one lantern before the 
 previous view is shut off in the other, thus presenting 
 a continuous picture equally to both eyes. 
 
 Two other methods of changing the picture stand 
 by themselves. The first is the Viviscope, Fig. 46, in 
 which a band bearing a series of diagrams is in tight 
 contact with a large cylinder except where a small 
 interposed roller bears it off. This small roller travels 
 round under the band, which remains stationary while 
 
42 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 in contact with the large cylinder. Each time, however, 
 that the small roller passes any point the band returns 
 to contact with the large cylinder in advance of i!s 
 previous position. The diameter of the roller is so 
 proportioned that the length of this advance is equal 
 to the distance necessary for the substitution of the next 
 picture. A reference to Patent 2,623 of 1890 will 
 conclude the description of these more or less primitive 
 diagram forms of apparatus. It is a method of substi- 
 tuting one picture for another by means of sectional 
 change over all its surface instead of displacing it 
 as a whole, and the methods suggested are ingenious, 
 although the device apparently has not had a com- 
 mercial career. The first stage of the History of Living 
 Pictures is now at an end ; the early short-cycle devices 
 have been described, and though some of them have 
 in their development attained a considerable degree of 
 progress, yet without photographic aid it is most 
 probable that they would not have reached so high a 
 degree of efficiency. Thus, the final evolution-stage of 
 the Living Picture commences with the rise of Chrono- 
 Photography, and this subject must next be pursued. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE PRACTICAL 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIVING PICTURE. 
 
 It has been repeatedly mentioned in the previous 
 chapter that diagrams were unsatisfactory elements from 
 which to build up the illusion of action, and the reason 
 is not far to seek. The numerous attitudes through 
 which a man or animal passes when in active motion 
 are not perceived by the eye ; they succeed one another 
 so rapidly that only a general impression of the whole 
 motion is conveyed to the mind ; and this general 
 impression, though perhaps satisfactory (from an artistic 
 point of view) when shown in a single picture, cannot 
 be expected to afford sufficient grounds for the pre- 
 paration of an analytical series of diagrams representing 
 the successive phases of a motion which is only perceived 
 as a whole. It was early known that a moving object 
 momentarily illuminated appeared to be motionless, 
 and, in fact, this was easily deduced from the action of 
 the Phenakistoscope. For instance, in 1850, Tyndall 
 demonstrated the successive phases of a water jet's 
 motion by the expedient of illuminating it with an 
 electric spark, and Fox-Talbot, in 1851, suggested the 
 production of instantaneous photographs by lighting 
 the object in the same manner. This portion of his 
 patent he afterwards disclaimed, but it forms an appro- 
 priate starting-point from which to pursue the History 
 of Chrono-photography, inasmuch as, in principle, it 
 is a matter of indifference whether a momentary 
 impression is made on a sensitive surface through the 
 illumination of the object for a very short period, or 
 
44 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 whether the permanently illuminated object is only 
 permitted to throw its image on the plate for an equally 
 limited space of time. 
 
 But, in its early days, the science of Photography did 
 not provide its devotees with the means of securing an 
 image in a sufficiently short time — a rapid exposure 
 might be made, but no surface of adequate sensibility 
 was available ; so, though Photography was employed 
 very early in the production of images for the 
 Phenakistoscope, yet the only advantage secured was 
 an accuracy of outline not to be obtained by hand. 
 Plateau, in 1849, suggested the employment of photo- 
 graphy for obtaining a series of pictures (preferably 
 stereoscopic) which should be absolutely correct in out- 
 line, but he only foresaw a series of prepared models 
 as the originals of his views ; the length of exposure 
 necessary excluded other ideas. This accuracy of out- 
 line, in some instances, was all that was required. When 
 Desvignes, in i860, obtained a series of views destined 
 to show a steam-engine in action the process was simple 
 and the result certain. Each element of the engine 
 necessarily followed a predetermined and invariable 
 path, and consequently it was only requisite to place 
 the engine in successive positions of one fly-wheel 
 revolution in order to obtain a series of photographs 
 which, when combined in the Zoetrope, undoubtedly 
 gave an accurate representation of the engine's usual 
 motion. Still, it was in no sense ;i reconstruction of a 
 previously existing action of the machine. The separate 
 views were not obtained during the engine's motion, and 
 their accuracy was due entirely to the certainty with 
 which the object could be placed in a series of positions 
 known on mechanical grounds to be those assumed by 
 it when in action. 
 
 This certainty could not be secured when living 
 creatures were the subjects, and they could only be 
 
CJlltONO-PHOTOGRAPRY. 45 
 
 posed in a series of attitudes such as, by supposition 
 (generally erroneous), they would assume in the course 
 of the desired movement. Confirmation of this view is 
 afforded by Mr. Wenham's letter of 1895, in which he 
 relates an amusing story of a series of posed photo- 
 graphs obtained in 1852. The photographs themselves 
 gave no cause for complaint, but when combined by 
 means of the pnenakistoscope the subject, who had 
 been using a pestle and mortar, declared that " he never 
 worked like that ! " The first suggestion of Chrono- 
 photography appears to be contained in Du Mont's 
 patent of the year 1861. Therein he says : " Nowadays, 
 photographers are enabled to reproduce on surfaces of 
 great sensibility to the light what they have termed 
 instantaneous images ; they photograph a moving object, 
 such as a running horse, etc., but have never thought of 
 obtaining but a single image of the same object, and did 
 not even wish to reproduce several successive ones, or 
 the successive phases produced by motion." Several 
 arrangements were suggested by him, in all of which 
 a shutter was geared to expose the plates when they 
 were perpendicular to the axis of the lens. The 
 sensitive surfaces succeeded each other at regular 
 intervals, being placed either on a prismatic drum, 
 sliding frame, or dropped in series from an upper 
 chamber into a lower one ; the latter arrangement, 
 according to the drawings, being almost identical with a 
 very common method of plate-changing employed in 
 present-day hand cameras. Edwards, in 1867, sug- 
 gested the taking of successive separate pictures on one 
 plate. Ducos du Hauron took a French patent (No. 
 61,976) in 1864 for "an apparatus for the photographic 
 reproduction of any scene whatever, with all the changes 
 which it has undergone during a specified time." This 
 patent, though issued, was not printed, owing to non- 
 payment of fees ; but if the manuscript still exists in 
 
46 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Paris, it would be of great interest to ascertain the 
 
 methods proposed. 
 
 It is well to devote some attention to the years 1869 
 
 and 1 870 ; that is to say, the period immediately 
 
 preceding the first 
 attempts in chrono- 
 photography. Two 
 forms of apparatus, 
 casually quoted on 
 page 21, give a very 
 clear idea of the 
 stage of progress then 
 attained ; and they 
 are the more inter- 
 esting inasmuch as 
 the instrument in- 
 tended for use with 
 drawn designs shows 
 
 a greater approximation to modern machines than 
 
 does the one which employed photographs. Brown's 
 
 apparatus, shown in Figs. 47 and 48, depended on 
 
 non-photographic images, 
 
 of which a series was 
 
 painted on a polygonal 
 
 glass plate, P, and 
 
 dropped into a holder 
 
 somewhat similar to a 
 
 magic-lantern slide. A 
 
 gear - wheel, shown in 
 
 Fig. 48, served to rotate 
 
 the designs, and was itself 
 
 revolved intermittently 
 
 by pins contained in the lantern, with which it engaged 
 
 when the slide was pushed home. These two pins 
 
 projected from a disc and engaged periodically with :i 
 
 star-wheel, fromed in one piece with the gear-wheel 
 
 F-IG. 48. 
 
CUROJUO-PHOTOORAFHY. 
 
 47 
 
 which served to rotate the picture- disc ; a motion 
 which in an improved form is still frequently applied 
 to the modern moving band. A two-sector shutter 
 was geared to eclipse the light when either of the two 
 pins caused the design-wheel to move. 
 
 So far as can be traced, all photographic efforts 
 were limited to posed subjects up to 1870 ; the 
 February of which year saw the exhibition of Mr. 
 Heyl's Phasmatrope at the Academy of Music in 
 Philadelphia, and, though very successful, this apparatus 
 was based on the synthesis of poses and not of 
 analytical photographs secured 
 from a moving figure. As 
 shown in Fig. 49, the apparatus 
 consisted of a large wheel con- 
 taining nine divisions, each of 
 which was furnished with two 
 openings for the purpose of 
 carrying transparencies. The 
 whole disc could be revolved, 
 step by step, by means of a 
 ratchet and pawl worked by 
 hand through a reciprocating 
 bar. A shutter, operated by the 
 same means, was so arranged 
 as to cover the pictures during the whole period of 
 substitution. The transparencies were prepared from 
 posed subjects, such as the six different positions in a 
 waltz, etc., the figures being three-quarters of an inch 
 in height and projected to life size. The negatives 
 were wet collodion, and that is sufficient reason why 
 posing was necessary ; putting the question of time 
 required for exposure on one side, there still remained 
 the difficulty of rapidly substituting a fresh sensitive 
 surface for the one just exposed, and this difficulty 
 could not be fully overcome until the introduction of 
 
 Fin. 49. 
 
48 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 dry plates or, better still, films. But advances were 
 nevertheless made, for the rise of chrono-photography 
 afforded opportunity to work out mechanical details 
 for obtaining rapid successive exposures, though the 
 resulting views were not intended for subsequent 
 recombination into motion. 
 
 It was in the same year (1870) that Marey com- 
 menced his researches on the analysis of motion, and 
 the advance in sensibility of photo-surfaces has lent 
 continual aid from that time onward. Marey in France 
 and Muybridge in America soon entered into com- 
 munication ; the latter started work in 1872, their 
 common object being the discovery of the successive 
 attitudes which collectively make up a given motion, 
 though they worked by somewhat different methods. 
 Marey confined himself from the first to the method of 
 casting his series of momentary exposures on one 
 plate by means of one lens, while Muybridge adopted 
 an opposed course. Some consideration is necessary 
 as to the results involved by these modes of proceeding. 
 Both methods had their respective advantages as regards 
 Chrono - photography pure and simple, but one was 
 limited in its development, the other contained the vital 
 elements of the modern living-picture machine. Briefly 
 stated, Muybridge's plan was to take successive views 
 of an object as it passed in front of a series of cameras ; 
 Marey obtained a series of pictures by repeated ex- 
 posures with one lens. Although Muybridge started 
 work at a somewhat later date than Marey, he devoted 
 greater attention to his subject, and it will be more 
 convenient to first discuss his plan and all the battery 
 forms of apparatus because they have not successfully 
 emerged from the " struggle for existence " — as regards 
 the modern living picture they have died out, though 
 still of great service in pure Chrono-photography. 
 
 In the year 1877 Muybridge, for the purpose of 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOORAPHY. 
 
 49 
 
 investigating animal motion, laid out a course, similar 
 to a running-path, one side being bounded by a white 
 background so as to obtain silhouette figures. Along 
 the other side was ranged a series of cameras, the 
 shutters of which were released by electro-magnets, set 
 in action by the moving object itself by means of strings 
 placed across the path, as seen in Fig. 50. This device 
 allowed large pictures to be taken, every one repre- 
 senting the object as it appeared in front of the lens 
 by which the photograph was secured ; but it was 
 absolutely necessary not only that the members of the 
 object should be in motion, but also that the object 
 itself should move along the path. 
 
 Still, this method was adopted by Anschiitz 01 Lissa, 
 in Prussia, with magnificent results, and series of photo- 
 
 Fio. 
 
 graphs so obtained by him met with a ready sale when 
 printed on bands appropriately slotted for use as a 
 Tachy scope (see page 25). Much of his success was 
 due to the employment of an improved form of shutter, 
 very similar to the present focal-plane pattern with 
 adjustable opening. Not only were his photographs 
 prepared in this manner for inspection, but in the year 
 1889 he brought out his so-called Electrical Tachyscope, 
 though there was no point of similarity between this 
 instrument and the Tachyscope proper. As will be 
 seen by the illustration (Fig. 51), transparent photo- 
 graphs were arranged in series round the margin of a 
 disc contained in an inner room and revolved before an 
 opening equal in area to one design. Both the inner 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 chamber and that containing the audience were 
 darkened, and as each picture came behind the aperture 
 a pin on the disc operated an electric G«««»t, thus 
 causing a spirally wound Geissler tube (placed at the 
 back of the picture) to light-up momentarily, the 
 
 Fir.. 51. 
 
 successive pictures being seen by the light of the 
 repeated flashes. The disc-form of this apparatus was 
 exhibited in 1889, but in 1892 it was patented with the 
 additional suggestion that a strip of photographs might 
 be used, a suggestion put in practice shortly afterwards 
 
CHRONO-FROTOGRAPHY. 51 
 
 by the introduction of coin-freed or " penny-in-the-slot " 
 apparatus (called the Electric Wonder) for viewing 
 living pictures in this and other countries. This appears 
 to have been the first practical and public development 
 of Desvignes' suggestion, in i860, to use an electric 
 spark to render each picture " visible at its proper time 
 and place." Nevertheless, it must not be forgotten 
 that Donisthorpe, in 1876 and 1878, suggested his 
 so-called Kinesigraph, the feature of which was inter- 
 mittent illumination of a series of views in strip form 
 by similar means to those just described, while the same 
 expedient was one of the first adopted by Edison when 
 conducting the experiments which resulted in the well- 
 known Kinetoscope. About the same time Muybridge 
 had perfected a projection apparatus, called the Zo'6- 
 praxiscope, which he exhibited at the Royal Institution 
 in 1889. His silhouette pictures were placed round the 
 margin of a fifteen-inch glass disc revolved between a 
 condenser and projecting lens. Immediately in front of 
 the glass disc a zinc one, pierced with one slot, revolved 
 in an opposite direction at such a speed that the slot 
 passed each time a picture came into position. The 
 demonstration was very successful, some photographs 
 not of silhouette nature also being projected. 
 
 But as regards the securing of the pictures themselves 
 the necessity of the object having a progressive move- 
 ment as it passed the long line of separate cameras, as 
 before explained, limited the choice of subjects greatly, 
 and about the year 1887 attention appeared to be 
 generally directed to concentrating all these lenses 
 within a space which might be approximately considered 
 as a single point of view, and so render possible the 
 recording of successive attitudes of a figure which 
 remained in one place ; the background therefore no 
 longer needing to be an absolutely plain surface as was 
 the case when successive attitudes were photographed 
 
52 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 with a change of local position. Le Prince, working 
 on this principle, in 1888 approached the modern type 
 very closely in appearance, but in appearance only. As 
 will be seen from Fig. 52, he employed a battery of 
 
 sixteen lenses acting on 
 two sensitive bands, wound 
 from one pair of rollers 
 to another, the two films 
 being side by side. The 
 eight lenses facing one 
 film were released in rapid 
 succession, somewhat over- 
 lapping in point of time ; 
 the other series of eight 
 lenses were then dis- 
 charged, during which time 
 the first film was moved 
 on ready to receive another eight pictures ; each film 
 being clamped by a cam-actuated frame during exposure. 
 These exposures were made overlapping in point of 
 time ; that is to say, 
 one lens was always 
 opened before the pre- 
 ceding one was shut-off, != 
 and when used for pro- [ 
 jection, as in Fig. 53, C 
 this same principle was f 
 followed, and therefore 
 no period of darkness 
 occurred between the 
 respective separate pic- 
 tures. The complicated 
 
 nature of the shutter mechanism is shown in Fig. 54, 
 the individual shutters being set in action by partially 
 toothed wheels, rotated in common, but acting at 
 different times by reason of the varying position of 
 
CIIRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 53 
 
 Fig. 
 
 54- 
 
 their teeth. At the first glance this combination of 
 serial exposure, intermittently moving film, and 
 clamping-frame appears to be the first machine of the 
 modern type. But consideration will show that Le 
 Prince s apparatus was 
 founded on absolutely 
 different principles to 
 those in vogue at the j 
 present time, although 
 some resemblance may 
 be seen to types now 
 suggested, and it may 
 be that future machines 
 may follow some of 
 this inventor's devices. 
 The modern apparatus 
 takes a series of pic- 
 tures, by means of one 
 lens (or at least from one point of view), on one film 
 moved between the exposures. Le Prince used many 
 lenses and moved his film during the time that neither 
 it nor the lenses facing it were in use, although 
 
 exposure was going on by 
 means of other lenses on another 
 film. Practically, his apparatus 
 was a duplicate arrangement of 
 the battery type, and, further, 
 the great difference in position 
 between the lenses at opposed 
 D corners must have given rise to 
 varying aspects of foreground 
 objects, thus inducing a false 
 motion of the same on the screen. 
 
 Londe meanwhile had entered the field. He had, 
 in conjunction with Colonel (now General) Sebert, 
 constructed a compound apparatus composed of six 
 
 Fig. 
 
54 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 independent cameras arranged in circle as shown m 
 Fig- 55- The six lenses of these cameras were furnished 
 with a series of shutters, naturally arranged in circle, 
 
 and each composed of 
 two members. The 
 motive power was sup- 
 plied by springs (S. 
 Fig- 56), and each 
 shutter had two pro- 
 jecting catches, C, one 
 of which is shown in 
 the drawing, the other 
 being situated under- 
 neath. A centre disc, T, 
 rotated when released, 
 and was furnished 
 with two projecting 
 stops, one of which opened the shutter by pressure on 
 the catch C, while the other closed it. The latter stop 
 P was adjustable for the purpose of varying the exposure 
 by increasing the distance between the two stops. This 
 apparatus was used by Colonel 
 Sebert for the study of pro- 
 jectile motion. 
 
 The latest development of 
 the battery type for securing 
 a limited series of views 
 is that employed at the 
 Salpetriere for the analysis 
 of abnormal motions, such as 
 epileptic fits, St. Vitus' dance, 
 etc. Twelve lenses are em- 
 ployed, and the shutters re- 
 leased by electro-magnets (Fig. 57). The great point 
 of the apparatus is an electrical controller, by which 
 the period allowed to elapse between two exposures 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 55 
 
 is capable of regulation within wide limits. The series 
 of twelve views can thus be completed in I i- seconds 
 or extended over minutes. This, as previously men- 
 tioned, is the final example of the battery for taking 
 a limited number of pictures, and was itself three years 
 later in date than the pioneer machine by Greene and 
 Evans, similar in character to those of the present day, 
 which have in nearly all instances followed its arrange- 
 ment at least in general principles, though the form 
 has been simplified and improved. 
 
 The multiple-type having shown itself as adapted 
 solely to the purposes of Chrono-photography, and 
 being without capability of adaptation in the direction 
 of obtaining long series, there remains simply the 
 description of the single-lens system of Chrono- 
 photography. This method, instituted by Marey, was 
 represented in its first stages solely by instruments 
 devoted to the analysis of motion ; by slow stages and 
 gradual improvement extending over a quarter of a 
 century it developed the modern living picture apparatus 
 as we now know it. The earliest attempt in Chrono- 
 photography was hardly worthy of the name, yet it 
 pointed the road to the true method of single-lens 
 working. In the year 1865 Messrs. Onimus and Martin 
 exposed the bared heart of a living animal before an 
 opened lens for the purpose of photographing it while 
 in motion. With the low degree of sensibility then 
 obtaining among photo-surfaces the exposure naturally 
 extended over one or more pulsations of the heart, but 
 as a pause takes place at each extreme of the heart's 
 beat, the outlines of these positions were better defined 
 than the space between, and a record was therefore 
 obtained of the maximum and minimum limits of a 
 pulsation. Clearly it was only necessary to secure 
 outlines of several intermediate positions in order 
 that the experiment should attain the character of 
 
56 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Chrono-photography, properly so-called. It will be 
 seen that a photograph of a man lifting his arm would 
 (if the exposure lasted during the whole movement) 
 result in a blur, but if a number of separate exposures 
 were made in the same time, a series of overlapping 
 images, equal in number to the exposures, would occupy 
 the place of the one-exposure blur, and the outlines 
 of these images would in addition form a perfect record 
 of the successive positions of the arm. 
 
 The apparatus necessary for this species of Chrono- 
 photography {i.e. on a fixed plate) is simple in the 
 extreme. It is only required that a slotted shutter 
 should be revolved before the plate, Fig. 58, in 
 order that successive images may be formed ; and 
 
 these images will be separated 
 in proportion to the move- 
 ment of the object. This 
 method is all-sufficient for the 
 analysis of motion, but the 
 results have anything but a 
 popular aspect ; the different 
 images frequently consist in 
 nothing but lines and dots 
 representing rods and beads attached to a black-robed 
 subject, who when fully equipped appears to be under 
 the hands of a surgeon rather than those of a photo- 
 grapher. Much work was done on these lines, indeed has 
 been continued up to the present day ; but such pictures, 
 valuable as they are for the physiological information 
 they impart, are in no sense suited for the reconstitution 
 of the movement of which they form the elements, and 
 much time elapsed before attempts were made to secure 
 separate and distinct photographs of the phases of a 
 given motion. Had a flexible surface been available, 
 no doubt progress would soon have been made ; indeed, 
 the necessity of separating the images was felt and a 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 57 
 
 longer plate, shifting between each exposure, employed. 
 Another method of separating the images was to inter- 
 pose a revolving mirror between lens and object. This 
 arrangement is interesting from the fact that it has 
 recently been suggested to use the same device in a 
 reverse manner, causing it to project separated pictures 
 on to one place on the screen, while the original 
 arrangement gave separated pictures on the plate from 
 an original which remained in one place. It cannot 
 be postulated too emphatically that, even at this early 
 date, nothing was required but a flexible and transparent 
 film, capable of receiving an emulsion of increased 
 sensitiveness, in order that the modern living picture 
 might spring into existence ; but twenty years were 
 fated to elapse before these necessities were placed at 
 the disposal of the photographic world. Therefore 
 nothing was available except glass plates, and these 
 were naturally used in circular form in order that as 
 long a series as possible might be secured. 
 
 In the year 1874, however, an opportunity occurred 
 of photographing a very brilliantly lit object of great 
 interest ; and a desire on the 
 part of M. Janssen to obtain 
 a chronographic photo-record 
 of the Transit of Venus 
 across the sun's disc caused 
 him to invent his Photo- 
 graphic Revolver and suc- 
 cessfully employ it in the 
 far-off regions of Japan. This 
 instrument was placed under 
 cover as shown in Fig. 59, and when in use was 
 directed on a heliostat, which served to keep the image 
 stationary by neutralising the sun's apparent motion. 
 With it forty-eight images were taken around the edge 
 •of a circular plate in the space of seventy-two seconds, 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
58 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 and this operation was repeated four times, so as to 
 secure a record of the interior and exterior contact at 
 each margin of the sun's disc. The mechanism by 
 
 which this was effected (shown 
 in Figs. 60 and 61) merits 
 description as being the first 
 practical automatic apparatus 
 for obtaining a chrono-photo- 
 graphic record consisting of 
 separate pictures. A large 
 wheel, R, carried the sensitive 
 plate (making one revolution 
 in seventy-two seconds), and in 
 front of it a disc, B, pierced 
 with twelve openings, made 
 one revolution in eighteen se- 
 conds. Between these two wheels was placed a partition 
 S, pierced with a single opening. When the mechanism 
 was released, the motor-wheels, O, set both the sensitive 
 plate and shutter-disc in motion. The sensitive plate 
 made the forty-eighth part of a 
 revolution and then stopped, this 
 being effected by a Maltese-cross 
 movement. At the moment of its 
 arrest one of the twelve openings 
 in B passed the fixed aperture P, 
 thus making an exposure. The 
 plate moved on, while protected 
 by the opaque part of B between 
 two openings, and then stopped 
 for the next exposure. Some 
 instruments of this kind were 
 taken by an English commission 
 
 to the Andaman Islands in the following year (1875) for 
 the purpose of observing an eclipse of the sun, but the 
 expedition was unsuccessful owing to adverse weather. 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 59 
 
 Still at best the Photographic Revolver was but an 
 observing instrument, and little could be done in the 
 way of combining the distinct views into one motion ; 
 forty-eight separate pictures at the rate of twelve per 
 second would only last the fifteenth part of a minute, 
 and even then would compress the events of seventy- 
 two seconds into that time. To obtain a longer series, 
 Donisthorpe in 1876 further developed Du Mont's idea 
 of rapidly dropping an exposed plate into a lower 
 chamber, so leaving the next free for exposure, and 
 provided a special gearing by which the shutter covered 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 the lens during the change. Nevertheless, Janssen's 
 instrument was the model on which Marey founded 
 his Photographic Gun, which was of real value for 
 analysing motion in such a way that it could be 
 subsequently re-compounded by means of the Zoetrope. 
 Its name was well chosen, and is perfectly descriptive 
 of the apparatus shown in Fig. 62. The length of 
 barrel was necessitated by the use of a long-focus 
 lens, which was, of course, absolutely indispensable 
 when photographing a small object at a considerable 
 distance. This barrel was arranged so as to telescope 
 for focussing purposes. The breech contained clock- 
 work mechanism for effecting the series of exposures, 
 
60 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 and a glance at Fig. 63 will explain the methods 
 employed. It will be understood that the back cover 
 is removed in order to show the parts. On pressing the 
 trigger a circular shutter with one opening commenced 
 revolving at a predetermined rate. Behind this a disc 
 (half of which is shown in the 
 drawing) with twelve openings 
 also revolved, the sensitised 
 plate lying behind it and rotating 
 with it by friction. This disc, 
 together with the sensitised sur- 
 face, was rotated by means of a 
 pawl (shown at the bottom left- 
 hand) on an arm worked by an 
 eccentric, and every time one of 
 the twelve openings, backed by 
 Fig. 63. a portion of the sensitised plate, 
 
 came to rest opposite the lens- 
 aperture the hole in the shutter passed in front of it, 
 admitting light and making an exposure. It will be 
 understood that during its movement the sensitised 
 plate was protected by the opaque part of the revolving 
 shutter. Marey used this instrument in order to obtain 
 some extremely effective photographs of birds in 
 flight ; nevertheless, the apparatus was far from perfect. 
 The defect of this instrument was that twelve images 
 in very few cases gave a complete cycle of movement ; 
 when the last picture of the set (say of a bird in flight) 
 was reached, the bird had not arrived at that stage 
 when the wings occupied nearly the same position as 
 in the first picture. But still Marey adhered to the 
 plan of using one lens for making successive exposures, 
 and his later improvements followed out that principle. 
 In 1892 Demeny showed a similar but much improved 
 apparatus at the International Exhibition of Photo- 
 graphy. This was of the usual disc form, a rotating 
 
CURONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 61 
 
 tfff w 
 
 shutter being used the travel of which was far more 
 rapid than that of the sensitised plate ; the latter only 
 moving a short distance to its next position while the 
 opaque part of the shutter made nearly a revolution before 
 the single aperture passed the lens. This apparatus 
 was called the Photophone, and its construction 
 will be understood from the very similar projecting 
 apparatus, Fig. 64, named the Phonoscope, in which the 
 major portion of the shutter is cut away in order to show 
 the picture-disc. The origin of this name is found in the 
 fact that M. Demeny 
 used this instrument 
 for securing a series 
 of twenty-four photo- 
 graphs of a man during 
 the act of pronouncing 
 some phrase, in order to 
 analyse the lip-motions. - 
 The reconstitution of 
 the lip-action was so 
 successful that a deaf- 
 mute was enabled to 
 read the words " Vive 
 la France " from the 
 lips of a photograph. 
 The set of pictures 
 being sufficiently long to cover the whole period of 
 utterance, an enthusiastic deaf-mute could pass the day 
 experiencing (it is impossible to say " hearing ") the 
 above-mentioned patriotic sentiment. It is worthy of 
 notice that even the intelligent specimen of humanity 
 above referred to was absolutely nonplussed when the 
 handle was turned backward, and the lip-motion con- 
 sequently reversed. The Photophone was apparently 
 the final example of the disc-form which took its origin 
 in Janssen's Photographic Revolver. This apparatus 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
62 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 was patented, and in the same specification M. Demeny 
 showed some modifications directed towards obtaining 
 longer series. This form of the apparatus does not 
 appear to have been publicly exhibited, but is 
 sufficiently interesting to merit description. The views 
 were mounted in spiral on a non-transparent drum, 
 
 the axis of the latter 
 being furnished with 
 a helix which tra- 
 versed the drum at 
 such a rate as to 
 maintain the spiral 
 set of pictures under 
 the inspection lens, as seen in Fig. 65. The shutter was 
 not interposed between eye and picture as is usually the 
 case, but was mounted between light and drum. Fig. 66 
 shows the beam of light passing through the slot in 
 the shutter B, and after undergoing a deviation by the 
 mirror m, falling on the drum and thus illuminating the 
 successive pictures by inter- 
 mittent flashes as the slot in 
 the shutter periodically permits 
 light to pass. A reference 
 to Fig. 1 1 will demonstrate 
 the relation between Lommel's 
 invention of 1881 and that of 
 Demeny in 1892 ; the prin- 
 ciple being the same although 
 the latter apparatus gave a 
 longer series and displayed but one image at a time. 
 The specification suggests that a phonograph might 
 be combined with the inspection apparatus — an idea 
 previously set forth by Donisthorpe in 1876 and 1878. 
 During these later years the extreme rapidity attained 
 by photographic emulsions, together with the possibility 
 of obtaining long lengths of flexible transparent film, 
 
 F10. f,6. 
 
CHRONO-PHOTO G RA PHY. 
 
 63 
 
 rendered the production of a long series of photographs 
 in rapid succession possible. Many steps leading up 
 to this desirable consummation have been quoted in 
 the past pages, and methods of securing rapid exposures 
 were invented to keep pace with increasing speed of 
 plates ; indeed, it may be said that as a general rule 
 it has always been possible to procure a shutter so 
 rapid in its action that it refused to yield a picture, and 
 shutter devices have always been ahead rather than 
 abreast of plate speeds. 
 
 The idea of using a band for the purpose of 
 lengthening the series of views is almost as ancient as 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 the Phenakistoscope itself. In fact, the first published 
 description of the Stroboscope contains a suggestion of 
 this character, Stampfer therein intimating that a long 
 endless band might be passed over two rollers, provided 
 that suitable means were employed in order to interrupt 
 the light at correct intervals of time. And, indeed, 
 this fact was never lost sight of. Desvignes, in 1860, 
 proposed to place his Zoetropic designs on endless 
 bands (Fig. 67), but in the days of wet-plate photo- 
 graphy such an expedient was entirely out of the 
 question so far as securing pictures was concerned, 
 and even the early dry-plate, with all the assistance 
 it rendered, lent no substantial aid in this direction. 
 
(U 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Thus, in 1876, Donisthorpe proposed to place his 
 Kinesigraph pictures on a band arranged to run off 
 one roller on to another, but only for purposes of 
 inspection ; the negatives from which they were printed 
 were obliged to be obtained at a comparatively low 
 speed on plates and the positives actually mounted 
 at accurate intervals. Not until the introduction oi 
 celluloid as substitute for glass was it possible to secure 
 a long series of exposures on a suitable strip, and the 
 commercial existence of this eminently suitable support 
 began to bear fruit in the year 1888. Here, as in 
 every other branch of our subject, the first steps were 
 
 Fig. (, 
 
 not directed towards the production of 
 a living picture. Potter suggested a 
 very simple arrangement for reeling a 
 series of transparencies on a transparent 
 band through a magic-lantern, and a 
 few months later Adams patented an 
 arrangement for the same purpose, 
 which is interesting from the fact that it contains, in a 
 crude form, very similar features to the first workable 
 living picture machine. As seen in Fig. 68, the band 
 was drawn onward by a spring roller, but was normally 
 prevented from moving because it was gripped between 
 a roller and brake-block, both shown black in the 
 illustration. When a pusher came into action the 
 brake-block was raised, as shown in the drawing, until 
 the stud dropped into a slot in the roller, when the 
 
CERONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. G5 
 
 teeth also locked the wheel attached to the spool. 
 This arrangement would certainly have been unsuitable 
 for rapid working, if only on account of strain on the 
 film, but it is interesting as an example of how an idea 
 may be " in the air," for this spring roller, allowed to 
 act intermittently by means of an escapement tooth, 
 was the feature of the apparatus patented in the next 
 year by Messrs. W. Friese-Greene and M. Evans, to 
 whom must be adjudged the honour of having first 
 introduced a practical instrument capable of securing 
 a record of any event and suitable for subsequent 
 reproduction of a moving picture of the past occurrence. 
 Their joint specification was filed on the 21st of June, 
 1889; on the 25th of February, 1890, an actual instru- 
 ment was shown before the Bath Photographic Society, 
 and at that date their projection apparatus was in the 
 maker's hands. Their camera was capable of securing 
 three hundred exposures at the rate of ten in each 
 second, though this speed could be increased con- 
 siderably if required. The construction of this piece 
 of apparatus was most ingenious and so simple that a 
 short description will suffice. The film passed from 
 one spool over a plate, which held it flat for exposure, 
 and then on to a second spool by which it was wound 
 and stored. Both spools were driven at an equal speed 
 from the main-shaft, and thus the film would have 
 passed the exposure opening with a steady and uniform 
 motion had it not been that a roller was interposed 
 between the light-aperture and the receiving spool. 
 This roller contained a spring, continually wound from 
 the main-shaft. The spring would have forced the 
 roller round as fast as it was wound up but that en 
 the roller's edge was placed an escapement tooth which 
 rested against a cam. This cam (itself in continual 
 rotation) stopped the roller from turning, but a gap in 
 its edge allowed the escapement tooth to pass once in 
 
 F 
 
f,6 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 a revolution. When this occurred the roller made one 
 turn and drew down sufficient film to remove the 
 exposed picture and substitute the next portion of the 
 film. While this was stationary and the cam making 
 its next revolution, the winding-up bobbin was storing 
 away the piece of film just pulled down, while the 
 feeding-spool was reeling-off just sufficient to supply 
 the next sudden revolution of the spring roller, the 
 spring of which was at the same time being wound-up. 
 A special shutter was also shown, but it was of com- 
 paratively little importance when compared with the 
 arrangement for intermittent film-feeding described 
 above. 
 
 Greene was also working about this time, apparently 
 in conjunction with Rudge, on a machine designed 
 to project successive pictures without interrupting the 
 light. The images were placed alternately on the edges 
 of two discs which revolved side by side in front of 
 a single large condenser. The light and condenser 
 could be moved slightly out of the central line so as 
 to illuminate, say, the left-hand picture, and were then 
 shifted so as to light up the next design situated on 
 the right-hand disc. While this was being shown the 
 left-hand disc turned one stage in order to bring the 
 third picture in position. Separate projection lenses 
 were used, one facing each disc. The extent of move- 
 ment required by the condenser in order to illuminate 
 the images alternately was very small, and furthermore 
 the light was not suddenly cut-off, but died away 
 gradually, thus reducing the flicker. An experimental 
 machine on these principles was shown before the Bath 
 Photographic Society, but there appears to be no record 
 as to any exhibition of the perfected instrument. 
 
 As before stated, the honour of prior publicity 
 undoubtedly rests with Messrs. Greene and Evans, but 
 others were working at the same problem, and in 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGBAPHY. 
 
 G7 
 
 August, 1889, Messrs. Donisthorpe and Crofts filed a 
 specification in which they showed another means for 
 securing a stationary film during the period of exposure 
 or projection. This device was ingenious, the film being 
 in continual process of unrolling from one spool and 
 rolling on the other, 
 and yet the portion 
 in use was kept 
 stationary opposite 
 
 the lens without any 
 sudden pull to change 
 the portion exposed. 
 The film passed from 
 one spool to another 
 at a continuous speed 
 past the exposure 
 opening, but this 
 movement was period- 
 ically neutralised by 
 lifting film, rollers and 
 all, at a speed equal 
 to the downward mo- 
 tion of the film by f 
 means of a crank- 
 motion, the whole 
 frame being steadied 
 by rollers (shown 
 black on drawing) 
 running between 
 guides (Fig. 69). 
 Thus a portion of film 
 opposite the lens was continually travelling nearer to 
 the bottom roller, but was also being raised at an equal 
 speed ; the same piece of film therefore remained in 
 the same place during exposure. This terminated, the 
 whole frame sank to a sufficient extent to expose the 
 
 Y.\c. 69. 
 
68 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 next section of film, which, though still moving on, was 
 kept in the same position for so long as necessary by 
 a repetition of the raising of the whole mechanism. 
 Though this apparatus is somewhat complicated, the 
 description afforded by the specification is specially 
 interesting as showing the difficulties to be contended 
 with at that date. The inventors purposed obtaining 
 their negatives on strips of sensitised paper. Now 
 paper, even at the present day, imparts some grain to 
 the negative, and this was the case to a greater degree 
 nine years ago. The pictures, therefore, were designed 
 to be prepared on a larger scale than at present — two 
 and a half inches diameter was suggested ; while for 
 the band of transparencies the only available material 
 was again paper, rendered partially transparent by 
 vaseline or castor oil. This difficulty was so great that 
 the inventors also suggested that an opaque band might 
 be used and the pictures projected by reflected instead 
 of transmitted light, somewhat on the principle of the 
 Aphengescope. The large size of the pictures, and 
 consequent large extent of film required to pass in a 
 given time, together with the considerable mass of 
 moving parts, must greatly have hampered the inventors 
 in preparing an effective machine ; but, after all, diffi- 
 culties and even failures, to the philosophic mind, are of 
 almost equal interest with conspicuous successes ; they 
 afford equal ground for consideration, and furnish data 
 from which to accurately estimate the relative values 
 of various systems. 
 
 This apparatus again points out the one essential 
 needed to complete the modern living picture — a 
 transparent, structureless support. This necessity was 
 furnished in the year 1888 by the introduction of 
 celluloid. On its first appearance this material was 
 not so satisfactory for photographic purposes as it is 
 now, neither could it, at first, be obtained in the 
 
CIIRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 69 
 
 Fig. 
 
 requisite ribbon form, and Marey's first instruments 
 
 for using films were rendered ineffective (except as 
 
 regards pure chrono-photography) by 
 
 the limited length of the bands com- 
 mercially available. Nevertheless, in- 
 vention and suggestion now began to 
 
 move at a rapid pace. Early in 1890 
 
 Evans suggested several arrangements 
 
 for moving the film intermittently. The 
 
 principal form was one in which a friction-roller in 
 
 continuous rotation was brought into contact with the 
 film periodically for a sufficient time to 
 move it one picture length. This end 
 might, of course, be attained by the use 
 of many mechanical equivalents. Other 
 arrangements shown by him are worthy 
 of illustration as embodying the germs 
 of many modern motions. For instance, 
 two small rollers, shown black in Fig. 
 70, are kept in continual rotation, and 
 
 gripping the film between them, draw it onward at a 
 
 constant speed. But the arm on which these rollers 
 
 are mounted is drawn backwards 
 
 and forwards by the black eccentric 
 
 seen on the right. Consequently, 
 
 during the time the lens is open the 
 
 rollers are drawn to the right along 
 
 the film without moving it though 
 
 they are rotating all the time ; but 
 
 so soon as the lens is closed the 
 
 arm moves in the opposite direction, 
 
 thus drawing the film onward to 
 
 the extent of the travel of the arm, 
 
 plus the amount due to the rotating 
 
 grip of the rollers. Another arrangement has two 
 
 rollers situated on the ends of a rocking arm mounted 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 t ?^^^\^x\\\\\\x\\\\-: 
 
 on a pivot (A, Figs. 71 and 72. This arm is 
 periodically tilted by a lever worked by the black cam 
 seen at the bottom of the drawings. In Fig. 71 an 
 exposure has just commenced. The film is held 
 steady by a light gripping frame, and the store reel is 
 occupied in rolling-up the slack portion of film. When 
 this is accomplished the cam causes the rocking-arm 
 to tilt, as seen in Fig. 72, thus drawing a fresh portion 
 of film in front of the lens and then, suddenly returning 
 
 to its first position, 
 leaves a double loop of 
 slack to be stored away 
 exactly as seen in the 
 preceding figure. A 
 few days afterward 
 Varley filed a specifi- 
 cation showing another 
 means for attaining the 
 same end as that 
 secured by Evans's 
 rocking - arm, namely, 
 causing a loop to be 
 formed in the film by 
 means of intermittent 
 pressure. The film 
 was steadied by the 
 action of two spring- 
 pawls which gripped it against two rollers (A, Fig. 73). 
 By the revolution of a cam, not shown, an arm, B, 
 was periodically thrown forward against the film, of 
 which a sufficiency was driven back between the two 
 rollers, A, to draw an exact picture-length down. 
 The arm then returned to its first position while 
 the store-reel took up the slack so formed. The cam 
 seen in front works a double shutter by means of levers. 
 It was also suggested that light should be allowed to 
 
 Fiu. 73. 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPH Y. 
 
 71 
 
 act through four holes in a screen, forming marks at 
 the sides of each picture for the purpose of punching 
 holes in exact register. 
 
 M. Marey, towards the end of 1890, constructed a 
 chrono-photographic camera in which a band passing 
 from one spool to another was employed. This 
 apparatus had been gradually evolved from one con- 
 structed in the year 1888, having a paper negative band 
 periodically arrested by an electro-magnetic grip. Tn 
 1889 the paper gave place to film, and a zoetropic 
 instrument combining views so obtained was exhibited 
 at the Paris Exhibition of that year, when M. Marey 
 showed the apparatus to Mr. Edison. In 1890 the 
 mechanical details were finally arranged as shown in 
 
 Y/ /////////^ U*UA 
 
 ' 5&ZZZZZZZZZZZZZ21 izzzzzzzzzzzz zzzzzk 
 
 Fiu. 74. 
 
 Fig. 74. The Chronophotographe, or, as it was first 
 called, the Photochronograplie, was driven by clock- 
 work, and all its parts could (previously to making an 
 exposure) be set in motion without actuating the film. 
 On touching a stud a friction-roller pressed the film 
 against the top right-hand roller (already in motion as 
 stated), which then began to drag the film off the left- 
 hand bobbin, past the exposure opening, and past a 
 spring, as shown by the dotted line. The receiving- 
 bobbin was mounted on a revolving spindle, but could 
 not itself revolve, by reason of the pressure exerted on 
 it by a brake. So soon, however, as the stud pressed 
 the friction-roller against first-mentioned roller this 
 brake was taken off, and the receiving-bobbin, being 
 
72 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 free to revolve, took up the film passed on to it. To 
 render the film periodically stationary, a rounded bar 
 was pressed against it at proper intervals of time by 
 means of a star-cam, thus gripping it tightly and pre- 
 venting its motion. Inasmuch, however, as the motive- 
 roller was continually dragging at the film, the latter 
 would have been torn were it not that the film passed 
 over a weak spring. This straightened out under the 
 pressure exerted by the film, thus shortening its path 
 and feeding the roller with sufficient film to last until 
 the grip was taken off, when the spring returned to its 
 former position and assisted to draw the next section 
 in front of the exposing aperture. M. Marey did not 
 succeed in obtaining very long series of exposures with 
 this apparatus. About forty pictures were taken in 
 whatever period of time seemed desirable, and he 
 complained, in an account given by him of his work, 
 that bands of film longer than four metres were not 
 obtainable. Still, had he confined his pictures to 
 moderate dimensions, he would doubtless have been 
 more successful from the living picture point of view ; 
 the fact of procuring negatives nine centimetres (about 
 3^ in.) square was quite sufficient to fill up his band 
 long before an extensive series was obtained. But as 
 Director of the Physiological Station his work lay 
 mainly in the analysis of motion, and the only use 
 made of his early serial pictures was to recombine a 
 phase of motion by means of a modified Zoetrope in 
 order that the real action of one second might be spread 
 out in point of time to facilitate leisurely inspection, 
 and for this purpose it was necessary to remount the 
 positives at proper intervals, the spacing on the negative 
 band being slightly irregular. About the same time 
 M. Marey constructed a somewhat similar instrument 
 for use with the microscope in order to record the 
 various motions of the lower forms of animal life. 
 
CHR0N0-PI10T0GRAPHY. 73 
 
 At this point it is difficult to say whether a retro- 
 spective view is necessary or not. If first ideas are to 
 be taken into consideration, then Mr. Edison should 
 have been mentioned earlier, but the first intimation 
 of his work in the domain of the Living Picture did 
 not reach England until the 28th of May, 1891, when 
 a somewhat meagre account of his Kinetoscope was 
 printed in " The Times," having been received through 
 Dalziel's Agency, while the full description of his 
 invention, filed in the United States 24th August, 
 1 89 1, was not issued until March 14th, 1893 (No. 
 493,426), and was never patented in England. The 
 first public exhibition of this instrument seems to have 
 taken place at the Brooklyn Institute on May the 9th, 
 1893, the first machines in England being shown in 
 Oxford Street in October, 1894. It certainly appears 
 as though Edison might have established a claim to be 
 considered the father of the modern Living Picture (so 
 many forefathers have been mentioned, it is difficult to 
 trace the exact pedigree) had he not been deluded and 
 delayed by affection for his pet child, the Phonograph. 
 It was apparently in 1887 that he first conceived the 
 idea of coupling the reproduction of a past event with 
 the repetition of sounds recorded at the same time. He 
 appears to have spent much time in a fruitless attempt 
 to secure his negatives in a manner analogous to the 
 reproduction of speech on the phonograph — that is to 
 say, in a spiral line round a cylinder similar in every 
 respect to that of the sound-recording instrument which 
 was put into action at the same time. And here it 
 may be well to explain the nomenclature of Mr. Edison's 
 various productions. A Kinetograph takes the separate 
 pictures, the Kinetoscope recombines them into motion. 
 The prefix of Phono- denotes that a Phonograph is 
 coupled with the instrument, consequently a PJiono- 
 kinetograph records both events and sounds, and the 
 
74 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Phono-kinetoscope reproduces them by direct vision. 
 This instrument has also been called the Kinetophone. 
 When the Vitascope is defined as the same inventor's 
 projection-apparatus the list of Mr. Edison's contri- 
 butions to the Living Picture vocabulary is complete, 
 though, in view of the statements made by Mr. Jenkins, 
 there is some doubt as to Mr. Edison's connection with 
 the Vitascope. 
 
 Now to return to facts. Edison's first pictures 
 were absolutely microscopic, a matter which at once 
 gave rise to a dilemma. If small, they needed con- 
 siderable enlargement in order to be viewed, and this 
 necessitated a sensitive surface which should be practi- 
 cally structureless. Nothing but collodion would meet 
 this requirement, and its low degree of sensitiveness 
 to light rendered it very difficult to obtain an image 
 at all. Increase of aperture in the lenses certainly 
 would meet the difficulty, but only at the expense of 
 that definition which was so essential when subsequent 
 enlargement was required. Therefore this method was 
 abandoned, and larger negatives obtained in spiral on 
 sheets of celluloid wrapped round a cylinder or on the 
 edge of a disc, and at this stage Edison adopted the 
 method of lighting his views momentarily for inspection 
 by means of a Geissler tube, through which a current 
 was passed every time pins (placed on the revolving 
 disc) made the necessary contact. This was the plan 
 adopted in Anschutz' Electrical Tachy scope, exhibited 
 in 1 889 ; but it is apparently impossible to discover 
 at what date Mr. Edison hit upon the same device. 
 He finally settled down to a form of instrument 
 having a one-slot shutter and continuously moving 
 band ; the exposure was consequently extremely 
 brief, and the waste of light involved by this arrange- 
 ment rendered his apparatus as crude in its 
 principles as the first Phenakistoscope, though from 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGEAPHY, 
 
 75 
 
 the point of view of mechanical accuracy it was a 
 marvel. 
 
 In many of its mechanical details, however, Mr. 
 Edison's perfected Kinetoscope was unique, and a short 
 description of the apparatus, considered as a whole, 
 will serve as a basis for their elucidation. The 
 mechanism was contained in a cabinet furnished with 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 an inspection opening at the top, as seen in Fig. 75. 
 This cabinet was divided into three compartments, the 
 one above extending over the whole width of the case 
 and containing the essential mechanism, the other two 
 divisions each occupying one-half of the lower portion. 
 One side, shown in the drawing, contained a spool- 
 bank accommodating an endless film, while the other 
 
76 
 
 LIVING PICTURES;. 
 
 side enclosed the motive mechanism, which was naturally 
 electric, that method of driving being well known as 
 Mr. Edison's favourite. The celluloid band was of the 
 now familiar form ; that is to say, each margin was 
 perforated with four holes to every picture, though 
 in 1890, when his pictures were smaller, Mr. Edison 
 used a single line of perforations only. This endless 
 perforated band passed from one side of the spool-bank 
 to the other through the upper chamber, being stretched 
 
 over two sprocket- 
 wheels (fitting the 
 perforations), which 
 drove the band past 
 the inspection lens 
 at a constant speed 
 equal to forty-six 
 pictures per second. 
 Below the band, 
 and opposite the 
 inspection opening, 
 an incandescent 
 lamp was situated ; 
 the American patent 
 shows a peculiar 
 form of alum-trough 
 placed between lens 
 and film in order to 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 absorb heat, and also a prism arrangement for altering 
 line of sight. As the band was not arrested for the 
 inspection of each picture, some means of providing 
 momentary illumination was necessary, and this was 
 accomplished by a one-slot shutter making forty-six 
 revolutions per second, so as to allow light to pass each 
 time a picture was accurately centred. The mechanical 
 ingenuity displayed in the accomplishment of this method 
 of intermittently illuminating a film continuously moving 
 
CHRONO-PEOTOGBAPRY. 
 
 77 
 
 at so high a speed is worthy of all praise ; but it must 
 not be overlooked that the system itself was faulty, and 
 totally precluded use of the apparatus for projection 
 purposes. A glance at Fig. 76, which shows the shutter 
 and film in plan, 
 will demonstrate the 
 enormous waste of 
 light involved by Mr. 
 Edison's arrangement. 
 The slot was only 
 one degree in width, 
 and therefore only 
 one - three - hundred - 
 and - sixtieth part of 
 the available light 
 was allowed to pass 
 to the eye. Under 
 these circumstances 
 no known source of Fig. 77. 
 
 light would be power- 
 ful enough to stand the waste in projection work, while 
 a camera arranged on the same principle would be an 
 impossibility ; an attempt to secure forty-six pictures 
 per second would necessitate exposures of less than the 
 sixteen-thousandth part of a second, 
 a period too brief for the most sensitive 
 emulsion to cope with. 
 
 An entirely different arrangement 
 was therefore adopted in order to 
 secure negatives in the camera, but 
 little information was allowed to tran- 
 spire ; and although the patent speci- 
 fication was filed in the United States on August 24th, 
 1 89 1, the patent itself was not issued until more than 
 six years had passed away. Up to the 31st August, 
 1897, it was only known, in vague terms, that Mr. Edison 
 
78 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 used some form of intermittent mechanism giving one- 
 tenth movement and nine-tenths rest. The arrange- 
 ment adopted in U.S. Patent No. 589,168 is now seen 
 to be that shown in Fig. 77, wherein the film passes 
 from spool A to spool B, being drawn along by a 
 sprocket-wheel driven from the pulley C. The film 
 would move continuously were it not that the rotation 
 of the sprocket-wheel is periodically checked by the 
 interaction of two toothed wheels, one (D) situated on 
 the main shaft, and the other (shown black in the 
 illustration) beneath the sprocket-wheel and on the 
 same axle. To save strain, the pulley runs loose when 
 the two wheels are locked together as shown in Fig. 78. 
 The right-hand wheel is just about to allow the other 
 to move one stage, the tooth passing through a slot 
 (Fig. 79). So soon as this tooth 
 makes its escape the wheel E turns 
 and carries with it the sprocket-wheel, 
 and therefore the band. When a 
 Fl( , „«. picture-length has passed, the next 
 
 tooth on E strikes the surface of D, 
 and remains locked until the next slot comes round and 
 permits another tooth to escape. 
 
 This machine would not perhaps be of great 
 importance were it a recent invention, but it must be 
 remembered that it was filed six years ago, on the 
 same date as the Kinetoscope specification, and these 
 two documents make mutual cross references to one 
 another. When, therefore, it is seen that the long- 
 concealed document is furnished with comprehensive 
 claims, including the perforated film, views in series 
 from one point of view, and many other equally general 
 ideas, some point is lent to the persistent rumours 
 that Mr. Edison is about to assert his " rights." The 
 invention not having been patented on this side of the 
 Atlantic, the question hardly affects the English 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGUAPHY. 79 
 
 public ; but if rumour speak truly, there are many 
 users of perforated film in the States who naturally 
 have not foreseen that years after acquiring their 
 machines they would have a covering patent flourished 
 in their faces — a patent concealed from public view 
 for six years! 
 
 Two projecting machines were at one time on the 
 market under Mr. Edison's name ; but they will be 
 referred to later, neither of them seeming to employ 
 the intermittent motion of an escapement nature which 
 Mr. Edison undoubtedly patented in 1891 and pre- 
 sumably applied to his camera. It however seems 
 feasible that this patented method was abandoned in 
 favour of another ; the wear must have been great, 
 for both wheels were subjected to sudden impact forty- 
 six times per second, and the interval between these 
 impacts was mainly occupied by frictional contact 
 between tooth and checking-surface. 
 
 From what has been said respecting the Kinetoscope 
 it will be seen that this instrument was practically 
 identical in principle with Anschutz' Electrical Wonder 
 exhibited at Frankfort in 1891, with the difference that 
 in order to secure momentary illumination of a con- 
 tinuously moving film Edison used a revolving shutter 
 and Anschutz a flashing Geissler tube ; Edison's line 
 of sight was vertical and that of Anschutz horizontal. 
 Furthermore, in 1888 Le Prince suggested the use 
 of perforations and sprockets for feeding his band 
 through the machine ; but in the absence of celluloid 
 this band was metallic, and acted rather as a carrier. 
 Still, Mr. Edison must be credited with the practical 
 introduction of the perforated film, and this system 
 of perforation formed the foundation of a large number 
 of methods for securing accurate registration and inter- 
 mittent movement. The gauge of perforation which he 
 instituted has, with a few exceptions, been practically 
 
80 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 adopted as the standard, and the maker of every 
 machine in present use which utilises perforations for 
 feeding is so far indebted to the " Wizard of the West." 
 Furthermore, though the Kinetoscope was only avail- 
 able (publicly at least) for inspection, and not for 
 projection, Mr. Edison did the world a great service 
 in bringing the matter of Living Pictures into a 
 prominent position ; he demonstrated the fact that a 
 suitable transparent flexible band was commercially 
 available, and the encouragement thus given to manu- 
 facturers and inventors who saw a possible remunerative 
 field for the exercise of their talents was doubtless 
 largely responsible for the rapid progress towards 
 
 effective projection 
 which was made 
 during the next 
 three years. 
 
 On September the 
 24th, 1 892, Mayer 
 filed an American 
 specification (No. 
 525,991), which 
 shows a new form 
 of step-by-step motion (Fig. 80). A tappet, P, with 
 inclined faces is drawn to and fro between parallel 
 guides by means of a crank, C, and each time the frame 
 carrying it reaches the top or bottom of its stroke the 
 inclined face of the tappet strikes the inclined face of a 
 tooth, T, thus driving the drum onwards. This forward 
 motion ended, the tappet enters the straight portion 
 between two teeth and so steadies the wheel. On its 
 return journey it leaves this space centred against the 
 slide, and the circle of teeth consisting in an odd 
 number, there is naturally a tooth ready placed for 
 acting on when the tappet reaches the end of its 
 stroke. After the wheel has been steadied by the 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
CERONO-PEOTOGEAPEY. 81 
 
 tappet a slight pressure is maintained by detent-springs 
 to prevent accidental displacement. 
 
 In the same year (1892) a suggestion was made in 
 " The Optician and Photographic Trades Review " 
 which, considered from the purely theoretical side, is 
 of considerable interest though the practical difficulties 
 involved are obvious. It was based on a modification 
 of the ordinary panoramic camera, in which, as is well 
 known, the whole camera revolves horizontally about 
 the optical centre of the lens. The image is thrown 
 on a film carried round a curved bearing-surface, a 
 screen confining the action of the lens to a compara- 
 tively small angle. When the curved film extends over 
 180 degrees a half-revolution of the camera forms a 
 picture of one-half the horizon ; but if the film is fed 
 from one side and taken up at the other a complete 
 revolution may be accomplished and the whole horizon 
 embraced. Let us suppose this operation completed 
 in one-tenth of a second, and it will be plain that, given 
 a further supply of film, the camera might make another 
 turn, and yet another until the film was exhausted. 
 Now, every time the lens faces any particular object it 
 will photograph it again and again subject to the 
 changes which it has undergone during the revolution 
 of the camera, and if a positive be made and the 
 operation reversed, light being thrown through the film 
 and lens on to a screen (the projector revolving all the 
 time), then the whole horizon may be reproduced in 
 continual process of change on a circular screen. The 
 chief objections to this course are that public audiences 
 are not accustomed to a circular screen, and also that 
 the consumption of film would be enormous ; with a 
 two-inch lens about 6^ inches of film would be used 
 every tenth part of a second, as against y^ inch at 
 present. Of course, as suggested, a part of the horizon 
 could be screened off and other subjects taken on the 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 3 
 
 protected portion of the film, but probably the collec- 
 tion made on one ribbon would not be universally 
 acceptable, and the idea, ingenious as it certainly is, 
 cannot be considered as within the range of practical 
 politics. 
 
 In June, 1893, M. Marey took a French patent 
 (No. 231,209) for his Photochroiwgraphe, a slightly 
 
 improved form of the 
 apparatus shown on page 
 71. The arrangement of 
 its several mechanical de- 
 tails rendered the spacing 
 of the individual photo- 
 graphs somewhat irregular, 
 and the views were there- 
 fore of comparatively little 
 use for subsequent projec- 
 tion. At a considerably 
 later date M. Marey over- 
 came these difficulties, and 
 his final apparatus will 
 be described in the next 
 chapter. 
 
 Another French patent 
 (No. 233,33;) of October 
 in the same year contains 
 the description of M. De- 
 meny's apparatus subse- 
 quently introduced as the Chronoplwtograplie d' amateur 
 or Biographe. Fig. 81 shows the principle involved 
 in the invention. The film was reeled from one bobbin 
 to another, being steadied in front of the aperture by 
 a pressure-frame. The lower or taking-up bobbin was, 
 however, mounted eccentrically, and thus on its down- 
 stroke gave a sudden pull to the film, which then 
 remained stationary while the bobbin rose and rolled 
 
 Fn 
 
CHROXO-PHOTOGRAPIIY. 
 
 83 
 
 up the film previously pulled down. In this crude 
 form the apparatus was only adapted for taking short 
 series ; the amount of film rolled up on the lower 
 bobbin naturally increased during working, and there- 
 fore varied the amount of film pulled down at each 
 revolution. The error was obviously that of imparting 
 eccentric action to the store-bobbin ; had the latter 
 remained independent and the eccentric motion been 
 applied to an intermediate roller 
 the action would have been 
 constant. This fact was soon 
 recognised, and M. Demeny in- 
 corporated a new and important 
 modification into his German 
 and English patents applied for 
 only two months later — that is 
 to say, in December, 1893. This 
 development was not added to 
 his French patent until July, 
 1894, and it is from this patent 
 that Fig. 82 is reproduced. 
 The eccentric motion previously 
 applied to the bobbin was now 
 transferred to an intermediate 
 portion of the mechanism, thus 
 giving an intermittent pull to 
 the film, constant in extent and 
 regular in action. The film, 
 
 after passing in front of the aperture, where it is 
 steadied by friction rollers, is periodically struck by 
 an eccentric rod or dog-motion, which draws down 
 sufficient film to change the picture. The film is 
 meanwhile constantly passed on at a regular rate to 
 the store-reel by a sprocket-wheel. The specification 
 further suggests that the eccentric need not be shaped 
 as a rod or roller, but may take the form of a " blade," 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
84 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 and several devices of this kind are shown in Fig. 83. 
 
 This dog-motion or pitman is so generally employed 
 
 that it is only right to recognise the 
 
 0^y, ^. name of Demeny as that of the 
 \^J \^J originator of this type of machine ; 
 there does not appear to have been 
 F|G - 8 > any mention before 1893 of the 
 
 motion used in the Chronophoto- 
 graphe, though, considering the number of instances 
 in which vague suggestion has been found to have long 
 preceded practical application, it would probably be 
 somewhat rash to definitely affirm the statement. 
 
 In November, 1893, Friese-Greene filed an English 
 specification chiefly re- 
 markable for its resem- 
 blance to Varley's in- 
 vention of 1890 (Fig. 
 73). However, as the 
 drawing shows the 
 cam-driven arm more 
 clearly, it is repro- 
 duced in Fig. 84. 
 Further extraordinary 
 suggestions were made 
 for utilising the ap- 
 paratus in the produc- 
 tion of moving stage 
 scenery, a double dis- 
 solving shutter 
 shown, and it was said 
 that cobalt salts might 
 be used to colour films in order to produce change of 
 tint under the influence of warmth ; though how this 
 principle affects a kinetographic film (which moves at 
 short intervals of time and is specially protected from 
 heat) was not explained. 
 
 was VJE. 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
CERONO-PHOTOGEAPUY. 85 
 
 As a curiosity may be mentioned an idea published 
 in 1 893 in " The Optician and Photographic Trades 
 Review." The suggested method of working depends 
 largely upon the optical properties of the cyclostat, an 
 instrument for rendering a revolving body optically 
 stationary by means of a prism rotated in the same 
 direction as the body under observation, but at half 
 the angular speed. If, now, we have a revolving 
 circular sensitive surface, we can render it optically 
 stationary by means of a cyclostat, and can take a 
 photograph upon it by an exposure of any duration 
 despite its continual rotation. But if the sensitive 
 surface is formed of a portion of a flat spiral, lying on 
 a plate through a slot in which it is fed up and with- 
 drawn, this very action causes a rotation. This rotation 
 will be neutralised as a whole by the cyclostat, but 
 the portion of the spiral acted on will nevertheless be 
 continually added to on one side and drawn away on 
 the other. The image of any object will be therefore 
 rendered optically stationary, but will be subjected to 
 blurring due to its proper movement during the time 
 that any specified portion of the spiral is exposed, as 
 of course is the case in every photographic exposure. 
 But as the film dips down through the slot a fresh 
 piece is fed up and receives the image in the same stage 
 as the withdrawn portion and itself starts on its circular 
 trip. By this means the extent of blurring is kept 
 within the usual limits. If a similar spiral positive film 
 is fed through the slot in the same manner and viewed 
 by means of a cyclostat a moving picture may be seen, 
 and as persistence is not called into question, the rate 
 of revolution of the spiral may be far slower than the 
 speed at which the photograph was obtained and which 
 was governed by the necessity of making one revolution 
 in a sufficiently short time to obviate conspicuous 
 blurring. Such an arrangement does not lend itself 
 
86 
 
 LI VI KG PICTURES. 
 
 to projection (except aphengescopically), but would be 
 suited for direct inspection. No trial instrument on 
 this principle appears to have been made ; the com- 
 plications caused by photographic manipulation of ci 
 spiral film are probably quite a sufficient bar to the 
 experiment. 
 
 A new principle was introduced by Jenkins in 1894, 
 his United States specification having been filed on 
 January 12th of that year, though not issued until May, 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 1896. The Pliantoscope Camera (Fig. 85) employed 
 a continuously moving film in front of which revolved 
 a disc bearing a number of lenses. The speed of this 
 disc was so determined that each picture on the film 
 was accompanied in its travel past the aperture by 
 an accurately centred lens ; and though the film was 
 moving in a right line and the lens in a circle, projection 
 took place over so small an arc that the deviation from 
 a right line was insensible. Though the lenses pass 
 
CERONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 87 
 
 an opening in the casing, a little reflection will show- 
 that if the aperture be rightly proportioned it does 
 not act as a shutter ; on the contrary, the pictures are 
 independent, the formation of one beginning before 
 the exposure for the preceding one has ceased. This 
 apparatus should be reversible, but as a matter of fact 
 Mr. Jenkins adopted a different system for his projecting 
 Phantoscope which was not exhibited until 1895, nor 
 described until 1896. The interest of the Phantoscope 
 Camera resides in the fact of its similarity to Uchatius" 
 arrangement of 1853 ; both had the image and lens in 
 fixed relation, but while Jenkins moves image and lens 
 together, Uchatius kept them stationary and moved 
 his source of light. This resemblance is, however, of 
 purely historical import ; no comparison is possible 
 respecting efficiency. There is no doubt but that Mr. 
 Jenkins has not only successfully operated this form 
 of apparatus as a camera but has also employed it for 
 projection purposes ; still it may be questioned whether 
 such a machine could be popularly introduced. In the 
 first place the cost of a multiplicity of first-class lenses 
 is practically prohibitive, and though their number can 
 be reduced, yet every reduction operates to impair the 
 efficiency of the machine. In fact, in an apparatus of 
 this type a large circle of lenses is essential in order 
 that the arc described by the path of the lens may 
 approximate to a right line, and Mr. Jenkins therefore 
 employed quite a different form of machine for pro- 
 jection purposes, and subsequently used it for taking 
 photographs as well. This machine will, however, be 
 treated of in its proper chronological sequence at a 
 later stage. In the November of 1894 the same 
 inventor filed another United States specification 
 (No. 536,569) for an inspection apparatus somewhat 
 on kinetoscope lines, but without a shutter, the 
 film being intermittently illuminated by the action 
 
88 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 of two incandescent lamps mounted on a revolving 
 
 arm. 
 
 With the commencement of the year 1895 consider- 
 able activity was manifested in the United States no 
 less than in France and England, and it is to that year 
 we must look for the appearance of the Living Picture 
 in its final form — that of a perfected and popularly 
 
 pzn 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 successful projection exhibition. On March the 9th a 
 most ingenious specification was filed in the United 
 States by Gray, and subsequently issued on June 4th 
 as No. 540,545. It is perhaps questionable whether 
 perfect registration could be obtained with so many 
 movements applied to the same film, but there is no 
 doubt as to the novelty of the methods proposed. 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 80 
 
 The apparatus being designed both for projection and 
 securing negatives, the drawings illustrating the former 
 purpose will serve to explain the whole method, which 
 was one of double projection through one lens. Leaving 
 the film out of the question for the moment, Fig. 86 
 shows two arc lamps each furnished with a condenser. 
 From one of these condensers a beam of light proceeds 
 directly to the projection lens ; if this beam be dis- 
 regarded, it will be seen that the light from the other 
 condenser is caused to follow the same path by a 
 mirror, M, set at an angle of forty-five degrees. This 
 mirror is shown in elevation in Fig. 87, and consists of 
 a half-circle of silvered glass, the 
 other half-circle being transparent. 
 The mirror is rotated by bevel 
 gear, B ; and provided that the 
 two beams of light bear on it 
 below or above its centre, the 
 direct beam will pass to the pro- 
 jection lens when the transparent 
 portion is in position, while the 
 light from the lamp at right 
 angles will be thrown on the screen when the silvered 
 part comes round. Also, in a certain position, portions 
 of both beams of light will reach the projection lens ; 
 that is to say, one beam of light will be vignetted into 
 the other and there will be no interruption of illumina- 
 tion. This being well understood, we will in imagination 
 interpose the necessary film, do away with the arc 
 lamps and condensers, and consider the apparatus to be 
 working as a camera. Looking at Fig. 88, the film is 
 seen coming from the right-hand, dropping to the extent 
 of half its width, and being drawn along by forked 
 fingers in order to be wound up on a receiving-spool. 
 The oval seen in the middle is the mirror, in rapid 
 rotation, but at present engaged in deflecting the beam 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
90 
 
 L IVISQ PICTURES. 
 
 of light in order to throw an image on the lower 
 portion of the film on the right-hand. As it continues 
 turning, the silvered portion passes and the beam of 
 light traverses the transparent glass and begins to form 
 an image on the upper part of the film directly in front 
 of us on the other side of the fork, and at this 
 stage both parts of the ribbon are being acted upon ; 
 exposure at right angles is not quite finished, exposure 
 in a right line has begun. So soon as the mirror has 
 turned sufficiently to allow the whole beam of light to 
 come straight on in the ordinary way, the exposure at 
 right angles terminates and that part of the ribbon is 
 
 t •,,■//////■ // ////// /,• /// / ,-,'/// , / v v v ■/ ■zr rrrrs <:yiv, / . v /r. 
 
 I 
 
 W'i 
 
 D 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 moved on by a similar fork to that seen in Fig. 8$,. 
 thereby throwing up a loop. In the same way, when 
 the mirror begins to cut off the direct light it also 
 commences a new exposure on the fresh surface at 
 right angles, but there is always a time when both 
 portions of the ribbon are stationary and receiving- 
 concurrent impressions. The result is a ribbon bearing 
 a double set of pictures, the upper series being obtained 
 direct, the lower at right angles, and every one 
 vignetting, so to speak, into both its predecessor and 
 successor. The claws are driven to and fro by a 
 
CERONO-PHOTOQRAPHY. 91 
 
 crank, as shown in Fig. 89, the tooth dragging over 
 the film in one direction, but being pressed into the 
 perforation by a spring when travelling the other way. 
 The complication of a triple movement of the film 
 would doubtless render accurate registration somewhat 
 difficult with this apparatus, and it may be thought 
 that more emphasis 
 has been laid on it 
 than it deserves ; but 
 when it is remembered 
 that this machine con- 
 tains the first of a / 
 long series of claws \ =s y r 
 and spring teeth for FlG 8 
 
 moving the film, and 
 
 also shows a semi-circular rotating mirror for deflecting 
 the light (a device patented in another connection at 
 a far later date), it will be conceded that the ingenuity 
 displayed by the inventor calls for recognition. 
 
 A few days later, on March 25th, 1895, Eames filed 
 a specification in the United States, subsequently issued 
 as No. 546,093, showing an arrangement which could 
 only be called an improvement on Jenkins' Phantoscope 
 Camera if the question be considered in an economic 
 sense. The number of lenses was reduced to two, a. 
 substantial saving in expense of construction, but the 
 disadvantages introduced appear to outweigh the 
 saving secured. It is of almost vital importance that 
 the individual views be obtained from the same point 
 of view ; if succeeding pictures be secured by lenses 
 placed side by side, a variation in position of fore- 
 ground objects results as a matter of course ; and this 
 variation, which is essential in stereoscopic work, is 
 prejudicial under other circumstances and bound to 
 cause a false vibration of objects on the screen. It 
 cannot be denied that enough trepidation exists in 
 
<)2 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 the average Living Picture without risking a further 
 importation of so little desirable a characteristic! Still, 
 the Ani?natoscope is a distinct type of machine, and as 
 such it must be described. A single film is employed ; 
 but this film is of double width, and travels continuously 
 downwards behind a pair of lenses mounted on sliding 
 panels (Fig. go). A circular shutter, furnished with two 
 slots, each extending halfway round, revolves between 
 lens and film. Presuming that exposure has just 
 
 commenced with the 
 right-hand lens, the 
 cycle of operation is 
 as follows. The film 
 descends at a fixed 
 rate, so also does the 
 lens, it being drawn 
 down by the crank- 
 rod attached to the 
 front panel. The 
 lens does not, how- 
 ever, travel at exactly 
 the same speed as 
 the film ; the moving 
 parts are so geared 
 that when used for 
 projection purposes a 
 line connecting the 
 centre of the picture with the centre of the screen 
 shall always pass through the optical centre of the 
 lens. While this right-hand lens is descending, the 
 left-hand one is rising, but has no action on the film 
 because the light is cut off by the shutter. So soon 
 as the lens begins its descent light is admitted to act, 
 and at this time the position of affairs is such as to 
 display the characteristics of the machine. One lens 
 has reached the bottom and is just terminating its 
 
 Fig. qo. 
 
5 
 3 
 
 J 
 
 4 
 
 CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY. 98 
 
 exposure ; the other lens is situated at half a picture 
 height above and is just commencing to act. The 
 result is shown in Fig. 91, where the two series of 
 pictures are seen side by side upon the film, the upper 
 margin of one picture being level with 
 the centre line of that which follows. 
 The speed of the film is therefore re- 
 duced to one-half, the alternating ex- 
 posures or projections overlap, and all 
 parts of the apparatus are in continual 
 movement. By these means it is claimed ~ 
 
 * Fig. 91. 
 
 that unsteadiness is avoided, while it is 
 
 certain there is no interruption of light either in camera 
 
 work or exhibiting. 
 
 And now the turning-point in the History of the 
 Living Picture is reached. Up to this date the Kineto- 
 scope was the only instrument of a distinctly popular 
 nature, and it may be safely affirmed that, whatever 
 may have been done in the way of private experiment, 
 no public exhibition of a projected Living Picture had 
 been a popular success. With the advent of Messrs. 
 Lumiere's Cinematographe, however, this desirable con- 
 summation was attained, and to them must be attri- 
 buted the credit of stimulating public interest to such 
 a pitch as to lay a firm foundation for the commercial 
 future of cinematographic projecting apparatus. It was 
 on the 13th of February, 1895, that Messrs. Lumiere 
 filed their French specification No. 245,032, their English 
 patent being dated the 8th of April. To the French 
 documents four or five additions were made, and a 
 further English patent was taken a year later. As, 
 however, these additions are but slight expansions of 
 the original ideas, it is perhaps as well to describe them 
 together. It may be mentioned that the Cinemato- 
 graphe was exhibited at Marseilles in April, 1 895 ; and 
 a display given at Paris in the following July was the 
 
94. 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 commencement of a career of unequivocal success. The 
 beauty of the Cinematographe resides as much in its 
 simplicity as in the results obtained, and no apology 
 is required for a somewhat lengthy description being 
 given of a machine which has attained a position of 
 
 Tig. 
 
 92. 
 
 historical importance. Fig. 92 shows the casing opened, 
 while Fig. 93 clearly exhibits the hidden mysteries. 
 First and foremost, let it be supposed that the machine 
 is arranged with a view to projection ; the film-spool 
 is placed in a holder at the top and the film is led 
 
CHRONO.PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 95 
 
 through the machine. It will be seen that the film 
 is only provided with two holes to each picture, one 
 on each side. Briefly stated, the action of the machine 
 is as follows. A picture is at rest opposite the lens, 
 but so soon as a rotating shutter cuts off the light two 
 little pegs enter a pair of perforations and then sink 
 down, carrying the picture band with them to the exact 
 extent of one view. The pegs then come to rest, 
 steadying the film, and are withdrawn in order that 
 
 Fig. 
 
 93. 
 
 they may rise preparatory to drawing down a fresh 
 portion. While they are rising the shutter passes away 
 and allows the stationary picture to be projected. How 
 this is accomplished will be understood by reference to 
 Fig. 93. The pegs are carried by an arm, B, fixed on 
 a frame, A, which is driven up and down by a central 
 cam. A rotating arm, working from the same centre 
 as the cam, has wedge-shaped ends, and the pins are 
 not rigidly fastened to the arm, B, but are formed like 
 
96 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 the prongs of a little fork which can slide backwards 
 and forwards. Every time the pegs arrive at the top, 
 the wedge on the end of the rotating arm acts against 
 another wedge, D, on the fork and drives the pegs into 
 the perforations. This done, the frame, 
 pegs, and film sink together. Arrived at 
 the bottom, the other end of the arm, fur- 
 nished with a wedge slanting the other way, 
 comes round and acts on the other side of 
 D in order to draw the pegs out so that 
 they may rise without moving the film. 
 This is the whole principle of the machine in its 
 simplest form, but its efficiency depends on an important 
 modification. If the central cam were a disc, as shown 
 in Fig. 93, the frame would take as long to make its 
 downward journey as it would 
 to travel in the reverse direction ; 
 and, further, the motion would 
 be continuous. Therefore the 
 cam is formed as shown in 
 Fig. 94, with the result that 
 while the cam turns through 
 60 degrees the frame remains 
 stationary for the insertion of 
 the pegs ; a further movement 
 of 120 degrees drops the frame, 
 the pegs drawing the film down. 
 During the next 60 degrees of 
 rotation the frame remains still 
 to allow the pegs to be with- 
 drawn, while the 120 degrees 
 required to complete one rotation 
 are occupied by the rise of the frame. Therefore the 
 film is only in movement for one-third of the total 
 time of one revolution. Some further modifications are 
 shown in Fig. 95. Instead of driving the cam at a 
 
 Fig. 9: 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 regular speed, the toothed wheel S may so act on the 
 shaded wheel as to cause it to rotate more quickly at 
 one period than another, and in consequence the 
 film may be drawn down quickly, while the raising 
 of the pegs occupies a longer 
 time. As the film is stationary 
 during the rise of the pegs, the 
 picture may be projected for 
 considerably more than one- 
 third of a complete revolution, 
 and the period of darkness is 
 consequently reduced. The two 
 arms that act on the pegs are 
 therefore placed closer together and project from the 
 edge of a disc, better seen in Fig. 96. Subsequently 
 these arms disappeared, their functions being discharged 
 by variations in the surface of the disc itself ; but the 
 
 latest developments 
 of this machine will 
 be illustrated in the 
 next chapter. 
 
 While Messrs. 
 Lumiere were tri- 
 umphing over their 
 difficulties in France, 
 the problem was also 
 being attacked on 
 this side of the 
 Channel. It is cer- 
 tain that Mr. Birt 
 Acres was working 
 concurrently with Messrs. Lumiere, for he photographed 
 the University Boat-race with his Kinetic Camera on 
 March 30th, 1895, only a few days after Messrs. 
 Lumiere filed their French patent, and before the 
 deposit of their English one. In fact, Mr. Acres 
 
 H 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
98 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 appears to have been beaten all through the race by 
 a few days ; his English patent is dated about five 
 weeks after Lumiere's, and he does not appear to 
 have given a public exhibition until the early days 
 of 1896. But this point is of little importance, for 
 his apparatus was constructed on distinctly different 
 lines to those adopted in the Cinematographe. Fig. 97 
 shows the Kinetic Camera at the commencement of 
 an exposure. The film is firmly held by the shaded 
 clamping-frame F, pressed home by the black cam C. 
 While exposure is proceeding the upper sprocket-roller 
 is feeding out an exact picture-length — that is to say, 
 it moves four teeth forward. So soon as the shutter 
 cuts the light off the clamping-frame is loosened, and 
 the roller R, which has been bearing against the film, 
 is thrown into its shaded position by the action of a 
 spring, thus drawing down the slack which has 
 accumulated above the clamp and substituting a fresh 
 sensitive surface, which is at once firmly held in 
 position. A fresh exposure now commences, during 
 which the bottom sprocket-roller takes up the looped 
 film and so gradually forces the roller R back into its 
 original position ready to act again when the clamp 
 is taken off. This apparatus has undergone several 
 christenings. Brought out in January, 1896, as the 
 Kinetic Lantern, this term was abandoned the following 
 March in favour of the name of " Kineopticon." Being 
 called to give an entertainment before the Prince of 
 Wales in July, the inventor found, to his surprise, that 
 the programmes issued under Royal auspices referred 
 to his invention as the " Cinematoscope" What could 
 a loyal photographer do except follow the same course 
 as Mr. Acres actually did? Cinematoscope it was by 
 Royal dictum, and Cinematoscope it remains to this 
 day. But as " a rose by any other name would smell 
 as sweet," so has the Cinematoscope retained its good 
 qualities under all its varied nomenclature. 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 99 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 SSSSSSgg g, 1 ^ \vv.v^ v\\\^ss\\\\\\\\\\\\\\v\v\\\\^^^^ 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
100 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 In order to maintain a chronological sequence, an 
 apparatus may be here noticed which is chiefly remark- 
 able for its resemblance to Demeny's drum-form Phono- 
 scope, Figs. 65 and 66. The shutter is, 
 however, revolved between the eye-piece 
 and the image, instead of between the 
 light and the drum ; and the drum itself, 
 instead of moving transversely, as seen 
 in Fig. 98, may remain stationary while 
 the eye-piece is shifted instead. 
 
 The following month (June, 1895) 
 Blair took an English patent for a kineto- 
 graphic camera in which the shutter 
 acted on the usual focal-plane principle 
 — that is to say the exposure was made 
 through a slit passing over the sen- 
 sitive surface. Fig. 99 shows the film 
 passing from a lower spool, over 
 tension-rollers H y , K, H, on to an upper 
 receiving - spool. A peculiarly shaped 
 roller, shaded in drawing, revolves on an axle, I, and 
 is prevented from turning backwards by a ratchet. 
 Supposing an ex- 
 posure just ter- 
 minated, the parts 
 would be in the 
 position shown in 
 the illustration. The 
 lower tooth on the 
 shaded roller then 
 passes through a 
 hole in the film and 
 also through a hole 
 
 in the top of the flexible shutter which lies in front, 
 and raises both together as seen in Fig. 100. The film 
 is protected by the shutter, in which, however, there is 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 ■*t 
 
 ■8 g-< 
 
 ttHag&Bgg faggapa 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
CUR ONO-PHOTO G RAP MY. 
 
 101 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 a transverse slot, and the light will act through this 
 narrow slot on the film which lies behind. So soon as 
 this slot arrives level with the top of the aperture A, 
 the tooth on the roller leaves the perforations and the 
 film remains at rest. This 
 withdrawal of the tooth also 
 releases the shutter, which is 
 rapidly drawn down by the 
 spring E, and as the slot 
 passes over the sensitive sur- 
 face an exposure is made. The 
 working parts are then in the 
 original position, ready for another movement of the 
 film. It will be seen that this system gives a succession 
 of views separated by a blackened strip the width of 
 the shutter slot. It was also suggested that instead of 
 specially shaping the roller which carried the pins it 
 
 might be made cylin- 
 drical as shown in 
 Fig. I oi, the pins being 
 periodically protruded 
 from its surface and 
 subsequently retracted 
 by means of the T- 
 shaped head of each 
 pin, I, taking into a 
 cam-groove in a plate, 
 O, mounted at the side 
 of the cylinder. The 
 arrangement of these 
 parts will be seen in 
 Fig. 1 02. 
 
 On the 1 6th of July, 1895, Petit applied for a patent 
 in the United States (No. 560,424), and his device for 
 moving the film intermittently forms a capital example 
 of how a given mechanical movement may pass into 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
102 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 another form. The camera, Fig. 103, follows the usual 
 type in its main arrangement, but only one of the 
 sprocket-rollers is driven ; the other one rotates by 
 means of a band which passes over both, being per- 
 forated exactly as a film. 
 The film itself travels in 
 contact with this band, 
 which not only ensures the 
 equal movement of both 
 sprocket-rollers, but also 
 lends support to the film. 
 Intermittent rotation is 
 secured by means of a star-wheel, shown black on 
 drawing, attached to the same axle as the upper 
 sprocket-roller. This star-wheel is marked b in Figs. 
 104 and 105, and at the first glance there appears a 
 great resemblance to Edison's device shown in Figs. 78 
 and 79. But this latter was purely an 
 escapement mechanism ; the toothed 
 wheel always had power applied to 
 it, but could not turn because it was 
 locked, and therefore its driving-pulley 
 slipped. When a slot arrived in place 
 the tooth escaped straight through it ; 
 the interaction of the wheels supplied 
 no power. But in Petit's machine the 
 slots were not straight ; they acted as 
 cams. It will be seen that the wheel b 
 was held perfectly steady, the wheel a 
 resting between two teeth. As the 
 slot 3 approached the wheel b, a slight 
 protuberance, 4, drew a tooth into the slot, which then 
 forced the tooth through to the other side of the wheel a, 
 thus rotating b and the sprocket-roller with it. It will be 
 seen that a serves the double purpose of driving b round 
 intermittently and also of steadying it between whiles. 
 
 Fig. 
 
CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 103 
 
 Another invention of considerable interest was 
 patented in Germany by Miiller of Cologne on the 
 25th August, 1895 (No. 92,247). There is no need to 
 give a full description of the apparatus, for Fig. 106 
 proves that it was identical in principle with Acres' 
 Kinetic Camera shown in Fig. 97, a spring-actuated 
 
 JD 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 roller drawing the film onward whenever a clamp was 
 taken off. Miiller's arrangement of the clamp differed 
 somewhat from that adopted by Acres, as will be better 
 seen in Fig. 107, where the clamp L has just been 
 withdrawn from contact with the film F. This inven- 
 tion affords an interesting instance of independent 
 invention of the same device; for Miiller's specification 
 
104 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fir;. 10;. 
 
 was filed in Germany after Acres' 
 English application, but at least nine 
 months before the Kinetic Camera 
 was publicly described, and it may 
 therefore be assumed that this co- 
 incidence is but one more verification 
 of the theory that " great minds 
 think alike." 
 
 A French patent, dated the 26th 
 of August, 1895, was granted to 
 M. Joly for an apparatus working 
 on much the same principle as 
 Varley's invention of 1890 (Fig. 73). 
 Fig. 108 shows the film accumulating 
 behind pressure-rollers, K, and then 
 passing through a steadying-f rame, j, 
 and clamp, better seen in Fig. 109. 
 The film was drawn down by a reciprocating roller on 
 a lever, but this lever -#- 
 
 was turned the reverse 
 way to Varley's arrange- 
 ment, and instead of 
 being tilted forward by 
 a cam, it was driven 
 back by its connection 
 with an eccentric pin on 
 the disc E. 
 
 In the following month 
 (September, 1 895) Friese- 
 Greene patented a camera 
 which is only noticed here 
 because it has been re- 
 ferred to as a kinemato- 
 graphic apparatus. Cer- 
 tainly the specification 
 speaks of producing a 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
CHR0N0-P1I0T0GRAPHY 
 
 105 
 
 series of photographs successively, but a glance at 
 Fig. no will show that if the black wheel be rotated 
 continuously the period of rest will be 
 far shorter than the period of move- 
 ment. When it is seen that a stop is 
 provided for giving time-exposures and 
 a marking arrangement indicates where 
 the film may be cut between the views, 
 there seems little doubt but that the 
 apparatus is merely an ordinary hand 
 camera. 
 
 The same day (25th September, 1895) 
 Petit took a United States patent (No. 
 560,425) for a multiple- view Kinetoscope. 
 The film passed from one spool on to \&j) 
 another (N, Fig. in), being driven by FlG 
 
 sprocket-rollers. Between the film L 
 and the eyepieces an endless band, B, passed in the 
 opposite direction around drums, P. This band was 
 pierced with slots and acted as a shutter. The whole 
 apparatus was driven electrically, the motor being 
 
 reversed in order to 
 §S§pj return the film to its 
 original spool. The 
 English patent (No. 
 10,778 of 1896) in- 
 cluded both this and 
 the camera previously 
 described under 
 United States speci- 
 fication No. 560,424. 
 In addition, another 
 form is shown (Fig. 
 1 1 2), wherein the 
 shutter is a slotted drum revolving between the 
 light and the film. The slot is just in position, 
 
 Fig. 1 10. 
 
106 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 allowing light to pass through the film and the 
 eyepiece C, the other inspection openings being 
 
 a a 
 
 similarly lit up in the course of one revolution of 
 the drum. 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 On the ist November, 1895, a German patent (No. 
 88,599) was applied for by Max Skladanowsky, who 
 
CHRONO.PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 107 
 
 appears, on his own showing, to have occupied the same 
 position in Germany as Lumiere in France, Acres in 
 England, and Jenkins in America; that is to say he 
 was not only the populariser of the Living Picture in 
 his own country but was also an independent inventor. 
 He gave the first exhibition of projected Living Pictures 
 in Germany on the very day on which he applied for 
 his patent. His apparatus had, however, been con- 
 structed fully a year before, without any knowledge of 
 the efforts which were being made in other countries. 
 The chief feature of this apparatus was the arrangement 
 of the parts employed for moving the film. The 
 toothed wheel seen in Fig. 113 is in connection with 
 the sprocket - wheel, 
 and is driven by the 
 worm below. Were 
 this worm fixed it 
 would rotate the wheel 
 continuously, but it is 
 mounted on a sliding 
 axle driven backwards 
 and forwards by a 
 stud bearing in a cam-groove. Thus at one time 
 the wheel remains stationary, the worm, so to speak, 
 screwing itself along on the wheel ; but when the axle 
 travels back, not only does the worm act in its proper 
 manner but in addition drags the wheel round. Herr 
 Skladanowsky at first used two machines giving 
 alternate projection, but subsequently employed one 
 machine only, having a special form of shutter. His 
 pictures measured 4 by 5 centimetres, and therefore 
 gave a considerably larger view on the screen than 
 those obtained with the first French machines. 
 
 The last apparatus to be described in this chapter 
 stands in a manner on the borderland of history. 
 Mr. Jenkins undoubtedly constructed his Phantoscope 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
108 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Lantern so far back as 1894, though no description of 
 its working appears to have been published until 1896. 
 Still it was exhibited towards the end of 1895 both at 
 the Atalanta International Exposition and the Franklin 
 Institute. Shortly after this, on March 17th, 1896, the 
 instrument was, according to Mr. Jenkins' own account, 
 surreptitiously removed from his house at Washington, 
 and he maintains that a similar machine was sub- 
 sequently put on the market under the name of the 
 Edison Vitascope. There may very well have been 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 no connection between the two events, for the 
 Phantoscope itself was strikingly similar to Demeny's 
 Chronophotographe, dated 1893. Both depended on a 
 dog-motion for the intermittent movement of the film, 
 but the general arrangement of the two machines was 
 somewhat different. The Phantoscope (Fig. 114) was 
 electrically driven ; and, as the period of motion was 
 only one-twenty-fifth of that of rest, a shutter was 
 dispensed with. In fact, Mr. Jenkins claims to have 
 used a similar apparatus without a shutter for camera 
 work, the amount of light reaching the film while in 
 
CnRONO-PROTOGRAPRY. 109 
 
 motion being so small as to cause only an imperceptible 
 degree of fog. 
 
 Here, then, History ends. It is a comparatively 
 simple matter to present facts in some sort of sequence 
 after the lapse of time, but a space of two years affords 
 so little perspective that it is better to terminate our 
 journey through the " has been " at the end of the year 
 1895. In fact, at that date practically every device 
 connected with the production of a Living Picture had 
 been described or at least foreshadowed ; all leading- 
 principles had been enunciated, though the methods 
 suggested for carrying them into effect were capable of 
 considerable mechanical improvement. Plateau's simple 
 rotating disc and Stampfer's suggestion of a moving 
 band had gradually borne fruit ; the improvement in 
 photographic processes, the researches in the domain 
 of pure chrono-photography, and the invention of 
 celluloid all lent their aid, and successful exhibitions 
 of projected Living Pictures in France, England, 
 Germany, and the United States sealed the popular 
 verdict that the Living Picture had arrived, fully and 
 completely, in December, 1895. Therefore it is better 
 to regard all subsequent machines and ideas as part 
 of the actual present, as efforts to impart the finishing- 
 mechanical touches to several well-defined principles, 
 and merely place on record in the next chapter such 
 machines and projects as are now before the public in 
 order that a clear idea may be formed of the actual 
 position and degree of perfection of the Living Picture 
 in this Year of Grace 1898. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PRESENT-DAY CAMERAS AND PROJECTION APPARATUS. 
 
 In giving an account of present-day machines it is 
 desirable to include not only those actually on the 
 market but also such others as have been described by 
 their inventors, even though but one machine may have 
 been constructed. A much greater variety of design 
 has been introduced than is commonly supposed to be 
 the case, and an introductory review of principles will 
 greatly assist subsequent comprehension of the working 
 of individual machines. This course is the more 
 desirable inasmuch as the efficiency of any given 
 apparatus depends even more on excellence of work- 
 manship than on the mechanical devices employed ; 
 and improved design is of little ultimate advantage 
 unless accompanied by a more than equal advance in 
 accuracy of construction. The action of a Living 
 Picture machine is in every respect comparable to that 
 of a clock or watch, and as regards these latter it is 
 certain that workmanship is the main factor in the 
 results attained ; no doubt an English chronometer 
 greatly excels a machine-made watch, but only on 
 condition that far greater care is exercised in its 
 construction ; if this be not so, the probability is that 
 the commoner article will prove the more satisfactory. 
 So it is with Living Picture machines. The advantages 
 and disadvantages of respective types may be discussed 
 till no doubt remains as to which is the best, theoretically, 
 but even then the final test can only be the performance 
 
PR ES E NT-DA F A PPA RA TUS. 1 1 1 
 
 of individual machines, the action of which may vary 
 in any two samples although both are of exactly the 
 same design. Therefore in the following review cf 
 principles it must be taken for granted that the work- 
 manship is perfect, and this assumption can only be 
 verified by inspection of the machine in actual operation. 
 The central feature of all apparatus under considera- 
 tion is undoubtedly a film bearing a series of pictures, 
 and the various means suggested or employed to render 
 each view apparently stationary form the best basis 
 for the arrangement of a systematic review. Thus, the 
 film may be : — 
 
 A. Moved continuously, but be 
 
 i . seen for a very short period ; 
 
 2. rendered relatively stationary ; 
 
 3. rendered optically stationary. 
 
 B. Moved intermittently by rollers 
 
 1. through interaction of wheel with teeth 
 
 or pegs; 
 
 2. through interaction of wheel with worm 
 
 or cam ; 
 
 3. by changing position of the sprocket- 
 
 roller itself ; 
 
 4. by ratchet gearing ; 
 
 5. by periodical grip of two rollers. 
 
 C. Moved intermittently by teeth 
 
 1. always in contact with film (spring-teeth) ; 
 
 2. inserted and withdrawn (claw) ; 
 
 3. or substitutes (as gripping fingers). 
 
 D. Moved intermittently by pressure of 
 
 1. eccentric; 
 
 2. reciprocated arm ; 
 
 3. spring arm acting when clamp is taken 
 
 off the film. 
 
212 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 So far as possible all motions that have been 
 suggested will be described in the above order, but 
 one class has a tendency to run into others, and the 
 arrangement cannot be regarded as a strict one. Still 
 the attempt will serve as a brief recapitulation of past 
 devices, and at the same time afford some idea of 
 other methods recently proposed. It has been stated 
 that the " description of an appreciable number of 
 these machines would be a somewhat heavy and 
 monotonous task," but it is to be hoped that, heavy 
 and monotonous as the task of selecting details may 
 be, the reader may yet be spared the mental indigestion 
 which is the Author's due, and his alone. And so to 
 proceed with a general outline review of every system 
 of importance yet suggested. 
 
 Ai. Continuously moving film seen for very short 
 period. 
 
 This type is primeval. The Phenakistoscope worked 
 on this principle, and Plateau's " Diable soufflant " was 
 essentially similar although speed of image was reduced. 
 From these two instruments were derived all such 
 machines as the Lantern Wheel of Life, the Zoopraxi- 
 scope, and in a degree the Phonoscope ; while Edison's 
 Kinetoscope, excellent as the results were which it 
 gave, nevertheless falls into the same category. But, 
 even in so elementary a type, there is some scope for 
 suggestion ; and where vision is only momentary it is 
 clearly desirable that as much light as possible should 
 be passed through the slot. Lommel in 1 88 1 attacked 
 this difficulty by throwing a condensed beam of light 
 through a narrow aperture working in the plane of the 
 focus, and this same system reappears in Latham's 
 invention of 1896, though in a considerably elaborated 
 form. 
 
PRESENT-DA Y APPA RA TUS. 113 
 
 A2. Film rendered relatively stationary. 
 
 Of this class there appears to be only one example, 
 viz., Donisthorpe and Croft's machine, shown in Fig. 69. 
 In this case object, lens, and image were all maintained 
 in fixed relation ; devices which move lens and film 
 together are better regarded as belonging to the next 
 class. 
 
 A3. Film rendered optically stationary. 
 
 The first attempt to render an image optically stationary 
 was probably made by Clerk-Maxwell in 1 869, as explained 
 on page 26. His arrangement of concave lenses instead 
 of zoetropic slots is of interest in conjunction with 
 Maskelyne's 1896 rotating lens-drum, which serves a 
 somewhat similar purpose, though the comparison must 
 be taken in a purely historical sense, and not in a 
 practical one. 
 
 Another important optical method which has been 
 put into practice is the use of a mirror turning at such 
 a speed as to maintain the beam of light passing through 
 the lens in a right line. The origin of this idea may 
 be found in Reynaud's Praxinoscope (Fig. 23), and its 
 latest developments in Campbell and Casler's inven- 
 tions of the year 1897. Suggestions involving the use 
 of a cyclostat, such as mentioned on page 85, also fall 
 within the same category, the general principle involved 
 being this : A revolving image may be rendered 
 optically stationary by the interposition of a reflecting 
 surface moving in the same direction but at half the 
 speed. The two principal instances of moving lens and 
 image together have been noticed in Figs. 85 and 90, 
 and Bonelli's invention of the year 1865 also bears on 
 the same question. 
 
114 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Bi. Film moved intermittently by rollers actuated 
 by wheel and teeth or pegs. 
 
 To introduce this class an illustration may be given 
 which has nothing whatever to do with the Living- 
 Picture. In fact, a prize competition might be started 
 for the first correct answer as to the use of the apparatus 
 shown in Fig. 115; but as there 
 are no prizes, it may be stated 
 at once that the figure is a 
 drawing of a lawn - mowing 
 machine with projecting knives. 
 Nevertheless, it will serve better 
 than any other as a foundation 
 for the discussion of principles. 
 Let us imagine the wheel e to 
 be joined to the axle of an ordinary sprocket-roller, it 
 will be seen that if the upper axle were rotated the wheel 
 e would be partially revolved every time the segment d 
 acted upon it. Further, if the segment contained the 
 right number of teeth, the wheel e might be rotated to 
 the exact extent necessary to draw the 
 film onward one picture-length. The 
 reason why a movement of this simple 
 description would be ineffective is found 
 in the fact that the ordinary Living 
 Picture film requires to be started and 
 stopped at least ten times in a second. 
 Now, the momentum of the wheel e 
 and film combined would carry the 
 mechanism onward after the segment d 
 ceased to act, and would therefore draw 
 down more than one picture-length at each stroke. 
 As exactitude in starting and stopping is absolutely 
 essential in cinematographic apparatus, it is necessary 
 that this point should be thoroughly grasped, and if 
 
 Fig. i 16. 
 
PRESENT-DA Y A PPA It A TUS. 
 
 115 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 our outside illustration has succeeded in driving the fact 
 home it will not have been dragged to light in vain. 
 
 The simplest form of this class is obtained by 
 rearranging the teeth on the large wheel and reducing 
 the segments on the upper one to a single tooth each, 
 as seen in Fig. 116. Here 
 it is the large wheel which 
 is driven by the smaller, 
 the large wheel standing 
 still until a fresh tooth 
 comes round, the plain 
 part of the upper wheel 
 resting against two teeth 
 on the lower one, which 
 is thus steadied. A further 
 development of this plan 
 is seen in Fig. 1 1 7, where the small wheel only bears 
 one tooth, the rest of its circumference being adapted 
 to rest against the specially shaped intervals between 
 the slots in the large wheel in order to effectively steady 
 it. The single tooth may be replaced by a peg, shown 
 black in Fig. 1 1 8. This peg, standing out from a disc, 
 enters a slot in the Maltese cross 
 attached to the sprocket-wheel, gives 
 it a quarter-turn, and then passes on, 
 leaving the cross steadied by the raised 
 portion of the disc which carries the 
 pin. This arrangement moves the cross 
 once for every revolution of the pin- 
 disc ; if the latter bears two pins it 
 will of course act twice instead of once, 
 as seen in Fig. 119, wherein pins are replaced by rollers 
 in order to reduce friction. This motion is applied to 
 the bottom sprocket in order to pull down loose film 
 which has accumulated behind a grip, but two sprocket- 
 wheels may be simultaneously actuated by the arrange- 
 
 FlG. i I 
 
116 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 ment shown in Fig. 120. This Maltese cross motion 
 is one employed for very many years past in horology 
 under the name of the Geneva stop, wherein the arms 
 of the cross were hollowed at their 
 ends so as to bear very accurately 
 against the curved edge of the pin- 
 disc exactly as shown in the drawing. 
 One of these arms, however, was 
 not hollowed, and therefore locked 
 against the disc in order to prevent 
 further rotation which would have 
 resulted in over-winding ; hence the 
 name of stop. Though this stopping 
 motion was its first use, the arms 
 were soon made alike, thus per- 
 mitting continual rotation, and the 
 device has long been employed in 
 varied branches of mechanical engineering to convert 
 continuous into intermittent rotation on exactly the 
 same principles as those applied to the machines under 
 present discussion. If desired, the whole arrangement 
 may be reversed, and instead of the pin driving the 
 slot, the slot may drive the pin. The lower slotted disc 
 on Fig. 121 pushes one pin on at each revolution, 
 driving the previous one past the spring grip, which 
 then locks the wheel in exact position. 
 
 B2. Film moved inter?nittently by wheel-teeth 
 inter-acting •with worm or cam. 
 
 A disc with pegs may be driven by other means. 
 For instance, if another disc be placed " sideways-on," 
 so that it bears against the pins, a groove such as is. 
 shown in Fig. 122 may be arranged so that the pins, 
 in turn, enter and pass through it. Imagine the disc G 
 in rotation and a peg entering the slot at A. While 
 the disc turns halfway round the peg will be firmly 
 
PRESENT-DA Y APPARA TUS. 
 
 117 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 held in the same position, for the groove remains at 
 the same distance from the centre of the disc. So soon 
 as the groove begins to approach the centre 
 the peg will be raised until it passes out 
 at the end B, when another peg enters 
 at A and is held firmly in the same manner 
 as the previous one was, and thus renders 
 the film steady. But this cam-groove may 
 be applied in a more ordinary fashion in 
 the form of a " drunken screw." If the 
 wheel L in Fig. 123 be rotated so as to 
 act on K, the latter will not be moved 
 while all the grooves in L are straight. 
 But so soon as the inclined part of the screw comes 
 into action, K will be forced round some distance from 
 one side to the other, and will then 
 be held steady while the straight 
 part again passes. Or the screw 
 may be reduced to one thread, 
 keeping in direct line for the major 
 portion of one turn and rapidly 
 passing over, as seen in Fig. 124. 
 Instead of varying the pitch of the 
 worm, a double motion may be 
 o-iven to it, as was described in connection with Fig. 
 113. In Figs. 104 and 105 the outside of the turning 
 disc acts in the same manner as 
 the straight portion of the screw re- 
 ferred to in Fig. 123, while the groove 
 acts the part of the inclined part. 
 The little protuberance which draws 
 the tooth over may of course be 
 replaced by a kind of hook which 
 forces it in instead, as seen in 
 Fig. 125. A modification of this same movement is 
 shown in Fig. 1 26, where a solid " snail " is employed. 
 
 Fig. I2i. 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
118 
 
 LIVING PICTURES 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 In this case the star-wheel, instead of being forced 
 round through an inclined groove, is caused to follow 
 
 an inclined surface which acts 
 somewhat as an escapement. 
 The star-wheel is not directly 
 attached to the driving axle A, 
 Flo> I23> but a spring is interposed, and 
 
 one of the rollers on the end of an arm is therefore 
 always pressing against the edge of the continually 
 revolving " snail " S. For 
 three - quarters of a revo- 
 lution this arm naturally 
 remains still, but when the 
 inclined surface of the long- 
 tooth comes round the arm 
 follows it, making a quarter- 
 revolution and turning the 
 sprocket-wheel to the same extent. So soon as the 
 arm escapes from the tooth the next arm finds itself 
 
 steadied against the 
 regular surface of the 
 " snail." A form of 
 snail-motion was used 
 very early by Wheat- 
 stone as a motive device, 
 while the earliest inter- 
 mittent motions, such as 
 the Choreutoscope and 
 Brown's apparatus of 
 1869, shown on page 46, 
 employed pegs acting on 
 slots placed either around 
 the edge of a disc or 
 along a rack. 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
PRESENT-DA Y A PFAJtA TUS. 
 
 119 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 B3. Film moved intermittently by raising and 
 lowering sprocket-rollers. 
 
 If the lower sprocket-roller maintains a fixed position 
 and is continually rotating, it will of course continue to 
 draw down film. If, however, it be mounted as shown 
 in Fig. 127, the action on the 
 film may be rendered inter- 
 mittent although the sprocket- 
 wheel does not cease re- 
 volving. The sprocket-axle 
 is mounted eccentrically on 
 a disc, the revolution of which 
 consequently alternately raises 
 and lowers the sprocket- 
 wheel. This latter receives 
 a rotary movement of its 
 
 own through epicyclic gearing, and were its axle fixed, 
 it would, as previously stated, draw the film down at 
 a constant speed. The two movements are, however, 
 
 so proportioned that the 
 roller rises along the film 
 at the same rate as the 
 sprocket-teeth rotate, and 
 the wheel itself merely 
 travels up the film. On 
 the downward motion it 
 not only rolls the film 
 down in the ordinary 
 way but also superadds 
 a drawing action due to 
 its fall. This device, so 
 similar to Demeny's un- 
 workable eccentric bobbin (Fig. 81), is employed in 
 the Prestwich camera, and serves as a good example 
 of the manner in which an ineffective motion may be 
 transformed into a thoroughly effective and reliable 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
120 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 instrument by careful mechanical treatment. The 
 sprocket-roller, while receiving a motion of its own, 
 
 may be raised by a 
 crank, as shown in 
 Fig. 128, instead of 
 by a direct eccentric 
 motion applied to its 
 axle. If, however, 
 the sprocket - wheel 
 does not receive a 
 motion of its own, 
 this movement forms 
 a transition stage be- 
 tween rising-sprocket 
 and claw-motion. The 
 wheel seen in Fig. 
 1 2(j rolls upwards 
 along the film, but is prevented from rotating in the 
 reverse direction by a ratchet. On the down stroke 
 of the crank-arm the wheel becomes fixed and acts 
 exactly as a claw by drawing the film down. 
 
 B4. Film moved by roller actuated by ratchet-gear. 
 The first use of ratchet-gear appears to have been 
 in Heyl's i8;o machine, described on page 47, but this 
 apparatus was of very primitive type, a separate hand- 
 pressure being required for every movement of the disc. 
 Fig. 130 shows a ratchet-wheel (of course placed on 
 the same axle as the sprocket-roller). A spring-pawl 
 is jointed on the end of a crank-rod reciprocated by 
 an eccentric. Every time the rod moves forward the 
 spring-tooth pushes the wheel round; when the rod 
 retreats, the tooth drags over the curved surface until 
 it drops into position behind a fresh ratchet. Mean- 
 while a spring-pawl at the top, set the reverse way, pre- 
 vents any backward motion of the wheel. In another 
 
FEBSHWr-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 121 
 
 t • <-^A nf beinsr tied to the 
 form the ratchet-tooth, instead of tang 
 
 sarr.e centre as the disc may be place H 
 
 mounted loosely on the same axle A 
 mav be seen in Fig. >3' h°' d '»g th ^ 
 ratchet-wheel steady A crank -rod 
 worked by an eccentric swings the loose 
 plate to and fro, and the pawl mounted 
 on the plate drives the ratchet-wheel 
 on by acting against a second set ot 
 teeth, lying underneath those fitting the 
 / B , ,, w jll he noticed 
 steadying - pawl. It will ne 
 
 that the steadying-pawl not only bears 
 
 against the ratchet teeth but also locks 
 
 into a little groove. From this groove 
 
 it is lifted at the proper moment by a 
 
 pin on the loose disc. This pm is 
 
 shown black, and lies just against the 
 
 curved spring of the other pawl. Une 
 
 other form may be described here 
 
 Fig 132, in which the ratchet is not 
 
 a motive device, but only serves as an 
 
 escapement. The sprocket-roller has * j^ the 
 
 through which passes the **&£**£ * chet . 
 
 peculiarly shaped plate seen m ont o 
 
 wheel which is attached to the roller. 
 
 i3 in continual rotation, and so tightly 
 drawn back against the ratchet-wheel 
 that the two rotate together by 
 notion. As seen in the drawing, 
 however , a falling lever catches on 
 a tooth of the ratchet-wheel and 
 prevents it moving. As the front 
 disc continues turning, the lever is 
 lifted by one of the projections on the disc thus freeing 
 the ratche" wheel, which then turns, being dragged 
 . o no by f h r dis c But so soon as the projectmg part 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
122 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 of the disc has passed, the lever falls, again locking the 
 ratchet-wheel, and so renders the sprocket-roller and 
 
 film stationary. It 
 is clear that the front 
 disc is not obliged 
 to serve the double 
 purpose of escape- 
 ment cam and motor. 
 If the sprocket-wheel 
 be driven by a con- 
 tained spring, the 
 front disc need have 
 no frictional action 
 on the ratchet-wheel, 
 but will only serve 
 to lift the pawl and 
 allow the ratchet- 
 wheel to turn under 
 the action of the 
 spring as often as a 
 cam-boss passes. In 
 fact, this front disc 
 may take the exact form of a ratchet-wheel with the 
 teeth set the other way, the curved back of the teeth 
 acting as cams. The pawl will then be lifted as many 
 times in a revolution as there are ratchet-teeth on the 
 front disc. 
 
 B5. Film moved by intermittent grip of tivo rollers. 
 
 Two early methods of obtaining an intermittent 
 motion from continually rotating rollers were suggested 
 by Evans in 1890. One suggestion was that the rollers, 
 might be allowed to roll along the film for a time, thus 
 leaving it stationary, and then be drawn back as shown 
 in Fig. 70. Or the two rollers might periodically be 
 held apart and only permitted to grip the film for a 
 
 '.,' 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 123 
 
 sufficient time to draw a picture-length down. A 
 simplification of this method is shown in Fig. 133, where 
 two rollers are seen gripping the film between them 
 and thus driving it onward. But it will be noticed that 
 the left-hand roller is not of sufficient size to reach the 
 film except in the part now acting. 
 When this has passed there will 
 be no grip on the film, which will 
 remain stationary until the pro- 
 jecting part of the left-hand roller 
 again comes round. Naturally 
 this segmental piece exerting 
 pressure on the film is so pro- 
 portioned that its length is exactly equal to one picture. 
 The Biograph works somewhat on this principle, but its 
 details are so complicated that the machine must be 
 described later on as a whole. 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 Ci. Film moved by spring-teeth. 
 
 In a degree the spring-fork used by Gray in 1895 
 (Figs. 88 and 89) was the forerunner of the spring- 
 tooth, and in the same moderate 
 degree a resemblance may be 
 traced in the rising wheel 
 governed by a ratchet which 
 was shown in Fig. 129. In 
 that arrangement the tooth 
 acting on the film was able 
 to travel over the film in one 
 direction, and was fixed when 
 moving the other way by the 
 action of a ratchet-tooth, but 
 this ratchet-tooth did not act 
 In the spring-claw, properly 
 Fig. 134 may serve to explain 
 the action, it being understood that this is a double- 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 directly on the film 
 so-called, it does so. 
 
124 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 action device, one spring-tooth serving to move the 
 film and the other to steady it. H and d are two 
 similar spring frames, but H is fixed while d slides up 
 and down on a bearing, G. As shown, the tooth d" 
 
 has just brought the film down 
 and is momentarily at rest in 
 order to steady the film, being 
 pressed home by the stop g. 
 l*s^-^tlP $! i/^ Now, when the frame d begins 
 
 ^ [H\.l i^i to rise, so soon as it is free from 
 
 the pressure of g, the tooth d 2 
 will have no action on the film, 
 but will drag over it as the 
 spring part d yields a little. 
 The friction of the tooth is pre- 
 vented from shifting the film 
 in the slightest degree by the 
 action of the fixed spring-tooth 
 attached to H. When D has 
 arrived at the top of its 
 stroke and begins its down- 
 ward journey the tooth d~ 
 falls into a film perforation and 
 catches in it, driving the film 
 down. Both the spring-teeth 
 being set in a slightly down- 
 ward sloping direction, the 
 lower moving tooth has no 
 tendency to slip out of the 
 film, while the upper tooth 
 allows the film to pass freely. 
 Fig- 135 shows another arrange- 
 ment of this description. A little frame slides up and 
 down behind the film. On this frame two little pawls, 
 of the shape shown in the right-hand drawing, are 
 pivoted and pass through the frame, being pressed into 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
PRESENT- DA Y APPA RA TUS. 
 
 125 
 
 contact with the film by the springs F. On the upward 
 journey the upper slanting surface of the tooth drags 
 over the film, the whole pawl being pressed back against 
 the spring. On the downward travel the spring presses 
 the tooth into a perforation, and the film being in contact 
 with the straight under-edge of the tooth, the latter has 
 no tendency to leave the perforation. 
 
 C2. Film moved by teeth mechanically inserted and 
 withdrawn (so-called claw). 
 
 This claw principle has been fully described in con- 
 junction with Lumiere's Cinematographe (page 95), and 
 therefore only a few modifications need be mentioned. 
 For instance, the frame bearing the pegs may move up 
 and down by means exactly similar to those shown in 
 Fig. 93. But instead of being pushed in and out of 
 the film perforations by wedges on rotating arms, a 
 
 little rod may be carried T | . 
 
 backwards from the frame 
 
 carrying the pins. This 
 
 little rod has a bent head, 
 
 which enters a groove on 
 
 the edge of a disc (Fig. 
 
 136). Imagine this head 
 
 to be in the position 0, 
 
 and the pegs will be held 
 
 forward so long as the 
 
 groove runs parallel with 
 
 the front edge of the disc, and if the frame is sinking 
 
 at the same time, the film will be pulled down. When 
 
 the pegs arrive at the bottom of their stroke, the inclined 
 
 portion of the cam-groove arrives at the position 0, the 
 
 rod connected with the pegs is drawn back the width 
 
 of the edge of the disc, and the pegs are consequently 
 
 withdrawn from the film, which remains stationary while 
 
 the frame is rising and until such time as a reverse 
 
 1 1 
 
 t t 
 
 e! e 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
12(5 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 rm 
 
 // 
 
 j 
 
 irtJ 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 
 motion of the rod is caused by an opposite inclination 
 of the cam-groove. Again, if the frame with the pegs 
 were continually pressed back by a spring, 
 the front side of the groove could be 
 done away with, and the device would 
 become a disc with variable surface, 
 every bulge on which would drive the pegs 
 forward into the perforations in opposition 
 to the action of the spring. A cam-groove 
 may be used for the double purpose of 
 inserting the pins and also raising and 
 lowering them, as seen in Fig. 137. The pins are 
 pressed back by a spring, /, and the stud e is con- 
 sequently driven right home 
 in the cam-groove of the 
 revolving cylinder a. As this 
 cylinder turns, the pin-frame 
 will be drawn up and down, 
 and the groove being made 
 to vary in depth, the pins will 
 be thrown further forward at 
 one time than at another. 
 This forward pressure is 
 arranged to coincide with the 
 downward course of the groove, which may also run 
 straight for a short space when it is desired that the 
 pins should be at rest. Or the head 
 bearing the pins may be placed on the 
 end of a suitably actuated lever, and 
 rollers (Fig. 138) on the sides of this 
 head may enter a D-shaped cam-groove 
 (Fig. 139) in plates at the side. The head 
 is therefore compelled to follow a definite 
 path, the straight stroke of the D repre- 
 senting the period during which the pins are in the film 
 and engaged in drawing it down. A kindred device 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 e c " ; ; 
 
 a 
 
 a] 
 
 i^O 
 
 
 
 1 ' ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
PRESENT DA 1* APPARATUS. 
 
 127 
 
 which permits a variation between the periods of rest 
 and motion imparted to the film is so ingenious that an 
 attempt must be made to describe it, despite its com- 
 plicated nature. The pins are carried on the 
 head of a lever working about a swinging 
 fulcrum, shown black in the centre of Fig. 
 140. This lever receives its motion from 
 an eccentric pin on the disc 10 at top. If 
 all parts were as shown in heavy lines, the 
 points of the pins 17 would follow the out- 
 lined path shaped somewhat as an irregular 
 D. But the fulcrum can be drawn back by the action 
 of the eccentric 26, and when this is the case the pins 
 will go through their evolutions without touching the 
 film. Therefore, if the eccentric 26 makes a half- 
 revolution to each turn of 
 the disc 10, the pins will 
 first describe the path 
 shown in full lines and 
 then retreat and follow the 
 course of the dotted con- 
 tinuation, thus greatly in- 
 creasing the period during 
 which the film rests ; and 
 this period may be still 
 further increased by in- 
 creasing the difference in 
 speed between the parts jo 
 and 26. One very com- 
 pact apparatus causes a 
 pin-plate, shaped as Fig. 
 141, to travel up and down 
 a vertical rod, the plate 
 being forced forward on to the film when necessary by 
 the action of a cam-disc. 
 
128 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 C3. Film moved by gripping-blocks, etc. 
 
 Pins and perforations are entirely done away with by 
 the arrangement shown in Fig. 142. Two blocks, M 1 , 
 may be driven forward to grip the 
 edges of the film against a plate on 
 the other side. The gripping-blocks 
 and plate then sink together, carry- 
 ing the film with them. Flexible 
 guards, M 8 , prevent the film buckling, and when the 
 pressure of the grippers ceases a brake-pad, O, comes 
 into action and clamps the film while the grippers rise. 
 
 O; 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 Di. Film intermittently struck by revolving eccentric. 
 
 r 
 
 The original so- 
 called dog - motion 
 invented by Demeny 
 was shown in Fig. 82, 
 and Jenkins' applica- 
 tion of the same is 
 described in connec- 
 tion with Fig - . 114. 
 Only one modification 
 needs attention here, 
 and that is a means 
 for varying- the 
 extent of stroke. The 
 general principles of 
 all dog-motions are 
 well exemplified in 
 Fig. 143. The film 
 is steadied in front 
 of the aperture by 
 small pressure-rollers 
 and plush pads. The 
 two lower rollers are 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
PRESENT-BAY APPARATUS. 
 
 129 
 
 continually pulling at the film, and at the end of an 
 exposure the film lies in a straight line between them 
 and the pressure-frame. An interposed disc bears an 
 eccentric rod, which strikes the film once in a revolution 
 and draws some film down. It will be 
 seen that for a fixed position of the 
 disc the amount of film drawn on will 
 depend on the distance over which the 
 dog travels in contact with the film, 
 and this is adjustable by shifting the 
 dog along a slot on the disc. On the 
 other hand, the relation between the 
 periods during which the film is 
 moving and stationary is governed by 
 the number of degrees (i.e. the propor- 
 tion of a revolution) during which the 
 dog touches the film. If, therefore, the 
 disc be made larger and its centre removed to a greater 
 distance from the film, the dog will bring down an equal 
 quantity of film in a less time, leaving the film stationary 
 for a longer period. 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 D2. Film moved intermittently by reciprocated 
 roller, etc. 
 
 The roller which strikes the film need not have a 
 rotary action, though that is perhaps the best form, 
 there being no dead point. Evans in 1890 showed a 
 double tilting-arm applied to this purpose (see Figs. 71 
 and 72), while Varley almost simultaneously invented a 
 cam-reciprocated arm (Fig. 73). Both these actions 
 took place over an arc ; but Fig. 144 shows a crank-rod 
 driving a roller in a line at right angles in order to loop 
 the film. Blair has suggested a machine having a rise- 
 and-fall shutter instead of one according to the ordinary 
 type ; and his drawings show the roller placed on top of 
 
 K 
 
130 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 the shutter, which takes the place of the crank-rod last 
 described. 
 
 D3. Spring arm acting on film when clamp is 
 withdrawn. 
 
 This type of machine has already been fully described 
 in connection with Figs. 74, 97, and 106. The earliest 
 form suffered from the fact that the spring-blade had a 
 period of vibration dependent on its 
 length, and this period seldom co- 
 incided with the rate at which the 
 views were being taken. This defect 
 was overcome in the later machines by 
 
 (CJTj p ( q) the interposition of some weighty parts, 
 
 which destroyed the vibration due to 
 the spring. 
 
 If the reader has had patience 
 enough to follow out the preceding 
 rough outline of mechanical methods 
 for obtaining intermittence, he will probably agree that 
 there appears to be little room for the introduction of 
 new principles. Yet these descriptions have been only 
 outline ; the illustrations but diagrams. The extreme 
 accuracy demanded in all these motions, together with 
 the necessity of moving the film at a high speed and yet 
 stopping and starting it many times in each second, 
 renders a large number of mechanical refinements 
 necessary. If it be permissible to express a personal 
 opinion, it may be suggested that the best form of 
 machine is that in which all parts (naturally excepting 
 the film) are kept in continual rotation, thus avoiding 
 any wearing pressure on the elements of the apparatus. 
 If intermittently acting parts are employed, the work- 
 manship must be of the best and the material such as 
 will stand continued friction and shock without per- 
 ceptible wear. Further, whatever the nature of the 
 
PltESEST-DAY APPARATUS. 131 
 
 mechanism employed, it should, for the safety of the 
 film, apply tractive force gradually, and distribute that 
 force over as large an area of film as possible. Thus in 
 dog-motion machines the size of the dog is of great 
 importance ; the larger it is, the larger also the area of 
 the film over which the blow is distributed. ]f the 
 strain takes place on the sprocket-roller, the film should 
 be kept in contact with it as much as possible, so as to 
 share the pull over a maximum number of perforations. 
 These considerations are elementary ; grant them to 
 have been satisfactorily applied, and it will still be 
 conceded that no machine can be so perfect but that 
 some compensating devices are necessary. To attempt 
 the systematic description of these arrangements would 
 be a hopeless task, they are so bound up with the 
 general build of the machine in which they appear. 
 Variations in driving power may be met by interposing 
 a spring, as in Greene and Evans' machine ; the driving- 
 band itself may be a spring, or adapted to slip when 
 resistance over a certain point is met with, or the driving 
 pulley may slip instead. If no sprockets are used, the 
 mechanism which drives the film may slip over the 
 surface of the latter ; in fact, the method adopted is a 
 matter entirely subordinated to the general features of 
 the machine. So also, if the film creeps and the picture 
 varies its position on the screen, a little shield may be 
 kept in motion to outline the picture and disguise its 
 movement. Or in various ways an extra movement 
 may be imparted to the film itself, as will be seen to 
 a notable extent in the description of the Biograph. 
 In fact, all these refinements are better explained in 
 connection with actual machines ; and they, together 
 with such special considerations as double projection, 
 showing ordinary views alternately with living pictures, 
 and exhibiting appliances in general, will be found 
 distributed through the following pages. Therefore, 
 
132 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 after this short digression, let us proceed with a review 
 of present-day machines, noting so far as possible all 
 typical apparatus, and also such curious suggestions as 
 obtrude themselves on our notice. It is not possible 
 to give more than a general idea of these present-day 
 machines and ideas, for not only is space limited, but 
 in some instances the makers' courtesy has not permitted 
 illustration, while in a few cases even description has. 
 been objected to. 
 
 " WARWICK BIOSCOPE." 
 
 In describing this machine it must be mentioned that 
 illustrations of the very latest design are not yet avail- 
 able, but views of last season's pattern will serve to. 
 
 Fjg. 14: 
 
 show the general character of the apparatus, the 
 added improvements consisting in further refinements 
 in detail, luxuries small in appearance but of great 
 
PRESENT-BAY APPARATUS. 133 
 
 value in practical working. The machine is of the dog 
 variety, the dog being mounted between two guide- 
 plates, and standing to the right of the lower sprocket- 
 wheel attached to the handle. The film is drawn off 
 the upper spool by a sprocket-wheel, which is geared 
 to turn at exactly the same rate as the lower one. In 
 the illustration (Fig. 145) this upper sprocket has just 
 fed out a picture-length, which stands in a loop above 
 the "film-trap," ready to be drawn down by the next 
 stroke of the dog. The loop drawn down by the latter 
 is continuously stored away on the bottom spool or 
 automatic take-up, which is so geared that it winds up 
 the film under even tension, despite increased diameter 
 in course of working. The " film-trap " or " gate " which 
 serves to steady the film in front of the lens is usually 
 faced with velvet pads, and, despite the utmost care, 
 dust is apt to be retained in the velvet pile, and even 
 under the lightest pressure causes damage to the film, 
 which passes through at an extremely rapid rate. In 
 this season's Bioscope, therefore, velvet is entirely 
 discarded, being replaced by small springs of special 
 form, which bear very lightly on the edges only of the 
 film. In this manner friction on the picture-bearing 
 surface of the film is entirely done away with. The 
 dog is so geared as to leave the picture at rest for a 
 period eight times as long as that occupied in changing. 
 With the majority of views this rapidity enables a 
 shutter to be dispensed with, but in subjects having 
 strong high-lights a rainy effect may be produced, while 
 in a picture having little shadow the amount of light 
 reaching the screen may be sufficient to impair the 
 brilliancy of the view. To meet these contingencies 
 an adjustable shutter is provided, shaped as a four- 
 armed cross with narrow blades, each of which acts as 
 a shutter. These arms are so narrow, and the shutter 
 is so exactly placed at the most condensed portion of 
 
134 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 the beam of light, that it fully effects its purpose 
 without giving rise to perceptible flicker. The spool- 
 standards are specially arranged with a reel-stop 
 allowing rapid changing, and at the same time they 
 will take spool-reels up to eleven inches diameter ; that 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 is to say, 1,000 feet of film may be placed on the 
 machine in one length. Indeed, even larger spools 
 may be arranged for, up to 2,000 feet capacity ; and 
 the " Bioscope Camera " will accommodate an equal 
 length, a fact which enables a continuous scene of thirty 
 minutes' duration to be projected. One other point is 
 
PRESENT-DA Y A PI'ARA TUS. 135 
 
 illustrated in Fig. 146. It will be seen that the base 
 of the Bioscope itself is pivoted on the base-board of 
 the lantern, and its framework bears two projection 
 lenses. When the machine is turned aside in order to 
 change a film, the other lens (suitable for ordinary 
 projection) is automatically brought into position, and 
 lantern-slides inserted in the usual carrier may be shown 
 in the interval without any of those awkward pauses 
 which tend so much to distract and dissatisfy the 
 average audience. The accessories to this machine 
 will be described in a later chapter. 
 
 casler's mutograph and biograph. 
 
 These two machines are best known by their magni- 
 ficent results exhibited at the " Palace." The Mutograph, 
 shown in Fig. 147, is the recording instrument ; similar 
 working parts with the necessary modifications being 
 employed in the Biograph, which serves for projection. 
 This giant among cinematographs is driven electrically, 
 and its speed controlled by the same means. The film 
 employed is 2^ inches in width, the pictures themselves 
 measuring about 2 by 2 l / 2 inches. The results are, of 
 course, characterised by increased detail, but the greater 
 size of the film and its consequent enormous speed 
 necessitate the employment of very different devices 
 to those in general use. Rigidity is obtained by the 
 massive construction shown in the illustration, and 
 equality of speed by the use of electricity as a motive 
 power. The interior details will perhaps be best under- 
 stood by reference to Casler's Patent of 1897. The 
 feed is given by the intermittent grip of two rollers, 41 
 and 42, situated just below the lens in Fig. 148. The 
 roller 41 is covered with felt ; the roller 42 has a portion 
 of its face of sufficient diameter to grip the film, the 
 rest being smaller and therefore allowing the film to 
 
136 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 hang free of pressure. This action is similar to that 
 shown in Fig 133, but the gripping surface of roller 42 
 is not designed to draw down an exact picture-length ; 
 on the contrary, it is so proportioned as to tend to draw 
 down somewhat more than one picture. But only 
 sufficient film for one picture is fed out by the roller 14, 
 and therefore the gripping-rollers slip when an exact 
 picture-length has been drawn. Further, in order that 
 
 the film may be paid out and taken up at the same 
 rate, the feeding-roller is not in direct contact with the 
 film, which is gripped against an interposed band. This 
 band is endless, and is also passed round the roller 22, 
 which feeds the take-up spool. Now as this band is 
 endless, if the speed of the feed-roller 14 is increased, 
 so also is that of the take-up roller 22, for the endless 
 band passes round both, and is in contact with the 
 film at both points. A further means of regulation 
 
PRESENT.DA Y APPARA TUS. 
 
 137 
 
138 LIVING PICT USES. 
 
 exists in the auxiliary feeding-mechanism shown in 
 Fig. 149, the description of which must be read in 
 conjunction with Fig. 148. 
 
 Gripping-roller 42 is understood to be the driving- 
 element of the intermittent feeding-mechanism, being- 
 mounted upon the main driving shaft. The take-up 
 reel 35 is driven from the main shaft and friction-disc 5 
 mounted thereon by means of the friction-wheel 51, 
 mounted upon a shaft 52, revolubly mounted, and 
 arranged to slide up and down in a sleeve 53. At the 
 lower end of this shaft is a worm 54 meshing with a 
 worm-wheel 55 upon the shaft 56, upon which shaft the 
 take-up reel 35 is mounted. When the friction-disc 5 
 rotates, this movement is communicated to the reel 35 
 through the shaft 52 and worm-gear, the weight of the 
 shaft 52 and parts thereon holding it at practically its 
 greatest distance from the centre of the disc 5. But 
 when the film 33 is drawn taut the reel 35 can rotate 
 only at the speed at which the film is fed to it, and 
 since, when the friction-wheel 51 is at its greatest 
 distance from the centre of the disc 5, it tends to 
 rotate the reel 35 at a much greater speed than that 
 at which the film is fed by the feeding-mechanism, as 
 soon as the film becomes taut the speed of the film 
 becomes less than the speed at which the wheel 51 
 tends to drive it, and the worm 54 climbs upon the 
 gear 55, so raising the friction-wheel 51 until the speed 
 of the take-up reel is adjusted to the speed at which 
 the film is delivered to it by the take-off mechanism 22. 
 As the film is wound upon the reel 35, the diameter 
 of this reel gradually increases ; but as it does so the 
 shaft 52 gradually rises so as to keep the peripheral 
 speed of the outside layer of film upon the reel 35 the 
 same as the speed at which the film is delivered u> 
 the reel. From this description it will be seen that 
 the machine is absolutely capable of automatically 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 139 
 
 regulating the speed of the respective parts. For every 
 turn of the gripping-roller 42 on the main shaft an 
 exact picture-length is fed out by the roller 14, and 
 the taking-up spool regulates its own speed to suit the 
 amount of film reaching it. When used for projection, 
 the distance between picture-centres may not be 
 constant, owing to shrinkage ; for instance, 100 grips 
 of the feeding-roller may draw down 101 pictures, 
 which would result in the picture gradually creeping 
 across the screen in a vertical direction ; when fifty 
 grips had been given, there would be the top half of 
 one picture and the bottom half of another visible. But 
 this is provided against by means of a regulating-screw, 
 17 (Fig. 149). If the band is travelling too quickly, 
 a slight touch lowers the shaft 7, and the friction-disc 6 
 is therefore driven more slowly. The feed is thus 
 decreased, and the take-up follows suit of its own 
 accord, as previously explained. This description may 
 be considered somewhat lengthy, but the unique 
 methods of compensation employed do not lend them- 
 selves to brief explanation. There is no doubt about 
 the magnificent results attained by this instrument, but 
 it is evident that the perfection of the mechanism 
 demands extreme ability on the part of the operator. 
 It may be mentioned that the pictures shown in the 
 Mutoscope (see page 37) are two-diameter enlargements 
 from negatives obtained by means of the Mutograph. 
 
 HUGHES' MACHINES. 
 
 Among the earliest machines placed on the 
 English market were the Moto-Photoscope Projector 
 (with eccentric intermittent motion) and the Moto- 
 Bijou Camera (a rising-sprocket apparatus). Naturally 
 enough, the lifelong experience in lantern work of Mr. 
 W. C. Hughes, coupled with two years' continuous 
 
uo 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 experiment, have enabled him to produce a vastly 
 superior machine, superseding the earlier patterns, 
 
 which therefore need 
 not be described in 
 detail. The Motor- 
 Pictoroscope, as the 
 new apparatus is 
 called, carries all the 
 working parts on the 
 inner side of a door, 
 as seen in Fig. 1 50. 
 The essential me- 
 chanism is shown 
 diagrammatically in 
 elevation, Fig. 151, 
 and plan, Fig. 152. 
 It consists in a little 
 frame, G 1 , carrying a 
 small roller, G 2 , driven 
 backwards and for- 
 wards by a rod, F 1 , 
 working from an eccentric seen on the right in the first 
 Figure. Every rotation of the handle causes this frame 
 to advance and retreat fifteen times, and on every one 
 of these forward 
 movements the roller 1 
 
 G c drives the film 
 forward as seen in 
 Fig. 151, drawing 
 down exactly one 
 picture. This mo- 
 tion, though rapid, 
 is not of the nature 
 of a sudden stroke, 
 but is rather a nicely graduated pressure applied with 
 due regard to the safety of the film. This one 
 
 Fig. 1 to. 
 
 /a' '■&> r , 
 
 Fig. 1 ;t. 
 
PRESENT-DA Y APPARATUS. 
 
 141 
 
 Fig. tea. 
 
 oscillating portion is constructed of aluminium, the low 
 density of which renders the weight of so small a part 
 practically negligible. So much for the essentials cf 
 the machine ; good as the motion is, attention is 
 unfailingly drawn from it to the precision and novelty 
 of the accessory details. 
 For instance, when the two 
 small pressure-rollers are c 
 raised from the sprocket- 
 wheel, the latter is auto- 
 matically locked — a feature 
 
 of considerable importance in correct and safe adjust- 
 ment of new films. In the film-gate or cage which 
 steadies the film before the lens the old form of pad 
 is naturally discarded, for it is well recognised that 
 pressure must be absent from the picture-surface ; but 
 
 in this machine the 
 "'^fiS^ ^_ rT Jni film-edges, instead of 
 
 being gripped through 
 springs, are held by 
 an ingenious triple 
 flexible-pressure device, 
 incapable of damaging 
 a perforation, and 
 almost as sensitive as 
 human fingers them- 
 selves. The shifting- 
 screen or mask out- 
 lining- the picture may 
 be adjusted from out- 
 side by a special regu- 
 lator, while a novel flap-shutter is provided (it will be 
 seen edge-on geared from the same toothed-wheel which 
 drives the eccentric), and it may be removed or placed 
 in position practically instantaneously according to the 
 character of the view under projection. 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
142 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 This shutter serves another purpose, or at least its use 
 as a cut-off is rendered almost automatic. A glance at 
 Fig. 153 will show that the exterior driving-wheel bears 
 fifteen studs. When one of these is locked opposite 
 a certain registering-stud, the shutter is in position to 
 cut off all light from the film, thus complying with one 
 of the most important County Council requirements. 
 Inside the machine will be seen a small frame destined 
 to carry single views or titles of small size. The act 
 of opening the door to change a film throws this frame 
 into exact position for projection by the same optical 
 system employed for the animated views, the substi- 
 tution taking place practically instantaneously. Safety 
 in working is attained not only by the special shutter- 
 action above referred to, and by an alum-trough in 
 addition, but the lantern itself is so cased with mahogany 
 and lined with asbestos, that it is practically impossible 
 for a film to become damaged, let alone ignited through 
 contact with a hot lantern body. Furthermore, brass 
 spool-boxes are provided, so that the film is protected 
 during the whole time that it is on the machine. 
 Focussing and all operations except film-changing may 
 be effected without opening the casing. Space hardly 
 allows justice to be done to the remaining details — 
 perfect balance of working parts and niceties of 
 adjustment are poorly shown by mere engravings — but 
 sufficient has been said to demonstrate the novelty of 
 the apparatus, and the care with which it has been 
 worked out. Mr. Hughes also makes the Photo- 
 Rotoscope, a smaller apparatus designed for exhibitions 
 on a reduced scale, and one accessory devoted to this 
 end will be described in the chapter on Exhibiting 
 Appliances. 
 
PRESENT-DA Y APPA RA TUS. 
 
 143 
 
 ROSENBERG CINEMATOGRAPH. 
 
 This apparatus employs 
 a variable screw as shown 
 in Fig. 124. The machine 
 itself, in its commercial 
 form, is illustrated in Fig. 
 154, the standard pattern 
 being made for Edison- 
 gauge films. The " gate " 
 is shown open ready for 
 the insertion of a film, 
 outwardly bent projections 
 serving as film-guides, and 
 the gate itself being secured 
 by a loose gravity - catch 
 to diminish pressure on the 
 film. The working parts 
 
 Y\c. 154. 
 
 are better shown in 
 Fig- 155, which is 
 an elevation of the 
 opposite side to that 
 seen in the pre- 
 ceding figure. It ex- 
 hibits the star-wheel 
 attached to the 
 sprocket-roller locked 
 between the two 
 straight portions of 
 the driving-worm. 
 
 Fig. i 55 . 
 
144 
 
 Liny a pictures. 
 
 MAREY S LATEST CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHE. 
 
 The improvements in this machine will be better 
 understood after reference to the earlier form shown 
 in Fig. 74. It will be remembered that the film was 
 fixed by a clamp, the taking-up spool continuing to 
 revolve. In order to provide film to feed this con- 
 tinual action, a spring-blade was interposed, and 
 yielded in order to shorten the path of the film. When 
 the clamp was taken off, the spring returned to its 
 former position, and in so doing drew forward more 
 film. This arrangement involved the spring making 
 
 a certain number of 
 vibrations per second, 
 but the spring itself, 
 by reason of its length, 
 had a proper vibration, 
 the rate of which very 
 seldom coincided with 
 the number of photo- 
 graphs secured in one 
 second. Consequently 
 the spring acted some- 
 times as a brake, some- 
 times as an accelerator, 
 and thus rendered the 
 spacing of the pictures irregular. Also the little spring 
 clamp suffered from the same defect, thus intensifying 
 the evil. A reference to Fig. 156 will show that the 
 clamp P is now supported by a spring-frame, S, instead 
 of by a vibrating blade. The star-cam is replaced by 
 a single one, C, while a pair of rollers bear very lightly 
 on the film before it reaches the tractive-spring F in 
 order to destroy the momentum of the film. These 
 modifications have rendered the machine perfectly 
 effective in the matter of equal spacing. 
 
 Fig. is6. 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 145 
 
 JOLY-NORMANDIN CINEMATOGRAPHS. 
 
 The two 
 chines here 
 scribed are 
 
 ma- 
 de- 
 the 
 
 inventions of M. 
 
 Joly, and con- 
 structed by M. 
 
 Normandin. The 
 
 simpler model is 
 
 shown in Fig. 157, 
 
 the intermittent 
 
 mechanism being 
 
 separately illus- 
 trated in enlarged 
 
 form on the right. 
 
 A heavy fly-wheel, 
 
 F, is driven by 
 
 gearing, and in 
 
 one revolution 
 
 causes the pawl H7 to move the ratchet-wheel R round 
 
 to the extent of one- 
 quarter of a revolu- 
 tion. This ratchet- 
 wheel is directly con- 
 nected to the same 
 axle as the sprocket- 
 wheel which drives the 
 film. The linkage is 
 so arranged that the 
 ratchet - wheel is at 
 rest three times as 
 long as the period of 
 motion. The larger 
 machine shown in 
 Fig. 158. Figs. 158 and 159 is 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
 fr^mf i mmt 
 
146 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 constructed to work on the principle illustrated in 
 Fig. 128, a continually rotating sprocket-wheel being 
 driven upward along the stationary film, which it 
 
 draws down rapidly 
 on its return by reason 
 of its fall and rotation 
 combined. Fig. 158 
 shows the method of 
 lifting the sprocket- 
 roller by means of a 
 crank - rod, while in 
 Figure 159 the film 
 will be seen pressed 
 on to the sprockets by 
 small pressure - rollers. 
 In order that the lower 
 sprocket-roller may be 
 continuously driven by 
 the wheel D', it is 
 swung from the same centre as the latter, and therefore 
 rises and falls over an arc instead of vertically. M. 
 E. Normandin is now bringing out an improved yet 
 simple form of machine, to be called the " Royal 
 Biograph," but details are not yet ready for publication. 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 maskelyne's mutagraph. 
 
 This instrument is of interest not only from its great 
 success at the Egyptian Hall, but also on account of the 
 extreme ingenuity displayed in its construction. It is 
 founded on purely optical principles, which had been 
 dimly foreseen by Clerk-Maxwell (see page 26). The 
 action is, moreover, identical in camera and projector. 
 Unlike most machines, the film is in continual motion 
 yet not momentarily viewed ; for it is rendered optically 
 stationary by means of the drum L 1 , composed of 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 147 
 
 •concave lenses as seen in Fig. 1G0. The continuously 
 moving film is caused to pass in front of a drum, L 1 , 
 which is geared with the film drums, so as to move with 
 them, and this drum consists, in effect, of a series of 
 lenses, say, concave, which are fixed edge to edge in a 
 suitable frame. Inside the drum are placed two 
 •stationary lenses, in a frame M, in the line of the optical 
 axis, the curvature of one or both of these lenses 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
 corresponding to that of the lenses on the drum. On 
 ■the outside of the lens drum is the projecting lens or 
 'objective, while the source of light and the condenser 
 are behind the film. The effect produced is as follows : 
 Each successive picture on the film, in passing across 
 the field of view, coincides with one of the lenses on 
 the drum. The light passes through the picture on 
 the film, thence through the corresponding lens nearest 
 to it on the drum, the two fixed lenses, and the corre- 
 
148 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 sponding lens on the other side of the drum, and then 
 through the objective, reproducing the picture on the 
 screen. When any particular picture is central with 
 the optical axis, the faces of the various lenses will be 
 parallel, and act as a piece of plain glass or a simple 
 lens, and the light suffers no deviation from its course. 
 As the parts move, the refracting surfaces change 
 position, and the deviation thus introduced precisely 
 compensates for the movement of the picture, and causes 
 its image to remain stationary upon the screen. Means. 
 are provided for giving an independent motion to the 
 sprocket-roller in order to accurately centre the film 
 either at starting or during working. It was an instru- 
 ment of this kind which was taken to India in order 
 to secure a view of the late total eclipse of the sun ; 
 sad to say, the film disappeared on its journey home, 
 and neither the Wizard of Piccadilly nor a reward of 
 fifty pounds has yet succeeded in bringing the errant 
 eclipse to light. 
 
 skladanowsky's series-apparatus. 
 
 H e r r Skladanow- 
 sky's patented form 
 of intermittent de- 
 vice has already been 
 described in connec- 
 tion with Fig. 113. 
 The camera manu- 
 factured by him (Fig. 
 161), while suitable 
 for all ordinary work, 
 is specially recom- 
 mended for obtaining 
 living portraits. For 
 this purpose a series 
 of forty-eight to fifty 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
P'RESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 149 
 
 views is sufficient, the positive prints being made on 
 paper and bounid in book form. The individual pictures 
 measure r6 b}y 2 inches, and are taken on negative 
 films 26 inches wide. One of these living portraits, 
 bound in leathier and inserted in a case to preserve 
 the spring of tthe leaves, shows the German Emperor 
 saluting. The effect is far better than the ordinary 
 half-tone books;, and indicates a new field of possibility 
 in commercial portraiture. The same manufacturer 
 issues a toy lamtern using endless bands. 
 
 THE LAPIPOSCOPE. 
 
 Under this 'somewhat gruesome title is hidden the 
 instrument whcose working principles were described 
 in connectiom with 
 Fig. 132. Tlhat 
 inventor's naime 
 Lapipe may be 
 explanation ; it 
 hardly be an excuse. 
 Fancy the < dreadful 
 compounds which 
 might be evolved were 
 this example generally 
 followed ! Thte build 
 
 of the Lapiposscope is Flo l62 
 
 shown in Fijg. 162, 
 the shutter beimg of the segmental cylinder pattern. 
 
 DEMEINY S CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHE. 
 
 This apparatus, the essential features of which have 
 been explained in connection with Figs. 82 and 83, is 
 made by Gaurmont et Cie., being known in England 
 under the name; of the Chronophotographer. Two sizes 
 are made, the llarger employing films 60 mm. wide, the 
 
150 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 increased area of picture being of espeecial value when 
 the views are destined for colouring^. One of the 
 most effective exhibitions with this imachine was a 
 reproduced ballet, whose delicate tintcs and effective 
 
 detail rendlered it a thing 
 of beauty, and a joy — if 
 not " for ewer," at least for 
 so long as the film should 
 endure. F r ig. 163 shows 
 the Chroncophotographe of 
 35 mm., i.e. ordinary gauge, 
 arranged for projection. 
 C is the eccentric rod 
 which cauises the inter- 
 mittent miovement, while 
 CD is the sprocket-wheel,, 
 and DO the segmental 
 shutter. When used as a 
 camera, thie apparatus is, 
 of course, furnished with 
 the necesssary light-tight 
 film - boxers, and weighs, 
 under nine pounds. The first form issmed was shown 
 at the Paris Exhibition of Photography in 1892 as the 
 Bioscope, its principles being the same as those of the 
 Chronophotographe, but the arrangement of its parts 
 somewhat different. 
 
 RIGG'S KINEMATOGRAPH.. 
 
 Rigg's patent provided a variable screw-motion such 
 as shown in Fig. 123. An arrangeiment was also 
 employed whereby the tension of the filim automatically . 
 withdrew a brake-block from the stores-reel. So soon 
 as the drawing action on the film ceaised, the brake 
 was automatically applied in order to> neutralise the 
 momentum of the store-reel. 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 151 
 
 C/ASLERS ANGULAR MIRROR. 
 
 In this apparratus (Fig. 164) a mirror is used to render 
 the continuouslly moving film optically stationary. The 
 film passes froi>m the feed-roll 2 to the store-spool 3, 111 
 contact with Ithe segmental frame 16, which has an 
 opening, 27. This frame swings from right to left at 
 the same spee;d as the film, and is so arranged that 
 when starting on an oscillation a picture is outlined by 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 the opening. Light passes through this aperture, and 
 the picture to) the mirror, which is moved by gearing 
 at half the aingular speed of the frame ; consequently 
 the rays are rmaintained optically stationary with regard 
 to the projec:tion-lens. When the frame reaches the 
 extreme of it*:s movement to the left, both it and the 
 mirror are raipidly returned to their original positions 
 by means of icams. 
 
152 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 CAMPBELL'S MIRROR APPARATUS. 
 
 This .machine (Steward and Frost's United States 
 Patent No. 588,916) is shown in Fig. 165, and de- 
 pends upon the same optical 
 principles as the foregoing 
 apparatus. The band runs 
 over a drum, being drawn 
 from a box, 8, and illumin- 
 ated by means of a mirror, 
 22. As it is only designed 
 for inspection purposes, the 
 pictures are seen through 
 magnifying eyepieces, 6, the 
 rays being rendered optically 
 stationary by means of a 
 mirror, 5, tilted by means of 
 a lever, 19, actuated by pegs, 
 20, on the drum. In addition, 
 it is suggested that the instrument may be employed 
 (of course without the film) for the inspection of 
 moving machinery, etc. 
 
 Fig. 16: 
 
 ANTHONY S SPIRAL LANTERN. 
 
 This apparatus may also be used as a camera ; its 
 arrangement as a lan- 
 tern is shown in Fig. 
 166. More than two 
 hundred pictures may 
 be obtained, or pro- 
 jected from, a plate 
 eight inches in dia- 
 meter, and the general 
 principles upon which Fig. 166. 
 
 these spiral cameras are 
 worked will be better explained in connection with 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 153 
 
 NELSON'S " SPIRAL " CAMERA 
 
 (United States Patent No. 594,094). The plate is 
 
 contained in a light-tight case (Fig. 16;), having the 
 
 lens midway on its vertical line. 
 
 The plate may be moved from 
 
 right to left across the lens 
 
 by means of a screw on the 
 
 driving-shaft, as seen in Fig. 
 
 168. At the same time it is 
 
 intermittently rotated through 
 
 the broken-screw K, and the 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 result of the combina- 
 tion of these two 
 motions is the spiral 
 disposition of the 
 series of views on the 
 plate. These series 
 are somewhat short, 
 but the preparation of 
 a positive for projec- 
 tion purposes offers no 
 more difficulty than 
 does the making of an 
 ordinary lantern-slide ; there is no shrinkage to consider, 
 and the system therefore has its advantages for the 
 occasional amateur's use. 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 " MOTOGRAPH " MOVING PICTURE BOOK. 
 
 Though not exactly depending upon persistence of 
 vision, this ingenious device (issued by Messrs. Bliss, 
 Sands, and Co.) may well be mentioned here, its effect 
 being secured by a novel application of an old principle. 
 Every one, presumably, remembers the Lantern Chromo- 
 trope, the " twinkle, twinkle, little star," of earlier days. 
 
154 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 The apparent motion of the Chromotrope is due 
 to the intersection of curved coloured lines rotated in 
 opposite directions. As these revolve, the point of 
 intersection is removed either to or away from the edge 
 of the screen, and this is the source of the apparent 
 
 m o t i o n. In the 
 Moving Picture Book 
 engravings of a 
 machine, volcano, or 
 what not are printed 
 with the shading lines 
 very distinct, and 
 running in definite 
 directions. A trans- 
 parent ruled screen 
 is supplied with the 
 book, and when this 
 engraving and given a certain 
 motion, the intersections of all the ruled lines on the 
 screen with the shading lines of the drawing are con- 
 tinually displaced, and give the effect of motion in a 
 direction determined by the direction of the shading 
 lines. 
 
 Fig. i6q. 
 
 is laid down on the 
 
 ANTHONY'S " BIOPTICON." 
 
 This instrument is 
 made to accommo- 
 date 500 feet of film, 
 and is illustrated in 
 Fig. 169. Its arrange- 
 ment for projection 
 will be seen in Fig. 
 
 I/O. 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
P IRE SE XT-DA Y APPARATUS. 
 
 155 
 
 PERRET AvND LACROIX HELIOCINEGRAPHE. 
 
 The intermittent motion is a snail escapement, 
 similar to that shown in Fig. 126, and gives a period 
 of illumination ithree times as great as that of eclipse. 
 The apparatus is suitable both for photography and 
 projection. 
 
 THE " RATEAUGRAPH." 
 
 This apparatius, first named " Rateau's Chronophoto- 
 graph," works (on principles already explained in con- 
 nection with Fig. 134. 
 In its latest form 
 (Fig. 171) the acting 
 spring-tooth ;/z 3 is 
 carried at the end 
 of a lever, n\ tilted 
 through the nocking 
 motion imparled to 
 N by the restating 
 cam-groove m.. An 
 arm, n 5 , servres to 
 steady the tooth 
 against the stcop O. 
 The fixed sspring- 
 tooth is attachied to 
 the spring - anm Q. 
 The film travels in 
 contact with ;a per- 
 forated band, JL, and 
 the apparatus rmay be 
 hand- or cloclkwork- VlG I?I< 
 
 driven. A pnerumatic 
 
 shutter - regulator is also shown. This apparatus is 
 designed for producing pictures of the usual size, 
 but in some nesgatives shown by the inventor the strip 
 
156 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 had been worked sideways and the spacing doubled. 
 This arrangement gives a picture I ]/ 2 in. by i ^ in., 
 with the base-line to the side of the film, which is, 
 however, of the usual size. The apparatus takes any 
 gauge, English or French, but in the negatives above 
 referred to the perforations are circular in sets of three 
 betiveen the pictures instead of on the margin. 
 
 WATSON S MOTORGRAPH. 
 
 This apparatus actuates the film by means of a 
 sprocket-roller containing a continuously wound spring. 
 The sprocket-roller bears a ratchet, which is locked by 
 a spring-pawl lifted at stated intervals by the action 
 
 of a cam on the same 
 axis which supplies 
 power to the con- 
 tained spring. A fair 
 idea of this arrange- 
 ment is given in Fig. 
 132. If employed as 
 a camera, two spool- 
 l boxes take the place 
 of the open spool and 
 Fig. 172. loose film seen in Fig. 
 
 1 72. The apparatus 
 is above all distinguished by its compactness. Its size 
 is far less than that of many hand-cameras, and it also 
 possesses the advantage of easy adaptability to any 
 ordinary optical lantern. 
 
 messter's machines. 
 
 These are constructed in various patterns, the 
 simplest form of Kinetograph shown in Fig. 173 being 
 intended for home use. The lighting is by oil, but 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 157 
 
 a safety-shutter to the condenser and also an alum- 
 trough are provided, while another pattern provides also 
 for the projection of ordinary slides. The Amateur- 
 Kinetograph is of 
 somewhat novel 
 design, the usual 
 pair of spoo 1- 
 boxes employed 
 in camera - work 
 being combined 
 into one dairk 
 slide, as seen on 
 the right in Fi:g. 
 1 74. The instru- 
 ment itself stands 
 on the left ready FlG> ,_ 
 
 for projection 
 
 work, and it will be noticed that the mechanism is 
 frictionally driven from the large hand-wheel which 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
158 
 
 LIVIXG PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 175. 
 
 also drives the dark - slide 
 spool when the two parts are 
 coupled as a camera. Driving- 
 bands are thus dispensed with. 
 The Thaumatograph (Fig. 
 175) is a portable form for 
 exhibitions, while the "Apollo" 
 Kinetograph is of such massive 
 build as to be best suited for 
 permanent placing in public 
 halls, etc. 
 
 MELIES AND REULOS' KINETOGRAPH. 
 
 This machine moves the film by mechanism shown 
 in Fig. 125. It is supplied in two forms, the larger 
 being electric-lit, the smaller serving rather for amateur 
 use. A pair of light ebonite rollers press the film on 
 to the sprocket-wheel, which is made of aluminium. 
 
 ACRES DUPLICATE APPARATUS. 
 
 The camera (Fig. 176) is designed to procure a series 
 •of views by means of two lenses, such views being 
 arranged on the film in the order 1, 3, 2, 4, 5, 7, 6, etc., 
 the film behind one lens being moved during exposure 
 with the other. The film is driven by two sprocket- 
 rollers, A and A 1 , a loop being formed between them. 
 A crank drives a double-toothed rack backwards and 
 forwards, thus rotating the sprocket-rollers, which, how- 
 ever, can only turn in one direction, being prevented 
 from moving backwards by a locking-ratchet. Thus 
 in the illustration an exposure is proceeding with the 
 left-hand lens. As the slide C moves to the right, the 
 sprocket-roller A will not be moved, but A 1 will rotate 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 159 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 -and draw the loop B 1 behind the right-hand lens. So 
 soon as exposure with this begins the rack moves 
 back to the left, and now it is sprocket-roller A 1 
 which remains still while A draws off more film from 
 the loop B and at the same time passes on sufficient 
 film to re-form the 
 loop B 1 between the 
 lenses. It has already 
 been pointed out that 
 cameras having a 
 double point of view 
 must induce an ap- 
 parent vibration of 
 foreground objects on 
 the screen by reason 
 of the varying per- 
 spective of alternate 
 
 views, and, indeed, there appears to be little advantage 
 in employing a duplicate system for obtaining negatives 
 unless it be so arranged that both systems work through 
 one objective, as in Fig. 86, or at least from one point 
 
 of view. The great 
 need is not that the 
 ._._^ -V^ views should be photo- 
 
 graphed without inter- 
 val, but rather that 
 they should be pro- 
 jected without inter- 
 vening darkness ; and 
 this is perfectly feasible, 
 for the separation of 
 projection lenses does not alter perspective. Acres' 
 duplicate projector is shown in Fig. 177, where a 
 parallel beam of light from the lens O either passes 
 through the objective N 1 by deflection from the mirror 
 P 1 , or is cut off by a rotating mirror, P, and transmitted 
 
 Fig. 177. 
 
1G0 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 from N on principles the same as those explained 
 in connection with Figs. 86 and 87. Of course the 
 views must be in alternate order on the band, but such 
 a positive may easily be obtained from an ordinary 
 serial negative, as will be seen in the next chapter. 
 
 NEW LUMIEEE CINEMATOGRAPHE. 
 
 The principles of the Cinematographe have been 
 very fully discussed on pages 93-97 ; the latest form 
 is shown in Fig. 178, lent by Messrs. Fuerst Brothers, 
 
 the English 
 agents. It will 
 be seen that the 
 claw is actuated 
 by a cam - disc 
 instead of rotat- 
 ing arms, and in 
 this way con- 
 tinual contact is 
 ensured between 
 the working 
 parts ; while 
 every portion of 
 the mechanism, 
 of course except- 
 ing the claw, is 
 kept in continual 
 rotation. O is the 
 shutter, and A a 
 lever which con- 
 trols the rising 
 and falling lens- 
 board. By means 
 of this lever the 
 Fig. 178. lens may be 
 
PSESE NT-BAY APPARATUS. 
 
 161 
 
 centred to the film in conjunction with the usual out- 
 lining mask, and the position of the picture on the 
 screen is therefore not disturbed. In the film- trap 
 steel springs bear on the edges only of the film, and 
 scratches are thus avoided. 
 
 parnaland's spring-tooth. 
 
 The connecting-rods L', M, and L (Fig. 179) are 
 driven by an eccentric, and serve to move a frame up 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 
 and down behind the film. This frame bears spring- 
 teeth, P, which engage with the perforations, drawing 
 
 M 
 
162 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 the film on the down-stroke and slipping over the film 
 on the up-stroke. 
 
 NAISH AND CO.'S CINEMATOGRAPH. 
 
 This apparatus had a claw raised and lowered by a 
 triangular eccentric. The claw was forced forward by 
 a cam-disc, and returned from contact with the film by 
 the same means. The light could be deflected through 
 a vertical lens for ordinary projection. 
 
 kaiser's kinetograph. 
 
 This apparatus is described as a modified Maltese- 
 cross movement. The ends of the cross are hollowed, 
 and another cross has convex ends which bear against 
 the ends of the first to steady it. The second cross 
 is carried on a rotating plate, which also bears the pins 
 serving to actuate the first-mentioned cross. 
 
 THE SANSON CINECOSMORAMA 
 
 No exact description of the commercial form of this 
 instrument is available. Sanson's patent provides a 
 ratchet-wheel periodically moved by a tappet. Another 
 tappet-lever serves to take off a spring-pawl in order 
 to allow the first-mentioned tappet to act. It has a 
 segmental shutter. It is suggested that the instrument 
 may be used for the production of moving scenery and 
 living advertisements. 
 
 CANNEVAL'S CINEMATOGRAPHE. 
 
 A claw-frame is driven up and down by a crank- 
 motion, the oscillation of which also governs the 
 insertion and withdrawal of the claw through the 
 oscillation imparted to the frame itself, the pivot of 
 which slides up and down in slots, the frame rocking 
 against a fixed bearing-roller. 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 163 
 
 lubin's cineograph. 
 
 This machine is shown in Fig. 180 arranged for the 
 -exhibition of an endless band which passes over upper 
 spools, the slack 
 being contained in 
 an iron box swung 
 under the stand. A 
 special feature is the 
 safety door made of 
 isinglass, which it 
 is claimed stops 
 all heat - rays, and 
 thus ensures perfect 
 safety. Fig. i 8 I 
 shows the apparatus F)G> l8o 
 
 arranged for the use 
 of spools in the ordi- 
 nary way. A speed- 
 regulator is also pro- 
 vided, together with 
 a second optical 
 system for the pro- 
 jection of ordinary 
 views. The fact that 
 patents are pending 
 precludes detailed 
 reference to many 
 interesting features 
 Fig. 181. of this machine. 
 
 THE MICROGRAPH. 
 
 This instrument, constructed by the Micrograph Co., 
 is shown, so far as working parts are concerned, in 
 Fig. 182. The film is led down from the spool-box 
 
164 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 over the front surface of the main plate, through which' 
 the periphery of the sprocket-wheel projects at the 
 bottom in order to engage with the film. The film-trap 
 is shown open in the illustration ; as it turns back on 
 the film the small roller at the bottom holds the film 
 
 Fio. 182. 
 
 up to the sprockets. The sliding jacket carrying the 
 lens is mounted on a transverse bar, which may be 
 instantly thrown up out of the way for film-changing 
 The sprocket-wheel is actuated by a star-and-pin 
 motion somewhat like Fig. 1 1 8, and it will be seen to 
 be driven by toothed gearing direct from the driving- 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 165 
 
 wheel. The bar for closing the spool-case is shown 
 thrown up ; the small lever under the spool-box serves 
 to adjust the mask. The mechanism as shown is 
 mounted on a base-board, and behind it a sliding 
 lantern-body may be adjusted at any desired distance. 
 The lighting is either electric, with a very steady hand- 
 feed lamp ; acetylene, which finds considerable favour 
 with the makers, or an incandescent burner served from 
 the ordinary house-gas supply for home use. A form 
 of this incandescent burner using vaporised benzene 
 was introduced experimentally, but abandoned in favour 
 of the other lamps mentioned above. 
 
 ZION'S MOUVEMENTOGRAPHE. 
 
 This apparatus has a star-wheel moved by a variable- 
 pitch worm, and gives a period of illumination twice as 
 great as that during which the shutter (which is made 
 of mica) acts. 
 
 WRENCH'S " CINEMATOGRAPH." 
 
 This machine is open at one side and closed at the 
 other by a shallow box, wherein are contained the 
 essential members of the periodic driving-gear. Dis- 
 cussing the visible mechanism first, it may be mentioned 
 that a spring film-trap serves to hold the film against 
 the aperture in the main plate, and can be turned in 
 •or out of action by a vertical rod. In this machine 
 there is no upper sprocket-roller, but its place is taken 
 by a curved incline pivoted to the arm which carries 
 the feed-spool. This guide is maintained normally in 
 position by a spring, thus keeping the film taut ; but 
 when the bottom sprocket-roller draws more film the 
 spring guide tilts downward, thus supplying the required 
 length of film. The spring then returns the guide to 
 its normal position, and draws more film from the feed- 
 spool in the process. The take-up spool is driven by 
 
166 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 a friction band from the axle which both works the- 
 shutter and conveys power to the interior of the casing 
 before referred to, of which Fig. 131 will help to reveal 
 the hidden mysteries. A cheaper dog-motion machine- 
 is also issued by the same maker. 
 
 ANGLO-CONTINENTAL COMPANY'S " KINEMATOGRAPH." 
 
 This apparatus was used at the Aquarium for the 
 exhibition of the celebrated prize-fight, the negatives of 
 which were secured by the " Veriscope." The instru- 
 ment was electrically driven, intermittent motion being 
 obtained by means of a variable-screw acting on a 
 cogged wheel attached to the sprocket-roller. 
 
 BING'S TOY KINEMATOGRAPH. 
 
 The toy lantern made by Messrs. Bing, and shown 
 
 in Fig. 183, employs 
 specially prepared films 
 with printed pictures 
 standing side by side,, 
 the band being driven 
 by a Maltese - cross 
 movement, and periodi- 
 cally occluded by a 
 segmental shutter. The 
 action is very effective, 
 and evidently appa- 
 ratus of this character 
 may well be entrusted 
 to children who would 
 never be allowed to 
 handle photographic 
 films of a compara- 
 tively costly nature. 
 
 Fig. 183. 
 
PRESENT-BAY APPARATUS, 
 
 167 
 
 MESSAGER'S " PANTOMIMOGRAPHE." 
 This is described as a Maltese-cross motion machine. 
 It is constructed by Alibert, and was exhibited at Earl's 
 Court. 
 
 MAZO'S HELIOGRAPHE. 
 
 A compact machine with cross-actuated intermittent 
 motion, capable of serving both for photography and 
 projection. 
 
 THE " INVICTA " CINEMATOGRAPH. 
 
 Messrs. Noakes and Norman's machine is shown in 
 Fig. 184. The film 
 is actuated by a pin- 
 or claw-motion, and 
 in adjustment only 
 requires to be fed 
 into the machine, 
 when it is automati- 
 cally seized. There is 
 no sprocket-wheel for 
 driving the film. A 
 new machine on a 
 different principle is 
 in preparation, but 
 is not sufficiently ad- 
 vanced for publication 
 of the details. 
 
 Fig. 184. 
 
 THE " PRESTWICH " MACHINES. 
 
 Of many patterns placed on the market by the 
 Prestwich Manufacturing Company, space permits the 
 description of but a few. Fig. 185 shows Model 3 
 Projector, the film being intermittently actuated by a 
 dog-motion. This machine is fitted with automatic 
 feed and take-up attachments, the spools being capable 
 of accommodating up to 2,000 feet of film. Two simpler 
 
108 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 patterns are constructed, but all have a removable 
 shutter and interchangeable sprockets, which may be 
 rapidly adjusted in order to pass a film of any gauge 
 through the machine without possibility of damage. 
 As many films of apparent Edison perforation are 
 found, when tested, to be out by anything between 
 7y T to Jg inch in the space of four 
 pictures, this detail is of consider- 
 able importance. The simpler 
 forms of camera are provided 
 with focal-plane shutters, inter- 
 mittent motion being secured by 
 an epicyclic sprocket, 
 such as was shown 
 in Fig. 127. All the 
 instruments referred 
 to may be had to 
 work with films i}£ 
 or 2^6 inches wide. 
 For the larger pic- 
 ture a duplicate pro- 
 jector is constructed, 
 the film being actu- 
 ated by a pair of 
 epicyclic sprockets, the 
 two sprocket - motions, together 
 with the shutters, being so geared 
 that there is no period of dark- 
 ness on the screen whatever, and 
 consequently flicker is entirely 
 absent. The latest form of 
 camera, which may also serve as 
 a printer, is shown in Fig. 186. This machine is pro- 
 vided with a large view-finder and a recording-dial, 
 which shows exactly how much film has been used ; 
 the importance of this attachment cannot be over- 
 estimated when long scenes are being photographed, or 
 
FRESENT-DA Y APPARATUS. 
 
 169 
 
 when several short episodes are taken on one long film, 
 for it gives an absolute indication of how much film 
 remains unused. The intermittent motion is a greatly 
 improved guided claw, perfectly effective however high 
 the rate of working, and it will be seen that feed and 
 take-up are exactly balanced by driving the film from 
 two sides of the same sprocket. 
 
 But the production of 
 this long series of machines 
 ias not exhausted the 
 resources of the Messrs. 
 Prestwich ; on the con- 
 trary, they have been 
 stimulated to fresh efforts, 
 which undoubtedly will 
 
 Fig. i86. 
 
 have a considerable influence on the future of Animato- 
 graphy. At the time of writing a new machine is in 
 course of manufacture in bulk, and doubtless before 
 these pages are read the machine itself will be on the 
 market. It is to be called the "Junior" Prestwich, and, 
 like the juniors of most families, will make a noise in 
 the world. To descend from the region of metaphor 
 
170 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 to that of facts, this " Junior " is a small camera 
 which may also serve as projector. Fig. 187 shows 
 the apparatus, the dimensions of which are far more 
 restrained than those of the usual quarter-plate hand 
 camera. Nevertheless, this machine will take a view of 
 a scene equal in duration to those commonly exhibited, 
 and in use it is simplicity itself. The daylight spool of 
 film, y 2 inch wide, is laid in a recess, the end fed 
 forward, and one turn given to the handle. The film 
 is automatically gripped and placed in correct register, 
 
 and thenceforth, 
 however fast the 
 machine be driven, 
 its action is regu- 
 lar and safe. The 
 shutter is detach- 
 able for projec- 
 tion purposes, and 
 a rewinding device 
 is supplied for 
 connection to the 
 apparatus. The 
 
 pictures obtained 
 are l / 2 inch by 3/fj 
 inch, and certainly 
 leave nothing to desire on the score of detail. In 
 fact, the apparatus is as effective in every way as 
 a larger machine, with the important difference that 
 the cost of working is reduced to one-sixth by 
 reason of the smaller area of the film consumed. 
 Such a reduction at once brings the Living Picture 
 into the hands of many who have no idea of 
 exhibiting, but who will welcome a new and fascinating- 
 hobby, provided that the expense of its pursuit be not 
 excessive. 
 
 Further, a new form of duplicate projector is in 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 171 
 
 preparation, but not sufficiently near issue to allow of 
 detailed description, although the Author was enabled 
 to inspect one in the Company's works ; for admission 
 to which, as well as for information on many points 
 of general interest, the Author is greatly indebted to 
 Messrs. Prestwich. 
 
 0= 
 
 ^ 
 
 »< 
 
 1? 
 
 THE ALETHORAMA. 
 
 This instrument, a recent invention of MM. Mortier 
 and Cheri-Rousseau, is shown in diagram in Figs. 188 
 and i8g. It will be seen that the 
 principles involved are those of the 
 Praxinoscope. The film F, Fig. 188, 
 passes round a drum having a con- 
 tinual rotary motion, each picture 
 being centred opposite a mirror 
 behind the film similar to those seen 
 on the left hand. Referring to Fig. 
 189, it will be seen that light from 
 the condenser C passes through the 
 film on to one set of mirrors, from 
 that to another set standing at go°, 
 and thence through an objective the 
 two elements of which, O and O 1 , are placed at right- 
 angles, the light being turned by a mirror, M. The 
 
 film, as in the pro- 
 jecting Praxinoscope, 
 is in continual move- 
 ment ; the image is 
 )t rendered stationary 
 by the polygonal 
 mirrors as explained 
 on page 27. This 
 apparatus is capable 
 
 Fig. 188. 
 
 ^rF'a .... 
 
 Fig. if 
 
172 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 of working at high speed, there being no intermittent 
 mechanism and no interval of darkness between suc- 
 cessive pictures on the screen. The suggestion made 
 on page 3 1 therefore seems within a measurable distance 
 of realisation. 
 
 THE RILEY " KINEOPTOSCOPE." 
 
 This machine is made in several patterns, though 
 the working arrangements are similar in essentials. Fig. 
 190 shows the apparatus as constructed for insertion 
 in the stage of an ordinary lantern for home use ; 
 while by another arrangement the apparatus slides on 
 
 a front baseboard 
 so that the picture 
 may be shifted 
 into better position 
 along the conical 
 beam of light from 
 the condenser. 
 The motion em- 
 ployed is a four- 
 toothed claw in- 
 serted to draw the 
 film down and with- 
 drawn previous to 
 rising. The ar- 
 rangement is such 
 that an amount of play equal to half the width of a 
 perforation is afforded in order to avoid "punching" 
 an inaccurately gauged film. The apparatus may also 
 be fitted as a camera. This machine has been shown 
 under the name " Steenomatographe," an evident 
 derivation from the exhibitor's surname. 
 
 Fig. U)0. 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 173 
 
 NEWTON S ENGLISH " KINEMATOGRAPH. 
 
 This apparatus (Fig. 191) differs from the usual type 
 in several important particulars. It may be adjusted 
 before the condenser of any lantern body, but is itself 
 furnished with a supplementary condenser, which serves 
 for the final concentration of the light upon the film. 
 The intermittent motion is obtained by a revolving 
 eccentric, which is always kept in contact with the film, 
 thus avoiding sudden 
 shock. This eccen- 
 tric is mounted on a 
 swinging arm, and 
 may be shifted when 
 placing a fresh film, 
 in order to bring the 
 view into register by 
 slightly lengthening 
 or shortening the 
 path of the film. The 
 whole apparatus may 
 be inverted for the 
 exhibition of reverse 
 effects, thus obviating 
 both rewinding and 
 the use of a prism. 
 Chain-gearing is used 
 for driving. An in- 
 spection apparatus on 
 somewhat the same lines is made by the same firm, 
 and called the " Newtonian Table Kinematoscope," 
 the film being run under a magnifying eyepiece, and 
 tinters being provided for effect purposes. A further 
 attachment allows the picture to be projected on a 
 5 by 4 ground - glass screen by an ordinary table 
 lamp. 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
m 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 EDISON PROJECTING KINETOSCOPE. 
 
 This machine, introduced into this country some 
 time ago, is shown in Fig. 192, which is almost self- 
 explanatory. The spool-bank serves for the accommo- 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 
 dation of a long endless band of views, and intermittent 
 motion is secured by the interaction of a star-wheel 
 and pin. The latest name of this apparatus appears 
 to be the " Projectoscope." 
 
 THE "BIRTAC." 
 
 This little instrument has not come under the 
 Author's personal notice. It is, however, described as 
 using films of half the ordinary width with a row of 
 perforations along one margin. Daylight spools are 
 employed for taking views ; and the same apparatus, 
 when fitted with a special incandescent burner, serves 
 also as a projector. The maker is Mr. Birt Acres. 
 
PRE SEN T-BAY APPARATUS. 
 
 175 
 
 OTTWAY'S "ANIMATOSCOPE." 
 
 This machine, which is of very solid construction, 
 employs a Maltese cross actuated by two pins on a 
 smooth disc as the intermittent mechanism. The 
 shutter is serrated at its edges, and thus passes a 
 shadow with an ill-defined edge across the screen, as 
 in the older forms of dissolving view apparatus. When 
 it is desired to project ordinary views during film- 
 changing, a mirror is turned up at an angle of 45 
 before the condenser. The light then, instead of 
 passing through the front mechanism, is deflected 
 upward through a horizontally placed stage carrying 
 an ordinary slide. The light then passes through an 
 ordinary projection lens placed above the stage, and 
 so, by a deflecting mirror, to the screen. 
 
 THE CYNNAGRAPH. 
 
 This apparatus, shown in Fig. 193, is of the pin- 
 and - star variety, and, 
 though small, contains all 
 the adjustments usual in 
 larger machines. It is 
 constructed by Messrs. J. 
 Levi and Co., who also 
 make a larger machine 
 called the " Rollograph." 
 A small lantern, the 
 " Amateur Kinematodor," 
 also issued by the 
 
 is 
 
 same firm, the views being 
 
 borne on a disc instead 
 
 of a strip, and being 
 
 prepared in colours by 
 
 lithography. Fig. 193. 
 
 QrH 
 
176 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 THE " BESSUS " CINEMATOGRAPH. 
 
 This machine (Fig. 194), formerly known as the "Airs," 
 moves the film by a Maltese - cross motion. Film- 
 
 winder and 
 intermittent 
 mechanism are 
 band - driven 
 from the driving- 
 wheel in such 
 a manner that 
 the film may be 
 moved and auto- 
 matically paid- 
 out and wound- 
 up in either 
 direction. The 
 lenses are fitted 
 in interchangfe- 
 
 Fig. 194. 
 
 able cylinders fitting one jacket, thus affording a choice 
 of foci. 
 
 PAUL'S " FIREPROOF " ANIMATOGRAPHE. 
 
 This apparatus, first named the " Theatrograph," is 
 best known through the pictures shown by its 
 agency night after night for more than a year at the 
 Alhambra. The intermittent mechanism is somewhat 
 like that shown in Fig. 120. In order to facilitate 
 placing the film, the sides of the sprockets are left 
 open, and the whole apparatus is extremely compact. 
 A shutter may be rapidly adjusted when deemed 
 necessary, and the machine is designed to carry extra- 
 large spools. As regards safety, the very name of the 
 apparatus indicates the special care devoted to the 
 avoidance of accident from ignited film. 
 
PRESENT-BAY APPARATUS. 
 
 177 
 
 WOLFF'S VITAPHOTOSCOPE. 
 
 This machine is, above all, characterised in its new 
 form by extreme stability, combined with portability. 
 The lantern and projecting-apparatus are firmly fixed 
 to a base-board which, together with all the other 
 parts, packs into the case to which the driving-wheel 
 is seen connected in Fig. 195. When required for use, 
 the lantern and projector are lifted out and attached 
 by the base-board to the top of the case by means of 
 
 Fig. 195. 
 
 two screws working from inside. The driving-wheel 
 and spools, with their standards, are then mounted in 
 their proper brackets, and the apparatus is ready for 
 use. The driving-wheel is heavy enough and geared 
 sufficiently high to serve as a fly-wheel, the band from 
 which drives a pin-disc, which actuates a Maltese-cross 
 somewhat in the same manner as shown in Fig. 1 1 8. 
 The spools are of large dimensions, and the film passes 
 from the top one to a feeding-sprocket, which forms 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 LIl'ING PICTURES. 
 
 a loop above the " gate." After it has been pulled 
 down by the lower sprocket, the film passes over a 
 guard and through an aperture into the interior of the 
 case, where it may accumulate, or be drawn-off, as 
 shown in the illustration, on to the lower spool, which 
 is hand-driven. 
 
 WRAYS MACHINES. 
 
 The ordinary machine, as seen in Fig. IQ5A, is 
 characterised by extreme portability, as well as the 
 manner in which it may be adapted to any ordinary 
 
 lantern. The band 
 passing from the 
 driving wheel ro- 
 tates a crank disc, 
 the pin on which 
 raises and lowers 
 a plate having 
 two projecting 
 studs which run 
 through slots and 
 come in contact 
 with the film. 
 Through these 
 studs two small 
 pins are protruded 
 under spring- 
 pressure in order 
 to enter the film 
 Fig. 195A. perforations, and 
 
 they are both 
 allowed to go forward and are forced back by the 
 action of a cam disc reciprocated by a lever connected 
 to the same crank pin which raises and lowers the 
 whole frame. The whole mechanism is therefore ex- 
 tremely compact, for it practically consists of but two 
 
 ;,i;;rv' 
 
PRESENT-DA Y A PPA RA TUS. 1 79 
 
 plates, one behind the other. The film-trap is slotted 
 to allow play to the teeth, and is lightly held in position 
 by spring pressure. The mask is lever-actuated. A 
 machine for films of much greater dimensions is in 
 preparation, and will probably overtop the Mutograph 
 record, a specimen picture appearing to approach the 
 standard of ordinary lantern slides. 
 
 NEWMAN AND GUARDIA'S " KINETOGRAPH." 
 
 At the moment of closing this chapter an opportunity 
 occurred of inspecting a machine which is probably 
 the very latest, it having hardly made its appearance 
 before the public. The features of this instrument are 
 so striking as to merit somewhat full description. It 
 need hardly be said that the great desideratum in 
 kinematographic machines is increase of light efficiency, 
 and this end is almost perfectly attained in Newman 
 and Guardia's Kinematograph, about 90 to 95 per cent, 
 of the total time of one cycle of movement being 
 devoted to exposure. Thus in securing the normal 
 number of views per second the light efficiency com- 
 pares favourably with most hand-camera work, and a 
 far greater power of stopping-down is placed in the 
 hands of the photographer. At ordinary apertures 
 work may be pursued in light hitherto unsuitable, while 
 with normal conditions of light and atmosphere the 
 lens may be stopped so as to give detail to an extra- 
 ordinary degree. How this end is secured may be 
 simply explained, but it is best to first obtain a general 
 idea of the machine. Fig. 196 shows the projector 
 from the front. The film-spool is dropped into a self- 
 adjusting slide at the top, and the end of the film is 
 led between rollers, which drive it by friction on the 
 margin only. These rollers themselves are frictionally 
 driven, and therefore plucking of the film is impossible. 
 A slight turn of the handle drives the film under the 
 
180 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 
 
 181 
 
 curved guard, the film-trap is thrown up on its hinge, 
 under which the film is inserted from the side, and 
 then hangs free over a perfectly clear metal plate. 
 Through two slots in this plate two pins protrude, the 
 film is adjusted so that these pins engage with a pair 
 of perforations, the film-trap is let down and the 
 clamping-bar locked over 
 it, and the machine is then 
 ready for work. The fly- 
 wheel seen on the right 
 acts as a speed-regulator, 
 while it will be noticed 
 that the balanced shutter 
 in front is of extremely 
 small angular dimensions. 
 It occupies barely one- 
 twentieth of its circular 
 path, which is equivalent 
 to saying that over nine- 
 teen-twentieths of the light 
 passes to the screen, a 
 practically unsurpassable 
 degree of efficiency. Also 
 the period of rest is nine- 
 teen times as long as the 
 period of movement ; re- 
 ference to a small diagram 
 will render clear how this 
 state of affairs is brought 
 about. Fig. 197 illustrates 
 the method by which the pins are actuated ; they are 
 shown passing through the slotted plate and film per- 
 forations, having just arrived at the end of their stroke. 
 They have been drawn into this position by two 
 springs, one pulling downward, the other drawing the 
 teeth forward. Arrived at the bottom of the slot, and 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
182 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 having thereby placed a picture in exact position* 
 the cross-bar seen in the front of the illustration of 
 the complete machine is tightened by a cam, and thus, 
 grips the film securely between the film-trap and the 
 main-plate. This done, a little peg on the rotating disc* 
 seen in the centre of the diagram, comes round from 
 right to left at the bottom, catches under a shoulder on 
 the lever bearing the pins, and forces them backwards 
 out of the perforations. Continuing its motion, this 
 peg carries the pins backwards and upwards against 
 the action of the springs. Arrived at the top of its 
 path, the motion of the pins becomes forward, and the 
 lever then stands in the position shaded on the diagram, 
 the pins being omitted for the sake of clearness. The 
 peg continues on its way, but the lever cannot follow 
 it because it butts against a cam-surface as seen in the 
 drawing. The peg therefore passes from under the 
 shoulder on the lever, and continues its journey back 
 to the position in which we first found it. At this, 
 moment the springs become free to act, and the levers 
 are drawn down as " quick as thought." The clamping- 
 bar in front has been released just previously, and the 
 upper feed-rollers have been paying out another picture- 
 length ; consequently the pins have no weight thrown 
 upon them, and act rather as guides. An adjustable 
 " dash-pot " buffers the end of the stroke, and the 
 whole is now in the position from which we started. 
 The pins are primarily arranged to engage with holes 
 situated at the centre of each side of the picture, their 
 ends being tapered so that they will enter a hole which 
 is slightly out of gauge and bring it into exact position 
 by passing right into it. On turning the snail-shaped 
 releasing cam, the lever may be freed somewhat sooner,, 
 and the points being tapered chisel-fashion, they will 
 therefore enter Edison or other perforations equally 
 well. The whole apparatus is fitted on a base-board 
 
PRESENT-DA Y A PPARA TVS 183 
 
 which slides on guides in front of an N. and G. Lantern, 
 other projection fittings sliding to the same gauge ; in 
 fact, a sideway sliding-base enables Kinematograph, 
 ordinary projection front or lantern-microscope to be 
 alternately centred to the condenser at a moment's 
 notice. So much for the Kinematograph. The Camera is 
 the same in principle, but varies in detail. The daylight 
 film-spool is placed in a drawer at the inside top of 
 the case at the back. The film passes from this drawer 
 over exactly the same path as in the projector, except 
 that the continuous upper feed is given by a sprocket- 
 wheel which is exceptionally well arranged for placing 
 the film. The fly-wheel stands across the front of the 
 machine, being combined with the shutter, and is made 
 heavier in order to serve as a speed regulator. In fact, 
 in driving this machine the hand, so to speak, follows 
 the fly-wheel, and is far less prone to fall into a jerky 
 motion. On leaving the exposure-aperture the film is, 
 of course, wound on a spool which can slip on its axle 
 in order to adjust its speed in case of any temporary 
 check. The strain in this case usually falls on the 
 film, but in this camera any tightening of the film 
 raises a very light lever, which immediately locks a 
 ratchet on the edge of the spool-carrier. The strain 
 is thus promptly taken off the film, but so soon as 
 the tension ceases the lever drops, releases the spool- 
 carrier, and things pursue their normal course. The 
 whole apparatus is contained in a morocco-covered 
 case no larger than a twin-lens quarter-plate camera, 
 notwithstanding the fact that a side cupboard is pro- 
 vided to carry six spare spools and accessories. Not 
 only is a finder fitted, but a safety aperture permits 
 the inspection of a magnified image on the film itself 
 during working, while a register is provided showing 
 the amount of film consumed, and is capable of being 
 reset to zero in the event of two scenes being taken 
 
184 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 on one film. These machines were kindly placed by 
 Mr. Guardia at the fullest disposal of the Author, in 
 spite of the fact that preparation for the market was 
 in full swing, and acknowledgment is certainly due 
 to Mr. Guardia for the courtesy which enabled the 
 inclusion of this description. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MACHINES. ■ 
 
 The descriptions which have been given probably 
 cover all typical apparatus, and also the bulk of the 
 curiosities connected with Living Pictures. Yet there 
 are other machines ; and it may be well to mention 
 them in order that their existence may be placed on 
 record. The Berthon - Bressard - Jaubert Cinemicro- 
 phonographe is, for the present, a name and nothing 
 more. The apparatus is intended to reproduce events 
 and their accompanying sounds on a large scale at the 
 coming Paris Exhibition of 1900. J. B. Colt and Co.'s 
 Criterioscope is a dog-motion machine ; and the De 
 Bedt's Kinetograph works on principles explained in 
 connection with Fig. 116. The Dom-Martin Cinema 
 is said to possess a spring-escapement mechanism ; and 
 the so-called " Edison " Vitascope was of an ordinary 
 dog-motion type, power being transmitted from the 
 main-shaft by bevel gearing. Hanau's Gnematographe 
 Universel is a combined camera and projector, a simpler 
 form known as the Hanau-Gauthier Chronoscope being 
 fitted for home projection by oil or acetylene. The 
 Biographe " Lear," otherwise the Biographe francais, 
 is also intended for home use, and gives a three-foot 
 picture while employing ordinary films. Other toy 
 lanterns using strip films are made by Carette and 
 Co., a similar pattern being on the French market as 
 the " Eureka." One German toy lantern has a disc 
 made of cardboard, the separate chromo-litho pictures 
 being mounted in specially formed apertures. Baxter's 
 
P HE SENT- DAY A PPA RA TUS. 185 
 
 " Perfection " Cinematograph is a compact apparatus 
 somewhat like Fig. 135 so far as the intermittent 
 motion is concerned. Appleton's Cieroscope is a com- 
 bined camera and projector. The Vieograph was shown 
 at Earl's Court Exhibition, 1898. A miniature "Biokam" 
 is in preparation by the Warwick Trading Co. 
 
 Other machines are Beard's Cinematograph, Clement 
 and Gilmer's Vitagraph and Mutograph, Haydon and 
 Urry's Eragraph, Harvard's Cinematoscope, Neumann's 
 Cinematograph, Pirou's Cinematographe, Sears, Roe- 
 buck, and Co.'s Optigraph, Stock's Biographe " Soleil," 
 Griffin's Cinematograph, Vever's Viviograph, the Velo- 
 graph constructed by the Velograph Syndicate, Wood's 
 Movendoscope, Levi Jones and Co.'s Matagraph, 
 Foersterling's Scenetograph, Rowe's Pictorialograph, 
 the Cinematograph Co.'s Projector, and a machine 
 made by the Anglo-American Import Co. 
 
 After perusal of the foregoing pages it may be 
 thought that names, no less than mechanical principles, 
 have been wellnigh exhausted. But, unfortunately, 
 some enemy of mankind once compiled a list of names 
 applied to Living Picture machines. He evidently 
 consumed the midnight oil, probably exercised a certain 
 amount of invention ; and his list, passed backwards 
 and forwards through several languages, now affords a 
 terrible example of the results of misapplied ingenuity. 
 Many of the names are genuine and have been 
 accounted for ; some have nothing to do with Living 
 Picture machines ; the remainder, if authentic, belong- 
 to apparatus which hide their light under an extremely 
 opaque bushel. For instance, as regards misapplied 
 terms, the Vistascope is Eddy's apparatus for obtaining 
 a bird's-eye landscape by means of mirrors suspended 
 from a kite ; the Aerial Graphoscope is a revolving 
 lath used by Bruce as a lantern screen for obtaining 
 ghostly images, and not necessarily applied to Living 
 
1SG LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Pictures at all, while the Kinegraph is merely Engel- 
 meyer's mechanical device for automatically describing 
 resultant forces. Again, Liesgang's Velotrope turns, 
 out to be a pneumatic slide-changer, a very effective 
 instrument for its purpose, but not in any way connected 
 with the subject under discussion ; while the Phanta- 
 scope is Locke's instrument for giving single vision 
 with two eyes, and the Velocigraphe and Foliographe 
 are merely French hand-cameras. The Tropescope is 
 an apparatus made by Casselli for inverting or erecting 
 telescopic images ; and other instances might be quoted 
 to show how unsafe it is to assume the character of 
 an apparatus from its name. While dealing with the 
 subject of nomenclature, it is interesting to note that 
 the first use of the term Cinematographe was of earlier 
 date than the machine to which it is now applied. On 
 the 1 2th February, 1892, Bouly took a French patent 
 " pour un appareil photographique instantane pour 
 l'obtention automatique et sans interruption d'une serie 
 de cliches analytique du mouvement ou autres, dit le 
 Cinematographe." This specification is not printed by 
 the French Government ; in fact, many inventions of 
 considerable interest are similarly denied publicity. 
 Variety in names does not obtain among machines 
 merely ; Kinetoscopy, Cinematography, and other terms 
 have been suggested as suitably defining the whole art, 
 though none has been universally adopted. A very 
 early suggestion of the words Photoramic Effects was 
 made by Mr. Hay Taylor so long ago as 1889 in 
 connection with Greene and Evans' machine, but 
 probably the term Animatography will in the end be 
 found most generally acceptable. In fact, all through 
 the subject there is some confusion of terms, and 
 if we trace the expression Living Pictures back to 
 Tableaux Vivants, it is at once brought to mind that 
 Mr. McDougall and the London County Council — but 
 that is another story! 
 
PRESENT-DAY APPARATUS. 187 
 
 And now, merely for the sake of completeness, a list 
 is appended of every remaining alleged name which has 
 been noted in a somewhat extensive research ; some 
 appear to be derived from personal names, others to 
 be mere mis-spellings, but the list will serve as a 
 warning against the production of further etymological 
 monstrosities. 
 
 Anarithomoscope, Artograph, Badizograph, Cento- 
 graph, Chronophotographoscope, Cinagraphoscope, Cino- 
 graph, Cinomograph, Cinoscope, Cosmonograph, Cosmo- 
 scope, Diaramiscope, Electroscope, Hypnoscope, Katho- 
 scope, Katopticum, Kinebleposcope, Kinematoterm, 
 Kinesetograph, Kinesterograph, Kinetinephone, Kine- 
 vitagraph, Luminograph, Magniscope, Mouvementoscope, 
 Motorscope, Mutuscope, Panoramograph, Pantamimio- 
 graph, Pantobiograph, Phantograph, Phonomendoscope, 
 Photomotoscope, Photokinematograph, Phototrope, 
 Rayoscope, Scenamotograph, Stereopticon, Stinetiscope, 
 Taumatograph, Thromotrope, Variscope, Venetrope, 
 Viroscope, Virtescope, Visionoscope, Vitaletiscope, 
 Vitamotograph, Vivendograph, Vitopticon, Vivrescope, 
 Wateroscope, Wonderscope, X-ograph, Zeoptrotrope, 
 Zinematograph. 
 
 After mature reflection, as regards the majority of 
 the above alleged machines, there is but one quotation 
 which meets the case. In the words of the immortal 
 Betsy Prig, " wich I don't believe there ain't no sich 
 party ! " 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 FILMS : THEIR PRODUCTION AND TREATMENT. 
 
 A FILM for projecting a Living Picture is nothing more, 
 after all, than a multiple lantern slide ; and its pro- 
 duction is therefore in all respects similar, with the 
 exception of those manipulative details necessitated by 
 its peculiar form and the special care required to secure 
 absolute registration of each picture with its predecessor. 
 In order to describe all such devices connected with the 
 treatment of films, it may be assumed that whatever is 
 good enough for a lantern slide is the correct thing in 
 treatment for a kineto-film, only probably not good 
 enough. For all practical purposes the subject may be 
 considered as limited to the consideration of celluloid 
 films, for up to the present that substance is the only 
 one that properly fulfils a majority of requirements. 
 
 Celluloid as an article of manufacture was invented 
 by the Brothers Hyatt in 1869, but at that time it was 
 designed merely for the production of solid objects. It 
 was not until about the beginning of 1888 that sheets 
 were available for photographic purposes, and even 
 then much remained to be accomplished in order that 
 a sensitive emulsion might be supported evenly and 
 without deterioration. The Blair Company seem to 
 have first supplied films, and it was from them that 
 both Edison and Acres in the first instance obtained 
 their supplies. The Eastman Company quickly followed 
 suit, and Messrs. Lumiere, being manufacturers, made 
 their own from the first — a fact which is probably the 
 origin of present lamentable want of uniformity in 
 
FILMMAKING. 180 
 
 gauge. Strangely enough, after the lapse of nearly 
 twelve years, during which rollable films of various 
 makes have been on the market, an American patent 
 was granted to the Rev. Hannibal Goodwin on 
 September 13 th, 1898 (No. 610,861), the documents of 
 which had lain under dispute since the date of their 
 filing on May 2nd, 1887. It may be that this patent 
 will not have so much effect as the inventor assumes, 
 and some American journals claim ; but in any case it 
 is strange that a small subject such as Kinetoscopy 
 should afford two instances of patents so long delayed. 
 If this patent and the one on the Kinetoscope accom- 
 plish all that their inventors anticipate, the American 
 trade in perforated films will be somewhat heavily 
 handicapped ; fortunately the matter concerns the 
 United States alone. 
 
 But to return to the manufacture of films. Broadly 
 speaking, a solution of nitro-cellulose in nitro-benzole 
 or its equivalent is mixed with camphor, etc., and 
 allowed to harden into sheets by the evaporation of 
 the solvent, and is then coated with a sensitive emulsion. 
 For ordinary purposes this sheet or long roll is merely 
 cut into the requisite sizes ; for kineto-films it is passed 
 through roller-shears, which divide it into ribbons. As 
 before mentioned, the Mutograph films are 2^ inches 
 wide, and this gauge stands alone. The large Demeny 
 Chronophotographe and Skladowsky's Camera take 
 films of 60 and 65 mm. respectively, while the Lumiere 
 and Edison gauges are almost identical, the former 
 being 35 mm., the latter 34/8 mm., equal to \V% inches. 
 A Prestwich Camera for 2^3 films is also .made, corre- 
 sponding almost exactly in dimensions with the Demeny 
 60 millimetres. The respective sizes of these films, 
 together with their proper perforations, are shown in 
 Fig. 198. Since this was drawn, " Birtac " films of half 
 the width of Edison standard, and " Junior " Prest- 
 
190 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 LiL-m ie -re 
 
 O 
 
 Edison. 
 
 wichj on a similarly small scale, have been introduced. 
 It will be seen that the same regrettable want of 
 uniformity exists both in the 
 perforations and the films 
 themselves, the Lumiere pic- 
 ture being furnished with two 
 holes, the Edison with eight 
 for a view of approximately 
 the same dimensions, and the 
 Demeny with eight for a 
 larger picture. Correctly per- 
 forated Edison 
 film should 
 have the holes 
 exactly -^ 
 inches apart 
 lengthwise, 
 the crossway 
 separation 
 
 being 
 inches. The 
 
 JP-r-estwich 
 
 2 g I7t~ 
 
 JDe7ne7ty 
 
 eo-mA 
 
 Fig. k 
 
 ; . ; . . v . 
 
 perforations 
 
 have a diameter of about yL inch, but their shape is 
 by no means constant. The Lumiere 
 holes are round ; other makes vary 
 from true right-angles to a most 
 pronounced cushion. Sprockets are 
 often square, or at least right- 
 angled, and Mr. Jenkins is a strong 
 advocate of right-angled perforations 
 for that reason. By a comparison 
 of Figs. 199 and 200 it will be 
 seen that the sprocket lies true against 
 the edge of a right-angled perforation, 
 but bears on a cushion-shaped one 
 Fig. 200. by its corners only. In this latter 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 
FILM-MAKING. 
 
 191 
 
 Fig. 202. 
 
 case rupture of the film is manifestly far more probable. 
 The importance of these considerations is heightened 
 when the question of strain on the 
 film is considered. Tension on 
 the film is shared between the 
 perforations actually engaged with 
 the sprocket-teeth, and it would 
 appear easy to carry the film 
 round the major portion of the 
 sprocket-roller, Fig. 201, in order 
 to subdivide the strain as far as 
 
 possible. But this can only be done to a limited extent, 
 
 for not only do various films 
 differ slightly in gauge, but 
 shrinkage in development 
 and even atmospheric in- 
 fluences tend to vary the 
 distance between the per- 
 forations. In fact, in most sprocket machines the film 
 must lie somewhat more 
 loosely in one case than 
 another, according to 
 the greater degree of 
 separation of the per- 
 forations, while inter- 
 changeable sprocket- 
 rollers, Fig. 202, are 
 sometimes provided to 
 suit the special make of 
 film under exhibition. It 
 would seem that shrink- 
 age had much to do 
 with slight differences 
 in perforation gauges, 
 for at first perforating machines were in some instances 
 made to agree with finished films rather than with the 
 
 Fig. 203. 
 
192 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 original perforating machine, as should have been the 
 case. 
 
 How the perforations are made will be seen in 
 Fig. 203. This machine is the perforating apparatus 
 devised by M. Lapipe. The film enters 
 from the left-hand, and is steadied by 
 small rollers, being drawn along by a 
 sprocket-wheel on the right, which engages 
 with the newly made perforations. A 
 plunger is furnished with rods, which are 
 driven down into holes in a lower plate, 
 perforating the film in their travel. Above 
 the film is a movable plate, which carries 
 a tooth so arranged as to drop into holes 
 in the edge of the sprocket-wheel and 
 lock it. The whole action is as follows. 
 When the pins are raised, so also is the tooth, and the 
 sprocket-wheel is free to draw a fresh piece of film into 
 position. The plate then drops; the tooth locks the 
 wheel, thus stopping the motion of the film, which is 
 steadied by the downward pressure of the plate. The 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 
 •^~Ci 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 rods then descend, perforating the film. When they 
 return, the cycle of operations is repeated. The tooth 
 only serves to steady the sprocket-roller, which is 
 
FILM-MAKING. 
 
 193 
 
 intermittently actuated by means of a ratchet-gear, 
 shown in Fig. 204. Messrs. Clement and Gilmer build 
 a machine on somewhat similar lines, and Mr. Jenkins 
 has a rotary perforator, electrically driven, capable of 
 making 15,000 perforations per hour. Fig. 205 shows 
 a hand-driven perforator constructed by Messter, but 
 a larger pattern with electric motor attached is also 
 made. It must not be forgotten that in some types 
 of projectors (for example, certain continuous-motion 
 apparatus, and others in which the film is gripped, not 
 held by teeth) perforations are not necessary, although 
 they are not detrimental if present ; 
 while various extraordinary suggestions 
 have been made, such as central eyelets, 
 which would hardly facilitate rolling, 
 and the carrying of perforations across 
 the film between each picture — pre- 
 sumably in order that they might be 
 torn off like postage stamps. Reference 
 may also be made to Fig. 95, wherein 
 a film is shown notched on the edges ; 
 the advantages of this system certainly 
 are not obvious. 
 
 So far as the actual use of a 
 film in the camera is concerned, the 
 previous chapter has recorded all the 
 present methods of passing it before the lens for 
 exposure purposes, but in matters of practice a few 
 remarks may not be amiss. In the first place, absolute 
 rigidity of the camera is a sine qua non. The enormous 
 magnification to which a film is subjected in the process 
 of projection renders it absolutely essential that vibration 
 be eliminated entirely, and with this object the stand 
 employed should receive rigorous criticism. In some 
 cases, of course, portability must be considered ; and 
 with an apparatus of light build any ordinary tripod 
 
 O 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 
194 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 of good character may be employed, as for instance 
 Brown's, Fig. 206. An advance on this is made by 
 Messrs. Gaumont, who have introduced a stand with 
 solid top, bearing metal sockets into which three metal 
 tubular legs screw. When fastened together, this stand 
 is practically one piece, and hinged joints being absent, 
 vibration is reduced to a minimum. For photographing 
 set pictures — that is to say, the reproducing of acted 
 episodes — any solid form of studio stand will meet all 
 requirements ; but special cases need special devices, 
 and it will be remembered that the " Mutograph," with 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 
 its larger views, requires a support which can only be 
 regarded as almost a basement, speaking in an archi- 
 tectural sense. As an example of the elaborate 
 devices necessary in commercial work, the open-air 
 studio of the Mutograph Company may be referred 
 to. It is, of course, necessary to have sunlight for all 
 pictures, even when they represent interiors, and the 
 manner in which this is secured will be seen in 
 Fig. 207, a view on the roof of the Company's New 
 York premises. 
 
 It is not only the stand which needs attention. We 
 
FILM.MAKING. 195 
 
 all know how fortunate some photographers are in 
 hand-camera work, but, after all, this is only an equi- 
 valent expression for competent. It is certain that a 
 good operator is necessary in the successful manage- 
 ment of any kinetographic machine ; for not only must 
 focussing and selection of time and subject be more 
 carefully considered than in all ordinary photographic 
 work, but, while in actual operation and guarding his 
 view from foreground intruders, he must be capable of 
 maintaining a steady speed in any hand-fed machine 
 Still let us imagine that the perfect operator has exposed 
 a perfect film ; much has to be done before the picture 
 is ready for projection. The negative has first to be 
 developed, and the ordinary amateur who finds a 
 difficulty in keeping his finger-nails from damaging 
 the films of four plates in a single dish may well stand 
 aghast at the idea of a curvilinear celluloid reptile 
 seventy feet long, so minute in detail as to render 
 judgment of density difficult, and demanding to be 
 uniformly developed throughout. 
 
 Of the many methods proposed for development, 
 certain may be taken as types, but as regards the 
 developer only one rule applies. It must be non- 
 staining. Otherwise, in this, as in all other branches of 
 photography, one man's meat is another man's poison ; 
 and the golden rule, here as elsewhere, is to find a 
 developer that suits personal methods, and stick to it. 
 It is obvious that commercial development is a far 
 different process from that adopted for the occasional 
 treatment of single kineto-films, and it is perhaps as 
 well to describe the wholesale system first. A glance at 
 Fig. 208 will show the necessity for a developer which 
 does not oxidise rapidly, especially when the method 
 of development illustrated is employed. It will be 
 seen in the Mutograph dark-room that a number of 
 skeleton reels, three feet in diameter and seven feet 
 
196 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 long, are loosely mounted on upright standards at the 
 ends of shallow troughs. The undeveloped negative is 
 wound round the drum, by the rotation of which it 
 is continually passed through the developer contained 
 in the trough. When sufficient density is obtained, the 
 whole reel, with its negative, is lifted off the standards 
 and passed in succession to the washing, fixing, and 
 final washing troughs, a water spray being frequently 
 employed in addition. During the final washing a 
 treatment with glycerine is recommended, in order to 
 preserve the flexibility of the film and prevent undue 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 
 curling. Mr. Blair prefers to use glass drums upon 
 which to wind the film, its ends being secured by 
 clips. He further recommends that each drum should 
 be kept for its own trough and solution, the film being 
 wound from one to another at each stage of develop- 
 ment, each drum being larger than the one preceding 
 it. By this means the film is secured from overlapping. 
 In addition, a ruby incandescent lamp inside the glass 
 cylinder enables judgment of density to be rapidly 
 and easily formed. Glass drums are especially to be 
 recommended for development, on account of the 
 
FILM-MAKING. 
 
 197 
 
 G. 20(j. 
 
 security they offer with respect to cleanliness. It has, 
 however, been suggested that when one drum is used 
 throughout all operations the end- 
 clips employed by Mr. Blair should 
 be dispensed with, and a number 
 of small cork pads (held in de- 
 pressions in the surface of the 
 glass drum) used instead, the film 
 being pinned to the pads at 
 intervals along its length. This 
 plan of pinning-down is largely 
 adopted with drums of other patterns, made of 
 varnished wood. These may be composed of a number 
 
 of longitudinal slats, in con- 
 tact or separated, the chief 
 consideration being the ease 
 with which the apparatus can 
 be cleaned. Messrs. Gaumont's 
 drum is shown in Fig. 209, 
 while another form constructed 
 by Messter is of somewhat 
 different design (Fig. 210). A 
 form described by Marey (Fig. 211) has two drums, P, 
 on which the film, F, is wound in spiral, passing from 
 one to the other. The 
 drums do not them- 
 selves enter the de- 
 veloper, but the film 
 is carried down and 
 under a roller, G, im- 
 mersed in the developer 
 trough, D. Single films 
 
 may also be passed as an endless band through a long 
 trough, as seen in Fig. 212, and an adjustable winch- 
 clamp (Fig. 213) made by Messter may be used in the 
 same way, the barrel of the handle driving the film. 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
198 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 When a large number of films is not required to be 
 dealt with, methods are generally adopted which allow 
 the treatment to approximate to those in vogue with 
 
 Fig. 212. 
 
 single glass plates. For instance, a flat board bearing- 
 a number of pegs in a spiral on its upper surface allows 
 the film to be stood on edge in a winding line between 
 the pegs, or a four-armed cross 
 (Fig. 214), pegged in the same 
 way, may be employed, the film 
 being wound tightly round the 
 pegs. The arrangement of the 
 pegs may be varied according 
 to requirements by the employ- 
 ment of Hanau's device with 
 movable pegs, shown in Fig. 215, 
 Mr. Birt Acres uses a square 
 frame such as Fig. 216, round 
 which the film is wound, being kept in position by small 
 wooden teeth which enter the film perforations each 
 time the film passes over the top or bottom edge. This. 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 
FILM-MAKING. 
 
 199 
 
 Fig. 214. 
 
 form is suited for stand development in a vertical bath. 
 The most primitive method is shown in Fig. 2 1 7, the film 
 merely being passed 
 from hand to hand in 
 a capacious bath made 
 by Gaumont. It is 
 needless to say that 
 the developed nega- 
 tive may be intensified 
 or reduced in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 The negative, exposed, developed, fixed, and dried, 
 is, of course, only a means to 
 an end ; a positive must now 
 be made from it. In this series 
 of operations even more care 
 is required than in the pro- 
 duction of a negative. When 
 bands of any substance are 
 subjected to the action of 
 solutions and incidental strains there is always a 
 risk of irregular 
 stretching or 
 shrinkage, and any 
 error due to this 
 cause is liable to 
 be doubled in in- 
 tensity by the time 
 the positive is 
 completed. In 
 addition, the pic- 
 tures should stand 
 at mathematically 
 equal distances 
 apart, and any looseness or irregularity in the printing 
 may cause a variation, first in one direction, then in 
 
 Fig. 2ii 
 
 U M U U U U U 
 
 »» vv vv vv vv vv vv 
 Fig. 216. 
 
 ...MM 
 
 Q? 
 
200 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 the other. The result is a slight want of registration 
 between successive views, giving a most annoying, 
 irregular, tremulous motion to the picture when 
 projected on the screen. Perhaps the best printing 
 machine for large-scale work is that devised by Mr. 
 Jenkins. It will be seen from Fig. 218 that a sprocket- 
 wheel holds the two films in absolute registration, each 
 
 Fig. 218. 
 
 film passing independently and continuously from one 
 spool to another, but held in close contact, negative 
 uppermost, between two plates under a shielded 
 incandescent lamp. The exposure is varied, not by 
 altering the rate of travel, but by the insertion of 
 various slotted cards under the lamp at such a distance 
 from the negative that the light is diffused, or rather 
 
FILM-MAKING. 
 
 201 
 
 spread, before reaching it, the quantity of light being 
 regulated by the size of the slot. 
 
 In addition, as mentioned in the previous chapter, many 
 machines constructed for use as cameras and projectors 
 may also be used for printing. This is notably the case 
 in apparatus fitted with claw mechanism for moving the 
 film, the registration then being absolute, while if the 
 negative and positive bands lie one over the other 
 on a curved sprocket-wheel there is more tendency 
 
 Fig. 219. 
 
 Fie;. 220. 
 
 to variable strain and consequent irregularity. For 
 instance, Fig. 219 shows Lumiere's Cinematographe 
 printing positives on a film, R, which passes into a 
 light-tight box, being clawed down picture by picture 
 in contact with the negative band, which passes through 
 the machine by the usual channels. Another arrange- 
 ment for use with the Demeny Chronophotographe is 
 shown in Fig. 220. The films are passed through the 
 machine at a regular rate by means of the sprocket- 
 
202 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 221. 
 
 wheel, the dog being removed. A plate pierced with 
 
 a narrow slot is substituted for the shutter, and 
 
 exposure takes place at this aperture, the two films 
 
 passing into a light- 
 tight compartment 
 in the base. M. 
 Marey employs a 
 continuous - travel 
 printer, of which 
 Fig. 221 is a ver- 
 tical section. The 
 negative passes from 
 spool Q to spool S, 
 
 the positive film travelling from P to R. Both take-up 
 
 spools are driven at the same rate by chain-gear, and 
 
 the two films, negative undermost, are pressed in close 
 
 contact with a shelf 
 
 over which they pass, 
 
 and through an aperture 
 
 in which light is thrown 
 
 by an inclined mirror, 
 
 A. M. Joly suggests 
 
 bringing the two films 
 
 from their spools over 
 
 small rollers, E (Fig. 
 
 222), through an in- 
 clined guide, F, and 
 
 exposing them to the 
 
 action of light from an 
 
 incandescent lamp as 
 
 they pass in front of 
 
 a narrow aperture and 
 
 over a sprocketed roller, 
 
 by which they are both driven. For printing special 
 
 positives for alternate projection the film and negative 
 
 must be run through intermittently, the aperture being 
 
 Fig. 222. 
 
FILM-MAKING. 203- 
 
 blocked as each alternate picture comes in position ; 
 the two films are then shifted and run through again, 
 so as to print the missing alternate pictures in the non- 
 exposed alternate spaces. 
 
 The development of positives is conducted in the 
 same manner as that of negatives ; but the different 
 character required in the resulting film necessitates 
 consideration. Density and gradation must be carefully 
 watched ; light is of extreme value in living-picture 
 projection, and the image must therefore be kept thin. 
 At the same time all detail must be secured and some 
 deposit be present over the whole extent of the picture ; 
 white spots and sparkling points have a distressing habit 
 of drawing attention to the failings of flicker and incorrect 
 registration, even when only present in a slight degree. 
 Development and drying ended, the film is ready for 
 projection, subject to such improvement and rectification 
 as retouching can supply. Flaws and spots are fatal. 
 In a single picture they are detrimental enough, but 
 their presence on a film of successive views gives rise 
 to a twinkling and twittering effect, due to their sudden 
 perception and equally sudden disappearance, which is 
 irritating and fatiguing to the eye. Colouring is some- 
 times added ; on this subject special words of caution 
 are necessary. In an ordinary single lantern slide 
 outline is of little moment, in a Living Picture it is 
 everything. A spire of a church in the single view 
 does not offend the eye if the colouring oversteps the 
 proper outline, provided that the shape is rendered 
 symmetrical. Far other in a Living Picture. The 
 slightest variation between successive views gives rise 
 to a continuous bulging and contraction which no 
 respectable church would allow its steeple to indulge 
 in. Illusion of the movement of objects is due to 
 alteration in position of their outlines as compared 
 with that of stationary objects, and this progression is 
 
201 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 minute in successive views. The slightest inaccuracy 
 in colouring may neutralise this, and render the steps 
 by which an object is apparently advanced far more 
 jerky than is the case in the photographic views. 
 Therefore, so far as regards the actual colouring, it 
 should be of the nature of tinting rather than partaking 
 in the gaudy display of the average lantern slide. 
 Further, it should be done with extreme accuracy ; 
 better no colouring than a spoiled film, and those who 
 do desire colour must prepare to pay the price which 
 alone can secure a proper result. It is possible now, 
 however, to procure films coated with almost as great 
 a variety of emulsions as in lantern-slide work ; and 
 the use of a chloride of silver film will often give a 
 warm appearance to a hard picture which would present 
 an absolutely wintry aspect in black and white, while 
 the variety of colours obtainable, used with discretion, 
 is of the greatest service. The application of ordinary 
 triple-projection has been suggested for the production 
 of natural-colour Living Pictures, but the loss of light 
 involved is at present a bar to success. 
 
 As regards the protection of films, little has been 
 done. Machines are constructed with the greatest care, 
 and every precaution is taken against damage to films 
 in course of projection ; but where will the lantern- 
 slide maker be found who sends out his wares without 
 cover-glasses? It has been proposed to cement a plain 
 film by its edges over the positive. Of course this 
 would double the thickness of the film, and it is well 
 understood that celluloid obstructs light to a greater 
 extent than glass ; and if anything be attempted in 
 this direction it would appear better to confine the 
 attempt to the strengthening of the margins, leaving 
 the security of the picture surface to be attained by 
 perfecting the construction of the film-gate. 
 
 Repairing celluloid films is unfortunately an operation 
 
FILM-MAKING. 
 
 20l 
 
 which requires to be somewhat frequently performed. 
 The film may be torn right across ; in that case one 
 picture must be sacrificed. The perforations may 
 become damaged ; and then they must be replaced, or 
 a sideway strain will be placed on the film, which will 
 inevitably result in rupture of the band sooner or 
 later. The two solvents for celluloid are amyl acetate 
 and acetone, the latter being, according to general 
 opinion, somewhat preferable. Either of these two 
 fluids may be used, or a cement employed consisting 
 of a solution of celluloid in one of the two above- 
 mentioned bodies. The ends of the broken film must 
 be trimmed so as to render the two proximate pictures, 
 at a correct separation, the junction being freed from 
 grease and film, and 
 scraped down so as 
 not to leave an 
 abrupt thickening 
 where the edges 
 overlap. The cement 
 is applied, and the 
 two edges pressed 
 firmly together be- 
 tween greased glass 
 plates. The same 
 process answers for 
 the insertion of a 
 
 fresh portion of perforated margin, and an incipient 
 tear may be covered by a layer of extremely thin 
 celluloid in the same manner. Even in this com- 
 paratively small detail of manipulation facilities are 
 afforded which were unthought of two years ago. 
 Fig. 223 shows a film-mender brought out by Mr. 
 W. C. Hughes, in which the broken ends may be 
 fixed by the side clamps so as to ensure perfect regis- 
 tration of the perforations. The ends are then scraped, 
 
 Fig. 223. 
 
206 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 cement applied, and the centre clamp turned down to 
 hold all firm until the cement sets. 
 
 Here, then, the film passes into the exhibitor's hands, 
 and any further remarks regarding it must be relegated 
 to the next chapter, wherein are described those few 
 accessories and aids which render the exhibitor's life 
 ■endurable, if not happy. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 EXHIBITING HINTS, ACCESSORIES, LIGHTING, 
 ACCIDENTS, ETC. 
 
 The first requirement in the projection, as in the 
 taking, of Living Pictures is absolute rigidity of the 
 apparatus. It must be remembered that enlargement 
 of the image on the screen is greater than in ordinary 
 projection work, 
 while the ap- 
 paratus itself is 
 subjected to 
 treatment which 
 no mere optical 
 lantern is called 
 upon to under- 
 go. The need- 
 ful rigidity may 
 be secured by 
 the use of a 
 special stand, 
 such as Griffin's 
 (Fig. 224), or 
 the one supplied 
 with Messter's 
 "Apollo " Kineto- 
 graph (Fig. 225). 
 
 On no account should any hollow body be used as 
 a support. It is not sufficiently recognised how large 
 a degree of sympathy exists in many organisations 
 between one sense and another. There is little doubt 
 
 Fig. 224. 
 
208 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 but that a continual rattle impinging on the ear tends 
 to intensify irritation caused to the eye by flicker on 
 the screen, and it is towards the minimising or con- 
 cealment of this same flicker that attention is at the 
 present time most strenuously directed. This objection- 
 able phenomenon is traceable to the fact that the 
 picture is periodically cut-off from view, a state of 
 affairs which, of course, does not obtain in natural 
 vision. It must be remembered that though persistence 
 of vision ensures the continuance of one image until 
 
 such time as another is 
 received, yet the impression 
 does not continue in its full 
 strength, and the general re- 
 sult is therefore a perpetual 
 increase and decrease in the 
 brilliancy of the picture as 
 perceived by the eye. Further- 
 more, the decrease of light is 
 progressive, but every fresh 
 view is presented in full 
 brilliancy. Flicker might 
 probably be reduced to a con- 
 siderable extent if a vignette 
 edge to the shutter gradually 
 admitted light to the screen 
 at a similar rate to that at which it naturally fades 
 from the eye. The type of machine designed to 
 project one picture before the light from the preceding 
 one is cut-off will probably remove flicker ; meanwhile 
 several makers have proposed to do away with the 
 shutter, substituting (as Wheatstone did, page 15) a 
 period of very rapid travel — so rapid, indeed, that a 
 general blur takes the place of that darkness which 
 is in other cases caused by the shutter. This expedient 
 would doubtless be successful were the pictures of 
 
 Fig. 22: 
 
EXHIBITING. 
 
 209 
 
 Fig. 226. 
 
 uniform tint all over their surface (that is to say, if 
 they were not pictures at all), but as high lights are 
 a necessity in all lantern or other views, their continual 
 passage across the screen gives rise 
 to that " rain " effect usually asso- 
 ciated with damaged films. It must 
 not be forgotten that a perception 
 of this kind persists as well as 
 any other ; the eye has no power of 
 applying a physiological function to 
 artistic impressions and throwing it 
 out of action in other cases. Still the merits of this 
 course of proceeding are purely relative, and if the 
 period of change be very rapid there is no doubt 
 that with the majority of views a 
 shutter may be dispensed with. 
 Some makers have adopted a 
 medium course, and neither en- 
 tirely cut off the light nor permit 
 the changing view to be seen. 
 Thus a segmental shutter may be 
 pierced with slots (Figs. 226, 227) 
 in order to allow enough light to reach the eye to 
 keep it employed, so to speak, until the next view is 
 rendered visible. Wire-gauze or small holes, as in 
 Figs. 227 and 228, may serve the 
 same purpose, while it has been 
 suggested that a translucent sub- 
 stance pleated as in Fig. 229 is of 
 sufficiently varying opacity to act in 
 the same manner. A double rise- 
 and-fall shutter, the two parts of 
 which are worked by cams, has 
 also been described, but practically 
 all shutters are rotary. One form is shown in Fig. 230, 
 and is so shaped that the edges travel across the 
 
 Fig. 227. 
 
 Fig. 228. 
 
210 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Fig. 22q. 
 
 screen parallel to the margin of the view. Another 
 usual form is that of Fig. 231, in which the rotating box 
 acts as a light-tap. The shutter and its 
 varied failings are, in fact, a weariness 
 of the flesh ; its apertures must be so 
 exactly proportioned, not only to the 
 required exposure of the picture, but 
 also to the degree of flicker which 
 can be endured ; its rapid rotation so 
 intensifies the slightest want of balance 
 that there seems great scope for improve- 
 ment. It is greatly to be regretted that 
 loss of light precludes the employment 
 of an arrangement such as is used in Bashforth and 
 Crehore's polarising chronograph, wherein a polarised 
 beam of light is rotated by electro- 
 magnetic action to such a degree 
 that it cannot pass through the 
 second prism. This is an ideal 
 shutter, instantaneous in action, 
 weightless, and therefore vibration- 
 less, but utterly impracticable in 
 Living Picture work until a far 
 more powerful source of light than 
 any yet employed is discovered. It would probably 
 be well if the shutter could in most cases be entirely 
 disconnected from rigid connection 
 with the rest of the mechanism, to 
 which it is apt to communicate a 
 vibration, slight in itself, but quite 
 sufficient to cause a tremulous motion 
 of the picture on the screen. All 
 these vibrations and flickerings are 
 to a great degree concealed by the 
 use of an ingenious apparatus invented by M. Gaumont, 
 who introduced it to the notice of the Societe franchise 
 
 Fig. 230. 
 
 <S? 
 
 Fig. 231. 
 
EXHIBITING. 
 
 211 
 
 Fig. 232 
 
 de Photographie on the 4th of June, 1897, under the 
 name of "La Grille." It is a black fan of any con- 
 venient shape (Fig. 232), pierced with a number of 
 •small holes. When the fan is put in rapid motion, 
 and the picture viewed through the holes, flicker is 
 almost entirely eliminated. The 
 inventor does not seem to have 
 put forward any theory respecting 
 its action, neither does any one 
 else appear to have suggested a 
 reason why it should prove effec- 
 tive ; indeed, as the subject of 
 flicker itself is still under debate, 
 it seems rather rash to theorise 
 upon the Grille. Yet, if flicker 
 be due to rapid changes of 
 brilliancy in the picture, one view 
 gradually fading and then being suddenly replaced by 
 one of maximum intensity, it is possible that the Grille 
 is unconsciously vibrated at such a rate that it cuts off 
 some of the light from the most brilliant period, and 
 •so tends to render the illumination more even. A very 
 good substitute for the Grille is a black-gloved hand, 
 with fingers slightly opened, vibrated 
 somewhat rapidly before the eyes. 
 No doubt, if " fingers were made 
 before forks," they are far anterior 
 in point of time to the Grille, and 
 though the employment of the 
 " Kinedodgescope," as it has been 
 humorously called, is more fatiguing 
 than the use of the proper appliance, yet it may often 
 be used to afford a much needed rest to the eye 
 without losing sight of the picture under exhibition. 
 One other trouble is now overcome. The first film- 
 traps were padded as Fig. 233, and pressed on the 
 
 Fig. 233. 
 
212 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 film. The utmost care could not keep these pads 
 entirely free from dust, and the film-surface suffered 
 in consequence. But of late nearly all machines either 
 give a pressure on the margins only, or release the 
 pressure on the film during its motion, and the earlier 
 disadvantages of the film-trap thus disappear. 
 
 With regard to the correct placing of the picture 
 on the screen, there is no necessity to register the 
 film with the actual exposure-opening. The pictures 
 being placed at regular distances, a gauge may be 
 fitted at any point in the path of the film, and if a 
 picture be accurately set to this gauge, the one ready 
 for projection should be found truly placed in position. 
 Most machines are fitted with a movable frame, which 
 outlines the picture, and which can be adjusted so as 
 to compensate for creeping of the film. As regards 
 placing films in the machine, it must -be confessed that 
 this is one of the great trials to which an exhibitor is 
 subject. The best of audiences is impatient of delay, 
 and the substitution of one film for another is no easy 
 matter. To attach the various subjects so that they 
 run on one after the other is a simple method of 
 evading the difficulty, but has the serious disadvantage 
 of preventing the selection and arrangement of certain 
 films for any desired lecture. In some machines the 
 front portion turns on one side to allow the film to 
 be laid in place, the friction-rollers returning to their 
 gripping position when the apparatus is closed. 
 
 To fill up the time during the change of film it is 
 desirable to have some arrangement for the projection 
 of ordinary slides, and this course is to be recommended 
 as heightening the effect of Living Pictures by contrast 
 with a motionless one. Of course this end may be 
 attained by the use of a second lantern, or some means 
 of deflecting the light through a second optical system 
 of the usual projection type ; but probably the most 
 
EXHIBITING. 
 
 213 
 
 -efficient and convenient method is that shown in the 
 '98 Bioscope (page 134), where it will be seen that a 
 turn of the front table puts an ordinary 7-inch objective 
 in place, and at the same time places the kinetographic 
 portion of the apparatus in a convenient position for 
 film -changing. 
 
 Whatever plan is adopted on the score of rapidity, 
 an automatic rule should be followed to make sure that 
 the right end of the 
 film is placed first 
 in the machine. In 
 all projection work 
 the rule for obtain- 
 ing a correct image 
 •on the screen is film 
 side upside -down 
 to the co tide user. 
 Lantern-slides now 
 almost invariably 
 bear two white 
 spots at the top of 
 the film side, and if 
 these appear down- 
 wards towards the 
 back of the lantern, 
 the picture is bound 
 to be correct on 
 the screen. So with 
 
 kineto-films, a mark of some description should be 
 made on the film side at that end where the last picture 
 has sky or heads of figures outwards, and in winding 
 films the unmarked end should be rolled on first. 
 Placing the film side towards the projection-lens re- 
 verses the picture from right to left — not a serious 
 matter as a rule, unless a well-known landscape or any 
 lettering appear on the scene. But this error is apt to 
 
 Fig. 234. 
 
214 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 cause strange effects in other ways. For instance, at 
 one entertainment, Ranjitsinhji was shown batting in 
 grand style — left-handed ! Not a likely experiment 
 for an Australian test-match, it must be confessed! 
 But the operation usually known as reversing consists. 
 in passing the film backwards through the machine,. 
 thus presenting the effect reversed in point of time. 
 For instance, a reversed diving-scene will show an 
 
 existing splash which 
 
 gradually dies down, and 
 from which emerges a 
 man, feet uppermost, who 
 in this attitude makes his 
 way to the diving-board 
 from which he should 
 have started. The usual 
 way of working this is- 
 as previously stated ; the 
 film is run backwards, 
 not by a reverse motion 
 of the machine, but by 
 starting at the wrong 
 end of the film. Con- 
 sequently the view would 
 be upside-down on the 
 screen, but a reversing- 
 prism is used to erect 
 the image in the same 
 manner as in a science lantern. Such an appliance, 
 made by the Warwick Trading Company, is shown in 
 Fig. 234, and it will be seen that the prism may be 
 thrown up out of the way in a moment (Fig. 235). 
 Some few machines have reversible mechanism, in 
 which case no prism is necessary, the film being 
 merely run backwards from the lower spool to the 
 upper, while Newton's machine, though not reversible, 
 
 Fig. 235. 
 
 
EXHIBITING. 
 
 815 
 
 solves the difficulty by inversion of the whole 
 apparatus. 
 
 After a film has been exhibited it always requires 
 rewinding in order to bring the first picture outside. 
 A convenient form of winder is illustrated in Fig. 236 ; 
 the spool is placed on the spindle, which revolves so 
 rapidly that the operation is complete in a few seconds. 
 Most machines are fitted with receiving spools for the 
 films, but of course the film needs to be rewound all 
 the same, and the extra delay caused by attaching each 
 picture to the spool has resulted in a general adoption 
 
 Fig. 236. 
 
 of the practice of allowing the film to run free out of 
 the machine into a basket, from which it is rewound 
 at the conclusion of the entertainment. This plan, 
 however, has its disadvantages. Films are somewhat 
 tender things, and to allow them to lie in a loose heap 
 is not conducive to long life. They may be run into 
 a bag ; but probably the best course to adopt is the 
 employment of a collapsible box furnished with a slit, 
 somewhat like a letter-box ; the rigid sides prevent 
 pressure on the films, and the whole folds into a 
 very small space for transport. Further, this plan is 
 
216 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 to be recommended on the score of safety. It must 
 not be forgotten that celluloid is inflammable to a high 
 degree, and up to the present no means have been 
 introduced to neutralise this tendency without at the 
 same time impairing transparency, though the addition 
 of chloride of magnesium is said to promise good 
 results. If the heat of the lantern should ignite the 
 film at the exposure aperture, the flame is likely to 
 be stopped from spreading by the friction-rollers, etc., 
 through which the film passes, but if a spark fall into 
 the basket directly under the machine, the loosely 
 packed celluloid, interspersed with air-passages, would 
 give rise to a conflagration so sudden and so energetic 
 
 as to almost equal 
 an explosion. It will 
 therefore be seen that 
 the enclosure of loose 
 film is an absolute 
 duty. As regards the 
 risk of lighting the 
 film by the heat of 
 the lantern, it is usual 
 to interpose an alum-trough (Fig. 237), as in photo- 
 micrographic work, where a large number of rays are 
 concentrated on a small object. Glycerine has also 
 been suggested as an exceptionally effective heat- 
 absorbent. In addition the suggestion has been made 
 involving the employment of a shutter covering the 
 condenser, to be lifted when the film commences its 
 motion, and dropped so soon as the end is reached. 
 This shutter might be pierced in order to give sufficient 
 light for the adjustment of the film. Messrs. Lumiere 
 have introduced an ingenious condenser, which serves 
 at the same time to absorb the heat-rays. It will be 
 seen from Fig. 238 that a spherical flask of water is 
 used as a condenser, a small piece of carbon being 
 
 Fig. 237. 
 
EXHIBITING. 
 
 217 
 
 suspended therein to draw off the gases set free by the 
 gradual heating of the contained water. In addition a 
 
 
 Fig. 238. 
 
 ground-glass shutter, H, is provided for use when the 
 film is stationary. Another condensing arrangement 
 (Fig. 239) provides for the circulation 
 of the water from the condenser to a 
 tank with the object of keeping its 
 temperature within reasonable limits. 
 The film itself need only be exposed 
 for a short distance if the spools be 
 enclosed in metal boxes such as Fig. 
 240. After inserting the film in the 
 spool-box, the lid L 1 is shut and the 
 film led out through the padded aper- 
 ture L 3 , the flap L+ being hinged and 
 closing by its own weight. 
 
 This question 
 of the inflam- 
 mability of 
 celluloid is the 
 only one which 
 affects the safety 
 of Living Pic- 
 Fig. 239. ture machines 
 
218 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 per se ; other causes may result in catastrophes, but 
 they are common to all projecting apparatus. If a gas- 
 cylinder bursts, that surely cannot be attributed to the 
 projecting apparatus ; such things may occur at any 
 lantern show ; in fact, the most sensational accident of 
 this description occurred at Fenchurch Street railway 
 station, in the absence of any lantern whatever. 
 
 As regards the question of lighting, it is somewhat 
 out of place here, being common to all branches of 
 projection work, and it is manifest that the system of 
 lighting employed need not, and, indeed, does not, 
 affect the mechanism employed for the presentation of 
 
 Living Pictures, although 
 its power has a consider- 
 able influence on the 
 result when shown on 
 the screen. Still a few 
 general principles may 
 be suggested. For safety 
 and power the arc-lamp 
 is pre-eminent, and with 
 the rapid extension of 
 public electric lighting it 
 should not be long before 
 current is available in all large lecture halls. If electric 
 light cannot be employed, a good mixed-jet limelight 
 should be used, and here again danger is practically 
 absent. It is certainly better to face the cost of carrying 
 a second cylinder containing hydrogen than to employ 
 an ether-oxygen light. Not that this light is dangerous 
 if properly employed, but a slight error in its manipula- 
 tion may lead to fatal results. It is undeniable that 
 the more serious accidents at Living Picture entertain- 
 ments have resulted from the employment of this light. 
 The terrible catastrophe at the Bazar de la Charite is 
 still fresh in all memories, and while admitting that the 
 
 *IG. 24O. 
 
EXHIBITING. 21» 
 
 operator was in fault, and that he was culpably ignorant 
 or forgetful in endeavouring to refill his ether reservoir 
 in the neighbourhood of a light, it must not be forgotten 
 that a similar amount of carelessness in the use of an 
 oxy-hydrogen limelight could not, with gas in cylinders,, 
 have led to similar fatal results. It has been suggested 
 by Mr. Hughes that certification of public operators is 
 the best solution of the difficulty, and there certainly 
 appears to be considerable force in his contention. 
 
 As an indication of the maximum precautions advis- 
 able, the rules promulgated by the leading British fire 
 insurance companies may be of interest, and it is 
 noticea.ble that the ether-oxygen light is entirely pro- 
 hibited in this country (so far as recovery of fire-loss, 
 is concerned), while a similar prohibition does not 
 appear to have been yet made on the Continent. 
 
 Rules. 
 
 (i) The lantern must be constructed of metal, or lined 
 with metal and asbestos. 
 
 (2) An alum or water bath must be used between 
 
 the condenser and film. 
 
 (3) The apparatus must be fitted with a drop shutter 
 
 available in case of emergency. 
 
 (4) If the film does not wind upon a reel or spool 
 
 immediately after passing through the machine, 
 a metal receptacle with a slot in the metal lid 
 must be provided for receiving it. 
 
 (5) If electric arc-lights are used, the installation 
 
 must be in accordance with the usual rules, i.e. t 
 the choking coils and switch to be securely 
 fixed on incombustible bases, preferably on a 
 brick wall, and d.p. safety fuses to be fitted. 
 
 (6) If oxy-hydrogen gas is used, storage must be in 
 
 metal cylinders only. 
 
•220 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 (7) The use of an ether saturator is not to be per- 
 mitted under any circumstances. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Preferably on an open floor with a space of at least 
 six feet all round railed off. If in a compartment, the 
 compartment to be lined with fire-resisting materials. 
 In any case no drapery nor combustible hangings to 
 be within two yards. 
 
 General. 
 
 Fire-buckets to be kept filled, and a damp blanket 
 to be provided and placed close at hand. 
 
 One other subject in connection with lighting demands 
 attention. If it be difficult to secure sufficient light in 
 the lantern, it is at any rate a comparatively simple 
 matter not to waste that which is thrown on the screen, 
 and every method applied with this view to ordinary 
 lantern work is of far greater importance when Living 
 Pictures are in question. The ordinary linen sheet, 
 which allows a considerable quantity of light to pass, 
 should be placed entirely on one side, and an opaque 
 screen used instead. Should the question of portability 
 enter into the matter, the plan of whitewashing the 
 sheet, or rather dipping it in weak whitewash, should 
 be employed. The screen may be quickly rough- 
 washed and placed in a waterproof cover so soon as 
 the entertainment is ended ; but in all probability the 
 new silver-surfaced screen lately introduced by Ander- 
 ton will effect the most saving, as it diffuses considerably 
 more light than any other surface yet employed. 
 
 Naturally the lenses employed, whether for photo- 
 graphing or projecting, should be of the best ; high 
 magnification demands good covering power, while the 
 necessity for economising light requires large apertures. 
 
EXHIBITING. 
 
 22 1 
 
 Such flat field lenses as Dallmeyer's Stigmatic, Zeiss' 
 Anastigmats, or Busch's Aplanats are good examples 
 of the class of lens referred to ; the latter also showing 
 some ingenious methods of interchangeable mounting, 
 helical focussing, etc. 
 
 Fig. 241. 
 
 So far reference has been made only to ordinary 
 exhibiting, but Animatography has also, despite its 
 youth, struck into several bye-paths. Commercial 
 energy at once seized on the Living Picture for purposes 
 
222 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 of advertisement, and though in general the ordinary 
 methods of projection have been followed, yet attention 
 has nevertheless been paid to this phase of the whole 
 question. Fig. 241 shows an apparatus designed by 
 Mr. Hepworth, which dispenses with the continued 
 presence of an operator. It will be seen that a spool- 
 bank is employed as in the Kinetoscope, but the film 
 is led upwards so as to pass between condenser and 
 projecting-lens, the central shaft also being carried up 
 to work the shutter. The whole arrangement is elec- 
 trically operated, and a slot at e permits contact to be 
 made in order to stop the machine at the end of a 
 scene. A jockey-roller is also provided, so that if the 
 film tightens by reason of some accident the roller rises 
 in order to break the current. 
 
 As regards the minor methods of exhibition, many 
 instances have already been quoted. The Mutoscope 
 has attained great popularity, while the Kinetoscope 
 
 has been modified 
 in several ways in 
 order to render the 
 scene visible to 
 several observers 
 at once. The most 
 ambitious of these 
 devices is prob- 
 ably Joly's Photo- 
 zootrope, in which 
 the band is run 
 past several eye- 
 pieces and illumin- 
 ated by a central 
 light and revolv- 
 ing slotted drum, 
 somewhat as in 
 Fig. 1 1 2. Two 
 
 Fig. 242. 
 
EXHIBITING. 223 
 
 bands, one below the other, are employed, and either 
 may be brought opposite the eyepieces by the action 
 of a lever. Each of these bands is no metres long, 
 and contains two scenes. But projection has also 
 been employed for " peep-show " purposes. Mr. Jenkins 
 arranged a show in 1 896 in New York ; a " penny in 
 the slot " freed the eyepiece and started a machine 
 projecting a view on a screen. Recently a somewhat 
 similar arrangement, worked by the Micrograph Com- 
 pany, has been on view in London. But these affairs 
 were structural, while Mr. W. C. Hughes' " Photo- 
 rotoscope Peep-show," on the contrary, is extremely 
 portable. As seen in Fig. 242, an oil-light may be 
 employed to throw a three-foot picture on a proscenium 
 at the inner end of a box provided with twenty eye- 
 pieces. This apparatus is collapsible, and takes only 
 ten minutes to erect, so that it may be used for street 
 exhibitions, etc., while the machine itself, separated from 
 the peep-show box, is perfectly efficient for use in large 
 halls. 
 
 As regards the choice of subjects for an entertain- 
 ment, it is well to bear in mind the story which recently 
 set the lantern world smiling at the perplexity of a 
 minister who found himself taking the chair at a prize- 
 fight, and who could find nothing in the programme to 
 suit his cloth, with the single exception of " Feeding the 
 Baby " ! It is a simple matter to obtain a preliminary 
 approval of the proposed views ; and the variety placed 
 at the disposal of operators affords every facility for 
 making a happy selection. What garrison town would 
 not be contented with the opportunity of viewing scenes 
 from the military life of other lands, to say nothing of 
 the glimpse which might be afforded of actual warfare? 
 In fact, not only may the proximate past be placed in 
 action on the screen, but acted historical scenes, far 
 earlier even than accurate pictorial records extend, are 
 
224 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 at the service of any suitable audience. If memory be 
 not at fault, even the Nativity is procurable for exhibition 
 purposes, or it may be the Adoration of the Magi ; at 
 any rate, chronologically speaking, the view in mind is 
 there or thereabouts. In fact, some of the more recent 
 films may prove to be sorely puzzling to the much 
 quoted New Zealander of the future, who, discovering 
 a Living Picture machine and films in the neighbour- 
 hood of ruined London Bridge, shall endeavour to 
 reconcile the accepted date of the invention of the 
 Living Picture with the existence of a chrono-photo- 
 graphic record of the birth of Christ. Still to the 
 present-day archaeologist means are available for 
 bridging a gap of a paltry nineteen hundred years, 
 and the true inventors and improvers must take their 
 chance of having their labours ascribed to the ancient 
 Romans by the historian who is yet to be. At all 
 events, for the present there is little doubt to whom 
 the credit should be awarded ; and in the next, 
 and final, chapter it will be endeavoured to shortly 
 summarise the whole life of the Living Picture. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 
 
 The enquiry has often been made, " Who was the 
 inventor of the Living Picture ? " This question has 
 usually been answered, if answered at all, by dogmatic 
 assertion or the presentation of isolated facts ; there has 
 been no attempt towards a logical determination of the 
 problem in its widest sense. In the first place some 
 definition of terms is required ; let us determine what 
 a Living Picture is. Where shall the line be drawn? 
 If we consider it merely as a view presenting the illusion 
 of motion, then we must go back to the early years of 
 this dying century and attribute its origin to Plateau's 
 Phenakistoscope. If we restrict our definition to views 
 of phctographic origin, Wenham's experiments in 1852 
 fulfilled our requirements forty-six years ago. Should 
 it be required that the photographic record be a true 
 analysis of motion, then thirty-four years have passed 
 since Du Mont indicated the methods of chrono- 
 photography. Finally, if it be suggested that the 
 picture must last a definite and somewhat lengthy 
 period, the images being secured at short intervals and 
 in a very restricted space of time, we are compelled to 
 admit the Living Picture as a phenomenon of recent 
 growth; but it must not be forgotten that many views 
 of one action, procured by photography and repeated 
 for as long a period as required, were prepared far 
 earlier than any date which may be termed recent. 
 And, hrther, it must not be ignored that the different 
 stages quoted above led insensibly one to the other ; 
 
 Q 
 
226 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 each step was founded on the labours of previous 
 workers or at least rested on the same basis. No! 
 emphatically No! There is not, there never was, an 
 inventor of the Living Picture. Say that it grew from 
 an infinitely small germ, as unlike its present form as 
 the butterfly is unlike the egg from which it evolves ; 
 say that many minds have each contributed, and still 
 are contributing their mite towards the realisation of 
 that perfection yet to be attained ; say that the Living 
 Picture is the work of nineteenth-century civilised man 
 -^and the statement will be as true as any generalisa- 
 tion can be. So far as a single inventor can be named, 
 Plateau must be recognised as the originator of the 
 pictorial method of producing an illusion of motion by 
 means of persistence of vision. This in a double sense ; 
 for while the Phenakistoscope was the forerunner of 
 all machines in which a rapidly moving picture was 
 momentarily viewed (and this definition includes 
 machines so late in time as Edison's Kinetoscope), yet 
 Plateau's " Diable soufflant " was the first step toward 
 all those forms of apparatus in which a picture 
 is momentarily viewed while stationary. True the 
 picture was not stationary, but the principle of 
 differential speed between image and shutter was 
 established. 
 
 And to whom could this invention be attributed with 
 more satisfaction? There is no name in the history of 
 physiological optics more worthy of honour than that 
 of this philosopher. Born in 1801, Joseph Antoine 
 Ferdinand Plateau devoted himself early in life to the 
 study of optics, especially in their physiological aspect. 
 At the age of twenty-eight, in the course of some 
 experiments respecting the effect of light on the retina, 
 he exposed his eyes for a considerable time to the full 
 blaze of the sun. The result was blindness, from which, 
 however, he temporarily recovered. During this period 
 
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 227 
 
 of recovery he invented the Phenakistoscope, and in 
 1835 was appointed Professor of Physics at Ghent. 
 Over a period of fourteen years his sight gradually 
 deteriorated, and by the year 1843 he was totally blind. 
 Yet in 1849 he invented his Diable soufflant, he 
 continued his researches by the aid of relatives who 
 carried out his instructions for experiments to confirm 
 his theories, he pursued his investigations into the 
 domain of molecular physics, he retained his professor- 
 ship, and died in harness, leaving works still unpublished 
 behind him, at the ripe age of eighty- three. There is 
 a magnificence in the idea of this blind man carrying 
 on his work, sowing the seeds of pleasure to thousands 
 in future generations by means of that sense of which 
 he was himself totally deprived ; there is developed a 
 feeling of pride in human power when we think of a 
 man from whose eyes the light was eternally shut out 
 nevertheless converting the brief glimmer of passing 
 ■events into permanent embodiment, and leaving to 
 others an elaboration of that sense which was lost to 
 him for ever. 
 
 Yet it must not be forgotten that Plateau's Phena- 
 kistoscope took its origin from investigations on Roget's 
 researches, which in themselves had nothing whatever to 
 do with Living Pictures. So also with the application 
 of photography. Many experimented long before the 
 necessary appliances were ready to their hand. Mr. 
 Wenham tells us that in 1852 he obtained (by posing) 
 a series of views of a man at work ; but he also records 
 that when the views were synthesised into motion the 
 subject declared " he never worked like that ! " Du 
 Mont in 1861 seems to have first suggested chrono- 
 photography, and Janssen apparently first practised it 
 in 1 874, but neither could work rapidly enough to obtain 
 a series fit for recombination. The reproduction of 
 animated scenes was thus not possible until photographic 
 
228 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 emulsions of greater rapidity were produced ; manifestly 
 photographic chemists and plate-makers must receive 
 acknowledgment of a large share in the invention of 
 the Living Picture. Again, let the most rapid emulsion 
 be spread on glass, it is difficult — almost impossible — 
 to obtain an extended series of views. Bands were 
 suggested for carrying a long series of pictures by 
 Stampfer in 1833 and Desvignes in i860; the idea was. 
 in constant evidence from that time forward, but how 
 could it be applied in the taking of a photographic 
 record? Negative paper, improved as it now is, 
 possesses sufficient grain to render it practically useless 
 as a support for one-inch negatives destined to great 
 enlargement, it was still less suitable years ago. 
 Evidently, therefore, the inventor of celluloid should 
 receive his meed of praise, yet not he alone ; celluloid 
 was not invented for the service of the Living Picture, 
 indeed at first it was not suitable for photographic 
 purposes at all. When rendered fit for use as a photo- 
 graphic support, the Living Picture in no way came 
 into consideration ; celluloid was applied at first in the 
 ordinary manner as a substitute for glass plates of 
 ordinary sizes. 
 
 Given a celluloid film of indefinite length, the road 
 was opened for the inventors of mechanical appliances, 
 which should utilise it. Thus while we find Greene 
 and Evans were the first to publish and produce an 
 effective machine, yet it must not be forgotten that 
 others were working too ; in fact, Messrs. Donisthorpe 
 and Crofts were not two months behind the previously 
 mentioned inventors. Thus throughout the history of 
 the Living Picture names are associated rather with 
 details than with principles, which in fact seem generally 
 to have been pointed out long before the means existed 
 for carrying them to a practical issue. 
 
 In fact, throughout the course of the present century 
 
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE 229 
 
 the Living Picture has, in popular parlance, been "in 
 the air " ; similar ideas and methods have occurred 
 independently, sometimes simultaneously to separate 
 individuals, and this was almost necessarily so ; the facts 
 of the case demanded it. Given a series of connected 
 facts capable of leading in combination to one or two 
 well-defined results ; given a number of observers 
 equally interested and of similar capability — it is a 
 practical certainty that several will arrive at the same 
 conclusion, the more so as the field of possibility becomes 
 more restricted. In cases of this kind one observer may 
 reach the obvious conclusion before another ; that does 
 not prove his right to a national memorial and entry on 
 the roll of fame ; there is credit due to the man who 
 extracts a grain of sand from the machine and so renders 
 it workable ; he proves his industry and application, but 
 certainly cannot claim recognition as a genius. In 
 proportion as the elementary facts become more 
 numerous and complicated, so does the discovery fall 
 inevitably to the man of greater capability if the 
 solution be reached by reasoning ; if it be arrived at 
 by accident, that is a matter personal to the discoverer 
 — he is not bound to mention it! 
 
 To substantiate these views several examples taken 
 from the History of Living Pictures can easily be quoted. 
 Plateau and Stampfer invented the phenakistoscope 
 almost simultaneously. When we consider that the 
 subject of wheel phenomena had been before the world 
 for some years it is not surprising that the popular 
 introduction of the Thaumatrope should have caused 
 the idea of the phenakistoscope to crystallise, so to 
 speak, in the mind of more than one man. To come 
 to later years, a comparison of Acre's English invention 
 of May, 1895, with Miiller's German patent of August 
 in the same year will show an almost similar method 
 of dealing with the same problem. This is probably 
 
230 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 due to the fact that the solution was a fairly obvious 
 one. Marey had done the same thing less perfectly 
 in 1 890 ; he clamped the film and allowed it to be 
 drawn onward by a spring when the clamp was taken 
 off, Acres and Miiller put a roller on the end of the 
 spring. Certainly one device was effective, the other 
 was not ; but still in this, as in many other instances, 
 no great natural secret was brought to light. Take 
 another case, this time an application of the cinemato- 
 graph. It was early recognised that the zoetrope 
 afforded a means of varying the apparent rate of move- 
 ment of an object ; photographs of birds in flight 
 secured by Marey's photographic revolver were re- 
 combined at a slower speed in this manner, for the 
 purpose of leisurely inspection. Yet the subject 
 appears to have exercised a fascination of a wide- 
 spread character. M. Gueroult thought it worth while 
 in 1896 to demand the opening of a sealed packet,, 
 deposited with the Academie des Sciences in 1889, in 
 order to prove that he first evolved the idea. Mach, 
 Corday, and others have (or purport to have) photo- 
 graphed plants at long intervals and subsequently 
 combined the views rapidly ; much ink has been spilled, 
 much more will be expended, for the idea " is in the 
 air " and will remain there — it is of the obvious. 
 
 Every step forward renders the area of known facts, 
 wider, and attention is therefore at present more and 
 more confined to detail. There exists an almost 
 bewildering variety of mechanical devices directed to 
 one end by three or four ill-defined paths. Yet the 
 practical stage is attained. If unquestionable accuracy 
 is required, photography supplies it. Therefore the 
 cinematograph becomes a recording instrument of 
 historic importance, and the necessary arrangements 
 have already been taken in England to secure the 
 safety of sealed kine-negatives in the British Museum. 
 
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 231 
 
 By virtue of these precautions future generations will 
 be able to assist at the Diamond Jubilee of Queen 
 Victoria or the Funeral of Mr. Gladstone ; surely an 
 advance on the primitive method of depositing an 
 illustrated paper beneath a foundation-stone! At 
 present steps are being taken in France, by Matuszewski 
 and others, to secure a similarly responsible guardian- 
 ship of records of historic scenes. As exemplifying the 
 current aspect of history, it may be mentioned that a 
 kinetogram of the Pope's promenade in the Vatican 
 gardens has been considered far more effective than 
 even an official bulletin as an antidote to rumours of 
 ill-health. Yet " seeing is not always believing " ; and 
 rescues by lifeboat crews and desperate interior combats 
 in guerilla warfare must be taken with the proverbial 
 grain of salt. In practice there is no limit to the length 
 of scene capable of reproduction ; if so minded, one 
 could sit out a three-quarter hour prize-fight at the 
 Aquarium. If sensation is demanded, it is alleged that 
 one may have a strictly private exhibition of an 
 execution per guillotine ; but surely nothing more 
 terrible could be desired by the most morbid mind 
 than a view of the disaster at the " Albion " launch, 
 the horrors of which were repeated before an audience 
 at a London music-hall (to the strains of " Rocked in 
 the Cradle of the Deep " !) only thirty hours after the 
 breath had left the victims' bodies. 
 
 Science too is utilising cinematography to the full. 
 The solar eclipse, as seen in India, was destined to 
 reappear at command at a multitude of semi-scientific 
 soirees, and it is not to be charged against the cinemato- 
 graph that this pleasant anticipation was not realised ; 
 the undeveloped film was stolen on its journey home. 
 As an instance of the adaptation of the cinematograph 
 to popular science it may be mentioned that, under 
 M. Flammarion's direction, a large terrestrial globe 
 
232 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 was photographed during a rotation lasting two 
 minutes. When projected the effect, of course, was 
 that of the earth, as it would be seen by an observer 
 in space, but turning at increased speed. Motion under 
 the microscope has been reproduced by Mr. Watkins' 
 Micro-Motoscope, while some radio-kinetographs were 
 shown by Mr. Maclntyre at a conversazione of the Royal 
 Society. The chief scientific use of the cinematograph 
 will probably be found in its applicability to the study 
 of strains and stresses, a physical action being photo- 
 graphed at a high rate of speed and projected slowly 
 for purposes of inspection. Thus the launch of a ship, 
 or a girder subjected to breaking strain, form ideal 
 subjects for this kind of research, and both these 
 operations have been photographed successfully. En 
 passant it may be mentioned that leisurely inspection 
 of a film recording a feat by a celebrated conjurer 
 results in a demonstration of " how the trick is done '' ; 
 " the quickness of the hand deceives the eye," but does 
 not delude the impartial and accurate cinematograph. 
 Commercially too the cinematograph has its uses. Mr. 
 Freer, last March, at the Imperial Institute, showed a 
 series of films reproducing harvesting in Manitoba in 
 1897, and doubtless this method of encouraging 
 emigration is capable of great extension. So too there 
 is no doubt but that a military audience finds its 
 greatest delight in witnessing the evolutions of foreign 
 troops ; but it may be doubted whether an accurate 
 reproduction of the horrors of a battlefield would to 
 any great extent facilitate recruiting ; discretion is 
 required in Cinematography as well as in every other 
 path in life. 
 
 Yes, the practical stage is fully reached, but the 
 perfect is yet to come. It has already been declared 
 that accuracy of workmanship has quite as much, 
 probably more, to do with results than the principle 
 
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 233 
 
 of the machine. Yet, given good mechanical treatment 
 all round, there must be one or two types of existing 
 apparatus which will outdistance the others. Will the 
 shutter remain? How will flicker be overcome? 
 Perhaps by alternate and overlapping projection from 
 two lanterns using one film taken from one point of 
 view. Perhaps also the multiple lens travelling with a 
 continually moving film may prove its superiority. It 
 may be that none of the present types will persist ; some 
 new idea may carry the day. The use of a mirror to 
 render a travelling film optically stationary is quite a 
 recent suggestion, and though this single mirror must 
 be returned to its first position as each picture passes, 
 there are more unlikely things than the revival of 
 the praxinoscope type, the mirror-drum, which is in 
 continual rotation in one direction, needing no return 
 and rendering all images optically stationary. So too 
 the suggestion of a continually revolving camera, taking 
 a continuous view of the whole horizon or such part 
 as is left unshielded, needing no shutter and leaving 
 no period of darkness, having a film in constant motion 
 yet practically stationary, may conceivably be the 
 groundwork upon which a perfect, though somewhat 
 expensive, instrument may be built. But why prophesy ? 
 Facts in the past remain facts in the present, but the 
 future may be left to fate. If a long course of actuality 
 has had a somewhat sedative effect, if fiction is needed to 
 restore a somewhat wearied brain, let us leave prophecy, 
 which is so easily falsified by the reality of the future, 
 severely on one side, and glance at a living picture of 
 the weirdest type. In Flammarion's " Lumen," as also 
 in a little work introduced to English readers by the 
 late R. A. Proctor, the idea of persistence of light 
 rather than persistence of vision is elaborated. Light 
 and other vibrations to which our limited perceptions 
 afford no clue travel from this earth into space at a 
 
234 LIVING PIC TUBES. 
 
 definite velocity. So a continual record of the earth's 
 history in its slightest details is continually streaming 
 off into the eternal void, and, granted an eye capable 
 of perceiving an object under a minute angle, infinitely 
 sensible also to vibrations, it will be seen that at some 
 point or other in space everything that has happened 
 is yet visible. Grant this eye, or rather sense of vision, 
 a capability of infinite speed of translation, it might 
 retreat at the same speed as light and so keep the same 
 event for ever in view, it might approach the outward 
 travelling events and compress a lifetime into a moment. 
 The whole history, not of this world alone, but of every 
 sphere that is or has been, is still in vibrating existence, 
 and one universal perception extending through the 
 infinity would embrace within the tremblings of the 
 boundless ether a consciousness of all that was or is, 
 an eternal and universal living picture of all past events. 
 Having started from persistence of vision due to the 
 sluggish action of our mundane eyes or nerves, having 
 lost ourselves in fancied possibilities of the illimitable, 
 what remains for human thought and pen but the simple 
 word 
 
 FINIS ? 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL DIGEST OF BRITISH PATENTS. 
 
 Note. — Reference is made to all specifications of interest in connec- 
 tion with the subject of Living Pictures, dated up to and 
 including December, 1897, together with such further specifi- 
 cations dated 1898 as were published up to 31st December, 
 1898. Considerations of space confine the notices to bare 
 mention of the main features of the respective Patents. 
 
 i. Talbot, W. H. Fox-. No. 13,664. 12 June, 185 1. 
 Making instantaneous pictures of moving objects 
 by " the instantaneous light of an electric battery 
 . . . the rapidity of the motion not affecting 
 the accuracy of the delineation." [Subsequently 
 disclaimed.] 
 
 2. Claudet, A. F. J. No. 711. 23 March, 1853. 
 
 Series of views are seen through stereoscopic 
 eyepieces, which are alternately eclipsed by a 
 reciprocating slide. Pictures mounted radially 
 on two axes. 
 
 3. Jundzill, A. D. No. 1,245. 2 4 Ma y> l8 56. Two 
 
 revolving discs like the " Phanakisticope " or 
 " Sobroscope " [ ? Stroboscope] are combined by 
 stereoscopic eyepieces, being viewed in a mirror 
 and periodically occluded by a revolving slotted 
 disc. The apparatus is called the " Kinimoscope." 
 
 4. Benoist, P. No. 1,965. 23 August, 1856. Two 
 
 stereoscopic views exhibiting different phases of 
 a motion are placed at right angles, a " grooved 
 glass " [ ? transparent mirror] making an equal 
 angle between them. By slight reciprocating 
 action of this glass the two pictures are alter- 
 nately viewed, thus giving the effect of the 
 " Fenakisticope." [Specification very vague.] 
 
 5. Fisher, R., and Aspray, C. No. 2,258. 5 October, 
 
 1859. The two sides of a stereoscopic slide are 
 
231) LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 views of the same object in different positions. 
 Illusion of motion is produced by alternately 
 eclipsing each eyepiece. 
 
 6. DESVIGNES, P. H. No. 537. 27 February, i860. 
 
 Zoetrope and modifications. See pages 23 to 25, 
 
 44. 51- 
 
 7. SHAW, W. T. No. 1,260. 22 May, i860. An 
 
 apparatus " on the principle of the reflecting 
 stereoscope " [Wheatstone's] has (beside the 
 synchronously revolving picture discs) revolving 
 eye-discs which limit the time during which the 
 picture is seen. In a refracting [ordinary form] 
 instrument a revolving octagonal drum carries 
 the pictures, and a revolving slotted drum limits 
 the time of vision as well as confining the sight 
 of each eye to the view intended for it. 
 
 8. Du MONT, H. No. 1,457. 8 June, 1861. Repro- 
 
 ducing successive phases of a motion. See page 
 
 45- 
 
 9. BONELLI, G., and COOK, H. No. 2,063. 19 August, 
 
 1863. Series of small views are mounted on the 
 edge of a disc and viewed through microscope, 
 the disc being rotated in unison with perforated 
 eyepiece. 
 
 10. Bonelli, G. No. 1,588. 12 June, 1865. Much 
 
 the same as preceding. Complete states that 
 separate lens is necessary for each picture. [That 
 is to say, this is a microscopic double-disc phena- 
 kistoscope with a lens inserted in each slot] 
 
 11. BRADLEY, M. No. 629. 6 March, 1867. Zoetrope 
 
 of modern form with slots above designs. 
 
 12. EDWARDS, E. No. 849. 23 March, 1867. Suc- 
 
 cessive small pictures taken instantaneously on 
 same plate. [Vague Chrono-photography.] 
 
 13. ROSE, W. W. No. 3,156. 8 November, 1867. 
 
 Zoetrope. Spindle runs down into stand. 
 
 14. HARTLEY, F. W. No. 46. 7 January, 1868. Sug- 
 
 gestion for application " by means of the 
 ' phenakistiscope ' " of varying pictures in series 
 instead of ordinary lantern slides. [No apparatus 
 described.] 
 
 15. LlNNETT, J. B. No. 925. 18 March, 1868. Book- 
 
 form. See page 35. Leaves may be printed 
 
BRITISH PATENTS. 237 
 
 both sides, giving two series. Called " Kineo- 
 graph " on drawings. 
 
 16. MAURICE, J. No. 1,049. V March, 1868. Com- 
 
 bined use of transparent mirror and " phana- 
 kistiscope," " sobroscope," etc. The series of 
 images may be drawn on endless bands. [Very 
 vague.] 
 
 17. LANGLOIS AND Co. No. 1,443. 2 May, 1868. 
 
 Kinescope. See page 33. Other forms described. 
 
 18. ROSS, T. No. 681. 6 March, 1869. Magic lantern 
 
 slides. Two discs are employed revolving in 
 opposite directions ; one transparent bearing 
 figures, the other opaque with slots. [Very 
 vague.] 
 
 19. TREVOR, D. No. 2,193. 20 July, 1869. Radial 
 
 series of pictures taken on revolving sensitised 
 disc. 
 
 20. Ross, T. No. 2,685. 10 October, 1871. Lantern 
 
 Wheel of Life. See page 19. 
 
 21. RAY, A. No. 100. 8 January, 1874. A stereo- 
 
 scopic slide has its two views differing, they being 
 taken at opposed phases of any motion. The 
 views are rapidly and alternately eclipsed, so that 
 while the first phase persists in one eye the second 
 phase is revealed to the other, or the views are 
 alternately hidden from sight by the action of a 
 pendulum or oscillating beam. It is also sug- 
 gested to print one design in red and the other 
 in green, and view them through rapidly recipro- 
 cated screens of the same colours. 
 
 22. Donisthorpe, W. No. 4,344. 9 November, 1876. 
 
 A series of pictures is taken on a set of plates, 
 each of which is dropped from an upper chamber 
 into a lower after exposure. The shutter is 
 geared to cover lens during plate-changing. 
 Prints from these negatives may be mounted in 
 series and viewed in the zoetrope, etc., or placed 
 on a band arranged to be reeled off one roller 
 on to another, any suitable device being used to 
 obtain momentary views of the successive pic- 
 tures. This apparatus was subsequently called 
 the " Kinesigraph." 
 
238 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 23. REYNAUD, C. E. No. 4,244. 13 November, 1877. 
 
 Praxinoscope and Praxinoscope Theatre. See 
 pages 26-29. A fixed screen may be placed so 
 as to leave only one image visible at a time. 
 
 24. MUYBRIDGE, E. No. 2,746. 9 July, 1878. In- 
 
 stantaneous photography. Arrangement as de- 
 scribed on page 49. [Name is mis-spelled 
 " Maybridge " in Patent] 
 
 25. Edwards, B. J. No. 10,226. 16 July, 1884. 
 
 Lantern-slide changer worked by one-toothed 
 cam and having shutter. 
 
 26. Hughes, W. C. No. 13,372. 9 October, 1884. 
 
 Choreutoscope. See page 20. 
 
 27. Melville, A. A. No. 14,917. 17 November, 
 
 1886. Book -form. Called "Living Picture 
 Book " on drawings. Several sets of designs 
 may be bound radially. 
 
 28. Le Prince, L. A. A. No. 423. 10 January, 1888. 
 
 Battery camera and projector. See page 52. 
 A single-lens form with sprocket-actuated per- 
 forated film is suggested. 
 
 29. Potter, E. T. No. 14,171. 2 October, 1888. 
 
 Continuous lantern slides drawn from upper to 
 lower spool by clockwork intermittent gear. 
 
 30. ADAMS, W. P. No. 16,785. 19 November, 1888. 
 
 Continuous lantern slides. See page 64. 
 
 31. REYNAUD, C. E. No. 2,295. 8 February, 1889. 
 
 Band-form Praxinoscope. See pages 29-30. 
 
 32. Greene, W. F., and Evans, M. No. 10,131. 21 
 
 June, 1889. Taking series of instantaneous 
 photographs. See page 65. The shutter con- 
 sists of two oscillating blades. 
 
 33. Donisthorpe, W., and Crofts, W. C. No. 12,921. 
 
 15 August, 1889. Cameras and projection ap- 
 paratus. See page 67. 
 
 34. BRENNAN, L. No. 2,623. 18 February, 1890. 
 
 Animated pictures. A long strip of paper, etc., 
 is carried in zig-zag manner between two frames 
 of rods standing at a distance from each other. 
 It will be seen that (the outside of the rods being 
 covered by portions of the paper strip) the front 
 of either frame will present a plain surface which 
 is made up of widely separated portions of the 
 
BRITISH PA TENTS. 239 
 
 long strip brought into contact by the method of 
 winding in and out the two frames of rods. A 
 picture may then be painted or a photograph 
 transferred to this whole surface. If the end of 
 the paper strip be pulled slightly the whole strip 
 will move, and therefore all the separate painted 
 portions will pass behind the rods, which are 
 again covered by the following portions of white 
 paper, thus forming a new white surface ready 
 to receive a painting of the next stage of the 
 action it is desired to represent. This operation 
 is repeated to any desired extent. It will now 
 be seen that if this strip (composed of minute 
 sections) is rapidly drawn through the grille of 
 rods the succeeding pictures will rapidly replace 
 each other, the change taking place simul- 
 taneously over the whole extent of the picture. 
 Mechanical arrangements for securing precision 
 are described. 
 
 35. EVANS, M. No. 3,730. 8 March, 1890. Camera 
 
 as on page 69. A brake may also be periodically 
 applied to the driving-roller, or a frictional gear 
 disconnected. 
 
 36. VARLEY, F. H. No. 4,704. 26 March, 1890. Ap- 
 
 paratus as on page 70. The spools are spring- 
 driven and provided with ratchets to prevent 
 back-motion. Revolving disc shutter. 
 
 37. Phillips, E. P., and Courteen, H. No. 4,978. 
 
 31 March, 1890. Advertising Zoetrope rotated 
 by hot air from lamp. 
 
 38. Demeney, G. No. 15,709. 1 September, 1892. 
 
 Phonoscope. See pages 61-62. 
 
 39. BlCKLE, T. E. No. 20,281. 10 November, 1892. 
 
 Toy somewhat like the Pedemascope (page 33), 
 but spring-actuated, the periodic rests being 
 given by pendulum escapement. More than 
 two surfaces may be used. 
 
 40. Electrical Wonder Co. (O. Anschutz). No 
 
 23,042. 14 December, 1892. Electrical Tachy- 
 scope and Electric Wonder. See page 50. 
 
 41. Hawkins, W. J. No. 7,609. 14 April, 1893. 
 
 Advertising. Series of lantern pictures on drum 
 rotated by escapement. The drum is free to 
 
240 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 turn every time clockwork lifts a pin from a slot 
 in the drum-edge. 
 
 42. DEMENEY, G. No. 12,794. 30 June, 1893. Methods 
 
 of mounting views in apparatus above (38). 
 Stereoscopic device described. 
 
 43. Chasseraux, E. No. 16,785. 6 September, 1893. 
 
 Advertising. Set of transparencies on disc rotated 
 by clockwork. An escapement pawl is periodi- 
 cally lifted by the inclined teeth of a ratchet- 
 wheel. 
 
 44. Greene, W. F. No. 22,954. 29 November, 1893. 
 
 Apparatus shown on page 84. 
 
 45. Davy, C. H. No. 24,031. 14 December, 1893. 
 
 Combined musical-box and zoetrope. 
 
 46. DEMENEY, G. No. 24,457. 19 December, 1893. 
 
 Chronophotographe. See pages 83-84. 
 
 47. COLLINGS, J. H. No. 6,780. 5 April, 1894. 
 
 Advertising. Transparencies on disc are inter- 
 mittently rotated by electrically actuated pawl 
 and ratchet-gear. 
 
 48. Mackusick, E. F. No. 6,866. 6 April, 1894. 
 
 Machine for continuous development, etc., of 
 long films. [Quoted as typical. There are 
 many others.] 
 
 49. ANDERTON, J., and LOMAX, A. No. 25,100. 27 
 
 December, 1 894. Kinetoscopes. Prisms are used 
 to divert rays in order to afford separate points 
 of view for several observers. 
 
 50. WRAY, C. No. 182. 3 January, 1895. Prisms are 
 
 used to enable the objective of projection ap- 
 paratus to be placed at right angles to lantern- 
 body and screen. 
 
 51. Lumiere, A. AND L. No. 7,187. 8 April, 1895. 
 
 Cinematograph. See pages 95 and 201. For 
 projection a translucent shutter is used. 
 
 52. HOUGH, J. E. No. 9,881. 18 May, 1895. Drum- 
 
 form apparatus. See Fig. 98. 
 
 53. ACRES, B. No. 10,474. 27 May, 1895. Kinetic 
 
 Lantern. See Fig. 97. 
 
 54. European Blair Camera Co. and Blair, T. H. 
 
 No. 12,458. 27 June, 1895. Camera, etc., as 
 in Figs. 99 to 102. 
 
BRITISH PATENTS. 241 
 
 55. CASLER, H. No. 14,439. 30 July, 1895. Muto- 
 
 scope. See Fig. 41. 
 
 56. GREENE, W. F. No. 17,930. 25 September, 1895. 
 
 Serial Camera. See Fig. no. The apparatus 
 may be used for projection. 
 
 57. Farnum, W. C. No. 18,317. 1 October, 1895. 
 
 A vertical shaft carries a radiating set of picture- 
 cards, jointed to it by springs. As the shaft 
 revolves a card is held back so as to be fully 
 seen, and then released so as to fly round quickly 
 and expose the next picture of the series. 
 Apparatus called the " Tropograph." 
 
 58. Joly, H. No. 18,695. 5 October, 1895. Date 
 
 claimed, 26 August, 1895. Apparatus as in 
 Figs. 108 and 109. A rotary disc, pierced near 
 its periphery, is used as a shutter. 
 
 59. FARNUM, W. C. No. 19,331. 15 October, 1895. 
 
 Viviscope. See page 41. 
 
 60. Armat, T. No. 359. 6 January, 1896. Apparatus 
 
 designed to effect the change from one picture 
 to another so rapidly that a shutter is dispensed 
 with. Intermittent gear as Fig. 117, or dog- 
 motion. Adjustable spring " gate." Disc-form 
 also described. [Drawings have great resem- 
 blance to " Edison Vitascope " as shown in 
 " Scientific American."] 
 
 61. Short, H. W. No. 3,777. 19 February, 1896. 
 
 Sprocket-roller intermittently actuated by worm- 
 gearing, part of the worm being cut away. 
 
 62. PAUL, R. W. No. 4,686. 2 March, 1896. Motion 
 
 as in Fig. 120. The upper sprocket-wheel may 
 have a spring connection with its axle so that 
 it may give slightly to compensate slight 
 irregularities in perforation. By adding an extra 
 sprocket the machine may be made reversible, 
 and marginal pressure-pads are used in the 
 " gate." Segmental cylinder shutter used. See 
 page 176. 
 6^,. Latham, W. No. 4,841. 3 March, 1896. Pro- 
 jection apparatus with parts which slide and 
 clamp as on an optical bench. Conical bellows 
 body limits light to area of picture. Film travels 
 continuously, but as each picture is accurately 
 
 R 
 
242 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 centred an aperture in revolving disc allows light 
 to pass, the shutter being so placed as to act 
 on the most condensed portion of the beam. 
 
 64. SYMONS, W. No. 5,759. 14 March, 1896. Pro- 
 
 ducing illusion of motion in the manner described 
 under " Motograph " moving picture book, page 
 
 65. De Bedts, G. W. No. 6,503. 24 March, 1896. 
 
 Date claimed, 14 January, 1896. Motion as in 
 Fig. 116. See also page 184. 
 
 66. RlGG, J. H., and KUMBERG, E. O. No. 6,731. 27 
 
 March, 1896. Motion as in Fig. 123. See also 
 page 150. 
 
 67. COLLINGS, J. H. No. 6,732. 27 March, 1896. 
 
 Improvements on (47) above. 
 
 68. LUMIERE, A. and L. No. 7,801. 13 April, 1896. 
 
 Improved Cinematographe, Fig. 95. Shutter 
 as in Fig. 226. 
 
 69. Sanson, G. R. No. 7,809. 13 April, 1896. See 
 
 the Cinecosmorama, page 162. 
 
 70. Oulton, J., Shaw, W., and Adams, R. H. No. 
 
 7,817. 14 April, 1896. Motion as Fig. 121. 
 Other arrangements also shown, such as friction- 
 rollers engaging pins, etc. Shutter actuated by 
 cam and lever, being returned by a spring. Film 
 may be perforated transversely. 
 
 71. BONN, J. No. 8,418. 21 April, 1896. Inter- 
 
 mittent motion practically the same as Fig. 113. 
 
 72. Parnaland, A. F. No. 10,006. 11 May, 1896. 
 
 Spring roller and escapement. A transverse 
 axis operates the shutter by means of a cam 
 and connecting-rod. Attached to the same axis 
 is an escapement mechanism consisting of two 
 cam - actuated plungers acting on a double 
 ratchet-wheel. One plunger serves as escape- 
 ment, the other as a stop, and this action is 
 alternate. Systems of film - perforation are 
 described. 
 
 73. PETIT, A. N. No. 10,778. 19 May, 1896. Motion 
 
 as in Fig. 105. Inspection apparatus as Figs. 
 1 1 1 and 1 1 2. 
 
 74. Maskelyne, J. N. No. 11,639. 28 Ma y> l8 9 6 - 
 
 See the Mutagraph, page 146. 
 
BRITISH PATENTS. 243 
 
 75. TERME, J., and MAROUSSEM, A. de. No. 11,836. 
 
 30 May, 1896. A frictionally driven sprocket- 
 roller bears stops which come in contact with 
 a spring - lever. A cam on the driving - shaft 
 presses the lever back at intervals, thus releasing 
 the sprocket-roller. Rotary segmental shutter. 
 
 76. Reich, T. No. 12,128. 3 June, 1896. Two 
 
 motions described. One ratchet and pawl some- 
 what similar to Fig. 130. In the other form a 
 rising and falling frame has a cam-surface which 
 at stated intervals presses a claw-lever against 
 or away from the film. 
 yy. Blair, T. H. No. 13,284. 16 June, 1896. A long 
 shutter slides vertically, and is provided with a 
 roller on its top-edge. Towards the end of its 
 upward stroke, when an opaque portion covers 
 the lens aperture, this roller strikes the film and 
 draws it onward one picture-length. The loop 
 thus formed is taken up by the receiving-spool, 
 the film meanwhile remaining stationary. To 
 prevent exposure on the return stroke of the 
 shutter, the aperture is provided with a cover- 
 plate, which is only lifted when the shutter moves 
 in one direction. 
 
 78. Parnaland, A. F. No. 13,642. 20 June, 1896. 
 
 Spring-tooth. See Fig. 179. 
 
 79. Richards, G. No. 14,455. 30 June, 1896. The 
 
 film is driven by two sprocket-wheels, one before 
 and one after the lens opening. These two 
 sprocket-wheels are rotated by a cogged wheel, 
 which is itself intermittently actuated by a 
 drunken screw. The take-up spool is frictionally 
 driven to allow of slipping, and a form of spool 
 with loose sides is described. 
 
 :8o. Heinze, H. J. No. 15,603. 14 July, 1896. Motion 
 as Fig. 129. A cam-actuated grip steadies the 
 film during upward stroke of rollers. Shutter 
 perforated or made of wire-gauze. In the latter 
 case, two thicknesses may shift over one another 
 in order to vary the amount of light passing. 
 Special spool-box as Fig. 240. 
 
 :8i. Routledge, W., Rosenberg, A., and McDonald, 
 W. No. 16,080. 21 July, 1896. Motion as in 
 Fig. 124. See also page 143. 
 
244 LIVING PICTUEES. 
 
 82. Harrison, G. H. and T. J. No. 17,049. 1 August* 
 
 1896. Motion as in Fig. 122 is applied to a 
 wheel which drives upper and lower sprocket- 
 wheels, between which the film is stretched. 
 
 83. Greene, W. F., and Prestwich, J. A. No. 17,224. 
 
 4 August, 1896. Motion as in Fig. 127. See 
 also page 168. Double projection positives arc- 
 printed from ordinary negatives by running 
 through first with double spacing and then 
 running a second time to fill the alternate 
 spaces. Adjustment by turning the dead-wheel 
 of the epicyclic motion by hand. Duplicate 
 form described. 
 
 84. BLAIR, T. H. No. 17,505. 7 August, 1896. The 
 
 film is driven by two sprockets, one feed, one 
 take-up, both continuous. Between these the- 
 film is sufficiently slack to allow an intermittent 
 feed to be given by an arm rocked from an 
 eccentric. Another eccentric forces pins into the 
 perforations to steady the film during exposure. 
 These pins have taper points which act to finally 
 adjust the film. 
 
 85. Peschek, J., Chard, G. H., and Ackermann, H. 
 
 No. 17,848. 12 August, 1896. The intermittent 
 motion of the film is effected by a lever con- 
 nected to a plate carrying pins, or a rubber pad 
 which presses on the film. The lever has a side- 
 motion which drives a wedge into another wedge- 
 piece on the plate, thus forcing it against the 
 film, the vertical movement of the lever drawing 
 the film down by means of the pins or pad. A 
 return sideway movement releases the wedge- 
 action, and the plate is forced back free of the- 
 film by a spring, and is carried up by the lever 
 ready for another stroke. Either a rotary or 
 hinged shutter is employed, the latter being a 
 frame covered with tissue paper, etc. 
 
 86. Wrench, A. No. 17,881. 12 August, 1896. 
 
 Motion as in Fig. 131. See also page 165. 
 
 87. Schmidt, C. W., and Christophe, A. No. 18,884. 
 
 26 August, 1896. Instead of using flexible film, 
 a series of glass plates is fed to the lens from 
 an upper chamber and passed into a lower one 
 
BRITISH PA TENTS. 245 
 
 after exposure. Each plate may receive several 
 impressions, and is contained in a special metal 
 carrier. Several devices are shown for effecting 
 the necessary step-by-step motion. 
 
 •"88. WRAY, C. No. 19,181. 31 August, 1896. A 
 compact apparatus capable of insertion in an 
 ordinary lantern stage. Motion as Fig. 141. 
 
 Sg. KORSTEN, L., Melies, G., and R.EULOS, L. No. 
 19,446. 2 September, 1896. Kinetograph. See 
 page 158. 
 
 ■go. GRUNOW, W. No. 19,726. 7 September, 1896. 
 Continuous development. Long band driven by 
 rollers through various baths and drying-chamber. 
 [Quoted as example only.] 
 
 91. Melville, A. A. No. 20,136. 11 September, 1896. 
 Book-form apparatus. A U-shaped clip is em- 
 ployed, one leg being longer than the other. 
 The long leg is passed into a recess in one 
 cover of the book, and there secured. The 
 shorter leg is tipped with rubber, and retains 
 the leaves in the bend of the U. When the 
 book-cover is bent back the leaves escape in a 
 regular manner. 
 
 ■92. Joly, M. J. H. No. 21,381. 26 September, 1896. 
 Date claimed, 17 March, 1896. Motion as in 
 Fig. 128. See also Figs. 158 and 159. 
 
 93. Joly, M. J. H. No. 21,382. 26 September, 1896. 
 Date claimed 23 July, 1896. See the Joly- 
 Normandin Cinematographe, Fig. 157. 
 
 •94. Joly, M. J. H. No. 21,383. 26 September, 1896. 
 Printing positives. See Fig. 222. 
 
 95. Heinze, H. J. No. 22,627. 12 October, 1896. 
 
 Motion as Fig. 142. Means for varying the feed 
 and " preliminary enlarging lenses " are described. 
 
 96. Newman, A. S., and Newman and Guardia, 
 
 Limited. No. 22,707. 13 October, 1896. 
 Motion as in Fig. 140. The film is also fed 
 continuously into a funnel-shaped passage, and 
 there assumes a wavy form, which assists the 
 feed by acting as a spring. The pins fitting the 
 perforations are flexibly mounted. 
 •97. Greene, W. F. No. 22,928. 15 October, 1896. 
 Motion as Fig. 144, or a roller on the end of a 
 
246 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 rotating arm may strike the film. The driving- 
 sprockets are adjustable, and the whole front of 
 the machine is hinged to facilitate placing the 
 film. The film is secured to the winding-rollers 
 by a clip which may slip under undue tension. 
 
 98. LUMIERE, A. and L. No. 23,183. 19 October, 
 
 1896. The " Kinora." See page 39. 
 
 99. La Pipe, A. No. 26,765. 25 November, 1896. 
 
 Date claimed, 8 September, 1896. Motion as 
 Fig. 132. See also Fig. 162. 
 
 100. WERNER, E. and M. No. 27,585. 3 December, 
 
 1896. Head of claw guided by D-grooves. See 
 Figs. 138 and 139. 
 
 101. Naish, J. W. L. No. 28,799. J 6 December, 1896. 
 
 See page 162. Shutter as shown in Fig. 230. 
 
 102. GAUTIER, P. . No. 212. 4 January, 1 897. Sprocket- 
 
 roller bears ratchet, which is advanced step by 
 step by means of a pawl on a lever swung from 
 an eccentric. Locking-pawl lifted by projection 
 on same lever. May be driven by clockwork. 
 
 103. HUGHES, W. C. No. 449. 7 January, 1897. 
 
 Multiple-wick incandescent oil-lamp suitable for 
 use with cinematographs. 
 
 104. SMITH, J. H. No -886. 12 January, 1897. The 
 
 whole of the mechanism is contained in a 
 drum-shaped casing pierced with equally spaced 
 openings, the whole drum acting as a multiple 
 shutter. The film is paid out and stored in the 
 usual way, and the feed is accomplished by a 
 revolving eccentric which strikes the film. Two 
 films may be used side by side, a double series 
 of non-coincident openings being provided in 
 the drum for the purpose of obtaining a series 
 of pictures overlapping in point of time. The 
 apparatus may be used for printing and also 
 projecting, in which case the projecting lens is 
 placed in the interior of the apparatus. 
 
 105. Obelt, T. VAN H. No. 1,039. H January, 
 
 1897. Motion as Fig. 119. Inventor says 
 other machines are called the " Cineamatascope," 
 " Cinimatograph," etc., but he proposes to call 
 his the "Vitascope." 
 
 106. OBELT, T. VAN H. No. 1,216. 16 January, 1897. 
 
 A " claw " actuated by a cam is used to move 
 
BRITISH PATENTS. 247 
 
 the film intermittently ; but instead of being 
 inserted, as usual, from the back, the prongs are 
 passed through a front plate below the lens, and 
 engage with the film perforations when the film 
 is held forward by a spring plate, to which the 
 film is held down by rollers. At such times as 
 the film is required to be at rest this spring plate 
 is forced back by a cam or electro-magnetic 
 action, thus drawing the film away from the 
 claw. Several modifications described. Shutter 
 as Fig. 228. 
 
 107. COPP, C. P. No. 2,204. 27 January, 1897. Very 
 
 vague description of apparatus " on the principle 
 of the Wheel of Life." 
 
 108. RATEAU, A. No. 5,026. 24 February, 1897. 
 
 Motion as in Fig. 134. Special driving and 
 tension devices. 
 
 109. Koopman, E. B. No. 5,995. 6 March, 1897. In 
 
 this machine all parts are in continuous motion 
 except the film itself. The film passes over a 
 feed-drum and is drawn down at a regular 
 rate by two friction-rollers below the exposure- 
 aperture, these rollers rotating at a surface speed 
 twice as great as that of the feed-drum. The 
 film is normally clipped by a spring-clamp above 
 the exposure-aperture, and when this is the case 
 the friction-rollers merely slip over the surface 
 of the film, but when the clamp is taken off by 
 a revolving pin the friction of the rollers rapidly 
 draws the film down, the slack which had 
 accumulated behind the clamp coming forward 
 ready for the next exposure. Unperforated 
 films are used, but a punch makes two holes, 
 one each side of each picture while in position, 
 thus providing a means of absolute registration 
 in the subsequent preparation of the picture. 
 
 no. Parnaland, A. F. No. 6,202. 9 March, 1897. 
 Improvements on (78) above. Spring steadying- 
 frame for film and methods of reciprocating the 
 claw-frame. 
 
 in. Bernstein, F. No. 6,536. 12 March, 1897. 
 Motion very similar to Fig. 1 1 8, but disc bears 
 two pegs and two raised curves for steadying. 
 Shutter as Fig. 231. 
 
248 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 112. Duncan, J. H. H., and Reich, T. No. 7,635. 
 
 24 March, 1897. Motion as Fig. 130. Cam- 
 actuated punch perforates strip at time of ex- 
 posure, and may be thrown out of action when 
 apparatus is used for projection. 
 
 113. O'Neill, J., and McNally, R. No. 8,572. 3 
 
 April, 1897. Ordinary book-form apparatus. 
 
 114. ACRES, B. No. 10,603. 2 % April, 1897. Alter- 
 
 nate apparatus. See Figs. 176 and 177. 
 
 115. Baxter, C. W., Wray, C, and Oulton, J. No. 
 
 11,273. 6 May, 1897. Double spring-pawl as 
 Fig- 135- Frame reciprocated by snail-cam and 
 drawn down by spring. 
 
 116. HEPWORTH, C. M. No. 11,923. 13 May, 1897. 
 
 Automatic exhibiting apparatus. See Fig. 241. 
 
 117. GRAYSON, C. No. 12,052. 15 May, 1897. Lens 
 
 mounted in sliding box-frame, and inspection- 
 opening glazed ruby to allow image to be 
 focussed on the film itself. 
 
 118. CASLER, H. No. 12,175. l 7 May, 1897. Date 
 
 claimed, 27 March, 1897. See page 151. 
 
 119. CASLER, H. No. 12,391. 19 May, 1897. Muto- 
 
 scopes. Improvements on (55) above. See Figs. 
 36, 39, 40, and 42. Other slight modifications 
 described. 
 
 120. Latham, W. No. 12,785. 24 May, 1897. A 
 
 pair of rollers feeds the film frictionally. One 
 roller is rubber - coated and drives the other. 
 Means are provided for varying the pressure 
 between the rollers, and so altering the speed 
 in order to compensate for irregularities in the 
 film. Adjustable dog, see Fig. 143. 
 
 121. Campbell, C. M. No. 12,911. 25 May, 1897. 
 
 See page 152. 
 
 122. Porter, T. C. No. 12,921. 25 May, 1897. 
 
 Double projection apparatus for kinetographic 
 and other purposes. Observers look through 
 occluding eyepieces synchronised with the pro- 
 jection shutters. 
 
 123. CORTHESY, J. H. No. 13,826. 5 June, 1897. 
 
 Book-form and rotary-leaf apparatus. The leaves 
 are bound or fastened at an angle to the binding 
 or band in order that they may turn over more 
 rapidly. 
 
BRITISH PATENTS. 249 
 
 124. Noble, C. S., and Liddell, F. No. 14,861. 19 
 
 June, 1897. A reciprocating roller strikes the 
 film in order to move it intermittently. To 
 secure regular action this roller is mounted on 
 arms swung from the same axis as the take-up 
 sprocket, and its motions are so timed as to 
 keep it in constant contact with the film. The 
 spool axles are prolonged in order to allow 
 one film to be rewound while another is being 
 exhibited. 
 
 125. CASLER, H. No. 16,388. 10 July, 1897. Date 
 
 claimed, 10 December, 1896. The Mutograph. 
 See page 135. 
 
 126. Darling, A., and Wrench, A. No. 17,248. 21 
 
 July, 1897. Motion as Fig. 136. This one 
 double-action cam raises, lowers, inserts, and 
 withdraws the claw. A shutter composed of 
 segments sliding over one another is also de- 
 scribed. By these means the area of the shutter 
 may be varied. 
 
 127. SANDOW, E. No. 17,565. 27 July, 1897. Claims 
 
 taking one set of stereoscopic and another set 
 of single views on same film, for kinetoscopes 
 or other purposes. 
 
 128. BELLET, F. No. 17,747. 28 July, 1897. Means 
 
 for throwing two cogged wheels in and out of 
 gear with another central one by mounting them 
 on a rocking plate. Said to be applicable to all 
 apparatus in which a film or band is wound up 
 in either direction. 
 
 129. RATEAU, A. No. 18,014. 31 July, 1897. Im- 
 
 provements on (108) above. See Fig. 171. In 
 addition, means for governing speed are de- 
 scribed such as varying the air-pressure in a 
 cylinder the piston of which is connected to a 
 rotating part ; and a mirror may be interposed 
 in the path of the light for the purpose of 
 exhibiting titles, etc. 
 
 130. DRITTLER, B., and ERLANGER, M. No. 18,610. 
 
 1 1 August, 1 897. Rotary apparatus. See Fig. 
 
 45- 
 
 131. Jones, W. J. H. No. 19,278. 20 August, 1897. 
 
 The apparatus is called the " Excelograph." 
 
250 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 The film is drawn down by the grip of two 
 rubber-faced rollers. One of these rollers is 
 periodically revolved by the stroke of a toothed 
 quadrant gearing with cogs on the same axle as 
 the roller. The latter is prevented from turning 
 backward on the return of the quadrant by a 
 ratchet. The quadrant is caused to make inter- 
 mittent strokes by the action of a stud on a 
 revolving disc, such action being direct or through 
 intermediate levers. 
 
 132. Neve, C. R. No. 19,805. 28 August, 1897. 
 
 Alternate exposure or projection. Two films, 
 running side by side, are alternately moved by 
 tappet-levers. One shutter serves the two lenses. 
 
 133. Kronke, E. No. 20,936. 11 September, 1897. 
 
 Hand-camera. One pressure on a lever makes 
 exposure and changes plate, or rotates film- 
 spool. Said to be suitable for producing series 
 of pictures for use in kinetoscopes. 
 
 134. Morrison, H. No. 21,408. 18 September, 1897. 
 
 Kinematograph. [Not yet accepted. Title in- 
 cluded to complete the year 1897.] 
 
 135. ELKAN, A., and STERNBERG, J. No. 22,558. 1 
 
 October, 1897. A variable groove on the edge 
 of a rotating disc engages with pins projecting 
 from the end of the sprocket-wheel. Methods 
 of adjusting film, etc., are described. 
 
 136. LANGHAM, A. B. No. 22,763. 5 October, 1897. 
 
 Mutoscopic coin-freed apparatus having views 
 mounted in special metal clips and passing over 
 a pulley the diameter of which is four times as 
 great as the distance between successive views, 
 which thus stand separated for inspection by a 
 space of 90 degrees. 
 
 137. Lambert, J. No. 23,231. 9 October, 1897. Toy 
 
 disc bearing ornamental or other designs, and 
 working on ordinary phenakistoscopic principles. 
 
 138. Schwarz, A. No. 23,897. 16 October, 1897. 
 
 Developing, etc. Means for feeding exposed 
 photographic strips through a number of adjacent 
 baths by fixing such strips to travelling bands 
 moving horizontally in a serpentine or zig-zag 
 manner. [Quoted as sample only.] 
 
BRITISH PATENTS. 251 
 
 139. Edwards, R. H. No. 24,273. 20 October, 1897. 
 
 The continuously moving film is led over two 
 rollers, the reciprocating motion of which periodi- 
 cally neutralises the proper motion of the film. 
 This reciprocation may be vertical or horizontal, 
 and several arrangements are shown. 
 
 140. Hymmen, O. No. 24,804. 26 October, 1897. 
 
 Claims making double series of views on cine- 
 matograph bands, etc., for stereoscopic purposes. 
 Also, in book-form apparatus the two views are 
 placed one on the right and one on the left of 
 each opening of the book. 
 
 141. Moy, E. R, and Harrison, G. H. No. 25,625. 
 
 4 November, 1897. Motion as Fig. 137. 
 
 142. GRIVOLAS, C. No. 27,038. 18 November, 1897. 
 
 Date claimed, 20 April, 1897. Motion as Fig. 
 133. Modifications are described. Among 
 others, cams may be fitted to cause the two 
 rollers (mounted on arms) to have an opening 
 and shutting jaw-movement in order to grip the 
 film periodically. 
 
 143. WIGHT, N. No 27,375. 22 November, 1897. A 
 
 reel apparatus in enclosed case applicable for 
 the development of cartridge films, and also for 
 the subsequent fixing and washing. [Quoted as 
 example. Not directly stated as applicable to 
 cinematograph films.] 
 
 144. Nelson, N. No. 27,505. 23 November, 1897. 
 
 Spiral camera and lantern. See page 153. 
 
 145. Newman, A. S., and Newman and Guardia, 
 
 LIMITED. No. 27,542. 23 November, 1897. 
 Improvements on (96) above. See page 179. 
 
 146. MORRISON, J. A. No. 28,033. 2 9 November, 
 
 1897. Cam-release for series of transparencies 
 adapted for projecting advertisements, etc. 
 
 147. GREENE, W. F. No. 29,363. 11 December, 1897. 
 
 Exhibiting animated pictures on advertising, etc., 
 devices carried on the person. 
 
 148. Summers, A. No. 29,694. 15 December, 1897. 
 
 Instantaneously changing slides for magic and 
 other view projecting lanterns. [Still pending. 
 Included to complete list for year 1897.] 
 
 149. MOON, H. H. No. 441. 6 January, 1898. Star- 
 
 wheel driven by pawl-like action of the bevelled 
 
252 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 end of a lever, oscillated from a pin on a crank 
 disc. 
 
 150. HUGHES, W. C. No. 681. 10 January, 1898. 
 
 For main features of this patent see page 140. 
 Shutter as Figs. 227 and 229. 
 
 151. Miller, W. V., Rice, G. P., and Dunn, E. B. 
 
 No. 5,485. 5 March, 1898. One cam acting on 
 a lever inserts and withdraws a bolt to lock 
 the sprocket-wheel, while another periodically 
 shifts a rocking-shaft into engagement with the 
 sprocket-wheel. Thus the sprocket-wheel is 
 first locked, then a forward motion drives teeth 
 into holes in its side, thus connecting it with the 
 shaft. The bolt is then withdrawn, the shaft 
 makes a turn and rotates the sprocket-wheel, 
 which is again locked by the bolt. The 
 shaft then withdraws from engagement with 
 the sprocket - wheel, and rocks back to its 
 previous position ready to recommence the cycle 
 of movement above described. 
 
 152. KAMM, L. U. No. 6,515. 17 March, 1898. Cine- 
 
 matographic spiral cameras and projectors. The 
 plate is intermittently rotated by a variable screw 
 and traversed by a cog on the end of its axle 
 rolling along a rack as the plate rotates. Special 
 two-sector shutter described. 
 
 153. Hughes, W. C. No. 6,724. 19 March, 1898. 
 
 Photo-rotoscope Peep-show. See Fig. 242. 
 
 154. Parsonage, C. No. 8,286. 7 April, 1898. End- 
 
 less band of metal carriers for lantern slides 
 intermittently moved by clockwork. 
 
 155. Taylor, E. Z. No. 8,661. 13 April, 1898. 
 
 Advertising device exhibiting series of screens 
 hanging from drum rotated by intermittent gear, 
 several forms of which are described. 
 
 156. Nordisk Reklame Kompagni. No. 9,374. 23 
 
 April, 1898. A film of views, advertisements, 
 etc., is intermittently moved by gear such as 
 Fig. 118. Safety condenser as Fig. 239. 
 
 157. Campbell, C. M. No. 11,219. l 7 Ma y> l8 9 8 - 
 
 Improvements on (121) above. Film is stored in 
 loops instead of on spools ; the mirror is buffered 
 to prevent noise, and may be of concave, convex, 
 or other form to produce distortion. 
 
BRITISH PATENTS. 253- 
 
 158. Noble, C. S., and Newton, H. C. No. 15,195. 
 
 11 July, 1898. See the "English" Kinemato- 
 graph, page 173. 
 
 159. Newton, H. C, and Ives, F. E. No. 18,346. 
 
 26 August, 1898. Sliding-front for adapting 
 kinematographs and other projection fittings to- 
 the same lantern body. 
 
 ADDENDA. 
 
 Note. — Several specifications of interest having been accepted 
 since the compilation of the above list, the further publica- 
 tions to the end of January, 1899, are added here, it being 
 impossible to include them in correct chronological order. 
 No. 134 above is now declared void. 
 
 160. Wilson, G. R. No. 3,477. 11 February, 1898. 
 
 Stereoscopic cinematography by two cameras 
 geared together or pair of views side by side on 
 same film. 
 
 161. PACHT, L. V. No. 8,362. 7 April, 1898. Film 
 
 is driven by grip of rollers which are held apart 
 (and therefore do not act on the film) whenever 
 a pair of pins are driven through the perforations 
 to steady the film. This is effected by electro- 
 magnetic devices. 
 
 162. Hughes, W. C. No. 17,805. 18 August, 1898. 
 
 Improvements on (150) above. 
 
 163. Short, H. W. No. 23,158. 3 November, 1898. 
 
 The Filoscope. See page 36. 
 
 164. August, J. S., and Cohn, J. No. 23,327. 5. 
 
 November, 1898. Frictional driving mechanism 
 for kinematographs, etc. 
 
 165. Barron, G. No. 24,735. 23 November, 1898. 
 
 Coin-freed apparatus for inspection of continu- 
 ously moving image by means of rocking mirror. 
 Also for projection. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Note. — Roman figures indicate the number of the volume, Arabic 
 figures the page. Figures in round brackets indicate a series. 
 Author's notes, etc., are placed in square brackets. Only a 
 limited number of articles are here noticed; reprints, transla- 
 tions and purely trade notices are excluded. 
 
 1825 
 
 i. ROGET. Explanation of an optical deception in the 
 appearance of the spokes of a wheel seen through 
 vertical apertures. [Spokes appear curved, — 
 anorthoscopic phenomena.] Phil. Trans. 131. 
 
 1827 
 
 2. The Thaumatrope. [Editorial ? by Brewster, see 
 
 page 5. Invention attributed to Dr. Paris.] 
 Edinb. Jl. iv. 87. 
 
 1828 
 
 3. PLATEAU. Sur les apparences que presentent deux 
 
 lignes qui tournent autour d'un point avec un 
 mouvement angulaire uniforme. [Wheel pheno- 
 mena.] Corresp. math, de Ouetelet, iv. 373. 
 
 1829 
 
 4. Le FRANCOIS. Courbes d'intersection apparente 
 
 de deux lignes qui tournent avec rapidite autour 
 de deux points fixes. Ibid. v. 120, 379. 
 
 5. PLATEAU. Lettre relative a differentes experiences 
 
 d'optique. [Wheel phenomena.] Ibid. vi. 121. 
 
 1831 
 
 6. AlME. Phenomenes qui arrivent quand on met 
 
 deux roues en mouvement l'une devant l'autre. 
 Bull, de Ferussac, xv. 103-107. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 255 
 
 7. FARADAY. On a peculiar class of optical decep- 
 
 tions. [Wheel phenomena ; very interesting 
 paper.] Jl. R. Inst. [N.S.], i. 205. 
 
 8. PLATEAU. Lettre sur une illusion d'optique. 
 
 [Wheel phenomena.] Ann. de chimie et de phys. 
 (2), xlviii. 281. 
 
 1833 
 
 9. PLATEAU. Sur un nouveau genre d'illusion 
 
 d'optique. [Phenakisto'scope.] Corresp. Obs. de 
 Bruxelles, vii. 365. 
 10. PLATEAU. Des illusions sur lesquelles se fonde le 
 petit appareil appele recemment Phenakistiscope. 
 [English name quoted as Fantascope.] Ann. de 
 chimie et de phys. (2), liii. 304. 
 
 1834 
 
 J I. HORNER. On the properties of the Daedaleum, a 
 new instrument of optical illusion. [See page 
 22. Paper also contains full discussion of theory 
 of distortion caused by moving slots.] Phil. 
 
 Ma g- (3). iv. 36. 
 
 12. STAMPFER. Ueber die optischen Tauschungs- 
 
 Phanomene welche durch die stroboskopischen 
 Scheiben (optischen Zauberscheiben) hervorge- 
 bracht werden. [Description of Stroboscope ; 
 suggestion of band.] K.K. polytech. Institut, 
 Wien. Jahrbiicher, xviii. 237. 
 
 13. Stroboskopische Scheiben, Phanakistiskop, Phantas- 
 
 maskop. Pogg. Annalen, xxxii. 636. 
 
 1835 
 
 14. SNELL. Description of an instrument for exhibit- 
 
 ing a certain optical deception. [Phenakisto- 
 scope and wheel distortions. Stroboscope called 
 Phantascope or Kaleidorama.] Sill. Jl. (1), xxvii. 
 310. 
 
 1836 
 
 15. PLATEAU. Notice sur l'anorthoscope. Bull. Acad. 
 
 Bruxelles (1), iii. 7. 
 
2~>G LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 1846 
 
 1 6. MULLER. Anwendung der stroboskopischen Scheibe 
 
 zur Versinnlichung der Grundgesetze der Wellen- 
 Lehre. Pogg. Ann. lxvii. 271. 
 
 17. PLATEAU. Sur de nouvelles applications curieuses 
 
 de la persistence des impressions de la retine. 
 [Illusive motion from modified anorthoscope.] 
 Bull. Acad. Bruxelles (1), xvi. pt. i. 424, 588; 
 pt. ii. 30, 254. 
 
 1850 
 
 18. TYNDALL. Phenomena of water-jet. [Momentary 
 
 illumination by electric spark.] Phil. Mag. (4), 
 i. 105. 
 
 1852 
 
 19. MoiGNO. Stereo-fantascope ou Bioscope de M. 
 
 J. Duboscq. [Combination of ordinary phena- 
 kistoscope with stereoscopic eyepieces.] Cosmos, 
 i. 703. 
 
 20. PLATEAU. Sur le passage de Lucrece ou l'on a vu 
 
 une description du fantoscope. Ibid. i. 307. 
 
 1853 
 
 21. POPPE. Das verbesserte Interferenzoscop [for ex- 
 
 hibiting wave-motion.] Pogg. Ann. lxxxviii. 229. 
 
 22. RoLLMANN. Ueber eine neue Anwendung der 
 
 stroboskopischen Scheiben. [Discussion of rela- 
 tion between number of slots and images.] Ibid, 
 lxxxix. 246. 
 
 23. UCHATIUS. Apparat zur Darstellung beweglicher 
 
 Bilder an der Wand. Wiener Akad. Sitz.-Ber. 
 x. 482. 
 
 1858 
 
 24. ALMEIDA. Nouvel appareil stereoscopique. 
 
 [Alternate vision, projection or inspection, by 
 eclipse or use of coloured screens.] Comptes 
 rendus, xlvii. 61. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 257 
 
 1861 
 
 25. SHAW. Description of a new optical instrument 
 
 called the " Stereotrope." [Double cylinder 
 zoetrope working on its side.] Phil. Mag. (4), 
 xxii. 537. 
 
 1864 
 
 26. BABBAGE. Passages from the life of a philosopher. 
 
 [Thaumatrope invented by Herschel and Fitton.] 
 London. 
 
 1865 
 
 27. CLAUDET. On moving photographic figures, illus- 
 
 trating some phenomena of vision connected with 
 the combination of the stereoscope and phena- 
 kistoscope by means of photography. [Views on 
 rotating drums, alternate vision.] Brit Assn. 
 Rept. 1865, pt. ii. 9. 
 
 28. LAING. Combination of Stereoscope and Phena- 
 
 kistoscope. [Called the Motoroscope.] Mech. 
 Mag. (2), xiii. 190. 
 
 1867 
 
 29. CLAUDET. New fact relating to binocular vision. 
 
 [Stereo-thaumatrope, see page 7.] Phil. Mag. (4), 
 xxxiii. 549. 
 
 30. TOPLER and RADAU. Stroboscope ou Vibroscope 
 
 universel [used to render the regular cyclic 
 motion of a body slower in appearance by inter- 
 mittent illumination]. Les Mondes, xv. 206. 
 
 31. WEBER. Theorie des Anorthoscops und der 
 
 anorthoscopischen Figuren. Zeit. Math. u. 
 Physik. xii. 133. 
 
 1868 
 
 32. CARPENTER. On the Zoetrope and its antecedents. 
 
 Student, i. 427 ; ii. 24. 
 
 33. CARPENTER. The Anorthoscope. Ibid. ii. no. 
 
 34. JEFFRIES. Remarks upon the principles of the 
 
 Thaumatrope. Am. Opth. Soc. Trans. 1869, 8. 
 
 S 
 
258 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 35. LANGLOIS and ANGIERS. Kinescope.. [Alterna- 
 
 tion of two microscopic views.] Les Mondes, 
 xvii. 56. 
 
 1869 
 
 36. MAXWELL. Zootrope perfection ee. [Concave 
 
 lenses used instead of slots.] Ibid. xx. 585. 
 
 1871 
 
 37. ZlZMANN. Die Bilder der stroboskopischen Scheibe 
 
 objectivirt. [Description vague. No light inter- 
 rupter shown.] Dingler's Jl. cxcix. 23 l - 
 
 1875 
 
 38. FLAMMARION. Le Passage de Venus. [Janssen's 
 
 Revolver photographique.] La Nature, 1875, 
 pt i. 356. 
 
 1876 
 
 39. JANSSEN. Presentation du revolver photographique. 
 
 Bull. Soc. franc,. Phot. xxii. 100. 
 
 1878 
 
 40. DONISTHORPE. Talking photographs. [Apparatus 
 
 called Kinesigraph (band illuminated by electric 
 spark) combined with Phonograph.] Nature, 
 xvii. 242. 
 
 41. TlSSANDIER. Le Praxinoscope [de M. Reynaud]. 
 
 La Nature, 1879, pt. i. 133. 
 
 42. TlSSANDIER. Les Allures du Cheval. [Muy- 
 
 bridge's early work.] Ibid. 23. 
 
 1880 
 
 43. TlSSANDIER. Le Praxinoscope Theatre [de M. 
 
 Reynaud]. Ibid. pt. i. 147. 
 
 1881 
 
 44. LOMMEL. Einfaches Verfahren, die strobo- 
 
 skopischen Erscheinungen fur Viele gleichzeitig 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 259 
 
 sichttbar zu machen. [See page 15.] Carl's 
 Reptt xvii. pt. 7, 463. 
 
 45. REYNAOJTD. La Toupie-fantoche. La Nature, 1882, 
 
 pt. 1.. ? 3 . 
 
 1882 
 
 46. Marey;. Le fusil photographique. Ibid. 1882, 
 
 pt. 1.. 326. 
 
 47. MOLTE2NI. Le Phenakistiscope de projection. 
 
 [Lambern Wheel-of-Life.] Ibid. pt. 2, 64. 
 
 48. Tissanjdier. Le Praxinoscope de projection [de 
 
 M. Rteynaud]. Ibid. 357. 
 
 1883 
 
 49. Muybr.idge. The attitudes of animals in motion. 
 
 [Acaount of apparatus and methods.] Jl. Frank- 
 lin Imst. (3), lxxxv. 260. 
 
 1888 
 
 50. CARBUTTT. A perfect substitute for glass . . . 
 
 for lu&e in photography. [History of flexible 
 supports for photographic images.] Ibid. xcvi. 
 478. 
 
 51. MAREY. Photo-chronographie. [Slight description 
 
 of first band-form apparatus.] Comptes rendus. 
 cvii. (5oy, 643, 677. 
 
 1889 
 
 52. Anschuttz. Electrical Tachyscope. Sci. Am. 
 
 lxi. 3103. 
 
 53. Muybridge. Lecture at the Royal Institution. 
 
 [Account of Zoopraxiscope.] B. JL Phot, xxxvi. 
 826. 
 
 1890 
 
 54. LONDE. La Chronophotographie. [Good sum- 
 
 mary and description of Sebert's experiments.] 
 La Nature, 1890, pt. i. 97, 151. 
 
 55. MAREY. La locomotion dans l'eau. [Illustration of 
 
 first pellicular apparatus.] Ibid. pt. ii. 375. 
 
260 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 56. Le Cinetographe d'Edison. [First ruotice. Illus- 
 
 tration of film with one row of perforations.] 
 Cosmos [N.S.], xix. 456. 
 
 57. Machine camera taking ten photographs a second. 
 
 [First publication of Greene and Evans' 
 apparatus.] Phot. News, xxxiv. 15/- 
 
 58. Remarkable novelties in photographic instruments. 
 
 [Greene's double projection apparatus made by 
 Rudge.] Ibid. 421. 
 
 1891 
 
 59. EDISON. Kinetograph. Engineering, i. 678. 
 
 60. MAREY. Le Chronophotographie. [Good review 
 
 of subject to date.] Rev. gen. des Sciences, li. 
 689. 
 
 1892 
 
 61. DEMENY. Les photographies parlantes. [i nono- 
 
 scope.] La Nature, 1892, pt. i. 3 1 1. 
 
 62. TISSANDIER. Le Theatre optique [de M. Reynaud. 
 
 With long band.] Ibid. pt. ii. 127. 
 
 63. Mechanical Toys. [Various means of sectional 
 
 change over whole surface.] Optician, iv. 82. 
 
 64. Novel application for Zoetropes. [Deeply corru- 
 
 gated surfaces of rotating cards as a means for 
 the synthesis of natural colour, by means of 
 primaries seen at different angles.] Ibid. iv. 1 10. 
 
 65. Universal panoramic camera. [Kinetoscopy by 
 
 continual revolution of ordinary panoramic 
 camera.] Ibid. iii. 450. 
 
 1893 
 
 66. LONDE. La Photochronographie appliquee aux 
 
 sciences medicales. [Electrically controlled 
 apparatus.] Bull. Soc. frang. Phot. (2), ix. 572. 
 
 67. Panoramic photography. [Moving sensitive surface 
 
 formed of portion of spiral rendered optically 
 stationary by cyclostat] Optician, v. 786. 
 
 68. Zoetrope exposures. [Vibrating flames for inter- 
 
 mittent lighting.] Ibid. v. 696. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 261 
 
 1894 
 
 69. DICKSON. History of the Kinetograph, Kineto- 
 
 scopie,, and Kineto-phonograph. London and 
 New York. 
 
 70. EDISON. Kineto-phonograph. Electrical World, 
 
 xxiii.. 799. 
 
 71. EDISON. Kinetoscope. La Nature, 1894, pt. ii. 
 
 323- 
 
 72. JENKIN s. Photochronographic camera. [Exterior 
 
 view only.] Phot. Times, xxv. 2. 
 
 73. MARESCHAL. La chronophotographie d'amateur 
 
 et le portrait vivant. [Demeny's Chronophoto- 
 grapihe d'amateur or Biographe.] La Nature, 
 1894., pt. ii. 279. 
 
 74. MAREY.. Le Mouvement. Paris. 
 
 75. THOMPSON. Life and works of T. A. Edison. 
 
 [Review ; states that machines similar to Kineto- 
 scope ( ? Anschiitz') were shown at Frankfort 
 Electrical Exhibition, 1891.] Electrician, xxxiv. 
 187. 
 
 76. An application of Optics. [Optical means for 
 
 intermittent kinetoscopy.] Optician, vii. 164. 
 
 j j. Are Lantern Stereotropes possible? [History of 
 
 the Stereo-phenakistoscope.] O.M. Lantern Jl. 
 v. 23. 
 
 1895 
 
 78. IREX. The Lantern Stroboscope [for momentary 
 
 illumination of moving objects]. Ibid. vi. 112. 
 
 79. Latham. The Eidoloscope. [Apparently on 
 
 system of Reynaud's praxinoscope de projection, 
 but no details given.] Phot. Times, xxvii. 173. 
 
 80. LUMIERE. Le Cinematographe. [Description and 
 
 account of exhibition, nth July, 1895.] La 
 Nature, 1895, pt. ii. 215. 
 
 81. STORY. Who is the inventor of the Kinetoscope? 
 
 [Greene claimed.] B. Jl. Phot. xlii. 772. 
 
 82. WENHAM. The Kinetoscope. [Letter on experi- 
 
 ments in 1852.] Eng. Mech. lxi. 352. 
 
 83. La Chronophotographie pratique. [Demeny's dog- 
 
 motion.] Inventions nouvelles, viii. pt. ii. 390. 
 
2«J2 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 84. Photochronographic apparatus for amateurs. [De- 
 
 meny's eccentric spool.] Phot. Times, xxvi. 39. 
 
 85. Projicirte Bewegungsbilder von Anschiitz. [Exhi- 
 
 bited November 15 th, 1894; no description of 
 details.] Phot. Archiv. xxxvi. 10. 
 
 1896 
 
 86. ACRES. Animated photography. [History and 
 
 dates.] Amateur Phot. xxiv. 298. 
 
 87. DEMENY. Chronophotographe. [Final form.] Vie 
 
 Scien. 1896, pt. ii. 267. 
 
 88. Eames. The Animatoscope. Phot. Times, xxviii. 
 
 330- 
 
 89. GUEROULT. Sur un application nouvelle de la 
 
 photographie et du phenakistoscope. Deposited 
 1889. [Photographs taken at long intervals 
 rapidly combined or shown backwards. Instru- 
 ment called photo-cinegraphe.] Comptes rendus, 
 cxxii. 404. 
 
 90. JENKINS. Development of Chrono-photography. 
 
 [Review ; own apparatus ; life-size coin-freed 
 peep-show.] Phot. Times, xxviii. 449. 
 
 91. JENKINS. The Phantoscope. [First description of 
 
 details.] Ibid, xxviii. 222. 
 
 92. JOLY. Kinetoscope a vues multiples. La Nature, 
 
 1896, pt. i. 337. 
 
 93. LOMAX. Kinetoscope and lantern. [Summary of 
 
 position of Kinetograph.] O.M. Lantern Jl. vii. 
 132. 
 
 94. MARESCHAL. Chronophotographe construit par 
 
 Demeny. [Projecting and reversing arrange- 
 ment] La Nature, 1896, pt. ii. 391. 
 
 95. POPLAWSKI. Neuer Apparat [von Poplawski und 
 
 Lebiedzinski]. Phot. Mitth. xxxii. 329. 
 
 96. VlTOUX. Photographie du mouvement. Chrono- 
 
 photographie. Kinetoscope. Cinematographe. 
 Paris. 
 
 97. VOLKMER. Die Rotations-Photographie und der 
 
 Kinematographe, oder " die lebende Photo- 
 graphic" [Lumiere's apparatus and suggestions 
 for applications ; scenery, etc.] Zeit. Oest. Ing. 
 Vereins, xlviii. 369, 377. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 263 
 
 98. Continuous revolution Kinetoscopy. Optician, x. 
 
 341, 355, 360; xi. 41. 
 
 99. Le Folioscope. [Double-book form.] La Nature, 
 
 1896, pt. i. 256. 
 
 100. Kinetoscope stereopticon. [Jenkins' Phantoscope 
 
 and Kinetoscopic Camera, also Edison's Vita- 
 scope.] Sci. Am. lxxv. 325. 
 
 101. Viviscope. Ibid, lxxiv. 395. 
 
 1897 
 
 102. ACRES. Letter on the invention of the Cine- 
 
 matograph. Am. Phot. xxvi. 277. 
 
 103. ACRES. Making and exhibiting living pictures. 
 
 [Contains dates of his invention.] Jl. Camera 
 Club, xi. 65. 
 
 104. BEDDING. Animated Photography [History of]. 
 
 B.J. Phot. Almanac, 1898, 643. 
 
 105. BRUNEL. La Photographie et la Projection du 
 
 Mouvement. Paris. 
 
 106. DONISTHORPE. Letter on the Kinesigraph [and 
 
 his subsequent patents]. Brit. Jl. Phot. xliv. 175, 
 207. 
 
 107. FRITSCH. Reminiscenzen iiber . . . den 
 
 Kinematographen. [Correspondence between 
 Uchatius and Prokesch.] C. Z. f. Optik, u.s.w. 
 xviii. 211. 
 
 108. GASTINE. La Chronophotographie sur plaque 
 
 fixe et sur pellicule mobile. Paris. 
 
 109. GAUMONT. La Grille. [Perforated fan for 
 
 viewing screen.] Bull. Soc. frang. Phot. (2), xiii. 
 
 295. 
 no. HANAU and MONTSERRET. Le development des 
 
 pellicules kinetographiques. Vie scient. 1897, 
 
 pt. ii. 532. 
 in. HEP WORTH. The Cinematograph. [History.] 
 
 Am. Phot. xxvi. 262. 
 
 112. JENKINS. Films [Development of]. Phot. Times, 
 
 xxix. 127. 
 
 113. JENKINS. The picture-ribbons used in chrono- 
 
 photography. [Perforating, printing, develop- 
 ing.] Ibid. 259. 
 
 1 14. Jenkins. Improved Kinetoscopic camera and 
 
 printing apparatus. Sci. Am. Ixxvi. 281. 
 
264 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 115. LUMIERE. Development and projection of kine- 
 
 matograph films. Brit. Jl. Phot. xliv. suppt. 91. 
 
 116. LUMIERE. Sur les dangers du cinematographe. 
 
 [Safety condenser.] Bull. Soc. franc. Phot. (2), 
 xiii. 361. 
 
 1 1 7. MARESCHAL. Les erreurs du cinematographe. 
 
 Suppression du scintillement. La Nature, 1897, 
 pt. i. 368. 
 
 118. Marey. Nouvelles modifications du Chrono- 
 
 photographe. [Camera, projector, printing and 
 developing apparatus.] Bull. Soc. franc,. Phot. 
 (2), xiii. 217. 
 
 119. RAE. Development of kinetograph films. Phot. 
 
 News, xli. 265. 
 
 120. Reyner. Les origines de la photographie animee. 
 
 [Reville's double-disc and stereoscopic apparatus, 
 1857.] Vie scientifique, 1897, pt. ii. 451. 
 
 121. ROBINS. Animated Pictures. O.M. Lantern jl. 
 
 viii. 99. 
 
 122. ROBINS. Hints on exhibiting Cinematographs. 
 
 Ibid. 129. 
 
 123. ROBINS. Development of Kinetograph films. 
 
 Ibid. 102. 
 
 124. St. CLAIR. The Watkins Micromotoscope. 
 
 Sc. Am. lxxvii. 75. 
 
 125. WARD. Kinetography. — The production of living 
 
 pictures. Knowledge, xx. 216. 
 
 126. Wrench. The Cinematograph for attaching to 
 
 the lantern. [History ; own apparatus ; dis- 
 cussion.] Jl. Camera Club, xi. 36. 
 
 127. Animated photographs and projecting machines. 
 
 O.M. Lantern Jl. viii. 103. 
 
 128. Biograph and Mutograph. Sci. Am. lxxvi. 248. 
 
 129. Chronophotographie. [Review and description of 
 
 modern machines.] Rev. scient. et industr. 1897, 
 i. 179. 
 
 130. Cinematographe de 19 sous. [Revival of Kine- 
 
 scope, see page 33.] La Nature, 1897, pt. i. no. 
 
 131. Folioscope mecanique. [Radial form.] Ibid. 1897, 
 
 pt. i. suppt. 23. 
 
 132. New Kinematograph. [Continuous rotary action] 
 
 Optician, xiii. 212. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 265 
 
 1898 
 
 133. BELLINGHAM and HOLT. Glycerine a heat 
 
 absorbent in lantern projection. Brit. Jl. Phot, 
 xlv. suppt. 28. 
 
 134. Eder and VALENTA. Ueber die Fortschritte der 
 
 Photographie (Serienapparate). Dingler's Jl. 
 cccviii. 90. 
 
 135. HEPWORTH. Animated Photography: the A B C 
 
 of the Cinematograph. [Practical operator's 
 handbook] London. 
 
 136. HEYL. Contribution to the history of the art of 
 
 photographing living subjects in motion and 
 reproducing the natural movements by the 
 lantern. Jl. Franklin Inst (3), cxv. 310. 
 
 137. HUGHES. A little information about the Cine- 
 
 matograph. [Discussion of principles.] O.M. 
 Lantern Jl. ix. 9, 24, 44. 
 
 138. JENKINS. Animated Pictures. Phot. Times, xxx. 
 
 289. 
 
 139. JENKINS. Patentable priority in chronophoto- 
 
 graphic apparatus. Ibid. 152. 
 
 140. JENKINS. The Perforations [of Kineto-films]. 
 
 Ibid. 113. 
 
 141. Le Cinematographe applique a. l'astronomie. 
 
 [Flammarion's terrestrial globe.] Vie scien- 
 tifique, 1898, pt. i. 160. 
 
 142. Le Cinematographe pour tous. [Monnard's in- 
 
 vention ; minute photos, in spiral on disc ; 
 invented word used, the telecinematographe.] 
 La Nature, 1898, pt. i. 90. 
 
 143. Neue Formen des Kinematographen und ver- 
 
 wandter Apparate. Eder's Jahrbuch, 1898, 188. 
 
 144. Viewing film transparencies in the Cinemato- 
 
 graph without projection. O.M. Lantern Jl. 
 ix. 3. 
 
 145. LONDE. L'Alethorama [de MM. Mortier et Cheri- 
 
 Rousseau]. La Nature, 1898, pt. ii. 253. 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Note. — Numbers refer to pages, except those preceded by the letters P. and B., which 
 refer to the items in the Patent Appendix and Bibliography respectively. 
 Roman figures refer to the Commercial Appendix. Names of persons are 
 printed in Small Capitals ; names of apparatus in italics; subject entries 
 are in ordinary Roman type. In some instances the early references only 
 have been indexed ; etc. being added to show that the subject-matter 
 becomes general throughout subsequent pages. In order to assist extended 
 reference, minor details of Patents and Bibliographical Articles have been 
 indexed here, though omitted from the text. 
 
 - AcKERMANN, P. 8: 
 
 y* Acres, 97, 158,174, 198. P. 53, 114. 
 B. 86, 102, 103 
 Adams, 64. P. 30, 70 
 Adjusting films and views, 23, 131, 
 130, 141, 148, 160, 173, 176, 212. 
 P. 6, 23, 32, 50, 72, 74, 79, 80, 81, 
 83,86, 97, 101, 116, 126, 131, 135, 
 149, 151, 158, 162 
 ' Aerial Graphoscope. 185 
 Aime, 10. B. 6 
 Airs, 176 
 , Alethorama, 171. B. 145 
 
 Al.HAZF.N, 4 
 
 Alibert, 167. B. 129 
 . Almeida, B. 24 
 Alternate projection or inspection, 33, 
 
 4«> 57» 00 > S9, 92, 107, 158, if 8, 202. 
 
 p - 4, '7. 39-44- 83, 104, 114. 132. 
 
 B. 24, 35, 58, 88 
 Alternate vision (one eye at a time), 
 
 40. P. 2, s, 21, 122. B. 24, 27 
 Amateur-Kinematador, 1 75 
 Amateur-Kinetograph, 157 
 Anarithomoscope, 187 
 Anderton, 220. P. 49 
 
 -/ 
 
 Angiers, 7,^. B. 35 
 
 Anglo-American Import Co., 185 
 Anolo-Continental Co., 166 
 Animatographe, 176. P. 62 
 Animatoscope, 92, 175. B. 88 
 sAnorthoscope, 9, 16. B. 1, is, 17, 31, 
 33 
 
 * AnschOtz, 24, 25, 49, 74, 79. P. 40. 
 
 B. 52, 75, 85 
 
 Anthony and Co., 152, 154 
 
 Aphengescopic projection. See Projec- 
 tion, etc. 
 ." Apollo Kinetograph, 158, 207 
 
 Appleton, 185, xx., xxi. 
 
 Applied to — 
 
 advertising, 162, 222. P. 37, 57, 
 
 116, 147 
 astronomical purposes, 57, 231. B. 
 
 38, 39- 141 
 historical record, 230 
 jewellery, ^. B, 35 
 mechanical investigation, 54, 152, 
 
 232 
 medical research, 54. B. 66 
 portraiture, 148, 231 
 reproducing speech, 61. P. 38, 46. 
 
 B. 40, 61 
 scientific demonstration, 14, 26, 231. 
 
 P. 69. B. 16, 21, 30, 42, 46, 49, 
 
 55. I2 4 
 stage scenery, 84, 162. P. 44, 69. 
 B. 97 
 Arcy, 4 
 
 * Arm at, P. 60 
 
 , Allograph, 187 
 
 < A SPRAY, P. 5 
 
 , August, P. 164 
 Automatic apparatus, 39 51, 222. P 
 40, 98, 116, 136, 165. B. 90 
 
INDEX. 
 
 267 
 
 Babbagk, 0. B. 26 
 
 Badizograph, 187 
 
 Bamfokth, xviii. 
 
 Barron, P, 165 
 
 Battery form, 49, 51, 54. I'. 24, 28. 
 
 B. 42, 411, 54, 66 
 Baxter, 184. P. 1 15 
 Beale, 19, 20 
 Beard, 185 
 Bedding, B. 104 
 Bellet, P. 128 
 Bellingiiam, B. 133 
 Benoist, P. 4 
 Bernstein, P. hi 
 Berthon, 184 
 _. ... Bessus, 176 
 
 Bickle, P. 39 
 Bijou Camera , 139 
 Bing Bros., 166 
 
 Biograph, 135, 146. P. 125. B. 128 
 Biographe, 82. B. 73, 129 
 Biographe Jravqah, 1 84 
 Biographe Lear, 184 
 Biographe Soleil, 185 
 Biokam, 185, xiii. 
 Biopluon, 154 
 Bioscope, 132, 150, 213. B. 19, 129, 
 
 xiv. 
 Birtac, I 74 
 
 Bi.air, 100, 129, 196. P. 54, 77, 84 
 Buss, Sands & Co., 153 
 Bonki.i.i, 1 13. P. 9, 10 
 Bonn, P. 71 
 Book-form apparatus, 35, 149. P. 15, 
 
 27, 113, 119, 123, 140, 163. B. 99 
 Book-form, leaf-turning apparatus, 35, 
 
 36. P. 15, 91, 119, 163 
 
 BoULY, l86 
 
 Boyle, 4 
 
 Bradley, 23. P. n 
 Bmennan, P. 34 
 Bressard, 184 
 Brewster, 5. B. 2 
 Brown, 21, 46 
 Bruce, 185 
 Brunel, B. 105 
 Busch, 221, xvii. 
 
 Campbell, 1 13, 152. P. 121, 157 
 Canneval, 162. B. 129 
 Carbutt, B. 50 
 Cards, mounted — 
 
 on band or strip, 37, 38. P. 119, 
 '23, 136 
 
 Cards, mounted — 
 
 radially, 34, 35, 38, 39. 4°- p - 2 » 
 
 5S.S7.98, 1 '9. '23, «3 6 - B - «3« 
 
 tangentially, 38, 40. P. 119, 123, 
 
 13°, '55 
 Cards, resiliency of, preserving, 36, 38, 
 
 39. P. 98, 1 19, 163 
 Carette & Co., 184 
 Carpenter, 6. B. 32, ^ 
 Casi.er, 35, 36, 1 13, 135, 15 < • p - 55. 
 
 118, 119, I2 5- B. 128 
 Casshlli, 186 
 Cavai lo, 4 
 Celluloid, 188 
 Centograph, 187 
 Chard, P. 85 
 Chasseraux, P. 43 
 Cheri-Rousseau, 171. B. 145 
 Choreutoscope, 20. P. 26 
 Christophe, P. 87 
 Chromotrope and its phenomena, 153. 
 
 P. 21,64. B. 4 
 Chronophotograi>he, 71, 108, 144, 149, 
 
 155,201. P. 46. 6.51,83,87,94, 
 
 118,129 
 Chronophotographe d' amateur, 82. P. 46. 
 
 B. 73, 84 
 Chronophotographer, 149 
 
 Chronophotographoscope, 187 
 
 Chronophotography — 
 
 first suggestion, 45. P. 8 
 
 principles of, 48, 56 
 
 methods of, 45, 48, 55- p - 8 , 1 2, 19, 
 22, 24. B. 38, 39, 42, 4 f ', 49, 5'. 
 54, 55, 6o > 66 » 74, 89, 9 6 > ,0 5, Io8 . 
 129 
 Chronoscope, 184 
 Cieroscope, 18 5, xx., xxi. 
 Cinagraphoscopc, 187 
 Cmeamatascope, P. 105. 106 
 Cinecosmorama, 162. P. 69 
 Cinema, 184 
 Cinematograph, 143,162, 165, 167, 176, 
 
 185. B. 126 
 Cinematograph Co., 185 
 Cinvmatographe, 93, 145, 160, 162. 185, 
 
 186,201. P. 51, 68. B. 80, 96, 97, 
 
 105 
 Cineinatographe Universel, 184 
 Cinematoscope, 98, 185 
 Cinemicrcphonographe, 184 
 Cineograph, 163 
 
 Cinetographe. See Kinetograph 
 Cinimatograph, P. 105, 106 
 Cinograph, 187 
 
'268 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Cinomograph, 187 
 Cytoscope, 187 
 
 Cl.AUDET, 7, 40. P. 2. B. 27, 20 
 CLEMENT AND GlLMER, 185, 1 93. B. 
 
 129 
 C()HN, P. 164 
 
 Coin-freed. See Automatic 
 
 COLLINGS, P. 47, 67 
 
 Colouring films. See Films 
 
 Colours, natural, reproducing, 204. B. 
 64 
 
 Colt and Co., 184 
 
 Compensation and feed-correcting de- 
 vices, 131, 136, 138, 148, 150, 183. 
 P- 33, 62, 74,83, 95, 108, 120, 125 
 
 Continuous revolution (endless panora- 
 mic), 81. B. 65, 98, 132 
 
 Cook, P. 9 
 
 Copp, P. 107 
 
 Con day, 230 
 
 CoRTHESY, P. 123 
 
 Cosmonograph, 187 
 Cosmoscope, 187 
 
 COURTEEN, P. 37 
 
 Cr itetioscope, 184 
 
 Crofis, 67, 1 13. P. ^^ 
 
 Cylinders, slotted. See Daedaleum ; 
 
 Images arranged on cylinder, slotted ; 
 
 Zoe'trope 
 Cynnagraph, 175 
 
 Dadaleum, 22. B. 1 1 
 
 Dai.mkyer, 221, xxvii. 
 
 Darling, P. 1 26 
 
 Davy, P. 45 
 
 Dazzling Top, 5 
 
 Dp. Bedts, 184. P. 65. B. 129 
 
 Demeny, 60, 61, 62, 82, 108, 128, 149, 
 
 201. P. 38, 42, 46. B. 61, 73, 83, 
 
 84, 87, 94, 129 
 Desvignes, 21, 22, 23, 25,44,51,63. 
 
 P. 6 
 Developing. See Films 
 Diagrams, why unsatisfactory, 43 
 Diaramiscope, 187 
 Dickson, B. 69 
 Disc and shutter — 
 
 differential speed, 9, 16, 19, 51, 61. 
 P. 18, 20, 5 8. B. 38, 39, 47, 53, 
 61 
 
 identical speed, 15. P. 3, 7, 137 
 Discs, slotted. See Images arranged 
 
 on discs, slotted ; Phenakistoscope ; 
 
 Stroboscope 
 Distortion. See Slots 
 
 Dom-Martin, 184 
 
 Donisthorpe, 51, 59, 62, 64, 67, 113. 
 P. 22, $^. B. 40, 106 
 
 Drittler, P. 130 
 
 Driving, 34, 37, 39, 46, 58, 71, 76, 78, 
 96, 105, 108, 131, 145, 155, 157, 166, 
 •73. '7 6 > i77» 183- P- 2> 33. 35. 37. 
 47. 55. 57. 58, 67, 70, 83, 88, 92, 97, 
 98, 100, 102, 108, no, 116, 126, 12H, 
 129, 145, 146, 161, 162, 164 
 
 Driving or moving film. See Inter- 
 mittent motion, etc. 
 
 Duboscq, B. 19 
 
 Ducos du Hauron, 45 
 
 Du Mont, 45, 59. P. 8 
 
 Duncan, P. 1 12 
 
 Dunn, P. 151 
 
 Eames, 91. B. 88 
 
 Eastman Co., 188 
 
 Eddy, 185 
 
 Eder, B. 134 
 
 Edison, 51, 71, 73, 174. B. 56, 59, 
 
 6 9> 7°. 7»> 75. IO ° 
 Edwards, 45. P. 12, 25, 139 
 
 Eidoloscope, B. 79 
 
 Electric Wonder, 51. P. 40 
 
 Electrical T achy scope, 49, 74. P. 40. 
 
 B. 52 
 Electroscope, 187 
 Elkan, P. 135 
 Engelmeyeu, 186 
 
 English Kinemalogrtipli, 17 3. P. 158 
 Eragruph, 185 
 Erlanger, P. 130 
 Eureka toy lantern, 184 
 European Blair Co., 188. P. 54 
 Evans, 65, 69, 70, 129. P. 32, 35. B. 
 
 57 
 Excelogroph, P. 131 
 Exhibiting hints, 207. B. 1 1 s, 122, 1 27, 
 
 >35 
 
 Exposure. See Films 
 
 Fantascope, B. 10, 19 
 
 Fantoscope, B. 20 
 
 Faraday, 10, 13. B. 7 
 
 Faraday's li'heel, 10. B. 7 
 
 Farnum, P. 57, 59 
 
 FenakiUicope, P. 4 
 
 Film-boxes or catcheis, 215 
 
 Film-feeding and tension devices, 133, 
 T36, 141, 150, 165, 179, 183. P. 32, 
 54, 65,66, 73, 77, 79, 82, 84. 86, 89, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 26<> 
 
 96, 97,105^ 108, 125, 129, 142, 145, 
 ■57. 165 
 
 See alst Compensation, etc. 
 Film-traps and steadying devices, 52, 
 70,82,83, 84, 104, 128, 133, 141, 
 143, 144, 155, 161, 162, 164, 165, 
 181, 21 1. P. 28, 36, 46, S3, 58, 60, 
 62, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 89, 92,95, 96, 
 
 97, 101, 105, 108,110,126, 145,150, 
 161, 162 
 
 See also Sprocket-wheels, locking 
 Films — 
 
 making, 188. B. 50 
 gauge of, 170, 174, 179, 189 
 perforations of, 71, 76, 79, 156, 174, 
 
 190, 204. P. 28, 36, 68, 70, 72, 
 
 78, 85, 100, 109, 112, 124, 135. 
 
 B. 56, 113, 129, 140, i, 
 exposing, 193. B. 128 
 non-photographic, 166, 175, 184 
 opaque. See Projection, aphenge- 
 
 scopic 
 printing positives on, 200. P, 51, 
 
 83. 94, '°4, *35- B - "3, '14, "5. 
 118, i. 
 
 developing, 195. P. 48, 90, 138, 143. 
 B. 110, 112, 113, 115, 118, 119, 
 123, 128, 143 
 
 colouring, 84, 203 
 
 repairing, 205. B. 122 
 
 adjusting. See Adjusting, etc. 
 
 winding, 215. P. 124, 135 
 Flloscope, 36. P. 163 
 Fireproof Animatographe, 176. P. 62 
 Fisher, P. 5 
 Fitton, 6. B. 26 
 Flammarion, 231. B. 38, 141 
 Flicker, 66, 208, 211. B. 109, 117 
 Foerstehling, 185 
 Foliographe, 186 
 
 Fol/oscope, 35, 40. B. 99, 129, 131 
 Following motion of object, 49, 59. P. 
 
 2 1 , B. 46 
 Fitr:n«, 232. 
 Fiiitscii, 17. B. 107 
 Frost, 152 
 Fuerst, 160 
 Fusil photograbhique. See Photographic 
 
 Gun 
 
 Gastine, B. 108 
 
 Gauthier, 184. P. IC2 
 
 Gaumont, 149, 194, 197, 199, 210. 
 
 B. 109 
 Glycerine as heat-absorbent, B. 133 
 
 Goodwin, 189 
 
 Gray, 88, 123 
 
 Grayson, P. 117 
 
 Greene, 65, 66, 84, 104. P. 32, 44. 
 
 56, 83, 97, 147- B - 57, 58, 81 
 Griffin, 185, 207 
 Grille, 211, B. 109, 1 17 
 Grivolas, P. 142 
 Grunow, P. 90 
 Gukroui.t, 230. B. 89 
 Gun, Photographic. See Photographic 
 
 Gun 
 
 Hanau, 184, 198. B. 110 
 
 Harrison, P. 82, 141 
 
 Hartley, P. 14 
 
 Harvard, 185 
 
 Hawkins, P. 41 
 
 Haydon, 185 
 
 Heat absorption. See Safety, etc. 
 
 Heinze, P. 80, 95 
 
 Helical arrangement of views. See- 
 Images, etc. 
 
 Heliocinegraphe, 155. B. 105, 129 
 
 Heliographe, 167. B. 1 29 
 
 Hepworth, 222. P. 116. B. in, 135 
 
 Herschel, 6. B. 26 
 
 H.eyl, 47. B. 136 
 
 Historical notes. Chapters I, II, III, 
 VII. Appendix I. B. 2, 20, 26, 32, 
 33, 54. 60, 69, 74, 75' 77. 81, 82, 
 85, 86, 90, 93, 96, 102, 103, 104, 
 105, 106, 107, 108, in, 120, 121, 
 125, 126, 129, 134, 135, 136, 137, 
 138, 139, 143 
 
 Holt, B. 133 
 
 Horner, 22. B. 1 1 
 
 Hough, P. 52 
 
 Hughes, 20, 139, 205, 219, 223. P. 26, 
 103, 150, 153, 162. B. 137 
 
 Hyatt, 188 
 
 Hymmen, P. 140 
 
 Hypnoscope, 187 
 
 Illuminant, moving, 18, 66. B. 23, 107 
 
 Illumination, intermittent, of moving 
 image, 14, 19, 43. 5°» 5'> 62 > 74, 7°- 
 87, 112. P. 1, 6, 22, 33,38, 40, 6o, 
 63. B. »8, 30, 40, 44, 5 2 , 6 8, 78 
 
 Illumination, overlapping, 40, 52, 89. 
 P. 28 
 
 Set also Alternate, etc. 
 
 Illumination, systems of, 14, 18, 76, 
 87, 165, 173, '74, 218. P. 33, f, 3v 
 103, 116. B. 68, 76, 135 
 
•270 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Image optically stationary by — 
 
 cvclostat or moving prism, 85, 113. 
 
 P. 23. B. 67 
 mirrors, 27-31, 57* • '3> '5', '5 2 , 
 171. P. 23,31, 118, 121, 157, 165. 
 B. 41, 43, 45,48, 62, 145 
 momentary vision. See Illumina- 
 tion, intermittent 
 moving lenses, 26, 86, 92, 113, 147. 
 P. 10, 74, 83. B. 36 
 Image relatively stationary by double 
 
 motion, 67. 113. P. ^^, 139 
 Images arranged — 
 
 in spiral or helix, 38, 62, 73, 74, 100. 
 
 152, 153- P- 38, 42. 52, 55, 9 8 . 
 
 144, 152. B. 142 
 on bands or strips, 20, 23, 27, 29, 
 
 37. 4«, 45. 5°. 52. 63, etc. P. 6, 
 
 16, 17, 22, 28, 29, etc. B. 12, 4', 
 
 51, SS, etc., 120 
 on cylinder, slotted, 22. P. 6, 11, 13, 
 
 22 
 on cylinder, unslotted, 45, 62, 73, 74, 
 
 100. P. 7, 8, 38, 39, 52, 121, 157, 
 
 i6.v B. 25, 27 
 on disc, slotted, 11-14. P. 137. B. 
 
 44 
 
 on disc, unslotted, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 
 31, 46, 47, 49, 51, 58, 60, 61, 66, 
 
 74. 152. 153- p - 3. 7. 9. »°> 12, 
 18, 19, 20, 38, 60, 107, 144, 152. 
 B. 4 f », 47. 52, 53. 6 '. 136, 142 
 on spiral film, 85. B. 67 
 Indicating consumption or speed. See 
 
 Speed, etc. 
 Inspection apparatus, 50,6/, 62, 85, 87, 
 100, 105, 152, 173, 222. P. 38, 49, 
 58.65,73, 87, 108, 121, 153, 157, 
 158, 165. B. 90, 144 
 See also Kinescope ; Kinetoscope ; 
 Kinora ; Mutoscope; Phenakisto- 
 scope ; Photozootrope ; Praxino- 
 scope ; Stroboscope ; Viviscope ; 
 Zoetrope 
 J'/ter/erenzoscop. B. 21 
 Intermittent illumination. See Illumi- 
 nation 
 (Intermittent motion by — 
 
 clamp or brake, 52, 64, 71, 98, 103, 
 130, 144. P. 35, 53, 109. B. 51, 
 
 55, "8 
 claw or spring-teeth, 91, 9;, 100, 
 120, 123, 125, 155, 1(11, 162, 
 167, 169, 172, 178, 181. P. 51, 
 54, 68, 76, 78, 85, 83, 96, 100, 
 
 101, 106, 108, no, 115, 126, 141, 
 
 H5 
 
 disconnecting friction-gear, 122. P. 
 
 35 
 double motion of rollers, 69, 120, 122, 
 
 146. P. 35, 80, 83, 92 
 eccentric bobbin or sprocket, 82, 119, 
 
 139, 168. P. 46, 83 
 eccentric dog, pitman, etc., 83, 108, 
 
 128, 133, 139, 150, 166, 173. P. 
 
 46, 60, 95, 104, 106, 120, 158 
 escapement, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 
 
 64, 65, 78, 118, 122, 149, 155, 
 
 i S 6. P. 30, 32, 39, 4r, 43, 57, 70, 
 
 72. 75.99. "5. 146 
 gripping blocks or rollers, 69, 122, 
 
 128, 135. P. 35. «o, 85, 87, 95, 
 109, 125, 142, 161 
 
 Maltese Cross. See wheel and pin 
 plates passed from one chamber to 
 another, 45, 59. P. 8, 22, 87, 133 
 rack and teeth, 20, 158. P. 26, 114, 
 
 »3» 
 
 ratchet or tappet-gear, 47, 60, 80, 120, 
 145,162. P. 2, 39, 47, 67,69, 76, 
 86, 87, 93, 102, 112, 132, 149 
 
 reciprocated arm, etc., 70, 84, 104, 
 
 129, 140. P. 35, 36, 44, 58, 77, 
 83, 84, 97, 124, 150 
 
 rocking shaft, P. 151 
 
 roller rotating between band and 
 
 fixed cylinder, 41. P. 59. 
 snail, 15, 118, 155. P. 115. B. 32 
 wheel and — 
 
 cam-groove or worm, 102, 116, 
 118, 143, 150, 153, 158, 165, 
 
 166. P. 28, 61, 66, 73, 79, 81, 
 82, 89, 135, 144, 152 
 
 pin, 21, 46, 58, 114, 162, 164, 166, 
 
 16 7, '74. «75, i7 6 , '77- p - 25, 
 60, 62. 65, 70, 105, 111, 156 
 
 traversed worm, 107. P. 7 1 
 wheel, partiallv toothed, 105, 114. 
 
 P. 5<> 
 
 Intermittent motions, general review 
 
 of, in 
 Inventor of Living Pictures, 226 
 lnvicla Cinematograph, 167 
 Irex, B. 78 
 Ives, P. 159 
 
 Janssen, 57, 59. B. 38, 39 
 Jaubert, 184 
 Jeffries, B. 34 
 
INDEX. 
 
 271 
 
 Jenkins, 74, 86, 107, 128, 190, 193, 200, 
 223. B. 72.90, 91, 100, 112, 113, 
 1 14, 138, 139, 140 
 
 J01.Y, 104, 145, 202, 222. P. 58, 92, 
 93,94. B. 92, 105, 129 
 
 Jones, I*. 131 
 
 Jundzii.l, P. 3 
 
 Junior Presticicli, 169 
 
 Kaiser, 162. B. 129 
 Kaleidorama, 14. B. 14 
 
 Kalotrope, 9 
 
 Kamm, P. 152 
 
 Kat/iosc<ipe, 187 
 
 Katopticum, 187 
 
 Kinebleposcope, 1 8 7 
 
 Kinedogescope, 2 1 1 
 
 Kinegrapli, 186 
 
 Kiiteiitalodor, 175 
 
 Kinemalograpk, 150, 166, 173, 179 
 
 Ki ne m otoscope, 173 
 
 Kinemaloterm, 187 
 
 Kineograph, 35. P. 15 
 
 Kineopticon, 98 
 
 Kineoptoscope, i 7 2 
 
 Kinescope, 33. P. 17. B. 35, 130 
 
 Kinesetograph, 187 
 
 Kinesigraph, 51, 64. P. 22. B. 40, 106 
 
 Kinesterograph, 187 
 
 Kinetic Camera and Lantern, 97, 98. 
 
 P. 53. B. 86, 103 
 Kinetinephone, 187 
 Kinetograph, 73, 156, 158, 162, 179, 
 
 184, 207. P. 89. B. 56, 59, 69, 93, 
 
 105, 129. 
 Kinetophone, 74 
 Kineto-phonograpli, B. 69, 70 
 Kinetoscope, 51, 73, 75, 112, 1 74. B. 
 
 69. 7 1 , 75, 81, 96 
 Kinetoscope, pocket , 35 
 Kinetoscope stereopticon, B. loo 
 Kinetoscopes, multiple, 105, jc6, 222. 
 
 P. 49, 73. B. 92, 129 
 Kineloscopic Camera, B. 100 
 Kinevilagraph, 187 
 Kinimoscope, P. 3 
 Kinora, 39. P. 98 
 Koopmann, P. 109 
 
 K.ORSIEN, P. 89. B. 129 
 
 Kronke, P. 133 
 
 KuMBERG, P. 66 
 
 Lacroix, 155. B. 105, 129 
 Laing, B. 28 
 Lambert, P. 137 
 
 Langiiam, P. 136 
 Langlois, 33. P. 17. B. 35 
 Lantern Wheel 0/ Life, 17, 1 9, 112. 
 
 P. 18, 20, 107. B. 47 
 La Pipe, 149 192. P. 99. B. 129 
 Lapiposcope, 149. P. 99. B. 129 
 Latham, 112. I'. 63, 120. B. 79 
 Lear, 184 
 Lea\es, views on. See Book-form; 
 
 Cards 
 Lebiedzinski, B. 95 
 Le Francxis, B. 4 
 Lenses, mounts and fittings, 164, 176, 
 
 220, xvii., xxvii. 
 Le Prince, jjj, 79. P. 28 
 Levi and Co., i 75 
 Levi, Jones and Co., 185 
 Liddeli., P. 1 24 
 
 LlESGANG, 186 
 
 Lincoln, 21 
 
 Line of sight or projection, deflecting, 
 76,89, 159, 162, 175. P. 49, 50, 114. 
 
 See also Projection, auxiliary 
 
 LlNNETT, 35. 1*. IS 
 
 Living Picture Booh, P. 27 
 Locke, 186 
 Lomax, P. 49. B. 93 
 Lommel, 14,62,112. B. 44 
 Londe, 53. B. 54, 66, 145 
 
 LuB'N, 163 
 
 Lucretius, 3. B. 20 
 Lumiere, 3", 93, 160, 188, 201, 216. 
 P. 51, 68. 98.' B. 80, 97, 115, 1 -6 
 
 Luminograph, 187 
 
 McDonald, P. 81 
 Mach, 230 
 MacIntyre, 232 
 Mackusick, P. 48 
 McNally, P. 113 
 Magic disk, 22. 
 
 See also Zauberschiebe 
 Magniscope, 187 
 Maresciial, B. 73, 94, 1 1 7 
 Marey, 25, 48, 59, 69, 71, 82, 144, 
 
 197, 202. B. 46, 51, 55, 60, 74, 
 
 118 
 Marionette Top, 31. B. 45 
 Maroussem, P. 75 
 Martin, 55 
 
 Maskblyne, 113, 146. P. 74 
 Masks. See Adjusting, etc. 
 Matagraph, 185 
 Matuszewski, 231 
 
272 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Maurice, P. 16 
 
 Maxwell, 26, 1 13, 146. B. 36 
 
 Mayer, 80 
 
 IMazo, 167. B. 1 29 
 
 Melies, 158. P. 89. B. 105, 129 
 
 Melville, P. 27, 91 
 
 Messager, 167. B. 129 
 
 Messter, 156, 193, 197, 2C7 
 
 Micrograph, 163, 223, xxvi. 
 
 Micromotoscope, 232. B. 124 
 
 Microscopic chronophotography, 72. 
 
 B. 74, 124 
 Microscopic views, ^^. P. 9, 10, 17. 
 
 B. H, 130. '42 
 Miller, P. 151 
 Miniature Cinematographs, 169, 174, 
 
 185, xiii., xvi. 
 
 See also Toy lanterns 
 Moigno, B. 19 
 Molteni, B. 47 
 
 MONNARD, B. 142 
 
 Montserret, B. 1 10 
 Moon, P. 149 
 Morrison, P. 146 
 Mortier, 171. B. 145 
 Moto-Bijou Camera, 139 
 Motograph picture book, 153. P. 64 
 Moto-Pliotoscope, 139 
 Motorgraph, 156 
 Motoroscope, B. 28 
 Motor- Hictoroscope, 140 
 Motor scope. 187 
 
 Mouvementographe , 165. B. 105 
 Mouvementoscope, 187 
 Movendoscope, 185 
 Moy, P. 141 
 
 MOl.LER, 14, IO3. B. 16 
 
 Multiple optical systems. See Optical 
 
 systems, etc. 
 Mutagraph, 146. P. 74 
 Mutograph, 135, 185. P. 125. B. 128 
 Mutograph dark room, 195. B. 128 
 Mutograph studio, 194. B. 128 
 Mutoscope, 36, 37, 38, 139. P. 55, 1 19, 
 
 136 
 Mutuscope, 187 
 
 MUYI1RIDGE,48, 51. P. 24. B. 42,49, 
 
 53 
 
 Naish, 162. P. 101 
 Nelson, 153. P. 144 
 Neumann, 185 
 Neve, P. 132 
 Newman, P. 96, 145 
 
 Newman and Guahdia, Ltd., 179. 1'. 
 
 96, 145. i., ii. 
 Newton, 4, 173. P. 158, 159 
 Noakes, 167 
 Noble, P. 124, 158 
 Nollet, 4 
 Nomenclature, 185 
 
 Nordisk Reklame Kompagni, P. 156 
 Norman, 167 
 Normanoin, 145. B. 105, 129 
 
 Obelt, P. 105, 106 
 O'Neill, P. 113 
 
 On 1 m us, 55 
 Optic Wonder, 4 
 
 Optical systems, duplicate and multiple, 
 1 8, 86 
 
 See also Alternate ; Battery ; Projec- 
 tion, auxiliary 
 Optical Theatre, 30. B. 62 
 Optigraph, 185 
 Ottway, 175 
 oulton, p. 70, i 15 
 
 Pacht, P. 161 
 
 Panoramograph, 187 
 
 T ant am imio graph , 187 
 
 Pantobiograph, 187 
 
 Pantomimographe, 167. B. 129 
 
 Paris, 5, 6. B. 2 
 
 Parnaland, 161. P. 72, 78, 1 10 
 
 Parsonage, P. 1 54 
 
 Paul, 176. P. 62 
 
 Pedemascope, 33. P. 39 
 
 Peep-show apparatus, 223. P. 15?. 
 B. 90 
 
 See also Inspection apparatus 
 
 Perfection Cinematograph, 185, xv. 
 
 Perforations. See Films 
 
 Pehret, 155. B. 105, 129 
 
 Persistence of Vision, I, etc. 
 
 Pesciiek, P. 85 
 
 Petit, ioi, 105. P. 73 
 
 Phanakisticope, P. 3 
 
 Phanakistiscope, P. 16. B. 10, 13, 47 
 
 Phantascope, 14, 186. B. 14 
 
 Phantasmashop , B. 13 
 
 Phaitlograph, 187 
 
 Phanloscope — 
 
 Camera, 86. 8.72,90,91,100,114 
 Projector, 107. B. 90, 91, 100 
 
 Phasmatrope, 47 
 
 Phenahisticope, P. 23 
 
 Plievakistiscope, P. 14 
 
INDEX. 
 
 273 
 
 Living 
 3«, 93? 
 
 B. 61 
 
 
 Phenakistosope, II, 13, II 2. P. 137. 
 B q, 10, 13, 14, 32 
 
 See also Stroboscope 
 
 , alleged anticipation of, 3. B. 20 
 
 , stereoscopic, 40. P. 3. B. 19, 
 
 27. 28. 77 
 
 Phillips, P. 37 
 
 Phonograph combined with 
 Pictures, 62, 73, 184. P. 
 B. 40, 69, 70 
 
 Phonokinelograph, 73 
 
 Phono- kiueloscope, 74 
 
 Phoiiumendoscope, 187 
 
 Phonoscope, 61 , 1 12. P. 38, 42. 
 
 Photochronographe, 71, 82 
 
 Photo -cinegraphe, B. 89 
 
 Photoltinematograph, 187 
 
 Photographic Gun, 59. B. 46, 74 
 
 Revolver, 57. B. 38, 39 
 
 Photography, first application and in- 
 fluence, 44, 47, 62, 63, 68, 74, 228 
 
 Photomotoscope, 187 
 
 Photophone, 61. B. 108 
 
 Photoramic Effects, 186 
 
 Photo- rotoscope, 142 
 
 Peep-show, 223. P. 153 
 
 Photoscope, 33. P. 17 
 
 Phototrope, 187 
 
 Photozootrope, 222. B. 92, 129 
 
 Pictorialograph, \ 85 
 
 •1 PlLKlNGTON, 32 
 ^P.ROU, .85 '' W 
 
 Plateau, 3, 9, 10, 13, 16, 26, 44, 1 12, 
 226. B. 3, 5, 8, 9, 10, 15, 17, 20 
 
 Pocket Kinctoscope, 35 
 
 POPLAWSKI, B. 95 
 PoPPE, 14. B. 2 1 
 
 Porte ii, P. 1 22 
 
 Posed subjects, unreality of, 44, 45, 47. 
 
 B. 82 
 Positives, making. See Films 
 Potter, 64. P. 29 
 Praxinoscope, 26, 113. P. 23. B. 41 
 
 , Projection, 29. P. 23. B. 48 
 
 Projection Theatre, 30. P. 31. 
 
 B. 62, 79 
 
 , Stereoscopic, 28 
 
 Theatre, 28, 29. P. 23. B 43 
 
 , Theory of, 27 
 
 Phkstwich, 167. P. 83, xvi. 
 Projecting Kinctoscope, 1 74 
 Projection — 
 
 aphengescopic, 68, 86. P. 33 
 
 auxiliary systems for ordinary views, 
 29, 135, 142, 162, 163, 183, 212. 
 
 P. 80, 101, 105, 129, 150, 159 
 162 
 
 first instruments for, 16, 29, 37,, 46, 
 47, etc. P. 14, 18, 20, 23, 25, 26, 
 28. etc. B. 23, 37, 85, 107 
 Projection Praxinoscope, 29. P. 23. B. 
 
 48 
 Projectoscope, 174 
 Prokesch, 17. B. 107 
 Ptolemy, 3 
 Purser, xvii. 
 
 Quetelet, 13 
 
 Radau, B. 30 
 
 Radio-kinetograms, 232 
 
 Rae, B. 1 19 
 
 Rateau, 155. P. 108, 129 
 
 Rateaugraph, 155 
 
 Ray, P. 21 
 
 Rayoscope, 187 y 
 
 Reich, P. 76, 112 
 
 Repairing films. See Films 
 
 Reulos, 158. P. 89. B. 105, 129 
 
 Reversing, 105, 173,, 176, 213. P. 62, 
 73, 128, 158. B. 89, 94 
 
 Revillk, B. 1 20 
 
 Revolver photographiqm. See Photo- 
 graphic Revolver 
 
 Reynauo, 26, 29, 1 13. P. 23,31. B. 
 4'»43. 45> 48, 62, 79 
 
 Reyner, B. 120 
 
 Rice, P. 151 
 
 Richards, P. 79 
 
 Rigo, 150. P. 66 
 
 Riley, 172 
 
 Robins, B. 121, 122, 123 
 
 Kooet, 9. B. 1 
 
 Rollmann, B. 22 
 
 Rollograph, 175 
 
 Rose, 9. P. 13 
 
 Rosenberg, 143. P. 81 
 
 Ross, 19. P. 18, 20 
 
 Routledge, P. 81 
 
 Rowe, 185 
 
 Royal Biograph, 146 
 
 Rudge,66. B. 58 
 
 Safety arrangements, 76, 142, 157, 163, 
 176,216. P. 60,81,116,156,162. 
 B. 115, 1 16, 133 
 
 St. Clair, B. 124 
 
 Sanoow, P. 127 
 
 Sanson, 162. P. 69 
 
 Savart, 14 
 
274 
 
 LIVING PICTURES. 
 
 Scenamotograph, 187 
 
 Scenetograph, 185 
 
 Schmidt, P. 87 
 
 Schwarz, P. 138 
 
 Screens, 220 
 
 Sears, Roebuck, & Co., 185 
 
 Sebert, 53. B. 54 
 
 Sectional change over whole surface of 
 picture, 42. P. 34 B. 63 
 
 Segner, 4 
 
 Series Apparat us, 1 48 
 
 Series on separate plates. See Inter- 
 mittent motion by plates, etc. 
 
 Shaw, P. 7, 70. B. 25 
 
 Short, 36. P. 61, 163 
 
 Shutters, special forms of, 14, 17, 19, 
 
 20, 47- 49, 5 2 , 54, 7°, 77> 84, 9 2 , IOO » 
 105, 129, 133, 141, 149, 160, 165, 
 168, 175, 181,209,222. P. 32, 33, 
 36, 44,46, 51, 52, 54, 56, 58, 62, 68, 
 7°, 7i. 73» 75» 77> /8, 79, 80, 84, 85, 
 86,88, 95, 99, 101, 104, 1 06, 111, 
 120, 126, 129, 132, 150, 152, 162 
 
 SlNSTEDEN, 3. B. 20 
 
 Skladnowsky, 106, 148 
 Slipping-slides, 33 
 Slots— 
 
 and images, relation between, 1 1, 1 2, 
 23, 24. P. 11. B. 21, 22, 30, 117 
 
 distortion caused by, 9, 25. B. 11, 
 
 See also Anorthoscope 
 Smith, P. 104 
 Snell, 14. B. 14 
 Sobroscope, P. 3, 16 
 
 Speed, etc., governing and indicating, 
 155, 163, 168, 181, 183. P. 33, 80, 
 
 83, i29» >45, '5° 
 Speed of view, varying, 230, 232. B. 
 
 8 9 
 Spiral arrangement of views. See 
 
 Images, etc. 
 Spiral Camera and Lantern, 152, 153. 
 
 P. 144, 152 
 Spcols — 
 
 driving, 71, 138, 150, 157. P. 36, 
 
 62, 63, 68, 73, 79, 83, 84, 150 
 for cameras, 150, 157, 183. P. 83 
 forms of, 218. P. 79, 80,81,88, 95, 
 
 125 
 mounting, etc., 134, 142, 165, 178, 
 
 179, 183. P. 44, 105, 145, 162 
 Sprocket wheels — 
 
 details of, 141, 158, 168, 190. P. 
 
 3i,74, 75»8i, MS 
 
 Sprocket wheels — 
 
 locking, 78,80,102, 115, 117, 118, 
 120, 121, 141, 143, 162. P. 69, 
 7o, 7', 72, 73, 75» 7 6 , 86, 102, 
 •'2, 150, 151, 162 
 Stampkeh, 13,63. B. 12 
 Stands, 193, 207, i. 
 Steenomatographe, 172 
 Stereo-fan tascope, B. 19 
 Stereopticoii, 187 
 Stereoscopic Co., 4 
 Stereoscopic devices, 7, 24, 25, 28, 40. 
 
 P. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 21, 36, 42, 44, 
 
 87, 121, 122, 127, 140, 160. B. 19, 
 
 24, 25, 27, 28, 77, 120 
 Sterro-ihaumnirope, 7. B. 29 
 5 tereot rope, B. 25, 77 
 Stereo- Zootrope, 25. B. 74 
 Sternberg, P. 135 
 Stkward, 152 
 Stinctiscope, 187 
 Stock, 185 
 Story, B. 81 
 Stroboscope, 13. P. 3. B. 12, 13, 14, 
 
 16, 22,30, 37, 44, 78 
 See also Phenakistoscope 
 Symons, P. 64 
 
 Table Kinematoscope, 173 
 Tachy scope, 25, 49 
 
 , Electrical, 49, 74. B. 52 
 
 Talbot, Fox-, 43. P. 1 
 Talbot and Eamer, xix. 
 Taumatograph, 187 
 Taylor, 186. P. 155 
 Telecinematographe, B. 142 
 Terme, P. 75 
 Thaumatograph, 158 
 
 Thaumatrope, 5. B. 2, 32, 34, 64 
 
 , invention of, 6. B. 2, 26 
 
 , Stereo; 7. B. 29 
 
 , vertical, 32 
 
 Tliealregraph, B. 93 
 
 Theatriaxinoscope, 30 
 
 Thealro£raph, 176 
 
 Thompson, B. 75 
 
 Thromotrope, 187 
 
 Tissandier, B. 41, 42, 43, 48, 62 
 
 Top, Dazzling, 5 
 
 Top, Marionette, 31 
 
 Topler. B. 30 
 
 Toupie ehlouissante, 5 
 
 Toupie./nntoclie, 31. B. 45 
 
 Toy lanterns, 149, 166, 175, 184 
 
 Trevor, P. 19 
 
INDEX 
 
 275 
 
 Tropescope, 186 
 
 Tropograph, P. 57 
 Tyndau., 43. B. 18 
 
 Uchatius, 16, 17, 87. B. 23, 107 
 
 UltRY, I85 
 
 •Uses of Kinematography. See Applied 
 to, etc. 
 
 Valenta, B. 134 
 
 Variscope, 187 
 
 Vari.ey, 70, 84, 129. P. 36 
 
 Velocigraphc, 186 
 
 Velograph, 185 
 
 Velotrope, i8f> 
 
 Ve net rope, 187 
 
 Venus, Transit of, 57. B. 38, 39 
 
 Periscope, 166 
 
 Veveks, 185 
 
 Vibration, preventing, etc., P. 78 
 
 See also Flicker 
 Vibroscope universe!, B. 30 
 Vieograph, 185 
 Vinci, Leonardo da, 4 
 Viroscope, 187 
 J^irtescope, 187 
 Vision. See Alternate; Line of sight; 
 
 Persistence 
 Visionoscope, 187 
 Vistascope, 185 
 Vitagraph, 185. B. 129 
 Vitaletiscope, 187 
 Vitamotograph, 187 
 Vitapholoscope, 1 7 7 
 
 Vitascope, 74, 184. P. 60, 105. B. 100 
 Vitograph, B. 93 
 Viloptkon, 187 
 Vitoscope, B. 93 
 Vitoux, B. 96 
 Vivendograph, 187 
 Fiviscope, 41. P. 59. B. ioi 
 J/iviograph, 185 
 Vivrescope, 187 
 Voi.kmer, B. 97 
 
 Ward, B. 125 
 
 Warwick Trading Co , 132, 185, 214, 
 
 xiii., xiv. 
 IVat'croscope, 187 
 
 Watii.liaux, 35, 40. B. 99, 129, 131 
 Watkins, 232. B. 124 
 Watson, 156 
 Weber, B. 31 
 Wenham,45. B. 82 
 Werner, P. 100 
 Wheatstone, 15 
 Wheel of Life, 2 1 
 
 See also Lantern Wheel, etc., Zoe- 
 trope 
 Wheel Phenomena, 9, 10, 11. B. 1, 3, 
 
 4> 5> 6 » 7.8, 14, "7 
 Wight, P. 143 
 Wilson, P. 160 
 Winding films. See Films 
 Wolfk, 177, xxii., xxiii. 
 Wollaston, 6 
 JVunderscope, 187 
 Wood, 185 
 
 Wray, 178. P. 50,88, 115, xv. 
 Wrench, 165. P. 86, 126. B. 126 
 
 X-ograph, 187 
 
 X-ray Kinetograms, 232 
 
 Zauberschiele, B. 12 
 
 Zeiss, 221 
 
 Zeoptrotrope, 187 
 
 Zinematograph, 187 
 
 Zizmann, B. 37 
 
 Zion, 165. B. 105 
 
 Zoclrope, 21, 23,59, I 2 - ,J - 6, J', '3, 
 22, 37>45- B - 32 
 band- form, 63. P. 6 
 non-distorting, 26. B. 36 
 stereoscopic, 24, 25, 40. P. 6 B. 
 
 25 
 Zo'opraxiscope, 51, 112. B. 53 
 
 Zootrope, 21. B. 36 
 
 , stereo (solid figures), 25. B. 74 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 31, line $,for Toupee read Toupie. 
 Page 50, line ^,for current read contact. 
 
Animated Pnotograpny for Amateurs 
 
 * * * 
 
 \okB22L 
 
 (patented in all countries.) 
 
 A Combined Cinematograph 
 and Snap-shot Camera, Prin- 
 ter, Projector, Reverser, and 
 Enlarger. Fitted with 
 
 TWO SPECIAL VOIGTLANDER 
 LENSES. 
 
 PRtCE: 
 
 £6 6s. Od. 
 
 THE BIOKAM PROJECTOR 
 
 For Projecting, Reversing and Enlarging only. 
 
 Fitted with Adapter to screw into Lens Flange of 
 
 ANY EXISTING LANTERN. 
 
 Price: J34 4s. Od. 
 
 SENSITIVE FILM, Positive or Negative, perfor- 
 ated (length 25ft.) 3 6 each. 
 
 BIOKAM FILM SUBJECTS, 25ft. full length, 
 price 10/- each. 
 
 Same duration of exhibit as Films used for Public Cine- 
 matograph Entertainments. 
 
 SEND FOR HANDSOME ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. 
 
 For Sale by all OPTICIANS and PHOTOGRAPHIC DEALERS. 
 
 THE WARWICK TRADING Co., Ltd., 
 
 4 & 5, WARWICK COURT, HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON, W.C. 
 Telegrams: " COUSINHOOD, LONDON." Telephone: "1135, HOLBORN.' 
 
The KING OF CINEMATOGRAPHS. 
 
 CAMERAS & PROJECTORS 
 
 (patented). 
 
 2,000 LATEST FILM SUBJECTS. 
 
 The Superior " W.T.C." Films 
 The Celebrated Melies "Star" Films 
 The Famous Lumiere Films 
 The Ingenious "G.A.S." Films 
 
 (copyrighted). 
 THE . . . 
 
 HEPWORTH OPTICAL 
 ELECTRIC LAMP 
 
 And all Accessories pertaining 
 to the 
 
 CINEMATOGRAPH TRADE. 
 
 SEND FOR CATALOGUES 
 
 Of New Model Bioscopes 
 and Film Subjects. 
 
 9B 
 
 THE WARWICK TRADING CO., LTD., 
 
 4 & 5, Warwick Court, High Holborn, 
 
 Telegrams :— " COUSINHOOD, LONDON. 
 
 London, W.C. 
 
Qecil XD Ta ¥ & (S°- 
 
 (Late BAXTER 6- ll'RAY), 
 MAKERS OF 
 
 CINEMATOGRAPHS, LANTERNS, &&, 
 
 BOROUGH Mil LS Telegrams : Phojkc tob, Bradford. 
 
 ■ • Tele ^tL^ fl "- • ■ BRADFORD, YORKS. 
 
 ^ SPECIALITIES: ^ 
 
 THE PERFECTION CINEMATOGRAPHS, 
 
 Which can be fitted to any Magic Lantern, and will take Films 
 of any length, from 50 feet to h a mile. 
 
 No wear on Films, after months of use. 
 
 Flicker reduced to minimum. 
 
 Nevtr gets out of order. 
 
 Used by the leading Professional Exhibitors. 
 
 Each Machine fully tested and guaranteed for 12 months, and 
 any part broken or worn during that period replaced Free of 
 Cost. During the last three years over 350 Machines have been 
 supplied. 
 
 The action of this Machine is fully described on Page 178 
 of this book. 
 
 IF YOU WANT THE BEST, GET THIS! 
 
 Prices from 50/- to <£20, 
 
 According to customer's requirements. Any of our Machines 
 will photograph as easily as project. Any information or 
 estimates cheerfully supplied, and any work in connection with 
 Cinematographs carried out by Specialists. 
 
 In this Business we have led, others have followed. 
 
 FOUR PRIZE MEDALS HAVE BEEN AWARDED OUR APPARATUS. 
 
The " PRESTWICH " Specialities for 
 
 ANIMATED PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 Nine different Models of Cameras and Projectors in three 
 sizes for Jin., I -in. and 2 in. width of film. 
 
 We make and supply everything appertaining to Cinematographs. 
 
 Cameras, Projectors, Perforators, &c, 
 
 Constructed on an entirely new principle. Perfect Register, 
 This Camera will carry from 400 to 500 it. of film without changing, 
 
 and the magazines being light-tight the operation of filling-in is done 
 
 in daylight. 
 
 Focussing can be done directly on to the film. 
 
 As a Printer this instrument is perfect, giving absolutely correct 
 
 registration and masking. Will print 500 ft. in one length. 
 
 EACH INSTRUMENT GUARANTEED. 
 
 The Camera and four 75 feet 
 Changing Boxes pack into small 
 case 6^ x 10 x 8£. 
 
 N.B.— We have also fitted this 
 instrument with a device for re- 
 cording the quantity (in feet) of 
 film used, the number being dis- 
 cernible whilst the machine is 
 being operated. 
 
 One picture to one turn 
 
 of the intermittent 
 
 motion. 
 
 The " Prestwich " Combined Magazine Camera & Printer (Patent). Model 4. 
 
 For further particulars send for our New Illustrated Catalogue. 
 
 THE PRESTWICH MANUFACTURING CO., 
 
 744, High Road, Tottenham, London, N. 
 
WHOLESALE AGENT 
 
 Henry-F- Purser 
 
 33 Hatton Garden i^ 0Na0 N,SM 
 the 
 OPTICIAN'S HANDBOOK, 
 
 An Introduction to the Study of the Refraction of the Eye. 
 Its Anomalies, and their Estimation and Correction 
 by Means of Glasses, 
 
 OPHTHALMIC SURGEON (M.R.C.S.E.) 
 
 em- price 3 6. 
 
 THE GUTENBERG PRESS Ld., 
 
 123, 124, & 125, Fleet St., London, E.C. 
 
BAMFORTH'S 
 
 Life Model 
 Lantern Slides, 
 
 Illustrated Songs, &c. 
 
 The Largest Producer in Ihe World. 
 
 Detailed Catalogue, 208 pages, post free, 8d. 
 
 Slides made (ram Customers' Negatives by a Special Wet 
 
 Collodion Process, giving good results even from 
 
 poor, weak film Negatives. 
 
 Send Negative for Sample Slide and Terms. 
 
 JAMES BAMFORTH, 
 
 Station Road, Holmfirtn, Yorkshire, England. 
 
historical facts! 
 
 * * # 
 
 TALBOT «? EAMER 1> 
 
 Were the first to place a cheap hand camera on 
 the market . . " JHE DIAMOND DETECTIVE." 
 
 TALBOT *? EAMER [> 
 
 Were the first to introduce cheap dark slides. 
 
 TALBOT *? EAMER 1> 
 
 Were the first to supply hand cameras fitted 
 With larg 2 finders . . . " JHE JALNIER." 
 
 TALBOT # EAMER t> 
 
 Were the first to introduce a cheap and efficient 
 roller-blind shutter ..." JHE JVIERTAL." 
 
 TALBOT # EAMER 1> 
 
 Were the first to place on the market a 
 practicable reflex hand camera, having a full- 
 sized picture "JHE MIRAL," 
 
 The improved "Miral"' takes any lens, and can be fitted with bag 
 changing arrangement, dark slides, changing box, or roll-holder. No 
 larger than any ordinary box camera. Send for full particulars and 
 illustrations of our various pattern hand cameras, field cameras, shutters, 
 etc., to the manufacturers — 
 
 TALBOT ^ EAMER, Blackburn. 
 
S™ s ''TlieCieroscope.' 
 
 CIEROSCOPE No. 1, for Projection purposes only, fitted 
 with new pattern Shutter, complete with Lens. 
 
 The most reliable Machine on the Market. 
 
 Price - £15 15s, Od. 
 
 CIEROSCOPE, as No. 1, with best Mahogany Lantern and 
 Alum Trough, complete — 
 
 £21 Os. Od. 
 
 R. J. APPLETON & CO., 
 58, IYIANNINGHAIV1 LANE, BRADFORD. 
 
 Telegrams: "OPTICAL, BRADFORD." 
 
APPLETON'S u 
 
 Cinematograph - 
 
 The Cieroscope." 
 
 p 
 
 CIEROSCOPE CAMERA AND PROJECTOR, for Taking 
 and Exhibiting Cinematograph Films, fitted with a pair of daylight 
 changing boxes, avoiding the necessity to return to the Dark Room to 
 put the Film into the Camera. 
 
 Price-| With W * Wra y' s I ens - £17 I7s. Od. 
 (Without Lens - - - - £15 I5 S . Od. 
 
 A LARGE QUANTITY OF FILMS IN STOCK. CATALOGUES FREE. 
 
 R. J. A FPL ETON & CO., 
 
 58, MANNINGHAM LANE, BRADFORD. 
 
 Telegrams: "OPTICAL, BRADFORD." 
 
PHILIPP WOLFF, 
 
 9 St 10, Southampton 
 
 BERLIN. 
 
 PROJECTORS 
 
 With all the Latest Improvements as exclusively- 
 used by Mr, David Devant, of Egyptian Hall, 
 
 London. 
 
 CHITIERflS 
 
 For taking Animated Photographs. 
 
 Special 
 
 ALL 
 
 Films 
 
 ACCESSORIES 
 
 Taken. 
 
 STOCKED. 
 
 Customers' 
 
 Films 
 
 Developed 
 
 and Printed. 
 
 IP. "W. Machines are 
 
 recognised the Best in the 
 
 Market. 
 
 •^"w^w - *** 
 
 CALL TO INSPECT BEFORE BUYING. 
 
 Telegraphic Address : " INF1LMED. 
 
PHILIPP WOLFF, 
 
 Street, Holborn, 
 
 Iiondon. PARIS. 
 
 Fums. 
 
 SUITABLE SUBJECTS 
 
 For all Seasons of the Year and for Everybody. 
 
 Humorous 
 
 Historical Subjects. 
 
 Sensational 
 
 SOUDANESE CAMPAIGN. 
 
 Illusion ary J^ilms. 
 
 Blank Films of all lengths supplied 
 at Shortest Notice. 
 
 SHOWS OF 
 ANIMATED PHOTOGRAPHS SUPPLIED. 
 
 Telegraphic Address : " INFILMED." 
 
THE PHOTOGRAPHER'S JOURNAL. 
 
 defence J=kffttt<j* 
 
 A Chatty Journal of 
 PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 INVENTION, 
 FOOD, 
 
 HEALTH, and 
 
 SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 ONE r-EKTIWY 'WEEK.LY. 
 
 Editorial and Publishing Offices: 
 
 123, 124, & 125, Fleet Street, London. 
 
 SPECIMEN ON APPLICATION. 
 
Food Frauds and 
 Foods that Feed. 
 
 BEING AN EXPOSURE ON 
 
 SOME COMMERCIAL SHAMS, 
 
 AND SOME ADVICE ON 
 
 WHAT TO EAT, ETC., 
 
 IS. BV IS. 
 
 CHARLES HYATT-WOOLF, 
 
 Editor of " Science Sif tings" 
 
 " The Optician and Photographic Trades Review? 
 etc., 
 
 GUTENBERG PRESS LTD., 123, 124, and 125. Fleet 
 Street, London. 
 
Inefficient, Intricate, and High-priced Kine- 
 
 matographs have hitherto prevented the 
 
 popularisation of Animated Photography. 
 
 All these objections are removed by 
 
 THE MICROGRAPH 
 
 Mechanism, Lens, Con- 
 denser, & well-finished 
 Russian Iron Lantern 
 Box, mounted on Wal- 
 nut Baseboard. Com- 
 plete : 
 
 Price £6 6s. 
 
 ■>-*< 
 
 The Micrograph is so Accurately Adjusted as to satisfy the most 
 exacting professional user j it is so simple to manipulate, and so 
 low in price as to make the projection of Animated Photographs 
 
 A PASTIME FOR EVERY AMATEUR. 
 
 Large Stock of Films, Arc Lamps and all Accessories. 
 
 THE MICROGRAPH COMPANY, LIMITED, 
 
 7, Oreat Queen Street, LONDON, W.C. 
 
 Telegrams: "MICROGRAPH, LONDON." 
 

 Xeijses /or 
 
 Qinenjatograpfjif. 
 
 ONLY Lenses of the highest quality -can be successfully 
 employed for Cinematographic work. Owing to the 
 high degree of magnification to which the pictures are subjected, 
 not only is it absolutely essential that every trace of spherical 
 aberration should be eliminated so that the picture on the film 
 shall be clear and crisp, but also that the lens used for projecting 
 it shall be capable of doing so with the greatest possible amount 
 of sharpness and brilliancy. 
 
 Messrs. J. |. DALLMEYER, l«., 
 
 Can confidently recommend the following Lenses as possessing 
 
 these necessary qualities in the highest degree. 
 Lenses for Cinematograph Cameras. 
 
 Special B Lens, f4, 2 in. eq. focus, covers 1 by $ in. 
 
 with focussing flange ... ... ... ^200 
 
 Special B Lens, {4, 2 in. eq. focus, with Iris ... ... 2 7 6 
 
 Special B Lens, f4, 3 in. eq. focus, with Iris ... ... 3150 
 
 Medallion Lens, I2.2, ij in. eq. focus, covers 'i by | in. 2 7 6 
 Miniature Lens, f2.2, 3 in. eq. focus, covers 2 by 2 
 
 in., with rack and pinion ... ... ...500 
 
 Special Stigmatic Lens, ff, 3 in. eq. focus, with 
 
 focussing flange and Iris ... ... ... 3 15 o 
 
 Lenses for Projectors. 
 
 Special Lantern Lens, f2.2, 2 in. eq. focus, covers 1 
 
 by f in., with rack and pinion ... ... 3 15 o 
 
 Miniature Lens, f2.2, 3 in. eq. focus, with rack and 
 
 pinion ... ... ... ... ... 500 
 
 Medallion Lens, f2.2, ih in. eq. focus, rigid mount ... 2 7 6 
 SPECIAL MOUNTINGS TO ORDER. 
 
 J. H. DALLMEYER, Ltd., 
 
 Opfcal Manufactory— 
 
 25, Newmor. Street, London, W. 
 
pictures 
 
 HOPWOOD 
 
 Press, Ltd.