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ARTS AND CRAFTS

EDITED AND COMPILED BY

MONTAGUE MARKS

WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS

HOW TO TEACH YOURSELF

MODELLING IN CLAY
MODELLING IN GESSO
WOOD CARVING
FRET SAWING
POKER WORK
PYROGRAVURE
LEATHER

DECORATION

SAW-PIERCING
ETCHING ON METAL
METAL HAMMERING
BENT-IRON WORK
APPLIED DESIGN
ORNAMENT
WALL-PAPER

DESIGNING

TEXTILE DESIGNING
TILE DESIGNING
DAMAGED CHINA

RESTORING
“ GRANGERISING”
TAXIDERMY

ETC., ETC.

London

C. Arthur Pearson Ltd.

Henrietta Street
1903

CONTENTS

MODELLING.

PAGE

MODELLING IN CLAY:

I. Materials and Appliances . . . . . *7

II. Working from the Cast ...... 18-19

III. Working from Life:—T he full-length figure—The stand for a bust—

The draped figure—Proportions—The statuette . . . 19-22

MODELLING IN CHINA CLAY:

Useful for small figures made to be fired—Tinted clays—Modelling
in low relief 22-27

MODELLING IN WAX:

Modelling wax—“ Composite Clay,” a substitute . . . .27

MODELLING (PAINTING) IN GESSO:

A composition of whiting and size, resembling putty—Attaches itself
to any surface—Very pliant—Tinted and gilded gesso—Metallic
lacquers ..•••••••

PLASTER CASTS:

I. From the Clay Model ••••••* 28

II. From Life . . • • • • • • 31

III. Gelatine Moulds for Plaster Casts . . • • 31

WOOD-CARVING.

I Chip (Notch) Carving :—The most elementary form of wood-carving

—Woods—For a first attempt—Finishing—Polishing . . 3 2 - 3 5

II Tools and Appliances:—M ade-up “Sets for Amateurs” to be avoided

_Transfer paper—Carver’s bench — Tool chest—“Holdfast” and

“Bench Screw”—“Bench Bolts” .... 55 _3 ^

III. Preliminary Practice—Care of Tools . • • 56-37

CONTENTS

IV. Surface Decoration Dragon ” or “Viking” style, perhaps, most PJGE

artistic kind of surface carving—Suitable for rulers, paper-knives,
tea-trays, etc. . . . . . _ > '37-38

V. Relief Carving Simple Exercises for Beginners — Finishing with

law linseed oil Polishing—Stamped Backgrounds—A Gothic dado

rail The cardboard “ Mould ”—Decoration of edges of shelves_

Diaper designs valuable in places of secondary importance, the more
prominent spaces and panels being reserved for decoration of more

character ... o

38-48

VI. Carving in the Round Lancewood excellent for the purpose—How
two spoons may be carved from a single block—The fretwork
“horse”—Shaping the bowl and handle—Heads for walking-stick
handles

FRET-SAWING.

Misapplication of the craft—The only suitable designs are geometrical,
or natural forms conventionally treated—Fret-cut panels for insertion
in joiners' work more appropriate than articles made up wholly of
bet-work How to use the tools—Finishing .

PYROGRAVURE.

I. Evolution of “Poker Work”:— Originally done on wood, with small
red-hot kitchen poker; then with a set of poker-like points, and,
finally, with heated platinum points—Pyrography is more allied to
etching than painting . «... 58-61

II. Tools and Materials :—Platinum the best metal for pyrogravure, no

other having its peculiar quality of absorbing the heat conveyed by

hydrocarbon vapour obtained from benzoline—Pattern points to be

had in great variety—The wood—Polishing best done by rubbing

in pure linseed oil—Dye staining—Gilding and silvering— Treating

with hot sand . -

61-64

III. Application of the Platinum Point :—The point may be con¬

tinuously heated and regulated by means of a little hand-bellows
attached to machine specially made for the purpose . . 64

IV. Pyrogravure on Leather :—The burnt line differs considerably from

that on wood Excellent for leather bookbindings, and, on white or
brown kid, for ornamentation of small leather domestic articles 64-70
V Treatment of some Designs

CONTENTS

VI. P\ROGRAVURE IN Interior Decoration :—Not only furniture, mantel¬

pieces and the like, but ceiling, walls, doors, and even flooring may
be so decorated ....... 70-74

VII. GLASS Pyrogravure :—Effect similar to that of etching on glass with

ac id Special point, with inner appliances to keep it at white heat,
necessary—Very hard glass only available . . , 75-76

LEATHER DECORATION,

I. Stamping—Gilding—Painting :—Tools and appliances—Oil colours
mixed with varnishes to correspond, applied with sable brushes—

The varnishes and oil colours ..... 77-78

II. Boiled Leather Work.— The “Cuir Bouilli” of the Middle Ages—

The leather when quite soft is pressed into moulds and finally
shaped with wood or bone implements—Bookbinders’ and brass-
workers stamps and punches also used — Painting, silvering,
gilding, etc. ....... 78-81

III. Bookbindings: The Mosaic mode—Tooling . . . 81-84

LINCRUSTA AND ANAGLYPTA DECORATION:

Both materials may be decorated in the manner of leather . 85-87

METAL WORK.

SAW-PIERCING:

Metal is scarcely more difficult than wood to work with the fret-saw.

Cut or sawed metal useful for strap-hinges and lock-plates—Polished
with powdered pumice-stone and finished with rotten stone . . 88

ETCHING ON METAL. .

HAMMERED METAL:

I. Materials. Annealing: —Selection of the metal , . <

II. TOOLS AND Appliances: —The rawhide mallet—The tracers—Raising
tools — The cement or pitch block—The cushion—Blow lamp—
Spatula, or smoothing iron, etc. ..... <

III. PREPARATIONS for Work:— Preparing the metal—Attaching it to the

cement block ....... 95-96

IV. Transferring the Design . . . . . .96

V. The First Attempt :— The tracing or outlining . . , 96-97

CONTENTS

PAGE

VI. Flat chasing

1 «

•

97-93

VII. Raising and modelling

•

■

98-IOO

VIII. Finishing

•

IOO-IOI

IX. The background .

•

. IOI

X. Textures . .

•

■

I 0 I-I 02

XI. Raising from the back

•

102-103

XII. Lacquering

•

I03-I04

BENT- AND LIGHT WROUGHT-IRON WORK:

Bent-iron work in its simplest form is light, and easily within scope
of the amateur—Known as “Venetian Ribbon Work,” and practised
by young ladies—Sheet-iron work heavier and rather complicated;
more suitable for amateur artisan .... 105-113

APPLIED DESIGN.

PREPARATORY STUDY:

Elements of Design—What is Applied Design—Can one become
a designer by studying at home ?—Floral and plant study, very
important—Constant exercise in outline-drawing of plant forms
necessary — Floral analysis—Literature of Art—Two valuable
text-books ........ 114-119

NATURAL AND CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT:

Geometrical groundwork the common element in all good design—

Each handicraft has its peculiar limitations and differences in
conventionalising—The outline of the cloisonne enamel workman, the
decorative lead lines in painted glass, the “ couched ” outline in
embroidery—One can depart far from a natural form without
sacrificing the beauty of the motive . . . 119-121

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ORNAMENT:

The ornamentist can classify all pattern work according to its struc¬
ture — The skeletons that underlie the whole mass of repeated
patterns are very few—The “ Drop ” match, a device to avoid the
monotony of a series of checkers—The “Plain” Match—The “Turn¬
about” match—How to prove a design. . . 122-127

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

WALL-PAPER DESIGNING:

Manufacturers generally prefer simple patterns conventionally treated
to floral and other naturalistic patterns needing many printings—
Things to avoid—Dimensions of a design—The “Repeat”—The
device of “Stepping” ...... 127-128

TEXTILE DESIGNING:

The three ways of applying a pattern to a fabric—Four effects or
shades may be gained using only black — Carpets classified for
designing purposes—The design or “ point ” paper—No amount of
good ornament in a carpet will compensate for bad colour . 129-133

TILE DESIGNING:

Classification of designs for tiles—Study of manufacturers’ illustrated
books of specimen patterns will give intending designers much
information—The smaller manufacturers most likely buyers of designs
by outsiders . . . . , . , . 133

PREPARATIONS OF WORKING DESIGNS:

Any mechanical means permissible—The design must be full working
size—Ruled or “ point ” paper necessary for carpets, oil-cloths, and
certain woven fabrics, but not employed for designs for wall-paper,
woven silk fabrics, or cretonnes, or printed fabrics—How the “ Dis¬
temper ” colours are prepared—Wall-paper designs—Carpet designs
—Silken fabric designs—Book-cover designs (“cloth” bindings) made
in pen-and-ink on white Bristol board, from which a metal “ pro¬
cess ” block is reproduced as a die .... 134-137

MISCELLANEOUS.

RETOUCHING PHOTOGRAPHERS’ NEGATIVES .
RESTORATION OF DAMAGED CHINA
“EXTRA-ILLUSTRATING” OR “GRANGERISING”
TAXIDERMY :

I. Skinning and Preparing Birds .

II. Mounting .....

III. Insect Taxidermy ....

138- 139

139- 141
141-143

143-146
146-149
. 149

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Modelling.

PAGE

Tools used in modelling.18

Board for relief modelling.19

Easel for relief modelling.19

Support for modelling a bust .... 20

Zinc cover for model.20

Modeller’s callipers.20

Modelling stand.20

Metal support in modelling a statuette . . 21

Rough clay sketch of a bust .... 22

Finished clay sketch of a bust .... 22

Modelling a horse from life. (From a photo¬
graph) .24

Simple relief modelling in porcelain clay . . 26

Haviland vase in sculptured clay ... 26

Hammer and mallet for repousse work
Use of the snarling iron ....
Repousse bellows mount, ready for finishing

Bent- and Wrought-Iron Work.
Method of binding bent-iron strips .

Curves in bent-iron.

Long-nosed pliers.

Easel for menu stand in bent-iron
Perspective view of menu stand in bent iron
Illustrating vent for hanging lamp .
Illustrating other details for hanging lamp
Side-view of card-holder (design 230)

Hook for watch (design 232)

Details of hanging lamp (design 240)

PAGE

102

103

I0 5

10S

105

106

107
107
107
109
hi

Wood-Carving and Fret-Sawn Work
Elements of chip-carving ....
Motives and designs for chip-carving
Marks of various tools used in wood-carving

Wood-carving tools.

Position of the hands in wood-carving
The hands in using the mallet .

Clamps.

A wood-carver’s bench ....

Edges of shelves.

Overmantel with fret-sawn decoration
Mantel mirror with fret-sawn decoration .
Corner cabinet with fret-sawn decoration
Bracket with fret-sawn decoration .
“Occasional” table with fret-sawn decoration

Pyrogravure.

Decorated chair.

Decorated tabouret.

Leather and Lincrusta Decoration.

Sheath in “Cuir Bouilli” (16th century) .

Box in “Cuir Bouilli” (16th century.

Bible case in “Cuir Bouilli” (15th century)

Hammered Metal.

Steel raising tools.

Ring tools.

Brass raising tools.

Steel tracers .

Pearl tools.

Mats or grounding tools.

Punches.

Canaux .

Proper position of the hands for repousse work

Applied Design.

32 An element.

33 An unit.

34 A border.

34 Simple borders.

35 Ancient Egyptian border (papyrus) .

35 A rosette.

35 Rue Anemone.

35 Violets.

45 Sweet Peas.

57 Nasturtiums.

57 Pansy analysis.

57 Sweet Pea analysis.

57 Nasturtium analysis.

57 Violet analysis.

Rue Anemone analysis ....
Phlox analysis

^g Pansies.

^g Almond blossoms. Naturalistic treatment

Almond blossoms. Semi-conventional treatmen
Fleur-de-lis (Blue Flag.) Analysis .
Fleur-de-lis (Blue Flag.) Natural growth
79 Sweet-brier. Slightly decorative arrangemen
79 Diagram explaining some botanical terms
°° Wild rose. Nearly natural treatment

Nasturtium and leaves. Nearly natural treat

ment.

93 Demonstrations of the Anatomy Pattern. By

93 Lewis F. Day.

93 Illustration of a “ Plain ” match (for a frieze)

93 Illustration of the “ Turnabout ” match
93 Illustrations of the “ Drop ” match. By Lewis

93 F. Day.

93 How to prove a “ Drop ” design

93 Illustrating the “ Repeat” principle .

94 Illustrating the “ Stepping ” method .

114

ii 4

n 4

114

115
115
115
115
115
115
115
115
115
115

115

116

11 7

118
118
118
118
120

120

124

!25

126

127

128

129

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

xii

PAGE

Printed fabric. Four colour effects from black

alone.13°

Colouring drums used in applying designs . 130

Brussels carpet design and the “ Plant ” . . 131

Working drawing for a carpet design . . 132

Miscellaneous.

Restoration of damaged china or pottery .
Restoration of damaged china or pottery .
Tools and materials used in taxidermy
Skinning and preparing the bird
Skinning and preparing the bird

Mounting the bird.

The completed body of the bird

The bird brought up into shape on the stand

The last operation in mounting the bird .

140

141

144

145

146
146
146
148
148

LIST OF DESIGNS.

FULL-SIZE PLATES AND WORKING
DRAWINGS.

Wood-Carving, or Pyrogravurf. :—Chair
back. By C. M. Jenckes . Facing page
Fret-Sawn Panels :—For insertion in small
articles of furniture. By Gleeson White

Facing page

Boiled Leather Work (“ Cuir Bouilli ”):—
Chair back decoration. By L. W. Miller

Facing page

Repousse Metal Work :—By C. M. Jenckes.
(1) Sconce for candlestick. (2) Old-fashioned
sand-box, used for drying ink, in correspon¬
dence . Facing page

Modelling :—High-relief panel for a fireplace
Modelling :—Gesso decoration. By Walter

Crane..

Modelling :—Gesso decoration. By Walter

Crane..

Wood-carving: —Paper-knife with “Viking”
decoration .......

Wood-carving Old Celtic strap work .
Wood-carving :—Exercises for beginners
Wood-carving :—Rosettes and band of decora¬
tion. By Benn Pitman ....

Wood-carving :—Edgings and Mouldings. By

Benn Pitman.

Wood-carving :—Gothic dado rail .
Wood-carving :—Gothic dado rail .
Wood-carving :—Watch-stand. By C. M.

Jenckes . .

Wood-carving :—Bands of decoration. By

Benn Pitman.

Wood-carving :—Rosettes and other decora¬
tions. By Benn Pitman ....

Wood-carving :—Bands of decorations. By

Benn Pitman.

Wood-carving :—Diaper treatments. By Benn

Pitman.

Wood-carving :—Edges, mouldings, and dia¬
pers. By Benn Pitman ....

105

4 1

Wood-carving :—Armchair, carved by an

amateur.

Wood-carving :—Bands of decoration. By

Benn Pitman.

Wood-carving :—End of a library stool. By

Benn Pitman.

Wood-carving :—Sherbet spoon
Wood-carving :—Sherbet spoon
Wood-carving : — Picture frame (Virginia
creeper). By Benn Pitman
Pyrogravure :—Box-top ....

Pyrogravure :—Leather cigar case
Pyrogravure :—Nautical decoration
Pyrogravure :—Tray or mat ....
Pyrogravure :—Napkin ring decorations
Pyrogravure :—Box or panel decorations
Pyrogravure :—Box or panel decorations
Pyrogravure :—Part of dining-room frieze.

By J. W. Fosdick.

Pyrogravure :—Panel decoration .
Pyrogravure :—Panel decoration .
Pyrogravure :—Various decorations
Pyrogravure :—Tabour top. By M. L. Ma-

comber.

Leather :—Cigar-case.

Leather :—Heraldic decoration
Leather :—Mosaic or painted decoration
Leather :—Mosaic or painted decoration
Leather :—Mosaic or painted decoration
Leather :—Tooling, from an old binding
Lincrusta : —Fire screen or mirror frame
Lincrusta :—Bronzed and tinted umbrella

holder.

Saw-Piercing :—Casket hinges
Saw-Piercing :—Casket hinges
Etched Metal :—Hinges for cabinet doors .
Etched Metal :—Panel . . . .

Etched Metal :—Panels of a hanging cabinet
Hammered Brass:—E xercise in “Tracing” or

“ Outlining ”.

Hammered Brass :—Draw handle plate .
Hammered Brass :—Match-box holder .
Hammered Brass :—Sconce with cut-glass

pendants.

Bent Iron :—Menu stand ....

Bent Iron :—Card-holder ....

Bent Iron :—Grille.

Bent Iron :—Watch-stand ....

Bent Iron :—Candlestick.

Bent Iron :—Grille.

Bent Iron :—Collar or cuff box
Bent Iron :—Grille for street door .

Bent Iron :—Grille for folding doors
Bent Iron :—Grille for street door .

Bent Iron :—Sign bracket ....
Bent Iron :—Hanging lamp ....
Sheet Iron :—Hall lantern ....

Sheet Iron :—Hall lantern . . . .

Unclassified :—Hawthorn decoration
Unclassified :—Hawthorn decoration
Unclassified :—Hawthorn decoration
Unclassified :—Conventional tile decorations
Book Covers :—Thistle motive decorations .
Book Covers :—Hawthorn motive decorations

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MODELLING IN CLAY

MODELLING IN CLAY.

I. MATERIALS AND APPLIANCES.

OUR oft-expressed advice to the novice not to
attempt this or that branch of the graphic arts
without having acquired the rudiments of draw¬
ing need not apply to modelling in clay—at
least in its first stages ; for such modelling is
natural drawing, and is wisely taught as such
to very young children in the kindergartens.
We need hardly say, however, that with a
knowledge of drawing the serious student of
sculpture will do much better than without it.

Lighting.—For modelling, the light is better
coming from above than from the side. When
only a side light can be obtained, it will be
necessary, after working on one side, to remove
the model so that the light may fall on the
other ; otherwise, if a likeness is aimed at, it
will be perceptible only under one particular
light, and from only one point of view. A
good portrait should strike from every aspect.
When working by gas or candle light, the
position where the light can come down upon
the front of the work is best. It is most safe,
where possible, to vary the position of the light
either by shifting the light or the position of
the model.

The Clay. —It is the fine, gray stone-ware
clay that is wanted. It may be bought of the
artists’ colourman, in boxes of various sizes.
For a bust, about twenty-five pounds dry weight
are needed ; for small objects, as a hand, foot,
or panel of flowers, four or five pounds will
suffice. If the clay is procured from a pottery,
see that it has been well washed. If too dry, it
must be soaked in water until of the consistency
of dough ; this result will be hastened by
breaking up the clay.

The Tools really necessary are but few,
although there is a great variety of shapes and
sizes. The wonderful human hand is the best
modelling tool of all.

Besides tools, you will need wires bent in
round, oval, and triangular loops, and fastened in
handles ; and a board to model upon, strength¬
ened so that it will not warp (see fig. 180).

If you wish to model a bas-relief, use an easel

and set the board on it, having first put some
nails in the board to support the weight of the
clay ; if your work is in high relief, carry wires
from nail to nail.

To Model in Relief upon a plaque, it is a good
plan to take a shallow jelly-cake tin or the
cover of a paint-pail, and fill it evenly and
smoothly with clay. Have a good outline
drawing of your model. Lay the design upon
the surface of the clay, which should be firm
enough to take the impression as you trace the
outlines with a pin or pencil. When you have
traced the drawing, carefully remove the paper.
Then scrape away the clay all around the outline
to the depth of about one-eighth of an inch,
and proceed to work up the design, keeping
everything in the background as low as possible,
and being most careful to leave no edges stand¬
ing up in such a way that the wet plaster can
run behind and interfere with the withdrawal
of the mould. When there are such projections
it is necessary to make the mould in separate
pieces, or to use a gelatine mould (to be
described later on). Keep your tools clean
during work by dipping them in a bowl of
water. A soft inch-wide brush dipped in water
will suffice to keep your work smooth.

VV hen leaving the clay upon which you arc
working for the day, sprinkle it, covering it
with a wet cloth, and placing it where it will be
protected from evaporation. A good way is to
turn a large tin basin over it. Experience will
soon teach you how wet to keep the clay. If
on returning to work it is found too dry, pour
watcr over it until it has absorbed enough to be
in good condition.

When you have finished modelling, and
before making the mould, remove the work from
the tin (which is very easily done), and place it
on a newspaper, setting the whole into a basin.

Tor a model in the round it is convenient to
have a zinc cover like fig. 183. It can be made
of any desired size by a tinsmith. This cover
being set over the model, with a bowl of water
beside it, the exclusion of the air and the
moisture rising from the bowl will keep your
work soft and damp enough to be perfectly
workable for several weeks.

1 8

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

II. WORKING FROM THE CAST.

An inanimate model is the best for the student
to begin with. In a living model a change is
constantly going on in form and expression,
and considerable training is necessary to enable
one to cope with such conditions. A square,
strongly marked cast of a hand or foot, how¬
ever, affords an immovable as well as the
most serviceable subject for first lessons in
modelling; it can be bought at little cost,
of any cast-maker.

Take a board of convenient size and put
up the clay upon it, somewhat in the shape
of the object to be copied. Measurements
should be made to guide you in this. When¬
ever you are uncertain as to a proportion,
measure it. Observe, first, the proportion of
the tvidth to the length, and block your subject
in roughly, in broad, square planes or flats.
In a foot, make one plane in the centre, from
the top of the instep to the toes, then a simple,
square plane on the outside and a broader flat
on the inside : block the ankle in four planes,
front, sides, and back of each toe in three planes,
and so on. The study of the flats or planes in
modelling is all-important, as it is the true
secret of the mechanical principle of the art.
The whole human figure, from the head to
the foot, is composed of a series of flats, small
or large, short or long, according to the pro¬
portions of the body. The first principle you
have to master, then, in regard to your art,
is expressed in the square cast of the foot or
hand.

Different features of the face should also
be modelled in the same way. Casts of the
cy r es, nose, mouth, and so on, can all be pur¬
chased for this purpose. In copying, be
careful to block in everything very squarely,
even exaggerating the planes. Try to be
accurate in the measurements. A pair of
callipers (fig. 184) will be a great aid. A
correct measurement in a cast is like an
outline in a drawing—it is the backbone
of the work.

In beginning a face (keeping in view always
the measurements of each part and the whole),
observe carefully the flats or planes, blocking

in the forehead first, the centre being about
twice as large as the sides ; the nose in three
flat planes, one through the centre and one
on each side; then one down the front of
the cheek-bone, extending down through .the
chin, and one large broad plane from the
termination of the cheek-bone or corner of
the eye, extending backward to the ear and
downward to the jaw-bone. After roughly
blocking in the face in this way, the minor
planes can be studied and put in.

Modelling a Bust. — In modelling a bust,

Figs. 175-179. —Tools used in Modelling

proceed on the same plan, following the flats
and planes, and working on the front and sides
alternately, keeping always in mind the pro¬
portions in length and breadth and the relative
masses.

It will be necessary to have a revolving
plinth to enable you to see your work from
all sides and in all lights conveniently; a
revolving office stool shortened to a convenient
height, with a top provided of a heavy board
that will not warp, is a capital makeshift for
the regular thing (fig. 185). An upright
piece of wood, with a short cross-bar to

MODELLING IN CLAY

support the head and shoulders, must be
fastened firmly in the centre of the top. The
clay should be packed up as solidly as possible

Fig. 180.—Board for Relief Modelling.

with a trowel into the rough semblance of
the model. It is important that the core of
the bust should be firm and compact, as the
clay settles by its weight and the pressure
of working on it. Some persons use glue
water for wetting the trowel at this stage of
the process. When you have the rough shape
of the head and shoulders blocked to about
the right size, commence with the features
as seen in profile, carving out and building

Fig. 181.—Easel for Relief Modelling.

up until you have secured the correct outline,
taking care that it comes in the centre of the
face. Then turn the bust facing you and

mould the features. It is well to have
accurate measurements of your model, unless
your eye is very true.

A support that will serve can be made by
fixing legs on a common sieve, so that it will
stand over the bust without touching it. Over
this a wet flannel cloth can be drawn down
and fastened to the plinth, and the whole
covered with a waterproof, or anything that
will exclude the air.

III. WORKING FROM LIFE.

In modelling a bust from nature, place
your sitter not less than six feet from you,
so that you may see the whole head at one
glance. If brought nearer, only portions of
it can be seen at once, and one part ought
never to be modelled without due reference
to the rest, and each part should be advanced
equally with the others. This rule must be
kept constantly in mind, as it is only in this
way that the harmony of the whole can be
preserved.

The two sides of a head or face, when
looked at separately, are generally found to
be different in form. It is rarely that we sec
in nature a face that is in perfect drawing ;
but almost all have the appearance of being
so, because of the fact that though the form
may be different on either side, the weight
is equally distributed, which gives the effect
of harmony.

That it is useless to introduce details until
the contour has been completed applies in
every branch of modelling, and particularly
in busts. As in map-drawing, if the countries
are wrong, the introduction of towns and
rivers will not make them right. Before intro¬
ducing the mouth and eyes, be sure that the
head is in proportion to the shoulders ; that
the width of the head is in proportion to
its length. The- nose may then be roughly
indicated ; after this the ears, whose position
at the sides of the head should be determined
from the nose, as the position of the ears
varies in different heads. In some cases
the ears are situated farther back from the

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

face than In others, and sometimes higher
up than in others. The opening or orifice
of the ear is, in some heads, in a line with

Fig. 1S2.—Support for Modelling a Bust.

the lower part of the nose, in others it is as
high up as the eyes. The place of the mouth
should be judged of from the nose, and indi¬
cated near to, or distant
from, the nose according
to the length of the
upper lip. The eyes,
too, in some heads are
set nearer to the nose
than in others, and some¬
times more deeply. The
hair must be studied
carefully in relation to
its effect in contrast
with the face. Study it
in masses, always en¬
deavouring to preserve
the character of its move¬
ment, composition, and
flow of lines. Do not
attempt to copy it in detail : to do so would
be most inartistic. You must not look for
a likeness immediately. Pay attention solely

to the proportions and balance of the masses
and planes, and the portrait will come.

The Full-length Figure.—For a large figure it
is necessary to have a plinth
so arranged that it will turn
freely on its rollers in spite of
the heavy weight of the clay ;
there must be an upright iron
post to support the body, and
to this must be fastened sup-,
ports for all the limbs and
different parts of the whole
figure. Plumbers’ pipe
answers admirably for this
purpose, and braided copper
wire for the hands and fingers. fig. 184.—

The services of an experienced Modeller’s

person should be employed Callipers.

to arrange these complicated
supports, for any fault in them will give serious
trouble.

The Stand.—It is usual to model the bust
without a stand, and procure the stand after
the work has been cast in plaster. Stands may
be had ready made.

In modelling the human figure, a knowledge
of the external muscles will be of great advan¬

tage. This may be gleaned from anatomical
figures. Plaster casts of these, ranging to
about two feet high, can be bought. There

Model.

MODELLING IN CLAY

is a very fine reduction about this size, by
Flaxman, of the Gladiator, which is most
useful in the study of figure-drawing or
modelling. In schools of art this is a favourite
subject to copy.

In Modelling Draped Figures much attention
is needed in the proper arrangement of plaits
and folds. In drapery one particular fold re¬
quires another, where a graceful consistency is
maintained, as much as a given position of the
arm requires a particular disposition and eleva¬
tion or contraction of its different muscles.
The best draped studies are found in casts
from the antique. In these the folds or plaits
are represented by straight rather than by
curved lines. Even where a fold assumes a
circular form, it is effected in the best models,
not by curved, but by broken straight lines.
The zigzag strokes which occur in rough or
unfinished sketches, whether drawn or modelled,
have an artistic effect which is often lost or
made to look mechanical where rounding off
or high finish is attempted. In modelling,
mere indications have often a more artistic
effect than a studied roundness. Running
lines, whether curved or straight, exist only
in inferior works of sculpture, while in the
works of the best masters these are carefully
broken up, and arranged in such manner as to
avoid offensive repetition. What is said here
with regard to drapery applies equally to the
hair, where balance should be maintained, but
repetition avoided.

The Proportions of the Figure have already
been considered (see Drawing from the
Living Model); but in sculpture, following
the general practice of the ancients, it is usual
to allow at least eight times the length of the
face (instead of seven) for the height of the
body. We say “ at least,” for in cases where
the effigy is to be viewed from an unusual
altitude (allowance being made for the conse¬
quent foreshortening), more than eight times
the length of the face is often allowed.

Taking eight heads as the standard, an
idea of the proportion which the limbs should
bear to each other may be inferred from the
following numbers, which appertain to a figure

measuring five feet ten inches from head to
foot

From ground to ankle

2 inches

7 eighths.

From ankle to knee ...

18 „

„

From knee to hip

19 <>

From hip to collar-bone

16 „

From collar-bone to top of head

13 ..

Length of foot, from heel to toe

10 ,,

Hand, finger-end to wrist-joint

8 „

Wrist-joint to elbow-joint

10 ,,

Elbow to shoulder

12 ,,

These numbers apply to casts from

antique

models of the most symmetrical kind.

Fig. i86.—Support in Modelling a Statuette.

The following method of measuring is recom¬
mended to secure correct proportions : Cut a
stick of wood the same length as the figure

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

intended to be modelled, whatever its size may
be ; mark off the same into twenty-four equal
parts, then number each part in regular order
from end to end.

modelling clay. Be careful that the braided
copper wire used for supports does not any¬
where come near the surface, and that the
work is very compact.

Fig. 1S7.—Rough Clay Sketch of a Bust.

MODELLING IN CHINA CLAY.

For small figures made to be fired, use the
best quality of china clay, which can usually
be procured at the same price as the common

Tinted Clays. —Charming work can be done
in tinted clays. If you live too far from a
pottery to avail yourself of the special machinery
that is used there for the incorporation of

MODELLING IN CLAY »

2 3

colour with clay, you must have recourse to the these mixtures of clay with underglazc colours
ordinary pestle and mortar, sparing no pains (see p. 290), sending them to a pottery for trial
(while the colour and clay are in a powdered by fire before attempting serious work.

Fig. 187A.— Finished Clay Sketch of the Bust shown on the opposite page.

condition, as well as later, when the two have
been made damp) to distribute the colour
particles evenly throughout the clay by a
thorough kneading. Experiment freely in

Medallions of symbolic figures, cupids,
flowers, butterflies, doves, etc., can be prepared
for insertion or as relief decoration in the
following manner: Place in readiness a smooth

Animal Modelling from Life. Direct Photograph taken in tfie Class-room,

MODELLING IN CLAY

school slate, a roller, a pair of scissors, and a
penknife, oil, water, gum-arabic or tragacanth,
and a “slip” (clay and water mixed to a
smooth paste).

Keep the prepared clays, one tinted, the
other white, or of similar colour to the body of
the object about to be decorated, in a damp
condition by drawing over and around them
several folds of wetted cloth.

Roll out a thin slab of tinted clay, and stamp
or cut it to the required size ; should it be
sticky, insert a fine linen rag between it and
the slate. Press it face downwards to insure
a smooth, flat surface when it is required, and
cover it with another wet rag.

For original work you will have previously
made a model in wax, in low relief, of the
forms about to be moulded in white clay and
transferred to the tinted slab.

In this wax model you must avoid under¬
cutting. Next, have cast from it, in plaster,
an intaglio die ; or, if copying must be resorted
to, we will suppose that you have selected a
subject from one of the small plaster medallions
sold by the Italian street vendors.

If a single figure has been selected from a
group, make an intaglio mould in plaster from
the whole group, and fill up the hollows about
the chosen portion while the plaster is wet,
that the chosen figure or ornament may become
isolated on a flat surface. A dried rush is
closer in texture than the finest file. Pass this
lightly over the face of your die to polish it
before varnishing, and again after the var¬
nishing, that no seam or puncture may appear
on the tinted slab that is about to receive the
white impress in relief. Make sure that the
two clays being used are equally damp, to
avoid unequal contraction in drying.

After pressing the white clay within the die
(which must be oiled to prevent the clay from
adhering to it), remove carefully, with a damp
rag or clean brush, any particle that may have
fallen upon the face of the die, before pressing
the die upon the prepared slab. Press the
slab into the position it is to fill while the die
is yet attached to it.

If any instrument is used to assist in dc-

Design 85.-Modelling jn Clay, I’anel in High Relief, for the Decoration of a Fireplace.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

taching the moulded figure from its die, remove
the evidence of the abrasion caused by it.
Should it happen that the moulded ornament

Fig. 188.—Simple Relief Modelling in Porcelain
Clay.

does not readily adhere to the slab, or the
slab attach itself as firmly as required to its
appointed place, mark lightly on the slab
beforehand, by gentle pressure with the die on
its surface, the exact position to be held by
the applied ornament in white. Make one or
two marks on the slab and on the mould that
will enable you to fit them together again with
precision. Roughen by scratching with a
pointed tool the surface plan of the ornament
on slab and mould, and paint into these
scratches the prepared slip. Then repeat the
process for attaching the medallion to its final
position.

The pressure needed to attach one clay to
another should be applied evenly and firmly
at every point. The skilled modeller adds
delicate lines and touches, here a little and
there a little, while preserving the general
features obtained by moulding. In like manner,
after transferring, for instance, the body of a
flying cupid in low relief by the above process,
a couple of butterflies in leash, or a spray of
vine or flowers could be delicately modelled
with the brush in white clay on the tinted slab,
after the manner of raised work in china
painting (see p. 279). The penknife or other
tool, such as those used in wax modelling,

may be had recourse to for sharpening the
contours.

To relieve the hard effect of a round or
oval slab, appropriate modelled or moulded
wreaths, garlands or other ornament can be
introduced at proportionate distances from
the central slab. This class of modelling
is usually kept free from overglaze, which is
liable to blur its otherwise sharp, cameo-like
appearance. An extreme nicety of finish is
imperative.

A soft camel’s-hair brush, dipped in water
and drawn across a squeezed sponge, is used

Fig. 189.—Vase in Sculptured Clay.
(By Messrs. Haviland & Co.)

for the complete blending of the outer edges
of the relief with the background. A few of
the delicately carved bone or ivory tools used

MODELLING IN WAX

2 7

by modellers in wax will also be of use. In
skilled hands they work wonders in bringing
out a light or a shadow by retouching. A
smooth surface suffices for a background foi
well-moulded figures, though some kinds of
ornament call for an “ embossed ” background.

MODELLING IN WAX.

Wax for minute work, both in relief and in
the round, is an extremely useful material, and
when well prepared and coloured works easily
and produces pleasing effects. In no sense
can it, however, be made to supersede clay for
more vigorous and large work. It has the
especial advantage over clay of being clean
to handle, and the work may be put down and
taken up again at any time without injury
to the material—which does not require fie-
quent wetting, like clay. A medallion, for
instance, may be carried about in a box in
the pocket, and taken up for working on at
odd moments.

Modelling Wax.—The ordinary kind—it may
be bought of any artists’ colourman—is made
in the proportion of 8 oz. yellow wax, I oz.
Burgundy pitch or white (not spirits of) tui pen-
tine, and \ oz. lard, melted at a low heat, so as
not to bubble, the ingredients being well stirred
in, and red lead, in powder, used to colour it.
When perfectly mixed the wax is turned out
on a slab to cool.

The best recipe, perhaps, is as follows:
i lb. yellow beeswax, i oz. Venice turpen¬
tine, I oz. Burgundy pitch, i oz. white
lead, i oz. yellow ochre (dry powder), I oz.
powdered corn-starch, \ oz. tallow. A little
red lead may be used as colouring-matter.
A perfect mixture, with heat as dcsciibed
in the previous recipe, is necessary. If the
compound comes out too hard, a little more
Burgundy pitch and tallow may be used to
soften it.

“ Composite Clay.” —Lor small statuettes and
all ordinary work of the sort there is an ex¬
cellent composition, made mainly of fine model¬
ling clay, mixed with lard and othei ingredients.

This may be obtained so cheaply and of
such good quality of dealers in the ordinary
modelling clay that it is hardly worth while for
the student to experiment in making it. It is
known as “composite clay. It has some of
the qualities of putty, in that it gets soft by the
warmth of the hand, and hardens again on
cooling, but it does not stick to the fingers and
does not crumble. It has the advantage over
clay of not requiring to be kept wet and of
keeping its shape for any length of time, and
over wax of being unaffected by ordinary
changes of temperature and of being workable
with ordinary tools. The finer work in wax
has to be done with iron tools heated in the
(lame of an alcohol lamp.

Design 86.—Modelling in Gesso. Panel by Walter
Crane.

Composite clay may be procured of two
qualities, hard or soft; the harder sort being
that best adapted for very fine work.

TIIE CYCLOPEDIA OF HOME ARTS

MODELLING (PAINTING) IN GESSO.

Gesso of the old-fashioned kind is a prepa¬
ration of whiting and size, resembling putty.
Employed as a painting ground by the old
masters, it has been revived as a most con¬
venient material for modelling in low relief—or
rather painting; it attaches itself to any kind
of surface, and is delightfully pliant. A firm
foundation is absolutely necessary. Wood,
plaster, or canvas will do. For fine work wood
is best. Simple as it is, gesso is an artist’s
process. 1

A smooth surface having been laid with
gesso and allowed to become dry, the design
may be transferred to its surface by pouncing
or by use of stencil plates, or else drawn directly
with a lead pencil. Wood mantels, panels of
clocks or other decorative pieces of furniture
and vases are particularly suitable for treat¬
ment. Designs are often executed on coarse
canvas, and panels of doors and over-doors and
spandiels of arches filled in with them. Frames
oi miirors used as sconces are sometimes very
effectively decorated in this way in low relief.
They may be bronzed afterwards.

Two pieparations of gesso which have been
found to work may be described. The first is
very simple, and is a mixture of fine Italian
plaster of Paris and glue. Dilute the glue with
hot water, then mix with the plaster until it is
of the consistency of cream ; a little glycerine
added will prevent shrinking and cracking.
Lay a coat of size or of thin lacquer on the
panel or canvas before going to work. The
second is a much firmer and harder gesso, and
is made by boiling one part powdered resin,
four parts linseed oil, six parts melted glue.
Mix the whole well together. Too much care
cannot be taken with this latter mixture. Soak
whiting in water, and add it to the prepared
mixtuie until it is also of the consistency of
cream I he quality of whiting is to be varied
or modified in proportion to the degree of

fluidity required in the character of the work.
The second mixture has many advantages
over the former. It is slower in drying, giving
one more time for final finish. It is better for
delicate work. It sets more firmly, and takes
a finer polish when hard. Combined with
Naples Yellow, it bears a great resemblance to
ivory.

In England painting on gesso has been
largely applied to the enrichment in relief of
walls and ceilings of mansions, and this in many
instances by young ladies both as amateurs and
professionals. Walls and ceilings are divided
into panels formed also in gesso, a trailing
flowering plant often being very suitable for
the purpose, while the frieze may be formed of
processional figures or scrolls and leafage.
Meandering tendrils in the Louis Quinze style,
delicate and lightsome,are excellent for divisions
of ceilings. Wall panels may have corner-
pieces and central figures, but they also admit
of large and imposing tableaux, for there is
no limit in the way of relief work in gesso.
Abundant pictorial designs may be met with
in metallic relief plaques, in carvings, engravings,
and in porcelain and fa'ience statuettes. For
the chief masses of the design, it is best to lay
on at the outset the whole amount of material
lcquiied, thus saving time and labour in the
shaping.

Water colours are preferable to oil colours in
painting the relief u’ork ; for these no prepara¬
tion of the ground is necessary. Oil colours
require the previous laying on of a coat of
shellac. For gilding, a thin coat of oil gold
size is to be laid on.

Fut of all the finishes employed, and the
special feature of the revival of the art, lacquers
of various colours prepared for the purpose are
the most beautiful. These metallic lustres give
a unique effect to the finished work, recallina
Limoges enamels.

PLASTER CASTS.

At the exhibitions of The Arts and Crafts, Sir Fd\
Burne-Jones, Mr. Walter Crane,andMr. Spencer Stan!
have been notable contributors in this form of decora

I. FROM THE CLAY MODEL.

To. make a plaster cast, first prepare a
quantity of plaster mixed with water to the

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

consistency of a thick cream. Apply this little
by little to the object until the plaster is of the
proper thickness—a quarter of an inch or more,
according to the size of the piece. The plaster
must be kept stirred from time to time, to
avoid the formation of lumps and bubbles. If
the object is a complicated one, such as a group,
it is best to cut the clay or wax model into
simpler parts with a fine wire, and mould each
of these separately ; otherwise there may be
great danger of breaking. But each portion
before the group is taken asunder should be
marked, so that it may be easy to adjust the
various pieces of the cast in their proper places ;
or the same end may be attained in simpler
pieces without cutting the clay, by stopping off
the plaster along certain lines with bands of
wet clay dusted with dry plaster, so that they
may not stick too much to the figure.

Thus a bust may be moulded in two sections,
dividing it by means of a clay band running
from the top of the head, behind the ears, and
down the neck and shoulders. When the front
half has been moulded, the band is taken off
and another supplied exactly on the other side
of the dividing line. The liquid plaster is
applied with a brush. When it reaches a
thickness of a quarter of an inch it is well to
apply a thin coat of wet clay, so that in breaking
up the mould, as will be explained presently,
you may know when you are approaching the
proof within. Outside the clay the plaster
may be put on thickly, and as much of it as may
be judged necessary to make a solid mould,
which may be further strengthened by encasing
lengths of iron or copper wire in it, running
in various directions. The wires should be
varnished. Lengths of hempen thread or twine
are often used instead.

The two parts, as we will suppose, of the
first mould having been obtained, they are
coated on the inside with soap water—that is,
black soap dissolved in hot water, boiled and
well skimmed. This is to prevent the plaster
from absorbing too great a quantity of olive
oil, when a proof is to be obtained. Two coats
of oil are, nevertheless, often necessary to
prevent the plaster of the proof from adhering

to that of the mould. This done, each part of
the mould is well coated with plaster on the
inside, the two are brought together, tied firmly,
and left for twenty-four hours. The mould is
then chipped away with chisel and mallet, the
couch of clay enabling the worker to knock off
the greater part of it without endangering the
proof within. The clay is picked off with the
fingers, and then the inner coating is removed
with very great care.

You now have a cast of your original clay
model; but for all your care it will, very likely,
be imperfect in places ; besides, it is only one
cast, and you need a set of moulds from which
you can take any number of casts. Again, the
white plaster discovers slight defects of model¬
ling which may have passed unnoticed in the
clay. This first proof may therefore be con¬
sidered pretty much as a sketch, to be further
worked upon and corrected. This is done by
applying wet plaster wherever needed with a
brush, and working upon it when dry with the
steel tools, chisels, and files, used also by the
sculptor in marble. Very much may be done
in this way which would be difficult or im¬
possible in the clay.

The moulds of the second set, made from the
finished proof, are not intended to be broken.
They are therefore made in many pieces,
which may be detached one by one without
danger of breaking. Thus a mask may be
divided into as many as a dozen pieces, each
side of the nose being moulded separately,
each cheek, the hollows under the eyes, the
chin, the ears, the forehead in three pieces.
Each section, being outlined on the first proof,
is oiled (the proof having first been treated with
soap water), and the plaster is put on as before,
only thinly. The piece thus obtained is
trimmed at the edges, oiled, reapplied on the
proof, and then the plaster is applied on the
pieces next to it, coming, of course, exactly
up to the edges of the first. These pieces are
firmly tied together for the casting, which pro¬
ceeds as before, but which should result in a
perfect cast when the different pieces of the
mould are carefully picked away from it. Lines
will, however, often show in relief on the cast

PLASTER CASTS

3 1

at the junctures, and these have to be carefully
removed, and the surface made even with emery
paper.

II. FROM LIFE.

To make a plaster cast from the life is a
matter of some difficulty, because it has to be
done quickly. The skin must be well oiled, so
that the plaster will not adhere to it; in the
case of a hirsute male model, it is even well to
use butter or oleomargarine, and to apply it
somewhat thickly. In taking a mask of the
face, mouth and eyes must be kept closed, and
the nostrils must be stopped with wax, through
which quills arc inserted for the model to
breathe through. An arm must be well sup¬
ported at the wrist and elbow, for the weight of
the plaster is considerable, and the special
difficulty of the work is due to involuntary
movements of the muscles trying to adjust
themselves to this weight, which causes the
plaster to slip. For the same reason the more
quickly the work is done the better.

To make the plaster set quickly, mix some
powdered alum with it. Common salt would
do, and its use is sometimes recommended ;
but it adds to the adhesive property of the
plaster, and more oil or grease must be used,
which makes it impossible to attain the natural
texture that a cast from the life should have.
You must decide quickly about the number
and shape of the pieces into which the shell is
to be divided, so that it may be withdrawn
easily from the model. A waxed silk thread
is to be used for cutting ; but since the shell
cannot be made very thick, breakages fre¬
quently occur, and much skill is necessary in
putting together the pieces of the mould in
order to get a cast from them.

The interior surface of the mould must be
coated with shellac to render it less absorp¬
tive, and must be freshly oiled before using.
It is useful, in addition, to mix a little colour
in the plaster that is prepared for the cast,
so that if even a trace of it adheres to the
inside of the mould it will be detected, in
which case it is to be carefully removed with

a sharp penknife blade, and adjusted in its
proper place on the cast ; for, as before said,
the special beauty of a cast from life is in its
natural surface.

A very slight addition of yellow and red
ochres in powder will give something like the
warm hue of flesh.

Everything depends upon the quickness and
upon the thorough mixture of the plaster.
Plenty of it should be in readiness, and it
should be mixed as thickly as the water will
hold, leaving just an inch or so of water at the
top of the bucket.

III. GELATINE MOULDS FOR PLASTER
CASTS.

Gelatine moulds are made of small objects,
for the purpose of avoiding the trouule of
having moulds in several parts. The object
moulded from, whether of plaster or other
material, should always be oiled. It may then
be dipped in a solution of gelatine, and when
the coating has solidified, other coats may be
applied by a brush until it is thick enough. It
is cut with a sharp knife in order to remove it ;
but, as it is elastic, it need not be cut into
separate pieces.

If you have never watched the process, you
may find it difficult to make a gelatine mould
from printed directions, but we trust that the
following hints will be found helpful: Soak
one pound of gelatine in water until it has
absorbed as much as it can, which it will do in
four or five hours. Then apply a gentle heat
until it is thoroughly liquefied. If you want an
elastic mould, add four and a quarter ounces
of treacle, which must be well mixed with the
gelatine while hot. If you want a solid mould,
omit the treacle and add powdered chrome
alum—an ounce to an ounce and a half. 1 he
alum prevents the gelatine from being again
dissolved in water. If a saturated solution of
bichromate of potash be brushed over the
surface of the mould and allowed to dry
thoroughly, then exposed to sunlight for a few
minutes, the mould will become so hard as to
be unaffected by water.

3 2

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

WOOD-CARVING.

I. CHIP- OR NOTCH-CARVING.

Wood-carving is easily learned, the tools and
materials are inexpensive, and the articles
decorated not only can always find a place
in the home, but are often saleable.

Fig. 192.

Fig. 190 shows how to set out a row of right-angled triangles
(fig. 191) ; they are doubled in fig. 192, to form a row
of diamonds. Make them the size shown ; for, at first, it
will be found easier to cut the wood sharply from a small
space than from a large one—as in fig. 194, for instance.

Modelling in clay or wax is an excellent,
and indeed almost necessary, preparation for
the higher branches of carving: carving is
only sculpture in wood. Chip- or notch-carving

Excellent work may be done with one simple tool: a hook-
bladed knife, made by grinding down an ordinary shoe¬
maker’s knife, and setting it in a longer handle, will do.

is the most elementary form of wood-carving—
the “ whittli ng ” of our boyhood. 1 To be more

1 It is to be borne in mind, however, that wood-carving
proper is so much bolder and larger than chip-carving
that it may be said to be a different art. For this reason
some teachers believe that instruction in wood-carving
should precede chip-carving, which can easily be learned
afterward.

precise, chip-carving consists of ornamenting
wooden surfaces usually, but not necessarily,
flat, by cutting various-shaped notches to form
a geometrical design. The notches are nearly
always made on the slant at the same angle, so
that they meet at the base in the form of a V,
varying in size and depth according to the
requirements of the design.

Chip-carving is so simple that little children
in the kindergartens learn to do it easily. It
entails no mental strain or fatigue, nor appara¬
tus or preparations. No workman’s bench is
required, nor, except for the flying chips, is
there any suggestion of the workshop; you
may sit at the table in the common living-
room and whittle away without noise or annoy¬
ance to those about you.

Fig. 194.—Elements of Chip-Cakving.

The notches are nearly always made on the slant, from op¬
posite directions, at such an angle that they meet at the
bottom, and form a V-shaped cut.

The peasants of Norway and Sweden, who
produce wonderful decorations by simple notch¬
carving, generally use an ordinary pocket-knife.
A hook-bladed knife, something like a small
pruning-knife, is a favourite implement. But
there are the easily obtained tools of the pro¬
fessional wood-carver, and it is well to begin at
once to learn how to handle them. With a
small V, or parting, tool, and a veiner, you are
equipped for all ordinary work. If you intend
to make your own designs—and in that lies
much of the pleasure of the chip-carver—a
knowledge of at least the elements of geometry

CHIP-CARVING

Figs. 195-201. —Motives and Designs for Notch- or Chip-Carving.

The little “nicks” indicated in the drawing (usual in German work) are not necessary to the designs, and may be omitted
altogether. In the opinion of many, they are a trifling attempt at ornament which detracts from the simplicity which
should characterise chip-carving.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

is necessary, and you should be handy with
rule, set square, and compass. 1

Wood—The most suitable woods for general
purposes are lime and holly ; pear, walnut, and
plane are also good. After some practice, oak
will be available ; it is too hard for the be¬
ginner, who would do better to go rather to the
other extreme and use American white wood
for his first attempts, although that will be
found too soft for serious work.

The wood must be well dressed and made
perfectly smooth with the smoothing-plane.
Do not use sandpaper, for particles of sand

Chise/9 Flat Gouges Hollow Gouges

Shew Chisato

Fig. 202.—Marks of Various Tools used in
Wood-Carving.

are apt to lodge in the grain and injure, later,
the edges of the tools.

For a First Attempt select a strip of (half-inch
thick) white wood about nine inches long and
six wide. Clamp it to the edge of the table to
hold it firm, and use a strip of thin wood—a
piece of a cigar-box would do—between the
clamp and the wood, to avoid scratching.

Let each cut into the wood be clean and
complete. Cut boldly from the outline to
the centre—never from the centre to the
outline—and always uniformly at the exact
angle. ^ Curved notches are more difficult.
Whatever the notch, the desired depth should

1 In Miss Eleanor Rowe’s “ Manual of Chip-Carving”
(R. Sutton & Co.), which we can cordially recommend,
much attention is given to the geometrical side of the
subject.

be reached by a single cut. To cut a second
or, worse still, a third time will produce a
slovenly effect ; and although irregularities

Figs. 203, 204.—Wood-Carving Tools. V or
Parting Tool and Flat Gouge.

caused by bungling may be rectified by subse¬
quent paring, evidences of the corrections will
be more or less apparent.

Among the various objects for domestic
use which may be decorated with chip-carving
may be mentioned book-racks, newspaper-
racks ; mirror, photograph, and other picture
frames; bread-platters, tea-trays, flower-pot
stands, clock-cases, barometer-frames, blotters,
and paper-knives. Be careful not to decorate
too great a part of the object in hand. In all
good decoration the ornament is the more
valuable the more it is brought in contrast with
considerable plain surfaces.

Finishing.—After the carving is done, sand¬
paper the surface of the wood not decorated
but not the notches. From the latter remove
the dust that will have accumulated, using a
stiff brush for the purpose.

Polishing.—Do not varnish the work—it will
give it a common look ; to oil soft wood causes

Figs. 205, 206.—Hollow Gouge and Firmer or
Flat Chisel.

it to catch the dust. A dead wax polish is
preferable. For this, use warm beeswax in
turpentine, and rub the mixture over the carving
with a woollen rag.

Perhaps there is not very much art in chip-

WOOD-CARVING

carving; but it teaches accuracy of obser¬
vation, precision of touch in handling the tools,
and how to work freely from the wrist—all
valuable qualities for the practice of wood¬
carving proper, which we will now consider.

II. TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.

It is best for the wood-carver to have a small
outfit of tools at first, and to master the use of
each tool singly, finding out everything that
can be done with it. It is not with the elaborate
“ set of tools” with finely polished handles, in a

Fig. 207.—Position of
.the Hands.

Fig. 208.—The Hands in
using the Mallet.

beautiful box, that the best work is done.
These are made especially for amateurs, but
we advise amateurs to have nothing to do with
them ; for, as a rule, they are only toys. Buy
the tools made for professional carvers. The
following will be sufficient, for a beginning at
least: one nine-sixteenth and one five-six¬
teenth firmer or flat chisel ; one six-sixteenth
corner chisel or skew ; a nine-sixteenth and
six-sixteenth flat gouge ; a six-sixteenth hollow
gouge, and a three-sixteenth V, or parting, tool.
You will also need a slip of oil-stone formed to
fit the concave tools ; a mallet, and a pair of
coachmaker’s iron clamps, No. 14 ; a little oil,
and a sheet of black transfer paper.

The Transfer Paper is not an expensive item,
but you can make it for yourself by mixing
lampblack and castor-oil to form a thick paste,
and then applying it to one side of a piece of
newspaper, gently wiping off the surplus grease
with a piece of rag.

The Carver’s Bench may be a strong kitchen
table with a stout pine top. In this case the

legs should be secured to the floor with small
iron brackets, to ensure rigidity. The drawer
can be used in place of a tool chest.

For those who would prefer to have the
regular carver’s bench, we would say that it

should not be less than 4 ft 6 in. long, 2 ft.
wide, and from 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. high. The
legs should be of pine, 4 in. square, with cross
pieces of the same size, dowelled and fastened
with what are known as lag screws. The top
should be of pine about 2 in. thick, perfectly
level and well seasoned, and on the front edge
should be fastened, by means of the lag screws
before mentioned, a piece of pine 3 in. square,
having slots in. long by | in. deep, cut
out on the inner side. A thin piece of pine
should be nailed along the back and continued
along the ends for about a foot, and projecting
1 \ in. above the top of the bench, to prevent
the tools from rolling off.

The Tool Chest is usually made with three
shallow top drawers for holding spare tools,
slips, etc., and a large bottom drawer or cup¬
board for odds and ends.

Fig. 210.—A Wood-Carver’s Bench.

“ Holdfast ” and “ Bench Screw.”—The means
adopted for fastening the work to the bench
vary, but most professional carvers use either a
“ holdfast,” a “ bench screw,” or “ bolts ” ; and

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

although these articles are not perhaps abso¬
lutely necessary for the amateur carver, they
are of sufficient importance to merit more than
a passing notice.

The “ bench screw ” is more useful and less
clumsy than the “ holdfast,” and answers the
same purpose. This appliance, however, is
only suitable for certain descriptions of work
which are not too heavy.

“Bench Bolts.”—The best contrivances are
the “ bench bolts,” consisting of two pieces of
steel 10 in. long, i£ in. wide and f in. thick,
to fit into the slots in the edge of the bench.
A spring on the side prevents the bolts from
slipping, and the projecting heads allow work

the tool in the right hand, keeping the wrist al¬
most down on the wood, and with the thumb and
forefinger of the left hand—or the whole of the
hand, which is sometimes necessary—guiding
the tool and pressing gently, go slowly along,
and you will remove a thin, curled shaving.
Try to cut these shavings of even thickness, in
a uniform, straight groove. Do not move the
tool from side to side in the wood. The beginner
is very apt to do so when the tool does not
glide easily—it is a bad habit to acquire.

When you have succeeded in cutting several
of these grooves, straight, and uniform in width,
rule lines for similar grooves across the grain.
You will find them harder to cut, for the tool

of almost any size to be securely and firmly
fixed ; the screw through the head of one of
the bolts affording means of at once releasing
or tightening the work.

With our modest kitchen table and coach-
maker’s clamps—which are all that is necessary,
at least for carving small articles—we will dis¬
pense with all these appliances.

III. PRELIMINARY PRACTICE-CARE OF
TOOLS.

Take a board of common pine, about 16 in.
long, io in. wide, and i in. thick, and fasten it
firmly to your table by means of the clamps.
Rule a few straight lines from end to end of the
board | in. apart. Take the hollow gouge and
hollow these spaces out, holding the handle of

will meet with more resistance ; but after a few
trials you will succeed.

Now turn the board over, make a few circles,
and gouge them out around the outside edge.
This will be more difficult still, but from this
practice you will soon become familiar with the
use of the gouge.

By this time it will have lost something of
its sharpness, and it will not be out of place to
give here a few hints about

Grinding and Setting Tools.—Chisels are
ground on both sides to a long, thin wedge—
that is to say, about a quarter of an inch of the
flat surface is bevelled toward the cutting edge.
Gouges are held to the grindstone at an angle
to make a bevel of about a quarter of an inch
on the convex side, on which side they are
always ground. This is perhaps the most

WOOD-CARVING

awkward task for beginners. To sharpen a
gouge properly requires much care and practice,
as a gouge correctly sharpened should have a
perfect curve.

The line formed by the cutting edge, as well
as the bevel, should be carefully preserved.
To secure this the tool should be constantly
turned from side to side while grinding, without
being lifted during the process. The tools are
now given their keen cutting edge by gently
rubbing them backward and forward on the
oil-stone at the same angle at which the tool is
ground. Do not press too hard, or you will
have a jagged edge like a saw. In setting
tools you should turn them first one way and
then reverse them between the fingers and
thumb as they pass along the stone. Do not
rub the gouges on the inside with the stone,
unless it is to remove a jagged edge. Even
then great care must be taken, and the stone
should perfectly fit the concave side of the tool.
It is not advisable for beginners to grind their
own tools. If they are obtained in good con¬
dition they can be easily kept so, with a little
attention and care. Tools only require to be
ground when they become very blunt or broken.
Take good care that the edges of your tools
do not rub against each other. They should
be always laid parallel, whether in use or not.
After using the oil-stone wipe it well with a
rag or shaving, to free it from grease.

IV. SURFACE DECORATION.

In surface-carving, or “carving in the flat,”
the design is merely outlined, not modelled.
Perhaps the most artistic kind of surface-carving
is that done, after the fashion of the old Norse¬
men, in the “Dragon” 1 or “Viking” style.

1 The first name refers to the most characteristic motive
of the Norse designs, which is a much conventionalised
writhing serpent with a dragon-like head ; or rather we
might say a series of such serpents inextricably combined
to form a sort of strap pattern. The second name is due
to the fact that the Norse Vikings made elaborate use of
this kind of decoration—on the garments of their women
and in their domestic surroundings, as well as on their
ships and arms.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

As the beauty of a design of this sort depends
chiefly on the perfection of the outline, you
cannot be too careful in the drawing.

Having made the design on paper, transfer
it to the wood. To do this, place it in the
exact position it is to occupy on the panel, and
under it put a sheet of black transfer-paper ;
then with the pencil, or a dull ivory point,
or, better still, an agate stylus, go carefully
over every line of the design, and, according
to the accuracy with which the tracing is
made, the outline will be transferred to the
wood.

Take your smallest-sized veining or V tool,
and follow' the outline very carefully all around
the design ; make a clean cut, uniform in depth
and wddth, following the line as accurately and
as closely as you can without destroying it.
Afterward go over this groove outline and
deepen it; then, with a flat gouge follow the
sharp edges left on the background by the
veining tool and smooth them into the back¬
ground. To give contrast between the pattern
and the background—for there will be no
variation in the relief—stamp the background
with a fine stamp. Under ordinary circum¬
stances we do not advise the use of the stamping
tool, for it renders wood-carving too mechanical;
but in such a case as this it seems to be
necessary.

Having finished the stamping, take up the
flat gouge again to represent the intersecting
portions of the design, which is done by sloping
the parts that run under down toward the
parts that are to be represented as crossing
them.

Rulers, paper-knives, and tea-trays are usually
the first things decorated in the “ Viking ” style;
as in this kind of carving there are no pro¬
jections of relief to split off, it is particularly
suitable for the decoration of any articles of
furniture subject to much contact with the
person.

Surface-carving may be used on woods after
they have received their finish, as for the
decoration of work-boxes, handkerchief-boxes
>nd glove-boxes, chairs and small table-tops,
photograph-frames, book-racks and footstools.

V. RELIEF-CARVING.

The general and perhaps most artistic method
of carving is in such relief that the design, when
completed, appears wholly raised above the

Design 91.—Simple Exercise
for a Beginner.

Make the diamonds 1 in. square.

(See p. 30.)

“ground,” the background
having been lowered or
cut away to a uniform
depth. Transfer the de¬
sign carefully. In order
to cut away the back¬
ground, the dead wood
must be separated from
the pattern edges. Take
a gouge and go around
the outside of the design
£ in. aw^ay from the lines,
cutting carefully with the
grain, say § in. in depth,
and being very careful
the gouge does not slip,

ERCISE FOR A BEGINNER.

Make the diamonds 2 in.
square, and the plain
bands J in. wide. (See
p. 32.)

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

as it may cut away a portion of the design.
This gouging or trenching is to allow the
background to break away easily when you
are stabbing out, or, as it is properly termed,
“ kurfing,” the pattern. If this trenching is not
done, the design is liable to break away before
the background. Next take a flat chisel and
“kurf” the design out all around in a con¬
tinuous line, sloping the chisel at a slight angle
(see fig. 208) and driving it with the mallet
toward the groove you have previously cut.
In releasing the tool, move it from end to end
sidewise, not flatwise, as you are liable to break
the tool. Sharp curves should be “ kurfed ”
with the gouge, or any of the tools that will fit
the exact form of the line to be cut.

Now to remove the background. This is
called “ grounding,” or cutting away the dead
wood. Take the flat gouge and remove the
wood. The corners and sharp angles can be
cleared away with the skew chisel. Do not
splinter your wood ; do not dig it, but take it
off in clean cuts. Try always to cut with the
grain, making it smooth and level.

After the background has been removed, go
over the whole design, cutting those parts under
which are overlapped.

The work is now in condition to be modelled.
Do not attempt to finish any one part. Study
the whole design carefully. Supposing that it
is one of flowers and foliage, cut under all
those parts that are concealed by others.
Give to each the depression it will have in
the finished work. Each part should be
cleanly cut with one stroke of the tool, leaving
the permanent form nicely smoothed before it
is veined.

Trim down the stems to their proper size;
see that they are neatly attached to the leaves;
finish all the stronger parts first, leaving all
little stems till the last, as they are liable to be
knocked off; smooth up the work with a well-
sharpened tool, and it is then ready to receive
the finish.

Two very simple exercises for beginners are
shown on page 38. In the first we have a
simple band of bevelled points, leaving a row of
diamonds in the centre. Take a narrow chisel

and hold it vertically, setting it at the inside
point of the level; cut straight down to an equal
depth on each side, sloping to the outside
edge. Then holding the chisel in the position
shown in fig. 207, cut from the outside edge
down to the centre. To cut the point clean,
use your narrow bevelled chisel. Always work
with the bevelled side of the chisel down, and
be careful to hold it flat on this bevel ; other¬
wise you will wear it off round. Try to cut
with a firm, even stroke. One cut is better
than two, if it will do the work.

In design 92 we have an example in which
the conventionalised flower forms require slight
modelling. Get the centre of the diamond and,
holding the medium gouge straight and turning
it once, cut the “ boss ” in the centre of the
figure. Outline the petals with the flat gouge,
setting the tool at the point where the petals
join, and cutting to the outside point. The
width and the sweep of the tool with a little
handling will give the outline required. With the
chisel bevel around the edges deep enough to get
an effect of light and shade. Make the straight
cut indicated in the middle of each petal with
the V tool, cutting toward the boss, and
making the cut deepest at the centre. Model
the flower with one cut on each half-petal with
the medium gouge. Round slightly the sharp
edges of the boss in the centre. Draw the
diamonds two inches square and the plain
bands half an inch wide.

Finishing is best done with raw linseed oil
applied with a bristle brush, as much being
used as the wood will absorb. Three or four
coats will be needed as a rule. The pattern
may be polished by brisk but careful and oft-
repeated rubbing with a stick of soft wood.
Beeswax is often used for polishing, although
we think that the more artistic way is to
depend solely on the dull finish obtained by
means of oil alone. Even more than the use of
wax polish on carving do we deprecate that of
varnish of any kind, for it is a poor substitute
for the natural “ patina ” which comes from age
and wear, the process of which is arrested by a
covering of varnish. But for the benefit of
dissenters from this view we give the following

Designs 98-104.—Edgings and Mouldings for Wood-Carving.

THE CYCLOPEDIA OF HOME ARTS

directions for shellac finishing, by an expert
carver who finds it proper to use it.

Polishing.—“ To polish flat surfaces, such as
table-tops, the wood must be well rubbed with
No. o sandpaper, and all knot-holes and flaws
must be stopped with wax. The wood is then
filled with ‘ patent wood-filler,’ which is first
thinned down with turpentine to the con-

Design 105.—Mould for marking off the Design

SHOWN BELOW.

sistency of cream. Rub it in with a rag or a
little bunch of excelsior shavings. In a few
minutes the pores will be closed, and the surface
of the wood may be rubbed freely without
rubbing away any of the filler in them.

“ Put the wood aside until the next day ;
then give it a coat of shellac varnish, and put
the wood aside again for a few hours to harden.
When it is hard, rub it well with No. o
sandpaper until it is perfectly smooth.

“ The final polish is given with a ‘ rubber,’
which consists of a small ball of cotton-batting

it on the mouth of the bottle, throwing the
solution toward it two or three times. In the
middle of the varnish on the rag, place with
with your finger a little raw linseed-oil. Rub
with small circular strokes until all the pores
are filled, charging the rubber with varnish and
oil when required, until the whole surface has
had one coat. When this is quite dry, repeat
the process until the surface appears even and
fine. Between each coat use the sandpaper to
smooth down all irregularities. Lastly, use a
clean rubber, with a little wood alcohol only,
which will remove the oil and the cloudings
it causes. Should the work become' sticky
and rough at any stage of the process, this can
be overcome by touching the surface here and
there with a little oil, which you should have
near you in a saucer, so that you may dip
a finger of the left hand into it, repeating
the process when needed. This is merely
to facilitate the spreading of the varnish
smoothly.”

Stamped Backgrounds.—As has been already
observed, stamping backgrounds, in our opinion,
gives too mechanical a look to wood-carving
in relief for it to be considered an artistic
finish ; but as some carvers are not of our way
of thinking, we must not ignore a process
which many amateurs find attractive and use
extensively. So, if you choose, having finished
your modelling, complete the work by stamping
the background. For any design of fair size,
use the largest stamp you have—the smaller
ones are for small spaces ; set the stamp, and

Design 105A.—Carved Gothic Dado Rail. Easy Lesson for a Beginner.

covered with a piece of soft linen rag, wrapped
so as to leave a handle at the back for the
hand. Partly saturate the rubber by placing

strike it lightly with the mallet. Keep turning
the stamp so that its square shape will not
show on the wood. The object of stamping is

WOOD-CARVING

to get a fine-grained effect. When the grain
of the wood is broken it absorbs the oil more
readily, and makes a background darker than
the design. This, with the different texture it
gives the wood, throws the design into still
higher relief. Coarse stamping is more effective
than fine.

A Gothic Dado Rail. —One who has never
done actual cutting in wood and who has
doubt as to his ability to produce anything
creditable in this way, might, in many cases,
be induced to make a trial, were some specific
work of a simple character suggested to him
for a beginning, and which, if successful, could
be a noticeable feature in the decoration of his
home. Such an occasion for a first attempt
is easily found. In most houses there are one
or more rooms in which the walls, whether
painted or papered, are divided into dado and
frieze, the latter varying from twelve to thirty
inches in width, according to the height of the
room. Let this division line between the two
wall colours be emphasised into a line of
decoration. Instead of the usual painted band,
or machine-made moulding, let the division
be marked with a striking line of hand-carving.
It may be of cherry, black walnut, or oak, and
two and a half or three inches wide. The
finished result will be more satisfactory if the
wood is polished on the face and lower edge
before the carving is begun. The upper edge
of the strip should be rebated toward the
back, to afford a hold for hooks, from which
pictures might hang. These strips, which any

wall by means of eightpenny finishing nails,
driven into the studding through the lowered
portions of the carving; by doing this the
heads of the nails will not be seen.

Two rooms, in which a carved frieze-band
of cherry wood was introduced, are in the mind
of the present writer ; the added beauty secured
by this simple decoration won the approval of

Design ic6.—Mould for marking off the Design

SHOWN BELOW.

all who saw it. The designs consisted of easily
cut patterns of Gothic tracery, of which we
give illustrations.

To facilitate marking off a design for carving,
where a given form is many times repeated, it
is customary to make a mould of cardboard by
means of which the design is readily and
accurately transferred to the wood (designs
105 and 106). The design, after being drawn
on the card, is cut through with a sharp knife,
a gouge of the proper sweep, where possible,
being used to cut the curves. When the lines

Design io6a.—Carved Gothic Dado Rail. Easy Lesson for a Beginner.

carpenter could prepare, should be cut to the are cut through the card, they must be opened
proper lengths, to fit, before they are carved, and widened, so that a sharp-pointed pencil
When carved they should be secured to the will mark through the cut line to the wood.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

This can be done by placing the mould upon
any smooth surface and pressing a dull point
or tracer through the line. If, before using,
the edges are painted with shellac varnish, the
mould will be strengthened, and probably last
double the time it would if this were not done.
Above each of the simple Gothic designs illus¬
trated herewith is a diagram of the mould for
marking it off. The centres from which the

wood,—this, of course, will not avail if it is
unpolished.

In laying off this design, first make vertical
lines with a T square, three inches apart,
which will be the guide for placing the mould
in the exact position. A mould to mark
off a strip or border of a given width should
always be made with a doubled-over edge, of,
say, half an inch in width, to serve as a gauge

Design 107.—Wood-Carving. Watch Stand.

larger curves are struck are indicated, leaving
the quicker curves of the cusps to be drawn by
hand. The lines of the mould which are to be
cut through are indicated by an unbroken line ;
the dotted lines must not be cut, otherwise the
mould would drop into pieces, but are to be
put in by freehand drawing. If the wood is
polished, and the amateur doubts his ability
to draw these parallel lines with accuracy, the
dotted lines may be pricked through to the

or guide, and which, sliding along the edge
of the strip, secures uniformity in marking
the design.

Lower the portions within the dotted lines
a quarter of an inch, and stamp the back¬
ground with a coarse stamp. The edges of
all bands in Gothic tracery are finished with
a hollow chamfer, as shown in the illustra¬
tions, and indicated by the dotted line of the
moulds.

WOOD-CARVING

Edges of Shelves admit of varied treatment.
Fig. 211 shows a square-edged shelf, with a
one-and-a-half-inch supporting rail. A lozenge
or square diamond, or a dog-tooth, is simple
and appropriate decoration for a square-edged
shelf. The rail admits of varied conventional
decoration, as in figs. 211 and 213. The edge
of the shelf should vary in form according to
the position it occupies ; that is, whether above
or below the eye. If the square edge is not

case the execution of the carving requires more
care, but the added effect is well worth the
extra trouble.

One of the most useful and inexpensive
articles of furniture—admitting, at the same
time, of fine and varied decoration—is a set of
hanging shelves, suitable for books, dining-room
service, or for bric-a-brac. It may be made in
the simplest manner, and it admits of almost
any degree of elaboration, both in construction

Figs. 211-214.—Edges of Shelves to be placed respectively Above and Below the Eye.

used, it should be moulded as in fig. 212 when
above the eye, and like fig. 214 when below the
eye. In every case the rail should be set back
at least a quarter of an inch from the face of
the shelf, and the edge of the shelf should be
recessed a like distance from the front edge of
the sides. The edges of shelves should not be
modelled, but carved with surface treatment
when in a position to catch the dust.

The supporting rails may be left with a square
face, as in figs. 211 and 213, or they may be
moulded, as in figs. 212 and 214. In the latter

and decoration. Black walnut, cherry, or oak
may be used. The carved parts should not
be stained, but simply brushed over with raw
linseed-oil.

There is a point in the construction of hanging
shelves which should not be overlooked : the
cabinet-maker should invariably be directed to
dovetail all the shelves into the sides.

The decoration of the sides should be selected
with reference to its general effect, and, while
appropriate and striking, should be subordinate
to the face decoration.

Designs 108-116.—Bands of Decoration for Wood-Carving. To be Applied either Vertically

or Horizontally.

Plate F.—Full-size Design for
Wood-Carving or Pyrogravure.

Back of
Foldout
Not Imaged

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

Diaper designs are often used for the decora¬
tion of such objects as cabinets and book¬
shelves ; for the back panels of open shelves,

Designs 157-162. —Simple Bands of Decoration for
Wood-Carving.

the sides or ends of caskets, book-racks, and
other places of secondary importance, the more

prominent spaces and panels being reserved
for decoration of more character. The simplest
and most useful diaper 1 is formed from a square.
This may be used in an upright and in a
diagonal position, as in Nos. 163 to 172. A
diaper may be made with (No. 165) or without
(No. 164) an intervening band. When a diaper
design is carved without a band—a favourite
form with the old Gothic architects—a dis¬
tinctly incised line should mark the division.
Where the diaper is one, or one-and-a-quarter
inches square, the incised line should not
exceed one-eighth of an inch ; if smaller the
width of the incision should be correspondingly
diminished.

Another variety of diaper is obtained by
doubling the band, in which case each rosette
has its own complete border, as shown in
Nos. 166 and 168. The band, whether single
or double, may be interlaced, wicker-work
fashion, as in No. 177. Among further varia¬
tions shown in our illustrations are the alter¬
nating of one rosette with another of quite
different form, alternating a rosette and leaf,
and alternating the front view of a flower with
its profile or side view (Nos. 165, 175).

Diaper work maybe made to include designs
other than those of uniform divisions, an
example of which is shown in design 163, where
the arc of a circle, springing from a base line,
then reversing and crossing with a succession
of the same arc, gives pointed arches, diminish¬
ing in size and varying in shape toward the top.

A design of this order may be used with
excellent effect for the back panels of bric-a-
brac , or other open shelves where surface carving
only is required.

The combined designs, Nos. 165 and 167, of
course, are not intended to be used as they are
shown here. It is only intended to indicate, in
a restricted space, how great is the variety of
motives at command for this simple method of
ornamentation.

1 The term diaper is said to be a perversion of the
word Ypres, a town in Belgium, whence the method oi
applying, to a certain kind of fabric, designs made up
“ all over ” geometrical patterns was first introduced into
England, in the Middle Ages.

WOOD-CARVING

VI. CARVING IN THE ROUND.

The wood for small articles should be close
grained and well seasoned, every possible pre¬
caution being necessary to guard against
splintering, or warping through variation of
temperature or from moisture. Lancewood is
excellent for the purpose, being uniform in
grain, tough and elastic. It would be equally
good for the carved spoon (No. 187) and the one
decorated with fret-work (No. 188); about the
latter process we shall speak presently.

A piece of lancewood eight and a half inches
long, two inches wide, and two and a half
inches thick, if properly managed, will cut into
two spoons. It should be planed and smoothed
on both sides.

The front view of the bowl and the shape of
the handle should be traced on both sides of
the wood, so that there is a bowl at each
opposite end. The bowl is one inch deep, and
should be the first part of the work considered.
The wood, being flat on both sides, can be
securely held under the clamps. The making
of the bowl being the heaviest part of the work,
it is necessary that this part in particular should
be fastened down firmly. With a half-inch
curved gouge cut away the wood from right to
left and left to right, removing very little wood
at a time, until you have sunk the bowl to* the
desired depth. Then with a straight, wide,
curved gouge cut away the sides. Great care
must be taken not to splinter or split the wood.
Such a defect, however slight, will show when
you thin down the reverse side. A blemish in
the bowl will make it practically worthless, as
it is likely to split apart altogether. Clean out
the shape as smoothly as you can with any
tools that are handiest, care being taken to
keep the bottom uniform, avoiding hills and
holes. The final smoothing can be done with
a bent riffle file and glass-paper secured to the
end of a stick ; the scratches can be removed
with a cabinet-maker’s half-round moulding
scraper.

The bowls being finished, the spoons are
sawn apart. The block of wood should be
held by its middle in a vice. Saw half way
through ; turn it round and saw the other half.

A good deal of the shaping of the outside of
the bowl may be done with the saw, care being
taken not to saw too close. The work must be
held by the handle, which should be left rather
thick.

With an eight-inch half-round rasp, the work
may be speedily shaped. Care must be taken
not to carry this operation too far ; as the
wood thins it will be found too severe.

The fret-sawn handle should be rasped down
to about three-sixteenths of an inch, or less,
according to the size of the spoon and con-

Design i8i.—Armchair, carved wholly by an
Amateur.

dition of the wood. The whole is now ready to
be glass-papered and scraped. The operation
of fret-sawing will be described presently (see

Designs 182-185. —Vertical or Horizontal Bands of Decoration for Wood-Carving.

WOOD-CARVING

p. 56) with particular reference to its application
to the decoration of small articles of furniture ;
but fret-work is frequently used in conjunction

To return to No. 188, the design
be drawn on the back of the handle,
the back, because while piercing th<

Design 1S6.—Wood-Carving. End of a Library Stooi..

should now
We say on
: design the

with wood-carving, and for our present purpose bowl would not allow the work to lie flat on the
it would seem desirable to anticipate some part fret-work “horse”— i.e., apiece of wood cut out
of these directions. in the form of a boot-jack, with a screw to

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

fasten it to the table, the two prongs projecting
over the table.

The fret-work is done as follows :—The wood
to be worked is laid on the horse. To saw out
the design, holes must be drilled in the places
to be taken out of the interior; the saw is
loosened at the bottom, put through the hole
and refastened, and so on until all the pieces to
come out of the centre are fretted. The saw is
worked in a perpendicular manner, the right
hand grasping the handle underneath the horse
and worked up and down between the two
prongs. The left hand is laid on the work to
guide it, according to the lines to be sawn.

The shape of the handle should now be sawn
out. This was not done before, because it
would have weakened the wood and would
ha,ve made it less convenient to hold in the
vice.

The beading round the handle should next
be marked off, and shaped with a six-inch,
half-round, smooth file. The lines to part the
beading from the handle can be made with a
parting or V tool; likewise the laps of the
design. The whole should now be smoothed
with oo glass-paper, and polished. The
polish is given by rubbing (burnishing) with a
piece of ivory, bone or hard wood. Do not rub
too hard, or you will mark the work ; rub
lightly and continually—the more rubbing the
better the polish.

Should you require the handle of the spoon
curved, it can be done by steaming. Wrap a
piece of rag around the bowl to keep the
moisture from it. Steam only the handle.
Take a piece of board a little wider and longer
than the spoon ; nail a piece of lath crosswise
where the curve of the handle should come on
one piece of board ; nail on the other board a
piece where the end of the handle will come ;
place the spoon between the boards and clamp
together; then put the spoon in a warm place
to dry for about twenty-four hours or more,
according to the density of the wood.

An amusing form of carving in the round is
the decoration of the handle of a walking-stick
with some grotesque head. A good plan is,
first, to model the design in clay.

mmi

Design 187.— Wood-Carving “ in the Round.”

I Vi

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

FRET-SAWING.

In the classification of topics in the present
volume fret-sawing comes in naturally between
Wood and Metal, it being common to both
materials. When applied. to the latter, how¬
ever, it is called Saw Piercing, and that subject
will be duly considered under the head of
Metal Work.

Fret-sawing in wood is a pleasant craft
brought somewhat into disrepute through the
ignorance with which it has been misapplied.
In no kind of decoration is the distinction
between pictures and ornament more needful to
insist on than in this, and in none has it been
more ignorantly ignored. Naturally treated
human figures, birds, beasts, and fishes, and
even portraiture and landscape, have been
attempted in fret-cutting! We need hardly
say that the only suitable designs for the pur¬
pose are such as are geometrical, or those in
which natural forms are treated as purely
conventional ornament.

Pret-cut panels inserted in ordinary joiners’
work are, as a rule, more appropriate than
articles made up wholly of fretwork; too
much ornament defeats its own end, bewilder¬
ing instead of pleasing. A few panels of good
design, a well-placed moulding, or a little
ornament emphasising the salient parts of an
object, decorate it far more satisfactorily than
would a medley of so-called ornament lavished
on it without discrimination. Full-sized designs
for fret-sawn panels are given herewith, and
diagrams suggesting how they and similar ones
may be applied to furniture. The ornaments
being well protected, the feature of strength
has been little regarded ; but if they are to be
executed in wood, it must be of the sort known
as three-ply. As anything placed upon the
shelf of a bracket must necessarily hide some
part of a carved or otherwise decorated back,
the ornament, as in fig. 218, is best restricted
to the top.

Fret-work is rarely pleasing when polished.
Walnut, oak, or other dark woods perhaps will
be most suitable for such objects as are illus¬
trated herewith, unless some light, closely-

grained wood—like birch, for instance—be
selected and stained with transparent dye, such
as the grass-green much seen in modern cabinet
work.

All the tools 1 absolutely necessary for fret-
sawing are a fret-saw frame, some saws, and a
fine bradawl. In selecting your wood (walnut
is the best), take care that it is of an even
thickness and free from knots; for ordinary
brackets and small frames one-eighth of an
inch is thick enough ; if thinner wood be used,
extra care must be taken to see that it has no
cracks or imperfections. With strong gum fix
on your pattern carefully, with the grain of the
wood running lengthwise. When it is quite
dry begin by boring a hole in each of the white
spaces in the pattern. Practice alone will
teach you the best place to bore the holes
so as to reduce the amount of sawing to a
minimum.

Next, screw the end of the saw to which
the teeth point into the clutch nearest the
handle of your saw-frame, and carefully push
the saw through one of the holes in your piece
of wood. Then, pressing the handle of the
frame against your chest and the top against
the edge of the table, insert the loose end of the
saw into the top clutch, and screw tight. If
the saws are not stretched very tight they are
liable to break. Now place the wood flat on
the edge of the table, keeping it steady by
pressing the left hand firmly upon it, and with
the right hand saw carefully round the edge of
the black pattern. It is better to begin with
the inside space, and to leave the outside edge
till the last. After taking out one piece care¬
fully loosen the top clutch and insert the saw
in the next hole, screwing up tight as before.
When the whole pattern is cut out lay it in
water with the paper side down, and the paper
will come off ; if this is carefully done it will be
fit to use a second time.

Let your fret-work dry in a press or under
some heavy books, to prevent it warping.
When it is quite dry polish or stain it.

1 In the periodical Design and Work will be found
advertisements of tools for all kinds of woodwork.

F IG . 217.— Corner Cabinet. Fig. 218.— Bracket. Fig. 219.— “ Occasional” Table.

Examples of Insertion of Fret-sawn Work in Small Articles of Furniture.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

PYROGRAVURE

(BURNT-WOOD ETCHING).

I. THE EVOLUTION OF “ POKER WORK.”

PYROGRAVURE (i.e. writing in fire), otherwise
known as pyrography or burnt-wood etching,
and also by the old-fashioned name “poker-
work,” perhaps might be de-

J Wffl scribed under the head of
Wj “Drawing.” It certainly is
Ml drawing — with the heated
m metal point on wood, leather,

i|| or glass, just as Etching and
Drypoint are drawing with
f ife the needle or the burin on
metal. Etching and Dry-
|l| pj| point are so classified in this

1 MW wa y * n P resen ^ v °i ume ;

Ipl Wf but we must not confound

Y r> '-Vr the merely graphic with the
decorative arts, and Pyro-

Chair decorated gravure is, properly speaking,
in Pyrogravure. Decoration. With the de¬
velopment of its technical
resources, through the application of the plati¬
num point, artists and critics are agreed in
placing it under the latter head, and so
regarding it as a picturesque means of artistic
expression. Hamerton enthusiastically speaks
of pyrogravure as “ a complete artist’s process,
full of technical qualities and satisfactions.”

As has been said, it is a form of the old-
fashioned “ poker work.” A small kitchen
poker originally was the tool actually used.
It was heated in an ordinary fire and then
applied to the wood to be decorated, generally
for outline work of broad design. Although,
naturally, somewhat rudimentary in execution,
the work in skilled hands was remarkably
effective, especially when the background was
sufficiently burnt away to show the design in
low relief.

The first improvement on the humble
domestic implement was a set of poker-like
points of different sizes, made especially for
this sort of work, but all retaining the family
likeness to the dear old kitchen emblem.

With the smallest of these very fine lines
could be made, and the iron could be heated in
a spirit-lamp or gas-stove—certainly a much
cleaner and handier method than that of resort
to the open fire. But the great drawback
remained, that the point could never be kept to
an even heat: from the moment of taking it
from the flame the process of cooling began,
and hence the greatest difficulty was experi¬
enced in attempting to control the depth of
the shading; and to obtain a flat, even tone
required a great deal of practice, as well as
technical ability. Still, the tool ploughing its
way through the uneven fibre of the wood, and
meeting with more opposition than it does from
the platinum point, gives a rugged vigour and
picturesqueness of effect not often achieved
with the more modern implement. With the
rounded platinum point you are too apt to get
a certain uniform woolliness of line. Much of
the charm of the art lies in the wonderful
accidental quality of broken line work. If you
perfect your instrument too much you lose
this—unless, indeed, you have the touch of a
genius, for a genius can work with any kind of
a tool and work wonders.

Fig. 221. —Pyrogravure Decoration for a Tabouret
(see also p. 345).

Pyrogravure is rather slow work. It is more
allied to etching than to painting. The artist
goes over and over his work, as the etcher bites

PYROGRAVURE

Design 169.—Wood-Carving or Pyrogravure. Picture Frame (Virginia Creeper), by Benn Pitman.

Design 190.—For Pyrogravure. Suitable for the Top of a Box.

PYROGRAVURE

and rebitcs his plate. He deepens a tone here
by reburning, or works it off with emery-cloth
or sandpaper and reburns it. That is a little
secret of technique which has not been told
before.

Any tendency toward modelling or high
relief should be repressed. Indeed, in all
surface decoration the best effects are obtained
by the use of flat tones in combination with
graceful lines. Especially in this art should
the accentuated line predominate, and finicky
attempts at realistic detail be avoided.

The rich quality of old carved ivory may be
given to a panel by burning the background
and keeping the figures light ; or, if you prefer,
you may reverse the process, leaving the
ground light.

II. TOOLS AND MATERIALS.

The platinum point is by far the most ex¬
pensive item in the outfit of the pyrographer ;
for platinum ranks only second to gold in
costliness. No other metal has its peculiar
quality of absorbing the heat conveyed by the
hydrocarbon vapour obtained from benzoline.
The pattern attachments for set forms and
borders, being hollow, cost about half as much
as the solid points. The blunt point, which is
the most useful, somewhat resembles in shape
that of the ordinary poker. Fine lines can be
got by using it lightly on the edge ; for broad
lines or shading it should be held in a less
upright position, so that it may more quickly
cover a broad surface.

The finer point of conical shape, a useful
addition in any case, is almost indispensable
for small or intricate designs. It would, how¬
ever, be tedious to employ it alone even for
such work, its special purpose being for fine,
clear outlines. For covering broadly very
large spaces, there is an attachment almost flat
at the end, and about twice as thick as the
ordinary tool.

The curved point is much liked, especially
for backgrounds. It can be made to do duty
for fine or broad work ; for in coarse shading
it can be applied to the wood on its rounded

side, while for even lines or dots the point only
is brought into play. A great advantage of
the curved point is that, on account of its shape,
the body of the tool is kept at a greater distance
from the wood than is possible with a straight
instrument, thereby considerably lessening the

Design 191.—Pyrogravure on Leather. Cigar Case.,
The motive is the tobacco plant.

chances of unintentional scorching, which is
liable to spoil effects where sharp contrasts
and great clearness are a necessity.

The Pattern Points are to be had in great
variety. The oval, circular, diamond, star„

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

heart, and trefoil are most used, and various
combinations can be made with them.

Wood.—The kind of wood to use depends
greatly upon the size and character of the
decoration. For the frieze of a room or a large
panel to go over a chimneypiece, soft wood
would be best, for it would allow of bold treat¬
ment of lines. But if you were intending to

excellent when a very light ground and strong
contrast are required; it readily takes very
dark—almost black—markings, so that a full
range of shading is possible. Artists, like Mr.
Hamerton in England and Mr. Fosdick in the
United States, have recommended Lombardy
poplar, for the opposition it affords between
the line and the ground. It is rather difficult

Design 192.—Pyrogravure on Wood or Leather. Nautical Motive.

ornament a jewel-box hard wood would be
best, because it lends itself to the most delicate
work.

Under any circumstances let the wood be as
nearly white as possible, for it affords the
greatest range of tones and the strongest con¬
trasts. It should be close-fibred and it should
be soft, in order to burn readily. Holly is

to get it in England, and American white wood
(which has a greenish-yellow tinge) is much
used instead. Pine, elm, sycamore, chestnut,
and lime are more or less suitable. Oak is best
for solid furniture and wainscot decoration.

Polishing.—For a finish, the wood is either
oiled or varnished. Artists will use no varnish
of any kind ; they are satisfied to rub pure

PYROGRAVURE

linseed oil into the wood from time to time
until the requisite brightness is obtained. For
those who prefer varnish we give the following
directions : Apply it thickly and rub it down
with pumice stone; varnish again and rub it
down as before, and so on, repeating the opera-

aid an object decorated in pyrogravure may
be made a coloured bas-relief without hiding
the grain of the wood.

Gilding and Silvering may be applied by
means of gold or silver leaf with very rich
effect for backgrounds. Very skilful manipula-

Design 193.—Pyrogravure on Wood or Leather. Suitable for a Tray or Mat.

tion two or three times until the desired polish
is obtained. The varnish should be thick, and
each coat should be allowed to dry thoroughly
before the next is applied.

Dye Staining.—White wood may be stained
to almost any colour by means of the dyes
used in printing and dyeing textiles. By their

tion is necessary for this process, and it is best
to employ a professional gilder. Do not use
(so-called) gold or silver paint, for they will
certainly tarnish.

“ Lustra Colours,” or Bronze Powders, are
sometimes used by amateur decorators, to
enhance the effect of pyrogravure ; but we

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

think that no artist who respected his material
would spoil his work by any such meretricious
addition to it.

A Substitute for Staining. — Many of the effects
of pyrogravure can be obtained more easily by
a process commonly used by wood-inlayers for
shading. This is the subjection of the parts of
the wood to be scorched or burned to the
action of hot sand. The pattern or design
being traced on the panel or other object to be
decorated, the parts which are to remain
unaffected by the heat are painted over with
flatted oil paint or, for rough work, with plaster.
As soon as this has hardened, the sand may be
poured on. Different shades can be obtained
by heating it to any required degree, and also
by allowing it to stay longer in one place than
in another. Either a light or a dark outline
may be obtained with much greater ease than
by pyrogravure, and for graduated shadows the
process is much more suitable.

HI. application of the platinum

POINT.

There are two machines made specially for
burnt-wood etching, but they are essentially
the same in principle, which is the application
of the platinum point, continuously heated and
regulated by means of a little hand bellows.
The heat for both is supplied by means of a
highly inflammable liquid, which must scru¬
pulously be kept away from the neighbourhood
of a lighted gas-jet so long as the bottle contain¬
ing it is uncorked. The vapour from the bottle
could readily unite with the flame, and would
then probably cause a serious accident. Kept
well corked, the liquid is no more dangerous
than in an ordinary lamp.

Having, so to speak, trimmed your machine
by filling the glass bottle provided for the
purpose about half full, put the remainder of
the liquid away at once, well corked, on a cool
shelf. Now fit in the stopper, to which are
affixed the two flexible tubes, terminating at
one end with a hand bellows, at the other with
a contrivance suited for attachment to any of
the extra pattern points made for borders and
geometrical work, also for sizes not in common

use other than that supplied in the outfit. A
small spirit lamp, furnished with a wick, is
included in the outfit, for the purpose of heating
the point to begin with. For this, of course, only
alcohol is required. Be careful not to allow the
small screw in the handle attachment to touch
the flesh, because it will soon become so hot that
you would be forced to drop it. Indeed, this
remark applies to any part of the metal work.

Light the spirit lamp, placed on your right
hand, grasp the end bulb of the bellows in your
left hand, and commence to blow very gently
while holding the platinum point in the flame.
In less than a minute the point should be red
hot. Extinguish the lamp and set to work on
your prepared design, keeping the point red hot
by continually and steadily working the bellows.

If the instrument be allowed to cool beyond
a certain point, resort must again be had to the
spirit lamp, so as to start it again. At first,
from want of practice and, perchance, from
over-anxiety, there will be some little difficulty
experienced in keeping up a steady, even heat,
and still more in controlling it so as to suit
exactly the needs of the design in hand. This
difficulty will not be overcome until the action
of the left hand has become almost involuntary,
following mechanically the will of the worker
in controlling the point of the instrument as he
draws with it. Practise several kinds of strokes
on a piece of waste wood until you have
mastered the sensations, which are not unlike
those experienced by a novice in swimming
when he endeavours to put in practice the
theory of the contrary action of hands and feet
at the same time.

The point should be red hot even for making
a delicate outline. The whole art in execution
lies in the regulation of the pressure and in the
even sweep of the tool. Any hesitation or
added pressure will deepen or make broader
the line being followed.

IV. PYROGRAVURE ON LEATHER.

Leather is a delightful material for work with
the platinum point. You can etch on it with
much greater freedom and rapidity than upon

Designs 194, 195-— Pyrogravure on Leather. Decoration for Napkin Rings,

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

wood The burnt line differs considerably bindings: “ Tints of various kinds may be
from that on the latter. While on wood it re- employed in many cases to complete the
sembles the sepia printing inks used for some scheme of decoration ; but even without the

Design 196. —Pyrogravure on Leather, Wood, or Glass. Also available for Carving, and China

Decoration.

etchings, on calf leather it appears more as if it use of colour, mere singeing produces grounds
were clearly cut out. Hamerton suggested the of the finest quality on which the lighter parts
application of pyrogravure to leather book- may be left in relief. For example, suppose

PYROGRAVURE

the case of a wreath designed on leather, and burner, which is not a point, and as the leaves
intended to show light on a dark ground, would be left of the natural colour of the
The outlines would all first be burnt in, which leather we have already three most valuable

Design 197.—Pyrogravure on Leather, Wood, or Glass.

Decoration.

Also suitable for Carving, and China

can be done with extreme sharpness and elements—line, light spaces, and dark spaces,
definition ; then all the ground intended to be But there is much more than this, as the
dark would be more or less browned with the line may be used with considerable freedom,

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

and of the most various depth and thickness, the stationers’ shops the small leather articles
while the shades admit of every variety of that may be ornamented by this means are
gradation.” numerous indeed. We will only mention port-

Design 198. —Pyrogravure on Leather, Wood, or Glass. Also suitable for Carving, and China

Decoration.

White kid, no less than the more ordinarily folio covers of all kinds, blotting cases, bill
used soft brown leather, lends itself admirably folders, boxes for jewels, gloves, and hand-
to decoration with the platinum point. At kerchiefs, belts, baggage labels, calendar cases,

PYROGRAVURE

card cases, ticket cases, covers for travelling “ The trade must need designs for many
clocks, comb cases for the pocket, cigar and such articles. If you seek to supply them, bear
cigarette cases, eyeglass cases, match-box cases, in mind that simplicity is the great thing to be

blotting pads, cases for pocket-knives, music aimed at—the best effect that can be got with
rolls, postal-card cases, penwipers, photograph the smallest amount of work • remember that
frames, razor straps, and shawl straps. a design has to be reproduced by hand with

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

great rapidity in order to make it profitable
to the manufacturer. Nearly all amateurs so
overload their designs with detail that they
are quite unavailable for purposes of “the
trade.”

V. TREATMENT OF SOME DESIGNS.

The four designs (pp. 121, 122, 123, 137) which
take the hawthorn for their motive may be easily
carried out on American white wood or on
calf leather. They illustrate a variety of effects
obtainable in pyrogravure. In Design No. 244
flowers and foliage are brought into prominent
relief by means of a shaded background, the
forms depending merely on a clear outline.
This at first sight may appear simpler in
execution than Design No. 248, which shows
the forms shaded on a white ground ; but it is
not so, because any slight inequality in shading
the flowers would be little noticeable and much
less objectionable than inequalities in a flat
shaded background ; evenness of tone would be
of the greater consequence in proportion to the
size of the surface to be covered. Design
No. 243 is more elaborate : it introduces shading
in dots on the lighter portions of the foliage,
which gives a pleasing variety and nice breadth
of light and shade. Be careful to burn the
dots very lightly.

The fourth of the series (Design No. 245)
shows the flower forms entirely burned
away; they should not, however, be charred
till they are black, but burned to a rich
dark brown ; a broad point is best for this
purpose.

This set of designs, primarily intended for
book covers, may be applied to a variety of
purposes. No. 248 is well suited, just as it is,
for the under panel of either No. 243 or No. 245;
but if the two last named are to be combined,
it would be well to treat the flowers on both
sides of the cover after the same manner,
either in line shading or all dark. The latter is
the more striking. To join the two panels,
burn two small holes at the back and one in
the front of each panel; pass some narrow
ribbon through these, tie bows at the back, and

leave ends in the front to tie when the cover is
closed.

Another way is to glue a lining throughout
both panels, leaving the thickness of the book
to be covered at the back between the two.
By repeating one of the designs four times on
one piece of wood, and bringing them close
together, utilising the dotted border around
No. 245 in doing so, a charming blotting-book
cover could be made. The design for the back
might be made up of the corners of No. 248,
with the addition of a large monogram for the
centre.

VI. PYROGRAVURE IN INTERIOR
DECORATION.

Not only furniture, mantels, and the like
may be acceptably decorated by pyrogravure ;
sometimes a room is so decorated throughout—
ceiling, walls, doors, and even flooring being
carried out in harmonious designs. Such
decoration one would hardly think would wear
well for a floor much in use; but it might take
the place of a parquetry border around a room,
with a rug thrown down extending to within
two or three feet of the walls.

A wainscoted and open-ceiled hall, or dining¬
room, or library, of Gothic or early Renaissance
design, would offer the best field for such an
attempt, and oak would be the most favourable
wood. If combined with other modes of
decoration, the effect need not be at all
sombre.

The architectural mouldings should be left
plain, and the decoration should be confined to
the panels of wall and doors and the beams
and panels of the ceiling. For the beams we
would recommend a bold running vine pattern,
forming openings to be occupied by medallions.
The vine should be outlined deeply, so that it
will form an incised relief; and the highest
parts may be brought out with a little rough
gilding. The openings may be filled with
shields painted in bright colours, or with con¬
ventional rosettes. But the treatment of the
beams should be decidedly bolder and less
elaborate than that of the panels Detween,

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

which require to be filled with a more delicately

traced design, and to be helped out by a more
liberal application of painting and gilding. As

a rule, blue makes the most effective ground
colour, and festoons of fruit, or strap and
ribbon-work in the Renaissance manner, on
either side of a central medallion, will be
found effective in most instances. The fruits,
flowers, and borders may be touched with
colour, as well as gilding, but the colours
are best applied after the panels are in place,
and it is possible to judge of their effect.
Such designs as are commonly used in
stamped leather work, lincrusta, anaglypta,
and stamped wall papers may often be adapted
to use in such a ceiling as we are describing ;
but the adapter should merely select from
them such details as can be rearranged with
reference to the dimensions of his panels
and the general architectural scheme of the
room. Ordinarily, it is well to make the
design symmetrical, with a very marked and
important centre.

The panelling of walls, doors, and mantel
calls for yet more careful treatment, and if
judiciously introduced, light-coloured woods,
such as maple, or, in very small panels, box¬
wood may have an excellent effect. In this
latter case, the various methods of scorching
and staining the wood come into play. Sole
leather, also, gives very good and somewhat
peculiar results. As it burns to a sharp
edge, the line produced may be very clean
and precise, while even the fine-grained
woods give always a broken line. Leather
has the further advantage that the back¬
ground may be enriched by stamping with
small hand stamps. It may be painted upon
with opaque oil paints used thickly, without
any preparation ; or it may be silvered and
then painted over the silvering with trans¬
parent colours.

It is waste of labour to attempt to give their
general form to objects by means of pyro-
gravure. All architectural embellishments, such
as columns, mouldings, carvings in high relief
and the shaping of chair-backs and othei
furniture should be produced in the usual
manner. The province of the pyrographer is
to decorate the surfaces left by carpenter and
carver. If properly executed, his work blends

PYROGRAVURE

well with both carved and painted work, and
forms an intermediate sort of decoration, which
should tend to produce a harmonious general

used so as to obtain varying depths and widths
of line. How pyrogravure may be applied
pictorially in decoration is illustrated by our

Design 202.—Panel Decoration. Pyrogravure and Painted Leather.

effect. In the case of oak furniture the acid
stain may be used to give colour to the ground,
saving out the masses of the design, which
should be carefully outlined, several tools being

reproduction of part of a frieze (p. 71 ) which
Mr. J. William Fosdick designed and exe¬
cuted for an American millionaire’s dining¬
room.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

Designs 203-207.—Pyrogravure and Painted Leather Decorations.

PYROGRAVURE

VII. GLASS PYROGRAVURE.

The platinum point to be used on glass must
be made many degrees hotter than for wood or
leather. It is not enough that it shall frequently
be held in the flame to make it red hot. It
must be constantly kept at almost white heat:
a special point, supplied with an inner appliance

be well distributed over the glass, or it may
crack it.

Glass Pyrogravure is especially suitable for
the decoration of mirrors, fire-screens, and
photograph-frames. Ordinary plate-glass is
used, but it must be of the hardest kind.
Except on looking-glass, there is no necessity

for generating and retaining heat, is sold for the
purpose.

The ordinary point heated to almost white
heat might be used; but the process would be
tedious and the point would soon get too much
damaged for further service. The pressure
must be steady but not hard, and the heat must

to trace the design, for it has only to be put
under the glass itself and worked over like the
ground-glass of a child’s drawing-slate.

The effect is similar to that of etching on
glass with acid ; but, happily, it can be done
without the danger of inhaling the noxious
fumes of hydrofluoric acid, to say nothing of

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

the risk of contact of the flesh with such a
dangerous fluid.

Sometimes the lines of glass pyrogravure are

Design 209.—Pyrogravure Decoration for Cigar
Case.

filled in with gold paint, which show effectively
from the other side. With a pad of soft cloth
dampened with turpentine, the superfluous

paint is wiped from the glass, which, being quite
clean, is then covered entirely with a thick coat
of white enamel paint, rendering the glass
opaque, and giving the effect, from the back, of

Designs 210, 211.—Pyrogravure and Painted
Leather Decorations.

polished ivory with incised gold tracery. In
laying the paint, care must be taken not to
drag up the gold from the lines.

LEATHER AND LINCRUSTA DECORATION

LEATHER AND LINCRUSTA
DECORATION.

I. STAMPING, GILDING, PAINTING.

What is usually called “stamped leather,”
made and sold by the roll, it would be more
proper to term “ embossed leather, for the
design in relief is obtained by pressure be¬
tween rollers, one bearing the design in relief
and the other its concave counterpart The
manufacturers, however, occasionally produce
a little work on the principle of old Venetian
stamped leather, the stamping of which was
done by hand, with small stamps like book¬
binders’ stamps. This is a sort of work
which may easily be done by amateurs, and
which may be developed into a home industry
of some importance.

Sole leather is the only sort to use. The
thin leather used for embossing will not do
for stamping. If only a panel is to be made
a single piece may, perhaps, be found large
enough to answer; but if a considerable surface
is to be covered several pieces will be required.
The edges should be neatly cut, so that the
several pieces may meet exactly when in place.
They can be fastened to the wall with very
strong glue and with brass-headed nails. The
slight interruption of the design by the latter,
and by the joining of the several pieces, does
not count if the design is large and bold, as it
ought to be. The leather may be wrought
on plain if its natural colour is considered
sufficient, but much richer effects can be had by
first coating it with silver or tin or aluminium
leaf. This purely mechanical work should
be done by a competent gilder. It is well
to know, however, the manner of procedure,
and the amateur if he chooses can try the
work himself.

To Gild Leather dampen the skin with a
sponge and water, and strain it tight with
tacks on a board sufficiently large. When it
is quite dry, size it with clear double size;
then beat the whites of eggs with a wisp to
a foam, and let them stand to settle. Next
take books of leaf silver and blow out the
leaves on a gilder’s cushion, pass over the

leather carefully with the egg size, and with
a tip brush lay on the silver, closing any
blister that may be left with a wad of cotton.
When this is dry, varnish over the silvered
surface with yellow lacquer until it becomes
a fine gold colour. The gilded skin is then
cut into strips of the desired sizes.

Another Way is that used by the bookbinder.
He first goes over the part to be gilded with
a sponge dipped in white of eggs that has
been beaten up to a froth and then allowed
to settle; then, being provided with a brass
roller, on the edge of which the desired pattern
is engraved, and fixed as a wheel in a handle,
he heats it before the fire until the surface
will just hiss if touched with the wetted finger.
While the roller is heating he rubs with an
oiled rag the parts of the leather which are
to receive the pattern, and strips of gold leaf,
which he presses down with a wad of cotton.
He then runs the roller along the edge of
the leather and wipes off the superfluous gold
with an oiled rag. The gold only adheres
where the roller has left its impression.

Tools and Appliances.—The next requisites,
after the silvered leather, is a stamping-block
of some middling hard wood and a supply
of bookbinders’ stamps. These are small
stamps engraved in brass and having long
shanks which are secured in wooden handles.
Their variety may be judged of from an
examination of bound books in any book shop.
Those that are best for the present purpose
are the simpler sorts. To secure variety of
effect it is necessary that some should be very
“open”—that is, should have their design
in outline, while others should have consider¬
able surface. It is also necessary to have
some varnishes and oil colours, a list of which
will be given farther on, a few large camel-
hair brushes and small sables, and a tracing
point of ivory, bone or agate.

The design, having been prepared or copied
on thin but tough paper, is laid over the
silvered leather and traced with a strong pres¬
sure by the point so as to leave a good mark
on the leather. If thought desirable, this can
be gone over with a fine sable brush and brown

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

varnish, but it is better to be careful and
depend on the indented line left by the tracer.

The tools are now selected—different tools
for the background and for the different parts
of the design. Some parts, as flowers and
foliage that are to appear in their natural
colours, are left plain. As a rule, the back¬
ground tooling should be the heaviest, and
should be done with tools having a good deal
of surface. The tools should be warmed
moderately in the flame of a spirit lamp, and
should be applied with a quick pressure of
the wrist and arm. The work should be
carried as nearly as possible up to the outline,
the tools never being changed in the same
part of the design.

The tooling will give the effect of a richly
diapered surface, but the pattern will still be
rather difficult to make out. The next thing
is the treatment of the background. This may
be left in silver, may be covered down with
two or three coats of gold varnish, or may be
gold varnished in parts, when these are entirely
enclosed and shut off from other parts of the
background by the lines of the design. This
last plan gives a varied background of silver
and gold, and is the most effective. Still, good
old examples may be found in which the
background is treated in opaque oil colour,
commonly turquoise or other blue, the metallic
effects being reserved for parts of the design.
Besides the gold varnish there is also a carmine
or ruby varnish which may be largely used if a
red tone is desired. A varnish which may be
made of a little powdered aloes, which can be
bought at any chemist’s shop, dissolved in
alcohol, gives a warmer gold tone when used
thinly than the gold varnish of the colourmen,
and, when several coatings are given, a rich
reddish brown. It serves admirably to tone
the carmine varnish, which is of rather too
bright a red. Mixed with blue it gives an
excellent olive green. These will be all the
transparent tints that will be required. The
large camel-hair brushes are used in apply¬
ing the varnish, which should be made to flow
evenly and smoothly.

The background finished, the purely con¬

ventional parts of the design are best treated
in varnish of a contrasting colour ; or, if the |
background is treated in opaque colour, these '
can be left in gold or silver.

The oil colours, used preferably in the
naturalistic parts of the design, should be
mixed with varnishes of the same colour, and
be applied with sable brushes. Rather dark
olives are most used for leaves, as they contrast
well with the bright metallic ground. White,
Dark Blue, Vermilion and Turquoise are the
other colours most used in good old work.
They all go well with gold and the transparent
tones. The following would be a safe palette
for the beginner :—

Varnishes: Gold ; Carmine toned with aloes ;
Olive, made by mixing aloes and deep blue
varnish ; and aloes used alone.

Oil Colours: Turquoise made by mixing
Cobalt with Emerald Green ; Cobalt darkened
with Black ; White, and Vermilion. Extreme
richness rather than brilliancy of effect should :
be aimed at.

The painting completed, the outline should
be gone over last of all with a very strong j
solution of aloes and a fine sable brush. All
small details—such as the veining of leaves— 1
can be put in at the same time.

An appearance of age and a certain iridescent
quality can be given the silver before working
upon it by submitting it to the fumes of j
sulphuretted hydrogen ; but it need not be
said that it is an unpleasant operation. Some
people find the smell of aloes unbearable, and ;
in that case they may be replaced, but not to
advantage in any other respect, by the brown
varnish of the colourmen. When the work is
done the smell is imperceptible.

II. BOILED LEATHER WORK.

We have given some instructions as to the
stamping of leather with small hand stamps in
the old Venetian fashion as a preparation for
illuminating or painting. Much bolder and
more effective work may be attempted with
even greater ease if the leather is first boiled,
or merely macerated in cold water until soft

Plate H.—Full-size Design for “ Cuir Bouille ” (Boiled Leather Work).

PANEL DECORATION FOR THE BACK OF A CHAIR. Designed by L. W. Miller

LEATHER DECORATION

enough. If alum or soft soap be boiled with
the leather, the latter as it dries becomes quite
hard and remains so. This is of importance
in the preparation of small articles, such as
caskets and cases, which require a certain
degree of stiffness in their materials. For
work of this nature the plan commonly followed
is that recommended by Mr. Charles G. Leland
in his excellent little book on the “ Minor Arts ”
(Macmillan & Co.), which is to boil thin or
“kip” leather in alum water, apply it with
strong glue on a mould first carefully made
of papier-mache, and work it into the intricacies
of the mould and finish the details with leather
worker’s tools. This plan may be easy, but it
is certainly tedious and more suited to the
mechanic than to the artist, besides which the
articles so made can hardly be of a substantial
quality. A better plan is to discard papier-
mach£ and scrap leather and choose a skin
heavy enough for the purpose. The model for
this, if the work is to be in all respects original,
will first be carved out in hard wood, mahogany
offering the best grain. It is to be carved in
intaglio—that is, the parts that are to be raised
in the leather must be cut away in the wood,
and the hollows must be carefully rounded and
smoothed with sandpaper. If the work under¬
taken is a large one, such as the panelling of
the walls or ceiling of a room, this wooden
mould will not answer. It must, in such case,
be taken to a foundry and reproduced, both in
relief and in intaglio, in iron ; and if the use of
a press can be had, the relief had better be
formed into a roller. But for the work usually
attempted by amateurs, which will not go
beyond a few copies of a panel, say of three or
four square feet, the mahogany mould will do.
The design may be drawn or traced upon the
wood, which may be easily whitened with a
wash of Chinese White. Round and V-shaped
gouges and chisels of various sizes are used in
the cutting, and may be bought of any dealer
in wood-worker’s tools. The sandpapering is
an important part of this preliminary work, as
any roughness may quite spoil the result.

The leather being boiled until quite soft,
which takes but an hour or so, is pressed

quickly into all parts of the mould with a wad
of newspaper; then more carefully, part by
part, beginning at the centre, with the fingers ;
finally with wood or bone implements shaped
like burnishing tools (the handle of a tooth-

Fig. 222.— Sheath in Fig. 223.—Box in “Cuir
“Cuir Bouilli.” Bouilli.”

Italian work of the sixteenth century.

brush may answer for one, and a set of
sculptor’s wooden tools may be all that will be
found necessary) it is pressed forcibly into every
trait of the design. While the work is going
on the leather will be drying and hardening and
drawing toward the centre ; but it may be kept

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

moist and soft as long as required by a sponge
dipped in warm water.

It will be readily understood that, on being
lifted out of its wooden mould, the leather
panel will present the design in relief, but
without sharpness or precision. This, how¬
ever, is but a beginning. Before allowing it to
dry thoroughly and harden much may be done
by filling in the flat spaces by means of small

Gothic work, and give it much of its peculiar
character.

It is in the making of small objects that Mr.
Leland advises the making of a papier-mache
or scrap leather and dextrine mould, which is
to remain as a backing within a slight covering
of moulded leather. But it is better that this
last should be heavy enough to stand alone.
The mould for such an object may be prepared

Fig. 224.—Leather Decoration. Bible Case of “Cuir Bouilli” (Boiled Leather).

Italian work of the end of the fifteenth century. (Formerly in the Spitzer Collection.)

stamps, as already recommended in treating
unboiled leather work. Bookbinders’ stamps
are the best, and may be had cheaply in great
variety. Small punches are sometimes used
to produce a hammered appearance, chisels
and roulette wheels for lines, and when very
thick leather is used lines may be incised with
a sharp penknife or with a narrow wood-
engraver’s gouge. These incised lines, cut
with the knife, are very common in good

in a variety of ways; but the best is to make
a wooden core, blocking out, as it were, the
general form of the object. The ornament
may be carved on this, in relief if it is to be
in relief on the finished object, or it may be
moulded on it with powdered leather mixed with
dextrine, or with plaster-of-Paris mixed with
gum-arabic and alum, either of which prepara¬
tions will become hard when dry. The soft
leather is pressed around this core, and the

LEATHER DECORATION

ornament is finished by tooling, as has just
been described. When finished a sharp knife
is run through three sides, if necessary, of the
object, and the core removed. The edges are
joined, preferably by stitching, while still moist
—a job which can be done by any cobbler.
The articles can be blackened with black ink
or browned with bichromate of potash mixed
with water. This last stain renders it water¬
proof after exposure to the sunlight, but it is
poisonous.

Painting, silvering, gilding, and illuminating
can be done on boiled leather as well as on
ordinary leather; but there are other modes
of ornamentation which we have not before
treated of. One of these is to press into the
soft leather stamps cut out of sheet brass or
other metal. The leather will swell out in the
interstices, and when the stamps are removed
will show the patterns in relief. If the stamps
are heated before applying them to the leather
the impression which they make will be
coloured dark brown, adding to the effect¬
iveness of the ornamentation. The stamps
themselves may be left imbedded in the leather,
and may be fastened by small rivets. Ivory,
wood, and other substances may be imbedded
in the same way, making a very effective
though rude sort of encrusted work. Finally,
the soft leather may be moulded freely by
hand, just as wax or clay may be moulded,
and the flat parts may be covered or partly
covered with a mosaic of scraps of various
coloured morocco, as in artistic bookbinding.
Vellum or parchment panels boiled and
moulded as above look very much like rude
ivory carvings.

III. BOOKBINDINGS.

The principal modes of decorating leather
bindings are but two in number—by gilt
tooling and by mosaics of coloured leathers.
The availability of pyrogravure for the pur¬
pose of decorating bindings has already been
noted (p. 66). Designs for “ cloth ” (really
coarse muslin or linen is used) are by far the
most in demand by publishers, and we shall

presently give some practical hints for pre¬
paring them.

The Mosaic Mode is but little practised, and as
it has had no appreciable effect on cloth bind¬
ings or cases, we will not give it much con¬
sideration. The work should be a true mosaic,
but often it is only a “ pastiche,” the ornaments
being cut out of very thin leather and pasted or
glued on the leather of the ground. When
they are bordered by lines impressed and gilt,
as is usually the case, it may be difficult to
detect the fraud. In any case, very large or
very elaborate incrustations are to be avoided.
The colour of the ground should cover most of
the space, and other colours should appear only
in small panels, or in flowers or other isolated
ornaments. Yet we often see long bands, often
interlaced, inserted, though if one of these
become detached at a corner, the entire decora¬
tion is in danger. Flowers and other naturalistic
designs should also be avoided, because they
present too many angles where the leather may
easily be lifted from the board.

The designer called upon to produce a design
for a mosaic binding should confine himself as
much as possible to geometrical forms, which
he should dispose as panels, letting the leather
which really forms the cover appear between
and about them in broad and solid bands. He
may rely on a finer ornamentation in gilt tool¬
ing to preserve his design from any appearance
of heaviness. Flowers and other emblems need
not be entirely discarded, but they should be
strictly conventionalised and reduced as much
as possible to square or circular forms. The
effect of these bindings has sometimes been
imitated by painting ; but it is a means that we
cannot commend.

Tooling.—Of all means employed in the
decoration of bindings, gilt tooling is un¬
doubtedly the chief. The design, which must
be very carefully drawn, is printed on thin,
paper with the tools that are actually to be used
blackened in the flame of a candle. The
design may be such that special tools may have
to be used for it; but this, of course, increases
the cost, and the designer should therefore keep
as much as possible to the forms commonly

Design 212.—Mosaic Leather Work for Bookbinding. Also suitable for Pyrogravure on Wood,

Leather, or Glass.

LEATHER DECORATION

Design 214.—Mosaic Leather Work. Also suitable for Pyrogravure.

8 4

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

used. These are straight lines (called fillets),
curves (called gouges), small circles, stars,
dots, spirals, leaves and flowers. Innumerable
patterns may be made with these simple
elements, and the best plan will be for the
designer to buy himself a set of the most usual
forms only, and work out his patterns with them.
Should the binder to whom the design is com¬
mitted not have the same forms, he will be
sure to have others nearly alike, and it makes
little difference in the general appearance of a
design whether a small leaf or flower be a little
different from that in the drawing or not.
Small tools only must be used, for it is im¬
portant that the gilder should see all around it,
in order to be sure that he is pressing it evenly
into the leather. It is hardly necessary to add
that these tools are appropriate for many other
articles made of leather, as well as for book¬
bindings. They may be got through any large
hardware house.

The design, worked out on the paper, is
pasted at the corners only on the cover that it
is intended to decorate, and the same tools are
again applied, each in its place, to impress the
design through the paper into the leather. In
what is called blind tooling, that is, without
gilding, this impression is merely deepened and
darkened by another application of the tools
previously heated. But if the design is to be
gilt, white of egg is applied as carefully as
possible with the point of a fine sable brush :
two coatings are considered necessary ; upon
this the gold leaf is laid, and is forced into the
original impression with the heated tools. It
is generally necessary to apply a second
gilding, at least in parts. If the tools are not
applied exactly in the marks first made, or if
the pencilling with white of egg be not very
carefully done, a blurred or heavy impression
will result. The finishers of the present day
(as the gilders are called) are as skilful as the
forwarders (those who shape the book and
cover it with leather) are careless or awkward,
and the amateur who competes with the regular
shops in gilding will have no easy task. We
advise him to content himself with making the
design in the manner above described.

There are many well-known historical styles ;
but practically, the forms of design applic¬
able to a binding may be reduced to a few.
The boards or sides of the cover may be
decorated with a border only, sometimes, but
improperly, executed with an engraved roll ;
they may have corner pieces or centre panel
only; they may have a diaper all over of
the fleur-de-lis, the rose, or other
emblem ; or the entire space may
be divided up into ornamental
panelling, and the compartments
filled or not with small scrolls,
branches, and the like. This last,
the richest and most artistic mode
of design, is one of the oldest.
In its plainer forms, of panels
made by interlacing bands or
fillets, it is known as the Grolier
style, after a celebrated book-lover
and collector of the fifteenth cen¬
tury. In some respects, no more
beautiful bindings have ever been
made. Straight lines predominate
in them, or are cleverly combined
with curves to form the outlines
of the compartments, which are
generally left plain except for a
little lettering. Very soon, how¬
ever, the compartments were filled
in, at first with bold scroll-work
and conventional leaves, all worked
with the curved tools called
gouges, with the occasional aid of
tools copied from the printers’
ornaments then in use. Later,
very rich designs of branches with
small and large spirals, leaves, and
flowers were used, and these, in
turn, were supplanted by the finest filigree
work in the seventeenth century bindings
attributed to Le Gascon. Little or no pro¬
gress has been made in designing for tooled
bindings since this time ; but the technique
has been perfected to the utmost.

The design given on p. 82 is a fair example
of the more elaborate modern adaptations of
the old Grolier bindings.

Design 215.
“ Tooling ”

FROM AN OLD

Binding.

LINCRUSTA DECORATION

LINCRUSTA, OR ANAGLYPTA
DECORATION.

Lincrusta, or its competitor Anagylpta, lends
itself 1 eadily to surface decoration in the manner
of leather. Ordinary oil colours may be applied
as easily as to leather or wood. But it is to
the former that these two patented materials
are most akin, although we have not heard of
any one who has tried the boiling or macerating
experiment with them. Gold and silver leaf
adhere to them as they do to leather, and these
in turn may be tinted to any shade by thin
washes of transparent coloured glazing var¬
nishes. Capital effects can be obtained by
giving to the material some delicate shade or
gradation of shades in oil colours, and, when
dry, drawing a flat brush, charged with gold or
other bronze powder, rapidly and lightly back¬
ward and forward over this tinted surface.
The raised rib or grain catches minute particles
of the metal in powder, with the effect of colour
seen through a film of gold. The brush should
be held horizontally, and only as much bronzing
liquid should be added to the gold as will
enable it to leave the brush easily. A thin
coat of white shellac varnish subdues the
brilliancy of these effects, but adds to their
permanency.

For oxidised silver, cover in silver leaf, or, if
preferred, in one or both silver bronzes. Glaze
the silvered surface with white shellac varnish ;
when this is dry rub a brush well charged with
dark blue-gray oil colour into all interstices of
the ornament in relief, as well as upon the
background, leaving the colour thickest upon
those portions of background more immediately
surrounding the raised ornament; now remove
the colour from the highest points by rubbing
with a soft cloth tightly folded, and pass a
clean brush over those parts in lower relief that
require to be left in half-tone. Duller yet more
artistic effects are produced by using “ dry
colour ” in powder for the deepest shades. It is
of importance that these colours lie thickest on
those parts of the design thrown most into
shade, and, as in natural oxidation, the surface
forming the background should have fewer and
more subdued lights than the more prominent

parts of raised ornament. A careful study of
some piece of silver oxidised by nature will
help the reader more than many words ; and
every little grace of burnished light and
softened shadow, noted on the true chasing
and transferred to the work in hand, will give
to it further beauty.

For a fairly permanent bright green bronze,
paint over a first coating of brown dryer, a
second of copper bronze in powder, mixed
with bronzing liquid ; dry thoroughly. Over
this draw a brush loaded with green bronze
powder, also mixed with bronzing liquid ; clear
the high lights by rubbing with a soft cloth,
allowing patches of the copper to show through
on the background also. Dry well, and
heighten the effect by drawing a brush,
containing pale gold bronze, damped with
bronzing liquid, and held horizontally, rapidly
backward and forward, catching lightly the
prominences. When dry, coat once or twice
with white glazing varnish.

This again may be toned, where more
subdued effect is desired, by a thin wash of
Terre Verte (oil colour), thinned with boiled
linseed oil, and more rubbing with a soft cloth,
to bring out, or keep under, the various portions
of relief. For the effects of Florentine bronzes,
copper and various shades of gold bronzing
powders are used, with Vandyck Brown for
shades. For antique bronzes use the same
materials as for “ bright green bronze,” laying
first a ground of green oil paint to obtain
depth in shade. When the lights have been
“ picked out ” in coloured bronzes rub a little
beeswax softened by turpentine to a thin
paste, and mixed with a very little of the
brown dryer, into the deepest shadows of your
panel, and a few moments later pass over them
a brush laden with Paris Green in fine dry
powder. Care should be taken not to inhale
the particles of loose powder that fly off
during the final polishing with a soft cloth or
chamois leather.

Some of the lincrusta and anaglypta are
embossed expressly to assist the decorator.
The most brilliant effects are attained by first
preparing a ground of gold or silver, then

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

painting in strongly, with coloured glazing the ornament in low relief, leaving bare the
varnishes, the raised pattern. As these dry remaining spaces of bright crude colour, pass
with great lapidity, an equal rapidity is a coat of white glazing varnish over the whole,

Design 216.—Lincrusta Decoration. Dwarf Fire-screen or Mirror Frame.

The border is in lincrusta (bronzed and tinted). The centre panel is in painted tapestry. (See p. 203.)

required in the laying of them. When a wash
of toning colour has been laid evenly upon
the background, and over some portions of

and finish by taking a sprinkling of gold dust
or bronze powder upon a soft bristle brush,
and polishing the surface briskly, finally using

LINCRUSTA DECORATION

a chamois leather or a well-worn flannel
cloth. This last process blends and harmonises
the colouring purposely kept crude until the
end. Darker leathers may be coloured by
adding brown dryer and bronzes in powder to

A panelled dado of lincrusta or anaglypta,
decorated in white and gold, sets off ad¬
mirably tapestries in Watteau and Boucher
styles; add frieze and borderings in rich
relief, or severely graceful, repeating or har-

oil colours, taking the precaution to mix them
well together with a palette-knife.

The fire-screen shown in the illustration is
an example of how a border of “ fruit pattern ”
in relief, bronzed and tinted, may be utilised
in conjunction with hand-painted tapestry. A
bevelled mirror may be substituted for the
latter.

monising with tones below, and supporting a
ceiling of delicate tracery, framing medallions
of cupids and flowers in painted tapestry,
letting the decoration melt toward the centre
into delicate gradation of soft blue sky,
and some idea may be formed of what
can be done with the aid of lincrusta or
anaglypta.

METAL WORK

SAW-PIERCING.

Metal is hardly more difficult than wood to
work with the fret-saw. The designs given for
the latter (p. 57) will look very well cut in
sheet brass, copper or German silver,
with perhaps a few touches with the
graver here and there to bring out
parts that appear to overlap, or suggest
the veins of leaves or markings of
flowers. Etching may be employed
with better effect for the same purpose.

It is also a useful accessory to the
decoration of cut metal in connection
with wood-carving. The metal work,
to be effective in this case, must be
confined to those features where a
real or seeming added stability is in¬
troduced by the employment of the
metal decoration : such, for example,
as strap-hinges and lock-plates on
cabinet doors; decorative hinges and
corners on caskets; or handle and
lock-plates on drawers.

pinning the cardboard patterns of them in
place upon the wood. You can thus prove
whether or not you have measured and drawn
them correctly.

Sheet metal of any thickness can be obtained

First make a paper or cardboard pattern of
each part of your object and test the parts by

of the dealers. No. 22 or No. 24 (thinner) is
recommended for decorative hinges, handle

METAL WORK

plates, etc. The surface should be polished
with powdered pumice-stone and finished with

rotten-stone. If the best results are desired,
the metal should be sent to be “buffed,” by

which a perfect polish
is obtained.

The etched brass
hinge, design No. 222,
is one of a pair that
was used on the doors
of a small cupboard 9
inches above the top
of a writing desk.
The doors, each 12 x 4
inches, were too small
for any effective carv¬
ing, but yet occupied
a position demanding
effective treatment
This was secured by
covering the doors
with a bold and ela¬
borate design in metal.

Hinges of this de¬
scription can be at¬
tached to ordinary
brass butts by knock¬
ing out the pin and
using halfoi the hinge
that contains the three
“bends,” to which is
attached (after bend¬
ing the two projecting

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

ends) the newly designed hinge, and which
corresponds to the half that is thrown away.
If the amateur has any mechanical aptitude

he may readily and neatly do this; if not,
it should be intrusted to a skilled worker in
metal.

ETCHING ON METAL.

The principle of etching metal by acid for
decorative purposes is the same as for artistic
etchings (fully treated under Drawing).
The chief difference is that in artistic
etching the drawing is made on the metal
for the purpose of printing impressions
from it; in decorative etching the drawing
or design eaten into the metal is made for
its own sake, being the final and, indeed,
the only object sought. To prepare the
plate for etching cover the face with a thin
coating of wax, which can be readily spread
by heating the plate on the top of a kitchen
stove, and pouring the melted wax on it
from an iron ladle, holding the ladle with
the right hand, while the plate is held, by
means of a pair of nippers, with the left, turn¬
ing the plate so as to spread the wax evenly
and allowing all the surplus to run off.

The best etching ground is obtained by
boiling refined wax four to six hours, which
removes the “ stickiness ” and makes it yield
readily to the needle-point in outlining, or
to the lead pencil, which is the best imple¬
ment to use when portions of the back¬
ground are to be cleared for the action of
the acid. When the wax is sufficiently
boiled, remove impurities by straining it
through a stretcher, or sieve, of thin, open
muslin. Strain into a shallow tin pan,
allowing it to form a cake three-eighths of
an inch in thickness. It can be readily
taken from the pan when cold and broken
into convenient pieces for use.

The design to be etched must be first
drawn on paper, when it may be transferred
to the waxed plate by means of black or
red carbon paper. The plate must, of
course, be waxed on face and back. When
the design has been transferred to the plate,
go over the lines with a dull point, being careful
that the lines are traced clear to the metal.
When the design has to be eaten completely
through, it is desirable to trace just outside of
the line, so that the eating away by the acid
may not encroach on the design. When the

ETCHING ON METAL.

design has been traced on the plate, place it in
a porcelain dish, or shallow wooden trough, and
pour pure nitric acid over it till it is covered
about a quarter of an inch. If the etching is
done in cold weather it is advisable to keep
the acid near the fire for some time before
using it, so that it may not chill the wax and
cause it to spring from the plate. The etching
should be done in the open air. The fumes
from the plate are not only disagreeable, but
they would, if confined to a room, rust every
metal article exposed to them.

If the design to be etched contains light line
surface decoration, five minutes of the bath will
probably eat it to a sufficient depth. The
plate must then be taken out and tested with a
point, to ascertain if the lines are deep enough.
If they are not, it must be returned to the bath,
When the light surface decoration is sufficiently
etched, wash it by pouring lukewarm water
over it; then dry with soft newspaper or
blotting-paper. Now “ stop out all such lines
as are eaten to the required depth, by passing
a “ heater ” over them, which will melt the wax
and cause it to fill the etched lines. The
heater is made of a piece of iron or copper
wire, three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter,
brought to a dull point and bent. Placed in
a handle and heated and brought into con¬
tact with the wax already on the plate, or
with a small portion held in the left hand,
it can be readily melted and deposited where
required.

When the waxing up is completed—care
having been taken to repair, by means of the
heater, any portions where the wax may have
sprung from the plate—return the plate to the
bath. From thirty to sixty minutes may be
required for the acid to eat completely through
a No. 24 or No. 22 plate. If the design is not
entirely released by the acid from the back¬
ground, use a narrow steel chisel to free it. A
little filing of the edges may be necessary to
bring them to a desirable finish. Holes to
secure the hinges, by means of round-headed
brass tacks, should not be etched, but drilled.

When the etching consists of a surface
design only, that is, where no portions are to

be eaten completely through, it is advisable to

Design 223.—Etching on Metal. Panel Hammered
and Etched.

use nitric acid diluted with an equal quantity
of water.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

Design 224.—Doors of a Hanging Cabinet, with Panels of Etched Copper.

HAMMERED METAL.

I. MATERIALS.—ANNEALING.

Repouss6 or hammered decoration on thin
sheet metal is well within the abilities of the
average amateur of either sex. Gold, silver,
copper, brass and iron are all, to a certain
extent, available.

Gold, in its different alloys, is one of the best
metals for the purpose, it being extremely
dense, ductile and workable ; but from its cost,
and the high degree of skill required to produce
work of a character in keeping with the value
of the material used, it is unnecessary to speak
further of it here.

Silver, though expensive, is admirably suited
to the demands of the amateur. Sheet silver is
as hard and almost as springy as steel, and
must be annealed—an explanation of the
process will follow presently—in order to
remove the hardness induced by the rolling to
which it has been subjected.

Iron and soft steel are much used for
repouss6 work, and, in conjunction with other
metals, give beautiful results; but, as both are
of so hard a nature and somewhat intractable
in a cold state, the beginner, at least, may set
them aside as unavailable.

Between copper and brass there is not much
choice, and it may be assumed in what follows
that the methods referred to will answer in both

cases, unless a different treatment for the one
or the other should be suggested.

Annealing.—This is done by heating the
metal in a clear coal fire until it gets red hot
all over, and then placing it in ashes to cool
slowly.

The metal must now be carefully flattened.
Bend it as flat as possible with the fingers and
then rub the unevennesses out with the head of
a large smooth hammer, the plate resting on a
flat wooden block.

Selection of the Metal.—In choosing brass,
bear in mind that the metal of a ruddy tint
(when scraped) is generally softer and less
liable to crack than that of the ordinary tone.
This liability, however, depends largely on the
amount of annealing it has undergone. Care
should be taken, also, to select sheets free from
specks and flaws, these causing disfigurement
after the work is completed, not a little vexa¬
tious where much effort has been expended on
the workmanship.

The most useful thicknesses of brass are
from 26 to 22 standard wire gauge, or from 6
to 10 metal gauge. If the repousse is to be
very elaborate, and of considerable relief, the
metal must be stout enough to bear, without
cracking, the consequent reduction of thickness
and occasional annealing. A thinner sheet can
be used when the amount of hammering it has
to undergo is not excessive.

HAMMERED METAL

Copper may, with advantage, being slightly
softer, be of a thicker gauge than brass.
Should you be unable to obtain metal in flat
sheets, ready for use, you will have, of course,
to prepare it yourself, as that supplied by
dealers in rolls is too rough to be used without
preparation. To do so, cut off the piece re¬
quired from the roll somewhat larger than is
necessary, selecting a part free from flaws.
Next thoroughly anneal the metal.

II. TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.

It is important to get the best tools. Try
them before buying them, or get .the salesman

24 ?j 26 2J 28 29 jo 3'

0 0 o O ° 0 0 o STEEL

j 2 jA 3 S 119

O“° 0 OD 0 RAISipq

31 38 39 4o < 2 ° ,2 ' 122

TOOLS

<") so S' & S3 S* JS

0 0 o o O O O RING

0 0 0 0 TOOLS

GQ 0 CD ltd

BRASS RA/SIRQ TOOLS
Figs. 225-227.

to do so for you. The “ temper ” of the steel
tools should be particularly examined, to see
that they are neither so hard as to be liable to
break almost at the first blow, nor yet so soft
that the edges “ turn ” after a little use. When
steel tools are properly tempered they usually
show a gradual change from a deep blue in
the centre, through straw colour, to a clear
polished steel tint at the point. Tracers and
the finer mats and punches demand more
careful tempering than other tools. All the
tools should be light, convenient to handle,
and from 4 to \\ inches in length.

The first requisite is a good steel or steel¬
faced chaser’s hammer mounted on a proper

handle. The heads can be bought of various
weights and sizes, from if oz. up, but arc
not generally used for this work above 4 oz.

n ,2 /, 3

,4 <5

• 6

19- 2 c.

2 /

s=a sa

(T%

STEEL

TRACERS

PEARLS

Or 62 63 64 65 6 b 67 68

° ^ ® ® ©

69 70 p 72 123 73 74 72 7<*

mats or qroUrding tools

Figs. 228-230.

A good size is one of 2 \ to 3 oz. The handle
or stick must be of lancewood, from 7 to 9
inches in length, and very slender for a distance
of about six inches, the end terminating in a
knob of a flattened oval form. The illustration
will give a good idea of what is meant. The
great essentials in the hammer are lightness,
strength, and flexibility.

A Rawhide Mallet, handled after the same
manner as the hammer, will prove extremely
useful both for flattening the metal and for
roughly raising large surfaces, to be further
worked into form afterward with hammer
and tools.

n 73

(SO

a 1

34 83

$ ©

.. "...

^ ('

) Q

.24

i 2 b

,27

>!< <

4 “

97 98

nj /02

,03

/04

>°S

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*•

^ fy

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O©

•Of t /2

108

709

III

☆

0 ^

90 9/ 92 93 s4 95 98

rinrinnnn cM

Figs. 231, 232.

The Tracers with which the outlining and
similar processes are to be done are straight
and curved, thick and thin, and in length (of

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

cutting edge) from ^to f of an inch, according
to the fineness or boldness of the work required.
The most useful are those marked from 11 to
23 in the illustration. The one with which
the beginner usually learns to trace is numbered
16. It is an invaluable tool. But exercise
your own judgment as to the use of tools.
Use whichever you find best adapted to secure
the desired result. Two or three curved and
straight tracers are all that will be required
for some time.

Raising Tools.—A few of oval, oblong, and

times used for the purpose), to which the
metal to be operated upon must be attached,
and the cushion upon which the block is to
be laid when in use.

The Pitch Block.—Unless the metal has a
backing of some kind it will be almost im¬
possible to impart shape to it, and unless this
backing is of a proper kind the worker will
be limited to the production of ornamentation
but little better in appearance than a series
of bruises. The only material which will
answer all requirements—viz., solidity, elasticity,

wnwv Millin' iw™ 11 " . m 1 1 !/ 1 i 1 rri / Mi

Fig. 233.—The Proper Position of the PIands for Repousse Metal Work.

The illustration shows the sheet metal resting upon the cement block, which itself rests upon a cushion, so

as to deaden the sound of the hammering.

vesica shapes and flat and bombe surfaces,
the smaller ones of finely finished and tempered
steel, and the larger of brass (which being
softer will enable the worker to raise the
metal without bruising it), and some ring tools,
pearls, and mats for producing a variety of
grounding and texture, are all that the
beginner needs to start with—say a set of
those numbered in the illustration 16, 2, 7,
43 > 53 ) 2 7 , 3 1 . 35 ) 37 > 63, and 88, which, of
course, could be added to as occasion required.

Appliances indispensable in repouss6 work
are the cement or pitch block (a bowl is some¬

adhesiveness, and facility of application and
removal—will be found to be a compound of
soft pitch, resin, tallow, and powdered bath
brick, of about the consistency of shoemakers’
wax. This is hard enough to prevent the
metal, while it is being worked upon, from
turning up at the edges, and yet tenacious
enough to hold it until the design is outlined.
You can get the cement ready made, either
in lumps for melting up, or already made into
pitch blocks. If you prefer to prepare it your¬
self, you will find that the following recipe
will answer every purpose: Soft pitch, 7 lb. ;

HAMMERED METAL

black resin, 4 lb.; tallow, 6 oz.; bath brick,
powdered, 6 lb. A commoner mixture for
filling bowls or vases is: Pitch, 3! lb. ; resin,
2 lb. ; tallow, \ lb. ; white sand heated and
then to be stirred in, 9 lb. These are to be
melted together over a slow fire in an iron
saucepan or pitch kettle. The addition of
more or less tallow will make the compound
harder or softer according to requirements.

A block about twelve inches square will be
quite large enough. When large pieces of
work have to be done (though it should be
arranged, as far as possible, to do such work
in small portions, to be afterward fitted
together), they must be worked in parts, the

A Spatula, or Smoothing Iron, will be needed
for levelling the cement after the work has
been removed from the block.

The Work-table should be so substantial
that it will neither shake nor vibrate at every
stroke of the hammer; it should have no
drawers, as they greatly increase the noise.

The Chair or Stool should be of such a
height that the work, when attached to the
cement block and placed in position on the
sand-bag, will be level with the middle of your
chest. You should always sit at your work.
The position chosen should be directly facing
a window, or with the right shoulder slightly
turned toward the window.

Fig. 234.—The Hammer and Mallet used for RepoussA Metal Work.

metal being shifted on the block until the
whole is completed. A block about 12 in.
by 9 in., if 1 in. thick, will require some
8 or 9 lb. of cement.

The Cushion on which the block is to be
laid when in use deadens the sound of the
blows of the hammer. It should be made
of canvas, or other material of close texture,
filled with sifted river sand, and should be
about i£ in. thick and rather larger than the
block. The cushion should not be quite
filled—three-quarters will be sufficient.

The Blow Lamp will be found useful in
many ways, especially in attaching the metal
to the cement block—as will be explained
presently,—and when, in elaborate work, you
wish to remove the pitch to see how you are
getting on.

III. PREPARATIONS FOR WORK.

Cut off a piece of metal, flatten and anneal
it as directed (page 92). Scour it thoroughly
with coarse (F) emery cloth and oil (colza or
lubricating) ; then with a finer (O) cloth rub
the metal in a circular direction until there
appears a fine graining all over the surface,
after which wipe off the oil and grit with a rag
on which a little turpentine has been poured.
The metal is now ready.

To Attach to the Cement Block.—Light the
blow lamp, the cotton of which must have
been previously soaked with methylated spirit,
and gently warm the surface of the cement by
blowing the flame upon it, taking care to
avoid burning it; this will cause the surface
to become level, should there be any slight
unevenness. If the cement block be very

9 6

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

uneven, the cement should be thoroughly
softened (not melted) and the block then laid,
cemented side downward, on a flat stone that
has been damped, and left there with a weight
upon it for half an hour or so.

Next, the metal must be made hot, rather
more so than can be comfortably held in the
hand, and then, while both it and the cement
are warm, laid, papered side uppermost, on the
cement. Press the metal firmly all over with
a cloth, to avoid burning the fingers, until
every part of it is in close contact with the
cement. Metal and cement must now be
allowed to cool for a while, so as to permit of
the transferring of the design.

IV. TRANSFERRING THE DESIGN.

Place (the black side of) a piece of carbon
paper on the metal, and over this lay the
design, face upward. With a bone point (or
knitting needle), press firmly over the lines in
the pattern, taking care that the latter does
not shift. Remove the paper, and the pattern
should appear in black on the metal. With
the etching point scratch in all the lines, and
add any that may by accident have been
missed. Wash out the transfer marks with a
little turpentine.

If you are handy with pen or pencil you
may sketch directly upon the metal, and then
point in with the etcher. Turpentine smeared
over the brass or copper will cause the pencil
to take more readily. For ink, the surface
must be scoured with a little fine sand, to
remove any trace of grease or finger marks.

V. THE FIRST ATTEMPT.

Take the hammer in the right hand and the
tracer (preferably the one marked No. 16) in
the left, holding it with the thumb and fore¬
finger, about an inch and a half above the
cutting edge, the instrument pressing against
the second finger, which should be about half
an inch below the first, the tips of the third
and fourth fingers at the same time resting
upon the metal, and all touching each other.

The right position of hands and tools when
tracing are clearly shown in the illustration.

The Tracing or Outlining.—Place the point of
the tracer (which should rest against the
second finger) on some portion of the outline
in the left top corner of the work, slightly
tilting the tool backward over the other
fingers, so that the front point is just lifted off
the metal. Now strike the tool fairly on the
top with the hammer, and forcibly enough to
strongly indent the brass or copper, and
continue to do this with about the same degree
of rapidity with which a clock ticks, and if the

Design 225.—Exercise in “Tracing” or “Outlining
in Repousse Metal Work.

tool is properly held and the blows of the
hammer are given from the centre of its face,
the tracer will move forward toward the right,
cutting a line as it goes. Hold the tool with
only just sufficient grip to keep it from
slipping out of the hand, altering its angle, or
running off the line, and make the lines by a con¬
tinuous forward movement—not by punching
the tool in, then shifting it and striking again,
and so on. You will, at first, find this more
difficult than it may appear. Probably you will
give feeble and uneven blows, first on one side
of the tool and then on the other, sometimes

HAMMERED METAL

missing it and striking your fingers instead ;
then a fair and central blow ; next a blow with
the edge of the hammer head ; again, a blow
with the hammer turned on its side, or even
upside down. This describes pretty accurately
the first attempt of nearly every beginner.
But do not be discouraged. With patience
and perseverance you will soon get the re¬
quired facility.

Trace all the lines in the pattern that run
from the left top corner to the right lower
corner, and all curves that have their concave
side toward the worker, starting always at the
top, and then turn the block round so as to
bring a fresh series of lines and curves into the
position occupied by those just done.

When curves of small diameter have to be
traced, it will be found necessary to tilt the
tool more on to its cutting point, and to strike
more rapidly than when tracing larger curves,
but without allowing the tool to travel any
faster. Indeed, it should rather be held back
than otherwise.

VI. FLAT CHASING.

With a tool like one of those marked 42, 50,
88, and 98, holding it in the same manner as
directed for the tracer, except that it must be
held more perpendicularly, punch the back¬
ground of the design all over until the pattern
only remains with a plain surface. The force

of the blow from the hammer must always be
of the same strength, or the ground will be
sunk more deeply in one part than another ;
besides varying prominence will be given to
the tool marks, a defect that will stamp the
work as amateurish at once. The tool marks
of tools 42, 50, and 98 should be quite close
together ; those of 88 and similar ones slightly
separated. Occasionally the pattern may be
tooled over in parts with tools 61 to 72, but
do not attempt this until you have made con¬
siderable progress in the management of the
tools generally.

Much that is beautiful and really artistic
can be done in this flat or surface chasing ;
and of course all objects, such as trays, table
tops, etc., in which it is absolutely necessary
to retain a flat and smooth surface, must be
thus treated. Most of the Benares and other
Indian work so much admired is executed in
flat chasing.

To obtain good effects in flat chasing, the
matted and plain portions should be about
equally balanced. It will, however, be rather
better to err on the side of too little matting
than on that of too much ; for when the matting
is overdone the design always appears attenu¬
ated and amateurish. Pattern punches may
be used in this particular branch of repousse
work with much effect, if not employed so
lavishly as to give the idea that the whole of

Design 226.—Drawer Handle Plate in Repousse Brass.

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

the pattern has been produced by such means.
For this purpose tools 86, 87, 88, 97, 103, 105,
108, 109, ill, 112, 115, and 126 are very
suitable.

VII. RAISING AND MODELLING.

Having acquired facility in flat chasing, you
may now attempt to give relief to a pattern

adhering to the metal with a rag soaked in
turpentine, slightly warming the plate again
and again if the cement is very refractory, of
course keeping the rag out of the way while
using the lamp.

To protect your work if it has to be left for
a time, turn the brass face downward upon the
table, laying a piece of paper beneath it, and
place a weight on the block.

i 1

Design 227.—Match-box Holder, in Repousse Brass.
The sides are to be turned up at the dotted lines, and joined.

you have already traced. The first step is to
remove the metal from the cement block. To
effect this it is sufficient, usually, to drive a
broad, flat chisel between the metal and the
cement until they are forced apart. Should
the cement prove too tenacious, heat the metal
by means of the blow lamp and remove it
while hot with a pair of pliers. Now flatten
the cement on the block, as previously directed,
and, while it is cooling, clean off all the cement

When the metal and the cement blocks are
quite flat, warm both slightly, and put the
former, with its outlined side underneath, on
the cement, pressing it all over until every
part is attached in the same manner as when
it was being prepared for tracing. If the work
is large, start at once, without waiting for the
cooling of the cement, to raise those portions
that are to stand up in relief, by hammering
them into the cement by means of the largest

HAMMERED METAL

raising tools that can be conveniently used ;
commencing at the points to be in greatest
relief, and working outward toward .the edges,
holding each tool much in the same manner as
when tracing, but more perpendicularly, and

depth all over the pattern first, and then going
over it again and still further deepening it
where required, until the whole looks like a
mould of the work it is desired to produce.
In raising, as in all the rest of the work,

Design 228.—Brass Sconce, with Cut-Glass Pendants.

The pendants utilised in this sconce were relics of a disused “crystal” chandelier, such as are not infrequently

found in the lumber room or attic.

slipping it slowly along by means of the
second finger without lifting the tool off the
metal.

The sinking (which is of course really the
raising when finished) should not be attempted
all at once, but by stages, giving a slight

proceed slowly, endeavouring to foresee the
effect the hollows will produce when seen as
raised lumps on the front side, so that no very
serious mistakes may be made which would
be difficult afterward to correct. To sink
a given space, even a simple hollow, smoothly

IOO

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

and entirely without bruises, will require much
practice ; so that for some time all complicated
modellings should be avoided, and only simple
forms attempted.

It is a good plan to mould the most difficult
portions in wax, and then to copy the modelling,
bearing in mind that the highest points in the
model should be those that are to be sunk
deepest on the side now being worked, and
that those of less relief should be proportion¬
ately less in depth.

As the work has once more to be turned
over and again worked on its front side, it is
not necessary to add every detail at this stage;
all that need be aimed at is a generally correct
shaping in mass. Still, it should be noted that
an inexperienced hand can do very little on
the front side to raise any parts that have been
allowed to remain below their proper level ;
so that the work should be carefully examined
in detail, in order that such portions may be
put in before the plate is removed from the
block previous to turning it over, or it will
have to be attached again.

For raising large, smooth surfaces, as a plum,
for instance, the brass tool No. 7 is the best,
and for smaller surfaces, according as they are
to be flat or bombe , Nos. 4, 35, 27, 37, 3, 31, 34
are most likely to be useful.

When very large portions—as large, say, as
three inches across either way—have to be
raised, it is best, after the outlining has been done,
and before attaching the metal to the block, to
lay it face downward on the sand-bag, and then
to beat it with the mallet roughly into shape,
afterward fixing it to the block and completing
the process, as before explained.

When leaves or other similar objects rise
suddenly from the background, a strong line
must be traced, after the raising has been
effected, just inside the raised line caused by
the front outlining. This should be done with
a thick or blunt tool, such as Nos. 14, 15, or 17,
and then softened into the general body of the
relief with tool No. 37. The centre veins of
leaves may frequently be done in this way, but
when so done they must not be worked on the
front.

To obtain good effects in repousse, it is not
at all necessary, as is sometimes supposed, to
resort to high relief. It is more difficult to
model correctly and to maintain the due pro¬
portion between the several parts in low than
in high relief. Sometimes, on removing the
metal from the block when the raising has been
completed, the amount of relief appears much
less than it was thought to be when seen from
the back ; but this, unless the design demands
high relief, need not cause disappointment,
provided only all is in due proportion ; for in
the finishing the height may be much enhanced
and all the desired effect secured.

VIII. FINISHING.

Having completed the raising and modelling,
carefully scrutinise every part of the work to
see that no mistakes have been overlooked.
The metal may now be again removed from
the block and thoroughly cleaned as before.
Next, fill up the hollows in the cement block
by pressing the spatula (which should have
been previously made nearly red-hot) into the
cement. This, as it pushes the melted cement
before it into the holes, fills them quite up.
While this is cooling, break up a few pieces of
cement and put them in the hollows at the
back of the plate just removed, hold the plate
with a pair of pliers over the lighted blow lamp
and so melt the pieces, until they flow and fill
up the sunk portions. When every hollow is
filled and the surface is quite level, allow the
whole work to cool. When it is quite set, warm
the surface of the cement on the plate and on
the cement block, just sufficiently to make them
adhere when the two surfaces are pressed
together in close contact. When the cement
is quite cold start the finishing or correction of
the modelling from the front side.

Take a thick blunt tracer, such as No. 15 or
16, and with it (wherever the background has
been raised out of the level by the beating up
of the design) go round the outline of the raised
parts, hammering the tool with just force
enough to carry it down to its original level.
At the same time try to force the metal at the
edge of the relief portions underneath by hold-

HAMMERED METAL

loi

ing the tool at such an angle that its top shall
be well outside the work. This will tend to
sharpen up the outline and give the pattern
the effect of the undercutting so often seen in
carvings. Care must, of course, be exercised
to prevent the tool piercing the metal, which
would cause a crack or hole that an amateur
would find it very difficult to repair. This
undercutting process is extremely useful in the
treatment of foliage designs, as it offers the
best method for bringing the edge of a leaf
clear off the background without giving it a
thick and clumsy look. When the outline has
been forced back to its original position, care
having been exercised to prevent its being
driven below the general plane, the marks left
by the tracer may be smoothed away with
such tools as No. 56 or 37. Should the relief
obtained appear to be of too flat a character,
by commencing this operation at a little
distance from the relief and working the tool
toward it, something may be done to bring the
pattern up more prominently, especially if the
blows from the hammer are given in such a
way as to draw the tool along while striking it.

Now, correct the modelling of the raised
parts, smoothing out the bruises or marks that
the raising tools may have left, and softening
away all hardness, making the different forms
blend imperceptibly into each other, so that the
exact point at which a hollow begins to swell
into a protuberance may not be too clearly
apparent. Tools Nos. 26, 27, 34, Ii 8 and 37
will most easily effect the purpose when concave
surfaces have to be dealt with, and 3b, H9> an d
37 in the case of convex ones.

Of course, the whole of this process must be
lightly done, and in such a way that the relief
is not flattened down again.

IX. THE BACKGROUND.

The background must receive very careful
consideration not only as to design, which must
be well contrasted with the raised portions, but
as regards the execution as well. It is easy to
spoil a good piece of work on which great pains
have been expended, by carelessness in regard

to the background. Any unevenness in the
grounding will at once be detected by the eye.

The tool must be held upright and shifted
with the fingers at each stroke until the whole
ground is evenly covered, care being taken to
strike with the same force at each blow, so that
no part may be more deeply punched than
another. The mark of the general tool should
not be recognisable; each impression of it
should overlap the one made previously.
The small pearl or pointilloir (No. 98) will be
found very useful for ordinary purposes. When
the tool, however, is of a distinct pattern, such
as Nos. 86, 108, 109, 111, or 112, one impression
should not infringe on the next. There should
be just sufficient space left around each to
enable one to identify the pattern. Yet when
viewed from a little distance each mark should
be lost in an evenly-distributed mass.

X. TEXTURES.

Large and bold work may be considered
finished at the stage we have now reached, but
any object that is likely to be handled or
examined in detail may receive further treat¬
ment. This will consist of giving certain
textures to the raised forms or to parts of them,
by means of the mat or grounding tools. Try
to produce even tracks of frosting, just the
width of the grounding tool, but free from
spottiness or single tool marks. In the case
of leaves and fruit somewhat naturalistically
treated, the texture should be applied more
particularly to the hollows or parts turned
away from the light ; the high lights may
remain quite smooth.

In representing the human form, flesh and
skin may be tooled over with a blunt tracer
small oval raising tool, or a nearly worn out
mat, like No. 72, but much care and skill will
be required to avoid a seamy appearance.

For leaves, experiment with Nos. 62, 66, and
70 mats, with tracer No. 16, or raising tools 25
to 33. For fruits with melon or pomegranate¬
like skins use a well-worn No. 72 mat, or raising
tool No. 24. Cherries, grapes, etc., may be
tooled with a blunt tracer on the parts turned
away from the light ; but as they are somewhat

102

THE CYCLOPEDIA OP' HOME ARTS

difficult to do neatly, perhaps they had best be
left plain. The skins of snakes, scaly reptiles,
and fish are best rendered with different grades
of a half-round tracer like No. 23 ; but they
must be punched on the underside of the work
immediately after the raising has been com¬
pleted, and before the metal is turned over for
working on the front side. For conventional
animals with scales, such as dragons, a good
effect may be got by using an oval ring, punch¬
ing it contiguously, and with its greater diameter
parallel to the sides of the part under treatment.
It is difficult, however, to find the oval tools for
sale at any tool shop.

Many rough-surfaced skins, both animal and
vegetable, may be effectively treated by punch¬
ing, immediately after the raising has been
completed and before removal from the block,
the whole with a small pearl or raising tool
(Nos. 42 to 48) so closely that no particle of
plain surface is left.

You will make many discoveries for yourself,
and if you are wise you will add greatly to
your stock of knowledge by studying good
specimens of silver, copper, and brass repousse
in the museums and wherever else you can find
them.

XI. RAISING FROM THE BACK.

The instructions we have so far given cover
the work that an amateur is likely to undertake.
Sometimes, however, there may be necessary
variations of the mode of procedure prescribed :
as, for instance, in the case of a bowl or vase,
where the outside can be operated upon with
ordinary tools. In such a case there are two
methods for obtaining the desired result. For
the amateur the following will be the easier.

The vessel must be filled with cement (see
P* 94 )) laid upon a sand-bag, and the design
outlined upon it ; after which the ground
surrounding the pattern must be sunk by rather
heavily matting it with a suitable punch, begin¬
ning at the centre of each space and working
therefrom toward the design it is desired to
laise. At each blow the metal will expand.
The blows being directed toward the centre
and consequently contracting the circle occupied

by the parts worked upon, the metal over and
above that which the reduced circle will contain
is forced into those parts untouched by the
tool, thereby bringing them into greater relief
and so attaining the object desired without
once touching the metal from the back. This
process can be applied also to flat panels when
no great relief is needed, but it will be found
more difficult for those than for bowls or vases ;
for, as there is nothing to prevent the whole
plate expanding, a good deal of practice is
necessary to find out the knack of making it
do so only at the point where the extra surface
gained by the expansion will be absorbed by
the parts to be in relief, instead of being lost in
a general increase of the size of the plate. The
relief thus gained, both in the case of the

Fig. 235.— Use of the Snarling Iron in Repousse
Work.

bowl and in that of the panel, must then be
carefully chased and modelled in proper shape
in the same way as explained for correcting
the raising in ordinary repousse.

The second method requires the use of a
tool called a snarling iron, which is merely a
stout bar of iron having an inch or two of its
length turned down at right angles at one end
and a round knob at the other. The turned-
down end is placed in the jaws of a strong vice,
and the vase, with the design drawn upon it, is
passed over the knob and held firmly in such
a position that the knob inside the vase is
exactly under the part to be raised. Then a
second worker with a heavy hammer strikes
the snarling iron smartly near the vice. The
force of the blow will travel along the iron and
be communicated thus to the underside of the
pattern on the vase, and thus, by repeated

HAMMERED METAL

103

blows and a skilful shifting of the vase as the
pattern demands, a rough relief will be obtained,
which, like that gained by the other method,
must be properly chased up. The use of the
snarling iron is best explained by the illus¬
tration.

In conclusion, we would advise the amateur
who may experience difficulty in cailying out
any of the foregoing instructions to consult
the Messrs. Gawthorp (their Art Metal Works
are in Long Acre), and if possible take a few
lessons from either of them, for they aie a
family of artificers. A little actual practice
with the tools, under expert supervision, is of
more value than any instruction that can be
acquired from even the best text-book.

XII. LACQUERING.

What varnish is to an oil painting, lacquer
should be to metal, i.e., a preservative from the
deteriorating influences of the atmosphere.
Generally speaking, 1 it may be used for no
other purpose. Although made from similai
materials (shellac, gums, and spirits) the lacquer
used for a finish to brasswork is quite another
preparation from the Japanese or Chinese
lacquer with which trays and similar wooden
objects are covered. Mr. Gawthorp gives us
the following directions for lacquering brass

“ Having obtained some French gold, which
must be kept carefully corked when not in use,
as the spirit in it quickly evaporates, pour out
just enough of it into a china vessel to cover
the hairs of the brush used. ' The brush should
be a good flat one, of the shape used to damp
letter-copying books, and just such a jar as is
used with it for that purpose would suffice,
although a flat, open one, not more than an
inch deep, would be better. To hold the latter,
a little wooden stand should be made, so that
one end of the vessel shall rest on the table,
the other being elevated about half an inch.

1 This qualification is necessary in view of the fact
that Mr. John W. Van Oost, who is connected with The
Art Amateur, of New York, has, by certain secret pro¬
cesses, produced on metal—especially on brass some
wonderfully decorative effects in lacquer, which are
valuable on their own account.

Across the opening a wire must be stretched,
upon which the brush should be wiped after
each dip, to avoid drips. Now warm the object

Fig. 236.— RepoussS Bellows Mount, ready for
Finishing.

In cutting out the sheet metal for the mount, there must be
margin to allow for the thickness of the wood of the
bellows lift (see scolloped lines above). Wedge-like
forms are cut out around the edge. It will be observed
that the greater the curve, the closer these wedges come
together. Holes having been drilled or pricked in them,
they are turned to the proper angle by means of a pair 01
wide-nosed pliers.

to be lacquered to a heat that can just be
borne by the hand; and while it is hot care¬
fully pass the brush, first dipped in lacquer

104

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

and wiped on the wire, over the surface, going
from end to end (or round and round, if the
article be circular) with one side of the brush,
and then back again with the other, carefully
joining the edges of the lines of lacquer. Then
dip the brush again in lacquer, and repeat the
process. If the article be a very large one,
however, it will perhaps be found that one dip
will only go once across. The whole surface
must be thus treated, and the metal warmed
again afterward, and as soon as the lacquer is
sufficiently dry the same process must be again
repeated, but beginning at the opposite corner,
so that the parts over which the full brush was
passed before will this time be covered by the
brush after it is somewhat emptied, the in¬
tention being to equalise the lacquer over the
surface of the article. If after this the lacquer
appears iridescent, showing a variety of colours
the covering is still too thin, and another coat
must be put on. The metal should never be

so hot as to make the lacquer gizzle when it is
applied, but it will improve the brightness to
make it tolerably hot after lacquering. For
small articles a round brush, which should be
worked in all directions, may be used.

“ What lacquer remains in the brush must
be squeezed out and the brush soaked in
methylated spirits and afterward carefully
washed with soap and water (care being taken
to rinse out every particle of soap), so that
before it is put away all the hairs shall be
quite soft and free from lumps. The lacquer
left in the tray should not be poured back into
the vessel containing the clean lacquer, but
kept to be used on unimportant objects, or
made into furniture polish or liquid glue. The
jar should be washed out with spirits. Any
object spoiled in lacquering or requiring re¬
lacquering may be cleansed before a new coat
is added by washing it with methylated spirits
or with boiling soda.”

Back of
Foldout
Not Imaged

BENT AND LIGHT WROUGHT-IRON WORK

BENT AND LIGHT
WROUGHT-IRON WORK.

Probably there is nothing in artistic metal
work for the amateur which offers a more easy
and attractive field than bent-iron. The outlay
for tools and materials need be but trifling.
Besides a vice and a small block of iron, which
will serve as an anvil, you should have a pair
of metal-worker’s shears, two pairs of pliers—
one “ round-nosed,” one “ long-nosed ”—a table
vice, to fix on the edge of the working-table,
a bottle of black varnish and brush, a tape
measure, some narrow strips of sheet iron and
wire for binding it. The wire used by florists
for boutonnieres will do for most purposes.

The light strip
iron may be had
in., £ in., or
in. wide, and
about in. thick.
Strips about I2in.
long and not more
than \ in. wide
are the most
generally useful.
Even the lightest
strips are very
strong, and are
best to use for sus¬
pended objects.
For standing ob¬
jects, where rigid¬
ity is necessary, the thicker kind is used, and
sometimes a rod of iron is twisted up with
it to support it properly. The metal should
be neither very flexible nor very stiff; it
should bend easily and uniformly, and, once
bent, should retain its shape.

The round-nosed pliers are used for bending ;
the long-nosed sort for clinching the small strips
which hold the curves together. The small
vice is needed for bending stronger strips at
right-angles, one end of the strip being screwed
between the jaws of the vice, so that the other
end may be hammered into shape. It is also
useful in making spirals. The tape measure
is used for determining the lengths of sym¬

Figs. 237-239.—Method of Bind¬
ing the Bent-Iron Strips.

!05

metrical waves, and the shears, of course, for
cutting the strips to measure.

In bending, take the strip of iron in the left
hand, the round-nosed pliers in the right, and
bend slightly the extreme end of the strip. It
is important to gain a true curve at the very
beginning. The
pliers should slip
slowly along,
bending the iron
evenly at all
points. If an
angle is un¬
luckily made, it
can be reduced
by using the
long-nosed figs. 240, 241.— Curves in Bent-
pliers. When Iron Work.

two curves are

finished, they are connected by means of a
small binding piece, as is shown in fig. 129.
The strips may be fastened so that one end
laps over the other, which makes the stronger
joint, or end to end, which has the neater
appearance. The curves may be temporarily
fastened to a frame by wire to get them
properly arranged before binding. When the
articles are finished, two coats of black varnish
should be applied to prevent rusting. Design
No. 230 shows a visiting-card holder intended
to be fastened to the front door. The angular
frame is to be first made, the corners being
bent, as above explained, in the vice. It may
be made in two pieces, to be connected by a
binding piece, which must also aid to hold the
curved strip next
it in place. Every
curve should be
applied to the
drawing or to a
tracing laid flat
upon the table to Fig. 242.—Long-nosed Pliers.
make sure that it

is correct. It will save much time and trouble
if when the first curve of a pair is formed
the tape be used to take its measure, so
that the next piece may be cut of the same
length. In many patterns the same curve is

Fig. 243.—Easel for the Menu Stand.

Fig. 244.— Perspective View of Menu Stand.

Design 229.—Menu Stand in Bent Iron.

BENT AND LIGHT WROUGHT-IRON WORK

107

often repeated, and accuracy and method in
this respect are of the first importance; for if
the scrolls are not of equal size and all bent
true to the drawing, it will be impossible to
finish the piece. x For this reason the several
pieces should be placed together on the table
before binding, when any inaccuracy will at
once appear, and can either be corrected, or if
that be impossible, the erring scroll or scrolls
can be replaced by others properly bent.
When fastened together and varnished, the
piece must be laid aside to dry. A piece of
stiff cardboard is to be fastened to the back
of the frame, so that the visiting cards can be
slipped between it and the frame itself.

The neat little contrivance for holding a
watch (design No. 232), does not require
special comment. The longer horizontal strip
may be made slightly
concave, the better to
support the back of
the watch. Fig. 250
shows plainly the hook
by which the watch is
to be hung.

Design No. 229 may
be used either as a
menu stand or as a
photograph frame. It
should not give the
slightest trouble to the
beginner; the draw¬
ings explain every¬
thing. Each iron strip must be bent most
carefully to form the curves, and they are all
to be connected at the places shown in the
illustration by small binding pieces, as already
explained. Having completed the menu stand,
prepare the easel for it. To make a slip and
rest for the card, take a round iron wire and
bend it to the shape shown in fig. 244. The
ends of this wire should be bent round points
a and b of fig. 244 (see also side view, fig. 243) ;
and the rest should then be formed in such
a way as to give enough space for a card to
slip between it and the front part. The
stand will be finished by connecting the easel
with the top of the frame by means of wire.

Figs. 247, 248.

Design No. 233 suggests a treatment for a
candlestick. The materials are some sheet
iron, an old tin candlestick, and a few pieces of
iron wire about one-eighth or three-sixteenths
of an inch thick.

First rip the bottom from your old candle¬
stick, and in its place
fasten a funnel-shaped
form of thin sheet iron
with a piece of stout
wire projecting down
from the bottom of it
to fasten the bottom
part of the scroll feet
to. Bend three sets of
scrolls the desired size
to form the legs, and
bind these to the
candlestick with iron
wire.

Design No. 2 3 5 affords
a suggestion for a collar
or cuff box. Six hoops
should be made of round iron wire or square
iron one-eighth of an inch in size—one from
the bottom, one from the top, and four for
the cylinder.

The bottom may be of thin wood bound
with one of the rings and made fast to the
lower edge of the cylinder. The top should be
fastened to the upper edge, with one piece of
ribbon to act as a hinge; opposite the hinge
may be a bow to act as a handle to lift the
cover up. The interior of the box should be
lined with silk of some bright colour, against
which the black iron scrolls will form a pleasing
contrast.

Design No. 234 suggests a pretty idea for
decorating the upper part of a doorway.
Some doorways are so high that to place a
curtain pole close under the soffit of the door
frame and hang a curtain from it would give
it a very long and drawn-out appearance.
This undesirable effect can be remedied by
placing a pretty wood or metal grille in the
upper part of the doorway and fastening
the curtain pole directly under it, from which
the curtains may be hung.

Fig. 249.—Side View of
the Card - holder
(Design 230).

io8

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

To make a grille similar to the design shown
requires a few hours of patient work, and but a
small outlay for materials. It is always best
to work out on a smooth-top table an object of
this character. The full-sized detail should be
drawn out on a piece of smooth brown paper,
and as this is to lie flat on the table, it is an
easy matter to bend each iron scroll to conform
with the lines of the drawing.

Design 236 represents a grille for a window or
top part of a front door having a plate of clear
glass. The outside frame should be of stout
iron, perhaps one-sixteenth of an inch thick by
one-quarter of an inch wide. Bend this at the
corners, so that it will fit inside the style of the
door or window in which it is to be placed.
Allow it to be one-sixteenth of an inch smaller
all around than the style, so as to make room
for the bits of iron that will wrap around it,
which are necessary to hold the whole in place.
It is best to lay the frame down on a smooth-
top table over a piece of brown paper free from
creases or wrinkles, and mark with a pencil the
size of the frame ; then sketch in the full-sized

design as you would have the finished grille.
On this plan you can bend and fit each scroll
in place, and when you have worked out the
entire design in iron begin to fasten the pieces.
When fastening the rings to one another, always
clamp the little piece of fastening iron so that
it will hold the ends of the hoop and also hide
the joint, thus making it appear to be a jointless
band of iron.

The iron used in making these scrolls may
be bought at the ornamental iron-worker’s. It
should be cut in strips about one-quarter of an
inch wide, and in that shape it can be more
easily bent. It is generally best to use an old
pair of gloves or fingers of gloves when bending
the strips of iron, as otherwise the ragged
edges may chafe the skin, especially if the hands
are soft or tender.

All articles that are of iron and that are to
be black should be painted with a good and
lasting coat of lead black.

If your iron-work is to be exposed to the
weather, it is best to give it a coat or two of red
lead thinned with oil. This is a good waterproof

€

>C Vi

e) c

ftr

cK i l»

Design 231. j
Bent-Iron Grille •!

FORMED BY A

Combination of \
Scrolls.

LJ' .

\ 1-

5 * \ !

BENT AND LIGHT WROUGHT-IRON WORK

109

Design 232, 232A.—Watchstand and Back in Bent Iron.

Design 233.—Candlestick made,
of Sheet Iron and Iron Wire.

IIO

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

coating for metals that rust or corrode, and experience, however, you need not be afraid to
over it several coats of black may be placed to undertake it. Get a small " fairy lamp ” of
advantage to insure your iron against rust pressed glass, showing bright colours, and

Design 236.— Grille for a Street Door,

Design No. 240, representing a hanging lamp, prepare the frame work for it as follows:
is perhaps more difficult to make than any Bend an iron strip to a complete circle, fittincr
object we have yet mentioned. After some it around the step of the glass at the point

11 2

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

marked z, but not too tightly, allowing space with binding wire to the circular band of iron
enough for the curves shown in the plan and shown at w. The main curve of the bracket

at o p to fasten them by flat binding pieces to
the circle. To allow for these curves, take a
sufficiently long strip of iron. Fasten the curves
to the first-made circle, and be sure that the
glass fits into it. Before proceeding further,
satisfy yourself that you have finished this part
of the work properly. The next step is to form
the four large curves to which the chains are to
be fastened. Two of these are shown in fig. 251.
The four curves must be connected at their base

and Iron Wire.

which holds the lamp should be rather thick,
and not too flexible. Before fastening the

BENT AND LIGHT WROUGHT-IRON WORK

1T 3

smaller curves to it, prepare two holes at b and
c as entrances for nails or screws, to attach the
bracket to the wall. For point a take a double¬
headed nail (d), as it would be difficult to
handle a screw-driver at this point. The
making of the four chains will not be difficult
if you have followed exactly the suggestions
heretofore given.

Design No. 242, when worked out in thin
sheet iron, some round iron wire, a few pieces
of mica, and a little perseverance, produces
an old-fashioned hanging lantern. Form a
cylinder of sheet iron, about eight inches in
diameter by twelve inches high. Before
riveting the edges together, lay the sheet out
flat and cut round holes all over the surface,
and to the inside fasten thin discs of mica, such
as is used for doors of stoves. This fastening
process will require care, and is a little
tedious.

Lay the iron down on a piece of heavy
board, having one of the discs of mica under
the hole with half an inch of margin all around.
With a light hammer and a sharp-pointed awl
punch little holes around the edge of the hole
in the iron, and, with some small, oval-headed
copper tacks, rivet the mica fast to the iron.
Repeat this until you have closed up all the
holes ; then cut out a door four or five inches
wide by eight inches high, and roll your sheet
in cylindrical form again ; rivet the two edges
together with copper tacks, and fit the door in
place with two small sheet-brass hinges ; place
a catch on the opposite side of the door, and
the body of your lamp is complete. Next
make a conical top by rolling a sheet of iron
into the proper form ; a good pattern may be
made first by using a piece of stiff paper, and

when the desired shape is obtained, cutting
the iron into the same shape. Make crescent¬
shaped cuts all around the top, as shown in fig.
245, and bend the little ears in to allow a vent
for the lamp or candle (fig. 246). Do not bend
these little ears down until you have riveted
roof or cap together at the edges, otherwise you
cannot bend it to form an even round top.
Fasten the top to the cylinder with little pieces
of L iron riveted to each. The inverted
funnel-piece at the top of the lamp, into which
the suspending ring is fastened, is a disc of
iron frilled into the funnel form and riveted
to the top of the roof (figs. 247 and 248). The
bottom of the lamp is a stiff piece of sheet
iron, with a few small holes punched in it to
allow a draught to the lamp. The chains are
bent from pieces of iron wire, and are held in
place by four scroll-pieces riveted fast to the
bottom. All the iron parts should be painted
black, and a pretty effect may be lent to the
glass by tinting it different colours.

Design No. 241 is for a hanging lantern for
a hall; the sides are of sheet iron, with the
square holes cut out; or it may be constructed
of iron bands, riveted in place with large¬
headed copper tacks. Small pieces of mica
may be used in each opening, or a single large
pane of glass that will fill up one whole side.
A good height for this lamp is from sixteen to
twenty inches from the bottom to the top, not
including the ring or scrolls. The scrolls
should be made of iron about one-sixteenth of
an inch thick and three-eighths of an inch wide.
The lantern should be so constructed that one
side will act as a door. It should be fastened
at one edge with two hinges, and at the other
edge a catch should be placed.

APPLIED DESIGN

PREPARATORY STUDY.

THE elements of Design are form and colour,
and these must be combined in accordance with
the principles of harmony and symmetry; or,

Fig. 252. Fig. 253. Fig. 254.

Element. Unit. Border.

as in the case of many Japanese designs, balance
may take the place of symmetry.

Symmetry is a repetition of parts. The part
which is repeated is an Element (fig. 252).

Figs. 255, 256.— Examples of Simple Borders.

When an Element is once repeated, or balanced,
it is called a unit (fig. 253). By repeating the
unit in different ways, as horizontally, vertically,
or about a centre, to cover a given space, you

Fig. 257. —Ancient Egyptian Border (Papyrus).

produce a design. Horizontally or vertically
repeated, it becomes a border (fig. 254)- R e '
peated about a centre, it produces a rosette
(fig. 258). Units or rosettes repeated vertically
or horizontally produce all-over or diaper
patterns (p. 329).

An Applied Design is a design made for

some particular purpose: for instance, for a
wall-paper, a carpet, an oil-cloth, a china vase,
a stained-glass window, or a book-cover. It
must be specially suited to the particular pur¬
pose and the particular material for which it
is to be used.

“ Can I prepare myself to become a designer
bv studying at home ? ” is often asked. The
answ r er is decidedly in the affirmative.

Let us take the one branch, the making of
designs for silk manufacture. Floral patterns
are always most desirable for these ; therefore
the first thing to do is to get an extended and
thorough knowledge of all flower forms. Here
is where your education can begin at home.
If you live in the country, so much the better,
because you are more likely to have oppor¬
tunity for the study of flowers which best lend
themselves to graceful effects. Wild or single

Fig. 258.—A Unit repeated about a Centre,
becoming a Rosette.

blossoms are the ones which adapt themselves
most readily to the uses of fabric designs.
Always begin with simple flowers. Draw care¬
fully, and with great fidelity to nature. Be
just as careful, in drawing a flower, to get the
exact proportions as you would be if you were
drawing from a cast or a model. Do not be
afraid that this extreme care will make your
work stiff or finicky-dash and freedom of
expression will come later.

In drawing a plant, study every distinguish¬
ing point from its cradle to its grave. Of
course, you understand you are to draw the
entire plant—leaves, branches, and all. Take

116

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

the young plant, when the buds are just start¬
ing ; draw it again when it is rich in flower
and leaf; and again when the seed-vessel is
forming or has matured. The seed-vessels are
often very beautiful things in design. In draw¬
ing a flower, sketch it from different points of
view—full face, profile, three-quarters, back
view, or from any angle your ingenuity may
suggest ; besides being good training for your

being. For instance, there are the plants that
follow a perpendicular growth, like the lily
family. You will notice that they never grow
in any other way, and when you come to put
them into a design, you will know the nature
of the plant too well to distort it into fantastic
curves; you will preserve its leading charac¬
teristics. Again, some plants follow a lateral
growth. In this case, the way in which the

eye and hand, you will find that a knowledge
of all these forms will be useful later on. Draw
all kinds of foliage with the same tender care.
You know what charming designs have been
made from the fern, the ivy, the maple, the
Virginia creeper, and many other simpler leaf
forms. You cannot tell what possibilities you
may yet discover in leaves.

Follow the lead of a plant in studying it.
A plant has as much character as a human

branches start and the curves they take should
be carefully studied. Then there is the cling¬
ing, irresponsible plant, which, like some human
beings, clings to a support and follows the
line of least resistance. This is true of most
vines, though each vine has a different way of
clinging—a sort of individuality of its own.

It is well to first draw your plant as a whole.
Then draw the flower in a dozen different
positions. Make separate studies of leaves in

PREPARATORY STUDY

ii 7

different sizes and stages of growth. Be very
particular about the ends of sprays. It is well
to make distinct studies of these.

Do not shade your drawings until you can
draw the outlines well. If you cannot draw
correctly the beautiful curves in which all plant
life abounds, first work long and patiently at
the outlines before doing anything else. When
you come to shading, block the shadows—that

will all be found useful for reference when you
come to apply these forms. Make innumerable
drawings of plants, keeping the parts of each
one together; you cannot have too many of
these studies. If you cannot get just the flower
that you want, take anything you can find, and
whatever is nearest you. When you draw a
separate spray, take that which is most graceful
or characteristic.

Fig. 275.— Almond Blossoms. Semi-conventional Treatment.

is, put in masses of shading, without any half¬
shadows. You will see the reason for this
when you begin to apply the plant to practical
design.

Brown wrapping paper of ordinary quality
is as good as anything to draw on ; it makes a
pleasant background and takes the pencil well.
It is advisable to follow a uniform size for your
sketches, for the better means of preserving
them. Keep every one of your studies; they

Another branch of study which can be fol¬
lowed at home, and which is of great importance,
is a knowledge of the literature of art. The
best artists are broad in their culture. Make
yourself acquainted with the styles of designing
that belong to different countries and periods.
Take up the epochs in art that are famous.
Try to find the leading characteristic of this
particular style of art—for instance, the art
of Italy during the Renaissance. The wood

oll/V

279. —Diagram, explaining
some Botanical Terms.

The letters “P," “S,” “St." “PI,"
stand for Petals, Sepals, Stamens, and
Pistils. Other common terms are as
A .. , . follows :— Anther, the outer Dart of a

‘y ? 1 ’ th ^ ang , e between a leaf and the stem on the upper
Axillary, situated in an axil; Bracts, the leaves of a flowe,
cluster: Calyx, collectively, the sepals; Corolla, collectively, the petals -

firs 7 ™CvZ U l?lfe V ?h ly branC K ed b°wer cluster whose outer l&owere open
’ k . the corymb, except that the inner flower opens first;
Involucre z 1 set of bracts around a flower cluster; Ovary, the seed-
vesse\- Pedicel, the footstalk of each separate flower of’a cluster-
Peduncle, z. flower-stalk ; Perianth, collectively, the calyx and corolla ’
Peliote, the footstalk of a leaf; Pistil, the seed-bearing organ of a
having'im^ootsta?k^°c/ he calyx ! Se, J ate < saw-toothed; Sessile, sitting,
append ages°at e^base^ of”a Teaf-s^ al k f 1&n d ltS su PP ort J Stipules, leafy

NATURAL AND CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT 119

carvings, stone, and metal work of this period
are rich in suggestions. It is astonishing how
marked is the difference in taste of different
nations, and how distinctively this taste has
found expression in each nation s art. Every
one has some peculiar virtue for which it is
worth studying. Even the most primitive art
offers suggestions of value. What a field, for
instance, Celtic art alone opens for suggestion
in modern design !

When you have acquired some knowledge
of the literature of art and a good deal of
geometrical and plant and other natural forms,
take up the study of ornamental construction
with Mr. Lewis F. Day’s “Anatomy of Pat¬
tern” (B. T. Batsford, publisher, 52, High
Holborn). Follow with Mr. Gleeson White’s
“ Practical Designing ” (Geo. Bell & Sons, York
Street, Strand), an invaluable collection of
professional hints by specialists, for the pie-
paration of working drawings so that, techni¬
cally, they would be acceptable to manu¬
facturers of wall-papers, carpets, floor-cloths,
woven fabrics, pottery, metal work, stained
glass, and bookbinding. Intelligent assimila¬
tion of the contents of these two little volumes
will be the best possible substitute for that
practical knowledge of the application of design
to manufactures which, in certain branches,
can only be acquired through actual connection
with the factory.

NATURAL AND CONVEN¬
TIONAL ORNAMENT.

Practical knowledge of the application of
design to manufactures, as we have remarked,
can in certain branches only be acquit ed
through actual connection with the factory,
and the wise student would gladly avail himself
of any opportunity leading to that end, no
matter how humble might be the capacity in
which he might find employment. But it is
not there that he need expect to learn Design.

What is called designing in most factories,
and even in most schools where they pretend
to teach design, is simply the adaptation of

old ideas to new requirements, a work which
certainly calls for judgment and taste, but
which is not original design. The problem
usually set before a designer is, given a certain
space, to decorate it in a given style, and his
way of setting about it is simply to turn over
a book of plates or photographs and see what
he can take from this and what from that. Of
course, there is not much room for originality,
nor consequently for any real inteiest in such
work ; and when repeated, as it is, with me¬
chanical exactness and without limit, it is
hardly wonderful that so much of it should be
found more tiresome than the blank spaces
that it is supposed to decorate. But amateurs
go too often to the other extreme, and, tired of
the mechanical repetition of known foims, copy
Nature in all her irregularity. The middle
way is the right way.

A geometrical groundwork is the common
element in all good design. More than this,
geometrical—that is, regular forms by them¬
selves may produce very fine designs; irregular
forms will not, unless they are regularly dis¬
posed. This is not, as is sometimes stated,
a result of technical conditions. It is a taste
which is common to all humanity; for it may
be laid down as a rule that, other things being
equal, we all prefer regularity to irregularity
and order to disorder. The aim of all art in
fact, even of the most naturalistic is to accent
and bring out the order that we find in Nature.

The first thing for the young designer to do,
then, is to work out in the proper materials
simple geometrical designs. Thrvt will teach
him their great decorative value, and give him
a training which will always be useful.

When he has made himself familiar with the
beauty that may be got out of simple com¬
binations of squares and circles, stars and
crosses, and the like, he may look for some¬
thing of the sort in Nature, and he will find
hints of it on every hand in the utmost
abundance and variety, but very seldom, in¬
deed, more than a hint. All low-ground plants
and most free-growing twigs, when looked at
from above, show as crosses or stars or rosettes
of leaves, but all more or less irregular. But

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

in reducing these forms to ornament
it will be found best to stop short of
absolute regularity, for it gives an
additional pleasure to preserve some¬
thing of the play and freedom of the
natural form.

This brings us to the consideration
of what is meant by conventionalising.
The term may be defined as the
making of an ornament from a natural
form, without destroying the identity
of the form itself, the less important
features being subordinated to the
limitations of the material to be
decorated.

In each handicraft conventional¬
ising has its peculiar limitations and
differences. The treatment demanded
in one case may be improper, or, at
least, undesirable in another. For
instance, the worker in cloisonnt
enamels of necessity outlines his
design with a clearly defined line of
metal; but it does not follow that

Fig. 280.— Wild Rose. Decorative, but nearly Natural
Treatment.

Fig. 281.—Nasturtium and Leaves. Decorative, but nearly
Natural.

the china decorator should imitate
him with a line of colour, such as
is often seen in the work of more
than one pottery of reputation.
There are, of course, cases where
a clearly defined outline, of more
or less delicacy, is necessary to
give relief from the background
and add character, where the
worker is denied the many helps
of light, shade, and colour, which
would be available in a more
pictorial treatment. As we have
said, the line of the cloisonne
workman is a necessity; there is
an apparent reason for its being,
as there is for the decorative lead
lines in painted glass and the
“couched” outline in embroidery.

A semi-conventional arrange¬
ment of some flower or shrub
retaining its more essential charac-
teiistics is apt to be more beauti¬
ful than the severely conventional

NATURAL AND CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT

121

treatment of the same motive would be, and
at the same time conform to all technical
requirements. The two treatments of the
almond-blossom (figs. 274, 275) illustrate this
point. The first is a free-hand sketch indi¬
cating, so far as composition is concerned,
no special thought beyond the limits of the
surface to be covered. Its beauty would

its unpretentiousness ; but such a decoration
is very attractive when the coloration follows
pretty closely that of nature and the conven¬
tionality is confined to general outline and
background. Such a painting painted on
porcelain, for instance, would be suitable for a
door-panel or a cabinet, a position that would
destroy the beauty of the first because of the

Design 243. —The Hawthorn. Conventional Treatment. Especially suitable for Pyrogravure.

It will be observed that this design is equally available used vertically. It was originally intended for a

book-cover decoration.

depend principally upon the skill with which
it is coloured and the plant imitated. If a
masterly bit of flower-painting, it would deserve
the best light and position in the room, and
should not be relegated to fill an obscure
corner which would be as well supplied by such
a panel as the second. The latter shows an
artificial or conventional arrangement of the
same plant forms. It might be painted in
monochrome and still be pleasing, because of

ever-changing light that would be thrown
upon it.

That it is possible to depart much further
from natural form without sacrificing the
beauty of the motive is well illustrated in
the four different treatments of the hawthorn
blossom shown on pages 121, 122, 123, and
137, although in the final example the limits
of conventionalisation may be said to be well
nigh reached.

122

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

THE CONSTRUCTION OF
ORNAMENT.

Mr. Day observes that the popular idea of
the process of ornamental design is that the
artist has only to let his hand crawl over a
piece of paper, and, like a spider, spin out the
fancies that may crowd his fertile imagination.

school, from the set details of the classic to the
luxuriance of Arabic ornament, from the stiff
simplicity of savage pattern to the intricate
naturalistic decorations of Japanese art, is and
must be built up upon a geometrical frame¬
work.

Through the courtesy of his publisher we are
allowed to reproduce some of Mr. Day’s ingeni¬

Design 244. —The Hawthorn. Conventional Treatment. Suitable for Pyrogravure, Gesso, and

Wood-carving.

This design, like the preceding one, is equally available used vertically. It was originally intended for a

book-cover decoration.

He shows that, on the contrary, “ ornament is
constructed patiently, built up on lines inevita¬
ble to its consistency—lines so simple that to
the expert it is not difficult to lay bare its very
skeleton ; and just as the physiologist divides
the natural world, according to anatomy, into
families and classes, so the ornamentist is able
to classify all pattern work according to its
structure, and to point out how few are the
varieties of skeleton on which all this variety
is framed.” For all repeating pattern of every

ous demonstrations of “ The Anatomy of
Pattern.” 1 (See pp. 124, 126, 127.) In this
treatise the number of skeletons revealed
and shown to underlie the whole mass of re¬
peated patterns is singularly few. The stripe
naturally comes first, with its near kin the cross
line, yielding various checkers, and by simple
steps all the different frets and lattices, inter¬
lacings and traceries, founded on parallel lines

1 “The Anatomy of Pattern,” B. T. Batsford, Publisher.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ORNAMENT

123

crossing each other at right angles, or diagon¬
ally. Because almost always, in the case of
manufactured articles, a repeated pattern is

it might easily be inferred that all repeated
patterns are based upon squares like those of
a chessboard ; but, as we discover later on, the

Design 245. —The Hawthorn. Conventional Treatment. Especially suitable for

Pyrogravure.

printed from a square block (or the surface of
a roller which is practically the same shape, or
else woven into a square piece of the pattern,)

diamond so nearly allied is even more power¬
ful ; for it provides the “ drop,” one of the most
valuable devices to avoid the too obvious

124

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

monotony of a series of checkers. The dia¬
mond again is further elaborated by cutting it
in half; whence we obtain the triangle, with
the nearly related hexagon on which is built
the whole of the honeycomb ornament

So far we have considered skeletons based
upon straight lines only. But even with these
we have already the basis of that infinity of
geometric pattern found in Byzantine and

Moorish decoration. But with the introduction
of waved lines, as those in fig. 282, new series
of diapers are revealed that in effect, entirely
distinct from checker or diagonal lattices, are
yet based upon the latter to an extent that is
simply surprising when it is pointed out so
clearly as Mr. Day, by diagram and comment,
has managed to show it in his treatise. Take,
for instance, the Arab pattern shown in fig. 283,

apparently complicated beyond measure: by
the logic of actual experiment he proves it to
be based upon the diamond, the square, or the
interlacing circles. Whether the skeleton of
such construction is hidden by overlaid orna¬
ment, as in the elaborate patterns of Moorish
art, or is merely taken as the groundwork of
repeated spots, or as the imaginary centres
whence the circles are struck, a few unalterable

Anatomy of Pattern,” by Lewis F. Day.

plans govern the whole field of repeating
designs in all classes of decorative art work.

From the specially shaded parts of the design
in fig. 287, we see how a repeated pattern that
is a common type of decoration upon all sorts
of fabrics may be taken as built either upon
the square, the diamond or the oblique
diamond, and yet in each instance be repeated
accurately.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF ORNAMENT

125

The block of twenty-one inches is generally
adopted as the standard for all printed fabrics
and wall-papers. With this inflexible size
there are some startling limitations. For
instance, the hexagon can only be applied to
such a square on a very small scale. As Mr.
Day remarks, “If you made your hexagons
touching in honeycomb fashion ten and a half
inches wide, so as to get two in the width,
they would not come true in length; they
would be too long. If you made them true
they would not fill the square, but only a space
about 21x18. Three and a half hexagons in
the width would work, but only as a ‘ drop

pattern’ that would give hexagons of six
inches across. In order to occupy the square
with true hexagons, repeating without a ‘ drop,’
they would need to be reduced to half that
size—that is to say, there would have to be seven
hexagons to the width, measuring each only
three inches across.” This one instance “ shows
how very strictly the artist is bound by con¬
siderations which rarely occur to the uninitiated
—considerations which have always had a
great deal to do with the design of pattern
work.”

All designs for industrial purposes that are
to be applied to the fabric by machinery, by

printing or weaving, and that are to be placed
together to fit a given surface, must contain
a match and a repeat. A repeat is the pattern
repeated. The lower part of the design, where
the forms appear to be cut off, must exactly
match the forms repeated at the upper part
of the pattern. The two parts when repeated,
as they are through thousands of yards, must
form a perfect whole.

Look at any length of good wall-paper,
and you will readily see that the match is
so perfect that you cannot discover the repeat.
Of matches there are three kinds—“ plain,”
“ drop,” and “ turn-about.” A plain match

life

law

Sip

Ig?#

SISJ

Fig. 285.—A “Turn-about Match.”

is one in which the two parts of the same
figure are directly across the breadth of the
paper from each other. This is the simplest
form of match.

The “ drop ” is a device by means of which
the designer is enabled, without reducing the
scale of his work, to minimise the danger of
unseen stripes in the design, a danger which
is always imminent when the repeats occur
side by side upon the same level. For a
design printed or woven in squares obviously
must have the pattern so arranged as to
correspond precisely with the design upon
the other half of the material that is to be

126

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

joined to it. In any wall-paper this joint
is easily traceable; but by the drop pattern,
although the piece of stuff will fit to the side
of its fellow, the pattern does not occur exactly
on the same level. In the designs on fig. 287
and the upper pair on fig. 286 we see the
diamond yielding this drop; in the lower

pattern only six inches square when com¬
pleted by the machinery is twelve inches
square.

How to Prove a Design by refitting its com¬
ponent parts is shown by Mr. Day in fig. 288.
The worker is advised not to attach great
value to the appearance of the design as a

Figs. 2S6, 287.— By Lewis F. Day (from “The Anatomy of Pattern”). Illustrating the “Drop Match, 5 '
and the Effect of the Drop, according to its Length, etc.

The right-hand example (No. 287) shows three plans, on either of which the same simple pattern may be produced.

designs of fig. 286 square blocks are so arranged
to give the same effect. This feature applies
equally to carpets—in fact, to all surface
ornament.

In the “ turn-about ” match (fig. 285) only
one-fourth of the pattern is made, and the
machine in turning about completes the
figure. This is the economy of design, for a

drawing, but to cut it up deliberately and
rearrange the parts in order to prove the
repeat. This is one of the practical devices
that an amateur would be fearful of trying,
were it not recommended by one who knows.
No amount of accurate measurement can give
so certain a result as this cutting up and
re-arranging the actual drawing. By this

WALL-PAPER DESIGNING

l2 7

means you see at once the way each line or
curve meets its fellow and how far it disguises
the joint which, if allowed to betray itself, ruins
the design as a whole.

WALL-PAPER.

Manufacturers, as a rule, prefer simple
patterns conventionally treated to floral and
other patterns needing many printings. The
more colours, or shades of the same colour , that
are called for in a design, the more printings
are required to reproduce that design, and
hence, as a rule, the smaller the chance of
its acceptance by the manufacturer. In esti¬
mating the number of printings required, each
shade has to be reckoned as a separate colour,
because it calls for a separate printing. A
single printing will only give a perfectly flat
impression— i.e., uniform in light and shade.
The only possible modification of this uni¬
formity is by means of stippling (see p. 61),
which breaks the tones of the parts so treated.
This device is seldom resorted to except in
the case of very cheap wall-papers, and need
not be taken into account by the novice in
designing.

Avoid the use of pronounced figures and
any arrangement that tends to produce the
effect of horizontal lines, and remember that
although a pattern may be pleasing on a small
piece of paper, it may weary the eye and
lose character when spread over a large
surface like that of a wall.

More than ordinary ingenuity is required
for borders, even when not elaborate in design,
for they have the disadvantage of perpendicular
and horizontal positions. The field, in general
colour and arrangement, is like the hanging,
but the guards are darker and stronger in
colour, and unless they are only bands they
are composed of conventionalised leaves or
flowers, or it may be of geometrical figures.

Dimensions of a Design.—Almost invariably
the dimensions of a design for an English wall¬
paper are 21 in. x 21 in., the paper itself being
22 in., the extra inch allowing a margin on

each side for the register 1 of the block in print¬
ing, and also as a protection to the edges of
the roll. 2 The space, 21 in. x 21 in., may be
divided into squares of five different dimensions
as follows: First, four squares of 10J in. x
10J in. ; second, nine squares of 7 in. ; third,
sixteen squares of 5^ in. ; fourth, twenty-five
squares of 4^ in. ; fifth, forty-nine squares of
3 in. Mr. George C. Haite, in his admirably
lucid paper on Wall-Papers, in “Practical Design¬
ing,” which no student of the subject can afford

Fig. 288.—Diagram by Lewis F. Day, showing how
to prove a “Drop” Design.

(From “The Anatomy of Pattern.” B. T. Batsford, Publisher.)

to miss, points out that these five divisions of
the space “ would limit the fancy and play
of the designer, were it not possible to get over
the difficulty by a still further division of the

1 The Register indicates on the paper the limits of a
certain colour, upon which the successive printings of the
other colours of the design must not impinge. The
adjustment of the register in all colour printing must be
extremely accurate.

2 The length of a roll of wall-paper is twelve yards.

128

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

width by means of what is called stepping

the design — a
method which is
most valuable and
of frequent use ;
for it is not only
that by this means
a different scale
of work is possi¬
ble, but that by
its adoption we
are enabled to
better disguise
the ‘repeat’ and
to render the effect
of a mass of
‘ repeats ’ cover¬
ing a large surface
more satisfactory and pleasant in line.”

The Repeat.—The principles of the “ repeat ”
and the application of the device of “ stepping ”
are set forth clearly by Mr. Haitd 1 A pattern,
he says, “ should either boldly declare its
repeat, and indeed make a feature of it, or it
should not be noticeable at all ; and, further,
all repeats should
avoiding disagree¬
able lines, some of
which may even
make the wall ap¬
pear out of the
upright or undu¬
lating. Unless
intentional, as a
feature of the pat¬
tern, it is well to
disguise all lines.

The perpendicular
is less objection¬
able than the hori¬
zontal, and the true
diagonal line less
so than either.” A practical explanation of the
meaning of “repeat” is given in fig. 289: the
sides C and D must join, and the top, A, must

1 We are indebted to the courtesy of the publishers,
Messrs. Geo. Bell & Sons, for the use of these dia¬
grams, from “ Practical Designing.”

join the bottom, B. The difference between
the sides and the top and bottom of a wall¬
paper is that “ on the sides the repeat must be
cut off absolutely in a straight line, and join ;
while at the top and bottom figures—such as
a small rosette, a leaf, or centre of a flower—
may be allowed to complete themselves, and
the top be made to fit into the bottom (fig. 290);
but in designing it is always desirable to run
the drawing over the lines of repeat and make
it fit into both sides and bottom, as in fig. 291.”

“ Stepping” is illustrated in figs. 292, 293, 294.

Fig. 291.—The “Repeat.”

The drawing is run over the lines of “ repeat ” and made
to fit into both sides and bottom.

“ The step is the division of the space into half,
and the top left-hand corner, C, is made to
join the centre , D, on the right-hand side instead
of at the top. The ordinary method of repeat
would be that shown in fig. 294, but it will be
seen that the flowers fall in horizontal lines,
while it may be desired that the flowers should
form diagonal lines, and at the same time suffer
no loss in scale. This can only be done by
stepping on the sides of the pattern, as shown
in fig. 292, and get the result as in fig. 293.”

It is always wise to colour designs before
offering them for sale, as manufacturers do not
like to select from mere sketches. Colour rather
more than one complete section, so as to prove
the accuracy of the repeat.

Fig. 289.—The “Repeat”
Principle.

The sides, C, D, must join, and the
top, A, must join the bottom, B.

be pleasant to the eye,

. •

Fig. 290.—The “Repeat.”

The pattern is cut off at the sides,
but fits in top and bottom.

TEXTILE DESIGNING

129

TEXTILES—CARPETS.

THERE are three ways of applying a pattern
to a fabric : First, by printing the design on
the material after it is woven, as in calico, oil¬
cloth, and linoleum ; second, by printing the
pattern on the threads before they are woven,
as in tapestry Brussels and tapestry velvet
carpets ; and, third, by taking various coloured

threads and bringing

Fig. 292.—The “Stepping
Method.

them to the surface
wherever the pattern
requires by means of
the Jacquard loom,
as in body-Brussels
and Wiltons.

The great desider¬
atum in making
designs to be printed
is to use as few
colours and make each colour produce as
much effect as possible ; for the reason that
in printed goods each colour introduced calls
for a separate block with such parts of the
design as employ that colour cut upon it.
Each block is an ad¬
ditional expense, and
although a calico or
chintz printed in
seven colours will
bring no higher price
to the manufacturer
than a piece requiring
only one, still it costs
him seven times as
much to have the
blocks cut for print¬
ing it, and therefore
his profits will be so
much the less. It is
the lack of knowledge
on this, among other
considerations, in the
preparation of designs offered for sale by
amateurs inexperienced in the requirements
of the trade, that almost invariably renders
them unavailable.

How much may be done by the skilful use

Fig. 294.—Ordinary
“ Repeat.”

Fig. 293.—“Repeat" by the “Stepping” Method.

of a single colour is illustrated in fig. 295, which
shows how four effects or shades may be gained
by using only black. We have here white
(the cloth itself), light gray, dark gray and
black. If in place of the black we use blue in
the same way, we have white, with light,
medium, and dark
blue, still using but
one colour. There
are many ways in
which a skilful de¬
signer can make
admirable use of one
or two colours ; each
additional colour
greatly increases his
resources for new
effects, so that to the
uninitiated it would
always seem that
there are many more
colours employed than there really are.

In the second method of applying a design
(where the printing is done on the threads
before they are woven), it makes but little
, difference how many

tints are used. One
dye being of the same
price as another, or
at least the difference
in price being but
slight, it is little
matter which colour
box is brought into
requisition. In print¬
ing the threads a large
drum (illustrated
herewith) is used,
around which the
threads are wound.
On one edge of this
drum are ratchets as
far apart as the width
of a print—about three-eighths of an inch for a
tapestry Brussels and half an inch for tapestry
velvet. As this drum revolves, a colour box in
which there is a revolving wheel passes back
and forth under the drum, the wheel in the box

130

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

carrying the colour or dye up and printing a
line of colour across the threads on the drum
during its passage. If the pattern requires the
same dye for several loops in the carpet the
same colour box goes back and forth the re¬
quisite number of times. If a different colour is

Fig. 295.—Applied Design. Printed Fabric

Showing four effects or shades that may be gained by
using only black.

required, a different colour box is substituted,
until the wool is all dyed, in bands of colours
of different widths. The skein is then removed
from the wheel, steamed to set the colours, and
forms a single thread throughout the length of
a breadth of carpet. Thus line after line is
taken until enough are printed—no two alike—
to form the entire pattern.

For a five-frame body-Brussels but five
colours may appear in any one line through¬
out the length of a breadth. If you wish,
five entirely distinct colours may appear on
the next line, and so on. Therefore, although
there can be but five colours in any one line,
still there may be many colours in the carpet.

Opposite is shown a section of a five-frame
body-Brussels design with eight colours in
all, but so arranged that only five colours
appear in any one vertical line, as may easily
be seen by the “ plant,” as it is technically
called.

Mr. Alexander Millar 1 broadly divides carpets

1 “ Practical Designing ” (Geo. Bell & Sons, pub¬
lishers).

into three classes (i.e. for designing purposes),
as follows: (1) Those in which the design is
produced by the action of a Jacquard loom ;
(2) those which may be grouped under the
head of Axminster; (3) tapestries. In the
first class (in which are included Brussels and
Wilton, and also Kidderminster carpets) there is
a limit to the number of colours employed. In
the second and third there is theoretically
none. For designing purposes Brussels and
Wilton carpets are identical ; either can be
woven from a design prepared for the other ;
in Wilton, however, the design will come out a
very little shorter than in Brussels.

Fig. 296.—Colouring Drum used in Applying
Designs.

w, wools; i i, colours printed on the wools; R, ratchets ;
F, frame to support drum ; S, where girls stand to comb
wools; T, track for the colour box; P, colour box;
0 , pulleys; c, c, endless chain for drawing colour box
back and forth.

Brussels designs for filling are always 27
in. wide. Borders may be 13, 18, or 22| in.
The most usual width is 18 in. Full-
sized design paper is often used, but many
prefer a paper which is rather more than half¬
size—16 in. wide, representing 27 in. Which¬
ever is used there should be 9 points to
the inch in the length, and 256 points in the

TEXTILE DESIGNING

27-in. width. There is no fixed rule as to
length, but from 27 to 36 in. is suitable for
small designs, and 45 to 54 in. for large
ones. The length should be no greater than
is necessary to avoid too frequent repetition of
prominent objects.

Axminster does not involve the care of
“planting,” but it has difficulties of its own.
The design is much coarser than for Brussels.
The design paper for the latter contains about

131

particulars of widths and lengths given for
Brussels patterns apply also to Axminster in
breadths.

Kidder, carpets have their pattern formed
mainly by the weft threads {i.e. running across
the carpet). In Wilton, Brussels, and tapestry
it is formed wholly of the warp thread {i.e. in
the direction of the length). In Axminster
neither warp nor weft is seen, the pattern
being formed from a third set of threads,

□ m GoZa _ H Green .. □ Jj fWUO.

M JHuZOivumr. Bn jnarroru ■ jBlacK. B jSkxaicr

Fig. 297.—Brussels Carpet Design.

85 points to the square inch (9 x nearly) ;
for Axminster it usually ranges between 27
and 70, although the “ pitch ” {i.e. the number
of squares or points to the inch) is sometimes
finer and sometimes coarser. To hit upon
just about the right amount of detail that is
practicable under the circumstances is no easy
matter. It must be borne in mind that there
must be no insensible gradation. Every shade
must be level, solid, and clearly defined, no
matter how light it be or how dark. The

inserted by various methods, so as to form
a pile surface.

In tapestry carpets the pitch is about the
same as for Brussels, and the same conditions
hold good as to widths, etc. There is no
limitation of colour, and a design adapted to a
fine grade of Axminster would do for tapestry.

For a thorough comprehension of the techni¬
cal requirements in carpet designing, Mr.
Millar’s article, to which we are indebted mainly
for the foregoing paragraphs, should be read in

132

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

its entirety and carefully digested. We may
give, further, the following summary of im¬
portant points that he makes for the guidance
of the novice :—

Make your designs full size, and on ruled or
‘‘point" paper. Always keep in mind the
“ pitch ” for which you are working. All manu¬
facturers do not use the same paper, and it is
important to find out what are the requirements

bad colour, but good colour will sometimes be
allowed to offset defects of form. A Brussels
design which is unsatisfactory in colour may
sometimes be rendered available by means of
“ loom changes ” ; but not so with an Axminster
design, to alter the colour of which often in¬
volves an amount of artistic work equal to the
creation of a new design. Therefore, unless
you have a decided talent for colour, do not

in this respect before beginning your design.
As a general thing, 9 points to the inch is the
standard for Brussels carpeting, and from 7 to
5 for Axminster.

Assuming, of course, that your design con¬
forms to the technical requirements of the
manufacturer, the general colour effect is what
will influence him most as to its availability
from the commercial point of view. No
amount of good ornament will compensate for

attempt Axminster carpets, except for the
simplest effects. Mr. Millar also gives the
following excellent advice :—

“ Never make a design vaguely for a carpet.
Always have a definite fabric in view. Having
chosen this, study its special requirements as
to the number and arrangement of colours, and
as to the special ruled paper to be used for it,
and keep to it until you have mastered them.
Keep a piece of the fabric for which you are

TILE DESIGNING

133

working beside you. Keep also a piece of the
special ruled paper from which it is woven,
and carry out portions, if not the whole of this,
full size.

“ Copy out and lay together several repeats
of the first rough sketch, to avoid striping and
awkward lines.”

TILES.

In an article on “Designing for Tiles,” 1 Mr.
Owen Carter classifies as follows the several
kinds of designs for tiles: (1) Plain geometrical
floor tiling; (2) Encaustic floor tiling, alone or
in combination with class 1 ; (3) Mosaic floor
and wall tiling ; (4) Plain, embossed, or printed
tiles, either alone or combined, for wall surface
decoration; (5) Hearth and grate cheeks ;
(6) Faience. Designs for all the foregoing,
he points out, would be prepared by the
combination of a greater or less number of
individual tiles worked together to form a
pattern, which latter may again be subdivided
into (7) Encaustic floor tiles ; (8) Glazed em¬
bossed tiles; (9) Painted tiles ; (10) Painted
tiles either with a complete design on each, or
united for fireplace panels, etc., or in ceramic
pictures illustrating historical or other subjects.

As to the colouring of the designs, Mr. Carter
recommends body colours for classes 1, 2, 3,

1 “Practical Designing” (George Bell & Sons, pub¬
lishers).

and 7, and for Nos. 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10 the
ordinary water colours in washes. The design
is drawn in lead-pencil before the colouring,
and if it is a geometrical pattern it should be
lined up with a hard pencil or India ink after
the colouring. The usual scale for designs for
floors and walls is one inch, but half, three-
quarters, and one-and-a-half inches are also
used if found more convenient.

The study of the illustrated books of speci¬
men patterns issued by the tile manufacturers
will give the intending designer much valuable
information as to what is required.

In preparing designs for tiles it is well to
bear in mind that some colours are more costly
to manufacture than others. What are called
“ plain colours ” are the least expensive—these
are Buff, Salmon, Gray, Red, Chocolate, and
Black. White costs nearly twice as much, and
Blue and Green nearly three times as much.
Wherever the “ vitreous colours ” (White, Blue,
and Green) are used in a design, the cost of
the tiles will be greater than for plain colours.

The usual size of the hearth is 4 ft. 6 in. x
1 ft., and for the grate cheeks, 2 ft. 6 in. x 6 in.
The usual sizes for tiles for the hearth are
6 x 6, 4^ x 4J, and 3x3. The average grate
will take five 6x6 tiles on either side. These
are often arranged in a continuous panel
design, such as flowers springing from a vase,
or a standing figure.

The smaller manufacturers are most likely
to buy from outside designers. One of the
larger firms is more likely to depend on its
own staff of artists.

rapSgS

£©31

Design 246. —For Tiles, decorated in Three Colours.

134

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

PREPARATION
OF WORKING DESIGNS.

In the preparation of design any mechanical
means are permissible which, will help the
designer to produce in the quickest and easiest
way the combination he seeks. He will use
rulers, compasses, geometrical curves, and
tracing-paper,’ and any one who attempts to
design geometrical patterns for the art trades
should be familiar with the use of the scale,
the T square, and set square.

For all purposes the design must be full
working size, with every detail of manufacture
so plainly indicated that the artisan need never
be in doubt as to the intention of the designer.

Ruled or “Point” Paper is necessary for pre¬
paring a design for a carpet, oilcloth, and such
woven fabrics as Nottingham lace curtains,
Madras muslin, crepe, “tapestries,” and chenille.
It is not employed for designs for wall-paper,
woven silk fabrics, or cretonnes and printed
fabrics.

The Colours used in nearly all cases 1 are
powder colours, sometimes called “ distemper ”
or “ tempora ” ; they are the pigments in nearly
their natural state, only finely ground in spirits.
All are opaque, and therefore have great
density of effect. As they have no size in
them, it is necessary to mix them with gum-
water ; but care must be taken not to use so
much that they will appear glossy when
applied to the design. They will, moreover,
turn darker if too much gum is used with
them. When you have mixed a colour, test it
by applying a little to paper and when dry
rubbing it slightly with the finger ; if it does
not rub off you have used enough gum. Some
colours need more gum than others. Carmine
will turn black if you use much gum with it;
Ultramarine is so absorbent that it needs a
good deal.

1 For tiles and china and pottery decoration generally
the design is made with ordinary water-colours. For
stained and painted glass the sketch may be either in
opaque or transparent colour ; the cartoon is rarely fully
coloured. For designs for bookbindings both transparent
and opaque water-colours may be used.

Do not let the colour settle ; otherwise that
at the bottom will be of a deeper tint than
that first used, so that instead of one shade
you will get several. To avoid this, stir the
colours frequently with brush or palette-knife.
Keep them free from dust. Sometimes, if left
undisturbed for several hours, they harden.
In that case you will have to regrind them.

The Palette-knife should be of bone or ivory;
steel will affect injuriously colours of metallic
origin.

It is important to produce the result required
with as few colours as possible. For Notting¬
ham lace curtains the effect aimed at is
imitation by machinery of hand- and pillow-
made laces. Flake White only is used, on
ruled blue or black paper; yet by this means
every detail is reproduced dot for dot and line
for line, just as they would appear, with the
thread meshes and net effects of the curtain
itself. Some of the most beautiful designs of
wall-papers are produced in single colour
variations of the colour of the paper itself.

Wall-Paper.—After the design is converted
into a working drawing by tracing, transfer it
with pencil to a sheet of white water-colour
paper large enough to leave a quarter of an
inch margin all around.

Lay the design, after it has been satisfactorily
drawn on thin paper, with a sheet of carbon
paper between ; let the under side of the design
lie on the right side of the water-colour paper,
the corners of the two papers being carefully
fastened together so as to keep the pattern
from losing its position. With a hard pencil
follow the lines of the pattern, and when the
upper paper is removed the outline will be
plainly seen, and you can then trace it more
firmly with a lead-pencil. Of course, pencil
marks can be erased before the ground is put
on, but frequently erasings give the paper a
dirty appearance that a neat draughtsman will
avoid. Where the design is of flower or leaf
forms in their natural shape, a slight variation
from the original pattern will not be noticed ;
but if conventional forms are transferred in the
manner described above, the two papers must
be held together as if glued, for the least

BOOK-COVER DESIGNING

*35

variation in one figure may make even a greater
mistake in another figure, and so on. Faint
pencil marks will readily show through the
thin wash of a light-coloured ground, but for a
dark terra-cotta or brown ground heavier marks
will be required.

Now proceed to the colouring. Remember
that the colours, being opaque, cannot be erased
after they have been applied to the design.
Before you put brush to paper see that each
tint is as you need it.

When the colour is reduced to the consistency
of thick cream, transfer it to a saucer. Wet a
fine sponge in cold water, wring it nearly dry,
and, having dipped it in the tint intended for
your ground, go over the paper, including the
margin, first with vertical, then with horizontal
strokes. A clear, even wash of smooth, velvet¬
like appearance will thus be obtained. The
lines of the design will show through the tint.
When the ground is thoroughly dry, take a
camel-hair brush and go over them. No two
wet colours must touch or they will run together.
To avoid such a disaster, a space of at least a
sixteenth of an inch must be left between the
different colours of the pattern. To arrange
leaves and flowers so that the different colours
will not touch will not be easy for a beginner.

Carpets.—Ordinarily one-quarter of the full
size is a good scale for the sketch ; when there
is much detail one-sixth will be a better one.
Opaque colour is used in accordance with the
directions already given for wall-paper. Make
up your mind in advance just how many
shades you will use, and in a separate saucer
mix enough of each to complete the design.
Lay each tint on the paper solidly, uniformly,
and distinctly. There must be no mixing of
tints on the palette with the brush. If altera¬
tions or corrections are to be made, and it is
necessary to lay one colour over another, be
sure that the colour is put in solidly and that,
in drying, it will match exactly the rest of the
tint in other parts of the design.

vindicate forms by masses of colour only.
Each square must be completely filled and only
with its own colour—there must be no half¬
squares in the design : each square represents

the thickness of a thread in the carpet, and
there are no half-threads.

The pencil marks must not show through
when the work is finished. Nothing must
appear that is not to be literally reproduced in
the textile. If outlines are to be part of the
design, let them be so indicated that there can
be no doubt about the designer’s intention as
to their actual thickness.

Silken Fabrics.—It is not necessary to colour
the designs, but if it be found more agreeable
to work in colour, there can be no objection to
doing so. For furniture and upholstery silks
it is usual to draw on white or tinted paper
with a lead-pencil or crayon for outline, using
the stump (see pp. 3, 16) for half-tone effects
(produced in the fabric itself by interweaving
the colours of the ground and figures). Half¬
tone effects should be used with much reserve,
for the richness of a damask is due principally
to the contrast between the (so-called) “ satin ”
ground and the close weft of the somewhat
duller silk of the ornament. In brocatelle the
richness is got by showing a good deal of
the raised * satin ” figure and very little of
the ground.

BOOK-COVERS.

Designs for ordinary “ cloth ” bindings are
made in pen and ink on white Bristol board,
to be reproduced as a “ photo-zinco ” block
in the manner described under “ Drawing for
Illustration ” (p. 30). “ Solid ” spaces of black

may be put in with a brush.

Fancy shading, and even cross-hatching,
unless the lines are clean cut and well apart,
must be avoided. The drawing must be bold
and the white lines kept well open. The lines
should be as distinct as in a mediaeval wood-
cut. The design should be as simple as
possible. The drawing may be as much larger
as you please than the size it is to be repro¬
duced, but be careful that the lines do not come
too fine in reduction.

When the design is to be printed in more
than one colour, a separate drawing must be
made, and a separate typographic block of it

i 3 6

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

be supplied, for that part which each colour
(or gold) contributes to the whole design.

A solid metal electrotype should be made
from the “ zinco,” for it will have to stand great
pressure. For that part of the design, at least,
which has to be reproduced in gold, usually a
die is cut in brass, for it has to stand not only
great pressure, but also the heat of the blocking

and for those where a dead gold effect is to be
rendered, yellow body colour is used. Some¬
times a few touches of gold paint on the face
of the drawing are valuable in expressing the
intention of the designer. On the back of the
tracing-paper it is best to do only what tinting
may be desirable.

The decoration of the boards, or sides,

H THE H
mVERLEY
NOVELS l

DRYBURGH
EDITION I

VOLXXm

Design 247.— Book-cover Design (much reduced) for a “Cloth” Binding.

Reproduced (by permission of Messrs. A. & C. Black) from the original, drawn in pen and ink. The design for the
back and for the side of the book are drawn on separate sheets of paper or Bristol board.

press and much consequent wear and tear.
In many cases, brass dies are used altogether;
but they are costly, and when feasible the solid
electrotype from the “ zinco ” is substituted.

The drawing of the gilded part of the design,
to be rendered by means of the die, is some¬
times done on tracing-paper, yellow water¬
colour being washed on the back, between the
outlines, to indicate the parts to be burnished,

determines that of the back : that is to say,
back and sides should be in the same style.
If a spray of flowers, or knot of ribbon, or
other such free motive be used, it may be
carried from the front cover across the back
and over on to the other cover. Otherwise
only the front board and the back are
decorated. A valuable exercise for the student
would be to complete design 248 by adapting

BOOK-COVER DESIGNING

137

the motive to the back of the cover also, in imagination, rule two vertical lines so as to
the manner of Design 247. Designs 243, 244, divide the design into three equal parts, he will
245 afford similar interesting exercises. In perceive that the central one will, with a little

THE

CYCLOPAEDIA

HOME ARTS

C. ARTHUR
PEARSON,
LIMD.

Design 248.— The Hawthorn. Conventional Treatment.
Book-cover Decoration, “Cloth” or Leather.

the case of Design 243, if the reader will turn
this book around so that he views the design
in its original vertical position, and will, in

modification, supply the decoration for the back,
for which Design 243 furnishes the decoration
for the sides.

MISCELLANEOUS.

RETOUCHING NEGATIVES.

Artistic training is decidedly an advantage
to those who undertake this work. The
merely mechanical manipulation is very quickly
learned ; but the retoucher must be possessed
of good judgment. It is a delicate matter to
know just how far to go. With most negatives
you must learn to temper justice with mercy ;
but with too much of the latter quality you
are likely to obliterate the likeness.

Still, retouching is not simply beautifying j
it is first of all a matter of mere justice. The
photograph light, when used to obtain a strong
likeness, is sure to exaggerate shadows and
forms. Retouching simply softens sharp out¬
lines and renders the shadows more transparent.
Colour is also sometimes exaggerated. Take,
for instance, a child with very red cheeks, and
they will be dark in the picture. This would
be a disfigurement were it not for the softening
effects of the retouching. Indeed, so far does
the work of the skilful retoucher go that he
can make a good negative out of a very bad
one. This latter process is often necessary
when it is impossible to get another sitting.

The negative to be retouched is placed in
a wooden frame with a ground-glass back,
arranged so as to incline at a convenient angle
for the worker, and to let the light shine
through—this latter office being assisted by a
reflecting mirror beneath the glass. A black
cloth, in form of a canopy, excludes the light
from coming in about the worker’s head, and
all the space at the back except the part of
the negative to be retouched is darkened. As
you can only see the imperfections of your
negative and the places where you are to work
by letting the light shine through it, the object
of all this preparation is obvious.

The best retouching pencil is the old-fashioned

one of real lead, but in graphite the next best
is the Faber H.H.H. A kid stump, some
mineral paper, or red ground-glass varnish may
be also necessary ; but these are only for the
use of the experienced worker, and will be
referred to again. To prepare the negative so
as to get a “ tooth ” for the pencil, put on it a
few drops of “ madoleine,” a varnish composed
of turpentine and resin, and rub with the
finger gently over the surface till it is evenly
distributed.

A beginner usually is given several negatives
to work on first, simply to see what he will do.
No instructions probably are given to him.
Some novices show aptitude at once. To such,
suggestions are given by the photographer, who
lets them begin on the most unimportant work
—for example, smoothing out imperfections of
flesh on arms and hands. They are next put
on” the face, and so on until they develop
the capability of actually changing forms,
making hollow cheeks plump, filling out a bit
of drapery, and cutting off excrescences, such
as angles of hair or dress trimming.

When the beginner comes to the face, he is
first set to removing freckles or other blemishes
of the flesh. It is sometimes a good plan to
have a proof made from the negative before
retouching, so that he may see the direct result
of its shortcomings and just where the remedies
should be applied. It is a little difficult for him
to understand at first that every touch of black
he puts on the negative means a touch of white
in the print. Only by much practice can he
accustom himself to this peculiar way of
working. When he sees a line, wrinkle or
freckle unpleasantly pronounced in the print,
he finds a corresponding white line or spot in
the negative, and these he must darken with
his pencil. But he must be very careful not to
do too much. The little white spot must be
very delicately treated.

RESTORATION OF DAMAGED CHINA 139

Suppose that he is removing a freckle: he
must not exceed the space it covers, neither
must he make the portion treated more opaque
than the parts of the surface around it, else he
will have white spots in the print. You see
the mere removal of skin blemishes calls for
care and discrimination.

Now we come to the lines in the face, and
here is where the nicest judgment is to be used,
and the mechanical gives way to artistic
instincts. Freckles and other defects of the
flesh are the only things in the face that should
be absolutely removed ; lines and wrinkles
ought never to be entirely eradicated, else
much of the character of the likeness will be
lost. They are at most only to be very much
softened, so as sometimes to leave only the
slightest indications. One should begin with
the forehead and the lines about the eyes, but
leave the mouth alone. That is the one feature
that will bear no trifling with. The likeness
lies in the mouth. Let your friend put on a
wig or spectacles, or in any way change the
upper part of his face, and he is still your
friend ; but let him, if he can, in any way
disguise his mouth, and you do not recognise
him. Fold a piece of paper and lay it under
your upper lip, and notice how instantly it
changes your face.

A retoucher should have some knowledge of
light and shade in pictures. He should know
something of the value of a high light or a mass
of dark, and should note carefully how the
light has fallen on the sitter, also whether it is
a direct light or a reflected one. This know¬
ledge is especially necessary where he is to
supply lights that are entirely lacking in the
negative. Suppose he finds that his print is
flat and tame. Clearly the way to improve it
is to put in some lights here and there. Perhaps
the hair may need a few sharp lines, care being
taken to follow the curves of the locks; or the
modelling of the face may be strengthened by
a delicate lightening of the prominent portions.
Accessories, such as drapery or furniture,
often need little skilful lights to give them
character or to add to the general effect of
the composition.

RESTORATION OF DAMAGED
CHINA.

To restore broken china not merely by sticking
together the fragments, but by substituting
missing portions, is quite within the abilities of
the amateur; the work entails little skill or
expense, and success in it is chiefly a matter of
patience.

No matter how clean the fragments appear
to be, they should be well cleansed with soap
and tepid water; in cases where they are
obviously greasy and dirty, the pieces should
be soaked for some hours in a solution of
potash. After being rinsed in clean water, let
them be dried thoroughly, remembering that
as earthenware, being more porous, holds much
more water than porcelain, so it dries more
slowly. It is always best, if possible, to repair
a breakage immediately it has taken place,
while the edges of the fractured parts are sharp
and unchipped. If these are allowed to stay a
long time, they are almost sure to get chipped,
and so the joint will fit less closely, and the
restoration be not only far more difficult, but
show a much less neat result.

For trifling articles, small plates and the like,
cement may be sufficient to impart the re¬
quired strength ; but for heavier pieces rivets
are absolutely necessary. It is a task of no
little skill to insert these so that they are not
visible until the article is examined closely.
For a dish it is possible, of course, to insert
them at the back, so that they are not apparent
until it is turned over ; but for vases, jugs, and
many other articles, it is almost impossible to
fix them from the inside. With regard to the
best cement, it is hard to single out any for
special praise, but gum lac preparations should
not be employed, even when allied with rivets,
for heavy pieces. Silicate of potash cements,
excellent as they are for glass, should not be
used for pottery.

It is well to remember that all cements
lose much of their power when applied in
damp weather, unless special precautions are
taken. In any humid climate the mending
should be done in a warm room and the frag-

140

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

ments heated in an oven or warmed separately
over the flame of a spirit lamp before the
cement is put upon them. The bottle contain¬
ing the cement itself should be kept standing
in a jar of warm water at one temperature
while it is in use.

When a piece is much shattered, it is often
impossible to build it up at one operation ; for
instance, a precious “ six-mark ” cup of old
blue and white egg-shell porcelain was several
days in progress. First, some of the tiny
fragments were fitted to each other, then by

Fig. 299.—The Restoration of Damaged China
or Pottery.

degrees more were added, course by course as
it were, until the sides of the cup were built
up. Before adding a broken piece, it is a good
plan to tilt the vase or whatever the article
may be, so that, speaking roughly, the loose
piece would balance itself in place even without
the aid of cement. This is hard to describe;
but supposing an outstretched hand has been
broken off a statuette, it is obvious that if
merely stuck on while the figure was upright
on its base, the weight of the hand would help
to open the joint. Now, the closer the pressure
while the cement is setting, the better. There¬
fore if the figure be laid on its back and

propped up until the stump of the arm is so
level that the hand may be balanced upon it,
it is evident that the weight of the broken
fragment will help to press the joint firmly
together. This is the principle to be followed
throughout the operation. After all the pieces
are reunited, any fissures that may be apparent,
owing to the chipped edges of the fragments,
should be filled up with a small quantity of
the finest plaster, made into a paste with
water.

When the breakage leaves such results as
those indicated in figs. 301 and 302, the frag¬
ments may be further supported by a wire
inserted as the illustrations indicate. Holes
must be pierced in the ware to affix this
wire, but they need not pass right through.
For drilling, an ordinary centre-bit tool will
often be found sufficient; but when the material
is very hard, the end of the drill should be
kept moist with spirits of turpentine. Use
only copper or galvanised iron wire ; ordinary
iron wire will rust, and so should never be
employed. Secure the ends of the wire with
gum lac. The loose gum lac is stronger than
the sort prepared in sticks.

lo restore the handle of a jug, insert wire as
shown in fig. 302, and build up the handle
around it; the wire should be secured very
firmly before the plaster is moulded into shape.
If there are no pieces missing, the wire should
still be used in sections where it can possibly
be inserted. For a larger handle, use two
wires and lace them together, until a sort of
lattice girder is made, on which build up the
the new handle. For large dishes a somewhat
similar course may be followed. Fig. 299 shows .
how such a framework should be made. For a
paste to restore missing portions, take some
Spanish white in powder, mix it with strong
gum-arabic upon a piece of glass with a palette
knife. To make it very hard and durable,
temper it with a little alum solution. After
it is dry scrape off superfluous portions and
polish with glass paper.

For restoring the colour upon portions built
up of new material, water colours should alone
be used. Having filled in the missing parts

‘EXTRA ILLUSTRATING,” OR “GRANGERISING

with plaster of Paris or with the paste just
described, allow them to dry and size them
with gelatine. Give two coats, and let the first
be quite dry before applying the second. Gum

Fig. 300.—The Restoration of Damaged China
or Pottery.

water or starch may be used in place of the
gelatine.

To copy the colours of the original, squeeze
out some moist water colours upon a palette
and mix them with a palette knife until the
ground colour is matched; then add a coat of
this and leave it to dry. If the colour is not
quite right—it often changes in drying—add
another until the match is perfect. To restore
the decoration, if the pattern is a repeating one
— as in fig. 192, for example—it will suffice to
copy with a pencil the portion between the
dotted line. Trace the design, whatever it be,

Figs. 301, 302.—The Restoration of Damaged China
or Pottery.

very carefully, and then, placing the pencilled
side on the place, retrace it with a hard pencil;
this will transfer a faint but clear outline to
the plaster. Avoid any false pencilled lines, as

I4i

they are difficult to remove. Fill up the design
with water-colours of the right tints. If gold
is needed, use only the very best, prepared in
shells ; and if silver be required, employ only
aluminium of the best quality.

Finally, to impart the high glaze to the new
portions, apply a coat of the best Sohnee
varnish, and when this has dried add one or
two others, until the surface has acquired the
desired polish. The effect of articles so
mended depends entirely on the patience and
neatness of each step in the process, and when
carefully done with well-matched colours is
hardly noticeable. These directions through¬
out are intended to refer to valuable show
pieces only, and must not be held to apply to
tableware or articles in actual use.

“ EXTRA ILLUSTRATING,” OR
“ GRANGERISING.”

“ Extra illustrating,” as the term is used by
collectors, means gathering portraits of the
persons and views of the places mentioned in
any given book, and having the book hand¬
somely rebound, with each portrait and view
placed opposite the page where it is mentioned.
Drawings, water-colours, prints or photographs,
autographs—indeed, all things of the kind that
pertain to any person or incident mentioned
in the book—have a claim to a place in it. The
pastime is fascinating and pleasurable, for
pleasure consists not so much in the acquisition
of a desired object as in the pursuit of it, and
book illustrating is a constant pursuit of coveted
prints. It is, moreover, instructive, because the
collector makes himself acquainted with the
history of the persons mentioned in the book
he is illustrating, which leads him to read other
books, and in time he becomes thoroughly
conversant with the history of the period of
which his book treats. The hobby is closely
allied to “ bibliomania,” and is generally in¬
dulged in by persons who have fine libraries. .

As there are books and books, so are there
illustrators and illustrators. One man will be

142

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

satisfied with the work of a professional illus¬
trator, to whom he will send a volume to be
thus interleaved ; another will gather his illus¬
trations from many sources and select such as
his own taste decrees fit; another will embellish
the work with numerous fancy head and tail
pieces appropriate to the subject; and yet
another—and happiest is he—who, with ready
pen, pencil, and brush, can add a copy of some
portrait yet unengraved or the sketch of a
locality still unlimned. How it makes a brother-
collector’s mouth water and his fingers itch to
see such within the leaves of another’s book,
which he, too, is illustrating !

One illustrator will be satisfied to have his
print, autograph, or letter in any state, merely
because he has it on the list, and once obtained
that particular item can be stricken off;
another may buy in succession a dozen im¬
pressions of one desired print, and yet keep on
the look-out until the volume is finally bound
for a still better impression of it.

In London in 1769 appeared the first edition,
2 vols., 4to, of a book which was the immediate
forerunner of all books illustrated by inter¬
leaving. Its title, sufficiently comprehensive,
was

“Biographical History of England from Egbert
the Great to the Revolution ; consisting of charac¬
ters disposed in different Classes and adapted to a
Methodical Catalogue of Engraved British Heads. In¬
tended as an essay toward reducing our Biographies to
a System, and a help to the knowledge of Portraits; with
a variety of Anecdotes and Memoirs of a great number of
persons, not to be found in any other ‘ Biographical
Work.”’

The preface also speaks of the utility of a
collection of English portraits to supply the
defects and answer the various purposes of
medals.

The author was the Reverend Dr. James
Granger, and from him this particular method
of illustrating takes its name. Living from
1723 to 1776, he was educated at Oxford, but
left without taking his degree, and upon
entering into holy orders was presented to the
vicarage and living of Shiplake, Oxfordshire.
In the dedication of his book to Horace

Walpole he states that his “ name and person
were known to few at the time of publication,
as he had the good fortune to retire early to

independence, obscurity, and content.

If he had an ambition for anything it was to
be an honest man and a good parish priest.”

Immediately on the publication of his book
the leaven began to work. “ Five shillings,”
says Fitzgerald, “ had been considered by
collectors a good price for any English portrait,
but at once books with portraits rose in price
to five times their original value, and few could
be found unmutilated.

Both pompous Dibdin and genial Burton,
who were book-lovers of the same degree, but
who differed in kind, were bitter enemies of
Grangerising, and ridiculed the practice, giving
ludicrous examples of book illustrating run
mad, the one showing how the first two or three
verses of the Bible might be illustrated, the
latter taking the first verse alone of “ How doth
the little busy bee.” Burton looked upon it as
sheer murder—the tearing out the vitals of a
friend ; and we can imagine the name he would
have given the Grangerites had he been living
to-day.

But we trust that no one who becomes a
book “ illustrator ” through reading this article
will mutilate a really rare or valuable book.

In selecting a book to interleave, you may
either fear being too ambitious, and obtain
“ just a little one to begin with ” ; or you may
start on some historical work, city, county, or
national, and continue making volumes out of
it indefinitely.

How to split Paper.—Every book “illustrator”
should know that seemingly impossible thing
—how to split a piece of paper.

It is a very simple matter, and it is said that
when it was first discovered in England it was
applied so successfully for duplicating bank¬
notes that the bank authorities were driven to
adopt a special paper that would baffle all
attempts of the sort. For the innocent purpose
of removing the printed matter that so often
backs a fine impression of a woodcut or a
“process” block the device is invaluable, and
the process is not a complicated one. Given

TAXIDERMY

practice, patience, and pluck, a satisfactory
result is certain.

Having selected the print you wish to detach
—which in the first trial should be a worthless
one and of small size—trim the margin to a
half-inch all round the impression. This is
supposing the whole print is about the size of
a cabinet photograph. Then have ready some
common wheat-flour paste, newly made—which
is a very important point, as paste even a day
old is apt to spoil the whole operation. Take
then two stout pieces of firm linen, muslin, or
similar material, a little larger than the print.
This should be unwashed stuff—the sort used
for rolling window blinds answers admirably.
Whatever is chosen must be smooth, firm, and
strong. Paste a piece of the stuff on each side
of the print. Leave them to dry under pressure,
and when nearly set, but not rigid and com¬
pletely dry, pull the two surfaces asunder with
a firm and very even force. Herein lies the
whole art of the process, and here also comes
failure at first, as the print will either refuse to
start splitting, and you but peel off one surface
of texture, or else it begins well and tears
instead of separating into layers before the
whole surface is split.

When you find that the sheet so treated has
behaved satisfactorily, and that each piece of
linen has a film of paper intact adhering to it,
take the one you wish to preserve and soak it
in water. Then lift the tender film very gently
and mount it with starch upon a suitable piece
of cardboard. When mounted, wash all the
paste off the right side of the print with a
camel’s-hair brush dipped in water. Do this
very thoroughly, and then leave the whole to
dry under pressure, and the result will astonish
all who see it. The film thus gained looks like
what the printsellers call an “ India proof”—
i.e. y a proof printed on India paper. It is so
transparent that if, without margin, it is
mounted on polished white wood it looks like a
transfer picture. Experts at the trick can treat
a print of any size in this way with perfect suc¬
cess, and transfer from an illustrated journal,
that otherwise would probably be thrown away,
a fine impression well worth framing.

r 43

TAXIDERMY.

I. SKINNING AND PREPARING.

As an art, Taxidermy is strictly of modern
inception. The Greek words which make
the designation—meaning “ arrangement ” and
“ skin’’—express, collectively, its essential
nature: the arrangement or manipulation of
the skins of animals ; practically, the removal
and preservation of skins, which are either
placed, unmounted, in cabinets, for examina¬
tion and study, or subjected to the more
complex arrangement of stuffing, mounting,
and adjusting, to counterfeit as near as possible
nature’s likeness, and to express the character¬
istic habits of the individual.

Taxidermy calls for peculiar abilities. To
be eminent in the art one must possess such
faculties as will naturally place him higher.
He must have the artistic faculty. It is not
enough that he perform the simple mechanical
manipulations : many such are known all over
the land, and many such produce pleasing
work. But there are higher possibilities. An
eye for modelling is requisite. After the skin
is preserved and ready for mounting, the more
the operator is possessed of the faculty that
makes the sculptor, the nearer he will succeed
in modelling skins that express the charac¬
teristic habits of position. The details of the
best work are considerable: the eyes are care¬
fully made in glass, and the characteristic
shapes of pupils and canthi and colour of
irides are shown.

It is quite within the reach of the amateur
operator to become skilled in the various mani¬
pulations required, and an ordinary amount of
mechanical ability will prove sufficient for very
pleasing results. Select a large bird or small
quadruped for practice—a hen, we will say.
The few tools required are readily suggested
and easily procured. Any convenient knife,
something after the shape of a paper-cutter or
scalpel; a pair of stout, short-bladed shears ;
a lighter pair; forceps, which are exactly like
those used by surgeons for dissecting; and a
longer pair, with handles. The tools are shown
in fig. 303. One might add to them a large

144

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

skinning-knife, a pair of tow pliers, and a large
and a small file.

Having the bird in hand, proceed to plug
with cotton all holes made by shot, and the
natural openings, to prevent blood or injecta
from soiling the plumage.

In the field, when specimens are reserved for
mounting, they should be placed in a cone of
paper, head downward, the tail being neatly
covered by folding a portion over it. We now

Fig. 303. —Tools and Materials used in Taxidermy.

place the bird upon the table, and separate the
feathers, when they are sparsely set, in a line
with the breast-bone. Make an incision
through the skin only ; have at hand a dish
of oatmeal or plaster of Paris to apply freely
to grease or blood, that the feathers may not
be soiled. The edges of the incision are apt
to curl inwards ; by treating them thoroughly
with the meal they are protected from this
evil.

The incision having been completed from
the lower end of the breast-bone to the vent,
careful manipulation with the forceps and
fingers, and at times with the back of the
knife, will suffice to remove the skin on both
sides as low down as convenient. Place the
thumb and forefinger of your right hand over
the skin of the breast, press downward, and
you will expose the whole breast to the neck,

as seen in fig. 304. Now thrust a stout hook
through the breast, beneath the “ merry¬
thought,” or in any position to sustain a strong
pull; suspend the hooked body from above; as
you can then the more conveniently handle it.
Now sever the neck, as seen in fig. 305. Lay
hold of a wing, pushing down, at the same
time opening a place under the wing by aid of
your fingers, in which place your scissors, and
cut off at the shoulder, as in fig. 306.

Having cut off both wings, much care is
requisite in separating the skin from the back.
Here is the most delicate work ; use great care
as the loins are reached. Now take hold of a
leg at the lower joint and press the skin down
carefully with the fingers; insert the scissors
at the joint (the knee, properly), and sever as in
fig. 307.

Carefully force down the skin to the base of
the tail and cut off; the oil sac and adhering
flesh should be removed also. The legs may
now be stripped of all flesh and fat—indeed,
all fat should be carefully left on all parts of
the body, so that the skin may be as free as
possible from it. The wings may now be
stripped, care being taken to use the fingers in
forcing down the skin. Remove the flesh from
the bones of the wings and legs. Do not
separate the shafts of the feathers—which are
now seen adhering to the bone. In large birds
the wing may be conveniently opened from the
outside; an incision made on the under side
will allow room to remove the flesh.

Having now removed the body, and properly
cleaned the wing and leg bones, we may very
easily strip the skin down from the neck.
Before doing this, introduce the hook into the
severed end of the neck, and suspend the skin,
head downward, from above. The skin will
leave the neck very readily, but as soon as the
skull is reached manoeuvre carefully. Patient
manipulating with the fingers will remove the
skin from nearly all birds’ heads. Owls and a
few other birds will require a slit made in the
neck at this point, which may be sewed up
before the skin is turned. The ear openings
are first encountered ; the membrane ^which
covers them should be carefully pushed off the

TAXIDERMY

skull by the finger-nail, or a blunt stick ; little
cutting is required. Then the eyes: carefully

Fig. 304.—Skinning and Preparing the Bird.

push the skin away until the eye-socket is
completely exposed. The membrane which
holds the skin in place around the eyes should

Fig. 305. —Skinning and Preparing the Bird.

be separated so skilfully as to leave the eyelids
of the skin perfect in their borders. Push the

*45

skin farther down towards the bill, and then
remove the eyes and all flesh that can be
separated from the skull. Continue the skin¬
ning to the base of the bill. The under jaw
should be denuded of its flesh; the tongue and
all soft parts in this region removed. The
base of the skull should now be cut through,
removing a part of the roof of the mouth ; the
brain is now entirely removed, and all other
soft parts.

The preserving process is now in order.
Have a wide-mouthed bottle of pure arsenic,
which should be plainly labelled POISON !—and
kept securely stopped, and away from all other

Fig. 306. —Skinning and Preparing the Bird.

articles. With a common painter’s “sash tool”
or brush apply the dry arsenic freely to every
fleshy part that can be reached. Begin with
the head. Apply the arsenic to the eye-sockets
very freely, to the interior of skull, and then
fill these parts with cotton. The mouth and
jaws will require a thorough poisoning. Apply
the poison freely to every other part, working
it well into the wing portions and into the
legs. Arsenic is not deleterious, used in a
proper manner; it is deadly poison taken into
the stomach. The worst that happens to those
who use great quantities, or handle it with

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

146

abraded or cut hands, is a slight soreness in the
more tender parts, as under the nails; this is

avoided very con¬
siderably by oiling
the hands, or
washing them in
glycerine. The
arsenical soaps are
prized by some,
but we much prefer
the dry powder, as
being more con¬
venient and more
efficient.

The legs of the
bird and the bill
should be var¬
nished, to preserve
them from the at¬
tacks of insects.

The skin is now
ready to turn into
its proper shape,
be smoothed into
to be only

Fig.

307.— Skinning and Pre¬
paring the Bird.

used

when the feathers must
place, and if the skin is
for examination or study, it
may be filled out with cotton
and arranged in the shape seen
in fig. 309. Before this is done
the wing bones should be tied,
on the inside, to each other,
leaving a space between the
ends of about an inch—or suf¬
ficient to allow the wings to
assume a natural position. The
leg bones should be wrapped
with cotton. To make a neat
cabinet specimen, like the fig. 309, a piece of
pine wood is wrapped with tow or cotton, and
the upper end passed on to the skull ; the
lower end projects a little to allow the specimen
to be handled without disturbing the plumage.
The skin is now neatly brought into shape
and sewed.

White feathers that are soiled may be cleansed
by washing in soap and water, and repeatedly
dried off by sprinkling with plaster of Paris.

To skin and preserve a quadruped the pro¬

cesses are so similar that any one having
sufficient skill to do the one may successfully
cope with the other.

II. MOUNTING.

Our specimen is now neatly filled with a tem¬
porary body, the skin having been thoroughly
poisoned and preserved, and made pretty surely
proof against the attack of insects, and not
subject to decomposition ; this indefinitely, if
proper manipulation is observed.

In this condition it is useful for study, and
is in the required state for the cabinet. Should
the specimen, however, at any time, be selected
to “ set up,” the following course may be
followed :—

In a sheet of cotton batting closely envelop
the bird or quadruped, allowing several folds
to cover it. A coarse cloth, well saturated with
clean water, is. wrapped loosely around the
cotton, and the whole set aside for a few hours.
At the expiration of twenty-four hours the
smaller skins are softened sufficiently, and will
be found to be much in the same condition as
that of a freshly-skinned animal. The moisture

Fig. 308.— Mounting the Bird.

The parts a, a, a, should be sewn through, to form on each side a depression suitable
for the fitting in of the wing bones when the body is in place.

has penetrated to all parts, and the roots of
feathers or hair are so pliable that the exterior

Fig. 309.— Mounting the Bird.

Body.

The Completed

TAXIDERMY

portions may be easily smoothed and returned
to their proper places.

We now arrive at an important division of
our subject—that which calls for the “counterfeit
presentment ” of life, which will be more or
less successful as we possess skill in manipula¬
tion, and an eye to reassemble the parts after
nature’s pattern.

Naturally we would select a fresh object, one
that we may skin and mount at one sitting,
before the parts become dried. The processes
are much the same in each case. Our specimen
in hand, and thoroughly softened, we remove
the temporary stuffing. With soft hay or
moss form a body—cotton is not used for this,
as the necessary wires cannot be thrust into
such a body easily—wrap tightly with “ shoe
thread,” or similar, using the thread very freely,
and carefully moulding the body, as we pro¬
ceed, to resemble the natural body. In case of
having a fresh specimen, the body should
always be before us until this process is
finished. In fig. 308 the parts a a a should be
sewn through to form on each side a depression
suitable for the fitting in of the wing bones
when the body is in place.

An iron wire sharpened at each end is thrust
along the back, and clinched at the large end
of the body, the opposite or anterior end to
project a little, upon which we now wind
cotton or soft tow, to form the neck, all being
tightly secured with thread, and moulded neatly
to match the natural neck in size. Fig. 309
shows the completed body.

The skin is now laid out, and the sharpened
neck wire thrust through the skull, and out
from the forehead a little, to give room to
adjust the neck at proper length. The wing
bones are tied together, a small space being
left between the ends, about a half-inch for
small birds. The skin is now brought carefully
over the artificial body, and the feathers neatly
adjusted. If there are any soiled feathers, as
is frequently the case, they should be cleaned
before the process goes further ; this is done
by washing in soapy water and freely absorb¬
ing with plaster of Paris powder, the latter
to be repeatedly alternated with washings,

and at last used until the feathers are entirely
dry.

Wires are now prepared for supporting the
body. Two iron wires, the same in size as
used for the body, are sharpened and thrust
through the feet and legs, and into the body,
following along the leg bones, upon which
should be wound cotton or tow to fill out the
thighs. The sharpened end of one of the wires
is seen in fig. 310 near the breast, where it is
turned in to stiffen the hold upon the body.
A better way is to clinch the two wires at the
same point, and turn them both into the breast
The skin is now adjusted around the body, and
the parts brought together in front. With a
needle and thread the edges of the incision are
carefully secured ; the skin being tender, some
care is requisite in this operation. If the body
is correctly proportioned to the skin it will be
readily accomplished. We have now a structure
sufficiently complete to support itself stiffly
when the leg wires are made fast.

A stand is prepared, perch or flat disk,
according to the nature of the bird (some
perch habitually, while others always alight
and progress upon the flat ground). The leg
wires are now passed through the stand and
the bird brought up into shape as in fig. 310.
You will readily perceive that the wires of the
neck and legs are susceptible of considerable
flexion, and in the judicious manipulation of
this framework lies the secret of good taxi¬
dermy. The neck may be bent in any position
you may choose that corresponds to nature.
The feathers require adjusting, the wings to be
placed, and the whole body carefully smoothed.
In these operations the surgeon’s forceps will
be found useful. The wings require pinning ;
for this purpose iron wires sharpened are useful,
the ends left protruding sufficiently to catch
the loops of thread which will be wound over
the feathers as a last operation, as in fig. 311.
A bit of wire looped over the tail compresses
and spreads the feathers neatly. After the
bird is fairly mounted in this manner, it is
usually necessary to examine the throat and
eye sockets and supply the needful stuffing of
cotton to fill out properly those parts. The

143

THE CYCLOPAEDIA OF HOME ARTS

bill should be wound by a thread to close it,
and this, with all other temporary appliances,
should be allowed to remain for several days,

Our specimen is now in the condition of
that in fig. 311—well wound with thread, the
feathers in place, the tail spread, and the
correct position assumed. It is customary
to leave the wire projecting out from the skull
until the skin is well dried and shrinkage has
ceased; it may then be cut even with the
skull and the part carefully concealed by
feathers.

We assume that a specimen prepared in the
thorough manner herein described will remain
indefinitely unharmed by moths or other
noxious insects. The arsenic powder carefully
introduced into every part of the fleshy portion
is sufficient. It only remains to say that it
is always difficult to poison the internal
portions of the legs and bill, therefore we
apply a solution of corrosive sublimate to
those parts, and eventually varnish them ;
this done, it is pretty safe to say that the
specimen will remain intact

Fig. 31a—T he Bird Brought up into Shape on
the Stand.

The leg wires are passed through the stand. Like those ot
the neck, they are susceptible of considerable flexion, and
in the judicious manipulation of this framework lies the
secret of good taxidermy.

when the parts will be thoroughly dry. The
eyes are replaced by excellent glass substitutes,
which are readily obtained. 1 Most small glass
eyes are provided with wires, which may be
plunged into the stuffing. Hence it will be
well to have the stuffing of the eyes of the
same material as that of the body, as the wire
does not easily penetrate cotton. The eyelids
are carefully drawn around the glass eyes
sufficiently to hold them in place. Eyes are
made to imitate all known forms, and the
various colours of irides are well executed.
Among the larger kinds, those required for
quadrupeds, great excellence is attained ; the
peculiar forms and positions of the pupil are
observed.

1 These, as well as all the tools and appliances, can be
had of Mr. E. H. Meek, 56, Brompton Road, S.W.

Fig. 311.—Mounting the Bird. The Last Operation.

The feathers require adjusting, the wings to be placed, and
the whole body carefully smoothed.

We can add one very important item of
interest. In the very common event of the
reader having specimens of skins that have

TAXIDERMY

not been properly poisoned, as many that come
from abroad are not, it is desirable, should
the skins show evidence of the presence of
moths, or anthrinae, or their eggs, to rid them
at once of the pests. Dip the skins into pure
naphtha, and, after a thorough soaking, dry
very quickly by steam. The evaporation is
so rapid, and the naphtha so clean, no injury
whatever is done to the plumage ; neither to
the colour nor texture.

III. INSECT TAXIDERMY.

At the Museum of Natural History one may
see beautiful work of this kind, each species
of insect being illustrated by a prepared
specimen of the various phases in which it
appears, from the egg to the perfect form.
The plant on which the insect feeds is arranged
with the specimens, together with the nest
that each makes. The worms are emptied
of their contents and preserved with much
care, showing the various stages; many of
them are of brilliant colours, and retain a very
natural appearance. The cocoons and the
silken or other products are also shown. In
some instances spiders’ nests prove to be made
up of tough and beautiful silk.

The art is within the reach of the young
amateur, and a tolerable exercise of ingenuity
will produce very interesting results. The
principal manipulation is with the worms or
larvae. You wish to preserve, for example,
one of the great green worms that you find
eating your grape-vine. Make an incision
across the posterior portion, just sufficient to
include the end of the alimentary canal ; press
the contents of the worm out through the
opening, gently, and with special care in the
case of the tussock-moth worms and others
that have hairy or other appendages. Though
seemingly a hazardous thing to do (as respects
the integrity of the specimen), yet the most
delicate hairy caterpillars may be very success¬
fully emptied of their contents. Indeed, they

T 49

are by this process so cleaned internally that,
practically, they are skinned, and you have
the skin now to deal with.

Select a good straw, of size proportioned to
the specimen ; this is to be used as a blow¬
pipe, and should, therefore, be a whole one, and
several inches in length. Introduce the straw
carefully within the cut end of the worm, and
tie the end around the straw with fine silk. If
the operation of squeezing has been successful,
it remains to inflate the body for preservation.
Prepare a dish of live embers, and over these
hold the specimen—using great care in the
degree of heat applied. While holding the
worm in this way, keep it inflated. The form
which the insect is to assume for the cabinet
should be considered while this drying process
is going on. Some light wooden frame, such
as will be readily suggested to the operator,
will often be of service to hold the specimen in
the proper position. Some worms may require
to be curved, or put into a shape characteristic
of them while living. Attention to these points
will contribute greatly to the value and pleasing
appearance of the specimen. The straw, after
the drying, is cut off near the body, as it is
convenient to allow a small portion to project
outside, so that the specimen may be pinned to
the cabinet through it, thus avoiding the injury
that results from passing the pin through the
body.

The specimen is now complete, unless we
choose to adopt some method of poisoning it.
Corrosive sublimate, which is sometimes used,
is likely to injure the colours. A strong
arsenical solution may be applied with a brush,
safely, as regards the colours. Caterpillar:
prepared in this manner preserve their colour
and form nearly perfect, the hairs and other
appendages retaining a remarkably natural
appearance, which, of course, enhances greatly
the beauty and usefulness of an entomological
cabinet.

An extended field is open to any one who
may practise this branch of taxidermy.

INDEX.

Alum in boiled leather work, Use of, 79.

American white wood for carving, 34 ; for Pyrogra-
vure, 62.

Anaglypta, or Lincrusta, 85.

Animals in repousse work, 102.

Annealing metals for repousse work, 92.

Applied Design: Preparatory study, 114; natural
and conventional ornament, 119 ; the con¬
struction of ornament, 122 ; wall-paper, 127 ;
textiles, 129 ; tiles, 133 ; preparation of working
designs, 134; book covers, 135.

Arsenic for taxidermy, 145.

Axminster carpet, Colours for, 131.

Background in stamped leather, Treatment of, 78 ; in
repousse work, 101.

Bench for wood-carving, 35.

“ Bench bolts,” 36.

“ Bench screws ” for wood-carving, 35.

Bent-iron work, 105.

Birch wood for fret-sawing, 56.

Blind tooling in bookbinding, 84.

Blow lamp for repousse work, 95.

Book-covers, Designing, 135.

Bookbinding, pyrogravure in leather, 66; Mosaic
mode, 81; tooling, 81 ; blind tooling, 84.

Brass, Sheet, for repousse work, 92.

Brussels carpet, Colours for, 131.

Bust, Modelling a, in clay, 18, 19.

Carpet designing, 129 ; colours for, 131, 135.

“ Carving in the flat,” 37.

Carving, Wood, 32.

Casts, Plaster, from the clay model, 28 ; from life,
31 ; gelatine moulds for, 31.

Cast, Working from the, 18.

Cement or pitch-block for repousse work, 95.
Chestnut wood for pyrogravure, 62.

China Clay, Modelling in : Tinted clays, 22 ; to
prepare medallions, 23 ; “ slip,” a, 25 ; the wax
model, 25 ; tools, 26.

China, Restoration of Damaged, 139; rivetting,
140; paste for, 140; colours for, 141 ; Sohnee
varnish for, 141.

Chip or notch carving, 32.

Clay Modelling, in—

Materials and Appliances:

Lighting, 17; the clay, 17; tools for, 17; to
model in relief, 17 ; to preserve the clay, 17.
Working from the cast:

The model, 18 ; modelling a bust, 18 ; makeshift
stand, 18 : glue water, 19.

Working from life :

Modelling a bust, 19 ; Full-length figure, 20 ; the
stand, 20 ; draped figures, 21; proportions, 21;
method of measuring, 22.

Clay model, Plaster casts for the, 28.

Clay, To preserve, 17 ; modelling in China clay, 22 ;
tinted, 22.

Colours for plaster casts, 31; for Gesso, 28 ; oil for
stamped leather work, 78; for Lincrusta, 85 ;
tiles, 133 ; in working designs, 134.

Colours, “Distemper” or “Tempora,” 134 ; for wall¬
paper designs, 135 ; for carpet designs, 135 ; for
silken fabrics, 135 ; for damaged china, 141.

“ Composite clay” for wax modelling, 27.
Construction of the ornament, 122.

Conventional, The, in designing, 120.

Copper, Sheet, for repousse work, 93.

Corrosive sublimate for taxidermy, 148.

Cotton batting for taxidermy, 146.

Curving wood by steaming, 54.

Cushion, The, for repousse work, 95.

Dado rail, A Gothic, 43.

Damaged china, Restoration of, 139.

Design, Applied, in silk manufacture, 114.

Design, Transferring, for Gesso work, 28; for stamped
leather, 77 ; in bookbinding, 84; for etching, 90;
in Repousse work, 96 ; applied, 114.

152

INDEX

Designs, for wood-carving, 37 ; transferring, 38 ; for
edges of shelves, 45 ; diaper, 48 ; to fix for fret¬
work, 56 ; in pyrogravure, 70 ; for bookbinding,
84; in Lincrusta, 86 ; geometrical, 1 19 ; to prove
a, 126 ; dimensions for wall-paper, 127 ; prepara¬
tion of working, 134; for wall-paper, 134; for
carpets, 135; for silken fabrics, 135 ; for book-
covers, 135.

Diaper designs for wood-carving, 48.

Difficulties in making plaster casts from life, 31.

Dimensions of design for wall-paper, 129.

“ Distemper ” or “ Tempora ” colours, 134.

“ Dragon” design for wood-carving, 37.

Draped figure in clay modelling, 21.

Drill for rivetting china, 140.

“ Drop,” The, in designing, 125.

Dye-staining pyrogravure, 63.

Elm wood for pyrogravure, 62.

Etching on Metal : To prepare the plate, 90 ; the
design, 90 ; the wax, 90 ; the acid, 91.

“Extra Illustrating” or “Grangerising,” 141.
Eyes, Glass, for taxidermy, 148.

Figure, Full-length, in clay modelling, 20; draped,
21.

Finishing wood-carving, 34 ; 40.

“ Flat,” Carving in the, 37.

Flat chasing, 97.

Fret-sawing : Its limitations, 56; suitable woods, 56;

tools, 56 ; fixing the pattern, 56.

Fretwork in conjunction with wood-carving, 54.
Fruit in repousse work, 101.

Full-length figure in clay modelling, 20.

Gelatine moulds for plaster casts, 31.

Geometrical designs, 119.

Gesso, Modelling in : Transferring the design, 28 ;
preparations of, 28 ; uses of, 28 ; colours for, 28 ;
lacquers for, 28.

Gild leather, To, 77.

Gilding pyrogravure, 63.

Glass eyes for taxidermy, 148.

Glass pyrogravure, 75.

Glue water for clay modelling, 19.

Gothic Dado rail, 43.

“Grangerising” or “ extra illustrating,” 141.

Grinding carving tools, 36.

Hammered Metal : Materials, 92 ; suitable metals,
92; annealing, 92; selection of the metal, 92 ;
tools and appliances, 93 ; preparations for work,

95 ; transferring the design, 96; the first attempt,

96 ; flat chasing, 97 ; raising and modelling, 98 ;
finishing, 100; the background, 101 ; textures,
101 ; raising from the back, lacquering, 102.

Hanging shelves, Decoration of, 45.

Hinges, Saw-pierced, 89.

“ Holdfast” for wood-carving, 35.

Holly wood for carving, 34 ; for pyrogravure, 62.
How to split paper, 142.

Human form, The, in repousse work, 101.

Imperfections in the plaster cast, to remedy, 30.
Insect taxidermy, 149.

Interior decoration, pyrogravure in, 70.

“ Kurfing ” in wood-carving, 40.

Lace, designing, 134.

Lacquering, 103.

Lacquers for Gesso, 28.

Lancewood for carving, 51.

Leather Work—

Stamping, Gilding, Painting :

To gild leather, 77; tools and appliances, 77;
tracing the design, 77 ; treatment of back¬
ground, 78.

Boiled Leather Work :

Use of alum and soft soap, 79; moulding the
leather, 79; ornamenting with sheet-metal, 81.
Bookbindings :

Mosaic mode, 81 ; tooling, 81.

Leather in pyrogravure, 66; for panelling, 72, 77;

for bookbinding, 66; “stamped,” 77.

Leather, to gild, 77.

Leaves in repousse work, 101.

Life, plaster casts from, 31 ; working from in clay
modelling, 19.

Lighting in clay modelling, 17.

Lime-wood for carving, 34 ; for pyrogravure, 62.
Lincrusta, or Anaglypta Decoration : Advantages
of, 85 ; colours for, 85.

Lustra colours for pyrogravure, 63.

“ Madoleine ” for retouching negatives, 138.

Makeshift stand for clay modelling, 18.

INDEX

153

Mallet, rawhide, for repousse work, 93.

Match and repeat in designing, 125.

Materials for clay modelling, 17.

Measuring, method of, in clay modelling, 22.
Medallions, to prepare, for China clay modelling, 23.
Metal Work : Saw-piercing, 88 ; etching on metal,
90; hammered metal, 92; bent- and light
wrought-iron work, 105.

Metals, suitable for repousse work, 92 ; annealing,
92 ; selection for repousse work, 92.

Mica for iron lamp, 113.

Model, The, in clay modelling, 18; wax, for China
clay modelling, 25 ; clay, for plaster casts, 28.
Modelling in clay, 17; a bust, 18 ; in China clay,
22 ; in Gesso, 28 ; in wax, 27.

Modelling wax, 27.

Mosaic mode in bookbinding, 81.

Moulds, gelatine for plaster casts, 31.

Mould, use of, in transferring design, 44; in boiled
leather work, 79; papier mache for boiled leather
work, 80.

Naphtha, use of, in taxidermy, 149.

Natural and conventional ornament, 119.

Negatives, retouching, 138.

Nitric acid for etching, 91.

Notch or chip carving, 32.

Oak for fret-sawing, 56 ; for pyrogravure, 62.

Oil, linseed, for finishing wood-carving, 40.

Oil colours for stamped leather work, 78.

Oiling the skin for plaster casts, 31.

Olive oil, Use of, with plaster casts, 30.

Ornament, natural and conventional, 119; construc¬
tion of, 122.

Palette knife, The, 134.

Panels, leather, 72, 77.

Paper, how to split, 142.

Papier-mache moulds for boiled leather, 80.

Paste for damaged china, 140.

Pattern for saw-piercing, The, 88; for wall-paper,
127.

Pattern points for pyrogravure, 61.

Pear wood for carving, 34.

Pencil, The, for retouching negatives, 138.

Pine wood for pyrogi'avure, 62.

“ Pitch,” The, in designing, 132.

Pitch block for repousse work, 94.

Plane wood for carving, 34.

Plaster Casts—

From the clay model:

To make, 30; soap water, use of, 30; olive oil,
use of, 30; removing the cast, 30; imperfec¬
tions in the cast, 30.

From life :

Difficulties of making, 31 ; must be done
quickly, 31 ; oiling the skin, 31; colours for
the plaster, 31.

Gelatine moulds for:

Their use, 31 ; useful hints for making, 31.
Plaster of Paris, Use of, in taxidermy, 146.

Platinum point for pyrogravure, 61, 64.

Pliers for bent-iron work, 105.

“Point” paper, for carpet designing, 132, 134.
Pointilloir, The, use of in repousse work, 101.
Polishing wood-carving, 34; pyrogravure, 62 ; flat
surfaces, 42.

Preparations of Gesso, 28.

Proportions, The, in clay modelling, 21.

Prove a design, To, 126.

Pyrogravure (or Poker work)—

Tools and materials :

Wood, 62 ; polishing, 62 ; varnishing, 63; dye
staining, 63 ; gilding and silvering, 63 ; lustra
colours, 63 ; substitute for staining, 64.
Application of the platinum point:

A caution, 64.

On leather :

Advantages, 66 : suitable articles for, 68.
Treatment of some designs :

In interior decoration, 70 ; glass pyrogravure, 75.

Raising and modelling in repousse work, 98.

Raising from the back in repousse work, 102.

Raising tools for repousse work, 94.

Rawhide mallet for repousse work, 93.

Relief, Clay modelling in, 17.

Removing the plaster cast, 30.

“ Repeat,” The, in wall-paper, 128.

Repousse work, 92.

Restoration of damaged china, 139.

Retouching negatives, 138 : the pencil, 138 ; “ mado-
leine,” 138.

Ring tools for repousse work, 94.

Rivets for damaged china, 140.

Ruled or “ Point” paper, Use of, in designing, 134.

Sand, Hot, a substitute for staining, 64.

Saw-piercing : Objects suitable for, 88 ; the pattern,
88 ; sheet-metal, 88 ; hinges, 89.

Shears for bent-iron work, 165.

154

INDEX

Sheet metal, Use of, in boiled leather work, 81 j for
saw-piercing, 88.

Shelves, Designs for edges of, 45 ; decoration of
hanging, 45.

Silk manufacture, Applied design in, 114; colours for
designs, 135.

Silvering pyrogravure, 63.

Skin, Oiling the, for plaster cast, 31.

Skinning for taxidermy, 143.

“ Slip, A,” for China clay modelling, 25.

Snarling iron, Use of, 102.

Soap water, Use of, with plaster casts, 30.

Soft soap in boiled leather work, Use of, 79.

Sohnee varnish for damaged china, 141.

Sole leather for “ stamping,” 77.

Spatula or smoothing iron for repousse work, 95.

Split paper, How to, 142.

Spoon, To carve a, 51.

Staining, Substitute for, 64.

Stamped backgrounds, 42.

“ Stamped leather,” 77 ; tools for, 77 ; tracing design
on, 77 ; treatment of background, 78 ; varnishes
and oil colours for, 78.

Stand, The, for clay modelling, 18, 20.

“Stepping,” 128.

Strip iron for bent-iron work, 105.

Surface decoration in wood-carving, 37; articles
suitable for, 38.

Sycamore wood for pyrogravure, 62.

Tapestry carpets, Colours for, 131.

Taxidermy : skinning and preparing, 143 ; tools,
143 ; use of arsenic, 145 ; mounting, 146 ; insect
taxidermy, 149.

Textile designing, 129.

Textures in repousse work, 101.

Tiles, Designing for, 133.

Tinted clays, 22.

Tool chest for wood-carving, 35.

Tooling in bookbinding, 81.

Tools, for wax modelling, 27 ; for clay modelling, 17 ;
for China clay, 26; for chip carving, 32; for wood¬
carving, 35 ; care of carving, 36 ; for fret-sawing,
56 ; for pyrogravure, 61 ; for stamping leather,
77 ; for boiled leather, 79 ; bookbinding, 84 ; for
repousse work, 93 ; for bent-iron work, 105 ; for
taxidermy, 143.

Tracers for repousse work, 93.

Tracing or outlining in repousse work, 96.

Transfer paper for wood-carving, 35.

Transferring the design for Gesso work, 28 ; for
wood-carving, 38 ; use of the mould, 44 ; for
stamping leather, 77; in bookbinding 84; for
etching, 90 ; for repousse work, 96.

“Turnabout” match in designing, 126.

Varnishing pyrogravure, 63.

Varnishes for stamped leather work, 78.

“Viking ” design for wood-carving, 37.

Wall-paper, Patterns for, 127 ; dimensions of design,.
127 ; the repeat, 128 ; “ stepping,” 128 ; trans¬
ferring the design, 134 ; colours for, 134.

Walnut wood for carving, 34 ; for fret-sawing, 56.
Wax, Modelling in: Modelling wax, 27; “Com¬
posite clay,” 27 ; tools, 27.

Wax model for China clay modelling, 25.

Wax for etching, 90.

Wilton carpet, Colours for, 131.

Wood-carving—

Chip or notch carving :

Simplicity of, 32; tools for, 32 ; wood, 34; the
first attempt, 34 ; objects for decoration, 34 •
finishing, 34 ; polishing, 34.

Tools and appliances:

Transfer paper, 35 ; the bench, 35; tool chest,.
35; “holdfast” and “bench screw,” 35; “bench
bolts,” 36.

Preliminary practice:

Care of tools, 36 ; grinding and setting tools, 36.
Surface decoration :

Designs, 37 ; transferring designs, 38; articles,
suitable for, 38.

Relief carving:

Transferring the design, 38; “ Kurfing,” 40
simple exercises, 40 ; finishing, 40; polishing,
41; stamped backgrounds, 42.

A Gothic dado rail :

The mould, 43.

Carving in the round :

Suitable wood, 51 ; to carve a spoon, 51; fret¬
work in conjunction with, 34; curving bv
steaming, 54.

Wood for carving, 34 ; fretsawing, 56 ; pyrogravure,
62.

Working designs, Preparations of, 134.

Work-table for repousse work, 95.

Wrought-iron work : Tools, 105.

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By W. LAMB,

President of British Association of Teachers of Dancing.

Crown 8 vo, Cloth, Price Is., post free Is. 2 d.

Containing complete instructions in the art of Dancing,
including all the latest and fashionable square dances and
skirt dancing.

Little

Economies

And How to Practise Them

By Mrs. WALDEMAR LEVERTON.

Crown 8 vo. Cloth, Price Is., post free Is. 2 d.

An invaluable book, giving outlines of the way and
means of studying economy in all branches.

Boy’s and Girl’s
Reciter

Price Is., post free Is. 2d.

A collection of the very best Recitations, Stories, etc.,
by well-known authors. The greatest care has been
bestowed in selecting only such pieces as are thoroughly
suitable for public and private use. _

Dinners of
the Day

By A CAREFUL COOK
(Mrs. Praga).

Crown 8 vo. Cloth, Price 2 s. 6d., or post free, 2 s. 9 d.

Some of the Chapters are :—

The stock pot—Thrift in the kitchen—An English
v. a French dinner—Economical meals—Fish stocks
Bad Management—How to train a cook—The false
economist—The store cupboard—The gentle art of
shopping—The food and management of servants
Parties and party giving—Dainty dinner tables—Food
in furnished lodgings—Emergency meals Salads and
salad making—Fruit as food—Sunday suppers Seaside
cookery—Macaroni, and how to cook it Sauces A
dinner without meat—New Dishes—Popular puddings
Also a large collection of choice menus and recipes for
complete dinners.

Sweetmeat=Making
at Home

By Mrs. M. E. RATTRAY,

First-class Diplomee, National Training School of
Cookery, London.

With Coloured Frontispiece and several Illustrations.
Cloth , Price 2 s. 6d., post free 2 s. 9 d.

Some of the Chapter Headings are

Chap. I—SUGAR AND SUGAR-BOILING.

H-NUTS, FLAVOURINGS AND
” COLOURINGS.

IV —c O O K E D FONDANT SWEET-
” MEATS.

V.—MARZIPAN.

VI—BON-BONS AND AMERICAN
” CANDIES.

,, VIII.—MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES.

CONFECTIONERY UTENSILS FOR SWEET¬
MEAT-MAKING.

To be had of all Booksellers , or of

C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., 17, HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C

Our Food

and

Drinks

By Dr. ANDREW WILSON.

Price Is., post free , Is. 2 d.

Dr. Wilson is recognised as the standard authority on
what may be termed Domestic Chemistry, and the
subject with which he deals in this little volume is one
the importance of which cannot be over-estimated.

The subjects dealt with in this book are:—

•

The rudiments of health—About our food—Diet
rules and diet adjuncts—Our drinks—About water—
Impurities in foods—How our food is digested—Diges¬
tion in the stomach—Digestion in the intestine—How
food is absorbed.

Infectious

Diseases

And how to
Prevent Them

By Dr. ANDREW WILSON.

Price Is., post free. Is. 2d.

This little work is intended as a guide to the house¬
holder (and especially to mothers) in the all-important
matter of the prevention of infectious diseases.

The subjects dealt with in this book are :—

Chap. I.—WHAT INFECTIOUS DISEASES
ARE.

,, II.—WHAT INFECTION MEANS.

,, III.—WFIAT FEVERS ARE.

,, IV.—DISINFECTION AND DISINFEC¬
TANTS.

Household

Hints

Edited by “ ISOBEL,” of Home Notes.

Price Is., post free Is. 2 d.

This volume deals with every kind of advice and
recipe for keeping a house in perfect condition.

The aim in all the recipes is to make them exceedingly
simple and practical, and of use to the veriest amateur.

Some of the numerous recipes are :—

Advantage of air beds—To make alum water—A safe
antidote — To destroy ants — To keep bacon — Cold
bandages—Damp beds—To clean brass-—To make
blacking—Blankets—Blinds—To preserve boots—Hints
about unbleached calico—To lay carpets—Hints on
carving—To make cement—To clean leather chairs—-
Cure for chilblains—To destroy cockroaches—To make
cold cream—Cooking terms—To make court plaster—-
To kill crickets—To colour lace curtains—To clean
curtains—Hints on washing dishes—To preserve eggs—
To clean engravings—To curl ostrich feathers—To
polish steel—To clean filters—To smoke fish—To
remove inkstains—To clean fur—To keep cut flowers—
Hints on food—To clean gilt frames—To wash leather
gloves—To clean gloves—To remove grease—To make
gum—To make hair wash, hair lotion, etc.—Remedy for
chapped hands, etc., etc., with many household remedies.

Plain

Needlework

Edited by “ ISOBEL,’’ of Home Notes.

Price Is., post free Is. 2 d.

The object of this book is to show, by examples and
simple directions, the best way of executing all the most
necessary details of what is usually termed plain work.

It is a fact that many a one is heavily handicapped in
her work because she does not know the ordinary
methods of hemming, sewing on braid, etc., all very
simple when learnt, but without which she can make
no progress, and the time to be spent in class learning,
cutting out or fitting, etc., has often to be devoted to
teaching her to sew. To those, too, who wish to instruct
their children or pupils to sew, this book may prove of
use.

To be had of all Booksellers , or of

C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., 17, HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.

Handwriting as an
Index to Character

By Professor P. R. S. FOLI.

With numerous Illustrations.

Crown 8 vo, Price Is., post free Is. 2 d.

By comparing your writing with specimens given in
the book you will be able at a glance to read your own
character.

Some of the subjects given in this valuable handbook
are

Famous Autographs and their Signification.

Character shown by flourishes.

Activity and Jealousy in handwriting.

All about the Graphological System.

Handwriting affected by illness.

The writing as an index to temperaments.

Effect of education on handwriting.

Handwriting and nationality.

Professions indicated by handwriting.

Qualities shown by handwriting.

Representative examples of handwriting.

Artists. 6 examples.

Clerical . 6 examples.

Law. 6 examples.

Literature . 6 examples.

Medical profession. 4 examples.

Music . 6 examples.

Philanthropists . 4 examples.

Poets . 6 examples.

Political . 9 examples.

Science . 6 examples.

The Services . 6 examples.

HnqHc And How to
1 ICdlUd Read Them

A Popular Guide to Phrenology.

By STACKPOOL E. O’DELL,

The Eminent Phrenologist.

With 20 Illustrations.

Crown 8 vo, Cloth , Price Is., post free Is. 2 d.

Some of the Contents of this Useful Handbook are :—
The Head —The aspiring head—The benefit of brains
—Correct measures—The domestic head — Faults and
failures—For a business man—Friendship indicated on
the head—How to discern temperaments—How to be
happy — The imaginative head — Intellectual heads —
Mechanical and business heads—Men women ought and
ought not to marry—The inoral head—Of a woman in
the Civil Service—Of an eccentric— Of millionaires—Of
reliable men—Of unworthy mothers — The perceptive
head—Photos tell a tale—The professional head—The
reflective head— A born cook— A servant who will do her
best—How to choose servants—Head showing activity,
matrimonial temperament, refined mind, vitality, etc.—
Specimens of girls’ heads—To choose a career for girls
— A word to ladies about types, etc.

f f And How to

nandS Read Them

By E. RENE.

Crown Svo, Cloth, Price is., post free Is. 2d.

Some of the contents of this book are : —

The different types and what they indicate—Short and
long fingered people—Fingers as the indicators of talents,
etc.—Evidence of will-power in the thumb—How to
judge of temper by the nails—Indications of health on
the nails—The mounts and their characteristics—Hands
devoid of lines and covered with lines—Principal lines
and their meanings—Signs of marriage—Influence lines—
Children—Ambition—Intemperance —How to measure
time and calculate age—Rules for reading the hands—
Straight and crooked fingers — A nervous child—On
training youth and choosing a profession—Hands of a
lawyer, clergyman, artist, musician, actor, diplomatist,
soldier, sailor, author, and other occupations—Hands of
the working classes—Signs of good and _ bad health—
Cause of unhappy marriages—How palmistry can help
—How to choose domestic servants—The hand of a
cook, housemaid, and nurse—On fortune-telling—Pre¬
dictions in regard to love and marriage—The line of
fame or fortune—Good and bad points to be found on a
man’s hand—Why date of death or probable insanity
should not be foretold, etc.

How Shall I
Word It?

A Complete Letter Writer for Men and
Women on all Subjects.

By ONE OF THE ARISTOCRACY.

Crown 8 vo. Cloth, Price Is., post free Is. 2 d.

Among the numerous letters contained in the book are
the following :—

Letters and Replies to application for a situation
as butler, clerk, companion,, cook, governess, groom,
housekeeper, lady’s maid, secretary, shop assistant, typist,
—Asking for characters of a cook, housemaid, nurse—
“At Home” invitations—Breaking off engagement—
Bride’s thanks for wedding present—Dance and dinner
invitations—From a workman to his sweetheart—From
gentleman or lady announcing his or her engagement—
Gentleman reproaching his fiancee with being a flirt—
Invitation to be bridesmaid—Lover to his fiancee offering
her her freedom—Mistress to servant—Notice to quit—
Letter of condolence—Proposal from widower to widow
—Proposal of marriage—Servant to mistress—Thanking
fiancee for present—To a doctor—To a neighbour or a
friend who is ill—To a tradesman—To an editor—To
publishers—When sending tickets to a lady—The best
taste in notepaper—Rule of punctuation—Underlining
words—Forms of address—Ways of ending letters, etc.,
etc.

To be had of all Booksellers, or of

C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., 17, HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.

How to Take and
Fake Photographs

By CLIVE HOLLAND,

Author of “Practical Hints on Photography ,” “ The
Artistic in Photography ,” etc., etc.

Crown 8vo, Cloth, Price Is., or post free Is. 2d.

Some of the chapters are :—

Chap. I.—THE DARK ROOM.

Its size — Fittings — Stock of Chemicals—Various
uses.

Chap. II.—CAMERAS, PLATES, AND FILMS.
The choice of a camera—Shutters—Plates and their
varieties—The various merits of plates and films,
etc.

Chap. IV.—EXPOSURE.

Testing speeds of plates—Tables of exposures—
Plate speed table—Exposure hints—Don’ts, etc.

Chap. V.—DEVELOPMENT OF NEGATIVES.
Developers—Normal Development—Development
of over-exposed and under-exposed plates—Local
development — Intensification and reduction of
negatives—Re-touching—Varnishing, etc., etc.

Small Gardens

And How to Make
the Most of Them

By VIOLET BIDDLE.

Crown 8 vo, Cloth , Price ± 3 ., post free Is. 2d.

This handbook teems with hints and wrinkles of the
utmost importance to amateur gardeners.

Some of the 18 chapters are :—

THE MANAGEMENT OF ROOM PLANTS—Best
kinds for “roughing it” — The proper way of
watering them, etc.

WINDOW BOXES — How to make them —Suitable
soil—Window Plants for different aspects, etc.

TABLE DECORATION—Preserving and resuscitating
flowers—Table of flowers in season, etc.

VARIOUS HINTS — Artificial manures — Labelling—
Cutting off dead flowers—Buying plants.

Table Tennis

And How to Play it

With Rules and several Illustrations.

By M. J. G. RITCHIE,

Ox the All-England Table-Tennis Club, and

WALTER HARRISON,

Of the Cavendish Table Tennis Club.

Cloth, Price Is., or post free Is. 2d.

This splendid handbook deals with :—

Ways of holding the racquet—Accessories for the
game—Methods of celebrated lawn-tennis players in
table-tennis—“Drives”—Forehand and backhand strokes
—Half-volleys—Hints for beginners—How to form table-
tennis clubs—How to learn the game—How to conduct
International matches—Leading strokes—The “Return”
—The “Service”—The “ Smash Handicap scoring
in match play—Necessary appliances for the game—
Necessary qualifications for a good player—Rules for
table-tennis—Special rules for match play—Strokes to
cultivate—The name versus ping-pong—American system
of tournament play—English system of tournament play
—Suggestions for a club tournament—Why it is called
“Ping-Pong,” etc., etc.

Poultry Keeping

And How to make it Pay

By F. E. WILSON,

Contributoi to “Poultry,” and the *‘ Farmer and
Stockbreeder .”

Price Is., post free Is. 2d.

Some of the 19 chapters are :—

Chap. I.—Making a start—Number of birds to begin
with, etc.

„ II.—Natural and artificial hatching—Setting a

hen—How to test eggs, etc.

,, III.—The rearing and management of chickens.

,, IV.—Houses and runs — The kind of house

wanted, etc.

„ V.—Foods and Feeding—Feeding in summer,

winter, etc.

, r VI.—Poultry for profit — Best egg - producing

breeds, etc.

,, VIII.—Breeding for egg-production.

IX.—Poultry for exhibition.

,, XVII.—Ducks—Duck rearing a profitable industry,
etc., etc.

To be had of all Booksellers, or of

C. ARTHUR PEARSON, LTD., 17, HENRIETTA STREET, LONDON, W.C.

* ♦

PP. :