EASTERN AND EGYPTIAN 
 SCENERY. RUINS, &c. 
 
EASTERN AND EGYPTIAN SCENERY, RUINS, &c 
 
 Jccompmcti tmtf) ©esmptfoc J2otcs, jHaps, anti plaits, 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE OF A JOURNEY FROM INDIA TO EUROPE, 
 
 FOLLOWED BY AN OUTLINE OF AN OVERLAND ROUTE, STATISTICAL REMARKS, &c. 
 
 INTENDED TO SHEW THE ADVANTAGE AND PRACTICABILITY OF 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION FROM ENGLAND TO INDIA. 
 
 By CAPTAIN C. F. HEAD, 
 
 QUEEN’S ROYAL REGIMENT. 
 
 SMITH, ELDER, AND CO., CORNHILL, LONDON. 
 1833 - 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
TO 
 
 HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY, 
 
 QUEEN ADELAIDE; 
 
 THIS WORK, 
 
 THE OBJECT OF WHICH IS TO MAINTAIN 
 
 THE BRITISH EMPIRE IN THE EAST, 
 
 TO EXTEND THE BENEFITS OF COMMERCE, 
 
 AND 
 
 TO OPEN A READY PATH TO THE MOST CELEBRATED MONUMENTS OF THE 
 
 ANCIENT WORLD, 
 
 IS, BY PERMISSION, 
 
 MOST RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED 
 BY HER MAJESTY’S MOST LOYAL 
 AND MOST FAITHFUL SUBJECT AND SERVANT, 
 
 CHARLES FRANCKLIN HEAD. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 A variety of circumstances liave combined to retard tlie appearance of the present work. 
 At the period when the author first entertained the idea of submitting to the public his views 
 on the subjects comprehended in it, he did not anticipate the necessity of entering so minutely into 
 detail, as, on subsequent reflection, he has deemed it requisite to do. The delay occasioned by 
 extending the range of investigation beyond its intended limits, has been the less regretted, as the 
 aspect of the political world, during the last eighteen months, seemed to hold forth little encou- 
 ragement for introducing subordinate schemes of improvement to the notice of influential persons. 
 Now that the great question which agitated the country is decided — at the moment when the 
 legislature has commenced its deliberations, the object of these pages may aptly claim consideration 
 recommended by the plea of utility alone, and unassisted by the graces of literary embellish- 
 ment. 
 
 The author has had a double object in view, namely, to promote a rapid communication with 
 India by way of Egypt, through the agency of steam navigation, and, as a natural consequence of 
 this measure, to secure our Indian frontier against the perils of northern invasion. In order to 
 leave no part of the question unilluminated, a journal of the line of route has been given, with 
 sketches of scenery and antiquities — instructions have been supplied for the navigator — calculations 
 for the economist — and statistical and political data for the proficient in military science. From the 
 aggregate mass of information, it is anticipated that the reality and practicability of the presumed 
 improvement will be admitted by all who enter into an examination of its details. 
 
 Presuming that the proposed change can be effected, that, instead of a four months’ voyage by 
 the Cape of Good Hope, the traveller to the East can accelerate his progress by two months, and 
 that a section of his course will be through Egypt, reasons innumerable suggest themselves in favour 
 of its adoption. As an addition to individual comfort, the propriety of the change is obvious. 
 The voyage up the Mediterranean would have none of the weariness incidental to protracted and 
 unvaried marine confinement. Even if it were absolutely monotonous, still Egypt would afford 
 ample compensation for temporary inconvenience. There, where the deities of the earlier world 
 keep their colossal state in the silence of the Desert — where the mysterious Nile pours forth exhaust- 
 less abundance — it would be impossible to sojourn without pleasure, or to depart without instruction. 
 The pen or the pencil may convey an impression of those things for which other lands are remarkable, 
 
 but no description or representation, however graphic, can awaken an adequate conception of the 
 power and majesty impressed upon the monuments of Egypt. 
 
 It is almost superfluous to expatiate upon the commercial importance of Egypt, or to advert 
 to the manifold benefits that Britain has derived from her ascendancy in Hindoostan. The harbour 
 of Alexandria is thronged with our vessels, and when the Pacha abandons his injudicious manufacturing 
 speculations and monopolies, our trade in that quarter must receive a large and profitable increase. 
 The regular transit of Europeans through the country would promote civilization, and foster those 
 friendly feelings already manifested towards us by the natives. Thus the humanizing influences of 
 polished life might be gradually diffused along the shores of the Arabian Gulf, and into the very heart 
 of Africa, while with their diffusion would arise a higher order of wants that would open new marts 
 for our manufactures, and fresh havens for our commerce. 
 
 Not to mention the great advantages that would result merely from the capacity to convey 
 intelligence to and from India in half the time usually occupied in the transmission of despatches, it 
 is clear that a close communication between Egypt and our Oriental territories would tend to con- 
 solidate our power and to augment our sources of wealth. The Egyptian ruler is by position a natural 
 
 ally an ally whom it would be our interest to support, and from the extension of whose authority 
 
 we could derive scarcely any injury, but, on the contrary, much good Should the Ottoman empire, 
 broken and superannuated, be assailed by Russian ambition, sound policy would dictate to England and 
 Egypt the expediency of co-operation against that power. Ours is not a rapacious policy, all that we 
 require is the peaceful intercourse of traffic, and this the whole tenour of Mohammed Ali s counsels 
 assures us we should obtain. 
 
 The ports of Jiddah and Mocha in the Red Sea are already the seat of a considerable 
 trade ; the former place is the great entrepot between India, Egypt, and Arabia ; many of its mer- 
 chants possess large capitals, secured to them by the rational policy of Mohammed Ali. Owing 
 to the scarcity of timber, the vessels of Jiddah are purchased at Bombay, and occasionally at Muscat, 
 or other Mussulman harbours. Jiddah being resorted to by pilgrims on their way to Mecca, the 
 Mussulmans of Hindoostan would avail themselves of a regular communication between our Eastern 
 possessions and the Arabian Gulf ; and thus passengers, as well as Parsee-built ships and Oriental 
 merchandize, would be forwarded at a profit to the chosen land of Islam from the island of Bombay. 
 
There can hardly be a doubt that the successes of Ibrahim Pacha will wring the cession of 
 Syria from his political superior. Egypt, Arabia, and Syria, fairly reduced to habits of order and 
 regulated industry, would form a noble empire. From the genius that has already achieved so much, 
 every thing may be expected ; and even if destiny should not allow the ruler of Egypt, or his son, 
 to complete the work they have carried on so boldly and so far, still there is no ground to fear, 
 that their improvements will perish with them. They have toiled too assiduously to engraft their 
 ideas upon the minds of those around them, to die without successors able and willing to follow in 
 their footsteps. Among the semi-barbarous tribes, whose regeneration these chiefs are endeavouring 
 to accomplish, England will find a ready market for her manufactures, receiving in return for her 
 cottons and hardware, the products with which nature may have blessed the soil. 
 
 A cursory glance at the proposed line of route is enough to demonstrate the rapidity with 
 which civilization must necessarily be communicated throughout the intermediate and yet unen- 
 lightened sections between England and Bombay. There would gradually be an interchange and 
 intermingling of population — prejudices would, ere long, disappear, and the slumbering energies of 
 some of the finest portions of the world would be re-awakened to restore their inhabitants their 
 lost position among the nations, and to repay the agents in their regeneration by the abundant fruits 
 of peaceful intercourse. 
 
 It may seem worse than supererogatory to say one word on the immense accession to her wealth 
 and power derived by Great Britain from keeping the key of the treasury of the East. From the 
 earliest ages, from the times when Oriental gold and spices were borne by the weary and perilous track 
 of the caravan, till now, when the majestic lndiaman arrives laden with tribute to our merchant 
 princes, the possession of that key seems to have been equivalent to holding a talisman of commercial 
 prosperity. Under the British government and its allies, there is a subject population pf at least 
 100,000,000 in Hindoostan. Our standing army in 1826, exceeded 300,000 men ; the territorial revenues 
 of the Company amounted, during the year 1827-28, to about twenty-three millions. In the year 1828 
 
 LONDON, FEBRUARY, 1833. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the value of the exports to India, by private trade, bordered on four millions ; and were the articles 
 of East India produce placed on an equal footing with those of our West India Colonies, there is no 
 doubt that this trade would speedily extend. These insulated points of statement will afford a general 
 idea of the importance of the magnificent dominions w'hich the writer of these pages is most 
 solicitous to see brought nearer to Great Britain : but no returns, however ample, would fully set 
 forth the multitudinous modes in which this island has been benefited by the connexion, unless they 
 included a list of the thousands who, having quitted our shores pennyless youths, with all their hopes 
 and expectations fixed upon the future, have returned bearing the characteristic title of “ Nabob," 
 to beautify the scenes of their early life with palatial residences, and to stir the lagging spirit of 
 native industry by the effective stimulus of capital. If we succeed in abridging the time and distance 
 between England and India by a half of its present extent, it would cause our domestic influences 
 to act upon her with a force double of that with which they operate at present. Even the speedy 
 transmission of intelligence is a consideration of no mean moment both for purposes of policy and 
 trade ; not to touch at all upon the plea of individual accommodation. 
 
 In the whole plan there is nothing theoretical, nothing hazardous, nothing that can compromise 
 those amicable relations with other states, which, as the first trading nation in existence, it is our 
 manifest interest to sustain and cherish. 
 
 For the details furnished in this unambitious publication, no further merit is claimed than 
 their good faith, and their total freedom from any leaven of alloy supplied from doubtful or sinister 
 sources. The writer has had no object to serve — no end to aim at — save the sincere desire to 
 promote the welfare of the country in whose service it was his lot to visit the lands, an acquaintance 
 with which suggested to him his present theme. If he should succeed in making himself understood, 
 all his literary aspirations will he gratified ; if he should prove instrumental to the adoption of the 
 changes he has recommended, he will congratulate himself on having, however rashly, entered on a 
 field foreign to the discipline to which he has been accustomed. 
 

 3 
 

BOMBAY 
 
 It was with the feelings natural to one who bids adieu to a peaceful residence among kind friends for 
 the purpose of encountering strange faces in an untried land, that I quitted Bombay, on the 6th of 
 October, 1829. Government despatches formed my passport. I was to be accommodated with a 
 passage halfway up the Red Sea, in a cruizer of the Honorable Company’s, which had been commis- 
 sioned to survey the south of the Gulf. For the remainder of the journey, I was to depend upon 
 such resources as circumstances might place before me. After leaving the cruizer, I saw no prospect 
 of having any companion except an interpreter, whom I hoped to find at Mocha. Persons of this 
 class are seldom to be procured in India, and for their services, when attainable, they demand an 
 exorbitant recompense. 
 
 Anxious that others should have the benefit of my experience, I would recommend to all who 
 may take the same route to provide themselves at Bombay with the requisite supply of comforts and 
 conveniences for the whole journey, of course regulating their stock by their peculiar mode of voy- 
 aging, whether by country vessels or otherwise. 
 
 The Benares, in which I sailed from Bombay Harbour, in common with the rest of the Company’s 
 cruizers, was officered by Europeans, and chiefly manned by natives. Regular discipline was maintained 
 on board, and there was none of that confusion and strife of tongues which form the disagreeable cha- 
 racteristic of vessels under the control of Asiatics. 
 
 As we glided with a light north-west wind past the Island of Colabali, the aspect of the receding 
 coast wore the outline of the accompanying sketch. How differently do the features of the Indian 
 landscape affect the minds of those who give them a first salutation, or a last adieu ! To the former, 
 they seem the confines of a land of promise, on which the imagination delights to revel, amidst visions 
 of Eastern pomp and luxury. To the latter, they appear melancholy remembrancers of dissipated 
 dreams— of long years of weary exile— of friends gone to the silent tomb— perhaps of ruined hopes, 
 and health irretrievably broken. V aried are the destinies of the adventurous Britons who point their 
 youthful course to Hindostan. 
 
 “ There are who stay to raise thy solid fame, 
 
 0 Albion ! and perpetuate thy name ; 
 
 Whose souls despise the tempting lure of spoil, 
 
 And seek but glory in the path of toil : 
 
 Yet many linger on the torrid shore 
 
 For wealth, till wealth can comfort life no more.” 
 
 But to return to the Harbour of Bombay. Not far behind the spot from which the view is 
 taken is a light-house, situated near the extremity of the Island of Colabah, which marks the western 
 
 HARBOUR. 
 
 entrance to the harbour. In the same direction is a cantonment for an European regiment, and, singular 
 enough, it is at present occupied by the “ Queen’s Royals.” I say singular, because Bombay was ceded 
 to England as part of the dowry of the Infanta of Portugal, who wedded Charles II., and it was this 
 very regiment that escorted the Princess to England, and received from her its honorable appellation, 
 with a flag bearing on it the date 1666. At the base of the view a knot of hamals (porters), with 
 a palanquin, are in waiting for their master, whose bungalow (country house) is partly visible. 
 
 In the Indian cantonments the walls of the houses are constructed of brick dried in the sun. 
 These are covered with roofs of straw or grass, secured at the angles by matting ; the whole being 
 made firm by a frame-work of wood. Blinds, or jalousies, open on verandahs that extend the full length 
 of the dwelling, and are useful for imparting coolness and shade to the rooms, and for affording the 
 means of limited exercise to the inmates. A hedge of the prickly pear, the common fence of India, 
 encloses the compound or grounds. 
 
 About half a mile from the point of view, and adjoining the arsenal, is a group of bungalows 
 shaded by palm-trees, concealing a causeway which unites the Islands of Colabah and Bombay. On 
 crossing this causeway, you arrive at the Castle, or Presidency. Numerous vessels are anchored off the 
 town , and beyond those that he seaward, little boats are seen proceeding up Salsette river, which sepa- 
 rates the islands from the continent. The time is sunrise, and the reddening rays distinctly develope 
 the bold outlines of the steep and rugged hills or ghauts, which, with their fortified peaks, form such 
 striking objects in the scenery of the Concan. The triangular-shaped hill, broken in its outline by 
 trees and jungles, is the Island of Elephanta, famed for its excavations. On its right are boats bound 
 for Panwell, a town about twenty-four miles from Bombay, the landing place of persons journeying to 
 the Deccan, or towards Calcutta or Madras. The houses in the fort are in a great measure hidden by 
 the lofty battlements of defences which have rendered Bombay a magazine for public and private 
 records. Without the town are crowded and noisy bazaars, calculated to interest and amuse the 
 stranger ; while, beyond these marts of petty speculation, embowered among palm trees, are many 
 pretty villas, the habitations of our countrymen, “ who, as soldiers, waste their joyless years in that 
 remote land, with the consciousness, indeed, of being useful, but with little glory ; — as civilians, in 
 severe, honorable, and important duties ; — as ministers of the gospel, in labours high and holy ; — always 
 anxious, ever slowly fruitful, and oftentimes altogether disappointing.” 
 
 The Island of Bombay is about ten miles in length by three in breadth. In 1816, it contained 
 20,/ 86 houses, which, allowing about eight persons to each house, gives a population exceeding 160,000 
 souls. There is, besides, an annual floating population of between sixty and seventy thousand persons. 
 The greater part of the Island is held by the Parsees, the descendants of the Persian fire-worshippers, 
 
2 
 
 BOMBAY. 
 
 who were expelled by the Mohamedans. They are a respectable class, and are distinguished as the best 
 ship-builders in India ; they entirely monopolize the docks of Bombay, and their vessels are considered 
 one-third more durable than any other ships of Indian construction. The markets here, though inferior 
 to those of Calcutta, excel those of Madras both in the quality and variety of the articles for sale. 
 
 Between the Presidency and Salsette the soil is barren, and little improved by cultivation. On 
 the eastern side of Salsette are many remains of Pagan temples. On the opposite continent, at Bassehn 
 are ruins of Catholic churches, the melancholy relics of Lusitanian sway. An inscription on a monu- 
 mental stone reminds us of their origin, in simple, but expressive, language, — “ Donna Maria de Souza, 
 1606.” This touching record of affection still endures long after the fruits of De Gama s enterprize 
 have been plucked from the hands of his countrymen. European supremacy in India has written its 
 achievements upon sand ; and, perhaps, even we ourselves, ere the lapse of many years, may be forgotten 
 on its shores ; for 
 
 “ Out upon Time ! he will leave no more 
 
 Of the things that are now, than of things before.” 
 
 The Island of Salsette abounds in mythological antiquities. The excavated caverns on the 
 eastern side are distinguished by spirited carving and colossal statues. Two gigantic figures of Buddha, 
 nearly twenty feet high, remain in a state of complete preservation, which they owe to the zeal of the 
 Portuguese, who painted them red, and converted the place they ornamented into a Catholic church. 
 The length of Salsette may be estimated at eighteen, and the breadth at thirteen miles. Its soil is 
 well adapted for the cultivation of sugar, cotton, hemp, flax, and indigo. 
 
 Elephanta, which is about seven miles from the Castle of Bombay, is formed of two long hills, 
 divided by a narrow valley. It is about six miles in circumference. The Portuguese gave the island its 
 European name, from the figure of an elephant cut out of the black rock, which stood on the acclivity 
 of one of the hills to the right of the landing place. The neck and head of the elephant dropped off, 
 in 1814, and the body threatens soon to follow. The great temple of Elephanta, which is hewn from 
 the living rock, is about 130 feet in extreme length, and 123 in breadth, and varies in height from 
 15 feet to 174 . It was supported by twenty-six pillars and sixteen pilasters ; but nearly one-third of 
 the former have been dismembered by the accumulation of water in the cavern, owing to the annual 
 rains. In the centre is a gigantic Trimurti, or three-formed god, — Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva ; the faces 
 of the deities are five feet long. There are also a number of carved figures in high relief, of other 
 Hindoo deities, (among them Brahma sitting on a lotus,) besides a multitude of mutilated mythological 
 decorations, which have fallen a sacrifice to mischievous curiosity and devotional hostility. The great 
 
 BOMBAY. 
 
 temple is half way up the mountain, and fronts the east. It is not now held m repute as a resort of 
 worshippers. The period when it was constructed is entirely unknown; but from the rapid decay 
 of the rock produced by the weather during late years, it is conjectured that it cannot be of very 
 remote antiquity. 
 
 As much of our path will he among sacerdotal monuments of the olden time, I may here 
 observe, that however wonderful are the excavations of Elephanta, they are far surpassed, both in 
 magnitude and in delicacy of execution, by similar works at Elora. The “ wonders of Elora consist of 
 a series of temples, extending along the side of a rocky mountain, on approaching which upwards of a 
 dozen are distinguishable. Three caves, similar to that of Elephanta, rise, one above the other, commu- 
 nicating by steps, and impressing the mind with a sense of superhuman grandeur. The following are 
 the dimensions of the grand temple and the cave Cailas, which are parts of the same excavation. 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF CAILAS. 
 
 Height of the gateway - -- -- -- 14 
 
 Passage of the gateway, having on each side rooms IS feet by 9 - - 42 
 
 Inner court— length of the gateway to the opposite scarp - - - 247 
 
 Ditto ditto breadth ----- 150 
 
 Greatest altitude of the rock out of which the court is excavated - - 100 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF THE GRAND TEMPLE. 
 
 Door of the portico, 12 feet high by 6 feet broad, length from the door of 7 
 the portico entering the temple to the back wall of the temple - f 
 
 Length from the same place to the end of the raised platform behind the temple 142 
 
 Extreme breadth of the inner part of the temple - 61 
 
 Height of the ceiling - -- -- -- 18 
 
 The pillars are finished with an endless diversity of embellishment, as if a multitude of artists had 
 been employed in endeavouring to rival each other in the most elaborate display of ingenuity and 
 skill. The Brahmins on the spot assert that these caves were formed nearly eight thousand years ago, 
 but what their real age may be we have no precise means of ascertaining. Unlike the temples of 
 Egypt, no vestige of any kind of writing is traceable upon the rocks of Elora. With respect to the 
 religious application of the Indian temples, the figures they contain shew that those of Salsette apper- 
 tain to the Buddhists, that of Elephanta to the Brahmins, and those of Elora to both. 
 
VILLAGE & BAY OF TAM A BA. 
 
 Island of Socatra 1 akea from the Nortk. 
 
 Jfonfrd/ C2/ulfai<md<-/ : 
 
THE ISLAND 
 
 Having rounded the southern point of Colabah, we steered about west-south-west ; and with light 
 winds from the north, broken by occasional calms, we sailed at an average rate of eighty miles a day, 
 until, on the 18th, we came in sight of the Island of Socatra. The breezes became lighter as we 
 approached the island, the bold and picturesque scenery of which we had full opportunity of observing 
 as we coasted by its northern side to gain the anchoring-place. During the voyage, the thermometer 
 rose to 81°, when the sun reached the meridian, and fell during the night to 78°, making a delightful 
 temperature in the refreshing shade of the awnings, with which all vessels in these latitudes are 
 provided. 
 
 On the 20th, we anchored in Tamara Bay, at three-quarters of a mile from the shore. -A 
 small village on the coast, lying nearly in a line with Chimney Hill, the highest peak of the moun- 
 tain, gives its name to the bay, which is about thirty miles from the east point of the island. The 
 village is inhabited by upwards of two hundred Arab families. Its insulated mosques, and ruins, and 
 extensive burial-grounds, afford indications of former populousness and prosperity. 
 
 Socatra, the Dioscorides of the ancients, is the nearest land to India in the direction of the 
 Red Sea. On reference to the map, it will be seen that it was almost in the line of the ship's course. 
 Its soil produces tamarind and date trees ; of the latter," an abundance : but the bounty of Nature 
 is lost upon the barbarous inhabitants, who seem utterly insensible of the benefits to be derived 
 from industry. 
 
 Chimney Hill, on the peak seen in a line with the village, is the highest part of the Island, 
 and rises upwards of 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The mountain is completely crested with 
 rocks resembling spires, the dark shadows of which, contrasted with the lustre of their opposite sides 
 sparkling in the sun, produce a brilliant effect. Irregular masses of rock, seemingly detached from 
 the summit of the mountain, are seen midway, forming a rude heap on its side. Vultures hover over 
 the highest peak, as if triumphing in the security of their inaccessible abode. Not a shrub, or blade 
 of grass, relieves the savage nakedness of the numerous rocky pinnacles. Some indigenous plants are 
 found towards the base of the mountain, and among them the aloe, for which this island was always 
 famous. There is a fine stream of fresh water near the village : light falls of rain are unknown ; when 
 the clouds discharge their stores, the descent is in torrents. According to Arrian, Socatra, in the second 
 century of the Christian asra, was inhabited by Arabs, Greeks, and Hindoos, who had long been esta- 
 blished there for the purposes of trade. 
 
 This Island, like other countries that fell under the iron rule of Mohamedanism, was deprived 
 of the advantages of unrestricted social intercourse, and was for many centuries almost forgotten. 
 During this period of darkness, it sank into a state of utter neglect and insignificance, in which it re- 
 
 OF SOCATRA 
 
 mained until an European nation entered the Eastern Seas. It was found, by the Portuguese, shorn of 
 its ancient name, and of every trace of its former civilization. Vincent Sodrez was the first of that 
 people who visited Socatra. The Island was afterwards attacked by an armament under Tristan 
 D’Acunha, w ith a view to occupy it, and thereby check the advance of an enemy from the Red Sea. 
 The garrison, with their chief, after making a desperate resistance, were all put to the edge of the 
 sword ; but the captors soon perceived that their conquest was not worth retaining. Eastern trade 
 had passed to the continent, and in the time of Marco Paolo the vessels which came from India were 
 unladen at the port of Aden. Socatra is admirably adapted to form, like St. Helena, a strong and 
 useful resting-place for ships in their progress between the eastern and western markets, and on this 
 ground merits to be made the seat of an English colony. Already a trade is maintained between this 
 island and the continents adjacent ; and, should it again become the scene of active commercial 
 resort, it will afford an eligible mart for the exchange of our manufactures for the ivory and gold dust 
 of Africa and the spices of Arabia. 
 
 Socatra is about eighty miles long by twenty broad, and contains several harbours. It is under 
 the nominal sovereignty of the Imaum of Muskat, who, by means of a naval force, consisting of a 
 single frigate, maintains supremacy over the maritime towns in these seas. The present inhabitants 
 are of the wildest description of Mohamedans. All of them are armed with matchlock, sword, or 
 target ; and those who can procure nothing more effective carry spears. They live amongst ruins, in 
 low square buildings, separated from each other by high walls. They appear to have had but little 
 intercourse with Europeans, but were sensible of the advantages of trade, offering every article they 
 had to spare, which they conceived likely to prove acceptable. They brought dragon’s blood, some 
 fowls and fish, and begged for rice in exchange, in preference to money. 
 
 The sheik, or governor, whose mean appearance corresponded with the poverty of his vassals, 
 came on board to welcome our arrival. He was rowed in a rude canoe by a single attendant. 
 They had no hesitation in mounting the side of the vessel, and both walked the deck of a man of 
 war with savage nonchalance. Whilst the sheik was standing in the midst of scrutinizing strangers, 
 his gaze became fixed upon the sun, at that moment sinking below the horizon. As the ruddy orb 
 dropped out of sight, he turned towards Mecca, and began his evening devotions ; and with the 
 utmost regardlessness of all around him, he continued his orisons for ten or twelve minutes. 
 
 ADEN. 
 
 We sailed from Socatra on the 22nd of October, and pursued our course towards the west. 
 The winds were southerly, and we made about one hundred miles each day. In five days we came 
 
4 ADEN. 
 
 STRAITS OF BAB-EL-MANDEL. 
 
 within sight of the Coast of Arabia, and on the 29th anchored in the Bay of Aden. A village, com- 
 prising a couple of hundred wretched habitations of Arabs, situated at the head of the Bay, amidst 
 heaps of l'ubbish and ruins, indicates the fallen fortunes of the place you are approaching. Another 
 cluster of huts, inhabited by two or three hundred Jewish families, is seen at a little distance from 
 the Arabian dwellings ; and a few houses of two stories, occupied by Banyans, or Indian merchants, 
 shew that Aden is a place which, even in decay, possesses some commercial attractions. 
 
 On a nearer approach, battlements of well-cut masonry, with arched sally-ports, are observed 
 lining the shore, while watch-towers crown the summits of a high range of mountains that begins at 
 the south end of the continent, and runs inland from beyond the town. Accumulated sand offers an 
 easy ascent to the ramparts, on which I saw three brass guns 18 or 20 feet in length. I was 
 informed that several others were buried in the sand. These remains attest the glory and enterprize 
 of Albuquerque, and shew the prosperous state of Portugal when in possession of Eastern 
 commerce. 
 
 Every thing that meets the eye of the traveller at Aden is calculated to awaken sad reflection 
 on the vicissitudes of nations. Its present desolation is mournfully contrasted with the records of that 
 prosperity which prevailed on the shores of Arabia the Happy, before Greece had attained her arts 
 or Rome her power. Yet, altered as it is, Nature has not withdrawn her favour from the soil. The 
 trees still shed their “ medicinal gum the luscious date still furnishes a ready repast ; and the coffee- 
 plant produces a superior article of luxury, to enliven the sober Moslem, and cheer the social circles 
 of Christian Europe. 
 
 Aden affords facilities for the establishment of an advantageous market. Good water may be 
 obtained, and fine sheep, brought from Africa, may be purchased at between three and four shillings a 
 piece. There is an air of extreme primitiveness around the place and its people. The sheik, a modest 
 and civil young man, had the sides of his apartments decorated with such humble ornaments as glass 
 bottles and cups ; and the mixture of rude tribes that formed the population of the town was such 
 as might he presumed to have been congregated on the same spot a thousand years ago. 
 
 I wandered about the town in company with some Arabs, who took their leave on approaching 
 the Jewish quarter. One of the Arabs described the residents in this district as a “ poor people ; ” 
 and his remark derived additional force from his own squalid appearance, which might well draw forth 
 the sympathy of the European traveller. 
 
 Advancing towards the ruinous habitations of the Jews, I heard a loud burst of voices, which, 
 on proceeding nearer, I found to be produced by twenty or thirty boys, engaged in singing the Psalms 
 of David. Many copies of the Old Testament were in their possession. I was conducted to the 
 Synagogue, the mean appearance of which shewed the poverty of the worshippers. These outcasts | 
 
 of Israel have lost none of those peculiarities of feature which distinguish them from all the nations 
 among which they seek subsistence and a home. 
 
 On our return to the boat, a motley assembly were collected for the purpose of expressing 
 their kind feelings, and at the same time satisfying their curiosity. None of the party was more 
 conspicuous than the stately Abyssinian, with spear in hand. Amply clad about the waist, the 
 remainder of his upright form was proudly exhibited, his white teeth vying with the finest ivory, and 
 contrasting singularly with the jet black skin. The most striking point in the appearance of these 
 men, was a head-dress of white hair, frizzled out to the size of a judge’s wig. This extraordinary and 
 laughable effect is produced by a constant application of lime plastered over the head, till the black 
 hair is turned, first, to a reddish hue, and afterwards to white. The wig is decorated with wooden 
 combs of a yellow colour, and no dandy in modern Europe can surpass these African fops in the pains 
 they take to render themselves ridiculous. 
 
 In the morning of the 30th, the Islands that lie in the outlet from the Red Sea were before us ; 
 the distant hills on the African Coast were seen on our left, and had a flatter appearance than the 
 mountains of Arabia. We passed through the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel, the wind, as it always does, 
 increasing in strength at the entrance of the Straits. Being the N. E. monsoon, it blew directly 
 towards the Red Sea. 
 
 The ship was rounded to the east, and, soon after passing the Islands, anchored in a fine bay. 
 A few Arab boats were seen stealing along the beach, and two of them anchored within hail of us. 
 I went on shore and found this part of the coast distinguished by all the sterility of Aden, unaccom- 
 panied by the appearance of a single habitation. A large salt marsh, with an incrusted surface, was 
 partly covered by the advancing tide, and the solitude of the spot was only broken by the wild 
 screams of flocks of sea birds. 
 
 In a short time a few fishermen appeared, and excited surprise at their existing amidst such a 
 scene of desolation. Having crossed a wide belt of sand and coral, I was led on by the expectation 
 of getting a shot at some antelopes which I saw at the bottom of a chain of hills. The chase took 
 me through a deep chasm, into the centre of a wild and dreary mountain, where all was still. I looked 
 in vain for water, or the appearance of herbage. It is marvellous how the Bedouin contrives to 
 glean a subsistence on such a spot. But freedom is dear to the sons of the Desert ; and they 
 prefer a life of vicissitude and toil on the sandy plain, to a residence in the civic prisons, where 
 Eastern despots capriciously trample on the dearest rights of man. 
 
 The breeze lessened as the sun went down, but there was enough of wind to waft us, on the 
 1st of November, in seven hours, to the anchorage in the open roadstead at Mocha, about two miles 
 from the shore. 
 
MOCHA 
 
 5 
 
 A clear idea of the appearance of Mocha from the sea will be conveyed by the view of Jiddah 
 in the next plate, and the same will hold good of Hodeida, Camfoodah, and Yamboo, which are the 
 other walled towns on this coast. 
 
 Each has been well described as resembling, at a distance, a town of white marble. The 
 square form of the houses is relieved by ornamented minarets, surmounted by the crescent. There 
 is, at this place, one mosque to five thousand Mohamedans ; and, according to the amount of popula- 
 tion, the same proportion will be found to prevail in all the towns on the borders of the Red Sea. 
 
 Behind the town, and separated from the sea by a belt of sand, is a back ground of mountains 
 running north and south, with rugged tops, “barren and bare, unsightly, unadorned.” These are 
 the continuance of a mountain range which extends from the very extremity of the Red Sea to 
 the southern part of Arabia. Coral and sand-banks prevent large vessels from approaching near the 
 shore, without great difficulty ; whilst the strong winds that always blow in this quarter, by rendering 
 the passage to and from the town arduous, if not dangerous, deprive Mocha of the advantages it 
 might otherwise enjoy, as a halting-place for shipping. Many large dows or buggalows, (country 
 vessels,) with freights from India, were anchored off the town. Djerms — barks of a smaller descrip- 
 tion — were still more numerous ; and in these the trade is carried on with the ports higher up 
 the Red Sea. 
 
 A loop-holed wall, flanked by towers, rises from the water, and extends the whole length of the 
 town. The defences wear a formidable appearance at a distance, but sink very much in estimation on 
 a close inspection. They are rudely built, and ready to fall on a first discharge of the few cannon 
 on the battlements. There is a good landing-place, formed by a projecting pier. 
 
 On the arrival of a stranger, numerous wild figures give him greeting, and offer their services 
 in broken European languages. If the traveller be an Englishman, he will find a most attentive and 
 kind friend in Sheik Tyebe, a native of India, who is agent to the Honourable East India Company. 
 Under his escort we passed the Arab guard, stationed at the entrance from the pier; some of 
 whom were smoking, or regaling with coffee ; but the greater part were sleeping. Their dark green 
 dress and rude fire-arms created a feeling more akin to wonder than awe. Benches are erected in front 
 of all public places, to accommodate the lazy habits of the Orientals. We observed a few Turks, who 
 were easily distinguished from the Arabs, by their greater bulk and more abundant trappings. They 
 east a significant and haughty look on the passing Giaours. The illiberal feeling of the disciples of the 
 Koran gradually disappears as they come more in contact with other nations ; but at this place, about 
 ten years since, their intolerance was carried so far, and such repeated insults were offered to British 
 subjects, that a frigate, and a few of the Company’s cruisers, were sent from Bombay to demolish one 
 
 of the forts. This having been accomplished, and a few shells thrown into the town, an apology 
 was given, and civil treatment has been the result. But the evil spirit of bigotry cannot be easily 
 expelled, and a blood-red flag still waves above their battlements, and exhibits the device of a deca- 
 pitated Christian. 
 
 On entering the narrow streets of the town, the houses are found to be high, some built of 
 coral rock ; others, of brick, baked in the sun, plastered and white-washed. Their sides are studded 
 with loop-holes and projecting windows irregularly disposed. The latter have jalousies and fanciful 
 fret-work ornaments ; and the spaces within being carpetted, form lounging places for the inmates. 
 On the summits of the flat roofs are battlements, with doors leading to the upper apartments, a por- 
 tion of the premises held sacred to female use. 
 
 The population of the town gather about the coffee-shops, and at all hours ply the hookah 
 and the pipe, on seats beneath spreading awnings. 
 
 The most amusing scene that offers is the Bazaar, which may be called the very heart of an 
 Eastern town. There the traveller one moment passes the noisy artisan ; he is next attracted by 
 the seller of dates ; then comes the vender of roast meat swimming in gravy, and of ready-baked 
 pan-cakes. There are many shops for coffee, vegetables, and corn ; stands for bread, sweet-meats, and 
 perfumes are also conspicuous. Tailors, barbers, sandal- makers, and money-dealers, form part of the 
 motley group. Here and there are armourers’ shops, with specimens of workmanship, and several stores 
 of wearing apparel, arranged with much art to catch the eye. The whole is intermixed with coffee- 
 shops, and okellas, or court-yards ; the former for the lounging townsman, the latter for the busy 
 merchant and passing traveller. 
 
 All these occupations, and a few more crowded in narrow streets, covered with canvas awnings, 
 form what is called in the East a Bazaar. The fronts of the shops are secured by wood-work, like the 
 large shutters that are seen in London, but there is neither glass nor door. The window is the shop, 
 and the shopman sits on a floor, level with the passers by, who, turning aside, reach the various articles 
 for sale. I could see nothing of British manufacture, but some crockery ware. 
 
 It would be difficult to describe the groups that are seen to pass when the observer retires for 
 a few moments to a coffee-shop. He is amused by the ample, though shabby, robes of a lusty Turk, 
 forming a contrast to the dark-coloured and scanty costume of the keen-eyed searching Bedouin, — 
 parties who exchange looks as hostile as their habits. Next comes an erect African, whose features 
 and complexion denote him to be of Abyssinia. He is followed by a short, stout-limbed native of 
 Sennaar. Hindoo Banyans, or merchants from India, in loose attire, enliven the group. Jews are 
 also seen, with stealthy step, evading observation. All these races may be easily distinguished from 
 
6 
 
 MOCHA. 
 
 the Arabs of the towns, and also from each other. Amongst the crowds that frequent the Bazaar, the 
 eye may search in vain for a portion of the other sex. If a female be seen, she is robed in garments 
 covered by a cloak that totally conceals her form, whilst her face is secured by a silk handkerchief. 
 Her feet are clogged by large, loose boots; she appears to stagger from being thus encumbered, 
 and seems an object of pity to Europeans, whose opinions on this subject are ridiculed by the demi- 
 savages, by whose iron customs woman has been degraded. 
 
 As the stranger continues to advance through the crowd that fills the Bazaar, the confusion 
 he encounters is heightened by the passing of camels, fastened to each other, and burthened with 
 loads that almost sweep the sides of the streets. At another time a prancing horse, or galloping mule, 
 creates a commotion that renders a man’s vigilance essential to his safety. 
 
 Every one is armed ; and it is more curious than agreeable to see the loaded pistol and pointed 
 spear ready for use in the hands of fiery fanatics, in case of imaginary insult. 
 
 Issuing from the gate of Mocha, the traveller enters on a parched plain, that extends to the 
 foot of the mountains. A few wells of brackish water at different parts of the waste irrigate some 
 date-trees. Good water is brought from a distance, and is here an article of traffic, as it is all along 
 the coast of the Red Sea. 
 
 Without the walls are three separate villages, one occupied by Abyssinians, one by Jews, and the 
 third by labouring Arabs. The last occupy the kind of habitations seen in the foreground of the illus- 
 trative plate. Looking back on the town, the walls, as when seen from the water, wear a formidable 
 aspect. The white houses piled over each other, with the numerous apartments for females on their 
 roofs, make a gay appearance, which is heightened by signal-posts and look-out houses, used by the 
 merchants. The exterior dwellings are of a conical shape ; some have upright walls with a rounded 
 top, others have the sides inclining gradually from the base to a point. They look prettily at a little 
 distance : in such abodes, Bedouins, who come to market, for the most part, reside. 
 
 On our right we see the English burial ground, walled, and secured by a gate. Few of our 
 countrymen have been interred there. It remains, undisturbed, an act of extraordinary forbearance 
 on the part of Mohamedans, and the more deserving of notice , as a respectable Moslem tomb stands 
 beside it. 
 
 On our left are a few date-trees, which, from the unfavourable nature of the soil, do not con- 
 stitute a good specimen of this rich production of Eastern countries. 
 
 Mocha is the principal port of Arabia called the Happy. It is under the chief of Saanna, a 
 place about 150 miles inland, situated among the mountains. From the grapes, tobacco, and various 
 other productions, forwarded from Saanna to Mocha, the two countries must exhibit, in all respects, a 
 very striking contrast. Although the coffee country is higher up than Mocha, large quantities are 
 shipped from that port for foreign markets, and there is made the great interchange of Eastern and 
 European manufactures for the produce of Arabia. From Mocha, a fresh trade is opened with the 
 
 CAMAEAN. 
 
 ports higher up the Red Sea ; by which arrangement, the tribes of the interior, already impoverished 
 and sinking under difficulties, have the additional expense attendant on a double voyage. All this 
 might be removed by the establishment of a depot for commerce at a convenient harbour. 
 
 In the evening of the 6th of November, we left our station opposite Mocha, and stood up 
 the sea. During the time we lay off this place, the south-east wind at mid-day had freshened, so as to 
 make the passage to and from the town very inconvenient. Its strength always declined towards 
 sun-set, and during the night there was comparative calm. 
 
 The morning after our departure, the ship arrived and anchored off Hodeidah, a town walled 
 and built like Mocha and Jiddah. It possesses considerable trade ; the inhabitants were civil, and 
 shewed no distrust of foreigners. Early on the morning of the 8th we again continued our course. 
 About this latitude the wind abates that blows with such violence through the Straights of Bab- 
 el-Mandel. 
 
 ISLAND OF CAMARAN. 
 
 Soon after mid-day we reached the Island of Camaran, in the territory of the chief of Saanna. 
 It lies fifteen or twenty miles off the main land, and has a harbour to the north, with good anchorage 
 for vessels of any size within a few yards of the shore. There can be little doubt, that this port, 
 which, like Socatra, offers a desirable resting-place for steam-vessels sailing between Egypt and Bom- 
 bay, would become a considerable mart for the trade of Sennaar and Abyssinia, countries that at present 
 can only obtain linen, muslins, and other articles, by sending caravans hundreds of miles across the 
 dreary deserts to the markets of Egypt. From the expense incidental to this mode of traffic, the 
 ventures of ivory, feathers, gums, and other African productions, require to be augmented by the sale 
 of some thousands of human beings, to balance the account for the requisite returns. 
 
 The town contains about 100 families, and is situated on the side of the basin or harbour. 
 It has a Bazaar, tolerably well supplied, and, at a distance of half a mile, a few stunted date-trees mark 
 the site of some wells, where fresh water is procured at a depth of twenty feet. A rude fort, that 
 would be strong, if not assailed by cannon, protects this bustling little place. Several small vessels, in 
 progress to construction, shewed the inclination to commerce and industry that prevailed among the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 At the fort there was a guard of Arabs, who were unwilling to permit us to inspect it. The 
 sharp, penetrating eye, weather-beaten face, and active figure of these Bedouins, are becomingly set off 
 by a dark dress of green, sombre as the Desert. 
 
 The Island of Camaran is formed of one rock of coral, which appears to have grown per- 
 pendicularly till it attained the height of twenty feet above the level of the sea. Its surface is 
 without the slightest inequality: After leaving it behind, we, in a few hours, gained the opposite 
 coast, and arrived at the town of Loheia. 
 
LOHEIA 
 
 7 
 
 Banks of sand and coral render the navigation at this point very difficult. The coast is 
 marked by a broad belt of desolation, similar to that which divides Mocha from the mountains, 
 
 Loheia, not being a fortified town, affords a true specimen of an Arab settlement. It is sur- 
 rounded by Bedouins, and frequently attacked by them. The Bazaar and cattle markets are enclosed 
 within a well-built wall, flanked by towers. The town is protected by a fort, and as at Camaran, 
 jealousy of our approaching it was exhibited. 
 
 On landing, the inhabitants were agitated, appearing as if they had seldom held intercourse with 
 Europeans. Soldiers, armed with matchlocks, began to assemble with the matches burning. A visit 
 to the Sheik led to an exchange of civilities, and the treaty of amity was established with all due for- 
 mality on our proceeding to handle each others’ weapons. We were afterwards allowed to roam about 
 at pleasure. Outside the Bazaar there were regular streets, with houses shaped as represented in the 
 plate. They are formed of a slight bamboo frame, thatched with hay, which, to obviate the injuries 
 of heat and wind, is covered with numerous ropes made of the same material. Each family has a 
 distinct enclosure, containing houses or huts, of a square or circular form, in which they live secluded 
 from their neighbours. All intercourse amongst the men is held outside. They recline on a rude 
 couch, or a broad bench, occasionally placed under a verandah. 
 
 The mosque, like every thing seen at Loheia, is in a neglected state. The pillars stand in a 
 double row, united to each other and to the wall by pointed arches, every four of which support a 
 dome ; they are plastered and whitewashed on the exterior. The domes correspond in number and 
 size to the importance, as does the minaret, or steeple, to the extent, of the mosque. From the 
 top of the minaret the Mueddin calls the true believers to prayer, by the usual announce- 
 ment : — “ There is no God but God, and Mohamed is the prophet of God, &c.” To direct the 
 
 people in their devotions, a mahrab, or niche, is made in a part of the mosque, indicating the 
 
 kiblah, or exact bearing of Mecca. Towards this point the congregation turn to pray. Near the 
 niche there is a pulpit, or place from which the Imam delivers his discourse. 
 
 Ruined buildings, and other indications of the past, shew that Loheia has declined in 
 importance. It still carries on a considerable trade with Mocha and Jiddah, exporting to the 
 former town coffee-beans, dates, and honey-comb, brought from the interior, and exchanged for 
 
 articles of dress, utensils, drugs, &c. All these branches of traffic would be readily transferred to 
 
 Camaran. 
 
 Water is conveyed to Loheia from a distance, in small jars, carried in a frame as depicted 
 in the plate. The universal sterility that exists on this coast, where no stream is known to reach 
 the sea, and the wildness of the roving tribes, cause us to wonder how produce, that requires care 
 
 and cultivation, can be obtained from such unpromising sources. Our curiosity is satisfied by 
 information obtained from Burkhardt, who says, that “ about these mountains there is abundance 
 of water rising from springs and rivulets, which causes them to be well cultivated, and more closely 
 inhabited than any other part of Arabia.” The Arabs are divided into tribes, each able to furnish 
 six or eight thousand fighting men. They practise the forms and rites of their ancestors, and are 
 noted for hospitality. From these mountains, they descend to the coast, for the purpose of traffic. 
 There is no difficulty in distinguishing the Bedouin, or Wandering Arab, from his brother of the 
 town. The former, although in rags, displays an air of superior independence, and seems to own 
 no master, but to be equally indifferent to authority as to riches. 
 
 The walled Bazaar, with its towers and gates, indicate the opinion entertained of the 
 honesty of the neighbouring tribes. Among the residents of the place are several Hindoo mer- 
 chants. Coffee is shipped from hence to Mocha for the foreign supply, and there is a consider- 
 able trade in mineral salt, which is quarried in the neighbourhood. At the time of my visit, a 
 great part of the inhabitants had fled with their property to the Island of Camaran, in consequence 
 of some marauding incursion of the Bedouins. The government appeared to have little weight or 
 stability, and an attack from the troops of the Pacha of Egypt was expected. There can be no doubt 
 that this ruler could easily subdue the whole coast of Arabia, the troops of the country having no 
 tactics nor organization. 
 
 I he extensive burial-places, with mosques and ruins seen around the town, are memorials of 
 the time when Europe was supplied with coffee through Egypt, and Loheia was the port of shipment 
 to the latter. The annual export of coffee then amounted to 16,000 bales, of 305 lbs. each. European 
 vessels now go round to the Red Sea for this article ; and Mocha has become the mart for a trade 
 that more properly belongs to Loheia, from its vicinity to the mountains where the coffee grows. 
 This branch of traffic would be at once transported to Camaran, if sales could be effected there, for 
 the wretched state of native seamanship in the Red Sea makes any addition to a voyage a matter 
 both of personal and pecuniary importance. 
 
 At Mocha, the Imam exacts a fourth part of the coffee before it can be exported. At 
 Jiddah, Europeans are only required to pay an import duty of 8 per cent., other nations 13 per cent. 
 Under such thraldom the Arabs are forced to remain. Some independent tribes made repeated 
 offers to Europeans of exclusive commercial privileges, if a mart were established at Loheia, provided 
 they were supplied with arms in return, without which they are unable to throw off the yoke that 
 oppresses them. 
 
 Loheia is at the margin of the sandy waste which separates the sea from the chain of mountains. 
 
8 GHESAN. 
 
 Water is brought from the interior, and no advantage, save that of trade, is held out to a settler in this 
 dreary spot. The plain produces a few saline and succulent plants, that tend to relieve the thirst of 
 the cattle, and afford some little relief to the eye of the weary wanderer. Though showers are a rare phe- 
 nomenon in these lower regions, they are frequent in the adjoining mountains, and there the vine vies 
 in richness with the fig. There are other fruits, and various kinds of grain scattered amidst rocks 
 watered by rivulets ; but the boast of Arabia is her coffee, which possesses the most valued qualities, 
 and owns a flavour superior to any derived from the different soils to which it has been transplanted. 
 Beyond the hills are the extensive plains called the Nedjez, noted for a fine breed of camels and of 
 asses. But, of the animal tribes, the horse is the pride of the country, and as such is known through- 
 out the world. The breed of Solomon is said to have been preserved in purity of blood through a 
 course of 2000 years. 
 
 On the 10th we sailed from Loheia, and skirted past several islands and shoals. The winds 
 were now variable and light. The following day we reached Ghesan, where there are between 
 
 two and three hundred houses crowded together and protected by a fort. There was likewise 
 
 a Bazaar, but altogether the place is much inferior to Loheia. The natives informed us, that this 
 
 was the second time they had seen an European vessel. Ghesan is the first place under the Pacha of 
 
 Egypt, that is touched at in going up the Red Sea. 
 
 At the period of this voyage the sun was to the south of the equator. The land wind, which 
 in the morning blew east, veered to south-east, then to south ; and by mid-day it had attained south- 
 west. After noon it veered to the west, and declined before night at north. The same revolution 
 occurred every four-and-twenty hours, and, in consequence, vessels might pursue their course slowly 
 in either direction. This accounts for the voyages of the ancients, who crept as we did along the 
 shore, taking forty days to reach the mouth of the Red Sea, from the port of Berenice ; and forty more 
 to gain a harbour on the Malabar coast. I once sailed in a patamar, or boat of India, similar to 
 the djerm of the Red Sea, along the coast of Malabar, at a time of the year when the sun was north 
 of the equator. The same alternating winds prevailed as those I have described, save that tliey 
 veered by north, and the same method of navigation was adopted, though there were no reefs or 
 shoals to contend with. 
 
 Fish of brilliant colours abound beside the coral reefs, some spotted with glowing green 
 and blue, others tinted with bright red. Several were caught by the natives, and proved to be whole- 
 some food. In floating above the coral, the transparent water often causes a sensation of great alarm, 
 and gives a full view of different kinds of corals or madrepores, peculiar to the Red Sea ; such as the 
 fungous or mushroom coral, with a round head like a cauliflower, and others of various hues. Some 
 strings of beautiful black coral were offered for sale on this coast. It is held in great repute by pilgrims 
 proceeding to Mocha, and may be procured at Jiddah, but I could not find any in Egypt. 
 
 el CASSAR. — CAMFOODAH. 
 
 P-i-g reefs ^ we re.vhrel to I— 
 
 above the re, A l„ from i« on the main to* »" * h « 13t "’ f ™ *“ W " “ 
 
 El Cassar, oee.piod b, Brf.uin Arabs, whore saattored habitation, are planted round a bay. Camel, 
 
 were feeding in an inland jungle, or brush-wood hollow. 
 
 The tribe that oreupio, this country, i. called the Ten, Arabs, and very numerous. The 
 females, contrary to the general custom among Mohamedans, uncover the free. El Car ™ he 
 to, ton w. L on the coast without a for. or battlement The B.doum re,,,,,., no defence 
 beyond his sword, and surrenders liberty only with life. A few miles above El Cassar, Arabia Felix 
 
 terminates, and the territory of the Hedjaz, or Arabia Deserta, begins. 
 
 With light and variable winds, and creeping within the chain of islands and reefs that runs 
 nearly parallel to the coast, on the 15th we reached Camfoodali. It had been found necessary to anchor 
 during the night, in consequence of the difficult navigation. At Camfoodali we were received cour- 
 teously by the Dowlah, or governor. Four or five hundred of the Pacha of Egypt’s Turkish troops 
 being quartered here, the place had a respectable appearance. The town is walled and defended by 
 some cannon. It has a well-supplied Bazaar, and water is brought from a distance. The houses, which 
 are built of blocks of coral rock, cut twelve or fifteen inches square, appear to be of a very perish- 
 able nature. Without the gate of the town, there are numerous huts for the labouring people and 
 Bedouins, who come to market. 
 
 The water is so shallow at this part of the coast, that camels are employed to load the trading 
 boats, of which there were about twenty at anchor. I paid a visit to a coffee-house, where many 1 urks 
 were playing at backgammon, and others smoking, I examined the pistol of one, and found it in good 
 order, and primed for ready use. Some of them accompanied us to the ship, where, in despite of the 
 
 votee of the bottle could desire. 
 
 We continued to sail with light winds, and on the 17th landed, to visit a town which, from the 
 ship, appeared to be about a mile inland. We had been deceived by the mirage, or false meridian ; 
 for as we proceeded towards it, the distance seemingly increased, till it at length retired several 
 miles off. We were about to return, when some of the boat's crew begged leave to run to a neigh- 
 bouring lake. This also proved to be a deception, one of the many instances of illusion caused by 
 the same phenomenon. I often found it quite impossible, in consequence of the floating sheets of 
 vapour, to form any judgment as to distances. The mirage supplied the following picturesque simile 
 in the Koran, “As to the unbelievers, their works are like a vapour in a plain, which the thirsty traveller 
 thinketh to be water, until, when he cometh thereto, he findeth to be nothing.” 
 
 Our progress, in consequence of the light winds, was slow, and it was riot till the 23rd that 
 we reached Jiddah. 
 
JIDDAH. 
 
 9 
 
 The numerous coral banks render it necessary for large vessels to anchor at some distance from 
 the town. Owing to the reefs the channel is difficult even for boats, which are often required to be 
 shoved directly over them. This natural barrier is looked upon as a great means of protection to the 
 place, and a survey then in progress could only be carried on by stealth. The governor was forced to 
 listen to the prejudices of the people, who remonstrated whenever a flag was hoisted for a station. 
 
 The view in the plate is taken from the anchorage, amidst fields of coral, more or less covered 
 by water, producing a beautiful variety of colours, and a striking contrast to the deep blue sea. The 
 town, which shews a front of a mile, with half that extent in depth, is divided by sand-hills from the 
 fai range of mountains. A wall, in tolerable repair, and broken by towers, surrounds the town, and 
 forms a sufficient protection against the Arabs. Two gates, ornamented by turrets, are the only 
 points of egress. A wall, like that at Mocha, runs along the sea. On the right is the governor’s 
 house ; at the opposite end, a fort : the intermediate space has a quay, on which the best houses of 
 the place and the khans of the merchants are erected. Many huts, of a mean description, are con- 
 cealed by the better dwellings; the latter are two stories high, built of the crumbling coral rock, or 
 marine fossils. There is no regularity in the buildings ; windows of all sizes are indiscriminately 
 mixed, many of them being highly ornamented with elaborate carved work. Nothing breaks the 
 sterility around Jiddali but a few date trees ; water may be had for sale, but it is generally of a very 
 bad quality. 
 
 To the north of the town surrounded by other tombs, is one with a circular top, believed 
 by the Arabs to be that of Eve, the mother of mankind. It is said by Burckhardt to resemble the 
 tomb of Noah, as pointed out in Syria. I failed in examining this tomb, as the Arabs would 
 not permit me to cross the graves of the Moslem that surround it. Monuments, said to mark the 
 head and feet, stand about sixty yards asunder. Near the tomb is the gate leading to Medina, 
 through which there appeared to be little thoroughfare. A second gate with tents before it leads 
 to Mecca, which lies in a direction nearly east, about fifty-five miles. On the road to the Holy City 
 there is a constant line of travellers, and immediately without the gate are numerous coffee-sheds 
 for their reception, where loungers assemble to take their pipes. I walked with two companions 
 through this passage. We had not proceeded far, when a strong feeling of curiosity was exhibited by 
 the Arabs, of whom there are a great many residing outside for the purposes of traffic and pasturage 
 We saw the gathering storm evinced by a crowd of wild-looking people, jumping and throwing dust 
 m the air, flourishing sticks, and arming themselves with stones. They soon approached, and, though 
 we turned towards the town, stones were thrown in all directions. At this critical moment, a Turkish 
 officer, well-armed, happening to be in the neighbourhood, came to our relief. 
 
 Caravans continually assemble on this road, and proceed every evening to Mecca. This 
 mode of travelling in the East is most convenient, and useful for the purpose of defence. One 
 traveller s tent is pitched without the gate, and others pursuing the same course place themselves 
 beside it, till, at length, the numbers are sufficient for mutual protection. 
 
 Jiddali, besides being the sea port of the Hedjaz, is the emporium of trade between Egypt, 
 India, and Arabia. The principal article of import from Egypt is grain, the trade in which Mohamed 
 Ali has taken entirely into his own hands. To give an idea of the profit, Buckhardt mentions, that 
 during his residence in Jiddali, (1814) the erdeb (fifteen English bushels) of grain was sold at from 
 130 to 160 piastres, (about 13 or 16 Spanish dollars.) The same quantity cost 12 piastres in 
 Upper Egypt, and including the carriage to Jiddali 25 or 30 piastres. Another example of the state 
 of trade here is afforded by the traffic in Indian goods, which are purchased on the arrival of the 
 India ships, and raised ten per cent, almost immediately ; they continue to rise, and always attain 
 forty per cent, on the cost price before the arrival of the next annual supply. To such a discouraging 
 system the people of this country are obliged to submit, and they are not likely to find a remedy, 
 unless a mart be opened by enterprising Europeans to relieve their wants, and impart some stimulus 
 to industry. The vessels that trade with Jiddah are calculated at two hundred and fifty; and the 
 value of the yearly imports is estimated at ^1,000,000. This maritime intercourse could be totally 
 cut off by a single British cruiser, which may be taken as a security for our peaceful and uninter- 
 rupted navigation of these seas. 
 
 The cruiser in which I left Bombay was to remain at Jiddah, for the purpose of surveying the 
 harbour. It was with considerable regret that, on the 2nd of December, I made preparation to sepa- 
 rate from my companions, and pursue my voyage in an Arab buggalow. I had the satisfaction of being 
 accompanied by an officer of the Indian navy, who was proceeding onward to join his vessel, then 
 employed in surveying the sea of Suez. Our buggalow, which was rated at 250 tons, carried some rusty 
 guns, and was commanded by a Turkish nakoda, or captain. The crew, including the mate, was com- 
 posed of four Arabs and eight Africans. There was not a man too many to hoist the main-yard, with 
 its enormous latteen sail, the only piece of canvas that was spread, except a very small after-sail in 
 occasional use, chiefly to assist in steering. The fashion of our vessel was as ancient as the rig was 
 simple. She had one clumsy mast, nearly a mid-ship, with a considerable rake forward, on which a 
 yard 85 feet long, or the exact length of the buggalow, was suspended with such a slant, as to make 
 one end nearly bend to a rude figure at the bow, to which the tack of the sail was attached. Boltsprit 
 there was none, and the vessel’s breadth was one-fourth of her length. A rude-built oven of mud was 
 used for the unleavened bread, which is preferred by the natives to biscuit. A good-sized cabin was 
 
10 
 
 YAM BOO. 
 
 taken off the stern, but the whole was rudely finished, and with as little attention to cleanliness as to 
 ornament. Innumerable cock-roaches swarmed in all parts of the vessel. A broad strong plank crossing 
 the deck assisted to support the mast, and defined the boundaries marked out for the crew. Wood 
 and water were furnished to the passengers, who made their own arrangements for all other supplies. 
 There was a compass on board, but it was several points out, a matter of slight consequence, as the 
 sagacious commander would not have attended to it had it been ever so trustworthy. 
 
 We pursued the voyage on the system that has existed from time immemorial, the coast being 
 servilely followed in all its bendings ; and night anchorage, if required, was secured by mid-day. W hen 
 it was doubtful whether a haven could be attained by sun-set, there was no hesitation about returning 
 to the place we had quitted in the morning. Under these circumstances, little progress could be made 
 in the most favourable weather. A light wind carried us amidst coral reefs, and gradually wafted us 
 beyond sight of the Benares, and of Jiddah. We anchored before sun-set to the leeward of an island 
 of coral. The process of anchoring was performed by one of the crew jumping overboard, bearing 
 a large iron hook, which, on the vessel’s approaching the bank, he attached to the branches of coral. 
 If another reef lay at a convenient distance a-stern, a second hook was fastened to it, and then 
 the craft was held to be effectually moored. Having completed this operation, the large sail 
 was always taken off the yard to he stowed away, though requiring half an hour’s work each 
 morning to bend it again ; so that the average sailing was about eight hours in the twenty-four. 
 No bottom could be discovered immediately alongside the coral hanks. Whatever wind might 
 prevail in the centre of the sea, the land breeze continued to blow on the coast within these 
 
 Passing an inland mountain chain we worked our way through coral reefs, or islands, ex- 
 tending several miles from the shore. We met many boats during our voyage, and it was seldom 
 that we had not a companion in coming-to for the night. The stages appear to be regularly estab- 
 lished ; and a wild hurra is given by the mariners on reaching them, which is always answered from 
 other vessels, if there be any already at anchor. 
 
 YAMBOO. 
 
 On the 9th we reached Yamboo, a walled town, the sea port of Medina, as Jiddah is of Mecca. 
 Though it has an excellent harbour, it is of inferior importance to Jiddah, and contains about three 
 thousand inhabitants. A continual supply of grain pours in from Egypt, which is instantly conveyed 
 to the interior by the Bedouins, who are in readiness with their fine camels. Turkish troops are 
 stationed here, and form strong guards on the gates. They offer a striking instance of the advantages 
 possessed by a small body acting in concert over a numerous people without combination and system. 
 The Turkish mode of ruling and taxing the population of Arabia, is entirely military ; and the 
 tenure of the Osmanlis’ sway, destitute as it is of any local bond, is most precarious, and would ter- 
 
 WHOOSH.— G WO BAH. 
 
 ,, . , nf w „.. untile to the Pacha. The Bedouins at Yamboo 
 
 i n m ate with the appearance of a single man ot war hosti 
 
 are a noble race, and, armed as all are with dagger and spear, they seem to bid defiance to the world. 
 
 Beinf ready for our departure from Yamboo, I waited to take leave of the Dowlali, who was 
 decorated with orders, and formed a fine specimen of a soldier. He had been particularly attentive, 
 and had more than once expressed his astonishment at our undertaking what appeared to him an 
 interminable journey. I found, throughout the Red Sea, that Egypt was known by the name of 
 Misser ; beyond that country the natives of Arabia know little of the globe. 
 
 The Dowlah gave me a letter, prepared by his scribe. Rubbing some ink on the signet ring 
 he wore, which bore his name in Arabic characters, the impression was transferred to the document, 
 and rendered it official. There was considerable dignity in the style of the transaction. After pre- 
 senting the letter, he exclaimed, in a solemn tone, « May God carry you safe,” and we separated. 
 
 On the 10th of December we sailed from Yamboo, having replenished our stock of fowls and 
 vegetables from a tolerably good bazaar. The weather was gradually becoming cool, the thermometer 
 varying from 68" to 78". This alteration of temperature had a decided effect on the natives. In the 
 morning they were unwilling to move, and it was ludicrous to see them come forth, with clothes of 
 many colours, and as many pieces, their heads bound up, and their countenances the picture of misery. 
 The effects of the change of weather would scarcely be believed, except by those who have experienced 
 the transition from a tropical climate. 
 
 On the 12th we passed a Bedouin village, the country still preserving the same character. 
 
 be the same connected chain running from the north. We had here a specimen of native seaman- 
 ship. A fine breeze took the vessel by three o’clock, fifteen miles from the anchorage, and there was 
 no certainty of gaining the next station before sun-set. The Nakoda insisted on returning to the 
 place he had left in the morning ; and no persuasion could arrest his determination. During this 
 time we had another example of the inferiority of their nautical system. The cold having rendered 
 the crew almost useless, the captain proceeded to urge them by blows from a stout stick. About to 
 extend his tyranny to the mate, who was an Arab, a scuffle ensued between them, which led to a fair 
 trial of strength, when it became doubtful whether the superior weight of the Turk, or the agility of 
 the Arab, would prevail. They were at length separated, and a war of words ensued ; but the bullying 
 captain did not venture to renew the combat. He had a few days before mercilessly flogged an African, 
 who, though much stouter than the Arab, did not dare to resist. 
 
 We arrived on the 20th at Whoosh, or Whee, where there is a snug harbour, and a half dozen 
 of huts. There is good water, which, with charcoal and rock salt, forms the traffic of the place. A 
 back water runs among hills of bold and romantic shape. Arabs living in clefts of the rocks, and 
 tending flocks of goats, add to the wildness of the scene. 
 
 On the 23rd we reached a good harbour, named Gwobah. It supplies wood and water, and 
 
GHEBEER.— RAS MOHAMED. 
 
 appears to be a regular halting place. Several buggalows were anchored here ; some of them conveying 
 loads of pilgrims, among whom were a number of Turks. They all landed ; and the shore presented 
 a most animated scene. There were a number of females of the party, and several girls exposed their 
 faces. Their hair was long and curling, their figures slender and graceful, and they had much 
 delicacy and expression of countenance ; but there seemed to be a want of health and freshness, the 
 consequence of their secluded life. They wore ornaments on the arms and ancles, and about the neck, 
 and I saw enough to be convinced that there was much beauty beneath their masquerade dresses. 
 
 Bedouins were strolling about, offering a few articles for sale; their women were uncovered, and 
 offered a decided contrast in figure and complexion to the delicate inmates of the harem. Beyond the 
 walls, in recesses of the rocks, or in rude huts, jars and leathern sacks to contain water, and some 
 wooden bowls, pointed out the residence of the natives, whose riches consisted of a few goats or 
 mules that were seen vainly searching for herbage on the mountain sides. The manner in which these 
 animals take their allowance of chips, that seem calculated to choke them, is surprising. 
 
 The next day we anchored in a small harbour, called Ghebeer, where no habitation was to be 
 seen. An Arab made his appearance on the shore, with a camel load of water ; but not finding any 
 demand for it, he departed. 
 
 On the 25th we came in sight of Ras Mohamed, on the extremity of the tongue of land that 
 divides the sea of Akbar from that of Suez. The Egyptian coast was also visible ; we had worked up 
 about a hundred miles above the latitude of Cosseir. The weather was fine, and the wind fair; still 
 the captain reluctantly consented to cross the sea. He would have preferred anchoring under Ras 
 Mohamed, in conformity to custom, rather than gain three days, which he did by crossing. 
 
 In taking a last view of Arabia, the traveller feels an interest that is indescribable. He leaves 
 a country and a nation behind him, whose habits have been the same for more than three thousand 
 years, and whose customs verify all that is predicted by the sacred historians of the descendants of 
 Islimael. There was another, and a not less interesting subject, brought to my mind the day I crossed 
 the Red Sea. On the hills above Ras Mohamed the law was promulgated to mankind, and on those 
 shores the Israelites were miraculously protected for the furtherance of the Divine purpose. 
 
 From Mocha to Ras Mohamed the Arabian shore has one pervading characteristic— very high 
 mountains in the back ground, with at times an under feature projecting near the sea, and occasionally 
 the mountain so far removed as to be distinguishable only in clear weather. A belt of sand, mixed 
 with coral shells, uniformly borders the base of the mountains, and often sweeps miles inland nearly 
 on a level with the water. The hills, which are distinguished by pointed summits, are intersected by 
 deep ravines, evidently the effect of violent rains. 
 
 Coral islands and reefs stretch ah along this coast, and form a parallel line, extending about thirty 
 miles from the shore. If a line were drawn at this distance, it would be the best map that could 
 be given of the coast. It is probable that the coral reefs, rocks, and islands, will spread. and rise in 
 
 COSSEIR. 
 
 11 
 
 height, and that the intermediate space between them and the coast will ultimately be filled with sand 
 and shells. Three different races of people divide the dominion of the Red Sea ; Arab, African 
 and Turk. The Arabs may be divided into two classes — those of the desert and of the towns, who 
 are distinct in habits and interests. The territory of the east side of the Red Sea, held by the 
 Turks, comprises the sea-ports as far south as 1 61, degrees of latitude, including nearly one thou- 
 sand miles of coast ; their possessions do not extend below Cosseir on the west side. For centuries 
 the Bedouins have made no advances in arms or discipline ; they are ignorant of the use of cannon, 
 and do not act in concentrated force. The Turks may be said to possess merely the land they stand 
 upon ; and when they move, it is in bodies, and always well appointed. 
 
 A- line drawn from Suez to Bagdad will inclose the space between the Red Sea and the Persian 
 Gulf; and from the northern boundary to that vast country, called Arabia, the distance is about six 
 hundred miles. The opposite side of the peninsula is washed by the Arabian sea, and is about one 
 thousand miles in length. The east and west sides are almost of equal length, each being twelve hun- 
 dred miles. Arabia has a surface of nearly one million square miles ; with a population estimated by 
 some authorities at ten, by others at twelve millions, and yet, but for the concourse of pilgrims to 
 Mecca, it would be as little known as Siberia. 
 
 Though the roads to Mecca and Medina are left open, the Bedouins never become more 
 sociable, or seek to benefit by the introduction of strangers. They levy their contributions in the 
 Desert, and are careless of profit in a regular way ; they are as much dreaded, and as little known by 
 their countrymen, who are settled or civilized, as by Europeans. 
 
 As we neared the Coast of Africa, the land, like that on the opposite coast in the same latitude, 
 presented the remarkable appearance of innumerable heaps of earth thrown upon the surface. Our 
 captain did not make direct for the harbour of Cosseir, but came to a secure anchorage amidst coral 
 at a haven about twelve miles above it. 
 
 Early on the morning of the 27th we got under weigh, and reached Cosseir at ten o’clock. 
 About forty boats were at anchor in the port, with one of the Honourable Company’s cruisers, which 
 had left Bombay five weeks later than myself, having made the voyage direct. Several passengers had 
 landed from the cruiser, and had proceeded on their route to the Nile the day before my arrival. 
 Anxious to overtake them as soon as possible, as I was from this time to lose my former companions, I 
 resolved on quitting Cosseir in the evening. 
 
 Cosseir is the great port for commerce between Egypt and the harbours of Jiddah and Yamboo. 
 Vessels find safe anchorage within a coral reef; and there are generally from thirty to forty lying 
 there for the purposes of trade. The town is situated on a low sandy soil, and is crowned by a fort. 
 A projecting pier, which affords a convenient landing place, leads to a busy and crowded Bazaar, at the 
 side of which, and approached by a single gate, is an extensive okella, or caravanserai— a square court, 
 with buildings two stories high, having a broad gallery all around. Numerous doors lead into apart- 
 
Wij-mrmfjsm h'iV^ ■wr—wwi 
 
 COSSEIE. 
 
 ments of eight and twelve feet square, which are hired by merchants and travellers. The whole is 
 secured by a proper guard at the entrance. The succession of travellers from all points of the com- 
 pass, arriving at these stations in Egypt, would impart sufficient interest to the spot to make it a 
 desirable resting-place for a few days, were it not for the intolerable want of cleanliness that neu- 
 tralizes its attractions. The dwelling of the governor, and some store-houses, constitute the remainder 
 of the town, which, from its unpromising situation, contains few, save commercial residents. The 
 water, which is made an article of traffic, is brought from a distance. It is impregnated with salt- 
 petre,’ and induces vomiting and dysentery. In Sir David Baird’s army, which arrived at Cosseir from 
 India, almost every one, on first landing, was attacked by dysentery, but it did not prove fatal, and 
 indeed was thought eventually to be rather salutary than otherwise. 
 
 On my arrival at Cosseir, I called on the Turkish governor, who received me in the kindest and 
 most friendly manner, requesting to know my wishes, that they might be attended to. Only four 
 ra mels were necessary for my journey, but had more been required they would have been readily fur- 
 nished. Horses and mules may also be obtained without any difficulty, and the traveller may calculate 
 on finding in the Bazaar all that he requires for himself and his followers. The hire of each camel to 
 Khenneh on the Nile, which is the line for commercial intercourse, was three-fourths of a Spanish dollar. 
 As I determined to direct my course to Luxor, considerably above Khenneh, the hire was raised to 
 li dollar. There are different roads through the Desert to the Nile, and I selected the one by 
 Hammer-mart, which is most frequented by natives and Europeans. I would recommend travellers, 
 who study health and comfort, to provide themselves in India with a supply of necessary articles, that 
 cannot he procured before reaching Cairo, and then only at an extravagant price. Each camel will 
 carry a load of six or eight hundred weight; and their services being attainable at so moderate a rate, 
 while no further land carriage is required after arriving on the Nile, except, perhaps, between Rosetta 
 and Alexandria, it is prudent to make a liberal provision for travelling contingencies, and not to 
 deny ourselves the possession of specimens of the productions of the countries we traverse. Two 
 chests of equal size, with handles and good locks, easy of access, and not requiring lashing, will 
 be found of great utility. The stores should comprise two dozen bottles of water, with tin canisters 
 containing some biscuit, tea, sugar, rice, and wax candles, a jar of pickles, a little curne powder, some 
 portable soup, a few dried tongues, with the lesser requisites of pepper, salt, mustard, &c. A lantern 
 will prove serviceable at a certain stage of the journey. To these articles should be added a supply of 
 wine and spirits, and a few pint bottles of the latter for presents, which are by no means objectionable 
 even to the followers of Moliamed. A few snuff-boxes and clasp-knives may be added for the same pur- 
 pose, nor must a little tobacco be forgotten, as it is exceedingly acceptable to the camel drivers, boatmen, 
 et id genus omne. These, with a few dinner and breakfast things, will fill the chests. A sea-cot, furnished 
 with some warm bed clothes, and having a strong frame to adapt the ends for resting on the chests, 
 a portable table and chair, or stool, with a carpet the size of a hearth-rug, will complete one camel load ; 
 
 r;- ir: 
 
 jut;,!! zasn » *!■» ““ ■ i,,rgei “°fc r r; 
 
 L which _ 1,C„, stick, cooking utcn.il, with ,,H« fc— , ***** 
 
 pc*,* «. deposited. 0„ the top of th= b«k» •* ‘7 “ 77 .“ 
 
 contentedly pci.ee hhc.elf co-lcgged .boon ell The feneth cn.l cpp^ctetl >»• ~ ^ 
 
 traveller, who will itad it . g.cd plan t. >"• »•“ ~ «“ w’,," , 
 
 handle ri.ing in tree,, to which a h.v=„ack containing a '««* «»d * 
 
 epy gk,,. and pair of heritor, and pit*, if thought n.coty, may he attached. A sword ought not to 
 l! dtpeneed with, « it i. looked on a. a mark of rank. Water i. cawed or .k,n, go... 
 
 pil provided by the native, -ho dietribu.e them about different part, of the baggage m * 
 .. . that they may always he accessible during the march. A good warm cloak and warm dothmg had 
 better be kept at hand, and an umbrella will not be an unwelcome addition to the stock. Thus equ p- 
 ped, a traveller will be able to prosecute his journey to the Nile, at an expense of five or six dollars. 
 A very small sum will satisfy the drivers, who are always ready, for a little tobacco, to render every 
 possible assistance in pitching tents, lighting fires, and ministering the requisite aid to the wayfarer^ 
 It will be necessary to break a few Spanish dollars into piastres, of which there were fifteen to each 
 dollar, and these ought again to he exchanged for paras or hamassee, of which there are eight to a 
 piastre, or one hundred and twenty to a dollar. The para is used to buy trifling articles, as milk and 
 eggs, and to satisfy poor pilgrims and mendicants, of whom there are a great many m all parts of 
 Egypt. Even this fraction of our smallest coin is valued by the people of the country, who have yet 
 a smaller one in circulation, of which forty go to a piastre, or six hundred to a dollar ; and there are 
 quarter-piastres and half-piastres, all base com, and of no value but in Egypt. 
 
 Soon after leaving Cosseir the road begins to ascend, and leads through hills into mountains 
 with roads of sand and gravel firm enough to bear artillery. These roads appear strikingly similar to 
 the deserted beds of rivers. The Desert of Cosseir, like the wilderness in Arabia, has a burnt and naked 
 appearance. The acacia, and some few thorny plants, nourished by night dews, occasionally break the 
 sterility, and offer a slight indication of vegetable life. 
 
 In crossing the Desert, the Arab attendants will endeavour to get the party to travel according 
 to their accustomed stages, and thereby pass from the Red Sea to the Nile in three days. This must 
 be attended with considerable inconvenience to persons unaccustomed to the motion of camels. I he 
 best plan is to have no fixed determination, hut to halt when convenient, whatever number of days 
 may be spent in this way. The novelty of the situation and incidental circumstances will sufficiently 
 beguile the time. 
 
 In different parts of the mountains there are remains of quarries and niches, or small temples, 
 covered with hieroglyphics, which have been very little examined. I ascertained that the rate of march 
 
 -ztrm 
 
ROUTE TO THE NILE. 
 
 of the camel averaged two and a half miles per hour, and it was nearly the same at the end as at the 
 beginning of a long day’s journey. It might be increased a little in the coolness of the morning, and 
 reduced in the heat at mid-day. Winding through the mountains, the traveller reaches the first 
 stage, where two wells, called Bir-Inglis, afford tolerably good water. My approach to this spot was at 
 night, having travelled from Cosseir, a distance of eleven miles, in about four hours and a half. We 
 stopped a few minutes to secure the loads. The stillness that had prevailed throughout the journey 
 had been rendered more solemn by a humming noise from the camel-drivers, who seemed to whisper 
 a song to their cattle. The novelty of the situation gave rise to reflections that were suddenly dissipa- 
 ted by a shrill whistle from one of our attendants. A similar sound came echoing down the valley, and 
 in a few minutes the appearance of several fires shewed that we had arrived in the neighbourhood of 
 other travellers. The first fire we passed, threw a deep broad light on the faces of some Arabs, from whom 
 our approach brought forth a friendly exclamation of “ Salam Ali Koum!” To this, a suitable return 
 was made, and we passed on to bivouac in the same style as our Desert companions. There is a re- 
 gular plan for forming each encampment. When a tent is pitched, the fire is made in front, and then 
 the attendants cover themselves completely from head to foot with their abbas, or cloaks. The camels 
 are placed in a semi-circle in front, and remain all night on their knees, with heads and tails in mutual 
 contact. The line, if necessary, is lengthened with the luggage, which also shuts in the flanks, to 
 form a junction with the sides of the tent. 
 
 The morning was remarkably cold at six o'clock, and it was with great difficulty our camel- 
 drivers were prevailed upon to bestir themselves before the appearance of the sun. All the cara- 
 vans that had assembled on the previous night were getting in motion ; some taking the road to 
 Cosseir, others to the Nile. The ground they had occupied was a large recess in the mountain. We 
 proceeded by a route such as that we had hitherto pursued; and on the second day started in 
 company with a large caravan. Hills and distant mountains afforded variety to the eye ; but the scene 
 was melancholy, and with nought to animate it, save a few partridges and pigeons, whose sources of 
 subsistence it was difficult to divine. Having travelled about five hours, I enquired for the halting- 
 place, and learned that the caravan intended to advance directly onwards to the next stage. I stopped 
 with my servant to prepare breakfast, during which I was accosted by half a dozen poor Arabs, who 
 were journeying towards Mecca, They had a minimum of clothing, and each carried a small bundle, 
 pendant from a stick borne across the shoulder. This was the extent of their worldly possessions ; 
 their poverty and their distress were equally evident. They asked for water with an earnestness that 
 determined me to relieve them ; but I found that the water bags had proceeded with the remainder 
 of the caravan, and I then perceived the propriety of independent travelling, without adhering to fixed 
 stages. The poor Arabs, who were Hadjis, were not more disappointed than myself. They turned 
 mto the mountain, where I understood they would procure water at a distance of six miles. After a 
 short, rest, I started to overtake the caravan, which I did not join till I had travelled nine hours, making 
 
 ROUTE TO THE NILE. 
 
 13 
 
 a day’s journey of fourteen, which was the regular stage. Our party, with many other travellers, had 
 halted at Bir-a-Cid, where there is a well of good water. The Arabs, from the noise they made, ap- 
 peared to be regaling themselves. They had kneaded thin cakes of wheat, which are soon baked on 
 hot ashes made from camels’ dung; with the addition of water, all the wants of these children of nature 
 are supplied. Each man carries a cherry stick, which may be converted into a pipe by adding a 
 clay bowl, and if a little tobacco can be obtained, they acknowledge it as a luxury. It was too late 
 to make arrangements for the night beyond unpacking my baggage. The sky formed a canopy, and 
 shot forth stars of the liveliest brilliancy, and there was a purity in the air that felt like a boon from 
 above to the wearied slumberers. 
 
 The third day brought us amidst hills and rocks of the most pleasing variety. Now we 
 were greeted by distant ranges, with summits of fantastic shapes ; and occasionally the rocks would 
 close in and overhang the road, scarcely admitting a passage. It was in the valley of Cosseir that 
 Bruce says he passed more granite, porphyry, marble, and jasper, than would build Rome, Athens, 
 Syracuse, Memphis, Alexandria, and half a dozen such cities. Many passages turn from the road into 
 the mountains, and one that I explored led to a field of fragments, plainly denoting that extensive works 
 had once been carried on there. The quarries are not of much depth, but cover a large surface ; any one 
 seeing them would concur in thinking that the Egyptian architects could not have found it necessary 
 to go further for materials. In continuing to pass through similar hills, a variety of granite was con- 
 spicuous, some of it sculptured with hieroglyphics, probably in the idle hours of the workmen. Small 
 recesses, or temples, were occasionally seen in the sides of the rocks, and many bold broad fronts of 
 granite seemed to invite the sculptor’s chissel. Having journied four hours, I arrived at Hammer- 
 mart, a well 100 feet deep, lined to the bottom with stone, and having a flight of steps for descent. 
 Little benefit has been derived from the expense bestowed upon it ; the quantity of water at the 
 bottom is brackish, and so limited as only to be extracted by soaking a cloth in it and wringing it out. 
 Not far from this well there is a broken sarcophagus, which shews that the Egyptians, in bringing 
 stone from the quarry, shaped it so as to lighten it for transportation, leaving the work to be finished 
 at the place of its destination. 
 
 When I started in the morning, the thermometer was at 60“ ; at the hour I halted it was at 98“ 
 in the sun, and 82° in the shade. It was with difficulty I could procure any shelter under the perpen- 
 dicular cliffs. I felt the necessity of having a tent, as much to guard against the effects of heat by day 
 as of cold by night. The rush of hot air that floated through this valley, and the distress caused by the 
 reverberation of the atmosphere, produced the greatest inconvenience experienc edduring the journey. 
 Towards evening the thermometer fell to 80°. I proceeded for some distance, admiring the bold 
 forms and the varieties of granite. I observed occasional ruins of forts, and a continued chain of 
 small towers crowning the heights throughout the line of road ; no history could be obtained of 
 either. Similar remains are visible above Aden. 
 
14 
 
 ROUTE TO THE NILE. 
 
 Towards the close of this day’s march the valley began to extend, and the bold-featured 
 mountains gave way to hills that ushered us again into the broad Desert. My guides urged me on 
 with the hope of soon reaching the wells at Legayta, but growing tired I at length determined to 
 stop. My resolution was, however, defeated by a noise from the camel-driver, which stimulated the 
 animal to move onwards, and to resist all my counter-pulls and jerks. I was at first inclined to storm, 
 the more so as the whole party had dropped behind, and were perhaps amusing themselves at my 
 expense. The helplessness of my position soon created a feeling of amusement ; the patient animal 
 I was riding obeyed his master, and answered my threats by an indication of displeasure, turning his 
 head, and making a disagreeable gurgling noise. In the midst of this dilemma a shrill whistle caused 
 the camel to fall on his knees, as if shot, and here I found it was determined I should take up my 
 night’s abode. This day I had travelled nearly eleven hours, and suffered considerably from fatigue. 
 Travellers would do well to fix their day’s journey at eight hours, and to abide by it. Early in the 
 morning of the 30tli, the cold was so severe as to make it most difficult to rouse the attendants : the 
 thermometer was at 53", and there appeared to be some additional chill from saline particles intermixed 
 with the sands of the Desert. Our path now lay across a sea of sand, with broken and rounded 
 undulating forms, such as would be formed by drifting snow. In this open country there are some 
 deer, which are as shy of man’s approach as are their light-footed fellows in more civilized lands. 
 
 It is not uncommon in the Desert to see the bleached bones of camels, and sometimes the 
 skeleton retained enough of flesh to make it an attraction to beasts of prey. This morning we passed 
 a carcass that afforded a rich banquet to the jackalls. The revellers would scarcely abandon their car- 
 nival on our near approach, and then, by an angry snarl and growl, testified their dislike to our intrusion. 
 The food was fiercely contested by fierce bands of ravens which infest the wilderness. These birds 
 were pulling at opposite parts of the carcass, and screaming a response to the menace of the snarling 
 enemy. A journey of two hours and a half brought us to the wells of Legayta, where there is an 
 abundance of good water. There are also Arab huts, the inhabitants of which offer milk, eggs, and 
 poultry for sale, and a caravanserai with some tombs of sheiks, the shady side of which a European 
 traveller will prefer to the interior of the inn. While resting at Legayta there is much to amuse the 
 loiterer. Caravans are scattered over the plain beneath, and lines of camels, with merchants and 
 hadjis, make the roads distinguishable as far as the eye can reach. One route runs direct from Khenneh, 
 and another from Luxor or Thebes. They meet near the wells, and unite with two other routes that 
 lead in different directions to Cosseir. The hearing of these routes runs as follows:— to Luxor W. S.W.; 
 Khenneh N.W.; Cosseir by El-hoo-eb E. by S.; Cosseir by Hammer-mart E. N. E. The route generally 
 pursued from Legayta towards the Nile has been by Khenneh, in which case about eight hours travel, or 
 twenty miles, brings the traveller to Bir Ambir, where there is plenty of good water on the borders of 
 cultivation; and after journeying about six hours more he reaches Khenneh, on the margin of the 
 Nile. By proceeding to Khenneh, boats are procured for prosecuting the voyage on the river. The 
 
 ROUTE TO THE NILE. 
 
 time taken to ascend from thence by water to Luxor is probably two days, though the ffistance 
 downward will be run in twelve hours. It saves time and some expense, by proceeding first to 
 and if boats are not forwarded from Khenneh, there will be no difficulty in reaching the latter 
 place either by water, in a small boat, or on camels in two marches. In the evening I jourmed 
 for six hours over the same sandy track that is seen about Legayta, and came to a pause, with the full 
 expectation that the ensuing morn would usher in many interesting objects, and above all, “ the land 
 of Egypt.” My impatience caused me to advance the following morning before the surrounding 
 country was visible ; the misty curtain began to dissolve, and gradually gave way to a clear atmosphere, 
 through which it was easy to distinguish clusters of date-trees, and patches of green that marked 
 fertile banks of the Nile. My camel shewed by a quicker step, at the same time pointing his head 
 and snuffing the air, that he had partaken of my satisfaction in arriving near the site of the rich 
 harvest which began every where to develope itself. The first village reached is Hajaza, where 
 there is a mosque, with a bath for ablutions, inestimable to the Hadjis on their return from the 
 city of the Prophet. It is a gladdening sight to mark the reservoir overflowing with water, and the 
 luxuriant crops, in the beauty of their verdure, after just emerging from the cheerless confines of the 
 scorching Desert. 
 
 The path continued to wind on the edge of cultivation, till it struck through the level plain, 
 which, influenced by the waters of the Nile, was now smiling with the promise of plenty. We 
 crossed the plain on elevated banks, where the narrowness of the road, and the steep slope for 
 twenty or thirty feet, often make the stranger withdraw his attention from the surrounding sceneiy 
 to contemplate his awkward situation, especially when a dead camel appears in the path, or on the 
 side of the bank, to the alarm and agitation of the one on which he is mounted. Slowly advancing, here 
 and there arises a village, having the character of a little fortification. The walls of each house are 
 built to a height of eight feet, and are covered with flat roofs. Heaps of dirt and rubbish, with a 
 pond of stagnant water, typify the squalid and neglected state of the fellahs , or peasants, of the 
 country. Clusters of date trees point out the situation of numerous hamlets in all directions, and on 
 the bank of the river they are sufficiently connected to indicate its course. 
 
 The whole country wore the aspect of an immense garden, in which all the productions of other 
 countries seemed combined. There was no ostensible division of property ; nature in her bounty 
 appeared to bestow more than the wants of the people could require. Yet, in the midst of this abun- 
 dance, and as in mockery of the gifts of Heavefi, poverty and wretchedness were stamped upon the 
 tillers of the soil, giving sad evidence of the blasting effects of a long period of misrule. A deputation 
 of several of the villagers invited me to alight, and eggs, milk, and other viands were produced to second 
 the request, but I declined the invitation, for the magnificent ruins of Thebes began to be distinguished. 
 
 Thus had I, without any difficulty, journeyed in about forty-three hours from Cosseir to the 
 Nile. The novelty of the scene, the feeling of voyaging on “ the ship of the desert,” across a sea of 
 
16 
 
 APPROACH TO THE 
 
 The road, which, on emerging from the Desert, winds amidst the cultivated grounds, suddenly 
 ascends, and the musing traveller is startled to find himself unexpectedly near and on the approach to 
 the Ruins at Carnac. 
 
 An avenue, twenty yards wide,* leads to the temple, the ruins of which are partly seen in the back 
 ground of the Plate. Fragments of sphinxes line the sides of the road, at intervals of ten and 
 twelve feet, and usher the visitor to the magnificent granite propylon or gateway, whose grandeur for a 
 time monopolizes the attention, and makes him who gazes on it at a loss to decide whether he shall remain 
 admiring its fine proportions, or advance and examine the carvings which embellish its front Is this 
 “ the land made waste by the hand of strangers, who destroy the idols, and cause the images to cease .?” 
 The fragments of desolation that lie scattered around, are identified with the predictions of the 
 inspired historians, by whom we are enabled to estimate the “ palmy state” of this once mighty king- 
 dom, whose gigantic monuments fully verify all that has been said or sung of its pristine splendour. 
 
 The temple of Carnac is supposed to have been the grand sanctuary of the idolaters of Thebes, 
 a city immortalized by Homer, as 
 
 “ The worlds great empress on th’ Egyptian plain, 
 
 That spreads her conquests o’er a thousand states. 
 
 And pours her heroes through a hundred gates.” 
 
 He who arrives in front of this propylon finds himself on the highway to the temple, and 
 becomes bewildered by the recollection of former glory and the sense of present decay. Each massive 
 fragment conveys a silent reproof to the vanity of man. Where are they who piled up this 
 Titanic fabric ? Where are the successive nations whose chiefs entered within its walls in the exulting 
 hour of triumph? The noble entrance recalls the fabled magnificence of Sesostris. Perhaps the 
 greatness of a haughty Pharaoh may have been pictured in the stately obelisk. We know that 
 Cambyses and Alexander have trodden this ground, and, as the instruments of divine vengeance, have 
 despoiled the images that adorned it.— Such are the reflections that pervade the mind of the traveller 
 until he is aroused by the howling of dogs from the Arab village in the west end of the ruins. 
 These unwelcome intruders become more noisy and daring, and are soon followed by their mendicant 
 masters, who henceforth persist in crossing the path of the stranger, surveying him with an un- 
 meaning stare. 
 
 The avenue of sphinxes, from which the view is taken, is one of several that lead towards the 
 temple, or form lines of junction with each other. Lions’ bodies, represented couchant, were here 
 
 * Marked A in the Plan of the Temple at Carnac. 
 
 RUINS AT CARNAC 
 
 seen surmounted by the heads of rams, but at present none of them are perfect; they are formed 
 of sand-stone, which has given way to the ravages of time and man. The ram’s head with the lion’s 
 body was symbolical of strength and innocence, and expressive of the power and purity of the gods. 
 The little image that stands between the huge paws of the lion is 4£ feet in height. In its clasped 
 hands it holds the sacred tau, and on its front is a row of hieroglyphics. In the back-ground the main 
 edifice has its north-west boundary marked by the gigantic propylon (B) that rises beyond the trees. 
 We enter a spacious court, (C) at whose sides are colonnades, with two rows of gigantic columns 
 that pass through the centre, leading by another propylon to the prodigious hall or portico, (D ) whose 
 roof was supported by 134 columns, and which forms the subject of the subsequent illustration. Four 
 beautiful obelisks next present themselves, and two smaller ones mark the entrance to the Adytum, 
 (E) thus mentioned by Hamilton. “ The' Adytum itself consists of three apartments, entirely of 
 granite ; the principal room, which is in the centre, is twenty feet long, sixteen wide, and thirteen 
 feet high. Three blocks of granite form the roof, which is painted with clusters of gilt stars on 
 a blue ground. The walls are likewise covered with painted sculptures, of a character admirably 
 adapted to the mysterious purposes mentioned by Herodotus, on the subject of the Virgins, who were 
 there introduced to the Theban Jupiter.” Beyond the Adytum there is a confusion of porticos and 
 galleries, terminating at another propylon, about 2000 feet from the one that lies on the north-west 
 of the temple. An avenue of sphinxes, uncovered by the Earl of Belmore, as described by Dr. 
 Richardson, forms an approach to the last-named entrance at the great temple ; but the grand approach 
 appears to have been at F, to the east of the one depicted in the Plate, and running nearly parallel 
 to it. Here there was also an avenue of sphinxes, and the road passed through four grand propyla, 
 400 or 500 feet apart from each other. These giant gateways are ornamented with sculptured and 
 polished granite, and on approaching them each exhibits statues in granite, breccia, and basalt, from 
 25 to 30 feet in height. Among numerous other ruins represented in the Plate, is a temple dedicated 
 to Isis, which stands between the main temple and the gateway, and -would be worthy of no little 
 admiration, were it not eclipsed by the superior grandeur and gigantic proportions of its neighbour. 
 
 “ But,” says Hamilton, “ without personally inspecting this extraordinary edifice, it is impossible 
 to have any adequate notion of its immense size, or of the prodigious masses of which it consists. In 
 both these respects, and, combined with them, in respect to the beauty and magnificence of its several 
 parts, it is, I should imagine, the most unique in the world.” 
 
 A wall of solid masonry encloses all the buildings belonging to the temple. The sacred pre- 
 mises on the exterior are encompassed by a ruined wall of sun-burnt brick, a mile and a half across, 
 and presents a chaos of dilapidation, the description of which would fatigue without satisfying the reader. 
 
APPROACH TO THE RUINS AT CARNAC. 
 
 Ere entering the solemn precincts of the time-hallowed edifices, it will not be inappropriate to 
 make some observations as to the meaning and design of the symbols with which they are so profusely 
 ornamented, and which, under the general name of hieroglyphics, have long occupied the attention of 
 the learned world. Owing to the labours of Young and Champollion, the subject is now sufficiently 
 intelligible. The characters used by the ancient Egyptians were threefold 1. Hieroglyphic— 2. 
 Hieratic— 3. Demotic. The first were composed of images of visible objects; the second of rude 
 and indistinct outlines of the whole or of parts of such images; and the third of a still greater 
 reduction of such outlines in a similar manner. Hieroglyphics, or writing by pictorial representation, 
 is the first resource of human ingenuity, which, as a nation advances in civilization, is improved into 
 a method of expressing sounds by visible signs. This was at a very early period accomplished by the 
 Egyptians in the following way. They selected several common and well-known hieroglyphics, such 
 as immediately suggested some word of frequent occurrence, and they employed them to express the 
 initial sound or first letter of that word : the remaining letters were formed in like manner. The 
 more simple outlines of these hieroglyphics, used in the hieratic character, would therefore have the 
 appearance and perform the functions of letters, and when abbreviated into the demotic enchorial, or 
 running-hand, would lose all resemblance to the original figures. Thus, the hieroglyphic character was 
 gradually rendered capable of expressing sounds, and, consequently, words, without the cumbrous 
 machinery of pictured signs. According to Champollion, these signs are divisible into three classes: 
 1. Figurative signs, such as were images of the things expressed.— 2. Symbolical.— 3. Phonetic, or 
 those indicative of sound. The whole number of hieroglyphic characters observed by Champollion, after 
 twenty years’ study, was 864, which shews that there were certain limitations to the apparently 
 
 APPROACH TO THE RUINS AT CARNAC. 
 
 17 
 
 boundless range of the hieroglyphic draughtsman. The figures were arranged in vertical or horizontal 
 columns. In consequence of these discoveries a great deal of light has been thrown upon Egyptian 
 history and antiquities; the walls of the temples and obelisks, and other monuments, being covered 
 with commemorative inscriptions, the meaning of which is no longer concealed from the modern eye. 
 
 It is supposed that the inhabitants of the city made this sacred enclosure, extending a mile 
 across, their last place of refuge when pressed by the Persian conqueror. That they also deposited 
 their idols here, we may infer from the discovery of a number by Belzoni, amidst the ruins marked A 
 They had been, to all appearance, collected and buried for security. Sitting as they do side by side, 
 they give an odd effect to the solitary sanctuary, which is a detached ruin to the right of the approach 
 from Luxor. The next view is taken from the obelisk seen on the left point of view, (marked O in 
 the plan,) and includes that part of the great temple at present observable. 
 
 Leaving the magnificent portal to the right, I hurried towards the grand propylon. It was with 
 some difficulty I could find my way through the narrow and filthy lanes of the Arab village, from 
 which these ruins take the name of Carnac. All over this spot, and within the limits of the walls, 
 each object denotes the existence of hidden architectural treasure. Here are tops of columns, there 
 overturned statues, and all around are broken relics that court farther investigation. Men of science 
 have been on the ground, and their achievements have been blazoned to the world, but their labours 
 have no more supplied a perfect conception of the extent and design of the ancient structure, than 
 their discoveries in hieroglyphics have unfolded to us the history of Egypt when her cities were in 
 number twenty thousand ! 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Thru/ fa/ Gapl? G7Tux.cC. 
 
 .ZondowFu7ti.yAuC 6j/ < ?niUhjJild<j-&C7 £.5, CvrnAM. 
 
 JOKTII WEST EIB OF THE TEMPLE OF CARFAX. 
 
 Taken, from tke Centre of the Bmois . 
 
18 
 
 NORTH-WEST END OF THE TEMPLE OF CARNAC 
 
 Fok the better enjoyment of effect, the traveller ought to enter the great propylon (marked B in 
 the plan) at the western end of the temple, and after he has passed through the court, with its overturned 
 columns, he will find a second propylon, which leads to the noble hall, or portico, already mentioned. 
 On issuing from this he reaches the obelisk (O), that towers near the centre of this unequalled scene. 
 
 From the neighbourhood of the base of the obelisk the accompanying view was taken. 
 Such is the wilderness of scattered and disjointed fragments, that more than human power would 
 appear to have worked the overthrow of the strong holds of superstition. Some have imagined that 
 the ruin was caused by the instantaneous concussion of an earthquake. None can contemplate, un- 
 moved, a sight that speaks of the downfall of a nation which trusted in “vain gods.” While musing 
 on it, some Arabs were procuring relics for the purposes of sale ; even the granite obelisk could scarce 
 resist the repeated blows of the sledge-hammer. The twelve columns which stand in the centre of the 
 hall are 36 feet in circumference. Those which form the wings are inferior in altitude, and measure 
 26 feet round the base. 
 
 This hall was formerly roofed, and no light appears to have entered except by the side win- 
 dows, seen in the Plate. All the building visible, except the obelisk, is of sand-stone, and was covered 
 with finished hieroglyphics, enlivened by vivid colouring. It is difficult to conceive the imposing- 
 effect that must have been produced on the mind of the votary by an edifice like this. Having passed 
 through avenues of sphinxes, and surveyed the colossal statues, guarding the enormous propyla, 
 his enthusiasm would he wrought to the highest pitch, and, as he entered the temple, each pillar, 
 while it receded from his view, would present, in brilliant hues, the image of the Deity he came to 
 worship. 
 
 The obelisk seen in the foreground has a base 8 feet square, and rises to a height of 80 
 feet. It is formed of a single block of black granite, and each side has a finely-polished surface. The 
 hieroglyphics, which are beautifully wrought, are supposed to record the succession of Pharaohs who 
 reigned over Egypt. A neighbouring obelisk, of equal magnitude, is similarly ornamented. From the 
 most ancient rulers of the land to the Ptolemies, almost every king, except the Persian, has lus name 
 recorded in this temple. But it was said, “ The sceptre of Egypt shall depart away and, as if m 
 direct fulfilment of the prophecy, the portion of the rocky tables that was to have been occupied by 
 the names of others of its royal line, has been shattered, and by no human hand. 
 
 This obelisk, than which there is none more beautiful, has been bestoived by the Pacha of 
 Egypt on the British nation, but no attempt has been made to remove it. It is still keeping its 
 position unheeded in the Desert. The French, more watchful than ourselves, are now transporting 
 similar relics to decorate their capital. Among the finest ornaments of modern Rome are its Egyptian 
 
 obelisks What time can be more favourable than the present to convey to the shores of Britain 
 this masterpiece of antiquity? We know that its removal is practmable, and at an outlay of a ten 
 of the sum expended on the square blocks of marble in front of Buckingham House. 
 
 It would far exceed the limits of this work to attempt a description of the ornaments of sculp- 
 ture in this temple. The most interesting are on the north wall, where there are battle-scenes, with 
 innumerable figures of military combatants using their arms, consisting of bows and arrows, spears, an 
 
 bucklers, of prostrate enemies, of war-chariots, and horses. The fiery action and elegant shape of 
 
 the steeds are remarkable. It would require a first-rate living genius to rival the variety of position 
 the power of effect, and fidelity of execution, in which men and horses are exhibited m the dismay oi 
 the flight, the agony of the death-struggle, and the exultation of the triumph. The hero and his 
 principal opponent are distinguished by superior stature. The former is seen at one time in the full 
 career of victory, at another time receiving protection from the gods. On the exterior walls of 
 the south-west corner of the portico are depicted other victories, conjectured to be those of the 
 
 Egyptians over the Jews. 
 
 The obelisks in this temple were the gifts of several monarchs, and various portions of the 
 edifice were constructed at different times by sovereigns, who in this way expressed a sense of obli- 
 gation to the gods. This may account for rebuilding part of it, and for the appearance of reversed 
 hieroglyphics, perceptible in many buildings, and which may be seen in this temple on the side of the 
 propylon next the grand hall, erected by Osiris, the father of Sesostris. The granite sanctuary 
 was built by Philip, the brother of Alexander the Great, and there is a small chapel erected by the 
 Macedonian conqueror. Hamilton sums up his animated account of the sculpture on these walls 
 by the following remarks : — 
 
 « The variety of mounds and situations in these battles is so great, the disposition of the 
 whole, and the expression of each part, are so excellent, that I could not but flatter myself that the 
 same scenes might have arrested Homer’s admiration as they did mine ; and that, if in his Egyptian 
 tour he ever came to Thebes, he might have caught many ideas and incidents of the Iliad from these 
 sculptures, executed as they are with a fire and animation, to which he could not have been insensible, 
 and which, perhaps, he witnessed in their progress. We here see his Diomede, his Mars, and lus 
 Achilles, before our eyes ; nor could poetry ever have strewed the plains of the Simois and the Sca- 
 
 * I am indebted to an English gentleman, Mr. Burton, for being able to give a correct delineation of the hieroglyphics on this 
 obelisk. I believe he is still pursuing his researches in Egypt, the result of which will, no doubt, at some future day, be laid before 
 the public. 
 
TEMPLE OF CARN AC— NORTH-WEST END. 
 
 “ Tt 1S natUral t0 ima S ine >” sa y s the same writer, “ that this temple was founded, and in great part 
 built, by the sovereign of Egypt, whom we so often see represented on the walls in the different 
 characters of a great warrior, a cruel or munificent conqueror, and as a pious prince, grateful to the 
 gods for the benefits they had bestowed upon him. He seems, indeed, to have been considered either 
 by himself, his subjects, or his successors, as a peculiar favorite of heaven. He is frequently on his 
 knees, receiving from Isis and Osiris, together with their blessing, the insignia of royalty and even of 
 divinity. The hawk is always flying above him ; two priests are performing upon him the mysterious 
 ceremony of pouring the cruces ansatas, or crosses with rings, over his head, at which time he wears a 
 common dress and close cap. Hermes and Osiris are pointing out to him a particular line in a 
 graduated scale, allusive it may be to the periodical inundation of the Nile, or the administration 
 of strict justice, or (combined with the preceding scene) to the ceremony of initiation into the 
 religious mysteries those of the Kings of Egypt who were taken from the class of soldiers. * * * * 
 There is, in general, a great resemblance in the countenance and dress of the monarch in the different 
 sculptures on both sides of the river, the only variety being in the difference of altitude and situation, 
 the different costumes and arms of the enemies he is driving before him, and in his being sometimes 
 " itli a helmet, at others with his head uncovered and the hair in curls, spreading out at the sides like 
 that of the sphinx or the Bichare Arabs. * * * Sesostris is the only Egyptian sovereign recorded by 
 Herodotus to have added much to the conquests of his predecessors, as well as to the glory of the two 
 capitals of Ills country ; to have built temples in every city, and to have raised obelisks and statues in 
 the principal ones. let it is not probable that only one King of Egypt was a great conqueror; 
 that one only built temples and raised obelisks ; and that only one extended his conquests as far as 
 India !” 
 
 It is supposed that the gateways and propyla, of which there are still nearly fifty remaining, 
 in different degrees of preservation, formed the hundred gates for which Thebes was famed three' 
 thousand years ago, when, according to the poet’s lay, 
 
 “ Two hundred horsemen and two hundred cars 
 Through each wide portal issued to the wars.” 
 
 TEMPLE OF CARNAC— NORTH-WEST END. 
 
 19 
 
 The great propylon at the western entrance remains unfinished, and each layer of stones 
 recedes a couple of inches from the row beneath. These enormous structures, like the pyramids, 
 were afterwards brought to a smooth surface, but by a different process ; the former, in all probability 
 by means of a chisel. The process of carving was carried on simultaneously. 
 
 It was always with regret that I turned my back on these noble memorials when called upon 
 to retrace my steps to Luxor; and during the time I remained in their vicinity I frequently renewed 
 my visits to them. On one occasion I went, alone and unperceived, to the centre of the temple, and 
 casting a wandering glance over the multitude of pillars,— some as if about to fall, others already fallen, 
 others asking support from their neighbours— the soil, impregnated with saltpetre, slowly but surely 
 undermining what violence had left unassailed— I could not help moralizing on the instability of man, 
 and the illusive character of his earthly aims. Even these proud efforts of art, in which durability had 
 so evidently been studied, were crumbling into dust, in the loneliness of barbarian neglect. No living 
 thing was to be seen, save a fox stealing from his hiding-place, or a lizard wooing the sunshine. These 
 were the only watchers near the shrine of the Egyptian deities, and few disturb their vigils, except 
 the passing traveller, or the Arab, who wanders in the sacred recess, and stalls his cattle where the 
 mightiest Pharaoh has bent in reverence. 
 
 From the temple the road towards Luxor enters a grove of palm-trees, on passing which the 
 village of Luxor is seen in a S. W. direction, separated by half a league of desert; fragments of 
 sphinxes may be traced over a great part of the road. This intermediate space is supposed to have 
 been the site of the ancient city of Diospolis, and to have been included within the walls of the more 
 ancient Thebes. Centuries elapsed from the time when “ the soul of poetry was first breathed into 
 it by Homer,” to the existence of the Father of History; and during the intervening period the 
 ravages recorded in sacred writ had been effected. The course that now leads across the plain is 
 obstructed by dikes and mounds of rubbish, with stunted grass, presenting altogether a most melan- 
 choly prospect, un animated by a single dwelling ; while, here and there, a hideous idol, like the 
 black minister of a magician, rises on the path, and seems ready to crush the intruder on its 
 solitudes. 
 
CROSSING THE NILE. 
 
 They were daubed and decorated, and evidently bold and Hcentious. They are a peculiar class, re- 
 sembling the nautch girls of India, and reminding one strongly of the performers who shew them- 
 selves in front of booths at fairs in England. Having freed myself of this plague, I was persecuted 
 by another. All the beggars of the village and temples seemed to have congregated for the purpose 
 of offering antiques for sale. These were coins and scarabmi, and other ornaments, such as beads, 
 with numerous small figures of vitrified pottery. So little discrimination had these people as to 
 the character of the articles they brought, that pieces of English china left by travellers were 
 presented with the same earnestness as the records of thirty centuries, and the object most prized 
 by them was a discarded corkscrew. Yet discernment and cunning were at the bottom of all this 
 dealing, or it might be intimidation. Gangs of Arabs are frequently met at work, but that part 
 of the produce of their labours worth possessing is only to be bought at Cairo or Alexandria, and 
 for a high price. A traveller is much disappointed in being forced to leave Thebes without obtain- 
 ing a relic worthy of his research and the occasion. This is likely to be the case, although he 
 is aware many such are at hand, for the trade of ransacking graves and temples is carried on under 
 his eye. But there are always suspicious, reserved-looking personages in attendance on the bands of 
 riflers, and these are agents in the exploring trade. I hey are easily distinguished by a dress shabby 
 enough, though differing from the loose blue shirt which forms the sole equipment of the fellah, who, 
 when in his best plight, wears it clean washed, with a cord fastened round the waist. He may by 
 chance have a scull cap of the same blue colour as his shirt, or his black hair may appear rivalling 
 his dusky skin. It is impossible for a stranger to resist purchasing some of the proffered relics. Many 
 of them, though but an inch in length, bear the image of Osiris; and on some, not larger than a 
 coffee-bean, may be found the figure of a tortoise, or the name of a Pharaoh, till now shrouded within 
 the sacred mansions of the dead. Such things are sold for two or four paras, (a penny or two pence.) 
 When this trade has begun, there is so great a rush of sellers, that all further quiet and unmolested 
 investigation are over. Finding it so, I determined to cross the river, intending to return at a more 
 favorable time. Hearing also that a Frank (a term bestowed on every European) was on the opposite 
 side, I quickened my steps, in the hope of receiving information as to the surrounding mysteries. 
 
 On the 1st of January I made hasty arrangements for quitting the east bank of the Nile, and 
 the only boat that plied to the opposite shore was summoned for my accommodation. It held my 
 luggage, with a few attendants, and a well- trained ass that stepped in and out with the alacrity of 
 discipline. On these animals excursions are made to the various temples. The natives prepare 
 them with a pad girthed to the back, for which any old European saddle would be a desirable sub- 
 stitute, We left the bank below Luxor, over which presided a melancholy tranquillity. It was impos- 
 sible not to call to mind the changes that had occurred since the time when the bosom of the Nile 
 heaved gladsomely under the splendours of the procession. From the very spot I had left, the great 
 idol was embarked in festal pomp suited to the magnificent edifice that enshrined it, 
 
 APPROACH TO THE MEMNONIUM. 
 
 21 
 
 A current, running at the rate of between two and three miles an hour, swept us rapidly down 
 the stream, while the efforts of two boatmen were made in vain to gain the opposite bank. Nor was I 
 surprised at their failing to do so, when I saw the rude materials they had to work with, and inspected 
 the circular pieces of wood which, tied at the end of rude poles, formed a substitute for oars. When 
 we had reached an island that lies between Luxor and the opposite side, the boat was towed up and 
 started again, till at length we had traversed the whole breadth of the river, which may be about a 
 quarter of a mile. When I gained the shore above the village of Gourrou, near a solitary sycamore, the 
 objects that began to arrest my attention came in rapid succession. To the right, near the village, a 
 deep ravine, apparently formed by torrents, like the roads in the Desert of Cosseir, was pointed out as 
 leading to the tombs of the kings. I was passing from the productive soil to the Desert, where low 
 circular hills terminate in bolder features, which are again crowned by a high and rugged mountain, 
 about 1200 feet above the level of the Nile. My road ran westward, over heaps of rubbish and 
 masses of ruins, that constantly forced me to deviate from the direct line. The scene had all the 
 appearance of a vast pile of buildings wrecked by a conflagration. Two giant statues, on the left, 
 seated in the midst of cultivation, next fix the gaze. On turning to the right, the hill appears 
 perforated with openings, some running in regular rows, sufficiently visible to shew that the whole 
 mountain, from its base to the summit, is one great repository of the dead. To the right of the 
 colossi, dividing the sand from the turf, were the remains of that beautiful ruin, the Memnonium; 
 and about half a mile further off, a portion of the temple at Medinah Habou was discernible. 
 Advancing towards these objects, a path suddenly turned to the right, and began to ascend over 
 hollow ground, abounding in pits and mounds of lime and rubbish. Dark recesses, formerly appro- 
 priated to sepulture, were now occupied by Arabs, who occasionally started up as our party approached 
 their haunts. Half a mile from the plain, after winding amidst pits, I arrived at the house where 
 I hoped to find a Christian. An approach through a small door admitted me to a yard, well protected 
 by a high wall against surprise. Painted mummy-cases, and other memorials, pointed out the pursuits 
 of its occupant. Ascending to an upper story, I was led to a small room with shattered windows, that 
 afforded an imposing view of all the temples I had visited. Here were tables, chairs, and a comfortable 
 couch, but I looked in vain for the owner. The attendant welcomed me by a look, and retired, 
 respectfully shutting the door. Disappointed in my expected information, owing to the absence of 
 Mr. Janni, the proprietor of the house, I was greatly gratified on perceiving some books. A few 
 works in Greek, and two volumes of Denon, lay upon the table ; they professed to give the history 
 of the very spot I stood upon ; but, alas ! they contained nothing more than a dry nomenclature ; 
 the different chapters ringing the changes on high-sounding titles, the names of deities and kings ; 
 while all that I longed to learn as to the date or purpose of the construction of the circumjacent 
 monuments, was left unilluminated by aught beyond a vague conjecture, 
 
APPROACH TO THE 
 
 ( Vignet 
 
 From the prostrate idol the attention is called to the towering obelisks of Luxor, rising from an 
 Arab village, which, like Carnac, is a picture of wretchedness in the arms of desolation. A wall, wrth 
 gates, all of crumbling sand, sun-burnt brick, or mud, surrounds houses of the same description. 
 Through narrow streets I wound my way to a lodging which I rented from an Arab. My residence 
 stood nearly opposite to the magnificent propylon, or gateway, leading to the temple, (see Plate of the 
 Temple of Luxor, a drawing of which from the point marked A in the plan forms the vignette to the 
 title-page of this work) which fixes the north-east boundary in advancing from the city. The obelisks 
 that stand in front of the entrance are about 65 feet above the level of the soil, and are each of a single 
 piece of red granite, carved with deeply- wrought hieroglyphics. 
 
 These are the obelisks at present on their way to France, where they will afford a triumph to 
 the activity of the “grand nation.” It is to be observed that these monuments, with all that is seen 
 in the sketch, were buried in the soil to the depth of more than 25 feet: the hieroglyphics, with 
 which they are inscribed, are of a smaller kind than those on the obelisk at Carnac. 
 
 Between these obelisks and the propylon are two colossal statues, also of granite; they have 
 sufficient ornamented work remaining to shew the pains that must have been bestowed on them, but 
 they are so disfigured in front, that it is impossible to distinguish even their size. Though buried 
 in rubbish nearly to the shoulders, upwards of 20 feet, measuring to the top of the mitre, continues 
 exposed to the eye. They are 11 feet across the shoulders, and the length of their ears is 22 inches. 
 Other figures similar to them are visible, and some lie buried amidst the Arab huts along the front. 
 The magnitude of these objects harmonizes with the splendour of the propylon seen m the back 
 ground. The entrance through the centre is 20 feet wide. Fragments of stone shew where there was 
 formerly a covered gate, and here on each side the wall extends about 90 feet, and is 57 feet high. 
 On it are represented a battle-scene, forming one magnificent piece of sculpture, in which there 
 are not less than 1500 human figures, 500 of which are on foot, the rest in chariots. As m the 
 East at the present day, there are no rules of perspective observed. The spirit and variety of this 
 picture cannot be described; it is supposed to record the victories of the Egyptians over Eastern 
 
 enemies. . . , • , ,, 
 
 1 strolled through the temple, and was delighted with every part. Its original size and form 
 
 cannot be doubted, although several masses of stone and many fragments of pillars indicate that much 
 of the minor compartments and decorations has been destroyed. It has been altogether unroofed, 
 except the enclosed building opposite the entrance that led from the city. There is a simplicity 
 about every part of the structure that shews its extreme antiquity, and it exhibits the two original 
 styles of Egyptian architecture. We are not here diverted by the multiplicity of additions and 
 
 RUINS AT LUXOR 
 
 fetal buildings that confuse Carnac. Luxor convey, to the mind . perfect and natural outl.ne, an, 
 
 I returned t„ m, abode highly grabbed, determined to make such plan, mrd represents, a. word. 
 „,i,f, myself, and enable me to convey to my friend, the mean, of forming a concept™ of the 
 antiquity, resources, and power of a departed people. Of these monuments 
 
 “ Some felt the silent stroke of mouldering age. 
 
 Some hostile fury, some religious rage ; 
 
 Barbarian blindness, Christian zeal conspire, 
 
 And Papal piety, and gothic fire.” 
 
 I retired to my humble quarters, where I found some fish had been procured and cooked. I 
 thought them insipid, and probably the natives esteem them but little, for I saw very few during my 
 journey ; the many beds of water that have been dried up have, no doubt, altered the character of 
 Eoypt in this respect. My apartment was the principal room of one of the best houses in Luxor; a 
 door opened into it from the public street. A raised platform three feet from the ground ran across 
 the opposite side of the room to the door. This was the breadth of half the apartment, which might 
 have been twelve feet square. The mode of raising a part of the room above the rest, prevails 
 throughout the East, and the approach to the elevated part is the characteristic of rank. My carpet 
 was spread and I was told that the sheik of the village was about to pay me a visit. He soon entered, 
 bearing his pipe, with its long cherry-stick and clay bowl. The mouth piece, which is seen of every 
 description and value, from the common piece of stone to the amber set in diamonds, denotes the rank 
 of the possessor. Every man carries his own bag of tobacco, and after the first salutation, all the 
 parties sit cross-legged, and smile at each other, puffing simultaneously. Very few questions are 
 introduced by these intellectual people, who have, however, one very sensible custom, that of pre- 
 senting coffee as a signal for the guest to take leave, when there is an understanding that you are 
 tired of his company. On this occasion it would have been well had I retained my silent visitor, for 
 he had no sooner turned his back than a loud noise and merriment announced the approach of a group 
 of almehs, or professional singers and dancing women. I shut the door of my house to exclude them, 
 although I was left in total darkness; but they were not to be thus defeated, and remained outside, 
 uttering shrieks that were more intolerable than the exhibition was likely to be. I was also told by 
 my attendant that they were privileged, and the best way would be to fee them at once. 
 
 The group of ringing girls consisted of four : the dance resembled a Scotch reel, except that 
 the couples “ set” to each other, and seldom change places. Pieces of metal were attached to the 
 finger and thumb of each of the girls, making a great noise, and they accompanied the dance with a 
 scream, which vied in shrillness with a kind of flageolet played by a man who attended the party. 
 
22 
 
 RUINS OF THE MEMNONIUM 
 
 Early the following morning I explored the Ruins of the Memnonium at the foot of the 
 hill, below my abode. Not a hut was nigh, and not a living being interrupted my occupation. Every 
 wall displayed a picture perfect in itself, and commemorative of events in character with the time of 
 execution. 
 
 Mr. Hamilton’s vivid description of one of these paintings will supply an idea of the whole. 
 “ In one of the battle-scenes on a gateway, the Egyptians are led on by two heroes of equal prowess, 
 and whose weapons spread equal destruction and dismay among their long-robed opponents. Here, 
 too, is introduced the reluctant retreat of the defeated chieftain, till he is laid low by the fated arrow 
 of the conqueror. In the next scene, where is represented the plunder of the conquered town, much 
 art and ingenuity have been exerted in the different details of murders, battles, and scenes of pillage. 
 The insatiable myrmidons, tired with slaughter, in entering the houses, lay hands on the money-bags, 
 open the wine-casks, and are wallowing in the juices that flow around them. Some are loading camels 
 with what they think worth carrying off. The superfluous beasts of burthen are put to death ; 
 the inhabitants are surprised at their daily labour, — some bruising corn, others carrying burthens, or 
 tending their cattle. The oxen have the Indian bunches on their shoulders. War-chariots and 
 other carriages serve to block up the streets : some of the greedy conquerors are contending among 
 themselves for objects of value ; others are throwing the helpless inhabitants over the walls. The 
 remaining troops are marching, in order to lay themselves at the feet of the conqueror ; their arms 
 are scimitars and shields ; captives are driven or led through the streets, with their elbows lashed 
 together above their heads ; and their monarch is tied to the conqueror’s chariot, to be dragged, like 
 another Hector, round the walls of the town.” 
 
 The sides of all the cross walls in this temple, of which there are several remaining, and the 
 propylon, are covered with equally interesting representations. Among the varied scenes, is one in 
 which a chieftain is depicted in a sitting posture, with a tree rising between his knees. The branches 
 and foliage throw a circle of shade above him. He grasps the tau and sceptre. The Goddess Isis, 
 and two other deities, have inscribed the name of the hero on the fruit of the tree ; one of the scribes 
 has not completed the writing. The same name runs throughout the devices in the temple. 
 
 Within these walls, which occupy a breadth of more than 200 feet, with a depth of 600, the 
 whole area is a forest of pillars, interspersed with fragments and fallen statues. It was approached 
 through a noble propylon, which fronts the fertile plain, and rests upon it. But the ancient inha- 
 bitants, whose enormous temples extended over so great a space, were obliged to choose the desert 
 for their purpose ; and we find the remainder of this temple on the under feature of the mountain, 
 the rock of which is levelled to form the floor. The pile of stone, which forms the approach has some 
 
 inverted hieroglyphics and unfinished sculpture, a proof of its being more modern than some other 
 structures. It is much shaken and changed in form. 
 
 In this propylon, like that at Carnac, there are passages leading to several chambers and to 
 the roof. A distance of 160 feet separates the propylon from the first wall of the temple. The 
 enormous statue, of which the fragments remain in the court, is that commonly denominated the 
 Memnon, a name which it contests with the statue seated in the plain. Its fragments, which are 
 rocks of large grained-red granite, have a beautiful polish on the exterior, and the shoulder is 
 ornamented with deeply-cut hieroglyphics. . How such a block of granite could be shattered, must 
 excite the surprise of every beholder. Its condition, and that of the propylon, can only, I think, be 
 satisfactorily accounted for, by attributing it to the concussion of an earthquake. 
 
 This statue measures 22 feet across the shoulders. From the crown of the head to the 
 top of the shoulder it measures 13 feet ; from the shoulder to the elbow 13| feet, and 6 feet 10 
 inches over the foot. It lies on its back, and much pains must have been taken to reduce the 
 features of its face to a smooth surface. Champollion dates its erection at 2272, B. C. It was 
 from its summit that I took the view of the temple : it is ascended by means of the hierogly- 
 phics on the arm. The court, which intervened between me and the opposite quarter, is about 100 
 feet wide. Four square columns, similar to those in front, formerly stood on the opposite side of 
 the door, making a row of eight, that faced a like number, some of which were yet to be seen on the 
 division where I was stationed. The two sides of the court were bounded by a double row of enor- 
 mous pillars, parts of whose capitals remain, and have a circumference of 32 feet. Behind the square 
 columns are others, and when the whole was roofed, it must have formed a magnificent piazza. The 
 front of the square columns is carved into statues in full relief, measuring 20 feet to the shoulder, and 
 Osiris is represented with his hands crossed, holding the crook and scourge. Much labour has been 
 spent in divesting the figures of the heads and pointed caps, which, if unmutilated, would raise them to 
 the top of the pillar. Below the arms they take the shape of the mummy-case, and they have a row of 
 hieroglyphics down the front. From these figures, the Greeks are said to have copied their Caryatides. 
 On the fragment of the wall seen in front are representations of offerings to the deity, but they by 
 no means exhibit the spirit and animation displayed in the battle-scenes. The pillars form the 
 central ruins of a hall, whose roof is supported by forty-eight pillars ; beyond this is a second hall 
 entered by a door and divided from the other by a cross wall. The remains of a third, seen farther 
 on, terminate this interesting ruin. The whole of the chambers are roofed, and the central part is 
 elevated, and admits light as at the temple at Carnac. All the interior, which was at one time coloured, 
 is filled with sculptured heads. The side walls that enclose this temple, have been removed, as have 
 
THE MEMNONIUM. 
 
 many columns and statues, but enough remains to awaken a high degree of awe and admiration in 
 the mind of him who winds his way through this once venerated pile. It differs from all the other 
 structures of a similar class, in being without a sanctuary. The statues that once adorned it 
 have been much mutilated. The fragments of a statue of black granite, represented in the plate 
 of the Memnonium, is styled the brother of the Younger Memnon — the figure whose head was con- 
 veyed from hence to England by Belzoni, and placed in the British Museum. Like its expatriated 
 companion, it has a benignant countenance, and the full Ethiopian lip, which characterise the 
 sphinxes in the neighbourhood. Belzoni, speaking of his Memnon, says, “ I found it near the 
 remains of its body and chair, with the face upwards, and apparently smiling on me at the thoughts 
 of being taken to England.” The hills beyond the ruin form part of the range, which are excavated 
 and filled with tombs. Adjacent to the temple these hills are penetrated by many curious tunnels, 
 extending to a length of several hundred feet, and having their roofs supported by parallel arches 
 of brick. The use of these passages is unknown. Large heaps of unburnt brick, apparently collected 
 for building, are found in the vicinity. On all sides, looking up the hill, the eye sees nothing but the 
 decaying vestiges of the temple and the tomb — of the abodes of the living and the dead. Man 
 or mummy might at present find a suitable tenement in these rocky recesses. 
 
 Belzoni, who fully explored this range of tombs, says, “ After the exertion of entering into such 
 a place, through a passage of 50, 100, 300, or perhaps 600 yards, nearly overcome, I sought a resting- 
 place, found one, and continued to sit : but when my weight bore on the body of an Egyptian, it 
 crushed it like a band-box ; I naturally had recourse to my hands to support my weight, but they 
 found no better support, so that I sank altogether among the broken mummies, with a crush of bones, 
 rags, and wooden cases, which raised such a dust as kept me motionless for a quarter of an hour, 
 waiting till it subsided again.” 
 
 The Memnonium seems to correspond with the tomb of Osymandyas, described by Diodorus, 
 if we suppose the library — “ the repository of the medicine of the soul,” — with some of the rooms 
 about it, to be buried in the rubbish at the west end of the ruin. It is worthy of remark, that this 
 temple, like its neighbour at Medinah Habou, is without an obelisk, and the same distinction is ob- 
 servable in all the temples on the west side of Thebes, while no tomb is found on the opposite shore. 
 That this building was appropriated as the mausoleum of some distinguished individual is the more 
 probable, from the single statue that adorns it, of the enormous proportions described. In its sitting 
 posture, it measured 52 feet, without including the head dress or the pedestal. The latter, from the 
 part still visible, appears to have been wrought with hieroglyphics. Some idea of this gigantic 
 
 THE MEMNONIUM. 
 
 23 
 
 figure will be conveyed to those who see the younger Memnon in the British Museum, which, in its 
 perfect state, would have measured less than half the size of this one. Its ear forms a most comfortable 
 resting-place for weary travellers. The toe nail is larger than the foot of most statutes of the present 
 day. An idea of the appearance of this colossal figure in its perfect state, may be formed by referring 
 to the succeeding Plate, in which two figures are represented, unrivalled for their size. But the 
 statue of Osymandyas is described by ancient writers to have been the largest in the country, and this 
 prostrate one must have surpassed its neighbours when seated in its majesty, and ornamented with a 
 head-dress. It is also said of the same statue, that it stood within the walls of the tomb or temple. 
 Now this is the case at present with that under consideration. It remains for some enterprising 
 traveller to determine this long agitated question, by uncovering and decyphering the hieroglyphics 
 which lie beneath the rubbish, and correspond with similar records inscribed on the pedestals of the 
 adjacent statues. If this should prove to be the supposed statue ; we are told that the following 
 singular announcement will be found to attest the fact : “ I am Osymandyas, king of kings ; if any 
 one desire to know what a prince I am, and where I lie, let him excel my exploits.” 
 
 The dark age of ignorance and fanaticism that has so long enveloped the land of Egypt is fast 
 clearing away; and this country is every year becoming more the resort of European and of enlightened 
 travellers. Already have the indefatigable researches of Young and Champollion thrown a light on 
 the obscurity of Egyptian history, they have pointed the way to the attainment of much valuable 
 knowledge. The names and dates of the reigns of many Pharoahs have been decyphered, and with 
 the assistance of picture writing, found on all the temples and tombs, much has already been done to 
 illustrate the works of profane writers, and to illumine the pages of holy writ. Those two eminent 
 labourers in the field of mystical inquiry have terminated their earthly career. Others among the 
 learned are engaged in the interpretation of hieroglyphic characters. It must be encouraging to reflect 
 that it is not yet a century since the Danish traveller, Norden, visited the monuments in Egypt, when 
 the devices on them were regarded as fancy compositions, meant to embellish the surfaces on which 
 they were found. Many volumes on hieroglyphics have of late years been put forth, each making an 
 advance beyond its predecessor towards the attainment of the desired knowledge. Throughout 
 Europe a spirit of national emulation has arisen, and increased, to take the lead in elucidating the 
 ancient and venerated memorials of the past. 
 
 Turning my back on this gem of antiquity, I became suddenly involved among drains that 
 intersected the level and cultivated plain below, all of which is irrigated on the rising of the river. 
 After advancing about eight hundred yards, I reached the Colossal Statues. 
 
(L-Old 0 B 8 A.IL 1 8 TATIIK 8 at THJBBK B and distant View of 'MEDUAH HABOP, 
 
 taken frointkeE ast 
 
 Zoridotv.Ikiks/bid tyjTn/MuikJf&dMj&S, ■ComAM'. 
 
 Pnavn, omStont-li/ W. Widtv/VJroinj a Jixjt/ufo tip 
 

 
 COLOSSAL STATUES AT THEBES. 
 
 No object is approached with greater veneration than these kindred genii of an enchanted 
 region. At one season of the year they are seen like distant spires, rising from the bosom of green 
 fertility ; at another, they are observed, like beacon-towers, emerging from a sea, and casting their 
 shadows on the waters which overflow the surrounding country. They are distant about a mile and 
 half from the Nile, equi-distant from the Memnonium and the temple of Medinah Habou, to the 
 latter of which they probably marked the approach. They are sixty feet asunder, and look towards 
 the East. Nothing certain is known as to the sex of either, but there is a perceptible difference in 
 their size, and it may be inferred that the smaller was intended to represent a female. This figure 
 has been more kindly dealt with than its neighbour, which, some historians say, by the violence of 
 Cambyses, and others, by the shock of an earthquake, was broken at the waist, whence its altitude 
 is now eked out by layers of sand-stone. Not a trace exists of their features, but there is enough 
 of elaborate work on the drapery and costume of the smaller, to shew that these colossi were 
 master-pieces of art as well as of mechanical power. Each was formed of a single piece of crystallized 
 quartzy sand-stone. A considerable part of the pedestals lies buried in the soil which has accumu- 
 lated about them ; and if, as writers allege, the soil increases at the rate of one foot in every hundred 
 years ; and if Cliampollion’s conjecture be correct, that the hieroglyphic inscription on the throne 
 denotes the figure to be that of the seventh King of the eighteenth dynasty, (the Memnon of the 
 Greeks,) who reigned 1800 years before our Saviour, these statues must have been elevated to an 
 enormous height. At present the pedestals rise eight feet above the soil, having a front of eighteen 
 and a depth of thirty-six feet. A cube of eighteen feet forms the seat. The whole height of the 
 figures above the plain is about fifty-two feet, and the height of the knee from the pedestal is 
 nineteen. The front is relieved by three figures, one outside each leg, with pendant arms and 
 spiked head-dresses. A small figure as high as the calf, stands between the legs. The sides of the 
 pedestal are embellished with hieroglyphics, and the sides of the seats are marked with devices, 
 supposed to be emblematic of the Nile. These are figures represented in the act of binding bundles 
 of the lotus to the post of a table, on which are supported hieroglyphic tablets. They wear head- 
 dresses of the lotus flowers, half of which are blowing and half are just budded, supposed to 
 typify Upper and Lower Egypt, provinces that were probably united under the reigning monarch. 
 Similar devices are to be seen at the doors of the temples, and are placed on the north and south side, 
 to correspond with the bearing of these localities. The legs and instep, and many parts of the broken 
 statue, are covered with inscriptions in Greek and Latin, testifying the truth of the well-known story, 
 that the lips of the sculptured Memnon uttered a mysterious sound every morning at sun rise. 
 Among the names of persons recorded as having witnessed it, are those of the Emperor Hadrian and his 
 
 consort Sabina, with many others of rank and title. The boldness and originality of the works of the 
 Egyptian sculptors astonish the beholder, and then 1 size and uniformity hide many defects that would 
 prove repugnant to taste, if the scale of execution were less grand. The circumstance of the elbow 
 being brought in contact with the thigh in the twin colossal figures, while the hand is made to extend 
 to the knee, will shew the applicability of the remark. 
 
 Between the statues the outline of the temple at Medinah Habou appears broken by an Arab 
 village, which partially rests on its roof. This village is deserted, and its crumbling mud walls, 
 compared to the massive and firm structure below, strongly mark the fallen condition of the present 
 occupants of Thebes. Most of the Arabs prefer a residence in the excavations which are visible in 
 the projecting mountain. These are mummy caves, from which the silent tenants have been ejected 
 to make room for a living generation. They are opened in spots where the lime-stone favours 
 excavation ; and here it is cut like the front of a wall, with entrances frequently as regular in 
 appearance as rows of windows. Few of the caves communicate with each other ; the bodies of the 
 poorer class are found in the most accessible places, at the base of the hill, and, though embalmed, 
 the cloth is of an inferior quality, and they are generally without the wooden cases. In the vici- 
 nity of the statues are fragments and ruins, indicating that other objects once stood between them 
 and the temple. An excavation has lately been made in the direction of the mount just at the 
 edge of cultivation, from which were removed two beautiful sphinxes, that measured above the 
 pedestal sixteen feet in length: from the top of the pedestal to the chin was five feet, and the head, a 
 soft and pleasing face of a female, was three feet ; all, including a pedestal, being formed of a piece of 
 beautifully polished red granite. A sugar-loaf cap of a separate piece measured five feet more. If, by 
 mere chance, and by the exertion of an humble individual, these treasures of art were discovered, how 
 valuable must be the monuments that lie buried and lost to the world in the vicinity of the temples. 
 My Arab servant having spread a carpet, and arranged my humble fare in front of the Memnon, I took 
 my repast beneath his protecting shadow. Often did I think of the novelty of the situation, while I 
 gazed at the placid survivor of so many revolutions, which were calendared by the marks of violence 
 that disfigured his majestic frame. 
 
 In surveying the giant forms before me, my feelings fully responded to the sentiments of a 
 recent traveller, (the author of Scenes and Impressions in Egypt,) who says, “ These are very awful 
 monuments : they bear the form of man ; and there is a something in their very posture which touches 
 the soul ; they sit erect and calm ; they have seen generation upon generation swept away, and still 
 their gaze is fixed on men toiling and perishing at their feet.” 
 
 “ Few monuments of ancient magnificence,” says Hamilton, “ have as yet given more subject 
 
COLOSSAL STATUES. 
 
 for discussion among the Egyptian antiquaries, than the identification of the statue of Memnon, or 
 rather of that statue from which was said to proceed a certain mysterious sound every morning at 
 sunrise. This contest has arisen from the contradictory accounts given of it by the geographers, 
 natural historians, and poets of antiquity. The French have adopted the opinion of those who claim 
 this appellation for the fallen colossus at the temple they call the Memnonium. Pococke, on the 
 other hand, and I am inclined to prefer the opinion of our countryman, gives it decidedly in favour of 
 the northernmost of the two last mentioned. Strabo simply says, that on the opposite bank of the 
 livei, where was the Memnonium, there were also two colossal statues, each of one stone, and near each 
 other, of one of which the upper part had been broken off, it was said, by an earthquake ; and that 
 fiom the part which remained on the throne or base, a sound issued every day resembling that of a 
 slight blow. Now the two statues in question are but fifty-four feet asunder, they face the same 
 point of the compass, they are very similar in size, character, and proportions, one of them, that to the 
 south, is certainly of a single block of stone, and the northernmost has evidently been broken off at the 
 waist , and while the lower part is a monolith, the body, arms, and head are constructed of several 
 horizontal layers of stone, apparently of a different kind from the legs and base.” 
 
 After citing the opinion of Pausanius and other ancient authorities, the same traveller says, 
 “ In addition to these testimonies, which seem in the whole in favour of Pococke, we have those of the 
 various Greeks and Romans who visited this statue at different times, and have engraven their names 
 on its legs and feet, declaring that they heard the sound or voice of Memnon at such an hour, generally 
 either one or two hours after sunrise, and it cannot be supposed that they should hear the sound come 
 from one statue, and commemorate the circumstance at another. 
 
 “With regard to the Memnon and his history, all that is said upon the subject is so 
 full of contradiction, conjecture, and fable, that it is impossible to argue about the place of his resi- 
 dence, while we are ignorant of that of his birth, of his country, and of his life. He is, at different 
 times, and in different authors, an Egyptian, an Ethiopian, a Trojan, and a Per sian He appears 
 to have been the universal hero of the south, as Hercules was of the west, and Bacchus of the 
 east. After all I have said on the subject of the statue of Memnon, I am very much inclined to 
 think that there were two pretended vocal statues at Thebes ; and that the one which Philostratus 
 speaks of as having, besides its youthful appearance and other circumstances, a peculiar intelligence 
 in its eyes, and a mouth as if on the point of speaking, was placed in the temple called the Memno- 
 nium. The head of such a statue is still to be seen within this building, and it is certainly the most 
 beautiful and perfect piece of Egyptian sculpture that can be seen throughout the whole country. 
 
 I 
 
 COLOSSAL STATUES. 
 
 25 
 
 We were struck with its extraordinary delicacy, the very uncommon expression visible in its features, 
 and with a marked character that well entitled it to the admiration of Damis. Its proportions are 
 not so colossal as those of the two which are together in the plain, and the place in which it is to be 
 found exactly answers to the description by the same biographer,— a space within a ruined temple, 
 strewed with fragments of columns, traces of walls, pedestals, doorways, and statues of Hermes; 
 Partirn manu, partim tempore consumpta.” 
 
 The French, who were some time the undisturbed occupiers of this territory, made various 
 efforts to elucidate the history of the country by experiments to ascertain the quantity of soil 
 deposited at different places, and by that means to form a species of chronometer by which the 
 number of centuries since the erection of different monuments might be determined. The results 
 drawn from this project form but a vague approximation to the truth. The depth of soil is found to 
 vary at different distances from the river, lessening from the banks until it intermixes with and becomes 
 lost in the desert. Herodotus, who 2000 years ago entered into the same speculations regarding the 
 early history of Egypt as travellers in the present day, asserts that, in the reign of Mceris, Egypt only 
 required that the river should rise to the height of eight cubits to water the soil. The reign of Mceris 
 has been fixed at 1300 centuries before the time of our Saviour, and from this period to the age of 
 Herodotus was about 900 years. The Greek historian also mentions that in his time the river rose 
 to the height of fifteen or sixteen cubits to cover the country. The additional seven cubits, or 126 
 inches, that the bank had raised in nine centuries, formed a scale of fourteen inches for every 
 hundred years, by which to measure the age of the Egyptian monuments. It must be evident, 
 that this method, however ingenious, cannot be applied with correctness unless the original site of 
 the objects was ascertained. No satisfactory conclusion, therefore, has been drawn, although we know 
 that the river goes on increasing in height to overflow the land, thereby affording an extraordinary 
 example of the benefits afforded by it, and showing how appropriately Egypt has well been termed 
 the “ gift of the Nile.” These twin statues are familiarly called Shammy and Tammy by the Arabs, 
 who make many ridiculous grimaces on approaching them, treating the old monarch of the plain with 
 little respect ; they are ready to climb their knees, or pull their ears, for a trifling reward. They 
 appear like monkeys crawling about the limbs of these stately giants. 
 
 Delighted with the result of my day’s research, I retraced my steps through the Memnonium 
 to re-enter my residence amidst the habitations of the dead. Early on the morrow torches were 
 prepared by my attendants, my ass was saddled, and I started at a brisk pace in the direction of 
 Baban-el-Maluk, or the Tomb of the Kings. 
 
AFFmOACIHL totke TOMBS oftkeKIMGS at THEBES 
 
 
 
 A-»555? h, C3it&r?,or,Zii 
 
26 
 
 APPROACH TO THE TOMBS 
 
 The road to the tombs runs from the neighbourhood of the village of Gournou directly into the 
 mountain. It has now the appearance of a deep ravine, or water-course, narrow and high, with many 
 loose stones and fragments of rocks. It is winding and uneven, and would seem to be a chance 
 passage to these mansions of departed sovereignty. There is a gradual but constant ascent from the 
 gorge of the ravine for three half miles, when it terminates in a semi-circle, with a heap of rubbish in 
 the centre. The sides of the hill are cut into a perpendicular wall, and on every hand are seen square 
 openings, which prove to be entrances to the tombs. The height of the rock is from eighty to one 
 hundred feet. It is of a calcareous quality, hardening and becoming more compact as it recedes from 
 the surface. In the most firm and suitable places shafts are carried directly into the hill, sometimes 
 horizontally, at other times with a downward slope to get a firmer stratum before fixing the doorway. 
 Many are thus concealed from the spectator on the opposite side of the area, while the heaps of 
 rubbish conceal others. Ancient historians allege that there were forty or forty-seven of these tombs, 
 and there is no reason to doubt the information. A few years ago there were but eleven known to the 
 world. Belzoni, by his success in discovering in this valley the splendid tomb of which he exhibited 
 a model in London, set an example that has been followed by other enterprising individuals, and 
 at present eighteen are open to invite the attention of the traveller. Much time having been lost, 
 and disappointment felt by not being aware of those which are worthiest of notice, the tombs 
 are now numbered. The seventeenth is Belzoni’s, remarkable for its freshness and extent, but it 
 is perishing fast, the sledge hammer is used without mercy, and the brittle nature of the stones 
 yields but too readily to the rude shock. The few years of its exposure to man has injured it more 
 than the previous wear and tear of many centuries. The eleventh is Bruce’s, meriting respect out 
 of justice to the memory of an injured traveller. It continues to attest the veracity of the Briton, 
 and the extent of his research. The sixth and ninth are allowed to be the next m order that deserve 
 inspection, and if the traveller do not become tired of pacing passages some hundred feet in length, 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth are likely to repay his curiosity. 
 
 Immediately before entering Bruce’s tomb, are two heads of oxen on each side, in high relief. 
 The rock is then squared, and has an entrance about seven feet across, and ten high ; the top is 
 surmounted by an oval, containing on it a scarabaeus and a wolf-headed deity. Kneeling figures on 
 each side the oval, with their hands in attitude of supplication, complete the group. Hierogly- 
 phics fill the sides of the door, and a succession of them, intermixed with figures and devices, 
 continue throughout the whole exterior of these recesses. Belzoni and others have attempted to 
 connect the meaning of all they saw, and to detail the life and history of some monarch to whom 
 these tombs are supposed to refer. Such efforts are like the conclusions formed in a dream, and are 
 
 THE KINGS AT THEBES 
 
 founded on no better basis. They form an amusing history, to be changed and embellishe , or 
 totally refuted by the next hypothetical visitor. That these are tombs of some kind there appears 
 little doubt, -the sarcophagus denotes it, -but it is possible they were called the tombs of Kings from 
 the monarch who formed them. It was probably here that the bulls without blemish were sacrificed, 
 as Herodotus informs us, was the custom of the Egyptians. The only skeleton found m the tom i 
 opened by Belzoni, was that of a bull, and, in the same tomb, there is a representation of one 
 under the sacrificial knife. A recent traveller, who has entered largely into detail on the imagery 
 found in the tombs, remarks,-" We had been told that what we saw was a tomb, but it required 
 a constant effort of the mind to convince us that it was such. Only one sarcophagus m one chamber, 
 and twelve chambers, exclusive of the long corridor, all highly ornamented for nothing ! It may have 
 been a subterraneous temple, resembling the religious creed of the worshippers, or the rites of the 
 initiation: it may have been a subterraneous palace. But never was there such a superfluous waste, if 
 we are to suppose all this was done for the reception of one sarcophagus.” No one has entered more 
 accurately into detail than the author now cited, (Dr. Richardson,) but it is beyond the reach of the 
 present age, as it was of the ancients, to discover the uses of these mysterious chambers, where deeds 
 “ were done in the dark.” 
 
 The following passage in the Scriptures evidently refers to monuments of this description, which 
 the Israelites had borrowed from the Egyptians. “ Then said he unto me, Son of man, dig now in the 
 wall ; and when I had digged in the wall, behold a door : and he said unto me, Go in, and behold the 
 wicked abominations that they do here. So I went in and saw and beheld every form of creeping 
 thing, and abominable beasts, and all the idols of the house of Israel, pourtrayed upon the wall round 
 about.” 
 
 Entering the door leading to Bruce’s tomb, a passage six feet wide and fourteen high, inclines 
 downwards thirty feet, when a chamber twelve feet square is found on each side. Passing the 
 doors of these chambers, and advancing twenty-four feet, four chambers appear on each side of the 
 passage. They are but six feet square, and one of them is the “harper’s” room. About twenty feet 
 beyond these chambers the passage enters the corner of a chamber, fifteen feet by twenty-one ; at the 
 opposite corner a door leads to a passage double the width of the first, and upwards of fifty feet in 
 length. Here there is a chamber forty-eight feet long, with pillars and galleries on each side ; the 
 floor is lower than the level of the galleries and passage. Another gallery, thirty feet long and nine 
 wide, leads into a chamber eighteen feet square, when there is a second chamber of the same size, 
 separated by a wall. From this, four steps lead into a chamber sixty-four feet square, including 
 galleries supported by four pillars on each side, the height of which is fourteen feet ; the roof of 
 
TOMBS OF THE KINGS AT THEBES. 
 
 this apartment is elliptical, the ceiling painted blue, with numerous stars, and there are two chambers 
 detached from it, each twelve feet square. Four steps lead to an apartment nine feet square; beyond 
 it is another of the same dimensions, and this is terminated by a third, the last chamber of the 
 excavation, which is thirty-six feet in length, and has three recesses on each side. All these galleries 
 and chambers abound in figures and hieroglyphics, the colouring of which is as fresh as if it had been 
 recently applied. Groups and processions represent domestic occupations and religious ceremonies. 
 Each tomb contains a portion of a sarcophagus, or displays a burial pit sunk in the rock. The 
 figures are cut, as in intaglio; the colourings are primitive, and have been laid on in broad masses. 
 No attempt has been made at shading, but great labour has been bestowed in working up the same 
 subjects with different colours. The whole length of this tomb is about four hundred feet. There are 
 representations of decapitated figures and scenes of vengeance, with a profuse intermixture of ser- 
 pents. All that has heretofore been seen wears an air of doubt and uncertainty that excites wonder 
 without delight, but on getting to the end of Belzoni’s tomb, the toils and purposes of man become 
 apparent. The coloured chambers terminate, and others follow apparently finished by the chissel, 
 but unenrbellished by the mystic devices of antique art. In one of these chambers there is a design 
 chalked in red, which is perfect, and indicative of a bold hand. Few of the strokes are corrected : 
 they run smoothly throughout, but the master’s touch had not been applied. In another chamber 
 the same red outline was conspicuous, and touches and corrections with black chalk had been added, 
 that produced life and effect, which made manifest the supervision of a higher order of genius. The 
 rough hewn stone, splintered and unfit for use, is seen in another chamber. Walls also were in course 
 of preparation for the artists. The flaws had been filled with mortar, and the surface, smoothed and 
 white-washed, was in readiness for the pencil. In these chambers the observer feels riveted to the spot, 
 as if he longed to continue the work, and hoped to catch the ideas that had directed the artist. The 
 profile of the human countenance, however slightly sketched, is remarkably impressive. Much attention 
 was given to the formation of the eye, which is always of a large size in Egyptian figures. No one 
 visits this repository of historic records without sympathising in its rapid destruction. Monarchs are 
 struck down in your presence, for it is a trade with the merciless Arabs to fell all that comes in their 
 way, and square feet are demolished to obtain an inch as a specimen. It is from such a country that we 
 hear persons bewailing the removal of ancient monuments, which, in fact, affords the only chance of 
 accomplishing their preservation. 
 
 Many accurate drawings of the interior of this interesting tomb were brought to England by 
 Belzoni, when he exhibited his model of it, Dr. Young decyphered from those devices the names of 
 
 Pharaoh Necho, and of his son Psammis who succeeded him. This gives it an age of about 2500 years. 
 In the same century that Psammis died we find that Cyrus conquered Egypt ; and this circumstance may 
 well account for the non-completion of the work, which, in all probability, was meant to commemorate 
 many more descendants of the same family. Not only may this be inferred from the limited number 
 of regal tombs, but also from the number of chambers (in this are 14) ; nor is the idea unreasonable, 
 when we are told by Richardson that 1000 bodies were found in a single mummy-pit in this mountain, 
 “ laid in a horizontal posture, one above another.” In a procession in this tomb there are representa- 
 tions of four nations, in groups of four each. Nor is it difficult to distinguish the long-robed Persian 
 from the black Ethiopian or the bearded Jew ; the last group, with kirtles, are no doubt Egyptians, this 
 being their characteristic costume in the battle scenes. 
 
 To illustrate this picture, the following points are worthy of remark;— In the 34th chapter of the 
 second book of Chronicles, it is written that the King of Egypt conquered Jerusalem, “ and Necho took 
 Jehoahaz (King of Jerusalem) and carried him into Egypt.” We are also told by Herodotus that this 
 king conquered the Syrians, and after his victory obtained possession of Cadytis, a Syrian city. “ The 
 vest which he wore when he got this victory, he consecrated to Apollo.” The same historian says, “ After 
 a reign of 17 years, he died, leaving the kingdom to his son Psammis. Psammis reigned but six years ; 
 he made an expedition to Ethiopia, and died soon afterwards.” It is said of Aprus, the son and succes- 
 sor of Psammis, that he was strangled at Sais, and buried in the tomb of his ancestors near that city. 
 It is very probable that the kings of Egypt had tombs in different parts of their territory. 
 
 There is a smell and closeness in the tombs unpleasant to experience, and the discomfort is in- 
 creased by the smoke and heat from the rude torches of the Arabs. The traveller should be provided 
 with wax candles, which he wifi have occasion to use soon after entering the shaft of the tombs. For 
 effect and for comfort, the visit to the tombs should be undertaken at night; and it is desirable to 
 view the bold outline of the temples at the same time. The extent and grandeur of the architecture 
 then make their full impression, while the fractures and defects produced by time are concealed, and 
 there is less risk of encountering interruption. 
 
 The entrances to the different tombs are, as represented in the Plate, at irregular distances, and 
 without regard to position in different parts of the semi-circle. The tomb in which Champoffion 
 resided is pointed out ; some rows of partition remained standing when I visited it, and, save for the 
 close and unpleasant atmosphere, it was not an unsuitable place of domicile. 
 
 I returned to my abode completely tired with the exertions of the day, and looked forward with 
 anxiety for the morrow to enable me to reach the Temple of Medinah Habou. 
 
 
 HIS 
 

 
 JPAB. T of the IJSnr E BI OJR, of THE TEMPLE of ME ID Iff AH HA® Old. 
 
 JimAm/jUUukt*- .j- Jmii&yfflder & Cf 66, OffmkiH/. 
 
 -kiutd- bif C. rfioitrnatuSeL: 
 
28 
 
 INTERIOR OP THE TEMPLE OF MEDINAH HABOU 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 The approach to this temple runs behind the propylon of the Memnonium. The road skirts the 
 plain and on the right passes numerous monuments and piles of rubbish. The base of the mountain 
 which lies beyond, is a wilderness altogether destitute of cultivation ; it was made the receptacle for 
 the dead of the city. 
 
 The temple at Medinah Habou is greatly encumbered with rubbish, and parts of it are com- 
 pletely concealed ; the revolutions that have taken place in its vicinity have occasioned town to be 
 built on town, till a bank of ruins has been raised higher than the temple itself. The building is 
 open towards the plain, and this end is supposed to have been a palace, with a chapel in its vicinity. 
 There is a confusion of apartments, with numerous emblems and hieroglyphics ; hut what most strikes 
 the observer are columns of quite a different fashion from any seen in the other temples. They do 
 not exhibit the simplicity of ancient Egyptian architecture. Prom this and other appearances, it is 
 supposed that Medinah Habou was erected at a later period than several of the temples at Thebes. 
 
 About 300 feet from the back of the above-mentioned building or palace, there is a propylon 
 160 feet across, 30 broad, and 60 high. The passage through the centre opens on a court 120 feet 
 square, flanked by piazzas. The whole exterior of this court is richly adorned with sculpture. There 
 are eight columns on each side, whose effect and beauty are entirely concealed by accumulations of 
 sand and erections of mud. A door-way leads from the central court into a second, which is sur- 
 rounded by a piazza. Beyond this court the pronaos is buried in heaps of rubbish, the remains of 
 Saracenic buildings. The ruins include about a mile in circumference. The view in the Plate 
 represents the N. W. corner of the second court; the whole was enclosed by a massive wall, 
 having five columns at each end, and a double row of eight columns at each side, supporting the 
 piazza. 
 
 At the north end of the court the central column has been cast down, and in its place there 
 are the remains of a Christian church, the nave of which was supported by moderate sized pillars, a 
 few of which are seen in the middle of the court, marking the art and power of the two ages. 
 “Poor and humble do they look in the midst of such ruins as these: but to the Christian eye they 
 are arrayed with glory.” They are unpretending, and shew the character of the early Christians, by 
 whom they were designed. These little columns, 17 feet high, are distinguished by their Grecian 
 capitals ; they have a diameter of 30 inches. The square columns on either side the court were fronted 
 with caryatides in high relief, as seen in the view of the Memnonium. The whole of the interior of 
 this court, including walls and pillars, is filled with spirited carving and hieroglyphics, beautifully 
 coloured. The roof of the ceiling is of a brilliant azure, studded with stars. On one compartment 
 of the wall there is a procession, where a figure is borne in a sacred litter ; banners are floating, and 
 
 scribes in front are making a ceremonial announcement from a book. The car is attended by the 
 sacred vulture, with outstretched wings, holding a ring in its talons. Numerous hieroglyphics are 
 interspersed on all parts of the wall amidst the figures in the different ceremonies. All the walls of 
 the temple are covered with representations of deities and heroes, processions and offerings, victors 
 and sufferers. The figures and hieroglyphics were coloured, and must have produced a dazzling 
 effect. 
 
 In the early ages of Christianity there was a considerable church establishment and two 
 bishopricks at Thebes, and there is every reason to conclude that this was the capital of the western 
 diocese. Without the walls of this temple there are many pieces of fine sculpture, that vie with any 
 in the other temples, though there is little unshrouded by rubbish, except the north wall, or that 
 facing the Memnon, where the ornaments are of the most animated character. 
 
 Having completed my examination of the larger temples, I pursued my way amongst the 
 hills, to explore some of the private sepulchres. Several of these are as large, and contain as many 
 apartments as are found in the tombs of the kings. One, said to be that of a scribe, is of an extra- 
 ordinary size, and has beautifully executed astronomical devices. These tombs are of all sizes, and pourtray 
 every description of occupation and ceremony apparently in correspondence with the rank and cha- 
 racter of the proprietors. From forty to sixty of these excavations are often found in a line, and, 
 where the rock is favourable, several rows are visible. 
 
 The rock, which is of a white and brittle lime-stone, takes a fine polish, and is well suited 
 to the purposes which it served. There is a brisk trade carried on in lime-stone which can be obtained 
 here easier than at quarries, and the columns from the tombs are disappearing much faster than 
 they were formed. Boat loads of the tombs, with gods and heroes, are shipped on the Nile to supply 
 the demand for lime. In forming the excavations where the stone suits, the hill has been squared 
 and pierced, and sometimes a large area has been sunk and forms an approach ; generally the rock is 
 cut into a piazza in front of the tombs, which adds to the fitness of these recesses as dwelling- 
 places for the Arabs, who, however, take but little pains to benefit by the convenience the excavations 
 would afford. A mud wall, built across the entrance or in the corner of a piazza, best suits their 
 inclination, and the cerements or skeletons of the dead are allowed to remain, or are cast aside with- 
 out further consideration. 
 
 lliese tombs are entered with lights, and there is considerable danger unless the traveller is 
 provided with a lantern. One that I examined of an immense size was said to be that of a royal 
 scribe ; its galleries and ranges of apartments were remarkably well cut. In the wall there was a lateral 
 opening at the depth of 30 feet, which led into another range of apartments. Innumerable bats 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
CEMETERY AT THEBES. 
 
 whirred past my head, creating an unearthly sensation, which increased the uncomfortable feeling 
 imparted by the gloominess of the place. Numbers of these tombs are most interesting, some display- 
 ing the modes of various trades, others those of the fine arts. Every variety of occupation may 
 be seen, and the effect is heightened by glowing colouring. Mummy cases and stone coffins are 
 deposited in them. Mummies are found, some standing, some prostrate, often heaped in great 
 numbers, making it difficult to pass into the pits. The wild Arabs in these tombs have been greatly 
 reduced in numbers of late. They defied the power of the Pacha, and strife was carried on within 
 the precincts of the grave. Belzoni estimates the numerical decline of the Arabs at from 3000 to 
 300. They are now likely to increase, for all is peace, and a brisk trade has arisen from the produce 
 of the hills. Boats were being freighted with lime. Mummy cases were collected for sale. The 
 bitumen from the mummy brings a good price, and the wrappings are said to make serviceable paper. 
 It is a pity the dead bodies cannot be consumed instead of being scattered as they are on the sur- 
 face of the ground, often mutilated, or separated limb by limb. 
 
 If time were bestowed on these tombs, a great deal of amusing and instructive matter might 
 be collected, for they shew the pursuits of people of all ranks and of all professions. There is 
 great difficulty in discovering those best worthy of research, as there is nothing in their exterior to 
 indicate what lies within. In my walk home I met an Arab, who produced something for sale ; it was 
 covered with a piece of linen, and when put aside, a head, severed from the neck, with long glossy 
 hair, fine teeth, and bright eyes, was before me. The features seemed soft and delicate, more like 
 the people I had seen in the East than those who surrounded me. 
 
 During my residence here the climate was delightful, except when toiling over sand hills, and 
 exposed to the rays of the sun. In the shade I found it at 6 a. m. as low as 63°, it was at 78° at mid-day, 
 at 10 p. m. it had fallen to 70°, there was scarcely a breeze, and the atmosphere was grateful to the 
 sense. The night was too fine to admit of sleep ; I went on the roof of my lodging, and could distin- 
 guish the outline of the mountain with its sepulchral apertures. Occasionally a voice was heard, and 
 a few figures would pass, accompanied by the noisy barking of some watchful dog; all would again 
 subside into stillness. If I looked towards the plain, the broad green belt, in utter solitude, wore the 
 general aspect of desertedness. All was as a vast picture — the mute unchanging mirror of reality. 
 
 In the morning I proceeded to the temple near the landing place, where there is a group of 
 palm-trees and the village of Gournou, or El-Ebek. The ruin here has many small apartments, and is 
 much dilapidated. There are pillars, sculpture, and hieroglyphics, which would be interesting but for 
 the more splendid temples in the vicinity. It lies at a very short distance from the road, and ought not 
 to be altogether disregarded. There are a few smaller temples which deserve a brief notice, and are well 
 
 WESTERN DIVISION AT THEBES. 
 
 29 
 
 worth the time necessary to visit them. In the road from the landing place to the Memnonium, soon 
 after passing the avenue to the king’s tombs, a path is seen to incline to the right, by which the moun- 
 tain is ascended; an avenue of ruined sphinxes is soon observable, and this is found to pass over hills 
 of rubbish on which are walls of brick. The road at length terminates in an abrupt ascent of the 
 mountain, where there is a temple called Northern Dair. Many remains of granite and columns shew 
 the importance that was attached to this temple, which was connected with excavations in the rock. 
 The apartments are now so choaked with rubbish as to be impenetrable. Two observations have been 
 made respecting this temple ; one noting its direct front towards Carnac, and its avenue running as 
 if to be open to a view from that temple ; the other the possibility of there being a communication 
 between this excavation and the Kings’ tombs through the mountain. Belzoni never penetrated to 
 the end of his tomb, and an opportunity still offers for the enterprise of the antiquary. 
 
 In the Desert west of the Memnonium, a temple called Dair-el-Medinah dedicated to Isis, 
 has some curious mystical representations and remains of sculpture, that rival in perfection and 
 finish the finest relics of Thebes. In a southerly direction from Medinali Habou, are remains of a 
 ruder temple, distinguished by sculpture, hieroglyphics, and fragments, that leave much to conjecture ; 
 it is called Southern Dair. In various directions are fragments indicating the existence of other 
 temples, and it is probable that these small temples may have been the most ancient, and that they 
 had been destroyed by some early revolution, wliich caused the material of them to be trans- 
 ported and employed in the more extensive buildings now the subjects of so much wonder and 
 admiration. 
 
 I had been five days wandering in solitude amidst the desolation on this side the river. Daily 
 was I in hopes that some traveller would arrive, or that the owner of the house I tenanted would 
 return. For some time I had ceased to hold converse with my Arab attendant ; I was tired of the 
 eternal shrug, or vague answer, returned to my inquiries, and I had been left as a privileged Hadji to 
 pursue my investigations at random. It is a common idea among the inhabitants that the Franks come 
 hither to perform pilgrimage, or the Hadj, as Mohamedans do at Mecca, and to collect religious relics. 
 The religion of Mohamed inculcates respect for the pilgrim, and the effect was evident to myself, more 
 so, perhaps, from my being without a companion and unattended by parade or show. A few of the 
 party that had preceded me from Cosseir and had gone to Klienneh at length arrived. They were 
 soon followed by others, all in pairs, for which the generality of boats on the Nile are only adapted ; if 
 there be a third person there will be much inconvenience, or a second boat must be procured. 
 The advantage of going direct from Cosseir to Thebes is evident from the fact that these gentlemen 
 had used their utmost expedition to proceed. 
 
GKlTBlRAlLi OF THE' KETOTS AT MT30Q>®o 
 
 taktrrL from. t h o X .\V . 
 
 XoniiomTUilwKcdi iy Smtf/tiEldcr JbCf f>5, GmAM 
 
30 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF 
 
 On the 6th of January I re-crossed from the western side of the Nile, and on my way took a 
 general view of the Ruins at Luxor, which have been thus described by Belzoni : “ The Temple at 
 Luxor presents to the traveller at once one of the most splendid groups of Egyptian grandeur. The 
 extensive propylon, with the two obelisks and colossal statues in front ; the thick group of enormous 
 columns, the variety of apartments, and the sanctuary it contains ; the beautiful ornaments which 
 adorn every part of the walls and columns ; the battle on the propylon, cause in the astonished traveller 
 an oblivion of all he has seen before.” The boundary of this temple cannot be questioned; the 
 extreme length from the entrance at the north-west end, to the wall still washed by the waters of the 
 Nile, and which defined the .opposite boundary, is about 1200 feet. This space I have divided into 
 three parts, and of each I have given a separate view, which will detail the particulars. That of the 
 end nearest the city includes the propylon, there was a large oblong court behind it, which had a double 
 row of columns at each side, the end of the court opposite the propylon being ornamented with an 
 avenue of twelve columns, having spreading capitals ; these lead to the middle division, (as in the Plan,) 
 which include a second oblong with a double row of columns on each side, eleven in number, and 
 terminated at the end near the river by four rows of the same column running across, having eight in 
 each row. Still nearer the river is a third part of the temple, supposed to have been the sanctuary. 
 It has several apartments within, and there are remains of many columns in its front, running towards 
 the stone pier that winds along the side of the river below the ruin, forming a little harbour, which 
 was further protected beyond the stone pier by a massive brick projection, sufficiently well cemented 
 to resist the annual inundation to this day. There are many fragmentary monuments, which shew 
 that minor features are absent from the great skeleton of the temple which remains. By comparing 
 this ruin with parts of other temples, the outline seems perfect, and we have strong proof of its 
 being so, from its eastern and western extremities being defined as above described, as its sides are 
 by the formation of the hills it stands on. A wall that once bounded it, may also be traced. It 
 may appear extraordinary that a building offering ready materials, so near a place of embarkation, 
 was not totally destroyed on the removal of the seat of government to Memphis. But at that time 
 idolatry still prevailed and saved the temples, though the city probably suffered. When a third capital, 
 at a later period, was formed still nearer the sea at Alexandria, Thebes was again saved by the more 
 ready supply of materials from Memphis. 
 
 The Arab houses surrounding the eastern end of the ruins have the appearance of connected 
 
 fHE RUINS AT LUXOR 
 
 square forts, and look formidable at a distance, but lose much of their respectable character upon a 
 nearer approach. These houses are built in this particular form for protection ; a few loop-holes 
 admit light, they are crowned with battlements that have the openings and often the whole tops of 
 the walls filled with jars of pottery, which form nests for pigeons. There is generally a row of hushes 
 like pallisades, just below the battlements, also to accommodate the pigeons, of which there are 
 immense flocks belonging to every village. This system is followed, in consequence of the Pacha being 
 the sole proprietor of the soil, the crops of which are collected and again distributed at the price 
 government may affix. Distress is therefore often felt by the peasants in the most abundant years, 
 from the demand abroad being extensive. As a resource the fellahs have the pigeons to depend upon. 
 Some few Arab houses are seen on the massive stones that cross the columns. On the right of the 
 plate is a cluster of palm-trees, which lies on the path leading to Carnac. The situation of Luxor on 
 a height projecting into the river is beautifully chosen for effect, and as I dwelt on its outline I 
 was led to speculate on what it must have been when it was the boast of a populous city, and when 
 that city, as the emporium of commerce between the eastern and western worlds, contributed its 
 riches towards its embellishment. 
 
 The thermometer at mid-day stood at 78", and I became impatient to return to the village, but 
 so sadly has the boatman’s skill degenerated in the Thebaid, that my two rowers could not pull up 
 against the current, but were obliged to make a circuitous manoeuvre to gain its co-operation in cross- 
 ing. The village of Gournou to the north, and Luxor to the south, with the temples of Medinah Habou 
 and Carnac on the opposite quarters, are supposed to have been contained within the boundary of 
 ancient Thebes. The current of the Nile varies in strength with the season, and with the height 
 of the waters. The stream is seen to wind above Luxor, and it is seldom that its bosom is undisturbed 
 by a djerm or cangia, bearing the pointed sail spread to catch the north wind, or simply gliding down 
 by the force of the current. In the latter case an oar is used to keep the boat in the running water, 
 and its broadside to the stream. The aspect of Luxor, from its position, with the walk through 
 the obelisks, and amidst the masses of columns, must, in advancing to the sanctuary, have been most 
 imposing. Here we may imagine the solemn procession transporting the dead body to its place of rest, 
 there being no pits or tombs to indicate a burial place on this side of the water, while those on the 
 western bank appear to have formed the necropolis for the whole city. The form of the temple will 
 be better understood by a reference to the plan that accompanies the work. 
 
SOUTH-WEST DIVISION 
 
 On nearing the shore at Luxor, a strong built wall of squared stone is seen following the 
 bend of the river ; it forms a well-protected haven, secured from the running stream, and covers a 
 bank of sand that seems to be accumulating in the vicinity of the temple. The wall fixes the ancient 
 boundary of the sacred edifice. When I saw the river in December, it stole gently and unmurmuring 
 past this buttress. 
 
 “ Who that beholds thee, Nile, thus gently flow, 
 
 With scarce a wrinkle on thy glassy brow. 
 
 Can guess thy rage when rocks resist thy force, 
 
 • And hurl thee headlong in thy downward course ; 
 
 When sporting cataracts thy torrents pour. 
 
 And nations tremble at the deafning roar; 
 
 When thy proud waves with indignation rise, 
 
 And dash their foaming fury to the skies ! ” 
 
 Near the landing-place were two figures, like those Belzoni found in such numbers within the 
 precincts of Carnac. 
 
 Although the whole structure at Luxor is denominated the temple, there is reason to suppose 
 that the portion of it before us was alone consecrated to sacred purposes, and retained for the service of 
 the priests. Here, no doubt, was the sanctuary, in the centre of which we find the cella where the 
 shrine or deity was deposited. A reference to the plan will show the part of the temple alluded to. 
 It is the portion included between the fine B C and the river. It is roofed with stone, and is divided 
 into apartments of various dimensions. The mode of forming such edifices in the primitive ages will 
 be more clearly illustrated in the succeeding Plates. Columns are found in each apartment, in 
 proportion to the area, and at a distance from each other and from the walls, to enable a substructure 
 to be formed, to uphold the large slabs of stone that were used to form a roof. The central rows of 
 columns are always found to have a greater opening to accommodate the march of the procession ; and 
 if we judge from the splendour of the approach to this sanctuary, the ceremonial observances must have 
 been of a most magnificent description. The entry through the propylon, and between the courts 
 and columns, depicted in the other illustrations of this temple, is found to front the only opening 
 to an oblong apartment, or the sanctum, situated in the midst of the enclosed edifice. This sacred 
 chamber has a length of 24 feet by a breadth of 18 ; no column supports its roof, and it is the 
 only part of the edifice built of granite, the remainder being of sand stone. Travellers who reach 
 Egypt from India, where the practice of idolatry is maintained with its ancient attributes, will at 
 once identify this sanctuary as the depository of the idol. In such recesses the lamp sheds its 
 
 F THE RUINS AT LUXOR. 
 
 31 
 
 “ darkness visible ” on some hideous figure, with various decorations to draw admiration from the 
 deluded Hindoo, who makes his offering and bows to the god of stone. Smaller temples, often 
 monoliths, are formed within the sanctuary to contain the god. We are told that the same descrip- 
 tion of small temple was used by the Egyptians. One of them may yet exist in this sanctuary at 
 Luxor, where sand and rubbish has accumulated to the height of many feet. Around this secluded 
 apartment a passage winds, which formed a walk for the priests, and, as in the adytum at Denderah, 
 probably communicated by means of steps with the roof of the building. I required a torch to 
 view the numerous figures and hieroglyphics that embellish all parts of the walls ; among them are 
 offerings of fruits, birds, &c. Isis and Osiris are receiving homage, and distributing symbols of divine 
 favour ; cornices are formed of numerous small upright figures resembling mummies ; and women are 
 seen suckling infants. The beginning and the end of man’s career are here pourtrayed, and there are 
 many mystic signs and figures that apply to middle life. The whole is banked up with rubbish and 
 sand, and it will be necessary to bear in mind throughout the inspection of the illustrations that 
 relate to it, that the different parts are now lost to the view from 20 to 30 feet above their base. 
 
 At present a mud-built house, belonging to the governor of Luxor, occupies the summit of 
 this building, and renders the interior of the sanctuary a mass of dirt and filth which comes 
 pouring through the roof. In these apartments there are some good specimens of the style of Egyptian 
 sculpture and painting, and we probably have the primitive essay, or first advances in the art. No shading 
 or perspective is attempted, and the roundness necessary to throw into the limbs of the human 
 form is beautifully moulded in stone. The artists first marked the contour of the figures, and then 
 cut sufficiently deep within the outline to enable them to give fulness to the limbs, of which 
 the joints are often developed with peculiar force. The chissel was then used to carve the elaborate 
 ornaments and head-dresses that characterize the figures, (some much more than others,) so that they 
 were left by the sculptor a complete representation of what was intended. But the perfection of 
 bas-relief was not sufficient for the age of the Pharaohs. The painter displayed all his skill in 
 arraying the sculpture in colours, that excite wonder and admiration for their unrivalled brilliancy 
 thirty or forty centuries after the application. Red, yellow, green, and black, are used in flat washes ; 
 blue has various degrees of shades, but is always laid on in flat washes also ; there is much art displayed 
 in assorting the colours to avoid harshness. In this early age, however, we do not meet the correct 
 style of modern delineation. The profile of the face, with the full length feet, is drawn on the walls, 
 having the figure with square shoulders, which give the whole a distorted appearance. The colours 
 in the sanctuary at Luxor are faint, in consequence of exposure to the air. The Egyptian art of 
 painting may be studied to greatest advantage in the secluded apartments of the tombs. There is 
 

32 
 
 LUXOR — SOUTH-WEST DIVISION. 
 
 a sufficient array of hieroglyphics at Luxor to make the temple worthy of attention; and the bas-reliefs 
 are especially deserving of notice. 
 
 The base of this division of the edifice was below the level of the remainder of the pile, and 
 may have communicated with the waters of the sacred river. It is to this peculiarity of situation, that 
 Herodotus doubtless alludes, when he speaks of those persons found drowned in the Nile, with whom 
 no one, except the priests of the river, whether friend or relation, was allowed to interfere. To those 
 who have witnessed the homage paid by the Hindoos to their sacred streams, this custom of the 
 ancient Egyptians will not appear so marvellous. 
 
 Religion with the Egyptians was the basis of all their laws, and priests, as m India, were the 
 influential cast by whom the actions of king and peasant were determined. They sustained their 
 authority by superior knowledge, and blended religion with astronomy; we therefore find that the 
 heavenly bodies were objects of adoration; the principal deities, Osiris and Isis, represented the 
 sun and moon, and were thought to have unlimited power over terrestrial affairs. The Nile was also 
 held in high veneration. To each divinity there was an order of priests; next to the rank of the 
 sacerdotal tribe were the soldiers, then followed shepherds, swineherds, mechanics, interpreters, and 
 lastly fishmongers, comprising in all seven grades. The system of castes observed at this day among 
 the Hindoos will be found closely to assimilate to the above. The tyranny of the Brahminical code, 
 which tramples on the body of the people, is not more appalling than the severe discipline we are told 
 prevailed among the Egyptians. Egypt as a nation appears to have attained greater strength than 
 India, and by arrogating to itself a power not natively its own, to have worked its total overthrow. 
 India still exists with her timid idolaters veiled in ignorance. Another generation brought up in the 
 blessings of education, now fast spreading in that country, may expose the folly of the Bedahs and 
 Shasters, and establish a pure religion in the place of superstitious absurdities. 
 
 The following remark of Herodotus will give some insight into the connexion between Egyptian 
 religion and science : “ They also, from observing the days of nativity, venture to predict the particular 
 circumstances of a man’s life and death.” The expense and labour bestowed in raising temples, 
 decorating tombs, and in preparing the body for interment, are evident proofs of the superstitious 
 tendency of the people; and when we consider the distance of the quarries whence the materials 
 were transported, the labour of separating them from the primitive mass, the difficulty in the present 
 day of removing one of their obelisks, without considering even how it is to be raised, and the height 
 of the pillars that surmounted enormous masses of substructure, our minds must be prepared for all 
 
 LUXOR-SOUTH-WEST DIVISION. 
 
 the wonders of ingenious perseverance that characterise the social history of the country. We now 
 look in vain for some remnant of the ancient inhabitants. Their representatives are the Copts, of 
 whom there are a number among the population of Luxor ; they are the poor remains of the Christian 
 church in Egypt, are chiefly confined to the Upper Provinces, and are estimated at 30,000 families, or 
 200,000 souls. There is no difficulty in distinguishing them from the Turk, who attaches nobleness to 
 weight, or from the Arab, whose life is activity. The Copts are a race of grovelling, clumsy-shaped, 
 determined calculators, resembling in character the Jews of Europe, and the Parsees of India: they 
 are the old Egyptians mixed with the Greek and Roman conquerors, but they have never amalga- 
 mated with the Mohamedans, who, finding them useful as stewards and accountants, do not persecute 
 them on account of religion. Servile from long degradation they are content in their search for profit 
 to live in dependence on the haughty Moslem; their narrow ideas prevent them from exerting them- 
 selves in the cause of true religion, and cause them to resist the efforts of enlightened Christians. It is 
 melancholy, that in this country where a Christian church was established by the labour and ardour 
 of true divines, the descendants of their proselytes should be in a condition so degraded. 
 
 It is impossible to view this temple casting its broad shadow on the waters of the Nile, and 
 not call to mind the sacred edifices in India, so often seen overhanging the banks of rivers, or 
 elevating their stately proportions in the vicinity of tanks. The ancient Egyptians believed ablution 
 necessary to cleanse them from all impurity. The practice of shaving the head, as at present observed 
 by the Brahmins, was also common to Egyptian priests, and was done to forward the same object. At 
 the present day in India numerous votaries crowd the shores near sacred places, for the purpose of 
 purifying by immersion, and to possess themselves of the sacred waters. The scrupulous observance 
 of the Hindoo in cleansing their brass urn-shaped vessels must be familiar to every Eastern traveller. 
 The Egyptians are said to have cleansed their brazen goblets every day ; and it is remarkable, that 
 vessels similar to those of Hindostan are seen in the Egyptian paintings. Other distinctive features, 
 especially that of castes, and the supreme rank of the priests, are noticeable in both nations, tra- 
 vellers, who have observed the idolatrous rites of the Hindoos, will have found a key to much that is 
 remarkable in Egyptian temples, and they will be familiar with such incidents as form the characteristic 
 features of the stubbornness that directed the besotted worshippers of Apis. 
 
 The present name of the temple, which the adjacent village especially bears, is derived from the 
 Arabic phrase El Aksor, signifying ruins. 
 
CENTRE DIVISION OF 
 
 The central portion of the temple is that part included between B C and BE in the Plan, 
 and comprises what was called the court, or dromos. Four rows of columns, with eight in each 
 row, stand fifty-four feet from the hack wall of the building, described in the last Plate. These 
 columns are at regular distances from each other, having a wider opening through the centre. A 
 substructure still remains, and leads to the conclusion that the whole was once roofed, and formed a 
 hall, or portico, leading to the sanctuary. This portico, which crossed at right angles to the approach, 
 had its roof connected with walls on either side, and extended across a distance of 160 feet, forming 
 one side to the court. From the inner angles of the portico the sides of the court run at right 
 angles, and are formed by double rows of columns, extending eleven deep; these are also supposed to 
 have been roofed, and connected with side walls, of which there are still some remains. A noble 
 piazza would thus he formed, enclosing an area of about 2500 square feet. Here the spectators would 
 assemble to behold the sacred bull marched in state, and to witness the many arts practised on the 
 faint-hearted idolators. The opposite side of the court to the portico is terminated in a noble avenue 
 of pillars, which will be seen in the succeeding illustration. Between this court and the avenue are 
 fragments that show the downfall of some minor features in the grand outline, and by examining other 
 structures we may conclude that a second propylon stood here to add still more to the importance of 
 the approach. There are other heaps of rubbish which excite conjecture, and portions of colossi leading 
 to the supposition that much is yet concealed. The traveller in his researches finds himself impeded 
 by mud hovels, and encircled by swarms of beggarly Arabs. The present inhabitants find room for 
 the construction of houses on the masses of stone that lie across the columns. From the antiquity 
 of Thebes there can be little doubt of these structures presenting to our view the first efforts of 
 mankind in architectural science. This, and the succeeding Plate, will therefore show the primitive 
 orders. In forming these the Egyptians are supposed to have ^taken the lotus, their sacred plant, as 
 the model. We have observed that the same plant is tied to an upright post in the representation 
 in the colossal statues, where the full blown and unblown flower are both used. Here we see stalks 
 of the plants, with bindings at different distances, arranged to form the column before us, with a capital 
 formed in imitation of the bud. The other order of architecture in use at this period, as seen in the 
 next Plate, was an imitation of the blown lotus, and forms a more elegant and simple device. 
 
 In other temples at Thebes, a march towards early improvement is evident, and we may presume 
 that the edifice at Luxor, raised as it is on the boundary of the sacred river, may have been the first of 
 the great temples constructed at this place. A reference to illustrations of other temples will show that 
 the form of column used in this Plate gave way to a closer imitation of nature, and, instead of bundles 
 of stalks, a single plant appears to have been adopted as a model for both orders of Egyptian architec- 
 
 THE RUINS AT LUXOR 
 
 33 
 
 ture. It will be seen that much taste and labour were bestowed to relieve the smooth surface of the 
 columns by numerous carved representations of the sacred plant, intermixed with forms of leaves. 
 The shaft of the column, like the stalk of the plant, is always found to diminish as it rises, and like 
 the calyx it will be observed to round at the bottom before entering the pedestal or base. This part 
 of the column is buried in rubbish at Luxor, but it will be seen clearly illustrated in the sketch of 
 the Memnonium. The traveller cannot explore the ancient relics at Thebes without perceiving visible 
 efforts to introduce new orders of columns. Such attempts are traceable in buildings supposed to have 
 been of more recent date than the body of the temples. Such are the columns in front of Medinah 
 Habou, where the outer circumference of the cup capital is indented, and where the reliefs are strongly 
 brought out to form a near approach to the Corinthian order. The shafts of the columns bear a 
 different proportion in diameter to the height. In other structures there is an attempt to break 
 the formality of the closed capitals; an approach is thus made to other orders of architecture. The 
 enormous circumference of twenty or thirty-five feet given to the columns at Luxor, and the massive 
 superstructure they support, have been nearly equalled in various temples in Europe. The ancient 
 temples in Greece, as well as in Sicily and Italy, bear a close resemblance to the architecture of Egypt 
 in bulk and proportion. We are told, that until after the Macedonian conquest, none but the Doric 
 order was used in Europe. We find that the proportion of 5^ diameters for the height of the columns, 
 as at Luxor, exists in these European ancient temples, and the Tuscan order used in them bears a close 
 similarity to the style of the ponderous Egyptian columns. The traveller from India will probably have 
 an opportunity of seeing specimens of this architecture at Psestum and Agrigentum. The Doric style 
 retains the massive grandeur, and was succeeded by the Ionic, which possessed more majesty. This 
 again gave place to the Corinthian, which surpassed the others in richness. But the great improve- 
 ment in architecture that corresponded to the introduction of these orders, and followed with the 
 march of years, was the elongation of the shaft, and the diminution of the bulk of the superstructure. 
 We may conclude that nature formed the prototype of architecture in Egypt, from which country the 
 Greeks no doubt derived their taste for improvement in building. 
 
 The state of architecture at the period when these temples were constructed, forced the 
 Egyptians to adopt that solidity in their structure which renders them, if undisturbed, as firm in the 
 present day as they were thirty centuries ago. The immense masses of stone which form the architraves, 
 had from necessity a length of twelve or eighteen feet to reach the centre of two adjacent columns. 
 To give as much height as possible to their halls or piazzas, they surmounted the pillar with a 
 square block of great thickness, crowned by the ponderous architrave, causing altogether such an 
 enormous weight to be supported when the roof was added, that the diameter of the pillar, neces- 
 
v- 
 
 Jh-itvm on- Stonniy 
 
 CEIT1E 
 
 DIVISION OF THE KITI^S 
 
 Taken from the West. 
 
 ft/ <S»attyEl&erJb C°&5,CcmkuZ. 
 
 Jnnted/ iy C //utfnuaufol 
 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 t.TUXOR. 
 
34 
 
 LUXOR — CENTRE DIVISION. 
 
 sarily of most unsightly dimension, obstructed the view, and concealed the observance of any extensive 
 part of the ceiling or walls, which were rendered so interesting by the processions and figures, that 
 adorned them. Had the Egyptians been further advanced in architecture, and had any other means 
 of supporting a roof been known, such as the principle of the arch, it is likely that their buildings 
 would have disappeared many centuries since. The same observation will apply to their statues, the 
 magnitude of which was owing to their incompetency to convey by attitude or design, the dignity or 
 importance they wished to attach to the subject. We find, for example, if a great prince or conqueror 
 is pourtrayed by the chissel, his importance is characterized by his superior dimensions. Belzoni con- 
 cludes his account of these views with the following remarks : “ It appears to me like entering a city 
 of giants, who, after a long conflict, were all destroyed, leaving the ruins of their various temples as 
 the only proof of their former existence.” The Egyptians were perfectly sensible of the beauty of the 
 elliptical or arched roof, and it is found, but always carved, as in the tombs of the kings, from the 
 solid rock. There have been many discussions as to their ingenuity or knowledge on this point. Another 
 proof of their deficiency on this head is found in the Pyramids of Cheops, where the weight above the 
 roof of the passage, which is seven feet wide, required some means of support more than the square 
 roof admitted of; this is provided for by causing each layer of stone to project four inches beyond 
 the one beneath, which continues for seven rows, requiring the roof or top stone to be no broader 
 than about thirty inches. These layers are about three feet high, and cause the top of the passage 
 to be completely lost to the eye. That they had a desire to represent the arch, is evident from the 
 cause already named, of their having introduced in their most extensive and finest painted chambers 
 all those that were used to contain the sarcophagus. 
 
 The arched excavated chamber is also found in India, and there are other striking points of 
 similarity between the two countries. In Egypt the excavations, or rock temples, are no doubt con- 
 nected with an era in the history of that land, subsequent to the building of Thebes. In India the 
 most wonderful works are those found hollowed in the sides of mountains, such as the caverns at 
 Ellora, which display a variety of conception, and have a degree of labour bestowed on them that 
 altogether defy conjecture, and compete with the boldest efforts to be seen in Egypt. The temples 
 of Ellora, near the centre of India, lie in recesses, as if intended to evade the public eye, resembling 
 in this respect the tombs of the kings at Thebes. They assume a variety of forms, some representing 
 square chambers, with pillars and architraves, all of solid rock. Others have an arched roof, with 
 hewn rafters, and here no pillar is introduced. A third form represents a pyramidal temple, or pagoda, 
 of one mass, detached from the rock, of which it once formed a part. A mountain is thus hewn into a 
 city of temples, while detached parts are wrought into porticos and figures to ornament the approaches. 
 India was beyond the observation of sacred historians, and profane writers knew little save the fact of 
 its existence. The inhabitants of the country have ever kept within the boundary of their sacred rivers. 
 
 LUXOR — CENTRE DIVISION. 
 
 The cloud that envelopes their early annals has never been sufficiently removed to stimulate enquiry, 
 which it would far exceed the limits of this work to institute here. From the circumstance of my 
 having explored the caves at Ellora, I cannot pass them over unnoticed. They are obedient to no rule 
 of architecture in their exterior form or internal decorations. The columns are square, circular, or 
 octangular, or combine all these forms. From the representation of architraves and rafters, it would 
 appear that other structures had been found previous to such excavations. Every cave and every column 
 have a variety, differing totally from the despotic rules that governed Egyptian architecture, which 
 were so long followed with such little deviation, that it stamps the temples at Thebes as the fruits of 
 the original architecture of that country. It would seem as if the two nations advanced in art distinct 
 from each other, with equal resources, those in India being applied to decorations and invention, while 
 in Egypt they were devoted to magnitude and boldness of conception. 
 
 Champollion, in one of his letters dated Thebes, makes the following observations on 
 Egyptian architecture : “ It is evident to me, as it must be to all who have examined Egypt, or have 
 an accurate knowledge of the Egyptian monuments existing in Europe, that the arts commenced in 
 Greece by a servile imitation of the arts of Egypt, much more advanced than is vulgarly believed, at 
 the period at which the first Egyptian colonies came in contact with the inhabitants of Attica, or the 
 Peloponnesus. Without Egypt, Greece would probably never have become the classical land of the fine 
 arts, such is my entire belief on this great problem. I write these lines ahnost in presence of bas- 
 reliefs, which the Egyptians executed with the most elegant delicacy of workmanship 1700 years before 
 the Christian era. What were the Greeks doing then ? 
 
 « The fertile plains of Egypt flourished then, 
 
 Productive cradle of the first of men.” 
 
 The lotus flowers, so often mentioned as emblematic of Upper and Lower Egypt, and as first 
 suggesting the orders of architecture, is thus described by Herodotus : “ When the waters have arisen 
 to their extremest height, and all their fields are overflowed, there appears above the surface an 
 immense quantity of plants of the lily species, which the Egyptians call the lotus ; having cut down 
 these they dry them in the sun. The seed of the flower, which resembles that of the poppy, they 
 bake, and make into a kind of bread ; they also eat the root of this plant, which is round, of an agree- 
 able flavour, and about the size of an apple.” The figures represented in the sketch as approaching 
 towards the boats, are women in their common dresses, wearing a sort of veil which hangs from the 
 face, with an opening for the eye; the whole dress is remarkably loose, no part of the form is 
 observable, and a wrapper, or large mantle, bound across the forehead, is added to cover and conceal 
 the figure; this they keep together in front by the hands, and the mules are led by attendants, who 
 walk beside them. In the cities armed servants accompany the procession, and look defiance at all 
 who may venture to pay any kind of attention to the passing scene. 
 
NORTH-EAST DIVISION 
 
 We have now arrived at the division of the temple farthest from the river, or the part of it beyond 
 the line C D in the Plan ; the propylon, of which the back is seen on the left of the view, is the 
 same designated “ Approach to the Ruins of Luxor,” in the Vignette, and through it the entrance 
 led from the city. Immediately within this noble gateway was a court, or dromos, similar to one 
 described in the last illustration. Portions of columns that formed part of the verandah are visible, 
 and some are preserved within a mosque, whose circular dome and rising minaret form conspicuous 
 features in this view. Parts of colossi, with masses of granite and shapeless tumuli, lie scattered in 
 every direction ; they are remains of many minor features and decorations that were used to heighten 
 the pageantry of procession and the pomp of superstition. Passing through the court, whose end oppo- 
 site to the propylon was probably ornamented by a similar but lesser structure, the visitor arrives at 
 a noble avenue of fourteen* majestic columns, one of which would suffice to command our admiration 
 in the present day. In viewing these noble specimens of art and labour we must pause, and connect 
 them with the remainder of the temple ; and much is our surprise increased on finding what is now before 
 us, in conjunction with the display in the last Plate, is but the approach to the sanctuary. When we 
 bear in mind that nearly half of these remains is buried in the soil, and that numerous statues and 
 idols are departed, or concealed beneath the surface of the earth, man cannot but pause on the 
 lesson that is here offered to him, and while he contemplates the resources and science that were 
 requisite to execute a work of such magnitude, he cannot but wonder that so powerful and numerous 
 a people should be totally swept from the earth. If the Pharaoh who proudly exulted in his deeds 
 could at this distant period view the desolation that now characterises this scene of his triumph, how 
 thoroughly would he find it a monument of the weakness of his false gods. With this impression and 
 such a conviction, most travellers depart from these remains. But if this scene of grandeur and 
 desolation is not enough to satisfy the mind of the investigator, his eye will attain the pyramidal top 
 of two lofty obelisks towering above the giant portal ; their solid shafts of granite were transported 
 from the extremity of Egypt, and are decorated with mystic characters, alluding to some history 
 too old to be known; it no doubt refers to the giant statues seated at the base of the obelisks. 
 They are also marked with hieroglyphics, and are of the size of houses in our modern days. If more is 
 sought by the reveller in giant works, let him depart from the gates of Luxor, and he will trace a wide 
 avenue where distorted nature takes the form of sphinxes, extending more than a mile across the plain, 
 and terminating in a new and endless field for wonder at the Temple of Carnac, already noticed in this 
 
 * Inadvertently described as twelve in the “ General View of the Ruins of Luxor.’ 
 
 THE RUINS 
 
 OF 
 
 LUXOR 
 
 35 
 
 Journal; and here are porticoes, propyla, courts, sanctuaries, and giant figures, to move the most 
 sight-despising stoic of the age. 
 
 In remarking on the last Plate we observed the style of architecture to be seen in this 
 portion of the temple. The avenue of cup pillars before us, supposed to be an imitation of the 
 blown lotus, are not more admirable for their beautiful simplicity than for their magnitude. When 
 fully open to view, the shafts of these colossal columns showed a height of sixty feet, and were sur- 
 mounted with substructure which raised the massive roof some twelve feet higher. Stones to form 
 the architraves of this magnificent avenue required a length of twenty-four feet to meet the centres 
 of adjacent pillars. At the visible base these columns have a circumference of thirty-two feet, which 
 would be increased to forty at their foundation. Each layer of stone is composed of two semi-circles, 
 and averages a thickness of forty-two inches. To estimate fully the persevering labour the Egyptians 
 displayed throughout these works, would require the calculations and experience of an architect ; 
 but the enormous dimensions of the different portions of the edifice, the transporting and raising 
 such masses of rocks into columns, crowned with their vast superstructure, cannot fail to fill every 
 mind with wonder, and must convey a solemn and awful sensation to all who contemplate them. None 
 besides can fully appreciate the terrific grandeur and the melancholy desolation that characterise these 
 ruins. We hope, ere long, they will be the general resort of travellers. The writer must be satisfied 
 to offer this invitation, which is accompanied by a project for its prosecution, as something to com- 
 pensate for the inadequacy of his description. 
 
 I reluctantly departed from this propylon, and felt that I was withdrawing from scenes that, in 
 point of interest, have no equal, and as I looked back on the stately obelisks to take another and 
 another departing glance, the following remarks of the author of “ Scenes and Impressions” often 
 recurred to my mind. “ Before the grand entrance to this vast edifice, two lofty obelisks stand 
 proudly pointing to the sky, fair as the daring sculptor left them. The sacred figures and hieroglyphic 
 characters are beautifully cut into the hard granite, and have the sharp finish of yesterday. The very 
 stones look not discoloured. You see them as Cambyses saw them, when he stayed his chariot wheels 
 to gaze up at them, and the Persian war-cry ceased before these acknowledged symbols of the sacred 
 element of fire. Very noble are all these remains, and on the propylon is a war scene much spoken 
 of; but my eyes were continually attracted towards the aspiring obelisks, and again and again you 
 turn to them with increasing wonder and silent admiration.” 
 
 Should the traveller be inclined to pursue his route to the “ Tropical Gardens,” and view the dif- 
 ferent quarries, from which the materials have been collected for the wonderful structures already 
 
JTrcavn/ an/ Stont/ hy GtaTy6J3ocrMa^fnm/a/S7te&ch ly Copt* CJftadt 
 
 JOtTE EAST B ITI S IOK OF THE 
 
 ElIOfB OF tllXOB. 
 
 
36 
 
 RUINS ABOVE THEBES. 
 
 described, tlie following notes will be found useful. The first place reached above Luxor is Erment, 
 on the west bank of the river, where there are remains of ancient Hermontis, and of three temples, 
 supposed to be of the Ptolemaic age ; there are also the ruins of an early Christian church. These ruins, 
 as connected with the more perfect ones in the vicinity, are not thought worthy of much attention. 
 Higher up, at Asfoun, are heaps of rubbish that mark an ancient site ; there are also granite fragments. 
 The next place to be noted is Esneli, the ancient Latopolis, near which the stratum changes to 
 sandstone ; from this ^district materials were taken for the temples at Thebes. 
 
 Esneh is a garrison and commercial town, with a good bazaar and manufactories, carrying on 
 a trade, by means of caravans, with the interior of Africa. The place exhibits considerable bustle, 
 and contains about 300 or 400 Christian families. It has a temple like that at Denderah, (now used as a 
 cotton manufactory,) which is said to have been built by the Ptolemies, and sculptured by the Romans. 
 About three half hours north of Esneh there is another temple, presenting, like the former, symbolical 
 signs connected with the Zodiac, also a variety of figures and hieroglyphics ; they are said to be inferior 
 in execution to those at Denderah. Some distance from the river, on the opposite side, is a temple not 
 worth visiting. 
 
 At Esneh the valley widens to an extent of nearly four miles, and exhibits fine cultivation ; 
 it again narrows at El Heigs. At this place the mountains contain grottoes, with some remains of 
 ancient Eleithyia ; the ruins are much buried in sand. The sepulchres are supposed to be very old, 
 and display scenes of agriculture, and sports of the ancient Egyptians. 
 
 Edfou, higher up the river, is a large but poor town. It possesses the remains of a temple, 440 
 feet long, and half as wide, with pillars, 40 feet in height, of the same form as that at Denderah, and 
 not inferior to it, supposed to have been built in the same age. There are also remains of a small temple. 
 Above Edfou the rocks on each side project towards the river, and shew numerous quarries, the most 
 extensive of which are on the eastern side. They are remarkable for size, and are approached by passages 
 through the rock, from 100 to 300 feet in length, which lead into an area 500 feet by 250. On the 
 sides of the quarries there are many interesting representations of instruments for labour, &c. 
 
 The next place is Ivoom Omho, occupying the site of the ancient Ombos, where are the remains 
 of a fine temple of the Ptolemies, and also of a smaller one, dedicated to Isis. 
 
 At Es-Souan, or Syene, the last town in Egypt, there are good bazaars. The Nubian language 
 is first spoken here. 
 
 At Syene the Pharaohs and Ptolemies raised temples and palaces ; the Romans and Arabians 
 erected forts ; the French pitched their tents, and the learned men of Europe erected observato- 
 ries. Rocks of granite relieve the hills of sandstone, and afford fresh materials to decorate the 
 cities of Egypt. Fragments remain, that were to have added further testimonials of the power and 
 industry of the ancients. An obelisk is left partly formed, and clinging to its native rock, as if to 
 
 KHENN EH— DENDERAH. 
 
 attest the architectural eminence of the country. The islands of Elephantine and Philoe, rich in 
 foliage and splendid remains, abound in objects that would almost exhaust the power of language to 
 describe. 
 
 I had no difficulty in hiring, at a charge of two dollars, a cangia , or undecked boat, to pioceed to 
 Khenneh. I left the village of Luxor at five o’clock in the evening, without a companion to participate 
 in the pleasure derivable from the interesting objects on either side of the Nile. The air was refreshing, 
 and stirred the tranquil waters of the river. The outline of the Lybian chain became fainter and fainter 
 as I withdrew from the contemplation of ancient Thebes. For some time my thoughts were kept awake 
 by the splash of the oar, occasionally broken by a chorus of the rowers, who joined in at the end of each 
 verse of a song, sung by a leading voice, " Hamesha — rna — halle — -la — yah. This was repeated at 
 
 intervals, and suddenly breaking on the ear created a feeling that was far from disagreeable. A solemn 
 style and melody characterize these Arab tunes. I am not aware how long the music was kept up, 
 as I heard no more, and was surprised on awaking in the morning to find the boat secured at the land- 
 ing place at Khenneh. The night had been cool, and I was not sorry that a walk of three half miles 
 was required to reach the town, as it served to warm me. 
 
 Khenneh, which was the ancient Ccenopolis, stands on the east bank of the Nile, where a bend of 
 the river causes it to be the nearest town to the Red Sea. I was conducted to the house of a Copt, who 
 is the British agent, and here I found three of the party whom I have previously mentioned as having 
 preceded me from Cosseir ; they had not been able to procure a boat suited to accommodate more than 
 two persons. Khenneh is a poor representative of the ancient emporium of Eastern commerce that 
 once poured its rich produce through this channel ; though it has a well stocked bazaar, animated 
 by the presence of numerous pilgrims passing to and from Cosseir and Mecca. Caravans from more 
 southern parts of Africa arrive here on their way to Siout. This market is also visited by the wandering 
 Arabs from the opposite side of the river, who exchange gum and senna for wearing apparel, and the 
 few luxuries their wants require. A cotton manufactory of the Pacha’s, with machinery worked by 
 bullocks, was the first object connected with modern arts I had seen since leaving India. Several ft 
 these manufactories are observed on the banks when descending the river ; they are superintended by 
 Europeans, and are about to be improved by steam machinery. Khenneh is noted for the quality of its 
 jars and pipe bowls, which are formed of a compact marl, and being half baked in the sun, are completely 
 hardened by means of a straw fire. Similar manufactories are common throughout the country, and 
 pottery is cheap enough to be used in the walls of most mud hovels. In walking on the banks of the 
 river, flakes of mud, left by the retiring waters, are found, baked by the sun, and difficult to break, 
 shewing the perfect facility with which pottery or bricks may be formed. The mud deposited by the 
 Nile is of a dark colour, and becomes reddish when diluted with water. At the landing place already 
 named, a ferry boat crosses the river, and lands the passenger opposite to Denderah. 
 

 TEMPLE OF ISIS, OE TENTYRA. 
 
 This noble ruin stands on the edge of the Desert, about two miles from the river. The 
 intermediate country is influenced by the rise of the Nile, and has a desolate appearance, being over- 
 grown with coarse grass, while the canals that intersect it make the route inconvenient. Soon after 
 clearing the belt of cultivated ground, remains of ancient Tentyra, with some ruins, become con- 
 spicuous. A noble propylon, similar in form to that seen on the approach to Carnac, next presents 
 itself. It is of sandstone, and is perfect in style and in the elegance of its sculpture ; but it was 
 arrested in its progress to completion, and was doomed to continue in an unfinished state. Its height 
 is upwards of 40, and its width 33 feet. Passing through this entrance, mounds and excavated pits, 
 fragments of architectural ornaments, and mud houses, are mixed confusedly together. Enough is seen 
 to shew that there is an extensive depository of valuable relics. On the right is a small temple, 
 dedicated to Typhon, whose hideous figure forms capitals to the pillars, as the head of Isis does to the 
 great temple before us. To many who have passed by this route from Cosseir, without an opportunity 
 of visiting those ruins already described, it will be a satisfaction to know, that “ after seeing innu- 
 merable monuments in the Thebaid, it seemed as if we were now arrived at the highest pitch of archi- 
 tectural excellence that was ever attained on the borders of the Nile.” The portico of this temple is 
 supported by 24 cylindrical pillars, which stand three deep. Their capitals are ornamented with a face 
 of the goddess on each side. These pictures fill a square space of eight feet, which is the extent of the 
 diameter of the pillars. The height of the plinth that crowns the capital is another peculiarity in this 
 structure. The whole is finished by a rich entablature, surmounted with the bold cornice, always so 
 striking in Egyptian architecture. If clear of rubbish, this beautiful structure would present a front 
 of 160 feet, with a height of 60, the whole being one picture of 960 square feet, relieved with proces- 
 sions of persons bearing offerings, accompanied by musicians. Isis, with Osiris, are seen seated, 
 and receiving the offerings. In other parts the goddess is depicted nursing her son Horus. The 
 winged globe, poised over the entrance, is represented within the portico, all along the centre of 
 the ceiling. The compartments between the pillars, forming the roof of the portico, are filled with a 
 continuance of processions, among which is found the Zodiac, that has caused so much enquiry and 
 controversy. Religious processions, with boats, and numerous mythological devices, fill the whole 
 interior, making this temple a most memorable object in the Egyptian annals, and a wonder to the 
 present age. The entire mass of figures constitutes one great Pantheon, containing such an abundant 
 variety of portraiture as of itself appears an ample pictorial history. It is to be feared, notwithstand- 
 ing the progress said to be making in the exposition of hieroglyphics, that this interesting tablet is 
 doomed to remain a stumbling-block to the learned. All that is describable here is distinguished by 
 vivid and original colouring, and a few days of the traveller’s time would be well devoted to the study 
 
 of the whole. The remainder of the temple consists of small chambers, one of which is the sanctuary, 
 and there are small apartments leading to the sides, but they are so blocked up with sand and 
 rubbish, that it is difficult to enter, or define their extent. They are ornamented and painted to cor- 
 respond with the portico. These interior chambers had no light, except what ivas introduced by 
 conical openings from the tops and sides, with a small aperture at the apex, diverging to a large 
 diameter in the inside of the building. It was a vague and doubtful light, well suited to the rites of a 
 mystical faith. One of the side chambers leads to a spiral staircase of easy ascent. Here apertures for 
 light, such as have been described, are beautifully wrought. The sides of large cones are formed of 
 smaller ones, curiously blended together. 
 
 At the summit of the temple there are small chambers on each side, and the ceiling of one of 
 them contained the circular Zodiac now in Paris. The ceiling of the other is curious, and is also con- 
 nected with the symbols of astronomical science. On a celestial blue, spangled with stars, are rays of 
 light issuing from the bosom of a female ; globes, with legs, are seen as if walking ; other globes are 
 objects of adoration to kneeling figures on either side. The -whole is wrought in calcareous stone, well 
 brought out, and presenting a singular and interesting coloured picture, occupying a space of 20 feet by 
 12. The remainder of the roof is covered with rubbish of modern mud structures, which nearly bury 
 some fragments of a small temple. Outside the walls of the great temple are figures and hieroglyphics, 
 executed in the best style. The principal figures have flowing dresses, and elaborately worked orna- 
 ments, which call to remembrance those in the tombs of the kings. Behind this temple is another, 
 dedicated to Osiris and Isis, who are here again depicted receiving offerings. The walls and ceilings are 
 covered with hieroglyphics, similar to those in the adjoining edifice. 
 
 A second propylon stands about 500 yards east of the temple. There are mounds of rubbish, no 
 doubt concealing other structures. Like the sacred edifice at Thebes, the precincts of the temple 
 probably became the last resort of the people. Village on village followed, with successive revolu- 
 tions ; and mounds of earth now vie in height with the temple. Walls of unburnt brick, of a thickness 
 of 12 feet, and sometimes of a considerable height, still remain ; they mark a boundary of more than 
 half a mile square, which was no doubt the limits of the sacred edifice. 
 
 This temple is supposed to have been built by the last of the Ptolemies. The features of its 
 peculiar style of architecture mark a different era from that of the massive structures at Thebes. 
 Here there is more art and less solidity ; and we note the absence of the noble and extensive outline 
 that forms the characteristic of the older structures. A change, it may be presumed, had taken place 
 in the affairs of the state. We see no king in the career of victory, or in the condition of a conqueror. 
 The resources of the nation are evidently on the decline. 
 
 
 
38 
 
 DENDERAH — TEMPLE OF ISIS. 
 
 There would not be much expense, and no difficulty, at present in obtaining a perfect representa- 
 tion of every part of this temple, to enable a model of it to be preserved in England as an historical 
 record. But in a few years this will be impracticable, for the edifice, like others in Upper Egypt, is 
 yielding fast to the assaults of man. 
 
 Modern travellers have mentioned that the Hindoo soldiers, among the Sepoys who accompanied 
 Sir David’s army by this route, imagined they found in Denderah a temple of their religion. Some 
 allusions have already been made to this subject ; and after what has been advanced, it may not appear 
 surprising that an Indian idolater should feel devoutly inclined on entering an Egyptian temple. In 
 the sacred edifices of both countries the same general rules were observed. Nature is distorted. In 
 India the human form is surmounted by the head of the elephant ; and in Egypt also the Hindoo 
 found it united to the inferior animal. A colossal head, which commanded his awe and respect in the 
 cave of Elephanta, would here be found in the pillars before him. The timid voyager, after his perils 
 on the Red Sea, and his toils in the Desert, might offer a prayer to his god of stone, amidst rock-hewn 
 deities. We are told that Christians, who rounded the Cape of Good Hope with Vasco de Gama, 
 performed their devotions in an Indian temple, on the shores of Hindostan. The ancient Indian would 
 more readily have recognized a resemblance to his sacred edifices in the rock temples of this country. 
 The lingam is seen in all, and is a never failing token to idolaters. 
 
 To prosecute the voyage, either up or down the Nile, there will be no difficulty at Klienneh in 
 obtaining djerms, boats which have a single mast, are partly decked, and afford comfortable accom- 
 modation for two persons. A larger class of boat, called a maash, having two masts, and a cabin within 
 another, is more difficult to obtain. The latter accommodates four persons. Every description of boat 
 is infested with vermin, and ought to be sunk for a couple of days before being used. For the first of 
 these travelling accommodations to Cairo, 15 or 20 dollars will be demanded ; for the other, 8 or 10 
 dollars more is expected. A dollar may be valued at about four shillings sterling. All arrangements 
 will be made by the native agent, who is of the Coptic tribe ; a race of men who, whether from 
 interest or not, are found most useful and accommodating. 
 
 The dispatches which I had conveyed to India were of a nature that permitted me to forward 
 them after arriving at Luxor. This I had done by one of the party who was proceeding direct to 
 Alexandria, where the British Consul resides. I had much pleasure in joining my countrymen, whom 
 I met at Khenneh, and in accompanying them in a vessel of the largest description. I had merely 
 seen and marked the form of some objects at Thebes, that seemed to have gained on my affection by 
 separation. It was therefore an additional gratification to me, that this arrangement would cause me 
 again to visit, for a few days, that interesting scene. 
 
 On the 10th day of January we left Khenneh at 8 P. M. to ascend the Nile. The next morn- 
 ing we passed Keft (the ancient Captos) on the east bank of the river. This was at one time the great 
 emporium of trade between the eastern and western worlds. At 12 o’clock we were opposite Negadeh, a 
 
 DENDERAH — TEMPLE OF ISIS. 
 
 village on the left bank of the river, containing a population of about 300 families, the larger proportion 
 of whom were Copts. About midnight of the 11th we reached the bank of the river, near the syca- 
 more-tree at Gournou. The voyage up the stream occupied about double the time of my descent to 
 Khenneh. 
 
 It was with much pleasure I made a second pilgrimage to objects already adverted to. If 
 the visits were repeated for months, there would be a fruitful source of instruction and delight for the 
 observer. I felt more assured, in reviewing the sanguinary scenes in the temples and tombs, that 
 these punishments were meant to represent the future state of the wicked, as we at present are made 
 familiar with pictures of the infernal regions. The processions and scenes of rejoicings in which the 
 gods preside, were, in the same way, intended to typify the glories of a future reward. 
 
 My friends had taken a cursory view of the ruins on each side of the stream, and we left the 
 shores of Luxor on the night of the 16th. We passed Khenneh the following morning without stop- 
 ping. The river here turned with a sharp angle from a northern course to the westward, and continued 
 to run thus till reaching Hoo on the left bank. At Hoo there are some interesting remains of 
 Diospolis Parva. Farshiout is the next place of any note; it is three miles inland, and is the 
 capital of a rich province, which produces fine sugar-cane. On the 18th we reached Girgeh, which 
 appears to have been a town of consequence. It was formerly the capital of Upper Egypt, but is now 
 on the decline.- It still contains seven mosques, and a Catholic church ; the priest of the last informed 
 us there were 230 Catholics there. The church is a gloomy building, and its inspection afforded us 
 little pleasure. There was a shuffling, beggarly manner about the ghostly father, who, however, I 
 must say in extenuation, appeared to be miserably poor. 
 
 There is an excellent bazaar at Girgeh, at which we replenished our supply for the voyage, and 
 proceeded in a few hours, having been informed by the priest that nothing was to be seen worthy of 
 research at Abydos, which lies about six miles from this place. The information obtained by travellers 
 through the people of this country can never be depended on, as will be evident from the following cir- 
 cumstances, with which I was unacquainted at the time ; — At Abydos there are remains of two large 
 temples, one of which Pococke holds to have been a palace of Memnon. It presents much to repay the 
 visitor, more particularly if he be not familiar with the temples at Thebes. The colouring on the walls 
 is fresh. Some valuable relics have been collected here, and among them the famous hieroglyphic tablet 
 of Mr. W. Bankes, containing a genealogical fist of kings. Below Girgeh the Nile is encroached upon 
 by a mountain projecting from the east. There are numerous excavations made on the side of it, pro- 
 bably intended to serve as a necropolis to some ancient city. During the voyage on the Nile one may 
 land at pleasure ; and there are innumerable villages, displaying a variety of appearance, but having no 
 novelty to repay the trouble of disembarking. As many as a dozen or twenty may occasionally be seen 
 at a time. Some are so insignificant, and the names given them by the boatmen so variable, as to account 
 for the circumstance, that on this point all charts of the country differ. In the outline chart that 
 
ECHMIM — SIOUT. 
 
 accompanies this work, only places that have decided interest to the European, or superior claims to 
 recommendation have been inserted. In the course of our voyage we saw several crocodiles, on 
 sand banks, looking like trunks of trees; at first we doubted their reality, but were convinced by 
 whistling a ball in the direction, which caused the animals slowly to move down the bank, till with a 
 splash they were embedded in the river. They are not often seen in the Nile below this latitude. 
 
 Menchia, which stands on the west bank, has a good bazaar and a quay of a character that 
 shows its past importance. Nearly opposite to Menchia is Echmim, a capital of a province and a 
 place of consequence, having a population of 10,000 persons. Its manufactures and bazaars are 
 extensive, and the neighbourhood is productive. The remains are trifling, but there are innumerable 
 grottoes in the neighbouring mountain that court investigation and appear but little known. 
 
 On the 20th we found ourselves at the foot of a mountain 3 or 400 feet high; it takes its 
 name from a tomb of Sheykh-el-Hareedee, which is seen here ; there are the remains of a colossal 
 statue. The hill abounds in caverns, now the resort of jackalls ; one of these excavations is 255 feet 
 in front, 168 deep, and 16 high, and its interior is divided by twenty-four pillars, 15 feet square ; it 
 contains a few rude figures of Osiris. Numerous pieces of crystal are scattered about the wild 
 mountain, which is ascended with difficulty. The rockhain, or vulture, frequents the spot. Sir 
 Frederick Heniker says of this place, “Here is at once the scene of Sinbad’s valley of diamonds, 
 and the rock bird.” We passed a village called Tahta, on the left bank : it is far enough from the 
 river to have with its mosques and minarets an imposing effect. On the opposite bank we skirted by 
 Gaw-el-Kebir, the site of the Antoepolis, which is mentioned by Hamilton, as distinguished by a 
 temple with large pillars, having a picturesque appearance in a grove of palm-trees. 
 
 On the 21st we passed on the left the large village of Abautij, and soon after we arrived at Siout, 
 on the same side of the river. Siout is the capital of Upper Egypt, and is supposed to stand on the 
 site of the ancient Lycopolis, (or city of wolves.) The town is divided from the river by a causeway 
 for a mile and a half. At the landing place there are considerable buildings, and a stir of business 
 announcing this to be a thriving locality. The embalmed bodies of dogs are found here. Tombs 
 and excavations exhibit paintings and sculpture, that make them deserving of a visit if the superior 
 curiosities at Thebes have not been previously explored. The effendi, or governor of Siout, was Scheriff 
 Bey, a relative of the Pacha’s. His palace with gardens is prettily situated besides the town, with high 
 ground rising in the rear. There are ten or twelve mosques whose spires outtop the mass of brick 
 houses contained within a wall that runs south of the palace. A cotton manufactory stands on the 
 north side of this building. Mules were in readiness to convey travellers to the city ; there was a 
 dragoman who conducted us, and as all Franks are exhibited to each other in this country, so we were 
 escorted to the palace to visit an Italian doctor in the service of the governor. Two regiments of 
 infantry recently returned from Greece were at Siout re-organizing. The commanding officer of one, 
 a soldier-like Turk, spoke of several British officers he had met in the Morea, and if I might judge 
 
 SIOUT. 
 
 39 
 
 from the interview I had with him, the good feeling he expressed must have been reciprocal. He 
 politely took us to his parade, where the regiment was assembled by beat of drum ; fifes were also in 
 use. The privates were mostly Arabs of Upper Egypt ; there were a few finer men of a darker cast 
 from beyond the cataracts. There is much to be done yet before the children of the Desert can 
 be trained to the simple but important routine of soldiers. Their dress and accoutrements were 
 uniform and European ; they had the firelock and bayonet; but cleanliness, the distinguishing mark of 
 a good soldier, was not attended to. The buff belt seemed not to have known the benefit of pipe clay ; 
 a step, however, towards a grand system has been achieved, and a few thousand men, organized and 
 disciplined, will become a formidable machine against their wild countrymen. A new generation may be 
 necessary to give these troops the name of an army; but the change is in progress. The whole system 
 of drill is European, and most of the instructors are French and Italian. The regiments had a 
 walled barrack, from which the families of soldiers were excluded; and here is the secret impediment 
 that must check, until a total alteration of manners takes place, the ready organization of Eastern 
 troops. We saw several Turks with their large figures, made larger to the eye by their loose attire. A 
 solitary Mameluke was pointed out ; there was a striking air of manliness and ease about him, his eye 
 spoke much, and he seemed to say — 
 
 “ I stood, and stand alone, neglected or forgot.” 
 
 This race of strangers, who so long governed Egypt, were successively domestics, confidential servants, 
 treasurers, and collectors of taxes. The following morning we visited the extensive and well-stocked 
 bazaars, and rode through the narrow streets of the town. Siout contains a large caravanserai, and is a 
 great emporium of trade with the interior of Africa. The merchants of Darfour and Sennaar annually 
 exchange in it several thousand of their fellow beings, chiefly women, who are added to the ivory, gum 
 arabic, &c., to balance their expensive mode of caravan trading, to procure clothing and other necessaries 
 of life. We had rain and cloudy weather, which were said to be of most unusual occurrence in this 
 part of Egypt. 
 
 The thermometer ranged from 58° to 65°, a delightful temperature when reposing in the shade, 
 enjoying the cheering influence of the sun without encountering its rays. Before casting off from the 
 bank at Siout, where we lay with about thirty other boats, we had the pleasure of seeing an English 
 lady, who with her husband was stemming the Nile. They were about to encounter all the inconve- 
 niences that must attend a voyage to Bombay before proper arrangements are made for it. There 
 was a degree of comfort and neatness diffused over the cabin of the little cangia that made it appear 
 an agreeable retreat. The novel sight of a female in her station in society brought us for a short time 
 to think of our own homes. The feeling passed off, and it appeared as if we had witnessed an optical 
 illusion. We proceeded on our different routes, having been assured that the novelty of all around 
 was a recompence for the inconvenience of living in an apartment three feet in height. We observed 
 Manfalout on the west, a large town in a fertile country, where much attention is given to irrigation. 
 
CAIRO. 
 
 the city, intersected by towers, and entered by highly ornamented gates. The road becomes studded 
 with passengers, mounted on fine mules, and dressed in such various costumes, that the traveller 
 is led to think he is about to find his warmest anticipation of “ Grand Cairo ” realized, a feeling which 
 is heightened by the appearance of the noble portico he passed through. His flights of fancy 
 are sadly lowered as he finds himself winding through narrow streets with mean-looking buildings. 
 Occasionally the residence of some fallen Mameluke is distinguishable by the broad red and white 
 lines which cover it. It has only a high wall that adds gloominess to the path, and no opening is 
 seen to ornament the street. The most striking feature in the city is the large square of Esbequier. 
 Many houses are in a ruined state, and there are some of stately appearance that lead the imagination 
 to picture captive beauty pining amidst the trees and shrubs which overtop the walls. Not far from 
 this square, in the Frank quarter, we found the abode of the acting British vice-consul. The traveller, 
 whatever may be his nation, will obtain through such a channel all requisite instruction for further 
 guidance on his route. A dragoman can be procured to arrange and to attend the movements of a 
 party during their residence in the city. An obliging and faithful companion will be found in Osman, 
 a Scotchman, in Turkish costume, said to be a Mohammedan. In the streets of Cairo are variety and 
 novelty suflicient to afford daily amusement to a stranger. The bazaar is an endless scene of interest. 
 
 Cairo, from its situation, the natural mart for trade between the eastern and western worlds, 
 is the seat of commerce with the interior of Africa and Arabia. There are market days when the 
 streets are packed with a multitude of people, of all colours and of all nations. Any man wishing 
 to dispose of an article exhibits it above the heads of the people, calling out the offer of the last bidder, 
 and walking at the same time from one extremity of the crow’d to the other. The number and variety 
 of articles exposed for sale, and the consequent noise and excitement, present a most curious combi- 
 nation. There are lateral streets, where the most valued goods are found, and where extensive manu- 
 facturers, cutlers, embroiderers, & c., have well-stocked stores, with a goodly display of the produce of 
 their different crafts. My wanderings led me to the slave market, where some hundred expressive 
 eyes rolled towards me, in the expectation of each new-comer becoming a master. The poor wretches 
 stalled here for sale were mostly females, of true African black. They were seated in groups, and 
 probably were distinct families, taking advantage of the time allowed for the interchange of the affec- 
 tions before they came to be separated. A few cargoes of British manufactures exchanged at a port 
 of Abyssinia for African produce might prevent a great part of a traffic, which I believe Major Denham 
 mentions that some chief in the country deplored the necessity of continuing. 
 
 The castle is the first place to visit at Cairo ; its fine position overlooks all the objects worthy 
 of remark in the vicinity. It is situated on an under feature of Mount Mokattam, by which it is 
 commanded. Towards the town it is secure from hostile approach, and is every where protected from 
 escalade. From the town to the castle the road is steep, and barely admits of safe approach on horse- 
 back. The interior of the fortress presents a large space. The principal building is a palace of the 
 
 CAIRO. 
 
 41 
 
 Pacha ; there are also a mint, an arsenal, and other public works, which give a considerable show of 
 bustle. Many improvements are now going on, and the early works of the Saracen Sultans are disap- 
 pearing in order to effect them. Joseph’s Hall and Joseph’s Well are amongst the monuments of 
 the proud days of Cairo ; the former is now giving way to a fresh erection, and the ancient monu- 
 ments that were brought hither from Memphis are to undergo another displacement. Those works 
 were executed in the twelfth century under the Sultan “ Salah-ad-din,” known as a destroyer of infidels. 
 Egypt naturally calls to mind the patriarchal era, and the well is fondly connected in name with 
 earlier times, but its construction belongs to Yussouf, said to be secretary to this Sultan. Cairo, like 
 Alexandria, records one of the great revolutions which this country has been doomed to undergo ; it 
 was founded nearly a thousand years back, and possesses many relics that mark the power and 
 splendour of the early Mohammedan conquerors. F ew spots are more interesting to the spectator, than 
 the ramparts of the castle. To the west the pyramids awaken recollections of the past, and point to 
 the vicinity of departed Memphis, whose boundaries are lost in the mists of countless centuries. The 
 towns of Bulaq and Djizeli, with old Cairo and heaps of ruins, are in the middle ground. When the 
 eye turns to the right, a solitary obelisk marks the site of Heliopolis, near which is Meterieh, and recalls 
 the days of Pliaroah and of Joseph. To the north-west, the tombs of the Caliphs, with their domes 
 and minarets, rise like a city from the waste. Amidst these scenes, speaking of so many distant and 
 interesting ages, is observed the Nile, flowing as it always has flowed. The green foliage of the Island 
 of Rhoda affords a pleasing relief to the sadness of devastation. An aqueduct running towards 
 Cairo marks how despotic sway will effect the removal of a city, though the inhabitants be withdrawn 
 from the enjoyment of the first blessing in an Eastern land. The fore-ground of this noble picture 
 is well filled up by the city lying at the base of the citadel, and displaying amidst countless houses 
 some splendid mosques that triumph in their magnitude. One of the most conspicuous is that of 
 Hassan, at the foot of the fort. The noble gates which lead from the new city are bold and striking 
 specimens of Saracenic architecture. Amidst this pile of modern structures, innumerable are the 
 columns and remains taken from the ruins of the ancient cities. Descending from the castle, a gate 
 perforated with balls, tells of the time when the power of the Mamelukes received its final blow. 
 About a mile from Cairo are the remains of the old city, called Fostat, or Misr, or Babylon. Here is a 
 Christian church, presided over by a Greek patriarch, and you are shown a low cave, said to have been 
 the refuge of J oseph and Mary with the infant J esus. There are some curious relics and antique pic- 
 tures attached to the convent. On the road there is a court of very large size, known by the name 
 of Joseph’s Granary, the origin of which cannot well be accounted for. Grain is stored within it in 
 heaps, and without covering, that not being necessary to preserve it. 
 
 An excursion must be made from Cairo to the Caliphs’ tombs. They are enclosures, with a 
 minaret at each angle of one side of an oblong, and domes at the other. The interior has deep 
 verandahs, supported by columns ; they are of limestone, and taken altogether are a great effort 
 
» 
 
 40 MANFALOUT— MENI AH. 
 
 Within a few miles are remains of Hermopolis, of which a fragment of a temple with a few columns 
 are all that now invite attention. Before approaching Manfalout, the mountains on the Arabian side 
 are bold, and extend near the river, showing innumerable excavations. After leaving Manfalout, the 
 same character of mountain continued with the same kind of perforations. These hills take the name 
 of Sheykh-Saeed, from his tomb being there. On the opposite side of the Nile the canal called Bahr 
 Yussouf branches off, running nearly parallel with the river, and tending to keep the Desert from 
 encroaching on the cultivated land. Approaching Malawi on the west, the elfect of the irrigation of the 
 river by means of canals, is made evident by the fertility of the country and the rich returns of cultiva- 
 tion. Sugar-cane is raised in the neighbourhood ; and a few miles further down there is a rum and sugar 
 manufactory. On the opposite, or east bank at Sheik Ababde, are ruins of a city founded by the Roman 
 emperor Hadrian, in honour of his favourite Antinous, who sacrificed his fife for him at this place. 
 The ruins were extensive a few years since, but they have been removed for building materials to Cairo 
 or Siout. There are Grecian and Roman fragments mingled with Mohamedan tombs and ancient cata- 
 combs. At the village of Ashmooneyn, a mile and a half from the Nile, a portico ushers the traveller 
 to ruins that cover an area of nearly four square miles. Like most of the ruins below Thebes, these 
 seem to have been but little explored; they were visited and described by Mr. Legh. Below Ash- 
 mooneyn, on the right bank, are the excavations of Beni Hassan ; we passed them at night, they are 
 said to be of beautiful proportions, with columns of the order usually called Sicilian doric. These 
 temples bear a very early date, and show the prefix or name of Asortoson, who is supposed to have 
 existed some centuries before the siege of Troy. Mr. Hamilton describes the grottoes as of great mag- 
 nitude, the walls and pillars being covered with coloured representations as at Thebes. Among the sub- 
 lets pourtrayed are the culture of corn, hemp, and flax; the manufacture of arms and ropes; fishing, 
 hunting, dancing, wrestling, sham-fighting, &c. These caves are no doubt attractive, and it was only 
 in consequence of finding ourselves in the morning as low as Meniah that prevented our return. 
 This disappointment determined me most strenuously to advise travellers not to give way to many 
 plausible reasons the natives will assign for hurrying on. 
 
 On the 24th we reached Meniah, a large town, with a considerable degree of bustle, and having 
 a good bazaar and better houses than usual. Fragments of ancient buildings were discernible in the 
 mosque. Portions of granite columns formed into grinding stones were for sale, shewing how little 
 respect is paid to the most valuable relics. At Mineah we saw about seventeen boat loads of imple- 
 ments, with English artificers and miners proceeding to explore the country above the cataracts, and 
 to search for coals and other minerals. Some of the men had wives and children, and the whole seemed 
 like a joyful party proceeding on an excursion of pleasure. There was no bad feeling or jealousy evinced 
 on the part of the natives, who seemed rather to invite the enterprise and useful qualities of Europeans. 
 They had lived well, and appeared most orderly in their conduct, which so far was highly creditable 
 to their country. We gave them our good wishes at parting, and left them in high spirits. The 
 
 BENI SOUF — CAIRO. 
 
 Pacha’s enterprise is conspicuous here in another cotton manufactory. The next place to be re- 
 marked is the high cliff of Gebel-el-Teyn, on which there is a Coptic convent. Lower down on the 
 opposite bank, removed from the view, a miserable village stands on the site of Oxyrinchus, the ancient 
 capital of a fertile district. It is now nearly overwhelmed by the encroaching sands, and is not worth 
 visiting, except with a view to mark how a fertile country may be transformed by neglect. 
 
 On the 25th we passed Feshn, on the western bank, a little inland. The river here displayed 
 more bustle, and there appeared to be some good houses. We next arrived at Banisouf, a large but 
 dirty town, where the province of Faioum is approached by a break in the Libyan chain. At Faioum 
 was the famous labyrinth, the parts of which Herodotus says were greater than other human works, 
 equalling if not excelling the Pyramids. A lake, said to be equal to 277 miles in circumference, and 
 36 fathoms in depth, was entirely excavated by the hands of man. Belzoni found traces here of pyramids 
 of temples and of cities, that go to verify the details of ancient historians, till lately almost treated as 
 fictions. If the works of the Egyptians are examined with fairness, they will justify all that has been 
 stated of their wondrous character for persevering labour. The Lybian chain soon closes again towards 
 the Nile, and forms the site of the Pyramids. On the eastern side the mountain nears the river, 
 and has a deep declivity, with the appearance of excavations, which probably were connected with the 
 ancient Memphis. A wind from the east carried us rapidly along, and on the morning of the 26th 
 the Pyramids of Dashour were in sight, about twelve or fourteen miles distant. They stand high, and 
 I think in passing them on the river they had a more striking effect than is conveyed on the near 
 approach to such masses. A succession of Pyramids came in view, and were the only objects that 
 varied the sombre uniformity of the sterile desert. The shore on the east, or opposite bank of the 
 river, has a road on its bank, which is enlivened by passing travellers. 
 
 The like appearance continued as we pursued the voyage, and came near the pyramids of 
 Djizeh, which are on the same range of hills as those described. Opposite Djizeh the quarries are 
 very extensive, and said to be those from which the stone for the pyramids on the opposite side of the 
 river was taken. From these excavations the mountain derives its name of El Mokattam, (the hewn.) 
 As we drew near to Cairo, on the right bank of the river, we saw numerous tents ; and after passing 
 some handsome palaces and extensive environs, we arrived at the part of Cairo, called Bulaq. A noisy 
 and bustling scene awaited us amidst a fleet of boats, in front of four hundred or five hundred 
 houses that line the bank of the river. The new comer finds that his further progress must depend 
 on his own exertions, until by one of the motley group of Arabs, Turks, Copts, Jews, and Franks, that 
 surround him, he is recognized as a countryman, when he experiences no further difficulty in providing 
 carriage for himself and baggage to proceed to Cairo. Mounted on a donkey, which whisks him 
 through the narrow streets of Bulaq, he is soon taken clear of the town. The journey for the inter- 
 mediate distance of two miles is performed over mounds of rubbish, which for some time conceal the 
 minarets of Cairo with its citadel rising above them. A closer approach discovers the walls that surround 
 
42 
 
 DESERT OF SUEZ. 
 
 of skill. The whole building is relieved and ornamented with a variety of elaborate architecture, 
 and painted outside with alternate lines of .red and white. These tombs now neglected, and going 
 to decay, are the resort of a few Arab beggars. Beyond the tombs the road crosses the Desert 
 about four miles, to the village of Meterieh, where are stones with hieroglyphics on them. In 
 an adjoining garden there is a wild fig-tree with an enormous trunk described as another rest- 
 ing-place of the Holy Family. A little beyond the village is the obelisk of Heliopolis, composed 
 of red granite, and displaying a row of hieroglyphics, to a height of 65 feet. It tells a melan- 
 choly history, well described by a modern writer. “ A barbarous Persian has overthrown her temple, a 
 fanatic Arab burnt her books, and one solitary obelisk overlooking her ruins, says to passengers, — Helio- 
 polis.” This place claims particular notice. Herodotus was there instructed in Egyptian lore, and the 
 inhabitants, he says, were deemed the most ingenious of all the Egyptians. There are quantities of 
 Egyptian pebbles on this route, and large pieces of apparently petrified w 7 ood. On the opposite side 
 of Cairo are tombs of Mamelukes and Osmanli nobles, including some members of the ruling family, 
 which are well worth seeing. During the few days I had been at Cairo, there was rain sufficient to 
 cause great inconvenience to persons whose time was limited. The thermometer averaged 54° at 
 eight A. M., 58° at mid-day, and 56° in the evening. An Indian at such a time will prefer a cloth dress 
 to the light clothing of the East. Europeans who reside at Cairo, and who make excursions, find it 
 convenient to wear the Turkish costume, which is entirely of cloth and not uncomfortable. 
 
 I had assumed this clothing as best suited for a projected expedition to Suez and to Mount 
 Sinai, in which I was happy to join with a British officer, who chanced to be at Cairo, contemplating the 
 journey. Dispatch was an object to both parties ; we therefore hired four dromedaries, or trotting 
 camels. We took one each, and mounted a Greek, who spoke Arabic, on a third : the fourth was 
 appropriated to an Arab Sheik, who engaged to be a safe-guard and guide to the party. An Arab led 
 a camel, carrying a small tent and some water with a few requisite articles. By continual travelling he 
 was to overtake the party each night. Thus arranged, in light marching order, we started, on the 
 1st February, through Bab-el-Hassar gate. Issuing from Cairo, the Desert is at once entered on, and 
 offers no obstacle to the direct advance of a caravan towards Suez. To the right the Caliphs’ tombs are 
 conspicuous, and on the left of the road there is a small Arab village connected with the caravans. 
 Here our final arrangements were made, soon after which we found ourselves on the wide waste. The 
 road is more uneven than in the valley of Cosseir. Suez bears nearly east from Cairo, but occasional 
 projections from mountains on the right cross the road, and cause some deviation from the direct line. 
 There was nothing to impede the regular advance of our dromedaries, which kept up a shuffling gait, 
 and travelled about four miles in the hour. During the day’s march, which occupied eight hours, 
 we met one caravan. A gradual ascent was evident throughout the journey. The following morning we 
 arrived in an hour at the tomb of a Sheik, situated half way to Suez. Innumerable pieces of rags, left in it 
 as relics, show that it has accommodated many travellers. A mile beyond the tomb to the right of the 
 
 CAIRO. 
 
 road, a mound points out the site of a well which is waterless, although sunk to a depth of 200 feet. 
 
 The country to the right became more mountainous during the march, and had projecting fea- 
 tures that lessened as they approached and crossed our path in continuance towards the Isthmus. The 
 most elevated part of the road is about midway between the Nile and the sea of Suez, from which 
 point a very gradual descent may be traced on either side. Towards the termination of this day s 
 journey my companion unluckily fell, in consequence of a start made by his dromedary, and was only 
 able to proceed towards Suez at an easy walk. We passed a fort-looking place at Adjerout, a couple 
 of miles to our left, and about ten miles from Suez. A large tank, overflowing with brackish water, 
 about two miles from Suez, next attracted our notice. The latter part of our journey had been very 
 slow, but we had no difficulty in completing the march from Cairo in two days. 
 
 Innumerable round stones with a rough surface lie strewed over the Desert ; they are of the kind 
 called Egyptian pebbles : frequently they are broken, and the variety of their colours catches and pleases 
 the eye of the traveller, who ought to be provided with a hammer for the purpose of procuring spe- 
 cimens, many of which are very beautiful. The Desert of Suez has no marked station where a halt is 
 desirable ; it is one dreary waste, with rounded hills, of a calcareous shelly texture, mingled with some 
 clay. They are quite dissimilar in figure, to the bold outline of the granite mountain in the valley of 
 Cosseir. A few antelopes and partridges were seen during the journey, and some stunted shrubs that 
 caught the dew drops. The thermometer in the Desert was at night at 56°, in the day it was at 62 . 
 The nocturnal cold and damp would be much felt without the shelter of a tent. The whole distance 
 by the frequented route is about seventy miles, which is generally divided into three marches. Camels, 
 mules, or horses, may be used, and the surface is sufficiently firm for artillery. A new feature has 
 recently appeared in the discovery of water in the midst of this Desert, which will be more fully alluded 
 to on the return to Cairo. We were stopped by a Turkish guard at the gate that leads into Suez, but 
 were soon permitted to continue our route, which led over rubbish to a town of most irregular form, 
 skirting the border of the sea. We here experienced the same civility and attention from a Coptic 
 agent to government, as at Khenneh. He afforded ample lodging as regarded space, but when conve- 
 nience and comfort were required, they were totally wanting. If the air was excluded, the room was 
 darkened. I had serious apprehension for my unlucky friend, who evidently required bleeding; but ve- 
 nesection was too difficult an operation for the skill of the natives, who resorted to a simple process that 
 formed a good substitute. A cow’s horn was pressed on the part from which blood was to be taken, and 
 a man was enabled, by sucking through an opening at the point, to draw out the air. A piece of leather 
 was dexterously slipped over the opening when he withdrew his mouth. The leather being removed, 
 in a few minutes the horn came off, and discovered the flesh that it had rested on completely deadened. 
 The skin was then scarified with a razor, and the same process of suction was frequently repeated, 
 each time bringing a large portion of congealed blood into the bottom of the horn. By this simple 
 method, pain was removed, and the patient was enabled to get repose. 
 
VIEW 
 
 O 
 
 The view of Suez is taken at low water. The sand bank on which I stood, together with a 
 large additional space, is flooded at high tide, a period when the sea assumes a formidable appearance, 
 being three miles across. At the fall of the tide its breadth is reduced to a quarter of a mile. The 
 present town of Suez comprises a few hundred storehouses, with a quay for fitting out vessels, which 
 range in size from 150 to 450 tons, holding from 400 to 1200 erclebs of wheat, each measuring fifteen 
 bushels. With such craft the trade of the Red Sea is carried on. There can be no doubt but the 
 Desert has encroached considerably on this part of the coast, and has totally altered the character 
 and appearance of the country. A bar of sand that crosses the channel below Suez reduces the depth of 
 water at low tide to three or four feet, and it is never more than ten or eleven. There is an outer 
 harbour within four miles, with anchorage for vessels of any size. The. distance offers no objection, as 
 the town has no recommendation in itself. Cattle for transport are always procurable. Supplies of 
 food are brought from Cairo. The wall that extends behind Suez was built by the French when 
 they occupied Egypt ; it tends to check marauding parties of Arabs. The wells in the vicinity supply 
 brackish and bitter water. The best is found at the wells of Moses, the position of which will be seen 
 in the Map ; they are seven miles from Suez by water, and double that distance by land. Tradition 
 says, that at these wells Moses watered his flocks. About five miles in a N. E. direction from Suez, 
 the sea terminates in a canal, the bed of which is 115 feet across, and filled with drift sand, forming a level 
 with the adjoining country ; but the banks are distinct, and are now ten feet above the Desert. Strabo 
 mentions this canal as having been made by Sesostris, of a depth for large vessels, to connect the two 
 seas. Traces of it are found in the Desert. It is supposed to have been connected with the Lake of 
 Pilgrims, near Cairo, and to have extended in length to ninety miles. As a place of trade to the 
 natives of the country, imperfect as they are in nautical science, Cosseir is much preferable to Suez. 
 
 The north wind, which prevails in this latitude for eight months in the year, renders naviga- 
 tion of serious consequence to an ill-organized marine. A very short time may make a material change 
 in the importance of this place by the introduction of European science into Egypt ; and if we 
 consider the facility the country affords, with the assistance of steam as a medium of communication, 
 improvements will probably proceed, until England finds the produce of the Eastern world arriving in 
 her markets at a cheaper rate than they can be furnished by the circuitous route now in use. The 
 canal alluded to furnishes for many miles a bed for a rail-road, which, if continued north to the 
 Mediterranean shore, would connect the navigation of the Eastern and Western Oceans by a ready 
 mode of transit of less than eighty miles. The same convenience would furnish a prompt supply of 
 fuel and material for a fleet in the Red Sea. In turning one’s thoughts to this speculation, it should 
 be remembered, that it was not the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good Hope that diverted 
 
 43 
 
 F SUEZ. 
 
 the trade of India from its ancient channel through the Red Sea, but the relative political position of the 
 governments of Egypt and of Christendom at that period. It may, therefore, be well to consider if the 
 more natural route will not again be resumed, and how mischievous consequences contingent thereupon 
 may be averted. It appears reasonable to think that the latter may be obviated by a close alliance 
 with the government of Egypt ; a line of policy not the less commendable, if we consider that the 
 aggrandizement of Egypt will materially check the influence of the power which at present possesses 
 paramount influence in the councils of the Divan, and is extending its influence south and east. An 
 invasion of India from Egypt was talked of by a ruler now no more, who it can scarcely be supposed 
 seriously contemplated it, without the previous occupation of Syria. O’Meara makes Napoleon say, 
 “ Egypt once in possession of the French, and farewell India to the English.” The extended line of 
 operations would appear to render the success of such a measure more than doubtful. 
 
 A few miles from the canal there are mounds, which bespeak an ancient site of civilization. 
 I found an avenue lined with fragments, whose tops are left uncovered by the drifting sand. 
 It had a desolate appearance, and is the supposed remains of Arsinoe. A large sunken space 
 marks the probable existence of a harbour. It is melancholy to ride for miles, unencountered by a 
 living thing, and to see monuments of a once flourishing city. It was in the neighbourhood of Suez 
 the Israelites encamped, and from it they hurried away on the approach of the unrelenting Pha- 
 raoh. Tradition has indicated the place where his army attempted to cross the sea, and the Arabs say 
 the water has always a ripple that marks the passage. To the east of Suez lies the Desert of Sinai, 
 with its sacred mount. This country is inhabited by the descendants of Ismael, and “ they are a wild 
 people.” But there is no obstacle to the Christian’s visiting the sacred territory beyond the fatigue 
 attendant upon the journey. This will be removed when the sea of Suez becomes a place of resort ; 
 and if the traveller land at Tor, the convent on Mount Sinai may be reached with little inconvenience. 
 Tor is sometimes the landing-place of pilgrims returning from Mecca. It affords abundance of ex- 
 cellent water, and the necessary convenience for prosecuting the journey. The Desert of Mount Sinai, 
 like that of Suez, is now completely under the controul of the Pacha of Egypt, and the traveller has 
 little to fear in either from interruption. A height of a few feet of sand separates the sea of Suez 
 from the salt marshes, said to be fifty feet below the level of the waters of the Red Sea. The 
 same sea is at high water forty feet above the Mediterranean, from which it is distant little more 
 than seventy miles. The former circumstance may account for the numerous conjectures regarding 
 the canal, and its non-completion from the timidity of the monarch who projected it, and to it, 
 no doubt, is owing the circular direction of the canal to a part of the Nile near Cairo. Locks 
 probably were not known to the Egyptians, who had reason to fear the consequence of opening a 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
DESERT 
 
 SUEZ. 
 
 O F 
 
 morning by an approaching khamseen, the south wind so much dreaded by travellers. Those who 
 have seen a snow-storm will be able to imagine a khamseen ; but they must add the lonely feeling 
 and dreary effect of encountering it on an ocean of sand, whose drifting particles threatened soon to 
 bury even the tent. It was only by considerable activity we were enabled to save the various articles 
 belonging to us, which were quickly arranged on the camels, when it became necessary for us to mount, 
 and keep in motion. The path was soon lost to the eye, and the drift thickened so as to make us 
 huddle together to avoid total separation ; we were led by the Arab, who was guided by the direction 
 of the w ind. No situation could for the time be more desolate ; and if such storms continued for more 
 than a few hours, the passage of the Desert would be impracticable. At mid-day the gale had ceased, 
 and a bright sun shone on the crescents which surmount the minarets of the Moslem city. A caravan 
 was assembling near the tombs of the Caliphs, hundreds of camels were already there, and the w hole 
 plain towards Cairo was strewed with others hastening to join the multitude. Many litters were borne 
 on poles passing over the saddles of two camels, managed as we do sedan chairs in this country. The 
 contents of these were studiously concealed. Women and children were contentedly seated on the 
 luggage, or in panniers. There cannot be a more animating spectacle than a caravan preparing to start. 
 Each person is busied with his own affairs ; the master, the slave, and the driver, have each an 
 equally important office. They are about to take a journey where no reposing point is to be expected 
 on the route ; their wants by day and night must be equally attended to, and a man who thus travels 
 considers the whole country alike his home. It is a description of life suited to Eastern countries, 
 where the occupation of the merchant and pilgrim seem ever to have been in common. I soon found 
 
 Since the first part of this Journal went to press, I have been so fortunate as to procure a further detail of the discoveries and expe- 
 periments made by the engineers alluded to, and am now enabled to give their investigation of the two routes noticed in this Journal, and 
 traced in the Map, as connecting the Port of Cosseir, on the Red Sea, with the Nile. The engineers are retained in the employment of the 
 gentleman personally mentioned as the stimulator of their valuable labours. They went from Cairo to Upper Egypt, last year, (1831) and 
 the following is, in substance, the interesting remarks made on the occasion of their exploring the desert of Cosseir. Proceeding from 
 Khenneh, on the east bank of the Nile, in the direction of the Red Sea, the first halting place is called Bir Amber, and is on the borders of 
 cultivation. Here there is an abundance of water supplied from the Nile. The next station on the same route is Legayta, separated from 
 Bir Amber by twenty-one miles of desert. At this place the engineers found seven old wells, rendering different qualities of water ; of these 
 they repaired three, and were most successful in sinking a new one. They first worked through six feet of hard ground, and found sandstone 
 rock, which they excavated to a depth of twenty feet. The diameter of this well is 6 feet ; its sides are built with brick, down to the rock, 
 and it gives a supply of above 150 cubic feet of water. One of the old wells, 8 feet in diameter, and 10 feet deep, was continued for 8 feet, 
 through sand rock, and there is at present generally from 7 to 8 feet of water. Another well, of the same dimensions as the above, which is 
 good water, was also deepened 8 feet, which increased the flow of water from 5 or 6 skins full per night, to a column of water 8 feet in height. 
 
 Having thus procured for the place as large a supply of water as the present demand can require, the engineers terminated their 
 labours at Legayta, satisfied that the quantity may at any time be increased. Proceeding from Legayta to the Red Sea, by the north road, 
 for twenty-eight miles, they arrived at Hammer-Mart : here there is a well 15 feet in diameter, with 104 stone steps, winding to the bottom. 
 The engineers deepened the well through rock for 4 feet ; after which, with a bore of five inches diameter, they went to a further depth of 35 
 feet, making the distance from the surface of the valley to the bottom of this well not less than 108 feet. Notwithstanding their exertions, 
 they failed in obtaining water. The quantity the well produces is very trifling, and only fit for cattle. A remarkable feature in this instance 
 was, that appearances at the surface favored the presumption that a quantity of water might be found. Ten miles beyond Hammer-Mart 
 they reached another well, called Bir-a-Cid, which produced only one skin, or about three gallons of water in a night. This well was 
 deepened from 6 feet to 14 feet, and increased the flow of water to four skins per night. The engineers determined to return and pursue 
 their labours at this place, where appearances give every promise of further success. Continuing their route for 22 miles, they arrived at a 
 spot called Haut-Suliman, where there are indications that lead to a relief of water being procurable from a vein of sand rock. Here ,t is 
 
 CAIRO. 
 
 45 
 
 myself within the gates of Cairo, having made the journey from Suez at the caravan rate in three 
 marches, with twenty-eight hours’ travelling, the distance, as already stated, being about seventy miles. 
 
 On the morning of the 9th of February I departed with Osman, the never-failing friend of the 
 English traveller, for the purpose of visiting the pyramids nearest Cairo. Mounted on donkeys w r e 
 trotted to Old Cairo, from whence a ferry-boat crosses to the village of Djizeh, on the west bank of 
 the Nile, which has here a breadth of about a thousand yards. The passage skirts the south end of 
 the Island of Rhoda, where stands the Nilometer in a castellated ruin. A graduated scale marks the 
 height of the river. The Nilometer directs the ceremony, when, according to ancient custom, the 
 inhabitants and authorities meet to celebrate the rise of the Nile to a height that overflows the country. 
 A bank is then opened to let this gift of Providence extend itself, by means of the canal, through the 
 city of Cairo. The people acknowledge the benefaction with loud rejoicings and merriment. The 
 ceremony takes place about the middle of August, but the river continues to rise for a month after. 
 The parched soil is soon made to change its melancholy hue for the rich carpet of verdure the inun- 
 dation ever brings forth. From Djizeh the distance to the pyramids is varied by canals, which, inter- 
 secting the road, and conforming to the periodical changes of the river, may extend the journey from 
 four or five to sixteen or twenty miles. The river was low when I made the excursion ; canals and 
 cultivation caused considerable deviation from a direct line, and I could not reach the base of the 
 pyramid of Cheops, or that nearest Djizeh, in less than three half hours, having gone a distance of 
 about six miles. Strangers are met and pestered by numbers of Arabs anxious to be employed ; it 
 is necessary to proceed with them in a severe and determined manner. 
 
 intended to excavate at least two wells. Fourteen miles from the last-named place the two wells of Bir-Inglis were found, and produced 
 water but of a bad quality. It is intended to clean them out, and otherwise to improve their present state. Between Bir-Inglis and 
 Cosseir there are three springs, from which a considerable supply of water flows, but of so bad a quality as only to be used for camels. 
 It is found that these springs run through earth strongly impregnated with natron, and appear to take their rise from rocks that are very 
 near. By following the course of these springs, and sinking wells at their junction with the mountains, it is expected that good water will 
 be found. If the engineers prove correct, the vicinity of the spot to Cosseir, by furnishing a supply of water, will materially alter the 
 character of that port, and be of great importance to commerce in the Red Sea. 
 
 The attention of the engineers was next directed to Cosseir and its immediate neighbourhood, but no water could be found within less 
 distance than six miles of the town, and it is so bad, that the poor inhabitants only drink it from absolute, necessity. Good water is procured 
 flowing on the surface of the rock, and from the top of a mountain, ten hours journey from Cosseir. A situation for sinking a well was selected 
 six miles from the harbour, and here it is expected success will be obtained. The engineers returned from Cosseir to Bir-Inglis, and 
 retraced their route westward from those wells by the south road. The first wells they found were those of Moilah, twenty-seven miles 
 distant from Bir-Inglis j they were found to be merely the receptacles of rain, the supply of which will always be doubtful, as well as 
 its quality, which depends on the period when it stagnates. Three miles further on a well was found, the water of which was so favorably 
 reported of by the natives, that it is thought desirable to make a trial to obtain a larger supply, in case a sufficient quantity be not 
 procurable at Hamrah, which is four miles further westward. At this latter place some good water is at present obtained from a pit sunk in 
 the sand. On the road from Hamrah, and six miles nearer to the Nile, el Wad-el-Gush, there are three wells depending on the rains for a 
 supply, as do those at Moilah. The water was considered good by the natives, and it will improve when the wells are cleaned out. From 
 Wad-el-Gush to Legayta, where the roads again meet, is forty-three miles, and is destitute of water. An attempt will be made to obtain 
 some from hills of sandstone that intersect this line. 
 
 From these experiments and their results, and from the various changes in progress in Egypt, there is every probability of that eventful 
 country, ere long, undergoing another revolution, and becoming once more an independent nation. The desire for improvement in their 
 condition, and in their country’s advancement, through the agency of foreigners, is a new feature in the Moslem history. It will be satis- 
 factory to Englishmen to know, that a large portion of the blessings of civilization are bestowed by their enterprising countrymen. 
 

 DESERT OF SUEZ. 
 
 channel between the two seas. Had they done so, and caused the waters of the Indian Ocean to 
 flow by this passage to the Mediterranean, the consequence admits of a wide field of speculation. 
 There must have been difficulty in regulating the level between Suez and Cairo, where the Nile at 
 its height is nine feet above the sea at Suez, and at other times as many feet below it. On examining 
 this part of the Red Sea, the latter would seem to have receded, and this is more probable from the 
 whole appearance of the Arabian coast, which has already been remarked. The Island of Camaran is 
 a still stronger proof, as that bed of coral, with its flat surface formed by zoophites, rises several 
 feet above the water, on leaving which it is said the insects cease to exist. The re-opening 
 of the canal from Suez by the assistance of modern art would be of easy accomplishment, if the re- 
 sources and strength of Egypt were matured and well directed. Ships would then reach the Atlantic 
 Ocean from India, by less than half the distance they now perform, and with comparative safety. To 
 accomplish such a project, the days of the Pharaohs, or of the Ptolemies, must again dawn upon Egypt. 
 But there appears a simpler method of uniting the Eastern and Western World, and one within the 
 reach of the present government of the country. The formation of a rail-road across the isthmus 
 to the seas on either side has been alluded to ; a proper application of steam power would secure 
 success. More might be said on the subject, which a glance at the Map will prove to be within the 
 bounds of reasonable expectation in this new era of scientific improvement. I cannot too strongly 
 advert to one of the many arguments for turning our attention to this quarter before the field is 
 taken, perhaps, by some formidable opponent. Egypt is making a rapid stride towards independence 
 and power ; and, if her growing strength were connected with a European name, it could not fail to 
 influence political opinions throughout the Eastern World. In the present agitated state of Europe 
 a friendly alliance with Egypt, while maritime protection is required by the Pacha, becomes more 
 necessary to England for the security of her Indian dependencies. In the Red Sea it is equally the 
 interest of both countries to preserve a firm and decided footing. The importance of the trade there 
 to Egypt is unquestionable. That country would seem, by its productiveness, to be intended as 
 the granary to the inhabitants of the less favoured lands around, who now, as in the days of Joseph, 
 look thither for supplies. 
 
 It is in vain that we search for further information on the interesting tracts that surround Suez. 
 The force of the remark of Malte Brun will be felt by the traveller : “ The narrative of the Hebrew 
 legislator, though simple, and carrying conviction along with it, is not sufficiently circumstantial to allow 
 us to entertain a hope of explaining it.” All expectation of continuing my journey had been abandoned. 
 A few days’ rest at Suez enabled my friend to undertake his return by easy stages to Cairo. Arrangements 
 were reluctantly made to retrace our steps without having accomplished our object. We left Suez on 
 the morning of the 6th with other sensations from those experienced a few days before, when we had 
 promised ourselves a visit to the Holy Mount of Sinai, to see the burial places in the wilderness, and 
 to witness many interesting facts that are in accordance with the sacred history of that place. The very 
 
 animal I rode seemed to partake of our feeling, and went sluggishly along at the caravan pace, instead of 
 gaily trotting as he had done through the gate of Cairo. Our rate of march was now reduced to two and 
 a half miles an hour. The first day we travelled for eight hours, when a lonely bush fixed our atten- 
 tion, and induced us to select the spot for a resting-place for the night. The following morning 
 found us moving forward. It was in this neighbourhood where the Desert was soon afterwards to 
 be made to rejoice, by the overflowing of a fountain. The valuable discovery of the essential 
 element was made the year I journeyed to Suez, and was the result of several experiments, conducted 
 under the direction and at the expense of an enterprising English gentleman, residing at Alexandria. 
 Water now flows from a fountain midway between Cairo and Suez, and promises to have the most 
 beneficial result. A village will be formed, and so great a revolution will be effected in this hitherto 
 dreary region, that it will deserve another name. The first experiment was made in 1830, through sand- 
 stone mixed with clay, where no moisture was found at a depth of 160 feet. A second trial was 
 effected a mile from the place of the other, when sand was found to the depth of ten feet ; after 
 which, a rock, composed of fragments of silex and jasper, was bored through for forty feet, when a hard 
 rock was approached, which barred the further progress of the instruments. Nothing daunted by these 
 failures another trial was determined on, when a well was dug through sand for eight feet, and a shelly 
 rock was found. By the aid of gunpowder the workmen got five feet deeper, and arrived at a bed 
 of clay with good water rising from it. Lateral galleries have been constructed from the central shaft 
 to the extent of twelve or fourteen feet, and a reservoir of 1200 cubic feet of water is resorted to by 
 the Arabs, who must acknowledge the unexpected blessing with gratitude. Other experiments in 
 progress promise similar results at different points of the route, and in the valley of Cosseir, where, 
 from appearances, there can be little doubt of complete success. These discoveries offer a grand faci- 
 lity to the projected overland route ; they are decidedly of the utmost importance. The fountain 
 is about three miles from the chain of mountains that extends across from the Nile to the Red Sea, 
 and which is supposed to be the source of the waters. The following remark on the above discovery 
 appears in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of this year : “ The inhabitants of Africa and 
 Arabia are indebted for all the benefits which they may ultimately derive from a knowledge of this 
 art (boring for water) to the philanthropy and liberality of our countryman, Mr. Briggs, who was the 
 first European who ever thought of applying this art to the discovery of water in the Deserts of 
 Africa, and who, at his own private expense, sent over from England to Egypt the two Englishmen, who 
 have succeeded by their skill in discovering water in the part of the Desert which has been mentioned.” 
 About twelve o’clock we passed the old well between Suez and Cairo, and also a large 
 caravan journeying to the former place. It comprised people of all ages and various nations proceeding 
 to embark for Mecca. It was an amusing sight to see the people following in a lengthened line, appa- 
 relled in the bright and motley colours that characterize the costume of Eastern travellers. Having 
 marched eleven hours we encamped in the open Desert. Our rest was disturbed early on the following 
 
46 
 
 PYRAMIDS 
 
 These enormous masses stand on a range of hills, upwards of 150 feet above the subjacent plain, 
 which is cultivated to the neighbourhood of their base. The rocks rise abruptly, and there is con- 
 siderable fatigue in wading through loose sand which has accumulated around them, and veiled a 
 great part of the colossal sphinx passed on the approach. The rising ground deceives the sight when 
 the pyramids are viewed from a distance. The beholder is then astonished to .see such a bold outline 
 on the horizon, and it appears to him too vast to be of artificial origin. As you approach there is no 
 scale by which to form an estimate, and it is only on arriving at 'the base of each pile, and seeing the 
 size of every stone with the number of layers which are formed into steps, that a proper idea can be 
 entertained of the total bulk. I ascended the monument of Cheops, at the north-east angle, by 
 196 layers of stones ; those at bottom were three feet high ; about the middle they diminished to 
 2 feet 2 inches, and at the top they were 1 foot 10 inches, making an average of 2 feet 4 inches 
 for each layer, or a height of 476 feet 8 inches. At the summit there is a space of about 30 
 feet square, from whence stones have been cast down, and there are displaced blocks that were no 
 doubt to have followed. About 30 feet has been thus abstracted from the original height of the 
 pyramid, which would have attained 500 feet. It must have been a grand scene, fit for the mirthful 
 mood of giants, when the rocks bounded down the sides of the vast declivity. The blocks that rest on 
 the platform are six feet in length, by a breadth of 42 inches, and are of a weight to protect them 
 unmolested by men of the present day. 
 
 This pile as it now stands is in altitude nearly 150 feet above the cross of St. Paul’s, and is 
 ascended on each side by steps, having their lower layer resting on a space equal in size to Lincoln’s Inn 
 Fields, one side being 780 feet. These structures are a proper introduction to edifices found in Upper 
 Egypt, and a key to the architecture of the period when they were erected. An endeavour was 
 then made to command sublime effect by vastness and extreme simplicity. The solid contents of 
 the pyramid of Cheops exceed 75,000,000 cubic feet. The chamber which contains the sarcophagus 
 is 35 feet long, 17 broad, and 18 high, equal to a good sized drawing room, but there might he 
 upwards of 5,000 such chambers within this pyramid. Viewing these masses the soul shrinks abashed 
 and awe-stricken, and reflects upon the countless generations they have seen swept from the earth, and 
 how many more they are destined to survive. Beyond the neighbouring pyramids the eye discerns 
 nothing but shapeless tumuli, and a dreary waste, broken into wild and fantastic hills by the effects of 
 the desolating khamseen. Here there is no carpet of “ living green,” for the Nile does not extend its 
 beneficent effects to this region of death. He who looks on the dark solitude on the one side, and the 
 bright fertility on the other, may appreciate the strength of the enthusiasm of the votaries of the sacred 
 river. But it is when the eye passes over the site of Memphis that the Christian feels especially awed 
 
 OF DJIZEH 
 
 and interested in the contemplation of the scene beheld from the summit of the monument of 
 Cheops. It was here the Israelites suffered under the lash of their task-masters, until one of the 
 haughty Pharoahs was urged to listen to the commands of the Almighty. From the prophecies of 
 Ezekiel and of Jeremiah may be drawn an explanation of the changes that have occurred in the place 
 before us. We see a silent waste where a proud city once stood, and instead of gorgeous palaces and 
 crowded streets, nought is discernible but the abodes of beasts of prey. As the eye traverses the 
 dismal space, a multitude of strange and conflicting thoughts rush upon the bewildered mind “ ideas 
 of duration almost endless ; of power inconceivable ; of majesty supreme ; of solitude most awful ; of 
 grandeur, of desolation, and of repose.” 
 
 The view taken from the summit of the pyramid of Cheops, looking in a south-west direction, 
 presents almost a ground plan of the pyramid called Cephrenes, which was entered by Belzoni in 
 1816, through a passage near the centre of the north side at the dark spot seen near the base. 
 Attempts had been made to accomplish the same object at different ages, but success was left for 
 the persevering Italian, who gives the following simple reason for the arrangement of his plans. 
 
 “ I observed that just under the centre of the face of the pyramid the accumulation of materials, 
 which have fallen from the coating of it, was higher than the entrance could be expected to be, if 
 compared with the height of the entrance into the first pyramid, measuring from the base. I could 
 not conceive how the discovery of the entrance into the second pyramid could be conceived as a matter 
 to be despaired of, when no one had ever seen the spot where it must naturally be presumed to exist, 
 if there were any entrance at all.” 
 
 This enterprising character began on his own resources, amounting to s§200, an undertaking that 
 had baffled the endeavours of the leading men in Europe, and at the time a purse of £20,000 was 
 talked of, to be raised at the different courts for this purpose. Belzoni set eighty Arabs to work at 
 wages of sixpence a day, and after some weeks of anxiety he was in danger of being branded as a 
 madman, which the Arabs began to call him ; when he, at length, discovered some blocks of granite that 
 cheered his hopes. So closely did he find the similarity between the construction of this pyramid and 
 that of Cheops, that he corrected his first calculations as to the point of entry, and searched more to the 
 east, from the circumstance of the passage in Cheops not leading to the centre of the chamber, but to 
 the east angle of it. A corresponding point was taken by him, and he succeeded in discovering a granite 
 entrance, 4 feet high and 3 feet 6 inches wide, which dipped towards the centre for more than 100 feet, 
 at an angle of 26“. When the passage had been cleared of rubbish, he found it was stopped by a block 
 of granite, an obstacle that threatened to terminate all his labours. The obstruction proved to be a 
 portcullis, fifteen inches thick ; he discovered a regular groove to receive it, and with great difficulty 
 
pyramids. 
 
 was, in consequence of its being open a few inches at the bottom, enabled to rise it. Here the granite 
 passage ceased. A horizontal passage, of the dimensions of the first, continued for 22 feet 7 inches, 
 and there was a shaft, or well, 15 feet deep. Descending the latter by means of a rope, he found another 
 passage, with the same angle of declension as that above, running in a contrary direction, or off from the 
 centre. A passage ran from the bottom of the well also towards the centre. Belzoni did not hesitate 
 to follow the passage, which proceeded in a centrical direction, and terminated in a chamber at the 
 centre of the pyramid. On entering it his eye searched for the sarcophagus, but there was none. He 
 afterwards found it sunk into the floor. It was of fine granite, eight feet in length, the lid broken, 
 and rubbish inside. Some bones, said to be of a bull, were discovered mixed with the rubbish. This 
 chamber, which is nearly of the same dimension as that in the pyramid of Cheops, is cut from the 
 solid rock, as is part of the passage leading to it. It was obvious that the curious of another age had 
 been there. Some inscriptions were found executed with charcoal ; one in Arabic characters was trans- 
 lated thus : “ The Master Mohammed Ahmed, lapicede, has opened them ; and the Master Othman 
 has attended this ; and the King Alij Mohammed at first to the closing up.” Our persevering tra- 
 veller returned to the wall, and followed the opposite passage already mentioned. He found that at 
 the distance of 48 feet it communicated with a horizontal passage, running also outwards for 57 feet. 
 A side passage leads into a chamber deficient in any point of interest, save an inscription like that 
 in the first. From the extremity of the horizontal passage, another runs inwards with a rise of 26 feet, 
 until it terminates at the base of the pyramid, which thus appears to have had two entrances. In this 
 last passage, as in the other, there is a groove for a portcullis. Nothing can be more mysterious than 
 these structures ; that vanity and despotism should raise such monuments we can imagine, but when 
 we consider the granite passages, the portcullis, and the several chambers, the mind is lost in conjecture. 
 
 Various have been the opinions as to the uses of the Pyramids. In this enquiry one point is 
 most remarkable. The entrance passages are found to descend with an angle so as to retain a sight of the 
 polar, or north star. It appears but reasonable to conclude, that they were connected with the observance 
 of some festival whose time would be fixed by the aspect of the stars : and it is equally probable that 
 the sarcophagus was meant for some honoured deity (perhaps Apis) in connexion with the same cere- 
 mony. The antiquity of these piles is of equal uncertainty with their use. They have no hierogly- 
 phics to be decyphered, so they are doomed to retain their original mysterious garb. These pyramids 
 are said to have been coated from top to bottom, and covered with figures ; about 40 feet of coating still 
 remains on the one before us. That of Cheops has no appearance of having been touched in this way, 
 and it is the opinion of Belzoni that this pyramid (Cephrenes) was never completed, as no signs of coating 
 were found by him in removing the sand at the base. He explored around the base of the pyramid of 
 Mycerinus, which lies beyond that of Cephrenes, and thinks it was cased with granite, in consequence of 
 finding fragments of that material in the rubbish. This pyramid still remains to be opened by some 
 enterprising traveller. Belzoni made an attempt, but failed. The monument of Mycerinus is only about 
 
 160 feet in height. Another may be seen beyond it of a still smaller dimensions. It is remarked of 
 the last, that its summit is crowned by one large block of stone, as if for a pedestal. To increase the 
 stability of these piles the stones are fixed to slope inwards, and so well were they adjusted that not 
 one has swerved from its position. Nothing could form a foundation for supporting such a mass but 
 the rock itself, and it may be seen by the view that a sufficient space was levelled, a part of the crest 
 of the hill being escarped for the purpose. 
 
 The pyramids of Sahara are three miles south of Djizeh, and beyond them again are those of 
 Dahchour. Many more of brick, or of stone, are scattered over the plain, intermixed with excavations, 
 cemeteries, and fragments, extending over a space of several miles, and supposed to have been connected 
 with Memphis. Fronting the river and opposite the pyramid of Cephrenes, the colossal sphinx reclines 
 in ample majesty; it is hewn from the living rock, and bears many hieroglyphics and mysterious 
 symbols, all of which still afford matter for conjecture. It is a proper companion for the piles beside it. 
 Temples are supposed to have been in the vicinity, and the whole group probably formed a connected 
 theatre of mysticism. The paintings and sculpture discovered in the rock-chambers and catacombs 
 form some of the finest specimens of the arts in Egypt. The designs are so numerous as to include a 
 view of every description of domestic and public occupation ; some are beautifully finished by the aid of 
 colours laid on figures in bas-relief, as at Thebes. Openings to such excavations may be seen in the 
 Plate. Many of them afford most comfortable apartments, and it would be well for travellers to go 
 prepared for a night’s sojourn. It is fatiguing and unsatisfactory to hurry the visit to the pyramids ; 
 if one day only be devoted to it, undue expedition must be the result, as the gates of Cairo, and of all 
 walled towns in Egypt, are shut at seven o’clock in the evening, and those who are without after that 
 hour must find quarters in the suburbs. 
 
 While I was at Cairo I visited a public functionary in one of the large buildings, marked 
 with red and white paint, that are so conspicuous from the streets. Nothing could be more 
 agreeable than the sudden transition from a noisy crowded avenue, to the large airy and deco- 
 rated court, exhibiting a good display of statuary, with fountains, delightfully refreshing to the 
 eye. Instead of the prison-looking casements observable outside, there were large and handsome 
 windows, which added elegance to a highly ornamented house. Walks were seen, winding amidst 
 rich foliage and flowers, altogether rivalling a scene in the “Arabian Nights.” A hall of noble 
 dimensions led to apartments that had exhausted the efforts of Italian artists. Attendants showed 
 by their respectful bearing the dignity of the inmate, whose easy style of reclining and of handling his 
 pipe, bespoke his familiarity with such attention ; he was distinguished by the same courtesy that is found 
 throughout the higher ranks of Turks. His conversation was directed to foreign countries, with 
 which he appeared but little acquainted. He has a nephew being educated in England, who, with greater 
 advantages, will doubtless have more knowledge. The liberal policy of the Pacha has caused a number 
 of gentlemen to be sent for instruction to different countries in Europe ; and more recently the same 
 
ffnmm or, Jtcne, 2y W- Wrtomjmr. 
 
 Of DIIOOT & SHDIOUR 
 
 VILLAGE S 
 
 oniheiianii ft of Ae Nile. 
 
 Joitim ty JinMfSldcr kC,'6S, CorxMZ ' 
 
48 
 
 ON THE NILE. 
 
 «*■ 
 
 beneficial system has been extended to hundreds of his youthful Arab subjects. W hat may not be 
 
 expected when the science and enlarged policy of Western Europe return to direct the resources of 
 such a country as Egypt? There are various and extensive bazaars that amuse the visitor m his idle 
 hours. A traveller, lounging in the crowded streets, will often have to seek protection in some door- 
 way, to escape a camel whose load sweeps the walls on either side. At another time he will be glad 
 to avoid too close contact with the prancing charger of a well-mounted Bey, who from his bearing is 
 evidently accustomed to enforce submission. If the stranger be mounted on a donkey he will gain but 
 little in speed; his attendant will loudly proclaim his coming, but the buzz renders such offices useless. 
 The dense mass resist all argument, and stand the shoves of the passer-by, whose knees are sadly 
 punished unless he is patient and submissive. 
 
 Rpfore leavine Cairo I was honored by an interview with the Pacha, at his palace at Shoubra. 
 
 I was attended by the Austrian vice-consul, and overtook his Highness strolling in his garden. His 
 walk was firm for a man of sixty : on perceiving us he invited us to proceed to his palace. It lies 
 prettily among trees, that overhang a large tank, kept alive by fountains, and the whole relieved by 
 a profuse exhibition of statuary. The modern invention of gas has been called in to complete the 
 comforts of this charming retreat. We entered a large hall with a divan at the upper end. The 
 attendants remained near the door, and the vice-consul and myself were alone invited forward, and to 
 be seated. The Pacha asked many questions concerning my route, and the reception I had experienced 
 from his officers, and expressed pleasure that my report was so satisfactory; he conversed about his 
 troops, and seemed to know the Arab character well. An English hunter had just arrived, and I was 
 called upon to describe a fox hunt. The incidents that attend such a scene I endeavoured to explain, 
 and his Highness seemed much amused at the idea of dogs, horses, foxes, and men, jumping fences and 
 falling foul of each other. I fear my account was imperfect, as it was made in French, and turned 
 from that language into Arabic for the Pacha. The chase is not a French pursuit, and its many techni- 
 calities were difficult to express. The Pacha was kind and affable ; I saw nothing in his government to 
 contradict this impression ; coffee was ordered, after which we took leave. His Highness had a pipe in 
 his hand, but it appeared more to play with than for use. 
 
 I had met much attention from several English gentlemen at Cairo, some of whom were 
 
 stationary. A party were preparing for a journey to Jerusalem; several were pursuing the study of 
 Egyptian history, with a perseverance that may at some future day cause the world to have more than 
 a mere dissertation on hieroglyphics. 
 
 On the 12th of February I left Cairo, and proceeded to Buiaq, where, by Osman’s assistance, for 
 four dollars, a boat was found on the instant to carry me down the river. 1 he same evening a fair 
 wind wafted me rapidly past the buildings that border the Nile in the vicinity of the capital. After 
 losing sight of Cairo, there is little to attract the attention beyond numerous small villages, that show 
 the approach to the populous Delta. A few miles below Cairo the aspect of Egypt completely changes, 
 
 ON THE NILE. 
 
 the mountains of the Lybian side take a westerly direction, while the high land on the opposite an 
 runs eastward. The Nile, hitherto confined to one stream for nearly 1350 nautical miles, from the mouth 
 of the Tacazza, is found to benefit by the liberty thus given, and divides itself into several branches, 
 which again subdivide into streams and canals, and thus render the country one vast garden. If the 
 voyager is proceeding from Cairo, he will be at the apex of the triangle that includes the territory of 
 the Delta, the base of which— the Mediterranean shore— has a length of 150 miles; the sides of the 
 triangle are branches of the Nile, each 120 miles in length. From the account given of Egypt by 
 Herodotus, it would appear that this part of the country was reclaimed from the sea by mud earned 
 down by the stream. In the reign of the first king of Egypt no part of this territory was visible ; its 
 soil is at present about five feet deep. The black mud of the Nile extends itself for some leagues 
 off shore, and is the mark of navigators on approaching the low coast of the Delta. Some of t le 
 ancient branches of the Nile are dried up, and much of the intermediate territory has a desert 
 
 appearance, the consequence of misgovernment and neglect. 
 
 Our progress down the stream was checked by the north wind, which is the prevailing 
 one. Recourse was had to the towing-line, but the boatmen gained very little by their exertions, 
 principally owing to the neglected state of the bank. I was therefore obliged to submit to then- 
 custom, and wait for lulls of wind to enable us to benefit by the current and rowing together. A 
 heap of rubbish, and some fragments on the right bank, show the site of Sais, the ancient capital of the 
 Delta, where kings once had palaces and tombs. Lower, and on the opposite bank, is Ramameh ; a 
 canal formerly connected this place with Alexandria, but not being navigable when the Nile was low, 
 it was transferred to a site lower down. 
 
 In 1801 the British troops drove the French from an entrenched camp near this place, the 
 remains of which may still be traced. Fouah, which is further down the river, and on the right 
 bank, has rather an imposing appearance from the minarets of ten mosques, that rise among a pro- 
 portionate number of houses. This place is on the increase ; there are manufactories, and the canal 
 to Alexandria leaves the opposite bank of the Nile from the village of El Eft, a little below Fouah. 
 Mud from the river has embanked the entrance to the canal, and renders it unnavigable for a few miles 
 when the river is low. Baggage therefore requires to be transported to other boats, which causes such 
 inconvenience and delay that most people prefer continuing the voyage to Rosetta, the method I 
 pursued. El Eft is distant from Alexandria about 40 miles, in a direct line, but the canal extends 
 over a line of 47£ miles ; it is 90 feet wide and 18 deep. It was made in 1819, and offers a striking 
 illustration of Eastern rule. The government having determined on the measure, a quarter of a million 
 of men were set at work, directed by some Franks, and the canal was rendered navigable the same 
 year it was begun. This example of the resources of Egypt in her fallen state, will render the wonders 
 of former days less matter of surprise. A short distance below Fouah are the villages of Deroot 
 and Sindiour. 
 
VILLAGES OF DEROOT AND SINDIOUR 
 
 49 
 
 These villages are situated on opposite banks of tke Nile, and have the same general features 
 which characterise the smaller towns in Egypt. Dark square houses of sun-burnt brick are mixed with 
 the circled mosque and the pointed minaret, and these again are relieved by scanty or ample clusters 
 of palm-trees, altogether making a pleasing group, when seen from a distance that conceals their poverty. 
 These villages, like all others formed of similar materials, lose their importance on a near approach. 
 There is a want of neatness in the habitations ; and, unlike the snug English cottage, their crumbling 
 walls seem but a continuance of the rubbish invariably heaped at their base. A few prison-like openings 
 are sufficient to admit light enough for the lonely pursuits of the Arab fellah. The houses of the 
 better class have one side concealed by a wall that encloses a court, which, with the seclusion observed by 
 the females of the country, admits of exercise for the family. The windings of the river open on the per- 
 spective of more distant villages, or the tomb of a saint marked by a few palm-trees. Boats are always 
 to be seen pursuing their course, some with the latteen sail spread to catch the north wind, and influenced 
 by it to stem the running stream ; others passively borne on the bosom of the waters, divested of all 
 rigging that might catch the opposing breeze. The mariners are ever ready to find some pretence for 
 a gossip with the villagers, and many pretexts of filial attachment and fond affection are used to obtain 
 a pause. The Nile is not the route on which to journey with despatch, and no traveller without a 
 good share of patience should volunteer it. This remark does not apply to overland communication 
 w ith India, as in that case the journey would be by land between Alexandria, Cairo, and Suez. The 
 appearance of the Delta alternates with the season. At one time it shews a carpet of the richest hue ; at 
 a later period it is a parched and dreary desert ; or it may wear the aspect of an extended lake, having 
 villages and palm-trees like islands on its surface. There is a short period when it deserves no better 
 name than a morass. The soil, lodged by the inundation, requires a slight preparatory working 
 when in a moist state. The seed thrown on the slimy surface sinks of itself: “ For the land whither 
 thou goest in to possess it, is not like the land of Egypt from whence ye came out; and where thou 
 sowest thy seed, and waterest it with thy feet, as it were a garden of herbs.” If the sod he permitted 
 to dry, it then becomes hard and difficult to manage. Portions are kept irrigated throughout the 
 year by raising water through mechanical means. The annual rise of the Nile appears at all ages to 
 have been liable to irregularities. One year it remains so low as to threaten a famine ; another, it 
 rises beyond its usual height, and sweeps whole villages before it. Most towns stand higher than 
 the country around, and look the more imposing, as the Plate will illustrate. Large fragments 
 of strongly cemented brick-work are often detached from the bank of the river, causing much 
 obstruction to the tracking of boats, which no doubt they were originally intended to facilitate. 
 These remains make it evident that due weight was formerly attached to river navigation, 
 
 at present so disregarded, that from obstructions on the bank it often becomes totally impracti- 
 cable. The sites of many ancient places in the Delta have altogether disappeared ; and, although the 
 Egyptians raised artificial mounds for their temples, &c., the annual deposit of mud from the rising 
 waters has reduced all to the same level. When the eye of the traveller overtops the bank of the river, 
 if it be the season when I voyaged, he will observe a rich mixture of the brightest tints developed 
 by the abundant crops for which this land has ever been proverbial. All nature appears re-animated 
 by the return of the season of Plenty, the temperature is delightful, and will be acknowledged as such 
 by the wanderer, who sits on the deck of the vessel cooled by a breeze, and warmed by heat, that 
 seem happily combined to make him feel doubly grateful. Supposing a fourth of the area of the Delta 
 lost to cultivation from neglected canals, there will be about 6,000 square miles remaining. If to 
 this be added 5,400 square miles for the valley of the Nile, allowing the latter an average breadth of 
 nine miles, the cultivated portion of Egypt will be found to contain 220 persons to each square mile. 
 Ireland at present subsists upwards of 280 on the same extent, in defiance of all her bogs and moun- 
 tains. When further consideration is given to the Oases, that lie in the Lybian Desert, "here large 
 tracts of land are capable of cultivation, there can be but little doubt that Egypt, under proper regu- 
 lations and husbanding of her resources, would be capable of maintaining seven and a half millions of 
 inhabitants, which the country is said anciently to have contained. 
 
 A passage through the Delta has little novelty or interest ; the prospect being confined by the 
 banks of the river rising on either side, without any hills to vary the monotony. Village after vil- 
 lage comes in sight, affording some pretty pictures as they are seen mixed up with the palm-trees, or 
 surrounded with conical-formed pigeon-houses. Mussulman tombs rise occasionally over the bank, and 
 awaken interest by their diversity of form. Numerous water-machines are at work on the margin of 
 the river. The Persian wheel is the most effectual method, but the natives have a more common 
 way of effecting their purpose by simply balancing a long pole on an upright post, having a weight 
 attached to the end opposite the bucket. This machine a man works with ease, and raises water 
 8 or 10 feet at a time ; two or three are often connected to get the water from the river to the top 
 of the bank, whence rivulets are formed to irrigate the adjoining field. 
 
 After a tedious passage I arrived, on the night of the 15th, at Rosetta, situated on the right 
 bank of the Nile, about four miles above its outlet into the Mediterranean Sea. A row of 
 houses runs parallel to the shore, and an open space between them and the river performs the 
 double office of harbour and a place of public resort. A highly cultivated country, with innumerable 
 date-trees, wears an inviting appearance to him who reaches this city from the Desert, or Alexandrian 
 side. He who approaches Rosetta by the Nile will find less to awaken his admiration. The dead level 
 
 
 * - t - 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 may pursue this dreary path during the prevalence of the khamseen. On the opposite side of this 
 sterile waste, the long-rolling surf bursts with deep sounding murmurs, and the path is rendered more 
 firm by the waters of the Mediterranean that lave it bare. The pace of the mule kept the Arab 
 attendants at an easy run, accomplishing about five miles the hour. We passed a village and a sheik’s 
 tomb, a little inland, where water was offered by Arabs, expectant of the traveller’s liberality. As 
 we advanced, the land was more interesting from having been the scene of contest between rival 
 European nations. A ferry is to be crossed, and is made of consequence where delay is required to 
 unload the animals. We now saw the Bay of Aboukir, with its ruined fort. An island beyond the 
 peninsula bears the name of “ Nelson.” The nature of the hero’s masterly operations are demon- 
 strated by the semi-circle of rocks which enclosed his opponents, but "which formed no protection 
 against the skill and daring of the British seaman at “ The Battle of the Nile. 
 
 The alluvial soil and sandy shore changed for a rocky coast and desert, now continued west- 
 ward. Near Aboukir Bay a small caffee, or caravanserai, affords a resting place, and nearly divides the 
 distance to Alexandria. I found it tenanted by a large concourse of travellers, who had crowded 
 in to avoid a rainy night. The closeness of the place, and the buzz of various languages, with the 
 interruption from those insects always abounding in such places in Egypt, rendered the night any 
 thing but refreshing. At dawn of day I accelerated my departure. The spot was pointed out where 
 Abercrombie landed his brave army, and there is a succession of sand hills and date-trees, where 
 many trials of valour took place between his troops and the French. We occasionally passed the 
 grave of a Moslem ally, and positions where a stand had been made, and where much English blood 
 had dyed the sand, as did that of the brave Abercrombie, who fell near the remains of an ancient 
 fort seen to the right of the road, a few miles from Alexandria. A few tombstones of our countrymen 
 are left. On one the words “ Lieutenant Colonel” are discernible, but it is saddening to find that the 
 name is gone. Another to a Serjeant forms the lintel to a door at a neighbouring cottage. Such is the 
 melancholy conclusion of the soldier’s history when he falls on a foreign shore ! Higher hills arise before 
 reaching Alexandria, where traces of another position taken up by the retiring enemy are observable. 
 Pompey’s Pillar soon shews itself, and forms a noble approach to modern Alexandria. An outer wall 
 is passed by the gate called Rosetta; a tomb of ruins then intervenes for a mile, when a second wall 
 appears crossing the tongue of land that contains the present city. There is a hotel at Alexandria, and 
 travellers may obtain information from their countrymen, for here are Europeans of all nations. 
 English travellers have spoken of a hospitable reception similar to one I experienced from the firm of 
 Briggs and Co., from whom the requisite coins to journey east or west may be procured for bills 
 
 of exchange. 
 
 The delay at Alexandria will depend greatly on the plans of the party. Passages to one 
 port or other to the westward offer daily ; but if Malta, or any particular destination is an object, a 
 sojourn of a couple of weeks may be requisite. If so, lodgings are to be had, and there is a bustle 
 and interest attached to the place likely to keep off ennui, at least for the requisite period. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 51 
 
 The position of Alexandria, surrounded by the ocean and a desert of sand, and flourishing in 
 the vicinity of the most fertile country in the world, renders it a landmark in history at the rise 
 of the Macedonian empire. Previous to this event we find the capital of Egypt situated inland 
 at Memphis. The origin of the latter city was obscured by the progress of ages, even in the days of 
 the earliest historians, and the date of Alexandria, the modern capital of this primitive nation, is coeval 
 with the most ancient cities of Europe. But we find that another, and more ancient seat of govern- 
 ment even than Memphis, existed at Thebes, equal in size to either of the others, and still more re- 
 moved from the sea. The early history of Thebes is altogether conjectural; and is shrouded in 
 the gloom of a period long antecedent to the existence of written records. To enter the mazes of 
 Egyptian chronology from data handed down by the most ancient authors, is to plunge into an endless 
 and obscure labyrinth. Herodotus tells us that a list of 330 sovereigns was in possession of the priests 
 when he visited Egypt. They followed in succession from Menes, supposed the first mortal king, whose 
 reign is said to have been more than four thousand years from the present time. The same author informs 
 us, that when Thebes was the capital of the country, all that part of Egypt below Memphis, (the Delta), 
 was covered by the sea. The formation of the Delta, which constitutes half of Egypt, caused the ancient 
 capital, which had been in the middle of the country, to be removed to Memphis ; and, at an after 
 period, the rise of nations in the west brought Egypt in contact with maritime countries. The seat 
 of government was then removed to the coast. So materially have these revolutions altered the 
 ancient character of Egypt, that we would be inclined to doubt its early histoiy were it not that 
 testimonials, such as are seen in the illustrations of this work, remain, as it were, living witnesses of 
 what has been recorded. The traveller will observe in various places a representation of such arts and 
 mysteries as quite respond to the records of those days “ when terrible things were done.” 
 
 Alexandria is the sea port and key to modern Egypt, whose low and sandy coast does not offer 
 another haven. The mouths of the Nile, from causes already enumerated, often preclude the entrance 
 of vessels. Alexandria owed its importance solely to commerce, w'hose multiplying resources rapidly 
 converted an area of fifteen miles of the Lybian desert into a city of palaces. It has nothing remaining 
 of its ancient splendour beyond scattered ruins, which shew its wonderful extent. Like a poor 
 neglected orphan, it now presents only the name of former greatness ; but it must ever retain the 
 means of regeneration, and would rapidly be revived if cherished by some active maritime power. 
 The ages when traffic was restricted to caravans, when camels laded with spicery and myrrh were 
 seen going down into Egypt, was followed by the epoch of navigation, and the “ ship of the ocean 
 supplanted the “ ship of the desert.” The cloud which long enveloped the land is vanishing before 
 the beams of science; the minds of its inhabitants are recovering from the spell of ignorance that 
 for a time ruled the destinies of this eventful country. 
 
 Among the principal objects of attraction in the vicinity is Pompey’s Pillar. 
 
50 
 
 ROSETTA. 
 
 of the adjoining fields has a swamp- like appearance, and the eye wanders in vain in search of an object 
 to repose upon. The long line of houses which fronts the river has a cross communication with narrow 
 streets, and gloomy habitations of two or three stories, all built of mud, and containing about 20,000 
 inhabitants, They have no picturesque character or beauty to recommend them ; and, if I may judge 
 from those I became acquainted with, they are overrun with vermin. The traveller had better keep 
 possession of his boat until he may find it convenient to depart. It may be interesting to visit an 
 establishment that strongly stamps the Pacha’s high opinion of British mechanics. By his direction, 
 materials, to the very brick, were brought from England, to construct an extensive store and quays, with 
 cranes and various machinery for useful purposes, exactly after an English model. A steam-engine 
 forms part of the machinery. The work was ably performed by Mr. Galloway, a civil engineer, whose 
 skill has given him a complete ascendancy in his profession throughout Egypt. Some Englishmen 
 were here superintending this and other establishments. His Highness the Pacha is said to have carried 
 respect for our national customs so far, as to order rations of rum to his men, to make them fight. The 
 pill an, or boiled rice, is no longer the only dish ; the Arabs are fattened with substantial portions of 
 beef. A barrack, a cotton manufactory, and some mosques, constitute the other objects of interest at 
 Rosetta. Mixed with the common materials, and forming parts of gates, there are many curious frag- 
 ments and remains of antiquity. Here, as in other towns, there is no doubt much that will ever be 
 concealed from the eye of the stranger. The trilinguar stone, one of the most valuable relics in the 
 British Museum, was discovered at this place. 
 
 There is no difficulty- in procuring camels, or mules, or asses, to proceed to Alexandria. The 
 journey, by great exertion, may be performed in one day, but it requires arrangement, and more punc- 
 tuality than is found in the native character, to make it certain. Much trouble and disappointment are 
 obviated by devoting two days to its prosecution, Before I leave the banks of the Nile, I may be 
 permitted to make a few remarks on this famed river. For larger vessels its navigation must ever be 
 precarious and dangerous. Northerly gales, acting against the current, cause banks suddenly to accu- 
 mulate at its mouth, and sometimes totally to intercept the passage. These banks are removed by each 
 succeeding flood, at which time the strong current renders the Nile equally difficult of egress. The 
 Damietta branch is said to offer a better channel. From the sinuosities of the stream, and the shoals 
 to be encountered after passing Rosetta, the Nile is not likely ever to become a channel for general 
 communication, even for small steamers. The port of Alexandria is at present always resorted to, 
 and from thence the journey towards Cairo is made by the canal, already named, or by Rosetta. 
 Established in a boat on the waters of the Nile, further proceeding becomes most uncertain. 
 If the wind be unfavourable, tracking, which consists of the boats’ crew hauling a rope on the bank, 
 and the reis, or captain, managing the helm, is resorted to ; and in this process, even if a calm 
 prevail, there will be many delays, and the voyage must be tedious, Northerly winds prevail in this 
 country, and then the passage may be made against the stream. The current always coming from the 
 
 i 
 
 C 
 
 ROUTE TO ALEXANDRIA. 
 
 south runs at a slower rate when the waters have attained their height, and stronger when they are 
 lowest. It will also depend in its force on the breadth of the river, and will be found running at 
 two or at four miles an hour. The waters of the Nile begin to rise in June, or when the sun is north 
 of the equator. The river attains its full height in September, and is again at its lowest in April and May. 
 The regularity and causes of these changes have given rise to numerous conjectures. There can be 
 little doubt of their depending, as do the monsoons in the east, on the action of the atmosphere ih 
 hilly districts. The mountains of Abyssinia, where the Nile finds its source, is south of the equator, 
 and has a vertical sun during the Egyptian winter. The air on the mountains becoming rarified 
 from heat, causes vapours to rush in from the surrounding ocean ; these accumulate till the sun 
 retires towards the north, leaving the collected element to dissolve, and fall in torrents over the 
 adjoining mountains, washing down the red soil of Ethiopia to enrich the more favoured land of Egypt. 
 The periodical changes are so decidedly marked in India, that the approaching rainy season is deter- 
 mined almost to a day. The phenomenon alluded to is well described in the following lines : 
 
 cc Where'er the lion sheds his fires around, 
 
 And Cancer burns Syene’s parching ground. 
 
 Then at the prayer of nations comes the Nile, 
 
 And kindly tempers up the moulding soil ; 
 
 Nor from the plains the covering god retreats. 
 
 Till the rude fervour of the skies abates.” 
 
 Northerly winds, although they prevail eight months in the year, are always liable to variations, 
 as are southerly winds which blow chiefly in spring and autumn. The causes enumerated render 
 the navigation of the Nile at all times a matter of doubt as to duration. The voyage from Alexandria 
 or Rosetta to Cairo, or contrarywise, may be one of three weeks or three days. It has been recently 
 mentioned in the London journals, that a stage coach had been shipped for Egypt, to run between 
 Alexandria and Cairo. With such a conveyance the ninety miles that separate the two places will be 
 accomplished with very little inconvenience or delay. If this arrangement be not immediately matured, 
 it would, no doubt, speedily follow an establishment of steam-vessels between England and India. The 
 Desert of Suez presents no kind of obstacle to the same convenience being extended, so as to connect 
 Cairo with the Red Sea. But, independent of such projected improvements, there exists no difficulty 
 at present in pursuing this route by horses or camels, and the delays that attend the navigation of the 
 Nile need not influence the transmission of despatches. 
 
 On the evening of the 17th February, I left Rosetta on a fine mule. My baggage and supplies 
 were reduced to two camels’ loads, and less than three dollars covered the whole expense of carriage to 
 Alexandria. The gate of the town, issuing from badly built walls, ushers the traveller immediately 
 on high hills of sand, overgrown with palm-trees. Clearing this forest, the Mediterranean is seen 
 in front, divided by a wide belt of sand, having posts at regular distances, as a guide to him who 
 
ftvrMd/ by C&MmandUs 
 
 POMMY'S PULLAfi WITH PART OF ALEIAIDftlA. 
 
 taken fi? om the KE . 
 
 j5oncton/JkiCwhe<i iy •Snwt/i/J.'kier tf>Cf 66, CarnfaTZc 
 
 ms 
 
52 
 
 POMPEY’S 
 
 The most interesting object to a foreigner is the majestic column known by the name of 
 Pompey’s Pillar, and standing on an eminence half a mile south-west of the gate that leads to Rosetta. 
 Like most of the Egyptian monuments, its early history is lost in the remoteness of ages. Alexander, 
 Caesar, Adrian, and others, have been severally named as its projector. It acquired its present desig- 
 nation on the revival of learning, after the long night of barbarism that followed the subversion of 
 the Roman Empire. At that era travellers bestowed names on many of the ruins and monuments of 
 Egypt, which names they retain to the present day, no one having , been able to dispute their title. 
 It was known that a monument to Pompey had been erected at Alexandria, and this column was 
 readily called after this popular, brave, but unfortunate, soldier. The honours of nomination have 
 recently been restored to their legitimate owner, in consequence of the inscription, “ Diocletianus 
 Augustus,” having been decyphered on the work. If perfection in art consist in affording continued 
 pleasure, its achievements, when contemplating this column, must be deemed unsurpassable. A Corin- 
 thian capital of ten feet is poised on a shaft of 6.7i feet, the latter resting on a base of 21^- feet. The 
 whole rises to a height of nearly 100 feet. Its loneliness gives the column additional interest, and 
 the eye expatiates on it with elevated delight. There is a richness conveyed to the plinth by an 
 apparent swell, caused by the diameter suddenly diminishing from the centre. The same style is 
 introduced in the columns in front of St. Martin’s Church, in London, but there the effect is lessened 
 to the sight for want of a sufficient elevation. The diameter of the column at its base is about nine 
 feet, it diminishes two inches at the centre, from thence to the summit it diminishes eighteen inches. 
 The pedestal, formed of stone loosely put together, appears quite unequal to sustain the enormous 
 superstructure. Here there has been another discovery that adds fresh material for speculation. The 
 column rests on a fragment of about five feet of a granite obelisk, having its hieroglyphics inverted, 
 and this is based firmly on the solid bed of the hill. A degree of national interest has been imparted 
 to this monument by the enterprise of some British seamen, who having passed a cord over the capital 
 by means of a kite, raised a rope likewise, and then a sailor. A set of shrouds was eventually affixed, 
 and a jolly party mustered in the crown of the capital, a space eleven feet square, on which were 
 evident remains of a font supposed to have belonged to a statue. When the eye looks beyond the 
 scene of the honest tars’ frolic, it ranges over the spot where Nelson fought, and where Abercrombie 
 fell, and where many a gallant effort was made by their brave followers. The shaft is of a single piece 
 of granite ; its capital, probably of another age, is of sandstone, and the base, formed of pieces of stone, 
 is of a recent date. The shaft evidently leans from a perpendicular, and is a little shivered on the 
 .side towards the east. 
 
 The change now in progress in the government of Egypt, and its spreading influence towards the 
 
 PILLAR 
 
 north, points out a more appropriate situation than the present for the seat of government. The nature 
 of the Pacha’s resources, and the disposition of his subjects, is such, that the certainty of hereditary terri- 
 torial possessions would reconcile him to surrender a country like Egypt, which is from its position and 
 nature strictly commercial. Certainly there is a wider field for Mohamed Ali, and he would be a most 
 useful power to Europe if occupied in the reduction of Central Asia, to prepare that territory as he 
 has done Egypt for the seeds of civilization. The formation of a regular government in these hitherto 
 lawless regions would cast a different shade on the probable destinies of the world ; and if a close 
 alliance were simultaneously formed with Egypt, there would always be the means of moving a force 
 that must check, if it did not overthrow, the growing power of Russia in her progress to the East. 
 The dependant state of Egyptian commerce in the Red Sea, added to the trade evident from the 
 numbers of British merchantmen at all times awaiting cargoes of cotton in the port of Alexandria, is 
 enough to shew that England is the European nation to receive and contribute benefit from an alliance 
 with Egypt. Such ideas must occur to the traveller who crosses the Isthmus of Suez, and so rapidly 
 passes from the shores of the Eastern to those of the Western Ocean. Amidst the march of events 
 that threatens another era in the eventful history of the globe, Egypt, heretofore the instrument of 
 revolutions, is again likely to become conspicuous in influencing the fate of nations. 
 
 It is said the French contemplated inscribing on Pompey’s Pillar the names of their officers 
 who fell in the vicinity. Such a distinction might be fittingly bestowed on the heroes of Britain. 
 The Battle of the Nile was fought within fifteen miles of this spot, and the intermediate space is 
 equally memorable for the glorious deeds of a British army thus referred to by Dr. Edward Clarke : 
 “ ft is subject of wonder that our troops should have succeeded in this instance as well as they did. 
 They landed under every possible circumstance of disadvantage, and yet drove from their posts, with 
 the bayonet, the veteran legions of Bonaparte’s army ; a mode of fighting in which the French were 
 supposed at the time to be superior to every other nation. It was then manifest, as it has been so 
 decidedly proved, that, man to man, they have no chance of success when opposed to British soldiers. 
 The laurels acquired by our army in Egypt can never fade. Posterity will relate the heroism which, 
 on those remote and almost unknown deserts, enabled an inexperienced army to vanquish an enemy, 
 not only in possession of the territory, but also inured to the climate, and well acquainted with the 
 country.” 
 
 In viewing the column as it appears in the Plate, the distance is lost in wide expanse of the 
 Mediterranean, over which the eye loves to wander. The pharillon (a light-house) is seen at the 
 extremity of a causeway that connects it with the main land, while at the same time it forms a pror 
 tection from the western gales. Midway is seen a part of the town and the square building called the 
 
POMPEY’S PI L LAE. 
 
 okellah, Tvlieie the flags of different nations point out the residences of various consuls. The western 
 port, 01 the harbour of the faithful, is not seen in this view. It touches one side of the city, and is 
 now the resort of all nations. Foreigners, until recently, were confined to the haven before us, called 
 the haiboui of the infidels, rendered foul from numerous ruins that extend over all parts of it. 
 Among them are remains of the great Pharos built 261 years B. C., and considered one of the seven 
 wonders of the world, said to have sent forth a flame like a volcano, to direct the approaching mariner. 
 The pr esent town of Alexandria, with 20,000 inhabitants, is confined to a tongue of land by a wall 
 that crosses between the harbours. Beyond the town, within another wall, an extent for a mile is 
 covered with remains and tumuli, and contains a few scattered houses and gardens ; the whole space 
 represents one great tomb, with here and there a column or fragment, rising as if to denote the nature 
 of the hidden deposits. The outer wall or battlement is shewn in the Plate, and forms a semi-circle 
 with its extremities resting on the eastern and western harbours. It is of Arab construction, framed 
 of fragments of other buildings, and displays the character of eastern fortresses. It offers a sufficient 
 protection against escalade, but is commanded by circumjacent hills, among which lies that eminence 
 from whence the accompanying view is taken. The Rosetta gate forms a marked feature among the 
 towers that at intervals break the uniformity of the wall. A distant obelisk, in the direction of the 
 gate, is that called Cleopatra’s Needle, and forms the subject of the next illustration. A fort, seen to 
 the right of the column, formed part of the French defences, and the buildings about it still bear the 
 name of French Town. All around Pompey’s Pillar lie heaps of rubbish ; the locality of this monu- 
 ment excites fresh conjecture concerning its ancient history. Enough remains in the vicinity to confirm 
 all that has been said of the extent and glory of the capital of the Ptolemies. Wherever an excavation 
 is made for limestone, a pillar or a rich entablature is discovered, or some painted apartment is entered. 
 The mounds of earth have a great mixture of pottery, the same as in Upper Egypt, and from the total 
 disappearance of private habitations where so many thousands are known to have existed, we may 
 conclude that houses were chiefly built of such perishable materials. Besides the great space already stated, 
 as indicative of the ancient glory of the city, the eastern harbour contains extensive ruins, and blocks of 
 granite, pillars of porphyry, with other fragments of vast magnitude. They shew what must have 
 been the splendour of the buildings in the quarter called Bactrion, where the royal palaces stood. 
 Two or three fathoms of water now cover these ruins, and exclude them from research as completely 
 as the same quantity of sand does those above the water mark. Apartments with colours on the 
 walls, and other vestiges of these parts, have casually come to light, but no extensive excavations have 
 been made in this mine of unparalleled architectural wealth. 
 
 The magnitude of Alexandria, so late as the sixth century, is attested by the following announce- 
 ment of the Lieutenant of Caliph Omar. “ I have taken the city of the west, it is of an immense 
 extent, I cannot describe to you how many wonders it contains. There are 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 
 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 4000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement,” &c. But 
 
 53 
 
 the most melancholy part of the announcement is, that the library supplied all the baths of the city 
 with books for fires for six months. The ancient city, which had a boundary of fifteen miles, is said 
 by Pliny to have contained 300,000 citizens, with as many slaves. The present wall, that encloses a mile 
 of rubbish, with the modern city within, extends over a space of five miles. Modern Alexandria has no 
 recommendation in itself ; its houses of three or four stories possess no beauty, the best are those occupied 
 by Franks, of whom there are about two hundred who five perfectly unconstrained by Moslem preju- 
 dices. The bazaars are without architectural style or regularity ; they, however, are stocked with a 
 good supply of several necessaries. The commerce in the western harbour is the life and main stay of 
 the place. A handsome palace of Ibrahim Pacha’s, recently completed, ornaments one side of the 
 busy harbour. An extensive dock yard, where, since my visit, three line-of-battle ships have been built 
 and launched, also looks respectable. There are other public buildings well situated for business. 
 Many fine English ships were waiting for a freight of cotton. If the industry of Egypt were fostered, 
 and its endeavours chiefly fixed upon improvements in agriculture, she would undersell the world in 
 the essential articles of life. It is in vain that efforts are made to establish manufactories with steam 
 machinery where no fuel exists, or to expect prosperity to arise from them when the growth of the 
 materials is neglected. The efforts making to improve Egypt, while they shew the laudable disposi- 
 tion and enterprise of the government, bespeak an erroneous system, made more conspicuous by the 
 destructive effects of monopoly. 
 
 I was favored with an interview by Ibrahim Pacha, son and heir presumptive to the ruler of 
 Egypt. His figure, large and muscular, is quite dissimilar to that of his father ; like him, however, 
 he exhibits energy, and a bold, stirring spirit, qualities which have been matured by military service, 
 and by his intercourse with Europeans, when in command of a force in the Morea. Although compa- 
 ratively young, he stands high as an officer, and is, by his present exertions in the field, sustaining the 
 favorable opinion that had been formed of him. His manner is courteous and frank, but he is evidently 
 better suited for the war-horse than for the audience chamber. He has many years of existence to 
 hope for, that may cause his name to be hereafter more distinguished in the political records of our 
 times. Except in outward show he is virtually sovereign of Egypt, and pursues the same liberal policy 
 that has so rapidly advanced the country. The son of Mohammed Ali is now pursuing a successful 
 career in Syria, and promises to fulfil all that has been predicted of his improving system in the pre- 
 ceding pages of this Journal. His demi-disciplined legions have proved themselves far superior to 
 the untaught natives of Central Asia, and the army of Egypt threatens an overthrow to the Ottoman 
 dynasty. Such will probably be the issue of the present struggle, if the European tactics stand neutral, 
 and if the Turkish Empire is not strengthened and directed by the Court of St. Petersburgh. The 
 tranquillity of Europe will be better secured, if the proposed measure of raising Egypt and Syria into 
 an independent nation be supported by civilized states. 
 
 The next object of interest to the traveller in the vicinity is 
 
 c 
 
s’mdtd’ iy C SuHmami.d. 
 
 J?rmm<77is'5Ztmc fy W Wa.&tm>Jrvm *• Sketch Try Gyri? ’&&*& 
 
 ClKOPATEl’8 IEIDLS mtLPait o£ AtlEXAIDftlA. 
 
 talcen-fcom. tke North., 
 
 jh)uioiuft<ffluih^h/ Srnffl^'l<UrJt>C£(tf, CmJiffiU 
 
54 
 
 CLEOPATR 
 
 Near the Eastern harbour are a pair of stately obelisks which, like Pompey’s Pillar, bear a 
 popular name without any legitimate claim to it. Two obelisks are known to have been trans- 
 ported from Upper Egypt to decorate the palace of the Ptolemies, and may have been those depicted 
 in the Plate. One lies prostrate and half buried in the sand, while its neighbour continues pointing 
 proudly to the sky. Each is formed of a solid piece of red granite, brought from the further extremity 
 of Egypt. Deeply wrought hieroglyphics ornament the sides, and are fine specimens of the sculptor’s 
 art. The height of the prostrate obelisk, including the apex, is 67 feet, the breadth of its base is 
 7 feet f inch, by 7|- feet. The pedestal is 7 feet in height and 9 feet square. The action of the 
 south-east wind, with the particles of sand it drifts from the Desert, has almost obliterated the hiero- 
 glyphics on the side exposed to its influence, while the sides that face the more frequent and boisterous 
 gales from the north and west, retain their original integrity. The application of the sledge hammer 
 to obtain specimens from the base of the obelisk has rounded it, and exposed clamps, called “ dogs,” 
 that were introduced to assist in maintaining its upright position. Four square indentations in the 
 base of the prostrate one, shew that such was the method originally adopted for securing its stability. 
 A Turkish guard- house, at the junction of the wall and sea shore, is the only building that now exists 
 near the spot. Excavations in rocks, lining the coast, and other indications, evince that these lonely 
 monuments once rose amidst a busy multitude. All around are pits opening to deep chasms and 
 painted chambers, now the undisputed abode of the jackall. These excavations render the ground 
 difficult to ride over, and give the whole neighbourhood the appearance of a great necropolis. The 
 standing columns distinguishable near the centre of the Plate, are said to mark the site of the library, 
 or the temple of Serapis, whose spacious chambers w'ere adorned with statues of exquisite workmanship 
 in honour of their favourite idol. Few are the remains now observable of a city once “ the queen of 
 the east.” Its ancient extent, like that of Thebes, is fully marked by scattered and eloquent witnesses, 
 denoting power and riches. Among the few objects of interest that are observable throughout this sub- 
 terraneous city are aqueducts of immense magnitude for conducting the waters of the Nile. All that is 
 seen of Ancient Alexandria is as a monument of its past glory, and accords fully with the exalted character 
 of her founder, with the grandeur of her Roman masters, and the voluptuous career of the Ptolemies. 
 
 On the shore to the eastward of these obelisks are excavations and baths; and similar works are 
 found on the opposite side of the city. In adjoining cemeteries are seen Roman, Grecian, and Egyptian 
 remains. The few relics discernible in this field of desolation ofler but an unsatisfactory record of 
 a city, rendered from associations equally interesting to the antiquary, the Christian, and the philosopher. 
 The upright obelisk seen in the Plate is destined to ornament the French capital, like the twelve that 
 were transported from Egypt to Rome by the Crnsars for similar purposes. It might, ere now, have been 
 
 S NEEDLE. 
 
 added to the many beautiful works of art that embellish London, as will be evident from the following 
 notification of His Highness the Pacha of Egypt to the Prince Regent of England, as a mark of gra- 
 titude and esteem for favours received.” The Pacha stated-- That his mtention of making a present 
 of some fine pieces of antiquity to His Majesty had been known to the world, and had appeared m many 
 of the public papers ; that, in consequence, he wished the gift should be one of the greatest possible 
 value in general estimation; that he regretted the mutilated state of the Alexandrian obelisk, and 
 offered in its stead one of the finest of Upper Egypt, or any other piece of antiquity m his territories w ic 
 could be deemed a present more worthy of His Majesty’s acceptance ; adding, in conclusion, that should 
 the Alexandrian one, nevertheless, be the one ultimately selected, he begged it to be fully understood 
 that it was his wish to defray every expense attending its removal, until it was placed close to the very 
 stern of the vessel appointed to convey it to England.” Twelve years have elapsed since this notifica- 
 tion was made, and the needle of Cleopatra remains in its neglected state. There seems to e a 
 disregard of courtesy as well as of policy, in not accepting this offer of a grateful prince. The Frenc , 
 more alive to their interest, have selected the upright obelisk, of course the most perfect, and the two 
 that form the approach to the temple at Luxor, represented in the vignette to this work, and with the 
 approbation of the Pacha, operations for their removal are now in progress. 
 
 It remains for the British government to obtain the Carnac obelisk already adverted to. 
 It is one of the most interesting and beautiful specimens of art that Egypt offers ; but unless 
 steps are taken to secure it, other European nations may he expected to possess themselves of so 
 desirable an object. Cleopatra’s Needle is connected with England not only as a gift from the Pacha, 
 but as associated with one of the most brilliant exploits of the British army, and as its situation would 
 render its removal a source of little expense, the transfer is well deserving of consideration. This subject 
 has recently been discussed in the House of Commons, and it appears a final arrangement was opposed, 
 from the idea that the act of robbing Egypt of its architectural memorials would be sacrilege; but 
 this argument will not avail against the fact that other nations are aggrandising and embellishing their 
 capitals with similar ornaments to those so liberally bestowed on this country. And it will be seen in 
 the progress of this Journal, that the withdrawal of valuable specimens of art from Egypt is the only 
 mode of preserving them from the assaults of barbarian violence. The base of the obelisk under 
 consideration has recently been broken up to form building materials. 
 
 Another motive to the accomplishment of the removal of this obelisk will be admitted, when it is 
 known that the British forces who possessed themselves of Alexandria in 1801, subscribed s§7000 to 
 effect the object. No doubt was entertained of its easy accomplishment, but it was relinquished, 
 perhaps, from an idea similar to that expressed in the House of Commons. The above contribution was 
 
CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE. 
 
 CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE. 
 
 55 
 
 returned, but the patriotic feeling displayed by the army and navy must ever be acknowledged. The 
 French are now removing the upright obelisk, which is thus described by an eminent writer of that 
 nation ; “ The column of the French, to be conveyed to France, to become a characteristic trophy of 
 conquest.” The British navy and army are surely entitled to a similar token of respect from their 
 countrymen, when it is recollected that in 1801, Alexandria, after a series of brilliant actions, was sur- 
 rendered to them ; the French numbering at the time upwards of 9,000 men, and having more than 
 300 pieces of cannon, whilst three times this force were compelled to abandon their conquests in Egypt, 
 and thereby resign all hope of further progress towards the east. 
 
 From data furnished by a British officer,* who ascertained every particular regarding this 
 obelisk and its locality, I have been enabled to state its exact dimensions. It is of granite, the specific 
 gravity of which was found to be 2.67, and the weight of a cubic foot square 166.875 lbs. avoirdupois. 
 Allowing for fragments knocked off, the single shaft will be found to weigh about 180 tons. One 
 half of this may be added as equivalent to the additional size of the obelisk mentioned at Carnac 
 above that of Cleopatra. The weight of the former, therefore, cannot be less than 270 tons, or equal 
 to five regiments of soldiers of eight hundred men each. To raise such a mass, an idea will be conveyed 
 to those who have seen a similar operation in shipping the main-mast of a first-rate man of war. It 
 would take ten such masts, with all their iron work, to form the weight of one obelisk like that at 
 Carnac. The removal of this magnificent piece of art would be a triumph worthy of the present age 
 of scientific enterprise, and with the obelisk of Cleopatra it could, without doubt, be brought to 
 England for the sum of ,:L1 5.000, proposed to be appropriated by Parliament to the purpose of trans- 
 porting the Alexandrian one singly. From observations I was able to make in regard to their situation, 
 and in conformity with the opinion of qualified persons, I feel confident in making this assertion, and 
 the mode best suited for accomplishing the object appears to be to case each obelisk in the vessel 
 intended to convey them to England, on the spots where they now are, and launch them on slides in 
 the usual way, one hundred feet or more at a time, until a steamer can take the vessels and cargoes in 
 charge, and at a favourable season make the voyage down the Mediterranean. Lowering the obelisk at 
 Carnac, and all minor considerations would disappear before the skill of an experienced civil engineer. 
 There is no section of the ground to be obtained by which an exact estimate can be formed for removing 
 the Carnac obelisk, but its elevation above the river from which it is situated ; a moderate distance 
 would ensure the accomplishment of the task. Nothing can mark more strongly the persevering labour 
 of the Egyptians, than the doubts and difficulties conspicuous in the present age of scientific improve- 
 ment, of taking down and transporting these extraordinary monuments that were quarried, removed, 
 and erected by the Pharaohs. A spirit of emulation seems to have existed amongst the Cassars to take 
 these masses to Rome, where some larger than any that have come under notice in this Journal are to 
 
 * Captain J. N. Boswell, B. N. is in possession of plans and data to effect the immediate removal of the obelisk. 
 
 be seen. The highest is called the Lateran obelisk, standing before the church of that name, the shaft 
 of which measures upwards of a hundred feet; it was removed from Heliopolis to Alexandria by 
 the Emperor Constantine, and was transported thence to Rome by Constantius, who was anxious to 
 surpass the acts of his predecessors. 
 
 It would be negligent in any traveller to pass through Egypt without making a remark upon 
 the plague, a name so discordant to European ears. This scourge, which was formerly so destructive, 
 has of late years almost disappeared. The present government of the country we are treating of, has 
 in this instance shewn another happy conviction and triumph over prejudice and the false doctrines of 
 their prophet. The law of destiny, that Mohamedans so long and so obstinately adhered to, and 
 which caused the clothes of the dead, laden with infection, to be distributed for the destruction of the 
 living, has given way with other equally injurious doctrines, to the suggestions of practical expediency. 
 Quarantine regulations are now enforced. The following opinion of French writers, when their forces 
 occupied the country, will probably be found to be correct. “ There is no doubt, if we were masters of 
 Egypt, we might entirely remove, in a few years, a great part of the evils which infect and devastate it, 
 such as the plague.” It is also remarked, “ the abilities of medical men have discovered medicines which 
 check the fatality, if they cannot always secure a certain cure.” After the European forces evacuated 
 Egypt, the plague was not known in the country for ten years, or until 1813, and for the last eight years 
 it has also been a stranger to the land. When this pestilence does visit the country, it is brought during 
 the prevalence of the khamseen, or south-east wind, and lasts from the beginning of March to the same 
 part of May. The air for that time blows like the hot winds in India, as if from a furnace, and arrives 
 laden with particles of sand from the Desert. It is dreaded as destructive to the animal and vegetable 
 world, and continues its ravages until succeeded by the Etesian, or north wind, which is joyfully hailed 
 in May as the harbinger of health and happiness to the land. Should the plague appear in Egypt 
 during the time of travellers being there, such precautions are known to Europeans who reside in the 
 country, as almost elfectually exclude it. It may also be avoided by a journey to Upper Egypt, where 
 it has never been known to extend. The opinion we have quoted from the authority of French writers 
 is borne out by that of the author of the Expedition to Egypt, who says, “ Egypt, in the possession of 
 a power who felt interested in her prosperity, might in the course of years calculate on the disorder 
 being altogether annihilated, or its pernicious influence so corrected as no longer to possess the same 
 calamitous properties.” 
 
 At Alexandria I again had the pleasure to meet some of the travellers already mentioned, as 
 proceeding from India; the destination of the party was westward. We mustered six who were 
 anxious to proceed to Malta. A ship had nearly completed a lading of beans; we passed a few days 
 on board amidst a busy scene that enlivened the harbour. N umerous vessels were in the bay, where 
 each nation has its place of anchorage. Many English merchant-ships were awaiting cargoes of cotton, 
 for which there was a demand beyond the immediate capabilities of the market to supply. One 
 
VIEW OF MALTA FROM THE LAZARETTO. 
 
 J^onfdonjUobhsktvb iy J'mfflfEloUriitC? 6'^ComhM- 
 
 Inwtv on. SbOM. by R.Z. (^jnmvtv-Skctehfy CafbT'GffuU. 
 

 MALTA, FROM T 
 
 It was the 2nd of April before we reached the harbour of Malta, the approach to which is 
 masked by battlements that surmount each other, and command the entrance so as to hail and wel- 
 come a friend from the rampart, or to cause destruction to an enemy. Our destination was the qua- 
 rantine harbour. Numerous boats approached to render assistance, and tow the vessel if required. 
 They are gaily painted and fancifully formed, with boatmen in a neat costume standing up, and 
 pushing the oar forward, having the appearance of people walking, as they kept beside the ship. We 
 skirted the fortress of Valetta and the town of Malta close on the left, while Fort Manuel stood on 
 our right. The quarantine harbour beyond it is never free from shipping, and there are daily changes 
 that in some measure take off the sad monotony of the twenty-five days’ confinement which awaits 
 those who arrive from Egypt. 
 
 The quarantine establishment is formed of several houses, situate close to Fort Manuel. Pas- 
 sengers are there provided with apartments, and every convenience that their situation will admit 
 of, with a most regular establishment of officers and servants anxious to lessen the irksomeness and 
 tedium of this temporary but strict imprisonment. The apartments are commodious and airy, which 
 advantage, from the total want of space for exercise, is a blessing doubly felt. A boat will be furnished 
 at a small expense per day, and it will be found a constant source of amusement, particularly as no 
 objection is made to proceeding into the harbours beyond Valetta. A passenger, if unfortunately 
 there should be but one, is placed under charge of a guardian ; these are respectable and civil men, 
 who become security for the observance of the quarantine regulations, and never lose sight of their 
 charge. A fixed price is attached to this attendant, who equally takes charge of as many persons as 
 may be in one party, and occupying the same range of apartments. Servants may be procured who 
 will put themselves in quarantine for the purpose. A spenditore attends each day with a slate, on 
 which all wants are put down, and are brought from an abundant market at regular prices ; he also 
 receives a daily allowance for his services, and produces bills for payment. Nothing can be more regu- 
 lar than the whole arrangement ; although there may be an occasional feeling of impatience at the 
 long confinement, and some disagreeable sensation when at sun-set the door is heard to grate on the 
 hinges to exclude further egress. All communication with the world must cease until the welcome god 
 of day again summons the officer to his duty. Nor is it pleasant to see the departure of the func- 
 tionary across the water, knowing that he carries the instrument of release. 
 
 For some hours during mid-day friends are admitted to hold intercourse in the Parlatorio, an 
 apartment appropriated for the purpose. The parties are separated by a double barrier, at a distance 
 of sixteen or eighteen feet. The whole establishment is under a captain of Lazaretto, whose daily 
 attendance insures regularity and attention to all necessary wants and indulgences. If there are two 
 
 3 E QUARANTINE. 
 
 persons, the expenses of the establishment will be about ten shillings a day to each ; if more, it will 
 diminish in a trifling degree with numbers. One person will require much the same expenses as for 
 two. If the expense is found inconvenient, persons may undergo the quarantine on board their vessels, 
 and have the same exercise in rowing and landing at the spot appropriated for that purpose. It is the 
 open space seen in the Plate at the quay directly opposite ; the high battlements that enclose it afford 
 a perfect security for the safety of the parties. At the back of this space the ramparts are seen 
 half formed from the live rock, and completed with firm masonry. The same mass of rock extends 
 throughout the island, offering but few spots that can be cultivated, and not sufficient even to pro- 
 duce the necessary supply of vegetables, which are brought from Sicily, while cattle and grain are in 
 the same way furnished from Barbary, Egypt, and other parts of Africa. The same description of grey 
 stone that forms the battlements is also used for the houses of the town, which are massive, and of 
 solid structure. Palaces and churches that have much to admire, with monuments which have been 
 the work of past centuries, fill the space occupied by the walls of Valetta, and afford interesting 
 annals of the history of modern Meleta. 
 
 The distant houses seen in the picture to the right of the fortification, is Citta V ecchia, situated 
 near the centre of the island, and commanding a fine view. It was the ancient capital. A fine cathe- 
 dral and religious establishments are confusedly mixed with battlements and outworks suitable to 
 the religio-military order of the knights. The inhabitants of this island amount to 100,000. The 
 men have a degree of supineness peculiar to countries within a certain latitude, and more evident 
 towards the distant lands noticed in this Journal. A continual ringing of chapel bells is heard from 
 the quarantine ground. Priests have a great ascendancy over the people, and more men are found in 
 the chapels here than perhaps in any country under the sway of Rome. 
 
 The fortress of Valetta, now the principal place and seat of government, is built on a ridge of 
 rock that divides the harbours. Steps are often necessary to ascend the crest of the hill, where stand 
 the palace and principal buildings. The road passes from the town and across the parade to Fiorina. 
 Further on, the country has the appearance of a wild and dreary space, with patches of cultivation and 
 scattered churches pointing out villages ; but here there is no generous Nile to enrich the soil. Heavy 
 rains destroy the best efforts of man to remedy the meagreness of Nature, and the country is bare and 
 unsightly. Valetta looks beautifully down on numerous quays and shipping, with about two thousand 
 boats kept in constant work ; and those again made more cheerful in their aspect by the awnings and 
 gay colours suited to the warmth and fineness of the climate. There is a coolness in the sight of the 
 blue water, and a cheerfulness in the fine view of the battlements and houses from its surface, that 
 would render boating a constant amusement to the inmates of the Lazaretto, were it not for the pro- 
 
58 
 
 M A L T A 
 
 jecting land that requires to be rounded before the public harbour can be gained from that of the 
 quarantine. Boating is, however, desirable on account of exercise, where there is a very limited walk, 
 and it serves to amuse and reconcile the confinement, which is thus so materially lessened in tedious- 
 ness. 
 
 Much attention is shewn to travellers by the residents at Malta, and the hospitality of the public 
 bodies there is most conspicuous, their style of living being liberal in the extreme. Balls and enter- 
 tainments followed in succession through the time I remained in the island, beginning the day w'e were 
 released (23rd April, 1830) with a fete in honour of His late Majesty, George the Fourth. 
 
 A traveller may find amusement for some days at Malta, and he will see many objects of 
 interest connected with the ancient history of this island. The knights claim the first attention, and 
 the magnificent church of St. John’s contains monuments and works of art, indicating the presiding 
 genius of men of princely state. The floor of the church is composed of numerous slabs, containing 
 as many specimens of coloured mosaic, each having the arms and motto of some departed Templar. 
 In the pride of chivalry the forts and battlements of Malta were built by knights, and the fort of 
 Manuel contains a fine bronze statue of the grand master of that name, arrayed in the robes of his 
 Order. In the college and in the Palace at Valetta there are some pictures worth seeing, and the 
 latter contains an armoury, with curious specimens of ancient work. A few miles from the town the 
 governor’s residence of St. Antonio offers a delightful retreat amidst some ten acres of foliage and 
 cultivated ground, and it points out how industry can improve the most barren countries. This little 
 paradise, amidst surrounding rocks, is, however, a deserted spot. It is thought to be unhealthy, and 
 if we may judge from the prejudice of the Maltese to any thing like plantations, it must be so. With 
 some difficulty a large enclosure of mulberry trees has been established in the island. It will be 
 viewed with interest with the millions of silk-worms in different stages to be seen in an adjoining 
 establishment. The patches of cultivation strewed over the island form a small proportion of the 
 extended surface of rock that surrounds them. Numerous cross walls protect the gardens, to prevent 
 
 MALTA 
 
 them from disappearing before the torrents of rain by winch they are periodically visited. It has been 
 said that the soil of the island was brought from Sicily, but it appears to be a portion of the limestone 
 of which the rock of Malta is composed. With the advantages of climate and situation that it possesses, 
 much more would be done for the prosperity of the island, did not the spiritual government of the 
 people trammel their inclination towards improvement. Catacombs of some extent are to be seen cut 
 into the rock, but they contain nothing interesting. There are caves and subterranean chapels pointed 
 out, said to have been used by the Apostle Paul after his shipwreck on the island of Melita. Persons 
 who arrive at Malta in packets would be liable to the same quarantine as is observed by men-of-war, 
 the duration of which only extends to a fortnight. Those who proceed onwards on their voyage will 
 suffer no inconvenience from this arrangement beyond their not being permitted to land at the inter- 
 mediate station, for they will be entitled to pratique before their arrival in England. The quarantine 
 regulations, as they at present exist, are imperfect, and liable to constant variations. There can be no 
 doubt, if the attention of the British government were called to the subject much alleviation would 
 take place in the present system of rigorous confinement, founded chiefly on prejudice. 
 
 Those who can forego the pleasure of speedily reaching home, and who pursue what is termed 
 the overland route between Malta and England, will pass a channel of 60 miles that separates the 
 former island from that of Sicily. Their progress onward, particularly through Italy, will be attended 
 with such interest and variety as will make it most desirable. They will pass through countries that 
 flourished in the middle ages of the world, and which are now filled with monuments and remains 
 of power and skill. The oriental traveller will find a link between the lost history of the ancient 
 east, and the present nations of the modern west, that cannot but afford him satisfaction. 
 
 The author will now proceed to point out a route by which a knowlege of the countries 
 alluded to may be attained and made applicable, if not beneficial, to many. Having this end in 
 view, he will offer no apology for endeavouring to forward its adoption, by attaching these pages of 
 description to an oft-beaten tract, 
 
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59 
 
 PROJECT 
 
 FOR 
 
 ESTABLISHING AN EIGHT WEEKS’ COMMUNICATION BETWEEN ENGLAND AND INDIA, 
 
 BY THE MEDITERRANEAN AND THE RED SEA, 
 
 THROUGH THE APPLICATION OF STEAM POWER TO PACKETS. 
 
 The Ancients remarked, that the discovery of a direct communi- 
 cation from the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel to the shores of India brought 
 that country nearer to the rest of the World, and the event is recorded 
 as a great triumph of science and skill. It remains for the present gene- 
 ration to crown the march of enterprise and improvement in the nine- 
 teenth century, by reducing the period of intercourse between Great 
 Britain and India to one-half the time it has hitherto averaged, and to 
 maintain it with the capital of our Eastern possessions, through a 
 regular and safe channel at the rate of two months’ time. The 
 capabilities of the places named as depdts, their distances from each 
 other, and the opinion of qualified persons on the power and capacity 
 of steamers, leave no doubt as to the practicability of the object. An 
 enquiry as to the result of such an undertaking leads to the assumption 
 that this desideratum will be accomplished without any expense to the 
 public, who, on the contrary, will, in all probability, derive a large 
 increase of revenue by carrying it into effect. I shall proceed to point 
 out the proposed plan for a Post Office communication between 
 England and India through the ancient channel of the Mediterranean and 
 the Red Sea, confident that an undertaking of such moment, involving 
 the interests of thousands of Englishmen and millions of British subjects, 
 will receive a fair share of support. The items of expenditure adduced 
 in this enquiry are from estimates given by competent persons, and will 
 be tested by results drawn from a voyage made by the Enterprize 
 steam vessel from England in 1825, round the Cape of Good Hope to 
 India, the distance and duration of which form unquestionable data, 
 though excluding many benefits that might be gained by adopting im- 
 provements subsequently made; considerations which cannot fail to 
 weigh greatly on the present occasion. It must also be remembered 
 that all probable expenses are enumerated, whilst the benefits and 
 
 receipts likely to arise, with the exception of those of the Post Office, 
 cannot at present be ascertained. When the route is known, and secu- 
 rity fully established, it will, no doubt, become the channel for the 
 conveyance of specie and valuable articles of small bulk. Experience 
 will also suggest many arrangements that must lead to economy, and 
 reduce the expenditure far below the present estimates. 
 
 The review of the Post Office conveyance will be followed by the 
 consideration of a route whereby passengers proceeding to and from 
 India may also benefit by establishing steam passage vessels. Re- 
 marks will be added on the means that at present exist to prosecute 
 this journey, independent of assistance from steam vessels, with its 
 probable duration and expense. An inspection of the Outline Map, 
 attached to this work, will shew the track from Malta to Bombay. 
 The dotted line is for passage vessels, the other for packets. Arrange- 
 ments to forward the communication between England and Alexandria 
 are proposed to be connected with the steam packets, which at present 
 proceed monthly to Malta.* The establishment between Suez and 
 Bombay will, we presume, be most ably conducted by the Indian Navy, 
 a great part of which has been recently employed to make a survey of 
 the Red Sea, whilst the superintendant j* stationed at Bombay, from his 
 active habits and experience, would ensure the most favourable intro- 
 duction to the attempt. The advantage accruing to Government from 
 the command of this additional force of steam vessels, in a political 
 
 * This project is made to dove-tail with the movements of the Mediterranean Packets, 
 according to a printed report by Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm, dated 16th January, 1832, 
 from which much valuable information has been derived. 
 
 t The public are indebted to this officer for having planned, and caused to be success- 
 fully executed in 1830, the first voyage made by a steam vessel between Bombay and 
 Egypt. Two other voyages have since been made also under his superintendance. 
 
 light, is of itself a matter of sufficient importance to demand separate 
 notice. The passage across the Isthmus of Suez, to connect the above 
 establishments, is admitted by all recent travellers to be perfectly safe 
 and easy. Every facility is offered by the friendly disposition of the 
 Government of the Pacha of Egypt, who, from motives of interest, is 
 led to court a close alliance with England. All persons who have visited 
 Egypt of late years attest the friendly conduct of Mohammed Ali 
 towards British subjects, and many think the liberal policy of the en- 
 lightened Moslem does not meet a due return. It is evident that 
 Europeans of other nations, more alive to their interests, are by every 
 means working into the confidence of his government. Their schemes 
 are fortunately frustrated from natural causes. Like a vast garden, 
 Egypt requires a market for her redundant produce, and must lean 
 towards the ruler of the sea. The battles of the Nile and of Alexandria 
 are remembered, and have left a strong and beneficial impression. The 
 country is an infant in civilization and power, and courts the protection 
 of England. 
 
 The home division of the proposed steam establishment will unite 
 itself with the Post Office steamers that at present run each month in 
 the year between Falmouth and Malta. The passage between those 
 ports averages throughout the year sixteen days, including two days’ 
 delay at Gibraltar. In each voyage a vessel may be reckoned to have her 
 steam up 14 days, or 336 hours, and will have gone a distance by course 
 of 2250 miles, thereby making her rate of passage upwards of six 
 and a half miles an hour. If two days’ delay be allowed at Malta, and 
 the same rate of motion be continued onwards to Alexandria, (a distance 
 of 837 miles,) it will be found that a mail will reach Alexandria in 24 
 days after its departure from England. A glance at the Outline Map 
 will show the proposed route in continuance to India. Cairo, situated 
 
60 
 
 APPLICATION OF STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA. 
 
 between Alexandria and Suez, and about mid- way from the Medi- 
 terranean to the Red Sea, may be reached from Alexandria by a land 
 journey of two days, and, as will appear by the Journal that accom- 
 panies this, there is no difficulty in travelling from Cairo to Suez in two 
 marches. But suppose six days are allowed for passing from the Medi- 
 terranean to the Red Sea, (altogether 175 miles,) the latter will be 
 reached in 30 days from the time of departure from England. 
 
 Between Suez and Bombay a dep6t, or place of supply, is pro- 
 posed without the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel at Aden,* distant by course 
 from Suez 1323 miles. At Aden, as at Malta, two days will be sufficient 
 to replenish stores from a floating magazine. Another stage of 1644 
 miles would reach Bombay. Computing the rate of transit as already 
 named, or six and a half miles an hour,| it would take eight and a half 
 days to proceed from Suez to Aden, and from the latter place to Bombay 
 ten and a half days would be required. The steam would therefore 
 require to be up altogether about 456 hours to perform the whole dis- 
 tance of 2967 miles, which separates Egypt from the shores of India. 
 If to the above nineteen days the delay be added of two days at Aden, 
 a packet will be found to pass between Suez and Bombay in twenty- one 
 days, making a total of fifty-one days for the passage of the mail between 
 Falmouth and Bombay. 
 
 From Bombay J the distance by the dak, or post road, is 1265 miles 
 to Calcutta, and to Madras by the same line of route the journey is 836 
 miles. Mails in India are conveyed by horse or foot dak, and travel at 
 the rate of six and a half or four miles the hour.§ If the most expeditious 
 
 * A modern authority of unquestionable credit, says : “ Aden, a town celebrated 
 
 from the remotest periods for its commerce and the excellence of its harbours on the 
 Indian Ocean .” — Malte Brim. For an account of Aden, see Journal. 
 
 f It will be shewn in a more advanced stage of this enquiry, that this voyage be- 
 tween Bombay and Suez was performed by a steamer at an average rate of more than 
 seven miles an hour. The speed of the Enterprise, with 200 to 250 tons of coal on board, 
 is reported to be six and a half knots to seven knots an hour, under favourable circum- 
 stances. The Leith and London steamers perform the double voyage between those places, 
 or 1000 miles at their average rate of movement in 104 hours, being more than nine miles 
 an hour. 
 
 “ H. M. steam packet Firebrand, in 66 days during the present season (1832) has 
 traversed a distance of 11,500 miles of sea, averaging a rate of 7j miles per hour.” (See 
 United Service Journal of December, Article ‘ Steam Naval Warfare.') 
 
 J Itinerary, by Captain John Clunes, Hon. East India Company’s Service, Bombay 
 Establishment. 
 
 § This speed might be greatly improved by introducing camel hurkurrah. 
 
 of these conveyances be adopted, letters from England that reach 
 Bombay in fifty-one days will arrive at Madras in less than fifty-seven 
 days, and may be distributed at Calcutta, our seat of government 
 in the East, in about fifty-nine days, or in two months from their 
 departure from London. An investigation into this statement will shew 
 that the time here specified is, in all probability, more than would be 
 required to attain the proposed object even on a first endeavour. 
 
 Sufficient experiments have been made throughout this route to 
 shew the practicability of the project; yet, with all the advantages 
 it holds out as a general benefit, as a commercial arrangement, and as 
 respects individual accommodation, no effort seems making to forward 
 its accomplishment. Volumes might be filled with the advantages to 
 be derived from accelerated intercourse with our empire in the East, 
 and every journal written in India contains some appeal to the mother 
 country calling for its early adoption. The object of this work is to 
 place the whole scheme in an obvious light, that may at least promote 
 its accomplishment, or lead to a further enquiry into its merits. A 
 rapid view of the Post Office route has been taken; the project will 
 now be investigated in its different stages, and a balance sheet produced 
 exhibiting the result. Individual accommodation will also be considered 
 as regards steam packets unconnected with steam passage vessels, or 
 the facility of proceeding by means of native conveyance. 
 
 Enquiry will first be directed to the size and expense of such vessels 
 as are considered to be of a capacity best suited to the navigation of the 
 seas on either side the Isthmus of Suez. In forming these estimates, 
 attention has been given to the opinions of several professional men, 
 and of persons possessing local knowledge of the various places in the 
 route. Practical operations of steamers in the Eastern and Western 
 World will be found to confirm conclusions that have been arrived at. 
 Sufficient data, it is presumed, will be adduced to admit of, at least, 
 an approximate estimate of the receipts and expenditure likely to 
 attend the establishment. The merits and importance of the plan and 
 object will outweigh all minor considerations. The home voyage, or the 
 stage of the undertaking between England and Egypt, will be examined 
 separately from that necessary to connect Egypt with India. 
 
 A printed Report on the “ Falmouth Packet Establishment” has re- 
 cently appeared, which contains arrangements that materially affect the 
 plan under consideration. The statement in question was drawn up in 
 the present year (1832) by Vice-Admiral Sir Pulteney Malcolm, K.C.B., 
 
 by order of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and its sugges- 
 tions have since been adopted. It is desirable on various grounds, as far 
 as possible, to proceed upon regulations matured and sanctioned by such 
 high authority, and the plan about to be proposed for the mail to Alex- 
 andria will be found to do so. Henceforth a monthly government steam 
 vessel is to sail to Malta, and after remaining there three days it will 
 return to Falmouth. The mails for the Ionian Islands and Greece are 
 to be forwarded from Malta on the arrival of this packet, by a branch 
 steamer, which will have made its tour and collected mails to return 
 in time for the succeeding English packet. To apply the above ar- 
 rangements to the Indian communication, it will be necessary to ap- 
 propriate a steam vessel to the duty of conveying the mails between 
 Malta and Alexandria. The voyage between these places has already 
 been mentioned as requiring five and a half days, but throughout these 
 calculations six days is the time allowed for this stage of the voyage. 
 To make its accomplishment in the required time the more certain, a 
 branch steamer, with engines of 140-horse power, and of 440 tons 
 burthen, is proposed for the service.* Such a vessel would, in all proba- 
 bility, accomplish much more in speed than has been here estimated ; 
 she would be competent to take a full supply of stores for the time she 
 may require to be absent from Malta, and also to carry coals for her 
 voyage to Alexandria and to return. A sketch of her movements for 
 one month will suffice to shew her capabilities of performing the duty 
 for an unlimited time. 
 
 The Mediterranean packet departs from Falmouth some time in the 
 beginning of each month. Suppose she start on the 1st, she will 
 arrive at Malta on the 16th of January, and leave that place to return 
 to Falmouth on the 18th of the same month. The branch steamer 
 above alluded to will arrrive at Malta also on the 16th, from Alex- 
 andria, having left the latter place with the Indian mail on the 10th of 
 January. She will exchange mails with the English packet, and sail 
 again for Alexandria also on the 18th, where she will arrive on the 24th, 
 and remain until the 10th of the following month, at which date the 
 Indian mail will again arrive, to be forwarded by her to Malta, there to 
 meet the Falmouth packet as in the preceding month. Although the 
 
 * The engines of a vessel similar to the above will weigh about 120 tons. She will 
 consume in eleven clays, or during the double voyage, less than 205 tons of coal, allowing 
 15 cwt. 2 qrs. per hour. Nearly 120 tons will remain for accommodation and ship s stores, 
 the latter being very trifling for so short a voyage. 
 
APPLICATION OF STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA. 
 
 61 
 
 16th is the date here fixed for the arrival of the mails at Malta, it is 
 evident that any other date may be equally conformed to, providing it 
 be known at Bombay, so as to cause the Indian mail to reach Malta the 
 day the packet from England arrives at the same place. By the pro- 
 posed plan it will be seen that the branch steamer will in each month be 
 twelve days at sea, sixteen days at Alexandria, and two days at Malta. 
 This voyage has an extent of only 837 miles, and it will be well to note 
 the fate of despatches recently transmitted by this route. They were 
 brought from India to Egypt by the Hugh Lindsay, and the whole expense 
 attending their transmission could not have been much less than £5000. 
 The steamer landed her mail in Egypt twenty-eight days after leaving 
 Bombay. The same despatches were only fourteen days by the steam 
 packet between Malta and Falmouth, but they were sixty days in getting 
 from the Red Sea, and proceeding by a sailing vessel to Malta!* Such 
 instances of failure are at all times equally liable to occur, and most for- 
 cibly point out the necessity of a connected chain of steam communication 
 throughout this line. A single link in such a project left incomplete, will 
 continually subject the public to keen disappointment, as the following 
 instances more fully prove. “ Lord Keith, with seven sail of the line and 
 two frigates, was a month beating from Alexandria to Malta. Many of 
 the transports with French troops from Cairo were four months reaching 
 Marseilles.”'}' 
 
 Steam packets of between 400 and 500 tons, and of 140-horse 
 power each vessel, are those proposed by Sir Pulteney Malcolm in the 
 Report already alluded to for the Mediterranean voyage, as being suffici- 
 ently commodious for carrying stores and supplies, and possessed of every 
 quality to enable them to perform their varied duties. They will also 
 accommodate about twenty passengers. A vessel of a similar kind is 
 recommended as the medium of communication between Malta and 
 Alexandria. The consumption of coals for this class of steam vessels is 
 computed at 21 bushels, 56 lbs. per hour, or something less than nine- 
 teen tons each day. The price of coal at Malta is 24s. per ton, and the 
 branch steamer between Malta and Alexandria will take a supply of 
 
 * The Morning Post of April 21, 1832, has the following extract: “The Firebrand 
 steamer arrived at Falmouth with a mail from Bombay. The mail left Bombay on the 5th 
 of January, arrived at Alexandria in twenty-eight days, and from Malta to Falmouth in four- 
 teen days, having been detained in the voyage from Alexandria to Malta by the sailing 
 vessel sixty days.” 
 
 + Wilson’s Expedition to Egypt. 
 
 coal for a voyage to the latter place, and for a return. It has also been 
 stated that to perform this voyage she must have her steam up 129 hours. 
 If we therefore conclude that for eleven days she will consume at the 
 rate of nineteen tons of coal per day, at a price of 24 s. each ton, the 
 monthly cost for fuel will come to £250 : 16s., or a sum of £3009 : 12s. 
 will be required to cover the annual expense of twelve double voyages 
 between Malta and Alexandria. The following annual charges for such 
 a vessel must also be added, being the estimate in Sir Pulteney Mal- 
 
 colm’s Report. 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 The first cost and outfit of such a vessel £’12,000, duration 20 years . 600 0 0 
 
 A complete repair and three sets of boilers once in 20 years, £ 4000 . 200 0 0 
 
 Wages for the crew ......... 1200 0 0 
 
 Victuals for the crew 565 0 0 
 
 For the repair of the vessel’s hull and machinery, and for stores . 400 0 0 
 
 £2965 0 0 
 
 Cost of coals for one year, (as above) ..... 3009 12 0 
 
 Making a total of £5974 12 0 
 
 This constitutes the additional expense that would be incurred in the 
 Mediterranean to carry the proposed plan into complete effect. Proceed- 
 ing eastward in our investigation, it will be necessary to make provision 
 for an agent in Egypt to forward the arrangement in that country, and 
 afford such assistance as may be requisite in facilitating it, also to ensure 
 regularity in the conveyance of the mail and of couriers across the 
 Isthmus of Suez. A sum of twenty pounds per month will keep up 
 an establishment of twelve dromedaries or fast camels. By such pre- 
 caution the mail would always be secure of regular transport for the 175 
 miles that separate Alexandria from Suez,* and the few passengers who 
 for various reasons may wish to continue their voyage without longer 
 delay, would also be able easily to accomplish it. To ensure the super- 
 
 * From Alexandria the distance by route to Cairo, when the country is free from 
 inundation, is about 100 miles; at other times it is more circuitous, and extends at the 
 Pyramids of Djizeh. The distance from Cairo to Suez is known to be 70 miles. A drome- 
 dary could perform a 100 mile journey in less than 24 hours. Horses may be obtained 
 for this journey, if preferred. But the obstacle that arises is likely soon to be quite re- 
 moved, for it has been lately stated in an English newspaper that a stage coach was shipped 
 to run between Alexandria and Cairo. No doubt the same conveyance will be continued 
 to Suez. The route will be seen by the Journal to be perfectly practicable. 
 
 intendance of a competent agent, one thousand pounds for outlay will be 
 attached to the annual expenditure. 
 
 We havfe now arrived in the Sea of Suez, and as that distant portion 
 of our route is very imperfectly known to most Europeans, an endeavour 
 has been made to illustrate the character of those regions by means of 
 the Journal. The nature of the climate, the navigation of the sea, the 
 resources of the country, &c., are therein considered, and such information 
 given as may be useful to future travellers. Those details are coupled 
 with this outline sketch, the success of whose object must mainly depend 
 on the general character of the territory the route is made to pass through. 
 
 The packet establishment in the Eastern Seas would come under 
 the authority of the Bombay Government, and would be manned by 
 the Indian Navy. By this means an invaluable acquisition of force 
 and of scientific knowledge, ready to act on any emergency, will be 
 attained by government. 
 
 Before entering more into detail concerning the navigation of these 
 distant seas, a few observations will be made on the voyages that have 
 been already performed by steam vessels in the Red Sea, and other 
 data on which the enquiry is founded. 
 
 Three double voyages by a steam vessel have been performed be- 
 tween India and Egypt, and they have completely established the 
 practicability and security of this project. The credit of successfully 
 executing them is due to the superintendent of the Indian navy, but 
 the inadequate means afforded him have in a great measure checked the 
 beneficial effects expected to arise from the experiments, and have 
 prevented their more general application. The Hugh Lindsay, a fine 
 man of war steamer, of two eighty-horse power engines, with a burden 
 of 411 tons, and having a length of 145 feet, is the only steam vessel 
 that has been seen in the Red Sea; she was built of teak, at Bombay, in 
 1829, pierced to carry eight guns; capacity for stowage was not so much 
 attended to in her construction as speed, a qualification thought indis- 
 pensable for her duties as a man of war. Her proper draught was 
 attained when laden with six days’ coal. In the voyage we now 
 allude to, a run of upwards of 1641 miles, not less that nine days’ 
 coal, is indispensable. The high price of coals on this route is another 
 reason why the Hugh Lindsay was totally unfit for the service. Her 
 voyages, however, offer many useful points to illustrate the enquiry before 
 us ; at the same time, the preceding defects, and a want of arrangement 
 at the different stations for fuel, must exclude the result of them. 
 
62 
 
 APPLICATION OF STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA. 
 
 as absolute data, for estimating the expenses under this head. The 
 vessels now proposed as best suited to the performance of the duties 
 required of them, are steamers of 340 tons, built with a view to the 
 capacity of stowing coal, and to carry two sixty-horse power en- 
 gines. The expense of such vessels, compared to that of the Hugh 
 Lindsay, would be as 15 to 22, or in proportion to their consumption 
 of fuel. 
 
 The first voyage made by the Hugh Lindsay was in 1830, when she 
 left Bombay the 20th of March, and arrived at Suez the 22nd of the 
 month following. On leaving Bombay she steamed to Aden, a distance 
 of 1641 miles in 260 hours, givingan average rate of more than 65 miles 
 an hour. She stopped also at Mocha and at Jiddah ; altogether her steam 
 was up during the voyage between Bombay and Suez 21 days and 91- 
 hours. Owing to the want of arrangement in getting her supplies of 
 coal, she was at anchor nearly twelve days. On the 29th of May the 
 Hugh Lindsay returned from Suez to Bombay, having had her steam 
 up 19 days and 18 hours during the latter voyage. The distance she 
 ran in the double voyage, without the occurrence of an accident, was 
 5928 miles, which she performed in 41 days and 3|- hours steaming. 
 The Hugh Lindsay will be found then to have been 70 days absent 
 from Bombay, of which time she was nearly 30 days at anchor, detained 
 by laying in supplies of coal, water, &c. 
 
 The second voyage made by the same vessel was in December 1830, 
 when her course was from Bombay to Maculla, and thence to Jiddah 
 and to Cosseir. In performing this voyage of 2800 miles she was only 
 16£ days actually under steam. - In her return voyage to Bombay there 
 was a failure of coals at the dep6t in the Red Sea, and consequently a 
 great detention. It will be seen that the average of her run throughout 
 the voyage to Cosseir is above seven miles the hour. Sir John Malcolm 
 returned by this opportunity from his government at Bombay ;* he did 
 not hurry his journey through Egypt, or he would have arrived in 
 England within two months. Sir John Malcolm’s voyage from Egypt 
 to Malta by a frigate, was eleven days; from the latter place he pro- 
 ceeded in the regular steam packet. The third voyage was made this 
 year, and was from Bombay to Maculla, to Jiddah and to Cosseir, 
 making a distance as above of 2800 miles, which the Hugh Lindsay per- 
 
 * The account of this voyage, furnished by Sir John Malcolm, is in the third volume of 
 British India, in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library. 
 
 formed in 19 days 6^ hours’ steam.* The delay for coal in this voyage 
 was only 5 days 15 hours, making the total voyage, including stoppages, 
 under 25 days. The Hugh Lindsay, as already stated, was from neces- 
 sity overladen when she began her voyage, at which period she advanced 
 only at the rate of 5J- knots an hour ; her speed was increased to 9 knots 
 an hour when about mid-voyage, and in proper trim. Notwithstanding 
 these disadvantages, the time of transit from India to Egypt has been 
 brought, exclusive of delays for fuel, to a shorter rate than is allowed 
 in this project. Enough has been done by these voyages to show 
 the perfect feasibility of our plan when the proposed alterations are 
 effected. It is also proved that facilities exist at Aden to allow the 
 necessary supplies of fuel and water to be obtained. It only remains to 
 enquire more minutely into the means that exists to improve the arrange- 
 ments, and render them available to general purposes. The following 
 remarks on the first steam vessel that proceeded round the Cape of 
 Good Hope will be read with interest.^ 
 
 The Enterprise steamer has been already alluded to, as having made 
 an experimental voyage from England to India by way of the Cape of 
 Good Hope. She was built at Deptford in 1825, and was fitted up with 
 two 60-horse power engines. This vessel failed in reaching India in less 
 than sixteen weeks after her departure from Falmouth, in consequence of 
 the distance between the depdts for coal being so great, as to oblige 
 the steamer to consume her fuel, and to have recourse to sailing. The 
 exertion of her commander, Captain Johnston, in this spirited underta- 
 king to guide a vessel round the stormy Cape, by the aid of machinery, 
 has been most beneficial to science, and affords much useful information 
 that is applicable to our present enquiry. A single station for receiving 
 the supply of fuel was determined on, in a voyage which, under the most 
 advantageous circumstances could not be less than 12,000 miles. The 
 Enterprise was therefore started from Falmouth with 380 tons of coal, 
 which quantity it was expected would enable her to reach the Cape of 
 Good Hope, but from the circumstance of her being overladen, her 
 proper speed was reduced, and she fell short of coal long before arriving 
 at her destination. Another supply of fuel was ready at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and the Enterprise continued her voyage from that station 
 
 * The gentleman who furnished me with the particulars of this voyage left the Hugh 
 Lindsay at Cosseir. I have not seen an account of her further progress. 
 
 t From an account of Steam Vessels, and of Proceedings connected with Steam in 
 British India, compiled by G. A. Prinsep, Esq. published at Calcutta, 1830. 
 
 with 350 tons of coal on board. The same failure of materiel again oc- 
 curred as in the preceding voyage, and a vexatious detention was again 
 experienced. The inaptitude of a single dep6t of fuel to answer for the 
 voyage between England and India is, from the result of this experiment, 
 completely proved, and will be evident from the following result : the 
 Enterprise was under steam 62 days 23 hours, under sail 40 days 3 hours, 
 at anchor 10 days 15 hours. 
 
 Captain Johnston in a statement made on this interesting occasion 
 remarks, “ The distance traversed by the Enterprise during this voyage 
 was almost 13,700 miles. The quantity of coals consumed was 580 
 chaldrons, and, including one excursion at the Cape of Good Hope, we 
 steamed altogether about sixty-four days, making the daily consumption 
 of coals nine chaldrons, or about twelve tons.” The Enterprise being 
 overladen during a part of this voyage, and brought down to sixteen 
 feet draught, when her proper sailing draught was only twelve to twelve 
 feet six inches, prevents a fair estimate being given of that vessel’s rate 
 of going: The following remarks of her capabilities are therefore added 
 
 from a work already mentioned.* “ With 300 tons of coal, at a draught 
 of fourteen feet, her rate is six knots ; and with 200 to 250 tons, draw- 
 ing twelve feet to twelve feet six inches, which Captain Johnson con- 
 siders her best draught at sea, her speed will be six and a half to seven 
 knots under favourable circumstances. 
 
 It has been stated that steam vessels of two sixty-horse power en- 
 gines possess every requisite quality for the performance of the duties 
 that may be required of them. Such a vessel registering about 340 
 tons will be able to stow away the greatest quantity of coals demanded 
 for any stage of the voyage, which will be shewn to be under 150 tons.j* 
 She will also be capable of accommodating eight or ten passengers, 
 besides having room for her crew and stores. To give full effect to the 
 enterprize, three of these steam vessels ought to be at the disposal 
 of the Bombay Government. A sketch of their movements for a few 
 months will be sufficient to show their power to keep up the commu- 
 
 * G. A. Prinsep. 
 
 t A fine steamer, called the Forbes, was launched at Calcutta in 1829, and carries two 
 sixty-horse engines with a copper boiler. Her register is 302 tons, and she started from 
 Diamond Harbour 14th March, 1830, having on board 134 tons of coal. On the return 
 trip she took in 145 tons of coals, 10 of fire wood and dammar, besides 12 tons of tin and 
 specie. The Forbes carried coal for 11 days, her consumption was half a ton per hour. — 
 G. A. Prinsep. 
 
APPLICATION OF STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA. 
 
 63 
 
 mcation for an indefinite period. On a closer investigation of this 
 subject, should it appear that vessels of a larger capacity, possessing 
 more power and greater speed, are desirable :* the substitution of 
 steamers with two seventy-horse power engines, similar to those to be 
 used in the Mediterranean service, will cause an increase of expenditure 
 m proportion as 14.5 and 18.5. A larger description of vessel will no 
 doubt be used when a knowledge of the route having given confidence, 
 it becomes more desirable for passengers. 
 
 Suppose A, B, C, are three steam vessels proposed for this commu- 
 nication, the following will be their average passage throughout the 
 year. 
 
 Leave Bombay. 
 
 A 16th December. 
 B 16th January. 
 
 C 13th February. 
 A 16‘th March. 
 
 B 15th April. 
 
 C 16th May. 
 
 Arrive at Suez. 
 
 6th January. 
 6th February. 
 6th March. 
 6th April. 
 
 6th May. 
 
 6th June. 
 
 From Suez. 
 
 30th January. 
 
 2nd March. 
 30th March. 
 30th April. 
 30th May. 
 30th June 
 
 Arrive at Bombay. 
 
 20th February. 
 23rd March. 
 20th April. 
 
 21st May. 
 
 20th June. 
 
 21st July. 
 
 This table will shew that the steamer A is 21 days on her voyage 
 from Bombay to Suez, where she remains 24 days waiting for the mail; 
 she is again 21 days on her return to Bombay, where she remains also 
 24 days before she is called upon to undertake another voyage to Suez. 
 Each vessel is required to perform the same routine of service, making 
 two voyages of 21 days every three months, and resting alternately for 
 24 days at each extreme station. It will also be seen, that except for 
 a few days, or from the middle of each month to about the 20th, there 
 will always be a steamer at Bombay at the disposal of government, and 
 there will likewise be a steamer at Suez the last three weeks of each 
 month, which arrangement will afford a great convenience to passengers 
 proceeding to India. The next point to be considered is the consumption 
 of fuel for vessels of the specified capacity; this is computed at 16 
 bushels, or 11 cwt. 48 lbs. of coals per hour.j' Aden, which is the place 
 fixed upon as the depdt for fuel, is between Bombay and Suez, and 
 
 * The United Kingdom, 200 -liorse power, 550 tons, sails from Leith Roads to Green- 
 wich, and returns, making a voyage of lOOO miles in 104 hours ; takes a supply of coals 
 from Leith to Greenwich and back, or 120 tons, and consumes on the above voyage 110 tons. 
 
 t By Captain Johnson’s statement, the Enterprise steamer, which had the same size 
 engines as those proposed for this voyage, consumed on an average, during 64 days' steam- 
 ing nine chaldrons, or about twelve tons per day, or 10 cwt. per hour. 
 
 has already been described in the Journal. The harbour seems pecu- 
 liarly adapted to the use that may be here required of it ; it has an ad- 
 vantage in being far enough removed from the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel 
 to be free from the strong breezes that prevail there, which raise an in- 
 surmountable objection to Mocha. 
 
 At Aden there are two harbours easy of access, and affording shelter 
 from every wind. Water may be had at a convenient distance, and to 
 obtain it there are two hundred Arab families with as many Jews, ready 
 to afford every assistance, with the hope of improving their impove- 
 rished state. A trade is now kept up between Aden and Africa, and 
 sheep were selling at 3<y. 6d . each; there can be no doubt but a well- 
 supplied bazaar would soon be established at Aden, if encouragement 
 and protection were afforded to traders by establishing there a perma- 
 ment depdt. It would be desirable to have a floating store-ship or 
 magazine within the Western harbour, which is well suited to the 
 purpose ; by such an arrangement much delay and expense would be 
 avoided, and a ready supply of coal and water would be secured to the 
 steamers in the time allowed for replenishing stores. A further recom- 
 mendation to Aden is its situation outside the straits of Bab-el-Mandel ; 
 vessels from Europe to Bombay can touch there for six months in the 
 year, with a deviation from their course that would cause but a trifling 
 delay. Horsburgh, in his Directions for Navigating the Eastern Seas, 
 recommends that ships proceeding on their voyage during the south- 
 west moonson, or from April to November, should pass through the 
 Mozambique channel,* which course takes them near the Island of So- 
 catra, (see Outline of Map.) A delay of one month would be more 
 than is requisite to deliver a cargo of coals at Aden. A great increase 
 of expense must attend the landing of coals at any ports within the 
 Red Sea, owing to the periodical winds that prevail for months, and 
 are always strong in the straits of Bab-el-Mandel. From Aden during the 
 season specified, fair wind would prevail for continuing the voyage to 
 Bombay. At Aden, with such advantages coals would be had at an 
 increase of 15s. per ton above those in the Bombay market ; it is there- 
 
 * The route by the Mozambique channel is more direct than any other for ships 
 bound to Bombay, &c., when the south-west monsoon prevails on these coasts ; for it pre- 
 dominates in the Mozambique channel at the same time. “ The south-west monsoon, which 
 is the fair seasou in the Mozambique channel, begins in April and continues till November; 
 the north-east monsoon then commences, and prevails until April.” — Horsburgh’s India 
 Directory. 
 
 fore calculated that coals could be furnished at Aden for the use of the 
 steamer at 50.?. per ton, and they would be conveyed to Aden by vessels 
 proceeding from England to India for freights of cotton. A detention 
 of one month caused by this deviation from the direct track will be 
 compensated by a cargo that, according to our calculation, will render 
 a freight of nearly 40.?. per ton, ten or twelve shillings being about the 
 price for which coals may be shipped at favourable stations in England. 
 But how different the estimate of expenditure would be in this under- 
 taking if it derived support from government. The ships of the Honour- 
 able Company that proceed annually via Bombay to China, almost in 
 ballast, would be able to supply fuel at a comparatively trifling expense ; 
 this item taken at 50.?. per ton may be considered at double the 
 probable cost, and Aden being the middle station requires twice as 
 much as any other. A glance at the Outline Map will shew that no other 
 place on the route offers such facility as Aden for the proposed depdt. 
 The Island of Socatra is only 1 137 miles from Bombay, and consequently 
 nearly 1900 miles from Suez. Maculla, on the coast of Arabia, has been 
 used as a station. This port has much to recommend it, but it is not 
 sufficiently mid- way to admit of its use as a single station : it is 1400 miles 
 from Bombay, but is between 1800 and 1900 miles from Suez, and is 
 therefore with Socatra excluded as inapplicable to the present pro- 
 ject. It will be seen, that when the Hugh Lindsay steamer touched 
 at Maculla on her voyage from Bombay to Suez, she also stopped at 
 Jiddah, a station in the Red Sea. Suez forms another station in this 
 route : for a description of which, and the intermediate country between 
 it and Alexandria, the reader is again, referred to the Journal. The 
 outer harbour at Suez affords anchorage for vessels of any size, and it 
 would be desirable that a store-ship, or floating magazine, be stationed 
 there as at Aden. It has been mentioned that Suez has no water in 
 its immediate vicinity but what is brackish; the natives use it, and it 
 would answer all ordinary purposes on board steamers ; boats may be 
 detached to the fountains of Moses for better water, where the wells, as 
 will be seen by the Map, lie close to the shore; or a supply of good water 
 may be procured at the port of Tor, lower down the Sea of Suez, and at 
 this place other supplies may also be obtained. Coals are at present con- 
 veyed to Suez from Alexandria, to which place they are brought from 
 Europe. Many vessels proceed annually from England, particularly from 
 the port of Liverpool to Alexandria, in ballast, for the purpose of bringing 
 return cargoes from Egypt. The freight to that country is therefore as 
 
64 
 
 APPLICATION OF STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA. 
 
 low as 22 s. per ton, and coals would cost when re-shipped in boats at 
 Alexandria about 35 s. per ton, being 2s. 6 A. per ton more than they are 
 sold for in the market at that place. From Alexandria the carriage by 
 water to Cairo would raise their price to 40s. At the latter place any 
 number of camels may be had for the journey to Suez at 5s. each, and 
 three camel loads would be more than a ton weight. If 5s. per ton, in 
 addition to these charges, be added for casualties, the expense of coals at 
 the magazine at Suez will be exceeded, if the price is fixed at 60s. per ton. 
 This estimate will be taken in the calculations that are to follow. It is 
 very probable that fuel may be sent by sea to Suez at a cheaper rate.* The 
 voyage between Aden and Suez being forty-eight hours less than the 
 voyage from Bombay to Aden, there will be above twenty-five tons of spare 
 burthen on leaving Aden to be appropriated as may be most desirable ; 
 an extra supply of water for the return voyage may therefore be carried 
 on to Suez, unless the late discovery of water in the vicinity of that 
 place renders such a proceeding unnecessary .j - 
 
 Bombay is the remaining station to be considered. The position 
 of the harbour with regard to the adoption of our project, its artificers, 
 and its capabilities as a general depot for shipping, require no com- 
 ment. The circumstance of that station being the head-quarters of the 
 Indian navy, and the residence of the superintendents, are additional 
 recommendations. 
 
 At Bombay the price-currents in the Asiatic Registers of January, 
 1830, 31, and 32, give the price of coal an average rate of 20 rupees, or 
 35 s. per ton, each rupee by the same authorities have a value of Is. 9rf. 
 sterling. A voyage from Suez to Bombay, and back to Suez, will there- 
 fore cause coals to consumed for 204 hours at 60s. per ton, for 456 
 
 * Mr. Prinsep states in relation to navigation in India, "The Forbes steamer, of two 
 sixty-horse engines, and of 300 tons, took a ship of 382 tons in tow ; the steamer had 134 
 tons of coal, the other vessel had 52 tons to assist the steamer, and a cargo of 840 chests 
 of opium } they left Calcutta 14th March, 1830, and arrived at Singapore the 27th of the 
 same month.” This rate of steaming had been five to five and a half knots, with a favour- 
 able wind, sometimes more than seven ; they steamed five knots against the monsoon, when 
 moderate. The trans-shipment of coals, which took place three times, caused an average 
 detention of three to four hours. A similar application of steamers as tugs might no 
 doubt be made useful in certain parts of this route, and thereby tend greatly to lessen the 
 expenses of fuel. 
 
 t It will be seen by my Journal of the marsh across the Desert of Suez, that a quan- 
 tity of excellent water has recently been made to flow from a well excavated between Suez 
 and Cairo, and that the same enterprising individual who caused this discovery is continuing 
 his employment of the English borers who effected it. 
 
 hours at 50s. per ton, and for 252 hours at 35.?. per ton. The consumption 
 of coals for the steam vessels to be used in this service has been fixed at 
 11 cwt. 14 lbs. of coals per hour. By these calculations it is found that 
 the annual expenditure of fuel required for the steamers to perform 
 twelve double voyages between Bombay and Suez will amount to 
 £14,640. It is further estimated, that from £20 to £25 per ton is ex- 
 pended in building steamers and preparing them for sea, which sum is 
 exclusive of machinery. There will be in this case an expenditure for 
 engines, &c. for each vessel of from £7000 to £8000, at Bombay,* making 
 a total outlay, according to the greater estimate of £48,750, on which 
 8 per cent, per annum will be taken to renew the capital, and for wear 
 and tear, making a yearly charge of nearly £3900 against the fund. 
 In addition, £1500 a year is allowed as adequate to repairs, and also 
 £900 a year for stores for the three vessels, f 
 
 It remains to estimate the expense of victualling and paying the 
 officers and crews, who will, we suppose, as far as possible, be drawn 
 from the Indian navy, which arrangement will tend to introduce in that 
 service knowledge, which, in the event of war, will have the most bene- 
 ficial effect. The arrangement will also relieve the government of a very 
 considerable source of expense, by giving employment to a great portion 
 of their marine establishment. The following may be taken as the pro- 
 bable charge for three vessels. 
 
 B. Rupees. 
 
 3 Commanders . . . 
 
 ... 1200 
 
 3 Chief Officers . . . 
 
 ... 600 
 
 3 Second Do. 
 
 ... 450 
 
 6 Midshipmen ... 
 
 ... 360 
 
 3 Boatswains 
 
 ... 120 
 
 3 Carpenters 
 
 ... 105 
 
 3 Butlers 
 
 60 
 
 3 Cooks 
 
 36 
 
 9 Servants 
 
 ... 72 
 
 3 Serangs 
 
 60 
 
 6 Tindals 
 
 90 
 
 60 Lascars 
 
 ... 540 
 
 102 
 
 3693 
 
 B. Rupees. 
 
 3 First Engineers 
 
 600 
 
 3 Second do. 
 
 
 450 
 
 3 Third do. ... 
 
 
 300 
 
 3 Armourers 
 
 
 120 
 
 24 Stokers 
 
 
 57 6 
 
 6 Apprentices 
 
 
 48 
 
 12 Trimmers 
 
 
 120 
 
 54 
 
 
 2214 
 
 102 
 
 Add . . 
 
 3693 
 
 156 
 
 Total . . 
 
 5907 
 
 * Leitb and London steamers from 390 to 420 tons are most complete, with machi- 
 
 nery for £ 7000 , and require little repair for years. 
 
 t These calculations are from “ An Account of Steam Vessels, and Proceedings con- 
 nected with Steam in British India.” by G, A. Prinsep. Calcutta, 1830. 
 
 Provision money for 156 persons, at 4 rupees per month each . 624 
 
 Additional table allowance for officers, per month . . . 1000 
 
 Pay for the establishment, as above ...... 5907 
 
 * Total for pay and provisions, per month "Rupees 7531 
 
 Which being turned into pounds sterling, at 1.?. 9 d. each rupee, average 
 exchange at Bombay by last Asiatic Register, gives £658. 195. 3d. as 
 the monthly charge for pay and provisions, or an annual expenditure of 
 £7907. 115. for the same object. 
 
 The following is the result of the foregoing calculations : 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 Estimate to renew capital, and for wear and tear .... 3,900 0 0 
 
 Pay and victualling of officers and crew ..... 7*907 ® ® 
 
 Annual repairs and for stores ....... 2,400 0 0 
 
 For casual expenses, including two floating magazines at Suez and ) ^ ^ ^ 
 
 at Aden, supplies of water, &c. . . . . . 5 5 
 
 df?15,700 0 0 
 
 To which is to be added the annual expense for fuel . . . 14,640 0 0 
 
 Making a total expense for the establishment in the Indian Seas of =£30,340 0 0 
 
 By comparing this estimate with the expenses of steam packets in 
 the Mediterranean, as noted a few pages back, it will be evident that no 
 item is here under-rated. It will be necessary to bear in mind, that the 
 Mediterranean packets are 60 or 80 tons larger than the others, and exceed 
 them by 20-horse power. The probable expenses, exclusive of fuel, for 
 three vessels, such as form the India establishment by those estimated, 
 
 * An account of steam vessels, already alluded to by G. A. Prinsep, has been my 
 guide for this item of expenditure. This gentleman, after an able investigation on the 
 subject as connected with India, gives the following opinion : “ From such documents as 
 I have been able to procure, the actual outlay per annum for each steam vessel, exclusive 
 of coals, appears to have been forty thousand rupees." The allowance presented in the 
 estimate exceeds the above by nearly fifty per cent. Mr. Prinsep’s calculation was for the 
 Irawaddy, a vessel with two 40-horse power. 
 
 Since making the above estimate, I have been favored with the strength of the 
 crew of the Hugh Lindsay. That steamer has been named as having two 70-horse power 
 engines, but it will be seen that her compliment of officers and men are not greater than 
 has been allowed in these calculations. The Hugh Lindsay has 
 
 1 Commander 
 
 2 Engineers 
 
 1 Lieutenant 
 
 1 Assistant ditto 
 
 1 Master 
 
 20 Stokers or Native Firemen 
 
 1 Surgeon 
 
 — 
 
 1 Purser 
 
 23 
 
 10 European Seamen 
 
 29 
 
 14 Lascars 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 52 Total. 
 
 29 
 
 — 
 
APPLICATION OF STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA, 
 
 65 
 
 would be less than £8,895, or little more than half what has been allowed. 
 There is little doubt but the amount of disbursements in these calcu- 
 lations would be found to exceed the total expense of maturing the 
 project, as each part in detail has been put on the most liberal footing. 
 
 Here the account of expenditure ceases, without any charge being 
 designedly omitted. An enumeration will now follow of probable 
 receipts, but in this calculation the result must be of a more dubious 
 nature, and leaves greater room for speculation to be decided by expe- 
 rience. In looking to the return likely to arise from the opening of 
 this new line of navigation, some time must be expected to elapse, 
 before prejudices are removed, so as to cause a general transportation 
 of wealth over unknown seas, and across solitary deserts. The imme- 
 diate return of profit would be the Post Office receipts; and if they 
 are shewn to be equivalent to the expenses of the undertaking, it ought 
 to be at once attempted. The probable return will be shewn far to 
 exceed the expenses even in the first year, and it must be evident that 
 every succeeding voyage will tend to increase the benefits to be expected 
 from this intercourse. A prospectus for establishing steam navigation to 
 India, via the Cape of Good Hope, was published some time since by 
 Mr. Waghorn, and affords some useful data for our calculation; among 
 which is the following : 
 
 By an official document from the Postmaster General at Bengal, for the 
 
 year 1828, it is stated that the number of letters received from \ 84,673 
 
 England that year was ........ j 
 
 The number of letters sent from thence to England the same year were . 54,222 
 
 Passing annually between Bengal and England . . 138,895 
 
 From the situation of Calcutta, it being the most distant of our sea- 
 ports in India, it will be evident that no letters are sent there for other 
 Presidencies ; we will, therefore, take the number of letters set down as 
 the portion for Bengal, and if the relative importance of the two other 
 Presidencies, locally and commercially be considered,* there cannot, in 
 
 * The Bengal Presidency has a larger civil and military establishment than either Madras 
 or Bombay ; and there are more European inhabitants at the former place. Madras is next 
 to Bengal in its establishments j and this place has importance attached to it, as being the 
 station of the Admiral, and the dep6t of the British Navy, serving in the Indian Seas. The 
 Bombay Presidency has also some peculiar advantages: Bombay is the station of the Super- 
 intendant, and of the Indian Navy, and it is a more commercial place than Madras, from its 
 being situated on the west side of the continent, and from being the channel of communi- 
 cation with the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. 
 
 proportion to the above, be a less number of letters than 100,000 annu- 
 ally passing between England and Madras, and at least 80,000 in the 
 same period are sent between England and Bombay. It is not easy to 
 imagine what the lists will swell to if the doubtful and protracted mode 
 of conveyance now in use be replaced by a means of transit as certain, 
 and having half the duration of the best sailing ship in the most favour- 
 able season of the year. The Hon. Company’s ship, Thomas Coutts, made 
 the passage from England to Bombay in 84 days, and another ship, the 
 Atlas, in 83 days ; and these instances are of such rare occurrence as to 
 be specially recorded. 
 
 Before taking a further view of Post Office receipts, it will be proper 
 to shew the anxiety that exists throughout India to promote the change. 
 At Calcutta, in August 1828, a letter was written by the secretary to the 
 Government, addressed to Mr. Waghorn, authorising the following 
 charges, subject to further arrangements, as compensation for conveyance 
 of letters from England to India by means of a steam packet. 
 
 
 If less than 
 
 If less than 
 
 
 75 days 
 
 85 days 
 
 
 included. 
 
 included. 
 
 For each single letter not exceeding one sicca weight 
 
 If exceeding one sicca, double ; if exeeding two, treble ; 
 and so on. 
 
 3 Rupees. 
 
 2 Rupees. 
 
 Newspapers 
 
 3 „ 
 
 2 „ 
 
 Accounts, law papers, &c., and not containing letters 
 
 3 „ 
 
 2 „ 
 
 By this schedule, the postage by the projected route, being under 75 
 days, would be 5s. 3d. for each letter. Another letter to Mr. Waghorn 
 from the secretary to Government at Madras, October 7, 1828, stated 
 “ that the Right Honourable the Governor in Council is willing to ex- 
 tend to this Presidency the arrangement sanctioned by the Supreme 
 Government, of levying postage on letters and parcels which may be 
 brought from England to this country on the steam packet which you 
 propose to establish.” These communications were in consequence of 
 a projected plan for navigation to India via the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Mr. Waghorn failed in establishing it, although his spirit and perseve- 
 rance deserved better success. It is difficult to see why the tedious 
 voyage by the Cape of Good Hope of 13,700 miles, as traversed by the 
 Enterprize steamer, should be preferred to the one we are treating of, 
 which is not one half the distance. 
 
 Another official document from Bombay will shew the importance 
 
 attached to quick communication with England on the west side of 
 India. This notice applies to the conveyance of letters by the Hugh 
 Lindsay, in the voyages, already noticed, by steam packets through the 
 Red Sea. 
 
 “ Government Notification. — The overland postage to England 
 chargeable at the Bombay Post Office on all letters and packets sent 
 by the steamers is as follows : If the letter or packet weighs not more 
 than one rupee, four rupees ; if it weighs more than one rupee, but not 
 more than two rupees, eight rupees; and so on in proportion.” By 
 this it will be seen that the smallest postage is fixed at 7s. sterling. 
 
 The Honourable East India Government have most liberally agreed 
 to permit their officers, who proceed to Egypt on account of ill health, 
 to retain their allowances, as they at present do if they proceed to the 
 Cape of Good Hope, or to places eastward of it. This arrangement 
 will, in all probability, be most beneficial to numbers ; and will preclude 
 the necessity that now exists of persons leaving India on account of 
 illness and debility, bound to Europe or elsewhere, running nearer the 
 equator, into warm weather before a colder climate can be obtained. A 
 voyage of one fortnight in the direction of Egypt will cause the ther- 
 mometer to fall to 70°, and will soon introduce the invalid to the fine 
 climate of Upper Egypt, or to the Mediterranean and Europe, by which 
 arrangement many lives would no doubt be saved. 
 
 A portion of the letters that pass between India and England are 
 addressed to soldiers, and consequently, by Act of Parliament, only 
 liable to a small postage ; such are supposed to be included in the 
 specified numbers. On the other hand, the reduced rate of carriage this 
 plan admits of, above what has been voluntarily offered for postage 
 throughout India, is likely to create a large increase of correspondence, 
 and the regular intervals between the periods of arrival would not fail 
 greatly to extend the circulation of periodicals and newspapers. With 
 these conflicting arguments it may be allowed to fix as a minimum. 
 
 The probable number of letters to pass between England and the Bengal } 
 
 Presidency at .......... j 
 
 Between England and Madras ........ 100,000 
 
 And between this country and Bombay ...... 80,000 
 
 Or annually to pass between England and India .... 300,000 
 
 Newspapers between England and India, at least 600 daily, at a postage ^ 
 qf Is. each * ... 3 
 
66 
 
 APPLICATION OF STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA. 
 
 Periodicals, law papers, samples, &c. by weight, and double letters, 
 including bills, &c. would amount to at least £30,000 at the Three Pre- 
 sidencies. Letters to Ceylon, and to other places in the Indian Seas, 
 by this channel, would be very considerable, but are not estimated 
 here. It is averaged that there will be eight passengers each trip, 
 and that £50 would be a fair charge for the voyage from Bombay to 
 Egypt. This would give an annual receipt of £9600, of which one 
 half might go for messing, and one half towards defraying the expenses 
 of the vessel. An inland postage in India to cover the expense of the 
 dak establishment in that country would be very trifling.* 
 
 The following is a recapitulation of what has been determined in 
 these calculations. 
 
 RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURE. 
 
 300,000 letters at a postage of 3s. 
 each, being one half the sum vo- 
 luntarily offered at the Three Pre- 
 sidencies ..... . £45,000 
 
 Newspapers for India 10,000 
 
 Periodical Law Papers, Bills of Ex- 
 change, &c. for ditto 30,000 
 
 Passage Money as above 4,800 
 
 Establishment of Steam Packets 
 for Mediterranean service fixed 
 
 at £5,974 12 
 
 Expenses in Egypt 1000 0 
 
 Steam establishment between 
 Egypt and India, including fuel 
 and every expense for three 
 vessels . 30,340 0 
 
 Total receipt £89,800 
 
 Deduct expenditure . . 37,314 
 
 Balance in favor of the project . .£52,486 
 
 Total . . £37,314 12 
 
 * The following memoranda will illustrate the above estimates. 
 
 Europeans residing in India, according to the East India Directory. 
 
 Honourable Company’s Civil Servants . . 
 
 Bengal. 
 . 490 
 
 Madras. 
 
 210 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 150 
 
 „ Military ditto 
 
 2800 
 
 2000 
 
 1100 
 
 „ Marine Board and Navy 
 
 . 150 
 
 — 
 
 130 
 
 
 3440 
 
 2210 
 
 1380 
 
 2210 
 
 3440 
 
 Total in India • • . . 7030 
 
 To which are to be added Officers of Supreme Court of Judicature . . 200 
 
 „ Ditto in 24 of H. M. Regiments in India . . 870 
 
 „ Ditto H. M. Navy and Marines . . . . 100 
 
 Also there are of Bankers, Merchants, Agents, Clerks, Missionaries, Indigo 
 
 Planters, &c. not in the service, about . . . . . . 1900 
 
 10,100 
 
 If an average of fifteen letters annually be received by each of the above individuals, and 
 the like number despatched, the numbers in the estimate will be fully borne out, and also 
 
 Besides this enormous profit of £52,000 that is likely immediately to 
 arise from giving effect to the plan, it must be remembered that 
 four fine steamers will be added to the service of our government ; 
 employment also will be given to a large portion of the Indian navy, 
 whose expense would by this establishment be reduced nearly £10,000. 
 It will be naturally asked why a scheme so feasible, and apparently so 
 profitable, has not ere this been brought into operation ; and what are 
 the objections 1 Apathy, that governs Eastern habits, is a decided enemy 
 to locomotion. The winds in the Bed Sea have their horrors, and 
 the plagues of Egypt are arrayed to stay the undertaking. The gen- 
 tleman whose treatise on steam navigation in India has been so often 
 quoted, dwells on the importance of introducing it in that country, — “ in 
 a political as well as in a commercial point of view.” He makes 
 the following remark. “ To Europe alone can we look for that 
 concentrated skill, which, by the rapid march of invention, shall 
 perfect the machinery we require; improvements must necessarily be 
 slow, which are wholly dependent upon the local talents and re- 
 sources of India.”* It will be seen, by reference to this and other 
 Journals, that the Red Sea offers no decided obstacle to navigators at 
 any season of the year. The periodical winds which prevail there are 
 occasionally boisterous, but are less likely to affect the average rate of a 
 steamer than weather encountered by Mediterranean packets. During 
 three months the narrow Sea of Suez is to sailing vessels rendered difficult 
 to navigate, in consequence of strong north winds.j* At an unfavourable 
 period, packets would, if necessary, be landed at Cosseir, from whence 
 dromedaries would pass with them to Alexandria in eight days, or about 
 the same time the post would take to proceed by Suez. Fine weather, 
 and calm . or light winds that prevail in the Gulf of Arabia and the 
 
 the larger number according to the official return, when the following is taken into account; 
 viz. the correspondence of upwards of 100 banking and agency houses, and the letters of 
 the Governor-General, Commanders-in-Chief, and public departments ; nor are double 
 letters estimated for, which would no doubt exist to a large extent. There are about 
 250 corps, and as many public departments, agency houses, & c. that would take at least 
 one daily paper each. 
 
 * Mr. G. A. Prinsep. 
 
 t Horsburgh, whose Directory is authority for navigators of the Red Sea, says, “ It is 
 almost impossible to beat up against the northerly winds to Suez, in June, July, and 
 August.” This remark applies to sailing vessels, and is reasonable when the narrow sea 
 and shoals are considered. 
 
 Red Sea, are often spoken of as causing long passages. When the mon- 
 soon is at its height, European vessels never hesitate to undertake the 
 voyage between Egypt and India. Should it be thought that the vessels 
 named for this navigation have not sufficient tonnage, and are wanting 
 in power, the objection is removed by substituting larger vessels. The 
 power there exists of performing a much longer voyage by steamers 
 than is here pointed out, will be made evident by the following com- 
 parison, A steam packet of 300 tons, with two 50-horse engines, will 
 only be able to carry 180 tons of coals, or about 15 days’ consump- 
 tion, retaining about GO tons space for stores and accommodation. A 
 steam packet of 800 tons, with two 100-horse engines, will consume 
 390 tons of coals in the same time, and have upwards of 200 tons 
 spare room, exclusive of 180 tons allowed for machinery. In pro- 
 secuting this voyage a great inconvenience will be felt by individuals 
 being detained in quarantine, but it cannot affect the regularity 
 of the Post Office establishment, as letters are always passed after a 
 trifling delay in the process of fumigation. It has been remarked in 
 another part of this work, where it has been fully discussed, that the 
 plague has of late years been seldom known in Egypt, and is likely to 
 be totally expelled from the soil, in consequence of measures taken by 
 the government. Should it happen that passengers arrive in the country 
 when the plague is there, it would be in their power to escape it by taking 
 certain precautions which Europeans practice to avoid contagion. At 
 present there is a trifling postage on Indian letters; they are generally 
 forwarded through counting-houses, and go in the ship s letter-bag. It 
 must be evident that by adopting this project a large number of Indian 
 letters will pay inland postage and pass through the London Post Office 
 that do not at present; a considerable benefit, which has not been noticed, 
 might also be expected to arise from intercourse and postage with Egypt, 
 and from passengers between Alexandria and Europe; in addition to which, 
 half the profit arising from the project might be placed to the credit 
 of the Home Government as an offset for free carriage of the mails from 
 England by the Malta steam packet, and as an equivalent for the passage 
 of letters between London and Falmouth. From these various sources 
 of profit the probable advantage to the Home Post Office would, at the 
 beginning be between thirty and forty thousand pounds. The Indian 
 Government would also derive a large increase of revenue, independent 
 of the valuable acquisition to their service from the introduction of three 
 efficient steam vessels. 
 
AN ENQUIRY INTO AN OVERLAND ROUTE, 
 
 AS APPLICABLE TO INDIVIDUAL ACCOMMODATION, AND FOR STEAM PASSAGE VESSELS. 
 
 The next consideration is the advantage of steam vessels as regards 
 individual accommodation, by the route already described. There 
 are many reasons for proposing that the packet communication should 
 from its importance be distinct, and take precedence of passage 
 vessels ; the latter, by causing too sudden an influx of strangers into 
 Egypt, might create jealousy and distrust in a country where ignorance 
 and religious prejudice are deeply rooted and not to be immedi- 
 ately removed. We have estimated that eight passengers would 
 proceed monthly by the packets ; these would very soon establish 
 confidence, and open the road to a more general intercourse. The 
 authorities throughout the dominions of the Pacha of Egypt know the 
 friendly feelings of their sovereign towards strangers, and are found 
 to act on all occasions in conformity to it. The Arab population also 
 evince a readiness to co-operate for their own advantage. Passengers 
 who go in the packets by this route would almost invariably land or 
 embark at Cosseir. Proceeding thence to Thebes, and down the Nile to 
 Alexandria, or the contrary, would fully occupy the intervening time 
 till the packet of the following month is in readiness to depart. 
 
 At favourable seasons there would, probably, be passengers re- 
 quiring further accommodation to and from Egypt than the packets are 
 intended to provide for. This could be effected by shortening the length 
 of the stages, and establishing depots at the Islands of Socatra and 
 Camaran; by which arrangement little more than 100 tons of coal at one 
 time would ever be required for a voyage. Socatra is the nearest land 
 to Bombay in the direction of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel, the other 
 station nearly divides the distance from Socatra to Cosseir. (See the 
 Outline Map.) The stages would in such a case be from Bombay to 
 Socatra 1137 miles, to Camaran 835, and to Cosseir 795 miles. At the 
 moderate rate of six miles per hour this voyage would be performed in 
 twenty-four days, allowing two days for delay at each station. Should 
 it be found advisable to forward the mail by the same conveyance, it 
 could be sent on dromedaries from Cosseir 350 miles to Alexandria in 
 a week. 
 
 From Cosseir, a journey of four or five days brings the traveller to 
 
 Thebes, on the banks of the Nile, where four days at least ought to be 
 given to exploring the remains* From Thebes the journey to Cairo is 
 prosecuted on the river, and many places of interest lie in the route. 
 A few only can be visited in the time allowed, which could not exceed 
 two or three days. The voyage from Thebes to Cairo, with “ seeing the 
 lions,” will altogether have occupied about fifteen days. Cairo and its 
 environs afford amusement for at least four or five days; the journey 
 from thence to Alexandria averages four days. The remaining five or six 
 days devoted to sojourning will be fully occupied viewing the remains, 
 and exploring the environs, of the ancient capital of the Ptolemies, and 
 once denominated “ the pride of the East.”f At Alexandria vessels 
 will be found proceeding to the different parts of the Mediterranean. 
 Malta is selected by travellers as the favourite port in Europe, on 
 account of its well regulated quarantine establishment; and on this 
 route it would be the more desirable as being the rendezvous of the 
 packets. In proceeding from Europe towards India, more time must be 
 allowed for the navigation of the Nile; and as this must depend on 
 the season, it is difficult- to fix any period as a general rule. To proceed 
 from Alexandria to Cairo may be taken at five days ; from thence to 
 Thebes the voyage generally occupies about sixteen days, and to cross 
 the Desert to Cosseir five days more. This estimate, if correct, will give 
 the traveller ten or twelve days to explore the country through which 
 he passes. The means of performing the journey in the time here 
 quoted has been considered in the Journal, as also its probable expense, 
 duration, &c. 
 
 A double voyage for a steamer between Bombay and Suez, including 
 fuel, to cover all expenses, has already been estimated at a cost of 
 about £2,500. The same sum would defray the charges of the double 
 
 * For particulars of this, journey and the mode of proceeding from Cosseir to Alexan- 
 dria, the reader is referred to my Journal. 
 
 t A delay of six days for the mail to cross the Isthmus, added to the month that 
 would intervene from the arrivals of one packet to that of another, would afford about five 
 weeks for the excursion between Alexandria and Cosseir. 
 
 voyage here proposed. In this voyage there would be forty-five hours 
 coals saved by not proceeding so high up the Red Sea as to Suez, and 
 another saving of expense in consequence of coals being furnished 
 cheaper at Socatra than at Aden. Those advantages are about equi- 
 valent to the extra price attending the transportation of coals to 
 Camaran above those at Aden, and the expense of supplies at Cosseir 
 above that at Suez. The Island of Socatra* has harbours, water, and 
 inhabitants, and carries on some trade. (See Journal, and View of 
 Socatra.) The Island of Camaran is a field of coral sixteen or twenty 
 feet above the sea. There is a secure harbour easy of access, where 
 any sized vessel may lie close to the shore. A little fort overlooks about 
 one hundred houses inhabited by Arabs, who seem to possess a consi- 
 derable spirit of industry. Water is to be had close to the village. The 
 island lies about twenty miles off shore opposite the town of Loheia. 
 (See Journal.) Camaran is well situated for trade with the inhabitants 
 of Central Arabia, and with the people of great part of Africa. Ca- 
 maran, like Socatra, has a nominal sovereign, and is under the chief 
 of Saana. Islands have no trifling advantage as depots, where the pre- 
 datory disposition of the inhabitants is so remarkable, as it has been 
 for centuries hereditary, and not likely to change. 
 
 There can be little doubt of the success of passage vessels, particu- 
 larly during the months of November, December, and January, when 
 persons would be desirous to proceed to and from India, this being the 
 most favorable season for exploring the antiquities of Egypt. Supposing 
 
 * “ Bullocks, goats, sheep, and fish, may be procured here at reasonable prices, and 
 good water 3 this runs from the mountains into a sandy valley among date-trees, about a 
 quarter of a mile from the town. The natives are poor, and have been, in general, hospitable 
 to strangers. Rice is an essential article to barter with them for refreshments. Good 
 aloes may be procured here, and at times dragon’s blood in small quantities 3 grapes, water- 
 melons, pumpkins, oranges, and plantains, may be got in March and April, and plenty of 
 dates in June. There are other places where ships might anchor besides those already 
 mentioned, particularly at a bay at the north-west end of the island, where there is a 
 small rivulet.” — Horsburgh’s India Directory, 1826. 
 
STEAM PACKETS TO NAVIGATE BETWEEN EUROPE AND INDIA. 
 
 68 APPLICATION OF 
 
 that twenty-four persons perform, the voyage each way through the Red 
 Sea, at a cost of £50, the whole expenses of the steamer, including fuel, will 
 be paid off. If packets are sent during these months by this conveyance, 
 it is highly probable that the time of communication between Cosseir and 
 Alexandria, (across three hundred and fifty miles of country,) by means 
 
 of dromedaries, may be reduced to a week. Passengers could not proceed 
 by such conveyance, but packets will arrive only a day or two later than 
 by the regular route to Suez. In regard to the passage vessels, it will 
 be seen that much must remain to be regulated by experience, which 
 practical operation will very soon furnish. As to the practicability of 
 
 their being established fully to accomplish the above object, a personal 
 inspection of all the places named in the route, and a due attention to 
 their situations, &c., leaves not the slightest doubt. Should the Post 
 Office favour this plan of combining public and private accommodation, 
 it will, in all probability, lead to the following result. 
 
 ADVANTAGE OF COMBINING THE POST OFFICE AND PASSAGE CONVEYANCES, 
 
 THEREBY TO INTRODUCE 
 
 MORE FORCE AND EFFICIENCY THROUGHOUT THE WHOLE ESTABLISHMENT. AND REDUCE THE TIME OF TRANSIT 
 
 A question arises, whether it may not be desirable at once to com- 
 
 bine the passage and packet communication, and establish larger vessels 
 with more power than any that have yet been named. The policy of 
 this point, although apparently desirable, must depend in a great measure 
 on the understanding between the governments of the countries inter- 
 ested, and whether Egypt be yet prepared for the introduction of so 
 extensive an enterprise. That it will eventually take place, there can 
 be but little doubt. The additional receipts arising by this combined 
 plan would enable steam vessels of 600 tons burthen, with engines pos- 
 sessing two hundred horse power, to be established throughout the 
 communication. The average rate of speed for such vessels would not 
 be less than nine miles an hour* It will appear from data already given, 
 that to perform the voyage from Bombay to Aden, and from thence to 
 Suez, at the above speed, the steam will be in action 330 hours. Pro- 
 ceeding likewise at the same rate of transit from Egypt to Malta, to 
 Gibraltar, and to Falmouth, about 350 hours would be required to per- 
 form the second portion of the voyage. If one packet were stationed 
 mid-way in each line of route, say at Aden and at Gibraltar, to get up 
 their steam on the appearance of the approaching steamers, no delay 
 
 * The United Kingdom steamer, of 200 -horse power engines, goes between the Leith 
 Roads and the River Thames, (Greenwich.) She performs the double voyage, or 1000 miles, 
 on an average, in 104 hours, being at the rate of 9f miles per hour. 
 
 would impede the progress of the mail, and the packets that arrived 
 to relieve those in the middle station would be ready to start in the 
 same way with the return mail. A rail-road, or other means of quick 
 transportation, might connect these lines of packets where the Isthmus 
 of Suez is narrowest, or across the seventy miles of desert that separate 
 the Pelusium mouth of the Nile on the Mediterranean shore from the 
 Sea of Suez. The passage between the seas by such an operation might 
 be achieved in a day. By the above it will be found that the commu- 
 nication between England and our territories in India would only 
 require twenty-eight days to perform. It must be evident, that it is 
 not only in the power of science at the present age to bring India 
 within one month’s travel of this country, but it is very probable that 
 enterprise, so transcendant with British merchants, will effect it. 
 
 A few observations are offered to illustrate the project so well worthy 
 of mature consideration. The vessels proposed for the service are of 
 six hundred tons burthen; they will consume* about li ton of coal per 
 hour, or 27 tons in twenty-four hours. No greater distance than 1700 
 miles will occur throughout the route, and to perform that distance 
 at the rate named would take 190 hours, or cause, at the utmost, 220 
 
 • According to Admiralty Report, 26 tons in twenty-fonr hours. The United 
 Kingdom, 200 -horse power engines, in performing the 1000 miles just mentioned, expends 
 110 tons of coal, or little more tban a ton per hour. 
 
 BETWEEN ENGLAND AND INDIA TO ONE MONTH. 
 
 tons of fuel to be consumed. The engines, &c. of the specified class 
 of steamers would weigh 180 tons. It will therefore be found that 200 
 tons of the vessel are still disposable for accommodation. The expense 
 of such a line of packets, as is here adverted to, includmg the additional 
 consumption of fuel above those already proposed for the Post Office 
 service, would be about £1000 per month for the whole establishment. 
 This mode of voyaging would, no doubt, cause Egypt to become a 
 favourite stage for the traveller to and from India; numbers would 
 thus rescue from the monotony of sea voyages five or six months of 
 precious furlough; and if a third month be given to the double 
 journey, an acquaintance could be made with a country decidedly 
 the most interesting in the world to the traveller and antiquarian. 
 It has been presumed that the steamers we are treating of would 
 combine the duties of packets and of passage vessels. The extra ex- 
 pense of the establishment between England and India has been said 
 to be £1000 per month, and this would be covered by an average 
 monthly increase of ten passengers each voyage, providing half their 
 passage money already named for this mode of travelling, or £50 from 
 each, is attributed to defray the charge of the vessels. The additional 
 correspondence and impetus to trade that would arise from such an 
 enterprise as this being successfully established, are altogether incal- 
 culable. 
 
WINDS IN THE RED SEA, 
 
 AND THE MEANS OF PROCEEDING ON THIS ROUTE BY SAILING VESSELS. 
 
 69 
 
 The 1 
 
 : voyage between Egypt and India is encountered at all seasons 
 by European sailing vessels, but it is attended with such delay, when the 
 winds are unfavourable, and through seas where calms or light airs are 
 of such frequent occurrence, that sailing vessels only undertake it in 
 urgent cases. The extent of the Red Sea, from Suez to its mouth, is 
 about 1200 miles; it widens from either end, and has an average breadth 
 of about two degrees. If half a degree be taken off from either side of 
 the sea, in consequence of the beds of coral and islands, there will be a 
 great canal, twenty degrees in length, with a clear mid-channel passage 
 sixty miles broad. The periodical breezes that prevail in the centre of 
 the sea are seldom felt within the reefs and islands that form lines 
 parallel with the coast, in consequence of evaporation that takes place 
 over the surface of the coral and deadens the wind. The inner channel 
 is therefore left to be influenced by the phenomenon of the land and sea 
 breeze, known throughout the tropics. During each year in the northern 
 latitudes of the Red Sea, and at Suez, north winds prevail for at least 
 nine months, and at the opposite end of the sea south winds are found 
 to prevail for nearly the same length of time, whilst the winds between 
 these extremities, or from 18° to 20° of latitude, are light and variable. 
 By means of the diurnal winds above mentioned, or those called land 
 and sea breezes, native vessels perform their voyages creeping along the 
 shore, and anchoring each night. The inner channel, where these breezes 
 are found, owing to numerous shoals, can never be rendered available 
 for general navigation. 
 
 At its embouchure the Red Sea narrows to six leagues; its course 
 is turned from south to east by hills projecting from the African chain 
 of mountains, and terminating at Cape Guardafui. The opposite side 
 of the channel is confined by a range of mountains which extends to 
 the south point of the peninsula of Arabia. An island lying nearer the 
 Arabian than the African side, divides the outlet of the Red Sea into 
 two streams, called the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel, both of which are 
 navigable. Beyond this passage, as far as the Island of Socatra, is the 
 Gulph of Aden, with the town of that name, situate at the southern 
 extremity of Arabia. Twenty miles from the Straits, and between Aden 
 
 and Bombay, the sea is influenced by the regular south-west and north- 
 east monsoons known throughout the Indian Ocean. Currents in the 
 Red Sea depend chiefly on the duration and strength of winds, and 
 are not in mid-channel at any time of serious consideration. 
 
 The means afforded for prosecuting the voyage to and from In- 
 dia, independent of aid from steam vessels, will be estimated ; and 
 here the traveller will do well to look with due attention into the 
 many difficulties and delays he is likely to meet with. Without such 
 precaution, a voyage commenced with promised delight, and hoped- 
 for dispatch, must often be attended with vexatious disappointment, 
 and obstacles would often be encountered when furthest from any 
 possible remedy. Travellers have been known to proceed from Europe 
 as far as Cairo on their route towards India and to return, not being 
 able to advance through the Red Sea. The voyage from the east 
 towards Europe originates in the regions of periodical winds, or mon- 
 soons, and is not attended with the same doubtful results as that from 
 Europe to India. These remarks regarding navigation in the Red Sea 
 apply more particularly to native conveyances; European vessels so 
 seldom frequent those parts, that no dependence can be placed by tra- 
 vellers on meeting them. 
 
 The winds that blow in the Red Sea, although periodical, are influ- 
 enced, as has been stated, by the position of the mountains which border 
 on the Gulph, and are at all times liable to variations, as are seasons in 
 every part of the globe. In the north of the sea the north wind prevails 
 for a great portion of the year, beginning in February, and terminating 
 in November; during the first portion of that period it is variable, and 
 inclining to the west. It is found to blow steadier and with its greatest 
 strength in the middle period, or during June, July, and August, after 
 which it moderates, and inclines to the east until November. Between 
 November and February, south winds extend to the upper latitudes of 
 the Red Sea. From the above it would appear that the voyage from 
 Suez to Bab-el-Mandel may be performed during nine months in each 
 year, but it will be found that opposite or southerly winds prevail in 
 the south of the Red Sea from September to the end of May. Northerly 
 
 winds prevail for the remainder of the year, or from May to September, 
 the whole extent of the sea, and this is, no doubt, caused by the Etesian 
 or north-west wind, that blows at the same time in the Mediterranean. 
 In this latter period, therefore, the wind admits of vessels sailing from 
 Suez to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel. At the bottom of the Red Sea 
 the ranges of mountain on either side directs the strong winds that blow 
 through the Straits. The north wind which prevails from May to Sep- 
 tember meets resistance from the African chain of mountains that 
 bounds the south of the Gulf, and circles towards Cape Guardafui, while 
 on the opposite side of the sea it is confined by the south end of the 
 Arabian chain. The wind, therefore, is forced to take an easterly direc- 
 tion, and continues to blow to that quarter till met and governed by 
 the south-west monsoon which it meets near Socatra. The north-east 
 monsoon that blows in the Indian Ocean, and outside the Sea of Suez, 
 between September and May, is also contracted and strengthened by the 
 land adverted to. On approaching the mouth of the Red Sea, it blows 
 nearly into the Straits, and as it meets resistance on the African side, it 
 is turned to the north, causing southerly winds to prevail in the bottom 
 of the Red Sea, in opposition, as has been already stated, to prevailing 
 north winds at the time blowing from Suez. The formation of the 
 mountains will also account for the strong winds that at all times blow 
 through the Straits of Bab-el-Mandel. 
 
 If the voyager is proceeding to India by native conveyances, a further 
 obstruction independent of contrary winds will, in all probability, arise at 
 Mocha. The west wind that begins to blow in May, and that has been 
 said to offer fair from the Red Sea to India, is of such strength until 
 the middle of July, that it prevents native trading vessels from putting to 
 sea. This arrangement is seldom departed from, and is reasonable when 
 the rig and make of the buggalow and the inexperience of Arab navi- 
 gators are considered. Persons who arrive at Mocha en route to India, 
 between May and July, may, however, on emergency, procure buggalows 
 of eighty or one hundred tons to proceed on the voyage to India. Vessels, 
 such as the above, take advantage of changes or lulls of wind, and run 
 along the Arabian coast to Muscat, which they reach in ten or twelve 
 
70 
 
 days, and" from whence frequent opportunities offer for Bombay. The 
 vessel will most probably have her deck continually wet, and no cooking 
 or comfort can be expected on board. Previous to the fair wind for pro- 
 ceeding to India in May, or between September and that month, the 
 north-east monsoon is directly contrary for vessels sailing from the Red 
 Sea. There are, however, breaks in the monsoon during the period named, 
 and more particularly towards the latter part, when the wind moderates 
 for two or three days at a time, and varies to the north or west. These 
 changes are taken advantage of by vessels of the size previously men- 
 tioned, and if Aden, the first port outside the Red Sea, can be reached, the 
 voyage to Muscat will be made in six weeks or two months. The 
 natives are careful never to venture too far to prevent them anchoring, in 
 case of a change of wind or weather, and by attending closely to these 
 rules they at length attain their desired goal. At Muscat vessels fre- 
 quently touch on the voyage from Bussorah and Bagdad to Bombay, and 
 here there is no great danger of a long detention. The traveller on his 
 arrival at Mocha early in the year will therefore be much disappointed to 
 find, that, except by submitting to much inconvenience and expense to 
 proceed as above described, the time for obtaining a passage to India is 
 limited to the short period from the middle of July to the same time in 
 September. During this season of egress to the Indian Ocean, traders 
 are continually departing from Mocha and ports at the bottom of the Red 
 Sea, and they are enabled to make the voyage to Bombay in less than a 
 month. 
 
 In remarking on the home voyage by these seas, it will be seen, from 
 what has already been said of the prevailing winds in the regions 
 between Bombay and Suez, that vessels may sail from the former place 
 to Mocha in less than thirty days during any period between September 
 and May. A north-east wind would prevail between India and the Straits 
 of Bab-el-Mandel, and a south wind would be found in the bottom of the 
 Red Sea. In the high latitudes of the Red Sea north winds have been 
 stated to prevail from March to November ; the months of November, 
 December, and January, will therefore be found favourable for the voyage 
 throughout from Bombay to Suez. Vessels leaving Bombay previous to 
 September, and before the setting in of the north-east monsoon, would 
 encounter a foul wind, and in all probability be driven to the south of 
 Socatra. It is probable such vessels would be passed by others leaving 
 Bombay in October with the north-east wind. The most favourable 
 season for travellers arriving at Cosseir is during the months of Novem- 
 
 N AY IGATION IN THE RED SEA. 
 
 ber or December, if intending to explore Upper Egypt, and in those 
 months or in January if proceeding direct to Europe. The voyage to 
 Suez or Cosseir, by keeping the sea, will be performed from Bombay at 
 this season in five or six weeks ; but if the traveller trust to native con- 
 veyances, and their mode of navigating, he must expect much uncertainty 
 from causes already assigned, and months will be wasted, where weeks 
 ought to suffice. No entreaty will induce the native captains to cross 
 the Red Sea, until they reach a port high enough on the Arabian side 
 to ensure them making the opposite coast above Cosseir. I was twenty- 
 six days getting from Jiddah to Cosseir, in what was thought to be a 
 fine vessel, with a good commander. He obstinately followed the 
 Arabian coast until he got as high as Moila, after which he crossed, 
 and coasted down the opposite side to Cosseir. Eastern nations place 
 little value on time, and make no allowance for an opposite feeling in 
 others ; no expostulations will induce them to depart from custom. 
 
 The plague season, which begins at the end of February, will be 
 a consideration to many travellers, and although the pestilence occasion- 
 ally is not known in the country for many years together, it will be some 
 time before Europeans will be able to divest themselves of prejudice so 
 far as to visit Egypt in March, April, and May, without some reluctance. 
 From the causes assigned in different parts of the investigation it will be 
 seen, that in proceeding from England to India by sailing vessels by this 
 route, the most favourable period to arrive in Egypt would be between 
 May and July, or after the termination of the plague season, and in time 
 to arrive at Mocha for the traders going to India. If travellers reach 
 Egypt previous to the plague season, and wish to avoid the chance of its 
 appearance, they may proceed by the Nile to Upper Egypt, where there 
 is comparatively no danger, as the infection even when it does reach the 
 country lower down seldom extends higher than the latitude of Siout. 
 Travellers may in this case amuse themselves with exploring the antiqui- 
 ties on the banks of the Nile, and embark in the proper season at 
 Cosseir. By the above it will be evident that the voyage to or from India 
 by means of sailing vessels must at all times be most precarious, and never 
 likely to be of less duration than the passage round the Cape of Good 
 Hope. The uncertainty and trouble attending the journey by the route 
 has caused but little intercourse to take place, while the expenses of 
 interpreters and other exigencies that must arise in travelling through 
 an unfrequented country, has also prevented persons proceeding by it. 
 If European sailing vessels were procurable at Bombay and in the Red 
 
 Sea, and were to start at the most favourable seasons, there are a few 
 months in the year when travellers might expect to pass between India 
 and Egypt in a month or six weeks, and the voyage from England to the 
 latter country, or the contrary, may possibly be made in the same time. 
 When European vessels navigate these seas, they pay no attention to 
 winds as offering any decided obstacle, and always keep the middle 
 channel. Their voyages depend altogether on the season in which they 
 are made. When the winds admit of a direct run from Bombay to Suez, 
 or the contrary, it is made in four or five weeks, at other times it will 
 require as many months. In January 1830, the Honourable Company’s 
 vessel the Thetis left Jiddah on her return to Bombay on the 20th : she 
 was fourteen days getting to Mocha, and six weeks from Mocha to 
 Bombay. In June, Mrs. Elwood mentions that the George Cruttenden, 
 an English merchant ship, was fourteen days going from Jiddah to 
 Mocha, and only the same time in going from Mocha to Bombay. Colonel 
 Fitzclarence, who proceeded with despatches from Bombay in a cruiser of 
 the Honourable Company’s in the month of February, was near fifty days 
 in reaching Cosseir, in defiance of all endeavours to shorten the voyage ; 
 and we find by Mrs. Lushington’s Journal, that in November she pro- 
 ceeded in a cruiser of the Honourable Company’s, and made Mocha 
 fifteen days from Bombay, and was three weeks longer in getting to 
 Cosseir. 
 
 These few examples will shew the precarious nature of this naviga- 
 tion, and how little it is to be depended on even in ships that keep the sea, 
 and are scientifically managed. It is almost impossible to give any estimate 
 of the time or expense of proceeding by the same route by native vessels , 
 they will anchor at night and keep to the channel within the shoals ; in fa- 
 vourable weather they may average twelve or twenty days in the voyage 
 between Mocha and Jiddah, and fifteen or twenty-five days from the 
 latter place to Cosseir. The passage down the sea will be made in less 
 time, and there are parts of the coast between Jiddah and Mocha free 
 of shoals, where vessels proceed at night. The natives have no fixed price 
 for their services, and demand in proportion to the traveller s means, or 
 the urgency of his affairs, both of which they will endeavour to divine. 
 Instead of taking a vessel throughout the passage, for which an exorbitant 
 price will be demanded, the traveller would do better to make his bargain 
 to Jiddah, from thence to Loheia, or Mocha, and then to Bombay. The 
 demand will be from 150 to 300 Spanish dollars for each stage, or 
 [I from £90 to £180 for the whole voyage, exclusive of messing. Vessels, 
 
NAVIGATION IN THE RED SEA. 
 
 such as are above alluded to, afford indifferent accommodation to three 
 or four persons. 
 
 We have endeavoured fairly to point out to the traveller the obsta- 
 cles that exist in a communication by sailing vessels through this route 
 to India; the impossibility of its application, even for a season, to 
 general purposes where regularity is an object, will be evident, and 
 tends to shew an additional motive for the introduction of steamers. 
 
 As a further argument in favor of the latter project, the navigation 
 of the Red Sea, hitherto but imperfectly known, is now rendered safe, in 
 consequence of an accurate survey having been made by the Indian 
 navy ; the centre channel, which is the course for steam vessels, is 
 found free of danger. It is most satisfactory to find that our estimate 
 of the time required to make the passage between Egypt and India 
 is fully borne out by the excellent authority of Sir John Malcolm, 
 whose opinions are founded on the observations and experience of practi- 
 cal men, and after having performed, himself, a double voyage through the 
 Red Sea. The following remarks are in the work already alluded to, as 
 containing his views on the subject. — “ Despatches may be carried from 
 Bombay to Alexandria in twenty-four days for nine months in the year ; 
 during the other three months the progress of the steamers will be im- 
 peded by the violence of the northerly winds.” The passage up the Red 
 Sea during the three unfavourable months has already been discussed, 
 and every expected inconvenience will be obviated by the introduction 
 of powerful steamers, such as have been proposed in this project, instead 
 of others of only 270 tons contemplated in the above remark. If, how- 
 ever, in the narrow Sea of Suez, the north wind for the above period 
 should be found materially to delay the packets, they will land their 
 mails at the port of Cosseir, from whence it has been shewn they may 
 be forwarded overland to Alexandria, to reach that place in the speci- 
 fied time. Sir John Malcolm did not visit Socatra, and would not, 
 therefore, appear to have been satisfied as to the resources of that 
 island. In relation to a vessel like the Hugh Lindsay, adapted to 
 carry only six days’ coal, he necessarily deemed Aden, with all its 
 advantages, too long a stage from Bombay. In the portion of the 
 voyage without the Red Sea, the only weather likely to affect the regular 
 progress of the packets would be met during the months of June and 
 July, or when the south-west monsoon blows with considerable force 
 
 and in squalls ; but even during those months European sailing vessels, 
 although opposed by it, perform their voyage without difficulty. Our 
 statement regarding the facility of transport through Egypt is borne 
 out by Sir John Malcolm, who says, “ The Pacha of Egypt neither is 
 nor will be inimical to this line of communication ; on the contrary, he 
 will rejoice in this and every opportunity of meeting the wishes of 
 a country on whose friendship and good feeling he has become from his 
 condition so very dependent.” 
 
 The remaining point that calls for observation is the duration of 
 quarantine. It has been remarked in the pages of the Journal, that for 
 many years together the epidemic plague, which is the alleged cause of 
 quarantine, has not visited Egypt ; and it has been given as the opinion 
 of European medical men, that it may be totally removed from that 
 country. Such will therefore, in all probability, be the result of the 
 introduction of professional science and other salutary measures now 
 in progress in Egypt. The existing quarantine regulations are of very 
 questionable utility, and in some places they are maintained from 
 various interested motives. Some alleviation in them was attempted at 
 Malta, but it was immediately frustrated by other ports of the Medi- 
 terranean prohibiting communication with the relaxing place. The 
 quarantine is no where more strictly enforced than at Naples; but 
 there, as at Malta, where the plague broke out twenty years ago, it 
 was introduced by smuggling. The duration of confinement is in a 
 great measure arbitrary, and may be sixteen days or six weeks, accord- 
 ing to the bill of health brought from the last port ; the former is the 
 period of probation for persons arriving at Malta from Egypt in men- 
 of-war. Passengers, however, would not be exposed to quarantine 
 restrictions if they proceeded direct to England. 
 
 The Red Sea is not the only route by which it is hoped to establish 
 a steam communication between India and Europe. The line of the Eu- 
 phrates river and the Persian Gulf has been recommended. No steam 
 vessel has yet attempted a voyage in this direction, and we are not suffi- 
 ciently acquainted with the route fairly to discuss its merits. A reference 
 to the Map, however, will shew that a change of vessels must take place 
 to ascend the Euphrates, and the uncertainty of river navigation is also an 
 objection where regularity is required, both as regards public and pri- 
 
 
 vate convenience, for it has been shewn, that to ensure economy and 
 dispatch, the steamers’ movements in the Mediterranean and Indian 
 Seas must closely conform to each other. If, after a survey of the Eu- 
 phrates, the communication to India by the Persian Gulf should appear 
 preferable to that by the Red Sea, a transfer of the packets can be rea- 
 dily made. In the mean time the route by the Red Sea being known 
 to be practicable, its immediate adoption should not be prevented by 
 the possibility of the other becoming so. Apart from the natural ob- 
 stacles that, on a close investigation, may be found to exist by the way 
 of the Euphrates, the political state of the countries through which the 
 communication must pass, would seem to present insurmountable diffi- 
 culties. A better opinion on this latter point will be formed after a 
 perusal of the article that follows. We would wish the plan we are 
 advocating to be judged by its true merits and obvious utility; it is 
 here brought forward in a tangible form, and it should not be set 
 aside, unless another, grounded on data equally certain, and likely to 
 have more advantageous results, be submitted for adoption. 
 
 In the foregoing pages, (including those of the Journal), our aim 
 has been fairly to discuss every circumstance in any way connected 
 with the more immediate object of this work. It must have been 
 remarked in perusing them, that several obstacles in the line of route 
 heretofore deserving of serious consideration, have been, as it were, 
 simultaneously overcome, and that Egypt now offers the means not 
 only to advance the commercial interests of Great Britain, but to 
 maintain her political ascendancy in the Eastern World. The suc- 
 ceeding article will shew that the capacity to assume offensive opera- 
 tions in the Persian Gulf and in the Indus River, is absolutely neces- 
 sary for the future protection of India; and more particularly if, as is 
 currently reported, Bagdad be ceded to Persia, or, in other words, 
 should the Tigris River be rendered subservient to the designs of 
 Russia. It would be rash to assert that the threatening attitude and 
 rapid advances of Russia towards the East do not demand every atten- 
 tion on the part of Great Britain, to prevent a further approximation 
 of its colossal power to the country eastward of the Indus, which a 
 learned historian informs us has never been invaded since the days of 
 Alexander without being conquered. 
 
72 
 
 In the evidence taken before a Select Committee of the House of 
 Commons, on the affairs of the East India Company, and made public 
 since the preceding pages were written, there are a few items which call 
 for particular remark. It was stated to the Committee as a strong objec- 
 tion to the use of steam navigation in the Red Sea, that coals would 
 there cost seven pounds per ton. In accounting for this very high esti- 
 mate it was presumed that the coals had been first shipped at London 
 for India, carried out to Bombay, and from thence to the Red Sea. 
 The estimated cost at London was set down at 30s. per ton, and the 
 freight to Bombay at 40s. per ton, which would raise their cost there to 
 70s., and this was to be doubled by their after-transport to the ports in 
 the Red Sea. In order to shew the extravagance of this estimate when 
 contrasted with the actual price of coal in the Bombay market, we have 
 only to refer to the columns of the Asiatic Register. In the number of 
 that journal for the last quarter, of 1832, the average price of coal in 
 the Bombay market was as low, during the three months mentioned, as 
 2-5s. per ton; and in looking farther back, it will be found that the 
 average price during some years, did not exceed 35s. per ton. 
 
 Even on making an application to respectable merchants in the city 
 of London, to name a price at which they would deliver coals at 
 
 ■ * . 
 
 NOTE TO CONCLUDE “STEAM NAVIGATION.” 
 
 Bombay, they did not exceed in their offers 40s. per ton. I subjoin a 
 note on that head, received from one of these merchants. 
 
 “ London, February 23, 1833. 
 
 “ Sib, 
 
 “ We would contract to supply coal of the first quality 
 suitable to steamers to any extent, deliverable at Bombay, at 40s pel- 
 ton. 
 
 “ J. Ritchie, 
 
 “ Of the Firm of Ritchie, Steuart, & Co. Bombay." 
 
 Captain Head. 
 
 Now, in my opinion, as I have previously observed, coals can be 
 furnished much cheaper to steamers -intended to navigate the Red 
 Sea, by carrying the coals direct to Aden, an Arabian port, situated 
 immediately without the straits of Bab-el-Mandel, than via Bombay. 
 Thus, should vessels leaving Great Britain for Bombay, take out coals 
 from Liverpool or Glasgow, where coals are cheap about 15s. per 
 ton in the former, and 12s in the latter— and should these vessels 
 take the inner passage, touching in the first place at Aden to dis- 
 charge the coals at the floating magazine to be established there, the 
 
 fair cost at Aden of these’ coals, after making every reasonable 
 allowance for delay, & c. could scarcely ever be higher than 50s. per 
 ton. 
 
 * The remaining depdt at Suez, as I have already shewn in another 
 place, could be supplied from Alexandria at a rate not exceeding 60s. 
 per ton. The probable price at Alexandria itself, which I have stated in 
 this work, is 35s. per ton ; and this Comes very close to the following 
 estimate that I since received from another merchant of London. 
 
 • “ Water Lane, February 23, 1833. 
 
 “ Sir, 
 
 “We should be happy to supply coal of the first quality, 
 suitable to steamers, delivered at Alexandria, at 34s. per ton. We are 
 quite sure that it would not upon any occasion be necessary to exceed 
 this price beyond one or two shillings per ton. This price includes the 
 duty of 3s. 4d. per ton, which we presume it would not be necessary to 
 charge if the coals were sent out on account of the British government. 
 
 Captain Head. 
 
 “ G. L. Jackson & Sons.” 
 
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73 
 
 BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 DEFENCE OF 
 
 Thus far attention has been given to the proposed measure of 
 steam navigation as one of public advantage and of private accommo- 
 dation in facilitating communication between this country and the East. 
 Allusion has also been made to other benefits that no doubt would arise 
 from its adoption. The philanthropist will perceive that the germs of iub- 
 dustry, and consequent civilization, would be extended to nations at pre- 
 sent almost unknown to the European world ; the merchant may expect 
 new marts to be opened for the barter of produce; the Christian will 
 see that a road is traced out through which religion .may approach to 
 countries long excluded from its blessings. To dilate on these various 
 points would far exceed the prescribed limits of this work, nor can it 
 be expected from one whose professional pursuits so little qualify 
 him for such a vein of speculation. It would, however, be neglecting 
 the object which these pages are advocating, if some allusion were not 
 made to the great importance to be derived from steam vessels as an 
 auxiliary either in maritime or territorial defence, should an European 
 enemy attempt to approach the borders of Hindoostan. A political crisis 
 may arise sooner than is expected, when the strength of western nations 
 will be put forth, and a struggle may tatce place in which each vulnerable 
 portion of the British empire will become a point of assault. It there- 
 fore behoves Great Britain to take a survey of her extended dominions, 
 and to enquire which part of their limits is most accessible to attack ; 
 and in what quarter an enemy could strike a blow most likely to affect 
 the prosperity of the nation. There can be no hesitation in answering 
 that Russia will endeavour to close with England in that region, where 
 success will depend on the developement of her great military prowess, 
 and where the co-operation of a maritime force is least required. Can 
 there be a fairer field for the display of her formidable legions, or one 
 where a richer reward may be anticipated, than the wide plains of 
 Hindoostan ? An invasion of British India is becoming the every-day 
 topic for remark in foreign journals, as it is in our own. It cannot but 
 promote all the effect of assumed importance in the power that can 
 even threaten so valuable a part of our empire. The progress of the 
 late war between Russia and Persia not only demonstrated the strength 
 and resources of the northern autocrat, but its result exposed the 
 weak and compromising character of Asiatics; and evidenced the 
 
 alacrity with which the inhabitants of provinces contiguous to Russia 
 will join in any expedition that promises a fair reward. 
 
 In considering the question before us, it will be necessary to bear in 
 mind, throughout the enquiry, that an invading army, of however crude 
 and opposite materials it may be composed, will take the field with 
 great odds in its favour, from the circumstance of its object being defined, 
 and the duty of every man being made apparent. Whereas, an army 
 acting on the defensive can hope for no reward even after a hard-earned 
 victory ; at the same time that they are liable to the harrassing duty of 
 continually watching the movements of their enemy. If the patriotic 
 feeling which causes men to defend their soil, and feel a hatred towards 
 the invaders, could be imparted to the natives of India, then would the 
 territory of Hindoostan be comparatively safe. But how little is this to 
 be expected in the case we are contemplating, where the people of 
 the country have at the best of times so little perseverance and energy, 
 and where an army that would be collected to defend any frontier must 
 be composed of a variety of nations, differing in language and religion, 
 strangers to the region they are fighting in, and assembled from pro- 
 vinces as little known to each other as are the various states of Europe. 
 We must also consider the inherent desire in kings and in subjects for 
 aggrandisement. Russia, which is now in direct collision with nations 
 that are to be as easily overcome as were those of British India, will, no 
 doubt, pursue her advantage and extend her boundary towards the East, 
 and Great Britain will, in all probability, ere long, have to contest her 
 right of sovereignty over three-fourths of her subjects, included in the 
 population of Hindoostan. 
 
 When it is remembered that the colossal power of Russia has 
 attained its present eminence in three half centuries, or since the 
 master-spirit of Peter the Great brought his people to rank with civi- 
 lized nations, and caused the empire, of which he laid the foundation, 
 to increase in population from sixteen to sixty millions, a moment’s 
 reflection will suggest the prudence of speculating with regard to its 
 future progress. At present the disciplined legions of Russia are rated 
 at 900,000, and they have tried their strength with success against most 
 of their neighbours. The nations towards the east and south have felt 
 and admitted the superiority of their discipline, and will hereafter prefer 
 
 an amicable alliance to another useless struggle. The territory of Russia 
 has had a proportionable increase with her subjects, and has extended 
 so much in Asia as to leave but a frail barrier between the armed giant 
 of the north, and the commercial Colossus of Hindoostan. A full in- 
 vestigation into the important question of the probable result of an 
 attempt of Russia to approach the Indus, to seize the alluring prize 
 which Western nations have ever aimed at, would demand much more 
 accurate detail than these pages can pretend to. Nor does the object of 
 this discussion require more than an outline, or enough to shew that pre- 
 cautionary measures by the British government would be desirable, and 
 that such may be greatly facilitated by the introduction of steam vessels 
 in our Eastern possessions. A general view will be taken of the differ- 
 ent routes by which a Russian force may approach India, and the time 
 that the march by each might occupy. The practicability of a Russian 
 force passing from its own territory to India in one campaign will be 
 particularly dwelt upon. 
 
 The widely extended southern frontier of the Russian empire, which 
 in longitude sweeps over nearly one half of the whole globe, will admit 
 of a military force advancing from that territory towards India from four 
 distinct points. Each of these routes involves a variety of detail and ex- 
 pository matter, that greatly limits their consideration here, and obliges 
 the notice to be chiefly confined to the one that is most likely to be 
 adopted. By the most westerly route the line of operations is the 
 longest, and the subjugation of Persia would become necessary. These 
 would demand a second campaign before a Russian army could reach 
 India. The south shores of the Black Sea would be the basis for a 
 first series of movements, and Herat, a city on the eastern boundary of 
 the Persian empire, would be the station whence arrangements for a 
 second campaign would emanate, and from which the invaders would 
 advance towards Hindoostan. 
 
 Another mode by which an army may pass from Russia to the 
 Indus is through the establishment of a depdt, by means of the Volga 
 river, at a station on the south shore of the Caspian Sea. The line of 
 march will be considerably reduced, and a demonstration only towards 
 Persia would be made on the south of the Black Sea. In effecting an 
 invasion by this route, the co-operation of Persia, and not its subju- 
 
74 
 
 DEFENCE OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 gation, would be necessary, and if that auxiliary be admitted as attain- 
 able by Russia, this method of proceeding would seem the most feasible 
 and likely to be attempted. Here the same point on the east frontier 
 of Persia, as in the last advance, would be the basis for a second series 
 of movements to complete the invasion. 
 
 The third line of advance from Russia, as we proceed eastward 
 would be from the east shore of the Caspian Sea across a desert to Khiva, 
 on the Oxus or Amu river, and thence to Balkh, and by a caravan route 
 to the Indus. A fourth route lies still further to the east than the Oxus or 
 Amu river, and would pass through the city of Kohkhand, which commu- 
 nicates by a river with the sea of Aral; it would proceed to Bokhararia, 
 and by Balkh to the Indus. As these routes are more eastward they are 
 found to be shorter, and an advance by the two latter, if attempted, 
 would most probably be executed with rapidity. The success of the 
 enterprise would, however, be more precarious than by the western 
 routes, and might be looked on in the light of a coup -de-main. 
 
 Each of the four routes above named has had its advocate, and they 
 have all engaged the attention of the government of St. Petersburgh. 
 The principal information that can be obtained concerning the two last 
 specified, is from statistical details, furnished by embassies, proceeding 
 from Russia to the cities of Kohkhand, Bokhara, and Khiva, with a view 
 to open a communication with these places, and to find the way towaids 
 India, on the invasion of which, by the Oxus or Amu, opinions have been 
 freely circulated in the Russian capital. Before proceeding to discuss 
 the merits of any particular line of operations, a view will be taken of 
 the resources of the two nations that are principally involved in the 
 execution of the enterprize. 
 
 The population of the Russian Empire 
 is estimated at 
 
 60,000,000 
 
 The army of that nation is said to be . 900,000 
 
 The revenue of the State when the 
 national debt is deducted is 
 placed at 
 
 / 15,000,000 
 
 i sterling. 
 
 Of the Persian Empire. 
 6,000,000 * 
 
 24,000, and 
 200,000 militia. 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 * « Pinkerton, concluding that the population of Persia and Candahar does not 
 exceed that of Asiatic Turkey, computes it at 10,000,000, of which he thinks 4,000,000 
 may be allowed to Candahar, and 6,000,000 to what he terms Western Persia, or, in other 
 words, to the present kingdom •, and this estimate is, probably, not very remote from the 
 
 The following remarks will further illustrate the relative strength of 
 these states. “ Of the forty sons of the King of Persia there is not one 
 who does not look to the throne ; nearly one half of them are governors 
 of towns and provinces, a system which, although it may add to the im- 
 mediate security of the father, presents a fearful and bloody prospect to 
 his subjects, by enabling each of the princes hereafter to support his 
 pretensions by force of arms ; and as he who must eventually ascend the 
 throne must mount it imbrued in the blood of his nine-and-thirty bro- 
 thers, personal safety, if not ambition, will urge them to the exertion. 
 
 The same unquestionable authority further observes. “ It cannot, 
 however, be denied that the Persians would seize with avidity any 
 proposal of this nature,” — (an invasion of British India.) “ The love of 
 plunder, the example of Nadir Shah, and the idea which they have 
 formed of the wealth and weakness of our Eastern possessions, would alike 
 stimulate them to the undertaking.” 
 
 An anecdote from the f ‘ Sketches of Persia” will tend to illustrate 
 the character of Eastern nations generally. The author of this work, 
 pointing out to a Cabul nobleman, Calcutta, “ the City of Palaces, 
 with its splendid mansions, “all, in short, that could impress him with 
 an idea of the happy results of civilization,” asked him what he thought 
 of it. “A wonderful place to plunder,” was his reply; “ and his eyes 
 glistened as he made it with anticipated enjoyment.” 
 
 Of the political faith of Persia, another recent traveller remarks 
 
 truth. It gives about 100 to a square mile ; and though some parts may far exceed this, 
 several large tracts of desert are totally uninhabited.” 
 
 The above remark is from the History of Persia, by Sir John Malcolm, who gives 
 the following account of the Persian army. 
 
 The military force of that nation comprises a militia, who provide their 
 own clothing and arms, the latter usually consists of a matchlock, 
 sabre, and dagger . . . . • ■ • 
 
 The militia has no further discipline than that of obeying their own officers, 
 and neither the men of this class, nor the irregular horse, will submit 
 to be commanded by any but those members of their own body whom 
 they deem their superiors. 
 
 Irregular horse above alluded to . . . • 
 
 The regular army, consisting of irregular horse and infantry, with artillery . 
 
 To these forces are to be added a body of 3,000 or 4,000 horse, termed the 
 royal guards, composed of Georgian slaves and the sons of the first 
 noblemen of Persia 
 
 Total force of the army and militia 
 
 * Journey through Asia Minor, &c., by Colonel John Macdonald Kinneir. 
 j- Travels of J. B. Fraser, Esq. 
 
 120,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 “ So long as Great Britain chose to subsidize the King of Persia, so long 
 did his professions of friendship continue ; but had any other power out- 
 bid his old ally, on condition of dropping correspondence with her, he 
 would incontinently have transferred the worthless boon to his new 
 friend ; or if that power had used force the effect would have been the 
 same ; for the king could not have resisted a force of any strength. 
 Other extracts could be brought forward, if more were necessary, to 
 shew the perfect incompetency of Persia to oppose the dictates of 
 Russia ; but it is not probable that the court of St. Petersburgh would 
 covet the possession of that impoverished country, nor would it be worth 
 the delay required for its subjection, providing its resources were placed 
 at the disposal of its powerful neighbour. In the latter case, Abbas 
 Meerza, the heir apparent, or, if necessary, a more compliant prince of 
 the forty alluded to, would be the nominee of the Czar. A slight sketch 
 of the efficiency of the Russian army will be given, sufficient with 
 other circumstances to maintain an opinion of the commanding supe- 
 riority of that nation over its southern neighbour. 
 
 (( In the mode of disciplining their forces, the Russians proceeded 
 on the system most approved in Europe. Their infantry was confessedly 
 excellent, composed of men in the prime of life, and carefully selected 
 as best qualified for military service. Their artillery was of the best 
 description, so far as the men, guns, carriages, and appointments, were 
 concerned.” — “The service of cavalry is less natural to the Russians 
 than that of the infantry, but their horse regiments are nevertheless 
 excellently trained, and have uniformly behaved well.”* 
 
 This formidable character of the Russian army, added to its over- 
 whelming numerical force, is enough to daunt the courage of better 
 organized and more determined troops than are to be encountered in 
 Eastern warfare. But there is yet a more dangerous arm peculiar to 
 the Russian service, and which, above all others, is a description of 
 troops that would be most valuable in such service as we are now 
 treating of. “ The Cossacks are a species of force belonging to Russia 
 exclusively. The natives of the Don and the Volga hold their lands by 
 military service, and enjoy certain immunities and prescriptions ; in 
 consequence of which each individual is obliged to serve four years 
 in the Russia armies.” — “ It is as light cavalry that the Cossacks are, 
 perhaps, unrivalled. They and their horses have been known to march 
 
 * Scott’s Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
75 
 
 DEFENCE OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 100 miles in twenty-four hours, without halting. They plunge into 
 woods, swim rivers, thread passes, cross deep morasses, and penetrate 
 through deserts of snow, without undergoing material loss, or suffering 
 from fatigue. No Russian army with a large body of Cossacks in front 
 can be liable to surprise; nor, on the other hand, can an enemy, sur- 
 rounded by them, ever be confident against it. In covering the retreat 
 of their own army, their velocity, activity, and courage, render pursuit 
 by the enemy’s cavalry peculiarly dangerous ; and in pursuing a flying 
 enemy, these qualities are still more redoubtable.” * 
 
 Such is the character of the parties that will come into immediate 
 contact when the Russians advance towards India. It must be evident 
 that no physical or moral force exists in Persia that could be brought to 
 oppose the advance of a Russian army, and at this late stage of the 
 Shah s declining power, the interposition of European aid to prop up his 
 fallen grandeur would be unavailing. Such a line of policy, if pursued 
 by Great Britain, would only tend to weaken her resources, and with- 
 draw her strength from the quarter where the collision must eventually 
 take place, should the Russians determine to invade India ; for it will 
 be seen hereafter, that if necessary they may approach the Indus without 
 coming in contact with Persia, and independent of the resources of that 
 country. 
 
 In examining the question before us, the imagination presents natural 
 obstacles to a march through Eastern countries, where supplies are sup- 
 posed to be scanty, and the enervating effects of tropical climates, are 
 brought forward to quiet alarm, and as a security against a Russian force 
 ever reaching the Indies. A fair investigation of the subject will be very 
 likely to dispel a great part of such imaginary and dangerous security. 
 A few remarks will be offered to illustrate the subject in question before 
 going into detail on the routes, & c. “ Persia, now that Georgia is sepa- 
 rated from it, may be said to extend from the twenty-sixth to the fortieth 
 degree of north latitude, and from the forty-fifth to the sixty-first degree 
 of east longitude. There is, perhaps, no country of the same extent 
 which has a greater diversity of climate. This difference, however, is 
 more dependant on the elevation and soil than on the distance from the 
 
 equator.” t 
 
 The following report is made of the climate of Ispahan ; and from 
 the situation of that city in the centre of the kingdom it may be taken 
 
 as a fair estimate. “ Excepting a few weeks in the year, the sky is 
 unclouded and serene. The rains are never heavy, and the snow seldom 
 lies long on the ground. The air is so pure and dry, that the finest 
 polished metal may be exposed to it without being corroded by rust. 
 The regularity of the seasons here appears extraordinary to a person 
 accustomed to a more uncertain climate ; for they change perceptibly 
 almost to the hour. When spring commences, there is no spot in the 
 world where Nature assumes a lovelier garb: the clearness of the 
 streams, the shade of the lofty avenues, the fragrant luxuriance of the 
 gardens, and the verdant beauty of the wide-spreading fields, combine 
 with the finest climate to render it delightful ; and we are almost dis- 
 posed to agree with the representation which describes it as having an 
 intoxicating effect upon the senses.”* 
 
 The rains, which are not heavy, fall in the winter, or early in the 
 spring. In the autumn the heats are more oppressive than in summer ; 
 but in winter and spring the climate is delightful; neither the heat nor the 
 cold is excessive. This would appear to be the general character of the 
 climate of Persia, and a closer investigation into it would, no doubt, 
 favour that part lying most to the north, and, consequently, more imme- 
 diately connected with these details. 
 
 The same excellent authority that was last quoted gives other 
 particulars, which will be read with much interest, and which must 
 further remove any prejudices against Persia. “ Few countries can 
 boast of better vegetable productions, or in greater variety. The gardens 
 vie in beauty and luxuriance with any in the world ; but from the parts 
 which are highly cultivated, we may imagine the prosperity Persia might 
 attain to under a just and settled government. Some of its finest and 
 most extensive valleys, which are covered with the remains of cities and 
 villages, are consigned to wandering tribes, and feed their cattle and 
 flocks ; and one may travel for a hundred miles, through regions once 
 covered with grain, without seeing more than the few scattered fields 
 deemed sufficient to furnish food for the families which have the range 
 of the domain, and to give an annual supply of green shoots to fatten 
 their horses. The prices of provisions will give a more decided idea of 
 the capabilities of Persia even in her present neglected state. “ Barley 
 is often sold at a farthing a pound, and wheat on the average is not more 
 than a third dearer. A cow costs from sixteen to twenty shillings; a 
 
 good sheep from six to eight ; a goat from two to four : other articles of 
 provision are in proportion.”* In some parts of Persia fruit has hardly 
 any value. 
 
 From these remarks it will be seen that Persia is not wanting in 
 immediate resources towards furnishing the commissariat department of 
 an army ; and there can be little doubt but encouragement to the agri- 
 culturist, and the economy of resources, would soon produce all that 
 might be required to maintain an army in that country. In revolving this 
 point, it will be necessary to bear in mind that Teheran, the capital of 
 Persia, which would, probably, be the head-quarters and depdt of a 
 Russian invading force, is not two hundred miles from the ports on the 
 south shores of the Caspian Sea. Supplies may, therefore, be conveyed 
 by water from the very heart of Russia, and transported to the army at 
 a trifling expense. It is of equal importance to recollect that Herat, 
 the extreme station at which a Russian force would arrive previous to 
 direct operations towards India, is only 600 miles from Astrabad, a 
 port south of the Caspian Sea ; and where also materiel y &c. for an 
 army would be brought by water communication by means of the Volga 
 river from the centre of the empire. 
 
 If the above data carry conviction of the inability of Persia to 
 resist the occupation of her territory by a Russian force, they will also 
 shew that the former country must of necessity submit to the Views of 
 her powerful neighbour. We shall not proceed to investigate the use 
 that may be made of this ascendancy, until a glance is directed to other 
 Powers, who, from situation or policy, may be considered as interested 
 and likely to oppose the designs of Russia. At the head of the list. 
 Great Britain will stand the most determined and powerful enemy ; 
 and would, no doubt, excite the States adjacent to Russia to assist 
 in checking the ascendancy of that nation. It is equally probable, that 
 certain States of Europe will lend themselves to a project tending to 
 weaken the force of England, and to strengthen her Northern rival. 
 
 A barrier will therefore be reared, so that no efforts made by powers 
 on the western side of Russia could materially check the developement 
 of her designs towards the East. The distracted state of the Turkish 
 Empire precludes the expectation of any assistance from that quarter. 
 An impoverished exchequer, and the disaffection of his subjects and 
 governors, render Sultan Mahmoud the monarch of misrule and the sport 
 
 Scott’s Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 -}■ Sir John Malcolm. 
 
 Sir John Malcolm. 
 
 * Sir John Malcolm. 
 
76 
 
 DEFENCE OF 
 
 of revolution ; and he is indebted for the very existence of his capital 
 to the forbearance and interposition of foreign nations. 
 
 The rising power of Egypt may eventually mature a strong Asiatic 
 government, and establish a force which, with the aid of European allies, 
 might, through Syria, divert, if it did not check, the torrent of conquest 
 as it rolled from the north. Such a diversion would be necessary to 
 oblige Russia to occupy the Persian territory, and thereby to sacrifice 
 a large portion of time and money, which otherwise she would save, 
 by being enabled to make a direct advance on India. Unless the re- 
 sources of Egypt and Syria are thus made subservient to the views of 
 Great Britain, there appear no means of interposing a European force 
 between Russia and India. From the eastern shore of the Mediterra- 
 nean, at ScandaroonBay, the route towardsjPersia is over the steppes of 
 Mount Taurus, and is a footpath impassable for cannon or wheel car- 
 riages, till it reaches Diarberk, a distance of 340 miles. From Diar- 
 berk to Erzeroom, through Arabkir, is a further distance of 220 miles, 
 almost impracticable. At Erzeroom a Russian force would be stationed, 
 sufficiently effectual to check the advance of an enemy through such 
 a country. Erzeroom would be the rendezvous of a Russian army for 
 the purpose of intimidating and keeping in check any disposition to 
 interfere that might be evinced on the part of the Turkish government. 
 This favourable position is thus noticed by a highly respected military 
 writer.* 
 
 “In the event of any European power ever undertaking the inva- 
 sion of Persia or India, there is certainly no spot east of Constan- 
 tinople better calculated for assembling a large force than the plains of j 
 Erzeroom ; horses and cattle are cheap and abundant, forage is every 
 where to be procured in the spring and summer, and a considerable 
 stock of corn may be collected from the neighbouring provinces. 
 Erzeroom has further the advantage of being but a short distance from 
 the port of Trebizond on the Black Sea, through which all requisite 
 stores could be readily supplied. A reference to the map of those 
 countries will also show the advantageous position of Erzeroom for an 
 advance into Persia. There are other routes which lead from the east 
 shore of the Mediterranean towards Persia, but they are attended with 
 difficulties, and are still less applicable to the present enquiry than the 
 one above described. 
 
 * Macdonald Kinneir. 
 
 BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 Should it, however, become the policy of Russia to occupy Persia 
 before a force is pushed forward to invade India, the second campaign 
 will be opened, having the eastern frontier of Persia, or the city of 
 Herat, as the basis of operations. Herat is descibed as standing in a 
 fertile plain, that is watered by a river crowded with villages and 
 covered with fields of corn. The town which contains about 100,000 
 inhabitants, is commanded by a Prince of Persia, and is thus mentioned 
 in an able article in a monthly periodical.* “ It holds a central position, 
 at almost an equal distance from the cities of Kerman, Yezd, Tubbus, 
 Toorsheez, Mushed, Bokhara, Balkh, and Candahar. It is one of the 
 greatest emporiums of the commerce of Asia, and could draw supplies 
 from all the places we have enumerated, and from many more of minor 
 importance. The city itself is placed in a fertile and well watered valley, 
 and is surrounded by extensive gardens and pastures. It enjoys a fine 
 climate, it is amply stored with provisions at all times ; it could, as we 
 have stated, draw supplies from all the countries around it, and it is 
 capable of furnishing every article which these countries afford. If any 
 place is worthy to be designated, ‘ the key to India,’ it certainly is 
 Herat.” We are also told that a considerable number of horses are 
 bred in the Cabul dominions, and those of Herat are very fine. Camels 
 are, however, on the whole, the animals most employed for carriage. 
 The ox is used to plough, except perhaps in Balkh, where horses are so 
 common.')' 
 
 Having arrived at this favourable position, distant from the Indus 
 between 700 and 800 miles, over roads that- are in constant use for cara- 
 vans, it is necessary to remark that Herat is accessible from Russia by 
 another route, the greater part of which passes through a fertile country, 
 that lies between this city and the south of the Caspian Sea. It will be 
 examined, before we proceed to enquire into the nature of the interven- 
 ing country between Herat and the Indus. The line of advance from the 
 Caspian to Herat, is the second alluded to in the beginning of thife 
 enquiry. There can be little doubt but it would be the one adopted 
 by a Russian army, and it will be found about 600 miles in length. 
 The distance will therefore be no more than between 1300 and 1400 
 miles from the Caspian Sea to the Indus ; the bare possibility of its prac- 
 ticability ought to be considered with attention. 
 
 * Blackwood’s Magazine, No. 130. 
 
 t Account of the Kingdom of Cabul, by the Honourable Mountstuart Elphinstone. 
 
 Whether Persia is or is not occupied, there would be a body of 
 irregular horse of that country, at the command of Russia, to keep open 
 the communication between the Caspian and Herat, in case any 
 disposition to interfere should be shewn by the Tartar tribes on the 
 banks of the Oxus. The Persians have an hereditary and inveterate 
 hatred towards the people of that country, and would readily accept the 
 assistance of Russia, to be enabled to revenge themselves for former 
 insults. Supposing, then, it became the policy of Russia to forego the 
 conquest of Persia, and to purchase her co-operation by promises of 
 future reward, an army destined to invade India would proceed to the 
 occupation of Herat by this last named route passing through the pro- 
 vince of Khorassan. 
 
 By means of the Volga, the Caspian Sea communicates with the 
 heart of Russia, the inland navigation from Astracan, which lies at the 
 mouth of that river, goes over a tract of 1434 miles, and passes through 
 the most fertile regions of the empire. There is also a water communi- 
 cation between Astracan and St. Petersburgh, by means of the celebrated 
 canal of Vishnei Voloshok.* Astracan is the great staple of the Caspian 
 commerce, and is readily supplied with European merchandise from the 
 ports of the Baltic. In the fourteenth century Europe was supplied 
 with the produce of India, through the Caspian Sea and Astracan, and 
 a direct communication with India has continued by the same route, which 
 is that we are about to inquire into. The Caspian Sea, which has a length 
 of 640 miles, and a breadth of 200, is navigated by vessels drawing from 
 9 to 10 feet water. There are extensive fisheries on it, which cause 
 numerous vessels to be employed. Such facilities of conveyance formed 
 to communicate with St. Petersburgh, and other cities of the empire, 
 would render the transportation of an army to the opposite shore of easy 
 accomplishment, whilst the uninterrupted navigation of the sea by Russia 
 would also ensure a regularity of supplies. At Astracan there is a 
 large and commodious harbour, with a dock yard and spacious quays. 
 In July 1723, Peter the Great assembled an army at the city of Nijnei 
 Novgorod, at the confluence of the Occa and Volga. From thence 
 they proceeded down the latter river to the Caspian, and 33,000 men 
 were landed at Daghestan, on the west side of the sea. He took the 
 city of Derbent from the Persians, and extended his possessions, after 
 which he returned to Astracan in October. 
 
 • Coxe’s Travels in Poland, Russia, &o. 
 
FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 77 
 
 DEFENCE 
 
 At the south extremity of the Caspian, the bay of Astrabad admits 
 of a secure haven, and may average a week’s sail from the opposite port 
 of Astracan. Astrabad is a walled town, having 2 or 3000 houses ; the 
 neighbourhood is mentioned by a recent author,* who says, “ Thus we 
 reached Astrabad, journeying through a country, which for beauty and 
 richness I have seldom seen equalled, and never surpassed.” And in 
 remarking on the country in the vicinity, he says, “ There is no describ- 
 ing the beauty and richness of these pastures, all is like velvet, soft and 
 smooth, varying only in the height, not in the thickness of the sward. 
 Numerous camps of the Turkomans spotted it with their black tents, 
 in parties of 50, 80, or 100 together, in every direction.” At Astrabad 
 a dep6t would be formed, and the army would assemble for further ope- 
 rations, in their progress towards Herat ; but before enquiring into the 
 route, some general remarks will be necessary on the country of Kho- 
 rassan. 
 
 “ The kingdom of Persia is bounded to the east by the great pro- 
 vince of Khorassan, upwards of four hundred miles in length and near 
 three hundred in breadth. This celebrated region contains many fruitful 
 plains, some lofty and irregular ridges of mountains, and several wide 
 tracts of desert. Except in its most fertile districts, it is but partially 
 supplied with water, and from its position it has been more exposed to 
 predatory invasions than any other country. Whenever Persia was dis- 
 tracted by internal factions, or had to sustain foreign attacks, the tribes 
 of Tartary crossed the Oxus, and spread themselves over Khorassan:” — 
 “ Khorassan is peopled by many races; its warlike inhabitants boast their 
 descent from Arabian, Kurd, Turkish, and Afghan tribes, who came at 
 different periods to subdue or to defend it ; but neither their having so 
 long inhabited the same soil, nor a sense of common danger, has softened 
 those inveterate prejudices, or abated that rooted hatred with which 
 these races regard each other; and it had been the policy of the Persian 
 monarchs to increase divisions, enabling them to keep in subjection a 
 country, the inhabitants of which, if united, would have been dangerous.”f 
 In the Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire we find the 
 following remarks : — “ It is much to be regretted, that our knowledge 
 of this great, and to us most important tract of territory, is shamefully 
 deficient.” — “ This province was once populous and flourishing, and 
 adorned with many cities. The soil is, in general, excellent, and pro- 
 
 * Travels of J. B. Fraser, Esq., 1821-22. t Sir John Malcolm. 
 
 OF BRITISH INDIA 
 
 duces wine, fruit, corn, rice, and silk, in the greatest abundance, and of 
 the very best quality ; but it has so often been laid waste, and overrun 
 by the most savage nations, that commerce and prosperity have utterly 
 disappeared, the cities have fallen into decay, and the most fruitful 
 regions have been converted into solitary deserts.”* The province of 
 Khorassan is occupied by tribes who are engaged incessantly in a pre- 
 datory warfare, invading the territories of each other, and carrying the 
 inhabitants into slavery. 
 
 These remarks on Khorassan will be read with interest, more par- 
 ticularly as no other country intervenes between Astrabad on the shores 
 of the Caspian Sea and the city of Herat, which has been already deno- 
 minated “ the key to India.” On the borders of Khorassan, and to the 
 north of Astrabad, is the province of Khaurizm, comprising the country 
 between the Caspian and the Oxus ; the wandering tribes breed sheep, 
 camels, and horses; the steppes that border on the Caspian abound 
 in prodigious droves of cattle, and “ there is scarcely a man in Toor- 
 kaustaun so indigent as to walk on foot ; even beggars travel on horse- 
 back, or at least on asses.”j' Further particulars of these tribes will 
 be given when the eastern routes are considered. It is stated of those 
 tribes, that “ next to their horses, the most valuable possession of the 
 Toorkaumauns is the camels, of these are bred among them, and gene- 
 rally in Khorassan, three different sorts. ”J Individuals are said to have 
 as many as seven hundred camels. They are sold at from 120 to 200 
 Persian rupees each, and carry from 450 lbs. to 1100 lbs. English. 
 
 Towards the end of the last century, a Persian force of 60 or 80,000 
 men, under Aga Mahomed Khan, proceeded from Astrabad to Mushed. 
 The following particulars of the country between those places are 
 borrowed from an author already quoted, § and who visited Mushed in 
 1821-22. From Astrabad toward Mushed the road for eighty-two miles 
 passes across a rich and verdant district, and ascends a mountain-pass at 
 Goorgaun. A dreary desert, but with water, next extends over a rough 
 country for ninety-two miles to Killa Khan. The road then passes 
 through a fine cultivated country, presenting a highland scene, after 
 which it descends into a valley by a road which carriages might have 
 run, and reaches Sheerwan, a distance of seventy-six miles. Sheerwan 
 is a populous town, the valley in which it is situated is so fertile that 
 
 * Macdonald Kinneir. (Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire.) 
 
 f Elphinstone. X Fraser. § Ibid. 
 
 it gives credibility to the almost extravagant account of its produce. 
 This valley begins considerably above Sheerwan, from whence the road 
 continues to pass through it for thirty-two miles, and reaches Cochoon, 
 having about 20,000 inhabitants. It is asserted that when the king was 
 at Cochoon, with an army, and its followers of all sorts, amounting to 
 not less than 300,000 souls, with nearly as many head of animals, bag- 
 gage cattle, including corn and straw, were so plenty, that barley sold at 
 the rate of 20 maunds, (or 140 lbs.) for a rupee, (2s. sterling) and that, in 
 fact, provisions were so abundant in the camp, as hardly to be of any 
 value.”* Passing Cochoon, and continuing 91 miles further in the 
 same valley, the road reaches Mushed, the capital of Persian Khorassan. 
 The whole distance from Astrabad to this place by the above route is 373 
 miles. “The valley of Mushed is of great length, it may be described 
 as taking its rise ten or twelve miles to the north-west of Sheerwan, 
 and extending almost uninterruptedly for fifty miles beyond Mushed ;” 
 — it has a low rocky pass of about four miles, and probably extends 
 greatest part of the way to Herat ; it varies in breadth from twelve to 
 thirty miles ; it contains in its limits several towns with their depen- 
 dencies, and a great extent of cultivated land.”f Mushed is in the domi- 
 nions of Persia, it is the residence of a prince of the blood, and has about 
 32,000 inhabitants. The tribes in the vicinity, although of little con- 
 sequence in regular warfare, are addicted to plunder, and are excellent 
 horsemen; they are armed with spears and swords, or bows and arrows. 
 There is another route from the south of the Caspian to Mushed, through 
 Nishapoor, which reduces the distance to Mushed to less than 300 miles, 
 and passes over a country much like that above described. It is said of 
 this route, “the plains and district of Nishapoor have at all times been 
 celebrated for fertility ; when looking from the top of the old ark, (castle) 
 at the numerous villages on either side, and enquiring whether they were 
 all inhabited, I was answered in the affirmative. When within fifty miles 
 of Mushed, “ we enjoyed a very noble view of this fine country, running 
 from south-east by east, to north-west by west, for full eighty miles in 
 length, by fifty to sixty miles in width, and well studded with villages.”-— 
 “ It was a rich and pleasing scene, and, out of question, by far the most 
 populous and cultivated tract I had seen in Persia. Another authority 
 says, “ nothing could have enabled this city (Nishapoor) to regain the 
 degree of prosperity it had again attained, except its fine soil and 
 
 * Fraser. f Ibid, \ Ibid. § Ibid. 
 
78 
 
 DEFENCE 
 
 OF BRITISH 
 
 INDIA FROM 
 
 RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 delightful climate.”* It is further said of this territory : “ Nishapoor, at 
 one time one of the greatest and richest cities of Khorassan, is seated in a 
 plain, formerly irrigated by about 12,000 aqueducts, most of which have 
 been suffered to fall to decay, and are now destitute of water.”— “ The 
 city is at present subject to the dominion of the King of Persia, and 
 has nine districts dependant on it, each of which has about ten walled 
 villages.”'!' A narrow entrance through a low pass separates this terri- 
 tory from that of Mushed. 
 
 If there be any difficulty in an army accomplishing this march, it 
 would appear to be in crossing a bad road from Astrabad, in ascending 
 the mountain pass, and marching over the desert beyond it ; but their 
 vicinity to Astrabad would enable such steps to be taken as would 
 conquer any obstacles likely to offer, if undertaken at a favourable season 
 of the year. It is only reasonable, therefore, to admit that an army, 
 possessing the resources of the country, may be transplanted from the 
 Caspian Sea to Mushed without any very great privation or delay. Of 
 Mushed it is said by the same author, J who resided there above a month, 
 that “ provisions are in general plentiful and reasonable.” From the 
 above causes, and with the ready communication between this place and 
 the frontier of the Russian empire, a force would have little difficulty in 
 completing the necessary arrangements for pursuing their route from 
 Mushed through the fertile valley that extends greatest part of the way 
 to Herat. 
 
 The authority from which materials have been furnished for the 
 route from Astrabad to Mushed proceeded no further in this direction. 
 He goes on to remark that “ The road from Mushed to Herat must also 
 pass through several well-peopled and well-cultivated districts.” — 
 “ About mid-way between those places is a large town called Toorbut- 
 e-jam, the chief place of a fertile and well-peopled district.” — We also 
 read that “ Ghourian, or Ghorian, is the name of a district and consi- 
 derable town west-north west from Herat, between thirty and forty miles 
 on the road to Mushed ; the town is situated in a fertile country, and, 
 with the district, yields to the government of Herat a revenue of 50,000 
 tomauns. v § The road by Toorbut-e-jam is said to be 57 farsangs of four 
 miles each, and it passes through a valley with villages and water ; the 
 only obstacle in this route would seem to be the rocky pass that has 
 
 * Sir John Malcolm. f Macdonald Kinneir. + Fraser. 
 
 § A tomaun has been estimated at a pound sterling, but it is not of equal value. 
 
 been mentioned to extend for four miles. Another road between Mushed 
 and Herat is said to be 238 miles. By this it would appear that a 
 Russian force can march from Astrabad to Herat through a country 
 already as practicable as others in the East, and without the probability 
 of any material suffering ; and that they may arrive at the latter station 
 by a journey of 610 miles. 
 
 There are other routes from the Caspian Sea to Herat, and that in 
 general use, as appears by the map, is much shorter. These routes are 
 at all times frequented by caravans trading between Russia and the East, 
 and must be well known to the authorities at St. Petersburgh. The posi- 
 tion and resources of Herat have already been adverted to ; and to con- 
 template its occupation by a rival European power, must be a subject for 
 much speculation and alarm. The vicinity of that city to the Indus, 
 and its communication with different places on the banks of that river, 
 by well-known and perfectly practicable roads of no more than between 
 700 and 800 miles, would produce external and internal agitation, that 
 could not fail to endanger a government organized like that of India. 
 It will be much the safer plan to lay bare the probable consequences of 
 such a contingency, and make preparations to oppose them while there 
 is time to do so. There is less objection to this mode of treating the 
 subject, because timely attention to it and precautionary measures may 
 effectually prevent the attempt of Russia in any endeavour to reach In- 
 dia ; whilst a longer neglect of the British Government to establish its 
 influence, if not its power, as far as the banks of the Indus, must acce- 
 lerate the execution of a project which, in its most favourable termi- 
 nation, would be attended with large and ruinous expense. 
 
 The remainder of the distance over which a force would have to 
 pass from Herat to reach the Indus, is included in the kingdom of Ca- 
 bul, a country which has been most fully described by an able writer,* 
 from whose account the following remarks are principally taken. Ca- 
 bul has its northern boundary formed by a continuation of the Hindoo 
 Koosh, or the great range of mountains which extends across the north of 
 Ilindoostan, and terminates in under features near the city of Herat. 
 The country between Herat and the Indus is nearly divided by the city 
 of Candahah; the inhabitants who occupy the portion of it nearest Herat 
 are thus described. “ Scattered over an extensive country, the Western 
 Afghans are too distant from each other to acquire either the views or 
 
 * Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone. 
 
 the habits of strife which belong to a crowded population; each horde 
 drives its flocks over its extensive lands, or the still wide range of un- 
 appropriated pasture ; without a rival and often without a neighbour.” 
 We are told by the same authority, that these tribes mostly inhabit high 
 and bleak downs, interspersed with moderate hills, in some places desert, 
 and in others ill-cultivated ; bare, open, better fitted for pasturage than 
 for the plough ; and much inhabited by shepherds and moveable camps. 
 The countries of the Eastern Afghans “ consist of flat and low-lying 
 plains, or of strongly marked ranges of mountains. The plains are 
 hot and fertile, generally populous, and almost all inhabited by fixed 
 residents. The mountains are high and rugged, inhabited by tribes 
 separate from each other, and only known to the rest of the world by 
 their assaults on strangers who penetrate to their haunts, or by their 
 incursions into the neighbouring plains.”* 
 
 Those people, forming an assemblage of common-wealths, have but 
 little stability as a nation; and we find “their armies are very small, 
 seldom exceeding 10,000 men on each side, and these are generally 
 ill-paid and disobedient. The victory is decided by some chief’s going 
 over to the enemy ; on which the greater part of the army either follows 
 his example, or takes to flight. Even when battle is decided by the 
 sword there is little bloodshed, and that is chiefly among the great 
 Khauns, who are interested in the result, the common soldiers shewing 
 much indifference to the issue.”j- 
 
 It is further remarked, that “ Many parts of the country, particu- 
 larly round the cities, are as highly cultivated as any part of the world ; 
 in remoter districts some well cultivated tracts are to be met with, and 
 even the most deserted regions afford occasional marks of the industry 
 of the husbandman.” The climate appears most favourable ; “its annual 
 heat, on an average of different places, is greater than that of Eng- 
 land, and less than that of India ;”J and “ To sum up the character of 
 the climate of the whole country, Afghanistaun must be pronounced dry, 
 and little subject to rain, clouds, or fogs.” Such is the nature of the 
 territory through which a force would have to proceed from Herat to the 
 Indus. 
 
 We will complete our observations on this part of the investigation 
 by an extract from another influential writer, § whose opinion will be 
 found in accordance with those previously quoted. “ The Afghan tribes 
 
 * Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone. f Ibid. {.Ibid. § Sir John Malcolm. 
 
DEFENCE OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 79 
 
 were converted to the Mohamedan religion. Their condition, from the 
 first periods of which we have any authentic records, has undergone 
 very little change. Their chiefs have always been more anxious for 
 personal independence than for the strength of the government they lived 
 under ; and their followers have enjoyed a savage freedom, which made 
 them hostile to every effort to reduce the clans into one mass ; this, it 
 was obvious, could never be effected without subverting that order of 
 society which they were born under and gloried in. A nation so con- 
 stituted was unable to resist any formidable attack ; and we find that 
 the Afghans made hardly any opposition to Mahmood of Ghizni, to 
 Ghenghiz, or to Timoor ; and that their country was long divided be- 
 tween the monarchs of India and Persia : but they were always tur- 
 bulent and dangerous subjects.” We also find that Nadir Shah, soon 
 after ascending the throne of Persia, marched an army of 80,000 men, 
 with artillery, through the province of Khorassan, and reached Candahah 
 without any difficulty. The same monarch moved forward and captured 
 the city of Cabul, from whence, by rapid marches, he invaded India. — 
 “ Almost all the governors of the provinces through which he passed, 
 anticipated the fate of the empire by their surrender.”* 
 
 Among the many successful irruptions made at different times in 
 the fated country beyond the Indus, none were more remarkable than 
 those of the famous Mahmoud of Ghizni, who reigned at the termination 
 of the tenth and during a part of the eleventh century. He advanced 
 into Hindoostan by various routes, and, to shew the resources of the 
 country we are treating of, his army was on one occasion attended by 
 20,000 camels laden with water.f His route, after crossing the Indus, 
 passed through Moultan and across the Great Desert to Ajmeer. With 
 the resources and means of drawing supplies which Herat has been 
 mentioned to possess, there can be but little doubt of the power of 
 obtaining every requisite for the further advance of an army from that 
 place. The city of Candahah, which has been already named, is about 
 half way from Herat to the Indus, and will be the next station to attain. 
 The distance is said to be 105 parasangs or 370 miles; the inter- 
 jacent country is “ a vast sterile plain, without wood, pasture, corn, 
 or habitation, and in many places destitute of fresh water. ”J Another 
 author^ describes it as a fine road fit for guns, through a cultivated 
 country. Around Candahah, the country, according to the historian 
 
 * Sir John Malcolm. t Ibid. \ Colonel Macdonald Kinneir. § Fraser. 
 
 of the kingdom of Cabul,* is fertile and highly cultivated, and the city 
 is wealthy and flourishing, with fruit and provisions cheap and abundant. 
 We have no means of ascertaining the precise nature of this route, 
 which was probably reported on at various seasons when it would have 
 a different appearance, but on referring to the Map, it appears that some 
 streams divide it, and there are several places marked in the line of 
 march. It probably corresponds to the account given of it by the 
 high authority last quoted, who says, “The whole extent approaches to 
 the nature of a desert. The southern parts are sandy, and the northern 
 consists of hard earth, mixed sometimes with rocks and even with low 
 hills. — “ Yet this discouraging abode is by no means destitute of 
 inhabitants. The banks of the Furrah rood, the Khaush rood, and 
 other streams, are well cultivated, and produce wheat, barley, pulse, 
 and abundance of excellent melons. ”j~ The distance on the Map also 
 corresponds with that stated above. Arrangements would no doubt 
 be required to enable an army to effect this march, bi\t it does not appear 
 there can be any obstacle materially to check their advance. No tract 
 of country can possess a less portion of the necessaries of life than the 
 Desert between Cosseir and the Nile; and yet that sterile tract was 
 crossed in 1801 by several thousand men of the British army with but 
 a trifling loss; and when arrangements were afterwards matured, a bat- 
 talion marched over it in June, the most unfavourable month in the year, 
 with the loss of only a boy. 
 
 From Candahah there are different roads in use by which caravans 
 proceed to India. One to the south crosses the Indus by boats at Meer- 
 poor, which is near the city of Moultan, and is at a distance of 350 miles 
 from Candahah. This route presents no natural obstacle to an advance, 
 and has been pursued by former invaders. It is thus noticed by an 
 authority we have before cited. £ “ This is, perhaps, our most vulnerable 
 frontier, and after the passage of the Indus, the nature of the country, 
 which is flat, and abundantly supplied with provisions, offers no serious 
 impediments to the advance of a large body of men.” Another route 
 ascends to Cabul, the capital of the Afghan Empire, and passes on to 
 the city of Attock, where the Indus is fordable. This route was used 
 by Alexander, and has been followed by modern conquerors, of whom 
 Sultan Mahmood, with an army of 30,000 infantry and 100,000 cavalry, 
 passed Attock and skirted the mountains of Cashmere, from whence he 
 descended into the plains of Hindoostan. 
 
 * Elphinstone. + Ibid. } Macdonald Kinneir. 
 
 The route from Candahah to Cabul, by a road of 170 miles, passes 
 over a country in several parts well cultivated and productive. At 
 Cabul provisions are found in considerable quantities. A river, ford- 
 able in dry weather, passes this place, skirting the chain of mountains, 
 and falls into the Indus near Attock. The road from Cabul passes 
 through Paishaweer, “ a beautiful valley on the Indus. The town of 
 Paishaweer is still of some magnitude, having 100,000 inhabitants.”* 
 The distance of this place from Cabul is 180 miles, and from Paishaweer 
 to Attock on the Indus is 50 miles. The vicinity of Attock is the only 
 place where the Indus can be conveniently crossed ; here the river is 
 of great breadth, black, rapid, and interspersed with islands, all of which 
 may be easily defended.']' Another authority says, “ The Indus indeed 
 was forded above the junction (at Attock), by Shauh Shuja and his 
 army, in the end of the winter of 1809; but this was talked of as a 
 miracle wrought in the king’s favour ; and I never heard of any other 
 ford on the Indus, from the place whence it issues from the mountains to 
 the sea.”J 
 
 The route from Candahar to Attock would appear to be 406 miles, 
 and to offer little obstacle to the regular approach of an army. On the 
 east side of the Indus at Attock is the Punjab, or “ five waters,” from 
 the five celebrated rivers that flow through it. “ The climate is ex- 
 ceedingly healthy; and the country is highly cultivated and very popu- 
 lous. By the information we have been able to collect, the distance 
 from Herat to Attock is 776 miles, and the whole march from the shores 
 of the Caspian to the latter place would be by a route of 1377 miles. 
 
 There is nothing either in the nature of the countries to be passed 
 through, or in the disposition of their inhabitants to render this un- 
 dertaking one of insurmountable difficulty, or of necessary protraction. 
 It ought to be expected whenever the policy of the government of 
 Russia may hold it fit to separate from its friendly alliance with Great 
 Britain. At present the European energies of the British government 
 in India are chiefly confined to the ports of Calcutta, Madras, and 
 Bombay, and other places near the coast. It will suffice at this moment 
 to remark that the principal depdt, above mentioned, of these three, is 
 by the dak, or post route, 1480 miles from Attock, or a greater dis- 
 tance than a Russian force would require to march to reach the same 
 place. Madras is yet farther from the point of contact than Calcutta, 
 
 * Elphinstone. t Macdonald Kinneir. | Elphinstone. § Sir John Malcolm. 
 
80 
 
 DEFENCE OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 Bombay is nearer the Indus than either of the other Presidencies, but 
 its military establishment is very inferior in numbers. An attempt 
 will be made hereafter to point out, that through the medium of steam 
 navigation on the Ganges, and by the western shore of India and the 
 Indus, effectual steps may be taken to improve the communication with 
 the probable point of contact, to remove, in a great measure, or to- 
 tally to dispel the danger to be apprehended from any attempt that 
 might be made by Russia to subvert British ascendancy in India. It 
 will be necessary, in the first instance, to bestow a hasty view on the 
 eastern routes already alluded to. 
 
 After what has been advanced on the subject of India being exposed 
 to invasion, it may appear unnecessary to treat on another route from 
 Russia to that country, particularly as our information as to the part of 
 Asia we are about to traverse, is so much less defined than on either of 
 the preceding lines of communication. But it will be found that the 
 Court of St. Petersburgh have directed their attention to this quarter, 
 which possess advantages that have also been favourably noted by 
 modern travellers. By this route Russia has the means of making an 
 approach to India without touching on the territory of Persia, and 
 through nations whose arms could be turned against the latter, if the 
 policy of the northern autocrat should adopt such a mode of proceeding. 
 Any attempt, therefore, of an European power to oppose the designs 
 of Russia by a movement in the west of Persia, will be seen to be 
 totally useless. It will be evident that the whole weight of such oppo- 
 sition should be made on the banks of the Indus. But if the indepen- 
 dence and disposition of Persia were such as to promise, in conjunction 
 with a European nation, to assume a strength likely to put at defiance 
 a combined attack of Russians and Tartars, the reasoning would be 
 otherwise. More attention would be due to this subject if Russia did 
 not command the means that have been pointed out of an advance 
 to India through Khorassan, and which route will be seen to be equally, 
 if not more practicable, as also, under existing circumstances, it ap- 
 pears the most desirable. There may, however, be advantages in the 
 eastern routes that will render them the most advantageous when the 
 localities of the districts they pass through become better known. 
 The Russian government may be presumed to be in possession of the 
 necessary details on which to determine the best line of advance, and 
 enough has been divulged by their officers to create much speculation, 
 and to demand investigation on this point. 
 
 Envoys were despatched from St. Petersburgh to the principal 
 towns on the river Oxus, and the reports published of them have 
 been ably discussed on by a military author,* and by others in this 
 country. From the Russian authorities the few hints that have been 
 thrown out tend' greatly to illustrate this inquiry, and there is here added 
 such information as must shew how desirable it is to be better informed 
 on the resources the Russians would have at command, should they at- 
 tempt, by pursuing the course of the Oxus river, to pass from their fron- 
 tier to the Indus. History points out the propensity at all times inherent 
 in the demi-savage nations of Tartary to overrun and plunder their 
 less powerful neighbours. And it will be evident that the tide of pre- 
 judice and superior enterprise would in this instance flow with Russia 
 from the north, towards the less warlike inhabitants of Hindoostan. 
 
 Should it be determined to prosecute an advance to India by this 
 line of route, a landing would be effected on the eastern side of the Cas- 
 pian Sea, where there are harbours now in use for merchants trading 
 by caravans with the nation occupying the territory bordering on the 
 Oxus river. The Tartar havens best suited to this purpose are those 
 of Mangushlac Bay and Balkan Bay, either of which are within a 
 week’s sail of Astracan. Mangushlac is the one that affords the most 
 secure harbour, and is generally preferred. f 
 
 It has already been mentioned that a Russian force may be 
 brought into the Caspian Sea by means of the Volga river; it will 
 also be found that a force may be detached from Orenburgh, which 
 city carries on a considerable trade with the Turkomans, who inhabit 
 the country lying between the Caspian and the Oxus. At Orenburgh 
 there is a garrison of 10 or 15,000 men, and that city communicates 
 by means of the Oral river with the Caspian, from whence it is dis- 
 tant about 300 miles. At either of the specified havens a force would 
 assemble and prepare for further operations in the direction of the 
 Oxus. The country to be crossed over is included in the province 
 of Khaurizm. It is that already named as lying to the north of Kho- 
 rassan, and inhabited by tribes of Turkomans. They are not united, or 
 strong enough to become formidable, but possess a predatory disposi- 
 tion, that causes them to be considered troublesome neighbours. These 
 tribes are often at war with each other, and acknowledge no power 
 but that of a patriarchal chief, whose territory comprises steppes and 
 
 * Colonel De Lacy Evans. t Coxe’s Travels in Russia. 
 
 meadows, covered with prodigious droves of cattle which belong to his 
 clan. Amidst the peaceful pursuits of these pastoral nations, there 
 are some restless spirits who are urged by savage love for plunder, 
 to make inroads into adjoining countries; and there is a fine race of 
 horses throughout these territories that encourage them to wage this 
 description of warfare. We are further informed that a horse trained for 
 these forayes is capable of performing a hundred miles a day. “ He is 
 bred from the Arabian, but crossed with the breed of the country; and 
 the fine pastures here have given him great size and strength.”* Such are 
 the animals on which these marauders make their inroads in parties of 
 twenty and thirty together. It must be apparent, that however the 
 Nomade people, who comprise these nations, are suited to conquest by 
 moving en masse , accompanied with their camels, horses, and sheep, and 
 all their worldly possessions to occupy a finer territory than the one 
 they inhabit, they are totally incapable of resisting powerful invaders. 
 They have no organization or science, and the warriors cannot retreat 
 from their families and flocks to starve amidst desert sands or mountain 
 fastnesses. 
 
 A high authority, whom we have frequently quoted, remarks on the 
 inhabitants of this country. “ Although the hostility of these barbarians 
 was a serious evil to the districts which they visited, they had no col- 
 lective strength that could render them formidable as an enemy to 
 Persia.”-)' The situation, the importance, and even the name of these 
 tribes, often change, and prevent any estimate being formed of their 
 real strength ; about 60,000 families of the Kirgees hordes swear fidelity 
 to the Emperor of Russia. 
 
 If a Russian force assembled at one of the harbours on the east 
 side of the Caspian, and thereby threatened the kingdom of Khaurizm 
 on the south, while a demonstration to the same effect was made 
 from Orenburgh and the Russian territory that borders the country 
 on the north, there can be little doubt but the people who occupy 
 the intermediate space will be disposed to unite in designs so 
 perfectly in accordance with their restless spirit. A force would at 
 once be collected from among them to form an advance guard, and 
 collect other adventurers for a crusade against the idols of Hindoostan. 
 It is therefore presumed that the Russians will find allies, and have 
 the territorial resources at their disposal. Abundance of carriage 
 
 * Sir John Malcolm. t Ibid. 
 
DEFENCE OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 81 
 
 animals would thus be supplied for the purpose of transport across the 
 desert which intervenes between the Caspian Sea, and Khiva on the 
 border of the Oxus, or Amu river, and the next place of rendezvous 
 for the army. Pallas, an intelligent traveller, was informed that some 
 individuals of the middle horde of Kirgees had 10,000 horses, 300 
 camels, 300 or 400 sheep, and more than 2000 goats. 
 
 The city of Khiva bears the name of a district, containing about 
 300,000 inhabitants, and stands in a cultivated space or oasis, about 
 100 miles square. This section of country is watered by canals from 
 the Oxus, and is highly productive. The Russian envoy* who visited it 
 by the route from Balkan Bay in 1819, reports, that he considers the road 
 between the Caspian and Khiva quite practicable, and that the latter 
 place may be occupied without difficulty. The towns in this region have 
 walls of mud and pottery, and the fortifications of the city of Khiva, which 
 are built of the same materials, are totally unprovided with artillery. An 
 army, collected in cases of danger, is comprised of horsemen from the 
 neighbourhood, totally without discipline and without subordination. 
 In these countries each trooper is his own commissary, and is generally 
 accompanied by a camel which carries his provisions. Such an as- 
 semblage can never be formidable against a regular force, and their 
 disposition to act would depend altogether on the object and character 
 of the invader. The resources of the state are estimated very low by 
 the Russian envoy, and when a comparison is instituted between his 
 report and the operations of former invaders, there is no just ground 
 to doubt his accuracy. 
 
 Khiva was invaded by Nadir Shah about a century since, when 
 the khan, or chief, assembled an army of 20.000 men to oppose him, but 
 afterwards surrendered at discretion. It is now calculated that about 
 12,000 men would be collected in case of war; but persons who have 
 seen such disorganised masses must be led to agree with the Russian 
 envoy, when he says that “a corps of 3000 Russians, commanded by 
 a determined and disinterested chief, would be sufficient to conquer and 
 preserve this country, which would be so advantageous to Russia, by 
 reason of the importance of its commercial relations with India.” 
 
 The route from the Bay of Balkan to Khiva goes over a country biq 
 scantily supplied with water, and the march was made by the Russian 
 mission in the month of December; the time occupied was sixteen days 
 
 * Captain Mouravief. 
 
 by caravan. They did not proceed more than twenty miles a day, but 
 the regular march of trading caravans may be estimated at twelve or 
 fourteen hours’ travelling, or at thirty or thirty-six miles per day. The 
 distance from Mangushlac Bay to Khiva may be one-third more than 
 from the Bay of Balkan to the latter place. Mr. Fraser says of the 
 route,* (from Mangushlac to Khiva), “ five different persons, well ac- 
 quainted with the country and trade, agreed in estimating it to me at 
 about ten days’ journey of six farsangs each, or about 240 miles.” — 
 
 The country is inhabited by tribes of wandering Toorkomans, who 
 pasture their flocks upon the steppes, and caravans continually pass 
 and repass between Khiva and Mangushlac Bay.”t 
 
 A Russian force, marching by either of the above routes from the 
 borders of the Caspian, would reach the Oxus in less time than a month, 
 and it will be admitted, that with proper arrangements, there is nothing 
 in the performance of this march by detachments of troops to render it 
 impracticable, when it is considered that carriage animals may be pro- 
 cured to any required extent. 
 
 On reaching Khiva, the army would have water communication 
 with the Oxus, which passes fifteen miles from the city, and by means 
 of that river, intercourse would be opened with fertile countries that lie 
 on its banks, and also with the sea of Aral, into which the Oxus empties 
 itself about 150 miles below Khiva. The traveller, from whom we have 
 so often quoted in treating of the district of Khorassan, offers some re- 
 marks on the report of the Russian envoy, and thinks a force might not 
 only capture, but retain Khiva. He says, “ The Russians have long 
 entertained commercial relations with Khiva, which they have sought to 
 strengthen in various ways, and with various objects. The conquest of 
 Khiva by the Russians would, if they were to resolve on it, be an affair 
 of no serious difficulty ; and, according to the present line of policy, the 
 attempt will probably be made at no very remote period.” J 
 
 Ihe performance of this march deserves every consideration, as will 
 be seen when the remaining part of the route is investigated. If a 
 Russian force should establish itself at Khiva, they would be enabled 
 to pursue their further operations with the advantage of water carriage 
 for the greatest portion of the way to India. On the sea of Aral, 
 
 “ there are numerous large fishing boats employed by the natives.” § 
 It does not appear from any account we can find of this territory what 
 
 t Journey into Khorassan, by J. B. Fraser. t Ibid. X Ibid. § Evans. 
 
 facility there may be of opening a communication to make these boats 
 applicable to the operations under consideration. Boats and rafts are 
 used on the Oxus for the purposes of traffic ; and it is mentioned by 
 travellers, whom we shall hereafter quote, that wood may be had on parts 
 of this river. A want of correct information on these important points 
 must render the enquiry into this route one of much doubt, and prevents 
 the possibility of our coming to a satisfactory conclusion as to its accom- 
 plishment in a definite time. Like the Indus, and other rivers that 
 have their source in high mountains, the Oxus must have a considerable 
 current. Its navigation is said to be carried on by tracking ; but it 
 must vary at all seasons, and be liable to the uncertainty that has been 
 stated to govern the progress of boats on the Nile. There cannot, how- 
 ever, be a doubt but that vessels can ascend the river at an average of 
 at least fourteen miles a day, and the same rate of advance may be 
 given to a force having their baggage and materiel conveyed for them 
 as would here be the case. The territory of Khiva extends on the 
 banks of the Oxus for between 100 and 200 miles. 
 
 About 250 miles south of Khiva is the fertile province of Bok- 
 hara, with a city situated in an oasis ; and, like Khiva, some distance 
 from the bank of the Oxus river, and having a water communication 
 with it. A trade is carried on by the Oxus from Khiva through this 
 district, and the voyage to Bokhara is said to be performed by laden 
 boats in seven days. This rate probably applies to a favourable sea- 
 son. A mission was also despatched from St. Petersburgh to Bok- 
 hara in 1820. Baron Mayendorff, who accompanied it, has furnished 
 the public with some remarks on the country. He states the oasis of 
 Bokhara to comprise about 300 square miles, and to contain a popu- 
 lation of two and a half millions of inhabitants. The city is described 
 as surrounded with fields, with canals, with avenues of trees ; on every 
 side are villages, gardens, orchards, mosques, and minarets ; “in a 
 word,” says the Baron, “ we might suppose ourselves transported into 
 an enchanted country.” The military resources of this country are 
 described as similar to those of Khiva, except that the people here are 
 still less warlike ; there are three or four Persian pieces of artillery 
 that might be used. If we may judge from the descriptions given of 
 this place, an army passing on the Oxus would have little to obstruct 
 its march from any opposition they would be likely to meet with from 
 the natives of Bokhara. The banks of the Oxus are said to be capable 
 of cultivation, and there are many spots scattered over the vast tract of 
 
82 
 
 defen< 
 
 country on its borders that are highly cultivated and productive. The 
 following extracts will throw some light on these almost unknown 
 regions. Duhalde and Le Compte,* two missionaries who travelled 
 through it, describe all that part between the River Sir on the north, 
 and the Hindoo range of mountains on the south, and going eastward 
 from the Oxus, as the kingdom of Bokhararia, having a length between 
 the above extremes of 600 miles. Over this tract they say “ The moun- 
 tains abound with the richest mines ; the valleys are of an astonishing 
 fertility, in all sorts of fruits and herbs; the fields are covered with 
 grass the height of a man ; the rivers swarm with the most excellent 
 fish; and wood, which is so scarce over Great Tartary, is found here 
 in great plenty in many different parts; in a word, it is the best culti- 
 vated country in all the northern part of Asia.” Another district of the 
 country, lying in the neighbourhood of the city of Bokhara, and border- 
 ing a stream that connects with the Oxus, is also described: “ Kurshi, 
 another city in this kingdom, is situated on the north side of the Rivei 
 Amu, (or Oxus) and is, next to the capital, the best city in the kingdom, 
 being large, populous, and well built. The neighbouring lands are 
 exceedingly fertile in all sorts of grain and fruits; and the inhabitants 
 carry on a considerable trade to the northern part of the Indus.”t Samar- 
 kand, an adjoining province spoken of in equally favourable terms, is also 
 on a river that runs into the Oxus. These accounts are borne out by the 
 reports of the envoy already quoted, and of modern travellers, one of 
 whom remarks :J “ In all the regions of the earth there is not a more 
 flourishing or more delightful country than this, especially the district 
 of Bokhara.” A distinguished authority^ also mentions : “ Those who 
 imagine the Uzbegs to be savage Tartars, wandering over wild and 
 desolate regions, will be surprised to hear that the city of Bokhara is 
 equal in population to that of Paishaweer, and consequently superior to 
 any in England except London ; that it contains numerous colleges, 
 which might accommodate from sixty to six hundred students each, 
 and which have professors paid by the king, or by private foundations; 
 that it abounds in caravanserais, where merchants of all nations meet 
 with great encouragement; and that all religions are fully tolerated 
 by a prince and people above all others attached to their own 
 belief.” 
 
 * Moore's Voyages, Travels, &c. t Moore's Travels. 
 
 } Sir William Ousley. , § Elphinstone. 
 
 OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN 
 
 Some further information concerning this country will be essential 
 to illustrate our enquiry. The historian of Persia already quoted,* gives 
 many particulars connected with the habits and former deeds of these 
 nations. An estimate may be formed of their capabilities as a military 
 power from the following proceedings that occurred during the govern- 
 ment of the most powerful ruler that has appeared in this country for a 
 length of time. A religious devotee, called Begge J&n, by a continuance 
 of artful conduct, commanded a respect and devotion from his followers 
 almost equal to that obtained by Mohamed, whose character he appears 
 closely to have imitated. He obtained sufficient influence to destroy the 
 drinking and gambling houses at Bokhara, which are said to have 
 amounted to several thousands, and in their place established mosques, 
 and colleges, the latter attended by 30,000 students. “ Ignorance and 
 superstition are ever united,” says Sir John Malcolm, “ and the Tartars 
 were easily persuaded that a leader who contemned the worldly plea- 
 sures they prized, and who preferred the patched mantle and crooked 
 staff of a mendicant priest, to a royal ruler and sceptre, must act under 
 the immediate direction of the Divine Being.” Such a man, in many 
 of his acts and works similar to the founder of the Mohamedan dynasty, 
 was enabled to gain a complete ascendancy over the rude nations of Tar- 
 tary, and to organize a force far surpassing any that could be expected to 
 assemble in the present day. This religious chief, who was predecessor 
 to the present Khan, rode at the head of his armies, and established his 
 sway over almost the whole country between the Oxus and Jaxartes, 
 and to the Lake of Aral. He made constant incursions into the country 
 of Afghan and into Khorassan. His army was said to amount to sixty 
 thousand horse, but he was seldom attended with half that number. 
 Other rulers have at different times also attained great celebrity in 
 these wilds, and from their military genius have attracted followers, that 
 at length immortalized their name by enabling them to attain pre-emi- 
 nence and power throughout neighbouring countries. 
 
 It was in these regions that Timour, better known as Tamerlane, 
 began a career that ended in a brilliant series of victories. Such 
 leaders fascinate the uncultivated mind by some act of superior bold- 
 ness, and lead their followers on to battle, where “ his success makes 
 him their king; his failure reduces him to their equal.” We hear 
 of no master spirit similar to the above, and that would now be likely 
 
 * Sir John Malcolm. 
 
 NVASION. 
 
 to array the hordes of Tartary against an invader. One of this character 
 may arise in time of need, and it is possible that the true believers 
 may be again engaged in a war of extermination, whilst they call out, 
 
 “ O Prophet ! fight with the infidels and the unbelievers.” Nor can there 
 be a more likely place for the sable disciples of Mohamed to re-unite 
 than in the vicinity of the mosques of Bokhara, a city that nearly cor- 
 responds to Rome in the Catholic world. Such chances will attend 
 the progress of a Christian advance, and must have weight when it 
 is known that the chief last named marched from the banks of the Oxus 
 to the conquest of Moscow. How the prejudices of the people will 
 work in the event of a Russian invasion of their country, is a question 
 not to be answered. Should they give way to their love of plunder, 
 and join an attempt to ransack the temples of idolaters on the plains ol 
 Hindoostan, they will he following a route that was successfully pursued 
 by Timour with 92,000 horsemen. 
 
 Suppose that the invaders have over-awed or conciliated the nations 
 they meet with in their progress, and that they continue to pass through 
 countries such as have been described until they reach the district of 
 Balkh, where the navigation of the river ceases. Balkh lies on the north 
 side of the range of mountains that divides Tartary from Hindoostan. 
 The time taken to perform the voyage from Bokhara to this place is, 
 said to be five days, making the voyage from Khiva to Balkh to be, 
 altogether one of thirteen days. It has already been remarked that 
 the distance by the river is but imperfectly known, but it is not likely 
 to exceed a line of 700 miles, which, at the rate of advance that has 
 been set down for an army, would take about two months. 
 
 Before we leave the banks of the Oxus, it will be proper to observe 
 that the imperfect knowledge we have of that stream, in all probability, 
 leads to our selection of a route far less advantageous than some other 
 that might become obvious with a better acquaintance of the country. 
 There is a branch of the Oxus running from opposite Bokhara towards 
 Herat; and in the same direction there is said to be a practicable, 
 road between those places of about 600 miles, through a fertile and 
 watered country. This uncertainty obliges us in this enquiry to follow 
 the line of march in constant use by caravans, and proceeding through 
 Balkh in progress towards the Indus. 
 
 The town of Balkh is situated about thirty miles from the point 
 where the Oxus is navigable ; and it will be necessary to examine the 
 capabilities of this province, where the army would be obliged to 
 
DEFENCE OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 83 
 
 abandon their water carriage, and have recourse to baggage animals. 
 Before advancing into the kingdom of Cabul, which we are now ar- 
 rived at, we shall take a retrospective view of the nations passed 
 over in our progress from the Russian territory, and it will be re- 
 marked that the current of superior enterprise and martial acquire- 
 ments rolls on from the hardy race of Scythians to the effeminate 
 people of the East. The Turkomaun who inhabits the district bordering 
 on Russia, and who lives in tents, is famed for his predatory habits, and 
 dreaded for his inroads into peaceful countries. The same character ex- 
 tends but partially to the Khivians, a portion of whom are resident culti- 
 vators of the soil. It is remarked of their neighbours : “ The Bokharians 
 are more civilized than the Khivians, three times as numerous, but more 
 commercial, and less warlike.” * The effect of climate, as we approach 
 the equator, and the enervating nature of its temperament, continue to 
 be equally observable, by the following account that is given of the 
 inhabitants of Balkh and its neighbourhood, where we are told, “ They 
 are so different from the Northern Tartars that they never engage in 
 wars, but apply themselves to the arts of peace, in manufacturing their 
 silks, and carrying on an extensive commerce, for which they are treated 
 by their savage neighbours as cowardly people.” | Those nations 
 south of the range of mountains that separates the Indus from the 
 Oxus, and which are in the Afghan country, have already been de- 
 cribed : their characters may be on a par with their neighbours in the 
 Punjab, or on the opposite side of the Indus in the same parallel of 
 latitude ; and it is well known that the British army in Hindoostan look 
 to that part of India for their best recruits. If a favourable application 
 of these circumstances is admitted as likely, with other causes, to enable 
 a Russian force to arrive at Balkh, there will be no scarcity of carriage 
 animals in a country “ famous for a strong and active breed of horses,” 
 from whence the markets of India are in a great measure supplied. 
 
 The French missionaries extended their journey to Balkh. They 
 describe the province as being about 360 miles in length and 240 in 
 breadth, and as one of the most fertile in this part of Tartary. “ The 
 city of Balkh, which gives the name to the province, is situated fifty 
 miles from the borders of Persia, on the River Debask, which about 
 forty miles to the westward runs into the River Amu, (or Oxus.) Balkh 
 is at present the most considerable town inhabited by the Mohamedan 
 
 Tartars, being large, fair, and well peopled. All foreigners having free 
 liberty to trade in this city, it is now become a place of great merchan- 
 dize, and like a middle stage between Bokhara and the Indies.” Another 
 authority* says of Balkh : “ The country round the city is flat, fertile, 
 and well cultivated. It is said to contain 360 villages, and is watered 
 by eighteen canals drawn from a celebrated reservoir in the Paropamisan 
 mountains.” — “ The best accounts I can obtain, assign to the whole 
 country to which I have applied the name of Balkh, a population of one 
 million.” The same writer also remarks : “ In general the horses of the 
 Afghan dominions are not remarkably good, excepting in the province 
 of Balkh, where they are excellent, and very numerous, and they are 
 of a strong and active breed, which are exported in considerable num- 
 bers.” The passage between Candahah and Balkh has been in use at 
 all ages ; and when Nadir Shah was besieging Candahah, “ the Afghan 
 prince of Candahah had expected aid from the chief of Balkh, against 
 whom Nadir detached his son, with a chosen body of twelve thousand 
 horse. The prince not only defeated his foe, and took the capital, but 
 passed the Oxus, and gave battle to the monarch of the Uzbegs, 
 who had advanced from Bokhara with an army far out numbering the 
 Persians.” f 
 
 On leaving Balkh, the next place on the road towards Cabul is 
 the town of Anderab ; the missionaries say, “ we travelled through 
 several valleys at the foot of the lofty mountains to the south of Balkh, 
 till we arrived at the town of Anderab. This place we found crowded 
 with travellers, for all the goods brought from Bokhara to be sent to 
 the Indies, are carried through the road adjoining Anderab, there being 
 no possibility for beasts of burthen to travel across the mountains.” J 
 This place, like Balkh, is fortified by a mud wall, of sufficient protection 
 against marauders. It was from Balkh that Alexander advanced with 
 100,000 men. There are two roads, one of which goes to the citv of 
 Cabul, the other to Paishaweer, the former is said to be 540 miles, the 
 other 500. The road to Cabul is mentioned as “ constantly used in 
 former times, and is so even now ; it probably offers no serious obstacle.” 
 From Anderab through the defile of the Hindoo Koosh is 100 miles. 
 The kingdom of Cabul has been already mentioned, the invasion of it 
 by the route we have last pointed out is of ancient adoption. Alexan- 
 der, who passed through the Hindoo Koosh, was followed by Timour, and 
 
 other successful warriors. An eminent geographer says, “ Cabul has 
 always been considered as the gate of India towards artary ; it produces 
 every article necessary to human life.”* At Cabul the army gets into the 
 road already treated of. The time required for reaching the Indus by 
 this route, according to the estimate we have formed of the distance?* 
 cannot be less than one month from the Caspian to Khiva, two months 
 from Khiva by the Oxus to Balkh, and nearly the same time to reach the 
 Indus from the latter place. There is a facility of conveyance by water 
 which makes it worthy of the greatest attention, especially if boats are 
 procurable to the necessary extent in the sea of Aral, and if there is an 
 easy communication from thence to Khiva. If such should prove to 
 be the case, land-carriage between Russia and the Indus will be reduced 
 to less than one thousand miles. A few remarks will be further offered 
 on the subject as we consider the remaining line of advance. 
 
 The route that remains for enquiry is to the east of the Sea of 
 Aral, and has also occupied the attention of the Russian government, 
 who, in the year 1813-14, dispatched a mission to the city of Kokhand, 
 which lies about mid-way between the south frontier of Russia and the 
 northern boundary of India. Monsieur Nazaroff was employed on 
 this occasion, and an account of his journeyj' affords some useful infor- 
 mation as a practical operation, and for the insight it gives into the 
 distant and obscure region of which it treats. Another mission, which 
 has been already alluded to, described by Baron Mayendorf, crossed 
 this country in proceeding to Bokhara. The escort to accompany the 
 last named mission assembled at the city of Orenburgh, and comprised 
 about 500 men, with 25 waggons, having three horses each, besides 
 two or three hundred other horses ; there were also between 300 and 
 400 camels, and the whole convoy was provided with two months’ 
 provisions. Cannon were taken as part of the materiel, and also pon- 
 toons to enable the party to cross such rivers as might intercept the 
 march. The route lay across a country which has been thus described : 
 “ In many parts of it are vast sandy deserts, which are in a manner 
 impassable to any but those who travel in caravans, and who carry 
 their provisions along with them. Butin many of the provinces there 
 is some land, which would at any time afford a sufficient subsistence 
 for the people ; but they are so much addicted to roving and wander- 
 ing abroad, that they neglect agriculture, choosing rather to live by 
 
 • Mayepdorf. t Missionaries in Coxe’s Travels. 
 
 * Elphinstone. f Sir John Malcolm. J Missionaries in Coxe's Travels. 
 
 * Reynell. f Notices of certain tribes and countries in the central part of Asia. 
 
 
84 
 
 DEFENCE OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN INVASION. 
 
 plunder.” When the escort had journeyed 500 miles, they reached 
 the River Sir-Deria, or Jaxartes, communicating with the Sea of 
 Aral. The banks of this river are like the Nile for verdure; it is 
 navigable for rafts and small boats from its mouth for 500 or 600 
 miles in a S. E. direction to the city of Kokhand, through a coun- 
 try occupied with hordes of Khirgees Tartars. M. Nazaroff says, that 
 in approaching Kokhand, tents of wandering tribes are exchanged for 
 houses of resident cultivators. Numerous branches of the river irrigate 
 extensive tracts, amidst which are villages and other demonstrations of 
 superior civilization. The party going to Bokhara passed the Jaxartes 
 river in the month of December, over ice, and proceeded 500 miles 
 further to reach their destination. The march of this escort was attended, 
 with difficulties and losses, and crossed a country marked by natural 
 obstacles, that would prevent its being resorted to for the passage of 
 troops unless in extremity. This experimental march has, however, 
 produced important results ; and shews that the passing of deserts and 
 steppes for a much greater distance than any that offer in the preceding 
 routes may be rendered practicable with proper arrangements. The time 
 required to perform the journey is another point that is applicable to our 
 subject. From Orenburgh to Bokhara is 1000 miles, and its performance 
 took 70 days, through a country occupied by erratic and marauding 
 hordes of Tartars. It is also a proof that no decided opposition is likely 
 to arise from such people. There can be little doubt but their inclination 
 and interest would urge them to assist any enterprise that held out 
 the joint prospect of employment and plunder. Although the passage 
 alluded to, offers no encouragement for an advance in the direction here 
 treated of, it remains to be decided what facilities a Russian expedi- 
 tion would find if they approached Kokhand from the Sea of Aral by 
 means of the Sir, or Jaxartes river. 
 
 The Sea of Aral, which has a coast of 800 miles, and which is the 
 resort of numerous Russian fishermen, is not separated from the Caspian 
 Sea at the narrowest part by a greater distance than 100 miles. Flat- 
 bottomed boats or rafts might be readily conveyed to assist the resources 
 to be found on the Sea of Aral, and an advance might be made up 
 the river, on the banks of which cattle would be found in abundance. 
 It is said, for 20 miles from its mouth, to have its banks covered with 
 vegetation 12 or 14 miles wide, and its course marked by a line of 
 verdure. 
 
 The result of these missions has not been divulged, to enable an opi- 
 
 nion to be formed how far the local governments would be inclined to 
 assist or oppose the passing of a Russian force. It would be too dan- 
 gerous an experiment even for the hardened Cossack to venture on such 
 an extended field of operations as would there be presented, unless a 
 safe conduct were guaranteed by the government of the country, more 
 especially if the desolate regions that intervene were rendered still less 
 accessible by a hostile feeling on the part of the inhabitants. On the 
 other hand, there does not appear to be any natural obstacle, or a cause 
 for doubt, of a force being enabled to proceed southward from Kokhand, 
 should a favourable disposition exist with the chief of that nation to 
 forward the project. To come to any satisfactory conclusion on this 
 head, it would be necessary to obtain correct knowledge concerning the 
 modern tribes, who are the descendants of the followers of- the famed 
 S ultan Timoor, and the warlike chief Ghengis Khan. The Sultan Villiami, 
 who now holds his court at Kokhand, is said to be rapidly extending 
 his influence, and already to comprehend many adjoining districts 
 within his rule. His subjects are estimated at three and a half 
 millions. 
 
 We shall suppose that advantageous overtures, and the prospect of 
 dividing the plunder of Hindoostan, have overcome the spirit of intolerance 
 and the prejudices of barbarism, and that an alliance is formed between 
 the Emperor of Russia and the Sultan of Kokhand. The designs of 
 Russia being also assisted by the favourable channel of communication 
 by means of the Jaxartes to the territory we are treating of, a Russian 
 force may be assembled at Kokhand as a base for operations towards 
 India. The distance the troops would have to cross from their place 
 of rendezvous to arrive at Balkh, would be about 340 miles. The route 
 passes through the districts of Samarkand and other cultivated tracts 
 equally favourable to the project in view. 
 
 Samarkand is about one hundred and sixty miles from Kokhand, 
 and has been mentioned in the last route. The city, which gives the 
 name to the province, is about two degrees from the river Oxus. On 
 entering this district from the east, the Missionaries, Duhalde and Le 
 Compte, travelled ten days over a most delightful country, when they 
 entered the city, situated in a valley on the banks of a river called Sogd, 
 and known to the ancients by the name of Sogdyana. Several other 
 towns are described in this vicinity, lying in delightful plains, and 
 watered by rivers falling into the Oxus or Amu ; and their favourable 
 account of this part of Asia is borne out by the following remark of 
 
 a modern date.* “ The Sogd for eight days’ journey is all delightful 
 country, affording fine prospects, and fields and valleys, running streams, 
 reservoirs and fountains, both oil the right hand and on the left ; you 
 pass from corn fields into rich meadows and pasture lands, and the 
 straits of Sogd are the finest in the world.” From Samarkand to the 
 Oxus is about one hundred and twenty miles, and mid-way between 
 them is the city of Kurshi, already remarked as having the neighbouring 
 lands exceeding fertile in all sorts of grain and fruit : a considerable trade 
 is carried on from this place to the northern ports of India.f Continuing 
 onwards towards Cabul, the ■ Oxus would be crossed about sixty miles 
 from Balkh ; and the whole distance from Kokhand to the latter city 
 would be about 340 miles. The means of transporting and of subsisting 
 the' army in their passage across this territory cannot be doubted, when 
 it is considered that the whole country is one great pasture, covered with 
 flocks and herds, and occupied by a pastoral people, whose principal 
 source of traffic is their cattle. It is from the countries on the borders 
 of the Oxus or Amu that foreign markets are supplied with horses, 
 and we find the Khirgees Tartars sell 60,000 sheep and 10,000 horses 
 annually in the market of Orenburgh. j; It is also mentioned that 
 “ Russia contains several colonies of Bokharians, who are settled in 
 many large towns of the southern provinces, and maintain a constant 
 communication with the merchants of their own country.^ 
 
 About the middle of the last century. Nadir Shah, after his con- 
 quest in India, made a display of his wealth at Herat, and marched 
 from that city with an army to Balkh. He crossed the Oxus in the 
 middle of August, and proceeded against Bokhara, which city sur- 
 rendered to the arms of the conqueror. Nadir settled the government 
 in his newly acquired territory, and turned his arms against the pro- 
 vince of Khaurizm. He subdued the country on both sides the 
 Oxus, as far as the Caspian Sea, and defeated the forces of Khau- 
 rizm, whose prince he made prisoner. It was far advanced in the 
 winter when he marched to Keldt, his favourite residence, situated 
 about a degree north of Mushed, a city mentioned in the route between 
 the Caspian and Herat. Although we do not possess materials for 
 making a satisfactory investigation of the Eastern lines of advance, there 
 has been Sufficient shewn to render them worthy of further consideration, 
 
 * Sir William Ousley. t Duhalde and Le Compte. 
 
 t Coxe’s Travels. § Ibid. 
 
 4 
 
85 
 
 defen c 
 
 ” ‘ ,ltI — •» »™~d „h„ 
 
 “* *«“»■ Particularly ,o thl , 
 
 ■ J r °“ “ h I -a >1, t,« country t. 
 
 “ 7,'r “7‘™ i" vtaw S to ,.™ tbi, 
 
 • ho “ 7 ‘ A "'-" Enttrh, tb, 
 
 to the Indus has already been considered. 
 
 Aral ltd g ° Vernment WCTe t0 P™** boats on the sea of 
 
 Aral, and determine to approach India by a coup d e main, a force couid 
 
 apparen ly ascend the Jaxartes river to Kokhand, a distance of five or 
 six undred miles, m six weeks. A corps of Tartars having been at- 
 tached to the army at Kokhand, the necessary arrangements might be 
 made for the march to Balkh. This march of three hundred and forty 
 miles would occupy about a month and a half. Then, as no delay is 
 to be anticipated at Balkh, the force would reach the banks of the 
 Indus by the route we have already noticed in six weeks from their 
 arrival at Balkh, being altogether a period of four or five months from 
 the time of their leaving the territory of Russia. 
 
 This and the preceding sketch will make it evident that an invasion 
 of India may be effected in the course of a few months by routes be- 
 yond the controul of European nations. It must also be apparent, that 
 the wide extent of the Russian frontier enables that power to advance 
 on India, regardless of the position which Persia may assume. This 
 state of things, added to the low condition of the Persian finances, and 
 other causes already stated, shew the helpless dependence of that country 
 on the forbearance of its powerful neighbour, and, consequently, the 
 necessity of becoming a party in her designs. With this double power 
 of action, it will be admitted that the position of Russia is sufficiently 
 formidable to demand some investigation of the British means of defence 
 on the north-west side of our Eastern Empire. 
 
 At present, the advance British station in India is on the Sut- 
 ledge, or the eastern river of the Punjab, and at a distance of 200 
 miles from the Indus. The intermediate country is thus described 
 by Mr. Elphinstone: “Almost the whole of the Punjab belongs to 
 Runjet Singh, who in 1805 was but one of many chiefs, but who, 
 when we passed, had acquired the sovereignty of all the Sheiks in the 
 Punjab, and was assuming the title of king. Towards the east his 
 
 * Evidence taken before a Select Committee on Affairs of India, and printed. 
 
 E OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN 
 
 territories are bounded by States under the protection of the British, but 
 on all the other sides he is busied in subjugating his weak neighbours, 
 by the same mixture of force and craft that he so successfully employed 
 against the chiefs of his own nation.” The above historian also remarks: 
 “ The whole of our journey across the tract between the Indus and the 
 Hydaspes was about 180 miles; for which space the country is among 
 the strongest I have ever seen.— I was greatly struck with the differ- 
 ence between the banks of this river, (the Hydaspes;) the left bank had 
 all the characteristics of the plains of India ; it was, indeed, as flat and 
 as rich as Bengal, which it greatly resembled.” “ The soil of Scind, 
 which is watered by the Indus, is described to be extremely fertile. 
 Cattle, horses, and camels, more celebrated than any in the East, are 
 sard to be produced there in abundance.”* 
 
 ! North of the Punjab the province of Cashmere comprises moun- 
 
 tains that project from the snow-clad peaks of the Hemalaya range. 
 
 1 his wild region is intersected by deep chasms, the sources of rivers 
 and torrents, and is impracticable for the march of a European force. 
 Ihe province of Moultan forms the southern portion of the Punjab, and 
 before leaving this district the five rivers are contributors to the majestic 
 stream of the Indus, which in its course from the Punjab to the ocean 
 cuts in a diagonal direction the province of Scind, that extends in 
 length 300 miles, and in breadth 80 miles. 
 
 The whole of the territory above described, extending from im- 
 practicable mountains to the sea, is held by neutral nations, and is filled 
 with military adventurers. It corresponds to the following account : 
 When the British and Mahratta armies entered the Punjab, they 
 were both daily joined by discontented petty chiefs of the Sikhs, 
 who offered their aid to the power that would put them in possession of 
 a village or a fort, from which, agreeable to their statement, they had 
 been unjustly excluded by a father or a brother.”! Of the force of 
 Runjet Singh, the same authority says, “His army is now more nu- 
 merous than it was, but it is composed of materials which have no 
 natural cohesion, and the first serious reverse which it meets with will, 
 probably, cause its dissolution.” 
 
 An invading army, by crossing at the junction of the rivers of the 
 Punjab, to proceed to Lahore, would pursue a route in constant use. 
 
 It was followed in 1797 by the Afghan monarch, Zemaun Shah, with 
 
 * Evidence, &c. f Sir John Malcolm. 
 
 INVASION. 
 
 33,000 men. The circumstance is thus noticed by Sir John Mal- 
 colm The facility with which he advanced to Lahore shewed that 
 no confidence could be placed in the union or resistance of the Sheiks.” 
 An invading force could also cross the Indus below the Punjab, and 
 by passing through Scind, it would enter the provinces of Guzerat 
 and Malwa, and thereby establish itself in one of the finest portions 
 of Hindoostan. 
 
 Should a Russian force arrive at Candahah with the intention of in- 
 vading India, its further advance would be on one or more of the points 
 described. The northern portion of the Punjab and the province of 
 Cashmere could be defended by British troops brought up the Ganges 
 from the Presidency of Bengal ; and on this river spirited and successful 
 exertions are making to render steam vessels available to general pur- 
 poses. A glance at the Map will shew that the southern portion of the 
 Punjab and the territory from thence to the sea, can only be defended 
 by the introduction of a flotilla on the Indus, and by the advance of 
 troops from the Presidencies of Madras and Bombay. 
 
 Lahore, the capital of Runjet Singh, is on the Ravey river, which 
 runs into the Indus, and is distant from the sea by the course of the 
 river about I0U0 miles. Throughout this extent there are no shoals or 
 rocks. The current does not exceed two and a half knots per hour, 
 and the depth of water is never less than 15 or 20 feet. Native ves- 
 sels of about 75 tons English perform the inland navigation. The 
 breadth of the stream at Lahore is 300 yards. Lower down at Moultan, 
 where some of the central rivers unite, Mr. Elphinstone crossed, and 
 here the passage was more than 1000 yards. In its course through 
 Scind the Indus varies from half a mile to a mile in breadth. Towards 
 the head of the river at Attock it is 280 yards wide, and above the 
 latter place it spreads into a plain, forming a lake spotted with islands. 
 This is the only place where the Indus is fordable, and here it would 
 be easily defended. No native chief on the banks of the Indus has 
 any thing approaching an army, except it be Runjet Singh, who is now 
 deemed the undisputed sovereign of both the Punjab and Cashmere. 
 This prince is favorably disposed to an alliance with the British govern- 
 ment; and our connexion with him should be sedulously cultivated, as 
 he possesses a country, which, beyond all others, is essential to the 
 defence of India. On the inland navigation of the Punjab, the following 
 are the remarks of an intelligent officer who recently sailed from the 
 sea to Lahore : “ There are few rivers in the world where steam might 
 
 
86 
 
 DEFENCE 
 
 be used with better effect than on the Indus. The Americans use 
 wood for fuel, and the supply of it on the Indus would never be 
 exhausted.” 
 
 Of Lahore, which lies about midway between the mountains and 
 the sea, the following important notice is found in Hamilton’s Gazetteer, 
 a work too well known for accuracy of detail to require remark The 
 Lahore province, from its commanding situation, possesses many advan- 
 tages over the rest of India, and under a regular government would 
 alone be sufficient to form a basis of a powerful and civilized kingdom. 
 
 The productive powers of the southern half, intersected by five noble 
 rivers, might easily be renovated, and with the natural strength and 
 temperate climate of the northern, unite circumstances in its favour that 
 rarely occur together. These advantages, added' to its geographical 
 position, as the only assailable quarter, point it out as the country from 
 whence Hindoostan is to be ruled, conquered, and defended.” 
 
 It requires no argument to shew, that in case of India being 
 threatened by invasion, the Indus must become the frontier for a 
 British force to rendezvous. A powerful ally might then be expected 
 in the Afghan nation, whose strong country would be a formidable 
 barrier when defended by European and native tactics combined. ( 
 Each river of the Punjab will, in case of retreat, mark a position for a 
 stand ; and should an invading army ever reach the Sutledge, it will 
 be after a series of hard-earned victories, and so exhausted as to be 
 quite incapable of opposing the reception prepared for it on the frontier 
 of British India. But^how different would be the fate of the invaders, 
 if allowed to possess themselves of the Punjab. An army of hardened 
 adventurers would be assembled to assist in further operations, the 
 territories above described would be organized, and if the invaders 
 were defeated at the Sutledge, the strong country referred to would 
 admit of their holding out until reinforcements arrived, or until disaf- 
 fection in other parts of the widely extended empire led to the sepa- 
 ration of the British force. 
 
 Independent of the navigable nature of the Ravey to Lahore, and 
 of the other rivers that flow into the Indus, the latter is said to be so 
 as high as to Attock. By means of such channels of communication, 
 
 OF BRITISH INDIA FROM RUSSIAN I 
 
 the advantage of steam vessels to transport troops to the scene of 
 operations, free from the exhausting effects of a march in a tropical 
 climate, would be incalculable, and the ready supply of materiel would 
 also be of the first importance. The rate of steam passage on the 
 Ganges, which has nearly the same current as the Indus, has been more 
 than three miles per hour in ascending the river. Five miles per hour 
 may be taken as the average speed for steam vessels in river navi- 
 gation. The voyage between Lahore and Bombay will therefore occupy 
 less than a fortnight. From Bombay to Ceylon a week would be re- 
 quired for the voyage ; a further time of three days would reach Ma- 
 dras. A steamer in the Indian Seas towed a ship of 380 tons having a 
 cargo, at a rate of from to 7 knots an hour, and against a strong 
 monsoon at the rate of 3|- knots an hour. In the voyage from Bombay 
 to Ceylon other stations of European corps are passed. Much more 
 might be added in favour of the immediate introduction of steam vessels 
 on the west coast of India. We will only remark, that the distance by 
 route from Madras to Lahore is 1675 miles, or six months march. The 
 distance from Bombay to the same place is about a third less than the 
 above. The application of steam vessels as tugs to assist on emergency 
 in transporting troops from the Mediterranean Sea to India is also worthy 
 of grave consideration. A less time than two months would perform this 
 service. At present there is but one efficient steam vessel on the Bombay 
 side of India, which has been mentioned in another part of this work. 
 
 It is the Hugh Lindsay, a man-of-war steamer, perfectly unfitted for 
 river navigation. It remains to be determined whether three first rate 
 steam vessels shall be immediately introduced into the Bombay marine, 
 by the adoption of the proposed project for steam packet communication ; 
 and if so, it must be evident that branch steamers will follow. An 
 extensive school will be thus established for the practice of an art on 
 which the safety of the Indian Empire may at no very distant period in 
 a great measure depend. 
 
 It is unnecessary for our purpose fully to discuss the existing 
 means of assembling a large force in the north-west frontier of British 
 India, or the time that would be required for such an operation. 
 Encumbered as troops in tropical countries necessarily are with baggage, 
 
 NVASION. , 
 
 stores, and numerous attendants, their progress on an extended line of 
 route cannot be estimated at more than sixty miles a week. The num- 
 ber of cattle put in requisition on these occasions, from the donkey to 
 the elephant, are almost as numerous as are the camp followers, and the 
 latter may average 15,000 for each regiment, including those of depart- 
 ments and for the general staff of the army. In reference to the fore- 
 going enquiry, it is important to bear in mind that the marching of 
 troops is from necessity suspended for three or four months in the year, 
 or from June until the termination of the rainy season. Nor should it 
 be forgotten that the same source of obstruction does not extend to 
 countries north of the Hemalaya range. 
 
 A few remarks are yet called for respecting the defence of the sea- 
 approaches to India in case of war. The possession by Great Britain of 
 the Cape of Good Hope and St. Helena, which are requisite as stations 
 for depots of fuel to enable steam vessels to navigate between the Eastern 
 and Western World, would seem to exclude hostile vessels of that de- 
 scription from the Indian Ocean. And in those seas where for two-thirds 
 of the year light winds and calms prevail, no sailing vessel could with- 
 stand the attack of powerful steamers, such as the British government 
 might employ. The commercial intercourse between India and England, 
 if carried on through Egypt, would be protected on this side by our 
 fleets, to sail between Alexandria and this country ; and by giving con- 
 voys over a distance of about 3200 miles, or less than one-fourtli of 
 the route at present followed via the Cape of Good Hope. This line 
 to be defended would also be strengthened by having the fortresses of 
 Malta and Gibraltar breaking it at almost regular intervals. Besides 
 the security given to trade by adopting the above arrangements, they 
 would allow of a naval force being concentrated in a quarter where, in 
 times of European war, it is most desirable a superiority should be main- 
 tained. These are a few of the advantages which suggest themselves 
 as likely to result from a general introduction of steam vessels into the 
 Eastern Seas. Further, as. an additional inducement to follow up the 
 plan, it has been announced that coal has been found near Attock on 
 the Indus, and there are means of obtaining the same article in the 
 province of Cutch, which is situated at the entrance of that river. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 LONDON ! 
 
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