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HINTS 
 
 PRACTICAL INFORMATION 
 
 CABINET-MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS, AND 
 FURNITURE MEN GENERALLY. 
 
 TOGETHEB WITH 
 
 A DESCRIPTION OF ALL KINDS OF FINISHING. WITH FULL DIRECTIONS 
 
 THEREFOR— VARNISHES— POLISHES— STAINS FOR WOOD-DYES 
 
 FOR WOOD-GILDING AND SILVERING— RECEIPTS FOR THE 
 
 FACTORY— LACQUERS, METALS, MARBLES, ETC.— 
 
 PICTURES, ENGRAVINGS, ETC.— MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 THE INDUSTEIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY 
 
 1899. 
 
CA>fOS 
 
 WEGETTVCgWm 
 UBRAI»V 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 While a large amount of the matter contained in this work 
 has been published before in some shape or other, it was found 
 in many instances incorrect, and therefore unreliable; this was 
 in a great measure owing to the carelessness and want of icnowl- 
 edge on the part of the compilers, for there can be no doubt that 
 the original recipes, methods, etc., were in the main correct; but 
 in the frequent reproductions, errors, omissions, and interpola- 
 tions occurred. It has been the aim of the publishers of the 
 present work to make all necessary corrections, and to render the 
 work as reliable as may be ; and to this end neither expense nor 
 pains have been spared, and much new matter that has not been 
 generally known before has been added to that which has been 
 public property for a long time. That the work will be found a 
 valuable aid to the operative cabinet-maker, furniture man, and 
 to wood- workers generally, there is not the least doubt, and its 
 price has been kept down to such a point as will not be beyond 
 the means of the average workingman. 
 
 New York, 1884. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Description of Cabinet-Making, Designing, Framing, Veneering, Inlay- 
 ing, Carving, Eeeding, Mouldings, Figiiues, Composition Ornaments, - 20 
 
 Filling.— Fillers for Walnut, for Light Woods, tor Cherry, for Oak, for Rose- 
 wood, Sizing, 25 
 
 Application of Varnishes. — Bru.shes for Varnishing, Varnish Pan, - 29 
 
 Rubbing, --------,30 
 
 Flowing and Polishing.— Flowing, Varnish, Polishing, - . - . 31 
 
 Varieties of Finish.— Dead Finish, Varnish Finish, Wax Finish, Imitation 
 Wax Finish, Ebony Finish, French Polishing, The Ingredients, French 
 Polish, Improved Polish, Water-proof Polish, Prepared Spirits, Polish 
 for Turner's Work, 38 
 
 Staintng.— Black Stain, Brown Stain, Walnut Stain, Oak Stain, Rosewood 
 Stain, Cherry Stain, Red Stain, Mahogany Stain, Surface Stains, Crim- 
 son Stain, Purple Stain, Blue Stain, Green Stain, Yellow Stain, To Brighten 
 Stains, 43 
 
 Dyeing Wood.— Black Dye, Blue Dye, Yellow Dye, Green Dye, Red Dye, 
 Purple Dye, Liquid for Brightening and Setting Colors, Orange Dve' 
 Silver Gray Dye, Gray Dye, - -47 
 
 Gilding, Silvering and Bronzing.— Gilding, The Reqnisite.s, Sizes Oil- 
 Size, Parchment-Size. Gold-Size, To Prevent Gold Artherino- Oil-Gild- 
 ing, Burnish-{;il(lirvii. Frcpiiiinur tlft> Wood-work, Polishing, Applying the 
 Size, Layinsr the Gold, Biiniishiiiir. Martin;; or I)ea(l-(;old, Finishirio- Shell- 
 Gold, Silver-Size, Composition for Frames, Ornaments, To ManipiUate 
 Gold Leal, Bronzing, --55 
 
 Graining and Color Work.— Graining. The Process, Graininff-Grounds 
 Light Wamscot Oak, Darker Wainscot Oak, Dark Oak. Very Dark Oak 
 Mahogany, Rosewood, Bird's Eye Maple, Graining-Grounds, Mixing 
 Colors, Cream Color, Pearl Grey, Fawn, Buff, Straw, Drab, Purple Violet 
 French Grey Silver, Dark Chestnut, Salmon. Peach Blossom, Lead, Dark 
 Lead, Chocolate, Light Yellow, Stone, Olive Green. Grass Green Carna- 
 tion, Imitation of Gold, Colors for Outlines of Ornaments, Tones Tints 
 Shades, Tempera, Distemper, Color Harmony in Grained Work, Chinese 
 White, Mixing White Lead, Varnish Green, - - - . . . 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 
 69 
 
 Gums and Their Qualities.— Amber, Anime, Copal, Oil Varnishes, Spirit 
 Varnishes, Lac, Sandarac, Mastic, Damar, Resin, - - - - - 71 
 
 The Solvents.— Linseed-Oil, Oil of Turpentine, Alcohol, Naphtha, - - 72 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Preparation of Oil Varnishes.— Copal Varnish, Artists' Virgin Copal, 
 Cabinet Varnish. Best Body Copal. Carriage Varnish, Wainscot Varnish, 
 Pale Amber Varnish, --. 82 
 
 Preparation of Spirit and Tirpentine Varnishes.— Best White Hard 
 Spirit Varnish. White Hard Varnish, White Siiirit Varnish, Brown Hard 
 Spirit Varnish, Hard-wood Lacquer, French Polish, Bleached Shellac, 
 Lacquer for Brass, Colored Lacquers, Mastic Varnish, Turpentine Var- 
 nish, Crystal Varnish, Paper Varnish, Water Varnish, Sealing- Wax Var- 
 nish. Black Varnish, Varnish for Iron. Varnish for Cane and Basket Work, 96 
 
 POLISH REVIVERS, ETC. 
 
 Polish Revivers.- French Polish Revivers, Furniture Reviver. Furniture 
 Cream. Furniture Paste, Several Receipts for Furniture Cream, White 
 Furniture Cream, .....98 
 
 GLUE. 
 
 Glue.- To Prepare Glue, Mixing Glue, Glue Pot, To Prevent Glue Crack- 
 ing, Strong Glue to Resist Moisture, Portable Glue, - - - . - 101 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 To Raise Old Veneers.— To Take Out Bruises in Furniture, To Make Paste 
 for Laying Cloth or Leather, Cements for Stopping Flaws in Wood, Ma- 
 hogany ; Colored Cement, Cement for Turners, Tracing Paper, Mounted 
 Tracings, Cracks in Drawing Boards, To Temper Tools, Hardening Tools, 
 To Cut Steel Scrapers, To Remedy Splits in Circular Saws, Brazing Band- 
 Saws, Saw Sharpening, Oiling Tools, To Mark Tools, Varnish for Tools, 
 Boiler Incrustation, Non-Conducting Coverinirs for Steam Pipes, To 
 Harden Wood Pulleys, To Prevent Belts Sliiipiiiir. Hiisjis. Sott Files, Amal- 
 gam Varnish, Painting and Preserving Iroiiwdrk. Prei)arin<r Soft Solder, 
 To Clean Silver Filigree. Bronzing on Metal. Polishing Metals, Imitation 
 Marble, To Polish Marble. To Clean Marble, To Remove Stains from 
 Marble. To Clean Pictures, Cleaning Varnished Pictures. Cleaning En- 
 gravings. To Smooth a Damaged Picture. Embossed Gilding for Illumin- 
 ating, (Jold for Illuminating, To Stain Horn in Imitation of Tortoise Shell, 
 To Stain Ivory or Bone Red, Black, Green, Blue, Yellow. To Soften Ivory, 
 To Bleach Ivory. Artificial Ivory. Cement for Joining Leather, Cement for 
 Leather and Wood, Cement for China, Cement for Glass, Cement for 
 Aquariums, To Restore the Elasticity of Caned Chair Bottoms, Moths in 
 Carpets. To Destroy Moths in Carpets. To Clean Carpets. To Make Parch- 
 ment Transparent, Tinting on Parchment, India Ink Running, Erasing 
 India Ink, To Make Carbon Paper, Removing Oil Stains from Tiles, To 
 Polish Floors, Black Wax, (Jreen Wax, To Polish Tortoise Shell or Horn, 
 To Clean Looklng-Glasses, To Remove Ink Stains, To Remove Stains from 
 Wood. To Clean Velvet, To Remove Paint or Slain from Wood, To Re- 
 move Varnish from Wood, Tesis for (Jildin-.'. Anli-Atlrition. To Remove 
 Grease from Cloth. Putty. How to Boil Linseed-Oil. Mordants for Staining 
 Wood, I'icture Frames. Varnish for Tools, Painlliii: on Zinc. Violin Var- 
 nish, Staining Beech, Staining Mahogany. Bronzing Inlaid Work, Black 
 Stain, Brown Stain, Red Stain, Walnut Stain. - ' 128 
 
PKACTIOAL INFORMATION 
 
 FOR CABINET-MAKERS, UPHOLSTERERS AND 
 FURNITURE MEN. 
 
 CONSTRUCTIVE CABINET-MAKING. 
 
 HE general term cabinet-making is the art of making all 
 such parts of the furniture of a dwelling-house as are 
 made of wood, together with the art of chair-making, 
 etc., antl in order to arrive at any degree of perfection, the knowl- 
 edge of designing, carving, modelling, etc., is requisite. 
 
 It has also been supposed that a knowledge of geometry, and 
 particularly of that portion of it which treats of the description of 
 curved lines, is of great use to the cabinet-maker; but, with the 
 exception of a knowledge of perspective, and of a few simple 
 methods of drawing common curves, geometry may be dispensed 
 with, though it would be better to possess it. 
 
 The best advice we can give the cabinet-maker, in acquiring a 
 graceful, easy, and free method of drawing, is, to draw as much 
 from nature, or from good casts, as possible. It is not of ma- 
 terial consequence whether vegetable or animal forms be drawn, 
 but a mixture of both is desirable, as they have very distinct 
 characters, which will be easily traced in attempting to delineate 
 them. 
 
 General Remarks on Designs for Cabinet 
 
 Work. — In design, tlie central or principal part of the object re- 
 quires most notice. The other parts should be so far subordinate 
 
10 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MARERS, 
 
 to it as not to distract the attention from the centre; and yet they 
 should be so united in harmony with it as to be obviously essential 
 to complete the design. 
 
 The connection between the principal and the inferior portions 
 of the designs should be preserved by the continuance of some of 
 the leading lines of the principal part to the inferior ones ; and, 
 whether these lines be straight or curved, they should never be so 
 far interrupted by ornament as to render it doubtful whether or not 
 they are continued ; and, as the idea of firmness or stability is a 
 necessary accompaniment of good taste in the design of furniture, 
 the leading lines of the principal part of the design should descend 
 in such a manner to the base as to give an idea of firmiTess, as far 
 as the nature of the thing requires it. 
 
 Proportion, as it depends on the relative magnitude of parts, is, 
 sometimes, wholly left to the good taste of the designer ; and, when 
 cases occur where it is within his i)ower, one part in a design must 
 form the principal object, and ought not to have a rival in magni- 
 tude ; also, when the piece of furniture is seen in its best position, this 
 principal part should be as near the centre of tlie \\ hole as possible. 
 
 The principal part of a design should be sufficiently prominent 
 for the eye to pass from it to the whole, or the reverse, without 
 perceiving the change of magnitude to be abrupt ; and the same 
 remark applies to the relation of the subordinate parts of the design 
 to the principal one. 
 
 If this attention be given to the proportion of the parts so that 
 the eye may pass from the consideration of one to another, and not 
 feel the change abrupt, the design will be pleasing. 
 
 If too small a proportion be assigned to the principal part, the 
 design will be flat and unmeaning. If the proportion be too large, 
 the whole will be absorbed in the part, as a modern mansion is not 
 unfrequently all jiortico. A due proportion of the principal part to 
 the whole gives boldness and propriety. 
 
 Richness is produced by introducing as much ornament as the 
 object will bear, without destroying the relation between the plain 
 and ornamental ])arts; a design, overcharged with ornament, be- 
 comes frittered, and wants both variety and repose. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MIX 11 
 
 The opposite quality to richness is meagrcness, or a deficiency of 
 ornament; and want of attention to its proportions. Between the 
 extremes of overcharging and meagreness an immense variety of 
 degrees of combination of ornamented with j^lain surfaces may be 
 selected. 
 
 When the ornament consists of moulded work only, the piece of 
 furniture is termed plain ; but in rich furniture the combined effect 
 of moulded and carved work is necessary. In either species, the 
 proportions of the ornamental and plain parts to each other should 
 be regulated by like principles as the magnitude of the parts. 
 
 Colored Woods, Metals, Etc. — Sometimes richness of 
 effect is no further attempted than is obtained by the natural beauty 
 of the wood whicli is employed; and when this natural beauty is 
 considerable, this simple kind of furniture is most highly valued. 
 
 But wood, so fine in color and figure, as alone to give richness 
 of effect to furniture, is very rare, and still more frequently de- 
 fective; hence, the more usual mode of combining different colored 
 woods, or of metals and shells with woods, require some degree of 
 attention. The prevailing combinations are formed by colored 
 bands, lines, and ornaments of wood, or by lines, beads, or orna- 
 ments of brass ; the brass being in many instances cut into beautiful 
 forms and further embellished by engraved lines on its surface. 
 
 The circumstances to be attended to in forming these combina- 
 tions are harmony of color, due proportion of the colored parts to 
 one another, and relief by contrast, 
 
 Much depends on the color of the principal mass of the piece of 
 work, which we call the predominating color. If this color be rich, 
 very little variety of other colors should be added. On the con- 
 trary, if the predominating color be light and delicate, it will bear to 
 be enlivened and supported by contrast with fine lines or borders 
 of an opposing color : taking care that the mass of opposing colors 
 be so small as not to produce opposition instead of contrast ; for 
 contrast skilfully managed, gives* force and lustre to the ground, 
 while opposition destroys even its natural beauty. 
 
 Framing. — Framing, in cabinet-making, requires the same 
 
12 PRACTICAL INFORMA'l IO.\ FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 precautions as in joinery, when it is required to form large surfaces, 
 for, owing to shrinkage, and warping of wood, large even surfaces 
 can be formed only by means of panelling. 
 
 The width of the style of a frame should be one-sixth of the 
 whole width of a compartment of the frame; the tenons should be 
 one-fourth of the thickness of the framing, and the width of a 
 tenon not more than tive times its thickness. 
 
 But, where surfaces of considerable width are to be formed with- 
 out an appearance of framing, whether those surfaces are to be 
 veneered or not, we should avoid framing them with other pieces 
 where the grain of the wood is in the contrary direction, for the dif- 
 ference of the shrinkage of the two ways of the wood is so con- 
 siderable, that it can scarcely be expected to stand without either 
 warping or splitting when confined . Where warping is to be pre- 
 vented, we strongly recommend that holes should be bored 
 through, and strong iron wires inserted, at short distances apart, 
 across the piece. These would act as clamps in preventing warp- 
 ing, and, at the same time, would not be affected by the shrinkage 
 in width. 
 
 Angles are formed in various ways, depending chiefiy on the ob- 
 ject of the work. External angles of mouldings are either simply 
 mitred or rebated, or both rebated and mitred together. Internal 
 angles are generally grooved together, with the outer edges mitred. 
 Where the front edge only is to be mitred, a dovetail groove is 
 made, and rather narrower at the back than at the front, so that 
 the tongue tightens as it is driven in. 
 
 When a strong firm connection is wanted, and the wood is to be 
 joined end to end, dovetailing is to be jireferred. When the dove- 
 tails are not to appear, they may be formed by the method called 
 lap-dovetailing; and, when the dovetails are cut through, it be- 
 comes the kind used to join the angle l)etween the front and end 
 of a drawer. When a joint is to appear as if it were mitred, the 
 method of dovetailing employed is called mitre-dovetailing. The 
 apparent edges are in this case always mitred to a depth of about 
 an eighth of an inch. There is also the method of joining by keys; 
 the jiarts being neatly mitred, then saw-kerfs are to be made for 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 13 
 
 the slips of wood called keys, which are to be inserted with glue 
 when the joint is put together. 
 
 Drawers are mostly dovetailed together, but variously made in 
 other respects. Well-seasoned wood should always be used, as 
 otherwise the drawers are liable to break at the joints; the tenons 
 should always be in the direction of the grain of the wood. In 
 mortising, care must be taken that the mortise and tenon are neatly 
 fitted, neither too loose or too tight, and the parts well glued when 
 put together. 
 
 Veneering, Banding, etc. — Veneering is the method of 
 covering an inferior wood with a surface of a very superior kind, so 
 that the parts of the article of furniture thus manufactured which 
 meet the eye appear to the same advantage as if the whole work 
 were of the best description. If this be well performed, it is very 
 durable, looks well to the last, and is attainable at an expense con- 
 siderably less than a similar article would cost if manufactured of 
 the same wood throughout, but of an inferior quality. 
 
 The principal requisite to ensure success in veneering, is to select 
 well-seasoned wood for the ground, and to use the best and strongest 
 glue. 
 
 Veneers are worked either by a veneering hammer or by cauls. 
 In veneering by the hammer, the ground should be warmed by the 
 fire, and the outside of the veneer wetted with warm water or thin 
 glue, with a sponge, and the side to be laid covered with a coat of 
 thin glue and warmed at the fire ; the veneer should be quickly laid 
 on the ground and worked with the hammer, backwards and for- 
 wards, till neither air or glue will come out. Veneering with the 
 hammer is preferable when the veneers are straight and even, but 
 as that is seldom the case, work is generally done with a caul. 
 
 A caul is made of solid wood, shaped to the surface to be ve- 
 neered ; it should be well heated, then oiled and greased ; it is 
 screwed down upon the veneer, and the heat and pressure sends 
 out the glue, causing the veneer to bed close to the ground. The 
 veneers should be of an even thickness when worked by a caul, 
 otherwise the glue will collect, and the work is liable to blister ; it 
 should not dry too quickly. 
 
14 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 To Raise Old Voneers. — In repairing old cabinets, and 
 other furniture, workffien are sometimes at a loss to know how to 
 get rid of those bhsters which appear on the surface, in consequence 
 of the glue under the veneer failing or causing the veneer to separ- 
 ate from the ground in patches; and these blisters are frequently so 
 situated, that, without separating the whole veneer from the ground, 
 it is impossible to introduce any glue between them to relay it ; the 
 great difficulty in this case is to separate the veneer from the ground 
 without injuring it, as it adheres in many places too fast to 
 separate without breaking it. We will here, therefore, show how 
 this operation may be performed without difficulty, and the veneer 
 preserved perfectly whole and uninjured, ready for relaying as a 
 new piece. First wash the surface with boiling water, and with a 
 coarse cloth remove dirt or grease ; then place it before the fire, or 
 heat it with a caul; oil its surface with common linseed oil, place it 
 again to the fire, and the heat will make the oil penetrate quite 
 through the veneer and soften the glue underneath ; then whilst 
 hot raise the edge gently with a chisel, and it will separate com- 
 pletely from the ground ; be careful not to use too great force, or 
 you will spoil your work; again, if it should get cold during the 
 operation, apply more oil, and heat it again ; repeat this process till 
 you have entirely separated the veneer, then wash off the old glue, 
 and proceed to lay it again as a new veneer. 
 
 Banding is a term applied to a narrow strip of veneer used as a 
 border, or part of a border, either to a large veneer or to solid 
 wood ; in the latter case, a rebate is sunk for the banding. Band- 
 ing is of three kinds : it is called straight-banding when the wood 
 is cut lengthwise of the grain ; cross-banding when the wood is cut 
 across tlie grain ; and feather-banding when cut at an angle be- 
 tween the two. 
 
 Between the banding and the central part, one or more lines are 
 generally inserted, and sometimes a narrower band. 
 
 The joints of banding should be as well matched as possible, 
 both in respect to color and grain ; and, excepting the mitre- 
 joints, it is an advantage to make the joints at the veins of the 
 wood. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 15 
 
 Inlaying, etc., etc. — inlaying is an expensive method of 
 ornamenting furnitme with fancy woods, metals, shells, etc., and if 
 not well executed is unsightly and liable to frequent breakage. It 
 is of great antiquity, and was brought to great perfection about the 
 i6th century; it was revived about the end of the 17th century in 
 France, but met with little encouragement, though practiced by 
 some eminent artists — amongst the most famous for tlie excellence 
 and extent of his works was one Boalle, or Buhl, from whence we 
 take the name of Buhl-work. It has been much in use in England,, 
 France and America during the last twenty years, to form orna- 
 mental borders, chess tables, etc. 
 
 In this art the part for the ornament and that for the ground are 
 glued together, and the design being drawn upon one, both are at 
 once cut through by a very fine species of bow-saw. Thus, there 
 are four parts obtained, which, being put together in two, the one 
 is the ornament designed in its proper ground ; and the remainder 
 of the ground, combined with the remainder of tlie ornament, gives 
 another ])attern called the reverse. 
 
 The plates of brass or other metal should be of the usual thickness 
 of a veneer, or as thin as can be conveniently worked, and made 
 rough on both sides with a coarse file, or toothing plane. The 
 veneers of wood or other matter to be combined with them, should 
 also be toothed ; and, both the plates and veneers being warmed, 
 first pass a coat of glue over one of the metal plates and cover it 
 with a thin sheet of paper, then coat the paper with glue, and cover 
 it with the veneer. Place them between two smooth and even 
 boards, and let them be kept together either by a screw-press or by 
 hand-screws, and remain till dry ; they will then be found to ad- 
 here together with sufficient firmness for cutting to the pattern. 
 
 The pattern should be drawn on the veneer, or if, from the color, 
 it should not be sufficiently distinct, a piece of paper may be pasted 
 on the veneer, and after it is dry the design may be drawn upon it. 
 The lines of the pattern should be cut with a bow-saw having a 
 very thin and narrow blade ; such a saw may be made of part of a 
 watch-spring, and the bow or the stretcher of the saw is required to 
 be at such a distance from the blade as will admit the latter to turn 
 
1 6 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 and follow the lines of the pattern in any direction. The frame of 
 the saw should be as light as possible. Where tlie pattern does 
 not in any place approach the edge, a small hole must be made for 
 inserting the saw ; and it is usual to saw upwards, that mode of saw- 
 ing rendering it more easy to follow the lines correctly. When the 
 whole of the pattern is cut out, the veneer or shell may be separ- 
 ated from tlie metal by exposing them to steam, or to warm water. 
 
 The next object is to join the parts so as to produce two com- 
 plete ornaments ; the one composed of veneer inlaid with metal, 
 the other of metal inlaid with veneer. For this purpose, on a plain 
 surface, place a piece of paper of sufficient size, and the veneer 
 upon it, then with strong glue insert the metal part in the veneer, 
 and rub it well down with the veneering-hammer and glue ; next 
 cover the whole with another piece of paper, and place it between 
 two plain boards, which had been previously well warmed and 
 rubbed with tallow, and screw or press them togetlier. If tliis be 
 properly done, the work will separate from the boards when dry ; 
 and, the paper being removed, it may be laid in its place as a 
 veneer; but a caul is usually employed in preference to the ham- 
 mer. The reverse pattern, it is obvious, should be prepared for lay- 
 ing in the same manner. 
 
 The process is the same wliether metal and wood or metal and 
 tortoiseshell, or two woods of different colors be used. 
 
 Inlaying with Shaded Wood.— Having shown the 
 
 methods of cutting out and veneering, we need now only show the 
 method used to produce tliat shady brown edge, on works inlaid 
 with white holly, and which, when well executed, lias a very pleas- 
 ing and ornamental effect; the method is as follows: — 
 
 Into a shallow iron or tin pot, put a sufficient quantity of fine 
 dry sand, to be level with the top edge of it ; place it on the fire 
 till it is quite hot, then having your veneer cut out to the required 
 pattern, dip the edges into the hot sand, and let them remain till 
 the heat has made them quite brown ; but be careful not to burn 
 them; it is best to bring them to a proper color by repeatedly re- 
 newing the operation, than all at once, as you then do not injure 
 the texture of the wood, and by immersing more or less of the edge 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FUKNllURE MEN. 1 7 
 
 you produce a shaded appearance to your satisfaction. 1 would 
 here recommend the workman, previous to beginning the operation, 
 to have his pattern before him shaded with umber, or any brown 
 color, in those parts that the wood is to be stained, as he then will 
 be enabled, as he proceeds, to copy the various shades of the pat- 
 tern, for the wood when once shaded cannot be altered ; and as 
 much of the beauty of this work depends on a proper judgment in 
 placing your shadows, it is best always to have a guide to go by, 
 that we may produce the best possible effect. Sometimes it is 
 requisite to give a shadow in the centre, and not on the edge of 
 your wood, and as this cannot be done by dipping it in the sand, 
 you must do it by taking up a little of the hot sand and sprinkhng 
 it or heaping it up on those parts required to be darkened, letting 
 it remain a short time, then sliaking it off, and, if necessary, apply 
 more where the color is not deep enough. 
 
 To Imitate Inlaying of Silver Strings, etc.— This 
 
 process is sometimes employed in the stocks, etc., of pistols, and if 
 well executed has a very good effect; carefully draw your pattern 
 upon the work, and then engrave, or cut away the different lines 
 with sharp gouges, chisels, etc., so as to appear clean and even, 
 taking care to cut them deep enough, and rather under, like a 
 dovetail, to secure the composition afterwards to be put in the 
 channels. The composition to resemble silver may be made as 
 follows : take any quantity of the purest and best grain tin, melt it 
 in a ladle or other convenient receptacle, add to it, while in fusion, 
 the purest quicksilver, stirring it to make it incorporate; when you 
 have added enough, it will remain in a stiff paste ; if too soft, add 
 more tin, and if not sufficiently fluid add quicksilver; grind this 
 composition on a marble slab, or in a mortar, with a little size, and 
 fill up the cuttings or grooves in your work, as you would with a 
 piece of jjutty; let it remain some hours to dry, when you may 
 polish it off with the palm of your hand, and it will appear as if your 
 work was mlaid with silver. Instead of tin you may make a paste 
 of silver leaf and quicksilver, and proceed as above directed ; you 
 may also, for the sake of variety in your work, rub in wax of dif- 
 ferent colors, and having levelled the surface and cleaned ofif your 
 
1 8 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 work, hold it at a moderate distance from the fire, which will give 
 your strings a good gloss. 
 
 Carving, Reeding, etc.— in carving, the quality of the 
 wood is of the utmost importance. It should be free from cracks, 
 knots, etc., and as even in its texture as possible, and, above all, 
 well seasoned. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to draw your pattern on the wood 
 in its proper proportions ; this is called boasting, and in it consists 
 the chief art of carving, as he who is the best skilled in drawing, 
 has the best idea of the quantity of projection that should be given 
 to the respective parts, to accord with the given design. After 
 making out the sketch, the carver has to shape the outline with 
 saws or gouges, and then make out the prominences of each part 
 when necessary or proper, by gluing on pieces of wood for that 
 purpose. The roughly-formed pieces are fixed for carving, and, in 
 some cases, this is done by gluing them to a board, with paper in- 
 serted between, to enable the carver to take the carving off with 
 more ease when it is finished. When the work is properly fixed, 
 the carver proceeds to place his gouges; and, by a judicious 
 choice of such kinds only as will suit the turn of the parts in boast- 
 ing, endeavors not to have more than he can use without confusion. 
 
 The principal lines of the whole are then formed, so as to be a 
 sufficient guide to finishing, when it is completed with gouges and 
 cutting tools of various kinds. 
 
 The union of carved and turned work has almost always a beau- 
 tiful effect ; but, in producing richness with the smallest degree of 
 labor, the combination may be carried to a great extent. 
 
 Reeding is a kind of ornament much in use in all jiarts of turned 
 work. It is far better than fluting or cabling, for it has a bolder 
 effect in small work than in fluting. When reeding is introduced on 
 flat surfaces, there should always be an odd number, as 3, 5, 7, etc., 
 the centre one being a trifle bolder in table legs, bed pillars, etc. 
 
 Moulding Ornaments, Figures, etc., in Imita- 
 tion of Carving. — To avoid the exi)ense of carving in wood, 
 several attempts have been made to cast figures and ornaments to 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. I9 
 
 resemble wood. Tlie most approved process we here present our 
 readers. It was invented by M. Lenorniand, and rewarded at the 
 Exposition of French Products, in 1823. 
 
 Make a very clear gkie with two parts of Flanders glue, and one 
 part of isinglass, by dissolving the two kinds separately in a large 
 quantity of water, and mix them together after they have been 
 strained through a piece of fine linen, to separate the filth and he- 
 trogeneous parts which could not be dissolved. The quantity of 
 water cannot be fixed, because all kinds of glue are not homo- 
 geneous, so that some require more and some less; but the proper 
 degree of liquidity may be known by suffering the mixed glue to 
 become perfectly cold ; it must then barely form a jelly. If it 
 happens that it is still liquid when cold, a little of the water must 
 be evaporated by exposing the vessel in which it is contained to 
 heat. On the other hand, if it has too much consistence, a little 
 warm water must be added. The glue, thus prepared, is to be 
 heated till you can scarcely endure your finger in it; by this opera- 
 tion a little water is evaporated, and the glue acquires more con- 
 sistence. Then take raspings of wood or sawdust, sifted through a 
 fine hair-sieve, and with the glue form it into a paste, which must 
 be put into plaster or sulphur moulds, after they have been well 
 rubbed over with linseed or nut-oil, in the same manner as when 
 plaster is to be moulded. Care must be taken to press the parts 
 into the mould with the hand, in order that the whole may acquire 
 the perfect form ; then cover it with an oiled board, place over it 
 a weight, and suffer it in that maimer to dry. The drying may be 
 hastened a little, and rendered more complete, by a stove. When 
 the casting is dry remove the rough parts, and if any irregularities 
 remain behind they must be smoothed, and then the ornament may 
 be affixed with glue to the article for which it is intended. 
 
 It may be varnished or polished in the usual manner. This 
 operation is exceedingly easy ; nothing is necessary but moulds, and, 
 with a little art, the ornament may be infinitely varied. 
 
 The species of ornament called Composition Omame?it is used 
 where the mass is not great, and the surface can be covered with 
 gilding or paint, and is not exposed to wear. Sunk roses, and 
 
20 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Other ornaments, whicli are protected by projections or mouldings, 
 may be done in this manner, and it may be successfully applied to 
 all objects beyond the reach of accident. 
 
 The comi)Osition is made as follows: — Mix 14 pounds of glue, 
 7 i)Ounds of rosin, y2 pound of pitch, 2^4 pints of linseed oil, and 5 
 pints of water (more or less, according to llie quantity required). 
 Boil the whole together, well stirring till dissolved; adtliiig as much 
 whiting as will render it of a hard consistency ; then press it into 
 vour mould, which has been ])rc\iously oiled with sweet oil. 
 
 No niore should be mixed than can be used before it becomes 
 sensibly hard, as it will require steaming before it can be again 
 used. 
 
 Composition ornaments should be well glued on, and, in some 
 cases, they will recjuire to be further secured by needle-points or 
 brads. 
 
 Composition ornaments are chiefly used for picture and glass 
 frames; we have also seen them employetl for ornaments on the 
 top of oak book-cases, and, when grained by a good ])ainter, they 
 answer as well as when carved in wood. 
 
 FINISHING. 
 
 Wood Finishing is the process of applying to the surface 
 after it has been prepared, by filling and smoothing, or otherwise, a 
 thin coating of varnish or other substance, to render it durable, en- 
 hance its beauty or change its a]ji)earance. There are numerous 
 methods of finishing, and a \nriety of materials are used; the va- 
 rieties of varnish being the i)rincipal. The distinctive qualities of 
 these varieties are treated under their j. roper headings. 
 
 In their natural state all woods are more or less porous, consist- 
 ing of bundles of hard fibres, with interstices filled with a softer sub- 
 stance. 'I'hese ronstitute the grain, and ns the liard or soft parts 
 predominate the wood is said to be h;ird, fine, or close-grained, or 
 soft and open-grained. 'I o fill these softer parts, or pores, and give 
 to the whole an even, uniform surface, hard, and capable of a bril- 
 liant ])olish, is the object of the finishers' art. This hard, firm sur- 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 21 
 
 face was formerly gained by the successive application of several 
 coats of varnish, at least three preliminary coats being required to 
 fill the pores; the inequalities were then reduced by fine sand or 
 glass-paper, and several additional coats laid on, the last, after be- 
 coming thoroughly hard, being polished if desired. In this opera- 
 tion, however, a great quantity of varnish is absorbed by the open 
 pores of the wood, and it is consequently so ex[)ensive that it is 
 now seldom used. Recourse is therefore had to various plans to 
 render the wood non -absorbent before applying varnishes, and cer- 
 tain couipountls called fillers are largely used for this i)urpose. 
 
 Richness of eft'ect may be gained in decorative woodwork by using 
 woods of different tone, such as amaranth and amboya, or inlaying 
 and veneering. The Hungarian ash and French walnut afford ex- 
 cellent veneers, especially the burls or gnarls. A few useful notes 
 on the subject are given by a recent American authority. In var- 
 nishing, the varnishes used can be toned down to match the wood, 
 or be made to darken it, by the addition of coloring matters. The 
 ])a tented preparations, known as " wood fillers," are prepared in 
 different colors for the purpose of preparing the surface of wood 
 previous to the varnishmg. They fill up the pores of the wood, 
 rendering the surface hard and smooth. For polishing mahogany, 
 walnut, etc., the following is recommended : Dissolve beeswax by 
 heat in spirits of turpentine until the mixture becomes viscid ; then 
 apply, by a clean cloth, and rub thoroughly with a flannel or cloth. 
 A common mode of polishing mahogany is by rubbing it first with 
 linseed oil, and then by a cloth dipped in very fine brickdust; a 
 good gloss may also be produced by rubbing with linseed oil, and 
 then holding trimmings or shavings of the same material against 
 the work in the lathe. Glass-paper, followed by rubbing, also gives 
 a good lustre. 
 
 Logwood, lime, brown soft-soap, dyed oil, sul|)hate of iron, nitrate 
 of silver exposed to the sun's rays, carbonate of sodn, bic-Jiromate 
 and i)ermanganate of potash, and other alkaline jireijarations, are 
 used for darkening the wood; the last three are specially recom- 
 mended. The solution is apphed by dissolving one ounce of the 
 alkali in two gills of boihng water, diluted to the required tone. 
 
22 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 The surface is saturated with a sponge or flannel, and immediately 
 dried with soft rags. The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil 
 tinged with rose madder may be applied to hard woods like birch, 
 and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet root in linseed-oil. 
 The grain of yellow pine can be brought out by two or three coats 
 of japan, much diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled and 
 rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of age, lime water 
 used before oiling is a good plan. In staining wood, the best and 
 most transparent effect is obtained by repeated light coats of the 
 same. For oak stain a strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; 
 for mahogany, dilute nitrous acid. A primary coat or a coat of 
 wood-fillers is advantageous. For mahogany stains, the following 
 are given : 2 oz. of dragon's blood dissolved in one quart of recti- 
 fied spirits of wine, well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt 
 sienna to give the required tone; for darker stains, boil half a pound 
 of madder and 2 oz. of logwood chips in one gallon of water, and 
 brush the decoction while hot over the wood; w'hen dry, paint 
 with a solution of 2 oz. of potash in one quart of water. A solu- 
 tion of permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent brown 
 stain. 
 
 The Processes.— Finishing, although comprehending many 
 minute sub-divisions, may be divided into four principal processes, 
 /. ^., " Filling," "Varnishing," "Rubbing," and " Flowing," "Pol- 
 ishing," etc. Each of them are treated at length in their proper 
 order, and for full information regarding the successive operations, 
 the learner must refer to these heads; here we shall give a gen- 
 eral view of the entire operation without details. The process de- 
 scribed is for fine work. First make the article to be finished quite 
 clean and free from dust ; then api)ly the proper filler with a brush ; 
 rub it well into the grain with excelsior or tow, rubbing across the 
 grain when practicable, then clean all the surplus filler from the sur- 
 face with rags; after filling, allow the article to stand for several 
 hours, during which time the filler should become quite hard and 
 dry. Before proceeding to apply the varnish, if necessary, make 
 the surface of the filler quite smooth with sand-paper; then apply 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 23 
 
 a coat of varnish, allowing it to get quite hard; after the last coat 
 of varnish, with fine sand-paper, santl-paper the surface sufficiently 
 to make it entirely smooth and remove any lumps or irregularities. 
 The number of coats required depends greatly upon the quality of 
 filler used, regarding which some remarks will be found under the 
 head of Fillers. It is said that with some fillers one coat of var- 
 nish is sufficient, but this can scarcely be the case with fine work, 
 as it is not possible for one coat of varnish to give sufficient body 
 to rub a four, or possibly three coats are more desirable. When 
 the last coat of varnish has been applied, the article is ready for 
 " rubbing " with pumice stone, moistened with linseed oil and ap- 
 plied with a bit of hair-cloth or coarse rag. This is for the pur- 
 pose of making the varnish perfectly smooth and preparing it for 
 the polishing. After rul^bing, if a dead finish is desired, the work 
 is comi)lete, but the body of the work is generally cleaned uj) with 
 a little oil well rubbed in, which gives it a lustre, afterward rubbed 
 with a cloth dampened with alcohol, which removes the surplus oil 
 from the surface. The \eneered panels are either "flowed" or 
 " polished," which processes are described under these heads. 
 
 FILLING. 
 
 Fillers. — These compounds play a very important part in the 
 art of finishing, not only in the great economy of material and time 
 required, but in producing a handsomer and more durable finish 
 than possible, except at great cost, without them. Oil is sometimes 
 used as a filler, but its use is not recommended ; applied directly to 
 the wood its effect is to swell the fibres, or "raise the grain," 
 which remains in that condition until the oil becomes entirely dry, 
 or disappears. During all tliis time the fibres are gradually shrink- 
 ing, and consequendy moving or checking the varnish. The quali- 
 ties essential to a good filler are : that it shall readily enter the 
 porous portion of the wood, and shall very soon harden and render 
 the wood impervious to the varnish, which should lie smoothly 
 upon the surface, giving brilliancy and effect to the natural beauty 
 of the wood; that it shall not raise the grain of the wood; that it 
 
24 PKACIICAL IXP^ORMATION FOR CABINET- iMAK.tKS, 
 
 shall nut change the color of the wood. 'I'hese conditions are 
 satisfactorily filled by very few of the home-made fillers ordinarily 
 used in shops, and while we give a number of receipts, our readers 
 are advised that they will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost, by 
 purchasing some of the patent fillers now coming into general use, 
 of which we can recommend the very excellent fillers of tne Britlge- 
 port Wood Finishing Co., New York, and J. W. Kenna & Co., 
 Chicago. In these fillers very little oil is used and a large amount 
 of dryers, so that the wood becomes perfectly dry and hard in a 
 few hours, preventing any swelling or shrinking of the fibres of the 
 wood after the varnish is apjilied. The following fillers should be 
 allowed to dry until quite hard. About eight hours are usually 
 sufficient. 
 
 Walnut Filler.— For Medium and Cheap Work.— lo lbs. 
 bolted English whiting, 3 lbs. dry burnt umber, 4 lbs. Vandyke 
 brown, 3 lbs. calcined plaster, y^ lb. Venetian red, i gal. boiled 
 linseed oil, y^ gal. spirits turpentine, i quart black japan. Mix 
 well and apply with brusli; rub well with excelsior or tow, clean oft 
 with rags. For Imitation Wax-Finish. — 5 lbs. bolted whitinc^, 
 I lb. calcined plaster, 6 ounces calcined magnesia, i ounce dry 
 burnt umber, i ounce trench yellow, i quart raw linseed oil, 
 1 quart benzine spirits, y^ pint very thin white shellac. Mix well 
 and apply with a brush. Rub well in and clean off" with rags. 
 Before using the above filling give the work one coat of white shel- 
 lac. When dry, santl-paper down and apply the filler. For 
 First-Class Work.— 3 lbs. burnt umber ground in oil, i lb. burnt 
 sienna ground in oil, i quart s]:)irits turpentine, 1 pint brown japan. 
 Mix well and ai)ply with a brush ; sand-paper well ; clean off" with 
 tow and rags. This gives a Ix-autiful chocolate color to the wood. 
 
 Filler for Light Woods.— 5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 
 3 lbs. calcined plaster, '< gallon raw linseed oil, i quart spirits tur- 
 pentine, I quart lnriwn J-Tp;"!. and sufficient iMencli yellow to tinge 
 the while. .Mix \\,ll .111. 1 apply witji a l.iush. rub in with excelsior 
 or tow. and clejn (.fi" with r,i-s. AiioHicr. — 10 lbs, bolted English 
 whiting, 5 lbs. calcined plaster, i lb. rum starch, 3 ounces calcined 
 
i;PH()l..SI LREKS AND FURNITURE MKN. 25 
 
 magnesia, i gallon raw linseed oil, i^ gallon sjiirits turpentine, i 
 quart brown japan, 2 ounces Frencli yellow. Mix well and apply 
 with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, anil clean oft' with rags. 
 
 Filler for Cherry. — 5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 lbs. 
 
 calcined plaster, i^4 ounces dry burnt sienna, i ounce Venetian 
 red, I quart boiled linseed oil, i pint spirits turpentine, i pint brown 
 jai)an. Mix well, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean oft" with 
 rags. 
 
 Filler for Oak. — 5 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 lbs. cal- 
 cined i)lastL'r, I ounce dry burnt sienna, yi ounce dry French 
 yellow, 1 (juart raw linseed oil, i pint benzine spirits, ^ pint white 
 shellac. Mix well, apply with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, 
 and clean off" with rags. 
 
 Filler for Rosewood. — 6 lbs. bolted English whiting, 2 
 lbs. calcined plaster, i lb. rose pink, 2 ounces Venetian red, y^ lb. 
 Vandyke brown, ^2 lb. brandon red, i galbn boiled linseed oil, y^ 
 gallon spirits turpentine, i quart black japan. Mix well, apply 
 with brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean oft" with rags. 
 
 Sizing. — Size of diff"erent kinds is sometimes applied to the sur- 
 face of wood to prevent absorption of the varnish. The kind of 
 material used for the size is not important, the object being only to 
 prevent absorption by a very thin coat of some substance not 
 soluble in the varnish. For dark-colored woods, thin size, made by 
 reducing ordinary glue with water, is generally used ; but for lighter- 
 colored surfaces, a white size is used, which is prepared by boiling 
 white kid or other leather, or parchment cuttings, in water for a 
 few hours, or until it forms a thin jellydike substance, which is re- 
 duced with water to a thin consistency, and used in a tepid state. 
 Sometimes solutions of isinglass or tragacanth are employed in like 
 manner. 
 
 Unlike the best fillers, sizes of any kind do not improve the finish, 
 and are sometimes a ])Ositive detriment to it. They are used 
 solely as an economy to reduce the quantity of tlie varnish needed, 
 and their use is not recommended for the best work. 
 
26 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 APPLICATION OF VARNISHES. 
 
 PrekmiiKiry to aj)plying the varnish the pores of the wood should 
 be filled, according to instructions given in the preceding receipts. 
 Sufficient time should be allowed for the filler to become perfectly 
 hard, and if any lumps or inequalities remain, the surface should be 
 made perfecdy smooth by the use of glass paper. All dust, si)ecks, 
 etc., should be carefully removed by the brush made for that pur- 
 pose, and the work is then ready for the varnish. 
 
 Varnishes of all kinds should be uniformly applied, in very thin 
 coats, sparingly upon the edges and angles, where the varnish is 
 liable to accumulate. In first placing the brush on the surface, it 
 should be applied, not close to the edge, which would be liable to 
 give too thick a coat at that part, but at a little distance from the 
 edge, and the strokes of the brush should be directed towards the 
 ends alternately, with steady rapid strokes, and only very moderate 
 pressure. If the surface is small, the whole may be passed over in 
 one operation, and then the brush may be returned to the edge at 
 which work was begun, and it may be passetl over the surface a 
 second or a third time, to distribute the varnish uniformly, and 
 work out the air bubbles. Sometimes, in small surfaces, the second 
 series of strokes is made at right angles to the first, in order to dis- 
 tril)ute the varnish more equally, and the third is laid on in the 
 same direction as the first ; but unless this is done expeditiously 
 and equally, it leaves cross-lines, which mjure the appearance of 
 the work. 
 
 Large surfaces are more difficult, as the varnish thickens too 
 rapidly to allow of the entire surface being covered at one opera- 
 tion. They must therefore either be worked gradually from the 
 one edge to the other, as in laying a tint of water-color, or the var- 
 nish must be applied upon separate portions successively; but it is 
 rather difficult to join the portions without leaving irregular marks. 
 It may, however, be successfully accomplished by thinning off the 
 edge with light strokes of the l)rush made in the same direction as 
 those on the finished i)ortion ; but some care is required to avoid 
 disturbing the former coat while it is still soft and easily acted upon 
 by the fresh varnish. In the same manner, in laying on a second or 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN 27 
 
 any subsequent coat of varnish, care must be taken not lo continue 
 the appHcation of the brush sufficiently long to disturb the previous 
 coat, which is speedily softened by the fresh varnish ; and if the 
 application of the brush were continued too long, the preceding 
 coat would be disturbed, giving to the work an irregular or chilled 
 appearance. A sufficient interval of time should be allowed be- 
 tween each coat for the perfect evaporation of the solvent, whether 
 alcohol, turi)entine or oil. The time required for this depends 
 partly upon the kind of varnish employed, and partly on the state 
 of the atmosphere. Under ordinary circumstances, spirit varnishes 
 generally require from two to three hours between every coat ; tur- 
 pentine varnishes mostly require six or eight hours; and oil var- 
 nishes still longer — sometimes as much as twenty-four hours. But 
 whatever time may be required, the second layer should never be 
 added until the first is permanently hard ; as when one layer is de- 
 fended from the air by a seeond, its drying is almost stopped, and 
 it remains soft and adhesive. 
 
 In applying spirit varnish, some little tact and expedition are 
 necessary, in order to spread the varnish uniformly over the sur- 
 face before it becomes too much thickened by evaporation, or it 
 will exhibit a very irregular surface when finished. If the surface 
 does not exceed a few inches square, no material difficulty is ex- 
 perienced, as the whole may be brushed over two or three times 
 before the varnish becomes too thick ; but surfaces containing two 
 or three square feet present much greater difficulty, as it is neces- 
 sary that the varnish should be sufficiently worked with the brush 
 to exclude all minute air-bubbles, which would spoil the appear- 
 ance of the work, and can seldom be entirely removed until just 
 before the varnish is becoming too thick \.o JJoiv or spread uniformly 
 after the brush has passed over it. 
 
 Turpentine and oil varnishes are applied in the same general 
 manner as spirit varnishes ; but as they dry more slowly, more time 
 may be occupied in la)'ing on the varnish, and therefore large sur- 
 faces maybe more easily and uniformly covered; but the same 
 precautions with respect to the dryness and warmth of the atmosphere 
 «-re likewise desirable when it is wished to produce a brilliant surface. 
 
28 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Every precaution should also be taken to prevent any dust, or 
 loose hairs from the brush, becoming accidentally attached to the 
 varnish. Should this occur they will require to be carefully picked 
 out with the point of a penknife and the surface of the varnish 
 leveled with line glass-paper, prior to the application of the next 
 coat. 
 
 In using spirit varnishes, it is at all limes of the first importance 
 that particular attention should be given to doing the varnishing 
 in a dry atmosphere ; as all solutions of resins in alcohol are pre- 
 cipitated by the addition of water, not only as visible moisture, but 
 even as vapor, wOiich is at all times deposited by the atmosphere 
 at a reduced temperature, in the form of invisible dew, and in this 
 state it precipitates the resin in the thin coat of varnish, and gives 
 the surface a milky, clouded or opaque appearance when the var- 
 nish is said to be chilled. But this effect is fre(iuently produced 
 even on a warm and apparently fine summer day, when the atmo- 
 sphere happens to be more than usually charged with moisture. 
 This is a frequent stumbling block in varnishing, and is only to be 
 obviated by carrying on the i)rocess in a room sufficiently warmed 
 to keep the moisture suspended in the air until the solvent has 
 completely evaporated. 
 
 Not only should the room be sufficiendy heated, but all currents 
 of cold air must be avoided, as cold drafts if suftered to pass over 
 the recently varnished surface, are quite sufiicient to dull the var- 
 nish wherever they extend. AVhen the varnish has been chilled, 
 the brilliancy and clearness may frequently be restored by giving 
 the chilled surface another thin coat of varnish, taking care to 
 avoid the causes of the former failure, and immediately holding the 
 varnished surface at a moderate distance from a fire, so as to warm 
 it sufficiently to partially re-dissolve the chilled coat ; but care is 
 necessary to avoid heating the varnish so much as to raise blisters, 
 in which case no remedy would remain but to scrape off the entire 
 coat. 
 
 The temperature generally preferred for the varnish room is 
 about 72 deg. F., but a few degrees more or less are not important. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 29 
 
 Brushes for Varnishing. — For si)iiit vamislies, camel's- 
 hair pencils and brushes are used, the sizes of which vary from one- 
 quarter to three-quarters of an inch diameter, according to the size 
 of the work. When the surfaces are very large, flat camel-hair 
 brushes are used ; but from their comparative thinness they scarcely 
 contain a sufficient quantity of varnish to preserve the brush uni- 
 formly charged in i)assing over a large surface. Turjjentine and 
 oil varnishes require less delicacy; and flat brushes, made of fine 
 soft bristles, are generally used, or sometimes ordinary painting 
 brushes are employed, but they are rather harsh, and, owing to 
 the adhesion of the varnish, the hairs are apt to be loosened, and 
 come out. Brushes should always be kept perfectly soft and clean, 
 and therefore should never be laid aside when through work, with- 
 out cleaning. For this purpose turpentine is best ; the brushes can 
 either be washed out quite clean in it, dried on a cloth, and laid 
 aside, or the bristles can be partially immersed in turpentine and 
 allowed to remain in it until wanted for use. Warm water and 
 soap will also serve to clean the brushes. If, however, the brushes 
 are laid aside without being thoroughly cleaned, they will certainly 
 be ruined by the hardening of the varnish. 
 
 Varnish Pan. — This can be procured at the color shops. 
 It is constructed of tin, with a false bottom; the interval between 
 the two bottoms is filled with sand, which being heated over the 
 fire keei)s the varnish fluid, and it flows more readily from the 
 brush. 'I'here is a tin handle to it, and the false bottom slopes 
 from one end to the other, which gives sufficient depth when the 
 varnish is low. It should also have a wire fixed across the top to 
 wipe the brush against. An ordinary preserve jar is frequently 
 used for containing the varnish, and is sufficiently suitable; but it 
 also should have a wire or string stretched across the top, for re- 
 ducing the quantity of varnish taken up by the brush. The quan- 
 tity of varnish poured into the jar should be sufficient to nearly 
 cover die hairs of the brush in order to keep it soft. Too small a 
 quantity of varnish is liable to thicken rapidly by evaporation, 
 which should at all times be prevented as far as possible, by keep- 
 ing the vessel closely covered when not in actual use. 
 
30 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 RUBBING. 
 
 This part of the finishing process is that which gives to the var- 
 nish when laid upon the wood a degree of smootiiness not other- 
 wise attainable ; for by the use of the brush alone, minute furrows 
 and ridges are left upon the plastic surface of the varnish ; and 
 although good varnish possesses in itself a higli gloss, the gloss is 
 not nearly so agreeable to the eye as the brilliant polish, of which 
 rubbing is the preliminary. The reduction of these ridges and 
 furrows is accomj^lished by means of finely-powdered pumice-stone 
 moistened with raw linseed oil, applied with a piece of hair-cloth 
 or other coarse and fibrous material. For rubbing large flat sur- 
 faces the haircloth is sometimes folded over a block of convenient 
 size, but this is not practicable for articles of small size or irregular 
 shai)e. In rubbing, considerable force must be used, but the stroke 
 should be steady and as long as possible, and great care should be 
 taken to rub the surface uniformly, as in case it is rubbed unevenly 
 the varnish is liable to be worn away quite to the wood in some 
 places, and the perfect smoothness that is the beauty of a good finish 
 will thus be impossible. The edges especially are liable to be rubbed 
 bare, and should be carefully treated. The crevices and hollows 
 of carvings are rubbed by means of hard pointed sticks of various 
 convenient sizes. The rubbing should be continued until the entire 
 surface apj)ears perfectly smooth and free from marks of any kind. 
 The surplus pumice-stone and oil should all be carefully removed 
 from the surface by means of rags, and the work may then be 
 cleaned up with a little sweet oil well rubbed in, and retouched 
 with a cloth slightly damj^ened in alcohol, which serves to remove 
 any remaining oil from the surface. If the article has veneered 
 panels, they are now ready for the final processes of " polishing " 
 or " flowing." 
 
 FLOWING AND POLISHING. 
 
 Plowing. — Flowing i.s the process of gi\iiig the work, after 
 it has been properly prepared, a coat of varnish made expressly for 
 that puri)C)se, called flowing varnish. Veneered panels nre usually 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 3I 
 
 finished this way. Some finishers, when the body-work is to be 
 dead- finish with flowed panels, coat the panels with the same var- 
 nish — shellac or other— used for the body, and rub them with 
 pumice-stone and oil ; in fact, up to the point of flowing make no 
 difference whatever in the treatment of the body-work and the 
 panels. Such treatment is not recommended; whatever varnish is 
 used for the body-work, the panels should be coated with two or 
 three coats of the best rubbing varnish ; oil should not be used for 
 rubbing, as, if the surface is at all greasy the subsequent coat of 
 flowing varnish cannot be evenly laid, therefore water should be 
 used with the pumice-stone for rubbing, in place of oil. After the 
 rubbing is completed, wash off with a sponge and dry with a 
 chamois skin. Let it stand for a day, and after freeing the work 
 of all pumice-stone and dust, take it to the flowing-room, which 
 should be clean, dry, and free from dust and all drafts of air, apply 
 the varnish with a flat brush of suitable width made of badger or 
 fitch hair; lay the varnish on smoothly and evenly, leaving no 
 marks of the brush. The quicker the varnish is put on, and the 
 less it is worked, the better it will look. Let it stand in the room 
 until it is hard enough to handle. Upholstered work should not 
 be flowed until it comes from the hands of the upholsterer and is 
 ready for the warerooms. 
 
 Varnisll Polishing. — This process is used when it is de- 
 sired to give to the work a bright lustre, different from the natural 
 gloss, and resulting from a perfectly smooth surface produced by 
 rubbing. The previously applied coats of rubbing varnish having 
 been rubbed down with pumice-stone and water, one or more coats 
 of |)olishing varnish is applied, rubbed down as before, and 
 brought to a bright mirror-like surface with rotten-stone and water. 
 Clean up with a little sweet oil, and afterward with a cloth damp- 
 ened in alcohol. 
 
 VARIETIES OP FINISH. 
 
 The processes of finishing having been described, it now re- 
 mains to explain varieties of finishing in use; these are largely 
 
32 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 derived from the peculiar qualities of the different varnishes used, 
 for full explanation of which see article on Varnishes. Polish- 
 ing-varnishes, which are very hard and durable, are so called be- 
 cause their surface can be brought to a high lustre by rubbing with 
 the proper materials. Flowing or linishing-varnishes contain more 
 oil than polishing-varnishes, dry more slowly, and are softer, but 
 their peculiar qualities are brilliancy and durability, fitting them 
 for work requiring a brilliant gloss, such as veneered panels. Rub- 
 bing-varnishes are those that dry sufficiently hard to admit of being 
 rubbed to a smooth surface. Turpentine varnishes, being the 
 cheapest variety, are employed for cheap work, such as common 
 chairs, bedsteads, etc. In general terms it may be said that the 
 particular filler, stain or other preliminary application used exer- 
 cises an important influence over the appearance of the finish, and 
 that a great variety of combinations are possible. For different 
 woods different fillers are used, the basis in most cases being the 
 same, the difference being principally in the coloring material, and 
 this is capable of great variation, to suit individual tastes. The 
 same is true of stains, and under the head of Stains and Fillers 
 will be found all needed information concerning the applications 
 proper for different woods, with methods for using them. The 
 varnish or other covering material used subsequently, will here be 
 treated of separately. 
 
 Dead-Finish. — This term is applied to the finish produced 
 by the reduction of any of the rubbing-varnishes with powdered 
 pumice-stone and raw linseed oil (see Rubbing), the surface thus 
 produced being left in the semi-lustrous state, by omitting the 
 polishing process. It is now more used than any other for body 
 work, shellac varnish being generally employed because of its 
 adaptation to the requirements of fine cabinet work, and its i)roper- 
 ties of quick and hard drying. Copal, anime and amber varnishes 
 are also used, but are slower drying, Veneered panels are usually 
 "flowed" or "polished" when the body work is dead-fir.ished. 
 The number of coats required depends somewhat upon the quality 
 of the filler, but usually three coats, and sometimes less, are amply 
 sufficient. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 33 
 
 Varnish Finish. — For cheap work. — One coat of filler or 
 stain, followed by one coat of cheap turpentine varnish, without 
 rubbing. In this class of work, the brilliancy of the gloss and 
 covering qualities of the varnish are principally considered. The 
 cheaper turpentine varnishes have a brilliant gloss, and dry very 
 hard, but the gloss is not permanent, and after drying, the gum is 
 very brittle and easily cracked and broken. The gum used is 
 principally common resin. 
 
 Wax Finish. — Mix together with heat, white wax and 
 spirits of turpentine to the consistency of thick paste; when cold, 
 apply it to the work with a rag; rub on heavily so as to fill the 
 l)ores of the wood ; remove all wax from the surface with a wooden 
 scraper made in the shape of a carpenter's chisel; smooth off" with 
 a bunch of soft rags by rubbing hard and quick for a few minutes; 
 finish with a little French polish applied with a cotton pad. (See 
 French Polish). For table tops and all large flat surfaces, allow 
 the wax to remain on and finish with a warm iron by passing it 
 lightly and quickly over the work until the wax is made smooth 
 and the surface is sufficiently polished. This is not considered a 
 (iesirable finish, as it is not durable, and water spots it very easily. 
 
 Imitation Wax Finish.— Use the light-colored, filler, 
 named under the head of Fillers. Apply three coats of white 
 shellac ; rub down with pumice-stone and oil ; clean up with 
 brown japan and spirits of turpentine mixed. Varnish-polish the 
 panels. 
 
 Ebony Finish.— This finish is usually applied to cherry, or 
 other light-colored woods having little grain. The ebony appear- 
 ance is produced by the use of a stain, various receipts for which 
 will be found under the head of Stains. White shellac is the 
 varnish usually employed, but some prefer the best rubbing-var- 
 nishes. Whatever varnish is selected, it should be as near as pos- 
 sible transparent, as otherwise the color of the work will appear to 
 be greenish or Itrown. Not more than three coats should be ap- 
 plied, as successive coats of the most transparent varnish will cause 
 an opaque or clouded appearance. Ex|)erience and care are re- 
 
34 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CARINEI-MAKERS, 
 
 (luired to successfully rub an ebonized article, as the varnish nuist 
 be rubbed almost to the wood, and if rubbed too deep a i.tnlioii of 
 the stain is removed, leaving a spot. Es[)ecial care should be 
 used in rubbing the angles. Another. — Instead of staining the 
 wood and applying successive coats of transparent rubbing- varnish, 
 a black varnish (or more properly speaking, a lacquer) is often laid 
 upon the surface of the wood. I'his process possesses the advan- 
 tage of being very speedy, not occupying more time than ordinary 
 spirit-varnishing, but on the other hand, the rapid hardening of the 
 gum prevents the varnish from entering into and becoming fixed 
 in the pores, so that it lies in a thin, hard, but very brittle coating 
 upon the surface, and is very readily broken and scaled off, leaving 
 spots of the original color of the wood, that cannot be properly re- 
 paired. Shellac varnish is generally used for this finish, and is pre- 
 pared by adding to it drop-black or perfectly pure lamp-black, 
 containing no grease or other foreign substance, sufiicieni to make 
 it perfectly black. Apply one or more coats of this to the work, 
 and finish by adding the necessary number of coats of brown 
 shellac, and rubbing in the usual way. This finish is employed 
 when it is desired to engrave or carve a design through ebonized 
 work, thus making the natural color of the wood appear in contrast 
 to the black. 
 
 French Polishing. — This is a method of varnishing by 
 rubbing the varnish upon the surface of the wood instead of apply- 
 ing it with brushes. When varnish is applied simply with a brush, 
 a comparatively uneven surface results, rendering necessary the 
 subsequent processes of rubbing and polishing, but by the method 
 of French polishing, a smooth and continuous surface, hard and not 
 easily scratched, is secured. 
 
 All the polishes are applied very much in the same way, and a 
 general description will therefore be sufficient. To obtain a good 
 polish with lac varnish on wood, the quantity applied must be very 
 small, and must be rubbed continuously until dry. If the work be 
 porous or cross grained, it will be necessary to give it a coat of 
 thin, clear size previous to commencing with the polish ; when dry. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 35 
 
 the surface must be smoothed with fine glass or sand-paper. The 
 size fills up the pores and saves the polish, and also saves consider- 
 able time in the operation. 
 
 Make a wad of cotton-batting, covered with several folds of very 
 fine, soft linen cloth ; put the wad or cushion to the mouth of the 
 bottle containing the preparation (or polish) and shake it sufficiently 
 to damp the cloth; then proceed to hghtly rub the work with cir- 
 cular motion ; as the rubber becomes drier, the pressure may be in- 
 creased, but care should be taken not to press too heavily when 
 the rubber contains much polish, as streakiness will result. The 
 circular motion should be continued until the rubber becomes quite 
 dry, when more polish may be taken upon it and the rubbing re- 
 newed. It should be borne in mind that the rubber should never 
 be raised directly from the work, but should be raised with a sweep- 
 ing motion ; also that it should never for a moment remain quiet 
 ui)on the surface ; and that its motion should be as even as pos- 
 sible ; neglect of these precautions will produce a rough surface 
 wherever the rubber remams quiet or is improperly removed. The 
 circular rubbing must be continued until the surface appears per- 
 fectly smooth and the pores are no longer visible. Be very par- 
 ticular to keep the cloth covering of the wad clean and soft ; it is 
 desirable to use a clean portion each time it is dipped in the polish. 
 It is quite likely that in about twelve hours after the above opera- 
 tion the surface of the work will be lustreless, and the grain plainly 
 visible, in that case proceed over the work again until the grain is 
 thoroughly filled. French polishing is a process requiring particu- 
 lar care and skill, and considerable experience is necessary to pro- 
 duce good results. 
 
 The Ingredients.— Shellac, dissolved in alcohol, is the 
 basis of all French polishes, and some finishers use thin shellac 
 varnish without other admixture, slightly moistening the rubber 
 with linseed oil to prevent stickiness and make it work smoothly. 
 There is a great variety of admixtures and diversity in the propor- 
 tion of ingredients, but the differences are not material. We sub- 
 join a number of receipts. 
 
36 I'RACllCAI. INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 The Genuine French-Polish.— To one pint of spirits 
 
 oi" wine add a quarter of an ounce of gum-copal, a cjuarier of an 
 ounce of gum-Arabic, and one ounce of shellac. 
 
 Let the gums be well bruised, and sifted through a piece of 
 muslin. Put the spirits and the gums together in a vessel that can 
 be closely corked ; place tliem near a warm stove, and frequently 
 shake them. In two or three days tliey will be dissolved. Strain 
 ihe mixture through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight corked 
 for use. 
 
 French Polish. — Take one ounce each of mastic, sandarac, 
 seedlac, shellac, gumlac, and gum-Arabic ; reduce them to powder ; 
 and add a quarter of an ounce of virgin wax; put the whole into a 
 bottle, with one (juart of rectified spirits of wine; let it stand twelve 
 hours, and it will be tit lor use. 
 
 Another. — Put into a glass bottle one ounce of gumlac, two 
 drachms of mastic in drops, four drachms of sandarac, three ounces 
 of shellac, and half an ounce of gum dragon ; reduce the whole to 
 powder; add it to a piece of camphor the size of a nut, and pour 
 on it eight ounces of rectified spirits of wine. Stop the bottle 
 close, but take care, when the gums are dissolving, that it is not 
 more than half full. Place near a warm stove until dissolved. 
 
 Other French-Polish Receipts. — i pint naptha, 31^ ounces orange 
 siiellac, y2 ounce elima. Darken with red saunders wood. 
 
 To one pint of spirits of wine, add half an ounce of gum shellac, 
 half an ounce of seed lac, and a quarter of an ounce of gum sand- 
 arac ; submit the whole to a gentle heat, frequently shaking it, till 
 the various gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use. 
 
 Shellac, 6 ounces ; naptlia, i quart ; sandarac, i ounce ; ben- 
 zoin, Y^ ounce. 
 
 Tliree ounces shellac, "/^ ounce of gum mastic pulverized, and 
 one pint of methylated spirits of wine added. Let it stand till dis- 
 solved. 
 
 Twelve ounces shellac, 2 ounces gum elimn, 3 ounces gum copal, 
 I gallon of spirits of wine; dissolve. 
 
 The following must be well mixed and dissolved : — Pale shellac, 
 2j^ pounds; 3 ounces mastic, 3 ounces sandarac, i gallon spirits 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 37 
 
 of wine. After the above is dissolved, add i pint copal varnish, 
 I ^.£ ounces shellac, 1.2 ounce gum juniper, ^2 ounce benzoin, }4 
 [jint of mediylated alcohol. 
 
 An Improved Polish. — To a i)int of spirits of wine add, 
 in fine powder, one ounce seedlac, two drachms of gum guaiacum, 
 two drachms of dragon's-blood, and two drachms of gum mastic; 
 expose them, in a vessel stopped close, to a moderate heat for 
 three hours, until you find the gums dissolved; strain the whole 
 into a bottle for use, with a quarter of a gill of the best linseed oil, 
 to be shaken up well with it. 
 
 This polish is more particularly intended for dark-colored 
 woods — for it is apt to give a tinge to light ones, as satin-wood or 
 air-wood, etc — owing to the admixture of the dragon's-blood, 
 which gives it a red appearance. 
 
 Water-proof Polish. — Take a pint of spirits of wine, two 
 ounces of gum benz(jni, a quarter of an ounce of gum sandarac, 
 and a quarter of an ounce of gum anime ; these must be put into 
 a stopped botde, and placed either in a sand-bath or in hot water 
 till dissolved; then strain the mixture, and, after adding about a 
 quarter of a gill of the best clear poppy oil, shake it well up, and 
 put it by for use. 
 
 Prepared Spirits. — This preparation is useful for finishing 
 after any of the foregoing receipts, as it adds to the lustre and 
 durability, as well as removes every defect, of the other polishes; 
 and it gives the surface a most brilliant appearance. 
 
 Haifa pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, two drachms 
 of shellac, and two drachms of gum benzoin. Put these ingredi- 
 ents into a bottle, and keep it in a warm place till the gum is all 
 dissolved, shaking it frequently ; when cold, add two teaspoonfuls 
 of the best clear white poppy oil ; shake them well together, and it 
 is fit for use. 
 
 This preparation is used in the same manner as the foregoing 
 polishes; but, in order to remove all dull places, you may increase 
 the pressure in rubbing. 
 
38 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Polish for Turners' Work. — Dissolve i ounce of 
 sandarach in ^ pint of spirits of wine ; shave i ounce of beeswax, 
 and dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of turpentine to 
 make it into a paste, add the former mixture to it by degrees ; 
 then, with a woollen cloth, apply it to the work while it is in motion 
 in the lathe, and polish it with a soft linen rag; it will appear as if 
 highly varnished. 
 
 STAINING. 
 
 Staining is the process of imparting to the surface of wood a 
 color different from its natural one. It consists of two varieties, 
 surface-staining and body-staining. In the former, as the name 
 implies, the staining is effected by various compounds in the nature 
 of pigments, laid upon the surface like paint, and forming a thin 
 opaque coating, which does not, to any considerable degree, affect 
 the fibre of the wood. In the latter the changes are chemical, the 
 stain being usually applied as a thin wash, which, entering the 
 pores of the wood, colors it to some depth below the surface. 
 Staining requires no preliminary preparation, the stain being ap- 
 pHed direcdy to the wood. As most stains raise the grain of the 
 wood to a considerable extent, it is necessary before applying the 
 varnish, to sand-paper the wood enough to render the grain quite 
 smooth; this sometimes renders a second coat necessary, after 
 which the sand-paper must be again applied. 
 
 A Good Black Stain. — i. Gall-nuts coarsely broken, 2 
 ounces ; rain water, i quart ; boil until reduced one-half. 2. White 
 vinegar, i pint; iron filings, 2 ounces ; antimony (povk^dered) 2 
 ounces ; vitriol, i ounce ; logwood, a small handful. Infuse in 
 bottle eight days, tying the cork down. To stain a piece of wood, 
 give the wood a coating of No. i, which acts as a mordant; when 
 nearly dry put on No. 2 ; let it dry quite, and then brush it over 
 again with No. 2. 
 
 Another. — Boil i4 lb. of chip logwood in 2 quarts of water, 
 add I oz. of pearl-ash, anil ajjply it hot to the work with a 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 39 
 
 brush ; then take ^ lb. of logwood, boil it as before in 2 quarts of 
 water, and add ^ oz. of verdigris and ^ oz. of copperas ; strain 
 it off, put in Yo lb. of rusty steel filings, and with this go over the 
 work a second time. 
 
 Another. — Boil the extract of logwood in water, and to it add 
 slowly a little of the yellow prussiate of potash. Brush on hot. 
 
 Anol/icr. — Boil 1 lb. logwood in 4 quarts of water ; add a double 
 handful of walnut-})eel or shells, boil it up again, take out the 
 chips, add a pint of the best vinegar and it will be fit for use; ap- 
 ply hot. This will be improved by applyhig over the first stain a 
 solution of one ounce of green copperas in a quart of water. 
 
 Other Black Stains. — i. Drop a little sulphuric acid into a small 
 quantity of water; brush over the wood and hold it to the fire; 
 it will be a fine black and receive a good polish. 2. l"'or a beau- 
 tiful black, on wood, nothing can exceed black japan. Apply 
 two coats; after which, varnish and polish it. 3. To i gallon vine- 
 gar, add a quarter of a pound of iron rust; let it stand for a week; 
 then add a-pound of dry lamp-black, and three-quarters of a pound 
 copperas ; stir it up for a couple of days. Lay on five or six coats 
 with a sponge, allowing it to dry between each ; polish with linseed 
 oil and a soft woollen rag, and it will look like ebony. 4. Vinegar, ^A 
 gal.; dry lamp-black, ^ lb.; iron rust sifted, 3 lbs.; mix and let stand 
 for a week. Lay three coats of this on hot, and then rub witli lin- 
 seed oil, and you will have a fine deep black. 5. Add to the above 
 stain nut-galls, i oz.; logwood chips, y^ lb.; copperas, ^ lb.; lay 
 on three coats ; oil well, and you will have a black stain that will 
 stand any kind of weather, and is well adapted for ships' combings, 
 etc. 6. Logwood chips, ^^ lb.; Brazil-wood, y^ lb.; boil for i^^ 
 hours in i gallon water. Brush the wood with this decoction while 
 hot ; make a decoction of nut-galls, by gentle simmering for three 
 or four days, a quarter of a pound of the galls in 3 qts. water ; give 
 the wood three coats, and, while wet, lay on a solution of sulphate 
 of iron (2 ozs. to a quart), and, when dry, oil or varnish. 7. Give 
 three coats with a solution of copper filings in aquafortis, and re- 
 peatedly brush over with the logwood decoction until the greenness 
 
40 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 of the copper is destroyed. 8. Boil >< lb. logwood chips in 2 
 quarts water; add an ounce of pearlash, and apply hot with a 
 brush. Then take 2 quarts of the logwood decoction, and }^ oz. 
 of verdigris, and the same of copperas ; strain, and throw in ^ lb. 
 of iron rust. Brush the work well with this, and oil. 
 
 Brown Stain. — Boil i lb. of the brown pigment called Terre 
 de Cassel with 4 quarts of water, until it is reduced one-third. 
 Mix two ounces (Troy) of white potash with sufficient water to dis- 
 solve it, and mix with the Terre de Cassel. This stain must be ap- 
 plied with a brush, two or even three times, according to the depth 
 of the shade required. 
 
 Walnut Stain. — Mix together, by stirring, i quart spirits of 
 turpentine, i pint asphaltum varnish, i pint of japan, i lb. dry- 
 burnt umber, i lb. dry Venetian red; apply with a brush. This 
 stain is transparent, and allows the grain of the wood to show 
 through. 
 
 Another. — Boil 1^2 ounces washing-soda, and ^ ounce bi- 
 chromate of potash, in i quart of water; add 2^ ounces Vandyke 
 brown. This stain may be used either hot or cold. 
 
 Another. — With a brush apply a thin solution of permanganate 
 of potassa in water, until the desired color is produced, allowing, 
 each coat to dry before another is applied. 
 
 Oak stain. — Add to a quart of water 2 ounces each of potash 
 
 and pearlash. Tliis is a very good stain, but it should be used 
 carefully as it blisters tlie hands and softens brushes. The stain 
 may be made lighter by adding more water. 
 
 Otiier Ocik Stains. — To darken the color of oak any of the fol- 
 lowing may be used : 
 
 Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush will deepen 
 the color immediately, and it will not fade, this being an artificial 
 production of result produced naturally by age. 
 
 Bichromate of i)otash, dissolved in cold water, and ap])lied with 
 a brush, will produce a similar result. 
 
 A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring new oak to any 
 shade or nearly black. 
 
UPHOLSrEkKRS AND FURNITURE MEN. 4I 
 
 Rosewood Stain. — Mix in a bottle }^ lb. of extract of log- 
 wood, I oz. salts of tartar, and i pint of water; in another bottle, 
 put I lb. of old iron in small pieces, and i pint of vinegar, which, 
 after standing twenty-four hours, will be ready for use; make a 
 hard stiff brush with a piece of rattan sharpened at one end in a 
 wedge shape, pounding it so as to separate the fibre. Mix in 
 I pint of varnish, i^ lb. of finely-powdered rose-pink. The mate- 
 rials are now ready, and the first thing in the process is to stain the 
 wood with the logwood stain ; give two coats of this, allowing the 
 first to become nearly dry before applying the second; then dip 
 the rattan brush in the vinegar, and with it form the grain, after 
 which give the work a coat of the varnish and rose pink. There 
 can be no definite directions given for graining, except to study the 
 natural wood and imitate it as near as possible. With the above 
 materials skilfully applied, any common wood can be made to re- 
 semble rosewood so nearly that it will take a good judge to dis- 
 tinguish the difference. 
 
 Another. — Boil i lb. of logwood in i gallon of water, add a 
 double handful of walnut shells, boil the whole again, strain the 
 liquor and add to it i pint of the best vinegar. It is then ready 
 for use. Apply it boiling hot, and when the wood is dry, form red 
 veins in imitation of the grain of rosewood with a brush dipped in 
 the following solution: Nitric acid, i pint; metallic tin, i oz.; sal 
 ammoniac, i oz. Mix and set aside to dissolve, occasionally 
 shaking. « 
 
 Cherry Stain. — Mix together, by stirring, i quart of spirits 
 of turpentine, i pint of varnish, and i lb. of dry burnt sienna; 
 apply with a brush, and after it has been on about five minutes 
 wipe it off with rags. This stain takes about 12 hours to dry. 
 
 A?iother Cherry Stam. — Take i quart alcohol, 2 ozs. of dragon's- 
 blood ; pulverize the latter along with i/( oz. of alkanet root ; mix, 
 and let stand in a warm place a couple of days. Shake frequently 
 in the meantime. Apply with a sponge or brush. Two or three 
 coats may be required. This makes a fine stain. 
 
 Red stain for Common Work. — Archil will produce a very 
 
42 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 good Stain of itself when used cold, but if after one or two coats 
 have Ijeen applied and suftered to get almost dry, it is bruslied 
 over with a hot solution of pearlash in water, it will improve the 
 color. 
 
 Mahogany Stain. — To darken mahogany, apply a weak 
 solution of bichromate o! potash in water. Apply successive coats, 
 allowing each to dry, until the required shade is secured. 
 
 Surface Stains.— The following are for the most part used 
 to apply to woods of inferior quality, to make them resemble 
 choicer woods. The colors are all to be mi.xed with very thin glue 
 size, laid on warm with a soft woollen material, and the wood 
 wiped dry after application. All the colors used in staining should 
 be well pulverized, and before use the liquid should be strained. 
 
 Imiiation Oak Stain. — Equal parts burnt umber and brown 
 ochre. 
 
 hnitatwn Mahogany Stain. — One part \"enetian red and two 
 parts yellow lead. 
 
 Imitation Rosewood Stain. — Venetian red, darkened with lamp- 
 black to required shade. 
 
 Imitation Walnut Stain. — Burnt umber and yellow ochre, mixed 
 in proportions to give desired shade. 
 
 Fine Crimson Stain. — Boil i lb. of good Brazil dust in 
 3 quarts of water for an hour; strain it, and add ^A oz. of cochi- 
 neal ; boil it again gently for iialf an hour, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 If you will have it more of a scarlet tint, boil half an ounce of 
 saffron in a quart of water for an hour, and pass over the work 
 previous to the red stain. 
 
 Purple Stain. -I'o i lb. of good chip logwood put 3 quarts 
 of water; boil it well for an hour ; then add 4 ozs. of i)earlash, and 
 2 ozs. of indigo pounded. 
 
 Fine Blue Stain. — into i lb. of oil of vitriol (sulj^huric 
 acid) in a clean glass phial, put 4 ozs. of indigo, and proceed as 
 above directed in dyeing purple. 
 
 Fine Green Stain. — To 2 pints of the strongest vinegar, 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 43 
 
 add 4 ozs. of the best verdigris pounded fine, )^ oz. of sap green, 
 and ^ oz. of indigo. 
 
 Distilled vinegar, or verjuice, improves the color. 
 
 Yellow Stain. — Dissolve }( lb. tumeric in i pint alcohol ; 
 let it stand until the tumeric settles to the bottom. 
 
 Another. — A small piece of aloes added to the varnish will have 
 all the eftect of a bright yellow stain. 
 
 To Brighten Stains. — Any of the stains named (except 
 the surface stains) will be rendered mucli more brilliant by an appli- 
 cation of the following: i oz. nitric acid, ]4 teaspoonful muriatic 
 acid, y^ oz. grain tin, 2 ozs. rain water. Mix in a bottle, at least 
 two days before using, and keep the bottle well corked. 
 
 DYEING WOOD. 
 
 Dyeing wood is mostly applied for the purpose of veneers, 
 while staining is more generally had recourse to to give the desired 
 color to the article after it has been manufactured. In the one 
 case, the color should penetrate throughout, while in the latter the 
 surface is all that is essential. 
 
 In dyeing, pear-tree, holly and beech, take the best black; but 
 for most colors, holly is preferable. It is also best to have wood 
 as young and as newly cut as possible. After the veneers are cut, 
 they should be allowed to lie in a trough of water for four or five 
 days before they are put into the copper; as the water, acting as a 
 l)urgative to the wood, brings out an abundance of slimy matter, 
 which must be removed, or the wood will never be a good color. 
 After this purificatory process, they should be dried in the open 
 air for at least twelve hours. They are then ready for the copper. 
 By these simple means the color will strike much quicker, and be 
 of a brighter hue. It would also add to the improvement of the 
 colors, if, after the veneers have boiled a few hours, they are taken 
 out, dried in the air, and again immersed in the coloring copper. 
 Always dry veneers in the open air, for fire invariably injures the 
 colors. 
 
44 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Fine Black Dye. — Put 6 lbs. of chip logwood into the 
 copper, with as many veneers as it will conveniently hold, without 
 pressing too tight ; fill it with water, and let it boil sloivly for about 
 three hours; then add half a pound of powdered verdigris, half a 
 pound of copperas, antl 4 ounces of bruised nut-galls ; fill the copper 
 up with vinegar as the water evaporates ; let it boil gently two 
 hours each day till the wood is dyed through. 
 
 Another. — Procure some liquor from a tanner's pit, or make a 
 strong decoction of oak bark, and to every gallon of the liquor add 
 a quarter of a pound of green copperas, and mix them well to- 
 gether; put the liquor into the copper, a4Ki make it quite hot, but 
 not boil ; immerse the veneers in it, and let them remain for an 
 hour; take them out, and expose them to the air till it has pene- 
 trated its substance ; then add some logwood to the solution, place 
 the veneers again in it, and let it simmer for two or three hours; 
 let the whole cool gradually, dry the veneers in the shade, and 
 they will be a very fine black. 
 
 Fine Blue Dye. — into a clean glass bottle put I lb. of oil 
 of vitriol, and 4 ozs. of the best indigo pounded in a mortar (take 
 care to set the bottle in a basin or earthen glazed pan, as it will 
 ferment); then put the veneers into a copper or stone trough; fill 
 it rather more tlian one-third with water, and add as much of the 
 vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as will make a fine blue, which 
 may be known by trying it with a piece of white paper or wood. 
 Let the veneers remain till the dye has struck through. 
 
 The color will be much improved if the solution of indigo in 
 vitriol be kept a few weeks before using it. The color will strike 
 better if the veneers are boiled in plain water till com])letely soaked 
 through, and then allowed for a few hours to dry partially, previous 
 to being immersed in the dye. 
 
 Another. — Throw pieces of quicklime into soft water; stir it 
 well ; when settled, strain or pour off the clear part; then to every 
 gallon add ten or twelve ounces of the best turnsole; put the 
 whole into the copi>er with the veneers, which should be of white 
 holly, and prepared as usual by boiling in water; let them simmer 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 45 
 
 gently till the color has sufficiently penetrated, but be careful not 
 to let them boil in it, as it would injure the color. 
 
 A Fine Yellow Dye.— Reduce 4 lbs. of the root of 
 barberry, by sawing, to dust, which put in a copper or brass 
 trough ; add 4 ozs. of turmeric and 4 gallons of water, then put in 
 as many white holly veneers as the liquor will cover ; boil them 
 together for three hours, often turning them ; when cool, add 2 
 ozs. of aquafortis and the dye will strike through much sooner. 
 
 A Bright Yellow Dye. — To every gallon of water neces- 
 sary to cover the veneers, add i lb. of French berries ; boil the 
 veneers till the color has penetrated through ; add to the infusion 
 of the French berries, the liquid for brightening colors given on 
 page 43, and let the veneers remain for two or three hours, and the 
 color will be very bright. 
 
 Bright Green Dye. — Proceed as in either of the previous 
 receipts to produce a yellow ; but instead of adding aquafortis or 
 the brightening liquid, add as much vitriolated indigo (see page 44) 
 as will produce the desired color. 
 
 Green Dye. — Dissolve 4 ozs. of the best verdigris, and of 
 sap-green and indigo half an ounce each, in 3 pints of the best 
 vinegar ; put in the veneers, and gently boil till the color has pene- 
 trated sufficiently. 
 
 The hue of the green may be varied by altering the proportion 
 of the ingredients ; and it is advised, unless wanted for a particular 
 purpose, to leave out the sap-green, as it is a vegetable color very 
 apt to change, or turn brown, when exposed to the air. 
 
 Bright Red Dye.— To 2 lbs. of genuine Brazil dust, add 4 
 gallons of water; put in as many veneers as the liquor will cover; 
 boil them for three hours ; then add 2 ozs. of alum, and 2 ozs. of 
 aquafortis, and keep it lukewarm until it has struck through. 
 
 Red Dye. — To every pound of logwood chips, add 2 gal- 
 lons of water; put in the veneers, and boil as in the last; then add 
 a sufficient quantity of the brightening liquid (see page 43) till you 
 see the color to your mind ; keep the whole as warm as the finger 
 can be borne in it, till the color has sufficientlv i>enetrated. 
 
46 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 The logwood chips should be picked from all foreign substances, 
 widi which it generally abounds, as bark, dirt, etc.; and it is always 
 best when fresh cut, which may be known by its appearing of a 
 bright-red color; for if stale, it will look brown, and not yield so 
 much coloring matter. 
 
 Purple Dye. — To 2 lbs. of chip logwood and half a pound 
 of Brazil dust, add 4 gallons of water, and after putting in the 
 veneers, boil them for at least three hours; then add 6 ozs. of 
 pearlash and 2 ozs. of alum ; let them boil for two or three hours 
 every day, till the color has struck through. 
 
 The Brazil dust only contributes to make the purple of a more 
 red cast; you may, therefore, omit it, if you require a deep bluish 
 purple. 
 
 Another. — Boil 2 lbs. of logwood, either in chips or powder, in 4 
 gallons of water, with the veneers ; after boiling till the color is well 
 struck in, add by degrees vitriolated indigo (see page 44) till the 
 purple is of the shade required, which may be known by trying it 
 with a piece of paper; let it then boil for one hour, and keep the 
 liquid in a milk-warm state till the color has penetrated the veneer. 
 This method, when properly managed, will produce a brilliant 
 purple, not so likely to fade as the foregoing. 
 
 Liquid for Brightening and Setting Colors. — To every 
 pint of strong aquafortis, add i oz. of grain tin, and a piece of sal- 
 ammoniac of the size of a walnut ; set it by to dissolve, shake the 
 bottle round with the cork out, from time to time ; in the course of 
 two or three days it will be fit for use. This will be found an ad- 
 mirable liquid to add to any color, as it not only brightens it, but 
 renders it less likely to fade from exposure to the air. 
 
 Orange Dye. — Let the veneers be dyed by either of the 
 methods given in page 45, of a fine deep }-e]low, and while they 
 are still wet and saturated with the dye, transfer them to the bright 
 red dye as in page 45, till the color penetrates equally throughout. 
 
 Silver Gray Dye. — Expose to the weather in a cast-iron 
 ])0t of six or eight gallons, old iron nails, hoops, etc.. till covered 
 with rust; ndd i gallon of \'ine2;ar and 2 of water, boil nil well for 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 47 
 
 an hour ; have the veneers ready, which must be hard-wood (not too 
 dry), put them in the copper used to dye black, and pour the iron 
 hcjuor over them; add i lb. of chip logwood and 2 ozs. of bruised 
 nut-galls ; then boil up another pot of the iron liquor to supply 
 the copper with, keeping the veneers covered, and boiling two 
 hours a day, till the required color is obtained. 
 
 Gray Dye. — Expose any quantity of old iron, or what is 
 better, the borings of gun-barrels, etc., in any convenient vessel, 
 and from time to time sprinkle them with spirits of salt (muriatic 
 acid) diluted in four times its quantity of water, till they are very 
 thickly covered with rust ; then to every six pounds add a gallon 
 of water, in which has been dissolved two ounces of salt of tartar; 
 lay the veneers in the copper, and cover them with this liquid ; let 
 it boil for two or three hours till well soaked, then to every gallon 
 of liquor add a quarter of a pound of green copperas, and keep the 
 whole at a moderate temperature till the dye has sufficiently pene- 
 trated. 
 
 GILDING, SILVERING AND BRONZING. 
 
 Gilding, Silvering and Bronzing are processes of 
 
 applying to previously prepared surfaces a thin layer of gold or 
 silver leaf, or in bronzing, of a fine powder, prepared from various 
 metals and intended to imitate the peculiar appearance of genuine 
 bronze. The processes of gilding and silvering being identical, the 
 description of one will suffice to explain the other. 
 
 Gilding. — Gold leaf, applied to articles of furniture as a 
 means of decoration, is used in two ways ; it is applied over an 
 ordinary varnish or other finish, in which case but litde special 
 preparation is necessary ; or, as when used for picture frames, cor- 
 nices, etc., it is applied to a specially prepared foundation, the basis 
 ot which is whiting, mixed with various other ingredients suggested 
 by experience or fancy. In either case, the gold leaf is caused to 
 adhere to the work, by size specially prepared for the purpose, re- 
 ceipts for which follow herewith ; the size being first applied to the 
 
48 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 work, and when it has become of the right consistency, the gold is 
 laid upon it. Oil-Gilding and Burnish-Gilding are different 
 methods used to obtain certain desired effects, the former princi- 
 pally for articles exposed to the weather, and for heightening the 
 effect of incised carving or engraving, and the latter for picture- 
 frames and articles having a specially prepared foundation, whose 
 entire surface is to be gilded. It is intended that the gold shall 
 adhere to the work only in the places to which the size has been 
 applied, but the smallest portion of oil or even a slight dampness 
 may cause the gold to partially adhere to the adjoining surface, re- 
 sulting in slightly ragged edges ; to prevent this, before applying 
 the size to the desired design, the entire surface is covered with a 
 thin film of some substance perfectly free from moisture, and easily 
 removable by water, after completion of the process. Directions 
 regarding this preliminary process are given under the caption : To 
 Prevent Gold Adhering. 
 
 The Requisites. — First, a sufficient quantity of leaf-gold, 
 which is of two sorts — the deep gold, as it is called, and the pale 
 gold. The former is the best; the latter very useful, and may 
 occasionally be introduced for variety or effect. 
 
 Second, a gilder's cushion : an oblong piece of wood, covered 
 with rough calfskin, stuffed with flannel several times doubled, 
 with a border of parchment, about four inches deep, at one end, to 
 prevent the air blowing the leaves about when placed on the 
 cushion. 
 
 Thirdly, a gilding-knife, with a straight and very smooth edge, 
 to cut the gold. 
 
 Fourthly, several camel-hair pencils in sizes, and tips, made of 
 a k\v long camel's hairs put between two cards, in the same man- 
 ner as hairs are put into tin cases for brushes, thus making a fiat 
 brush with a very few hairs. 
 
 Lastly, a burnisher, which is a crooked piece of agate set in a 
 long wooden handle. 
 
 Sizes. — These -are of two kinds: oil sizes are those which 
 when apijlicd, present an adhesive surface, requiring the immediate 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 49 
 
 laying of the gold-leaf upon it; of this class is the oil-size com- 
 monly used in decorating furniture; water-sizes are those that are 
 allowed to become dry and hard when applied, and are rendered 
 adhesive when the gold is to be laid, by brushing over with water ; 
 for burnish-gilding these are always employed, as oil-size does not 
 dry sufficiently hard to permit of burnishing. 
 
 Oil-Size for Oil-Gilding. — Grind calcined red-ochre 
 with the best and oldest tlr\ing-oil. When desired for use, add suf- 
 ficient oil of turpentine to make it work freely. 
 
 Parchment-Size. — For preparing Frames, etc. — To half a 
 pound of parchment shavings, or cuttings of white leather, add 
 three quarts of water, and boil it in a proper vessel till reduced to 
 nearly-half the quantity ; then take it off the fire, and strain it 
 through a sieve. Be careful in the boiling to keep it well stirred, 
 and do not let burn. 
 
 Gold-Size for Burnish-Gilding.— Grind fine sal- 
 ammoniac well with a muller and stone ; scrape into it a litde beef 
 suet, and grind all well together; after which, mix in with a pallet- 
 knife a small proportion of parchment-size with a double propor- 
 tion of water. When about to use, add parchment-size until it will 
 just flow from the brush. 
 
 Another. — Grind a lump of tobacco-pipe clay into a very stiff 
 ])aste with thin size; add a small quantity of ruddle and fine 
 black lead, ground very fine, and temper the whole with a small 
 piece of tallow. When ready to use, reduce with parchment-size 
 until it will just flow from the brush. 
 
 Another. — Grind separately in water, i lb. Armenian bole, 2 ozs. 
 red lead, a sufificient quantity of black lead; mix, and regrind with 
 a small quantity of olive oil. Reduce with parchment-size to the 
 proper consistenc}-. 
 
 To Prevent Gold Adhering. — Eitiier one of the fol- 
 lowing methods will prevent gold-leaf or bronze from adhering to 
 the surface beyond the outlines of the sizing laid on to receive it: 
 
 1. Whiting used dry, and ajiplied by means of a pounce bag. 
 
 2. Whiting mixed in water, and applied with a soft brush. 
 
5© PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 When the water has evaporated, dust off the superfluous wliiting 
 with an ordinary paint duster. By tliis method a very thin coat- 
 ing of whiting remains, which is free from any grittiness. One 
 advantage gained by the use of whiting thus apphed is, it furnishes 
 a whitish ground over which clear varnish or oil-size may be dis- 
 tinctly seen as the striping progresses. After the leaf or bronze 
 has been applied, the work must be carefully washed, so as to in- 
 sure the removal of the whiting. 
 
 3. White of egg reduced with water, and applied with a piece of 
 sponge. 
 
 4. A thin wash of starch water, either brushed on with a flat 
 camel-hair brush, or applied with a soft sponge, 
 
 5. Take ball liquorice and water, a weak solution, and apply 
 with a soft brush. This may be kept in a bottle ready for use at 
 any time. 
 
 6. Cut a new potato in two, and rub over the part to be sized 
 Avith the raw face exposed, allowing the juice to remain until dry. 
 
 It will be observed that any substance which interposes a film 
 over the varnish, itself being free from tackiness and readily re- 
 moved by water, will answer the purjjose. 
 
 Oil Gilding. — Applying the Gold. — If the wood to be 
 gilded is finished with varnish or otherwise, no additional founda- 
 tion is necessary upon which to lay the gold-leaf; if the w^ood is 
 not finished, after it has been smoothed and dusted, give it one or 
 two coats of parchment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard, 
 again smoothing the surface with fine sand-paper. That the gold 
 may not adhere to any part of the work except where the size is 
 hard, powder the surface lightly with whiting from a pounce-bag, 
 which is a small bag made of material sufficiently loose to permit 
 the powdered whiting to sift through as fine dust ; if preferred, 
 any of the preceding receipts for that purpose can be used instead. 
 Remove the surplus whiting with the dusting-brush, and the work 
 is then ready for the size. Apply tliis with a sable or fit brush of 
 the proper size, carefully observing to make the outer lines of 
 the design clear and sharp, that the work may not appear ragged. 
 Let the size remain until it feels tacky, w'hen the gold may be ap- 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 51 
 
 ])lied. This is the most difficult part of the operation, and experi- 
 ence is necessary before gold-leaf can be laid smoothly without a 
 wrinkle or a break. Turn a leaf of gold out of the book upon the 
 cushion ; breathe gently upon the centre of the leaf and it will lay 
 flat on the cushion ; cut it to the proper size by bringing the knife 
 perpendicularly over it, and sawing it gently until divided. Take 
 your tip (a brush used for the purpose) and after drawing it lightly 
 over your hair to remove any particles or dust that may be upon 
 it, breathe ujion it gendy, which will dampen it sufficiently to 
 cause the leaf of gold to adhere to it; lay the tip u[)on the leaf of 
 gold and carefully transfer it to the work; blow upon it gently and 
 It will straighten out and adhere. It may be rendered quite smooth 
 by slighdy dabbing it with a bit of cotton. In about an hour wash 
 off the superfluous gold from the edges, with a si)Ouge and water. 
 If the article is to be exposed to the weather or much wear, the 
 gilding may be varnished with copal varnish. 
 
 Burnisll-Grilding. — As previously stated, tliis process re- 
 quires a specially prepared foundation upon which to lay the gold, 
 and as the preparation of this foundation is a distinct trade, the 
 furniture (iealer or cabinet-maker seldom finds it necessary to un- 
 dertake it, the articles coming to his hand ready-prepared for gild- 
 ing; but as in repairing picture-frames, cornices, mirror frames, 
 etc., it frequently becomes necessary to renew the foundation, a 
 comprehensive description of the whole process is given. 
 
 Preparing the Wood-work. — After smoothing and 
 
 dusting the work, coat the frames in every part with boiling-hot 
 parchment-size, as previously described, then mix a sufficient quan- 
 tity of whiting with size to the consistency of thick cream, and with 
 it by means of a brush, coat every part of the frame several times, 
 permitting each coat to become perfectly dry before proceeding 
 with the next. The wood will thus be covered with a layer of hard 
 v.'hiting nearly or quite a sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The 
 size must not be too thick, and when mixed with the whiting 
 should not be so hot as the preliminary coat of size. 
 
52 PKACIICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Polisllillg. — When the prepared frames are (piile dry, clean 
 and poHsh them. To do this, wet a small piece at a time, and, 
 with a smooth, fine piece of cloth, dipped in water, rub the part till 
 all the bumps and inequalities are removed; and for those parts 
 where the fingers will not enter, as the mouldings, etc., wind the 
 wet cloth round a piece of wood, and by this means make the sur- 
 face all smooth and even alike. 
 
 Where there is car\ed work, etc., it will sometimes be necessary 
 to bring the mouklings to their original sharpness by means of 
 chisels, gouges, etc., as the preparation will be apt to fill up all the 
 finer parts of tlie work, which must be thus restored. It is^ome- 
 limes the practice, after jmlishmg, to go over the work one e with 
 fine yellow or Roman ochre ; but this is rarely necessar\-. 
 
 Applying ttie Size. — Select the proper gold size trom the 
 receipts previously given ; add parchment size until it will just flow 
 from the brush ; make it quite hot, and apply it to the work with a 
 very soft brush, taking care not to make the first coat too thick; 
 let it dry and give two or three successive coats, after the last brush- 
 ing it with a stiff brush to remove any inequalities. The work is 
 then ready for the gold. 
 
 Laying the Gold. — Tbe manipulation of the gold-leaf has 
 been described under the heading Oil-Gilding. In the process 
 now being described, the size used (being water-size, which as pre- 
 viously explained is permitted to become hard and dry after being 
 a[)plied) must be moistened to cause the gold-leaf to adhere to it. 
 P'or this purpo.se, with a long-haired camel-hair j^encil, dipped in 
 water, go over as much of the work as you intend the piece of 
 gold to cover; then lay the gold upon it in the manner previously 
 explained. Be sure that the i)art to which the gold is applied is 
 sufficiently wet; indeed it must be floating, or the gold will be a|)t 
 to crack. Proceed in this manner a little at a time, and do not 
 attempt to cover too much at once, until by experience you are 
 able to handle the gold with freedom. In proceeding with the 
 work, if any flows or cracks ajjpear, immediately apply a portion of 
 gold sufificieut to cover them. Sometimes when the gold does not 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 53 
 
 appear to adhere sufficiently tight, it will be necessary to draw a 
 j)encil quite tilled with water close to the edge of the gold, that the 
 water may run underneath it and soften the size. 
 
 Burnishing.— When the work is covered with gold, set it 
 bv to dr)' ; there is a particular state or degree of dryness, known 
 only bv experience in which the moulding is in a fit state for 
 burnishing; it will probably be ready to burnish in about eight or 
 ten hours, but it will depend on the warmth of the room or state 
 of the air. 
 
 When it is ready, those parts intended to be burnished must be 
 dusted with a soft brush; then wiping the burnisher with a piece 
 of soft wash-leather (cpiite dry) begin to burnish about an inch or 
 two in length at a tune, taking care not to bear too hard, but with 
 a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool until all the parts of 
 the surface are equally bright. 
 
 Matting or Dead Gold. — Certain portions only of the 
 work are burnished, according to the fancy, and the facility with 
 which the burnishing-tool can be applied ; the remaming parts are 
 now to be deprived of their metallic lustre, to make a more effective 
 contrast with the burnishing. Hie i)arts thus treated are said to 
 be matted or dead-gold. The process is as follow s : 
 
 Grind some vermilion or yellow ochre very fine, and mix a very 
 small portion either with the parchment size or with the white of 
 an egg, and with a very soft brush lay it evenly on the parts to be 
 dulled ; if well done, it will add greatly to the beauty of the work. 
 Previous to matting, the work must be well cleared of superfiuous 
 gold, by means of a soft brush. 
 
 Finishing. — In elaborate works it is frequently impossible 
 to lay gold-leaf into all the intricacies of an elaborate design, and 
 the parts thus left bare must be finished by touching up with a 
 small brush charged with shell-gold, or gold-powder, mixed with 
 gum-Arabic to the proper consistency. The following receipt de- 
 scribes the preparation of shell-gold : 
 
 Shell Gold. — Take any quantity of leaf-gold and grind it 
 with a small portion of honey, to a fine powder, add a little gum- 
 
54 PRACriCAL INFORMATION FOR CAnTXE'l-MAKERS, 
 
 Arabic and sugar- candy, with a little water, and mix it well 
 together ; let it dry. 
 
 Silver Size. — Grind pipe-clay fine with a little black-lead 
 and good soap, anil add parchment-size as directed for gold-size. 
 
 Composition for Frame Ornaments.— i lie orna- 
 ments for gilded mirror-frames, etc., are usually moulded from 
 some plastic substance that is somewhat tougher and more durable 
 than the ordinary gilding foundation of whiting and size. 'i"he 
 proper moulds being prepared they are thoroughly rubbed upon 
 the inside with sweet oil, and the composition firmly pressed in ; 
 after removing the mould the cast may be dried by a gentle heat, 
 or while still plastic it can be applied in its j^roper place and bent 
 into any position. Following are receipts for composition : 
 
 Dissolve I lb. of glue in i gallon of water. In another kettle boil 
 together 2 lbs. of resin, i gill of Venice turpentine, and i pint of 
 linseed oil; mix altogether in one kettle, and boil and stir till the 
 water has evaporated. Turn the whole into a tub of finely-rolled 
 whiting, and work it till it is of the consistency of dough. 
 
 Boil 7 lbs. of best glue in 7 half-pints of water. Melt 3 lbs. of 
 white resin in 3 i)ints of raw linseed oil. When the above has 
 been well boiled put them into a large vessel and simmer them for 
 half an hour, stirring the mixture and taking care that it does 
 not boil over. The whole must then be turned into a box of 
 whiting rolled and sifted, and mixed till it is of the consistency of 
 dough. 
 
 To Manipulate Gold Leaf.— Get a piece of paper, thin 
 enough to show shadow of gold-leaf through, slightly wax it, lay it 
 on gold-leaf, the latter will then adhere, and can be easily worked, 
 and will come off clean. The paper should be slightly larger than 
 the gold-leaf, and the fingers passed over the paper to make the 
 gold-leaf adhere. 
 
 Bronzing. — This is a process for imitating on metal, plaster, 
 wood, or other material, the peculiar appearance produced by 
 chemical action upon the surface of bronze metal. It is accom- 
 plished by spreading over the surface of the material to be orna- 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNIJURE MEN. 55 
 
 rnented a very thin coating of bronze-powder, which is caused to 
 adhere either by applying it directly upon a coating of any of the 
 sizes mentioned in the foregoing ])ages, or by mixing with a vehicle, 
 such as gum-Arabic or transparent varnish. The latter is most de- 
 sirable, as in the other case, being subject to the direct action of 
 the atmosphere, the bronze-powder soon tarnishes. In ornament- 
 ing furniture, bronzing is generally employed to represent gilding, a 
 variety of bronze called gold-bronze being used, which affords an 
 excellent imitation but is not very lasting. It is usually applied 
 after the completion of the other finishing processes, the ground- 
 work being prepared in the manner described under Oil-Gilding, 
 and the size likewise applied as there described. A small wad of 
 cotton-batting is then dipped in the bronze and passed gently over 
 the sized portions, causing the bronze to adhere. In the other 
 method — that of applying the bronze by means of a vehicle — the 
 preliminaries of whiting the ground and sizing are not necessary, a 
 small quantity of bronze being simply mixed with the vehicle em- 
 ployed to such a degree of fluidity that it will flow easily, and in 
 that condition applied witli a tine brush. Many i)reparations are 
 used as vehicles, such as transparent varnish tlTinned with turpen- 
 tine, gum-Arabic dissolved in water, and gold-size reduced with 
 parchment-size. There are a variety of colors in bronze-powders, 
 and to produce the best effect the size or vehicle should be of a 
 color similar to that of the bronze used; in gold-size the coloring 
 pigment is ochre, and in its place, for green-bronze, red-bronze, or 
 blue-bronze, may be employed respectively verditer, vermilion or 
 Prussian blue, a very small quantity being sufticient. In bronzing 
 on painted work the ground should be as nearly as possible the 
 color of the bronze to be applied. 
 
 GRAINING AND COLOR WORK. 
 
 Graining. — This is a variety of painting by which the grain, 
 color or texture of different woods is imitated. Considerable ex- 
 perience is necessary to produce satisfactory results, the mixing 
 of the colors to the right shade, and the manipulation of the 
 
56 PRACTICAL IXFOKMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 simple tools in a manner to faithfully i)iiitate the grain and mark- 
 ings of the wood, requiring a higii degree of skill. Of course these 
 remarks do not apply to that variety of graining in which only a 
 rariegated surface is aimed at, and no pretensions made to a close 
 imitation of any wood; that simi)le process requires neither skill 
 nor judgment. 
 
 The peculiar effect of graining is produced by the use of several 
 shades of paint, the lightest being first applied; the design being 
 drawn by wiping off a certain portion of the second and third or 
 darker coats, while still in a moist condition, the intermediate and 
 light shades below are partially uncovered, the contrast of the dif- 
 ferent shades resembling the effect of the more prominent markings 
 of the grain of wood. This resemblance is heightened by pro- 
 cesses called " stippling " and " blending " which, as indicated by 
 their titles, blend the shades and soften the lines. 
 
 The tools required are a stip[)ling-brush, which is a brush with 
 hairs about six or eight inches long; a kalsominer's brush will 
 answer the purijose; a blending-brush, wliich is made from camel's 
 or badger's hair and is very soft; two or three steel combs of dif- 
 ferent sizes; a rubber like a jjcncil-rubber, about the size of the 
 thumb and rounded off at the ends, to convenient size. 
 
 The Process of Graining. — if there are any knots or 
 sappy places in the article, they should be covered with one or two 
 coats of glue-size or parchment-size to prevent them showing 
 through. The work is then ready for the paint, three different 
 shades being necessary. These are called the ground-color ; the 
 stip])liiig color; and the graining or oil-color, and they are laid in 
 the order named. An infinite number of combinations of colors 
 are jjossible, obtained by the use of various coloring pigments in 
 the difterent coats, and no two grainers agree as to the precise pro- 
 portion of the ingredients to be used in imitating dififerent woods; 
 we give a number of receipts for graining grounds, and also for 
 mixing various colors; the learner can vary the proportions to suit 
 his taste as experience dictates, and to suit the work in hand. The 
 ground color is used to represent the lightest part of the grain of 
 the wood, the stippling color the intermediate shades, and the 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 57 
 
 graining color the darkest parts ; a close study of natural woods 
 will therefore be necessary to determine the color and depth of 
 each. 
 
 The proper ground being selected (see Graining Grounds) 
 apply one or more coats — as many as are necessary to thoroughly 
 cover the surface. As soon as the ground color is hard the stip- 
 pling coat may be applied. This is prepared by mixing the dry 
 pigments without oil, with either very thin gum-water, stale beer, 
 or vinegar containing a small portion of dissolved fish-glue. The 
 pigments to be used, as stated above, are usually about the same as 
 those used for the ground color, but of different proportions to pro- 
 duce a deeper shade. Apply the stippling color, and before it 
 dries beat it softly with the side of the stippler, the long elastic 
 hairs of which, disturbing the surface of the laid coat, cause the 
 lighter coat beneath to become indistinctly visible, and pro- 
 duce the effect of the pores of wood. Next apply the graining 
 color; as soon as it is laid, take the rubber and with it wipe out 
 the larger veins to be shown, after each stroke wiping the paint 
 from the rubber with a cloth held in the other hand for that pur- 
 pose. Some grainers use a small sponge for veining, and others a 
 small piece of cloth over tlie thumb, but the rubber is probably the 
 most convenient. When the veins have been put in, to imitate as 
 closely as possible the markings of natural wood, tlie various steel 
 combs are brought into use, and the edges of the veins, and some- 
 times other portions of the work, combed with them, to soften the 
 abrupt transition from the dark to the ligliter shades. The blender 
 is also now brought into use, and wherever the work may require 
 it, the colors are still more softened and blended by its soft hairs. 
 When too much color has been removed in veining, or when a 
 certain figure, sucli as a knot, is required, the work is touched up 
 with a fine brush, and again softened with the blender. Wlien 
 dry a coat of transparent varnish should be applied, hnving con- 
 siderable oil to render it durable, as grained work is frc(|uently 
 washed. 
 
 Ready made graining colors are recommended as best and 
 cheapest. 
 
58 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Graining Grounds. — Subjoined are a few recipes for mix 
 ing ground colors. 
 
 LigJit Wainscot Oak. — White lead and yellow ochre, mixed to 
 the required tint. Some grainers prefer a perfectly white ground 
 for very light oak for inside work, but it is always difficult for any 
 but a perfect master of the art to proceed satisfactorily on a white 
 ground, and the work, when completed, is apt to have a chalky 
 effect, even though a dark varnish be applied. 
 
 A Darker Wainscot Oak. — Mix while lead, mitldle chrome, and 
 yellow ochre. 
 
 Dark Oak. — White lead, Venetian red, and yellow oclu-e. 
 
 Vety Dark Oak. — White lead, raw sienna, burnt umber, and 
 Venetian red; or burnt and raw sienna, white lead, and burnt 
 umber. 
 
 These colors, mixed in different proportions, will produce a 
 multiplicity of tints suitable to receive the graining color, their 
 strength being of course determined by the greater or lesser pre- 
 ponderance of white lead. 
 
 Mahogany Grounds. — There are various notions extant amongst 
 grainers as to the best grounds for mahogany graining, some pre- 
 ferring a ground of a deep yellow cast, while others choose one 
 approaching a bright red. The reds and yellows used are Vene- 
 tian red, red lead, vermilion, raw sienna, burnt sienna, orange 
 chrome, middle chrome, etc. These colors can be mixed to the 
 tint required, an addition of white lead being made in each case, 
 as the ])ositive reds and yellows are too jiowerful unless diluted in 
 turn by white. Venetian red, orange chrome, and white lead are 
 the colors most generally used, jnd these three will, according to 
 their predominance or subordination, make such a variety of tints 
 that the most fastidious grainer need ha\ e no misgiving that the 
 result will not come up to his exi)ectati(jn, if he exercise due dis- 
 cretion in mixing the colors. 
 
 Rosewood Ground. — Venetian red, vermilion, and white lead. 
 A little scarlet lake is added for superior work, !)ut this of course 
 is too expensive for general use. Some painters mix with the reds 
 a small (piantity of raw sienna or chrome yellow. 
 
UPHOLSIERERS AND FUKNITUKI:: MEN. 59 
 
 Bird's- Eye Maple. — White lead alone is preferred by some 
 grainers, but the majority of painters use a little yellow ochre to 
 kill the rawness of the white, and this is much the better plan to 
 adoi)t. Beginners are apt to make the ground too yellow, a mis- 
 take that should be avoided at the outset, as the varnish which has 
 subsequently to be coated over the work will give transparency, 
 and add a pale creamy tone, whereas, if the ground be too yellow, 
 the result will be heaviness. 
 
 Spirit Graining for Oak.— Two pounds of whiting, 
 
 quarter of a pound of gold size, thinned down with spirits of tur- 
 pentine ; then tinge your whiting with Vandyke brown and raw 
 sienna, ground fine. Strike out ) our lights with a fitch dipped in 
 turpentme, tinged with a little color to show the lights. If your 
 lights do not appear clear, add a little more turpentine. Turpen- 
 tine varnish is a good substitute for the above mentioned. This 
 kind of graining must be brushed over with beer, with a clean 
 brush, before varnishing. Strong beer must be used for glazing up 
 top-graining and shading. 
 
 Oil for Graining Oak.— Grind Vandyke brown in tur- 
 pentine, add as much gold-size as will set, and as much soft soap 
 as will make it stand the comb. Should it set too quickly, add a 
 little boiled oil. Put a teaspoonful of gold-size to half a pint of 
 turpentine, and as much soap as will lie on a twenty-five cent 
 piece, then take a little soda mixed with water and take out the 
 veins. 
 
 To Prepare the Ground for Oak Rollers.— Stain 
 
 your white lead with raw sienna and red lead, or with chrome 
 yellow and Venetian red; thin it with oil and turps, and strain for 
 use. When the ground work is dry, grind in beer, Vandyke brown, 
 whiting and a little burnt sienna, for the graining color; or you 
 may use raw sienna with a little whiting, uml)ers, etc. 
 
 To Imitate Old Oak. — To make an exceedingly rich 
 color for the imitation of old oak, the ground is a composition of 
 stone ochre or orange chrome and burnt sienna; the graining color 
 
6o PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 is Ijurnt umber or Vand) ke brown, to darken it a little. Observe 
 that tlie above colors must be used whether the imitation is in oil 
 or distemi)er. When dry, varnish. 
 
 To Imitate Old Oak, in Oil.— ('lind Vandyke and 
 whiting in turpentine, add a bit of conuuon soap to make it stand 
 the comb, and thin it with boiled oil 
 
 To Imitate Pollard Oak.— The ground color is pre- 
 pared with a mixture of chrome yellow, vermilion and white lead, 
 to a rich light buff. The graining colors are Vandyke brown and 
 small portions of raw and burnt sienna and lake ground in ale or 
 beer. Fill a large tool witli color, spread over the surface to be 
 grained, and soften with the badger-hair brush. Take a moistened 
 sponge between the thumb and finger, and dapple round and round 
 in kind of knobs, then soften very lightly; then draw a softener 
 from one set of knobs to the other wliile w-et, to form a multiplicity 
 of grains, and finish the knots with a hair pencil, in some places in 
 thicker clusters than others. When dry put the top grain on in a 
 variety of directions, and varnish with turps and gold-size; then 
 glaze u[) with Vandyke and strong ale. To finish, varnish with 
 copal. 
 
 To Imitate Mottled Mahogany. — The ground is pre- 
 pared witli the best English Venetian red, red lead, and a smalV 
 portion of white lead. The graining colors are burnt sienna, ground 
 in ale, with a small portion of Vandyke brown, sufficient to take 
 away the fiery appearance of the sienna. Cover the surface to be 
 grained, soften with the badger-hair brush, and while wet take a 
 mottling-rollM- and go over the lights a second time, in order to 
 give a variety of shade, then blend the whole of the work with the 
 badger softener. Put the top grain on with the same color. ^Vhen 
 dry, varnish. 
 
 To Imitate Rosewood. — Mix verniilif)n and a small 
 quantity of white lead for the ground. Take rose-pink, tinged 
 with a little lampblack or Vandyke brown, and grind very fine in 
 oil, then take a flat graining brush, with the hairs cut away at un- 
 equal distances, and cut down the grain as if wending round a 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FUKNIIURE MEN. 6l 
 
 knot. When nearly dry, take a graining comb that is used for 
 oak, and draw down the grain. This will give it the appearance 
 of nature. When dry, varnish. 
 
 Another. — The ground color is prepared with vermilion and 
 small quantities of white lead and crimson lake. When the ground 
 is dry and made very smooth, take Vandyke brown, ground in 
 oil, and with a small tool spread the color over the surface in dif- 
 ferent directions forming kind of knots. Before the work is dry, 
 take a piece of leather, and with great freedom strike out the light 
 veins ; having previously prepared the darkest tint of Vandyke 
 brown, or gum asphaltum, immediately take the flat graining brush 
 with few hairs in it, draw the grain over the work and soften. 
 When varnished, the imitation will be excellent. 
 
 Rosewood Imitation in Size.— Mix Venetian red, 
 white-lead powder, vermilion and common size, the consistency of 
 which, when cold, must be that of a weak trembling jelly. With 
 this composition paint the work twice over. When the ground is 
 dry take some lampblack, finely ground in beer, and beat the white 
 of an egg into it; take the flat graining brush, dipped in the black, 
 and put on the grain. When dry, stain the first coat of varnish 
 with rose pink, finely ground in turpentine, and finish the work by 
 giving it a coat of clear varnish. 
 
 To Imitate Bird's-Eye Maple.— The ground is a light 
 
 buff, prepared with white lead, chrome yellow, and a little vermil- 
 ion or English Venetian red, to take off the rawness of the yellow. 
 The graining color is equal parts of raw umber and sienna ground 
 in oil to the proper consistency. Spread the surface of the work 
 with this color, and, having some of the same prepared a little 
 thicker, ini mediately take a sash tool or sponge, and put on the 
 dark shades, and soften with the badger-hair brush ; before the color 
 is dry put on the eyes by dabbing the dotting machine on the 
 work. When dry, put on the grain with the camel-hair pencil on 
 the prominent parts, to imitate the small hearts of the wood. When 
 dry, varnish. 
 
 To Imitate Curled Maple.— Prepare a light yellow for 
 
62 PRACTICAI. INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 the ground, by mixing chionie yellow and white lead, tinged with 
 Venetian red. The graining color is a mixture of equal portions of 
 raw sienna and Vandyke, ground in ale ; spread the surface to be 
 grained in an even manner; then with a piece of cork rub across 
 the work to and fro, to form the grains which run across the wood. 
 When dry, varnish. 
 
 Curled Maple in Oil for Outside Work.— Pre- 
 pare a rich ground by mixing chrome yellow, white lead and burnt 
 sienna. For the graining color, grind equal parts of raw sienna 
 and umber with a little burnt copperas in turpentine, and mix with 
 a small quantity of grainer's cream. Thin the color with boiled 
 oil; then till a tool and spread the surface even, and rub out the 
 lights with the sharp edge of a piece of buff leather, which must 
 now and then be wii)ed to keep it clean ; soften the edges of the 
 work very lightly, and when dry, put on the top grain with burnt 
 umber and raw sienna, ground in beer, with the white of an egg beat 
 into it. When dry, varnish. 
 
 Satinwood. — This ground is prepared with white lead, stone 
 ochre, and small quantities of chrome yellow and burnt sienna. 
 The graining color is one-third of raw sienna and whiting, ground 
 in pale ale, very thin ; then spread the color over the surface to be 
 grained. While wet, soften, and have ready a wet roller or mot- 
 tling brush, ill order to take out the lights; blend the whole with 
 the badger-hair bru.sh. \Mien the work is dry, take the flat brush, 
 and with the same color, put on the top again. When dry, varnish. 
 
 To Imitate Yew Tree. — The ground is a reddish buft". 
 For the graining color grind in beer ecpial ])ortions of \'aiidyke 
 brown and burnt sienna, with a small quantity of raw sienna. 
 When the ground is dry, s])read the surface even with the color, 
 and soften; then with a piece of cork with a sharp edge, rub the 
 work cross and cross in order to form the fine grain. When dry, 
 dij) the tip of your fingers in the graining color to form the eyes or 
 knots, and put in the small touches with a camel-hair pencil. 
 When dry, put on the lojj grain, and when this is dry, \'arnish. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 63 
 
 To Imitate Black and Gold Marble.— I iiis descrip- 
 tion of marble is now in great demand The ground is a deep jet 
 black, or a dead color, in gold-size, drop black and turps; second 
 coat, black japan. Commence veining; mix white and yellow 
 ochre with a small quantity of vermilion to give a gold tinge; dip 
 the pencil in this color, and dab on the ground with great freedom 
 some large patches, from which small threads must be drawn in 
 various directions. In the deepest parts of the black a white vein 
 is sometimes seen running with a g'-eat number of small veins at- 
 tached to it; but care must be taken that these threads are con- 
 nected with, and run in some degree in the same direction with 
 the thicker veins. If durability is not an object, and the work is 
 required in a short time, it may be executed very quick in distem- 
 per colors, and when varnished it will look well. 
 
 Red Marble. — For the ground, put on a white tinged with 
 lake or vermilion ; then apply deep rich reds in patches, filling up 
 the intermediate spaces with brown and white mixed in oil ; then 
 blend them together ; if in quick drying colors, use about half turps 
 and gold size. When dry, varnish ; and while the varnish is wet, 
 put in a multitude of the fine white threads, crossing the whole 
 work in all directions, as the wet varnish brings the pencil to a fine 
 point. 
 
 Jasper Marble. — Put on a white ground lightly tinged with 
 blue ; then put on patches of rich reds or rose pink, leaving spaces 
 of the white groun<:ls; then partly cover those spaces with various 
 browns to form fossils, in places running veins ; then put in a few 
 spots of white in the centre of some of the red j)atches, and leaving 
 in places masses nearly all white. When dry, use the clearest 
 varnish. 
 
 Blue and Gold Marble.— For the ground put on a light 
 blue ; then lake blue, with a small piece of white lead and some 
 dark common blue, and dab on the ground on patches, leaving 
 portions of the ground to shine between; then blend the edges 
 together with duster or softener; afterwards draw on some white 
 veins in every direction, leaving large open spaces to be filled 
 
64 PRACTICAL INFORM ATIOX FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 up with a pale yellow or gold-paint; finish with some fine white 
 running threads, and a coat of varnish at last. 
 
 To Imitate Granite. — For the ground color, stain your 
 white lead to a light lead-color, with lampblack and a little rose- 
 pink. Throw on black spots, with a graniting machine, a pale red, 
 and fill up with white before the ground is dry. 
 
 Another. — K black ground when half dry, throw in vermilion, a 
 deep yellow and white spots. 
 
 To Imitate Hair Wood. — For the ground color, take 
 white lead and thin it with turpentine, and slightly stain it with 
 equal quantities of Prussian blue and lampblack. For the grain- 
 ing color, grind in beer a mixture of Prussian blue and raw sienna; 
 when the ground is dry, spread a transparent coal of the graining 
 color on the surface of the work, and soften ; then with the cork 
 mottle by rubbing it to and fro across the work, to form the fine 
 long grain or mottle. When this is done, soften and top grain in 
 wavy but perpendicular directions ; varnish when dry. 
 
 Graining Grounds. — The best and cheajjest and most 
 convenient simple material, for making grounds for light oak, 
 maple, ash, and chestnut, is pure raw Italian sienna, tinted with 
 pure white lead, not the so-called sienna which is sold by most 
 paint dealers under that name, but the genuine article, which can 
 be, and should be obtained even at some cost and trouble, the said 
 article being one of the most useful and indispensable articles in 
 the paint shop. For maple ground, of course the smallest quantity 
 is required, it being necessary only to change the white to the 
 faintest suggestion of straw color. For ash, the ground should be 
 a little darker. For light oak, more of the sienna will be required, 
 while for chestnut a decidedly yellowish tone is wanted. Care 
 must be taken not to make the grounds too dark. Rather in the 
 other extreme, for the reason that there is a remedy for a too light 
 ground, in the application of a greater quantity of graining color, 
 as also in the glazing coat; while a ground too dark cannot be 
 made lighter. For dark oak, burnt Italian sienna with white will 
 produce a far better ground than any other single color. The same 
 
UPHOLSTERKKS AND FUKN'l lURK MKN. 65 
 
 caution must be observed, however, in obtaining this color as 
 recommended in the case of the raw Italian sienna. The domestic 
 so-called siennas will not prove substitutes for the genuine Italian 
 pigments. The ground for black walnut may be the same as for 
 light oak with the addition of a little burnt sienna and black. 
 
 Mixing Colors. — The primary colors are those that cannot 
 be compounded froai other colors, being pure m themselves; they 
 are three in number — red, blue and yellow; and from these three 
 all others are compounded. From each of the three primaries in 
 combination with either of the others, is derived certain groups of 
 colors, termed secondaries and tertiaries, with the variations of tints 
 and shades. All of these are regularly classified, and their combi- 
 nations may be learned according to rule, with great pleasure to 
 the learner, and an almost limitless addition to his resources. A 
 standard authority on these subjects is " Chevreul on Color," which 
 may be obtained at any book store. The combinations named 
 below will enable the painter to mix many colors that he may 
 require. 
 
 Cream Color. — Chrome yellow, the best Venetian red, and white 
 lead. 
 
 Pearl-Grey. — White lead with equal portions of Prussian blue 
 and lampblack. The blue must be used very cautiously, as it is a 
 powerful color. 
 
 Fawn Color. — 'Qvwnt sienna, ground very fine, mixed with white 
 lead. 
 
 Fawn Color. — White lead, stone ochre, and vermilion. 
 
 Buff. — This is a mixture of pale chrome yellow and white lead, 
 tinged with a little Venetian red. 
 
 Straw. — A mixture of ])ale chrome yellow and white lead. 
 
 Drab. — Raw or burnt umber and white lead, with a little Vene- 
 tian red. 
 
 Drab. — White lead with a little Prussian blue and yellow ochre. 
 
 Drab. — White lead with a little yellow ochre and lampblack. 
 
 Drab. — White lead with a little chrome green. 
 
 Fitrple. — White lead, Prussian blue, and vermilion. 
 
66 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABIN FI-MAKF.RS, 
 
 Purple. — Prussian blue, vermilion, and rose madder or crimson 
 lake. 
 
 Violet. Vermilion, French ultramarine, a small portion of black, 
 and white lead. 
 
 French Grey. — White lead and Prussian blue, tinged with ver- 
 milion; and for the last coat, if cost is no object, substitute rose 
 madder or lake for vermilion. 
 
 Silver. — White lead, indigo, and a small portion of black, as the 
 shade may require. 
 
 Dark Chest nut. — Mix light red and black. Use red ochre when 
 required to lighten the color. 
 
 Salmon. — White lead tinged with the best Venetian red. 
 
 Peach Blossom. — White lead tinged with orpiment. 
 
 Lead. — This is a mixture of vegetable black and white lead. 
 
 Dark Lead Color. — White, black, and indigo. 
 
 Chocolate. — Vegetable black and Venetian red. 
 
 Light Yellow. — Lemon yellow and white lead. 
 
 Light Yellow. — Chrome yellow, white lead, and red lead. 
 
 Light Yellow. — Raw sienna mixed with white lead. If the color 
 is required of a warmer cast, add a little burnt sienna. 
 
 Stone Color. — Yellow ochre, burnt umber, and white lead. 
 
 Sto7ie Color. — Raw sienna, burnt umber, and white lead. 
 
 Stone Color. — White lead, burnt umber, yellow ochre, and a little 
 Venetian red. 
 
 Olive Green. — Prussian blue, chrome yellow, and burnt um- 
 ber. 
 
 Olive Green. — Vegetable black, chrome yellow, and a small 
 portion of burnt umber. 
 
 Grass Green. — Several shades of grass green may be made by 
 mixing Prussian blue and chrome yellow. 
 
 Carnation. — Lake and white lead. 
 
 Imitation of Old Gold.—M\\ white lead, chrome yellow, and 
 burnt sienna, until the proper shade is obtained. 
 
 Colors for Outlines of Ornaments.— In decorative 
 
 designs into wliich different colors enter, attention to the following 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 67 
 
 rules will greatly increase the beauty of the work ; the rules are 
 based on scientific principles. 
 
 First : Any color on a gold back-ground should be outlined 
 with a darker shade of its own color. 
 
 Second: A gold ornament on a colored back-ground may always 
 be outlined with black, provided the back-ground is not too dark ; 
 in that case outline with a light color. 
 
 Third : A colored ornament on a ground of complementary 
 color should be outhned with a lighter tint of its own color, or a 
 neutral color. 
 
 Fourth : If the ornament and ground are in shades of the same 
 color, and the ornament is darker than the ground, the outline 
 should be still darker ; if the ornament is lighter than the ground, 
 no outline is required. 
 
 Tones. — Often called shades, signify colors mixed with either 
 white or black. 
 
 Tints are colors mixed with white. 
 
 Shades are colors mixed with black. 
 
 Tempera is a mixture of powdered colors with gum-water. 
 
 Distemper is a mixture of powdered colors with size. 
 
 Color Harmony in Grained Work.— it is unques- 
 tionably essential that every painter should know what plain colors 
 and tints may be used in harmonious contrasts or combinations 
 with the various painted imitations of fancy woods. Green is en- 
 tirely unobjectionable; indeed, it forms a pleasing contrast with 
 light oak, satin wood, bird's-eye maple, chestnut and ash — but dis- 
 cords with mahogany, black walnut and rosewood. Blue is en- 
 tirely harmonious with all these latter. Black harmonizes with all 
 the woods, as does white; but white with the lighter colored ones 
 is feeble and wanting. All the woods harmonize with each other 
 except black walnut with mahogany and rosewood. Gold is good 
 with all, but the contrast with the light colored ones is not so bril- 
 liant as with the dark-toned woods. The bright colors in these 
 deaden the usually dull tones of the black walnut and detract from 
 
68 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKKRS, 
 
 it thereby ; whereas the contrast with tlie latter-named wood, with 
 the Hght colored ones, improves and brightens all the contrasting 
 tints and shades. Light and dark oak are best shown by them- 
 selves in contrast with each other, being too coarse in the grain to 
 exhibit with good effect in combuiation with maple and satin- 
 wood. In color harmony, generally, white and black harmonize 
 with all colors but green. Gold is good with every color, shade 
 and tint, but especially rich with green, black, purple, carmine 
 and blue. 
 
 Cllinese "WllitG. — I'lie following is recommended as the 
 best way to prepare Chinese white: — Dissolve as mucii Roman 
 alum in as small a quantity ot hot water as is barely sufficient, and 
 then mix it witli two ounces and a half of honey. Set this mixture 
 to evaporate to dryness in an earthen vessel, over a gentle fire. It 
 will then appear like a spongy sort of coal, which being removed 
 from the fire, must be pounded, and the ])owder placed in shallow 
 crucibles or cupels, so that it may lie very thinly on them. Expose 
 these to a strong red heat for an hour ; after this, the powtler must 
 be pounded again, and being replaced in the cupels it must be 
 exposed anew to a strong heat, and to a free current of air for an 
 hour longer. Being then removed from the fire, it is reduced upon 
 a porphyry slab to an exceedingly fine powder of an intense 
 whiteness. It may be mixed with gum-water, in the same manner 
 as other paints are usually treated, and it is not apt, like white lead, 
 to turn to a dusty hue. 
 
 Mixing Wtlite Lead. — To mix the white lead it should 
 be placed in a can or i)ot, and an admixture of oil and turpentine 
 being at hand, a small quantity should be poured over the white 
 lead, and the whole stirred about with a stiff" palette-knife or a 
 stopping-knife, till the dilutent has become thoroughly incorporated 
 with the white lead. 
 
 The mixture may now be stained to the required tint. For this 
 purpose the staining color should be ground in oil, and added cau- 
 tiously to the diluted while lead, some colors staining much more 
 powerfully than others. The staining color should never be added 
 in a powdered or dry state. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 69 
 
 Varnish Green, for Venetian Blinds, etc.— The 
 
 work must first be painted once or twice with a hght lead color; 
 when hard, grind some dry white lead in spirits of turpentine ; after- 
 wards take about one-third in bulk in verdigris, or navy green, 
 which has been ground stift" in oil ; then mix them both together, 
 and atld a little common oak varnish, sufficient only to bind the 
 color. When this has been applied it will become hard in about 
 fifteen minutes. Add more varnish to give a good gloss. Then 
 go over the work a second time, and, if required, a third time. 
 Thus you will have a beautiful green with a high polish. It pos- 
 sesses a very drying quality, enabling the work to be completed in 
 a few hours. The tint may be varied according to taste, by sub- 
 stituting different greens ; and if a bright grass-green is required, 
 add a little Dutch pink to the mixture. This color is best used 
 warm, as it gives the varnish a uniform api)earance. 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 
 Varnishes are solutions of the various resins, commonly 
 called gums, in either oil, turpentine, or alcohol. The gums prin- 
 cii)ally applied are amber, anune, copal, hic, sandarac, mastic, 
 damar and common resin. The varnishes are all applied to the 
 surfaces of the woods, metals, or other materials, while in the fluid 
 state, and the solvent is afterwards evaporated, leaving a thin glossy 
 coat of the different resins as a defence from the action of the at- 
 mosphere, or from slight friction. 
 
 Sometimes the resins are used separately ; at other times two or 
 more are combined according to the qualities required in the 
 varnish. 
 
 The Gums and their Qualities.— Amber.— The 
 
 durabilit}- of the varnishes is of course mainly dependent upon 
 the comparative insolubility of the resins ; their hardness, tough- 
 ness, and permanence of color. In these respects amber excels 
 all other resins used for varnishes; it resists the action of all 
 ordinary solvents, and can only be dissolved for making varnish 
 by fusion at a high temperature; it is hard and moderately 
 
70 PKACTICAL TX^'CRMAIION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 tough, and its color is but little influenced by the atmosphere; 
 but, unless ver)' carefully selected, it is too yellow for delicate 
 works of light colors. Amber is, however, but little used in 
 making varnishes, principally on account of its high price, but 
 partly because the varnish dries slowly, and does not attain its full 
 hardness for many weeks. 
 
 Anime is nearly as insoluble and hard as amber, and the best 
 is of a very pale color ; but it is not nearly so tough as amber. 
 The varnishes made from anime dry quickly, but are very liable to 
 crack, and the color becomes deeper by exjiosure to light and air. 
 Anime is, however, extensively used in making oil varnishes, and 
 most of those called copal varnishes contain a considerable propor- 
 tion of anime, which is substituted principally on account of its 
 quick drying qualities. 
 
 Copal is next in durability to amber; when very carefully 
 selected it is almost colorless, and becomes rather lighter by ex- 
 posure ; it is more easily dissolved by heat than either amber or 
 anime, and although softer than these resins, is too hard to be 
 scratched by the nail. Copal is, therefore, a most excellent ma- 
 terial for varnish, and numerous attempts have been made to em- 
 ploy it as the basis of a spirit varnish, but hitherto with only .partial 
 success. Pure alcohol has little effect on copal ; with the addition 
 of a small quantity of camphor, the greater portion of the copal is 
 dissolved, but the camphor impairs the durability of the varnish. 
 Copal may be perfectly dissolved by ether, but this spirit evapo- 
 rates too rapidly to allow of the varnish being uniformly applied. 
 The essential oils of spruce and lavender have been occasionally 
 employed as solvents of copal, but not with sufficient success to 
 warrant its general adoption in spirit varnishes. 
 
 Oil Varnishes. — Amber, anime, and copal are usually dis- 
 solved for making varnish by fusing the gum, and adding linseed- 
 oil heated nearly to the boiling point. They are then amalgamated 
 by stirring and boiling, and the varnish is reduced to the required 
 degree of fluidity by the addition of oil of turpentine. They con- 
 stitute the more important of what are called oil varnishes, are the 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 7 1 
 
 most durable of all, possess considerable brilliancy, and are suf- 
 ficiently hard to bear polishing. Tliey are therefore employed for 
 works of the best quality, that are exposed to the weather or to 
 much friction ; as coaches, house decorations, and japanning. 
 
 Spirit Varnishes. — Lac and sandarac arc more soluble 
 than the above resins, and are generally dissolved in spirits of 
 wine; but sometimes the i)yroligneous spirit, commonly known as 
 vegetable naptha, is employed as a cheaper substitute. These 
 resins constitute the basis of what are called spirit varnishes, and 
 are employed principally for delicate objects not exposed to the 
 weather, such as cabinet and painted works. 
 
 Lac is much harder and more durable than sandarac, and is 
 the basis of most lackers for hard wood and metal, and also of 
 French polish. Of the three varieties, stick-lac, seed-lac, and shell- 
 lac, the latter is the most free from color, and the most soluble ; it 
 is therefore almost exclusively used in making varnishes and 
 lacquers; but the palest shell-lac contains a considerable quantity of 
 coloring matter, that renders it inadmissible for varnishing works 
 of a light color. In addition, shell-lac also contains a small quan- 
 tity of wax, and other matters, that are only imperfectly soluble in 
 spirits of wine, and therefore give a cloudy appearance to the var- 
 nish, but which is not of great importance in varnishing dark- 
 colored works, and may be in great measure avoided by making 
 the solution without heat, and allowing the more insoluble jtortions 
 time to be precipitated. 
 
 Sandarac is softer and less brilliant than shell-lac, but is 
 much lighter in color ; it is therefore used for making a pale var- 
 nish for light-colored woods, and other works for which the dark 
 color of shell-lac would be unsuited. When hardness is of greater 
 importance than paleness, a portion of shell-lac is added ; but when 
 paleness and brilliancy are required, a small quantity of mastic is 
 added. When the varnish is required to be polished, Venice tur- 
 pentine is added to give sufficient thickness or body. 
 
 Mastic is softer than any of the resins previously mentioned, 
 and is dissolved either in spirits of wine or oil of turpentine; the 
 
72 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 latter is more generally used on account of its cheapness. With 
 either of these solvents mastic makes a varnish of a very pale color, 
 that is brilliant, works easily, and flows better on the surface to 
 which it is applied than most other varnishes. It is also tolerably 
 flexible, and may be easily removed by friction with the hand ; it 
 is therefore much used for varnishing paintings, and other delicate 
 works. 
 
 Damar is easily dissolved in oil of turpentine, and when care- 
 fully selected is almost colorless; it makes a softer varnish than 
 mastic. The two combinetl, however, form an almost colorless 
 varnish, moderately hard and flexible, and well suited for maps and 
 similar purposes. 
 
 ComniOn Resin is generally dissolved either in turpentine 
 or linseed oil with heat. Varnish made with resin is hard and 
 brittle, but brilliant, and is principally employed to make cheap 
 varnishes for common purposes in house-painting, toys, and cabinet 
 work. It is also added to other varnishes in order to improve their 
 brilliancy, but it should be added in small quantities only, as a large 
 proportion of resin renders the varnishes brittle. 
 
 The Solvents. — Linseed-oil is extensively employed as a 
 vehicle for the harder resins, to which it imparts softness and tough- 
 ness, but causes the varnish to dry slowly ; and unless the oil is of 
 the purest and palest quality, well clarified, and carefully combined 
 with the resin, without excess of heat, it materially darkens the 
 color of the varnish when first made, and it is also liable to become 
 darker by age after it is applied. T.inseed-oil intended for the best 
 varnishes is clarified by gradually heating it in a copper pot, so as 
 to bring it nearly to the boiling point in about two hours; it is 
 then skimmed and simmered for aliout three hours longer, when 
 dried magnesia, in the proportion of about one-quarter of an ounce 
 to every gallon of oil, is gradually introduced by stirring; the oil is 
 then boilefl fr'r about another hour, and afterwards suffered to cool 
 very gradually. It is then removed into leaden or tin cisterns, and 
 allowed to stand for at least three months, during which the mag- 
 nesia combines with the imi)uritics of the oil and carries them to 
 
UPHOLSIERF.RS AND FURNIIURE MEN. 73 
 
 the bottom, and the clarified oil is taken from the top of the cistern 
 as it is required without disturbing the lower portion, and the set- 
 tlings are reserved for black paint. A pale drying oil may also be 
 made as above, by substitut'ng for the magnesia white copperas 
 and sugar of lead in the proportions of two ounces of each to every 
 gallon of oil. 
 
 Linseed-oil when rendered drying, by boiling and the addi- 
 tion of litharge and red lead, is sometimes used alone as a cheap 
 extempore varnish. In boiling linseed oil, it is heated gradually to 
 bring it to the boiling point in about two hours ; it is then skimmed, 
 and well-dried litharge and red lead, in the proportion of about 
 three ounces of each to every gallon of oil, are slowly sprinkled in, 
 and the whole is boiled and gently stirred for about three hours, or 
 until it ceases to throw up any scum, or emit much smoke. It is 
 then frequently tested by dipping the end of a feather into it, and 
 when the end of the feather is burned off. or curls up briskly, the 
 oil is considered to be sufficiently boiled, and is allowed to cool 
 very slowly, during which the principal portion of the driers settle 
 to the bottom. The oil is afterwards deposited in leaden cisterns 
 screened from the sun and air. When the oil is required to be as 
 pale as possible, dried white lead, sugar of lead, and white cop- 
 peras are employed instead of the litharge and red lead. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine is employed as a vehicle for most of 
 the resins, the oil varnishes being generally thinned with hot oil 
 of turpentine. Mastic, damar, and common resin are generally 
 made into varnishes by dissolving them in oil of turpentine alone, 
 either cold or with very moderate warmth. Varnishes made with 
 turpentine only, dry quicker than those made with oil, and are 
 paler colored, but not so tough and durable. Turi)entine var- 
 nishes hold an intermediate position between oil and spirit var- 
 nishes, and are em])loyed ])rincipally on account of their cheapness 
 and flexibility. Turjjentine varies considerably in (juality, and is 
 greatly im])roved by age; that intended for varnish should be of 
 the best quality, clear and limpid, and he kept for many months, 
 or even years, before it is used ; and when enqjloyed alone, as for 
 
74 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 mastic varnish, care should be taken that it is not passed tln-ougli 
 an oily measure, as is frequently the case in [nocuring small tjuan- 
 tities. 
 
 Alcohol, or Spirits of Wine, is employed for dissolv- 
 ing sandarac and shell-lac, to make the white and brown hard 
 spirit varnishes, and lacquer for hard wood or brass, and also French 
 polish. The varnishes made with alcohol dry much quicker, harder, 
 and more brilliant than those made with turpentine; but if tlie 
 spirit contains more than a minute i)ro[)ortion of water, it will 
 scarcely dissolve the resins, and when the varnish is applied, a very 
 slight degree of moisture in the atmosphere w ill cause the resins to 
 be precipitated from the solution, giving the varnish a dull, cloudy, 
 or milky appearance. It is therefore of the first importance, in 
 making spirit varnishes, to procure the alcohol as pure as possible. 
 
 Ordinary spirits of wine, however, always contains a consider- 
 able proportion of water, and is commonly tested for varnish pur- 
 poses by saturating a slip of writing-paper with the spirit, which is 
 then ignited. If the flame of the spirit communicates to the paper, 
 and the whole is burned, the spirit is considered to be sufficiently 
 good ; but if, as frequently happens, the paper should be so far 
 saturated with the water remaining from the evaporation of the 
 spirit as to prevent its burning, the spirit is rejected as unfit for 
 varnish purposes. 
 
 Nearly pure alcohol may be obtained from ordinary spirits of 
 wine, by adding about one-third its weight of well-dried carbonate 
 of potash, agitating the bottle and then allowing it to stand fir ten 
 or twelve hours, during which time the potash will absorb much of 
 the water from the s|)iril ;in(l fall to the bottom; the spirit may 
 then be poured off, and fresh alkali added, and the process re- 
 peated until the potash remains quite dry ; the alcohol is then to 
 be freed from the small ])or(ion of potash which it holds in solution 
 by distillation in a water-bath. 
 
 Naphtha, or the spirit procured by distillation from pyrolig- 
 neous .icid, and commonly known as vegetable or wofxl na]>htha, 
 is frequently employed instead of spirits of wine for making cheap 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 75 
 
 varnishes. It dissolves the resins more rcadil)' th.m ordinary 
 spirit of wine, but tlie varnish is less brilliant, and the smell of 
 the naphtha is very offensive. It is therefore never employed for 
 the best works. 
 
 Preparation of Oil Varnishes.— The preparation of 
 
 oil varnishes requires the application of considerable heat, and 
 owing to this and the highly inflammable nature of the materials, 
 the process is attended with considerable risk of setting the build- 
 ing on tire. The process, should, therefore, always be conducted 
 in detached buildings constructed ex[)ressly for the purpose. Owing 
 partly to the necessity for this precaution, and the circumstance 
 that oil varnishes are greatly improved by being kept in leaden cis- 
 terns for some months before they are used, the preparation of oil 
 varnish is carried on almost exclusively as a separate manufacture, 
 the details of which are greatly varied, and are mostly kept secret. 
 
 The copper pot employed to make the varnish is called a gum- 
 pot, and measures about two feet nine inches in height, and nine 
 and a half inches diameter externally. The bottom is hammered 
 out of a single piece of copper, and fashioned like a hat without a 
 brim ; it is about nine inches deep, and three-eighths of an inch in 
 thickness. The upper part of the pot is formed as a cylinder, of 
 sheet copper, about two feet two inches in height, and of sufficient 
 diameter to slip about two inches over the upper edge of the bot- 
 tom piece, to which it is firmly riveted. A wide flange of copper, 
 to support the pot, is also fixed just beneath the lower edge of the 
 cylinder, and a strong iron hoop is fixed a little above the line of 
 the rivets, to serve for the attachment of the horizontal handle, 
 which is made as a nearly straight rod, one inch square, flattened 
 at the end, and two feet eight inches long. 
 
 The stirrer is a copper rod about three-quarters of an inch di- 
 ameter, and three feet six inches long, flattened at the one end to 
 one and a half inch in breadth for about eight inches in length, and 
 fitted at the opposite end with a short wooden handle. 
 
 The ladle, which should contain about two quarts, is also of 
 copper beaten out of the solid, and riveted to a handle of the same 
 
76 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 metal, three feet six inches long, and fitted with a wooden handle 
 like the stirrer. 
 
 The copper jac^, for pouring hot oil into the gum-pot, is made 
 in the form of a pitcher, with a large handle and a wide spout; it 
 contains two gallons. The brass or copper sieve, for straining the 
 varnish, is about nine inches diameter, and contains sixty meshes 
 to the inch. The co[)per funnel, for straining the boiling varnish, 
 is large enough to receive the sieve, and should be well made with 
 lapped seams, as solder would be melted with the heat. 
 
 The tin pouring-pot, to hold th.ec gallons, is formed exactly like 
 a garden watering-pot, only smaller at the spout, and without any 
 rose. This is never to be used for any purpose excej^t pouring oil 
 of turpentine into the varnish. 
 
 A small broom, termed a " swish," used for washing out the 
 gum-pot every time after use, is made from cuttings of cane tied to 
 a small handle like a hearth-broom ; the head is five inches long, 
 and five inches round. This should be washed in turpentine, and 
 kei)t very clean. 
 
 A three-footed iron trevet, with a circular top, is employed to 
 support the gum-pot. The feet of the trevet are about sixteen 
 inches in height, and spread wider at the bottom than the top, 
 which is made of such a size that the j)Ot will fit easily into it, the 
 fiange resting on the top. 
 
 An ash-bed should be jirepared near the fire, ujion which to 
 place the gum-pot when the varnish is ready for mixing, or the 
 heat is becoming too great. This is prepared by sifting some dry 
 ashes through a fine sieve, to make a smooth layer about one and 
 a half inch thick, and a little larger than the bottom of the gum- 
 pot. 
 
 Place the trevet in a hollow in a field, yard, garden, or out- 
 house, where there can be no danger from fire ; raise a temporary 
 fireplace round the trevet with loose bricks, after the same manner 
 that plumbers make their furnaces; then make up a good fire with 
 either coke, coal, or wood charcoal, which is far j^referable ; let 
 the fire burn to a good strong heat, set on the gum-pot with three 
 pounds of gum copal ; observe that if the fire surround the gum- 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNI'JURE MEN. 77 
 
 pot any higher inside than the gum, it is in great danger of taking 
 fire. As soon as the gum begins to fuse and steam, put in the 
 copper stirrer, and keep cutting, dividing, and stiriing tlic gum to 
 ;issist its fusion ; and if it feels lumpy and not fluid, and rises to 
 the mitldle of the pot, lift it from the fire and set it on the ash-bed, 
 and keep stirring until it goes down (in tlie mean time let the fire 
 be kept briskly up) ; then set on the gum- pot again, and keep 
 stirring until the gum appears fluid like oil, vvliich is to be known 
 by lifting up the stirrer so far as to see the blade. Observe, that 
 if the gum does not appear quite fluid as oil, carry it to the ash- 
 bed whenever it rises to the middle of the pot, and stir it down 
 again (keep up a brisk fire), put on the pot and keep stirring until 
 the gum rises above the blade of the stirrer ; call out to the assist- 
 ant " be ready! " He is then, with both hands, to lay hold of the 
 copper-pouring jack, charged with (one gallon) clarified oil, and 
 lean the spout about one inch and a half over the edge of the gum- 
 pot. Let him keep himself firm, steady, and collected, and not 
 flinch, spill, or pour the oil, which would perhaps set all on fire. 
 Observe, when the gum rises within five inches of the pot-mouth, 
 call out, " pour ! " The assistant is then to pour in the oil very 
 slowly until towards the last, the maker stirring during the pouring. 
 If the fire at this time is strong and regular, in about eight or ten 
 minutes tlie gum and oil will concentrate and become quite clear; 
 this is to be tested by taking a piece of broken window-glass in the 
 left hand, and with the right lifting up the stirrer and dropping a 
 portion of the varnish on it ; if it appears clear and transparent, the 
 oil and gum are become concentrated or joined together. It is 
 now to be further boiled until it will string between the finger and 
 thumb; this is known by once every minute dropping a portion on 
 the glass and taking a little between the forefinger and thumb. If 
 it is boiled enough it will stick strong and string out into fine fila- 
 ments, like bird-lime; but when not boiled enough, it is soft, thick, 
 and greasy without being stringy. The moment it is boiled enough, 
 carry it from the fire to the ash-bed, where let it remain from fifteen 
 to twenty minutes, or until it is cold enough to be mixed ; have at 
 hand a sufficient quantity of oil of turpentine to fill the pouring- 
 
78 PRACTICAL INFORMAITON FOR CABINET-MAKKRS, 
 
 pot (two gallons); begin and pour out with a small stream, gra- 
 dually increasing it, and if the varnish rises rapidly in the pot, keep 
 stirring it constantly at the surface with the stirrer to break the 
 bubbles, taking care not to let the stirrer touch the bottom of the 
 pot, for if it should, the oil of turpentine would be in part converted 
 into vapor, and the varnish would run over the pot in a moment ; 
 therefore, during the mixing, keep constantly stirring as well as 
 pouring in at the same time. Have also a copper ladle at hand, 
 and if it should so far rise as to be unmanageable, let the assistant 
 take the ladle and cool it down with it, lifting up one ladleful after 
 another, and letting it fall into the pot. As soon as the varnish 
 is mixed, put the varnish sieve in the copper funnel placed in the 
 carrying tin, and strain the varnish immediately ; empty it into 
 open-mouthed jars, tins, or cisterns, there let it remain and settle, 
 and the longer it remains the better it will become. Recollect 
 when it is taken out, not to disturb or raise up the bottoms. 
 
 Instead of the ash-bed, a circle of loose bricks four courses high 
 may be erected to support the gum-pot. The bricks are to be laid 
 so that when the gum-pot is set within, it will rest securely by its 
 flange with the bottom about six inches from the ground. Upon 
 this brick -stand set the pot every time there is occasion to carry 
 it from the fire. Near the stand an iron trevet may be placed, 
 upon which to turn the gum-pot every time after it is washed out, 
 as, by so doing, it will always be kept clean, and cool gradually, 
 for by cooling rapidly copper oxidizes very quickly. Near the 
 trevet have the swish broom and also a large wide tin jack or 
 other vessel to receive the washings. Have also at hand a copper 
 ladle, and a tin bottle with turj^entine, for washing with when 
 wanted. 
 
 The moment the maker has emptied the gum-pot, throw into it 
 half a gallon of turpentine, and with the swish immediately wash 
 it from top to bottom, and instantly empty it into the tin jack. 
 Afterwards, with a large piece of woollen rag dipped in pumice 
 ])Owder, wash and polish every part of the inside of the pot, per- 
 forming the same operation on the ladle and stirrer; rinse them 
 vvith the turpentine washings, and at last rinse them altogether 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FUKNIIURE MEN. 79 
 
 with clean turpentine, which also put to the washings, wipe dry, 
 with a clean soft rag, the pot, ladle, stirrer, and funnel, and lay the 
 sieve so as to be completely covered with turpentine, which will 
 always keep it from gumming up. 
 
 Eight pounds of copal takes in general from sixteen to twenty 
 minutes in fusing, from the beginning till it gets clear like oil; but 
 the time depends very much on the heat of the fire and the atten- 
 tion of the operator. During the first twelve minutes while the 
 gum is fusing the assistant must look to the oil, which is to be 
 heated at a separate fire in a copper pot, large enough to contain 
 double the quantity required. The oil should be brought to a 
 smart simmer, for it ought neither to be too hot nor too cold, but 
 in appearance beginning to boil, which the assistant is strictly to 
 observe ; and, when ready, call to the maker ; then immediately 
 each take hold of one handle of the boilmg-pot and carry it to the 
 ash-bed, the maker instantly returning to the gum-pot, while the 
 assistant ladles the hot oil into the copper-pouring jack, bringing 
 it and placing it at the back of the gum-pot until wanted. 
 
 A thick piece of old carpet, free from holes, should be kept at 
 hand in case the gum-pot should take fire ; should this happen, 
 let the assistant throw the piece of carpet quickly over the blazing 
 pot, holding it down all round the edges ; and in a few minutes the 
 fire will be smothered. 
 
 After the oil has been mixed with the gum, a brisk strong fire 
 should be kept up, until a scum or froth rises and covers all the 
 surface of the contents, when it will begin to rise rapidly. Observe 
 when it rises about two-thirds the height of the pot, carry it from 
 the fire, and set it on the ash-bed, or brick-stand, stir it down 
 again ; and if driers are to be added, scatter in a few by a little at 
 a time; keep stirring, and if the frothy head goes down, put the 
 pot on the fire, and introduce gradually the remainder of the 
 driers, always carrying the pot to the ash-bed when the froth rises 
 about two-thirds the height of the pot. In general, if the fire be 
 good, all the time a pot requires to boil from the time of the oil 
 being poured in, is about three and a half or four hours; but time 
 is no criterion for a beginner to judge by, as it may vary according 
 
8o PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 to the weather, the quahty of the ingredients, or the heat of the 
 fire; therefore, about the third hour of boihiig, try it on a bit of 
 glass, and keep boiling it until it feels strong and stringy between 
 the fingers, as before mentioned. 
 
 The foregoing directions are, with very little differences, to be 
 observed in making all sorts of copal varnishes, excepting the 
 quantities of oil, gum, etc., a few of which will be now added. 
 
 Copal Varnish for Pine Paintings, etc.— Fuse 
 
 eight pounds of the very cleanest pale African gum copal, and, 
 when completely run fluid, pour in two gallons of hot oil ; let it 
 boil until it will string very strong; and in about fifteen minutes, or 
 while it is yet very hot, pour in three gallons of turpentine, got 
 from the top of a cistern. Perhaps during the mixing a consider- 
 able quantity of the turpentine will escape, but the varnish will be 
 so much the brighter, transparent, and fluid ; and will work freer, 
 dry quickly, and be very solid and durable when dry. After the 
 varnish has been strained, if it is found too thick, before it is quite 
 cold, heat as much turpentine and mix with it as will bring it to a 
 proper consistence. 
 
 Artist's Virgin Copal. — From a select parcel of scraped 
 African gum copal, before it is broken, pick out the very fine trans- 
 parent pieces, which ai)pear round and pale, like drops of crystal ; 
 break these very small; dry them in the sim, or by a very gentle 
 fire. Afterwards, when cool, bruise or pound tliem into a coarse 
 powder; then procure some broken bottles or flint-glass, and boil 
 the same in soft water and soda; then bruise it into a coarse 
 powder, like the gum; boil it a second time, and strain the water 
 from it, washing it with three or four waters, that it may be per- 
 fectly clean and free from grease or any impurity; dry it before 
 the fire, or upon a plate set in an oven. When thoroughly dry, 
 mix 2 lbs. of the powdered glass with 3 lbs. of the powdered copal ; 
 after mixing them well, put them into the gum-pot, and fuse the 
 gum; keep stirring all the time; the glass will prevent the gum 
 from adhering together, so that a very moderate fire will cause the 
 gum to fuse. When it appears sufficiently run, have ready three 
 
UI'HOLS'IERKRS AND FUKNIIUKK iMKN. 8l 
 
 quarts of clarified oil, very hot, to pour in. Afterwards, let it boil 
 until it strings freely between the fingers. Begin and mix it rather 
 hotter than if it were body varnish, for, as there is but a small 
 quantity, it will l)e sooner cold; pour in 5 (juarts of old turpentine, 
 strain it immediately, and pour it into an open jar, or large glass 
 bottle; ex})ose it to the air and light, but keep it both from the 
 sun and moisture until it is of a sufficient age for use. This is the 
 finest copal varnish for fine paintings. 
 
 Cabinet Varnish. — Fuse seven pounds of very fine African 
 gum-copal ; when well dissolved, pour in half a gallon of pale clari- 
 fied oil; and when clear mix with it three gallons of turi)entine; 
 afterwards strain it, and put it aside for use. This if properly 
 boiled, will dry in ten minutes ; but if too strongly boiled, will not 
 mix at all with the turpentine; and sometimes, when boiled with the 
 turpentine will mix, and )et refuse to amalgamate with any other 
 varnish less boiled than itself; therefore, it requires a nicety which 
 is only to be learned from practice. This varnish is very apt to 
 chill all other oil varnishes to which it may be added, and is prin- 
 cipally employed as a quick drying varnish for the occasional use 
 of japanners, cabinet, and coach-])ainters. Cabinet varnish is, 
 however, more generally made with anime than copal. 
 
 Best Body Copal Varnish for Polishing.— Fuse 
 
 eight pounds of fine African gum-copal, add two gallons of clarified 
 oil; boil it very slowly for four or five hours, until quite stringy, 
 and mix it off with three and a half gallons of turpentine. 
 
 The above varnishes being made of the finest copal without 
 driers are the palest and best of the copal varnishes, possessing 
 great fluidity and pliability, but they are rather slow in drying and 
 retain for months so much softness that they will not polish well, 
 until they give out a moisture and become hard ; after which they 
 are very durable. When paleness is not of primary imi)ortance a 
 second quality of gum is used, and when the varnish is required to 
 dry quickly, sugar of lead or white copperas are introduced as 
 driers, either singly or combined, in the proportion of from half a 
 pound to one pound to each of the quantities above quoted, but 
 
82 
 
 PRACTICAL INKuK.MATlON FOR CABINET-MAKKRS, 
 
 driers are always injurious to the color, brilliancy, and durabilily of 
 varnishes. When a varnish is required that will dry quick and 
 hard without driers, gum anime is substituted for the copal, but it 
 is less durable and becomes darker by age. Frequently, anime 
 varnish is mixed with copal varnish by the maker while both are 
 hot, in different proportions according to the quality required; one 
 pot of tlie anime to two of copal being used for a moderately 
 quick drying body-varnish of good quality; and two pots of anime 
 to one of copal for a quicker drying body-varnish of common 
 quality. 
 
 Carriage Varnish is made much the same as common 
 body-varnish, except that to eight jiounds of gum of secoml 
 quality about two and a half gallons of oil and five and a half gal- 
 lons of turpentine are used with driers. This varnish is boiled 
 until very stringy, and is used for the wheels and under framework 
 of coaches and other objects not requiring to be i)olished; it is in- 
 termediate in quality between body varnish and tlie following. 
 
 Wainscot Varnish consists of eight pounds of second 
 quality gum anime, three gallons of clarified oil, one-cjuarter pound 
 of litharge, one-quarter pound of dried sugar of lead, one-quarter 
 pound of copperas, well boiled until it strings very strong, mixed 
 with five and a half gallons of turpentine. This varnish dries 
 quickly, and is principally used for house-painting and jai)anning. 
 When a darker varnish is required, as for mahogany, a small por- 
 tion of gold-size may be mixed with it. 
 
 Pale Amber Varnish.— Fuse six pounds of fine-picked 
 very pale transparent amber in the gum-pot, and pour in two gal- 
 lons of hot clarified oil. Boil it until it strings very strong. Mix 
 with four gallons of turpentine. This will be as fine as body copal, 
 will work very free, and flow well upon any work it is applied to ; 
 it dries slowly, but becomes very hard, and is the most durable of 
 all varnishes. It is very excellent to mix in coi)al varnishes, to 
 give to them a hard and durable quality. Amber varnish is, how- 
 ever, but little used, on account of its expense. 
 
 In making all the above varnishes, it should be observed that 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 83 
 
 the more minutely the gum is fused, the greater the quantity and 
 the stronger the produce. The more regular and longer the boil- 
 ing of the oil and gum together is continued, the more fluid or 
 free the varnish will extend on whatever it is applied. When the 
 mixture of oil and gum is too suddenly brought to string by too 
 strong a heat, the varnish requires more than its just proportion 
 of turpentine to thin it, whereby its oily and gummy quality is re- 
 duced, which renders it less durable; neither will it flow so well in 
 laying on. The greater proportion of oil there is used in varnishes, 
 the less they are liable to crack, because the tougher and softer 
 they are. Increase the proportion of gum in varnishes, the thicker 
 the stratum required, and the firmer they will set, and the quicker 
 they will dry. 
 
 All body varnishes, or those intended to be polished, should 
 have one and a half pounds of gum to each gallon of varnish when 
 it is strained off and cold. All carriage or wainscot varnishes or 
 those not intended to be polished, should have full one pound of 
 gum to each gallon. But the quantity of gum required to bring it 
 to its proper consistence, depends very much ujion the degree of 
 boiling it has undergone; therefore, when the gum and oil have not 
 been strongly boiled, the varnish requires less turpentine to thin it, 
 and when boiled stronger than usual, a larger proportion of turpen- 
 tine is required; if the mixmg of the varnish with the turpentine is 
 commenced too soon, and the pot is not sufficiently cool, there 
 may be considerable loss by evaporation. 
 
 Copal varnishes should be made at least three months before 
 they are required for use, and the longer they are kept the better 
 they become ; but when it is necessary to use the varnishes before 
 they are of sufficient age, they should be left tliicker than usual. 
 
 Preparation of Spirit and Turpentine Var- 
 nishes. — In the preparation of spirit and turpentine varnishes, 
 scarcely any apparatus is required; as, generally speaking, the pro- 
 cess is almost limited to mixing the resins and solvent together, 
 and agitating the whole until the resin is thoroughly dissolved. 
 Heat is not generally necessary, and although frequently resorted 
 to in order to facilitate the dissolution of the resins, in most in- 
 
84 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Stances only a nioileiate degree of warmth is recjuired ; conse- 
 sequently the preparation of spirit and turpentine varnishes is far 
 more manageable than that of oil varnishes, and entails much less 
 risk of accident. 
 
 The resins should be thoroughly free from moisture, and are 
 generally broken into small pieces, in order that they may be dis- 
 solved more quickl)', and all im[nnities are carefully picked out; 
 after which the finest and clearest pieces are generally selected and 
 set aside for making small quantities of varnish of a superior 
 quality. Sometimes, with the view of expediting the dissolution of 
 the resins, they are finely powdered before they are added to the 
 solvent; but, in this case, it is necessary that the agitation should 
 be maintained from the time the resin is added until it is thoroughly 
 dissolved, otherwise it is liable to agglutinate into into one mass, 
 that is afterwards very difficult of solution. 
 
 In making turpentine varnishes without heat,, in quantities of 
 ten or twelve gallons, the resin and turpentine are generally intro- 
 duced into a large can with a wide mouth, and agitated by stirring 
 with a stout stick ; a number of wooden pegs or nails are mostly 
 driven into the stick, near the lower end, to increase its effect. 
 
 Spirit varnishes are generally made in smaller quantities; and, 
 to prevent the evaporation of the spirit the mouth of tlie vessel is 
 mo.stly closed and the vessel itself is agitated. In making quanti- 
 ties of four to eight gallons, the resm and solvent are sometimes in- 
 troduced into a small cask capable of containing about double the 
 quantity, and mounted to revolve on central bearings at the ends. 
 The cask is made to revolve either with continuous motion by a 
 winch-handle, or with an alternating motion by means of a cord 
 passed arouml the barrel and terminating in a cross-handle, which 
 the operator pulls to give motion to the barrel in the one direction, 
 and the momentum of which suffices to coil up the cord ready for 
 the following pull, which causes the barrel to revolve in the oppo- 
 site direction, and so on continually. 
 
 Quantities of varnish not exceeding two or three gallons, are 
 generally agitated in a tin can, rollefl backwards and forwards 
 ujion a bench covered with an old carpet or a sack; but whatever 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 85 
 
 method is adopted for the agitation, it should be continued, with- 
 out intermission, until the resin is sufificiently dissolved to prevent 
 the risk of its becoming agglutinated ; the time required for which 
 depends upon tlie solubility of the resm and the strength of the 
 spirit, but is commonly from three to four hours. The further agi- 
 tation for the thorough solution of the resin may be either continu- 
 ous or intermitlent, according to convenience, but it should not be 
 abandoned until the solution is perfect ; and when it is judged to 
 be complete, the varnish is poured into another vessel for examina- 
 tion ; and if any of the resin is not perfectly dissolved, the whole 
 is returned to the vessel for further agitation. When the resin is all 
 dissolved, the varnish is allowed to stand for a few hours, that any 
 impurities may settle to the bottom, and the clear varnish is lastly 
 strained through muslin or lawn into bottles, and allowed to stand 
 for a few days before use. 
 
 Very small quantities of varnish are generally made in glass 
 bottles, large enough to contain about one-third more than the 
 quantity introduced, and they are shaken up at frequent intervals ; 
 but although, from the small bulk of the resin, it cannot agglutin- 
 ate into so insoluble a mass as when larger quantities are made, 
 still, when the agitation is intermitted, several days are frequently 
 required before the resins are entirely dissolved, as the solution de- 
 pends more upon the amount of agitation than the length of time 
 the resins are submitted to the action of the solvent. 
 
 Sometimes, with the view of preventing the agglutination and 
 facilitating the dissolution of the resins, coarsely-pounded glass is 
 introduced with the resin and solvent ; in this case the glass should 
 be thoroughly washed and dried, and afterwards sifted, to exclude 
 all the smaller particles, which, from their lightness, would have 
 little effect in preventing the aggregation of the resin, and would 
 be more troublesome to separate from the varnish. 
 
 When heat is employed in making spirit varnishes, the lowest 
 tem|)erature should be used that will suffice to dissolve the resins, 
 as otherwise there is risk of losing a considerable portion of the 
 alcohol by evaporation, thereby reducing the strength of the 
 spirit; the varnish is also liable to be made of a darker color by 
 
86 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CAHIXFT-M AKERS, 
 
 excess of heat, and those containing shell-lac are less clear and 
 hard when made with heat than when made quite cold, as the 
 heated spirit dissolves the greater portion of the wax contained in 
 the shell-lac, and which becomes disseminated throughout the 
 mass; but when the solution is made without heat, the jmncipal 
 portion of the wax and other impurities remain undissolved at the 
 bottom. 
 
 In making large quantities of spirit varnish with heat, a still and 
 worm are sometimes employed, in order to prevent loss by evapo- 
 ration ; the still is heated by a steam or water-bath, and the resins 
 and solvent are agitated by a stirring-rod passing through a stuff- 
 ing-box in the head of the still. Quantities of two or three gallons 
 are generally made in a tin can, which is dipped at frequent inter- 
 vals into hot water, and agitated between every dip by rolling; but 
 in this case it is necessary to loosen the cork every time it is im- 
 mersed in the hot water, in order to allow the vapor of the spirit 
 to escape; otherwise the cork would be driven out with great force, 
 and some of the spirit might be thrown on the fire v\ith great risk 
 of serious accident. Glass bottles, although convenient from their 
 transparehcy, should never be employed for making varnish with 
 heat, as they are liable to break from the alternations of tempera- 
 ture. They are, however, often used for making small quantities, 
 and in this case the safer practice is to heat the water only in a 
 moderate degree, and to allow of the continuous escape of the 
 vapor through a small notch cut lengthwise in the cork, and which 
 may be closed by the thumb when the bottle is shaken. There is, 
 however, always some little risk of accident in making spirit var- 
 nishes near an open fire, when much heat is employed; and a 
 water or sand-bath, placed on the top of a stove, so as to be 
 heated only in a moderate degree, will be generally found to afford 
 sufficient warmth, and is, perhaps, the most safe and convenient 
 arrangement for occasional purposes. 
 
 Shell-lac never requires more than a very moderate warmth to 
 dissolve it, and the solution is frequently made in stone bottles, 
 placed near a fire and shaken occasionally. When it is re- 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 87 
 
 quired to be very clear, as for metal lacquer, it should be passed 
 through filtering-paper before it is bottled. 
 
 It need scarcely be observed, that all the utensils employed in 
 making spirit varnishes should be ])erfectly clean and dry, as the 
 least moisture or even a damp atmosphere is liable to deteriorate 
 the quality of the varnish. 
 
 Best White Hard Spirit Varnish, to bear polishing, 
 
 is made by adding two pounds of the best picked gum sandarac to 
 one gallon of spirit of wine; they are then shaken up without in- 
 termission for about four hours, or until the gum is quite dissolved; 
 eighteen ounces of Venice turpentine is then moderately warmed, 
 in a water-bath, to make it fluid, and poured into the varnish to 
 give it a body ; the whole is then well agitated for about one hour, 
 antl afterwards strained and put into bottles, which should be kept 
 well corked, to prevent the evaporation of the spirit ; after stand- 
 ing about a week, the varnish is fit for use. This varnish may be 
 made sufficiently pale to be used on white work, when the clearest 
 and palest pieces of the gum are carefully selected. When the 
 work does not require to be polished, the proportion of Venice 
 turpentine may be reduced one-half. 
 
 White Hard Varnish is also made with three and a half 
 pounds of gum sandarac to one gallon of spirit of wine, and when 
 they are dissolved one pint of pale turpentine varnish is added, 
 and the whole are well shaken until thoroughly mixed. Another 
 white hard varnish is made with two pounds of gum sandarac, one 
 pound of gum mastic, and one gallon of spirit of wine. 
 
 White Spirit Varnish, for violins, is made with two 
 pounds of mastic to one gallon of spirit of wine, and one pint of 
 turpentine varnish. This may be made either in the same manner 
 as tlie white hard varnish, or the ingredients may all be mixed 
 together in a tin can, placed in a warm situation near a fire, and 
 shaken occasionally until dissolved. 
 
 Brown Hard Spirit Varnish is made in the same 
 
 manner as white hard varnish, but shell-lac is generally used in- 
 stead of sandarac. Thus a very excellent brown hard spirit var- 
 
55 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 nish that will bear polishing is made with two pounds of shell-lac 
 to one gallon of spirit of wine; and, after they are amalgamated, 
 eighteen ounces of Venice turpentine are warmed and added, 
 exactly as described for the best white hard varnish. Another very 
 good brown hard spirit varnish consists of two pounds of shell-lac, 
 one pountl of sandarac, and two ounces of mastic dissolved in one 
 gallon at spirit of wine. A lighter-colored varnish is made with 
 two pounds of sandarac, one pound of shell lac, and one gallon of 
 spirit. After the resins are dissolved, one pint of turpentine var- 
 nish is added, and the whole is well mixed by agitation. 
 
 Hard-wood Lacquer is made, like the brown hard var- 
 nish, with two pounds of shell-lac to one gallon of spirit of wine, 
 but without turpentine. Another hard-wood lacquer is made 
 with one pound of seed-lac and one pound of white resin, dis- 
 solved in one gallon of spirit of wine. 
 
 French. Polish, is made in a great variety of ways ; but the 
 simplest, and probably the best, consists of one and a half pound 
 of shell-lac dissolved in one gallon of spirit of wine without heat. 
 Copal, sandarac, mastic, and gum-Arabic, are frequently used in 
 making French polish, partly with the view of making the polish 
 of a lighter color, and pardy to please the fancy of the polisher; 
 the proportions of the different gums are varied almost infinitely, 
 but with little advantage. A polish that is by some considered to 
 be very good is made with twelve ounces of shell-lac, six ounces 
 of gum-Arabic, and three ounces of copal to one gallon of spirit 
 of wine. When a dark-colored polish is required, half a pound of 
 benzoin is sometimes added to one pound of shell-lac dissolved in 
 one gallon of spirit, or four ounces of guaiacum are added to one 
 and a half pound of shell-lac ; at other times the polish is colored 
 to the required tint with dragon's blood. 
 
 The shell-lac alone makes the hardest and most durable polish, 
 and it is a frecpient practice to make the polish rather thicker in 
 the first instance than it is required for use, as it may be readily 
 thinned by the addition of spirit. But if it should be made too 
 thin originally, it would rcrjuire to be thickened by dissolving a 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNI'lURE MEN. 89 
 
 further portion of shell-lac. With the view of avoiding any risk of 
 the polish being made too thin in the first instance, the proportion 
 of shell lac is frequently made two pounds to the gallon of spirit. 
 Other resins are sometimes added, with the view of making the 
 polish tougher. Thus, sometimes, the i)olish is made with one and 
 a half |)ound of shell-lac, four ounces of seed-lac, four ounces of 
 sandarac, and two ounce of mastic to the gallon of spirit ; at other 
 times the proportions are two pounds of shell-lac and four ounces 
 of seed-lac to the gallon of spirit. 
 
 Bleached Shellac— When a lighter-colored lac varnish, or 
 polish is required than can be made with the palest ordinary shell- 
 lac, the bleached lac, sold under the name of white lac, may be 
 employed with advantage. The varnish made with the white lac 
 is at first almost colorless, but becomes darker by exposure to the 
 light. 
 
 Various modes have been adopted for bleaching lac varnish. 
 One process is as follows : Six ounces of shell-lac, coarsely 
 pounded, are to be dissolved by gentle heat in a pint of spirit of 
 wine ; to this is to be added a bleaching liquor, made by dissolving 
 purified carbonate of potash in water, and then impregnating it 
 with chlorine gas till the silica precipitates, and the solution be- 
 comes slightly colored. Of the above bleaching liquor add one or 
 two ounces to the spirituous solution of lac, and stir the whole well 
 together; effervescence takes place, and, when this ceases, add 
 more of the bleaching liquor, and thus proceed till the color of the 
 mixture has become pale. A second bleaching liquid is now to be 
 added, made by diluting muriatic acid with thnce its weight of 
 water, and dropping into it pulverized red lead, till the last added 
 portions do not become white. Of this acid bleaching liquor 
 small quantities at a time are to be added to the half-bleached lac 
 solution, allowing the effervescence, which takes place on each ad- 
 dition, to cease before a fresh portion is poured in. This is to be 
 continued till the lac, now white, separates from the licpior. The 
 supernatant fluid is now to be j)Oured awav, and the lac is to be 
 well washed in repeated waters, and finally wrung as dry as pos- 
 sible in a cloth. 
 
90 PRACTICAL IXFCRMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Another process : Dissolve five ounces of shell-lac in a quart of 
 rectified spirit of wine ; boil for a few minutes with ten ounces of 
 well-burned and recently-heated animal charcoal, when a small 
 quantity of the solution should be drawn off and filtered ; if not 
 colorless, a little more charcoal must be added. When all color 
 is removed, press the liquor through silk, as linen absorbs more 
 varnish, and afterwards filter it through fine blotting paper. 
 
 Dr. Hare's process, published in the Franklm 'yoiimal, is as fol- 
 lows: Dissolve, in an iron kettle, one j)art of pearlash in eight 
 parts of water; add one part of shell or seed-lac, and heat the 
 whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved cool the solution, 
 and impregnate it with clilorine gas till the lac is all precipitated. 
 The precipitate is white, but the color deepens by washing and 
 consolidation ; dissolved in alcohol, lac, bleached by the i)rocess 
 above mentioned, yields a varnish which is as free from color as 
 any copal varnish. 
 
 A nearly colorless varnish may also be made by dissolving the 
 lac, as in Dr. Hare's process ; blenching it with a filtered solution 
 of chloride of lime, and afterwards dissolving the lime from the 
 precipitate, by the addition of muriatic acid. The precipitate is 
 then to- be well washed in several waters, dried, and dissolved in 
 alcohol, which takes up the more soluble portion, forming a very 
 pale but rather thin varnish, to which a small quantity of mastic 
 may be added. 
 
 Attempts are frequently made to combine copal with all the 
 spirit varnishes, in order to give them greater toughness and dura- 
 bility; and although copal cannot be entirely dissolved, even in 
 ]>iire alcohol, still a moderate portion will be taken up by strong 
 spirit of wine when a temperature of about 120° is employed with 
 frequent agitation of the varnish. In this manner a light-colored 
 varnish may be made with three-quarters of a pound of shell-lac, 
 three-quarters of a pound of copal to one gallon of spirit of wine 
 containing about ninety-five per cent, of alcohol. Tlie copal 
 should be powdered quite fine, and may either be added to the 
 shell-lac and spirit at the connnencement, in wliich case the shell- 
 lac should also be powdered, or the shell-lac may be first dissolved 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 9I 
 
 and the powdered copal added; bul, in eillier ca^e, it is only the 
 more soluble portion of the copal that is taken u[), and the re- 
 mainder setdes to the bottom to a viscid mass, from which the 
 varnish may be decanted and strained for use. Cojjal may be 
 added in the same manner to the white hard varnishes, and it is 
 sometimes recommended to fuse the copal and drop it into water 
 before attempting to dissolve it in spirit, but the advantage of 
 adding copal to spirit varnishes is very questionable. 
 
 Lacquer for Brass, like French polish, is made in a great 
 variety of ways ; and, as in French polish, the simplest and best 
 pale lacquer for works that do not require to be colored, consists 
 of shelldac and spirit of wine only, in the proportions of about half 
 a pound of the best pale shelldac to one gallon of spirit. Lacquer 
 is required to be as clear and bright as possible ; it is, therefore, 
 always made without heat by continuous agitation for five or six 
 hours. The lacquer is then allowed to stand until the thicker por- 
 tions are precipitated, when the clear lacquer is poured off, and if 
 it should not be sufficiently clear, it is afterwards filtered through 
 paper into a botde, which should be kej)t closely corked and out 
 of the influence of light, which would darken the color of the 
 lacquer. This may, however, be easily prevented by pasting paper 
 round the bottle. 
 
 Colored LSvCquerS. — Lacquers are frequently required to 
 be colored, either of yellow or red tints. For yellow lints, turmeric, 
 cape aloes, saffron, or -gamboge are employed; and for red tints, 
 annotto and dragon's-blood are used — the proportions being varied 
 according to the color required. Thus, for a pale yellow, about 
 one ounce of gamboge and two ounces of cape aloes are powdered 
 and mixed with one pound of shelldac. For a full yellow, half a 
 pound of turmeric and two ounces of gamboge, and for a red 
 lacquer, half a pound of dragon's-blood and one pound of annotto. 
 The color is also modified by that of the lac employed, the best 
 pale or orange shell-lac being used for light-colored lacquers, and 
 dark-colored shell-lac or seed-lac is used for the darker tints. For 
 pale lacquers, sandarac is sometimes used with the shell-lac. Thus 
 
92 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 a pale gold-coloretl lacquer is made with eight ounces of shell-lac, 
 two ounces of sandarac, eight ounces of turmeric, two ounces of 
 annotto, and a quarter of an ounce of dragon's-blood to one gallon 
 of spirit of wine. 
 
 The most convenient method, however, of coloring lacquers, is 
 to make a saturated solution in spirit of wine of each of the color- 
 ing matters, and to add the solutions in difterent proportion to the 
 pale lacquer according to the tint required ; but the whole of the 
 coloring matters are not generally used by the same makers, and 
 solutions of turmeric, gamboge and dragon's-blood afford sufficient 
 choice for ordinary ];urposes. 'l"he turmeric gives a greenish- 
 yellow tint, and, with the addition of a litllc gamboge, is the color- 
 ing matter employed in making the so-called green lacquer used 
 for bronzed works. 
 
 Another mode of making lacquer: Four ounces of shell-lac 
 and a quarter of an ounce of gamboge are dissolved by agitation, 
 without heat, in twenty-five ounces of pure pyro-acetic ether. The 
 solution is allowetl to stand until the gummy matters not taken up 
 by the spirit subside; the clear liquor is then decanted, and when 
 required for use is mixed with eight times its quantity of spirit of 
 wine. In this case, the pyro-acetic ether is employed for dissolv- 
 ing the shell-lac in order to prevent any but the purely resinous 
 portions being taken up, which is almost certain to occur with 
 ordinary spirit of wine, owing to the presence of water; but if the 
 lacquer were made entirely with pyro-acetic ether, the latter would 
 evaporate too rapidly to allow time for it to l^e equally applied. 
 
 Mastic Varnisll, for painting, and similar ])ur))oses, is some- 
 times made in small quantities with si)irit of wine; but, more 
 generally, oil of turpentine is employed as the solvent, the propor- 
 tion being about tliree pounds of mastic to the gallon of tur[)entine. 
 For the best varnish, the mastic is carefully ])icked and dissolved 
 by agitation without heat, exactly as for the best white hard var- 
 nish ; after the mastic varnish has been strained it is poured into 
 a bottle, which is loosely corked and exposed to the sun and air 
 for a few weeks; this causes a precipitation, from which the clear 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FUKNIIURE MEN. 93 
 
 varnish may be poured off for use; but the longer the varnish is 
 kept the better it becomes. 
 
 Mastic varnish works very freely, but it is liable to cliill, and the 
 surface frequently remains tacky for some time after the varnish is 
 applied. To prevent the latter evil, it is recommended, before dis- 
 solving the mastic, to bruise it slightly with a niuller, and pick out 
 all the pieces that are too soft to break readily, and which may be 
 used for common varnish. To prevent the chilling, which arises 
 from the presence of moisture, Mr. W. Neil recommends a 
 quart of river sand to be boiled with two ounces of pearl-ash; the 
 sand is afterwards to be washed three or four times with hot water, 
 and strained each time. The sand is then to be dried in an oven, 
 and when it is of a good heat, half a pint of the hot sand is to be 
 })0ured into each gallon of varnish, and shaken well for five min- 
 utes ; it is then allowed to settle, and carries down the moisture of 
 the gum and turpentine. 
 
 In making common varnish, heat is generally employed to dis- 
 solve the mastic, and about one pint of turpentine varnish is added 
 to every gallon of varnish. 
 
 Turpentine Varnish is made with four pounds of com- 
 mon resin dirsolved in one gallon of oil of turpentine. It requires 
 no other preparation than sufficient warmth to dissolve the resin. 
 Sometimes resin and turpentine are mixed together in a stone or 
 tin bottle, which is placed near the fire, or in a sand-bath over a 
 stove, and shaken occasionally; but varnish-makers generally mix 
 the resin and turpentine in the gum-pot, and employ sufficient heat 
 to fuse the resin. This is a more expeditious practice, but is at- 
 tended with some danger of fire. When a very pale turpentine 
 varnish is required, bleached resin is used, and care is taken not to 
 employ more heat than is necessary in making the varnish. Tur- 
 pentine varnish is principally used for in-door painted works and 
 common painted furniture and toys. It is also frequently added 
 to other varnishes to give them greater body, hardness, and bril- 
 liancy. 
 
 Crystal Varnish is a name frequently given to very pale 
 varnishes employed for paper works — Such as maps, colored paints. 
 
94 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 and drawings. A very good crystal varnish is made with two 
 pounds of mastic and two pounds of damar, dissolved without 
 heat in one gallon of turpentine. Another good but more ex- 
 pensive crystal varnish is made with equal quantities of Canada 
 balsam and oil of turpentine. In making this varnish, it is only 
 necessary to warm the Canada balsam until it is quite fluid, then 
 add the turpentine and shake the mixture for a few minutes until 
 the two are thoroughly incorporated. The varnish may then be 
 placed in a moderately warm situation for a few hours, and will be 
 ready for use on the following day. These crystal varnishes are 
 both nearly colorless, flow freely, and are more flexible, so as to 
 bear bending or rolling, and either of them may be employed to 
 make a tracing paper of middling quality, by applying a thin coat 
 of varnish on one or both sides of any thin transparent paper, such 
 as good tissue or foreign post-paper. 
 
 Paper Vamish., for paper-hangings and similar purposes, 
 is made with four pounds of damar to one gallon of turpentine. 
 The damar dissolves very readily in the turpentine, either with 
 moderate agitation or a very gentle Iieat. Sometimes white or 
 bleached resin is used instead of the damar, or the two are com- 
 bined. 
 
 Water Varnish. — All the varieties of lac may be dissolved 
 in nearly boiling water by the addition of ammonia, borax, potash, 
 or soda, but these alkalies all have the eftect of rendering the color 
 of the lac much darker. The solutions may, however, be employed 
 as varnishes, which, when dried, will resist the aj^plication of water 
 sufficiently well to bear washing, especially wlien tlie jjroiJortion of 
 alkali employed is only just sufficient to cause the dissolution o 
 the lac, and which is also desirable in order to keep the varnish as 
 light-colored as possible. The least color is given with diluted 
 water of ammonia, in the proportions of about sixteen ounces of 
 ordinary water of ammonia to seven pints of water and two ])ounds 
 of pale shell-lac, to which about four ounces of gum-Arabic may be 
 added. Borax is, however, more generally used, and the propor- 
 tions are then two pounds of '^In^ll-lnr. six ounces of borax, and 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 95 
 
 four ounces of gum-Arabic to one gallon of water. When the var- 
 nish is required to be as light colored as possible, white lac is em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Sealing-Wax Varnish, for coating parts of electrical 
 
 machines, and similar purposes, is made by dissolving two and a 
 half pounds of good red sealing-wax and one and a half pound of 
 shell-lac in one gallon of spirit of wine. 
 
 Black Varnish niay be made with three pounds of black 
 sealing-wax and one pound of shell-lac to the gallon of spirit, or 
 fine lampblack may be mixed with brown hard varnish or lacquer, 
 according to the thickness required in the varnish. The interior 
 of telescope tubes are frequently blackened with a dull varnish of 
 this kind, made by mixing lampblack with rather thick brass 
 lacquer, as little of the lampblack being employed as will serve to 
 deaden the bright color of the lacquer. Mathematical instruments 
 are sometimes blackened with a similar thin varnish, and the sur- 
 face is afterwards brightened with one or two coats of lacquer ap- 
 plied as usual. Ordinary lampblack, however, generally contains 
 greasy impurities and moisture, which render it unfit for varnish 
 purposes, and therefore the best kind should be employed, or the 
 lampblack should be purified by ramming it hard into a close 
 vessel, and afterwards subjecting it to a red heat. In the work- 
 shop, when small quantities of lampblack are required, it is fre- 
 quently made for the occasion, by placing a piece of sheet metal 
 over the flame of an oil lamp. A black varnish, sometimes used 
 for metal works, is made by fusing three pounds of Egyptian 
 asphaltum, and, when well dissolved, half a pound of shell-lac and 
 one gallon of turpentine are added. 
 
 Varnish for Iron. — Take 2 lbs. pulverized gum asphaltum, 
 ^ lb. gum benzoin, i gallon s[arits of turpentine. To make this 
 varnish quickly, keep in a warm place and shake often till it is dis- 
 solved. Shade to suit with finely-ground ivory black. Apply 
 with a brush. This varnish should be used on iron work exposed 
 to the weather. It is also well adapted for inside work, such as 
 iron furniture, where a handsome polish is desired. 
 
g6 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CAIilNET-MAKERS, 
 
 Varnish for Cane and Basket-Work.— Lac, pre- 
 pared after the following recipe is used to cover split and colored 
 cane: 2^ galls, of good linseed-oil are heated in a sand-bath, as 
 long as a drop of it, poured on a cold stove, does not run when 
 the stone is inclined, and when touched with the finger it feels 
 thready. Then is added first in small portions, one pound fat 
 copal varnish, and the vessel wherein the co^^al varnish is heated 
 must be large, because by the addition of the linseed oil, a great 
 deal of frothing takes place. When cold, the required consistence 
 is given to the varnish by mixing it with turpentine-oil. It soon 
 dries, preserves a sufficient elasticity, and may be applied with or 
 without addition of colors. 
 
 POLISH REVIVERS, ETC. 
 French Polish Reviver. — >2 pint linseed-oil, i oz. 
 
 spirits of camphor, 2 ozs. vinegar, ^ oz. butter of antimony, )( oz. 
 of spirits of hartshorn. 
 
 Another. — i lb. of naphtha, 4 oz. of shellac, y^ oz oxalic acid. 
 Let it stand till dissolved, and add 3 ozs. linseed-oil. 
 
 Furniture Reviver. — Pale linseed-oil, raw, 10 oz.; lac 
 varnish and wood si)irits, of each 5 ozs. Mix well before using. 
 
 Furniture Cream. — i. Cut in small pieces a quarter of a 
 pound of yellow wax, and, after melting it, add an ounce of well 
 powdered colophony, which is a black resin or turpentine boiled 
 in water, and afterwards dried. The wax and colophony be- 
 ing both melted, pour in, by degrees, quite warm, two ounces of 
 oil or spirit of turpentine. When the whole is thoroughly mixed, 
 pour it into a tin or earthen pot, and keep it covered for use. 
 The method of applying it to the furniture, which must be first 
 well dusted and cleaned, is by spreading a little of this composi- 
 tion on a piece of woollen cloth, and well rubbing the wood with 
 it, and in a few days the gloss will be as firm and fast as varnish. 
 
 2. y^ lb. of beeswax melted in an earthenware pot ; add grad- 
 ually i^ pint tnrpentine, colored with i^ oz. alkanet root ; add 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNHURE MEN. 97 
 
 i^ pt. linseed oil ; mix well. Should be kept in wide-mouthed 
 bottles for use. Note — This cream should not be used on newly- 
 polished furniture. 
 
 Furniture Paste. — If it is required to keep the wood its 
 natural color, scrape a quarter of a pound of beeswax into half a 
 pint of turpentine. Linseed oil will darken the wood. 
 
 Six ounces of pearlash in a (juarter of a pound of white wax, and 
 one quart of hot water; sinniier for half an hour in a pipkin. 
 When cool the wax will float on the top, which must be taken off, 
 and with hot water worked into a paste. 
 
 Equal parts of beeswax, spirit of turpentine, and linseed oil. 
 Melt well together. 
 
 Four ounces of beeswax, ten ounces of turpentine, alkanet root 
 to color. Melt together and strain. 
 
 To Make Furniture Paste.— Scrape two ounces of 
 
 beeswax into a pot or basin ; then add as much spirits of turpen- 
 tine as will moisten it through. At the same time, powder an 
 eighth part of an ounce of resin, and add to it, when dissolved to the 
 consistence of paste, as much Indian red as, will bring it to a deep 
 mahogany color. Stir it up, and it will be fit for use. 
 
 Several Receipts for Furniture Cream.— Yellow 
 
 wax, 4 oz.; yellow soap, 2 oz.; water, 50 oz.; boil, with constant 
 stirring, and add boiled oil and oil of turpentine, each 5 oz. 
 
 Soft water, i gallon ; soap, 4 oz.; white wax, in shavings, i lb. 
 Boil together, and add 2 oz. pearlash. To be diluted with water, 
 laid on with a paint brush, and polished off with a hard brush or 
 cloth. 
 
 Wax, 3 oz.; pearlash, 2 oz.; water 6 oz. Heat together, and 
 add 4 oz. boiled oil and 5 oz. of spirits of turpentine. 
 
 Pearlash, i oz.; water, 8 oz.; beeswax (genuine) 6 oz.; mix with 
 heat, and add sufficient water to reduce it to the consistency of 
 cream ; for use add more water, and spread it on the wood with a 
 painter's brush, let it dry, and polish with a hard brush or cloth. 
 
 Beeswax, 3 oz ; pearlash, 2 oz.; water, 6 oz.; mix with heat, and 
 add boiled oil, 4 oz.; turpentine (oil) 5 oz.; mix. 
 
98 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 White Furniture Cream.— with the following receij)! 
 
 the vinegar must be mixed with the linseed-oil by degrees, and the 
 bottle well shaken up. The spirit of antimony must afterwards be 
 added, and well mixed. Six ounces of raw linseed oil, three ozs. 
 methylated spirit, three ozs. white wine vinegar, half an ounce of 
 butter of antimony. 
 
 GLUE. 
 
 Glue. — Glue is prepared from waste pieces of skin, horns, hoofs, 
 and other animal offal. These are steeped, washed, boiled, strained, 
 melted, reboiled and cast into square cakes, which are then dried. 
 The strongest kind of glue is made from the hides of oxen ; that 
 from the bones and sinews is weaker. The older the aninnil the 
 stronger the glue. Good glue should be hard in the cake, of a 
 strong, dark color, almost transparent, free from black or cloudy 
 spots, and with little or no smell. The best sorts are transparent 
 and of a clear amber color. Inferior kinds are sometimes con- 
 taminated with the lime used for removing the hair from the skins 
 of which they are made. The best glue swells considerably (the 
 more the better) when immersed in cold water, but does not dis- 
 solve, and returns to its former size when dry. Inferior glue made 
 from bones, will, however, dissolve almost entirely in cold water. 
 
 To Prepare Glue. — To j)repare glue for use it should be 
 broken up into small pieces, and soaked in as much cold water as 
 will cover it, for about twelve hours. It should then be melted in 
 a double glue pot, covered to keep the glue from dirt. Care must 
 be taken to keep the outer vessel full of water, so that the glue 
 shall not burn, or be brought to a temperature higher tlian that of 
 boiling water. The glue is allowed to simmer for two or three 
 hours, then gradually melted, so much hot water being added as 
 will make it licpiid enough, just to run off a brush in a continuous 
 stream, without ];reaking into drops. When the glue is done with, 
 some l)oiling water should be added to make it very thin before it 
 is put away. Freshly-made glue is stronger than that which has 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 99 
 
 been repeatedly melted. Too large a quantity should not therefore 
 l)e made at a time. Glue may be freed from the foreign animal 
 matter generally in it by softening it in cold water, washing it with 
 the same several times, till it no longer gives out any color, then 
 bruising it with the hand, and suspending it in a linen bag beneath 
 the surface of a large quantity of water at 66° Fahr. By doing 
 this the pure glue is retained in the bag, and the soluble impurities 
 jiass through. If the softened glue be heated to 122° without 
 water, and filtered, some other impurities will be retained by the 
 filter, and a colorless solution of glue be obtained. 
 
 The addition of a little bichromate of potash will render glue 
 impervious to moisture after exposing to the light, and a small 
 quantity of methylated spirits will greatly improve its keeping 
 qualities. 
 
 Mixing Glue. — A minimum amount of glue should be used 
 in good work, and it should be applied as hot as possible. The 
 surfaces of the wood to be united should be clean, dry, and true; 
 they should be brought together as tightly as possible, so that the 
 superfluous glue is squeezed out. The cohesion of a piece of solid 
 glue, or the force required to separate one square inch, is four 
 thousand pounds. The strength of common glue for coarse work 
 is increased by the addition of a little powdered chalk. The hot- 
 ter the glue the greater its cohesion ; therefore in all large and 
 long joints the glue should be applied immediately after boiling. 
 Glue loses much of its strength by frequent re-melting ; that glue, 
 therefore, which is newly made, is much preferable to that which 
 has been re-boiled. 
 
 Glue Pot. — A glue pot recently perfected consists of a cir- 
 cular kerosene lamp, made of tin, resting upon a tin bottom 8j4 
 inches in diameter. The lamp is fitted with a tin chimney in place 
 of glass, and fitted with a small aperture, covered with mica, so as 
 to see how to regulate the flame. The glue pot is made of cop- 
 per, tinned on the inside and supported upon a rim setting up 
 about six inches from the bottom of the lamp, the rim supported I)y 
 three legs, soldered and riveted to the rim and bottom of lamp rest. 
 
lOO PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 The pot in which the bottom is phiced has a portion of the bot- 
 tom arched, to give more heating surface, and connecting with the 
 chamber under the pot is a flue, passing out and up alongside of 
 the pot, which carries off any smoke from the lamp, and also acts 
 as a draft to tiie flame. This pot is five inches in diameter, and 
 about six inches high. The pot for the reception of the glue is 
 set in the same as an ordinary glue |)0t. and will hokl about a 
 quart of glue. The whole can be carrcd to an\- place where you 
 wish to use it, and still have the heat kept up. The cost of oil is 
 but a few cents a week. 
 
 Another improvemeiU is in the pot being of copper, tinned. It 
 will not corrode and spoil the glue, as is the case with iron. 
 
 French cabinet-makers use a glue pot with an inside pan made 
 of glazed earthenware and divided radially into three divisions, in 
 one of which is kc])t strong glue, in another weaker, and in the 
 third water only, with a brush or piece of sponge for cleaning off 
 superfluous glue fiom the work. 
 
 A lew holes bored near the top of the inner vessel of a glue i)ot 
 by admitting steam from the outer vessel will prevent the glue 
 from solidifying on the side. They need not be bored round the 
 whole circumference of the i)Ot, to allow of pouring out the glue if 
 necessary. 
 
 To Prevent Glue Cracking.— Glue frequently cracks 
 because of the dryness of the air in rooms warmed by stoves. 
 The addition of chloride of calcium to glue will prevent this disa- 
 greeable property of cracking. Chloride of calcium is such a deli- 
 quescent salt that it attracts enough moisture to prevent the glue 
 from cracking. Glue thus prepared will adhere to glass, metal, etc., 
 and can be used for putting on labels without danger of their drop- 
 ping off. 
 
 Strong Glue to Resist Moisture.— Dissolve gum- 
 
 sandarac and mastic, of each a (|uarter of an ounce, in a quarter 
 of a i)int of sjiirits of wine, to which add a quarter of an ounce of 
 clear turpentine; now take strong glue, or that in which isinglass 
 has been dissolved; then, jtulting the gums into a double glue-pot, 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. lOI 
 
 add by degrees the glue, constantly stirring it over the fire till the 
 whole is well incor[)orated; strain it through a cloth, and it is 
 ready for use. You maj' now return it to the glue pot, and add 
 half an ounce of very finely-[)owciered glass ; use it quite hot. If 
 you join two pieces of wood together with it, you may, when per- 
 fectly hard and dry, immerse it in water, and the joint will not 
 se[)arate. 
 
 Glue to Resist Moisture. — To two quarts of skimmed 
 niilk add half a pound of the best glue ; melt them together, taking 
 care they do not boil over, and you will have a very strong glue, 
 which will resist damp or moisture. 
 
 Portable Glue. — Boil one pound of the best glue, strain it 
 very clear ; boil also four ounces of isinglass ; put it into a double 
 glue-pot, with half a pound of fine brown sugar, and boil it pretty 
 thick ; then pour it into plates or moulds. When cold you may 
 cut and dry them for the pocket. 
 
 This glue is very useful to draughtsmen, architects, etc., as it 
 immediately dilutes in warm water, and fastens the paper without 
 the process of dampening; or, it may be used by softening it in 
 the mouth, and applying it to the paper. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 To Raise Old Veneers. — First, wash the surface with 
 boiling water, and, with a coarse cloth, remove dirt or grease; 
 then place it before the fire, or heat it with a caul ; oil its surface 
 with common linseed-oil, place it again to the tire, and the heat will 
 make the oil penetrate quite through the veneer, and soften the 
 glue underneath; then, while hot, raise the edge gently with a 
 chisel, and it will separate completely from the ground; be careful 
 not to use too great force, or the work will be spoiled. Again, if it 
 should get cold during the operation, apply more oil, and heat it 
 again. Repeat this process till the veneer is entirely separated, 
 then wash off the old glue and proceed to lay it again as a new- 
 veneer. 
 
102 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINK l-MAKERS, 
 
 To Take Out Bruises in Furniture.— Wet the part 
 
 with warm water ; double a piece of brown paper five or six times, 
 soak it, and lay it on the place ; apply on that a hot flat-iron till 
 the moisture is evaporated. If the bruise be not gone, repeat the 
 process. After two or three applications, the dent or bruise will be 
 raised level with the surface. If the bruise be small, merely soak 
 it with warm water, and apply a red-hot poker very near the sur- 
 face ; keep it continually wet, and in a few minutes the bruise will 
 disappear. 
 
 To Make Paste for Laying Cloth or Leather.— 
 
 To a i)int of the best wheaten flour add resin, very finely pow- 
 dered, about two large spoonfuls ; of alum, one S[)Oonful, in powder ; 
 mix them all well together, put them into a pan, and add by de- 
 grees soft or rain water, carefully stirring it till it is of the con- 
 sistence of thinnish cream ; put it into a saucepan over a clear 
 fire, keeping it constantly stirred, that it may not get lumjjy. 
 When it is of a stiff" consistence, so that the spoon will stand up- 
 right in it, it is done enough. Be careful to stir it well from the 
 bottom, for it will burn if not well attended to. Empty it out into 
 a pan and cover it over till cold, to [jrevent a skin forming on the 
 top, which would make it lumj^y. 
 
 This paste is very superior for the [lurpose. and adhesive. To 
 use it for cloth or baize, spread the paste evenly and smoothly on 
 the top of the table, and lay the cloth on it, pressing and smooth- 
 ing it with a flat jjiece of wood; let it remain till dry; then trim 
 the edges close to the cross-banding. If you cut it close at first, 
 it will, in drying, shrink and look bad where it meets the banding 
 all rountl. If used for leather, the leather must be first previously 
 dam|)ed, and then the paste spread over it; then lay it on the 
 table, and rub it smooth and level with a linen cloth, and cut the 
 edges close to the banding with a short knife. Some lay their 
 table cover with glue instead of paste, and for cloth perhaps it is 
 the best method ; but for leather it is not proi)er, as glue is apt to 
 run through. In using it for cloth, great care must be taken that 
 the glue be not too thin, and that the cloth be well rubbed down 
 with a thick piece of wood made hot at the fire, for the glue soon 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 103 
 
 chills. By this method, the edges may be cut oti' close to the 
 border at once. 
 Cements for Stopping Flaws in Wood.— Put any 
 
 quantity of tine sawtlust of the same wood your work is made with 
 into an earthen pan, and pour boiling water on it, stir it well, and 
 let it remain for a week or ten days, occasionally stirring it; then 
 boil it for some time, and it will be of the consistence of pulp or 
 paste; put it into a coarse cloth, and squeeze all the moisture from 
 it. Keep for use, and, when wanted, mix a sufficient quantity of 
 thin glue to make it into a paste; rub it well into the cracks, or fill 
 up the holes in your work with it. When quite hard and dry, 
 clean your work off, and if carefully done, you will scarcely dis- 
 cern the imperfection. 
 
 Mahogany-Colored Cement. — Melt two ounces of 
 
 beeswax and half an ounce of Indian red, and a small quantity of 
 yellow ochre, to bring the cement to the desired color ; keep it in 
 a pipkin for use. * 
 
 Cement for Turners. — Melt together beeswax, one 
 ounce; resin, half an ounce; and pitch, halt an ounce; stir in the 
 mixture some very fine brickdust to give it a body. If too soft, 
 add more resin; if too hard, more wax. When nearly cold, make 
 it up into cakes or rolls, which keep for use. 
 
 I'his will be found very useful for fastening any piece of wood 
 on the chuck, which is done by applying the roller of cement to 
 the chuck and it will adhere with sufficient force. 
 
 Tracing Paper. — A good firm tissue jjaper washed with a 
 mixture of six parts spirits of wine^ one of resin, one of nut oil. 
 Apply with a sponge. 
 
 Another. — Canada balsam and turpentine, equal parts, will make 
 a varnish which, if applied to one side of a good thin paper, will 
 answer well. If it is meant to take watercolor, a coat of ox gall 
 must be laid on. 
 
 Another. — Dissolve a piece of white beeswax, about the size of a 
 walnut, in half a pint of spirits of turpentine; then, having pro- 
 cured some very fine white, woven tissue-paper, lay it on a clean 
 
i04 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 board, and, with a soft brusli dipped in this hjuid, go over one 
 side, and then turn it over, and apply it to the otlier; hang it up 
 in a place free from dust, to dry. It will be ready for use m a few 
 days. Some add a small quantity of resin, or use resin instead of 
 wax. 
 
 Mounted Tracings.— Tightly strain across an old drawing- 
 board, by means of tacks slightly driven, a piece of cotton of toler- 
 ably good quality, but do not damp it, except with paste, as here- 
 after mentioned. Work the last in well with a painter's brush that 
 has not been used for any other purpose. It is advisable to soak 
 the brush, before using, for a few hours in cold water, so as, by ex- 
 pansion of the handle and constriction of the cordage, to tighten 
 the hairs, and prevent them coming out with the paste. Paste also 
 the back of the tracing, and, obtaining the assistance of another 
 person, hold it by the corners over the strained fabric, allowing it 
 to sag well, and lower it gently until the middle of the tracing first 
 come into contact with the celico, after which gently and simulta- 
 neously lay down each corner. The tracing may now be gently 
 dabbed with a clean cloth, commencing at the middle, and work- 
 ing out the blisters to the edge. A needle may sometimes be 
 used with advantage to puncture small holes and set free the air in 
 some of the obstinate blisters ; but do not trouble to remove them 
 all, as the smaller ones will quite disappear in drying. Do not rub 
 the tracing whilst wet without the intervention of a sheet of large 
 thin lining paper, such as is used for lining walls. Allow the trac- 
 ing to dry gradually on the board without fire heat, and do not 
 remove it until thoroughly dry. Draw on the scale before mount- 
 ing, so that it may, by contracting and expanding with the draw- 
 ing, be always true. The tracing, when mounted, presents a better 
 surface for coloring than before. The board should be cleaned 
 before using. 
 
 Cracks in Drawing Boards.— The material generally 
 used in stopping the above is a cornjjosition made of glue and 
 chalk, worked up to the consistency of putty, and applied to the 
 board in a soft state, allowed to dry, and smoothed off with sand- 
 paper. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FUKNl'lURE MEN. 105 
 
 To Temper Tools. — The quality of the steel should be 
 uniform throughout; uideed, it is always better to have them tem- 
 pered rather too hard than soft, for use will reduce the temper. If 
 at any time it is necessrry to perform the operation yourself, the 
 best method is to melt a sufficient quantity of lead to immerse the 
 cutting part of the tool in. Having previously brightened its sur- 
 face, plunge it into the melted lead for a few minutes, till it gets 
 sufficiently hot to melt a candle, with which rub its surface ; then 
 plunge it in again, and keep it there till the steel assumes a straw 
 color; but be careful not to let it turn blue. When that is the 
 case, take it out, rub it again with the tallow, and let it cool. If 
 it should be too soft, wipe the grease off, repeat the process with- 
 out the tallow ; and, when it is sufficiently hot, plunge it into cold 
 spring-water, or water and vinegar mixed. By a proper attention 
 to these directions, and a little practice, every workman will have 
 it in his power to give a proper temper to the tools he may use. 
 If a saw is too hard, it may be tempered by the same means ; but 
 as it would be not only expensive, but in many cases impossible to 
 do it at home, a plumber's shop is mostly at hand, where the pro- 
 cess may be repeated when they are melting a pot of lead. But 
 here observe that the temper necessary is different to other cutting 
 tools ; you must wait till the steel just begins to turn blue, which is 
 a temper that will give it more elasticity, and, at the same time, 
 sufficient hardness. 
 
 Hardening Tools. — A communication to the English Me- 
 chanic says : " Mercury is the best liquid for hardening steel 
 cutting tools. The best steel, when forged into shape and hard- 
 ened in mercury, will cut almost anything. I have seen articles 
 made from ordinary steel which have been hardened and tempered 
 to a deep straw color, turned with comparative ease with cutting 
 tools from good tool steel, hardened in mercury." 
 
 To Cut Good Steel Scrapers.— Part of the blade of a 
 
 broken saw makes the best scrapers ; but, as it is hard, it is very 
 difficult to cut it into tlie required form. The best nnd most ex- 
 peditious way is to mark it out to the size wanted, and then to 
 place the blade or steel plate in a vise whose chaps shut very close, 
 
lo6 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINK I-.MAKERS, 
 
 placing tlie mark even with the face of the vise, and the part to be 
 cut to waste above the vise, 'i'hen with a cohl-chisel, or a com- 
 mon steel-firmer that lias its basil broken off, holding it close to the 
 vise and rather inclined upwards, begin at one end of the steel 
 plate, and w ith a sharp blow of the hammer it will cut it. Keep 
 going on by degrees, and you will with ease cut it to the shape re- 
 quired ; then grind the edges of your scraper level, and tinish by 
 rubbing it on your Turkey-stone. 
 
 To Remedy Splits in Circular Saws.— Three 
 
 methotls : 
 
 Drill a small hole in the saw at the bottom of the split. 
 
 Drill six holes about ^ inch in diameter, along the line of the 
 crack, taking care that one of them falls just inside it; countersink 
 the five outer holes on both sides, and rivet nicely up with hot 
 rivets shghtly less in diameter than the holes. 
 
 Cut a series of dovetails across the split, and insert therein cop- 
 per dove-tails, which must be riveted tight by hammering on each 
 side. The edges of the holes must be filed to an acute angle 
 from each side of the saw, half the thickness of it, and the copper 
 dove-tail pieces must not be (juite long enough to fill the hole, but 
 must fit in width exactly, and of course must be well annealed, 
 and considerably thicker than the saw. When riveletl, file oft' level 
 with saw. 
 
 Brazing Band-Saws.— Good brass, rich in copper, is 
 generally used. Bring the two ends of the saw close together and 
 fasten, then take a small pan of charcoal, and place it under the 
 ends, and direct the flame of a blowpipe on it. As the ends will 
 soon become red hot, sprinkle some powderetl borax upon them, 
 and add the solder with a piece of iron. The way to make the 
 solder melt : cast in ingot and file away ; collect the filings, and 
 put into solution ot sal ammoniac in water, and so keep until 
 wanted. 
 
 Saw Sharpening. — I'o sharpen the saw, take a triangular 
 file, three-square file it is called, the handle in the right hand, the 
 point of the file between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, 
 
UPHOI.SIEREKS AND KURNllUKK MKN. 107 
 
 apply it te) llic front of the tiist tooth that leans away from the 
 operator. Let the point of the file incline towards the point of 
 the saw, give three or four or more rubs of the file, and the point 
 of the tooth will be sharpened, and the front brought to a sharp 
 edge, and as the file will have passed over the tO[) of the next 
 tooth it also will be filed down, and the point partly sharpened. 
 
 Now apply the file to the front of this tooth ; it leans to- 
 wards the operator, so tlie point of the file must incline towards 
 the handle of the saw. Give, as before, three or four rubs, accord- 
 ing to the state of the saw, and the point of this tooth will also be 
 sharpened, and its front brought to a sharp cutting edge. Go on 
 in this way alternately, always remembering that when the tooth 
 leans away from the operator the point of the file must incline to 
 the point of the saw, and when the tooth leans towards the opera- 
 tor, then it must incline towards the handle of the saw. 
 
 If the saw has been sharpened before, it will be advisable to first 
 run the file along the top of the teeth, to bring them all to a level. 
 
 Oiling Tools. — An English authority says: When a set of 
 bench-plane.s is French-i)olished, they certainly look very well on 
 the bench for a short time, but the French-polish does not add to 
 their durability or usefulness, and, I think, gives them anything 
 but a workmanlike appearance. My plan is to knock the irons 
 out, weigh them, and then drop them into the linseed-oil barrel, 
 and let them stay there a week; I then take and weigh them 
 again to ascertain how mucli oil they have absorbed. The oil 
 goes right to the heart of the jjlanes, and as it sets it makes them 
 hard, and they may be dej^ended upon for kee[)ing their shape. 
 Rubbing them over every dinner hour for a week or two will give 
 them a beautiful surface, and they will not show scratches or dents 
 as they would if they were French-polished. 
 
 To Mark Tools. — Coat over the tools with a thin layer ot 
 wax or hard tallow, by first warming the steel and rubbing on the 
 wax; warm until it flows and let it cool. When hard, mark the 
 name through the wax with a graver and apply some aquafortis 
 (nitric acid); after a few moments wash oft" the acid thoroughly 
 
Io8 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 witli water, warm ilie metal enough to melt the wax, and wii)e it 
 off with a soft rag. The letters will he found etched into the steel. 
 
 Varnish for Tools. — Take 2 oz. tallow, i oz. resin ; melt 
 together and strain, w hile hot, to remove the specks which are in 
 the resin. Apply a slight coat on the tools with a brush, and it 
 will keep off the rust for an\- length of time. 
 
 Boiler Incrustation. -The following remedies have been 
 used, with varying success, to prevent the incrustation of boilers. 
 
 1. Potatoes, in weight one-fiftieth part that of the water, pre- 
 vents the adherenc'.; of scale. 
 
 2. 12 parts of salt, zy^ parts of caustic soda, y% part of extract 
 of bark, i^ part of potash. 
 
 3. Pieces of oak-wood suspended in the boiler and renewed 
 'monthly. 
 
 4. 2 ounces of muriate of ammonia in the boiler twice a week. 
 
 5. A coating, consisting of 3 parts of black-lead and 18 parts of 
 tallow, applied hot to the inside of the bo'ler every few weeks. 
 
 6. 12^ lbs. of molasses, fed into an 8-horse boiler at intervals, 
 prevented incrustation for six months. 
 
 7. Mahogany or oak saw-dust in small quantities. Use this 
 with caution, as the tannic acid attracts iron. 
 
 8. Carbonate of soda. 
 
 Non-Conducting Covering for Steam Pipes.— 
 
 Sawdust mixed with flour and water into a thick paste is a non- 
 conducting covering for steam pipes, cylinders, etc. The flour 
 should be made into a very thin ])aste, and then the sawdust is 
 stirred in. The adhesion of this composition is very great when 
 applied on clean surfaces of wrought or cast iron ; but on copper 
 pipes it is necessary to wash them first with a clay-wash, made 
 with |)otter's clay, until it forms a thin coating, after which the 
 sawdust and paste will adhere firmly. It is very simple to api)ly ; 
 a small trowel is all that is necessary. Lay on five successive 
 coats one-fifth of an inch thick. Let the pipes or other objects to 
 be covered be kept warm by the aid of a little steam, and let one 
 coat be perfectly dry before applying a second. Should the pipes 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FUKNlTUKIi MEN. IO9 
 
 be outside, exposed to tlie open air, give them tliree or four coats 
 of coal tar to make tliem waterproof, but if inside a building it is 
 not necessary. It is well to pass the sawdust through a riddle to 
 cleanse it from the coarse fragments of wood which are always to 
 be found amongst sawdust. Steam pipes so covered lose less heat 
 than when covered by any other known or patented process sold 
 for that purpose. It is much less expensive and much more 
 efficient. 
 
 To Harden Wood Pulleys. — Soft maple is often used 
 
 in the construction of friction pulleys. If it is boiled in olive-oil it 
 will prove beneficial in a number of ways. It will harden the 
 timber and render it less liable to split, but at the same time the 
 gear will slip more after such treatment. 
 
 To Prevent Belts Slipping.— A piece of rubber belting 
 fastened around the belt pulley of an engine will keep the belt 
 from slipping. 
 
 Hasps. — A farrier's rasp is an excellent tool for preparing a 
 rough piece of wood or ivory for the lathe. Where only a small 
 quantity of the material is required to be removed it will be found 
 to be more convenient than the axe or paring-knife. There is also 
 a somewhat similar tool used by shoemakers which, for smaller 
 jobs, will be found equally efficient. 
 
 Soft Piles. — Small single-cut files or "floats" of various 
 shapes not hardened, may be met with at some of the dealers in 
 watchmaker's tools, which are useful in finishing small articles in 
 hard wood, ivory, and also gold and silver ; they are used some- 
 times by jewellers for finishing, on account of their leaving a 
 smooth surface behind them instead of a rough one, as a cross-cut 
 file does. 
 
 Amalgam Varnish. — Melt together equal parts of bis- 
 muth, tin and quicksilver; when melted and cooled make it into a 
 varnish with white of egg. It is used for the varnishing of plaster- 
 of- Paris figures and others of the like kind. Some people recom- 
 
no PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 mend lead, but lead soon becomes tarnished, but tin and bismuth 
 will keep bright. 
 
 Painting and Preserving Ironwork.— A good black 
 
 paint for coarse ironwork may be made by mixing plumbago with 
 hot coal-tar. Equal parts of asphaltum and resin dissolved in com- 
 mon turpentine make also a good, cheap covering for heavy iron- 
 work. For machinery, dissolve 2 lbs. india-rubber, 4 lbs. resin, 
 and 2 lbs. shell-lac, in 5 gallons of benzine. This may be used 
 with any other paint as a vehicle. Wrought-iron bridges are 
 painted with white-lead as follows : The ironwork is first made 
 clean by scrubbing and brushing it with wire brushes ; this done, 
 all the cavities and fissures are filled up with a putty of litharge, 
 linseed-oil, varnish, and white-lead ; this tilling being dry, brushing 
 is repeated. Afterwards a paint is applied, consisting of 300 lbs. 
 of white-lead, 10 gallons of crude linseed oil, i or 2 gallons of 
 boiled linseed-oil, and i J^ gallons turpentine. This paint is re- 
 peated when sufficient!)' dry, and finally evenly overspread with 
 wl'.ite sand. Galvanizing is employed also to prevent rusting. A 
 galvanizing paint consists chiefly of zinc powder and oil var- 
 nish Rusting is further prevented by rubbing the red-hot iron with 
 wax, tallow, pitch, or coal-tar. Rubbing with heavy petroleum is 
 also well adapted for keeping ironwork clean. 
 
 Preparing Soft Solder. — riie following directions for 
 
 soldering without fire or lamp may prove useful : Bismuth, 
 i^ oz.; quicksilver, j{ oz.; block tin filing, i oz.; spirits of salts, 
 I oz. Mix the whole together. Another soft solder for tin, etc.: 
 Take lead, 1 part; tin, i part; bismuth, 2 parts; this melts in 
 boiling water. 
 
 To Clean Silver Filigree. — Make a thin paste with cold 
 
 water and cream of tartar, spread over ornaments thickly, fold in 
 flannel, leave a week, then wash off with water, and they will be 
 as good as new. 
 
 Bronzing on Metal. — The article must be chemically 
 cleaned up, brushing with a mixture of fine pumice in dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, rinsed in pure water and dried. The bronze liquor 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. HI 
 
 must be applied quickly and evenly with a camel's-hair brush, hav- 
 ing first heated the article, just so as it can be held without burning 
 the fingers. 
 
 Polishing Metals. — A useful compound for polishing and 
 cleaning metals is composed of i oz. carbonate of ammonia dis- 
 solved in 4 oz. water; with this is mixed i6 oz. Paris white. A 
 moistened sponge is dipped in the powder, and rubbed lightly over 
 the surface of the metal, after which the powder is dusted off, leav- 
 ing a fine brilliant lustre. 
 
 Imitation Marble. — Mix i lb. finely-powdered lime into a 
 thick paste with water, and add 3^ lb. of colophony, or, what is 
 better, Venice turpentine. Allow the mixture to stand for some 
 time, and then work up w-ith it suitable cjuantities of fine white 
 chalk and various colored earths, adding a few drops of olive oil 
 if necessary. A soft mass is thus obtained, which can be moulded, 
 like plaster-of-Paris, to any desired form, or it can be rolled out 
 on a warm metal plate, or passed under wooden rollers, into 
 thin sheets, which can be glued to the surface to be decorated, 
 like ordinary veneers, and left to harden. It hardens and takes a 
 good surface. Any cavities that appear must be filled up with 
 some of the composition mixed with oil of turpentine. The com- 
 position will keep fit for use for some time, if covered with a damp 
 cloth while moist. 
 
 To Polish Marble. — It sometimes happens that the cab- 
 inet-maker has a table top of marble to remount, which is scratched, 
 and requires re-polishing. The following is the j^rocess used by the 
 mason, and willj therefore, be acceptable in a work like the present. 
 With a piece of sandstone with a very fine grit, rub the slab back- 
 ward and forward, using very fine sand and water, till the marble 
 appears equally rough, and not in scratches; next use a finer stone 
 and finer sand, till its surface appears equally gone over; then, 
 with fine emery-powder and a piece of felt or old hat wrapped 
 round a weight, rub till all the marks left by the former process are 
 worked out, and it appears with a comparative gloss on its surface. 
 Afterward finish the polish with putty-powder and fine, clean rags. 
 
112 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 As soon as the face appears of a good gloss, do not put any more 
 powder on the rags, but rub it well, and in a short time it will ap- 
 pear as if fresh from the mason's hands. 
 
 Another. — Make a thick i)aste with rotten-stone and olive oil, 
 and vigorously rub the marble with it on a cloth. 
 
 To Polish Black Marble. — Wash it with warm soap 
 and water, and when dry rub it well with furniture paste or French 
 polish, and then rub it with an old silk handkerchief. After one or 
 
 two trials it will become quite bright. 
 
 To Clean Marble. — Mix the strongest soap-lees with 
 quicklime to the consistency of milk; let it lie on the stone, etc., 
 for twenty-four hours ; then clean it off, and wash w-ith soap and 
 water, and it will appear as new. The polish will require to be 
 renewed by the process given above. 
 
 Another. — Mix with y^ pint of soapdees, ^ a gill of turpentine, 
 sufficient pipe clay and bullock's gall to make the whole into a 
 rather thick paste. Apply it to the marble with a soft brush, and 
 after a day or two, when quite dry, rub it off with a soft rag. 
 Apply this a second or third time till the marble is quite clean. 
 
 To Remove Stains on Marble.— Apply spirits of salt 
 
 and carefully wash off. 
 
 To Clean Pictures. — Wash with a sponge or a soft leather 
 and water, and dry by rubbing with a silk handkerchief. When 
 the picture is very dirty, take it out of its frame, procure a clean 
 towel, and making it quite wet, lay it on the face of the picture, 
 sprinkling it from time to time with clear soft water; let it remain 
 wet for two or three days ; take the cloth off and renew it with a 
 fresh one ; after wiping the picture with a clean wet sponge, repeat 
 the process till all the dirt is soaked out; then wash it well with a 
 soft sjjonge, and let it get dry ; rub it with some clear nut or 
 linseed-oil. Spirits of wine and turpentine may be used to dissolve 
 the hard old varnish, but they will attack the paint as well as the 
 varnish if the further action of the spirits is not stopped at the 
 proper time by using water freely. 
 
UPHOLSTEPERS AND FURNITURE MEN. I I3 
 
 Cleaning Varnished Pictures — There are conditions 
 
 where the above simple process will not accomplish what is re- 
 quired ; where a thick coating of varnish has been applied to the 
 picture, and it has been hung in a smoky room, and dust and dir^: 
 has been allowed to gather and remain; then it is that no high 
 lights will be visible, the sky will be dirty, no distance visible, and 
 perhaps the figures in the foreground very indistinct. Under these 
 conditions the varnish must be either removed or the smoke and 
 dirt must be brought out of the varnish. If it is thought desirable 
 to try the latter, the following receipt will be found valuable for the 
 purpose : 2 oz. wood naptha, i oz. spirits of salts, y^ pint of lin- 
 seed-oil. 
 
 Mix the above well together, and before using shake the bottle. 
 It can be used as follows : Get some soft linen rag, and make up 
 a soft pad, which place on the mouth of the bottle and shake up 
 some of the mixture into the pad, when commence rubbing the 
 picture with a circular motion, and when nearly dry again give the 
 pad another dressing of mixture, and continue this mode of pro- 
 cedure for some time, when the picture will gradually come out in 
 all its detail. 
 
 Cleaning Engravings. — Put the engraving on a smooth 
 board, cover it thinly with common salt finely powdered. Squeeze 
 lemon juice upon the salt so as to dissolve a considerable portion 
 of it; elevate one end of the board so that it may form an angle of 
 about 45 or 50 degrees. Pour on the engraving boiling water from 
 a tea kettle until the salt and lemon juice be all washed off The 
 engraving then will be perfectly clean and free from stains. It 
 must be dried on the board or some smooth surface gradually. If 
 dried by the fire or the sun it will be tinged with a yellow color. 
 
 Cleaning Engravings. — Presuming these to be mounted, 
 proceed in the following manner: Cut a stale loaf in half, with a 
 perfectly clean knife ; pare the crust away from the edges. Now 
 place the engravings on a perfectly flat table, and rubbing the sur- 
 face with the fresh-cut bread, in circular sweeps, lightly but firmly 
 performed, will remove all superficial markings. Now soak the 
 prints for a short time in a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid, say 
 
114 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 I part acid to loo of water, and then remove theni into a vessel 
 containing a sufficient quantity of clear chloride lime water to cover 
 them. Leave them there until bleached to the desired point. 
 Now remove, rinse well by allowing to stand an hour in a pan in 
 which a constant stream of water is allowed to flow, and finally dry 
 ofif by spreading on clean cloths. Perhaps the sheets may require 
 ironing between two sheets of clean i)aper. 
 
 To Smooth a Damaged Picture. — Paintings some- 
 times get convex and concave patches on their surface, owing to 
 pressure on one side or the other, and these inequalities cause a 
 great deal of trouble to bring out. The most successful way is to 
 well wet both sides of the picture on the si)Ot, and keep it under 
 pressure till dry. With small pictures the quickest way would be 
 to take them off the stretclier and lay them in a press, with a light 
 pressure between soft sheets of paper. 
 
 Embossed Gilding for Illuminating.— Gilding of 
 
 figures and letters on pai)er and for the enibellislunent of inanu- 
 scrij^s, is performed with shell gold tempered with gum water; or 
 the characters may be drawn with a milky solution of gum amma- 
 nacum made in water, and gold leaf applied upon them when 
 almost drv ; they may again be sufficiently moistened for receiving 
 the gold by breathing on them. Letters raised from the surface, if 
 paper or i)archment in the manner of embossed work, such as are 
 seen on ancient manuscripts, may be formed either by friction on a 
 proper body with a solid piece of gold, or by leaf gold. 
 
 The former method is practiced by tem|)ering pulverizers' crystal 
 with strong gum water, and with this paste forming the letters ; 
 when they are dry, they are rubbed with a piece of solid gold as in 
 ])olishing, and the letters will appear as if gilt with burnished gold. 
 The letters are formed with an embossed figure, either of the separ- 
 ate letters or of whole words cut in steel, and each letter of these 
 stamps when they are used, is oiled evenly with a feather. Then 
 fill these concave letters with the above ])aste, and strike the stamps 
 in a perpendicular direction on the paper or vellum laid on sheets 
 of soft paper. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE ^lEN. I15 
 
 When the embossed letters are formed with leaf gold, the follow- 
 ing or a similar composition must be used. Thicken beaten whites 
 of eggs with as much vermilion as is necessary to give them the 
 consistence of paste ; use tlie stamps as before, and when the letters 
 are dry moisten them by a small pencil witli strong gum water, and 
 when this is almost dry cover the letters with leaf gold, })ressing it 
 close to every part of them with cotton wool ; when dry, burnish. 
 
 Gold for Illuminating. — Procure a book of leaf gold, 
 take out the leaves gently and grind them in a mortar with a piece 
 of honey about the size of a hazel-nut, until it is thoroughly inter- 
 mixed with the gold, then add a little water and re-work it; put 
 the whole into a vial and shake it well. Let it remain an hour or 
 two, and the gold will deposit at the bottom of the vial. 
 
 Pour oft" the liquor, and add weak prepared gum in its stead; 
 sufficient to make it flow freely from the pen or camel's-hair pencil. 
 When required for use, shake it occasionally. 
 
 To Stain Horn in Imitation of Tortoise Shell.— 
 
 Mix an equal quantity of quicklime and red lead w'ith strong soap 
 lees, lay it on the horn with a small brush, in imitation of the 
 mottle of tortoise-shell ; when dry, repeat it two or three times. 
 
 To Stain Ivory or Bone Red. — Boil shavings of scarlet 
 
 cloth in water, and add by degrees jiearlash till the color is ex- 
 tracted ; a little roach alum, now added, will clear the color; then 
 strain it through a linen cloth. Steep your ivory or bone in aqua- 
 fortis (nitrous acid) diluted with twice its quantity of water, then 
 take it out, and put it into your scarlet dye till the color is to your 
 mind. Be careful not to let your aquafortis be too strong; neither 
 let your ivory remain too long in it. Try it first with a slip of 
 ivory, and if you observe the acid has just caused a trifling rough- 
 ness on its surface, take it out immediately, and put it into the red 
 liquid, which must be warm, but not too hot. A little practice, 
 v\-ith these cautions, will enable you to succeed according to your 
 wishes; cover the places you wish to remain unstained with white 
 wax, and the stain will not penetrate in those places, but leave the 
 ivory of its natural color. 
 
Il6 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 To Stain Ivory or Bone Black. — Add to any quan- 
 tity of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic) three times its bulk of water, 
 and steep your ivory or bone in it ; take it out again in about an 
 hour, and expose it to the sunshine to dry,, and it will be a perfect 
 black. 
 
 To Stain Ivory or Bone Green.— Steep your work in 
 
 a solution ut verdigii.-^, hal-aniniuniac and weak aquafortis, in the 
 proportion ot two parts of the former to one of the latter, bemg 
 careful to use the precautions mentioned for staining red, as above. 
 
 To Stain Ivory, etc., Blue. — Stain your materials green 
 according to the })rcvi()us process, and then dip them in a strong 
 solution of pearlash and water. 
 
 To Stain Ivory, etc., Yellow.— Put your ivory in a 
 
 strong solution of alum in water, and keep the whole some time 
 nearly boiling; then take them out and mimerse them in a hot 
 mixture of turmeric and water, either with or without the addition 
 of French berries; let them simmer for about half an hour, and 
 your ivory will be of a beautiful yellow. Ivory or bone should dry 
 very gradually, or it will split or crack. 
 
 To Soften Ivory. — Slice a quarter of a i)ound of mandrake, 
 
 and put it into lialf a ])int of the best vinegar, into which put your 
 ivory; let the whole stand in a warm place for forty-eight hours, 
 Avhen vou will be able to bend the ivory to \our mind. 
 
 To Bleach Ivory. — Take a double handful of lime, and 
 slake it by sprinkling it with water; then odd three pints of water, 
 and stir the whole together ; let it settle ten minutes, and pour 
 the water into a pan. Take the ivory, and steep it in the lime- 
 water for twenty-four hours, after whi( h boil it in a strong alum- 
 water one hour, and dry it in the air. 
 
 Artificial Ivory.— Two parts of caoutchouc are dissolved 
 in 36 i)arts (M" chlor<jform, and the solution is saturated with pure 
 gaseous ammonia. The chloroform is then distilled off at a tem- 
 perature of 85° C. (185° F.) The residue is mixed with cal- 
 cium phosphate or zinc carbonate, i)ressed into moulds and dried. 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. II7 
 
 When calcium phospliate is used, the prochict possesses to a con- 
 siderable degree the nature and composition of ivory. 
 
 Cement for Joining Leather. — a cement which has 
 
 been found useful for this puipose may be prepared by mixing ten 
 parts of bisulphate of carbon, one of oil of turpentine, and so much 
 gutta-percha as is necessary to [)roduce a thick fluidity. The 
 leather must be first freed from all grease, which can be done by 
 simply laying it in a cloth and pressing this with a hot iron. The 
 parts to be joinetl, after being brought into contact with the cement, 
 require to be kept pressed together until they are quite dry. 
 
 Cement for Leather and Wood.— Equal parts of 
 
 pitch and gutta-percha melted together. This compound is in- 
 soluble in water. 
 
 Cement for Joining China, etc.— Beat the whites of 
 
 eggs well to a froth, let them settle, add soft grated or sliced cheese 
 and quicklime ; beat them well together, and apijly a little to the 
 broken edges. This cement will endure both fire and water. 
 
 Cement for China, etc. — Pound half an ounce of resin 
 and four ounces of gum-mastic; put them into a pipkin on the fire 
 to melt; stir them well. To this add about half an ounce of finely- 
 powdered glass, and half an ounce of quicklime ; stir the whole 
 well together. When nearly cold, form it into sticks, on a stone, 
 in the same manner as sticks of sealing-wax are formed. When it 
 is desired to cement any article, heat the broken edges sufficiently 
 to melt the cement, which rub thinly on both edges; bring them 
 accurately together; press them close, and let them cool. If this 
 be carefully done, the work will sooner break in any other part 
 than where the cement has been applied. 
 
 Cement for Glass.— Steep one ounce of isinglass in half a 
 pint of spirits of wme for twenty-four hours; then let it dissolve 
 over a slow fire (always keeping it covered, or the spirit will evapor- 
 ate) ; now well bruise six cloves of garlic in a mortar, put them m 
 a linen cloth, and squeeze the juice into the isinglass; mix all well 
 together, and keep it for use. It is excellent to jom glass orna- 
 ments, etc. 
 
Il8 PkAClICAL INFORMATION FOR CAniNFT-MAKERS, 
 
 Cements for Aquariums.— Take i gill of plaster-of- 
 
 Paris, I gill of litharge, i gill of fine white sand, ^ gill of finely- 
 powdered resin. Mix well, and bottle and cork it until wanted for 
 use, then mix it with boiled oil and dryers until as thick as putty. 
 Mix the cement only in small quantities as it dries quickly. 
 
 Mix boiled linseed oil, litharge, red and white lead together, 
 using white lead in the largest proportion, spread on flannel, and 
 place on the joints. 
 
 A solution of glue, 8 oz. to i oz. of Venice turpentine; boil to- 
 gether, agitating all the time, until the mixture becomes as com- 
 plete as possible, the joints to be cemented to be kept together for 
 forty-eight hours if required. 
 
 Take ^ a gill of gold size, 2 gills of reil lead, ij/^ gill of litharge, 
 and sufficient silver-sand to make it into a tliick paste for use. 
 This mixture sets in about two days. 
 
 To Restore the Elasticity of Cane-Chair Bot- 
 toms. — Turn u\) the cliair bottoms, and with a hot water and 
 sponge wash the cane work well, so that it may be well soakeii ; 
 should it be dirty you must add soap. Let it dry in the air, and 
 you will find it as tight and firm as wlien iiew, provided the cane 
 is not broken. 
 
 Moths in Carpets. — Moths will work in carpets in rooms 
 that are kej)t warm in winter as well as in summer. A sure method 
 of removing the pests is to pour strong alum-water on the floor to 
 the distance of half a yard around the edges before laying the 
 carpets. Then once or twice during the season sprinkle dry salt 
 over the carpet before sweej)ing. Insects do not like salt, and suf- 
 ficient adheres to the carpet to prevent them alighting upon it. 
 
 To Destroy Moths in Carpets.— Take a wet sheet or 
 
 other cloth, lay it upon the carpet, aiul then rub a hot flat-iron 
 over It, so as to convert the water into steam, which permeates the 
 carpet beneath, and destroys the life of the grub. 
 
 To Clean Carpets. — The carpet being first well beaten and 
 freed from dust, tack it tlown to the floor; then mix half a pint of 
 buUock's-gall with two gallons of soft water; scrub it well with 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNllURE MEN. II9 
 
 soap and the gall-mixture; let it remain till quite dry, and it will 
 be perfectly cleansed, and look like new, as the colors will be re- 
 stored to their original brightness. The brush used must not be 
 too hard, but rather long in the hair, or it will rub up the nap and 
 damage the article. 
 
 To Make Parchment Transparent.— Soak a thin 
 
 skin of parchment in a strung ley of wood ashes, often wringing it 
 out till it becomes transparent ; then strain it on a frame, and let 
 dry. 
 
 This will be much improved if, after it is dry, you give it a coat, 
 on both sides, of clear mastic varnish, diluted with spirits of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 Tinting on Parchment. — On a good skin you may get 
 an even tint, as follows: After "inking in" the plan, cover (with 
 a large color brush) rather more than the whole of it with a strong 
 wash of alum dissolved in water, taking care that every portion is 
 saturated by the solution, and when dry brush away the dry alum, 
 and the parchment will then take color almost as easily as paper, 
 and the ink will not be disturbed. 
 
 India Ink Running. — if it is for drawing plans you may 
 prevent it running by adding a little sugar to the India ink. 
 
 Erasing Indian Ink. — The most effective mode of erasing 
 Indian ink lines is by rubbing the part to be erased with sand- 
 paper of the finest quality, which will not only effectually remove 
 the ink, but will leave a clear, smooth surface, which will take the 
 ink better than at first, and may be colored upon. 
 
 To Make Carbon Paper.— Carbon paper, for copying 
 or duplicating, can be made in the following manner: Take sweet 
 oil, mixed to the consistence of cream, with either of the following 
 paints (to produce the color desired): Prussian blue, lampblack, 
 Venetian red, or chrome green ; they should be ground fine on the 
 stone. Use rather thin but firm paper, put on with a sponge, and 
 wipe off as dry as possible; then lay them between uncolored 
 paper, and press by laying a weight or some other heavy flat sub- 
 
120 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 Stance upon them until the surplus oil is absorbed, when it is ready 
 for use. 
 
 Removing Oil Stains from Tiles.— Vou can remove 
 
 oil stains from tiles completely by mixing fuller's earth into a thick 
 paste with water, and spreading it over the tiles, letting it remain 
 twenty-four hours, and then wiping it off. If the mark, then, has 
 not quite gone, put on another paste. 
 
 To Polish. Floors. — Put some spermaceti into a saucepan 
 on the fire, and mix it with enough turpentine to make it quite 
 fluid; then with a piece of flannel ])ut it very thinly on the floor. 
 It must then be rubbed with a dry flannel and brushed in the same 
 way that oak stairs are polished. This j^art of the process, rubbing 
 and brushing takes a long time to do thoroughly. 
 
 Another. — Dissolve half a ])Ound of potash in three pints of water, 
 in a saucepan on the fire ; when the water boils throw in one 
 pound of beeswax cut up in small pieces ; stir it well until the wax 
 is quite melted. When the polish is cold, if it be too thick, add 
 more water, then with a brush paint the boards evenly with it; 
 and when it has dried rub them with a flannel tied at the end of a 
 broom. 
 
 Black TVax. — Add one ounce of beeswax to half an ounce 
 of Burgundy pitch; melt them together, and add one ounce and a 
 half of ivory -black, ground very fine, and dried. 
 
 Green Wax. — Melt one ounce of beeswax, and add half 
 an ounce of verditer ; let the pii)kin be large enough, as the wax 
 will immediately boil up. Stir it well, and add the eighth part of 
 an ounce of resin, when it will be sufticiently hard and fit for use. 
 
 To Polish Tortoise Shell or Horn.— Having scraped 
 
 your work perfectly smooth and level, rub it with very fine sand- 
 paper or Dutch rushes; repeat the rubbing with a bit of felt 
 dipped in a very finely powdered charcoal with water, and lastly, 
 with rotten-stone or putty-powder; and finish with a piece of soft 
 wash-leather, damped with a little sweet oil. 
 
 To Clean Looking Glasses.— Sponge down the glass 
 
UPHOLSTERKKS AND FUkNITURE .MEN. 121 
 
 with gum and water, equal parts, then dust down with whitening, 
 and finish with a soft old silk handkerchief. 
 
 To Remove Ink Stains.— ink stains may be removed 
 from a mahogany table by putting a few drops of spirits of nitre 
 into a teaspoonful of water, and touching the part stained with a 
 feather dipped into the mixture ; immediately the ink stain disap- 
 pears, the place must be rubbed with a rag wet with cold water, or 
 there will be a white mark, which will not easily be removed. Ink 
 stains on silver or plated articles may be removed immediately and 
 effectually without doing any injury to the things, by making a 
 little chloride of lime into a paste with water and rubbing the 
 stains until they disappear, and afterwards washing the article with 
 soap and water. Ink stains may be removed from colored table 
 covers by dissolving a teaspoonful of oxalic acid in a teacuijful of 
 hot water and rubbing the stained part well with the solution. Ink 
 stams may be taken out of anything white by simply putting a little 
 powdered salts of lemon on the stain, damping it, allowing it to re- 
 main about five minutes, and then washing it out with soap and 
 water, when the stain will disappear. Ink may be removed from 
 boards by applying some strong muriatic acid or spirits of salt with 
 a piece of rag and afterwards well washing the place with water. 
 
 To Remove Stains From Wood.— To half a pint of 
 
 soft water put an ounce of oxalic acid and half an ounce of butter 
 of antimony; shake it well, and when dissolved it will be very use- 
 ful in extracting stains, as well as ink from wood, if not of too 
 long standing. 
 
 To Clean Velvet. — Velvet requires very careful manipula- 
 tion, as it loses its fine appearance if wrung or pressed when it is 
 wet. To remove dust: — Strew very fine dry sand upon the velvet, 
 and brush in the direction of the lines until all the sand is removed. 
 The brush must be clean. To remove dirt: — Dissolve ox-gall in 
 nearly boiling clean water, and add some spirits of wine. Dip a 
 soft brush into this solution and brush tlie dirt out of the velvet. 
 It may require repeated brushing. After this, hang it evenly un to 
 
122 PRACTICAL. INFORMATION FOR CABINK 1 -MAKERS. 
 
 dry. For finishing, api)ly a weak solution of gum by nieans of a 
 sponge to the reverse side of the velvet. 
 
 To Remove Paint or Stain from Wood.— Dissolve 
 
 potash in water, making a strong solution, w itli tins wash the sur- 
 face of the work, allowing it to soak a few minutes. If the i)aint 
 cannot then be scraped ofif, give the wood another application, and 
 repeat until the paint is removed. Afterwartl, wash the surface 
 with clean water sufficiently to ensure the removal of all the 
 potash. 
 
 To Remove Varnish from Wood.— A strong api)lica- 
 
 tion of ordinary spirits of camphor will remove almost any kind of 
 ))olish or varnish. Give the spirit time to evaporate before re- 
 polishing, or it will injure the new polish. 
 
 The solution of potash, mentioned above, will also remove var- 
 nish. 
 
 Tests for Gilding. — if a gik surface be touched with a 
 drop of chloride of gold or nitrate of silver solution, the former will 
 produce a brown, the latter a grey spot if the coating be an alloy, 
 but will have no effect upon pure gold. For gilt paper, moisten with 
 a drop of chloride of sulphur, wliich will immediately produce a 
 dark brown margin if the covering is not pure gold. Metallic 
 spangles shaken in close flasks with chloride of sulphur, sufiier no 
 change if gold, otherwise they gradually darken ; but if under 
 slight pressure, as in hermetically sealed tubes, gold spangles dis- 
 appear in a short time by conversion into chloride of gold. 
 
 Anti- Attrition. — 'This mixture is made of one part of plum- 
 bago or blacklead ground very fine, and four parts of hog's lard or 
 grease, mixed well together. It prevents tlie effects of friction 
 much better tlian oil or other grease, and is very useful for the 
 turner, and will be found to make the lathe work much easier, as 
 well as to be a great saving in oil, which with constant use grows 
 stiff, and sensibly impedes the motion; while this preparation, once 
 applied, will last a long time without requiring renewal. 
 
 To Remove Grease from Cloth. - Drop on the spot 
 
 some oil of tartar, or salt of wormwcjod, which has been left in a 
 
aPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 1 23 
 
 damp place till it turns into a fluid; then imnicliatcly wash the 
 place with lukewarm soft water, and then with cold water, and 
 the spot will disappear. 
 
 This will be found very useful, as it frequently hapi)ens that the 
 cloth of the card tables, and the inside flaps of secretaries, are 
 spotted and greasy. By proceeding as above, every spot of grease 
 will be completely taken out. 
 
 Putty.— Painters u^t various kinds of putty, using varnish, 
 japan, oil, keg lead, dry lead, red lead, whiting, zinc white, umber,' 
 yellow ochre, etc., in the composition of the various kinds. In 
 mixing up putty the painter should always be governed by the 
 time he may have in which to complete his work. If the work he 
 is doing must be completed in an uiirea.?onably short time, the 
 putty should be mixed with very little or no oil, although a putty 
 mixed with japan alone will dry quicker, so as to bear sand-paper- 
 ing in the shortest possible time, but it is a mealy, poor kind of 
 putty, and is apt to shrink, allowing damj^iess to penetrate it when 
 rubbed with pumice-stone and water. 
 
 The best and toughest kind of putty is made of keg and dry 
 white lead,' with only a small portion of ja[)an. In making this 
 kind of putty, use about 4 i,ounds of keg lead to about a gill of 
 japan, mixing them thoroughly together; then add dry white lead 
 in small quantities, pounding it lightly at first, and when you have 
 added sufficient dry lead to form a mass like dough, use the mallet 
 or hammer very freely. If dry zinc white is used instead of dry 
 lead, the putty will be much better. This putty should be allowed 
 three or four days to dry. Another kind of this nece.ssary com- 
 pound is made by using keg lead and red lead. The latter is of 
 itself a powerful dryer, consequently it does not require so much 
 japan to dry the putty. It works very easy and adheres to the 
 wood very tenaciously, and is not apt to swell or slnink. 
 
 How to Boil Linseed Oil.— First be sure that you have 
 the pure linseed oil. There is much sold as such manufactured out 
 of peanuts. The test is .simple. Nut oil has a sharp, acid taste, 
 smells just like sour peanuts, is darker and th.icker than the other 
 
124 PRACTICAL INFCKMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 oil, has a clinging tendency wlien rubbed on the finger, dries with 
 a gloss even in priming coats, and is very much given to gumming 
 up when sanded. Pure linseed oil has a bright amber color, runs 
 freely, sparkles when flowing from the can, tastes smooth antl mild, 
 and has tiie smell of a flax-seed poultice. When you are satisfied 
 that you have the genuine oil, and wisli to boil it thoroughly, first 
 take, say about one-half i)ound of red lead and tiie same quantity 
 of sugar of lead, put into five gallons of the oil, and place over a 
 slow fire so as to boil evenly. Do not let your fire get either too 
 hot or too low; keep an even temperature, if possible; coke or 
 charcoal is preferable to either hard or soft stone coal. Avoid a 
 wood fire, as, after the oil gets to boiling heat, a sudden flame 
 shooting up might ignite the entire lot. Let it boil seven hours 
 full ; the red lead and sugar of lead will then become dark brown. 
 Stir all the time while boiling slowly, and only one way; do not 
 change the direction of the stroke or you will burn the oil, just as 
 you would starch. After you have taken it from the fire, cover it 
 up and let it stand to cool off, say overnight. The sediment will 
 settle ; pour out the oil and strain ; your oil is boiled, and a better 
 article you could not have, as all the fatty substances are de- 
 stroyed. This is the English method, used in all the carriage fac- 
 tories in the United Kingdom. 
 
 Mordants for Staining Wood. — Sulphuric acid, more 
 or less diluted, according to the intensity of the color to be pro- 
 duced, is applied with a brush to the wood, previously cleaned 
 and dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is obtained, accord- 
 ing to the strength of the acid. When the acid has acted suffi- 
 ciendy its further action is arrested by the application of am- 
 monia. Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown coloration, which, 
 however, is not permanent unless the air is excluded by a thick 
 coating of polish. Nitric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, 
 which is converted into a dark brown by the subsequent applica- 
 tion of tincture of iodine. 
 
 Ebonizing. — To French-polish a black sideboard it is not 
 absolutely necessary to use black polish, but it is usual to do so, 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 1 25 
 
 as it produces a finer black. The sideboard, or any kind of fiirni- 
 ture, is polished in the usual manner, by using black polish, and 
 filling up the grain with black ; the simplest kind is weak glue and 
 lamp-black. When dry, paper down and polish as usual. The 
 rubber of the polisher should be dipped in ivory-black, or gas- 
 black, moistened with black polish, covered with linen rag, a touch 
 of linseed oil, and used as usual. Black polisli is made thus: — 
 One gill dark French polish poured into a clean bottle, then add 
 Yo oz, best ivory-black, or gas-black is best; in fine powder well, 
 shake until mixed, and used as before described. Gas-black is 
 made by impinging a broad gas burner on the bottom of a glue- 
 pot or sheet of metal, and gathering the black as made. 
 
 Picture Frames. — A simple plan for holding frames in 
 position till dry is to tack lengths of wood on a board, and after 
 laying the frame between them, gently press wedges till the joints 
 are home. It is such a common complaint of the nonconformity 
 between the first and last mitre, that gilt corners are made ready, 
 like charity, to cover a multitude of sins. These, if laid on a damp 
 cloth, soon become sufificiently pliable to take the bend of the 
 moulding, and, besides being very cheap, are a great improvement 
 and a blessing to many besides amateurs. 
 
 Varnisll for Tools. — For tool handles there is nothing 
 better than shellac varnish. It should be put on before the handle 
 is removed from the lathe. Use it the same as French polish, and 
 in small quantities. 
 
 Painting on Zinc. — According to tlie Painters Magazine, 
 painting on zinc is made easier by employing a mordant composed 
 of one quart of chloride of copper, one of nitrate of copper, and 
 one of sal ammonia, dissolved in 64 parts of water, and to this 
 mixture is added one part of commercial hydrochloric acid. This 
 is brushed over the plate of zinc, and after i 2 or 24 hours it drys a 
 dullish gray color. Painting upon this surface the colors will ad- 
 here in a perfect manner. Another method, according to the same 
 authority, is as follows : Procure some muriatic acid of full 
 strength, and drop into it some pieces oi zinc until effervescence 
 
126 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 ceases. Add an equal quantity of water, and with a sponge tied 
 to a stick wash over every part of the surface to be painted. This 
 roughens the surface and takes ofif that sort of greasiness which 
 prevents paint from adhering. After tlie acid has remained a short 
 time wash it over with water or dikited vinegar, dry ofif and pahit. 
 
 Violin Varnish. — Tlie Scietitific American gives the fol- 
 lowing formula for preparing a beautiful varnish for violins : Rec- 
 tified alcohol, half gallon ; add six ounces gum sandarac, three 
 ounces gum mastic, and half a pint turpentine varnish ; put the 
 above in a tin can by the stove, frequently shaking until well dis- 
 solved. Strain and keep for use. If you find it harder than you 
 wish, thin with more turpentine varnisli. 
 
 Imitating Mahogany. — ^^'hen curly-veined birch and 
 beech have been regularly brushed with aquafortis and dried at the 
 fire, they both look remarkabl)- like mahogany. A decoction of 
 logwood and fustic, when put on in a tepid state, produces a simi- 
 lar eft'ect. The French mode consists in brushing the white limber 
 with a dilute solution of nitrous acid; it is then coated once or 
 twice with finishing spirit, in which a quantity of carbonate of soda 
 and dragon's-blood has been dissolved, the proper projjortions to i 
 gill of spirit being ^ of an ounce of the soda, and ]^ of an ounce 
 of the blood; the wood is afterwards finished with varnish or 
 polish of a reddish-brown tint. In producing this shade of color, 
 London stainers frequently use a rich brownish-red kind of chalk, 
 the color of which is analogous to that of fine Spanish maliogany. 
 It is commonly applied in the form of a dry powder, by means of 
 a brush, and then well rubbed with another brush or coarse flannel. 
 
 To Stain Beech a Mahogany Color.— Put 2 oz. of 
 
 <lragon's-blood, broken in jjieces, into a quart of rectified sjjirits of 
 wine; let the botde stand in a warm place, shake it frequently; 
 when dissolved it is fit for use. 
 
 Imitation of Mahogany. — Plane the surface smooth, 
 and rub with a solution of nitrous acid. Then apply with a soft 
 brush one ounce of dragon's-blood dissolved in about a pint of 
 
UPHOLSTERERS AND FURNITURE MEN. 1 27 
 
 alcohol, and with yi of an ounce of carbonate of soda mixed and 
 filtered. When the brilliancy of tlie polish diminishes, it may be 
 restored by the use of a little cold-drawn linseed-oil. 
 
 Bronzing Inlaid Work. — a method used for decorating 
 inlaid work is the use of a bronzing liquid, which consists of a fluid 
 bronze composition formed by combining metallic powder of gild- 
 ing and bronze powder with collodion, which composition is ca- 
 pable of being applied as a bronze liquid to surfaces of wood, iron, 
 or any solid material, for the purpose of coating the same for decor- 
 ation or preservation. 
 
 To Imitate King or Botany Bay Wood.— Boil i^ 
 
 lb. French berries in 2 quarts of water till of a deep yellow, and 
 while boiling hot give two or tliree coats; when nearly dry, form 
 the grain with black stain, which must also be used hot. For 
 variety, to heighten the color, after giving it two or three coats of 
 yellow, give one of strong logwood liquor, and then use the black 
 stain as directed. 
 
 Black Stain. — Boil i lb. of lowood in 4 quarts of water, add 
 a double handful of walnut peels or shells; boil it up again, take 
 out the chips, add a pint of the best vinegar, and it will be fit for 
 use ; apply it boiling. This will be improved, if, when dry, a solu- 
 tion ot green copperas, an ounce to a quart of water, is applied hot 
 over the first stain. 
 
 Black Stain for Immediate Use.— Boil >4 lb. of chip 
 
 logwood in 2 quarts of water, add i oz. of ])earlash, and apply it 
 hot to the work with a brush. Then take y^ lb. of logwood, boil 
 it as before in 2 quarts of water, and add i^ oz. of copperas ; strain 
 it off, put in }4. lb. of rusty steel filings; with this go over the work 
 a second time. 
 
 Brown Stain. — Paint over the wood with a solution made 
 by boiling i part catechu, cutch, or gambier, with 30 parts of 
 water and a litde soda. This is allowed to dry in the air, 
 and then the wood is painted over with another solution made 
 of I part of bichromate of potash and 30 parts of water. By 
 
125 PRACTICAL INFORMATION FOR CABINET-MAKERS, 
 
 a little ditTerence in the mode of treatment, and by varying the 
 strength of the solutions, various shades of color may be given with 
 these materials, which will be permanent, and tend to preserve the 
 wood. 
 
 Red stain. — i. Take i lb. of Brazil wood to i gallon of 
 water, boil 3 hours with i oz. of pearlash, brush it hot on the wood, 
 and while hot brush the wood with a solution made with 2 oz. of 
 alum in i quart of water. 2. An infusion of Brazil wood in stale 
 urine, in the proportion of a pound to a gallon for wood ; to be 
 laid on when boiling hot, and should be laid over with alum water 
 before it dries. Or, a solution of dragon's-blood in spirits of wine 
 may be used. 
 
 Red Stain for Bedsteads and Common Chairs. 
 
 Archil will produce a very good stain of itself when used cold; but 
 if, after one or two coats being applied and suffered to get almost 
 dry, it is brushed over with a hot solution of pearlash in water, it 
 will improve the color. 
 
 Walnut stain. — Water, i quart; washing soda, i^ oz.; 
 Vandyke brown, 2^ oz.; bichromate of potash, i^ oz. Boil for 
 10 minutes, and apply with a brush, in either hot or cold state. 
 
IISTDEX. 
 
 Anti-attrition, 122. 
 
 Belts, to prevent slipping, 108. 
 
 Black stain, 127. 
 
 Boiler incrustation, 108. 
 
 Bronzing, 54. 
 
 inlaid work, 127. 
 
 on metal, no. 
 Brown stain, 127. 
 
 Bruises in furniture, to take out, 102. 
 Brushes lor varnishing, 29. 
 Cane-chair bottoms, to restore elasticity, 118. 
 Carbon-paper, to make, 118. 
 Carpets, to clean, 118. 
 
 to destroy moths in, 118. 
 Carving, reeding etc., 18. 
 Cements for aquariums, 118. 
 
 for china, 117. 
 
 for glass, 117. 
 
 for joining leather, 117. 
 
 for leather and wood, 117 
 
 for stopping flaws, 103. 
 
 for turners, 103. 
 Circular saws, to remedy splits in, 106. 
 Color harmony in grained work, 67. 
 Colored woods, metals, etc., 11. 
 Colors for outlines of ornaments, 66. 
 Colors, to mix, 66. 
 
 bufi", 66. 
 
 carnation, 66. 
 
 chestnut, dark, 66. 
 
 Chinese white, 65. 
 
 chocolate, 66. 
 
 cream, 65. 
 
 drab, 65. 
 
 fawn, 65. 
 
 French grey, 66. 
 
 gold, imitation of, 66. 
 
 green, grass, 66. 
 
 green, olive, 66. 
 
 lead, 66. 
 
 peach blossom, 66. 
 
 pearl, 65. 
 
 purple, 66. 
 
 salmon, 66. 
 
 silver, 66. 
 
 stone, 66. 
 
 straw, 65. 
 
 varnish green, 69. 
 
 violet, 66. 
 
 white lead, 68. 
 
 yellow, 66. 
 Composition for frame ornaments, 49. 
 Cracks in drawing-boards, 104. 
 Dye, black, fine, 44. 
 
 blue, fine, 44. 
 
 gray, 46. 
 
 green, 45. 
 
 liquid, for brightening and setting, 46. 
 
 orange, 46. 
 
 piirpie, 46. 
 
 red, 45. 
 
 yellow, fine, 45. 
 Dyeing wood, 43. 
 Ebonizing, 124. 
 Ebony finish, 33. 
 Engravings, to clean, 113. 
 Files, soft, 109 
 Filigree, silver, to clean, no. 
 
 Fillers, 23. 
 
 cherry, 25. 
 
 light-wood, 24. 
 
 oak, 25. 
 
 rosewood, 25. 
 
 sizing, 25. 
 
 walnut, 24. 
 Finishing, 20. 
 
 processes of, 22. 
 
 varieties of, 31. 
 
 dead-finish, 32. 
 ebony finish, 33. 
 French polishing, 34. 
 varnish liiiish, 33. 
 wax finish, 33. 
 wax finish, imitation, 33. 
 flowing, 30. 
 Floors, to polish, 120. 
 Framing work, ii. 
 French polish, 34, 36. 
 French polishing, 31. 
 Furniture cream, 96. 
 Furniture paste, 97. 
 
 General remarks on designs for cabinet work, g. 
 Gilding, 47. 
 Gilding, burnish, 51 
 
 applying the size, 52. 
 
 burnishing, 53. 
 
 finishing, 53. 
 
 laying the gold, 52. 
 
 matting 01 dead gold, 53. 
 
 polishing, 52. 
 
 preparing the woodwork, 51. 
 
 gilders' cushion, 48. 
 
 oil, 50. 
 
 sizes for, 48. 
 
 to manipulate gold leaf, 54. 
 
 oil size for, 49. 
 
 parchment size for, 49. 
 
 gold size for burnish, 49. 
 
 the requisites, 48. 
 
 to prevent gold adhering. 49. 
 Gilding, embossed, for illuminating, 114. 
 
 silvering a.. d bronzing, 47. 
 
 tests for, 96. 
 Glue, 98. 
 
 portable, 10 1. 
 
 mixing, 99 
 
 to prepare, 98. 
 
 to prevent cracking, 100. 
 
 to resist moisture, 100. 
 Glue pot, 99. 
 Graining, 55. 
 
 grounds, 58. 
 
 bird's-eye maple, 59. 
 mixing colors, 58. 
 mahogany, 58. 
 oak, 59. 
 rosewood, 58. 
 the pmcess, 56. 
 Grease, to remove (rem cloth, 97. 
 Gums and their qualities, 69. 
 
 amber, 69. 
 
 anime, 70. 
 
 bleached shellac, 81. 
 
 copal, 70. 
 
 dama', 72. 
 
 lac, 71. 
 
b^-iu 
 
 130 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Gums, masiic, 71. 
 
 resin, 72. 
 
 saiidarac, 71. 
 Horn, to polish, 120. 
 
 to stain in imitation of tortoise shell, 115. 
 How to boil linseed-oil, 123. 
 Imitation mahogany, 126. 
 India ink, to erase, 119. 
 
 to prevent running, 119 
 Ingredients, 35. 
 Ink stains, to remove, 119. 
 Inlaying, 15. 
 
 with shaded wood, 16. 
 Ironwork, painting and preserving, 110 
 Ivory, artificial, 116. 
 
 to bleach, 116. 
 
 to soften, 116. 
 
 or bone, to stain black, 116. 
 blue, 116. 
 red, 115. 
 yellow, 116. 
 Lac, gum, 71. 
 Lacquers, colored, 91. 
 
 for brass, 91. 
 
 hardwood, 88. 
 Looking glasses, to clean, 120. 
 Marble, imitation, in. 
 
 to clean, 112. 
 
 to polish, III. 
 
 to remove stains on, iia. 
 Mastic, gum, 71. 
 Metals, polishing, in. 
 Mordants for staining wood, 124. 
 Moths in carpets, to destroy, 118. 
 Moulding ornaments, etc., 18. 
 Painting on zinc, 125. 
 Parchment, tintingon, 119. 
 
 to make transparent, 119. 
 Paste for laying cloth or leather, 102. 
 Picture frames, 125. 
 Pictures, to clean, 112. 
 
 to smooth damaged, 114. 
 Polish for turner's work, 38. 
 
 French, 36. 
 
 improved, 37. 
 
 prepared spirits, 37. 
 
 revivers, 96. 
 
 water-proof, 37. 
 Putty, 123. 
 Rasps, 109. 
 Red stain, 128. 
 
 for bedsteads, 128. 
 Resin, 72. 
 Rubbing, 30. 
 Sandarac, gum, 71. 
 Saws, band, brazing, 106. 
 
 circular, to remedy splits in, 106. 
 
 sharpening, 106. 
 Shell-gold, 53. 
 Silver-size, 54. 
 Solder, solt, preparing, 11a 
 Stain, black, 38. 
 
 blue, fine, 42. 
 
 brown, 40. 
 
 cherry, 41. 
 
 crimson, fine, 43. 
 
 mahogany, 42. 
 
 oak, 40. 
 
 purple, 42. 
 
 red, 41. 
 
 rosewood, 41. 
 
 v.alnul, 40. 
 
 Stain, yellow, 43. 
 Staining, 38. 
 Stains, surface, 42. 
 
 to brighten, 43. 
 
 to remove from wood, 121. 
 .Steampipes, non-conducting covering for, 108 
 Steel scrapers, to cut, 105. 
 Tempera, 67. 
 Tests for gilding, 122. 
 Tiles, to remove oil stains from, 120. 
 Tints. 67. 
 
 To imitate Botany Bay wood, 127. 
 To imitate inlaying of silver strings, 17. 
 To raise old veneers, 14. 
 To remove gre.tse from cloth, 122, 
 To stain beech, 126. 
 Tones, 67. 
 Tools, oiling, 107. 
 
 to harden, 105. 
 
 to mark, 107. 
 
 to temper, 105. 
 
 varnish for, 108. 
 Tortoise shell, imitation of, iis. 
 
 to polish, 120. 
 Tracing-paper, 103. 
 Tracings, to mount, 104. 
 Turpentine, oil of, 73. 
 Varnish, amalgam, 109. 
 
 amber, pale, 69. 
 
 bl.ick, 95. 
 
 brown hard spirit, 87 
 
 cabinet, 81. 
 
 carriage, 82. 
 
 copal, 80. 
 
 crystal, 93. 
 
 for cane and basket work, 96. 
 
 for iron, 95. 
 
 for paper, 93. 
 
 for tools, 125. 
 
 violin, 126. 
 
 for tools, 108. 
 
 lacquer, hardwood, 88. 
 
 mastic, 71. 
 
 sealing-wax, 95. 
 
 turpentine, 93. 
 
 wainscot, 82. 
 
 water, 94. 
 
 white spirit, 87. 
 Varnishes, 69. 
 
 application of, 26. 
 
 gums and their qualities, 69. 
 
 oil, 70 
 
 oil, preparation of, 75. 
 
 spirit and turpentine, 71. 
 
 " " preparation o(| 83. 
 
 solvents, 72. 
 .ilcohol, ;?4. 
 liiisecd-oil, 72. 
 naphtha, 74. 
 turpentine, 73. 
 Varnish pan, 29. 
 
 to remove from wood| X2I. 
 Velvet, to clean, 121. 
 Veneers, to raise old, 101. 
 Walnut stain, 128. 
 Wateiproof polish, 37. 
 Wax, black, 120. 
 
 finish, 33. 
 
 imitation, 33. 
 
 green, 120. 
 Wood pulleys, to harden, 109. 
 
Established 1870. 
 
 STANDARD BOOKS 
 
 PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY THE 
 
 INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION CO. 
 
 New York, 
 
 These books will be sent, postpaid, to any address in any accessible part of the 
 world, on receipt of price. — Full Descriptive Catalogues may be had free. — Netu 
 Catalogues, tvith additions of new books, are issued from time to time, and will be 
 sent to any address on request. — Address, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL, PUBLICATION CO., New York. 
 
 THE STEEL SQUARE AND ITS USES. 
 
 Being a Description of the Square and Its Uses in Obtaining the 
 Lengths and Bevels of all kinds of Rafters, Hips, Grroins, Braces, 
 Brackets, Purlins, Collar-Beams, and Jack-Kafters. — Also, IlS 
 Application in Obtaining the Bevels and Cuts for Hoppers, Spring 
 Moldings, Octagons, Stairs, Diminished Stiles, &c. — By Fred. T. 
 Hodgson, author of "Practical Carpentry," "The Builders' Guide," 
 ce. — Third Edition, Revised and Greatly Enlarged. — Illustrated 
 ■>y Nearly One Hundred Fine Engi-avings. — Cloth, gilt. . . $1 
 
 This is the only practical work on the steel square and its uses ever published. 
 It is thorough, accurate, clear, and easily understood. Confounding terms and 
 Bcientific phrases have been religiously avoided where possible; and everything in 
 the book has been made so plain that a boy of twelve years of age, possessing 
 ordinary intelligence, can understand it from end to end. 
 
 This new edition, just issued, is illustr.ated by nearly one hundred handsome 
 engravings, showing how the square may be used for solving nearly every problem 
 in the whole art of carpentry. The carpenter who possesses this book need not 
 waste time and material " cutting and trj-iug." He can lay out his work to a hair's 
 breadth, and "cut to the line." And, in these days, the workman who can not lay 
 out his work accurately at the first attempt stands no show. 
 
 The book is absolutely indispensable to evei'y person who may have to use a 
 carpenter's square. Joiners, cabinet-makers, bricklayers, stonecutters, plasterers, 
 lumber-dealers, amateurs, and all who build a fence, tinker a gate, or make a 
 chicken-coop will find something in this little volume that will help and aid them 
 to do their work better and more intelligently than they could without a knowledge 
 of its contents. 
 
 Many difficult and troublesome mathematical problems can be solved by the use 
 of this tool, and the methods of solving them are shown in this book. It describes 
 how painting, plastering, and brickwork can be measured, and how many mechan- 
 ical difiSculties can be overcome with great ease. It explains how ellipses, parabolas, 
 octagons, circles, and many other figures, may be described by the steel square. 
 
 It is safe to say that this doll.ar book will easily enable any intelligent mech<anic 
 to save ten dollars in time and material during the first three months that he has 
 it in use. 
 
CATALOnrE OF IXnUSTPTAL riOOK<!. 
 
 STEEL SQUARES AND THEIR USES. 
 
 Being a Description of the Various 8teel .Squares and Tlieir Uses 
 iu Solviug a large number of Meclianieal Problems iu Constructive 
 Carpentry, Joinery, bheet-metal Work, Cut-stone or Brick-work. 
 Also, sliowing how many Geometrical and other Problems may be 
 solved by tiie use of the ttteel Square.— By Fred. T. Hodgson, 
 author of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," "The Slide-Kule, and 
 Its Uses," "Practical Carpentry," "The Builders' Guide," ice- 
 Finely Illustrated.— Cloth $1 
 
 This forms Part II of " The Steel Square and Its Uses," and is not in any sense 
 a substitute for the First Part, which still remains what it always has been— a neces- 
 sity to every intelligent workman. Part II is an extension and enlargement of the 
 First Part, giving new problems, new meiliods, and new wrinkles for shortening 
 the labor and increasing the accuracy of the workman. It is illustrated in the 
 same handsome manner wliich characterizes the First P.irt, to which it forms a 
 companion volume. 
 
 With these two volumes in his possession the workman has at command the 
 entire practical mathematics of construction, and is prepared to lay out any piece of 
 work more easily, ciuickly. and accurately than it can be done by any other method. 
 
 PRACTICAL CARPENTRY. 
 
 Being a Guide to the Correct Working and Laying-out of all kinds 
 of Carpenters' and Joiners' Work, w itli the Solutions of the Various 
 Pro])lems in Hip-Roofs, Gotiiic Work, Centering, Splayed Work, 
 Joints and Jointing, Hine:eing, Dovetailing, Mitering, Timlier- 
 Splicing. Hopper- work. Skylights, Raking Moldings, Circular 
 Work, &c. — To which is prefixed a tliorough treatise on "Car- 
 penters' Geometry." — By Fred. T. Hodgson, autiior of "The 
 Steel Square and Its Uses," " The Slide-Rule, and How to Use It," 
 "The Builders' Guide," &e. — Illustrated by over Three Hundred 
 
 Engravings. — Cloth, gilt $1 
 
 This is the most thorough book of the kind ever putdished. It is thorough, 
 
 practical, and reliable; and at the same time is wrilteu in a stylo so plain that any 
 
 workman or apprentice can easily undcrstiind it. 
 
 STAIR-BUILDING MADE EASY. 
 
 Bring a Full and Clear Description of the Art of Building the 
 Bodies, Carriages, and Cases for all kinds of Stairs and Steps. — 
 Together with Illustrations Sliowing the Maimer of Laying Out 
 Stairs, forming Treads and Risers, building Cylinders, ]>reparing 
 Strings; with Instructions for making Carriages for Common, 
 Platform, Dog-legged, and Wimling Stairs.— To wliicii is added au 
 Illustrated Glossary of Terms used in Stair-Building, and Designs 
 for Newels, Balusters, Brackets, Stair-Moldings, and Sections of 
 HantlRails.- ByFi:ED. T. Hodgson, author of "The Steel Square 
 and Its U.ses," &c.— Illustrate<l by over One Hundred and Twenty 
 Engravings, many of them full-page size. — Cloth, gilt. . . • $1 
 Tills work takes hold at the very beginning of the subject, and carries the 
 Btndent along by easy stages until the entire sulgect of stairbuilding has been un- 
 folded, so far .IS ordinary practice can ever require. This book, and the following 
 one on Hand-RaUing, cover nearly the whole subject of Stair-Building. 
 
CATALOGUE OF IXnUSTRIAL BOOKS. 
 
 A NEW SYSTEM OF HAND-RAILING. 
 
 Or, How to Cut Haiid-Kailiiig for Circular and other Stairs, square 
 from the Plaulv, without the aid of a Falling Mould. — By AN 
 Old Staii^builder. — Edited and corrected by Fred. T. Hodgson, 
 author of "Stair-building Made Eas.y," &c. — Cloth, pilt. , . $1 
 The system is new, novel, economic, and easily learned. Rules, instructions, 
 and workiug drawings for building rails for .seven different kinds of stairs are given. 
 
 THE BUILDERS' GUIDE, and Estimators' Price-Book. 
 
 Being a Compilation of Current Prices of Lumber, Hardware, 
 Glass, Plumbers' Supplies, Paints, Slates, Stones, Limes, Cements, 
 Bricks, Tin, and other Building Materials. Also, Prices of Labor 
 and Cost of Performing the Several Kinds of Work Required in 
 Building; together with Prices of Doors, Frames, Sashes, Stairs, 
 Moldings, Newels, and other Machine-work. — To which is ap- 
 pended a large number of Building Rules, Data, Tables, and 
 Useful Memoranda, with a Glossary of Architectural and Building 
 Terms. — By Fred. T. Hodgson, author of "The Steel Square and 
 Its Uses," "The Slide-Rule, and How to Use It," "Practical Car- 
 pentry," &c.— Cloth $2 
 
 CARPENTERS' and JOINERS' POCKET COMPANION 
 
 Containing Rules, Data, and Directions for Laying Out Work, and 
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 Illustrative Engravings. — Compiled by Thomas Moloney, Car- 
 penter and Joiner. — Cloth 50 cents. 
 
 This is a compact and handy little volume, eontriining the most useful rules and 
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 building. Also, a treatise on the framing-square. It is by a thoroughly practical 
 man, and contains enough that is not easily found any where else to make it worth 
 more than its price to every intelligent carpenter. 
 
 EASY LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Consisting of a Series of Questions and Answers explaining in 
 Simple Language the Principles and Progress of Architecture 
 from the Earliest Times. — By Thomas Mitchell. — Illustrated by 
 nearly One Hundred and Fifty Engravings. — New Edition, with 
 
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 ever published. The numerous illustrative engravings make the subject very simple, 
 and prevent all misunderstanding. It tells all about the different styles, their pecu- 
 liar features, their origin, and the principles that underlie their construction. 
 
 HINTS AND AIDS TO BUILDERS. 
 
 Gives hints and prices, tells how to measure, explains building 
 terms, and, in short, contains a fund of information for all who are 
 interested in building. — Paper 23 ceuts. 
 
CATALOGUE OF IXDFSTniAL BOOKS. 
 
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 The information on site, general an*angement of jd.iii. sanatary iiiattr rs. i^c. is 
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 Being a (."oniplete Guide for tlie Plasterer in the Preparation and 
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 With Useful and Practical Int'orniation on tlie Ciiemistry, Qualities, 
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 HANDSAWS: THEIR USE, CARE, AND ABUSE. 
 
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 Original Decorative Designs. — By A Practical Upholsteuek. 
 12mo, cloth $1 
 
 This work contains a number of original designs in drapery and upholstery, 
 with full explanatory text, and an immense number of working illustrations. It 
 gives a description of tools, appliances, and materials. It tells how to upholster 
 chairs, parlor furniture, bedroom furniture, &c. It contains rules for cutting bed- 
 hangings, window-curtains, door-liangings, blinds, and for measuring and cutting 
 carpets. It gives arithmetical calculations for cutting carpets, curtains, &c., mantle- 
 board drapery, festoons, and, in short, everything pertaining to upholstery. 
 
 There is nothing publislied in this countiy that is so thorough and complete in 
 the instructions given for upholstering, as this book. It is invaluable alike to the 
 practical workman and the amateur. 
 
 CABINET-MAKING, UPHOLSTERING, FURNITURE. 
 
 Hints and Practical Information for Cahinet-mahers, Upholsterers, 
 and Furniture-men Goteralh/. — Together with a Descriprion of all 
 kinds of Finishing, with Full Directions Therefor; Varnishes, 
 Polishes, Stains for Wood, Dyes for Wood. Gilding and Silvering, 
 Recipes for the Factory, Lacquers, Metals, Marbles, &c.; Pictures, 
 Engravings, «S;c. — Cloth, gilt $1 
 
 This book contains an immense amount of tlie most useful information for 
 those who are engaged in the manuf.acture, superintendence, or construction o£ 
 furniture or woodwork of any kind. It is one of the clieapost and best books ever 
 published, and contains over one thousand hints, suggestions, and methods; and 
 descriptions of tools, appliances, and materials. All the recipes, rules, and directions 
 have been carefully revised and corrected by practical men of great experience, so 
 that they will be found thoroughly trustworthy. It contains many of the recipes 
 recently sold at from .$5 to .$500. 
 
 THE WORKSHOP COM PANION.-Part I. 
 
 A Collection of Useful and Reliable Recipes, Rules, Processes, 
 Methods, Wrinkles, and Practical Hints, for the Household and 
 the Shop Paper, 35 cents. — 
 
 This is a book of 164 closely printed pages, forming a dictionary of practical 
 information for mechanics, amateurs, housekeepers, farmers. — everybody. It is 
 not a mere collection of newspaper clippings, but a series of original treatises on 
 varicus subjects, such as alloys, cements, inks, steel, signallishts, polishing mate- 
 rials, and the art of polishing wood, met.als. &c.; varnishing, cildinir, silvoriui;. l)ronz- 
 iug, b.cquering, and the working of brass, ivory, alabaster, iron, steel, glass, &c 
 
CATALOCrVE OF IXDUSTEIAL BOOKS. 
 
 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION.-Part II. 
 
 A Collection of Useful and Keliable Keeipes, Rules, Processes, 
 
 Methods, Wrinkles, and Practical Hints^ for the Household and 
 
 the Shop Paper, 35 cents. ^ 
 
 This is an extension of the'first part, and contains subjects which have not been 
 disensscd in the earlier volume. These two volumes contain an immense amount 
 of practical instruction on matters in regard to which information is constantly 
 desired by amateurs and practical men. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL ASSISTANT, AND WORKSHOP 
 
 COMPANION.— A Treasury of Useful Information relating 
 to the Arts and Sciences of everj-day life. — Containing Useful 
 and Reliable Processes, Recipes, Wrinkles, Methods, Rules, Data, 
 Tables; and Hints for the Factory and the Household, the Shop 
 and the Farm.— Edited by John Phin.— Cloth, $1 
 
 This is Parts I a-. II of "Tlie Workshop Companion," described above, hand- 
 somely bound together in cloth, with gilt title. 
 
 THE AMATEURS' HANDBOOK OF PRACTICAL 
 INFORMATION, for the Workshop and Laboratory. 
 
 Second Edition. — Greatly Enlarged. — Neatly bound. . . 15 cents. 
 
 This is a handy little book, containing just the information needed by amateurs 
 In the workshop and laboratory. Directions for making alloys, fusible metals, 
 cements, glues, &c.; and for soldering, brazing, lacquering, bronzing, staining and 
 polishing wood, tempering tools, cutting and working glass, varnishing, silvering, 
 gilding, preparing skins, &c. The new edition contains extended directions for 
 preparing polishing powders, freezing mixtures, colored lights for tableaux, solu- 
 tions for rendering ladies' dresses incombustible, &c. There has also been added 
 a very large number of new and valuable recipes. 
 
 The Workshop Companion, Part I, above described, contains all the matter 
 that is to be found in "Tlie Amateurs' Handbook." 
 
 MECHANICAL DRAUGHTING. 
 
 The Stnd€7it's Illustrated Guide to Practical Draiigliting.—A. series 
 of Practical Instructions for Machinists, Mechanics, Apprentices, 
 and Students at Engineering Establishments and Technical In- 
 stitutes. — By T. P. Pembkrton, Draughtsman and Mechanical 
 Engineer. — illustrated by numerous engravings. — Cloth, gilt. $1 
 This is a simple but thorough book, by a draughtsman of twenty-five years' 
 experience. It is intended for beginners and self taught students, as well as for 
 those who pursue the study under the direction of a teacher. 
 
 DRAWING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 Being a Treatise on Draughting Instruments, with Rules for their 
 Use and Care; Explanations of Scales, Sectors, and Protractors. 
 Together with Memoranda for Draughtsmen; Hints on Purciiasing 
 Instruments, Paper, Ink, Pencils, &c. Also, a Price-list of all^ Mate- 
 rials required by Draughtsmen. — Illustrated with twenty-four Explan- 
 atory Illustrations. — By Fred. T. Hodgson.— Paper. ... 25 cents. 
 
CATALOGUE OF INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 
 
 THE SLIDE-RULE, AND HOW TO USE IT. 
 
 Being a Compilation of Explanations, Rules, and Instructions, 
 suitable for Mechanics and others interested in the Industrial 
 Arts. — Compiled and arranged by Fred. T. Hodgson. — 25 cents. 
 
 Rules are given for tlie measurement of all kinds of lioards and planks, timber 
 iu the round or square, glaziers' work and painting, Ijiickwork, ])avioi-s' work, tiling 
 and slating, the measurement of vessels of various slnipes, tlie wedge, inclined planes, 
 ■wheels and axles, levers, the weighing and measurement ot metals and all solid 
 bodies, cylinders, cones, globes, octagon rules and formute, the measurement of 
 circles, and a comparison of French and English measures, with much other informa- 
 tion useful to builders, carpenters, bricklayers, glaziers, paviors, slaters, machinists, 
 and other mechanics. 
 
 Possessed of this little book and a good slide-rule, mechanics might carry in 
 their pockets some hundreds of times the power of calculation tliat they now liave 
 iu their heads, and the use of the instrument is very easily acquired. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S SLIDE-RULE, and Its Applications. 
 
 A Complete Investigation of the Principles upon which the Slide- 
 Rule is constructed ; together with the Method of its Application 
 to all the Purposes of the Practical Mechanic. — By William 
 ToNKES. — Paper 25 cents. 
 
 THE LIGHTNING CALCULATOR. 
 
 Practical Hints on Lightning Calciilating. — To which are added 
 Rules, Tables, Data, FormulaB, and Memoranda, for making rapidly 
 those everyday calculations that are required in business, mechan- 
 ics, and agriculture. — Paper 20 cents. 
 
 A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS. 
 
 An exact reprint of the famous "Century of Inventions" of the 
 Marquis of Worcester (first published in 1663). — With an Intro- 
 duction, Notes, and a Life of the Author. — With Portrait after a 
 Painting by Van Dyke. — Edited by John Phin. — Cloth. . . . $1 
 
 This is one of the most extraordinary books ever published. The famous 
 "Century of Inventions" is of more than mere historical interest. It contains nu- 
 merous hints and suggestions of what might be accomplished, and will be found of 
 great interest and value to every one interested in mechanics. Many persons claim 
 that the Marquis of Worcester anticipated many of our most important modem 
 inventions and discoveries. Great care has been taken to reproduce exactly (so far 
 as modern type, &c., could do it) the edition published by the Marquis himself. It 
 has been entirely out of print for many years. 
 
 THE ELECTRICIAN'S POCKET COMPANION. 
 
 Electrical Rules, Tables, Tests, and Formulae. — By Andrew 
 Jamieson, C.E., F.R.S.E.— Fully illustrated.— Cloth. ... 75 cents. 
 
 This is the most compact and thorough work in the market for the practical 
 electrician. It contains minute directions for all calculations, tests, &c., with clear 
 engravings of the apparatus employed. The following list of contents will give au 
 idea of its scope : — 
 
 Formulae of the Absolute Units,— Practical, Electrical, and Mechanical. 
 
 Heat and Light Units. 
 
 Electro-chemical Equivalents, Electrolysis, Heat and Energy of Combustiou. 
 
 Practical Methods of Electrical Measurements. 
 
 Electric Conductors: Copper, &o. — Insulators: Guttapercha, &c. 
 
 Submarine Cables. — Aerial Land-lines. 
 
 Electric Lighting, and Transmissiou of Power. 
 
c ATA LOG n: or ixdfstrtal books. 
 
 LECTURES IN A WORKSHOP.-By t. p. Pembertox, 
 
 formerly Associate Editor of 21te Tcchnolor/ist; author of "The 
 Student's Illustrated Guide to Praciical Draughting." — With an 
 Appendix containing the famous papers by Whitworth "On Plane 
 Metallic Surfaces of True Planes"; "On the Uniform System of 
 Screw-Threads"; "Address to tlie Institution of Mechanical En- 
 gineers, Glasgow"; "On Standard Decimal Measures of Length." 
 
 Cloth, gilt $1 
 
 We have here a sprightly, fascinating liook, full of valuable hints, interesting 
 anecdotes, and sh.irp sayings. It is not a compilation of dull sermons or dry math- 
 ematics, but a live, readable book. The papers by Whitworth. now first made 
 readily accessible to the American reader, form the basis of our modern systems of 
 accurate work. 
 
 THE NEW POCKET CYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 A Compendium of General Knowledge, Useful and Interesting 
 Facts, Valuable Statistics, and Practical Information. — 16mo., 
 
 cloth 50 cents. 
 
 This is a handy volume of 164 pages, printed in small but clear type on very fine 
 thin paper, so tliat the book may be readily carried in the pocket or trunk. It con- 
 tains all those facts and figures which are most commonly referred to in everyday 
 life, gi'eat care being taken to secure accuracy and clearness. It is not a collection 
 of "curious information" made up from newspaper clippings, but a thoroughly 
 arranged manual of the most useful general knowledge. 
 
 HOW TO BECOME A GOOD MECHANIC. 
 
 Intended as a Practical Guide to Self-tangiit Men: Telling What 
 to Study; What Books to Use; How to Begin; Wliat Difficulties 
 ■will be met; How to Overcome Them. In a word, how to carry 
 on such a course of self-instruction as will enable the young 
 mechanic to rise from the bench to something higher. — Paper, 15c. 
 This is not a book of "goody-goody" advice, neither is it an advertisement of 
 any special system, nor does it advocate any hobby. It gives plain practical advice 
 in regard to acquiring that kno%vledj;e which alone can enable a young man engaged. 
 in any pi-ofession or occupation connected with the industrial arts to attain a po- 
 sition hitrher than that of a mere workman. 
 
 CEMENTS, GLUE, AND PASTE. 
 
 A Practical Treatise on the Preparation and Use of all kinds of 
 Cements, Glue, and Paste. — By John Phin, author of "How to 
 
 Use tlio Microscope." — Paper 25 cents. 
 
 Every mechanic and householder will find this volume of almost every -day use. 
 
 It contains nearly two liuiidred recii)es for tlie preparation of cements for almost 
 
 every conceivable purjjose. 
 
 HINTS FOR PAINTERS, DECORATORS, AND 
 PAPER-HANGERS. 
 
 Being a Selection of Useful Rules, Data, Memoranda, Methods, 
 and Suggestions for House. Sliip, and Furniture Painting; Paper- 
 Hanging, Gilding. Color-Mi.xiiig, and otlier matters useful and 
 instructive to painters and decorators. — Prepared with special 
 reference to the wants of amateurs. — By Ax Old Hand. — 
 Paper 25 ceuts. 
 
CATALOGUE OF INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 
 
 THE HARDWOOD FINISHER: 
 
 With Rules and Directions for finishing in Natural Colors, and irt 
 Antique, Mahogany, Cherry, Birch, Walnut, Oak, Ash, Redwood, 
 Sycamore, Pine, and all other Domestic Woods. Finishing, Filling, 
 Staining, Varnishing, and Polishing. Also, Miscellaneous Rules- 
 for Dyeing, (jilding, and Bronzing. — Compiled and Edited by 
 Fred. T. Hodgson, late Editor of The Builder and Woodworlcr, 
 and of The Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer. — ]2mo, cloth. . . $1 
 
 In this country the art of using wood for almost every purpose h.is gone far 
 beyond anything that has ever been attempted by any other people. The modern 
 houses of the Americans are finished with a richness and beauty in the woodwork, 
 of wliicli our fathers, not to speak of our grandfathers, had little idea. Tlie car- 
 penter, builder, or painter who does not fully understand the best methods of 
 finishing tlie hard woods so as to preserve and increase tlieir beauty is behind the 
 times. The object of this book is to aid him in acquiring the knowledge necessary 
 to this end ; and the author has certainly succeeded in producing an exhaustive 
 treatise on the subject. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S HANDY-BOOK: 
 
 Containing a series of Useful Calculations for Engineers, Tool- 
 makers, Millwrights, Draughtsmen, Foremen in Engineering Es- 
 tablishments, and for the better class of Mechanics and Artizans 
 generally. Also, Rules to determine the Proportion of Wheels for 
 Screw-cutting by a Lathe, &c. — From the fifth London edition, 
 with American additions. — 32mo, cloth 50 cents^ 
 
 PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR THE 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND ERECTION of LIGHTNING- 
 RODS. — By John Phin, C.E., author of "Chemical History of 
 the Si.x Days of Creation," "How to Use the Microscope," &c. 
 Enlarged and fully illustrated. — Third edition. — 12mo, cloth, 
 gilt title 75 cents. 
 
 This is a well-known and standard work. It is simple and practical, intended 
 to convey just sucli information as will enable every ])ropertyowner to decide- 
 whether or not his buildings are thoroughly protected. It is the only book on this 
 subject published in this country that has not been written in the interest of some 
 patent or some manufacturing concern. By following its directions any ordinarily- 
 skillful mechanic can put up a rod that will afford perfect protection, and that will 
 not Infringe on any patent. Every owner of a house or bam ought to procure a cojjy. 
 
 TRADE "SECRETS" AND PRIVATE RECIPES. 
 
 A Collection of Recipes, Processes, and Formulas that have been 
 offered for sale at prices varying from 25 cents to $500. With 
 J Notes, Corrections, Additions, and Special Hints for Improve- 
 ments. — Edited by John Phin, assisted by an experienced and 
 skillful pharmacist. — Cloth, gilt title 60 cents. 
 
 This work was prepared by the author for the purpose of collecting and pre- 
 senting in a compact form all those recipes and so-called "trade secrets" which 
 have been so extensively advertised and offered for sale. It is by no means a 
 claptrap book, though it exposes many claptraps. It contains a large amount of 
 valuable information that can not be readily found elsewhere: and it gives not only 
 the formulae, &c.. for manufactiiriui; an immense v.ariety of articles, but important 
 and trustwortliy hints as to the best way of making money out of them. Even as a. 
 book of recipes it is worth more than its price to any one who is interested in thei 
 subject on which it treats. 
 
CATALOCtVE of IXDUSTBTAL BOOKS. 
 
 A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO 
 
 SUCCESS IN THE USE OF RECIPES, 
 
 Formula, &c., with Hints on Chemical and Mechanical Manipula- 
 tion. — Intended as a supplement to all books of recipes. — By 
 
 John Phin. — 12mo, paper 25 cents. 
 
 WHiile it is an undoubted fact that many of the recipes published in the ordinary 
 collections are erroneous, either from original blunders on the part of the authors 
 or from mistakes in copying, failure in the use of others frequently arises from 
 "defective information and vicious methods on the part of those who attempt to put 
 them in practice. The object of the present book is to give such hints and cautions 
 as will enable the worker to secure .success where success is jiossible; and where 
 the products are intended for sale it gives special and valuable advice as to the best 
 methods of putting tliem on the market. 
 
 A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 THE ART OF WOOD ENGRAVING. 
 
 With a Description of the necessary Tools and Apparatus, and 
 Concise Directions for their Use; Explanations of the Terms used 
 and tlie Methods employed for producing the various classes of 
 "Wood Engra\nngs.— By' S. E. Fuller.— Fully illustrated with 
 engravings by the author, separate sheets of engravings for trans- 
 fer and practice being added. — New edition, neatly bound. 50 cts. 
 
 A really thorough and practical work, written for those who want to learn the 
 tirt \vit)iciut t)ie aid of a teacher. 
 
 A GUIDE TO COLLODIO ETCHING.-By 
 
 Rev. Benjamin Hartley. — Illustrated by the author. — 12mo, 
 
 clotli $1.00 
 
 This volume gives complete and minute instnictions for one of the most delight- 
 ful of amateur arts. It is fully illustrated by woodcuts of all the apparatus used 
 (which is very simple and easily made), and also by actual photo-prints of the 
 etchings themselves. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL POCKET COMPANION. 
 
 A Cyclopedia of the most useful Facts, Figures, and General 
 Information required by everybody in ever3'day life. — Edited by 
 John Phin, author of "How to Use the Microscope," "TheWork- 
 sliop Companion," "Chemical History of the Six Days of Crea- 
 tion." &c'. — Numerous illustrations ,10 cents. 
 
 Contents. — Abbreviations in Common Use — Business Laws and Commercial 
 Rules — Acceptances — Agencies — Bills of Exchange — Checquos — Common CaiTiers — 
 <l'i)i| Mirations — Law of Finding — Indorsements — Innkeepers — Negotiable Instruments 
 — I'.irtnersliips — Promissory Notes — Protests — Receipts — Concrete Walls for Houses 
 — Copyiigbts — Rules for Correspondence — How to treat Accidents to the Eye — Fac- 
 tors of Safety — Best Methods of Extinguishing Fives — Language of Flowers — i^ig- 
 jiificjiuce of (Jems and Precious Stones — Periods of Cestation and Incubation — Legal 
 Holidays — Homestead Law — Distingiiishing Characteristics and Anxious Periods of 
 Infectious Diseases — Prevention of Attacks of Insects — Knots, and How to Tie 
 Tliem. Willi full page of illnstnitions— (General Rules — Single Draw-knot — Oalley- 
 knot — .Squ.-ireknot. or lieefingknot — Weaver's-knot, or Slieetbend-knol — Half bitch 
 — Two Half bitches— Clove-bitcli — Timber-liitch— Bowline-knot— Fisherman's-knot 
 — Wliippiiig or Binding — Tying Parcels — Care of Leather — Lightniny-rods, general 
 rules for — Host Materials — Proper !->/,e anil Best Shajies of Rod— Painting— Points, 
 or Air-Terminals — Ground Connections — .^rransement and Mode of Attaching tlie 
 Rod to th-> House — Value of Moneys of Forei'.:n N.ations — P.nssijorts— Patents — .Viiti- 
 <lotcs for Poisons — Postal Uules and Rates — Railroad -•uid .Steamboat Signal-; — Rules 
 for .Sjielling and t)ie Use of Capitals— Trade-marks — Weather Iudicat'^ns, &c. 
 
CATALOaVE OF INDUSTRIAL BOOKS. 
 
 WHAT TO DO AND HOW TO DO IT IN CASE 
 
 OF ACCIDENT.— A book for everybody.— Cloth, gilt. 50 cts. 
 
 This is one of the most useful books ever published. It tells exactly what to 
 do in case of accidents, such as severe cuts, sprains, dislocations, broken bones, 
 bui'us with tire, scalds, burns with corrosive chemicals, sunstroke, snft'dcation by 
 foul air, hanging, drowning, frostbite, tainting, stings, starvation, liglitnini:. poisons, 
 accidents from machinery and from tlie falling of scaffolding, gunsliot wdiiiids. &c. 
 It ouglit to be in every house, for young and old are liable to aceiiient, and tlie 
 directions given in this book might be the means of saving many a valuable life. 
 
 COMMON SENSE IN THE POULTRY-YARD. 
 
 A Story of Failures and Successes, including a full account of 
 1,000 hens and what they did. With a complete description of the 
 houses, coops, fences, runs, methods of feeding, breeding, market- 
 ing, &e., and many new wrinkles and economical dodges. — By 
 J. P. Haig. — With numerous illustrations. — Cloth, gilt title. $1 
 This is a lively and entertaining work, which embodies the actual experience of 
 many years in the keeping of poultry in large and small numbers. It is tlie most 
 thoroughly practical work on poultry in the market, aud contains an amount of 
 solid information which, to eveu the keeper of a dozen fowls, will make it worth 
 many times its cost. 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF PRACTICAL BEE-KEEPING. 
 
 With Notes and Practical Hints.— By John Phin, author of 
 "How to Use the Microscope," &c. — Numerous illustrations. — 
 
 Cloth, gilt 50 cents. 
 
 This work discusses thoroughly nearly five hundred subjects. Gives in con- 
 densed form an immense amount of valuable information under the different head- 
 ings. Under the heads Bee, Comb, Glucose, Honey. Race, Species. Srigar, Wax, and 
 others, it brings together a large number of important facts and figures now scat- 
 tered through our bee literature and costly scientific works, and are not easily 
 fotmd when wanted. Here they can be referred to at once under the proper head. 
 
 PLAIN DIRECTIONS FOR ACQUIRING 
 
 THE ART OF SHOOTING ON THE WING. 
 
 With Useful Hints concerning all that relates to Guns and Shoot- 
 ing, particularly in regard to the art of loading so as to kill. To 
 which has been added several valuable and hitherto secret recipes, 
 of great practical importance to the sportsman. — By An Old Game- 
 keeper. — 12rao, cloth 75 cents. 
 
 This book contains a novel and most valuable feature found in no other work on 
 this subject. This is a series of graduated lessons by which the self-taught young 
 sportsman is enabled to advance step bv step from such easy marks as a sheet of pa- 
 per nailed on a fence to the most difficult trap-shooting and the sharpest snap-shots. 
 
 THE PISTOL AS A WEAPON OF DEFENCE, 
 
 > In the House and on the Road.— 12mo, cloth. ... 50 cents. 
 
 This work aims to instruct peaceable and law-abiding citizens in the best means 
 of protecting themselves from the attacks of the brutal and the lawlass, and it is the 
 only practical book published on this subject. Its contents are as follows :— 
 
 The Pistol as a Weapon of Defence— The Carrying of Firearms— Different kinds 
 of Pistols in Market— How to Choose a Pistol— Ammunition, different kmds : powder, 
 caps, bullets, copper cartridges, &c.— Best form of Bullet— How to Load— Best 
 Charge for Pistols— How to Regulate the Charge— Care of the Pistol : how to clean 
 it— How to Handle and Carrv the Pistol— How to Learn to Shf>ot— Practical Use of 
 the Pistol— How to Protect Yourself and Disable your Antagonist. 
 
CATALOGUE OF IXDUSTRTaL BOOKS. 
 
 CHEMICAL HISTORY of the SIX DAYS of CREATION 
 
 By John Phin, author of "How to Use the Microscope," &c. 
 12iiio, cloth 75 cents. 
 
 In this volume an attempt is made to trace the evolution of our globe from the 
 primeval state of nebulous mist, "without form and void," and existing in "dark- 
 ness," or with an entire al)sence of the manifestation of the pliysical forces, to the 
 condition in which it was fitted to become the habitation of man. While the state- 
 ments and conclusions are rigidly scientific, it gives some exceedingly novel views 
 of a rather hackneyed subject. 
 
 THE SUN: A Familiar Description of his Phenomena. 
 
 By Rev. Thomas William Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S., author of 
 "Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes." — With numerous 
 illustrations. — 12mo, cloth 40 cents. 
 
 This work gives, in a delightfully popular style, an account of the most recent 
 discoveries in regard to the sun. It is freely illustrated. 
 
 HOW TO USE THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 A Book of Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the 
 Microscope. Intended for beginners. — By John Phin, editor of 
 The American Journal of Microscopy. — Sixth edition. Greatly 
 enlarged, with over eighty engravings in the text, and eight full- 
 page engravings, printed on heavy tint paper. — 12rao, cloth. $1.25 
 
 This work has been received with such general favor that it has passed through 
 five large editions in a few years. It gives a full account of the different kinds of 
 microscopes; of tlie various accessories, and of the best methods of using them; 
 of the best methods of collecting, preparing, and preserving objects, and preparing 
 slides and cabinets. Many of the illustrations, devices, and methods used, are 
 original witli the author, altliougli tliey have been freely copied and appropriated 
 ■without credit by several other writers. 
 
 A BOOK FOR 
 
 BEGINNERS WITH THE MICROSCOPE. 
 
 Being an abri<lgeraent of "How to Use the Microscope." — By 
 Jonx Phin. — Fully illustrated, and neatly and strongly bound 
 in cloth 50 cents. 
 
 This book was prepared for the use of those who. having no knowledge of the 
 nsp of the microscope, — or, indeed, of ;iny scientitic apparatus, — desire sinijile and 
 practical instruction in the best nietliods of managing the instrument and i)rei)aring 
 
 Otljl'I'tS. 
 
 THE MICROSCOPE.— Liy Andrew Boss.— Fully illustrated. 
 
 12mo, clcth, gilt title 75 cents. 
 
 This is the celebrated article contributed by Andrew Ross to "The Penny Cyclo- 
 pedia," and quoted so frequently by writers on the microscope. Carpenter and 
 Hogg, in the latest editions of tlieir works on the microscope, and Hrooke, in bis 
 treatise on Natural Pliilosopliy. all refer to this article as the best source for full 
 and clear information in reg;ird lo the prin''ii)les upon which t}ie modi-m .•iclnomarin 
 mii-roscope is constructed. It sliould In- in ihe lilmiry of every pi-rson to whntn the 
 microscope is more than a toy. It is written in simple language, free from abstruse 
 technicalities. 
 
A Novelty in Journalism.. 
 
 Industrial Receipts. 
 
 A MONTHLY JOURNAL OF 
 
 Teclinical Information for Workers. 
 
 In Every Department of the Industrial Arts. 
 
 Every mechanic, farmer, housekeeper, student of practical science 
 and amateur has occasion at one time or another to hunt up a 
 RECEIPT for making some prepai'ation or performing some oper- 
 ation which is necessary in the ordinary course of work. Hence a 
 book of receipts is almost a necessity in every Workshop, Laboea- 
 TOKY AND Household. 
 
 The object of Industrial Receipts is not only to furnish a Com- 
 plete Collection of Tried Formulic, Rules and Directions, but to give 
 such current notes, hints and information as will enable the reader 
 to take advantage of the latest improvements and discoveries in this 
 direction. To accomplish this we propose to adojot the following 
 original and, as we think, very feasible plan: 
 
 1— We will give, in consecutive numbers, and in alphabetical 
 order, a complete body of Receipts and Technical Information. This 
 will be so paged that when complete it may be bound into a conve- 
 nient volume for reference, thus forming a complete " Cyclopjedia 
 of Practical Receipts." 
 
 2 — Notes upon new materials and formula3, with special discus- 
 sions of processes, methods of working, etc. 
 
 3 — Special information for subscribers given under the head of 
 answers to correspondents. In this department we have secured the 
 assistance of several able and thoroughly practical scientists. 
 
 4 — Notices of Current Events, New Books and other matters re- 
 lating to our specialty, with Abstracts of Important Papers. 
 
 The price of the Journal will be fl.OO per year. Single numbers, 
 10 cents. Specimen numbers will be sent on receipt of 5 cents 
 (postage stamps will do). 
 
 Club Rates— As it is our object to attain a large circulation we 
 offer special inducements to those who wish to aid us in this direc- 
 tion. To those who send us three sul)scribers at $1.00 each we will 
 send a fourth copy/?'ee. An hour's work will therefore enable almost 
 any one to obtain a copy of this exceedingly valuable work. 
 Address all communications to 
 
 The Industrial Publication Company, 
 
 10 Thomas Street, = = = NEW YORK, N. Y. 
 
IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT 
 
 TO AKOHITECTS, COXTKAC'TORS AND BUILDERS. 
 
 For many years past there lias been a want by the building fraternity of a good 
 and reliable book on Estimating, one that will give prices of materials and labor 
 for every department of building, so far as this is possible. Such a book, the pub- 
 lishers believe, has at last been produced, and is now offered to those interested. 
 
 THE BUILDER'S GUIDE, 
 
 AND ESTDIATOirS PRICE BOOK. 
 
 By FRED. T. IIODOSON. 
 
 UAyOSOMELT BOUyi) IN CLOTIf, GILT TITLE. PlilCE, - $2.00. 
 Current Prices of Liiinher, Ilaidware, Glass, I'liimbers' Supplies, Paints, 
 Slates, Stones, Limes, Cements, IJrieks, Tin and other ISnildin^ Materials; 
 also. Prices of Labor, and Cost of Performing tlie Several Kinds of Work 
 Required in Building. Together with I'rices of Doors, Frames, Sashes, 
 Stairs, 3Iouldings, Newels, and other Machine AVork. To which is appended 
 a large number of Building Rules, Data, Tables and Useful Memoranda, 
 with a Glossary of Architectural and Building Terms. 
 
 This is an entirely new work, and gi\es Prices of Labor and Materials down 
 to a recent date, and is, therefore, the most reliable book in tlie market on the 
 subject of prices of labor and materials required for building. The work con- 
 tains, besides Prices, Data, Rules, and Several Hundred Tables and Hints on 
 Building, a blank column where the prices of Labor or Material may be written 
 in pencil, where such prices diffi-r from those given in the book. There is also 
 a very complete Glossary of Huilding and Architectural Terms appended to the 
 work, which is a useful and valuable addition for i)ractical builders. 
 
 The work is really a Cyclopanlia of Prices and Builder's Tables, Data and 
 Memoranda, and is necessarily a large work, having over 330 pages, each page 
 being "j x 4^, and covered with closely i)rintefl matter. 
 
 In order to give an idea of what the work contains, we give the following brief 
 
 SYi^opsis OF <:o.^xe:\ts: 
 
 Part \. — Contains Hints and Rules for Correct Estimating. — Forms for Taking 
 Estimates. Quantities, Prices, and Manner of Computation. —General Memoraiuhi 
 of Items for Estimates. — Excavations. — Foundations. — Drains.— Iron Work. — 
 Baths and Water Closets.— Brick Walls.— Carpenter's Work. — Toincr's Work.— 
 Mantels, Grates, Stove Fittings, etc.— Pantry. Closets. Kilelu'iis and Appurten- 
 ances. — Bell Hanging. Gas Fixing and Fixtures.— stairs and Staircases. — Roofs, 
 Gutters and Couduclors. — Porches, \'erandas and Fences.— Framing; Cost of 
 same. — Cost of Painting, Plastering, Shingling. Slating. Tinning, Finishing, 
 Glazing, Building Chimneys, and f)ther Brick Work.— Rules for Measuring all 
 kinils of Hip and other Roofs, with Cost of same.— Rough Boarding. Shingling, 
 Siding. Laying Floors, and otlu-r Work.- Cost of Material and T-abor for Stairs, 
 Newels, Balusters. Rails, Doors. .Mouldinirs. Slidiiiir anil i'olding Doors. Windows 
 of all kinds. Hlimls, Wainscoting. liasel)oards. Finials, Cresting. Plumbing, Floor- 
 ing, and everytliing else used at)out a Building. 
 
 Paut II. — Contains an Extensive Schedule of Builder's Prices, for Digging, 
 Bhovelling, Rantming in Loose Earth. Clay and Gravel. — Cost of Masonry, 
 Rubble, Hammer-Dressed Work, Rough Rock: W^ork, Reveals, Ashler Work, Re- 
 
SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS {ContlllUCJp. 
 
 pairs, Arclics. Plain Work, llnbbod Work. Beaded Work. Kliiiiiiii, Reodin<r, 
 Tliroatiii^, Grooviiiir. Rel)alin.ir, Leadiiiic in Work. Snnken Work. Mortising, 
 etc.— Prices of all kinds ot Native Stones jier Cnliic Foot.— Prices of Cements; 
 Portland. Rosendale. Kcene's. IJine of Teil. Lime. Lath. Slate, etc. - Bricklay- 
 inii'; Price iier l.noo. Laborer's Waiics. Prices of ISricks of Dill'erent (Jrades, Cir- 
 cular and Ellii)tical Work. Hrick Pavinii' of all kinds. Laid Dry or in Mortar. — 
 Drain Pipes, Cost and (finality; Terra-Cotia Cbininey Toi)s. ('reslin^■. Tiles and 
 MouldiniiS, etc. — Colored Uricks, Tuck I'oinlini:-. Sellinu^ in Sash and Door 
 Frauies.'Taking Down Old Work, Kebnildinti- with Old Bricks, Firebricks, Tile 
 Work. Quality and Prices of Bricks from Various Localities, Prices of Peerless- 
 Brick Company's Colored Bricks, Colored Mortars and Cements, Odd-Shaped 
 P.ricks.— Plasterer s Work. Scaftbldin^-. Lathing. Mortars for all kinds of Work. 
 Cements for Walls and Ceiliniis. Cornices and Stucco Woi'k. Plaste!--of-Paris 
 Flower and Ornamental Work. Kalsomiinnif and Washes ot all Kinds. Carpen- 
 ter's and Joiner's Work : WaL^es. Pricesof Lumber. Prices of Made-uji Stull'of all 
 Kinds. — Hard-wood Work. Nails. Screws. Locks, Butts and other Hardware. — 
 Stairs of alPKinds. Table for Finding the Run and Rise of Treads and Risers, 
 Turned Work for Stairs and other Work.— Painting, Colors, Prices for Different 
 Kinds of Work, Ladders, Scaflolding, Tools, Graining, Painting Iron Work, 
 Staining, Repairinir Old Work. Numerical Work, Varnishing, Lettering. Oiling, 
 Sash and Door Painting. Mixing Colors, Prices of Colors, Miscellaneous Re- 
 marks.— Rootinsi" Materials of all Kinds, with Prices and Cost of Laying; Bell- 
 Hanging Materials, Skylights, Tubs, Sinks, Sheet Iron, Pumps, Tanks, Registers, 
 Ventilators, Wire Ropes, "and other matters reciiiired in Building. 
 
 Part ITT.— Contains Rules for Builder's Bookkeeping. Form of Balance Sheets 
 Rules for Measuring Artificer's Work, including Fxcavalinn. Drains. Shoring, 
 Concretina-. and Labor in General : also Mctliods of Measuring all Kinds of Ma- 
 terials for'Brick, Stone, or Wood Work.— Elements of the Mechanics of Archi- 
 tecture, Strength of Materials, Rules for Obtaining Same ; Iron, Wood, Stone 
 and Brick, Crushing Loads for Various Building Materials, Columns, Iron, Wood, 
 Stone.— Tables for Compnting the Strength of 'Materials. Factors of Safety, 
 Rolled-Iron Beams and Girders.— Bricks arid Brick Piers, Terra-Cotta. Strength 
 and Qualities of Cements and Mortars, Fire-Brick, Colored Mortars, Granite and 
 other Stone. 
 
 Part IV.— Miscellaneous Tables.— Weight of Iron, Lead, Brass, Copper and 
 Cast Iron, per Foot Superficial or in Bars ; Strength of Round Ropes, Weight of 
 Boiler Iron, Wrought-Iron Pipes. Flat and Round Wire Ropes for Elevators. Iron 
 Rooflni;:, Lead Pipes, Nails, Foreign Weights and ]\Ieasures, Force of Wind, 
 Square Measiu-e, Long Measure, Equivalents. Arithmetical and other Sign.s. Ex- 
 pansion by Heat, Force of Explosives, Number of Shingles, Slates. Tiles and 
 other Covering Required ff)r 100 feet of Roofing, Number^of Bricks Required for 
 Given Wall, Strength of Woods, Loads for Bridges, Strains on Bridges and 
 Trusses, Specific Gravities. 
 
 Part V.— Mensuration of Superfices, Areas of Sqttares, Cubes, Triangles, 
 Midti-sided Figures, etc.; Measurements of Solids, Cubes, Cones, Cylinders, 
 Spheres, etc.; Squares and Cubes of Numbers, Table of Spherical Contents, 
 Diameters, Circumferences and Areas of Circles, Board and Plank Measure, 
 Scantling Measure, Wages Table, Sizes and Capacities of Cribs, Boxes and Tanks. 
 
 Part VI.— Mechanics' Lien Laws of Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut. Cali- 
 fornia, Colorado, District of Columbia, Delaware, Florida, Georgia. Indiana, 
 Iowa. Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Louisiana, Massachusetts. Maryland, 
 Mississippi, Michigan, Missouri", New Jersey, Nevada, Nebraska, New Hamp- 
 shire, North Carolina, New York, Oregon, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
 South Carolina, Texas, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, 
 Ontario. 
 
 Part VII.— Schedule of Architect's Charffes, Drawings, Superintendence, Per- 
 centage on Public Buildinss.— Architect's Rules and Methods of Charging for 
 Services Rendered.— Leading Architectural and Building Journals.— Glossary of 
 Architecttiral and Building Terms. (This "Glossary" covers some fifty-seven 
 pages, and deals with over One Thousand Terms used in Architecture and 
 Building). 
 
Just Published. ^ 
 
 THE UNIVERSAL 
 
 Carpenter and Joiner. 
 
 By FRED T. HODGSON, 
 
 Author of "The Steel Square and Its Uses," " Practical Carpentry,' 
 
 " Stairbuildhuf Made Easy," " The Builders Guide and 
 
 Estimator's Price-Book," etc., etc. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 This part is devoted to Carpenter's Geometry, wliich is presented 
 in simple form, giving easily imderstood methods of Describing 
 Mouldings, Gothic Arches, Turned "Works, Ornaments; Drawing In- 
 struments; Care of Instruments ; Scales, How to Use Them ; Various 
 Methods of Copying Drawings — the Blue Process, the Black Process ; 
 "Waxing ; Use of the Pantagraph, etc., etc. It gives not only the 
 rules and theory, biat examples of their practical applications in 
 Carpentry and Joinery, showing how to get and work dithcult "cuts " 
 and })itches. 
 
 Over 250 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, bound in stiff paper cover, $1.00 
 
 The aim of the Author is to make the above work the most com- 
 plete treatise on Carpentry and Joiuerj' published to date, and the 
 publishers have no hesitation in saying that the success which Mr. 
 Hodgson has achieved during the past twenty years in furnishing 
 the mechanics of this country with thoroughly reliable and easily 
 understood text-boolis, is a sure guarantee of the excellence of 
 liis present effort. 
 
 It will be issued in Five Parts, each Part consisting of over 100 
 large royal octavo pages, printed on fine ])aper, and strongly bound 
 in stiff paper covers ; and as it is the intention of the publishers to 
 place this important work within the reach of every industrious 
 mechanic and apprentice in the land, tluy have placed the jirice at 
 $1.00 per Part. Many works in the market, containing no more 
 matter than a single Part, and not so well illustrated, are now selling 
 for from S5.0U to $10.(X) each. 
 
 EACH PART WILL BE COMPLETE IN ITSELF. 
 
 When complete, the Five Parts will form a handsome volume, 
 the price of which, bound in extra cloth, in the very best stj'le of the 
 art, will be S^S.OO. 
 
 Part II, which is the most handsomely illustrated volume on 
 Carpentry now before the public, is nearly ready 
 
 Industrial Publication Company, 
 
 16 Thomas Street, - - = NEW YORK N. Y. 
 
1 I t m 
 
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 3 3125 00141 3026