Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/reportsofartisanOOroya REPORTS OF ARTISANS SELECTED^BY A COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE COUNCIL OP THE SOCIETY OE ARTS TO VISIT THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION, 1807 . LONDON: PUBLISHED FOR THE gutwlg for % fittttttistgmntl of §,rfs, gTsmafattawfi, mtb Commmr. EELL AND DALDY, YOEK-STREET, COVENT-GABDEN, 1867. (Right of Translation reserved,) LONDON : PRINTED BY W. TROUNCE, CURSTTOR-STREET, CHANCERY-LANE, E.C. PREFACE. T HE Council of the Society of Arts, feeling the importance of promoting the intelligent study of the Paris Exhibition and the manufacturing establishments in France by artisans of the United Kingdom, in the early part of this year passed the following minute : — At the last and former International Exhibitions held in this country, arrange- ments were made by the French Government to facilitate the visits of skilled artisans, and interesting reports on the exhibitions were made by them to their government. Believing that such visits on the part of skilled workmen to these great international displays not only exercise a beneficial influence upon the men themselves, but also upon the progress of industry in the country to which they belong, the Council of the Society of Arts have resolved to raise a fund to be employed in aiding a limited number of English workmen to proceed to Paris for the purpose of studying the present French Exhibition. To carry this object into effect, they have agreed on the following plan : — 1st. That a number of selected workmen (the number to depend on the amount of funds at the disposal of the Council) shall be assisted to proceed to and remain in Paris a sufficient time (say three weeks), for the purpose of making a careful study of the Exhibition, and of such factories and workshops as they may desire to visit. 2nd. That every man so assisted shall, on his return, make a report to the Society of what he has observed during his stay, in reference to the special industry in which he is engaged, and that it be made a condition of the grant to each man that one-third of the amount be retained until his report shall be supplied to the Society. 3rd. The Council think it will be undesirable to fix the exact time for, or to prescribe the duration of, these visits, or to interfere with any of the arrangements the men may desire to make for their own accommodation ; but, in order that they may take advantage of the facilities provided by the Commission organised by the French Government for the study of the Exhibition, the men will be placed in communication with that Commission on their arrival in Paris. 4th. A considerable sum will be required satisfactorily to accomplish the important object undertaken by the Society, and, in order to raise these funds, the Council have determined to appeal to the members of the Society, who must be interested in the successful results of this movement, in the belief that they will not hesitate to join in a subscription for the furtherance of the undertaking ; and they propose at the same time to communicate with the various Chambers of Commerce, inviting their counsel and support. The Council have decided to commence the subscription by a vote of one hundred guineas from the funds of the Society. The Council, in accordance with this minute, invited a special subscription, and an appeal was made, especially to the Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom, to the principal City Companies, and to other influential public bodies, as well as to members of the Society of Arts and the public in general, for contributions. Y PREFACE. At a very early period His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, President of the Society, expressed his approval of the undertaking, and forwarded a subscription of thirty guineas. The Council addressed a letter to Her Majesty’s Commissioners for the Exhibition, asking their assistance in obtaining pecuniary aid from the Government, to enable them to realize their plan on a suffi- ciently extensive scale. Her Majesty’s Commissioners thereupon passed the following resolution, which was proposed by Earl Granville, and seconded by Mr. Forster, M.P . : — u That the intention of ob- taining reports by foremen and skilled workmen on their respective trades, on the occasion of their visiting the Paris Exhibition, is, in the opinion of Her Majesty’s Commissioners, worthy of encourage- ment on the part of Her Majesty’s Government.” This resolution having been transmitted by Her Majesty’s Com- missioners to the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, their lordships decided to “ place at the disposal of the Society of Arts a sum not exceeding five hundred pounds, provided that the Society raises at least the same amount by voluntary subscriptions.” The sum subscribed amounted to £1,039 19s. 6d., which enabled the Council to assist upwards of eighty skilled workmen, representing the principal industries of the country, to visit Paris, and to examine the quality and cost of the work executed in their respective trades by the best workmen of foreign countries. In consequence of the desire of a large number of workmen in London and other seats of industry to avail themselves of this assistance, the Committee to whom the duty of selection was entrusted, sometimes found it difficult to decide between the claims of the numerous applicants ; each man who was chosen either brought a recommendation from his employers, or from a number of his fellow- workmen, and in some instances from both, guaranteeing his fitness to undertake the task assigned to him. The endeavour was to select men whose intelligence and knowledge of their particular trades, and whose position among their fellow- workmen, were such that their reports on their respective branches of industry would not only be good in themselves, but would command the attention of their fellow- workmen. The Council received valuable co-operation from the members of the Chamber of Commerce at Birmingham, who subscribed liberally to the fund, and recommended twenty-five workmen and foremen to re- present the various branches of trade carried on in that district. The visit of the workmen from Birmingham was organised by a local committee, who received valuable aid from Mr. W. C. Aitken,* * Mr. Aitken was one of the annotators of the “Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Great Exhibition of 1851,” and is the author of reports on “ Brass Manufactures,” “The Revived Art of Metal Working,” “ The Production of Statuary in Bronze, Copper, &c.,” in a work known as “The Industrial History of Birmingham,” PREFACE. V of that place, a gentleman well known for the interest he has long taken in the progress of industry. He accompanied the men to Paris, and has himself made a report, which forms the introduction to the reports of the Birmingham artisans, which constitute Part II. of this volume. Many of the subjects treated by them have also been reported on by men sent from London or elsewhere ; and it will be observed that several of the more important trades had two or three representatives, it having been thought desirable in many cases to obtain the opinion of more than one individual upon the same branch of manufacture. The Chambers of Commerce of Bradford and Nottingham, and the Mayors of Sheffield and Coventry also afforded considerable assistance to the Society, and in some instances recommended workmen com- petent to report on the trades of their respective districts. The workmen were accredited in Paris to M. Haussoullier, who had been appointed by Her Majesty’s Commissioners to the charge of the British Workman’s Hall in the Exhibition building. This gentleman not only procured for them lodgings, and afforded them useful hints in visiting the Exhibition, but was indefatigable in his efforts to obtain permission for them to visit the manufactories and workshops connected with their respective trades, facilities which (with very few exceptions) were readily and courteously afforded by the French manufacturers. The Society of Arts also secured the special services of M. Fouche (an artisan-member of the Conseil des Prud’hommes) as interpreter, who accompanied the men in their visits to the Exhibition and to the various industrial establishments just referred to. The services of these gentlemen were most valuable, and are so warmly acknowledged by the men themselves in their reports, that further remarks upon them are needless. The men were received in the most friendly manner by the French workmen, and it is gratifying to find that their conduct whilst in Paris, and the intelligence they displayed in their inquiries, were so appre- ciated by the French authorities at the Exhibition, that they have applied for permission to translate the reports for circulation among French workmen. Besides the reports upon particular branches of industry, two special reports on u The Condition and Habits of the French Working Classes ” have been made by Mr. Robert Coningsby and Mr. Richard Whiteing. The volume has been edited by Mr. Charles Critchett, the Assistant- Secretary of the Society of Arts, who has kept carefully in view the wishes of the Council that the reports should, as far as possible, be presented to the public in their integrity. All such forms of expression as, though not strictly in accordance with grammatical rules, appeared to convey more forcibly than any other the writer’s meaning, have been retained, and only such literal and VI PREFACE. grammatical corrections (with a few trifling omissions) have been made as were absolutely essential. The reports bearing upon cognate branches of industry have been generally kept together, but this was not always possible, as the order was sometimes necessarily regulated by the dates of their reception by the Society. It is hoped they will be found interesting not only to the writers’ fellow- workmen, but to all interested in the progress of industry ; and, considering that they are written by men, most of whom have never before attempted to write a report on any subject, and all of whom are actually engaged in industrial occupations, they are, in most cases, highly creditable to their authors, and will, no doubt, be received with the considera- tion they deserve. By order of the Council, W. HAWES, Chairman , P. LE NEVE FOSTER, Secretary . Society of Arts , John-street , Adelphi , London , Christmas , 1867 . CONTENTS Part I. REPORTS BY ARTISANS FROM LONDON, SHEFFIELD, COVENTRY, BRADFORD, NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYNE, &c. Cabinet-making Charles Alfred Hooper . PAGE 1 Ceramic decoration . Aaron Green 26 Saws and tools William Bramhall 37 Cutlery John Wilson 52 Chair-making Benjamin Lucraft 64 Glass -painting Francis Kirchhoff 70 Wood-carving James Mackie . 84 }) • B. Baker 102 Cabinet-work Thomas Jacob . 107 Wood-cutting machinery William Walker 118 99 99 Thomas J. Wilkie 124 The Bibbon trade . L. S. Booth 133 Bibbon-weaving Joseph Gutteridge 141 Lace Edward Smith, Joseph Bird, and George Dexter 144 Hosiery George Kendall and George Caunt .... 154 Pottery William Beardmore 158 Tiles and pavements Samuel Cooper . 160 Terra-cotta Michael Angelo Pulham 169 Pottery and porcelain, with some on iron manufacture notes \ J John Bandall —T 00 Bricklaying George Howell . 189 99 • Plasterers’ work John Jeffery 200 C. Bartlett 204 Carpenters’ and joiners’ work T. W. Hughes and John D. Prior 209 Joiners’ work Alexander Kay . 219 Masonry, &c. George Broughton Forbes and John McEwen 245 Thomas Connolly 250 Coach-making Thomas Magrath 271 Ship-building E. F. Mondy 277 Mining and metallurgy Francis Oats 289 Silver-work P. A. Basmussen 296 George Page 320 Silver-chasing B. E. Barrett 321 Hammered iron William L ether en 324 Ornamental wrought-iron work T. Winstanley . 327 Ivory-carving Joseph Bentley . 330 Engraving , G. Berry 332 Lie-sinking especially adapted to silver- ) smiths and other metal trades . j William Elliott . 339 Till CONTENTS. Watch-making The Horological Department State of the watch trade Tailors’ work Book-binding Leather-work The manufacture of Caoutchouc Figured Shawls Machinery for worsted fabrics Worsted yarns and textile fabrics Worsted and mixed textile fabrics French horticulture Mechanical engineering The condition and habits of the French working classes (special report) . John Gregory and Jas. Stringer Hermann F. Jung George Cook It. Sinclair Louis Genth Walter Blunt William Bourne Samuel Boast and John Appleton John French George Spencer . Daniel Illingworth George Stanton . John Evans William Learmouth Robert Coningsby Richard Whiteing FACiE, 346 3o3 3dl 363 374 377 380 384 386 397 401 404 421 426 428 452 Part II. REPORTS BY ARTISANS FROM BIRMINGHAM. Introductory Report Mr. W. C. Aitken i. Gas-fittings and chandeliers James Taylor 1 Plumbers’ brass foundry Thomas Bayley . 8 Cabinet brass foundry, &c. . William Gorman 11 General brass foundry Henry Dry 13 Church bells James Ansell 19 Tubes in all metals . John Fisher 21 Saddlery, &c. John Clav 24 Le ^nTeat™c. 3 ’ saddler y’ wM P 3 ’ P ort ‘ } Frederick Thompson 28 Jewellery, with diamonds and precious stones .... j W. G. Deeley . 36 Jewellery and gilt toys James Plampin . 48 Buttons .... Thomas Johnson 56 }) • • • • S. W. Richards . 61 5) • • . • William Bridges 69 Steel pens .... J. L. Petit 74 Small arms, &c. Charles Hibbs . 82 Papier-mache David Sarjeant . 100 Japanning in general Thomas Archer . 109 Needles and fish-hooks William Guise . 117 Sheet and plate glass Richard Pearsall • • 124 Table and fancy glass Thomas C. Barnes • • 126 99 99 • • W. T. Swene • • 132 99 99 • • T. J. Wilkinson • • 149 Die-sinking Charles Wm. Moore • 158 Electro-plate Henry J. Fellows • 167 Tin-plate working . Edwin Poole 174 Labour-saving machines Henry Fowler . 180 Railway carriage and waggon building Benjamin Whitehouse • 186 Design .... Frank J. Jackson « 198 PART I. REPORTS BY ARTISANS FROM LONDON, SHEFFIELD, COVENTRY, BRADFORD, NEWCASTLE- UNDER-LYNE, &c. ARTISANS’ REPORTS ON THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION OE 1867. CABINET MAKING. By CHARLES ALFRED HOOPER, CABINET MAKEll, LONDON. H AVING been enabled, through, your kindness, to accomplish a very long looked-for desire, I beg respectfully to lay before you the following report of my doings in Paris. I cannot do better than give you my impressions as I noted them down day by day during my fort- night’s stay in that wonderful city. I took an excursion ticket, and paid for a fortnight’s lodgings, at the “ Paris Excursion Committee,” in the Strand. We left London-bridge station at 12.15 a.m. on Tuesday, September 3rd. Arrived at Newhaven at 2.15. Boat left at 5.30. Weather fine and pleasant. My first voyage across the sea. Was a little sea -sick. Arrived at Dieppe soon after 12 p.m. A dozen of us took up our quarters in a comfortable caf6, to wait for the 6.20 a.m. train for Paris. At 3.30 a most terrific thunder- storm. Rain fell in torrents. We watched from the casement window, thankful that we were so comfortably housed. Left Dieppe at 6.30 for Paris. We were now on French soil. How strange and novel every- thing appears. The trees so straight and tall. Some are broad and stumpy. The scenery is lovely ; such hills and dales, and the pretty appearance of the white cottages. We are much amused to see the women on the line, at the stations, with large shiny hats, holding the signal flags. We arrive at the station, in the Rue St. Lazare, 1.25, and walk to the Rue de Rivoli, as our guide-book had told us we should there find an elegant and cheap caf6, kept by M. Duval, where we could dine. As I pass through the wide streets I am delighted with every- thing I see. The houses so lofty and clean and white, the novel appearance of the trees planted along the pavements, the fine buildings, the massive bronze lamps, and the magnificent cafes, the tinkling of the bells on the horses, so singular to my ear. After a much longer walk than we anticipated, we (three of us] arrive at the caf6. As we enter, a gent sitting at a desk presents us with a billet. We take our seats. 2 artisans’ reports on the Smart-looking young women, in clean aprons and starched white caps, attend us. We are all in a fix. What to ask for, and how to be under- stood. However, after a little thought, some antics, and a good deal of joking, we get some soup, bread, beef, and a bottle of wine, but the greatest puzzle was how to get some vegetables. Looking at the billet, I wrote down “ legumes They did not know (as I afterwards found) w 7 hat kind of vegetables we wanted, so there were all sorts of dumb motions performed, till at last they brought us some French beans ! Our dinner cost about a franc each. We were much amused to see the bakers bringing in bundles of bread, in loaves from 6ft. to 8ft. long, and stacking them in a corner, like bundles of sticks. We left. Then took ’bus. Got to our lodgings about five, “in the Place Lapp, Champ de Mars.” After having rested a little, and washed, it is proposed we shall go for a walk. I like the loyements (I must begin to use French terms), which are clean and novel. We fancy ourselves soldiers in barracks. Single beds, and four in each room. All our companions appear to be respectable men, of the middle and working class. V\ e cross over to the “ Exposition,” just to have a glance at the exterior. The people are coming out in crowds, and hurrying to the omnibuses. We find- the building closes at six, but the park remains open till 11. We propose to take ’bus, and ride to the “ Boulevards,” of which I had read and heard so much. Now commenced our first difficulty in French customs. John Bull like, we thought we could rush through the crowd and mount the ’bus in a twinkling. Not so. We have to go to an office near and get tickets, with numbers on, then to the ’bus and wait our turn — an admirable arrangement, we afterwards found, although at the time our impatience overruled our judgment ; and what a ride for l|d., from the Madeleine to the Bastille. Our first evening in Paris we could scarcely believe our senses. It is dark. The Boulevard is crow T ded. The splendid shops, the grand caffs, the magnificent buildings, the brilliant illuminations, the long lines of trees and lamps, the people sitting in the open air, at neat little marble tables, taking their wine, smoking cigars, or sipping their coffee, under the trees, the handsome French waiters, with their clean napkins and their polite attentions, the orderly conduct of the French people, the soldiers in their gay costumes, the women in their neat dresses and pretty white caps. To us, it is fairyland. We remark that there cannot be anything like it in the world. We return by ’bus, get to our loyements, and to bed at 11, to sleep ! perchance to dream ! I woke early in the morning. I can’t say I slept well, for the excitement of the previous day made me very wakeful, it being my first night in a strange city, hundreds of miles away from home. I found also that the partitions in our rooms were so slight that the least move-’ ment or talking in the next apartment could be distinctly heard, as though it was in the same room. Having breakfasted at a caff near, and having learned to take my coffee out of a basin with a table spoon, I got a weekly ticket for the Exposition, entered through “ Porte Rapp,” and soon found the British Workman’s Hall, a nice comfortable room, fitted with every convenience for reading, writing, meeting friends, making appointments, and obtaining every information. This I consider a great boon to a stranger in a strange land. Having seen Mr. Haussoullier, to whom I PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. had a card of introduction, also Mr. Glazier, with one or two others I had met in London, I fell in with Mr. Lucraft, who told me a party was going to pay a visit to the Hotel de Ville, headed hv a guide. It appears that this is the only difficult place in Paris to get a sight of, as it requires a special permission from the “ Pr6fet de la Seine,” so, previous to starting, Mr. L. and myself entered the third gallery to see some of the furniture, I being in the cabinet line, he in the chair business. Just as we got to the French department, and were admiring a beautiful cabinet purchased for the South Kensington Museum, we heard a little commotion to our right ; it was the Empress of France. I was agreeably surprised to find myself so close to Her Majesty, but how much more w T as I in noticing the admirable conduct of the visitors in the building — no pushing, no crowding, no policeman to drive us back, no shouting to clear the way — although there were plenty of officials in all parts of the building — everyone quietly stood and formed a passage. As Her Majesty passed we raised our hats ; she smiled and bowed, and conversed with tw T o gentlemen and three ladies who accompanied her, and occasionally stopped to notice or admire some beautiful work of art. I must here notice that Her Majesty was dressed plain and neat, in black silk and lace. Had we not heard it whispered by our side that it was the Empress, we should not have known her from any other private lady. Thus on my first visit to the Exposition did I remark with surprise the contrast between the polite conduct and good sense of the French, and what I have experienced among my own countrymen in London. After this I went with Mr. L. and a party of 50 to the Hotel de Ville. We enter the building two by two. I have never seen the inside of the Mansion House in London, and therefore cannot form a comparison. I remarked to an English lady present, who could speak French, that it was very grand, very astonish- ing to me : “ Oh,” said she, “ it is all gilded rubbish, not worth coming to see and she wondered why they made such a fuss over it by com- pelling us to go through so much trouble to get inside. However, she recommended me to go to Versailles, where I should be highly gratified. Left the Hotel de Ville, crossed over to the Tower of St. Jacques, mounted its 300 steps, and were well rewarded for our exertions by having a fine view of Paris — the river with its numerous bridges. How clear everything is to view ! No smoke, no London smuts, as they burn wood, not coal. Not far from us is the ancient cathedral of Notre Dame. We descend and visit this quaint-looking structure. We notice that the coachmen in driving through the streets keep the right-hand side ; and the conductors of the omnibuses have a seat, which lifts up and down, at the door. They do not stand all the time, as in London, nor call out to the people ; nor do they chaff one another as they pass, to the great annoyance of passengers in our civilised country. I cannot help being struck with the marked contrast between the well-ordered conduct of the public streets and public buildings to what I am accustomed to at home. Myself and two friends (who, by the bye, are only casual acquaintances, having fallen in with each other in the train, en route), return by omnibus to the Exposition, where we mee-t some English, Irish, and Scotch excursionists, and I accidentally fell in with a gentleman whom I had seen with the committee on one occasion 4 artisans’ reports on the at the office of the Society of Arts. I made myself known to him, telling him of the pleasure I had experienced so far, and how thankful I was to the Society for having enabled me to realise a dream of years, and which I could not have accomplished without their aid. He very kindly offered to escort us through the grounds, and away out through the grand entrance, over the Pont de Jena. We mounted that wide flight of steps, and away we marched to the Arc de Triomphe. It being a very fine night we walked on, inquiring and talking, getting as much information as possible of the wonders of Paris, until we got to the Parc de Mon- ceaux, the gentleman very kindly pointing out and explaining everything of interest by the way. On the road we hear signs of merriment in the distance ; presently we see a van approaching, full of joyous workmen in blouses ; they are singing French songs ; the van is hung round with Chinese lanterns ; they are going home, sober and happy, from some excursion. I think for the moment of a similar scene in London ; had they gone through Holborn in this same manner, hundreds of boys would have followed and roared and shouted, and would have smashed every lantern on the van ; here the people simply looked and smiled as they passed. Again, I thought of a party of British workmen returning from a bean-feast, as I have often seen them, roaring drunk, swearing, and bawling, and stopping at every “ public” to drink, and “ drive dull care away.” It may be considered by some, that having only just arrived in Paris, I am suddenly carried away in favour of the Parisians, and am com- mencing my criticisms too soon on my English life and manners. How- ever, I must say, that the few hours’ experience I had in the French capital on my arrival, soon made me ashamed of my boorish manners, and I felt that I had entered a school where I had everything to learn over again. We stop and enter a pretty -looking refreshment booth ; it is called a German brasserie, a charming little place, light, airy, and lit with handsome chandeliers, tables and seats arranged each side of the interior ; we raise our hats as we enter, after the French fashion (which I am now beginning to learn), and take a seat ; a clean, polite g argon (or waiter) brings us some “ bock,” which, in appearance and taste, is not unlike our bottled ale. I notice around me men with wives, or com- panions, and courting couples, taking light refreshments, playing at dominoes, or in pleasant conversation, all so quiet, so orderly, so different from anything like it in London. I contrast this tastefully-decorated place and its well-behaved company, with some of those places in the City-road, near the Eagle, where the people sit in those long, miserable- looking gardens, on nasty, dirty benches, smoking long pipes, and empty- ing numberless pots of porter, till twelve o’clock, and they are turned out by the potman, to reel and roll their way home as best they can. From thence we go to a large, handsome caff, called the Caff Delta. We enter a large room, elegantly furnished ; it contains fifteen billiard tables ; at one end is a raised counter, on which are beautiful flowers ; behind are ladies seated, who take the cash ; at the sides are tables and stuffed settees, covered in velvet ; we have coffee, brandy, and cigars, and, sitting at our ease, we watch the company. Here are workmen in blouses playing at billiards with gentlemen in black coats ; others are sitting. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 5 with wives and companions, at the tables, taking coffee and playing at dominoes. I notice here the contrast between the workmen of Paris and London. In Paris the workman does not spend his whole evening sitting in a dirty tap-room, leaving his wife and family at home to do the best they can. No ! In Paris the workman can enjoy his game of billiards in an elegantly-furnished room, in company with gentlemen of education and refined manners, and his wife can sit in the same place, taking a cup of coffee, play an innocent game of dominoes, or chat with a friend, and then go home sober, none the worse for the evening’s entertainment. Here some will say, “ A very questionable place of entertainment for a workman and his wife, who ought to be at home, attending to their household duties, or in some better w T ay improving their minds.” Let it not he supposed for one moment that I am in favour of all leisure time being spent in unprofitable amusement ; I simply wish, in reporting what I have seen here, and in commenting thereon, to draw a com- parison between the low, vulgar, and degrading allurements of our London tap-rooms — and to w T hich my class, unfortunately, too often resort — and the more temperate, refined, and therefore more elevating character of the amusements of the same class in Paris. It is now getting late ; we have a long walk home ; we separate, highly gratified with all we have seen this day, more especially with the company of the gentleman from the Society of Arts, who so kindly gave us an insight into much of French life and manners, and explained so much we wanted to know in so short a time. My third day in Paris, and I have appointed to meet a party of cabinet and chair makers, upholsterers, &c., to visit several of the largest workshops in Paris. My friend Mr. Lucraft and a guide take the lead, and we start by omnibus to the Bastille. We first visit the firm of Jeanselme, Fils, Godin et Cie., Rue Harlay, 7 and 9 au Marais. This is a remarkable firm ; the father of the present proprietor came into Paris in wooden shoes, and only thirty sous in his pocket. After a life of perseverance and industry, he died worth five million francs, was decor- ated with the Legion of Honour, which we saw, with other gold and silver medals, in a glass case, on entering the show-rooms. After being introduced to the head of the establishment, one of the foremen is appointed to escort us through the vast buildings ; we walk through show-room after show-room, in which we see furniture in endless variety of shape, colour, and design , I admired the arrangement of everything. We pass on to the workshops : 1st, the upholstery, where the stuffing is done, and where the women are at work on silk, and damask, and tapestry, making draperies and curtains, &c. We enter the cabinet shops ; here I am chiefly interested. I have now learned to raise my hat as I enter the door ; I see aged, bald-headed men in spectacles with the young and middle-aged at the bench. I shake them cordially by the hand, and make signs to them that I know what it is to use the saw and the plane, the mallet and the chisel. How I wished we were all of one language, so that we might communicate our thoughts to each other. I notice the cleanliness and good order of everything. Our trade in London is a very dirty business — veneering, glazing, and cleaning off especially — and we wear aprons which, at the end of the week, our 6 artisans’ reports On TliE wives say are very dirty. Here I noticed the men wore no aprons, only the blouse, or work in trousers and shirt alone. The clean appearance of men, tools, and benches, were notable. We talk in England a good deal about the dirty foreigners — to my surprise, the whole time I was in Paris, I scarcely ever met with a dirty face, a ragged dress, or bare feet ; what a contrast to what we are accustomed to every day in the streets of London. Here I found benches much the same as our own, a slight difference in the shape of tools, but every convenience for facilitating the progress of work ; they have more jointing than we have, as the stuff they use in carcass-work is very narrow and hard, whereas we use wide soft pine. In shape -work the wood is cut by machinery as well as by hand, and very close and fine, so that in cleaning off it only requires the scrape and glass-paper to finish. They are evidently so accustomed to the use of the frame-saw (for I noticed no other kind) that they are expert in all lands of what we call shaped work, and in this I consider they are superior to us. We next visit the carvers. Here we saw the superiority of the French workmen in design and skill ; it appeared to me at the time, in noticing all I saw, that these people must be born with a natural taste for all that is graceful and beautiful in nature and art. I saw carvings that seemed to me to be impossible to have been done with tools, but must have grown into shape and form, they were so delicate and chaste ; and these men, how gentlemanly in their manners, although in blouses. The foreman, a fine, stout-looking man, in a blouse, so kind, so affable ; our guide tells him and them how pleased we are at all we have seen, and how proud to be able to pay them a visit ; how happy we should be to meet them in London and do the same by them ; that our only object in extending these visits is to pro- mote and encourage kind feelings and generous sympathy and good-will between the two nations, and not only between England and France but all nations, that we may know and feel by practical experience we are all brethren. After this we visited the firm of H. Fourdinois, Rue Amelot, 46. They were not busy, and the men had gone to their dejeuner. They have been awarded the gold medal, and it is they who exhibit the beautiful cabinet in the Exhibition, purchased for the South Kensington Museum, at a cost, I hear, of £3,000. We next go to M. Racault et Cie., Rue du Faubourg St. Antoine, 76, another notable firm. Our guide told us that it was chiefly owing to the men in this firm the breaking out of the Revolution in ’48 ; the men were discontented at the high price of bread and the lowness of wages, so they struck work ; this caused a commotion, which increased until it became what we all know, “ the Revolution of 1848.” Before entering this establish- ment our guide told us he could not go any longer without his dinner, and, as we all felt hungry and fatigued, we adjourn to a “ restaurant.” It being a first-floor room, facing the street, I have opportunity to notice a good deal from the window, which, by-the-bye, is not a sash, to lift up and down, but a casement, thrown wide open, to admit as much air as possible, and fitted outside with Venetian blinds, as all the houses are in Paris. At the end of the street, named the Rue St. Antoine, the great barricade was formed on which the Archbishop lost his life in ’48. Our guide here related many incidents connected with that event, which PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 7 to us was very interesting. It is a busy street. I note the passers-by ; two women with barrows are below, crying fruit, grapes, &c., tbeir beads bound in bandkercbiefs, but they are clean, and wear strong shoes, and their clothes, though poor and patched, are not in rags. How strange everything looks to me — porters with their loads in frames on their backs, so constructed as to carry with ease ; a woman carrying six feet of bread on her arm ; soldiers, on horseback and on foot ; how smart they look, and how important, with their hands in their baggy trousers and showy coats ; they walk so easy, as though they felt it an honour and not a disgrace to be a military man ; priests also, in twos and fours, walking, chatting, laughing, in their peculiar costume, oftentimes carry- ing their large, curiously-shaped hats in their hands, because of the heat; nuns carrying bags and baskets ; and women, neatly dressed, wearing every variety of the clean, white, starched caps. In this street live a number of workmen who occupv floors and do their work at home. I notice over each floor a sign, with a representation of the trade painted on it, among which are many in my own line. Having recruited our strength, we leave, and enter a large gateway, to see the shojis of M. Racault et Cie. ; this is a large firm ; they usually employ from five to six hundred hands in all the branches, in and out of doors — sixty carvers, cabinet-makers in proportion, about 150 men and women upholsterers. Cabinet-makers I find to be the worst-paid men in France, as at home, averaging four to six francs per day ; carvers and upholsterers, six francs; women two and a-half francs. They generally work by the piece, about ten hours per day, but they go earlier to work than us, commencing at six, breakfast eleven, back at twelve, leave about half-past five to dine, when they have done for the day ; they have only two regular meals. I do not think they work so hard as we do; they evidently take life easier, appear more gay in manner, and are livelier in their work ; there seemed to be more freedom, more equality in manners between men and foremen and their employers. I noticed this difference between the men in the workshops of Paris and London. Here we have foremen and overlookers w T ho wear fine cloth, and decorate their persons with jewellery, and to w 7 hom we are expected to look up as to some one very superior to our- selves, because they carry a pen behind their ear, although they often- times know no more of the practical part of work than the clothes they wear. In Paris the foreman appeared in the same garb as the men — the blue blouse common to both ; each one treated the other with proper respect, as became the office he fulfilled ; you were not disgusted with either the pride of the one or the degrading servility of the other; each man knew his place and kept it. Oh ! 1 many times while in Paris blushed for my countrymen ! The boys serve three or four years in the trade, and have better advantages for getting an art education than we have. All the schools are open to them where the higher branches are taught, and they are not kept, as our boys, to simply reading, writing, and arithmetic ; the art galleries and museums are all open free to them, Sundays and week days, so that they imbibe a taste for art and refined behaviour before they can read or write. I watched two boys, one about twelve years, carving some wood in antique, and was told it was quite common to see them at this kind of work so early. In passing 8 artisans’ reports on the through the shops in this establishment, we occasionally get a group of workmen around us, when comparisons are made between our tools and theirs, which is interpreted by our guide. We find they prefer Bir- mingham and Sheffield steel, and we were shown tools from London which they considered superior to their own. As I have remarked be- fore, I consider them more proficient in shaped work, but in preparing, fitting, and finishing carcases and inside work, drawers and dovetailing, we are decidedly superior ; of course, I admit of exceptions. In that branch of cabinet work to which I have been most accustomed, viz., bookcases, wardrobes, &c., what we call carcass work, ‘it is admitted ours is more substantial, better put together, and finished cleaner than the French ; our dovetailing and drawer work is much neater as a rule. Our work of this class is mostly straight, plain, and square, with carved work introduced to enrich or add to its expense ; this might often be left out without spoiling the design. But in French work of this class, it is generally of such a peculiar shape that the carving introduced could not be abandoned without spoiling the design altogether. I will here remark that I am not an advocate for heavy, massive, clumsy furniture, of which I have seen much in London, and which is supposed to be so very substantial ; for I and others have found to our cost, in removing such from house to house, the tearing of flesh, the straining of limbs (even to the breaking sometimes of a blood-vessel), in lifting and carry- ing ; the damaging of walls, the crashing and smashing in loading and un- loading, have often made me wish that our furniture was as light, as graceful, and as portable as it is generally manufactured in France. I cannot see the necessity of making a piece of furniture, which requires to be often removed, as strong and as heavy as an iron safe, which, when fixed, is supposed to remain firm for ever. Here I will give the palm to the French for not building immense structures of massive wood, and calling them bookcases, wardrobes, and bedsteads, or cabinets, that require a whole army of porters to remove them when required. 1 believe our furniture might be made more light and portable, without being weak and trashy, as no doubt much that is made in London for rapid sale is too often proved to be. The workman is too often blamed and censured for bad work, when the fault is in having to use bad, un- seasoned material. A man may make a handsome bookcase, or a ward- robe ; the carcass shall be put together strong, joints so close as to deceive the naked eye ; morticing, tenoning, and dovetailing very fine, that it would appear to have grown together ; it goes home, and after a month’s wear in a warm room, joints fly, wood cracks and shakes open, tenons get loose, and dovetailing falls to pieces; the customer and em- ployer come down on the poor workman for having made such an abominably bad piece of work, when it is all through the neglect or obstinacy of either foreman or employer in not putting proper material in the workman’s hand. I believe a cabinet-maker has more to contend with in this respect than other trades, for if the wood is not well-seasoned and sound, the best workman’s toil is labour in vain. Having left the workshops, and thanked and rewarded our guide for his exertions on our behalf, we separated. I returned to our logements completely worn out with going through such vast establishments. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 9 Having a weekly ticket, I paid early visits to the Exposition. I found it less crowded in the mornings, and I had a better opportunity for examining its contents. One day I determined to devote to Gallery III. alone, first visiting the English part, in which I found some fine specimens of British cabinet work. Wright and Mansfield, of Great Portland-street, exhibit an elegant and chaste piece of work they call a cabinet, in satin wood and gold ; carving good ; a gem. They have been awarded, as they deserve, the gold medal ; this excellent piece of work is valued at £1,400. Dyer and Watts, Northampton-street, exhibit a bedroom suite, wardrobe dressing-table, and cheval glass, of pine, stained and grained to imitate satin-wood, inlaid. I should judge this to be the finest specimen of stained wood, as it quite deceives the eye, and is well finished. It has been purchased by the Empress. Jackson and Graham have three cabinets in ebony, inlaid with ivory, £2,000 ; unequalled specimens, deserving a gold medal. I find they are excluded, on account of forming part of the Jury. Heal and Son deserve special notice for their beautiful bedroom suite, £1,500, satin-wood and gold; hangings of blue silk reps, lined with white silk, gold colour ; fringe and trimmings in excellent taste. Hunter, Moorgate-street, bronze medal ; wardrobe, dressing-table of inlaid coloured wood, £450. Smee and Son, a very fine dressing- table, satin-wood, £150. Filmer and Son, Berners -street, ottoman in crimson and gold, forms, when separated, two settees and two easy chairs, the design much approved, and purchased by the King of Prussia. Our British exhibitors have a preference for satin-wood and gold ; it looks very rich and chaste. In the French department ebony is all the rage, whole suites of bedroom furniture black entirely, but richly carved. Roll, Rue du Faubourg, an ebony bedstead, wardrobe, and cabinet, 22,000 fr. G. Grohe, 4, Avenue Villars, employ 600 hands, chiefly out-doors : an ebony cabinet, brass mountings, £1,000 ; made for the Empress. A very beautiful cabinet, ebony, 17,000 fr., P. Sounaine, 10, Rue Ohaillot. But the richest specimens in cabinets, and the most elegant and graceful design in draperies, are exhibited by II. Fourdinois, Rue Amelot, 46, gold medal. They have the cabinet pur- chased for the South Kensington Museum, and it is decidedly a perfect gem. The ground is dark wood, and the carving light, but there is this peculiarity in the work, the carving is not planted on, but inlaid, the wood being quite cut through, and, when all glued together, forms one solid mass. This piece of work I consider to be the perfection of cabinet work. Their beautiful bedstead, carved and overlaid with gold, curtains and draperies of rich tapestry, is a masterpiece of upholstery work. While noticing my own particular trade, I wish to draw attention to what I consider a most complete specimen of drawing-room and boudoir decoration, both in cabinet and upholstery work, viz., the Emperor’s Pavilion in the Exhibition grounds. The exquisite taste and beautiful design here exhibited cannot be excelled. In hanging draperies and curtains, I consider the French throw us completely in the shade. I I have had much to do in fixing cornices, curtains, &c., and have always objected to the English fashion of having curtains a yard longer than to touch the ground. This is a waste of material, most slovenly and dirty 10 artisans’ reports on the in appearance and wear. Thus, we never can loop our curtains with that graceful and elegant taste in which the French excel. Agjiin, our cornices and draperies seldom correspond, and never look finished or complete. Here we are manifestly deficient in art design, and in this it is that the French workman’s taste for art comes into full play. He knows how to arrange and fold his draperies with such elegant taste, to give such graceful sweeps and easy falls, to loop up with proper regard to length and breadth, height and depth, that, when finished, and every part united, it forms one grand whole and complete design. The arrangement of the furniture in the Pavilion is so perfect ; a place for everything and everything in its place is here carried out to the letter. After criticising every part most minutely, I came away satisfied that, amidst this splendid array of ottomans and settees, vases, tripods, candelabra, chandeliers, tapestry, and glass, marble, and gold, there was nothing deficient, nothing in excess, that everything was in perfect harmony, and expressed the most exquisite taste. One curious circum- stance occurred to me, while going through Gallery VI., where there are exhibited some iron safes. I stood in front of a very large, heavy -looking one, of French manufacture, with a double set of doors, which were open ; all the tongues of the locks were visible. I examined every part of the doors, but could see no sign or place for the key. I motioned to the attendant to show me where the key should be put. He smiled, and gave me to understand it was a secret. I thought of the time when I had puzzled some hundreds of persons in the North and West London Industrial Exhibitions, where I exhibited a small cabinet of my own invention, fitted with doors and drawers, and all fastened with one lock. How I placed the key over it, with an inscription, “ Here is the key, where is the keyhole ?” I am happy to say no one ever discovered where the lock was inserted, neither did they ever find the keyhole. During my repeated visits to the Exposition I went through every gallery, and afterwards passed through nearly every building in the park ; also the reserved garden, with its neat walks, its horticultural shows, and aqua- rium. I then devoted my attention more particularly to the people, their manners, customs, religious observances, and their amusements. I visited numerous churches, which I found open every day. They are wonderful specimens of architectural grandeur and decorative art. I attended high mass on a Sunday morning at the Madeleine, and was much pleased to notice no distinction between rich and poor. Chairs were for the use of all. The poor man in the blouse and the woman in cotton dress and plain cap knelt side by side with broad cloth and velvet and satin and lace. All were kindly treated. 1 admired their devotion and attention, and, from inquiries I made on the spot of English Catholics, I found that they w^ere most grossly misrepresented by us and our Protestant teachers. I visited the public gardens, where I saw all sorts and conditions of people. The affability, good humour, and respectful demeanour of all classes to each other — so very different to what I am accustomed in London — was my constant theme of admira- tion. The polite salutation whenever they met and spoke, no matter in what grade of life, high or low. I often asked myself, and others whom I met, where are the Paris roughs ? Everyone here seemed not only PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 11 smooth, hut highly polished. No matter how great the crowd, or what the society, there was nothing to annoy or disturb the most sensitive mind. I visited the theatres. One was the Porte St. Martin. How different the arrangement and conduct of the people to our London theatres. Outside were long wooden barriers, where the people stood waiting quietly to take their tickets. There was no pushing, no shouting. Everyone kept their place quite orderly, and perfectly satisfied with their position, and followed each other like children in a school procession. When we had entered and taken our seats they became our property for the evening, no matter how full the house might be, numbers having to stand to get a view of the stage, as is the case in all crowded houses ; there was no grumbling, no calling out, “ Hats off,” “ Sit down in front,” every one kept his place and seemed content. If you left your seat and went out a dozen times during the evening no one attempted to occupy it, you always found it waiting for you on your return — another remarkable contrast between them and us, and how different to a Drury -lane or a Sadler’s Wells audience. And here I must note I believe the managers of our public places of entertainment are much to blame ; they know what dreadful crowding there is if their entertainment is at all attractive ; how often have lives and limbs been sacrificed through this evil. Why don’t they take pattern by the French, and construct barriers, and so teach the people how to behave themselves ; and not only teach them but compel them, by the presence of an officer, to keep order and enter properly, as I found to be the rule in every public building in Paris ? I had heard that the French were passionately fond of dancing, so in company with two friends I visited some of their balls. We did not go to the expensive places, such as the Jardin Mabille, or the Chateau des Fleurs, but con- tented ourselves with those where we should be likely to meet with the workpeople of Paris. At one we paid half a franc admission ; at another for the price refreshment was included. A large decorated room, lit with chandeliers, and a raised orchestra for the band, a barrier all round that part devoted to the dance ; at the sides, refreshment-tables and seats. Here, certainly, we saw dancing far more exciting than anything seen in a similar place in London ; the people seemed to enter into the pleasure of it with a determination to give full action to arms and legs ; every variety of movement it was possible to throw the body into was done with a vigour, which, when concluded, made them sit down quite exhausted, until the music recommenced, when they were up and at it again, as though their very lives depended upon it. One was a soldier’s ball, but I have never seen soldiers dance like it in England ; we say/ them do the “ cancan,” a most expressive if not a very elegant style of dance — but with it all there was perfect order — no one molested or inter- fered with us during our stay or when we rose to leave, which I don’t think would have been the case had it occurred in London. Here, then, we feel the pleasure of being able to go any and everywhere without experiencing insult or annoyance, to which we are so often subject in our own country. What, then, is the cause of all this ? Is it the climate, the government, the education, or the good sense of the people ? Having come over to Paris with a determination to make myself as fully acquainted as possible in the time with Parisian life, I rose early, 12 artisans’ reports on the and got to bed time enough to snatch a few hours’ rest ; I devoted every day to some fresh pursuit, and so managed not to waste time. I visited nearly all the public buildings and places of interest, mounted the Arc de Triomphe with its 280 steps ; the Tower of St. Jacques, 300 ditto ; the Column Venddme, 167 ditto ; the Column of July, 230 ditto ; and the Tower of Notre Dame, 390. I took ’bus rides through all the principal boulevards and streets, steam-boat from the Exposition to the Jardin des Plantes; visiting the gardens, menagerie, and wine -market ; I did not omit looking in at the Morgue, where I saw one dead body, a fine, strong- looking man, apparently forty years of age, lying there to be owned ; here I did not remain long ; a sickening sensation came over me, so I turned away. first Sunday I spent at Versailles, visiting the Palace, with its wonderful picture galleries, its marble columns, gilded cornices, and painted ceilings ; its golden theatre, and beautiful chapel. Then the Park, with its lakes and fountains, its trees and flowers, aud statuary, its shady groves, and quiet ^retreats ; the Trianons, which contain so much of interest, while they recall scenes of joy and regret. Of Versailles and its wonders I can only say, it must be seen to be believed. Its magni- ficence, so costly, exceeds all I had dreamed of, and words fail me to give anything like an adequate description. My second Sunday, in the afternoon, I went to St. Cloud ; this was a grand fete day : it had commenced on the Sunday previous, and lasted a fortnight. After walking through the beautiful park, from which there is a fine view of Paris, we descended to that part where the fete (or fair) was held. I will try to give a description : — Fancy the broad walk in Kegent’s-park lined each side from end to end with stalls containing every kind of fancy article it is possible to mention ; all sorts of eatables and drinkables, hot and cold (for cooking was going on), and in the centre of this long avenue, a broad open space, filled with shows, roundabouts, swings, and booths in endless variety. There were to be seen, at charges ■within the reach of all classes, tragedy and comedy, dancing, tumbling, and balancing, feats of legerdemaiu, and peeps into futurity. In all directions were to be heard the sound of trumpets, the thundering of drums, the beating of gongs, the ringing of bells, and the laughter of the people. Hundreds of every class, from the noble to the peasant, were continually arriving by rail, by omnibus, by boat, — a happy mixture of pleasure -seeking, well-behaved men, women, and children, of every grade in Parisian life. Here, again, were rich and poor, fine cloth, and the everlasting blue blouse, silk, and the white starched cap, soldiers, and priests, and nuns, in their sombre garb, and amidst this crowd of gay, pleasure-loving people, you could move to and fro with the greatest ease, comfort, and good humour, nothing to annoy, irritate, or disgust ; no driving here, or pushing there ; no insult ; no practical jokes ; every one’s good sense appeared to me to teach them that they had met to enjoy themselves in their own fashion on their leisure day; and from experience I say they never once forgot their native politeness and courteous manners, the whole time I spent at this grand fete. And this was Sunday, the 15th of September. In my boyhood I have been to English fairs ; in my manhood, with my family, I have visited Crystal PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 13 Palace Dramatic Fetes ; I have gone to Hampton Court, to Greenwich, at holiday and other times, hut never, in all my experience, did I so thoroughly enjoy the society of the people as I did these Parisians on this notable Sunday evening ; and why, because every man, woman, and child acted on this principle, that to be happy, and to enjoy life rationally, is to abandon all selfishness, but not self-respect, carrying out to the letter the motto — the greatest happiness to the greatest number. On the grass, beneath the shade of trees, were to be seen old men and matrons, watching groups of young men and maidens, playing at all sorts of innocent and healthful games ; some throwing, running, and catching large indiarubber balls, others playing at “ touch the wood,” and “ touch about aged men in the blouse, and their partners in the high-crowned cap, with little baskets of provisions on their arms, were running and laughing, and trying to catch each other, as though they had forgotten their long years of life, and were returned to youth again ; some were taking quiet walks down the shady groves, while others were seated enjoying pleasant conversation, and viewing the happy, innocent amusements around ; this, I wish to observe, was at a short distance from the excitement of the fete, and the din and noise of the shows, which could be heard in the valley below. After wandering through this large park, and admiring the Royal CMteau (for the Imperial family were staying there, so that we could not enter as on other occasions), we returned to the fete , now most brilliantly illuminated with lamps and Chinese lanterns, &c . : we stood in front of a large roundabout, where old and young were riding in cars and on wooden horses, and at an im- mense speed. I encountered a party from my own country. “ What would they say in England ?” I remarked. “ Well said,” was the reply. “ What would they say, indeed ! But is there anything to find fault with ? Have you seen any riotous conduct, any drunkenness, impudence, any fighting, quarrelling, or indecent behaviour of any kind ?” None of us could say we had ; and for my own part I had gone into almost every nook and corner of the fair, on purpose to see and judge for myself. It was now dark, the brilliant illuminations and the fine starlight night added to the pleasure and comfort of the scene. We entered a large booth, adorned with coloured lamps, of which there were several, fitted for a ball, paying half-a-franc at the entrance, where there was a retiring room, for leaving hats, mantles, umbrellas, &c. We found ourselves in a prettily -fitted room, large and lofty ; the floor was boarded, the walls and roof composed of striped canvas, from which hung flags of all nations. I counted thirty chandeliers. In the centre was a raised orchestra, with full band ; at the sides, stuffed ottomans, where we could sit and view the dance, and at the end of the ballroom a refreshment room, where light refreshments were served, as ordinary wine, coffee, and pleasant cooling drinks ; nothing intoxicating, nothing to make men worse than beasts, or women to forget their proper position ; and this is on Sunday night ! Let me contrast this scene with what I have often witnessed in London, and what was to be seen at that same hour. Here were old and young, grave and gay, fathers and mothers, seated, watch- ing their sons and daughters enjoying the quadrille, polka, and the valse. There was not the least impropriety exhibited, nothing low, vulgar, or 14 : ARTISANS’ REPORTS ON THE offensive ; here, at least, was none of that wild kind of dance we had witnessed at the soldiers’ ball : courtesy, politeness, and affability was the rule ; and when the dance was over young men led their partners to a seat, or took them to the refreshment room, until the music struck up again, and they re-engaged in this delightful pastime to their heart’s content. In London, on that same night and at the same hour, were to be seen some shops closed, and many churches and chapels open, it is true ! but monster gin palaces, blazing with gas, and filled with thirsty souls, standing in crowds round the bar, drinking, sweating, roaring, swearing, cursing — aye, and fighting, amid a frightful display of dirt, filth, and misery. Where were the same class of people at this hour in my country w T lio were here enjoying harmless recreation at St. Cloud, five miles from Paris ? And what were the attractions offered them to lighten their toil, to improve their health, to renovate their strength, and prepare them for the coming week ? Crowded streets they might walk through, but not planted with trees, under which they could sit and rest when tired ; great glaring pothouses they might enter, where they could stand at the bar, adding thirst to thirst, and drown care in burning gin, muddy porter, or frothy beer, and listen to what ! music ? No : swearing and indecent conversation. See dancing ? Oh no ! but encounter dirty men, and ragged, slovenly women, and shoeless children, spending their last copper, to return home to filth and misery and wretchedness again. Again, if this did not meet their approval, what was their next choice ? A London coffee-house. But to sit in a close confined space, so very different to the open cheerful French caf6, and drink coffee as made at home, and pore over a newspaper or a penny periodical on a Sunday night. How very delightful to a man or woman confined all the week in a dreary workshop ! Well, what next ? Here are other places,— High Church and Low Church, Methodist and Baptist, Independent and Latter-day Saints, where perhaps you may sleep away your time under some long, drowsy, uninteresting sermon, ofttimes read or spoken in such a peculiar tone, painful to the ear and wearisome to the brain. Or you may listen to loud denunciations against all that is lovely and beautiful in nature and art, being told it is all vanity ; or be condemned as hardened wicked sinners fighting against God, and rushing on to eternal damnation ! for what ? why for not doing just what this or that particular sect may think is the most proper em- ployment for the human soul. Or you may enter a lecture -hall, but not if you value your character. You will be denounced as a freethinker! it may be an infidel ! Woe be to the man who should have this stigma attached to his name ! We now return home from the fete ; people are gathering at the rail- way station ; they have purchased or won at the lotteries toys for the children ; they are blowing whistles, trumpets, or imitating the crowing of cocks, on curious instruments made of shells ; they are laughing, chatting, still joyous ! not a drunkard is to be seen ! And there is no loud noise, nor disagreeable confusion, but the same pleasant, happy excite- ment ; they are evidently satisfied with the day’s pleasure, and will be able to say on the morrow that “ the evening’s amusement will bear the morning’s reflection.” PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 15 Without being too lengthy in my remarks, and wishing to pen only the truth, I am anxious to relate facts, without exaggeration, as they were experienced by me daily while in Paris. I have thought it of more importance to notice the social habits of the people, especially in my own class, than to dwell so much on comparisons in work, of which every man may have a different opinion. I had heard so much in my time of the wickedness, immorality, and dirtiness of the French people, their in- difference to decency and moral habits, their irreligion and impiety, and, lastly, their want of freedom, the tyranny exercised over them, and how very thankful I ought to feel, born in England and in a Christian land ! that for years I had longed for the opportunity to go and judge for my- self. I went, therefore, with a determination to explore, as far as possible in the time allotted me, the habits and customs of this people. I remember one day, while wandering through by myself alone that charm- ing place, the Bois de Boulogne, I accidentally fell in with an English widow lady, who could speak French, and who, like myself, was a stranger there, and had lost her way. We met a French gentleman, to whom she addressed herself. He kindly offered to escort and show us everything worrh seeing in this remarkable forest. They both entered freely into conversation, and the lady kindly interpreted to me. I told her of my visit, fehe replied that she could see from my appearance and manner that I was a respectable English mechanic, and she would always prefer the company of such to many who were called gentlemen, but who very often were too polite. We conversed on the great contrast between the working class here and at home. How was it that in Paris a work- man in his blouse could sit with and enjoy the society even of the upper class, who were not ashamed to take wine or coffee with him, or play at a game, in a grand caff. In London, I said, there were men of my own class, in my own trade, whom I found it impossible to associate with out of the shop ; how much more were they separated from the educated and refined. We both agreed that the great fault must be in the training of the people. In our country, unhappily, there is a bigoted set of un- enlightened enthusiasts predominant, who exclaim against all kind of innocent amusement. They do not aim at, or endeavour to get rid of, vicious pursuits alone, but they cry out against and condemn all what they call worldly vanities. They do not see that man must have some change to cheer and lighten his toils. Hence harmless recreation is not encouraged, and men fly from the workshop to something exciting, mad- dening, low, and therefore vicious, and which finds greater encourage- ment- from a certain class on account of the money made through it by those who are chiefly interested in its existence. After enjoying some delightful walks and scenes, and thanking them for their kindness and courtesy, I left. While returning on the omnibus I fell into conversa- tion with a Parisian, also who could speak English. I told him of the pleasure I had experienced in visiting Paris for the first time, and I asked him many questions with regard to my own class, for he also was a mechanic. I found that, taking the average of wage, rent, and living, it was much the same as in London ; but then they were not so crowded, their families not so large, and the population not so great in Paris as in London. A workman’s home here, which may consist of one room, as, 16 artisans’ reports on the unfortunately, is tlie rule in London, is differently managed, and has a neater appearance. The Frenchman’s natural taste for art leads him to make the best of outward things. Most chambers, as they are here called, have a recess, in which the bed is placed and concealed with a curtain by day. They cook in stoves instead of fire-places, and burn wood instead of coal. A French workman does not slave at his work : he takes it easy, and does not always expect to have meat and potatoes and pots of beer for his dinner, but often sits down to bread and grapes, with, perhaps, coffee, or wine diluted with water. Of course, the climate is different from ours, and I do not think, as a rule, men could work so hard there as in my own country. Yet, to look at their fine large build- ings and wonderful decorations, their statuary, carvings and gildings, massive columns and bronze lamps in the streets and open places, the pulling down and rebuilding, not omitting to mention the grand opera, now building, and nearly as large as St. Paul’s, but better situated ; the great fountains, at the side of which our squirts in Trafalgar-square would be pigmies ; their triumphal arches, columns, and obelisks ; one must confess that there are very hard-working men, even in the gay city of Paris. Here I wish to offer a few remarks on a most important subject, viz., workmen’s dwellings. I am a married man, having a wife and five children, and one of my greatest difficulties in London has been to find a suitable dwelling for my family. How often have I, when, through un- foreseen circumstances, compelled to remove from one part of the town to another, walked miles, and inquired at 50 places in a day, where I have seen the usual notice in the window “ Apartments furnished,” or, a “ 1st, 2nd, or 3rd floor to let.” On looking in, I have found the place suitable. Then would I be asked, Have you a family ? Yes. How many ? Five. Oli ! dear me, we could not think of taking you with children. And I have been looked at ofttimes by the lady of the house as though I were some monster in human form who dare expect to live in a decent house, and proclaim myself a father of a family. I know that great efforts have been made of late to remedy this state of things ; none but the wage class themselves can know — and they do know, this great evil, the want of a decent convenient home, where they can live in peace with their families. The Government of France, or the present Emperor, and to his honour let it be widely circulated, have devoted much time and attention to this subject. I believe his great popularity among the workmen is through his anxious endeavours to improve their moral and social condition, more especially in providing suitable dwellings for the people. The workmen of Paris object, and I think with reason, to the suburban dwellings. First, the distance between workshops and home ; 2nd, the separation from town society and amusements, especially by those who are fond of dramatic entertainments ; 3rd, the unpleasant if not injurious nature of the transit, morning and night, in a jolting hard-seated railway box, as proposed by having cheap travelling between the villages and the towns. Then the wives complain of the distance from the town markets — the shops — where they have the choice of lay- ing out their limited allowance of cash to the best advantage ; and both men and wives complain of not being able to meal together except on PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 17 the one day — Sunday. There are objections raised against our great model buildings, which they style “ caserne,” or “ barrack,” although I conceive that these objections may be overcome by improvements carried out in the construction of these buildings. It seems impossible, in a great populated city as London, where land is so dear, to do otherwise than carry up floor upon floor, as in the “ Peabody,” “ Waterlow,” and other buildings already constructed and so eagerly occupied. The workmen of Paris who have associated themselves together with a desire to carry out what they consider the best plan of construction in model buildings, and in which I am pleased to find they have been assisted by the Emperor, have erected a house in the Exposition grounds, and which I had the gratification of examining for myself. I also went through some constructed suitably for small manufacturers, or those workmen who do their work at home. While on this subject I wish to throw out a hint, or I may say give some advice, to our railway authorities with regard to the time of running workmen’s trains. There are hundreds of workmen in London who, like myself, do not go to the shop till eight in the morning. We work till seven, eight, or nine at night. We break- fast before we leave home or at a coffee -shop on the way. We would prefer, in many instances, to do as other trades who go at six and leave at half-past five, but cannot at present alter these trade arrangements. We get no higher wages — perhaps less than those in the building trade — and cannot afford to pay higher rent or more railway fare. Why can’t the companies allow us to travel in a third-class carriage, at season- able hours, by taking a weekly ticket at the same rate as the very early trains, and then we might be able to take the advantage of living outside the crowded city, to the health and comfort of ourselves and families ? I inquired about the liberties and freedom of the people in France. I was laughed at, and told that in my country we had plenty of liberty to work, and toil, and grumble, and drag up our families as best we could, and have scarcely any recreation ; but in France they had no need to grumble, everything was done to make the life of the workman happy, and he was respected and honoured as such. He could visit all the public buildings, gardens, and places of instruction and interest on Sundays and holidays ; he could live on cheap fruit, and drink light wholesome wines ; take cheap excursions by rail, boat or ’bus, to the many suburban districts, and was not confined to dirty, miserable, un- healthy quarters, as in London, shunned and despised because he is a workman. In Paris all society acknowledged him. He could sit in a clean blouse, in the grandest and gayest cafe, without meeting with the slightest annoyance or insult, even from an elegant waiter or gentleman garcon. “ So,” said my French companion, “ don’t laugh at or pity us ; we are content to enjoy all the good things we find here for our use, while you in your country are grumbling and working, and craving for those same things (and don’t get them), and for about fifteen years have been agitating all over your country simply to get a peep into your picture galleries and museums on a Sunday afternoon. In conclusion,” said he, “ we have laws, and you and every country have laws, to be obeyed for the benefit of the whole community; if we do what is right, and live in peace and harmony, what more do we want ?” But what of c 18 artisans’ reports on the your religion ? What does your church teach about all this I see and hear ? “ Our church,” said he, “ teaches us to pay our respect, our duty, and to offer our worship to God, the giver of all good, and this worship cannot he too high, lofty, or sublime ; hence,” said he, “ as we build palaces and decorate them with paintings and statuary, in honour of our great men, so do we build magnificent temples and decorate them with emblems in honour of Him who is the greatest of all. After we have first devoted ourselves to His worship, and attended to the duties of His holy religion, we feel perfect liberty to enjoy all the good and beautiful in nature and art, of which innocent recreation forms a part.” I twice visited the Gardens of the Tuileries at the time the military bands were playing, surrounded by hundreds of people seated in chairs, similar to what we have had of late in our London parks. Here, also, was the same varied collection and unity of all classes. I expected to meet with in Paris the most outrageous costumes, but was agreeably disappointed. There were plenty of ladies, but not over-dressed. In the streets I never met with such extravagant dressing as I have seen at home. It was evident to me that Paris fashions were only to be seen on paper, in shop windows, and not in the public places ; and here, also, sitting and listening to the delightful strains of the excellent band, was the ever-noticeable, by me, blue blouse of the mechanic. Our London workman (myself included) would feel ashamed to go into society unless he could wear a suit similar in appearance to his employer, and flash a little jewellery to correspond, but the Parisian I met with everywhere would be attired in a good pair of black trousers and vest, with a watch in his pocket, over this a clean blouse, and a cap, or “ wide-a-w^ake,” evidently proud to own himself one of the wage class. Hence there is not that difficulty with them to keep up a certain appearance, as in our country, where outward show is everything, and manners and good- breeding of very little consequence. I noticed also the children playing in the public places were not so noisy, rude, and rough as ours. Alas ! our poor children have not the advantage in this respect the children in Paris possess. It is true we have our parks, but think of the distance they are from the homes of the working population. We have squares in London similar to these public gardens and open places in Paris, and these are mostly within reach, but dare they be seen playing in them ? In Paris the children of all classes play in these public places ; they will sail their ships on the lakes, in the basins of the fountains, and toss their balls in the air ; and the people, the gentleman, the soldier, and the mechanic will play with them ; and here are flowers and trees, and music, and the children are so well trained that they do not annoy the visitors, or spoil the walks, or pluck the flowers ; and there are no beadles in gold lace to make them fly away in terror, as I have often seen near my own home in London. In these places are all kinds of out-door amusements, and men and women and children seem to enjoy them with much pleasure. “ Yes,” it will be said, “ the French are easily amused and soon gratified.” Well, give me the harmless fun of the light-hearted Frenchman in preference to much of the rough, vulgar, out-door practices of my London associates. One evening, going through the Tuileries gardens, I was gratified with a sight that so PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 19 astonished me, I exclaimed, “ Wonders here will never cease.” In one of the most public walks a gentleman was standing, surrounded hv about 150 small birds ; he was feeding them with crumbs. Chirruping and throwing it in the air, they would fly up, catch it in their bills, and sometimes perch on his hand ; they did not attempt to fly away, even when I stood close to them ! Comment on this is needless ; it was evident there was no necessity for the presence of an officer from the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. I visited the Louvre and the Luxembourg, going through the Fine Art galleries and museums. Here there were paintings and sculpture, by the greatest masters and artists of the age in which they lived. Nude figures were here to be seen in every attitude and position that art could devise. The human form was here exhibited in nature’s costume alone ; drapery was the exception, not the rule. Artists, both male and female, were copying, and painting, and modelling from those naked figures, free to the gaze of the many visitors, who passed to and fro through these wonderful palaces. The Parisian, with his wife, or sweetheart, or children were there, but so different in manner to many of our holiday folks in our museums on an Easter or Whitsun Monday. His taste and love of art lead him to look on only to learn more and admire. I sat where I could watch their countenances as they stood and gazed, but not the slightest trace of a rude smile or indecent gesture. The same opportunity I had of observation in the Fine Art gallery in the Exposition, and the same result. What a lesson for us, who pride ourselves so much on our good breeding. And here let me say, I am not so foolish as to suppose that all is perfection in Paris, and the reverse in London, yet I am bound to assert that we are very far behind in many most important things necessary to us as a civilised nation, and which we ought to be only too happy to learn, when the opportunity is afforded us to do so. On a certain day I visited the cemetery of Pere la Chaise, and here for once was disappointed. I had read a description of it, and its immense cost, and naturally expected to find it unequalled ; there were unquestionably fine monuments, an endless variety of little chapels, fitted with all the paraphernalia of the Roman Catholic faith — for the poorest graves were decorated with wreaths of immortelles, little statuary, and flowers and black wooden crosses — but the place was so crowded with all this, that after having seen our beautiful English cemeteries, I could not say I admired this half so much. On my way I met several funerals, and was pleased with the appearance and manner of their carrying out these last offices for those that are gone. The French show at least great taste in their respect for the dead. The open funeral car, with its drapery of black and silver, on which the coffin is placed, the handsome pall with the wreath of immortelles lying on it, the officials in cocked hats, &c., and the little biers with canopy, on which the dead children are carried to their last resting-place. The hanging of black cloth fringed with white over the door of both house and church where the religious service is performed, and the uncovering of the head as the procession passes, all show a feeling of reverence for the dead which I consider must lead to an improvement of the mind. 20 artisans’ reports on the But now to start from this to something of a very different character, and yet it is a subject which has occupied public attention for some considerable time. What of the social evil in Paris? Of this I cannot speak from experience, only from inquiry. I had opportunities and invitations given me to visit very questionable places, hut most respectfully declined the offers ; however, I was not backward in getting information. I had particularly noticed in my rambles, often late at night, the absence in the public streets of those gay ladies who at certain hours throng the Haymarket, Regent-street, and other places. At night the grand boulevards are crowded with visitors ; company of both sexes are to he seen sitting outside the caf6s, hut what of the ladies ? I could not distinguish them hy their manners as in any way approaching to rudeness or the boldness of that particular class. I was told they were to he found at the open-air concerts, the halls, the singing cafes ; at any rate I never noticed them in the public streets, nor was I accosted at the “ ’witching hour of night,” when one would expect most likely to meet them. I was told there were gay places where I might go and take my choice of any number to suit my taste, and spend what time and money I liked in their company without any danger of being insulted, robbed, or contracting any unpleasant consequences from my nocturnal visit. I was informed that they were licensed, and under the control of the governing powers, and that thus disease was prevented, life and property protected, which certainly is very different from the same kind of thing in London. I have often thought on this question, when we read and hear so much about the matter, why do not our moralists urge on the Government to take this evil in hand ? We all know that it cannot be annihilated, that it will exist and cannot be prevented. It might be kept within bounds, placed under proper restrictions, as in France, and then we need not be annoyed as we are in passing through our principal thoroughfares, by having those nasty pamphlets thrust in our hands every hour by those who make a trade of, and feed upon, the weakness and follies of mankind. Amongst some of the most notable places I visited in Paris was an immense building near the Chateau d’Eau. I entered a large gateway, and found myself in an open space laid out as a garden. The extensive building formed a square, with wide flights of stone stairs leading to gal- leries. On each floor were shops of every kind. Indeed, the trades were here well represented. I purchased some articles, and had a printed receipt. I found this was a new system of business, carried on, I believe, by “ Co-operation.” On this plan, recently started in Paris, the money invested by the purchaser, after a certain number of years, returns again to his own pocket. So it would seem that, if a man lived to the age of “ Methuselah,” a certain sum would last him for ever, as he would be only taking it out of one pocket and putting it in the other, and he would have the use and enjoyment of every article that same sum had purchased. This is “co-operation” on a grand scale. What an excellent thing for our working class, if such a system were adopted and carried out in England. I mean, more especially, “co-operation” between the employer and employed, capital and labour united for the general good, so that the toiler may get some share of the golden fruit PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 21 his skill has produced, and, in his old age, instead of dying of starvation, when the machine is nearly worn out and become so shaky as to be no longer fit for use, lie may not end his days in a “ curse house,” but be able, as in the long-looked-for and promised “ millenium,” to “ sit under his own vine and fig-tree, none daring to make him afraid.” There is an agitation going on just now in London for good, cheap, respectable dining halls. I visited several in Paris, only to be astonished, and to admire the manner in which they were conducted. M. Duval, the proprietor, has a number of elegant cafes, called “ Etablissements de Bouillon,” fittings like a palace, light, cheerful, and airy. I did not detect any worse smell than that of fruit and flowers, so common in all the cafes and restaurants. Neat, modest-looking young women waited on you, presenting you with a clean napkin, nicely folded ; then came first, “ bouillon, or vermicelli potage,” next “ veau,” or “ mouton,” or “ boeuf ” rotis, with “pomme de terre,” or “ legumes,” and a “ demi- bouteille de vin ordinaire,” or a “ vin le carafon ; ” in plain English, you could have soup, bread, roast veal, mutton, or beef, and vegetables, with a tumbler or half a bottle of ordinary wine. You could dine in state, and fancy yourself a lord, for one shilling ! M. Duval’s butcher’s shop, near the Madeleine — for he kills his own meat, and it is of the best, beef, mutton, and veal (not horse flesh) — is fitted up in the most artistic man- ner, that only a Frenchman can devise. A fine massive stone building. Over the large and extensive shop front is a cornice, carved and orna- mented with heads of oxen in gold, emblematical of the business carried on beneath. The shop floor is of inlaid coloured marble ; walls, counters, and window slabs of white marble ; carving and gold everywhere. In the centre of the shop a marble vase, nine feet in circumference, contain- ing an immense pyramid of flowers. A gent, seated at a marble desk, presented you with a billet, on which was printed the article and the price. Handsome young butchers, with neat black moustaches, and in clean white aprons and sleeves, and who, if in London, would be the admiration of all the lady “ helps ” in the neighbourhood, waited on the customers. Ladies behind the counters added grace and beauty to the scene. Outside were a number of light, handsome carts, to convey the meat away to every part of the city. In every one of M. Duval’s esta- blishments, I noticed especially the cleanliness and well-ordered taste. Good management appeared to be most successful in its result. One great deficiency in Paris is the want of good sewerage. However, every street appears remarkably clean, a good supply of water being con- veyed through pipes and hose, to cleanse and purify roads, trees, and flowers. Men are constantly employed sweeping, cleansing, cleaning, and carting aAvay everything of an obnoxious character. There is a good supply also of what in London we are very deficient in, viz., public con- veniences, urinals and w'ater-closets in nearly every street, the former in greater number on the boulevards, where they are most required, on account of the number of passers-by to and fro ; the latter are to be met with very often, and there is no difficulty in finding them. A large notice is generally placed over the entrance, announcing that “ cabinets inodor^s ” can be had for (15c.) l|d. Why have we not these conveni- ences in London ? It could be done at a cheaper rate, we having 22 artisans’ reports on the sewerage ; there would not be the expense and trouble connected with them as in Paris. I am aware that our people are very sensitive on this matter, so much so that many persons would be shocked at the idea of a public water-closet ; and they would rather suffer all the ills attending the want of such, than agitate in favour of a convenience so necessary to public health. Oh ! it is often said, the French have no modesty, they don’t care what they do. I reply, English people have a good deal of mock modesty ; they try to blush, and put up their hands, and pretend to hide their faces, when certain questions of public importance are mooted, but in the carrying out of correct principles and proper modes of action I am sorry to say that, in many instances, they are far behind in practising the good sense exhibited by the people of France. It may be amusing for me here to relate an anecdote of an adventure I heard while in Paris, of an English gentleman, who was staying at an hotel, and did not like the construction of the French water-closet. After some time he found one at the end of the Rue de Rivoli more to his satisfaction, and which he fully intended to patronise during his stay in the gay capital, so returning home one evening on the omnibus which stopped at the Rue de Rivoli, for he was in haste to pay a visit to the aforesaid water-closet, after alighting, and thinking “ I am all right, I know my way,” he started and ran ! On, on, he goes, two miles and a- half he ran, for, alas ! he had got down at the wrong end of the Rue de Rivoli. Englishmen meet with curious mishaps in Paris, as well as Frenchmen in London. Whatever difficulty I met with, or however strange and novel things appeared to me, I always met with civility, politeness, and kindness, wherever I went, and in no matter what society, which, unfortunately, cannot be said of my countrymen in London. How often had I to show them my map, and by signs to make them understand I wanted such and such a place, or that I had lost my way, and what trouble they took to put me right. I was never once mis- directed. In London, I have ofttimes met strangers in the streets, who, when wanting to go to Paddington, have been sent to London-bridge. I am afraid it will take us a long time to learn to carry out the maxim, “ Do unto others as we wish them to do unto us.” There is another question at present agitating society, and in which our class is deeply involved, viz., trade societies. I have never yet belonged to one, therefore cannot speak personally with regard to them. I am a member of the “ Hearts of Oak Benefit Society,” an institution for securing to its members provision in sickness, lyings -in, losses by fire, and the expense of a funeral. I find from inquiries that trade societies do not exist in France, at least not in the sense of our London trades unions. The principle, I believe, on which trade matters is con- ducted, is to pay each man according to his worth and the state of trade in the market. The laws of France are very strict in this matter, and punish every attempt at coercion, either by insult, or violence, or in- timidation. There must not be any violation of the liberties of trade or labour. I am not prejudiced against trade or any other societies con- ducted on sound principles, and in which justice, freedom, and truth can be established and carried out between man and man. I know from ex- perience that “ Union is strength,” for how could tyranny or injustice of PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 23 any sort be grappled with and overcome but by the united efforts of those who are suffering under bondage ? But all unions are not for the general good, and have so proved to the cost of many. For my own part, I prefer individual liberty to act for my own benefit, as well as for humanity, of whom I form a part. My motto is, “ The greatest happi- ness for the greatest number,” and therefore, in endeavouring to make myself and those around me happy, I am contributing to the general good and happiness of all. And now, as I am drawing to the close of my report, I wish to state that I am not a member of the “ Sunday League,” “ Reform League,” or any other league, but stand alone and independent, and therefore am not a representative or advocate for any particular sect or body of people. In my youth I was trained religiously, by a kind and devoted mother — was a Sunday scholar and teacher, afterwards a member of a Christian congregation. Some years since I separated myself from all religious sects, on conscientious grounds, being determined to think, to act, and work for myself, in my own way ; allowing full liberty to everyone else, I wish to exercise the same myself. I believe that in all countries, among all peoples, and in all religions, is to be found somewhat of the good, the beautiful, and the true ; that “ God hath made of one blood all the nations that dwell on the earth,” and that there is “ a time to work and time to play, a time to sing and a time to dance.” As the wise man hath said, “ a time for everything.” I have said that all is not perfection in Paris. I am not an advocate "for Sunday labour, and would have liked to have seen all places where work might cease closed on that day for rest and recreation. Necessary labour for some must always accom- pany necessary recreation ; but then, as I have always asserted, those who have to labour to give pleasure to the thousands who have only that day to recreate themselves, could always, if properly managed, have their rest on some other day of the week. It will appear to some minds that I am very much in love with the manners and customs of the French. I have endeavoured to speak of things as I found them, without prejudice or exaggeration. Many per- sons have gone to Paris and returned with the impression that everything there was wrong, and, if all at home was not quite right, at least they were better than their neighbours. But did they thoroughly examine and make proper inquiry ? Did they look at things from a French point of view, setting aside their English prejudices, misrepresentations, and untruthful exaggerations ? Then, perhaps, many go over with strict Protestant notions, and then everything seen or done in a Catholic country would be very shocking to their puritanical minds, for, unhappily, we have so many religious prejudices to contend with. They may be conscientious convictions, earnestly advocated, but it must be well known by every impartial and unfettered mind, who has ever given any thought to this matter, that when more religious liberty and more freedom of thought has been advocated by men far in advance of the age, they have been denounced and condemned by our preachers and teachers, and We, the working class of Great Britain, have always had France shown us as some fearful monster, not as a pattern for us to copy, but the reverse. Horrible representations have been invented, and diabolical doings have 24 artisans’ reports on the been placed before us of wbat we should come to if we took for a model our neighbours across the Channel. Paris has been held up to view as a shocking picture, something dreadful to be shunned, and, finally, an awful warning to the unenlightened, uninstructed, and inexperienced workpeople of England ! In contrasting the habits and customs of my countrymen with the French people, I may have criticised them severely but not untruthfully. I am not unmindful of the gigantic efforts my class have made in the last few years to improve themselves and their condition, neither have I forgotten our industrial, provident, and co-operative societies, workmen’s clubs, institutes, and lecture-halls. I know there are hundreds of in- telligent, sober-minded toilers, who are neither drunkards nor teetotallers, neither fanatical bigots nor blaspheming infidels, but rational, temperate, thoughtful, and refined, practical experimentalists. We know how to suffer and to bear the hardships of our position, which the theorist whose bread is buttered for him can never understand. I have noticed more particularly the conduct of the people of Paris in their public character. If they know so well how to behave in society, I cannot conceive but that in private it must be much the same. The question naturally arises, what is the cause of this marked difference between us and them ? We want in our country a system of “national education,” free from all sectarianism, and entirely secular, leaving every- one to exercise his own judgment in religion, and to worship God according to his own conscience. Let us have free access Sundays and week-days, to all the national institutions. Let there be no restraint put on rational, healthful, innocent recreation, and let us have this always encouraged. Let Government restrictions be put upon, and strongly enforced against, every thing and every place of a vicious, low, or degrading nature. On Sunday, our leisure day, let us have not only churches and chapels open free to all, and without respect of persons, but let us have lecture halls as freely open, where we can be educated in the arts and sciences, the history of men and nations, and the wonders of creation ; where the mind can be elevated, improved, refined ; where we can learn how to train our children in knowledge and wisdom, and teach ourselves how to behave in a becoming manner to each other, and where we might practice affability, courtesy, and polite conversation. And after- wards when the nation has been properly schooled and trained, I would add music and dancing, and dramatic entertainments, which, when properly conducted, are of an elevating and refining nature ; and as there are always to be found some who cannot be restrained from indulging in rough, vulgar, unmannerly conduct and conversation, to the annoyance of the more peaceable, I would have, as in France, the presence of Government officials in all public places, who should enforce well-ordered conduct and proper behaviour for the benefit of the whole community. I have advocated perhaps warmly the Parisian mode of observing the first day of the week ; for some years I have been in favour of a “ free Sunday.” I cannot conceive why those who oppose recreation on that day, and wish to promote a strict observance of what they call the Sabbath, do not see the tyranny, injustice, and utter absence of all Christian and benevolent principles, in preventing us, who are confined PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 25 the whole week in a workshop, labouring for the benefit, comfort, and luxury of the wealthier class, and have no other opportunity, except by suffering loss, from visiting the national institutions, which those who have leisure and little care have every opportunity of enjoying. What right have they to claim the opening of their own places on that day, and dare to keep closed those we wish to enter? We have never wished to prevent them enjoying the rights and privileges of their own places of meeting. If ours were open to us we should not compel them to close. Everyone would have perfect liberty to go to his church or chapel, his meeting or lecture hall, and to visit, if so disposed, a picture gallery, a museum, a menagerie, or a public garden. We claim the right, as in France ; and I believe that it will not be long ere we shall enjoy the pleasure of it. In closing my report I have only been able to glance at the many phases of Parisian life and manners, and I beg respectfully to remark that I am but a novice in writing of such matters, this being the first time in my life I ever attempted to write a report of any kind ; therefore I know I have made many grammatical blunders, misplaced and mis- spelt words, but I have endeavoured to represent the truth naked and bare, and without reserve. I may please some and offend others. I cannot help this, nor do I regret what I have done. I am satisfied at having wished well, and done my best to remove some of the prejudices against the French people. I have pointed out my own errors with that of my country, that they may accept the good and reject the evil. My visit to Paris was a long-looked-for anxious wish, and my ambition was to be able to say that I have been and judged for myself. I have known little else than toil from my boyhood, working at a bench not less than ten hours per day, in a dismal, dirty, unhealthy workshop (the last one especially so ) ; but through the kind exertions of yourselves, gentlemen, I have enjoyed the first and only fortnight’s holiday I ever had in my life. This was the first time I ever crossed the sea. I have returned wonderfully changed in mind and manners with regard to men, women, and children in Paris, their habits, customs, and religion. I shall now be able to contradict much that is said untruthfully of them in this country, and from personal experience be able to state what I have really seen and witnessed, and explain what I have been determined to inquire into without fear, or reserve, or contradiction. CERAMIC DECORATION. By AAEON GKEEN, PORCELAIN DECORATOR. H AVING- been selected as one of the artisans appointed to visit and report upon the Paris Exhibition, and having availed myself of the opportunity so kindly afforded me, I feel it a duty incumbent upon me to report to you the impressions made upon my mind after a careful examination of the wonderful productions there congregated. I, of course, confine my observations to the ceramic department of that great gathering, and in direct reference to the decorative branch of that beautiful and useful division of human industry. Disclaiming all pretension to learning, I write, as a working man, on the executive or manipulative part of decoration only, leaving schools and styles of art to be treated by writers of far higher attainments. I shall begin with France, as both courtesy and justice demand I should, and, as a matter of course, taking the royal manufactory first. The Sevres court is a very large and important one ; the walls are covered with large and splendid specimens of Gobelins tapestry, which give a rich and imposing appearance to the whole court. English porcelain decorators are sure to be immediately attracted to the examination and study of what to them is comparatively a new method of decoration, but largely patronized at this establishment, viz., painting in clay, in a state of what is technically called “ slip,” on the raw or unfired coloured body of the article, generally of celadon, sage green, or stone colour, the ob- jects mostly represented being flowers, birds, flies, grass, &c., usually with a freedom, truth, and grace most refreshing to behold, some parts of the decoration standing out in such bold relief as to require the aid of the modelling tool in addition to the painter’s brush. The best produc- tions in this mode of painting are those by Mr. G61y, Mr. Teyre, and Mr. Salom. The delineation of flowers and foliage is wonderfully true to nature, and the dexterity with which the difficult medium has been handled cannot be too highly praised. The figure decorations in this method are not so satisfactory, and are such as will not add to the repu- tation of Sevres. The birds, although to some extent liable to the same objection as the figures, viz., flatness, have, nevertheless, a certain charm and elegance from the manner in which they are introduced. In all cases I prefer those specimens where little or no colour has been used. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 27 The free use of colour has, in my opinion, given a meretricious appear- ance to many otherwise pure and tasteful objects. Taken altogether, the feeling produced upon me by this branch of decoration was one of disappointment. The sensation which it has been reported to have created, as well as the recollection of what was shown in the London Exhibition of 1862, had prepared me to see greater progress made in this art than what has really been achieved. And I am of opinion that this mode will not supersede flat painting, especially in articles of strict utility. For, although it will possess an immunity from the corrosive influence of the acids, it will be more liable, from its surface being un- even, to injury from clippings and scratchings, and also will be more difficult to keep clean. In painting proper, either of figure, landscape, or flowers, the latter especially, this establishment is not equal to its former power. An ex- ception must be made in the case of Van Marke, whose landscapes with figures and cattle, painted on four large vases, two of turquoise and two of bleu-de-roi, are genuine triumphs of porcelain painting. Al- though somewhat low in scale, there is a rich glowing mellowness and depth in his colouring which is most harmonious and pleasing to the eye. This, united to good drawing and superb manipulation, renders Van Marke one of the greatest porcelain painters of the present day. It is matter of regret that the ceramic art should lose so able an exponent, for I am informed he is adopting entirely the painting of pictures in oil. There are six or seven large vases with classical figure subjects, painted by Mdlle. Bataille, which have an intensification of sweetness and ten- derness of touch, manner, and colour that is truly wonderful. Scarcely less beautiful are the figures of Mdlle. Durant. And great praise must also be given to Mdme. de Cool, for a fine painting of the Madonna and Child, executed on a blue vase. Mr. Fragonard shows some very good paintings, especially a pair of vases painted all round with subjects after Watteau. They are vigorous in manner, fresh in colour, and altogether effective, but somewhat lacking in refinement of handling. "With the productions of Mr. A. Schilt I was rather disappointed, for, while they are generally good, they are not uniformly so. On the same piece the figures will sometimes be good and parts of the landscape rotten and uncertain, and in other instances we shall have delightful passages of landscape marred by badly-painted figures. But they are all delicately and elaborately worked out. They would, however (if I may say it without presumption), have been better if greater freshness of tint had been preserved, and a more vigorous and powerful style adopted, so as to have rescued them from the sickly, maudlin, sentimental look they have at present. Two large blue vases will attract attention. They are painted by Mr. Cabau, with a frieze of cupids and fawns in a cool sepia tint, on a pale turquoise -coloured sky, which gradually deepens into dark blue as it approaches the top of the vase — in my opinion more novel than beautiful in its effect. The flower painting shown by Sevres is small in quantity and inferior in quality, the most noticeable being a pair of Indian jars, painted with an artistic arrangement of poppies, very freely and finely done. There is a pair of large vases, about the centre of the court, with flowers and foliage 28 artisans’ reports on the conventionally treated, the leaves being coloured in blue, but the flowers are painted after more natural types than the leaves, the whole entwining the vase in a most graceful manner. Both flowers and leaves are dashed and heightened with gold, and altogether a successful and highly decora- tive result is obtained. The use of ormolu is a very marked feature in nearly all vases of foreign manufacture, by which means many of the difficulties of their production in china are avoided, and the effect of lightness often realised, which it would be impossible to obtain by the use of porcelain itself. This circumstance should always be taken into consideration when a comparison is made with the English vases, in which none of the potters’ difficulties are evaded, but, on the contrary, are boldly and conscientiously met, and if possible conquered. The smaller and commercial articles shown by Sevres are not at all such as might have been expected. Two or three dejeuner services, delicately painted by Mr. Langlois with land- scape and ornament, are of a very decorative character. Of the dessert and tea ware exhibited nothing flattering can be said ; some are decidedly bad, and scarcely any of them of first-rate merit, either in painting, gild- ing, or design. Indeed, if Sevres depended upon these articles for fame, her reputation would be gone. The Limoges enamels shown seem to be very good and effective, but they are placed at such a distance from the eye that it is impossible to judge correctly of their merit. Utzchneider and Oo. make a very good display. The visitors’ atten- tion will soon be arrested by four large jars, painted in the most dashing manner by Mr. G. Leonce. It is a new and novel style of decoration, the piece being covered from top to bottom with tropical vegetation and birds ; the colour is strong, the freedom excessive, many of the objects being represented by a few rapid sweeps of the brush, but the result is highly satisfactory ; and there seems to be a host of imitators, for you meet with this sort of thing at almost every turn, but the quality gene- rally is much inferior to those just noticed. Four large seaux and stands, painted by A. Sabourin with nymphs and cupids, in landscape, after the manner of Boucher, are very well drawn and beautifully painted. Another pair, with old street-architecture (something after the manner of our own Prout), are excellently painted by P. Langlois ; the scale of colour is very sober and suitable to the subjects. Two vases, with green ground, and similar subjects, by the same artist, are equally good. Another pair, with open landscape, though clever, are not so good as those just mentioned. There are numerous other works by this artist, mostly in monochrome ; all of them are good, but none of them are highly finished. Two seaux in crimson, with landscapes and horses, by Edward Lambert, are very effective and artistic in their treatment, with perhaps a too free use of the pen and too little of the pencil in their execution. On the stall of M. Baingo are three or four pictures by M. Bouquet, and other examples of this artist may be found in several of the French courts, painted on the raw enamel, a very difficult process indeed, requiring the greatest skill in the artist to be successful ; and the result shown in these specimens is very great, being, without doubt, the most PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 29 successful productions in that method shown in the Exhibition, making as they do very effective and artistic pictures. Pannier-Lahoche and Co. exhibit, among many other meritorious things, a rich casket, with porcelain slabs, the paintings representing the “ Triumph of Galatea,” very neatly done, and of good colour. There are likewise two small vases with ormolu mountings, the figures and cattle being very well done. A pair of large jars, with decoration after the manner of Leonce, by W. Mussil, but much more carefully done, are deserving of great praise. There are numerous dessert plates shown by this firm, of good design and workmanship. A series of them have painted figure subjects covering the centres of the plates ; these are somewhat marred by the snuffy and foxy tone of the colouring. C. H. Pillivuyt and Co. exhibit numerous specimens of the clay paint- ing, but, as is usual in this style of decoration, the best specimens are those executed in one colour. There is on this stall a nice table service, pale green ground, with a well-designed pattern printed in gold. Another, with coronet and monogram, in gold and red, is likewise very good. In the centre of some of the dessert plates there are good specimens of fruit and flower painting. Faugeron and Dupuis show four bottles, painted by Leonce, two of which have been purchased for the South Kensington Museum, and they are very good specimens of this painted style ; like all his works they are firmly and boldly painted with cactus and tropical plants. Upon this stand will be found some very pretty tea-cups and saucers, executed with neatness and care. Haviland and Co. produce some very good plates of various patterns. All of them are good, the gilding especially so ; indeed, in that branch of decoration most of the French firms show works which greatly surpass the productions of the Royal manufactory. Machereau shows a well painted landscape on plate, with a turquoise ground. The gilding and chasing are very fine, and the works on this stall are generally very good. Francois Alluand, ain6, exhibits very nice dessert and tea patterns, in pale green and blue, interspersed with very light and elegant gilding. The same remarks apply to the shows of Jacquel, Prevost, and Jullien. The greater part, however, of the gilding exhibited by the latter is not done by hand, but is printed. Lebourg exhibits very numerous and good reproductions of the shapes and decorations of the Chinese and Japanese. Deck exhibits some magnificent majolica ware ; this is a name which has been applied to the Italian manufacture of coloured earthenware of the 15tli and 16th centuries. The examples shown by this house are as fine (in their class) as anything in the Exhibition. On the stall of Barbizet, and on that of Avisseau, there are numerous specimens of Palissy ware, with modelled decorations, representing fish, shells, lizards, and insects, a taste for which was inaugurated by Bernard Palissy, in the sixteenth century, being himself at the time employed in Paris, the colouring of whose peculiar works are wonderfully imitated in the specimens here exhibited, evincing a high perceptive power in the artists who have produced them. 30 artisans’ reports on the I now proceed to tlie examination of the German courts, beginning with the Royal manufactory of Berlin. The situation of these stalls in the Exhibition is a fine and commanding one, in the centre of one of the avenues ; but the show is very disappointing, there being very little that is really excellent. The most noticeable objects are the large vases, some of them of elegant and graceful form, but, like those of France, they are all built up in ormolu mountings, a graceful mode of avoiding the potter’s difficulties. A very large vase, of elegant form and propor- tions, in bisque, is decorated with figures representing the vintage, painted in a cool neutral tint, that is nicely in harmony with the colour of the bisque body. The drawing is, in parts, very faulty, and the general execution not of the highest order. There are two reductions of this vase, likewise in the bisque ; one is painted with the Madonna and Child, surrounded by a wreath of gold foliage, the chasing of which is extremely well done. The other vase has Vulcan, Mars, and Venus, in monochrome of a mauve tint ; this colour is carried into the gold ornamentation in a very pleasing manner. Another vase, of the same shape, but glazed, is painted with a portrait in medallion, very sweetly done ; the gilt laurel wreath is well executed, the chasing being very fine indeed. There is another large vase, with female seated in a landscape frieze ; the colour of the latter, although rather brown and sombre, is nevertheless good, and is painted throughout in a thoroughly conscientious manner. The majolica paintings on this stall have a rather attractive look at first, but will not bear examination. The same remarks apply to the figures, groups painted in a cool sepia tint, on bisque of a purplish grey ground. There are on this stall a goodly number of large vases, bottles, fish dishes, &c., which, in shape and decoration, are excel- lent imitations of China and Japan. I was greatly disappointed with the productions exhibited on these stalls ; knowing the great reputation of the German porcelain painters, I had expected a better display. This exhibition is certainly not credit- able to Prussia. The exhibition made by the royal manufactory of Meissen, Saxony, is much superior to the last described, displaying greater ability and care than its neighbour. The most important piece, in point of size and pre- tension, is a large vase decorated with the story of Diana and Actaeon, painted in monochrome of a sepia tint, by Muller ; it is a very ambitious work; but I think it is a great failure. The drawing is faulty, and the style and execution dry and hard in the extreme. Two large vases, with painted frieze of allegorical figures, representing the “ Toilette of Venus,” are executed in a careful and tender manner, and show great manipulative skill in the artist. The scale of colour, however, is not pleasing, a sickly combination of green, blue, and orange greatly pre- dominating. Three large Indian-shaped jars are beautifully decorated with groups of pendant roses, very finely yet freely painted ; the foliage is exceedingly well done. These are decidedly the best specimens of flower painting exhibited by the Germans, and equal to anything shown by the French. The Limoges enamels, of which there are numerous examples, are some of them very important, both in size and character of ornament. The designs are very good, and the execution (notwith- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 31 standing the hard, dry manner) is very skilful ; the enamel is remarkably free from partings or sponginess of surface ; the result is therefore satis- factory. In the exhibition of this speciality this court is conspicuous, and the display made is highly creditable. Two tables, with figures and gold ornamentation, will be admired by those who examine them. There is, however, a goodly quantity of things exhibited here which ought never to have been sent, as they cannot in any way enhance the reputation of the manufactory. De Maurice Fischer shows some reproductions of old Sevres, very in- differently done, and likewise some imitations of the works of China and Japan, very well executed, but they have evidently not been copied from the best examples. Fischer and Mieg exhibit two large vases, crimson ground, the figure subjects on which are pretty well painted, but hard and very cold in colour. The flower painting on this stall has a very weak and sickly appearance, seeming half washed ont. C. Fielsch and Co. exhibit some tea patterns, tasteful in design and well executed, the gilding especially being very neatly done. Villeroy and Boch show some rather successful specimens of the appli- cation of photographic printing to ceramic decoration. After carefully reviewing the porcelain productions of Germany, I think it will be generally admitted that they have not kept pace with England and France, or even sustained their former power. And this is matter of regret, possessing, as they do, artists who are capable of executing much finer works than any which Germany has sent to the present exhibition. And the patterns on the ordinary articles of commerce exhibit a poverty of design or original thought, with a reliance on the past, that is not in consonance with the spirit of the age in which we live. We now come to the consideration of the English department, of course commencing with Minton and Co., whose exhibition is an honour to the country, and one which must fill every Englishman with a feel- ing of satisfaction almost amounting to pride. First in importance, from their size, form, colour, material, and decoration, are a pair of vases in royal blue, perhaps one of the finest colours in the Exhibition. The figure paintings representing the birth and toilette of Venus, after Boucher, are by Mr. Allen. They are freely yet carefully painted ; the colouring is very good, but looks a little weak or over-fired, the local colour of the flesh being scarcely strong enough. The landscapes (like- wise after Boucher) are by Mr. Mitchell ; they are excellently well painted ; but, in my opinion, both of these artists are seen to still greater advantage in their combined painting on the pair of Italian vases in the same glass case, a landscape frieze with children at play ; the pearly grey of the former is in capital keeping with the ripe flesh of the cupids. The honour these two art-workmen have rendered to English porcelain painting is deserving of high commendation. There are numerous other works by these artists that will be viewed with pleasure. By Mr. Allen is a large majolica vase, of fine form, decorated with paintings of the “ Boar Hunt,” after Bubens, rich in colour and vigorous in touch. The landscapes, of which there are numerous examples, covering the centre of dessert-plates, are by Mr. Mitchell, and are among the best things of 32 artisans’ reports on the the kind in the Exhibition. Three vases, one of very large size, with subjects after Watteau, are painted by Mr. Jahn. The delicacy and sweetness of touch exhibited in these paintings is of the highest order ; the drawing is extremely good, and the colour rich and harmonious. (By the way, some writers have lately been trying to write down the taste which prompts the frequent recourse to the works of Watteau and Boucher, by our china painters. Would it not be better if these writers would direct attention to two other painters whose works are as capable of adaptation to the requirements of ceramic decoration as those of Boucher and Watteau ?) Not less beautiful are two smaller vases in celadon body, with white bas-relief ornamentation. The frieze, in monochrome, emblematic of the vintage and the harvest, is finely painted, evincing in the artist great refinement of feeling and tenderness of touch. But, perhaps, the best work by Mr. Jahn will be found on the two small vases, with pictures after Boucher, representing music and painting. There is some meritorious work by Mr. Henk, in trophies, cameos, birds, and general decoration. A beautiful ewer and stand, with figure paint- ings after Salvator Rosa, by Mr. Rischgriz, is very masterly in execution. These have been purchased by the King of Prussia (evincing the good taste of his Majesty). Some egg-shell cups and saucers, with landscape and cattle by the same artist, are very clever productions. A pair of large Indian bottles, decorated by Mr. T. Simpson, with an artisti'c arrangement of various white flowers, are exceedingly well painted, and very true to nature in drawing and colour. The decoration on the ribbon handles of these two jars has been very carefully and skilfully done. I would direct attention to a series of wild-flowers, painted on dessert-plates by the last-named artist, as deserving of great praise. Of the Limoges enamels exhibited r by this firm I can speak in the highest terms of praise. They are clear, soft, and bright. The two small vases in this method are splendid productions, both in design and execution. There is nothing better in this speciality in the Exhibition, with the exception of those lent by collectors ; they are the work of Mr. Slater. There are numerous good examples of painting in fish, birds, flowers, &c., which space will not permit me further to notice. The gilding and chasing of the vases mentioned above are of the highest order, by Mast and Simpson. The dessert and tea patterns exhibited by this firm excel the productions of any other manufactory. Copeland and Sons make a grand display, and their works, generally, are of great excellence. There is, however, an almost entire absence of figure -painting. Their greatest strength is shown in the fruit and flower painting, of which there are abundant and splendid specimens, conspicuous among which is a large vase, with flowers, finely grouped and painted by Mr. Hurten ; it is very rich and powerful in colour, but, if I may venture to indicate a fault, it is that the shadows in the foliage are too black. The colours are very dry on the surface, giving an appearance of hardness, which is not the fault of the painter, but of the glaze. The raised gilding and chasing of this vase, executed on a pale-green ground, is very good. Three other vases, in turquoise ground, with wreath and pendant groups of flowers, are beautifully painted ; but, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 33 in my opinion, this artist’s best works are to be seen in bis paintings of fruit; such, for instance, as the large wine-cooler and vases, in blue ground, with goat’s -head handles. The grapes upon the former are exquisitely done — soft, mellow, and ripe. The same remarks are due to the painting on a couple of ewers, decorated with wreaths of the laburnum, being very masterly indeed. The gilding generally on this stall is very well executed, with, perhaps, a tendency to over-richness of ornament, and a too free use of the precious metal. Two tazzas, decorated with Indian ornament, are very good ; one of them is sold to the King of the Belgians. There are vases and bottles decorated with the same style of ornament, having an exceedingly rich oriental character. The specimens of Limoges enamel exhibited by this firm are not at all satisfactory. The enamel is cloudy, and rough on the surface, and the method of handling is dry and hard. Taken as a whole, the exhibition by this firm is of the highest order, deserving of great com- mendation, and confers much honour upon the country. Turn we now to Wedgwood and Sons. This is decidedly the most remarkable name in the whole history of ceramic art in England ; and in this great special production — the Japan- ware — they are still un- approachable ; indeed, in this they are unique. The specimens exhibited here are of exceeding beauty, and cannot be over-praised. In more modern commercial articles they have a good show, of table and toilet ware in particular. The patterns are generally well designed ; some of them are well engraved, and most of them are coloured with judgment and taste. They have likewise a great pictorial display in the works by Mr. Less ore, a French artist employed by them ; and if numerous examples constitute strength, then Mr. Lessore is strong indeed. The Exhibition correspondent of the Telegraph, in one of his reports in the earlier part of the season, when noticing the works of this artist, remarks that our Royal Academicians would do well to study and imitate his drawing. Surely the writer must not have been serious, for decidedly drawing is Lessore’s weakest point ; he is too hasty and careless in his method to admit of good drawing ; but there is always a charm in his colouring that is sometimes positively captivating in its influence, and very suggestive of the old masters ; but I am of opinion that he appears to greater advantage in the former Exhibition. It would have been better for his fame if half the articles exhibited here had been left at home ; for, assuredly, such mere vagaries as some of these really are, cannot add to the reputation either of himself or the manufacturer who employs him. The toilet-ware decoration of G. Jones, of Stoke-upon-Trent, and table-ware patterns of Pinder, Bourne, and Co., of Burslem, are very creditable to them. Having concluded my examination of the Exhibition, I paid a visit to Sevres, and to the Royal manufactory there, which is situated in a healthy, beautiful, and romantic spot. This manufactory was purchased, with the sole proprietorship, by Louis XV., in 1760, and from that time to the present day Sevres has retained its reputation. Government, even during the troublesome times of the republic, endowed it, and it is still in the receipt of something like twenty thousand pounds annually from the purse of the Emperor. Thus the directors have been enabled to D 34: artisans’ reports on the secure tlie services of artists of the greatest ability to design and decorate its productions. The show-rooms and museum at Sevres are, perhaps, the greatest treat which a porcelain painter could be favoured with ; there he can see specimens of every country and style; and they are not mere specimens, but many of them are of the rarest quality and value. The porcelain painting exhibited in the show-rooms here is not equalled by any in the Great Exhibition, and is of such surpassing excellence, as to warrant the French in assuming a superiority over any other nation. The painting of some of the figure subjects is truly grand, while the fruit and flower painting of Jaccober it seems impossible to surpass ; indeed I have never seen anything that at all approaches it. There are large vases, covered with ornament, which for beauty, distri- bution, and purity of form and colour filled me with amazement, and a feeling somewhat approaching to humiliation. I think there can be no doubt but that the close proximity of the workshops to the museum must be of immense value to the decorators and designers, refreshing their memory, inciting their ideas, and con- tinually adding to their stock of knowledge. And in this instance the French teach us a lesson, for while the examples purchased from time to time by the nation are very valuable and instructive, they would be of more use and real service if, instead of being assembled in the metropolis, each locality that is pre-eminently famous for some speciality had its own museum. I think by this means our national industry would be benefited, and the general prosperity of the nation increased ; for it is obvious that, under the present system, our artizans (at best) can see the examples they need only at rare intervals, and that often, when they wish to make use of them, they have to depend upon recollections considerably weakened by time, and consequently of a very imperfect character. In our progress round the workshops of the manufactory we saw nothing of an instructive character ; indeed, we were not fortunate enough to see any one at work but a few potters, in whose occupation we were not interested. The painters were lounging about the shop, smoking and reading, neither of which delightful occupations were abandoned for their more legitimate employment, either in deference to ourselves or our gold-laced attendant. There was a silence and lassitude about the manufactory that may perhaps be in harmony with a royal establishment, but which to us seemed strangely at variance with the smartness and celerity of an English manufactory, where enterprising capital is seeking to be rewarded by commensurate profits. Our visit to this celebrated manufactory demonstrated one thing to us, viz., that their best performances are of former years, and that we are making greater progress than they, for I think it cannot be questioned that our productions at this exhibition are greatly in advance of all our former efforts, while in the general commercial articles of our trade we are really ahead of them. Just as I was starting on my journey to Paris, a copy of the Twnes newspaper of September 13th was put into my hands ; amongst its contents was “ An English Workman’s Visit to the Paris Exhibition,” written so ably as to entitle it to approving notice in a leading article of the same paper. Notwithstanding the ability displayed in the writing, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 35 it contained numerous fallacies, to one of which (as reflecting unjustly and injuriously on the British workmen in my class) I feel bound to say a word or two in reply, more especially as the statement I complain of has been adopted by the Times in the leading article before mentioned. The following is a quotation from the workman’s letter “ One thing worth mentioning, before leaving this part of the subject, and which we have not seen noticed before by critics, is that the most remarkable specimens, those upon which the eminent manufacturers mostly rely, are paintings by French and German workmen. We mention these merely as one of the collateral facts supporting the great truth, that in matters relating to the higher branches of art we are deficient.” The article in the Times follows thus : — “ The French collections of faience exhibit a richness of colouring which is not seen in English productions ; it is admitted, indeed, that in ordinary decorations for the general market England probably stands first ; hut there is no power to go beyond this line.” In support of the same view, it is observed, with reference, to porcelain, that “ the best specimens exhibited by English manufacturers are painted by French and even German workmen. In elegance of outline and delicacy of tint these artists excel all rivals.” Now is it true that our artistic deficiencies are really so great ? My answer is, no. And in corroboration of my opinion, I beg to refer to remarks made by J. 0. Horsley, B.A., who, in his report, published in the Illustrated London News of August 17th, says “ In porcelain painting there is nothing better than the works of Allen, Mitchell, and Simpson, artists employed by Minton.” Now these are all of them Staffordshire men, born within three or four miles of the manufactory where they are now employed. Another witness to this fact is found in Leon Arnoux, Esq., himself a Frenchman, and one who knows more than any living man of what Minton’s work- men are capable. What does he say ? Why, I find in his report pub- lished in the Illustrated London News of September 14th, the following, when speaking of Minton’s productions : — “ But the best things in their glass cases are the many vases of soft porcelain with figure paintings. The largest pair, in bleu-de-roi, representing the toilet and birth of Venus, are from original paintings by Francois Boucher; they exceed in size all other vases produced in the soft material ; they have been very successfully painted by Messrs. Allen and Mitchell, the same artists who have executed the painting on an Italian pair of vases decorated with a frieze of young cupids playing in a picturesque landscape. The pair of large bottles, of Indian shape, decorated with white flowers on a celadon ground have been painted by Mr. Simpson.” Do these great authorities admit that there is no power in the English workman to go beyond “ the ordinary decorations for the general market ? ” I think not. Lastly, what do the jurors who awarded the prizes say, and what is their ver- dict? Why, of five medals given to Minton’s workmen for porcelain decoration, they gave four to English and one to a German workman ; and of four medals given to Copeland’s three were given to English and one to a German, and not one to a Frenchman at either place. So much for the charge of English inferiority or incapacity. Ought we not rather to rejoice in the possession of those noble establishments, where private 36 artisans’ reports on the enterprise and skill, without assistance from national aid, have so suc- cessfully competed with royal and imperial manufactories, for assuredly, since the Exhibition of 1851, no branch of British industrial art has made greater progress than porcelain of the higher order. I have now concluded my task, and, with a distinct recollection of how dejectedly I left the Exhibition of 1851, on account of our unfavourable comparison with the foreigner, I am now, on the contrary, filled with encouragement, and I quit the Exhibition of 1867 with feelings nearly akin to pride, certainly with confidence and hope for the future. SAWS AND TOOLS. By WILLIAM BEAMHALL, SAW-MAKER, SHEFFIELD. I N attempting to furnish a report on my own trade more especially, and on tools in general, after thanking all who have afforded me assistance in obtaining information, I wish to say that I have been in no way influenced by any party ; and wdiilst on the one hand the greatest courtesy has been shown, I have been left to use my own conviction entirely. This liberty is the more congenial as it places the entire re- sponsibility on the observer. Taking for doctrine that “ nothing will I extenuate, or set down aught in malice,” where facts and opinions may be stated contrary to the preconceived notions of my compeers, I shall be entitled to their consideration for honesty of purpose, having no ulterior view but such as a truthseeker always has — the truth in itself alone. .Although the Exhibition, in its division of nations, sections, and groups, is admirable, it is not so much so in its subdivisions, and required a patient, plodding application, and passing over the ground repeatedly, coming in contact with matters which had previously escaped observa- tion. Conscious of the great importance of obtaining a tolerably correct view of the comparative position of our own manufactures with those of other countries, I devoted an entire week to the study of my own department, as supplementary to several which had gone before ; and considering the number of reports that the Society will receive, it should doubly be borne' in mind that “ brevity is the soul of wit.” I find con- siderable progress made in my own branch of trade, even to astonish- ment, since 1862, with French, German, and Belgian exhibitors, not only in the number of exhibits but in the character of the work. Although English exhibitors are few, those that do show are a credit to themselves, and evince no falling off in point of excellence. Of course there is a greater scope for progress in an article the further it is from perfection, and in the making of saws and tools their forms are ultimately reduced to rules and geometrical proportions for certain given employments, as well as the quality of material used for the purposes to which they are to be applied, until a well-stocked tool-chest is a re- pository of levers for disintegrating material substances, ranging from the most acute to the most obtuse angle. This great diversity of needs constitutes commerce ; and when a tool is wanted it should be the thoughtful consideration of the artisan to meet that requirement with 38 artisans’ reports on the the greatest possible skill. The softer the material wrought upon, the sharper the angle may be employed, running up the scale ad infinitum, until the angles become a mathematical line, as seen in a flat- faced hammer that bruises a stone, and, by pulverising its particles, dis- locates their cohesion. A knowledge of geometric forces would be in- valuable to the artisan, and lift him from often only being an imitator of others, doing so and so because it has been the custom to do so ; but reasoning on principles would make him in the highest sense of the word a master of arts, subduing rude matter to his will for his necessities. England is still in advance of France, Belgium, and Germany for the highest excellence in the perfection of model and of a cutting edge in saws and tools (without regard to their price), principally owing to the finer quality of the steel and greater care in their grinding, having greater natural advantages for superior grinding and facilities for power. The same does not apply to American tools, however, axes more especially, which for exactitude and finish have the appearance of being die-struck, so uniform are they in every respect. They are models of their kind, and show the grit of the Old Country in their formation, minus the pre- judices that cling to us, and having a freer scope for individual exertion. There is something to learn from the tout-ensemble of these American axes, attributable no doubt to the excellent state education in force in the New England States of America, as may be seen in their model school at the Exposition. The Douglas Axe Manufacturing Company, Boston, Massachusetts, exhibits its goods made from Messrs. Park Brothers’ steel, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A medal of honour is affixed most deservedly. In the French manufacture of saws and those kind of knives — currier and tobacco knives — which form a part as it were of the, saw trade, Messrs. Ch. Mongin, Aine et Oie., established 1814, stand first, Messrs. Galibert et Cie., Paris, second ; both use similar machinery, and Sheffield steel, in almost every case, in the proportion of sixteen of English to one of French, and would use British grinding stones, only the carriage makes them too dear. Those from the French quarries for saws and tools cost £2 5s. each, for a diameter of 4^ ft. by 7\ in. wide. Being too hard for the work required from them, they cannot draw to as good a bottom as we can, but they aim to do with as little grinding as possible, by rolling saw sheets nearly to their required thickness, breast and edge. This has the tendency to make them somewhat light, and they will not work long before they must be hammered, as every stroke of friction on the tooth only confirms that tendency ; yet these saws have a general uniform surface. The few handsaw handles in the cases of French manufacturers show, by their very faulty swaging, that they know little of the use of the handsaw or hacksaw, but are mostly confined to webs. They are almost new tools to them. I have only seen one handsaw in actual use in Paris ; and during a ten months’ service in a Parisian saw atelier , we did not average making a dozen per month. The universal use of billet-webs instead is the usage, although there can be no doubt but that the change to the handle from the unwieldy frame would be an advantage, as the weight of the tool is more immediately in the hand. One only need PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 39 observe two carpenters, one French and the other English, slitting a plank, to be convinced; Jean Bonhomme struggling to get his web and frame under weigh, while Joey Chips is making the sawdust fly, and gaining a saw-gate two inches long at a stroke. Good tool-makers are benefactors to their kind. The excellent method of stretching handsaws, veneer-webs, and large thin sheets of steel, as practised at Messrs. Spear and Jackson’s Etna Works, Sheffield, and other places in the same town, is superior to that of the French, excepting the use of coke instead of charcoal in the stretching fire, which is not so free from sulphur, and is consequently detrimental to the nature of the steel, as it rapidly combines with it ; yet, on the other hand, the great force used by the screw in stretching sheets when hot, extending them until they are as tight as a piano string, and, as it seems to me, giving them a positive elongated fibrous character, and a flatness incomparable, which they retain until worn to the back, is an immense advance on the old system of tempering in an open furnace, in economising labour, and in improving the uniform temper of the blades, so that nlany dozens come from the stretcher in such a state that, under the old regime , with all imaginable labour, they could not be made equal to them. This is not always the case, but, with few excep- tions, it might be the rule with such excellent appliances. The French — and I speak of the French as being our most formidable rivals for finish, surpassing us in matters of taste — are very defective in the paring department of saws ; the process is slow, and resembles more the chopping off the steel than paring it like paper, true as a line, and void of crinks ; the contrary is the case with the guillotine shears. But their method of toothing is as laudable as their paring is primitive. They leave the toothing of their saws until they are almost finished— often after glazing — to save filing and files, which are dear tools to them — when they have duplicate beds with a punch working down them. The saw plates are put between them, and the teeth cut in that manner. The beds being so arranged prevents the teeth both from shearing and fashing, and unless they are very hard or burnt they will not break in this process. They are toothed with such fine points that they will cut as they come from the fly. They have but in one instance, as far as I could learn, successfully applied steam to toothing saws, and that for narrow band-saws, for which France nearly monopolises her own and the English markets. Large and small circular saws are machine - ground, as with us. They elaborate with great care two-feet circulars of the 20th gauge, and finer, for sugar-cutting, to suppy the cafes with dominoes of sugar, three to a cup of coffee, according to governmental regulations, in length, breadth, and thickness. Minute circulars for cutting small-tooth combs are made out of stretched and glazed steel ; the fash from the sharpening of the teeth is sufficient to clear the ivory dust, and acts in the place of set. They are at home in the manufacture of these knick-knacks. Some houses have lately employed English saw- makers, at nearly double wages to their native workmen, in order to get a thorough knowledge of the English method of making the largest kind of circulars. The first-class firms pay every attention to each depart- ment, especially to having them flat and of a good uniform temper. 40 artisans’ reports on the In order to secure truthfulness, long-saws, which have been previously stretched, as well as circulars, are placed on a flat board, or piece of planed metal, and rubbed with a stone, so that any irregularities of surface are soon seen, and returned to the anvil for correction. Circulars 5ft. Gin. are “goffed” by a steam press, screwed on to them during tempering. Messrs. Pougeot, Jackson, et Cie., depot in Paris, have their works in the country, where wages are lower and living cheaper. They exhibit a large quantity of saws and tools, more eminent for the mass than quality, who, nevertheless, have a medal, possibly on account of the price of production. Messrs. Coulaux et Cie., Bas Rhin, show saws and tools, but chiefly webs. A silver medal is given to Messrs. Martin, Miller, and Son, Vienna, for saws and tools. M. Brizard, a Belgian, honestly advertises his tools to be made from English cast-steel. M. Fagersta, Sweden, has saws with the imprint in English, and as much like English goods as peas are like one another. Messrs. Chouanard, Paris, exhibit general tools, who can hardly claim to be makers. Westphalian saws are exhibited as forged from puddled rod; one end is the finished article, the other a rod of steel, leaving no doubt of the process. Very unfinished. Messrs. G. Goldenburg et Cie., Tornhoff, near Saverne, exhibit freely in saws and tools. Saws unset. The tools all steel. There is a French machine for sharpening saws by steam that does its work very regularly. It has a band-saw under operation. The file passes straight through, when an index opens the vice and slides the saw a tooth in advance, then the vice closes on it again, and so on repeatedly. If the file progressed instead of the saw, the process would be less complex and more success- ful ; as it is, it might be used for filing up saws with broken teeth in them. I believe in its practicability ; not so in numerous machines for “ setting ” the same, that are mainly a series of screws, wuenches, and levers, when a simple setting -hammer and anvil, technically called a “ stake,” are all the tools necessary for that manipulation. They are safe, simple, and portable. Messrs. T. Turton and Sons, Sheaf Works, Sheffield (Class 40, No. 126), have a good show of saw r s, tools, files, &c. A gold medal has very justly been awarded. The arrangement of this case is chaste, attractive, and simple. This old-established house maintains its reputa- tion against all comers, and has for vis-a-vis in the world’s show Messrs. Bury and Co. (limited). They have cast-steel, in bars and plates, for various purposes, cast-steel forgings, files, edge-tools, hammers, &c. The files are the largest shown; the tools are very varied in their shapes, massive and well-made. The samples of w T ell-tilted steel from every Sheffield house would lead anyone to expect good tools. No doubt much of the excellence of British tools is attributable to good tilting and forging, which are synonymous, the one by hand, the other by power; and this is a distin- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 41 guishing characteristic between the English and the Continental tool- smith. The latter has an abhorrence of heavy hammers, and prefers to strike twice lightly, to once with force an effective stroke. A deal of heavy forging is done single -hand. Mr. J. V. Hill, 253, Gray’s-inn-road, London (Class 40, No. 59), has a small case of handsaws and hacksaws, which are gems of their kind. Mr. J. Addis, 49, Worship-street, Shoreditch, London, shows carvers’ tools. The name of this maker, for a long time, has been inseparable from a good tool, and clings to him still as his speciality. It is a con- tinuous pleasure to inspect his samples. Messrs. F. Keng et Cie., Vienna, exhibit saws for wood and metal piercing. The cheapness with which these fine hair-like saws can be produced in Germany excludes them from English manufactories. The work of German sawmakers is light, so is their food, and so is their pay. They chiefly live on bread, wine, fruit, and vegetables ; make saws that can be packed in a tobacco-pipe stem, and receive for twelve hours’ labour three francs only — equal to 2s. 6d. Saw grinders have the same wages as the makers ; hence, when they get to Paris, and have from four to six francs a day, they save money out of it. How they do it is marvellous, considering the price of the logements and the rate of living. Messrs. Joh. Weiss et Cie., Vienna, send some creditable edge tools. Messrs. Frank Wertheim et Cie., Vienna, have a large case of nearly all kinds of saws and edge tools, labelled “ Sold ; destined to be distri- buted among institutions in connexion with the Museum of South Kensington.” These saws are set with a gauge, deep into, crinking and deforming the blades, “ Cast-steel ” is struck on them, in English. They can only rank with decent second quality. Out of the Exposition, the shop windows of Parisian dealers should be seen to ascertain who suit the fancy of buyers. The saw 7 s, files, and tools that seem most in demand are from Sheffield, bearing the marks of Spear and Jackson ; T. Turton and Sons; Flather and Sons; Bury and Co. ; Bramall and Bedford ; It. Sorby, Brown, and Co. ; Spencer, &c. The last-named is almost ubiquitous in files. I am informed by a file maker in France that, for six years, he marked more files with that brand than any other. Another authority says that the house does not make one-fourth of the files sold with that brand. There is still considerable piracy of British marks on the Continent by men of straw, who have nothing to lose for those who have. The continentals in the highest class of saws and tools are not quite equal to us, but much of the second is, and the price of production and heavy import duties being unequal, they are powerful rivals against us on their own soil. The idea that they are dependent on us for those things may explode any moment. One thing is evident, that with the present rate of progress we shall shortly lose our marked superiority, unless new and extensive mechanical appliances be resorted to, or new markets are opened to us. There are vast regions on the face of the glohe that loudly call for this, and that would in return supply us with food and material for clothing, &c. “No man liveth to himself,” but is a human atom in the universe of life, with God over all ; but man’s 42 artisans’ reports on the short- sighted restrictions interrupt His providence, and bar intercourse between man and his fellows. Trade in all its operations should be free as the air we breathe ; the rain that descends from Heaven, and the Creator’s great highway, the ocean, each are typical and suggestive of free trade. All is for the benefit of humanity and the development of latent abilities in the human race, which are rarely exhibited hut under the pressure of adverse circumstances. Trades associations for promoting strikes are illegal. The “ Conseil des Prud’hommes” is a legal hoard for settling disputes between employer and employed. Its successes are well known, But recently, 19 tailors were brought to judgment for the late tailors’ strike in Paris, and were mulcted in various penalties by way of asserting the law’s authority. There are many friendly, sick, and funeral societies among working men, hut freehold land allotments are impracticable. There are thirty-seven co-operative societies in Paris, of whom the builders are the most extern sive, entering into large contracts. There is also a very successful society of ouvrier file makers, established in 1848, the details of which exceed my province. The apprenticeship system is perfectly open ; any master or man acts according to his own pleasure or convenience, the only restraint being that from the government. An 'indenture is null and void that inter- feres with a young man during the time that he is liable to he drawn in the conscription, wdiich commences at twenty years of age, and he may have to serve until he is twenty-five in times of peace. He cannot contract a marriage under twenty-seven years of age, without having first the consent of the government, and then that of his parents. V ery little can he said in favour of our continental brethren on the score of their amusements. ‘Some there are who attend evening schools and music classes, hut the great hulk spend their time in humble caffi- restaurants — inasmuch as they have no homes worthy of the name — go to cheap places in the theatre and halls, or the never-failing cards and billiard board, smoke and pass the night away until it is time to creep into their nests to sleep, and then early to the dull repetition of every- day’s toil, often Sunday included, for very inadequate remuneration. There is a species of skittles practised at the barriers with a wooden trencher. The pins are upstanding, when the trencher is started to run round them, describing a smaller circle each succeeding turn; the most pins down wdn, very naturally. These are not to compare with cricket, football, boating, or volunteer military exercise. The continental saw makers suffer from pulmonary diseases, arising from their habit of sitting to their work, and bending over their stomachs, causing them to have contracted chests ; to which may be added in- veterate smoking, long hours of toil, and intolerable heat, without a proper amount of ventilation, each of which is capable of entailing con- sumption. They obtain their light from the roof, as in a conservatory, and in the summer suffer greatly on account of the heat thus generated. There is not sufficient attention paid to ventilation by English saw makers, where they have the remedy in their own hands, either from carelessness or an unconsciousness of its importance. On winter evenings, as darkness draws nigh, fires are mended, then gas is lighted, and the PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 43 rooms heated like stoves by these means ; men work to perspiration in this hot and vitiated atmosphere, to come out into one that chills to the hone ; precipitation of blood to the lungs ensues, and consumption sets in, when it is only regarded as a “ little cold” that has been taken. As regards education in France, about ten per cent, can neither read nor write, but the idea of a grand system of national education is gaining ground. Some towns have already adopted a plan for schools similar to our own free library effort. The manners and bearing of working men towards one another is much more respectful than with the bulk of English shopmates. Their sobriety is proverbial. Thrown much into the world, they are quite at home there. Children are taken at an early age by their parent's to eat in public, so much so that they never remember their introduction into society. During my soujourn among the Parisians as an ouvrier, I furnished a few sketches of ouvrier life and labour to the Sheffield Daily Telegraph , written whilst my impressions were fresh and vivid, some portions of which it may not be amiss to recapitulate here by way of illustration : — Economy of French Manufactures. “ Alternately the nations learn and teach.” This motto, which was one that was adopted for the last inter- national exhibition, applies with great force at present respecting the progress of France and England in the useful arts, and especially for those articles of production for which our good old town for so long a period has been famous. France is making rapid strides in articles hitherto considered to be Sheffield ware. The temerity of such manufacturers to cross their own borders and the Channel, and find profitable markets on British soil — these very dealers who consider our own makers as poachers on their preserves, but are quite prepared, in true cuckoo style, to hoist native birds from their English nests. France labours under great natural dis- advantages, but these are more than counterbalanced by her great economy. It is a parallel illustration to compare France to the miser who saves his candle-ends and wastes nothing, and England to the rich heir of a noble patrimony, who dispenses it lavishly, keeps open house to all who will partake of his bounty, never dreaming but that his estate will be for ever productive. No one can conceive the method and economy of France without submitting himself to its code, and studying closely its spirit and letter. Nothing is wasted that can be submitted to computation, or compassed by figures. Scraps of wire, paper, and steel, and even steel filings, are made to yield a profitable return. A ten per cent, profit is not despised, and wages are reckoned in thousandths, their decimal system of calculation enabling them very readily so to do. In proof of our assertion we enclose herewith an identical calcul of our fortnight’s toil, and a sample of paper used for these and similar purposes, where it will be seen that our rate of remuneration per hour is eighty- three hundredths and thirty- three thousandths of a franc. A -franc is tenpence. or close upon it. Everything is economised apparently to its utmost. The proprietor has absolute control over his resources. His 44 ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE orders are issued like a commanding officer. There are standing orders, and orders of the day, and implicit obedience over all. Time for labour is ordered to suit the light and heat of the day, which is important in summer. Work is moved to and fro by those who act as satellites to the great luminary, and by a concentration of forces on a given point much work is rid in a short time when needs he. Men sit to their work, which is an economy of strength. A man can work longer sitting than standing, and a useless stroke must not he struck. If one unused to this nicety strikes his anvil by way of imparting impetus to his ham- mer, he is remonstrated with, informed it is useless, and a blow thrown away — he must unlearn that and learn to do different. We will give a fact or two to show the working of the system. A hoy, three minutes after the second bell, is caught eating a crust, is dismissed for the day, to finish it with the loss of a day’s pay. A man carries signs of giddiness in the afternoon ; he must take half a day’s re- flection and a night’s rest to compose himself for next morning — he has got off well. Another has not fastened his overalls when the second bell has rung, he is summoned to the bureau — he returns ashy pale, takes his traps and his number, and we hear his wooden sabots on the pavement no more. A Sheffield smith has partaken of an abomination which the French call “ Shoo,” which for tenderness was like an old shoe, and for the weight on his stomach might have been the “ seven- league hoots,” hut its botanical structure impressed him that when it was an infant in the hands of the nurseryman, it was, long, long ago, a cabbage -plant ; hut v/hether the frost had killed it, or it had died of old age, or the gardener had decapitated the head from the trunk to prevent either casualty, deponent knoweth not ; hut shoe or no shoe, it might have proved his last. Well, it was necessary to take a full pennyworth of real stingo brandy, to fight the green monster that threatened to over- power and fatally to subdue him. In order to obtain this, permission must he had to cross the street and back, and consume perhaps two minutes and a half more time than was consumed in the preliminaries. Luckily the “ St. George” brandy slew the green “ dragon” cabbage. . A man may take a pinch of snuff from his own twist of paper, and it will he winked at; it may serve to sharpen him up a bit, hut not do it habitually. He may take a quid from a similar source ; it acts as an impediment to conversation, and conduces to reflection. Time is precious in the Frenchman’s eyes. And are not moments of time precious ? What are they hut highly -pulverised, infinitesimally small particles of diamond-dust brushed off the koh-i-noor of eternity by the finger of the Omnipotent for the probation of puny man ? These mo- ments are of such value that if a courier in the shape of a letter comes from the city of knives it is trapped, placed in the ticket-cage, tethered to our ticke.t-hook until labour is done ; w T e may not read it before. This is the thorn in the stem of the rose, and often it lacerates the heart. But the troubadour imprisoned sings mournfully, plaintively. We try to catch his refrain, hut are not certain of his strains. Sings he — “ Good news from home, good news for thee, I bring across the deep blue sea.” PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 45 or “ Come whoam to the childer an’ me or “ Old folks at home.” This is the time to test the temper of the steel. But after all is it not just ? It is the scales of justice scrupulously adjusted, and weighed out accord- ingly. A man who labours by the day, implies by his engagement to do the best he can during his service, without detriment to his physical or mental power. We admit the justice, but an English rearing has unfitted us to adopt, without feeling its rigour, the French system of economising time. In these our humble pen-and-ink sketches we wish to draw to the very horizon of truth, beyond which we will not willingly go, — for there is the vast, vague realm of fiction. Let every distinct feature of the French landscape be definitely marked in bold contrast with our own, and we shall find that the French manufacturers have advantages which the English do not possess. We write for no man, for no party ; but give expression to the convictions within us, without fear and without favour. Here the maker has all the power of a despot ; and despotism may be used to advantage occasionally. It depends very much upon the man. In point of law. notice must be given eight days before a servant can be dismissed ; but he must comply with all the bye-laws of the establish- ment to which he is attached, and the master makes those laws. There are no unions but such as are for beneficent purposes — such as sickness or death. All trades are in this union ; and the French ouvriers receive us as a brother, without jealousy for fear of overstocking the labour market, and keeping the prices down. Wages are lower than with us; but they live within their means, and are less liable to fluctuations in trade. Cheap hands, with the aid of machinery, perform important offices ; and united with great vigilance by the various heads of depart- ments, carefully watching every process, and continual supervision, it is only natural to expect important results. One peculiarity here is a share of the profits to all employed, — to those who conduct themselves properly and respectfully to their fellow-workmen as well as to their employers. Another is the development of “ speciality,” or a gift for a particular kind of work. A man or boy is encouraged to express his likings or dislikings for his employment ; and it is no rule that because his father was a chimney-sweeper he must through life pursue the same vocation. If he has the ability to command an army there is a place for him in prospect. One of the leading French generals is of humble origin. Worthy sons of labour, who strive for progress, are recognised, honoured, decorated, and pensioned. But recently a cobbler and poet was received by the Emperor. Social equality is perfect ; political equality is nowhere in France. But we are deviating from the track. In the economy of French manufactures, if we observe how material is used, how a very small amount of fuel is made to feed a tolerably sized engine, — the ashes being burnt over and over again, with the admixture of well-wetted coal dust; the preliminary heating of water before entering the boiler to boiling heat, and the saving of labour by mechanical appliances, we shall be surprised. In the fabrication of saws there are adaptations undreamt of in England : — that saw-grinding is nearly repealed, and may shortly 4:6 artisans’ reports on the be utterly abolished ; — at the present it is a perilsome, profitless, preju- dicial process, to prepare a puddle to plaster a pigstye with, — in other words, to make wheels-swarf. And this same swarf, what is it ? Is it valuable or valueless ? How much metal does it contain, and is it worth extracting ? As a mechanical mixture does it contain any of the elements necessary to pottery ? If it does, why not employ it, and not throw it anywhere ? France has entered the commercial list as a rival to England. Is it to be the race of the hare and tortoise ? The tortoise won. The arts must progress : “ standing still is going backwards.” Processes newer and better must be adopted if Old England would not be beaten by Young France. Domestic Condition of the French Ouvrier. The general domestic condition of the French ouvrier is greatly inferior to that of the British workman. If we speak of him with regard to his family comforts, adjudged by the English standard, “ home he has none.” There is not a word in the French language which can express the idea of an English home, for the best of reasons — the idea has never been conceived. At the bare mention of the word “ home ” we suffer a partial garotte ; the word sticks in our throats nigh to choking us, and when we try to sing the good old song a mother sang to us when she dandled us on her knees when a boy — “ Home, sweet home ” — the most insensate heart could not repress emotion ; nor would we have it other- wise, or we should love our country less. Tears at such a time are the sprinkling of the holy water of the heart, and, whilst sprinkling, bless “ the land of the brave and the home of the free,” which is at one and the same time the palladium, representative, and embodiment of liberty. We are apt to grow vain when we think of what she has achieved in the cause of progress, and what her glorious institutions are capable of performing. We have learnt this in the best, if bitterest, of schools — that of experi- ence — which teaches us as no other does, and we cheerfully submit to its instructions. Some things are viewed best at a distance, and being isolated from country and home, we see things on a broader base ; and dear old daddy Bull, whom we have abused freely many a time for his rude, uncouth manners, we now consider it is but his way of expressing heartiness, which is worth ten thousand gilded glittering shams, and we prefer the grip of that bear’s paw of his, enough to crunch the digits when he seizes them, to the meaningless blandishments of a superficial politeness. Genuine politeness springs from an ingenuous heart, what- ever manner of demonstration it may assume. We have said of the ouvrier, “ home he has none,” but he has a French home, which is eight stories high— as on Boulevard Richard Lenoir and numerous other places — is eight feet square, and pays eight francs per fortnight for the accommodation, and must carry his muddy water — which he has previously bought — and all he needs to his sky-high chamber, and must bring all his refuse down from that elevation ; and he is in good quarters when he is thus located. He has a little bed that turns up, and a little table that lets down, which must be done alternately each night and morning in order to make room. He has a couple of small PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 47 chairs, as many basins, plates, knives, forks, and table spoons ; a pot a fen, a tree planted in a tasty pot if possible, and a bird in a cage, nearly comprise his honsehold goods. One suit of clothes, with blue cotton overalls, and a change of under linen, constitutes his wardrobe (he is substituting leather shoes for wooden sabots) ; he has a perforated tree- pot for a stove, and with this, with a basinful of charcoal and charcoal dust, whose fumes are poisonous, he must cook his Christmas dinner ; and his condition is improved, for are there not lavoirs, or washing- houses, where his wife can wash for the public, if she does not work at anything else ? All wives do work really hard, and long hours too. There is not much wonder if the ouvrier and ouvriere prefer to spend the hours allotted to them between toil and rest at some cheap cabaret, or cremerie, where some wandering minstrel is sure to come and screech out something about “ amours and the tidy, giddy, little body, the wife, is as happy as an empress whilst she tips her long white broad cap- striiigs adown her back, adjusts any straggling hairs, or causes some to straggle, to set off her charms. Then there are cards, billiards, conver- sation, and the universal pipe or cigarette. Why should he not be happy ? He never was better off ; never so well off as at present. They have reduced the hours of labour one hour per day, and the ten-hours’ labour movement is making headway, though some work sixteen hours now. But there is a disposition not to enforce Sunday labour unneces- sarily. It is found that periodical rest is sound economy. Then there are the fetes, theatres, balls, races, regattas, and fairs on Sundays ; and w ine. is cheap, if it is weak, and the ouvrier may use as much water as he likes from the decanter on the wine-shop table to make it last longer. But what of his children all this time ? It is quite a common occurrence to have none, generally only one, and quite a rarity to have two. They are nursed out whilst the parents work. France is degenerating in her procreative faculty ; the flower of the land are sacrificed to military glory. All suffer the conscription, and the authorities reject the feeble and ailing, and retain the strong and florid to perish by the multiplicity of avenues that beset a soldier’s career. Free trade and peace would bring ouch blessings to France as have never entered into her erratic brain as yet. The impoverishment which this country suffers from war is beyond credulity, and we fear is destined to suffer, for she cannot or dare not disarm ; hence future impoverishment. Many ouvriers live beyond the fortifications, in order to live more cheaply ; and there are numerous instances where they walk six miles to their work and back each day ; and at early mornings all roads running citywards are seen with men, women, and girls, like trickling streams at ' first, increase to the dimensions of tidal rivers until they debouch on the ocean of Paris, and then it is slack water, the tides mingle, currents running every way. How many that are cursed with beauty are lost in that sea of pleasure is beyond our computation ; but this is known, that some frail barks founder there every day, lost irretrievably ! France and England Contrasted. If that which is true in physiology .also holds good in politics, namely, that opposite consanguinities have fruitful results, then we may stretch 48 artisans’ reports on the our imagination to its utmost limit, and we shall be unable to conceive the blessed issue that may accrue from the Anglo-French alliance. Nothing “ in the heavens above, or the earth beneath, or the waters under the earth,” can be compared to it unless it be the poles that are diametrically opposite to each other, and yet act harmoniously together, but could not act separately without detriment to both. Each land possesses what the other requires, and mutual interchanges would be abundant if the shackles of commerce were irreparably broken, fused, and reduced to their original elements — the state of things that existed before custom- houses were invented. They are opposite in their possessions, opposite in their productions, opposite in their liberties, opposite in their faith and practice. France has many noble aspirations. She venerates beauty, but not beauty’s source. She is tasty always, wonderfully skilful in minutiae, and economic to a degree ; but she is atheistic, which is at the root of all her troubles — she could not be evangelised and remain enslaved. Split up as she is into many political factions, she has become like the bulls in the fable, a prey to the lion — the strongest party. A.theism is socially incohesive ; evangelism is accretive, and embraces the human race. When we say “ Evangelism,” we mean the results of the doctrines of Christ. England has great material wealth and latent force in her coal-beds — black diamonds, more precious to her than the mines of Peru or the gold-diggings of California — which to a great extent dominate her posi- tion on the earth. France requires most of all this product of England in her effort to extend her manufactures. It is this alone that cramps her commercial endeavours. We sometimes imagine the two countries represent two lines ; England is the straight line, the line direct, mechanical, mathematical, without variableness or shadow of a turning ; whilst France is the curve, the line artistical, “ the line of beauty and of grace.” Yet if beautiful, devious, crooked in her policy, pursuing a war for an idea, and sloping off into a reality in the shape of the City of Nice. England, like her representative line, is straightforward and upright, adopting a cause from its justice to her disadvantage for a time, as in the American question of recognition. She confides in principles, whilst her ally is tortuous and acts from policy. Principles are the moral attributes, the reflections of the mind of the Divine Creator. Policy is a conglomeration of subter- fuges, and the invention of men. Great moral changes would be the result of mutual interchanges. If the wines of France were substituted for the besotting decoctions of John Barleycorn, and the coal and coke of England in the place of suffocating charcoal, our land would become more sober than any Maine Law or Permissive Bill could effect, and France more domesticated — which it greatly needs. In England the government is the servant of the people ; in France it is their master. England has universal suffrage in a free press ; France has universal suffering by the contrary. Of all the heavily-taxed things in France there is nothing equal to the taxes and embarrassments on thought and the diffusion of knowledge. In England a man may say what, where, and when he pleases,’ for or against the government, in the PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 4 9 journals or in public meeting assembled, none daring to make bim afraid. In France a poet, patriot, and scholar must consume his soul by meditat- ing on ideas which, if uttered, would shed a lustre on his name, and bless the present and succeeding generations ; but he must not breathe them to hopeful listeners at a trades meeting, oddfellow’s society, or club feast, nor sing the patriotic song which every child knows, “ La Marseillaise,” without the presence of a government agent, who must report to his superior the result of each assembly ; or write in a periodical without the chance of having whole paragraphs expunged or diluted by the censor, with a prospective residence in the sultry, sickly climate of Cayenne, with the unmusical accompaniments of ball and chain in his vicinity. In England the press is its own, only, and best censor ; and woe to that erring brother who deviates from the paths of rectitude ; he should have the hide of a rhinoceros to resist the merited flagellation he is sure to receive from his enraged brethren. He must have as many lives as a cat if he survives their retribution. The liberty of the press is the safeguard of the liberty of England, and should be as scrupulously guarded, for by its means everything that is desirable, noble, and attain- able may be achieved. This accounts for the apathy on electoral reform. So difficult is it to please the French censor, that some journals have given it up in despair, and announce on their title-pages that politics, social and domestic economy, are not permitted to be discussed in their columns. Imagine the Sheffield Daily Telegraph without these, one number only. It would be a curiosity. Nobody grumbling at nobody. Everybody satisfied ! with poor-rates, highway, and bridge -rates ; boards of guardians doing as they liked, and nobody grumbling — even the tee- totallers would have to be quiet. Would it not be a “ happy valley ? ” Then there are the taxes on knowledge, of six centimes per number of a journal, and ten centimes on a double-crown bill, together with the obnoxious intermeddling, and the bond which the publishers must enter into ; so that everything, down to a business bill -head or label, is affected by it. The walls are not covered with large posters, such as we see in London, Manchester, and Sheffield, and the theatre bills are caged against the wall, unpasted, with a wire covering over them, so that they may be removed at pleasure, put by for another day, with simply the alteration of the date on the top of them. The printing business of France, notwithstanding their appliances for art, is greatly inferior to that of England. It requires courage to be a printer in France, to struggle against the difficulties that are thrown in his way. There is a wide difference between the French and English ouvrier in the matter of domestic condition. Will a handful of poisonous charcoal, in a contrivance like a tree -pot, compare with a nice bright English coal fire in an open polished grate, which heats and enforces ventilation at the same time? Think of both at Christmastide with snow on the ground and the thermometer dropping fast below freezing point, the French ouvrieres warming their benumbed fingers over the flame of their lamp to keep them from being frost bitten, whilst in dear old England the “ waits ” carol the Christmas lays without, the fire of half cwt. of coal roars up the chimney in defiance of the external blast, spice E artisans’ reports on the 50 bread, clieese, and hot ale, or, better still, some motherly home-brewed elder syrup or blackberry wine, hot, well seasoned for coughs, colds, and influenzas, and then the “ waits” come in and sing, “ Unto us a child is born,” and “ Shepherds watched their flocks by night.” Everything shines within. It is the Christmas festival, and the time for families to meet. Everything may well shine — everything has been got up to shine. The berries on the mistletoe -bough shine, the cherry-cheeked apples and the luscious oranges shine — the servant girl rubbed them well before she fixed that bush, and wondered who would kiss her first under it — the fire-irons, and so does tabby’s back, as he rubs it against them, shine ; and how many shining faces, sparkling eyes, and warm hearts ; we cannot count them, only we see two sit in one chair, and another turned down to accommodate three, and some of the lasses are forced to sit on the young chaps’ knees ; and, whilst this is going on in England, the French ouvrieres shiver at their work as they ply their needles as fast as they may, for they are joyfully looking forward to New Year’s Day, when work will be suspended until they make a few hasty calls on some they have not had time to visit since last New Year. The two peoples seem grateful in inverse proportion to their advantages. France, with nothing to be gladsome about, froths over with gratification, whilst England is crushed beneath the fruition of blessings, and is incon- solable without incessant grumbling. It is the case of the feather and the guinea in the scales. England bumps down by the specific gravity of comforts, whilst France is the feather that kicks the beam. Black and white are not in greater contrast than in the observance of the Sabbath and the institution of marriage. On the question of armaments. All able-bodied young men must pass an apprenticeship in France of offensive and defensive warfare, which is the most abject slavery when it is involuntary. In England all are volunteers, though ranged in various classes ; but one force has received that generic term, and is constituted for defence alone. The fact that 160,000 men in all ranks of life should forego some comforts, and submit themselves to military discipline without the prospect of fee or reward, but to be able to sell their lives dearly if need be for their country’s sake — that a money-making people like the English should do this— passes the comprehension of Frenchmen, and does more than anything else to cause Great Britain to be respected on the Con- tinent. Will the alliance continue for the benefit of both ? Yes, so long and no longer than England is France’s best, because strongest ally, for, the moment she is weak, she is open to insult and humiliation, which would assuredly follow if she were not able to resent every indignity advanced against her. England, strong, impregnable, can afford to be magnanimous, and, being undivided on any great question of internal administration, can “ rest upon her arms,” whilst the world is in the convulsive throes of revolution. England strives and prays for peace ; France still pants for military glory. England acts as a check to this passion of France, whilst France in return keeps England sensitively alive to the sense of honour. Were it not for the great gulf of language, the allies would rapidly assimilate in many important particulars ; as it is, cheap and rapid communication by PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 51 telegraph, rails, and post (what a good thing international penny post would be) will more slowly accomplish this. In conclusion, it is not only with feelings of regret that I have to report upon the inferior condition of our continental fellow-labourers, but that of deep thankfulness that “ we are not as other men are.” No doubt some will think it ill-advised to have reported the rate of con- tinental wages, and that it will act detrimentally to British workmen in that respect. I have no such fear from the publication of the truth, for a variety of reasons, but it would prolong indefinitely this already too long report to enter upon them. I wish to thank the Society of Arts for the honour of being appointed to fulfil a duty which, from my heart, I feel has been very inadequately performed. CUTLERY. By JOHN WILSON, SHEFFIELD. G 1ENTLEMEN, — In accordance with your instructions I visited the T Paris Exhibition, and the following report gives the results of my in- quiries. I obtained information on the subject of my mission from various parties. Where the statements of masters and workmen differed I en- deavoured to ascertain the opinions of independent parties. The information about “grinders’ asthma” I obtained from a razor maker and grinder, M. Landais, who supplies some of the Parisian shopkeepers with blades. To him I am indebted for other information, as well as for a grindstone, which I brought home. The representative of your Society, M. Haussoullier, a gentleman well informed on questions of French industry, confirmed the statement of M. Landais about the excessive rate of mor- tality amongst the grinding trades. I desire to express my obligations to M. Haussoullier for his courtesy and the readiness with which he afforded me information. I should be ungrateful if I did not acknow- ledge my obligations to Thomas Jessop, Esq., ex-May or of Sheffield, who gave me letters of introduction to his representative in Paris. Through the instrumentality of Mr. Hounsfield, the agent of Messrs. Wm. Jessop and Sons, I was enabled to see several Parisian workshops. I am thereby able to speak of their methods of work, and compare them w T ith our own. The ingenuity of some of the workmen is very great. M. Soulas (Rue Oberkamp) makes good tailors’ shears and other articles. He most readily allowed me to see both forging, grinding, and finishing. This seemed a pleasure to him, when he knew I was recommended by “ Monsieur Jessop.” Mr. Hounsfield furnished me with a guide, who seemed to know nearly all the cutlers in Paris. A residence of more than 30 years on the Continent, and his practical knowledge as a Sheffield workman, rendered his services of the greatest importance in prosecuting my inquiries. I could not obtain statistics of the population of Thiers, Nogen t, and other seats of the cutlery manufacture in France at different periods. These would have enabled me to compare their progress with that of Sheffield. A report on the manufacture of cutlery would be imperfect without briefly considering its early history. Manufacturing progress can only be understood when we have a given condition from which to start. When or where the manufacture of cutlery became a settled branch of industry it would be useless to conjecture. One thing, however, is PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 53 evident, viz., tliat little progress could be made in material civilization without the use of cutting implements. History tells us of the excel- lence of “ Damascus steel.” The swords and implements made from it have had an almost fabulous reputation. I use the word “ fabulous ” advisedly. The assumed superiority of Damascus blades was owing to the comparison being made with the implements and weapons of pre- ceding ages. These w 7 ere made of bronze or copper, and were superior to the flint and bone implements of the pre-metallic period. Some who endeavour to account for the excellence of Damascus wares suppose the workers possessed secrets now lost, as, “ tempering their steel in the north wind.” The accounts of historians lose some of their value when they confound the processes of hardening and tempering. There is an ambiguity about the following : — “ Damascus was long celebrated for its steel manufactures. Tamerlane, on his conquest of Syria, conveyed all these into Persia. Since that time they have been little memorable, and yet we are told that in the 17th century above 20,000 artisans were solely employed in making sword-blades, worth fifteen French crowns a- piece, and that the water of the Barrady was excellent for tempering hard metal. These sabres were formerly of the highest reputation in the East. They seem to have been constructed, by a method now lost, of alternate layers of iron and steel two or three lines thick. They never broke, though bent in the most violent manner, and yet retained the utmost power of edge, so that common iron and even steel would divide under their force.” If these blades were constructed of iron and steel, as stated, their great elasticity is an ancient fable. In more modern times Toledo, in Spain, sustained a high reputation for its cut- lery, but, as this was within the period of reliable history, Toledo swords have not been so famed as those made in Damascus. When Sheffield began to rival these old seats of manufacture, it would be difficult to determine. There were iron works in Sheffield soon after the Norman Conquest. Sheffield knives were known in the time of Chaucer (1328 — 1400). His well-quoted line shows this : — “ A Shefelde thwittle bare he in his hose.” The state of manufactures continued rude long after the time of Chaucer. We possess little knowledge of the cutlery trades on the continent of Europe at this period. Subsequently to the time just mentioned, there is a curious sentence in the works of Rabelais : as it describes one process of manufacturing I give it : — As for example we do sometimes see cutlers with hammers maul their finest whetstones, therewith to sharpen their iron tools the better.” It is doubtful whether in Rabelais’ time (1483 — 1553) the Sheffield cutlers had so far advanced as to possess coarse and fine grindstones ; the latter still need “ mauling” with hammers. The cutlers from the Netherlands, who came here to escape the cruel religious persecution of the Duke of Alva, about 1570, probably taught the use of whitening stones. Queen Elizabeth, by the advice of the Lord Chamberlain (the Earl of Shrewsbury), settled these foreigners in different parts of the kingdom. The historian of Hallamshire says, “ All, or the greater part of those who were artificers in iron, were sent to the Earl’s own estate in York- shire, and hence we may date the first improvement in Sheffield cutlery. Now began to be made spears, sickles, knives of variou kinds, and 5-1 artisans’ reports on the scissors, tlie manufacturers of each article confining themselves to some particular village, which arrangement, in a great measure, continues to this day.” It will he thus seen that the continental workmen were then superior to the English. This will enable us better to estimate the progress of each to the present day. The infusion of new ideas gave a stimulus to the cutlery trades. In the 21st year of James I., the Act incorporating the Cutlers’ Company was passed. The preamble throws some light on this subject. It states: — “Whereas the greatest part of the inhabitants of the lordship of Hallamshire, in the county of York, do consist of cutlers, and those who make knives and other cutlery wares, made and wrought of iron and steel, as sickles, scissors, and shears, and by their industry have not only gained a reputation of great skill and dexterity in the said faculty, but have relieved and maintained their families, and have been enabled to set on work many poor men inhabiting thereabouts, who have very small means or maintenance other than by their hands and daily labour as workmen to the said cutlers, and have made knives of the best edge, wherewith they have served the most part of the kingdom and other foreign countries until now, &c.” To have made knives of “ the best cutting edge” was the highest praise, and it is the best test for cutlery. In the quantity of cutlery in the French Exhibition, England compares disadvantageously with the French. Such a result is not unexpected. Great Britain has only eight exhibitors in cutlery, while France has more than fifty. Besides the paucity of numbers, there is an absence of the largest Sheffield manufacturers. Mr. George Wostenholm, being one of the jurors, did not exhibit, and yet there are few trade-marks better known than the I.X.L. The celebrated firm of Rodgers and Sons, whose corporate mark has been granted more than a century, was conspicuous by its absence. This is more to be regretted when we remember the display made by them in the Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862 in London, as well as that of Paris in 1855 ; besides, no firm has done perhaps so much to extend the fame of Sheffield for its staple productions. The principal exhibitors are Mappin and Webb, London and Sheffield ; Davis, London ; G. and L. Morton, London ; and Brooks and Crookes, Atlantic Works, Sheffield. The last-named have a splendid assortment of scissors, razors, and knives ; they are tastefully arranged, and the credit of Sheffield is worthily sustained by this young and enterprising firm. The jurors award them the Gold Medal,” and I fully endorse their verdict. Mappin and Webb have a good assortment of cutlery ; I doubt, however, if, in the grinding department of their best specimens, they equal those made by the old firm of “ Arundel and Mappin,” or the subsequent one of Mappin Brothers. Morton’s case is one of which any one might be proud. Some of their razors are elaborate specimens of workmanship, both blades and handles. The aim of an exhibitor should be, while not despising ornamentation, to keep to the useful and cheap. The scissors in this case are good and elegant, and though bearing the impress “ Morton,” I think that they, as well as the razors, are made in Sheffield ; I should guess the makers to be J. and Wm. Ragg. The British exhibitors exhibit no trash in this department. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 55 The official catalogue defines cutlery to be — “Table cutlery, including knives and forks , spring-knives of all sorts, as pocket knives, hunting knives, poignards, scissors and shears of all kinds, razors, &c.” Now, I regret to find that one branch of trade, in which we have almost a monopoly, was not represented. I allude to the wool-shear trade. It was almost a treat to see a pair of sheep-shears, and this was not confined to the British department. Either Bobert Sorby and Sons or Lockwood Brothers could have creditably sustained the honour of Sheffield in this branch. There are four centres of the cutlery manufacture in France. First, the “ Puy de Dome,” represented by the town of Thiers. This is the most important for the amount of business ; the annual production, it is said, amounts to 48,000,000 pieces ; these are exclusively cheap articles. The second centre is “Haute Marne,” represented by the town of Nogent le Roi. It is here where the table-knife blades are made to supply the Parisian cutlers. Third, Paris. The manufacturers here are more famed for quality than quantity. Paris, in one respect, resembles London ; work is put together there which is partly made in the provinces. The Parisian cutlers, though not numerous, display good taste, and, con- sidering their facilities, they turn out splendid workmanship ; this is the case especially in surgical instruments and sportsmen’s knives. The other centre is Chhtelherault, in the department Vienne. The produc- tions are ordinary razors and table knives. The annual value of French cutlery amounts to about 20,000,000 frs., and by far the largest part of their productions is for home consumption. Thiers and its environs produce about 12,000,000 frs. ; the department of the Haute Marne about 4,000,000 frs. ; Paris, 2,000,000 frs. ; and Chhtelherault about 1 ,000,000 frs. The best cases of table and spring knives are exhibited by the Paris cutlers. E. Piault, Rue Daupliine, shows first-rate speci- mens of sportsmen’s knives, table cutlery, and razors. Charbonne, of Nogent, displays a first-rate case of fine scissors, which, for variety and polish, are highly commendable. The same may be said of the scissors and razors of Malaingre Staurenghi, Nogent. Sommelet and Wichard, Courcelles, Haute Marne, exhibit good scissors, including specimens in various stages of manufacture ; some of these are stamped in dies. A Frenchman endeavoured to introduce this method in Sheffield three or four years ago. Some of our leading manufacturers doubted its advan- tages, economically considered, and I believe the scheme has not made any progress. Lecollier, Nogent, displays a variety of razors in ivory and tortoise-shell, from 27s. to 42s. per dozen ; razors, ordinary quality, from 12s. to 24s. ; and “ Rasoirs forme Anglais,” 27s. per dozen. Hamon, Paris, shows French ivory razors (jimped), 20 frs. the pair ; ivory, ditto (Messrs. Butcher, Sheffield), 15 frs. ; and white bone, 8. frs. the pair. Oliatelet and Cornet, Thiers, exhibit some really good forgings of blades and springs ; the finish of their cutlery is far behind this first stage, especially the grinding. Robert and Collin show good cutlery, and surgical instruments first-rate. C. Gr. Marmuse, Paris, exhibits a good and varied assortment of table cutlery. Parisot and Gallois, Paris, show good ivory table-knives. There are others who make a creditable dis- play in French cutlery. For example, Mermillion Brothers, Prieure, 56 ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE commune of Oenon, Vienne, show good razors and table knives. Pingault and Co., Chatelhfirault, show table cutlery and razors, besides a piece of outre work, viz., a steel wheel, with two razors, two table and two other blades branching from the circumference. The whole shows how much labour may be spent without any useful result. They like- wise exhibit table blades and razors in various stages of manufacture. These show, what I long suspected, that much work done in Sheffield on the stone is done in France by the file. A common class of cutlery is exhibited from Thiers. These have the merit of cheapness, even though the workmanship is rude. Sabatier Brothers, Bellevue, Thiers, along with finished cutlery, exhibit a number of “beds” and “punches” for “ flying ;” scales, blades, spring fleams, &c. ; but whether they “ fly” by hand, or water, or steam-power, I could not ascertain. In this case there was much to interest the practical workman. Deplanquais, Paris, exhibits good and varied pruning shears ; and Ilappe, Paris, shows good pocket and sporting knives, and gardening shears, &c. Piault, of Paris, shows good table cutlery and superior razors. Belgium has three exhibitors, who show a number of knives, remarkably low in price. The greatest defect is the grinding ; the blades are rolled too much on the stone. They show table-knives from 2fr. per dozen, and pocket knives from 1 fr. 25 c., about Is. per dozen. There are signs of improvement in the Belgian department since the Exhibition of 1851. They copy our Sheffield patterns more closely than the French. Our- “Norfolk” and “ Wharncliffe ” knives are closely imitated. The gardener’s knife (a “ take out ”) is offered very cheap : pruning knives from 3frs. per dozen. A knife, containing corkscrew, fire-steel, and three other articles, may be bought for 1 fr. “ la douzaine.” In cheap labour the Belgians have a great advantage over this country. One of the ex- hibitors announces his cutlery for exportation. Sw T eden has three exhibitors, who show carved ivory daggers, and a small assortment of general cutlery, surgical instruments, and swords. English patterns are imitated. Heljestrand, of Eskilstuna, shows cutlery made of Bessemer steel. They look much like the make of Mr. A. Rotherham, Sheffield. With regard to Prussian cutlery, Solingen (the Sheffield of Prussia) is represented by a good selection of cutlery. Schwarte has good razors and spring knives. “ Two-ended” knives are more general from Solingen than any part of the continent. F. Herder, jun., exhibits good cooks’ knives, scissors, tailors’ shears, and elaborate pearl carving knives and forks, capped with silver. 0. Gr. Kratz an elegant assort- ment of sporting, champagne, and other spring knives, ivory carved razors and table cutlery. The carving of the handles is elaborate. A large knife on the “ lobster ” principle shows this. The knife is quadrangular, and is a close imitation of one exhibited by Messrs. "Rodgers in 1851. The principal difference is the Prussian knife is a “ shadow,” while that of Rodgers has “ gold-mounted bolsters ” centre- piece. The show of Prussia altogether does Solingen great credit. Russia displays a less elaborate class of cutlery. A. Banine, Novogorod, exhibits the best shears in this department. The grinding reminds me of Sheffield. Zavialoff Brothers’ (Novogorod) collection altogether is PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 57 useful, if not highly finished. The grinding of the penknives looks like Sheffield work. Are the blades sent to Russia as job blades ? Scales and spring I know are sent. Austria shows a varied assortment of cutlery. In the finer qualities they do not rival either the French or Prussians. I did not see in the Austrian cases such rude specimens as they exhibited in London in 1851. They are certainly improving in cutlery. Turkey, Egypt, Tunis, Siam, and the other countries need few remarks. They exhibit nothing likely to compete with English manufacture. Italy shows some small cutlery and surgical instruments. Santangelo (Campo Basso, Molise) exhibits the most varied case, including knives, razors, and scissors. America has only one exhibitor in Class 20, viz., Biggs, of New York. Their cutlery is made by Booth, Brothers, Newark, New Jersey. The goods are of middle quality, and are solely English patterns. So far I have confined myself to Class 20, “ Fine Cutlery.” There are other specimens in Class 40, as scythes, sickles, reaping-hooks, and machine knives. In scythes America sends the best specimens in the Exhibition. They are made by the Greenwoods’ Scythe Company, and the grinding and finishing are excellent. Sheffield is entirely unrepresented in these branches. This is more to be regretted when it is remembered that scythes and sickles belong to the staple trades of that town. In tanners and curriers’ knives Alfred Green sustains the reputation of Sheffield. In the grinding and finishing, the “ Moon” knives are the best in the Exhibition. The French and Germans compete in this department ; the blade edges, however, are often got up with the file. The smaller states of the Zollverein and France have many exhibitors of scythes, drawing knives, &c. In the manufacture of scythes on the continent more work is done with the hammer and less with the stone. Moritz, Hulenback, and Co., Schmale and Gross, both of Milspe, fairly represent the Germans. Their scythes are made with blades more concave than ours. After hardening and tempering they are “ set ” by hammering, and then rubbed instead of being ground. Prussia exhibits scythes, hay, and straw knives. The district near Hagen is represented by Gochet, Brothers, and Shennemann and Co. Austria is represented by an old firm, Martin, Miller, and Son, Vienna. Their collection contains machine knives, both for hand and steam power, and a good assortment of “spiral” cutters. In the French department Holtzer and Co. (Unieux, Loire) show good scythes. The upper side of the blade is concave, and ground across a small stone, which grinds the edge. The convex side is ground straight down. Messrs. Coulaux and Co., Bas Rhin, show good garden shears, scythes, and sabres. On the whole the continental exhibitors show less, variety and more rudely finished cutlery than either America or Eng- land. Then how stands this country in the industrial race ? In all articles which require a keen-cutting edge, as razors, table cutlery, penknives, amputating knives or scissors, Sheffield stands at the head of all her competitors. This position is attributable to excel- lent grinding. In this we distance both France and Germany. The worst part of their cutlery is the grinding, and this is a great defect, because, it must be remembered, that the use of cutlery is to cut ; and, 58 artisans’ reports on the after all, it is not “ carved” handles or “gold mountings,” but the blade which constitutes the knife. It may he asked to what we owe our superior workmanship in this branch? There are two reasons. The first is the length of time which grinding in Sheffield has been a district branch of industry — this has given us the benefit of experience ; and, secondly, the superiority of our grinding-stones and tools. French grinding-stones are too hard. Those used in Paris are brought from Mareilly. The hardness gives the stones little cut, and often spoils the temper, and I saw no contrivance for keeping open the grit except “ hewing.” In grinding straw-knives, the workmen put rough sand on the stone to sharpen the grit. In grinding razors and table -blades they use.no “ fiat-stick ;” and instead of “lapping” they “ wood-glaze” their razors and pen-blades. This accounts for the rough bottom in French fine work. I saw no “ dry grinding” in Paris. The division of labour, how- ever, is less complete there than at Nogent or Thiers. Two cutlers informed me that the “ dry” stone was not used in France. Razors are shaped with the file, a much less efficient form of labour than the dry stone. In table and spring cutlery much is done by the file which in England is done by grinding. The best table -blade bolsters are filed, as could be seen where exhibitors showed the different stages of manu- facture. Common “ round tangs” table-blades have the bolsters either “ soldered” on or “ tommied.” Use in the restaurants soon shows this weakness ; a good weld is far superior for durability. It is only right to state that common cutlery is very cheap in France. This brings us to the question of prices. Is foreign competition driving the English out of the market ? There is a great advantage in low- priced labour on the Continent. The efficiency of labour is with the English. This is owing to the extensive application of capital, which favours production on a large scale. The cost of materials will be in favour of the English manufacturers in “ first-class cutlery.” The official catalogue says, “ English cast steel forms about one-half of the material for the manufacture of Parisian cutlery.” They must, therefore, pay the carriage from Sheffield and the import duties ; these amount to 3s. 7d. on bar steel, on sheets 4s. 6d., and cast-steel wire, 8s. per cwt. In ivory, horn, and tortoise and pearl shells, the advantage is with us. My reason for stating this is that our Sheffield ivory and pearl cutters supply continental merchants with scales of these materials. Files are dearer in France (when efficiency is con- sidered), or our Spencers, Ibbotsons, Turtons, and others could not pay duty on files and sell them in France. Grinding stones are a little dearer there than in Sheffield, and, what is of more importance, they are much worse. This is not theory, for, remembering the old adage, “ the proof of the pudding, &c.,” I brought over a French stone to try, and this trial confirmed the opinion I had before formed. So far, England has nothing to fear. The division of labour is better carried out in Sheffield than in France ; the conditions of labour, however, are different. In the former, piece-work is almost general, while in the latter more than 50 per cent, are day workers amongst the cutlers. As to the efficiency of the two there can bev little doubt. Wherever “ piece work” is prac- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 59 ticable, it is not only tlie most efficient, but it is tbe most satisfactory form of labour. In education the French artisans contrast favourably with our own, at least if those in Paris are fair specimens : and this is not confined to particular trades. The women are better educated than with us. The fact of numbers being employed as clerks astonishes the English, and there is no doubt that educated women have a mighty influence in the cause of domestic education. In “ art education” the French have a great advantage over English workmen. Trade associations and wages cannot be overlooked in a report of this character. Trade associations, similar to our trades unions, do not exist in France. Previous to 1864, strikes were illegal. Articles 114, 415, and 416 of the Code P5nal, 1810, forbid combinations to raise wages or reduce the hours of labour. The promoters of these could be imprisoned from two to five years. The same law forbids combinations of employers for the purpose of unjustly depressing the rate of wages ( tendant cc forcer injustement et abusivement V abaissement des salaires). As it is difficult to say what is an unjust depression, the employers escaped scot- free. This condition was altered in May, 1864 (vide “ Loi qui Modifie les Articles 414, 415, et 416 Code Penal, Coalitions.”) This modifica- tion of the law was preceded by a Commission of Inquiry, of which M. Ollivier was the reporter. This report explains the alterations. By these, men are allowed to combine if they abstain “from violence, menace, or fraud.” The law will not interfere with “ strikes” or “ lock- outs” until they assume a criminal character. Before a trade meeting can be held the parties must obtain the sanction of the Prefecture of Police. At this meeting a public officer must be present, and if any political matters be introduced the promoters come at once under the prohibitory action of the law. The freedom of the workman is interfered with in his individual character by the “ Livret.” This is a book which the workman must show an employer when soliciting employment, to prove that he has fulfilled his engagements towards his last employer. The “Livret” could (by the law of 1851) be withheld by a master until the -workman had fulfilled his engagements. If a man leaves his employer in debt his next employer must stop the sum (if not exceeding thirty francs) out of his wages. Again, the “ Livret ” is delivered all over the kingdom by the mayors (at Lyons by the Prefect of the Department, and at Paris by the Prefect of Police). The workmen regard it as a means of keeping them in political bondage, and, in the hands of unscrupulous employers, it may be made oppressive. Besides the things already mentioned, the “ Livret d’Ouvrier ” contains a full description of the bearer, and in tra- velling in search of employment he must present himself before the mayors of the departments for identification. If this is satisfactory the “ Livret ” receives the official stamp, and then the workman may seek employment. These things vexatiously interfere with the freedom of industry, and are foreign to the habits of Englishmen. Other trade associations exist in France, as the co-operative societies. Many of these were formed during the revolutionary period of 1848. The state granted them eleemosynary aid ; fifty-six societies received 3,000,000 fr. voted by the Constituent Assembly. Of this number 60 ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE forty-two societies collapsed after a brief and precarious existence. There are others which yet show signs of vigour, as the “ association des mapons,” with 84 members, regularly employing from 200 to 300 men. I find no co-operative manufacturing amongst the cutlers, although another Sheffield trade is carried on in Paris on this principle, the “ Association des Ouvriers en Limes.” These file manufacturers have carried on business since 1848. Some of these industrial societies have tried the principle of allowing the men to share the profits. The mapons abandoned the system as impracticable, owing to the impos- sibility of reconciling the men to a share of the losses, when such occurred. Co-operative associations for production are numerous in France. There are 39 in Paris alone. Besides the forms of co-operation already mentioned, there are others, on the principle of allowing the workmen to share a portion of the profits of trade. One of the most important is the iron foundry of M. Godin Lemaire, at Guise. About 900 men are employed there. The proprietor built, in 1859, a large house, with 250 separate lodgings ; these are let to the workmen at a rental of three per cent, on the capital ex- pended. M. Lemaire is now dividing this property into shares, pur- chasable by the workmen. It is intended to divide the manufactory in the same manner. The primary articles of consumption are furnished to the workmen at reduced prices. The social relation is most intimate in this establishment. The men are known by the appellation of the “ Familistere de Guise.” How far these different societies can maintain their position against private enterprise remains to be proved. The moral advantages arising from the co-operative movement are worth all the cost. What- ever teaches habits of prudence, economy, and self-denial to the in- dustrial classes tends to enrich the community. The elements of production, capital, and labour in England are too antagonistic. If the ■workmen, by co-operation, can successfully compete for profits against the capitalist, the triumph of labour will be complete, and the victory will be won, not by “ railing against capital,” but by contending against it with capital. The experiments being tried in France are especially interesting to the philanthropist. How far these associations have im- proved the moral and social condition of the operatives I am not pre- pared to say. The experience in France of a general increase of wages without trades unions conclusively disproves a statement, often made in England, “ That without the protection of a union the workmen would be ground down, while they could not live.” The motives which in- fluence mankind are the same in France as here — they are a part of human nature. The general opinion is, that the social condition of the French ouvrier has been materially improved during the last few years. In a report of Mr. Fane, addressed to Lord Stanley (dated March 31, 1867), the following sentence occurs : — “ The general rate of money- wages may be said to have increased about 40 per cent, in the last 15 years ; but this by no means implies a corresponding rise in the real wages of the workmen. The rise in the price of money -wages has been accompanied by a considerable rise in the price of the ordinary articles of consumption and of lodging, so that the improvement in the PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 61 position of the labourer has been far from commensurate with the rise in the money value of labour. Still, the relative proportions in which money-wages and the price of commodities have risen, leave a margin in favour of the former, and to this extent there has been a rise of real wages, which enables the labourer to feed, lodge, and clothe himself somewhat better than he could 15 years ago.” Mr. Fane’s report show T s an improving condition of the labourer, and this has been obtained without those convulsive struggles which in Eng- land frustrate the calculations of the capitalist, and bring misery on the workmen and their families. I allude to “ strikes” and “ lock-outs.” Altogether, there seems to be less antagonism between masters and workmen in France than in England. Through the kindness of M. Houssoullier, I am enabled to give the statistics of wages and the social condition of the cutlery trade in Paris : — “ In 1819 there were 239 cutlers in Paris. In 1860 this number had increased to 285 men, 13 women, and 22 boys under sixteen, including apprentices. There were 1 employing more than 10 men, 61 from 2 to 10, and 179 employed 1, or were little masters. Of this 285, 172 worked by the day, and 113 were piece-workers. Of the women, 5 were day and 8 piece-workers. The wages were as follows: — 285 men — 19 got less than 3 francs per day, 28 got 3 francs, 38 got 3^ francs, 10 got 1 francs, 15 got 1| francs, 71 got 5 francs, 7 got 5j francs, 28 got 6 francs, 1 got 6| francs, and 2 got 7 francs. The 13 women — 5 got 2 francs, 2 got 2J francs, 3 got 2| francs, and 3 got 3 francs. The wages of the 22 boys were as follows : — Two, not apprenticed, 1 got 50 centimes (five pence), and 1 got 75 centimes ; of the other 20 boys 11 got no wages, 1 got voluntary wages, and 5 got from 7 5 centimes to 2J francs per day ; the day’s work 12 hours, with 2 hours for meals. Of the 285 men, 10 board and lodge with their masters ; 215 live at home ; 60 live in lodgings. 210 are w^ell conducted ; 21 doubtful ; 21 bad. 261 can read and write ; 21 cannot. Of the 13 women, 11 live at home, and 2 with their masters. All the women can read and write. Of the boys, 10 live at home, and 12 with their masters ; 19 can read and write, 3 cannot. Of the 20 apprentices, 3 are engaged by contract, 17 without. Four are engaged for two years; 7 for three years; 8 fori years ; and 1 for five years.” * I could not obtain reliable statistics of the other towns where cutlery is manufactured. The official catalogue says, “ Manual labour pre- dominates in this branch of industry, as the workman only makes one sort of article, and that always the same. He buys the raw material, and finishes the article himself. There are, however, some important manufactures where a certain number of mechanical tools are employed, such as stamping and cutting presses. In the centres of the great cut- lery districts the workmen work at home, with apprentices living in the surrounding villages.” This description leads me to doubt whether the divisions of labour are so complete as with us. The words would aptly describe the condition of Sheffield in the time of James the First. In reference to the “ grinders’ asthma,” I was informed that, as a rule, the * “ Statistics of tke Industry of Paris, 1860.” Page 433. Collected by the Chamber of Commerce. 62 artisans’ reports on the value of a grinder’s life was 15 years less than that of men in healthy occupations. One man (a file grinder) told me he suffered at the lungs. Now, as the dry stone is not used in France, we may fairly conclude that the constrained position is unfavourable to health. Long hours of labour should, therefore, be exceptional. Where men grind by water- power the hours of work are uncertain. Whether the banks of the Durolle are skirted by grinding wheels, like our Bivelin, Loxley, Porter, or Don, I cannot say ; but, as the town of Thiers stands on a declivity falling to the Durolle, such picturesque objects as grinding-wheels are extremely probable. I have before stated that, in fine cutlery, Sheffield has no rivals, especially in knives with sunk joints. In common, how- ever, we cannot compete with France and Belgium. Cheap knives are made as a branch of “ domestic industry.” Trade is only an auxiliary to the cultivation of the soil ; and, in cases where subsistence does not depend on trade, labour is cheap. Common knives are made at St. Etienne and Noutron, in the Dordogne. These are now sold at from 3Jd. to 8id. per dozen. I bought two by retail in Paris for a penny ; and for all the purposes of a knife they will surpass much common rubbish made in Sheffield. This may seem strange, but it is true, though the famed hardware town does now, as it did three centuries ago, make knives of “ the best cutting edge.” Some manufacturers, careless of reputation, send out “ superior cutlery” which will not “ cut ;” they are like “ Hodge’s razors ” — not made to shave, but to sell. The conclusions I have drawn as to the relative position of England and other countries in the manufacture of cutlery, are as follows : — We possess, 1st. Superior natural advantages, more especially good grindstones and a cheaper supply of coal and steel. 2nd. Abundant capital, which promotes economical production by the concentration of machinery in large establishments, and allows a better division of labour. 3rd. The extensive commercial relations of Engand give us the best markets for supplying ourselves with raw materials. This will be seen from the fact of our Sheffield steel makers having a monopoly of the best Swedish iron for converting into steel. As, for example, iron with the celebrated brand “ Hoop L.,” can only be obtained through Messrs. William Jessop and Sons, whose experience as steelmakers goes back to the last century. The very foundation of excellence in cutlery is good steel ; and in this at present we stand unrivalled. These are advantages of no mean character ; and in the adaptation of them to the specific object of this inquiry we possess skill and industry unsurpassed. If the progress made by other countries seems greater than our own, it is because in the manufacture of cutlery we are much nearer perfection ; and therefore it is impossible that onr progress should be as marked as those emerging from a rude state of manufacturing. By the application of capital and skill we have won our position, and by the same means we must maintain it. But it is desirable that capital and labour should work more harmoniously together than heretofore. Although the progress of France has been remarkable, as shown by in- creasing exports and imports, their trade with foreign countries being PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 63 sevenfold greater in 1866 than it was in 1825, yet cutlery and hardware are not amongst the items of increase. In these branches of industry England has no cause to despair. The annual value of French cutlery is about 20,000,000 frs. (£800,000). Nearly all this is retained for home consumption ; while England, besides supplying her own wants, exports above £3,000,000 of cutlery and hardware. The amusements of the French artisans differ from ours. They play cards and billiards, and freely indulge in dancing. In athletic out-door exercises they are far behind England. The prevalence of day-labour does not leave the French workman the same freedom to indulge in out-door sports as is common with us. With a beautiful river like the Seine, it is a rarity to see a man rowing for exercise ; and yet nothing would do more to counteract the effects of the abnormal position in which men like the grinders work. In personal idiosyncracies the English and French workmen differ. An English foreman told me he could not get a French workman to use a very heavy hammer as efficiently as the British. The latter, how- ever, were less tractable, and more tenacious of their own way. They dislike the irksome 'interference of the French laws, and often throw up their situations in disgust. In concluding this report, let me ask, “ Will the cutlery trade leave this country ?” I believe not. If the cost of labour increases here, the material prosperity of other countries will bring about the same result. It has been shown that wages in France have greatly advanced. Now the normal law of industry is that the cost of production increases the price of commodities. In this respect England will not be in a worse condi- tion than her competitors. Motives of patriotism should cause every Briton to cherish the interests of his native land. To secure these interests labour and skill must not undervalue capital as an element of production. Each has its rights and its duties. The diffusion of economic knowledge will cause these to be respected. In order to maintain our reputation and position as “ the workshop of the world,” capital and labour must work harmoniously together, and when this desirable consummation arrives, I have no fear of the result. England at present occupies a proud position, and the combination of British enterprise, capital, and industry will maintain our manufacturing supremacy against all the world. CHAIKMAKING, & c. Bv BENJAMIN LUCBAFT, CHAIR, MAKER. H AVING, by appointment of the Society of Arts, visited Paris, tbe International Exhibition, and some of the cabinet manufactories, for the purpose of reporting my opinion and impressions on an im- portant branch of the cabinet trade, namely, chairs, sofas, settees, &c., I beg to give the following as my opinion upon the comparative merits of the manufacture of those exhibits in our own and other countries. I have arrived at the conclusion that, with the single exception of France, but little or no progress has been made since the Exhibition of 1862. I will commence with the exhibits of the United States of America. I find two or three rocking-chairs, of no great novelty, and not the least pretension to beauty. Proceeding through Persia, China, Egypt, and Turkey, &c., there is nothing to call for remark until arriving at the exhibits of the Italian States, where some good light chairs are shown ; also an excellent iron chair, exhibited by B. Biraghi, of Milan, for use in theatres, concert-rooms, and places w r here the economy of space is a con- sideration — a commodious, handsome arm-chair, 100 of which will take but a trifle more room than half that number of ordinary chairs. It need not be of metal — it may be made in wood, on the same principle. I will endeavour to describe its speciality. An iron frame, the sides of a Grecian pattern, the top and splat of iron ; a frame of w T ood, fitted between the sides, the top and the splat stuffed, forms the back ; the seat is a wooden frame, stuffed, and is attached to the sides by two bolts, on which it swings. The space is economised in this way : — You can place the chairs almost close together ; there is no front rail, and the seat turns on the bolts ; if a person wants to pass in or out, you rise, your seat turns, you step back in your chair, and the person can then pass. Russia comes next, but exhibits nothing requiring notice. The same must be said of Sweden, Denmark, Greece, and Portugal. Spain has a few good chairs, that would be thought more of in a local exhibition. Switzerland exhibits several suites, one of great pretensions, but it is badly carved. Austria has a large suite, very costly, but spoilt by ugly curves and unsightly protuberances ; also, chairs and sofas, made in steel. Wurtemburg exhibits a suite of black and gold, not first-rate. The same may be said of a number of chairs from Berlin. Baden has some good dining-room chairs. Belgium exhibits largely, but nothing worth a moment’s consideration. I am surprised that the greatest part FARIS UNIVERSAL exhibition. 65 of the exhibits from the countries I have passed through were not rejected altogether; there is not the least comparison between them and the two countries I have now to describe — France and Great Britain. France exhibits a great number of beautiful chairs and settees, some of them so slight that to many they appear almost useless ; yet they are so well constructed that their lightness gives strength by its elasticity ; but the greater part of their chairs and sofas are of a very substantial, and many of a massive character. Yet you see no large lumps of wood to offend the eve. If a sofa is eight or ten feet long, they see no reason why the carvings on it should not be as fine as though it was but half that length. The same may be said of their arm-chairs. On them you may see carvings as chaste as can be found on a chair so slight that a lady may twist it on her finger. Not only are the carvings good, — the framing is equally so ; the curves and sweeps are perfection, and the upholstery most beautiful. And these chairs and sofas are not got up merely for the Exhibition, — they are the every day work of the Paris trade. I went, with a party of English cabinet-makers, carvers, chair-makers, and upholsterers, over three of the largest factories, Messrs. Jeanselme, Fourdinois, and H. Rocault. We were shown over their warerooms and workshops, and the work, as a rule, was found equal to that in the Exhibition ; not all so elaborately carved ; in fact, some of the most luxurious sofas and easy chairs we saw had no carving at all, but were stuffed over. I had intended to have given the names of some of the principal exhibitors in this section, but found that, to do justice, I must have included the whole of them ; but, for the information of those who did not visit the Exhibition, I will describe briefly the styles that jwedominate in this section. The best part were reproductions of the Louis Seize, with the back and front legs turned, the mouldings of the rails, top, and legs carved with flutes, beads, and small leaves, and in the centre of the top, flowing over the mouldings, fine cut foliage, not of that kind of carving the intricacy of which is the chief feature, but more simple and less artificial-looking. There is no striving after effect, but, on the con- trary, all the enrichments seem to belong to the places they fill; and, notwithstanding there is no part of the work that astonishes you, yet the whole is so striking and seemingly natural, that you are pleased beyond 1 description. Most of these chairs are gilt ; some are ebonized ; others black and gold, or white and gold ; also walnut, polished and partly gilt, and others partly black. The upholstery, too, is superb. Some seats have an oval or round medallion in the centre, with the corners closely tufted wdth tufts an inch apart, the centre of course left plain, to show the design ; it has a very rich and pleasing effect. One of the gems of the Exhibition was a Louis Quatorze arm-chair. No part of this was turned. The front legs were shaped square, the mouldings carved, the shafts panelled, and a shell with three or four husks carved in them, an elliptic front rail, a shell and foliage carved in- the centre, the sides and back rail straight ; the shape of the back square, to within about five inches of the top, where a bracket is formed on the outside of the back legs to support the overhanging part of the top rail, E 66 ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE tlie centre of which is an ellipse ; the mouldings of the hack are about an inch and a-half wide, having a bead on the edges, with the inside cut up into small panels ; the splat, back legs, and lower part of the top are treated in this way, — the upper part of the top has a thumb mould- ing, richly carved ; a husk on the edge of the top, over the back legs, finishes the corners. The middle of the top has some fine foliage, rising about three inches above the arch, and flowing gracefully over a finely-carved head. The front of the arms rests on a carved console ; the sides and part of the front are panelled, and a leaf, springing from the top of the front leg, runs half-way up. The front end of the arm is carved with a similar leaf ; a double husk forms the back end of the arm, one part running up the back leg, the other down the arm to the pad. This sketch will also serve for a sofa to match ; the sides and arms of the chair will form the ends and arms of the sofa. This chair was gilt, and the back and seat covered in blue satin. The next and last section is the British ; and, without the least doubt or hesitation, yet with the most profound regret, I say it, our defeat is as ignominious, and, I fear, disastrous, as it is possible to conceive. We have not only made no progress since 1862, but, it seems to me, we have retrograded. The English chairs and sofas do not at all compare with the French in elegance, and are by no means superior in make. In the exhibits of some of our first-class manufacturers there is a kind of family likeness running through them, most decidedly English, — but English of the present day only, not in the least superior to what we have done in the past, and which will have no place in the future. I refer to chairs of a supposed mediaeval character, exhibited by Messrs. Trollope, Holland, Lamb (of Manchester), and others, showing great poverty of design ; one of the most striking features being round holes, — made and filled up again. Yet they have a slightly-redeeming quality — they are original ; a mistake is better than stagnation ; we may do something better next time. Messrs. Trollope and Sons exhibit the best and the worst of this kind of chairs ; they have also a good ebonized chair, but with, to my think- ing, another mistake. I can understand and appreciate a man’s clever- ness who, having to make a chair without glue, should send his tenons through the feet, and wedge them on the outside with an ornamental wedge ; but to make it with glue, and put a wedge, not for use but ornament, is quite another matter. I would we were above such trifles. Messrs. Jackson and Graham exhibit some inlaid chairs, the work- manship of which it is impossible to surpass, but I think they are too stiff and formal. Amongst the English exhibitors I give the first place to Ingledew. He has three or four good chairs, one with X -sides, with very good brass castors, reaching several inches up the front legs, adding strength and beauty to it ; and a library or office chair, admirable in shape, and ex- tremely comfortable to sit in, but spoilt by having the wood of the arms and other parts ground out, and pieces of leather put in its place ; surely this is a great mistake ; you cannot make a better ornament in leather than in wood ; then why not let the wood remain ? — I think it a very poor conceit. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 67 A rather sliowy convertible ottoman, exhibited by Filmer, the only thing of the kind in the Exhibition, and two handsome invalid chairs, by Ward, of Leicester-square, the usefulness of which I cannot speak to, bring me to the close of this part of my report. And now, after the most careful consideration, and with a desire to give an honest verdict, I am bound to repeat that in the race we are nowhere, and that France distances all other countries in beautifully-designed and luxuriously- upholstered chairs and sofas. I have been as brief as possible, that I may, without taking your time too much, endeavour to give some reasons why we are behind ; and after a few suggestions that may help us to the front in the future, I shall confine my observations to my own country and France, as the other continental nations are much below our own standard. Paris being the chief seat of this industry in France, as London is in England, the prin- cipal towns are influenced alike by the art- culture of both capitals. I believe all will agree with me that perfection in this branch of the cabinet trade depends more on a cultivated eye than other branches do * for example, the splendid cabinet-work in the English section, which, for workmanship, surpasses all others, as much as the French does in china and glass ; yet this is done by rule, that cannot be departed from. Two good cabinet-makers, working from the same lines, will turn out both pieces exactly alike ; if there should be a difference it will be in the workmanship, and not in the form; taste is not required to make a mitre any more than to shoot a joint — it is done by rule that cannot be deviated from ; not so with chairs of an artistic character ; the lines are only a guide up to a certain point, and from that point the mere workman stands not the slightest chance with the workman of a culti- vated taste. The art- workman of France has a great advantage over us in England. In Paris they are surrounded by works of that kind, which none but the most obtuse can long remain uninfluenced by. Their museums and palaces are central, and most numerous ; their decorations and furniture are of the highest order, and nearly always open to the people; even the Palace of Versailles, with its beautiful Louis Quatorze decorations, can be reached by rail as readily as I can reach South Kensington from my house at Islington. I mention these advantages the French enjoy, to show to those 'who think climate and our plodding race have something to do with our want of taste, that there are other causes. Do our aspiring artists take up their abode in Pome on account of the climate ? Not a bit of it ; there they are sur- rounded by works they venerate and love, and their very nature gets impregnated with them. But I do not want London knocked to pieces to make a city of palaces, that the people may acquire a taste for things lovely to the eye ; still something must be done, or the working classes of this country will be grievously wronged, and the whole nation suffer. Parliament has opened the ports of this country to the produce of all the world free, and a very large importation of chairs and sofas is the consequence, even whilst our own men are in want of work. ^ am aware that we export as well as import, but with this difference — the work imported is of an expensive character, whilst that which we export is generally of a cheap sort, the difference being in the labour. 68 artisans’ reports on the For example, take £100 worth of cliair -frames, such as we import from France ; they would number about 40, averaging 50s. each ; the cost of the raw material would not he more than 5s., leaving 45s. each for wages and profit. Now £L00 worth of chairs that we export will he about 166, averaging 12s. each ; the raw material would cost 5s., leaving hut 7s. each for wages and profit. It is possible in this way to carry on a large trade ; our merchants may grow rich, and boast of extraordinary imports and exports, yet a vast number of the working class be on the verge of pauperism. I will now, in as few words as possible, offer two or three suggestions whereby this state of things may be altered, and the art workmen of England enabled so to improve themselves in matters of taste as to successfully compete with the now more fortunate workmen of France. In the first place the Council of the Society of Arts may use its influence with her Majesty’s Government for the establishment of local museums of art manufacture, with lecture halls, libraries, and other necessary adjuncts and appliances for the use and instruction of the people, and open at such hours as will suit their convenience and opportunities for attending, which, as a matter of course, will be in the evening, when lectures by competent men would be largely attended ; and I venture to suggest that the leading industries of certain districts may form their principal feature. In this way, if for the North of London a museum should be established, its position ought to be as near as possible the centre of its manufacturing district; and the most important industries of that district should be especially considered in the fitting up and the specimens to be exhibited. For example, to assist the cabinet-makers, carvers, chairmakers, and upholsterers of Shoreditch, Hoxton, and Lower Islington — where this trade is carried on to a great extent — good specimens of different styles and times in these branches would be of the greatest value ; and in the adjoining parishes of St. Luke and Clerkenwell, where tens of thousands of the population are dependent on the trade of the watchmaker, the jeweller, the gold and silver workers, and all the various trades connected with the precious metals, examples of these, from the earliest times and from all countries, would be of the greatest interest and benefit, not only to them but to the whole nation. Our pauperism costs millions annually ; surely money spent leading to the remunerative employment of the people would be more than saved. In the meantime, whilst Parliament and the Government are arranging this, something may be done in another way. I think there can be no doubt that, in the 18th century, especially towards the latter part of it, art-workmanship had arrived at great excellence in this country, and that many of the works of that period are stored up in the mansions and castles of our aristocracy and men of wealth. What a splendid exhibition these would form, on a small scale, perhaps, as regards quantity, but if it can be brought about, I believe extremely great in results. Gould this be done next summer, it may give an impetus to trade ; and as an attempt no doubt will be made to improve the art-manufacture of England, that impr'ovement might be based on English models. There is another subject of great importance, that I wish to say a word or two upon. It is the apprenticeship system that obtains in TARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 69 France. Having on other occasions, when in Paris, observed that lads of Id or 15 years of age were entrusted with superior work to that of our lads in London, I determined to make the subject one of special inquiry, and while visiting one of the factories already named a good opportunity offered. Seeing some lads at work with the men in the carvers’ shop, I went to the bench of one about Id ; he was carving a chair back of a mediaeval pattern, from a working drawing ; it was nearly finished, and well carved. Finding, from inquiry, that he had done the whole himself, I expressed my surprise that one so young was found capable of carving so well, and was informed that boys at school are specially prepared for the trade they fancy, or that their friends have decided upon for them. So that a boy about to be apprenticed to learn carving is instructed in ornamental drawing, modelling, and designing. Three or three and a half years is the longest time they serve. It would be a goodlawfor this country that prohibited the binding of any one for more than four years; our young men of 17 or 18 would then be better instructed than they are now at 21. In conclusion, gentlemen, I beg to render my sincere thanks to you for the assistance given to myself and other working men for visiting the Exhibition, and the opportunity afforded us for offering suggestions whereby our own views may be made known, believing that the art- culture of the class to which I belong may be advanced and the nation as a whole be the gainer by it. GLASS PAINTING. By FRANCIS KIRCIIHOFF, GLASS PAINTER. LASS, clear and colourless, is a near approach of art to nature in the form of crystal, and is a beautiful transparent substance, composed of alkaline earths, or fixed salts and silica or sand, fused together at a great heat, and then suddenly cooled, to ensure transparency, for if it is cooled gradually, the different particles become solid and opaque at variable temperatures. Sir James Hall discovered that glass loses its vitreous state and assumes that of a stone, if more than a minute or two elapses whilst it is cooling down from complete fusion to the point at which it congeals ; after this it undergoes the process of annealing. Though this wonderful material was known and used by the ancients, in the shape of drinking cups, prisms, and coloured glass beads, it was not adopted for window purposes till about the middle of the 9th century ; and Canter- bury Cathedral is stated to contain the earliest on record in this country ; the date has been fixed at the beginning of the 12th century, but the window glass manufacture was not commenced in England till 1557. Venice formerly supplied the whole of Europe with glass — the excellence of which is so justly admired — until as late as the end of the 17th century (as one old writer states the date), when England and France surpassed the Venetians in the brilliancy and colourlessness of their whites, and also in the transparency and richness of their coloured glass. The earliest appli- cation of colour to window glass was in the form of a transparent mosaic of different tinted glass. It was not till long after that painting (which is melted on the surface of the glass) was had recourse to, to give more distinct form and greater finish to the simple shapes that composed the pattern of the window. The painting consisted at first of a few bold expressive ornamental lines, afterwards figures of saints and bishops were represented, and a certain amount of flat relief given to them by the varied thickness and flow of the lines, and also by the addition of a slight film of brown colour, painted over and beyond the lines (thereby soften- ing the hard lines into the clear glass); this constituted the commence- ment of painting on glass. The early English style of the twelfth century affords interest- ing examples of this pure simple character ; it is of a decided form, combined with gem-like effect; and there are some admirable win- dows executed in imitation of the twelfth-century style of work in the Exhibition, to which I shall have occasion to refer in the course of PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION, 71 my observations on all tlie painted glass that I noticed in that in- teresting place. The same day that I arrived in Paris I went to the Exhibition, and inquired for Lieut.-Colonel Ewart, to deliver your card to him ; I found an English sergeant who told me he (Lieut.-Colonel Ewart) was in London. The sergeant kindly conducted me to the British Workman’s Hall, and told me Mr. Haussoullier was the gentleman for whom I was to inquire. On introducing myself to him, and showing your card, he courteously offered to assist me, and on the next day, at my request, he wrote a letter to a glass painter in Paris (whose work I had admired in the building), and he also considerately sent a guide with me. The establishment I had the pleasure of going over was M. Lusson’s (21, Rue de Laval) ; and the kind manner in which he received and allowed me to go all over the premises was very gratifying. I had in- formed him on entering that I was a glass painter, in case there was any peculiar process he would not like a stranger in the same profession to see. (There are two separate glass decorators in London who possess ingenious machines for ornamenting glass, each of which is jealously guarded from inquiring persons ; the lace- pattern is produced by one of those processes.) The first thing that struck me was the careful finish of the working drawings, or cartoons, drawn and shaded with black chalk on blue -tinted paper, heightened up with white chalk in the lights. I noticed also that painting in water was more the system than oil, though when I asked they said they used turpentine colour on the top of the water, as is practised in England ; they depend more on a needle point for removing colour off glass (to obtain lights) than on the brush or scrub, as it is technically called, the point process being a more artistic and engraver-like style, though taking a much longer time than the scrub ; the colour itself they outlined and shaded with was similar to ours (oxide of iron or manganese with flux), but it was kept free from dust, &c., by being placed in saucers, covered over except a small aperture for the brush to pass through, whereas ours are generally exposed. A single figure or group being composed of a great many pieces of glass of different colours, it becomes necessary to join them together, temporarily, in an upright position, to make the lines run true, and to shade them ; the plan adopted here is to lay them flat in their relative positions on a piece of plate glass, then to drop a cement, com- posed of beeswax and pitch, or resin melted, between the interstices, which, on cooling, fixes them firmly, and so they can be raised upright ; but in Paris, at each of the establishments I visited, they leaded the pieces together to paint them, then took them out of the leads to burn the colour on, and finally leaded them up permanently ; theirs being a more lengthy way, also the leads are in the way of the brush whilst painting, and the glass is liable to be rubbed in taking the work out of the lead ; otherwise the system pursued was very similar. Their kilns for burning the painting on the glass were, in general construction, the same as those used in England ; the glass is laid on iron shelves, which are covered with whiting ; the door is fixed and bricked up, to keep out the sulphur fumes from the burning coke underneath. Whilst on Mr. Lusson’s premises, my attention was called by a person to see their lead- ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE 72 ■ making machine ; on looking I saw it was made by the London firm of Sharrat and Newth. I saw, also, among their glass, several tints that are not made or used in England, particularly a beautiful rose pink ; it is very dear ; and they possess a greater range of greens, which are invalu- able for different tints of foliage in portrait-work. I was told they have some ruby (a flashed glass, resembling the gem of that name in colour) from England, as they consider it better than theirs ; they also showed me a few samples of some magnificent new tints in glass, made by Dr. Salviati, of Venice (the same gentleman who has executed some of the mosaics at South Kensington and St. Paul’s Cathedral). There was a piece of a church window leaded up ; it was in the thirteenth-century style of work, and in it they had inserted pieces of a very common, fierce blue, not at all the colour of antique blue. The glass is cut, too, on a different principle to ours, that is, there is a separate piece of paper, or cardboard, cut first the exact shape, from which the glass is then cut — a very time-wasting job ; the method here being to make an outline from the cartoon the same size on paper, putting in lines to express the various pieces of glass, and where they join. By laying the glass on this drawing, the lines can be seen through, to which it is then cut. The same drawing also serves afterwards to lead or glaze up the window on ; it is technically called a cut-line or lead- line drawing. Since my return, I have inquired and found there is an old establishment in the north of England where this cut-out paper pattern plan is adopted. At M. Oudinot’s establishment, which I also went over through the favour of M. Haussoullier, I saw some admirable drawings, exquisitely finished, and a grand portrait of himself, painted in a natural way, delicately tinted ; also some splendid paintings in oil on canvas by him. The system of working was very similar to the other place I visited. M. Oudinot painted some of the windows in Notre Dame, which I visited. There are a few windows there that look remarkably new, so clear and modern in colour. The two large rose windows (circular) are filled with beautifully arranged glass ; the south one is a superb bit of colouring (the very stone work is grand in its richness), and the north one, which is designed in a different key and colour, shows it has been carefully studied ; for a northern light, being without sunshine, and a shady clear blue light, takes a larger quantity of yellow and red than an east window, which may have a large amount of blue judiciously mixed with white and very little green ; for I think the old masters coloured their windows according to the light and situation they were to occupy. These two circular windows are very high up, but the effect of them, as seen from below, is most beautiful, and once seen not to be easily forgotten. The side lights in the body of the Cathedral are in great variety of design ; some of the geometric and grisaille glass, containing a large quantity of white, look very elegant. The windows by M. Oudinot are exceedingly rich. Notre Dame being a 12tli century building, I was rather dis- appointed in not seeing any glass of an early date. At La Sainte Chapelle every window is filled with stained glass, and gorgeous masses of colour most of them are, and of beautiful design. They are designed in the 13th century style, to harmonise with the building, which was PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 73 erected in 1248, but the interior, the walls, roof, and pavement are so elaborately decorated, that the effect is almost oppressive ; the eye finds no clear space to give relief, and a strong Egyptian red is the prevailing colour. Although each window is different in design and colour, they form no unpleasant contrast to each other ; and there is a capital mosaic effect to all, owing to the glass being cut up in such small pieces. At St. Denis, I regret to say, I was not able to go over the cathedral ; the interior was boarded off, in consequence of extensive renovations being carried on ; some of the glass I caught a glimpse of appeared to possess a magnificently rich, jewel-like effect ; but the splendid large rose window I was unable to see, except from the outside, where at least I could admire the beautiful stone shape of this large circular window ; it is wonderfully fine, and yet is on such a grand scale. There is a church being built, in the 10th century, or Norman style, near the cathedral at St. Denis, and in it I saw some fine, effectively-coloured small lights, but they had not that grand simplicity of old glass. I was very much edified by seeing the painted glass in the churches in Paris, in one of which, I think St. Gervais, I saw some extraordinary good old glass ; St. Etienne du Mont also possesses some admirable glass, which I should have liked to sketch. St. Sulpice contains also some glass more peculiar than beautiful. (I will not be certain about the name ; I went into so many churches, and I have got muddled since as to their names.) St. Meni has some fine late glass of the perpendicular period. In one of the churches I was delighted to see a painting by Albert Durer, which I carefully studied, and would have liked to make a draw- ing of, not having seen a print of it. It is a large painting, in panel, divided by a painted cord into compartments with different subjects. I refer to this because some of the 15th century glass was similar in treat- ment, though not equal in grandeur of design, to this fine old master. At the Louvre there are magnificent specimens of German and Flemish glass ; armorial panels ; also some splendid old enamelled arms — Swiss work, I think. I saw many small panels and circles, painted in the style of Albert Durer, there, with the stiff, sharp, angular drapery. The Louvre is very rich in these old circles, which have evidently been painted for domestic decoration. At the Museum of Cluny there is some excellent 16th century work, — most elaborate work, exquisitely designed and painted, — half-a-dozen small scriptural subjects being represented on a piece of glass about a foot square ; the clever freedom with which the figures are painted in being well worth studying. In a house in the Exhibition grounds there is a large circle of painted glass, with the subject of the “ Nativity,” painted in a pictorial manner, — a superb specimen of artistic enamelling. It is quite a work of art ; it is modern Italian painting. The French work, when compared with the English, shows a greater diversity of design in construction, and more freedom and grace in the drawing of the ornament, but in excellence of colour and pleasing harmony the English glass is much superior. The German glass is more highly-finished than any except the Italian, and yet possesses but a middling effect ; the whole surface of the glass being covered over with colour, there is no brilliancy ; it is toned down 71 artisans’ reports on the to a transparency effect, as if there was either linen or ground-glass behind it. (The new German window in St. Paul’s Cathedral is hut a flat, feeble window, without vigour or even a glassy effect ; and yet the flesh is elaborately etched up with lines.) The German ornament, as applied to glass, is heavy when compared with the French. The having very large figures appears to be the usual method for disposing of most of the space in their windows. In painting, the French affect a greater breadth of light and shadow ; for instance, laying the whole of a foreground figure in shadow, with the exception, perhaps, of one or two edge lights— a bald style, not adopted here. But I noticed they also suffer from bad painting, the colour leaving the glass after it is burnt, making minute holes letting in the clear light. There have been many complaints in England from the same cause. It is supposed to be the inferior mineral colours corroding, after some time, through the action of the atmosphere on them. I think there is not much difference in the cost of material in Paris compared with London, but, on inquiry, I found the wages were much lower, a good ornamental glass painter receiving but Is. a day, a figure painter earning, of course, more than that — no stated sum — but being paid according to his skill. The conditions and division of labour seemed about the same as carried out here — the large, rough ornament being painted by lads, the ornamental patterns and tracery by the apprentices and ornamental painters, and the figures and subjects by those possessing a good knowledge of drawing, the designs and cartoons being made by the principal artist or master. It struck me there was more freedom in manner whilst at work than is to be found here ; though respectful, there appeared a certain amount of familiarity towards their principal. I noticed some smoking while at work. But I by no means wish to say such is the rule, about their easy freedom ; it may have been but an erroneous impression received by a Cockney on his first visit to Paris, and so I should not generalise from one or two instances. As to amusements ; whether glass painters are given more to spend their time that way than any other business I can- not say, but in Paris there seemed as much time devoted to pleasure as to work by the French. Foreign Glass. The whole of the glass is placed far too high, and the spectator has not even the advantage of retiring from it a proper distance for its height, so is compelled to take a fore- shortened view of it; but the light itself is admirable, telling out, as the glass does, against the clear sky. In one or two cases the names of the artists are not underneath their windows ; and in several instances the dark pieces of paper used to block the light out, round the heads and tracery of the window, have come away from the woodwork, and the strong light being let in at those places slightly mars the effect of colour. The painted glass, seen from so far below, can only be judged on its merits of boldness of design and colour, which is the principal thing to be aimed at in designing a successful window ; for when a person enters a church the probability is a large painted window is the first object that attracts his eye, and this PALIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 75 impresses him favourably or not, according to the harmony of colour ; and it is only when he approaches nearer to it that he is able to judge of the drawing and painting. For the reason I mentioned, it was impossible to see which of the three methods — viz., stippling, smooth, and smear shadow — has been adopted in the painting of all the stained glass in this section. A great deal of importance is attached to each peculiar way. A stipple -shadow is a series of dots, which, if properly managed, should not touch each other. This style of painting is the most transparent, as it allows the local colour of the glass to blend with the shadow. It is used for broad, bold work. The smooth-painting requires less colour on the glass than the stippled, as it intercepts the rays of light more effectually, This method is generally adopted in glass where high finish is required, or when the window is close to the eye, as, if skilfully done, the glass -painter’s colour will appear like a darker tint of the glass. The third style — the smear — is a sort of com- promise between the other two. It is mostly used for mediaeval work. It is so painted that the brush shall leave the mark, or grain, as it is technically called, and not softened off as in the smooth manner. When dexterously executed it gives great richness to the glass. It must be finished off at one bold, decided, yet careful touch, as if painted over again it loses that grain which constitutes its merit. Some of the old windows exhibit splendid specimens of this treatment. It is to glass what the sculptor’s tool-marks are to stone, or a wood-carver’s chisel- marks to wood ; it gives a sharpness and vigour to each material. There is also another method of getting shadow on glass — by etching it up with lines painted on with a fine brush — which, though it allows of getting a more correct form, combined with transparency, is not very generally adopted. There are some portions of the painted glass exhibited in different parts of the building, and in those cases they are comparatively close to the eye, and then the drawing and peculiarity of working can be carefully noticed. For greater variety and graceful design in their arrangement of orna- ment, I think the French are superior to us, but for richness, and a more pleasing harmony of colour, I think the English glass painters as a body are second to none. The German artists are not represented so much as might have been expected, Munich and Dusseldorf containing some of the largest establishments. Also it was remarkable the small quantity of Italian work exhibited ; but I will refer to each group to the best of my poor ability ; and whilst I endeavour to describe and pass my humble opinion on the merits of the collection as it appeared to me, I hope I shall not express myself in a too-confident or presumptuous manner. I will commence with the glass exhibited by Paul Bitterlin (Paris) ; some capital specimens of modern or domestic work ; plate-glass, added and ground to different tints in shadow, a method not executed in England, there being only one tint in ground-glass as carried out here ; the design worked on a very large piece of plate -glass is the imperial arms, surrounded with some good mantling. A panel of flashed blue glass (coloured glass is either pot-metal, having the colouring matter thoroughly mixed with the glass in making, or flashed when it is on one 76 artisans’ reports on the side only, and easily burnt away with fluoric acid), delicately and artistically added to form a bouquet of flowers by the different tints of blue. Several fine ornamental designs, painted and enamelled. A piece of ruby glass, added, painted, and stained (with silver, to make a yellow). A blue sheet, treated in the same way, but another pattern introduced on it. M. Oudinot (Paris), a specimen of an early English style, light, fine purply effect ; he has also a two-light window, containing six subjects, painted in stipple, carefully drawn and painted. A three - light window, designed in the 13th century style, representing three figures under canopies. In another place he shows a large three-light window, with subjects running through mullions ; the lower subject depicts the death of some female saint, and the upper one her glorifica- tion, painted in a fine, open stipple, rather too brown in effect, but the window has a strong, bad light in front. Ed. Bourrieres (Paris), a pair of small windows, with an ornamental pattern traced and painted on clear, white glass, ground. In the middle two female figures, roughly painted in ovals, back-ground deep blue ; also some circles, coarsely done in the Flemish style, painted brow, for decorative purposes. Erdemann and Kremer (Paris), two small squares, containing carefully- stippled portraits of the Emperor and Empress; also four subjects, illustrating education, finely worked up, in the style of the German glass, remarkable for the great variety of greens used in the foliage, &c. ; they are four very interesting specimens of stained and painted glass. M. Goussard (Gers), a large Resurrection, broadly and pictorially painted ; good drawing, rich, quiet colouring, a fine impressive window, under a simple’ effective canopy. M. Gugnon (St. Denis), a sheet of plate glass, acided and grained, technically called embossed, forming light and shadow to a beautiful piece of ornament, some blue borders, the blue glass cleverly burnt away to different tints with acid ; and some more ornamental glass for decorative purposes, such as staircase or conservatory windows. P. Nicod (Paris), an opening in the 14th century style, with a gorgeous mosaic appearance, harmoniously coloured ; also two small modern ornamental lights, arabesque pattern, delicately traced and painted on a white glass ground. Satyrs at base of windows. A small window, acided out of ruby glass, painted, stained, and fired, the pattern only ordinary. Two small figures, with pale blue back -ground ; the figures are drawn and painted statuesque; they represent Melody and Har- mony. A large circle, about five feet in diameter, subject the Nativity, after Perugino — a careful copy from his picture in the Louvre — painted on flash-glass and pot-metals, the leads' cleverly managed — hardly per- ceptible ; this circle is a superb specimen of good effective glass painting. Some graceful and novel designs for ornament, worked out on the glass in geometric shapes, painted and lined on white mat grounds. Also a square -headed window, containing a large female figure, typical of Slavery ; figure life-size, well drawn, flesh and drapery softly stippled up, shaded without any positive lines, chaste green colour dress, novel effect produced by attaching with some cement (or else PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 77 burning on) a piece of red glass, cut in form like a gem, on the surface of green drapery, to show as a jewel fastening the dress. Aubriot (Paris), some specimens of tasteful design oil embossed glass ; also some delicate patterns on white enamel grounds ; some flowers, painted naturally in enamel colours on clear glass. The whole of M. Aubriot’ s collection consists of modern, domestic, or decorative glass. Facing the central garden, at the end of the gallery, is a large semi- circular window, divided into nine openings or lights ; it is filled with stained glass by N. ' Coffetier (Paris), 14th century style of painting ; figures very small, in subjects rather blue in tone, but of excellent design. The two end lights are more Byzantine in character than the rest of the glass, but have a very sparkling, jewel -like effect. Besides this large space, which I should -fancy contains more than 300 feet of painted glass, M. Coffetier has another window in the 13th century style, with an early mosaic back ground, traced black lines, and no shadow ; a brilliant appearance. A window in the 12th century style ; whites seem too clear to harmonise with dark, full colouring ; the general effect too red. Two more magnificent lights, with a remarkably good border, both in clearness of design and colour. Also a geometric window, the pattern formed by red bands on white traced ground ; a light, handsome window. Also a set pattern on white ground, with blue bands ; does not possess any special merit. A two-light window, with large figures in it, far too strongly shaded to balance the other portion of the ornament; two geometric pieces, blue quatre-foil shapes, interlaced on a white traced flowing -diaper ground : in the middle, figures on pillar pedestals, with shields attached to them. This collection of M. Coffetier’s, which is the largest exhibited by one firm, is all of an early ecclesiastical character, but it appears to me to be more flowing in its curves, for 13th or 14th century work, than is generally executed here. In England, a greater stiffness prevails in the plan of arrangement. Chalons (Toulouse) has a window in the Renaissance style, with figures of David and Moses ; a superb example of this very rich style ; design, drawing, and painting magnificent. Eglispe (Amiens), a large window, representing the genealogy of the Virgin ; figures, boldly and skilfully drawn, scattered over the window ; a tendency to too much blue in the back- ground, but altogether a rich, pleasing window. Guilbert d’Anelle has a three-light window ; a Virgin in the centre, surrounded with yellow rays ; St. Peter and St. Paul in the side lights ; angels in niches underneath — coarsely executed, middling design, and bad, disagreeable colouring. Also, by the same firm, a single light, with figure of a bishop; treated in the 13th century style, like the Bourges glass; large patches of unbroken colour — a poor imitation of a heavy, harsh style. Two lights, with figures under canopies, of a later period — the decorated Gothic — only ordinary glass. A large round-headed window, in the renaissance manner ; subject, a little too blackly painted, seems opaque — good ornament, and capital arrangement. Thibauld’s (Clermont) is another poor collection in quality, common- place design, and not much taste shown in colouring, with outrageous drawing. It represents the Virgin and Child. There are four Norman '8 artisans’ reports on the lights, that are very ably and effectively treated, coloured in the same key as old glass — fine purply effect ; hut there is a spandrel over them, that is coarse and crude in arrangement. Mauvenay (St. Galmiet) exhibits two openings, forming one window, containing figures of SS. Catherine and Cecilia, under well- designed canopies. Under the figures, in spaces formed by pedestals, are two subjects, illustrating events in the life of each saint. The whole of the window is pictorially treated in an artistic manner, the canopies being of white glass and not overshaded ; they are silvery and chaste in colour. Lorin (Chartres) has a large window, well placed as regards light. It is a copy of Rubens’s “ Descent from the Cross.” Regarded as a piece of painting or colour, it is grand ; but viewed as a window is in- tended to be (to admit light), it defeats its own purpose. At a short distance from this window it appears extremely dark and heavy. Lusson (Paris) exhibits an “ Entombment,” surmounted by a splendid perpendicular canopy. The drawing and painting of this window is one of the best examples of good modern ecclesiastical painting. Correct drawing, with enough sharpness to give crisp character, treated as glass, flatly, but artistically painted, no forcing up the projections by opaque shadows ; the whole work is transparent and luminous. To paint on glass flatly and broadly, yet at the same time to obtain sufficient relief, is too often lost sight of in glass, as it is the only way by which the clear, brilliant glass itself, without any shadow, colour, or tint on it, can be obtained, for by the other way, where a high relief or rounded sur- face is aimed at, the glass must be entirely covered with colour except in the high lights, where only the glass is quite clear. Perhaps I shall make my meaning clearer if I compare it to a black chalk drawing on tinted paper, with a few white chalk touches for high lights. I was so gratified by seeing M. Lusson’ s work that I put his address down, in- tending, if possible, to go over his establishment, and, through the courtesy of M. Haussoullier, to whom I expressed my wish, I was enabled to pay a very pleasant and edifying visit to M. Lusson’s studio. I also noticed another window of his in the Exhibition, a three-light window, in the early English style, subjects small (as according to style) on a sparkling mosaic back-ground ; rich combination of colours. In another part of the building he shows a three -light window, with the Saviour in the centre ; the side-lights consist of ornament, white, flowing pattern, in the 14th century style. The Saviour is under a heavy, squat canopy, that is very poor in design, though perhaps correct for the period. The border round the window is not original ; it is an old and well-known one, which also means often used. A large five-light window, subject, “The Genealogy of the Virgin,” treated in a late style, the drawing free from the stiff mannerism of early work ; figures in gorgeous drapery, seated on scrolls of flamboyant ornament, on rich blue ground, well broken up with different tints of blue to get uneven mosaic effect ; Virgin very large, in the centre of the entire window ; general effect rather too blue. Two side-lights, with medallion subjects, gem- like in appearance, very successful in colour. Nicolas shows a square-headed three-light window; figures in the 16tli century, Italian costume, with a canopy over the subject too large TARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 79 and overpowering in proportion. There is a violent coarse green in the base, under the figures, that spoils the effect of the whole window ; above this there is a separate piece of tracery, with some neat ornament, delicately coloured. A circular-headed window, in the Renaissance style, representing Michael Angelo surrounded by celebrated artists ; figures remarkably well drawn ; very broadly and flatly painted, with very little shadow. There is a splendid arrangement of different greys of glass in the architecture, which fills up almost all the back-ground, but there is a want of one or two broad shadows on the architecture, and at the feet of the figures on the pavement ; the general effect is rather flimsy. Goglet (Paris) shows a three-light window, the “ Genealogy of the Virgin,” boldly designed ; blue ground ; figures well balanced for colour. A very fine window ; a small panel, with a female figure representing an Egyptian, with Egyptian architecture in the back-ground ; modern treat- ment. Eidron (Paris), a large four-light window, with about one hundred figures in it ; some procession, in the 15th-century style of dress ; at a short distance off it looks extremely like an old 17th-century window; a vast amount of work in it, but not pleasing — of the oppressive sort. A two-liglit window, with subjects of the “ Nativity” and “ Sermon on the Mount,” the mullions dividing the subjects ; flamboyant ornament on blue ground; the drawing and grouping of the “ Nativity” exceed- ingly clever ; a very rich and impressive window. Also, two capital spandrels, in the early style, clear brilliant glass, bold-telling pattern, finely coloured. Guerithault (Poitiers), a “ Virgin and Child,” in vesica shape; flesh very much over-painted (opaque) ; a very queer work of art. Also, a charming medallion ; subject, “ Virgin and Child, surrounded with Angels ;” pretty, but not grand or masterly. A large circular-top window, scroll ornament on white ground surrounding small square panels and circles in dark colours, inclined to be feeble in effect ; a want of leading form in construction of ornament. Geyling (Vienna) has a window of four openings, with a large figure in each, finely drawn, and painted figures on an intense blue ground, which, combined with very sharp green crockets in the canopies, spoil the otherwise good effect of the whole window; the ornament is too poor for such well-executed figures. An exhibitor from Innspruck shows a chaste and superbly- coloured “ Virgin and Child,” under a magnificent canopy, highly decorated, surmounted with angels ; the whole window worked up to unusual soft- ness. Laurent (Paris), a large window, five lights; “ Benediction” subject, painted in stipple, sombre colouring ; grandly treated. A large four- light window, given by the Emperor of Austria ; a strong blue used in the figures ; ornament bad and coarse. There are some carefully-drawn cartoons, for stained glass, in the French court, exhibited by M. Lamotte, Paris. At the entrance to the collection of Belgian paintings, in the building in the grounds, there are two windows, consisting of three lights in each* one window each side 80 artisans’ reports on THE of a doorway under a portico, which, in my humble opinion, are as bad and inferior to the rest of exhibited and painted glass as the pictures inside this building are equal to the best in the Exhibition. These two worse than middling windows represent three Apostles in each, under hard, clumsy canopies, crudely coloured, the drawing without any proper character, the painting harsh, and not transparent. Dr. H. Oidtmann (Aix-la-Chapelle), exhibits, in a private room, a window, representing the “Angel appearing to the Virgin,” elaborately painted. Splendid artistic effect, but no brilliancy of glass ; it is more like a very successful transparency than glass. Another window, with a full-length portrait of the Emperor of the French, in court dress, painted in a pictorial manner ; extremely clever, but not suitable for glass, being quite black in the shadows, — quite impossible for any rays of light to pass through ; the general effect of the window is dark and opaque. Another window, — three lights, with the subject of the “ Ascension of the Virgin,” has a rich, pleasing, bold effect. Also a three -light window, a king sitting in judgment, under a magnificent flamboyant canopy. A window, with three openings, in perpendicular Gothic style, with figures and pedestals under, in good proportion ; the spandril, or tracery-piece over the lights, is not at all in keeping with the style or manner of the rest ; it is very flat and poor. In a chapel built in the park the windows are all full of stained glass, some of them being superb ; they are more modern in their treatment than painted glass is usually executed for churches. In several of the houses in the grounds painted glass is shown. There is one containing speci- mens of decorative glass in great variety. There is more freedom and fanciful design shown in the embossing, enamelling, and engraving on glass than is carried out here. The house illustrating the architecture of Tunis contains some stained glass (not painted), arranged in a very rich, harmonious way ; it appears to be fixed in zinc frames, and produces a splendid jewel effect. The English Collection. There is not such a large collection as might have been expected, some of the largest firms not exhibiting at all, and but very few of the provincial ones. Of the London firms, Messrs. Clayton and Bell, Messrs. O’Connor, Mr. Warrington, Messrs. Gibbs, and several other minor ecclesiastical glass painters, are not represented at all ; and I think not a single modern or decorative glass painter exhibits, which is a great pity, for some of the English enamelling would bear a favourable comparison with the French. Foremost among the country firms, whose name and work are absent from the Exhibition, stand Mr. Wailes, of Newcastle; Messrs. Pilkington, of St. Helen’s ; Chance, Birmingham ; Bell, Bristol ; besides many others. The English glass is exhibited all on the left-hand side (entering) of the gallery. The first is by Messrs. Ward and Hughes ; it consists of four separate openings, — “ Entombment,” and “ Saviour appearing to Mary in the Garden,” under canopies, a “ Nativity,” and “ Resurrec- tion,” with angels bearing scrolls in tracery, the “Saviour” in the centre spandrel. A large five -light window, delineating different subjects, PAtliS UNIVERSAL exhibition. 8i — “ Christ Blessing Little Children,” in the middle opening, all under foliated canopies ; at the base of the window pedestals to harmonise with canopies. A large panel, representing “ Christ in Majesty,” surmounted with angels and cherubs ; a remarkable piece of colouring. The aim in this glass has been to combine correct drawing with brilliancy of glass ; and it is with pleasure I have to record that the jury awarded a silver medal to Messrs. Ward and Hughes. Hardman (Birmingham) shows a window of four openings, illustrating the Adoration of the Magi, treated in their peculiar Mediaeval style, with splendid perpendicular canopies. Though not correct in drawing, there is fine angular character, which is preferred by many, as most suitable for a Gothic building ; very slight shadow, and, though too far off to see details, it appeared, by the diapers and other ornaments, to be carefully finished. Messrs. Hardmans’ glass generally is noted for large quantities of white glass used in windows, thereby giving a clear silvery effect, rather than gorgeousness of colouring. Lavers and Barraud (London) show a square-headed window- subject, . “ The Crucifixion” — treated with much mannerism; canopy over, with good crisp character. Also a large “ Ascension,” in three lights ; semi-circular rays of light dividing terrestrial figures from celestial ; quaint arrangement and drawing, but splendid glass used in colouring. An armorial light, with shield on white ground ; also a mosaic window, with remarkably small pieces of glass beaded in — too heavy in the colour of the glass to form a pleasing window. Baillie (London) exhibits a very poor window, with a glaring yellow canopy ; also a window with two openings — subject, “ The Saviour calling the two Apostles”* — this is in a rich, broad style of paint- ing and colouring. Heaton, Butler, and Bayne (London), a large window of eight openings, four long lights divided by transoms ; subjects in square shapes ; variety of tinted whites used ; groundwork in glazed squares, with thin traced pattern on it, treated in a late style ; brilliant and carefully selected glass in it. Also a five -light window, in the perpendicular style. Mullions divided by transoms finely coloured, but the drawing and arrangement of subjects too confused to be understood what they repre- sent; the appearance of subjects is dark patches of colour, which yet harmonise with the rest of the window. Edmundson (Manchester), a window of three openings, representing the Ascension: figures extremely bad, both in drawing and painting; profusely ornamented ; the window, as a mass of colour, rather interesting. Also a four-light window, with eight separate subjects ; arrangement of proportions good ; striking glassy effect, though bad, coarse drawing ; painted in the perpendicular, or 15th century style. Field and Allen (Edinburgh), a square-headed ornamental light, designed in the Greek style ; good, bold, telling, classic forms, richly coloured ; pure antique and elegant shapes. Cottier (Glasgow) has a magnificent ornamental window, in the renais- sance style: in the centre, arms on a fanciful shield; splendid design; ornament free and graceful ; well-proportioned columns, with a richly- decorated pediment at top, surrounded with cupids ; superb harmony of G 82 artisans’ retorts on the colours. This window, in my estimation, is the finest ornamental window in the Exhibition. I heard its merits were recognised by the jury, but as there is no notice attached to any of the glass, I am not aware what the aw T ard is. Dury (Warwick) shows eight small lights, with subjects pictorially painted : not sufficient decision of outline for church windows, though it is in the ecclesiastical style ; well coloured and painted, but the drawing is too full and curved ; it is something in the manner of a bad German lithograph print. Forrest (Liverpool) shows a single opening, with a grandly-drawn figure of David, under an extremely good canopy; great breadth of light under the figure ; powerfully painted on a blue back-ground, broken up with white stars. This is a wonderfully good window, both for design and colour, and anyone that noticed it could not but be struck with the impressive grandeur of the figure of David. It is in a very late style of work. Cox (London) shows a three -light window, with three events in the life of our Saviour — the Birth, Crucifixion, and Entombment, and canopies over them ; the design is but ordinary; and though the window possesses no great beauty, there is a good sparkling effect. Also another three -light window, with exceedingly high canopies, which, though elegant in themselves, yet from being too large and overpowering from the subject underneath, appear very much out of proportion for the size of window; they are drawn in the perpendicular style, and the subjects are puny and feeble, and seem like dark spots, so small that there is a difficulty to discern the composition. Claudet and Houghton (London) show a three-light window, the Saviour in the centre one, and two Apostles in the side ones ; over the figures are short, squat canopies, in debased 17th century style— not remarkable for design or painting, and crude in colour. Also a three- liglit window, with the “ Ascension,” under a cold white canopy of bad proportions ; the subjects similar in style to some of the scriptural prints. In this window there is an admirable balance of colour. Townroe (London) shows an immense, round-headed window, in the renaissance style, principally composed of Roman architecture ; the lower portion the Arts and Sciences, small groups in panels and circles ; not a very impressive window; great want of relief in the projecting portions of the architectural arrangements, and not sufficient distinctness of masses of constructive form. Newman (London) has a small figure, treated in a mosaic way, with ornament over it and below ; as this is placed exceedingly high, it is impossible to see it properly, but it appears to have little or no paint on it. Lyon (London) lias a figure of David, in sombre colouring, amounting almost to dreariness ; white glazed square ground, with circular pattern traced on it ; a peculiar window. I intended to have made sketches, to give the general plan of some of the more striking windows ; I had commenced to make sketches, when I was told by the police it was against rules, and therefore not allowed. I wish, before finishing this weak report, to express my gratitude to PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 83 the Council of the Society of Arts, through whose liberality I was allowed to spend a very pleasant and highly-edifying visit to the Paris Exhibition, such a visit being more improving, perhaps, than several years of study ; it must necessarily enlarge one’s ideas, and suggest a greater range in the treatment of the work ; and I feel a hearty pleasure in recording my thanks for what will always be a pleasant recollection. WOOD-CARVING. By JAMES MACKIE, WOOD- CARVER. A MONG tlie many applications of industrial art, wood-carving takes so prominent a position, that it naturally attracts considerable atten- tion, and is deserving of careful study. Wood is very largely used for interior purposes, and, however good the architecture may he, or how- ever excellent the construction of articles of utility, it is admitted that their value and beauty are much increased by the addition of carved details. The present age shows that this art is popular, and indus- triously cultivated ; and where excellence is not seen, there are signs that promise great excellence in the future. Exhibitions — local, national, or universal — have the great value of showing the condition and progress of this art, and this last and greatest Exhibition has opened a large and deeply interesting volume for our instruction. Paris at any time is interesting as a field for study, and for an exhibition of this kind it is specially adapted. The English workman is deeply impressed with the many beauties to be seen there, and he is made to anticipate the great display that awaits him in the Palace of Industry. In the Exhibition we have some of the finest productions of industrial art in the form of wood-carving ; and it may be said that all the nations that contribute, have, with a laudable ambition, sought to excel. These differences, and the various merits of the works, it will be my duty to point out. It may be well to state that carving proper may be defined as con- sisting of — 1st, the idea or conception, which is generally called design; 2nd, the drawing; 3rd, the modelling; and 4th, the carving, or manipu- tion of the material itself. For ordinary purposes the terms design and carving are perhaps sufficient, but the other distinctions are useful, and will be freely employed. In some instances architectural design is almost inseparably connected with the ornamental portion, but, for obvious reasons, will be touched very lightly. France. The well-known artistic character of French work induces us to expect good examples from the workshops of France, and there is no feeling of disappointment, for the successes are numerous, the glory great, and the rewards nobly earned. In the front rank of the exhibitors in Class XIV. is M. Fourdinois, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 85 who has done great service in upholding so handsomely the art of wood-carving. His elaborate and costly works are such unquestionable triumphs in the art that they will compare with the productions of any period. It may be hinted that in this instance the works do not surpass those of former years ; and if true this takes nothing from the great merit of the present exhibits. The walnut cabinet is assuredly a work possess- ing many beauties, and of rare excellence. The style is modern French, which this establishment excels in. The elevation is good ; the design is very beautiful, and consists of figures and ornament in great profusion, the friezes, panels, and figures being beautifully drawn, and modelled with great care, whilst the carving has received a high and pretty finish. The two sphinxes, that serve as supporters, appear to have the anatomy much too forced, but the whole is, nevertheless, a work of genuine and beautiful carving. The ebony cabinet, with carved and many-tinted pear-tree inlay, in the same style of art, is certainly a masterpiece. Like the walnut one, its details are so perfect, that, were it divided into a thousand pieces, each would be a model and a treasure. The caryatides, representing the four quarters of the globe, are exquisitely modelled and carved. The boys, in the spandrels over the arches, are very pretty, and the bas-relief in the centre panel is scarcely to be surpassed for its high-class workmanship. The bold experiment of using a number of various tints on the carving is far from successful, and the use of box- wood for the figures and panel gives the work a blotchy appearance, but as this relates more to the general conception than the carving, the great merit of the latter is not affected by it. It must be pronounced a work of wonderful beauty. The carved and gilt bedstead, style Louis XVI., is a work of great excellence. The festoons of flowers decorating the canopy are admirably carved examples of this speciality of French workmanship. An excellent console table, and some well carved -and gilt glass frames, complete a display that ably sustains a great reputation. Lemoine exhibits an ebony cabinet, so distinguished for the beauty and elegance of its proportions and carved details, and giving such complete satisfaction, that nothing is left for the most fastidious workman to desire. The structural form is so excellent, that, without ornament, it would command admiration, but it is artistically clothed with beautiful ornament ; no part is obtrusive ; nothing bad ; nothing is wished absent ; the total result being a most complete and enjoyable work. The caryatides supporting the cornice are remarkable for elegance of drawing and good modelling, whilst the carving of the whole is highly artistic. f I his firm also exhibit a plain walnut cabinet, with gilt incised work ; there is little more than drawing, but it proves that a pleasing effect can sometimes be obtained by a simple, and therefore comparatively inex- pensive, method of decoration. Gueret, Freres, have largely contributed ; and when it is remembered that some years ago they worked as journeymen a short time in London, it is with great pleasure we find that their industry and talent have met with such marked success and acknowledgment. Their ebony bookcase is an excellent example of this useful class of furniture, and takes a place in the front rank. Its thoroughly modelled and well-carved figures, its 86 artisans’ reports on the ornament carefully distributed and adapted to the structural form of the design, and the masterly artistic renaissance carving render it a model for study. The walnut cabinet is a choice work in renaissance carving, having some of its ornament so prettily designed and worked as to be a model for any class of art-workmen ; it is worthy of a prominent place in a home of luxury and taste. There is also a very beautiful cabinet in ebony and ormolu, with boxwood plaques of figures in bas-relief ; the style is Neo- Greek, and is treated with great taste and care. The clasps on the panels of the doors run very prettily into incised work, and then terminate in brass inlay. The work is very chaste indeed. The walnut sideboard is a broad, handsome piece of furniture, with a bas-relief panel at the back, representing Diana reclining beneath the shadow of an oak tree, a stag’s head at the top of the back, and some very pretty drops of fruit on the pilasters of the pedestals ; there is great breadth and a beautiful harmony in this work, and the design and carving are equally well done. Two pages, as candelabras, in walnut, have much spirit in the conception and cleverness in the execution ; the pedestals are decorated with well-carved renaissance ornament, and the dress of the figures is picked out in gold with pleasing effect. A barometer case in lime-tree, in the Louis XVI. style, is carefully carved. These works are distinguished by simplicity of character ; the special style is renaissance, treated with great softness, with fair projection, and as belonging to the works they adorn. All is conscientiously and carefully done, and the Gold Medal and the Cross of the Legion of Honour are fit rewards for the merits shown in so unique a collection of art furniture. In a cabinet by Kneib there is some good carving, and also in a side- board by the same, with a head of a fox in the centre of the back very well carved. Richsteadt contributes a large walnut cabinet. The style is modern French, with a broad and Greek feeling, but it is peculiar and some- what poor. In the ebony cabinet of Gerson and Weber the large walnut panels are far from pleasing, being out of proportion with the structure, and are therefore obtrusive, and wanting in the always-desirable quality of harmony. A casket, in pear-tree, carved from a single piece, displays some excellent workmanship. The boys on the top are good, and there is some neat ornament, but the design does not reach the same high mark as the carving. A cabinet of a very superior kind is exhibited by Sormani, having a profusion of good and highly-finished carving. It is a fine example of modern French, and, like the works of M. Fourdinois, merits great praise, and will reward careful study. The large ebony bookcase, by Jeanselme, has Greek ornament well subordinated and severe. The general effect is pleasing, but the actual carving little more than common-place. Bertaud, Freres, exhibit a large bookcase, showing some freely- modelled carving, consisting of a shield and brackets in the cornice. The amount is small for so large a work, but it is good in design and execution. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 87 In the exhibits of the firm of Racault there is a bedstead and ward- robe in the renaissance style. The carving is principally purple-wood, and the panels consist of ebony inlaid with ivory engraved. The design of both these costly works is very good, and the ornament is carved with great taste and care. Their large and somewhat elaborate ebony book- case, in the Bomanesque style, is substantial enough, but fails to please when in company with so much of the prevailing and popular French carving. The Louis XVI. console table, in lime-tree, shows some very well-carved ornament. Two candelabras of fauns holding up boys who hold branches for lights, exhibited by Allard and Chopin, are modelled with great spirit, and are well carved. Also a console table, in lime-tree, of excellent design; style, Louis XIV. The supporters are well-carved female figures, and the top has well-carved festoons of flowers, looped around in a very graceful manner. The ebony sideboard is not so fortunate, for the pear-tree panel of plovers and snakes at the back, and the fox and partridge among the corn at the top, although spirited, is wanting in that refinement and finish that is seen and admired in so many other instances. A very beautifully designed coffre, Louis XVI. style, having panels in pear-tree, of figures and ornament, very sweetly carved, affords much pleasure to the admirers of this beautiful style. E. Ivnecht exhibits his elaborate and very beautifully-carved group of “ The Hare and Partridge,” with accessories of branches of oak foliage. Unfortunately, he has been ill-advised enough to make it the centre portion of a very plain piece of furniture, which makes it seem out of place. It is a beautiful example of this class of wood sculpture, but its highly elaborate character is best appreciated when it stands by itself. The bookcase and chimney-piece by Mazaroz are large and broad examples of good average French carving. The antique bedstead is, however true to the period, much too coarse to please any except the admirers of those manufactures that find too ready a sale in a well-known street in London. Sauvrezy has an ebony cabinet, with some well-finished ornament in the panels. Semey contributes a very pretty renaissance bookcase. Brulant has a walnut bookcase, plain in character, with a small amount of neat and good carving. Depont show's a very pretty renaissance cabinet, in plain oak, with stone panels ; the carving is delicate and good, but the stone portion has more feeling and a better finish. Lanneau exhibits a pretty, small Greek cabinet. Quignon displays a large and showy work in walnut, picked out with gold. It consists of the whole side of a room with a sideboard in the centre, over wdiich is a well-painted forest scene. The small drops of fruit in the panels are very good; indeed, altogether, the carving occupies a pleasing though quiet place in this well-designed work. Wirth, Freres, exhibit a number of articles of carved furniture, and fancy carvings in abundance. Carving is profusely employed in all these works, and in many instances quantity has been aimed at more than quality ; still, the enterprise of this firm, as shown in these numerous 88 artisans’ reports on the productions, invites our most particular attention. We liave elaborately- carved sideboards, cabinets, tables, clocks, candlesticks, candelabra s, pedestals, vase-stands, spill-cups, inkstands, letter-racks, carte-de-visite frames, match-holders,, caskets, and a variety of things of utility and ornament. Ingenuity and art combined are thus employed to meet the public taste, and in so doing enlarge the field of labour. In criticising these productions, we may pronounce much of the work rude in concep- tion and coarse in execution, but it is certainly calculated to make the art still more popular. Some of the larger works are tolerably fair, and if not in such good company would pass with approbation. There is much that is suggestive in them. Piret exhibits an expanding dining- table, with four boys upon the plinth ; exceedingly well carved. The carving on the billiard tables is very fair, showing variety, and neither bad drawing nor unsightly carving. There are several well-designed and carved chairs, by Pecquereau, a settee and some chairs being noticeable as having been carved in the white. This has been well done, and, the gilding being equally good, the effect resembles good ormolu work. Gallais has several very pretty chairs and a settee, designed and carved in most excellent taste. The gilt tables, and glass and picture frames are all carved, but do not generally possess the merit that is shown in the furniture. Scarcely anything has been said about the honours received, but they are numerous and well earned. It is plain that the carving in most cases has helped the exhibitors to obtain their rewards. Doubtless the merits of the general designs have proved to be of the first importance, but the carving, embracing as it has done the most artistic powers of the producers, has been the secret of a great success. The carving of the French is not equalled by other nations. Design, as shown in the plan and construction, is of the best, so that, carving and good design being thus intimately associated together, we have the essen- tials of good work. Something good is found in the productions of other countries, but in no other do we find so much that is excellent, such correct principles, such a love of the beautiful, and a successful carrying out of the feeling of taste to its final issue. Good carving here finds its best exponents, it will live here if anywhere, and to it we must look for much that will guide and encourage us in the future. England. The works that we exhibit are not numerous, but several are con- spicuous for elaborate and costly carving. In the exhibits of the leading London firms there is ample evidence of an anxious desire to rival the best examples of industrial art as applied to furniture of the highest class. It would have been a great pleasure to have said that the -works of our country in this branch of art were as successful as they were intended to be, but, when judged by a standard brought up to a very high point in the Exhibition itself, it must be confessed that the day has yet to come which will see our exertions crowned with that success that all desire. If it were permitted to judge of seme of our examples by a PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 89 process of breaking them into numerous pieces, very kigb praise might be awarded. Wright and Mansfield exhibit a cabinet in satinwood, with beautiful marquetry panels, and carved and gilt ornament. It is in the Adams style, and is deservedly admired for its beauty and excellence. It is admitted that the gold medal has been well bestowed. No carver, how- ever, could be found to say that the medal has been given for the examples of his art that are to be seen on this beautiful t work. The cabinet work is doubtless good, the choice of veneer also, but the jury w 7 ould see that the general design was so successful that its equal could not be found elsewhere in the English section. This peculiar instance of marked success is a lesson to us that should not be forgotten. The firm of Gillow exhibits a large and substantial sideboard in walnut, loaded with carving. A different , and, one may venture to say, a better design would have shown the carving to greater advantage. In this instance the first impression is a bad one, and first impressions are often too near the truth to be removed or even modified. It is impossible not to look across the avenue at the ebony cabinet of Lemoine, and feel that in the one case the design and carving are equal, and go hand in hand, and in the other much is wanting, and that too in the plan or design principally. There is some very good carving in the work, but you have to seek for it; there is an excess in a given space, and that which strikes the beholder is expressed in the one word — confusion. Similar remarks may be applied to the ebony cabinet. There is undoubtedly some good carving here, but the tout-ensemble , as the French carvers call it, has many drawbacks, and we look in vain for that high class of excellence that we have a right to expect. Sim- plicity and clearness of meaning might have secured another kind of medal. The walnut wardrobe has four circular, well-designed, and carved panels, in pear-tree, consisting of flowers and foliage representing the Seasons. There is much care and a nice feeling shown in them, and they are certainly among the choicest specimens of English carving. The boxwood cabinet, with very beautiful marquetry panels, possesses some carefully-executed carving. Jackson and Graham exhibit a cabinet in ebony and ivory, engraved, of wonderful beauty. The carving is very good, but subordinate, con- sisting of caps to the pilasters, and clasps on the panels, the excellence of which would have been much increased by a little softness of treat- ment. Trollopes exhibit a large and massive walnut sideboard, and though the general design is broad, and the carving well distributed, there is a manifest absence of that artistic quality that this firm was expected to present to us. The work has a character which places it above similar ones exhibited by some of the other nations, but some of the details are deficient in careful drawing and thorough modelling. Two panels of boys’ heads, surrounded with foliage, in one of the ebony cabinets, have a French feeling, and are excellent examples of carving. The other cabinet has nothing on it by any means so good. Holland exhibits an oak sideboard of the modern Gothic character, with plain carving and coloured inlay, which may please a select class ; 90 ARTISANS REI'ORTS ON THE but it has not afforded the carver an opportunity of showing his art with any great success. Quaint and Gothic it may be, but in this instance there seems a striving after something that will not meet with many admirers or imitators. Lamb, of Manchester, again exhibits his sideboard of 1862, and it is here seen to great advantage. It is a fine, handsome work, with its well- modelled and well-carved figures — the panels of game and the free and well-finished carving of the ornament being noticeable. There is also a cabinet having some small and very fair carving. Crace exhibits a well-designed Gothic cabinet, which possesses some carving that is treated with a nice feeling, and is carefully finished. It is perhaps somewhat too delicate in parts ; but still it is good, and superior to much that is seen elsewhere. The walnut cabinet does not improve upon a second acquaintance. Forsyth exhibits an oak font cover, in the style of the decorated Gothic, having his usual careful carving. Some exhibitors must necessarily be passed over; but G. A. Rogers has been ill-advised to exhibit such poor examples of the art. Where there is not experience, there should be signs of talent at least ; and sound advice should be given and acted upon in order to win laurels in this field of labour. I say this because he has friends, and he should be saved from them if they lead him wrong. England exhibits but few fancy articles ; no caskets, no inkstands, or fancy articles for the table. Mr. Farrant, it is true, has exhibited some bread-platters of a better character than those generally seen. These things have been in fashion now above twenty years, and the thanks of many are due to the artist who designed them. Something more is wanted in this class of manufacture. Our great want is good designs — something that shall not be an unmeaning jumble — a more intelligent direction in carrying them out— a liberal use of thoroughly modelled works to be reproduced in the wood, and not till then shall we have a chance of reaching the goal side by side with other nations. Italy. The works of this nation are such as to enable her to claim very high honours in this competition. Great taste is shown in the applica- tion of the art to many purposes. We have elaborately carved glass frames, numerous picture-frames and caskets, and bold and vigorous examples of architectural workmanship. In the finish of the Italian work the carving is mostly left from the tool, and in many cases the ornament is worked over with small gouge marks repeated side by side. This method gives character, and an effective, lively appearance. The difference between it and the French is very striking. In the Italian there is considerable boldness, with deep undercutting, and generally bristling with sharp points and edges, with surfaces having numer- ous lines. In the French there is a thoroughly modelled softness, and a smooth and high finish. Much of the Italian work looks mounted on, whilst the French resembles repouss6 work. In the English work we see a striving after both methods. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 91 The large glass frame of walnut with a gilt ground, by Giusti, of Sienna, possesses great excellence in the design, and the carving is good. He has the gold medal awarded him. There are several small frames in most excellent taste, having but little projection, the light and simple carving being well brought out by a gilt ground. A small walnut cabinet, with very free and well modelled renaissance panels in lime-tree, in its own natural colour, is a superior example. A large walnut side- board has a profusion of carving ; but as a piece of furniture it has not a comfortable look, and the carving is coarse. A clock-case has some excellent carving, and is much smoother and better finished than many of the other works. The carving on several pianos is plentiful enough, but obtrusive, and in some instances rude and common-place. Some pedestals for busts, executed in walnut wood, are smothered with bristling ornament, showing great want of modelling. Luigi Frulini, of Florence, exhibits some carvings of a very high order of merit. A portion of a pilaster panel in lime-tree is of a bold and effective character, consisting of free Italian foliage intermixed with birds, and as a specimen of good, bold carving it is highly successful. Twelve small panel ornaments, in pear-tree, are beautifully-carved ex- amples of Italian work, and are evidently appreciated, as they have been purchased for the Museum of Vienna. This artist also exhibits a small and very pretty oval picture-frame. The design consists of vine- leaves and grapes, with a number of little birds in various positions perched upon the branches, all very prettily carved. A series of seven portraits, in very low relief, are some of the best examples of wood- carving. The wood resembles hornbeam, has a pleasing colour, and bears a high finish. Garibaldi, Rossini, and the others, are almost speaking likenesses. Doubtless photographs have been well studied, and the result is a series of medallions as beautiful as works of art as we could wish to se'e in any material. The artist receives a silver medal, a reward well deserved, and the only instance in which it has been given for carving pure and simple. The larger frames are in various styles, the Italian predominating, having great spirit in the de- sign, and boldness, combined with excellence, in the carving. One large frame, having Italian ornament treated in a heraldic manner, decorated at intervals all round the sides with medallions, is very effective, and the carving is good. Here is also a very well-designed and carved frame. The groundwork is ebony, and the three boys at the top, and the shields at the angles and ornament in pear-tree, are excellent, the work being one of the best of its class. There are nearly twenty tables, carved and gilt, with round inlaid marble tops. There is breadth in the various designs, though a general coarseness in the exe- cution ; but they are noticeable for character and telling effect. The designs embrace ornament, with boys, birds, and animals. A curious and remarkable frame is exhibited in this section, having great projection, numerous caverns, and considerable undercutting. It is a mass of wild, fantastic ornament, full of life, consisting of monsters, animals, birds and birds’ nests, insects and snakes, all thrown together in great confusion. There is to be traced some method in all this mad- ness. The producer is evidently a great worker, an artist who has 92 . artisans’ reports on the taken the wrong road. He seems to have embodied a nightmare, and has given ns a wonder, hut no pleasure. The number of works exhibited in this section is large, and much of the carving excellent and very suggestive. It is another school, and, next to France, presents a considerable amount of material for pro- fitable study. Russia. Here is a large cabinet having groups of game on the panels of the doors. The style is modern French, but it is coarse in every particular. Sweden. Eclburg, of Stockholm, contributes a large walnut bedstead. The general character is heavy, and the details show want of refinement. Norway. Here is a Gothic table, with brackets at the back for candles; the work is little more than plain tracery. There are chairs to match. Denmark — Copenhagen. Here is an oak figure of a skater ; one leg is well thrown behind, and with the other he is striking his way over the glassy ice. It is very good indeed, and has very properly found a purchaser. Much of the carving in this section is laid on, and, what is worse, looks as if it was laid on, a peculiarity almost anyone can see. There are some neat high- back chairs, having an inch rope carved round the sides and tops, that gives a novel and not a bad effect. Spain Contributes a bookcase that would have looked better were it not painted and badly bronzed. The pianos have no carving. Switzerland. Wirth, Freres, are in great force here, their exhibits being greater in number in this section than in the French. There is a whole suite of furniture — three ebony cabinets, an ebony piano, and a walnut cabinet, with looking-glass in the back. Some very well-carved clocks, and a billiard-table, the carving of which is far inferior to the design. Here, on a large scale, we see many fancy articles of various degrees of utility, that are attractive and must be saleable. This firm is surely doing something towards solving the problem of uniting art with cheap manu- facture. The work turned out does not consist of masterpieces, but a great deal of it is pleasing and suited to a popular taste. Everyone knows that work executed to order is of a superior class generally. A great effort is made when the manufacturer purposes to exhibit with a view to honours, but that description of work which is manufactured for the market, and is intended to meet the eye and suit the taste and means of the general public, is and must necessarily be of a less com- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 93 plete character. There is in these works a considerable amount of in- different drawing, and a “cut and run” style of carving, that largely detract from their general merits, hut it is only fair to say that this large class of manufacture, with its profusion of carving, displays a cer- tain excellence, and is very suggestive. Austria— Vienna. In this section there is a bas-relief in the back of a prie-dieu ex- ceedingly well carved, the artist having well earned a silver medal. Pesth Exhibits an elaborately designed and carved suite of furniture, con- sisting of a table, settees, and six chairs, the sides and tops of which have so many boys, that they are principally calculated to please those who are very fond of children. WURTEHBURG. Here are a number of pianos, but they have no carving ; a great number of clocks, with’an abundance of carving, which must be cheap, judging from the quantity given. Baden. A very well-carved walnut cabinet is here shown, with subjects of sport in the front panels of the lower portion. There are two figures at the sides of the back, but they are so detached as to seem removable at pleasure, instead of forming a part of the work. There is also exhibited a host of clocks, carved in a rude manner, some of which are suggestive, and they are very great favourites with the public, on account of their amusing cuckoos and bold but squeaking trumpeters. Gustave Stcevesandt exhibits two large oak panels of fish and game, very bold in conception and fairly carved. Offenburg sends its freight of clocks, some being good, and plain in design, but wanting in artistic execution. There is also a walnut book- case having some bold free carving, and noticeable for having the frieze of the cornice filled in with pheasants and young, so boldly modelled as to seem almost alive. Hesse — Mayence. Here is a large handsome bookcase, having the carving well and cleanly done, though very deficient in modelling — the character of the foliage of the lower panels resembling the artificial leaves of the milliner. Prussia — Berlin. Here is a grand piano, with walnut medallions of eminent composers at intervals round the sides, the effect of which is broad and pleasing. Magdeburg. An oak cabinet is here shown, with most of the carving laid on ; the 94 : ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE style may be cheap, but such as we never wish to see again. Some pianos here are not pretty in design, and the carving is obtrusive. Breslau. Bauer, Bros., show an elaborate and well-designed ebony cabinet, with purple ground to panels. The carving is very fair, but too much like hard copies of cast leaves. This work, though it possesses a French character in design, is the opposite in its manipulation. Fredrich contributes a good ebony cabinet, and what carving there is may be pronounced well-conceived but somewhat coarse. Belgium. Peeters .Devoort, of Antwerp, contributes four very finely-carved alto- relievo panels in plain oak, one representing Christ bearing the cross, and another where he is scourged before Pilate. There is great breadth in the modelling, and the carving is highly finished. There are ex- cellent examples of this famous class of workmanship. There is also a finely-carved oak figure of the Virgin Mary. The grand oak pulpit, the largest example of wood carving in the Exhibition, is a most elaborate and finely-executed work. The figures at the angles have a good and striking effect, and the bas-reliefs of the numerous panels are carved in the best manner of the Belgian style of ecclesiastical wood sculpture. The ornamental portions are cleanly carved, but look as if they were done by men more accustomed to the saw and plane than carving tools. Snyers exhibits a fairly carved large ebony cabinet, combined with bookcase, also a sideboard composed of walnut, oak, and ebony, in which the design is good, but the same cannot be said of the carving. A sideboard is here shown in plain oak, nearly the whole of which is covered with coarse carving. A boar hunt is represented on the top portion of the back, and the doors are filled with groups of birds. The work might delight a sportsman, but will not serve as a model to an educated carver. A gun case, by Beernsert, in the Dutch renaissance style, is elaborate and full of work, but wants breadth and simplicity. The English and French colonies show very little carving, and it is coarse. Some Indian carving is exhibited, but, however interesting, it is not likely to serve as models to European workmen. The woods used for carving are principally walnut, pear-tree used plain, and also stained black, which is then called ebony, that wood itself being little used, because of the difficulty and expense of working it. Oak, plain, and sometimes slightly stained, lime-tree and pine, plain, and also frequently stained, to imitate walnut. Purple wood is also used. The cost of production could not be ascertained, except in a few par- ticulars, from French workmen, which shall be mentioned in another place. A word or two, however, before leaving, to pursue our inquiries else- where. Only those who, having day after day seen the treasures in PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 95 those long galleries, can realize even to themselves the great store of beauties assembled there. Art-workmen would find themselves at school every day, and each would find his judgment matured with in- creasing knowledge. There is ample room for all to tell their fellow countrymen that better must be done in the future, and that it is not in material that there is real difficulty, but in want of knowledge ; and when that is gained we shall witness achievements that will surpass all former efforts. A lingering last look is given, and henceforth it is matter of history, and the wonders live only in the memory. The Art Education of the Carver. A great number of circumstances and influences may be enumerated as belonging to the subject of the education of the art-workman. To inquire how the character of the workman is developed, and so trace the causes of the differences in the work of the various nations, must undoubtedly be desirable and useful. It would be difficult to ascertain with any degree of certainty, but a search may bring something to light. Each nation has a genius and a history of its own. Climate, locality, institutions, traditions, and various material causes have their several influences. Certain productions are native to particular latitudes, and probably the art of carving flourishes best in places peculiarly favourable to its cultivation. Taste, intelligence, and industry, will, however, over- come many obstacles, and great industry in any particular direction will bring proportionate success. The inquiry proposed occupies too large a field for one whose per- sonal observation and experience are confined to England and a short stay in France, and therefore that which follows must relate solely to those countries — France in particular deserving our best attention. There is ample proof that France is a land of great beauty and fruit- fulness, and it is also rich in works of art. The people of the present age are in the midst of glorious monuments of grandeur and beauty bequeathed to them by their forefathers. The people appreciate them, and industriously and intelligently continue to build up and still further beautify the great edifice of art. The architecture of Paris is a great school, and the student who enters daily receives valuable instruction. To see Paris, or know something of it by description, is to understand how it is that France has distinguished herself among the nations. It would seem almost impossible to be in the midst of so many examples and not grow up imbued with a love for, and also instructed in the art of, carving. The old streets present many interesting examples in wood and stone, and in the new ones there are some glorious works that bring us down to the taste and style of our own time. Variety, good character, and excellent design and workmanship are strikingly mani- fest in these works. Added to these, there is a fitness in all that is done. Fine and well-carved oak-doors are to be seen of a character we never see publicly exposed in England. The stone carving is good and well finished, and by the circumstance of its thus being side by side with the wood, the quality of the latter must be greatly and beneficially in- fluenced. 96 ARTISANS 4 REPORTS ON THEl The Salle Sauvageot in the Louvre contains a rare and valuable col- lection of wood carvings, consisting of fine old cabinets, and a case of small and beautiful medallions, miniature frames, and a number of fancy works, the study of which must do much to forward the carver’s education. The educating influence of the arts of painting and marble sculpture should not be overlooked. The long galleries of pictures at the Louvre and Luxembourg Palaces tend greatly to cultivate and refine the taste. The interiors of these palaces, and also those of the numerous churches, furnish a large amount of material for profitable study. A sight of the Venus Victrix must almost make a youth worship art and resolve to be an artist. The schools and system of instruction are valuable aids in developing the art talent. I visited the Ecole Imperiale Sp6ciale pour 1’ Application des Beaux Arts a lTndustrie. On that occasion there was an exhibition of the works of the students, and the number and variety were considerable and interesting. Conspicuous among the exhibits were some large models in clay. The Minister of Instruction had dictated the subject, and the following were the particulars given : — A somewhat large tym- panum of a pediment, to have the head of a bull for a centre, resting upon a shield, with accessories of boys and festoons of fruit and flowers. The best was a very successful interpretation of the order given. A vase, intended to be executed in silver, was also modelled according to instructions. There were several, competitors in each case. These studies were little more than good sketches in clay, but it was evident that the students were learning a most useful lesson, that would stand them in good service when they went forth into the world. There were the usual school studies, both in clay modelling and draw- ing, or rather superior sketching, the prettiness and high finish aimed at in the English schools being left alone. There were copies of casts of figures and ornament, drawings of natural leaves and flowers, sketches from memory of well-known works, original designs and sketches done in a given time. All of them were interesting, and indi- cated great industry and a promise of excellence. It seemed abundantly clear that the system pursued was simple and rapid, and that the teach- ing and practice produced valuable results. It seems to have great vitality, never being without deep and varied interest to the students, features that should distinguish every school, and without which they will assuredly fail in accomplishing the objects sought to be attained. This system of being content with good sketching in all branches of in- struction in art seems to be the life and soul of art as applied to manu- factures ; good sketching is acquired, and as few will require to gain a subsistence by making finished pictures, a valuable and sufficient power is gained that is always in great request and is never lost. A visit to the exhibition of the works of the students of the Ecole Imperiale Special e de Dessin pour les Jeunes Personnes, showed that the young ladies practised the same system with very profitable results, although in a less degree. Their studies partook largely of pen-and' ink drawings, with a view to the practice of the art of wood engraving. UARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 97 I am informed that the fees are little more than nominal, the main expenses of the schools being borne by Government. An examination of the works of the Parisian and provincial schools in the Exhibition told the same tale, of a system that gives simple and varied exercises to the pupils, that eminently fit them to acquire pro- ficiency in those branches of art-industry to which their tastes incline them. Kecreation. The people of Paris pass much of their leisure time in the open air. Their taste for light beverages, soberly indulged in, indicates, and is favourable to, refinement; and, as is well known, the places are numerous enough that invite the Frenchman to rest himself and sip his coffee or drink his wine. Still there is a pleasant alternative provided, and it is not difficult to imagine that it was found necessary that there should be pleasant places of resort that should cost them nothing. Hence you find that nearly every open space is planted with trees, and laid out with a taste superior to that which distinguishes the gardens of many of the wealthy class in England. Statues, beautiful fountains, flowers, and seats are in abundance. All the “ squares,” as we call them in England, are given up to the people for recreation and rest, and hours are innocently and profitably spent there. It is not too much to say that the daily sight of these things contributes towards fostering the artistic feeling. French intelligence and taste have demanded them, and they surely tend to good among an intelligent and appreciating people. If a workman desires to study animal and vegetable life in connection with his art, the entrances of the Jardin des Plantes are free to him and the public at all times. On Sundays the galleries and museums are all open ; and though it maybe objected to as -being an irreligious provision, it nevertheless exercises considerable influence upon the taste, and increases the work- man’s opportunity for study. Industrial Art Influences. The various branches of art-manufacture, and notably the beautiful Sevres china, doubtless exercise considerable influence upon the character of the carving, for it is almost impossible to see these splendid works and not learn something more of drawing and modelling, and thus in- crease your knowledge of the beautiful in art. The magnificent examples of the goldsmith’s art, displaying as they do such exquisite design, modelling and delicate chasing, are most cer- tainty important and valuable in their influence. The splendid and numerous works in bronze supply a large amount of material for study, and are sometimes placed in the hands of workmen for direct imitation. The numerous works upon which the professional modeller is engaged, such as models for casting in various metals and materials, as carton-pierre — of which there are beautiful examples — deserve to be remembered as aids in promoting the education of the wood-carver. We thus find that the excellence and forward state of industrial art generally stimulate and force the realisation of excel- lence in our own. h 98 Artisans’ reports on the Conditions of Labour and Wages. The time spent in Paris was too short for collecting many facts relative to the system of working and the amount of remuneration. From what could be gathered, however, piece-work seems to he the prevailing system, and by the workmen is preferred to journey-work, or payment by the hour or day. In the piece-work system there is a liberty that is very precious to Frenchmen. However valuable machinery may be, our French brethren consider that their faculties are such as to make them very different things to a mere tool, or a convenient piece of mechanism. They love personal liberty, and holidays and hours of leisure are freely claimed ; and who knows but what their labour has all the energy, along with all the willingness, that is necessary when required. The French carvers are also of opinion that their system developes power, skill, and superiority, and that journey-work tends to keep down energy, and seldom rises above mediocrity. At a meeting of French carvers, which I attended with some friends, these views were expressed with great emphasis. Our French brethren received us in a most courteous and friendly manner : they showed an anxious desire for union and interchange of sentiment, and tendered us such advice as accorded with their experience. Their friendliness was shown to us in a most marked manner, and I feel sure that their feeling towards us is highly creditable to their intelligence, and that their valuable counsel is deserving our best attention. Much of the inferior work in Paris is badly paid for, and the pay is said to be less than is given in England for a similar class of work, but the good average workman, and particularly the superior workman, is paid in accordance with a scale of remuneration that is much higher than that which prevails amongst us. A franc an hour, and sometimes more, is a very general price, whilst piece-work is much more remunerative. Apprenticeships are short, being about three or four years in duration. A youth learns more than the rudiments of his business in that time, and is then thrown upon his own resources, and at an early period becomes a competent workman. The liberty of the workshop is considerable, for the iron hand is not upon the men, neither is the employer or foreman regarded as a warder of a model prison, whose duty it is to keep men silent and at their labour. It is claimed that Paris is the workshop of the world in the speciality of carving and those works with which it is connected. Certainly the amount of carving done is immense. Doubtless the large orders received, combined with the best arrangements, such as good workshops, good machinery and appliances, good models and drawings, &c., and thorough practical men in command, are among the causes which lead to com- parative cheapness of production. Large orders are received from England ; and although the workman is higher paid than in England, the total price is less to the purchaser. To sum up, it is asserted by Englishmen well acquainted with the Paris workshops, and also by French workmen, that our system requires great alterations, and, among other things, piece-work, where practicable, should be substituted for journey- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 99 work, paying more liberally, —not adhering to a level scale of remunera- tion, which is alike assented to by both employers and workmen, amongst us, — letting each gain that which his unfettered hands will obtain. Not till then will our work be characterised by anything but dearness and mediocrity. To keep down energy by insufficient remuneration, is to establish a class of dull workmen, who will never give us good art. To insist upon long hours of labour, with no leisure or holidays, will not give facilities for study, or enable the workman to enlarge his store of knowledge, or give him that interest and pleasure in his labour without which no great success can be expected. Workshops of Paris. In company with several fellow- workmen I visited some of the principal workshops, by means of introductions furnished me by M. Haussoullier, Secretary of the British Workman’s Hall, and representative of the Society of Arts. To this gentleman I desire to offer my best thanks for his courtesy and kindness. We visited the large establishment of M. Fourdinois, and were received with great courtesy, the many excellent arrangements being most patiently explained to us. Carefully -worked models were being copied in wood, and good and most unmistakable drawings were also furnished. The shops are light and commodious, and the machinery employed rendered valuable assistance to the carver in many ways. Some of the work w T as done expeditiously, yet the men were well paid, and the ultimate cost less than in London. On the occasion of our visit to Allard and Chopin’s we found a large number of men employed, who received us in a very friendly spirit, and willingly answered any questions put to them. Some of the work showed less finish than is generally desired, yet the prices were very good. The usual run of work combined good -effect with cheapness. Models were freely used. At Jeanselme’s the same friendliness was shown us by all. The workshops here are very fine indeed. The plaster casts and models are in hundreds upon the walls, to be handed for use when orders were being executed. The show-rooms, too, are large, containing numerous articles of furniture, showing a liberal use of carving. At Eacault’s the quantity of furniture of all kinds, with a vast amount of carving, that filled their immense show-rooms, was something astonishing to an Englishman. The best feeling was here manifested, and the conviction was once more forced upon us — that though the prices seemed low in some instances, yet the carver could in general earn more money than in England. Trade Associations.. With regard to the associations of the workmen, I could learn but one or two facts. The carvers are associated together, numbering several hundreds. The members consist of workers in both wood and stone, but principally wood, and also modellers. Their objects are to promote the exchange of friendly sentiments, furnish trade information to each other, and especially to the unemployed. They have also taken 100 artisans’ reports on the in hand the subject of wages. Having found that some of the Paris shops were paying a very low rate of remuneration, it was determined to ask for an increase of 20 per cent., and the demand was acceded to in each case. A fund is established to support those who may consider it their duty to refuse less than the market price for their labour. The society has Dot been long in existence, but it is very popular, and is deemed very useful. Conclusion. Something has been said about our own work and system, and the opinons of others rise before us deserving serious consideration. It will be unnecessarjq therefore, to enter at great length into the reasons that might he assigned for the excellence in our own works, or the causes that have operated in preventing us obtaining those distinctions that as English- men we desire. It is not the fault of one class, for the fault lies at the doors of all concerned. The workman, I know, must study his art ; but after all he is hut one instrument, and it will be of little use if those who direct and pay him for his labour do not know what they want. The workman is but one instrument of several that are, or should be, em- ployed. The division of labour is such that each must be fitted for his place ; for as a machine is made up of parts, so all should be sound and right for practical working, for should there be a flaw in any one a break- down is inevitable. I venture to assert that the flaw is not be found among the workman-class to the extent that is generally believed. I think, too, that the changes required must be initiated by those above rather than by those below. We want all to think these matters over, and see if better cannot be done in the future. The education of the workman is of primary importance. Our schools have rendered valuable service, and much of our progress is traceable to their influence ; but they are capable of doing more, if only a new life is infused into them. Our great buildings are full of excel- lent examples, which deserve to be more studied than they are. In our museums and galleries there are splendid examples of art that if studied would work wonderful changes in our taste and power. I know that they are not esteemed as they should be, and I also know that they are not so accessible as they should be. Establish more museums of in- dustrial art, be they ever so small, and let them be open at convenient hours and days for the artisan class. Let the architects look to the carving that is being done in our new London, for much of it is a scandal and a disgrace to our taste, and its effects upon the carver’s education are most damaging. Something better is demanded. If we are to have any art in our streets, pray let it be good and instructive. Let us have our open spaces in the metropolis arranged to please the eye and develop the taste ; and at the same time provide the means of rest for those who do not want the accommodation supplied in places of resort that are questionable. Do not forget that the education of the workman is not confined to the established schools, for there are many ways of in- creasing his knowledge outside the walls of those useful places. Let the workman be encouraged to learn and practice the arts of drawing, modelling, and design, for they undoubtedly constitute the very ground- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 101 work of the carver’s art. Let the encouragement he kind, friendly, and continuous, taking the form of liberal prizes to the advanced workmen, accompanied with numerous small prizes, in order to develop the in- dustry of all. Lectures on art would he of great value, for men would he hy them induced to study, and put forth their strength. Let our system of instruction and practice at our schools he simple, inviting, and interesting — not dull, repulsive, and crushing, as it certainly has been to many. We have the stuff amongst us, — let it he cared for in a large and liberal spirit, and it will he strange indeed if the England of the future does not see something more worthy of her great name. WOOD- CARVING, By E. BAKES, ■WOOD-CARTER. I N accordance with my instructions from the Society of Arts, I beg to submit the following remarks as my report upon the wood-carving of the Paris Exhibition, and of the information I have gained in my inter- view with the French wood-carvers and their workshops. The art of wood-carving may be said to begin at the rudest notching, and terminate in the noblest thoughts, expressed in the most beautiful forms. The united sentiments of a nation give birth to a national style of ornament; and in judging of the merits of carving we must not only consider the beauty of the forms carved, but how far those forms harmonise with the style, and in what degree they express the idea of the object they represent. At the present time work is much divided, and the main business of the wood-carver is to carry out or execute, in his material, the thoughts and designs of others. This gives a tendency to high finish and perfect detail, at the expense of the general harmony of the work, and the neglect of the higher principles of the art. The Exhibition contains a few specimens of old wood-carvings, some of them displaying great abilities in conception and execution. Some specimens of church decoration of the middle ages show great perfec- tion, not merely as specimens of carved decoration, but showing to what purposes the art was then applied : some of these pieces contain subjects of the highest order, appealing to the imagination and leading the mind to the noblest reflections. The modern carvings of the Exhibition consist chiefly in the en- riching and decorating of furniture, but beyond a few well-known sub- jects, such as the four seasons, or the four quarters of the globe, the carving is not of a suggestive character, though executed with great taste in arrangement and delicacy of finish; works are exhibited in the styles of almost every period, displaying abilities in the great body of modern carvers, such as were possessed only by a select few in the past. In this respect England has advanced considerably, but it is in the French de- partment we find the greatest perfection, and the most general progress. The Italian renaissance forms the basis of modern French styles, although there is so much originality in design, and such variety in the treatment of the ornament, that it possesses a distinct character of its own, and this is vaguely known in England as French, but French work differs much at different periods, and it is recognised as different PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 103 styles, the character of Louis XIII. and XIV. being massive, broad, and heavy in detail, while Louis XV. is light and extravagant, having a wild and exaggerated appearance. Then, again, Louis XVI. is pure and simple in outline, and chaste and natural in the treatment of detail. The present style, French renaissance, retains much of the character of Louis XVI., but it is sufficiently original to make it distinct from any other style. The principal works exhibited are in this style, with some important pieces in pure Louis XVI. There are also a few pieces in Louis XIII. and XIV., and some in styles of remoter periods. M. Fourdinois, by employing the best talent, retains his position as the leading firm of Paris; his ebony cabinet, with inlay carved work, is un- equalled for design and workmanship, it has also the merit of originality in the carved inlay work, but it is rather over-done in the minuteness and delicacy of detail ; the inlaid wood restricts the carver, and the colouring somewhat destroys the effect of the carving ; as a specimen of carving it is not equal to the upper portion of his other cabinet. M. Grohe’s work is rather less perfect in design and finish, but there is more invention in the carving. Gueret, Frcres, make a good show, but their works are not equal to either Fourdinois or Groh6’s in purity of design or excellence of exe- cution, but they are good, effective, and not so much like exhibition work. Their ebony cabinet, although somewhat faulty in design, well represents the actual character of the ordinary French carving; it is not so elabo- rate in detail as M. Fourdinois’, but more effective when seen at a distance, and scarcely less pleasing when closely inspected. The French are not so successful in their attempts to reproduce works in ancient styles ; this is seen in a large ebony cabinet of the twelfth century. The carving is more suited to a monument than a piece of furniture. Next to the French, the English department is best supplied with specimens of carving ; the style of the English work differs but little from the French, with the exception of a few pieces of Gothic furniture, but the general character of the work is inferior, although almost every piece of furniture contains some portions executed by superior workmen, equal to the French ; this is particularly noticeable in Messrs. Trollopes’ work, where the clever hand of Mr. M. Rogers may be clearly traced (this is not the Rogers the celebrated dealer in carvings). The general design of the English furniture is good, and shows considerable progress ; it may, in this respect, be favourably contrasted with the French, and for practical purposes it is superior. As an instance of the bad construc- tion of the French work, the centre table of the pavilion of the Empress is obliged to be screwed to the floor, to prevent its falling over at the slightest touch. This is an error English manufacturers are not likely to commit, because they make utility the first consideration. Messrs. Wright and Mansfield exhibit a very handsome and meri- torious piece of furniture, but the carving is its weak point, badly designed, and carved without taste or abilities ; the carving destroys its artistic value. Messrs. Gillow exhibit several pieces of richly-carved furniture ; the abilities displayed in the carving are much varied, some portions being tastefully arranged and cleverly executed, while other parts are coarse 104 : artisans’ reports on the and inferior ; this is the case with the English carving generally, which shows a want of good management. Some portions of their ebony cabinet are confused, and show timidity in execution ; this is often the case when the carver is engaged on work superior to what he is generally accustomed to, and is an obstacle to his success. The English carving is sharp and keen, hut the thick edges are un- pleasant. When this is avoided, by rounding the work, it loses the necessary shadow, and becomes tame and heavy ; the French not only avoid the thick edges, but, by a variety of effective touches of the tool, give life and vigour to their work. It is to these enlivening touches that I would direct the attention of the English carvers. Messrs. Holland’s Gothic sideboard is certainly the most original and the best piece of Gothic furniture in the Exhibition ; the intention of the carving is suggestive, but it is scanty, and of no particular merit. In comparison with the French, the English carving is tame and spiritless ; the French workman seems imbued with a true love of his art, and executes it with a warmth of feeling which gives it life and sentiment, and this gives his work its superiority. If we examine attentively a portion of French work, we find the main object of the carver is to give his work spirit and expression. Take a rose, for instance ; it expresses all the characteristics of a rose ; the form, the life, and even the colour is there substituted ; and yet it is not the exact copy of the form of a rose, for if it was, it would look poor and lifeless, but it looks rich and full of life, and this is done with comparatively little labour. The carver must understand and feel the true spirit of the object he is carving, otherwise he may bestow much labour, and display much skill and cleverness in tooling, but his work will still be deficient in that which is essential to its artistic merit; not that there is a total absence of this artistic feeling in the English work, but they seem to have studied cutting their work sharp and clean, in preference to anything else. As a whole the English carving is equal, and, perhaps, superior to any of their previous exhibitions. Their progress is seen not so much in what is actually exhibited, as in the almost entire absence of decidedly bad work. There is scarcely any of those tame and laborious imitations of nature which usually abound in our exhibitions; this indicates improve- ment in taste. The Italian department is rich in good carved work. Whatever merit the Italian work possesses, it is entirely of their own creation. Their work is the expression of their national sentiments, generally well- designed, carved boldly, and treated in a broad manner. The human figure, or animal life, which forms the chief point of their work, is carved with much vigour and expression. The ornament is crisp, and left sharp from the tool, but lacking that graceful play and contrast of the French. The Italian work is best suited for architectural purposes, but loses some of its effect when applied to furniture ; being too much in the same relief, it appears superadded. Their carved frames are light and much superior in effect to our composition frames. The Italians, by relying upon themselves, and by the vigour and abilities shown in the execution of their work, seem destined in the future to again take the lead in the art of carving. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 105 There is a good deal of picturesque carving from Switzerland and Germany, but not of sufficient merit to be instructive, excepting the works of Wirtb, Brothers. This class of carving, although called Swiss carving, is in reality one of the stages through which the French carving has passed. It was extensively patronised some ten or fifteen vears ago in Paris. It is composed of natural forms, carved in an off- hand and sketchy manner. This is its chief merit. The English carvers would do well to practice this style of carving. The English carving would he improved by having some of these qualities imparted to it. By a careful study of the carvings exhibited, I conclude that the art of wood-carving generally has attained a perfection never before equalled, either for design or execution, although it has been applied to nobler purposes, and I leave the Exhibition convinced that the French work is superior to any other nation. I next visited the principal workshops of Paris, and, by a careful com- parison of prices, confirmed a previous opinion, that work is produced cheaper in Paris than London. London contains about 1,700 carvers ; Paris about 3,000. The exportation of carved work from Paris is exten- sive ; London exports scarcely any — in fact, our manufacturers purchase much of their carved work in Paris. From these facts we may conclude that work is cheaper in Paris ; and in my inquiries I endeavoured to ascertain the cause. A knowledge of drawing being essential to a good carver, the schools of design in Paris are more numerous and easier of access than in London. Their system of teaching is superior for practical purposes than our own ; it gives a better general idea of the object designed. Instead of exact outline, and a slow and tedious process of shading, they time their pupils, allow them more latitude, and get a better general resemblance of the object copied. Apprentices generally attend these schools in the evening. At the age of thirteen or fourteen boys are apprenticed, serving three to five years, and are re- munerated in proportion to what they earn. This encourages quickness. Being free at the age of seventeen or eighteen, they change their work- shops, and gain experience, at the age when the mind is best suited for receiving instruction. At twenty-one he is already an experienced workman, just when our apprentices are merging from their semi-torpid existence. Their workshops are conducted in a manner which allows the greatest individual freedom; by conversation, and the mutual ex- changing of thoughts and ideas, the workshops form an important source of information and instruction ; but the most important difference be- tween the French and English workmen is, in Paris they are paid ac- cording to their abilities ; in London wages are nearly uniform ; one encourages a man to become proficient, the other is discouraging, because he has no hopes of being rewarded for his perseverance. As soon as a French workman shows signs of special abilities, he is patronized and encouraged, and by working in accordance with his inclinations, he con- tinually gains experience, and ultimately arrives at great perfection. In England we have no such special patronage, but spend the best part of our time in executing work repugnant to our feelings. The difference in the cost of work is in the inferior and mechanical portions. The best work cost about the same in Paris as in London, while the inferior 106 ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE parts cost often less tlian half. The work is also more divided in Paris. All mouldings are either done by machinery, or by men forming a separate branch; this relieves the bona-fide carver of much mechanical labour. The French workman is generally supplied with good designs and models, which he slightly alters to suit the grain of his wood, with- out injuring the original design ; this facilitates his progress. In fact, the employers seem to give their workmen every scope and encourage- ment for the display of their abilities. The art-workmen of Paris are exempt from certain government restrictions imposed on other trades, and society looks upon the profession of the carver as a superior calling ; his abilities are acknowledged and admired ; his sense of praise is keen, and he strives to distinguish himself in his profession. The French workman is free in his habits, and his domestic cares weigh less heavily on him than with us. He often relieves his mind by amusement and recreation. French society allows much latitude for individual taste in matters of dress, and no one is ashamed of the costume of a working man. The dress of both him and his family is more economical and better suited to his position and occupation than ours. Their desire to become rich is not so strong, because there is less rudeness to the poor, and intelligence is more esteemed. Works of art meet the eye in every direction, and his mode of life assists the mind in its artistic play. If the French workman had the same difficulties to contend with, he would not produce his work better or cheaper than we do. Our inferiority is not through a want of natural abilities ; but our natural genius wants encouraging and directing. We are more serious and contemplative, and our carving should be the expression of our natural thoughts. Our rich patrons leave the decorating of their apartments too much in the hands of the manufacturers, who are in the habit of considering their own interests ; and our architects leave the embellishment of our cities too much in the hands of the builders, who are not notorious for their refined taste. I think this is the root of our inferiority. It is for the rich of this country to insist upon having good artistic work, and there would be no lack of good artistic workmen to do it. The Society of Arts deserve the thanks of English art-workmen for their endeavours to encourage them in their profession. Their system of annual competitions discovers some of our best workmen ; but, having discovered them, the Society should see that their abilities are not lost to the nation. The decorations of our public buildings and monuments are executed in a manner that do us no credit, because they are in the hands of inferior but more pushing and speculative men, while our best workmen stand idly by, or are occupied in a subordinate position. In conclusion, I beg to thank the Society of Arts for their assistance in enabling me to visit Paris. I regret I cannot more ably convey to them the information I have gained, which I shall endeavour to do in a more practical manner to my fellow -working men. CABINET WORK. By THOMAS JACOB. CABINET DRAUGHTSMAN, T HE following is the result of my observation during fourteen days’ stay in Paris and the Exhibition. The easy access the French have to this Exhibition accounts for their number of exhibits exceeding that of any other country — in this branch especially ; so that to determine, from the number of pieces exhibited by this country, which is the foremost of the two (for France is the only country we in a few things fear), is scarcely fair, as we are far from being represented by a fair proportion of our principal manufacturers, I should have been much better pleased if there had been a greater number of English exhibitors, so that a more general and decided opinion as to the merits of each country in design and workmanship in cabinet work could have been given, instead of leaving so few of our firms to maintain the reputation we have so long enjoyed for good and sound workmanship in all competitions in which we have entered. France is certainly before us in design, but not in workmanship. If steady hard labour or good sound workmanship is required, the English mechanic is second to none in the world, provided he has the tools and material to work with ; but if art-workmanship is required, it must come from a man who, besides being a good mechanic, must, to some extent at least, be able to use the pencil also ; this being the case, just as education proceeds and a taste for the beautiful is diffused among working men generally, by means of schools of art and free access to our museums, particularly on Sundays, so will art-workmanship in this country rise to at least a level with that which is so much admired abroad ; though I think a person who has once seen Paris, walked through the main thoroughfares, and visited their public buildings and churches, cannot help feeling quite contented to be beaten by a people for whom their Government has done, and is still doing, everything possible for their artistic improvement, and whose wish it seems to be that every building shall be not merely a building just sufficient for the purpose it is intended to- serve, but be, in the true sense of the word, a monument, erected and decorated without any apparent regard to cost ; the material which is principally used (a white stone) having the double advantage of being quite soft, and almost as easily worked as a bath- brick when new, and of becoming as hard as a rock after being some 108 artisans’ reports on the time exposed to tlie atmosphere. The clean appearance of the buildings is long preserved, as no factories are allowed in the town from which any amount of smoke (or noise) is emitted. As to the carved decorations, nothing is spared, either by way of figures, ornament, or metal work, so that every building is, in some way or other, calculated to promote design and good taste. A Parisian may very properly be considered to “ live ” in a school of art ; and a taste for the beautiful is so diffused amongst the people (a natural consequence), that scarcely anything is attempted that does not exhibit considerable taste. I speak now of the fittings up of their shops and shop windows, which they do to very great advantage, especially the jewellers’ shops, who spare no amount of gas, silvered glass, or attention to the colours of their priced tickets, to get up a dazzling effect, to detail which would only be assisting our jewellers to palm off their articles upon the public, without increasing their value ; besides this, many shops are to be seen in which the fittings are certainly better and more expensively got up than much of the furniture of many well-to-do people of London ; frequently the floor is of polished parquet, and sometimes of glazed tiles ; in all cases particularly clean and neat. Besides the advantage of being continually in view of these fine build- ings and monuments, they have several splendid museums, in which all who are disposed can study, at almost any hour convenient to themselves, particularly on Sundays. Contrast this with the arrangements of our institutions, — the British Museum, for instance, which, we are proud to say, contains the most valuable collection of antique objects in the world, and which for study nothing can be better. Can we get in there at times most convenient to us, or on Sundays ? No, nothing of the sort. On approaching the gates a large board announces that “ This musem is open on Monday, &c., from 10 till 4 and if it happens to be on any but these days, no matter, however strong your inclination to go in, or the good account you might be able to turn this visit to, it is not possible to enter. To improve the taste of working men, every possible opportunity should be given them of inspecting works of art during their leisure hours, that they may see what has been and is being done by the artists, who are but men like themselves ; it is unreasonable to expect a man to imitate or rival that which he has never seen ; but after he has seen these things, if he has talent and metal of the right sort in him, he will not long be content to lag behind his fellow-w T orkmen of this or any other country ; but, under the existing arrangements, how is a working man to find time to study these things, and at the same time to apply himself regularly to his bench (for instance) so as to hold his position there and to be of use to his employers ? If he does this, his only chance of study must be after he has left off work in the evening ; and I think there are very few men who, after having done a good, honest day’s labour, are either fit, or in the humour, to sit down and study in a school of art ; and, unless it can be shown that a working man can command an un- limited amount of physical endurance, such means could at most be but partially successful. But, it may be said, mechanics generally keep Saint Monday ; if they have any desire for visiting these places they will go PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 100 there on these days instead of resorting to public-houses. That is all very well ; but who are these men ? I am afraid the men who neglect their work to keep Saint Monday are not of that class of workmen who would be likely to make proper use of schools of art or of galleries where they might study. The man who wishes to attend regularly to his work, and to maintain himself and his family in anything like a creditable position, well knows he cannot afford to lose days or even half-days ; if he did so, the wants of his family must to that extent be neglected; and, besides, it is not merely one day’s study a month, or anything like it, that will be suffi- cient to do the amount of good required ; it must be a steady and continual study ; and if working men had the advantage of visiting our museums one day in the week, their taste would soon be very greatly improved. Now these are the men for whom opportunities are wanted to study in our museums and galleries ; and I do not see any other means of affording such opportunities than by allowing them free access to such places for a few hours on a Sunday, though I am well aware that the idea of giving the English artisan access to museums and picture galleries on Sundays will for a long time yet meet with strenuous opposition from many influential members of the clergy, whose duty it is to maintain the sanctity of the Sabbath. But does it not seem most extraordinary that while the clergy of the Established Church are opposed to even a band playing in the parks on a Sunday, on religious grounds, very many of them are doing their best to lead away whole congregations to the practice of a religion which tolerates dramatic performances, horse-racing, and bull-fights on the Sabbath day ? Such things we do not wish to see adopted in this country, nor do I think secular music at all suitable to be used on a Sunday, but I am of opinion that if the leading members of the clergy could see inside working men’s homes (frequently only one room) on a Sunday, they would withdraw their objections, and allow them the pleasure of listening to good sacred music in the free open air, in any of the parks on that day, and I do not believe religion would suffer by it. But, then, I may be asked if I would destroy the Sabbath-day’s rest, and make all days alike, or would I assimilate the English Sunday to that of the French ? Certainly not. The British workman does not want to be told he does not work hard enough, and that he must labour on continually all days alike, as they do in Paris; nor do I believe that the French workman, who makes no difference between Sunday and other days, performs a greater amount of work than the Englishman with his six days a week; for although the Parisian artisan employs a great portion of the Sunday in labour, thus making all days nearly alike, a great deal of the two or three following days is often spent in idleness and profitless pleasure-seeking — a state of things most undesirable to see adopted on this side of the Channel. To adopt whatever means may be the most advisable to raise the character of the English workman, as an artist as well as a mechanic, to enable him to compete successfully with his foreign brother, is the work to be done. But the great thing is to find out those means. Some perhaps may say that the English working man is naturally deficient in his taste for art ; that he cannot perceive the difference between works of lio artisans’ reports on the art, whether good or bad ; and that it would he useless to expect any- thing from him besides mere mechanical labour, whatever facilities for improvement may be thrown in his way. But this cannot be so, or, if such natural deficiency exists, how is it that it does not extend through- out all classes ; and how does it happen that the educated and wealthy classes of this country are so keenly appreciative of all that is beautiful in art, music, and literature, and whose houses are perfect magazines of all the beautiful things the hand of the artist or mechanic can produce ? Such things could be had from abroad ; and it would seem to have been thought not worth while to encourage talent at home, just as it used to be thought dangerous for a working man to learn to read and write ; and thus it is no great wonder that the English artisan should have been inferior in taste to men of his own class in other countries of Europe. But, now that the education of children is occupying so much attention by the government, I think an excellent method of raising the character of the English workman as a mechanic or an artistic workman would be something in this way : — Whenever a boy leaves school, let him be furnished with a certificate, stating the progress he has made in learning while at school (as is done in a few schools at the present time) ; and if he is apprenticed to any trade let him be encouraged to bring to the school, periodically — say twice a year — specimens of his work, or a note from his foreman, stating what progress he was making towards useful- ness. Here would be an opportunity afforded of giving him a few words of encouraging, sound advice, which parents are too often unable to give. Some such plan as this need not be attended with much expense, as there are in almost every locality plenty of educated people, belonging to the higher classes, who would willingly give a little of their time and atten- tion to such matters ; and as it is in the earlier years of a young man’s life that good advice and encouragement are needed, I cannot help think- ing some such plan would be productive of most excellent results. But education is a question so vast and all-important, that, in attempt- ing to deal with it, thoughts crowd upon thoughts in such endless variety that it becomes difficult to arrange them in such order as to be present- able to the reader. I think it is most clearly defined by calling it, “ The art of making men and women useful for if we except just such kinds of unskilled labour as require only the exercise of physical power, we find the man who is entirely uneducated but in a small degree useful to himself or others. Although we have the example of such men as Stephenson, Palissy, and others, who in their childhood were thrown upon the world uncared for and uneducated, to earn their bread and take their chance to stand or fall, to show that a man may educate himself and rise to the highest degree of usefulness and distinction in the world, and leave behind him a name that will last to the end of time, we are compelled to look upon such men as extraordinary exceptions, as we do on great poets or painters ; men who seem to bring their profession into the world with them, and are above all human teaching ; men who, in fact, seem to have been sent into the world with the stamp of Divinity upon them, to be the instructors of the whole human family. Setting aside, however, these exceptions, the great body of men require long and patient instruction, not only in the school, where they are taught read- rARIcS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. Ill ing, writing, &c., but in the workshop, where they have to take their places amongst the wealth-producers of their country, and to sustain their character as workmen ; and in most cases, just in proportion to the instruction received in the school during childhood, and in the workshop during his apprenticeship, so will be his abilities and usefulness when he becomes a man. The South Kensington Museum authorities exert themselves in a more praiseworthy manner than any of our large institutions to diffuse a taste for art amongst our labouring classes, but still plenty more remains to be done ; for instance, if plaster-casts were taken of those splendid pilasters, friezes, capitals, &c., Gothic especially, and sold to the working classes at cost price (there ought not to be any profit put on), they would soon be well circulated throughout our workshops, and I am sure many would soon have a good collection to be proud of. The same may be said with regard to photographs. Why should we not have these also at cost price ? And, to go a little further, Mr. Cole or his colleagues might publish a series of popular essays on various subjects, such, for instance, as the harmony of colours, adaptation of form to material, &c. Again, if all Shakespeare’s works can be sold at a profit for ten-pence, why should there not be an elementary work on geometry, perspective, and orthographic projection, for, say, two-pence? All these things would tend greatly to increase the abilities of the workmen, as many are quite ignorant of even the simplest problems, in consequence of the difficulty to obtain such works. Biographies of men who have risen to the greatest eminence and distinction from the humblest class, of which there are plenty, might also be desired. On entering Paris I was much struck by the great liveliness of the streets, for scarcely would you pass a horse that had not his collar of bells, similar to what are used on children’s rattles, which, as they jogged along, kept up a continuous ringing ; beyond this the drivers have a habit of continually snapping their whips, making a considerable noise, without striking the horses, reminding you more of a large fair than a great city ; this having a slight musical tendency, helps, I believe, to keep the people merry. In the evening the streets are still more lively, for, besides the shop and street lamps, the omnibuses also carry lamps, four altogether — one each side of the driver, one beneath his footboard ; behind, a board with the word “ complet” cut out of it, indicating when the omnibus ■ is full ; another lamp is over the door, behind a board in the same manner ; added to this it is common for the people to sit out- side the cafes to take their refreshment ; and as in many places they are sheltered by trees, it is really very pleasant and picturesque ; everybody appears to enjoy it, and to be in good humour. It has often been remarked how much more merry Frenchmen were than the English. I think this is entirely to be accounted for in the difference of the climate ; they have nothing near the number of dull, foggy, wet days we have, which everyone knows has a great influence on a man’s disposition. If Paris was in that respect like London we should And the Parisians very different people. We could not here sit out in the streets as they do, even if the pavement was wide enough, but for a very limited number of days in the year; so that it would not pay pro- 112 artisans’ reports on the prietors in general to provide the accommodation, except as it is done by the suburban publicans. The general drink is light wines, coffee, Cognac and water (not omitting the sugar), and several sweet drinks (groseille), of which they appear very fond ; these drinks are very much lighter than our stout, porter, or ale, and I think calculated to have a more jovial effect upon them, certainly not to intoxicate them ; an intoxicated Frenchman is very rarely to be seen. I could not help noticing the dress of the young women, and thought what a pity it was that our young women, who so much wish to follow the fashions of Paris, cannot often go there, and, instead of being led by the articles exhibited in the English shop-keepers’ windows, see for themselves what are the fashions generally in use among people of their class in that city. If they could do this I am sure many among them would find it greatly to their advantage to copy in reality the fashions of their Parisian sisters. There, instead of seeing a long trawling dress, draggled with mud, a gorgeous head-dress, and miserable boots (I hope I am not too severe), they would see all, from the poorest, particularly clean and very neatly dressed; anything approaching a long dress I seldom saw — they were generally two or three inches short ; they frequently wore low shoes, and I may say always very clean stockings. They had, in fact, the appearance of our country girls, though they lived in the town ; an attempt at anything gaudy is not to be seen ; they seem quite content to dress according to their means; and I cannot think the fashion changes so often with them as it does here ; they generally wear ear- rings, wdiich in all cases appear good. I am quite at a loss to know where what we call Fan's Fashions come from, as the difference between what is to be seen here and in Paris is so great — though I am afraid it would take a long time to coax our young women to don the white cap, which looks so nice, and which seems to be the great pride of a French damsel to keep clean. I think, generally, they rise much earlier than our young ladies. Before seven a.m. they are to be seen, nicely clean, low shoes, black dress (perhaps Garibaldi), and their particularly clean cap, occasionally a bonnet, with their basket on their arm, going for the various things of the day. As to the working men, they generally wear blue loose blouse and trousers, of a material capable of being washed ; some w T ere worn in the streets, but I think frequently only at w T ork. Taking the French people generally, they are exceedingly well- behaved; at the theatre-doors a crowd like at the London theatres is not seen ; they stand in a long line, two a-breast; but they are kept in this order by a few T police, so that nobody is squeezed. Nothing in my stay in Paris was more gratifying to me than to see the manner in wdiich they behave, and appear to enjoy themselves, on a Sunday, at Versailles, w r here, on this day, there are always a great number of persons, all I saw being very respectable. Every room in the picture gallery v r as crow T ded to excess, and required a considerable time to go through them, yet, anything like pushing one in front of another v 7 as not to be seen. On entering, you take your place, and go gently wdth the crowd. The splendid battle-pieces occupy most atten- lARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 113 tion. In front of this gallery are splendid gardens, nicely laid out with flowers, several large fountains, and, in the distance, an extensive lake ; along the paths are many very fine, richly-sculptured vases and statues ; the vases are very much larger than those at the Crystal Palace (London) ; adjoining the gardens is a large forest, in which are several splendid long, straight avenues of tall but slender trees, whose branches meet overhead, to walk beneath which when the sun is out is a very great pleasure, and is well appreciated. It seemed very strange to me to be, as it were, constantly under the eyes of the soldiers, for frequently would you meet several of them on guard together, besides which a strong force is always, I believe, at hand. From about three till five in the afternoon the band of the Zouaves performed, in quick time, some lively music, which was listened to by a great concourse of people. Towards evening, one amusement among the people was for one to blindfold the other, and see how near he or she could walk to an object a little distance off ; another was to send up bladders inflated with gas. One fellow laid out four francs in a bunch of them, and let them go up together. The approaches to these gardens more resembled those to a great fair, than what, I am glad to say, w^e are accustomed to see on a Sabbath- day. There were people with moveable stalls, selling all kinds of photo- graphs, gilt Albert chains ; and at one time a man with an organ on a barrow, drawn by a donkey, a boy singing ; soon after came another boy (blind), with a smaller organ ; besides this, nearly all the shops were open for business, restaurants being most prominent. Towards the even- ing a regular fair was in full play, — roundabouts, and deafening music, quite astonishing, To return to Paris. To me Paris has not the appearance of being a great business-place, like London. During the time I w T as there I did not notice a single heavy waggon loaded with merchandise, as is so commonly seen here. A peculiar kind of cart, with two wheels, much used in Paris, conveying huge blocks of stone from one place to another for building purposes ; also others conveying beer or wine barrels and bread (loaves six or seven ft. long, and about eight or nine inches in circum- ference), these, with the omnibuses and carriages, constitute the general traffic. Another thing I could not help noticing, which was at the rail- way station — the complete absence of anything like the small trucks in use at our stations for moving luggage to and from the trains. If a person came with a large box, two or three porters had to carry it. ^ Now as to the homes of the working people. What an Englishman considers, and is proud to call a “ home,” I believe scarcely exists in Paris. The people do not stay at home, as we do. If one invites an- other to dinner, almost as soon as it is over they adjourn to a caf6, where they spend the remainder of the day — wife, children, and all, drinking their wines or coffee ; perhaps playing dominoes, cards, billiards, or reading the papers. Some of these cafes are extravagantly decorated ; take, for instance, the “ Cafe Parisien.” This I believe to be one of the largest, and it is very highly decorated and illuminated. In the centre of one room are about twenty billiard-tables, not less ; a hand-rail sepa- rates them from the outer circle, where are small round tables and chairs, i 114 artisans’ reports on the with a seat all round the room against the wall ; and here will be seen men, w~omen, and children, all very respectable, drinking together, all very quiet and orderly. This they do night after night, so that they really live at the caf6s. Not being acquainted with the English billiard-rooms, I don’t know if I shall be explaining anything new in the sort of thing used in Paris to show how long a party has been playing. Over each table, and generally suspended from the gas -pipe, is what looks like a clock, which is only a dummy, merely a face and hands in a round case, with a glass door, the key of which is carried by the waiters. When a party engages a table, this dummy is set to the time ; so that when they leave the waiter has nothing to do but to compare the time by his watch to that indi- cated by the dummy, which gives him the length of time the parties have been playing beyond dispute. The occupation of women in Paris, and I have no doubt France generally, is much different to that of ours ; in many cases better, others again not at all to be wished to be adopted here. The French cabinet-makers, as a rule, polish their own work ; but the chair and carved-work is generally polished by women, who, I was told, received at M. Fourdinois’ rather over 4 frs. per day. This, for female labour, I think is very good, certainly much more than the generality of our females receive for a day’s labour. They are preferred to men, as they do the work quite as quick, and generally better. The west-end London cabinet-makers do not polish their work ; but other men are employed, who do nothing else. Now, as an advocate for the better em- ployment and remuneration of women, I ask, why cannot females be encouraged to do this work here (there are many at the east-end of London) in place of the men ? It would be a great advantage to them and their employers ; it is not a business which requires any amount of skill or thought, only care and a little patience ; and it is certainly not at all unsuitable for females. The only question I see, that can be raised, is, suppose if you supply the place of our present polishers w 7 ith women, what would become of the men ? What could they then do for a living ? What could they do ? I own that that is a question difficult to answer, for in too many instances they can do beside polishing (if that can be called anything) comparatively nothing ; so that if women were here substituted for polishers, we should have a great number of men out of employment, who are unable to do anything else, except porter’s work, &c. Now, of course, to expel these men without there was a chance that they could obtain other employment by which they could support themselves and families, would not be considered charitable or perhaps right, as more harm than good would be done, except to the employers ; but cannot for the future women and young girls be taken on instead of men, for I consider a great benefit would be derived if they could be prevented from wasting their time French-polishing, for there is nothing in it to entitle it to that amount of a man’s time in which he might and ought to be producing something more substantial and de- cidedly more becoming him. For this reason the sooner some plan is adopted by which they will be totally excluded from it, the sooner will a lasting benefit be conferred upon our labouring women and young girls, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 115 by which they will be better enabled to maintain themselves in a very respectable manner, at a considerable advantage to their employers ; and the men who would be polishers would be obliged to seek other employ- ment in which they would require to use their mental powers, and we might then have something really good from them, instead of, as is the case at present, the faculties of these men lie dormant, and are abso- lutely wasted. Another means of improving the condition of our labouring women and young girls, which is adopted in Paris, is to substitute them at the ticket-offices of railway stations. They are found to do the work ex- ceedingly well there. Why should they not here ? It is a very light occupation and 'well suited for them. We have many instances of females employing their time very successfully engraving on glass, wood, &c., for which, be it said to their credit, many make their own designs. This is certainly more difficult than polishing or book-keeping; so that, I think, if they were here encouraged, railway directors would soon rejoice at the change, and extend their employment as much as possible. Not only would this change benefit the class of females who in some way or other are compelled to labour to maintain themselves, but there are many, what I call little gentry, people who have seen better days, w T ho would be glad to accept such situations. Although the French contribute the best-designed cabinet-work to the Exhibition, it will be noticed that it is very much alike, and contains the same kind of ornament (the French renaissance) and general treat- ment, one as another. Black being, as it were, quite the fashion, much of this is ebonised, and thus spoilt. 1 feel sure that several exhibitors of ebonised furniture would have received prizes a stage higher, if it had not been for the process of staining, which in most instances quite gums up the fine features, and has more the appearance of having been black- leaded than of ebony; others again have brilliantly polished the carvings, which is a great mistake, as they never have such a nice appearance as when left quite dull, or with just a little wax rubbed over them with a hard brush. A. Latry exhibits specimens which appear carvings, but are made up of pigs’ blood and dust, compressed in a steel mould; these are very good and cheap; a medallion, about two inches diameter, with a head in bas-relief, could be had for 2 frs. Throughout the French cabinet- work a much greater freedom in the application of carving is observed than in the English department, figures being very frequently used, either in full or bas-relief. The French carvers do not work me- chanically ; invariably they make their own models to begin with, receiving only a rough sketch from the draughtsman, it being generally left to their taste to arrange it ; so that they work in perfect freedom, with greater pleasure, and thus perfection. Messrs. Fourdinois exhibit a cabinet profusely decorated with carving, the method of applying which they have patented ; the method is this— Take, for instance, a panel ; instead of merely laying the carving upon the surface, it is cut in as marquetrie, allowed to project as required, and afterwards carefully modelled and worked down to the ground ; the inside is veneered ; when upon thick pieces, as legs, it is let in with 116 artisans’ retorts on the cliisel and gouge about § in.; the ornament being very fine and delicate, this treatment is absolutely necessary. This piece of work, though awarded the grand prize, is not the best piece of workmanship. The palm for workmanship must be given to Messrs. Jackson and Graham, of London, whose exhibit is the finest in the entire Exhibition ; an ebony cabinet, richly inlaid with ivory, lapis lazuli, and excellently engraved, being the principal production. This will bear the most minute criticism; in fact, the more it is criticised by skilled workmen, the more it will be admired ; the mouldings on the doors are exceedingly intricate, but on close examination the mitres will be found to be beauti- fully perfect. There is no other piece of work in which all branches — cabinet-work, carving, marquetrie cutting, and engraving — are so excellently worked out, and combine to make a perfect whole as in this cabinet; and had it not been for the fact that Mr. Graham was a juror, there is no doubt that he wmuld at least have been a recipient of a gold medal. The same with regard to Mr. Grace and Mr. Grohe. They also exhibit a large inlaid loo-table, cabinet for the display of porcelain, &c., a bookcase, several chairs, and piano, all executed with the same amount of accuracy and good design. Messrs. Lamb, of Manchester, exhibit a very nice inlaid cabinet, which has the misfortune to be overcrowded ; also the pollard oak side- board, exhibited in 1862 ; excellent workmanship. Holland and Sons exhibit Gothic pieces, the principal being a side- board ; as a piece of dining-room furniture I cannot admire it, as it looks too heavy, and more like a piece of rough joiners’ work than a fine piece of cabinet-work, which we expect to see in a gentleman’s house ; it appears too ecclesiastical for household furniture ; allowance must be made, however, for this kind of work being seldom got up. It reflects great credit upon the exhibitors, but I would suggest a little refining. Messrs. Trollope and Sons exhibit, slightly altered, the cabinet which was in the London Exhibition of 1862, and a very nice inlaid octagonal table, the carving of which is waxed, and quite equal to any in the Exhibition. Messrs. Gillow exhibit excellent workmanship in a black bookcase, which has a recess each side of the centre, to receive a figure of Milton and Shakespeare. Mr. Orace exhibits a very fine walnut cabinet, on trusses, richly carved ; in the centre of the door-framing is a little inlay of ivory, which well defines it ; also an inlaid fancy cabinet, and a very nice in- laid Gothic card-table. Wright and Mansfield exhibit a large satinwood cabinet, with gilt moulding, in the Adamite style, for which they have been awarded a gold medal. Messrs. Hunter have a very nice wardrobe and toilet-table, in ash and grey maple, inlaid with ivory, with several plaques of Wedgwood ware introduced in the frieze, door panels, and plinth ; centre door, glass panel. Messrs. Heal and Son exhibit an excellent suite of bedroom furniture, in satinwood, also in polished deal ; these things have a very gay and brilliant appearance. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 117 Messrs. Dyer and Watts exhibit very excellent bedroom furniture, which is second to none in the building, of the kind. The exhibits of Messrs. Whytock. Filmer, and Howard (who exhibits the bookcase of 1862) are also well worth inspection. Semey, of ParisJ* 'exhibits a splendid ebonised bookcase, for which he has gained a silver medal, which might have been a gold one had he bestowed more attention upon the finishing, especially upon the carving, which is polished. M, Gueret’s bookcase is a very fine monument. An attempt has been made to polish the rich carving, which gives the appearance of having been black-leaded. Jeanselme exhibits a large bookcase ; the centre of the upper part is enclosed by two doors ; much of the carving is sunk in the groundwork, not projecting. Ribaillier has a very nice purple-wood hall-table, with round ends ; the upper part consisting of a centre carcass with a shelf at each side, and one door consisting of artificial flowers, supported by two dogs in front, and a framed panel with pilasters at back. I think others will agree with me when I say, purple-wood is much more effective when used with other woods than in a large mass by itself. From Vienna we have a novelty; it consists of a table, sofa, two easy and six small chairs, in white tubular metal frames, decorated with gilt nail-heads and rosettes. The centre of each back is circular, and carved with a violet material, having a red flower and leaves embroidered in the centre. The back of the sofa has three circular cushions. Together they have a nice appearance, but rather cold. P. Sormani exhibits a splendid ebony cabinet, about 4 ft. 6 in. long ; the front is divided into three panels, top centre one glass ; on either side is an enamelled plaque, with dark -blue ground. This is an excel- lent piece of work, both artistically and for workmanship. P. Mazaroz exhibits a well-carved chimney-piece and a sideboard, the cabinet-work of which is only middling. The design is good, rather out of the ordinary kind. It has circular ends. The front-end breaks are circular, to admit of a figure about 3 -ft. high, which inclines to the pilaster of the upper part, on either side of which are Greek fluted columns, which support the cornice. The lower part has one large door, the panel of which is richly-carved with figures in bas-relief. On the pilasters are carved bulls’ heads. Richstaedt has a splendid walnut bookcase, about 12 or 14 ft. long, the design and workmanship of which are excellent. Chaix exhibits an ebony wardrobe, consisting of a centre part, the ordinary height, with a glass panel, and on either side is a wing, only the height of cabinets, about 3 ft. 2 in., attached ; also a bedstead. In the Italian court we have a fine table by Gatti. This ranks among the most artistic productions in the Exhibition. To enumerate all the pieces of excellent work exhibited in this class would occupy a volume of itself. I have therefore selected a few of the principal objects, though there are very many more quite equal to those I have named. WOOD-CUTTING MACHINERY. By WILLIAM WALKEK. T[YAV1NG visited tlie Paris Exhibition for the purpose of examining 11 machines in connexion with wood-cutting, as my duty I submit the subjoined report. I find that within the last five years certain improvements have been made, namely, in the construction of portable and locomotive machines for sawing wood in the forest, the application of the endless ribbon saw to the cutting up of round timber, and in the employment of the twisted screw-formed blades in planing, also in the better formation of tools used in planing and boring ; now I consider the improvements are few, when compared with the many that were made during the five years previous to the International Exhibition held in London, in the year 1862. The undermentioned are the names of the principal exhibitors, and claim to be placed in the following order : — Great Britain. — S. Worssam and Co., Robinson and Son, Powis, Janies, and Co., Chas. Powis and J. Green. Prussia. — Zimmermann. France. — J. Perin, F. Arbey, Mongin and Co., Sautreuil, Dupriez, E. Lucas, Baudat. Austria. — The Government and A. Ganz. America. — Armstrong, Emerson, Miller, and Witney. Now, to perform the first mechanical operation on logs or large timbers of a felled tree, by separating them into beams or deals, so as to give them a commercial shape and value — the saving machine is generally employed ; it may be classified in three distinct kinds, according to the sawing blades. First, the reciprocating one, provided with blades of a certain length, secured by their ends to a reciprocating frame. A machine of this description is exhibited by Perin, the side frames of which are exceedingly weak, having the crank and also crank- shaft, with fly-wheel, fixed on top of frame. The wood is brought to the saws by means of a rack, and held down by a pressure-frame, some ten or twelve feet long, under which the timber slides ; a machine precisely similar is shown by L. Bandat, but roughly made, being a combination of wood and iron, one great fault in machines shown both by France and America. Secondly, the endless blade, consisting of a continuous dentated ribbon, mounted on two revolving pulleys, which are covered with PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 119 common leather, and then another covering of huff leather is placed upon them to receive the ribbon saw, which, if inclined to run off, is prevented by a slight cant given to the pulleys ; a machine of this kind is exhibited by J. Perm, who was the introducer, if not the inventor of the endless-band saw; it is adapted for sawing square timber into boards or planks of any required thickness. The timber is brought up to the saw by means of a series of fluted plates, secured to a band, revolving* round two spindles, projecting through the horizontal table ; similar machines are exhibited by Chas. Powis, and also by Powis and James. In that of Ohas. Powis there is a fret-saw attached, which seems to me rather in the way, as it would have to be removed when using the band- saw on most occasions. Both these machines are commendable for good workmanship, yet I do not consider them well designed. There is also a band-saw exhibited by Dupriez which differs from the last-mentioned in this respect — the pulleys revolve in a hinge frame, so by a simple arrangement the ribbon saw can be thrown into a position to enable them to cut any bevel, the speed of the pulleys being 350 to 400 revolutions per minute. The third kind of blade employed in the cutting of wood is the circular one, consisting of a thin steel plate, toothed at its circumference, mounted on a rotating shaft. A machine of this kind, manufactured and exhibited by Bobinson and Son, termed a self-acting cross-cut saw bench, intended chiefly for cross-cutting deals, scantling, and planks to any required lengths, and squaring off the ends to the greatest nicety; the saw-spindle is fitted into a swing frame ; the saw is brought up to its work by a self-acting movement; and by another self-acting arrange- ment the saw, after completing the cut, retires without attention on the part of the workman. Now I consider in a bench of this kind, where the saw moves backwards and forwards in a slit in the table, there must of course be a great waste of time when we remember that during the time the saw is retiring, work is entirely suspended. There is one thing more that I must complain of, namely, the feed-motion is driven off a shaft quite independent of the machine, so that when the saw comes in contact with any hard substance, such as, for instance, a knot, it must of necessity decrease the speed of the saw, while the feed goes on the same as usual ; such being the case, a breakage of some kind is likely to take place. Yet I confess that in the whole of the machines exhibited by Bobinson the work is good. On a small scale E. Lucas shows a fret saw, or reciprocating blade, which, passing through a small hole made near the centre of the cast-iron hori- zontal table, is moved at the back of the framing, by a crank and connect- ing rod. One capital contrivance in this machine is, the saw can be turned completely round while in motion ; the arrangement consists of a long perpendicular rod placed at the back of the machine ; at the lower end is fixed a sheet-iron disc, about 18 in. diameter; the rod is connected to the saw by small spur-wheels, which gear into wheels similar to those on the rod, being secured to loose collars, through which the sliders work; the position of the saw is changed by placing the feet upon the disc, and thus turning it in the direction required, so that the wood that is being operated upon remains stationary. This little machine is very con- 120 artisans’ reports on the venient for inlaying, and especially in open work, the blade being easily disconnected and passed through the small hole made in the wood to be open work. A good assortment of machines is exhibited by Sautreuil, including a moulding-machine, squaring-up machine, and a rebating and grooving machine. A superior collection of wood-cutting machinery is exhibited by S. Worssam and Co., including universal moulding machine, trying-up machine, general joiner, also models for wood and stone sawing ; their universal moulding, shaping, and recessing machine is capable of appli- caton to a vast variety of purposes, and is certainly one of the most labour-saving machines ever invented, and deserves to be more ex- tensively noted and employed in our wood-working shops. It possesses one great advantage over other upright cutting machines — the work can pass under the tool, and thus it is enabled to work in the centre of a board ; among the many purposes for which it is adapted may be reckoned cutting circular or twisted mouldings of any form ; sticking circular and straight sash -bars ; moulding, rebating, and grooving straight or circular sash-frames ; also cutting a moulding round raised door-panels, and for sinking recesses of any form to a pattern. The machine consists of hollow framing, the cutter overhanging a great distance, which allows the work to be moved about freely in any direction upon the table. The top cutter-spindle works in a carriage which can be raised or lowered by a lever, the carriage being counterbalanced by a spring, which makes it sensitive and easy to work. A back slide is added, worked by a screw and hand-wheel, by which the vertical range of the cutter can be very much increased. The ends of the cutter-spindle are screwed on the outside to take a small adze block, to which moulding irons of any form can be attached, and it is bored up to receive cutters for chasing, recessing, or boring. There is also a second cutter-spindle working below the table, but can be brought above it by a hand-wheel. This cutter revolves in an opposite direction to the top one, and is useful for certain work. The general joiner is a most ingenious machine, and is capable of sawing, tonguing, rebating, tenoning, boring, moulding, cross-cutting, and squaring off; and, as an improvement on the one exhibited in the International Exhibition, they have supplied the machine with mor- tising apparatus. The machine consists chiefly in a circular saw bench, fitted with saw, driven at the average rate of 2,000 revolutions per minute. The table can be raised or lowered with the greatest ease, so as to have the saw at a proper height when cutting a tenon, or that the depth of a groove made may be of the required dimension. If a cavity is required wider than the saw, it is still cut by the same saw, made drunk for the purpose. The table carries a parallel fence, which, by a proper inclina- tion, is enabled to guide at any angle. The wood is cramped on a sliding saddle, for moulding or rebating. The saw is substituted by a cutter -head fitted with special irons, and the end of the spindle is bored to receive an auger or mortise chisel exactly similar. Machines are shown by Charles Powis and also Sketchley ; but for finish and design I should prefer the one exhibited by Worssam PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 121 and Co., for not only is it commendable for good construction, but it is to be praised for excellent workmanship. Several well-made machines are exhibited by Zimmermann, including a trying-up machine, which resembles one constructed by S. Worssam and Co. These machines are made for planing and trying up scantling of hard or soft wood; and, however warped or twisted the wood may be, it leaves or should leave the machine true and ready for gluing. The cutters are secured to wrought-iron adze blocks, and revolve at a very high speed; and cutters of any shape may be fixed to them, so as to cut a moulding bead or rebate upon the timber at the same time as it is being planed. The table is entirely of cast-iron, planed all over, and in that of Worssam’ s is fitted, at intervals of 4 ft., with improved screw-cramps, with gun metal nuts and wrought-iron fangs, by which the timber is securely fixed. Now in that of Zimmermann, the wood is driven on to a number of short spikes, and further held down by means of a moveable cramp at each end. Now this method of holding the wood is defective, and must have the tendency to spring the wood, consequently the work cannot leave the machine true, as in the case of Worssam’s, where the wood is held by the sides. The tables are worked by a self-acting feed motion, giving them a forward speed equal to 12 ft. per minute, and taking them back much faster. Now, to form a moulding on the edge of a board, the machine exhi- bited by Robinson and Son will do the work with great convenience. It is remarkable for several good contrivances. The feed-motion, being obtained by a worm and wheel, is simple and compact. The four sides of the moulded piece are finished at a time, being operated upon by four revolving cutter-heads. The cutter-block spindle and frame in which it works is made to cant, so that when cutting a moulding much deeper on one side the cutter need not have such a great difference in size between the two ends. Now, I do not consider that there is any advantage gained in being able to slant the upper cutter -spindle ; for this reason — they are obliged to use a number of independent cutters to form one moulding, consequently it must take a long time in setting the cutters. Now, in machines such as Zimmermann’s, in which the ordinary mould- ing irons are used, namely, two instead of one, the work leaves the machine much cleaner, for this reason — the cutters pass over the work as often again. Now, as regards workmanship, this machine is every- thing that could be desired. Arbey and Oo. also exhibit a trying-up machine, which differs from S. Worssam’s and also Zimmermann’s, in the particular form of cutter used. Instead of the plain flat knife, they have introduced the twisted, screw-formed blade or cutter ; and as there is a difficulty in keeping this cutter to the proper form for planing a flat surface, a self-acting grind- stone is attached to the machine. The stone is carried by a frame which travels across the machine parallel to the axis of the cutter-block, which is disconnected from the driving-pulley for this purpose. On the lower part of the frame, and under the grindstone, is a rest, against which the cutter-block is pressed by a weight attached to a pulley on the spindle. The grindstone is moved across the machine by means of a screw, while 122 artisans’ reports on the the cutter, on account of its form, is caused to revolve by the pressure of tlie rest. In this manner the true spiral form is given to the edge ; the work is cramped to the table, which travels at the rate of twelve feet per minute, under the cutter. For planing thin boards the table can be fastened, and the feed is then given by a roller. Now, in Worssam’s machine, from the peculiar construction of the cutter-block, they are able to use the plain flat knife, instead of the twisted screw-formed blade, which gives so much trouble in getting the proper form to do the work and in sharpening them afterwards. The plain flat knife requires no skill in making, and is easily ground and kept in order, and, when fastened to a block, presents the cutting edge at a greater angle than that of the twisted knife, and consequently does the work much cleaner. One of the most frequent operations on timber, when it is required to connect several pieces together in a solid and compact manner, consists in cutting a rectangular cavity or mortise, into which a corresponding projecting piece, or tenon, might be introduced. The mortising machine is suitable for this purpose, being capable of working on hard or soft wood, and may be used for boring iron. Ohas. Powis and J. Green exhibit machines of this kind, but Green’s machine differs from many others in having a canting table, but without boring apparatus. The chisels are brought down by means of a lever, until the proper depth is reached and the required distance traversed. The chisel can be turned round and the cutting repeated in the opposite direction. These machines are sought after by small wood-workers, and are considered favourites on account of their cheapness and manifold usefulness. A combined moulding and planing machine, produced by Powis and James, is capable of forming mouldings nine inches wide by four inches thick ; it is fitted with four revolving cutter-heads, working outside the frame, and has also patent variable feed gear, which enables the workman to regulate the feed in inches to the greatest nicety without stopping the machine. The feed rollers are worked by a friction -pulley, which presses against the face of a revolving disc. After carefully examining this machine, I find that it is too narrow ; and although the framing is cast in one piece, which gives strength and solidity to the machine, yet I think it would be much better if the distances between the bearings were greater, so as to prevent vibration, which would be likely to take place in a machine of this kind. There are four exhibitors of dovetailing machines, namely, the Austrian Government, A. Ganz, J. Zimmermann, and Armstrong. Those shown by the first three are somewhat alike, having revolving cutter-heads. One great fault in them is, that there is no means adopted for expanding the tools as they wear ; and I consider them fit only for rough work, such as packing cases, &c. The machine constructed by Armstrong is original. It consists of two revolving discs, with teeth upon their inner faces, working upon studs fixed at a certain angle, so that one disc gears i nto the other. Within two inches of the circumference of each disc is cut a worm, of inch pitch, on the face of which is bolted segments of a saw, each segment being placed further from the disc than the one that precedes it ; PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 123 the last two or three segments are bent over, those on one disc to the right, and those on the other to the left, so that as the discs revolve, one saw cuts the dovetail on one side the proper length and one-half the width, and the other in like manner completes the dovetail. The wood is cramped to a table moved forward by means of screws of inch pitch, corresponding with the pitch of the saw. This machine will no doubt prove one of the most useful machines yet invented, and may be considered far superior to any other dovetailing machine in the building. In the American department there are three machines exhibited by Witney, for barrel-making. The first consists of a circular saw, the inner side of which is of a convex form ; on the same side, close to the saw, is fastened on a spindle a cutter, the object of which is, that after the saw has cut the ends to the proper diameter, the edges are brought into contact with this cutter, which chamfers them ready for stave ends. Another machine prepares the staves, cutting them off to a certain length, and at the same time cuts a groove in each end, being brought up to the saw by an endless chain. The third niachine consists of a small planing machine, which is used in planing the edges of staves, a number of them being bolted or cramped together in a frame, and planed simultaneously ; this frame traverses a hollow bed. The whole of these machines are roughly made, and will do only for the construction of barrels of one size. A capital plan of inserting teeth in circular and other saws, is the form of tooth adopted and exhibited by J. Emerson, which is of an oblong shape, having a V groove filed on the edge of the tooth, and a corres- ponding A groove is filed in the saw ; and the teeth are further secured by means of a rivet, one-half of which is in the saw, and the other half in the tooth. Miller’s plan is somewhat similar, the only difference being in the form of tooth, that of Miller’s being round instead of oblong. The idea, I learn, is not new, but that it w T as known in America some thirty years ago, and found not to answer. Now, in concluding my report, I should be sorry to allow the present opportunity to pass without offering my sincere thanks to the Society of Arts for their kindness, and also to the officials acting under them at the Paris Exhibition, who rendered every assistance in their power to make my visit one of pleasure and profit. WOOD-CUTTING MACHINERY. By THOMAS J. WILKIE, 1 1HE subject upon which it is my duty to report is one of the greatest importance to the world at large, as wood is a material so extensively used in the arts, that progress towards the perfection of the machinery for working it is decidedly necessary ; and it is only at Exhibitions such as this that one can form a just estimate of what improvements have taken place, and what is still necessary to the perfection of such ma- chinery. Let us take a glance at what has taken place within the last few years. At the former Exhibition of Paris, 12 years ago, it appears there were but few machines of the above class, and those exhibited were of a very imperfect type. Mow, at the International Exhibition in London, in 1862, there was no lack of machinery for wood-working, and great improvements appear to have rapidly taken place ; in fact the im- provement in this branch was perhaps more remarkable than in almost any other branch of mechanical engineering. Now, improvements from 1862 to 1867 do not seem to have progressed at the same rate as from 1855 to 1862. I do not mean to say that improvements have not taken place ; on the contrary, there is a great improvement in many classes of ma- chines, — perhaps most noticeable in compound machines, or machines for performing various operations. This apparent slower rate of im- provement may perhaps be partially accounted for in this, that the nearer any machine approaches to perfection, the less observable will be any minor improvement in construction. I have been writing about improvement, but that word is scarcely applicable to all nations who exhibit this class of machinery ; perhaps the only two which really deserve it are Great Britain and Prussia. I do not wish to put France or America in the back-ground, or say that they had no improvements ; as for America, a certain Mr. Armstrong, of New York, exhibits a dovetailing machine, the mechanical contrivance of which is, perhaps, the most novel invention in this class in the Exhibition. Of this I will report more fully hereafter. But taking the generality of French and American productions, they are constructions of wood and metal combined, which may do very well for a time, but constant wear and contact with the atmosphere must necessarily cause the woodwork of the ma- chine to become unstable, and thereby render the machine useless ; and although they may be able to make these machines of combined wood PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 125 and metal far cheaper than any machine made solely of metal, they do not last one-sixth of the time, nor is the work turned out at all satisfactory, especially in machines the cutting-tool, or, in fact, any part of which revolves or moves at a high velocity, which is the case with most wood-cutting machines ; and in these days of science it is strange that Frenchmen and Americans cannot see the evil of intro- ducing wood in the construction of such a class of machinery as this, where the utmost rigidity of parts is necessary to produce anything like satisfactory results. Let us look now in what way more particularly the improvements have been made. The evident tendency of machinery, when improved in the right direction, is to become more and more simple in its arrange- ment ; and I think if we look more particularly at the two nations I have mentioned, viz., Great Britain and Prussia, we shall find that this has been carried out of late, for there appears to be a greater absence of complex mechanical arrangements than heretofore ; also that they have become every day more exact in their mechanical contrivances. Now I will put in a good word for France. Some of her makers of saw- mill machinery have now commenced the construction of locomotive and portable machinery for sawing wood in the forest, by the ap- plication of the endless, band-saw to the cutting up of round timber, which seems particularly adapted for that purpose, as far as por- tability is concerned, as the frame -work of a band-saw does not re- quire to be so heavy as that of a reciprocating vertical saw-frame, whose frame-work must necessarily be heavy, to resist the tremendous strains to which it is subject when running at a high velocity. They have also begun to employ helicoidal blades for planing wood. The work done by these cutters is good ; but that is counterbalanced by the time re- quired to sharpen them, and, after all, the work is not so smooth as that done by a planing machine with stationary knives. The tools for boring and planing have been modified of late, and a greater rapidity of rotation given to many, causing them to give decidedly better results. These are the principal improvements which have taken place generally in wood-cutting machinery. We will now notice what has taken place as regards the various classes of wood-cutting machines respectively. Sawing Machines. To perform the first mechanical operation, and give a commercial shape and value to logs or large timbers, by separating them into beams or deals, the sawing machine driven by power is ordinarily employed. It may be classified in three distinct kinds, according to the form of saw- ing blade : 1st, The reciprocating one, provided with blades of a certain length, fixed by their ends to a reciprocating frame. 2nd, The endless one, consisting of a continuous dentated ribbon, mounted on two rotating pullies. 3rd, The circular one, consisting of a thin steel plate, toothed on its circumference, and mounted on a rotating shaft. There is a fine saw of this class exhibited by Worssam and Co., intended for one of their large rack saw^benches. There is also a large circular saw, stated by the maker to be the largest ever constructed, being 88 in. in diameter, after Emerson’s patent (America), each tooth being capable of removal — 126 artisans’ reports on the a very good arrangement for large saws ; as in tlie case of breakage of any one tootli in an ordinary saw all the rest would require to be cut down to suit the broken one ; but with this saw a new one might be inserted. As regards timber frames, there seemed a great absence of these machines at the Exhibition, or at least of noteworthy ones. There was one exhibited by a French firm (Sautreuil and Co.), the frame -work of which did not seem sufficiently strong for the size of work it was intended to do ; but it was supplied with two well-designed timber carriages, and the workmanship was better than the generality of French machines of this class. With this class ought to be mentioned the single reciprocating saw (commonly called the fret-saw), being a very narrow saw, intended to cut fine inner ornamental work. Robinson and Co. exhibited a well-designed little machine of this class, commended for good workmanship. E. Lucas, of France, shows a fret-saw, fitted with an arrangement for turning the saw round by means of a disc actuated by the workman’s foot, thus avoiding the necessity of turning the wood so rfiuch. This is the only commendable point in the machine. The endless band-saw is well represented, almost every nation showing some of this class of machinery. Powis, James, and Co. exhibit several well-constructed machines of this class ; but they do not seem to have studied beauty of design at all for the frame-work. They also show a combined band-saw and fret-saw machine, a very convenient arrangement for small establishments where space is an object ; but it has this drawback, that the band-saw cannot be used at the same time as the fret-saw. It is needless to mention other band-saw machines, for they are all constructed upon one principle ; but English machines have decidedly the advantage over other countries as regards 'workmanship and design. J. Cail, a French exhibitor, shows'a very well -arranged portable band- saw machine for cutting round timber, consisting of two band-saws ar- ranged vertically, one on each side of the timber to be cut, which is fed by means of a rack and pinion wrought by self-acting ratchet-wheels. Each saw is fitted with adjustment for cutting the logs the required thickness. The framing of the machine consists of a good piece of wrought-iron girder work, well-adapted for locomotion, as it is far stronger in propor- tion to its weight than cast-iron. The machine is constructed to work on the wheels by which it is conveyed from one place to another, so that it can be set to work as soon as it has arrived at the place of action, by passing a strap from a portable engine, or other motive power, round the driving pulley of the machine. The design of the machine is good. Robinson and Co. show a very good plain saw-bench, workmanship good, and the framing all in one casting, well-proportioned ; also by the same makers, a cross-cutting saw-bench, the saw arranged in a swing carriage self-acting, having a quick return motion, and supplied with means for varying the stroke ; altogether a well-constructed machine ; but it has this drawback — the self-acting feed is driven from an inde- pendent shaft, not from the saw spindle, therefore if, in cutting a hard log of timber, the saw should by any means slacken speed, the feed will PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 127 continue at its usual rate, and liras of necessity some part of tlie macliine will most likely be fractured. Charles Powis exhibits a self-acting saw-bench, with rope feed sup- plied with canting -fence, pressure-roller, 10 „ ,, ... 14 )> 77 130 }) 10 „ Silk Bands 18 >7 77 160 )> 10 „ Silk Clunys 20 77 77 130 }> 9 „ 21 77 77 160 }} 10 „ ,, ... 24 77 77 140 )) 10 „ Silk Laces 21| 77 77 156 » 10 „ Silk Bands, back gimps 28 77 77 156 }} 8 „ 77 ' 77 23 77 77 150 }> 8 „ Silk Edgings 20 77 77 112 }} 7 „ ?? • • • 14 77 77 130 77 9 „ Silk Bands 22 77 77 140 77 8 „ • • • 22 77 77 114 77 8 „ Black Silk Laces, back gimps 24 77 77 158 77 8 „ Silk Bands 22 77 77 148 77 10 „ ,, ... 23| 77 77 126 77 8 „ Narrow Bands . 18 77 77 130 77 10 „ Silk Bands 21 77 77 132 77 8 „ Colours 24 77 77 The edgings, bands, or breadths, vary from half an inch up to three inches, a few as high as six inches. The number of bars worked is much smaller in quantity generally than in England, although the new machines we saw have been built to work a much larger number than they do at present. We found there were other machines worked in various parts of Calais and St. Pierre, from 3 to 6 sous per rack less than those just named. Alterations are paid from 12fr. to 25fr. per week; warpers receive from 25fr. to 3Qfr. per week ; card punchers, 30fr. per week ; boy readers for punchers, 12fr. per week ; brass-bobbin winders, by forty or sixty at once, from 18fr. to 25fr. per week ; boy back-winders from 8fr. to 12fr. per week ; one-at-once winders from llfr. to 18fr. per week; lace-menders, lOfr. to 15fr. per week; clippers and scollopers, 12fr. to 14fr. per week; carders, 14fr. to 22fr. per week; jennyers from 12fr. to 18fr. per week ; lace dressers, 18fr. to 25fr. per week ; silk and cotton dressing from 8 sous to 10 sous per metre ; cotton blacking, 16 sous the kilogramme ; dyeing from 3fr. to 5fr. the kilogramme. Standings for machines driven by steam power, generally 600fr. per year ; coal from 21Mr. to 24£fr. the French ton ; gas, 1 sou per hour, if no meter is used, 7fr. per month for one light for a stated number of hours ; if used by measure, 8 sous per metre. The prices for different qualities of silk are about the same in France as in England. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 147 Education. As a means of artistic education, the perfect freedom of access to the picture galleries appears to be taken great advantage of, and fully appreciated by the people ; as upon our visit to the Louvre, in one gallery alone, we witnessed fifteen persons, old and young, of both sexes, copying the paintings of the great masters. The beautiful gardens are another source of attraction and instruction to the people. The intimate and social freedom we noticed existing between the employer and em- ployed, is another great source of improvement to the workpeople. The closer and more constantly the minds of a people can be brought into con- tact with a higher standard than their own particular class furnishes, must prove a powerful means in their elevation, in all matters of taste, and a great lever in a nation’s progress. We earnestly desire to call your attention to the following facts and figures, taken from the official catalogue of the present Exhibition, showing the great activity and interest the government and private indi- viduals are manifesting in the intellectual development of the nation : — - For the first time, at the International Exhibition of London, in 1862, a particular class was created to receive the school requisites, works, and materials, but this was limited to infant schools and special schools for drawing. The French Exhibition of 1867, however, embraces, on a much more comprehensive scale, all kinds of education — that of adults as well as of children, their professional as well as technical education ; and, acting up to its universal character, presents for examination the various evidences of the intellectual progress of the country. Therefore, whereas the Exhibition of London only numbered 180 exhibitors in this class, that of Paris possesses as many as 500 exhibitors, which, however, is less than half the number who applied to the Imperial Commission for admission. The hygienic condition of school buildings, the judicious disposition of the interior, the arrangement and installation of the whole, are subjects of vital importance in educational matters. These require- ments are now better understood, and more ably carried into effect. The new schools are better distributed, besides affording the scholars a more ample supply of air, light, and space. A large number of old buildings have been greatly improved in this respect, and arranged in accordance with this principle. The impetus has been given, and this transformation will gradually be extended to the smallest and most insignificant villages. The institution of creches (or infant asylums), which has been tried for some time, is now regularly organised, and is showing a progressive development. It is the same with the Salles d’Asile (infant schools). France numbers 3,572 public infant schools; 264 were founded between 1863 and 1865 ; and during the same period the inmates of these schools were augmented by 34,912 children. In the rapidly-increasing training schools for the education of teachers, school mistresses are taught the use of those gymnastic exercises and games which make these dwelling-places of youth more gay and wholesome to the little inmates. The progress in the management of the elementary schools is still more marked in every way. From 1863 to 1865, the number of com- 148 artisans’ reports on the mnnes possessing no scliools was reduced from 818 to 694 ; 938 new schools have been founded, and the scholars, which now number 4,436,470, have been augmented by 100,102 children. The commercial or free schools for girls and hoys amounted in 1865 to 69,699. The instruction has not remained stationary, having considerably ex- tended, inasmuch as different branches of study which were previously optional, have now become obligatory ; it is also much improved by a more intelligent direction ; agriculture and horticulture are being taught with eminently satisfactory results ; in a word, the general improving tendency is to make primary instruction a broad solid basis, on which may rest the education of adults — special, secondary, and technical — in accordance with the mental capability and requirements and future career of the student. The position of the instructors is much improved ; they are better re- munerated for their services ; their interests are protected ; elevated in the eyes of the population by public recognition of their services, and allowed to participate in honorary distinctions. They are thus more than ever encouraged to devote themselves to the diffusion of public instruction, which is the special requirement of the times and the sincere wish of the French population. The improvements in the methods and plans of instruction are mani- fest ever since the English Exhibition of 1862. The elementary books and treatises for the teaching of reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, history, geography, and drawing, have gained much in simplicity and clearness ; they are more practical ; they are more im- pressed with the end they have in view, while they spare the child both time and trouble. Several societies have organized in various places, especially on the behalf of town workmen, means for scientific instruction. The Polytechnic Association, which dates from 1830, numbers now twenty-two different sections in Paris and its environs, while it has founded and endowed a much larger number in various departments ; showing that individual enterprise has been in nowise idle. However, it was only an energetic will appealing from high quarters, such as that of the Minister of Public Instruction, to the general intelli- gence of the country, that could, in the brief period of two years, deter- mine this and inaugurate such a vast educational movement, which, from the 1st January, 1864, to the 15th of December, 1866, augmented the number of adult educational institutions from 5,623 to 28,546, and thereby created a spontaneous accession of 600,000 voluntary pupils. The diffusion of education cannot be carried out without the diffusion of books : they are the auxiliaries of education, and are, moreover, them- selves teachers. The establishment of libraries in all the communes of France, lending or hiring out books, placing them within the reach of all, was the necessary object of the propagation of education. Set on foot by the Minister of Instruction, established in the commer- cial schools, kept by the schoolmaster, the scholars’ libraries were the first established. There are at present 8.000 libraries, which lend 500,000 books per annum. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 149 Incomplete as tins enumeration is, some idea can be formed from it of the vast system of public instruction in France. Habits of Life. The habits of the French people is a subject we cannot report upon in so satisfactory a manner as we could have wished : the shortness of our stay in France prevents us from speaking only upon slight personal experience ; but, from inquiries there, and from persons who have lived amongst them, we learn they are a very sober and economical people, displaying great ingenuity in adapting themselves to the circumstances by which they may be surrounded, their great aim appearing to be to live within their means. A great many natural products, such as vege- tables and fruits, form the principal food of a vast number of the population. France is the most favoured country for the growth of the delicious and nutritious mushroom, which forms another great article of food. The labouring and industrial classes are not wanting in ability to turn the slightest resources to the best account. Amusements. The amusements of the French people generally are of a rational kind, whilst pleasing to the eye, calculated to improve the mind; music and dancing, also promenading the beautiful gardens, being great sources of enjoyment to the people. We are sorry that the lace-makers of St. Pierre les Calais are debarred, by the excessive and untimely hours they work, from par- taking of those exhilarating and healthy pleasures so freely partaken of and enjoyed by the other portion of the population. Trade Associations. On our arrival in Calais, a little commotion was caused by our countrymen resident there assembling to receive us ; an exaggerated account of which, and a misapprehension of our mission, reached the Commissary of Police, who threatened to seize upon the secretary and treasurer should they again attempt to assemble, or collect money for the purpose of carrying on a society which had been some months in existence amongst the lace -makers. The secretary and treasurer at once waited upon the maire to present a copy of the laws and explain the constitution of the society, composed as it was of French and English. The maire stated there was nothing objectionable in the laws, and granted permission for them to continue, intimating they must not assemble in greater numbers than 20, at present ; but, in all probability, they would be allowed greater liberty in that and every other respect in or about November. The laws of the French Lace-Makers’ Society are the same that are in existence amongst the lace -makers of Nottingham, Belgium. The various laces exhibited by the Belgians are quite equal to the French in design, the point d’Alencon and Valenciennes being very beautiful specimens of that class of goods ; the black silks have the same bright and superior quality that distinguishes the French. 150 artisans’ reports on the Prussia. We saw nothing in this department calling for any particular notice or comment. Switzerland. Principally embroidery, the figuring laid on plain net. We par- ticularly admired one design, a suspended basket of flowers, for its beautiful and natural arrangement. Spain. We did not see anything requiring comment. Great Britain. The hand-made laces, consisting chiefly of collars, cuffs, toilet covers, &c., very good in design. Ireland sends some very neat and pretty specimens of tatting and point laces. The majority of English machine-made laces exhibited are of a different character to those produced and shown by Calais and St. Pierre, the principal competitors of England. A similar class of goods to the black laces and blondes exhibited by Calais, were manufactured in Not- tingham extensively up to 1857-8, Spanish laces replacing them in a great measure ; two beautiful designs in this class of goods, in shawls, being shown in the present Exposition, also a few good imitation Pusher silk shawls. The Purl goods likewise exhibited, in imitation of the hand-made laces of France, were pretty generally made in a few of the principal establishments two and three years ago ; there is more of novelty than taste in design in this class. The Cluny’s, made at the present time, generally pretty good ; in one instance displaying great taste in arrange- ment of medallions in the form of flounces, shawls, &c. In the silk and cotton edgings, some degree of novelty is produced in pile nets, Valenciennes and linen combined. The lace curtains, as a class, are of a very high character, there being some very chaste and beautiful in design; the majority are of excellent quality. There are a few very fine samples of plain nets and quillings shown, one in particular, manufactured from No. 600 cotton. The following is a list of prices paid per ‘ rack’ for silk : — Width. Guage. Class of Goods. s. d. 185 inch 10-point Centre Gimps . . 1 2* per rack. 145 „ Ql ? } • • . 1 3* }> 137 „ 10 „ Best Common Laces . . 1 1 }} 136 „ 10 „ Common Laces . . 1 Oi }> 130 „ 0 „ Spanish Shawls . . 1 4 >} 128 „ » „ ,, . 1 4 }} 144 „ 9 , • • . 1 6 }j 144 „ 10 „ ,, ‘ * . 1 7 }} 128 „ 10 „ Spanish Laces . . 1 2 144 „ )) » * 1 4 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 151 Width. G-uago. Class of Goods. s. d. 128 inch 10-point Baguley’s , 1 0 per rack. 128 „ 9 „ jj • • . 0 10* „ 128 „ 10 „ Maltese • 0 11 144 „ 8 „ Imitation Pusher . 0 11 128 „ 10 „ . 10 144 „ 9 „ )) • • .lo 144 „ ^ » Cluny .10 „ 180 „ 10 „ • • .14,, COTTON GOODS. 103 „ 9 „ Cluny . 1 61 „ 14G „ 10 „ • • . 0 10 146 „ ^ » )) • • .10 128 „ 9 „ Baguley’s .07 „ 128 „ 10 „ >> . 0 7! „ The silk centre gimps, so termed from single weaving threads being worked in between the warp ; the price for this class of goods per quarter (9-incli) 10-point guage (20 points to the inch) is three farthings and one -eighth of a penny. The best silk laces, made with back and front gimps, a light class of goods, three-farthings and one-sixteenth of a penny per quarter for 10 points ; Spanish laces one-penny per quarter, 10-points, two-pence extra for changing cards to make complete shawls ; this class of goods being very heavy, the weaving or gimp threads are worked one in the back and the other in front of the warp. The three last-named classes of goods, when worked with 70 top-bars, with any number of bottom- bars, are paid one-thirty-second part of a penny per quarter for every additional 10 bars over 70. Silk Cluny’s and Baguley’s three- farthings and one-sixteenth of a penny per quarter for 10-points, one-sixteenth of a penny per quarter for every additional 30 bars above 70. Cotton Baguley’s one-halfpenny per quarter for 10- points. Cotton Cluny’s one-halfpenny and one-sixteenth of a penny per quarter for 10-points ; one -sixteenth of a penny per quarter for every additional 30 bars above 40 ; finer guages count to the width of the machine ; coarser guages than 10-points are paid proportionally less per rack. The workmen are paid for alterations generally in the following manner — machines, working with a large number of bars, 3s. 4d. per day ; working a small number of bars, 2s. 6d. Warpers, so termed from being employed to wind or warp upon beams the re- quired number of threads the machine has to work, average about 22s. per week; card punchers range from 16s. to 2os. Boys — one-at-once- winders, 10s. to 12s.; threaders, 6s. to 7s. Females — wood bobbin- winders average 8s.; brass bobbin -winders, 11s.; lace-menders average 8s. to 9s.; carders, 9s. to 11s.; jennyers, 9s. to 10s.; clippers and scollopers, 6s. to 8s.; drawers, 6s. to 8s.; applicators, 10s. to 12s.; joiners, 9s. to 11s.; dressers, 8s. to 10s. Silk dyeing, 8d. to Is. per pound ; cotton dyeing, 3d. to 9d., according to quality and colour required; silk lace dyeing, 7d. to lOd. ; cotton lace, 21d. to 5d. Silk lace dressing 4d. per yard, 72 in. wide; Id. per 152 artisans’ reports on the yard extra for every additional 9 in. in width ; cotton lace dressing Id. per yard, 72 in. wide, one farthing extra per yard for every additional 9 in. width. Cost op Materials. Silks, \\ singles. deniers (trade mark, F.O.Q.V. or G.B D.F.A.), 11s. Italian !o deniers, best white cerennes, Cordonnet Floss 20 by 25 Best spun Ordinary quality 3 drs. Tsatlee lace cords 3 drs. Bengal ,, 1-g to 2 drs. „ singles, 49s. to 52 s. 32s. 20s. 17s. or 18s. 36s. China 33s. 6 cl. 3Gs. 6 cl. Machine standings by steam power, from £10 to £13 each per year. Coals, per ton, from 6s. to 7s. Gas, if the consumption be under 50,000 cubic ft. per quarter year, 3s. per 1,000 ft.; a reduction of one penny for every additional 50,000 ft. consumed. There are 4,300 lace machines in England, 3,000 of which are in Nottingham and neighbourhood ; about one-half of these are fancy Levers’ machines, standing in factories worked by steam power, running from four o’clock in the morning until twelve o’clock at night, through the week, except Saturday, when the establishments close at six o’clock in the evening. There are two workmen at each machine, taking alternate “ shifts,” one commencing at 4 a.m. and working until 9 a m., the other coming on at 9 a.m. and working until 1 p.m.; the man who left off at 9 a.m. returns at 1 p.m. and remains until 6 p.m.; the man who ceased work at 1 p.m. resumes work at 6 p.m. and continues until 12 at midnight. The general custom between employer and employed is to give and take one week’s notice. The education, habits of life, amusements, and trade associations, of the working-classes of England, are subjects so well and generally understood, that we deem it quite unnecessary to enter upon those matters, further than to express our sincere hope, that the time is not far distant when some national system of compulsory education will be brought into existence, to lessen the ignorance amongst us, and place our country on an equality of intelligence with other nations. In reviewing the notes taken upon the lace -goods exhibited, we are unanimous in opinion that French laces display a decided superiority in design and quality of material over the English goods. We believe the drier and clearer atmosphere of Paris, where the manufacturers of Calais send a large quantity of their silk to be dyed and stained, is one great cause of the brightness of the French lace. From information we gained, we find great care is bestowed in the dyeing and staining, to prevent, as far as possible, breaking the strands of the silk. In reference to the statement we obtained from Calais and St. Pierre of the prices paid per rack, they will be found, when compared, fully equal to the English PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 153 prices paid for similar classes of goods. The number of hours worked by the lace-makers of Calais and St. Pierre renders it impossible for them to be placed upon equally advantageous terms with the other portion of the population for mental, moral, and social improvement. The lace- makers of Nottingham are much better situated in that respect, and the Factory Act, providing for the regulation of the hours the children work, stipulating for their education, may be made the means of furthering the development of the lace manufacture in all its branches. In concluding this report, we beg to express to the Society of Arts our sincere thanks for their courtesy and the obligation we are under for the opportunity accorded to us for visiting the Paris Exhibition ; we also desire to tender, through your honourable Society, to Mons. Haussoullier, in particular, and the British Commissioners in general, our feelings of gratitude for their great kindness and attention, and the facilities afforded us in furtherance of our inquires. The genuine interest, and personal kindness, rendered with the most perfect frankness, bespeaking true politeness, we shall ever remember with the liveliest emotions of esteem and satisfaction in connection with our visiting several French lace manu- facturing establishments in Calais and St. Pierre. HOSIERY. By GEORGE KENDALL and GEORGE CATJNT, NOTTINGHAM. W E, being artisans of the hosiery trade of Nottingham, having visited the Exposition of Paris, desire to give you an account of our mis- sion. With respect to the machinery in the Exposition for the making of hosiery goods, both rotary and circular, there was little that was new to us, with the exception of some improvement in the racks of the cleared carriers, which were good, and well-adapted for the self-acting narrowing- machine. The slides which support the needles, whilst the jacks are being drawn, prevent anything like unevenness on the face of the work. The striping tackle was also very superior. These improvements were on rotary frames, exhibited by Mr. Tailbouis, of St. Just, and worked well. All other parts of these machines appeared to us to be of English design, and are being constructed in France by English and French workmen, or under the superintendence of Nottingham and Leicester machinists. This is the case at St Just, and also at Troyes. We found at Troyes 223 rotary frames at work, and all making cleared selvaged hose and half-hose, all round feet, with the seam under the foot, with French nar- rowed toes. As far as we could learn these men get the best wages of any class of framework-knitters in France, but not so much as the Eng- lish workmen, as in France one man manages only one frame, and in many cases he has a boy to help him ; whereas in England a man and a boy will superintend three frames, therefore the English workmen earn better wages. With respect to the circular frames, they are the same that are in general use in Nottingham and Leicester, with the exception of being more fully developed in France in the art of tucking and making fancy goods, which was in full practice in the Exposition and at St. Just, and likewise at Troyes, which is considered the Nottingham of France. The number of these frames we could not ascertain ; but there are many thousands in and around Troyes alone, and the two first circular frames that were made in Troyes, one was made by a Monsieur Gilet, the other by Monsieur Jacquan, and both made in one year — 1824 : and now they can hardly be counted, there are so many of all sorts and sizes, plain, ribbed, and tucked. The first rotary-frames that were got to work in Troyes were about eleven years ago, and they were made in Nottingham, by Mr. Moses PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 155 Mellows, and one was set up and put to work in Paris by two workmen from Nottingham, named Gent and Whittaker, for one Madame Courtroise, who lived at Troyes at the time ; and the same two workmen went for- ward to Troyes and set the other two up, and put them to work for a Monsieur Pain, a hanker ; and the next year Monsieur Poron bought a twelve-at-once rib-top frame of Messrs. Hine and Mundella ; and the same year Monsieur Poron went over to Nottingham and bought a self-acting narrowing rotary frame of Mr. Luke Barton, who lived then at Hyson - green, near Nottingham. A workman named John Walker went to Troyes with the frame, and set it up and worked it for a time. We will next bring to your notice two large circular frames we saw in the Exposition, which had the electric wire applied to them, which on the least mishap in the work taking place the battery is set in motion, which causes the machine to stand still, and a little bell to ring to let the workmen know that something is wrong, and demand his atten- tion ; this we think is very good, and if put in general practice would be equally beneficial to both workman and employer ; it would save the one his time, and the other his capital in the repairing of his machinery, and would prevent much waste. The above, we understood, was patented by 0. A. Radiquet, Rue de la Grande Chaumiere, Paris. There is also a frame in the Exposition on quite a new principle, the only one at work of the kind, belonging to Monsieur Berthelot, of Troyes, and built by the workman Gent, from Nottingham. We are told it was patented both in France and England; it works on the prin- ciple of both rotary and circular ; some of its motions are very good, but we think it is liable to many stoppages, but still well worthy of notice, and could be further greatly improved, as we were informed by the builder. There were several other small knitting-machines of French in- vention, both plain and ribbed, but not worthy of special notice. There was a small flat frame, of American construction, worked by latch needles, which made a round hose complete, finished and narrowed off at the toe to one jack. After examining the machinery in all its details, we next turned our attention to the different cases of goods exhibited by the manufacturers of France. We found upwards of forty different exhibitors ; the articles exhibited being chiefly made of cotton and wool ; silk, flax, and cashmere are also used, though to a less extent ; all of which we under- stood were carded, combed, and spun in France. The greatest number of machines for making hosiery are worked by the hand, though there are a considerable number of rotary and circular machines in factories worked by power, and these latter are decidedly on the increase. The narrow, or hand frames, are mostly employed by the workmen at their own homes, and these men earn from 20 to 30 per cent, less wages than the men employed in factories. In most of the cases for exhibition there were good articles of both hand and steam-power manufacture ; nearly all the hose, half-liose, and socks are round-feet, or the seam under the foot, which is not the case in England, as they are nearly all split feet, or the seam down each side of the foot. The French material is generally good, being from two to five threads doubled together. 156 artisans’ reports on the which must improve the stocking or any other article ; and the narrow- ing of the toe, French fashion, gives the stocking a more sightly appearance than the English system of narrowing ; also, the stripes and embroidery are done in excellent taste, and produce a good effect. The varieties of goods were numerous ; they consisted of all kinds of stockings, socks, and half-hose, striped, plain, ribbed, and tucked; pan- taloons, drawers and trowsers, cuffs, mitts, caps, comforters, and neck- ties ; checked hose, straight-down stripes, tartan plaid patterns in several colours ; silk stockings, embroidered with flowers and insects, all of which looked beautiful, and, on the whole, one of the best displays of hosiery manufacture ever seen. Lace ankle hose, of the good old English patterns, the old steeple shammy shape ; very fine thread stockings, both plain and openwork ; men’s, women’s, and children’s jackets, of all kinds and qualities ; all sorts of framework gloves, in every size and quality ; children’s hoods and shoes made by the stocking frame ; ladies’ vests, and whole suits in one garment, made by the frame from neck to toe, with toes worked the same as fingers to gloves ; side patterns of fancy hose, in both silk and thread, looked well ; children’s lace ankle socks, some very light and cheap goods made from the circular frames, cut up, and sewn upon the seaming machine ; ladies’ petticoats, open-worked borders, tucked to the hip, plain to the waistband. Messrs. Tailbouis (St. Just), Tribout (Paris), Sculport (Paris), Cliarii- baud (Paris), Lauret Brothers, Gruivet, Herault, Poron Freres, and Berthelot, of Troyes, were, in our opinion, the best exhibitors of goods in the French department. The Troyes Company’s case was well worthy of notice. The Belgian and Saxony cases were much like the French, and it would require an expert judge to tell the difference between the samples of work. As far as we could ascertain, the women take a great part in the manufacturing of hosiery, as in many cases they actually work or over- look the machinery ; and a good per-centage of women are occupied in sewing the seams, embroidering the different fancy goods, crocheting, and getting up the various articles for sale. We did not observe any particular amount of infant labour in any of the factories we visited, none under 14 or 16 years of age ; and there seemed a disposition amongst the heads of families to send their children to school till they arrive at a proper age to perform labour. They com- plained sorely of the long vacation in the summer time from school, namely, two months’ holiday. Indeed, we have reason to think that the education of the rising generation is much better looked after in France than it is in our own country. The greater part of the manufacturers of France have depots in Paris, which constitute the principal market for French hosiery. Troyes is the chief manufacturing centre, and an important market. About half the home trade is carried on between the manufacturer and the retail vendor, the other half through the medium of wholesale houses. Exportation is mostly undertaken by commission agents; and from the statistics we saw in the Exposition, the annual production of French hosiery would amount to 100,000,000 francs, of which 15,000,000 are exported to other countries ; and as much as 600,000 francs were im- PARTS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 157 ported into France last year from England and other' countries. Very extensive progress lias been made in the hosiery trade of France during the last three years, principally in the rotary and circular machinery. The rotary machines are of English invention, and are now being built by French workmen, but in the principal building shops under the superintendence of an English machinist as foreman. This is the case at Mr. Tailbouis’ shop, at St. Just, and also at Mr. Berthelot’s shop, at Troyes. Mr. Poron, of Troyes, is a great builder of rotary frames ; he has sixty at work in his factory ; he has also fifty-five frames, which are known in England as Patchett’s patent frames, of Loughborough, in Leicestershire. The rotary and circular frame enables the workmen to produce as many as six and up to twelve stockings at once, of different kinds and guages, whereas the old-fashioned frame only makes one at once. The circular large frames make as many as twenty courses at one revolution of the machine. The sewing, stitching, and turning-off machines are at the greatest perfection as regards speed and good quality of work produced, and the wages of the men have advanced greatly during the last two years. The old one-at-once hands receive good wages ; but they are so very slow, working on the principle our grand- fathers did in England with the old presser weight, and turning the bobbin to supply the material for each course. We wish to say we were well received wherever we went ; but found that the English hotel-keepers are more extortionate in their charges than the French. We observed, as a rule, that the French people did everything with the greatest ease and tact, and without much labour, and always made a good finish of what they took in hand, so that nothing could be much improved after they had done with it. With regard to the English exhibitors, we are sorry to say they were so few in number we have not much to say on their account. There was only one from Nottingham in the hosiery department, and that was the Nottingham Manufacturing Company, who had a first-rate case of all qualities and descriptions of hosiery, and we saw none to surpass them in anything they exhibited, either in silk, thread, or cotton ; all looked well, and were generally admired. There were one or two London houses had some good things, but some others not so good. Mr. Smyth’s case of Dublin and Balbriggan had some very good plain and striped goods, but his fancy articles were not equal to them. There were three cases from Leicester in the woollen trade ; the articles were good, and looked well, and were not excelled by anything of the kind in the Exhibition. On the whole, we are of opinion that the French have made great progress of late years, and that they are continuing to progress ; and there can be no doubt that the superior education that is given to the working classes on the Continent gives them an advantage, in some respects, over Englishmen ; but there are no workmen so quick and so inventive as our own, so far as we are able to judge. POTTERY. By WILLIAM BEAKDMOKE, N EWCASTLE-UNDER-LYNE , I HAVE much pleasure in presenting my report of my visit to the Paris Exhibition of 1867 ; and, in doing so, you will perceive that I am confining myself to the making department, leaving the ornamental to others, as I wish only to report on that which I know from experience. Having visited the Exhibitions in London, of 1851 and 1862, I can perceive a great difference between those years and the Paris Exhibition of 1867. We could in the former see specimens of work, from the most crude to the most refined, and from the smallest to the largest piece, thirty- six feet in height, forming, too, as those Exhibitions did, a complete history of the pottery department. In the former Exhibition, too, the exhibitors were far more numerous, consequently there was far more competition in the home and foreign courts ; and by this we could see more how clay could be adapted to a great variety of uses. However, I believe there is in this present Exhibition the best skill and the best art brought together from the various nations, the manufactories showing their most useful articles ; in earthenware, for domestic purposes and sanitary arrangements ; in porcelain, for enriching the table and ornamenting the sideboard; in Parian statuettes for the mansion; and in majolica, for the halls, conservatories, and gardens of the rich. There is a lack of the cheap ware shown, therefore I look upon this Exhibition as a vast show room, manufacturers showing their best and purest w T ares. After a minute examination of the various stalls, both home and foreign, 1 have come to the conclusion, and the fact is forced on my mind, that the British workman is not to be surpassed, if he can at all be equalled. Take, for instance, the vases in the foreign depart- ments ; there are wood pedestals, metal feet, and where there are openings in the middle, a gilt band is introduced (I suppose to hide defects), and then brass ornaments for handles and tops. How it must be acknow- ledged that metal can be worked sharper, and will give the pieces a sharper and lighter appearance, but it is not pottery ; in the British department you will not, I think, find a single article so adorned. The large vases, figures, &c., produced by Messrs. Minton and Co., no matter how T numerous the ornaments or great the handles, whether made in china or majolica, are real pottery. This, to my mind, is a great achievement. Then, again, in the foreign, you will find wings without feathers, snakes without scales. True, there is a distinct effect produced, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 159 but wlien closely examined, there is not that neatness and skill as seen in the pieces above-mentioned. The perforated tea-ware in the French Government (Sevres) stalls is exquisite and beautiful. Likewise the Dresden dessert-ware ; these can- not be surpassed even by Minton’s Chinese lantern and spill-pots. The attempts by some manufacturers to bring out malachite ware are, to my mind, almost a failure. The straight lines, and the continuous round rings, show that they have not the proper method of mixing or breaking up their various coloured clay to make it appear like this par- ticular marble. The beauty of this body will be found in the French vases, with malachite tops and bottoms, Parian middles, fastened with gilt bands, and in Minton’s two large garden -pots, ornamented with lions’ heads and bands in majolica. The appearance of this class of pottery is grand, both in .brown and green glazes. The imitation of marble is really good. The porcelain in the Sevres Court is remarkable, as shown in their tea- service, for its neatness, colour, and lightness; and so it ought to be, when we take into consideration the time the workman has at his com- mand, and the style of his working. The turner sits at his work, propelling the lathe by his foot, using his thumb in an upright position, so that he can keep lifting up the cup or saucer he is operating upon, and feeling where he must take more clay from to make it lighter, and so the workman keeps on until he gets it to its required thickness. The pieces, when fired, glazed, and finished, are very light and trans- parent. The large vase appears to be thrown about 20 in. in height, and when turned there are notches made to fit one in another, so that when the vases are put together there is a round seam instead of an upright one ; and I must observe here that there is a neatness about the seams, whether the -ware is pressed or otherwise, that I admire; I suppose that, when finished, it is fired a little, and the seams are rubbed down, and then the pieces are fired up to their requirements. The British workman stands at his lathe, which is turned by an assistant, and shaves his piece from the side ; this mode of work is far preferable, as he can get more work out of his hands. Our large pieces are made from moulds; and great skill is shown by the workman in putting together so many pieces. In concluding my remarks, I say it without fear of contradic- tion, that the British potters have nothing to fear in coming in contact with foreign workmen ; our- superior style of work, the beauty and simplicity of our designs, the excellent ornamentation, the richness of colours, the white firm body, the fastness of the glaze, make us feel proud of our position in the great Paris Exhibition, 1867, TILES AND PAVEMENTS, By SAMUEL COOPER. I HAVE the honour to submit to your notice the result of my visit to the Paris Exhibition, for the purpose of examining and reporting upon tile pavements and tiles of all kinds, for useful and for decorative purposes. The productions of France in this class are of an extensive character for tiles in general. The specimens of encaustic tiles exhibited are not so elaborate in designs and colours as those made in England, and seem less vitreous in their component parts, being for the most part easy or soft burnt, and more porous than encaustic tiles generally. The colours chiefly used are black, red, and buff, forming single tile, and diaper patterns, border tiles, emblematic, and monogram tiles. There is also a great variety of the coarse texture, or commoner sort of floor tiles, for the more ordinary purposes, made in clays of the brick-kiln kinds. The relative merits as to beauty of design, variety of colour, form, and shape, are much below the standard of English manufacture in this class. Of majolica tiles for wall decoration there is a great variety, the designs being more artistic, the colouring being very rich upon most of the specimens. Of glazed and enamelled tiles, some good specimens are exhibited. France. The productions of France in coloured cements for ornamental paving, are a varied collection, some of which are rich in design and colour, there being various ways of rendering this class of work ; some of the specimens are made in blocks or slabs, others are made in the shape and form of tiles. This description of work is better adapted for wall decoration than for flooring purposes. Of marble and stone incised, and coloured cements for pavements, there is a good collection. This description of flooring is laid around the outside of the Emperor’s pavilion, in the park. On closely examining this, I find that the composition inlaid into the incised parts of the design is very apt to expand and swell out of the incisions, making it necessary to be frequently replacing the composition. The cause of this is apparently by heat from the sun. There are other specimens of this class in the Exhibition, of very beautiful design, and rich in colouring. There seems to be more of this kind of work done in France than any other country, by the number of specimens exhibited. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 16 L Also specimens of Portland cements, intermixed with refuse, marble, and pebbles, made after the manner of concrete, in blocks and squares. When properly hard, or set, it is rubbed down to a flat surface. This kind of work, in my opinion, is more durable, if less ornamental, than coloured cements for pavements. Annexed is a list of exhibitors and their productions : — Boulenger (Auneuil, Oise). — Encaustic tiles for pavements in red, black, and buff, chiefly in Gothic designs and diaper patterns ; also plain tiles ; these are manufactured in the plastic clays, and appear less vitreous in their composition than encaustic tiles usually. They are an easily fired tile, but not badly executed. The price of these range from Gfrs. per metre and upwards, according to design. Carpentier (Seine Inferieure). — Encaustic tiles for pavements, in red, black and buff, also plain tiles of one inch thickness ; these appear to be manufactured in the plastic clay, but very little vitrified, and not very hard. Blondel (Loire). — Specimens of coloured tiles for pavements, in various patterns, and for wall-lining. Bonnard (Yaucluse). — Specimens of tiles for pavements, in imitation of marble. These are made in a variety of shapes, half-an-inch in thick- ness, made from moulds, by hand. I should consider these rather an in- ferior tile for pavements where much traffic was required, and of little artistic merit. The price of these tiles is from 4frs. to 5frs. per metre, which, wdien considered, may account for their manufacture. Morisot, 0. T. — Tiles for pavements. These are called Egyptian tiles, made in red and black, of a coarse manufacture. They are inlaid, but the inlays are poorly executed ; but suitable for the commoner sorts of pavements. Larmande (Viviers, Ardeclie). — Specimens of common floor tiles, also artificial stone tiles, made from lime refuse. B. Thenard (B6ze, C6te d’Or). — Specimens of common tiles for pavements of the ordinary class. C. Avril and Co. (Saone-et-Loire).— -Specimens of common floor tiles * also glazed tiles and roofing tiles ; very fair specimens for ordinary purposes. Guilhaumou-Javelle (Vendeuvre-sur-Barse). — Common tiles for pave- ments, suitable for cottage houses, for out-houses, &c. These are very coarse and hard-burnt tiles, and would make strong floors ; appear to be manufactured like English brick-kiln tiles, or quarries. Jolijon-Bourasset, Berthoud and Co. (Saone-et-Loire). — Specimens of flooring tiles and hydraulic tiles. These are fair specimens, are strong, and well made ; for ordinary purposes, would make good pavements. Muller and Co. (Ivry, Seine) exhibit floor tiles, and majolica tiles for wall decorations and partitions, in a great variety of designs ; these appear to be very good specimens, and of a highly artistic character. Mace (Paris) exhibits specimens of majolica and coloured earthenware tiles for wall decorations ; very good examples for wall and ceramic decorations. Boch, Brothers, and Co. (Louvroil, Nord). — Tiles for pavements and lor wall decorations ; these appear to be good in quality, and workman- ship very fair. M 1G2 artisans’ retorts on the Oollinot and Co. — Tiles for pavements and for wall decorations ; also glazed and enamelled bricks, very good, and in effect very artistic. .Dallage-Lammand exhibits specimens of Portland cements, inlaid in colours, for pavements and wall decorations; also floors in stone and marble, inlaid in coloured cements, or composition ; in this style of work the designs are first incised in the stone, and afterwards are filled in with the composition, afterwards rubbed down to a level surface, and then polished and laid down in blocks or slabs, or, if preferred, the inlaying can be done after the slabs are fixed down; also pavements made with cements and irregular pieces of refuse marble or pebbles. These are made in blocks or squares, being mixed up like concrete, and when properly hard or set, rubbed down and brought to a level and even surface ; if requisite, the marble forming the inlays can be polished ; some of the specimens exhibited are very good, and would make durable and inexpensive pavements. Yicat and Co. (Grenoble). — Specimens of flooring -tiles, in coloured cements, for pavements of all kinds ; this description of pavement ap- pears to be extensively used in France, and makes good pavements where little traffic is required ; the designs are very elaborate, and the various inlays of the cement are well and clearly defined, and have an artistic effect when laid down, as almost any colour can be introduced, according to the designs used ; as I have stated before, in my opinion they are better adapted for wall decorations. Alexandre Bex (Paris) exhibits specimens for floors in cement, for pavements, of which there are some very excellent examples ; these differ little in character from other work of this kind ; the inlaying of these is very clean and well defined. Prussia. The productions of Prussia in this class are not so extensive, but superior in quality to France in encaustic tile-flooring, the designs being more varied and richer in effect, the colouring of the various clays being more of a vitreous character. I may especially mention those of Villeroy and Boch, which well merit attention, being of a highly artistic character. The ornamental portions or inlays are well-defined; also the earthen- ware tiles for wall-linings, and for encasing stoves and ranges, deserve attention, being of good quality. Annexed is a description of exhibits. Vidal (Kellinghusen) exhibits specimens of earthenware tiles for en- casing stoves, ranges, and for wall-linings, chiefly white tiles glazed, of good surface, making good work, with close joints; made by hand, in plastic clays. Grundmann (Kattowitz) exhibits specimens of floor-tiles of coarse tex- ture, for ordinary paving. J. Oassel (Burbach) exhibits specimens of floor *tiles; these are of coarse texture, for ordinary purposes. Villeroy and Boch (Mettlach). — In examining the productions of this firm I find a large collection of encaustic tiles for pavements. These are inlaid in colours suitable for the designs required. The specimens ex- hibited consist chiefly of complete designs, forming floors from ten to twelve feet square, for centre-pieces, suitable for hall-floors, corridors* &c. ; PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 16 * also diaper patterns, border tiles, arms-tiles, monograms, and a variety of other ornamental designs. The manufacture of these tiles appears to be after the manner of those made in England, with this exception — ^they have not the backing or extra layer of strong, close-bodied clay, which, to a great extent, keeps the tiles from warping during the firing process, and keeps them from cracking or distorting through unequal contraction ; the colours or inlays are less vitreous, and have not the brightness usually seen in encaustic tiles, but have a dough or biscuit appearance. From that I should infer they would take a great amount of dust and grit in their surfaces. The price of these tiles, I may remark, ranges from lOfrs. and upwards. Belgium. The productions of Belgium in this class consist chiefly of the com- moner description of tiles, for ordinary purposes, and do not pertain to a more artistic character than red, black, and buff colours, being for the most part soft or easy-fired tiles, and more porous -bodied ; they are chiefly made in plastic clays, and are much below the standard of English manu* facture in this class. Josson and Delangle (Antwerp) exhibit tiles for pavements, in red, black, and buff, in squares, octagons, and other shapes, one inch thick, made in plastic clays, very little vitrified after being burnt ; soft and easy-burnt tiles, and of porous nature, and, from their appearance, not of a very durable character. This firm also exhibits a collection of glazed and unglazed roofing -tiles, which are fair and good specimens of this kind of roofing -tile ; these are made from coarse- texture' clays ; also some specimens of coloured cements, in squares, of an inferior sort to some which are exhibited by France and Prussia in this material. E. J. Bypens (Niel) exhibits specimens of glazed tiles for roofing purposes, made in coarse clays, burnt, and afterwards glazed over, and again burnt or fired. 0. Troch-Troch (Antwerp) exhibits specimens of common tiles ; also paving lumps ; these latter, from their appearance, seem well adapted for floors requiring strong and rough usage. Niellon, Son, and Co. (Brussels) exhibit specimens of tiles, in artificial basalt, which appear good samples of this kind of paving. H. Favier (Tournay) exhibits a collection of cement floor-tiles, in imitation of marble ; these are superior to those exhibited by France in this kind of work. Bosset, Brothers (Arlot), exhibit tiles made of schist slate for floors. These are well got up for floors in this material. Spain. The productions of Spain in this class are not so extensive, but what -are exhibited for flooring purposes are of good quality, and claim especial attention, and are, in my opinion, the best machine-made tiles exhibited by continental manufacturers. Annexed is a description of exhibits. Bolla andSagrera (Valencia). — Specimens of encaustic and inlaid tiles for pavements ; plain tiles in colours, made by machine pressure, with the dry or powdered clays ; are well made, and of close texture, and vitreous when burnt ; would make durable pavements ; are made in 164 : ARTISANS RETORTS ON THE various shapes and sizes, to suit any geometrical patterns or forms you desire ; the colours are good, and of great variety. Of the small tiles, or tesserae, of the same material, for pavements, a few panels of these are put together, and are of a highly ornamental character. This firm also exhibits majolica and earthenware tiles, of which there are a few good specimens for wall decoration. Llano-y-Wite (Valencia) exhibits specimens of earthenware tiles for wall decorations, of a less elaborate character; are well made tile3, flat, and even on surface, and hard burnt. 0. Diaz Moraleda (Moleda) exhibits specimens of earthenware tiles for wall decoration, and lining partitions, stoves, and ranges ; these are fair specimens, and for wall tiling generally. Garreta, Rivet, and Oo. (Barcelona) exhibit specimens of tiles for pavements, called hydraulic tiles ; these appear to be very hard fired, and are good specimens for common floors ; would make strong and serviceable pavements, where great traffic and heavy work is done over them. Italy. The productions of Italy are rather of an extensive character in tiles for pavements ; of earthenware tiles there are a few good specimens for floors ; and of the coarser kinds of tiles, suitable for ordinary tiling, there is a varied collection, but not so good as English manufacture in this branch of trade ; the generality of them appear to be easy or soft burnt. I have noted some of the best specimens of the exhibits (a description of which is annexed) of the manufacture of cement tiles, and coloured cements for pavements ; these, I am of opinion, do not excel or come up to the manufactures of France in this branch of trade, being less artistic in design and colour. Fontaine (Naples). — Collection of earthenware tiles for wall decora- tion ; also for stoves, ranges, dairies, larders, &c. These are fair speci- mens, and of good quality, for this kind of work. Antonia Noble (Venice) exhibits majolica tiles for wall decorations. They are very good specimens. Also mosaics for pavements, and for pictorial or Byzantine mosaics. Some very choice specimens are rendered of this class of material in mosaic. Cristofoli (Padua). — Paving squares and slabs, in Portland cements, and coloured cements for floors. Pierotti (Milan).— Cement tiles for pavements, in various shapes and colours ; more for interior decoration ; fair specimens. Della-Rosa (Parma). — Specimens of tiles for pavements, in earthen- ware clays ; are machine made, and very good in quality for common flooring purposes, Rondani (Parma) exhibits tiles for pavements* for ordinary flooring, of a coarse texture, machine made. Piccardi (Val di Pisa). — Specimens of tiles for pavements, for ordi- nary flooring purposes ; these are of good quality. Tofanari (Florence). — Tiles for pavements ; also paving squares, for the rough or coarse kinds of paving. Pazzoni (Parma). — Tiles for pavements, in earthenware bodies ; these rARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 165 are burnt very hard, and are suitable for general purposes ; well made throughout. Holland. Very few specimens are exhibited from this country of tiles for paving purposes ; and those being of the coarser kind of tiles, or quarries, inferior to English. Van den Broeke (Rhynhoven). — Specimens of tiles for pavements and walls for ordinary purposes ; these are well-manufactured tiles, Switzerland. The Building Society of St. Imier exhibits specimens of tiles for pave* ments of the ordinary or commoner description of tile -flooring, Morocco. Glazed and enamelled tiles for pavements and for wall decorations ; these are made in small geometrical forms. Specimens of these are ex* hibited, forming the flooring and lining the walls of a fountain in the park of the Exhibition ; these have a very pleasing and rich effect, the enamels being remarkably good. Tunis. Specimens of tiles for floors and wall decoration ; these are very good examples. England. As to the manufacture of English encaustic tiles and other tiles for pave- ments, and for wall decoration and for other purposes, the specimens ex- hibited by Messrs. Minton, Hollins, and Co., Stoke-on-Trent, compare very favourably with all others of a similar character, and on the whole must be classed in the highest rank, whether considered with reference to perfec- tion of manufacture or beauty and variety of design and colours appro- priate to the recognised styles of architecture, and conventional treatment necessary to be observed in order to ensure success in this branch of industry. The difficulty in the production of inlaid tiles may be under- stood when it is borne in mind that certain forms in designs and com- binations of colours are incompatible with successful manufacture. The specimens exhibited by Messrs. Maw and Co., Brosely, Salop, I may remark, are also of a high order of merit. For perfection of manu- facture, beauty of design, and variety of colour, the majolica tiles exhibited by this firm are very good, the colouring rich in effect. The specimens in geometrical mosaics are also of good design, and carefully executed. This firm also exhibit some interesting specimens of glazed tiles. As to the specimens exhibited by W. Godwin, Lugwardine, Hereford, I must not omit to remark upon the encaustic tiles, made so as to repre- sent in appearance the mediaeval style of manufacture, being well adapted for church or mural decorations. The glazed tiles and enamelled tiles are also very good, and rich in effect. Below is a description of these and other English exhibitors. In reference to the productions of English and those of continental manufacturers, after closely examining the various collections exhibited, 16G ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE I must observe, I have little hesitation in stating that the continental productions are much below the standard in comparison to English manufacture in this branch of industry. Minton, Hollins, and Co. (Stoke-upon-Trent) exhibit inlaid encaustic and plain tiles for pavements, majolica tiles, enamelled and glazed tiles for wall decoration, geometrical mosaics for pavements, earthenware and porcelain mosaics for pictorial decorations. In examining the specimens exhibited by this firm, I must not omit to remark upon a centre-piece of tesserae, adapted for an entrance -hall, which closely rivals the antique Roman ; and another of a Gothic character, composed of mosaic and large encaustic tiles, representing scripture subjects, very rich in effect, and carefully executed; also some very effective designs of conventional treatment of natural types, such as the rose, hawthorn, mistletoe, holly, oak, ivy, &c. They exhibit also some very fine majolica tiles in various styles, chiefly for mural purposes ; some in the manner of the old Moorish tiles, in which the ornaments are formed with their raised outlines, and then filled with enamels of various colours, and others in which the pattern is either embossed or incised. These were, I believe, first intro- duced by Minton, Hollins, and Co., and have been largely used. Also a highly successful specimen of the application of the deep blue colour, much used by Minton, Hollins, and Co., for inlaid floor tiles. I noticed a large plaque, some eighteen or twenty inches in diameter, in one piece, having a mosaic border ; this is an unusual size, and rarely pro- duced in this material ; also surface enamelled earthenware tiles, for mural decoration. The patterns on these are applied by a patent mechanical process, and, after being again passed through the enamel- ling kiln, acquire a great degree of brilliancy and permanence ; these are of a high order of merit. Maw and Co. (Benthall Works, Brosely, Salop) exhibit inlaid encaustic tiles ; also geometrical mosaics and plain tiles for pavements ; also majolica, glazed, and enamelled tiles for wall decorations. On examining the various specimens exhibited by this firm, which consist of a great variety of designs and colours which are at once observable, the character of the encaustic designs for pavements appears of a highly interesting order; selections of these are put together, which have a highly artistic effect. A most elaborate piece of tesserae, for a centre-piece, with a specimen of pictorial mosaic in ceramic tesserae, which is carefully executed, the mosaics being coloured throughout their whole substance. This firm also exhibits a great variety of majolica tiles ; they are good in quality and colouring, and rich in effect. The plain tiles of this firm are excellent in quality, possessing a hard and vitreous substance when fired, and being extremely hard ; these produc- tions are of a high order of merit. These, I may observe, are machine- made, in dry or powdered clay bodies, having but little shrinkage. W. Godwin (Lugwardine, Hereford) exhibits encaustic tiles, inlaid in colours, glazed and unglazed ; also plain tiles for pavements and wall decorations, partitions, &c. Some specimens of red and buff encaustic tiles, which are at once observable and easily appreciated, the clays being so rendered as to represent the medieval style of manufacture ; these are good, and well adapted for church decorations; these well merit atten- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 107 tion, being artistic and well manufactured ; tbe inlays about tlie usual thickness ; the tiles, when fired, one inch thick, even, and straight on their surfaces generally ; ornament clean, and not distorted through un- equal contraction. The plain tiles for pavements and wall lining are made by pressure, very much vitrified when burnt, and when properly fixed, make durable and ornamental pavements, and well adapted for all kinds of flooring purposes and mural decorations. The Architectural Pottery Company (Poole, Dorset) exhibit inlaid tiles for pavements, and for walls, partitions, &c. These tiles are also made by machine pressure, and in their manufacture differ a little from Minton’s or Maw’s process ; the inlaying of these tiles, I believe, is done by machinery, which is so arranged that the design or patterns to be represented shall not become distorted during the process of making ; the tiles are afterwards dried and then burnt. The designs are geo- metrical. The tiles seldom exceed four and a-half inches square and half an inch in thickness ; there is a variety of colours, but not of such a vitreous character as is desirable for flooring purposes ; my opinion is that, for pavements, the more vitreous tiles are the better they will resist the wear and tear of traffic, and be less liable to take into their surfaces dust or grit, or any substance that would assist in defacing them. T. and It. Boote (Burslem, Staffordshire) exhibit encaustic tiles for pavements, also plain and glazed tiles for wall decorations. Sj)ecimens of these are laid upon the floor and walls of the testing -house, British section of park. These tiles are made by machine pressure, with dry or powdered clays, undergoing the drying and firing process similar to other firms ; these tiles are of a vitreous character, and of a close texture when burnt. The patterns or designs are mainly geometrical in form. These tiles are made half an inch in thickness, and, 1 believe, are moderate in price, and are greatly superior to the specimens they exhibited at the International Exhibition in the year 1862. Malkin and Co. (Burslem, Staffordshire) exhibit encaustic and plain tiles for floors, in various designs, the colours of which are very good ; the manufacture of these tiles is very fair for a new firm. Specimens of these are laid on the floors of the testing -house porches, and seem very little worn, considering the great amount of traffic. H. J. and C. Major (Bridgewater) exhibit specimens of ordinary tiles, or tiles of coarse texture, for common flooring purposes ; these are ■well manufactured, and would make good pavements for cottages, &c. G. Hooke (Bywater-street, London) exhibits a marble and cement pavement, executed for the South Kensington Museum ; showing how refuse marble may be worked up into ornamental and highly artistic pavements, suitable for entrance -halls, corridors, porches, and other floors. The specimen exhibited has for its centre a geometrical design, with a border surrounding it, composed of dolphins’ shells, &c., in various colours of marble. May be made in slabs, of any convenient size ; when fixed down would form strong and durable pavements. This description of flooring is at once observable, and well merits attention, being made more durable than coloured cement pavements. Henry Sandham (South Kensington Museum) exhibits specimens of coloured cements for interior wall decorations and partition lining ; these 168 artisans’ reports. specimens are of a high order, the ornamental parts being well defined ; the colouring having a great degree of brillianoy ; the surfaces having a high and beautiful polish, and highly artistic in effect, being well and carefully executed. Messrs. White, Brothers (Westminster) exhibit specimens of Keene’s cements for pavements and wall decoration, specimens of which may be seen on the floor and wall of the testing-house in the British section of the park ; these, I may observe, are of excellent quality, and well adapted for interior purposes ; any design and colour may be intro- duced in this material. I may state that very few specimens of coloured cements are exhibited in the British collection, TERRA-COTT A. By MICHAEL ANGELO PULHAM, HODDESDON, HERTS. I N presenting my report upon the works at the Paris Exhibition in terra-cotta. I beg to make a few remarks upon the uses of this beautiful material. It is a material of great value for architectural pur- poses — as it is known to have stood the test of ages — as may be seen in the British Museum and the Louvre (in Paris), where there are speci- mens to be seen dating back thousands of years ; examples of frieze ornaments, caps, bases, &c., used by the Homans, Egyptians, Greeks, and many nations of the Middle Ages ; also for domestic purposes, as jars, jugs, &c., and for building purposes. In our own country we have examples of terra cotta as a building material, as at Charing -cross, Cannon-street, andLiverpool-street Stations ; fronts in the Strand and Piccadilly ; also at many other places ; Stock- wood, near Luton ; at Hertford and Richmond ; the fronts of the new buildings at the Kensington Museum, where it has been used to good effect, as all the dressings, caps, columns, bases, arches, mouldings, &c., are made in blocks, and fixed in with the red brick, which harmonises so well. The Albert Hall is to be of terra-cotta and red brick, and the Science School at the Kensington Museum. The material is becoming more of a favourite with many of our leading architects, and is well worthy of their attention, when it is known to stand longer than stone ; as, for in- stance, the Houses of Parliament, where the stone is decaying, and the carved-work losing its sharpness — therefore its beauty and effect. This stone was selected by a committee to be the best. In many other buildings, the stone has been w^orn away by the action of the weather ; even granite will lose its surface, but the terra-cotta, of close surface and its proper portion of silicious matter in its combinations, and well fired, will repel the rain from its surface ; it is not so absorbent as stone ; but in adapting it for large surfaces it is of great advantage to the manufac- ture to have a front or elevation broken, or in short lengths of mould- ings, as at Charing-cross, [&c., or in disconnected parts. It is well adapted for window-dressings, panel ornament in friezes, trusses, brackets, caps, columns, bases, heads, bosses, terminals, spandrels, &c. ; it is capable of high finish for ornament in relief, 00 francs per year, paid by the quarter. In addition to the preceding, when the rent exceeds 250 francs per year, a tax of 9 francs per year is paid by the tenant. There are about 1,000 men engaged in the plastering trade of Paris. Many of those coming from the provinces are very indifferent scholars ; some few can read, fewer still can read and write. Nearly one-half ol the men engaged in the plastering trade attend some school or institu- tion, at the rate of two nights per week. Oftener the men say they cannot attend, having other duties, and it may be pleasures, to attend to. The instruction is free, the schools being supported by a Government grant, and by the donations of private individuals. Often the priest opens a free place of instruction, teaching geometry, drawing, and other branches of education. The two principal educational institutions are the Polytechnic Association and the Philotechnic Association. The strangest thing to English eyes is the busy aspect of Paris on Sunday : building operations are in full activity. When asked, “ Why do you work on Sundays?” the answer was, “ We lose time in the winter, and therefore must make it up in the summer, or any other time we can ; but it is always considered that Sunday is the day when we leave off somewhat earlier than other days.” Perhaps the best comment on this is the following : — Many leave off at 12 o’clock on Sunday, and, not an unusual thing, are not at work the next day until ten or twelve o’clock. They take one hour for breakfast, from nine till ten ; one hour for dinner, from one till two, in summer. In winter this is somewhat altered. As the days get shorter, breakfast is taken before coming to work, the men maldng nine hours per day; and, as the light gets shorter, so for a few weeks the men make only eight hours per day. Payment of Wages, This was done once a fortnight, and in some cases once a month ; but everything getting dearer — provisions, house^ent, &c. — Ihere was a general move made by the men for shorter reckonings, and now the practice pretty generally prevails of drawing on account as often as twice a week — -viz., Wednesdays and Saturdays — and settling np once a fortnight or three weeks ; sometimes once a month. Wages of Plasterers. Sixpence per hour for those men who only do plain work ; eightpencc for those who run mouldings. The cost of materials — such as laths, nails, plaster— is about five per cent, cheaper than in England. Trades’ Unions. These are not permitted to exist in France. But does the French workman, living so much out of doors, and mixing continually with his fellow-workers, counteract to a certain extent the Government prohibi- tion in relation to trades’ unions ? The writer of this believes in the 208 ARTISANS REPORTS. affirmative of this. Benefit societies, for mutual help in sickness, acci- dents, and death, with those special modifications and requirements which events and circumstances require, are in existence, and, generally speak- ing, are pretty well supported and attended. One institution in Paris miibt on no account he omitted, for it is of great importance in these times of strikes, lockouts, and turnouts. The institution referred to is the Council of Arbitration (Conseil des Prud’- hommes). There are four districts, divisions, or branches of this asso- ciation in existence in Paris. One of those branches, from some cause, transacts more business than the other three put together. And no sane man can doubt that these councils do a great deal towards preventing strikes. Still, your reporter found the workmen in the building trade of Paris in a rather unsettled frame of mind. When asked if they did not feel grateful for the efforts made by the Emperor for their benefit, and did they not like him very much ? was he very popular among working men? The answer was, — “Not so much as he deserves. He means well, but he is surrounded with those who mislead him ; and this they do for their own benefit, and to the injury of us. The Emperor is led to believe that the working man derives a greater benefit from his labour than is in fact the case.” And an ardent wish was expressed, in more than one or two cases, to “ fall across the Emperor’s path, and to en- lighten him on the subject.” Amusements. The theatre, the public gardens, where vocal and instrumental music are provided, with sight-seeing in its many varied forms, to which must be added the balls patronised by the artisan class ; and a ball attended and supported by workmen is a sight once seen never forgotten. It is the only time that you see a Frenchman so excited that an Englishman almost doubts his own eyesight and the sanity of his French brothers, and, truth to add, his French sisters also. But nowhere in Paris do you see drunkenness ; for weeks you will not see a single case of drunkenness. On settling days for wages a glass or two may be taken, but a French- man has too much self-respect to give way to this vice. The behaviour of the French artisans to strangers and to each other merits our warmest commendation. Nowhere in Paris are you liable to insult; in fact, the self-respect that seems inherent to a Frenchman keeps him from rudeness to others. In conclusion, the writer of these lines will ever remember the kindness and the willingness to assist that was manifested by his French brother wherever he met him; it mattered not whether it was journeyman, foreman, or architect, the conduct was the same; and if the information is meagre, it is from the fact that the branch of industry treated on is very little developed in Paris. CARPENTERS AND JOINERS’ WORK By T. W. HUGHES and JOHN D. PRIOR. W E beg to inform you that we have, in accordance with instructions received, visited the Paris Exhibition, for the purpose of examining* and reporting on the various specimens of workmanship in connection with our trade which are there exhibited. We find that the quantity of carpenters and joiners’ work in the Exhibition is comparatively smal], and in the majority of instances presents no distinctive features calling for special notice. Our report will therefore principally consist of observations on French workmanship, and the condition of the French workmen, giving such information with regard to other countries as we have been able to obtain. At the same time, we feel, that, to do justice to our subject, we' should require a much more intimate acquaintance with the French workmen than could possibly be acquired during a short visit. With these few introductory remarks, we beg to submit our report for your consideration. Section I. — Quality and Character of Workmanship Turned out by Different Nations. France. We find that carpentry is gradually falling into disuse in Paris, in con- sequence of the substitution of iron for wood in the erection of buildings. Nearly all the houses now in course of construction are being built fire- proof, with iron lintels and girders, the floors being constructed of iron joints filled in with brickwork, with flat roofs of a similar character. Such specimens of carpentry as we have seen have generally been of a very rude description. Their partitions are mostly constructed of crooked and rough scantling, which would be condemned by any surveyor in this country. Their joists are placed at very irregular intervals, and appear to have been laid at random by labourers, rather than fixed in their proper positions by mechanics. We met with a specimen of this in an unfinished building in the grounds of the Exhibi- tion, where we had an opportunity of inspecting the carpenters’ work before it was covered by the plasterer and joiner. Here we found the joists from 20 inches to 2b inches apart. The floors were tongued together : but the way in which they were laid was entirely novel to us. Instead of cutting their flooring -boards so as to bring their heading- joints to rest on a joist, and securely nailing them, as would be done by p 210 artisans’ reports on the tlie most reckless speculating builder in this country, their hoards were laid down at any length, just as they happened to come to hand, so that the ends of the hoards frequently came about halfway between the joists, without any support hut that which they received from the slight wooden tongues in their edges. We feel certain that this building, if completed, would be pronounced unsafe by an English architect. It is true that it was only intended for a temporary erection ; but the same defects exist in other buildings ; whatever the difference may be found is only a question of degree. A lodge of a showy character, erected by M. Haret, some cottages built by the co-operative societies, and other French buildings in the Exhibition-grounds, present no features worthy of particular remark or imitation. Joiners’ work in Paris is, in our opinion, defective in its construction, and roughly finished. French joiners have apparently no idea of wedging up a piece of framing. In framing a room-door with stiles 4 in. or in. wide, they would not carry their tenons through the stiles, and wedge up the frame, as would be done in this country ; but their tenons would go only half way through the stiles, and be fastened with pins. This system of pinning, which is a favourite one with the French, is considered very objectionable in this country, as the head of the pin never fails to project beyond the face of the work as it shrinks. In making sashes and other framing with narrow stiles, in which the tenons are carried through the stiles, we saw no attempt to wedge, but every- where we found even the best of their work disfigured by the unsightly pin. We met with no mortises more than Sin. deep. In framing doors, all their rails are made the same width as the stiles ; wide middle and bottom rails are unknown. Large doors have frequently two narrow middle rails placed from Gin. to 9in. apart. The consequence of such defective construction is that the doors in Paris almost invariably drop on the outside edge. This anyone may observe who will take the trouble of looking along the edges of the rails of a pair of folding-doors in any part of Paris, when in 99 per cent, of them the doors will be found to have dropped from their proper position. In fact, we may say that, under their present system, it is impossible to construct a heavy door, capable of bearing its own weight, and retaining its proper shape with its stiles and rails at right angles, unless braces be introduced to prevent it from racking. This defect seems to have occupied the atten- tion of the French workmen, and, at length, as far as sashes are con- cerned, it has been overcome. Some genius has discovered that what cannot be managed with w T ood only, may be made easy with a combina- tion of wood and iron; and now we find that the sashes at the New Opera House are strengthened, and at the same time disfigured, by iron squares screwed on the angles. Narrow rails and pinned framing are not peculiar to France, but appear to be common among most of the continental nations. Much of their small framing in France is mitred and tongued at the angles, in- stead of being mortised and tenoned. Oak is used for framing in France to a much greater extent than in England. Their w^ork is finished very roughly. This is very apparent in all their public buildings, where we might expect to find good workmanship, if anywhere. And the same PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 211 tiling is to be seen in tlie old work at Versailles and in the new hall of the “ Oonseil des Prud’hommes.” This is not to be wondered at when we come to examine the tools with which they work. In this respect they are centuries behind us ; and the wonder is, not how it is that their work is so rough, but how they manage to get on as well as they do with the tools they use. No attempt at improvement, we should think, can ever have been made, for we can scarcely conceive of anything much more clumsy than the tools at present in use ; the form of which, we imagine, must have been carefully handed down from the days of Charle- magne. Take one tool, for example, the plough. The Englishman uses one handy, light, and strong plough, with eight irons to fit it, and this meets all his requirements. To perform the same class of work, the Frenchman has eight different ploughs, or one to each iron; and the clumsiness of these will be understood by the English workman when we say that the arms are fastened to the plane, and the fence slides on them, so that the arms project on the left hand side of the plane, instead of the right, as with us. The windows in Paris, from the Palace of the Tuileries down to the humblest dwelling, are all fitted with what are known to us as French casements ; sliding sashes, hung with counterbalancing weights, are ap- parently unknown. In staircasing, much time and material are unne- cessarily expended, as they appear to have no idea of glueing up and veneering a circular string ; and their solid strings must require a much greater amount of labour, and are inferior to ours not only in strength, but also in appearance, as so much of the end grain of the wood is visible. One thing we particularly noticed — the absence of anything like a lofty, well-designed shop-front; we could find nothing of the kind in any part of Paris. In many instances we found what appeared in the distance to be noble, commanding shop-fronts, but on a closer inspection we invariably found that the ceiling of the shop crossed the window, so that about two -thirds of the window illuminated the shop, and one -third furnished light to a floor above it. On the whole, we consider Parisian joiners’ work to be far inferior to that done in this country. Their mouldings, as a general rule, are very well designed, and their carving is remarkably well executed. We can easily understand how an art-student may be attracted by the tasteful and artistic appearance of a piece of joiners’ work, and may fancy that he sees in it an evidence of the superiority of French work; but the practical workman will arrive at a very different conclusion. He will at once understand that for the portions of the work which are so attractive to the eye the joiner is in no way responsible, since he is neither the de- signer nor the carver ; whilst the framing itself would be found to be very defective, both in strength and finish. French workmen will re- quire better tools, and an entire revolution in their system of working, to enable them to execute a class of work fit for the English market. Belgium. Of Belgian work, as represented at the Paris Exhibition, we have but little that is favourable to remark. In an oak pulpit and staircase, occu- pying a commanding position in the building, and valued at 2,500frs., 2L2 artisans’ reports on the there is a quantity of very good carving ; but its joiners’ work presents all the objectionable features which we have pointed out as characteris- ing French work, with the addition of a few novelties which are pecu- liarly their own. One of these is to be found in the handrail of the stairs, the lengths of which are united by means of a scarf-joint. We have no very strong objection to a scarf-joint, if properly made, albeit we feel a very decided preference for a good butt-joint, properly dowelled and screwed together ; what we particularly object to in this instance is that the scarf is made the wrong way, with the sharp edge of the wood in an upward direction. Now, we know that usually a man grasps a rail firmly to assist him in ascending a staircase, and slides his hand over it in descending. Should any incautious stranger pass his hand quickly down over this rail in the way we have indicated, now that the work has been exposed to the action of the sun and air, he will, in all proba- bility, suddenly find some small splinters of the wood imbedded in his flesh — a sensation which will be more exciting than agreeable. A num- ber of mouldings in the framing have also been cut short, and some of the small pieces which diave been glued in, in order to hide the defects, are now falling out from the effects of the heat. A piece of oak framing adjoining it is very defective, as is also an oak chimney-piece and mirror- frame not very far off. Glue may or may not be very expensive in Belgium, but Belgian joiners are certainly very careful of it, if the work exhibited in Paris be anything like a fair specimen ; while their work contains too many brads, and exhibits too much of the end grain of the wood to be at all compatible with English ideas of good work. America Exhibits a class of work which is far more like the English, both in the tuality of the work and the size of the materials. An American cottage, valued at 2,I00frs., is built almost entirely of wood. It is weather- boarded on the outside, lined and papered on the inside, and the roof is covered with shingles. It has a very open, convenient staircase, and a verandah round the building. It is chiefly remarkable as a speci- men of what may be done where wood is plenty and other building ma- terials scarce. Notwithstanding the old adage, “ There’s nothing like leather,” we are not prepared to recommend the introduction of houses of this class into this country. Our climate is far too variable for wooden erections, to say nothing of the havoc which a fire would make among a number of buildings constructed of such a combustible material. The entrance-doors of a wood building from Louisiana are very good speci- mens of joiners’ work. The effects of a sea-voyage on them are very apparent, as they must be on all joiners’ work which is subjected to a similar test, but they have borne the damps, the change of climate, &c., remarkably well, and although the stiles have shrunk, the shoulders are still close. Another specimen of excellent American joiners’ work is to be found in the engineering department, forming a screen for the driver and fireman of a large locomotive engine. Russia Exhibits a number of farm buildings, composed of logs roughly squared up and framed together, in a way which we understand is very similar to PAUIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 213 that which is adopted in the backwoods of America, and in other part's where timber is abundant and skilled labour scarce. Many other buildings are erected by various nations in different parts of the Exhibition-grounds, but in their finished state they call for no special notice. If we could have seen them in course of erection, we might possibly have gleaned many interesting facts in connection with them ; but at present, all we can say is that the work is mostly of a very ordinary description, and we are unable to state anything of the condition of the workmen by whom they were erected but what is already well known. Section II.— Wages and Hours of Labour. The joiners of Paris are paid on a very different system from that which prevails in London. In London the great majority of the work- men are paid at the standard rate of 8d. per hour, the skilful and ex- perienced workman obtaining, as the result of his ability, more constant employment, and a better class of work, in which his physical powers are less severely taxed. In Paris the wages vary from 4f to 6frs. per day, according to the ability of the workman, or rather according to the amount of confidence in his own ability which he professes, self-confidence being a quality which naturally enhances the value of a man’s labours under such circumstances as these. Six francs per day is the largest amount paid to any working joiner, and this is only paid in very ex- ceptional cases. Ten hours generally constitutes a day’s work, the work- ing hours being from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m., out of which two hours are allowed for meals. Sunday work is general. The large workshops generally close at noon on Sundays ; but at a very large number of the buildings, and in the smaller workshops, the men work all day. A few firms pay fortnightly, bnt the majority pay once a month, Sunday being generally the pay-day, so that Sunday work often becomes compulsory. As the natural consequence of this state of affairs, for two or three days aftei the monthly payment of wages takes place, work is almost at a standstill, the men being found in the wineshops, getting rid of all they can spare of their earnings. In this respect, at least, we can hardly say, “ they do these better things in France.” Section III. — Clothing, Education, Habits of Life, &c. The working clothes of the Parisian joiners are apparently very inex- pensive ; a very few francs must certainly be sufficient to purchase a suit of the blue, coarse, cotton stuff which constitutes their working -dress. Very few of the joiners whom we saw indulged in the luxury of a pair of stockings in the workshop. This blue dress is not only worn in the workshop, but on all ordinary occasions ; and in richly-decorated cafes, the workman in his blouse, and his wife in her simple dress and clean white cap, may be seen sitting at their ease ; while in an establishment of a similar character in England, the presence of working men and women would be deemed a desecration. Class prejudice does not appear 214 artisans’ reports on the to be so prevalent in France as in England. In Paris we saw no signs of that arrogant assumption on the one hand, and cringing servility on the other, which are too frequently to be met with in this country. Politeness appears to be natural, even to the lowest class of the French people ; and in mixing with those whose position in the social scale is higher than his own, the man in the blouse possesses too much self-respect to become either intrusive or insulting ; whilst he who wears the broadcloth carefully avoids anything which might wound the susceptible feelings of his poorer neighbour. On the night of the Fete Napoleon, when all Paris was out of doors to witness the fire- works and illuminations, we walked through most of the principal boulevards and avenues, and we failed to detect any traces of that noisy, quarrelsome drunkenness, or rough horse-play, which is too often to be witnessed on similar occasions at home. In all that vast throng, everyone seemed, in the midst of liis own enjoyment, to consider and to respect the feelings and the convenience of others. The system of education in France, we are told, is very good. In some of the departments as many as 96 per cent, of the population can read and write ; and 46 per cent, are educated even in those departments where the greatest amount of ignorance prevails. We carried with us a number of letters of introduction, the addresses of which were in some cases far from legibly written ; these we frequently produced in the streets for the purpose of inquiring our way, and we often made unnecessary inquiries in order to test the capabilities of those whom we might meet In this way we solicited .information from many who were apparently among the poorest of the population, and in not a single instance did we find the party accosted unable to decipher the address submitted for his inspection. The habits of the Parisians seem rather strange to an Englishman. The majority of them appear to live in the streets, to take their meals at the caffs and restaurants, and to spend all their leisure time in the wineshops, at the billiard-table, in the ball-room, or in some of the places of amuse- ment with which Paris abounds. Beneath this appearance of gaiety, however, much discontent lies hidden ; and for this the Government are themselves, to a great extent, responsible, through their capricious and arbitrary treatment of the people. But while oppression may rankle in the breast of the intelligent and thoughtful few, the many trouble them- selves but little about such matters in the time of prosperity. Busily engaged in the pursuit of pleasure, their lives pass away in a kind of butterfly existence, until trade, from some cause or other, becomes paralyzed, no work can be found, gaunt poverty stalks forth among the people, the disaffected element begins to spread itself, until at last barricades are erected, the throne becomes endangered, and the streets are deluged with the life-blood of hundreds of French citizens. Take an English artisan, one of the many who work hard, who spend their few leisure minutes at meal times in scanning intently the news of the day, whose evenings are spent in hard study, or in active endeavours to ameliorate the moral, political, and social condition of their class ; take one of these, and place him in Paris, among Parisian workmen ; compel him to lead the life they lead ; and we venture to predict that, at the end PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 215 of six months, life will have become to him a burden, or he will have been rendered unfit for any useful, practical purpose in life. The French people appear to us to he immersed in vain and frivolous pursuits, which hide from them the true purposes of life, to be bound by trammels which they must cast aside ere they can hope to rise to the dignity of a free and independent nation. They want more energy, perseverance, and strength of character ; they want to learn that there are aims in life more noble than emptying a wine-bottle or skipping about a dancing- room ; to learn that to spend a life in the service of liberty is even more noble than to die for it. When the French people have learnt to govern themselves, they may expect to be governed wisely and Well ; and, no longer tools in the hands of ambitious rulers, they may build up for themselves, upon a sure and certain foundation, the liberty which some among them have so long and earnestly desired. Section IV. — Trade Combinations. Associations of .workmen for the purpose of obtaining an increase of Wages or a reduction of working hours (societies of resistance, as they are called) are but of recent origin in Paris. The law formerly most rigorously prohibited anything like a combination among workmen, which was considered a misdemeanour, and its promoters were liable to a term of imprisonment not exceeding five years in duration. A com- bination of employers for the purpose of unjustly reducing the rate of wages was also punishable, but the penalties were far less severe. At that time the workman w r as entirely at the mercy of his employer, whose statement in a question affecting wages Was believed in a court of justice* wdiile that of the workman was by law held to be worthless. In the year 1829 this law was modified, and the penalties against employers and workmen equalised, but its fundamental principles remained unaltered. At length, however, the Imperial Government took the question into consideration, and the result was that in 1861 the law was amended, so that combination is now legal, except when accompanied with violence, menace, or fraudulent procedure. The joiners of Paris do not appear to have taken advantage of the change in .the law, for we could find no traces of a society of resistance existing among them. They have, how- ever, a small co-operative society in Paris, having its workshops at 216, Rue St. Maur, which we visited, and found that they were not in a flourishing condition. The first co-operative society among the joiners was founded in 1831, but it very speedily collapsed. A second society was formed in 1858, but a similar want of success attended it, and the present association, which has been in existence about eighteen months, appears to be just now in rather a languishing state. Its managers complain that they have not met with the co-operation which they expected from other societies of a kindred character. The last Republican Government appears to have taken a deep in- terest in the welfare of the working men of France. £120,000 were voted by the Constituent Assembly as a grant to struggling and indus- trious artisans. An instance of the good feeling manifested by the Government at that time was related to us, and may prove interesting. 216 artisans’ reports on the Soon after tlie revolution of 1848, tlie stone-carvers of Paris found themselves, through the slackness of trade, in very distressed circum- stances. A deputation of the workmen waited on the Government, and called their attention to the fact that in the south front of the Louvre, facing the Seine, a quantity of carving was required in order to complete the work. The stone had been for some years fixed ready for the carvers, and they solicited the Government to give orders for its comple- tion, and so afford relief to the starving workmen. The willingness of the Government to accede to the request was expressed ; but, said the ministers, “The national finances are at a low ebb; we have no money which we can devote to the payment of the workmen.” In order to meet this objection, the workmen replied, “ Pay us one franc per day now ; on that we will manage to subsist, and we will wait for the balance of our wages until the exchequer is in a more flourishing condi- tion.” The next objection was that a separate account would require to be kept of the amount of wages due to each man, and it would cause an endless amount of trouble and complication of accounts. The deputation then suggested that one man out of every ten should be appointed to keep an account of the earnings of the ten, and to arrange all financial matters on their behalf ; and for his trouble they offered to allow him a commission of 2 1 per cent, on all monies passing through his hands. The application was duly considered by the Government, and the result was that public notice was given that competent stone-carvers could obtain employment on the terms which had been suggested. About 170 responded to the offer, and at the end of the first month they re- ceived, not the one franc per day which had been agreed upon, but the full amount of their wages, and the Government themselves paid the percentage due to the men’s agents, in addition to their wages. This was continued as long as the work lasted; no misunderstanding whatever occurred, and the Government voluntarily raised the rate of wages as the price of labour in Paris advanced. These facts were communicated to us by one of the artisans who had been employed on the works ; and he assured us that the honourable conduct of the Republican Government on that occasion would long be gratefully remembered by the stone - carvers of Paris. Courts of Arbitration have been established in France for the settle- ment of disputed trade questions, and have been found to work exceed- ingly well. An account of their constitution and powers would perhaps be out of place here, but we may say that we believe that all the advan- tages which have resulted in France from the “Conseil des Prud’hommes” may also be obtained in England, in any district where employers and operatives may agree in the formation of a Council of Conciliation and Arbitration in conformity with the provisions of Lord St. Leonards’ Act. The comparative failure which attends the attempts at union among the workmen of Paris may be ascribed to the baneful effects of the system of espionage which is carried to such perfection by the Imperial Govern- ment. The mutual confidence, which is an essential element of success, is rendered impossible when the men are never sure that they have not a Government spy in their midst, ready not only to report anything of a political character which may transpire at their meetings, but also to PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 217 misconstrue any unguarded expression which may he uttered in the heat of debate. There appears to he at present hut little cause for com- plaint as far as the French law is concerned ; the evil is that the law is made subservient to the jealousy or caprice of the authorities. As an example of this, we may instance the policy pursued not long ago with regard to two important trades in Paris. The bronze -workers, being unable by peaceful means to induce their employers to accede to cer- tain demands which were made, resorted to a strike, and subscriptions were raised for support of the men on strike, not only in France, but in England and other countries. The course pursued by the bronze- workers, if it did not secure the approbation of the Government, cer- tainly met with no opposition. The tailors, having also a grievance, adopted a similar plan of action, when active measures were taken by the authorities in order to put an end to their struggle, and the little property which they possessed was confiscated. The co-operative move- ment is one which has received many marks of the Emperor’s approval, yet a few co-operators cannot meet, without the special sanction of the Government, for the discussion of a subject so commendable and so free from everything objectionable as co-operation undoubtedly is. As long as the French Government continues to treat working men with suspi- cion and distrust, so long, we fear, the workmen will continue isolated from each other, and the spirit of union will fail to take deep root among them. From what we have seen and heard during our visit, we have been led to the conviction that in our trade we have little or nothing to fear from foreign competition ; and if the specimens of work exhibited in the Paris Exhibition may be considered as a fair representation of the work- manship of the various continental nations, we have very little indeed to learn from them. If continental workmen have any advantage over us, it is that they possess a keener appreciation of artistic effect ; and this, we think, may be accounted for in the fact that their museums and galleries of art are always open to working men at times when they have leisure and opportunity of visiting them. But our trade affords com- paratively little scope for the development of the artistic taste of the workman; such matters belong more to the draughtsman and the carver; but we would especially urge upon the carpenters and joiners of this country to become thoroughly acquainted with the principles of geome- try, and their practical application to our own trade, as being of the utmost importance ; at the same time, fully acknowledging the neces- sity of such an education as shall enable the British workman to appre- ciate all that is beautiful and noble both in nature and art, and shall induce him to strive after a combination of the ornamental and the use- ful in the objects by which he is surrounded in his daily life. We cannot conclude our report without gratefully acknowledging the kindness of the many gentlemen who so kindly assisted us in our researches. Especially would we desire to express our gratitude to M. Haussoullier for the kindness and urbanity with which he received us, for the pains which he took in explaining to us any subject which we failed fully to understand, and for the facilities which he afforded us of visiting the various workshops and public works ; also to M. Fouche, 218 artisans’ reports. who acted as our guide and interpreter in our visits to various places of interest, and to whom we feel ourselves deeply indebted for much valuable and interesting information, especially on the practical working of the “ Oonseil des Prud’hommes,” of which body he is an active and esteemed member. To one and all, we return our sincere and heartfelt thanks for their sympathy and assistance to us during a visit which will ever be remembered by us with feelings of pleasure. And last, but not least, we heartily thank those to whose kindness we are indebted for the facilities which we have enjoyed in visiting the Paris Exhibition. JOINERS WORK. By ALEXANDER KAY, JOINER. I N endeavouring to give you a report upon Paris and its Exposition, I feel that I am unable to do justice to the mission, and wish, for the sake of the cause, that it had fallen to the lot of some other person of higher attainments and greater abilities, who would have given a better description than I am able to do. But as I deem it is expected of me to give a report on the joiner trade as a workman, not as a literary man, you will not look forward to find eloquent expressions, hut plain and simple expressions, belonging to the joinery trade. Nearly all nations publish their price of materials, the same as Laxton’s Builders’ Price Book ; but some are issued by the government of France; for instance, the price of materials and rates of wages are regulated by the Prefect of the Seine, at his palace, Hotel de Ville, and the book is sold at 12 francs. Therefore, it is clearly evident that you will be better able to obtain correct information from that source than from any state- ments which I might attempt to set before you. All nations use machinery more or less in the joinery trade. Mr. Anderson, from the Boy al Arsenal, Woolwich, has some time since given such a concise report upon the machinery, that I can add nothing of importance; only a few remarks on a dovetailing machine which arrived there after Mr. Anderson returned to England. It was invented by Samuel Thompson Armstrong, of New York, and patented by him on the 2nd August, 1866. It is constructed of very simple rotary move- ments, requiring but little space and little power, as it may be easily worked by hand or motive power, and is capable of doing as much work as five men at the least. It is capable of preparing good tenons and mortises in great variety, and at any angle, in the same style that dovetails are made by hand, but being more accurate, therefore making stronger work than if done by hand. It is well adapted to cabinet- makers, packing case-makers, and ship-joinery. It is certainly a great acquisition to the joinery trade. Messrs. Thomas Robinson, engineers and millwrights, Rochdale, have purchased the patent for England. Character and Quality of the Work Exhibited by the DIFFERENT NATIONS. America Will always maintain an elevated position amongst the nations of the earth for good joinery. And it need not be wondered at, when we look 220 artisans’ reports on the at the vast resources and inexhaustible supply of the materials which form the materials of the joinery trade. The construction of the drivers’ shed on the locomotive engine is a good representation of what the American joiner can do. It is con- structed of maple, beech, ash, hickory, and black walnut, well selected, and strongly and neatly fitted together. It is my opinion that British joiners have received some very useful and ready methods from the Americans ; and from their superior wood-cutting machines, they must derive great advantages over all other nations. Considering her plenti- ful supply of easily-worked and beautiful timber, of first-rate quality, I feel thoroughly satisfied that no other nation can compete with America in the production of good joinery, at the same cost, with an equal profit. The American joiner has several advantages over those of other nations. His tools are second to none, being superior in many instances to British ; but the British are not slow to adopt the advantages and improvements brought forward by the Americans ; we, however, are supplied with Norway white deal, &c., not so easily worked as the American pine, &c. Therein the Americans have the benefit of the easily-worked timber. The American joiner’s wages are from a dollar and a-half to two dollars per day ; and living is considerably cheaper than in England. They go to work at 7 a.m., partaking of breakfast before going to work, thereby showing that the American women are early risers, by prejDaring a good meal as early as 6 a.m. The food of the American is much the same as British joiners subsist upon, and his clothing about the same also. But as yet the currency is insufficient to supply the means of enterprise, and barter and other modes of payment are adopted by the employers, and have to be accepted by the employes, sometimes to their advantage, and sometimes to their disadvantage ; but on the whole, I think it has some good effects, as it sharpens the discerning faculties, and leads persons to make an acquaintance with business. Piece-work in joinery is not frequently adopted in good firms ; but they have an excellent system for getting work done, especially adopted in cases of emergency. The employer comes forward to the workmen, and exclaims, “ I guess if you will get this piece of workmanship done for me by such an hour, I will give you so much (naming the sum) extra to your wages.” And he keeps his word -with the employes, leaving the management to one of the best constructors, and he always has his work executed by the time specified that the workmen undertake to have it finished at. Austria. The Empire of Austria is well represented in the joinery trade, by the proprietors of some works in the Heinmuhl-gasse, Vienna, Who have exhibited five sets of house finishings, one window with fittings complete. The workmanship is good, being strongly and neatly fitted together, and the deal is fairly selected ; but the hinges and fastenings are not w T ell made and of ancient style. There are also four sets of folding -doors, one set being made of deal and varnished, one being of oak, one of mahogany and polished, and one PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 221 painted white and gilded, all appearing to be strongly and neatly fitted together, the rails being tenoned, and the stiles mortised and glued and wedged together in a workmanlike manner. The gilt mouldings on the mahogany doors might have been more closely fitted to the door. The lock and fastener were of good design, but not well made by the locksmith. If made as British locksmiths would make them for a really good job, they would be first-class fasteners. The Administration of the Forests of the State of Zvirow, Bohemia, exhibits several specimens of building timber, but the beech-wood for the manufacture of tools is excellent, exhibited by Baron Trautenberg, Moor, Hungary. Messrs. J. Weiss and Son, Margarethen-strasse, Vienna, exhibit a case of good joiners’ tools, although in many respects inferior to those made by British toolmakers. The joiner’s bench exhibited by them was realty good in construction and design, having the back-end of the bench moving with a screw as well as the usual screw and fence in front, which is of great utility in holding the piece of wood in any desired position for the joiner’s convenience while he is preparing it for the various articles of joinery. It is specialty adapted for amateur joiners. Messrs. Franz Wertheim and Co., of Vienna, have exhibited a large assortment of joiners’ and cabinetmakers’ tools, &c., got up specialty for the Exposition. They have made some improvements since 1862, when they exhibited a large assortment, but have now borrowed, or rather adopted, without permission, the improvements invented by the British toolmaker. I am informed that they are purchased for the South Kensington Museum. I should recommend the Commissioners to have the small case and its contents placed side by side in the Museum with that Mr. C. Badger exhibited in the Exhibition of 1862, and then it would be seen impartially whether the Austrian or the British workman’s tools were the best adapted for the manufacture of joinery. The tools of the Austrian joiner are cheaper than British. Austria seems to have an excellent supply of the materials for the joinery trade, in the many samples of wood of various kinds exhibited by the various administrations and private firms, viz., planks and sections of good quality of fir, peduncular oak, beech, and maple, veined Hum garian ash, veined walnut-wood. Education is being extensively diffused. There are 25,000 national elementary schools, and various academies, universities, and institutes. The inhabitants of Lombardo-Venetian and Austrian-proper provinces are the best instructed, the Hungarian and Polish provinces the least. The influence of education is easily seen in the vast number of various articles of manufacture exhibited by the Austrians in London, 1862, and Paris, 1867. Belgium. I think Belgium is well represented by several good specimens of joinery in deal and oak. J. H. Goyers, of Louvain, exhibits a monumental pulpit in oak, in the Gothic style ; price 25,000fr. The work is well fitted together and property glued ; and the arrangement of the wood is good, and it is 222 artisans’ reports on tiie finished on a good system by the joiner, clean from the plane, having had recourse to very little scraping or glass-papering to make his work a brilliant finish. H. Pickery exhibits a Gothic altar of oak, in the style of the 14th century, and a Madonna in oak, painted in the Gothic style ; and from the tastefulness displayed by the workman, I take it for granted that he has felt quite as great an interest in the work as did the employer. The Society for the Manufacture of large Organs (hand) exhibited two organs fitted up in oak. The smallest one was prepared in their own manufactory, at Ixel-les-Brussels, and is got up in thorough work- man style by the Belgian joiner. The largest organ was prepared at Colmar, Haut Ithin. The joinery is far from being so well executed, showing the difference between the joiners of the various provincial towns. There is also a sideboard exhibited by Peeters-Vierinck, Malines, of excellent workmanship and design. The carvings display a natural grace of a rare class, and are well executed ; and the joiner has fitted them so well together, without any stain or blemish in any way what- ever, displaying great credit to the Belgian joiner. Education. The joiners of Belgium are in general well educated, as there is an extensive means of obtaining a first-class primary education, thereby opening the intellectual faculties in early youth, and preparing the mind for an extensive sphere of useful knowledge, early adapting themselves to the various industrial pursuits which it is necessary to follow so as to obtain a living, and eradicating that false delicacy and superstition which are the inherent qualities of an uneducated mind. The evidence of this is clearly seen in the architectural beauty of its cities, as there are few European countries which present within the same area so many cities of note and interest to the lovers of antiquities and fine arts as Belgium. Brussels, Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, Liege, Namur, and Louvain, are all places of historic note and architectural beauty. Crime stands at a low ratio, as the mass of the people possess landed property, and have easy means of subsistence. The noble structure Les Halles, with its immense tower, on which watchmen are stationed day and night to look out for fires, is one of the leading features of Bruges, and contains one of tho pleasijig chimes of bells for which Belgium is famed. Bavaria Exhibits her forest products with good effect, principally in agricuL tural implements, tools for the granary, &c., well made, and of wood of superior quality, being so thoroughly free from all defects. There are also displayed specimens of timber for bending purposes, which, being clean and straight in grain, show that Bavaria is well supplied with the materials of joinery. Denmark. J. G. Lund (Copenhagen) exhibits a sideboard and toilet looking-glass, made of ebony, and the borderings round the panels are of tortoise-shell, which is transparent, and the colouring is placed under the tortoise-shell, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 223 which makes it have a beautiful appearance; price, 3,000 francs. Like- wise, a . side of a drawing-room, 27ft. long, made of cedar, oak, and ebony, well made, and displaying great care and taste in the workman. I think the reason of the work being so well executed is simply this ; There is not sufficient work for a cabinet-maker, joiner, or carpenter to give a workman constant employment at the same class of work all the year through ; therefore, he is obliged by necessity to adapt himself to any of the other branches of the trade, and there being no society re- strictions enables a man to work wherever he may be employed, thus giving a good workman a fair chance of receiving a fair compensation for his talents and ability, and giving to every one an impulse to try and make himself a good workman, as he may freely push himself for® ward into any department of any trade by the exercise of his own ener- gies, without the fear of being struck against by the other workmen of the same shop. The ordinary class of workmen receive four francs per day, but they live much cheaper than they could in France, and have several advan- tages which are of great value to them. They are usually fairly edu- cated, as they are compelled to go to school in early youth by the Government ; and if a child is detained at home during school hours by the parents, without a special permission being granted, the parents are fined, and that fine is enforced by Government; and all classes of society are educated together, according to the years of the children, thereby mingling the highest with the lowly in childhood, which makes them respect each other when they grow up to years of discretion, so that a greater familiarity exists between employers and employed. They have societies like our benefit societies, which a man may join if he chooses, as soon as he becomes a journeyman, if he is a sober, in- dustrious man, and to which he pays 12 francs yearly. If any one is taken ill, he is sent to the hospital ; if he does not like to go to the hospital he receives two francs per day and medical attendance ; and when he has been a member of the society twenty-five years he is en- titled to have his cottage rent paid for him. Single men’s lodgings cost them three francs per week, which includes the entire use of a furnished room, with coffee and bread and butter early in the morning, which makes it evident that the housekeeper retires early to rest, so as to be able to rise early in the morning. The societies are protected by Government, and they are compelled to send a statement of their financial position, and any other information required concerning the society, to the mayor of the town to which the society belongs, yearly. The societies of Austria, Belgium, Holland, Prussia, and Denmark are constructed so much alike (varying only in details of government, not in any essential points), that it is almost unnecessary to make any comments. Some of all nations hold their meetings in caf<§s; “ but they do not go there to drink, as the British joiners do,” was the remark of a German carpenter ; “ we go there to transact business, and have a chat amongst ourselves, &c. ; not to drink and smoke, and get tipsy.” A drunkard is always kept at a proper distance ; no one will associate with him. I find that the influence of education displays itself in a prominent 224 artisans’ reports on the form, as their minds are imbued with many subjects of interesting con- versation, of which the basis has been laid in early youth. When they arrive at years of manhood, it gives them a delight to expand the know- ledge they have obtained. Therefore their subjects of conversation are of a different character to the ignorant person who has not had his mind filled with the rudiments of useful knowledge. Prussia. G-. Von der Hude and J. Hennicke (Berlin) exhibit a massive pavilion in Silesian marble. The oak doors, constructed by Schaer and Rehse (Berlin), are of superior workmanship, being constructed of well-seasoned oak, strongly and neatly put together, the stiles being mortised and the rails tenoned, the tenons and mortises being excellently fitted together, and properly glued and wedged ; and then the piece of oak is so well selected in colour and figure, and so well fixed to hide the ends of the tenons, making the whole look as if there had been no tenons or mortises used in the construction, and giving that delicacy of finish, leaving nothing to offend the eye, so that, in whatever position it is examined, the eye sees only a beautiful side of figured oak ; and the lock and hinges were such as to give the joiner a great impulse to use all his knowledge to make a first-class job of fixing them, which he has really done. J. 0. Luders (Goerlitz) exhibits a railway -carriage and luggage-van, well made, upon the same style as British workmen put their carriage work together; and the manner in which it is finished convinces me that it was done by joiners who thoroughly knew how to make a good piece of joinery at a moderate cost, it being done with tools adapted to the purpose, and kept in good working order. I take it for granted that there is a good feeling existing between the cabinet-makers and joiners of Prussia (as Schaer and Rehse have constructed the cabinet and joinery work of the pavilion), which has a great influence in pro- ducing good workmanship at a reasonable price. The benefits and in- fluences of education are obviously visible in the character and quality of their manufactures. The system of education in Prussia is good, being compulsory, as in Denmark. They have six universities, numerous preparatory schools, 15,000 school teachers, schools in every village, and 2j per cent, of the revenue is devoted to public education. Russia. The cabinets and other fittings were made of deal, well selected, and arranged with taste and care by the workmen. There seems to have been an unlimited supply of first-rate quality deal, well seasoned, as nearly all their cabinets, &c., were made of it. The panels, &c., where it was necessary to join two pieces together, were so well selected, that many persons would have thought that it was all one piece of timber, the different variations in the grain of wood being so slight. The thrashing and winnowing machines were very well constructed by the joiners, and firmly put together, with very little variation from the British system ; and the specimens of furniture were well fitted and properly glued. The many specimens of "wood exhibited by the various PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 225 administrations show that Russia, especially on the side of the Baltic, has an almost inexhaustible supply of the material on which the joiner so much depends. The well-selected pine of Finland, free from all knots and defects, is a great encouragement to the joiner to make the quality of his workmanship equal to the quality of the timber ; and he seems to have been fully aware that varnished timber is superior in finish where there is no glass-paper used, the avoidance of which not only imparts a brighter finish, but is also a greater saving of time and labour, although it necessarily compels the workman to be more careful in the execution of his work, and the keeping of his tools in good order. Certainly the pine from the Gulf of Finland is most admirably adapted for any class of timber buildings, whether exposed to the atmosphere or not. I believe it is not generally known, but such is the case, that it costs less for labour, and the price per foot is less than oak, and it is more durable ; it endures the test of time much better, as the turpentine protects it when the oak is mouldering into dust. The Russian cottages of wood erected in the Exposition grounds are well made and simply fitted together, and will not be likely to decay for a good number of years, but I do not think they could be used with advantage in Britain. I say so, as I am well acquainted with a cottage on the Gordon Castle estate, North Britain, built in the Swiss style. It has been built about 50 years, and has required but little expense to keep it in a good state of preservation. It is constructed on the lap principle, with boards laid horizontally, and cut on a diagonal form, fixed to pieces of wood Gin. by 4in., lathed and plastered, the Gin. space between board- ing outside and lathing inside being filled with moss or lichen ; some are done with sawdust, either of which prevents damp and cold air from entering the interior, altogether making a very comfortable cottage. Education is given at the expense of the State. There are 7 univer- sities, 51 gymnasia or provincial head-schools, and district seminaries in every part of Russia. Spain Is fairly represented in her forest products, — white pine, oak, walnut, holly, lime-tree, &c. The cabinets, &c., for the display of goods were made principally of oak of good quality. The workmanship in joinery was solidly put together, and well finished on the usual system adopted by joiners in the nineteenth century who have adopted progressive advancement. I hope the bookcase in walnut wood is a fair representation of what the Spanish joiner can do, exhibited by J. Serra-y-Argenter, of Bar- celona. Norway Exhibits little in joinery, but shows that she is rich in the principal materials used by the joiner and carpenter. The joists, planks, and battens exhibited by the Association of the Sawmills of Fredrikstad are well worthy of attention. A. H. Kjoer and Co. exhibit specimens of manufactured and rough timber, very good. Q 228 artisans’ reports on the It seemed to me that there must be a great supply of useful timber in the district of Fredrikstad, from the fact that there were seven exhibi- tors from that quarter. Bergen, the capital of Norway, has few stone buildings, the houses being chiefly built of wood, except the castle, cathedral, &c. The export duty on timber is 10 to 15 per cent., and the import duty on British joinery is comparatively high, so much so that it is almost prohibited. Sweden. The beams and planks of the Skoenvik sawmills are certainly well worthy of attention, also those from the Edsvalla sawmills of Gr. A. Wall, Oarlstad, and B. Fisk, Hudilesvall. Their specimens of planks fully confirm the opinion I have always heard, that Swedish timber was superior to Norway. Portugal. The cabinets and cases for the display of the various articles of manu- facture, and the specimens of joinery done by machinery exhibited in the Exhibition, were very fair joinery, but leave room for great improvement. Portugal is well supplied with the materials of joinery, as the fir, oak, chesnut, and beech, on the sides of the mountains in the provinces of Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon, are of fair quality. Although these properly belong to Spain, there ought to be an easy communication. But she has an independent supply in her colonies. I he greatest object of in- dustry in wood seemed to be wooden shoes. It seems to me that there must be something wrong internally in Portugal. They seem to have lost that energy which in former years enabled them to compete with other nations. Education. — The system of imparting knowledge is defective, like- wise few opportunities of acquiring knowledge. There is only one university, at Coimbra, founded a.d. 1291, and about 800 elementary schools. I think the religion of Portugal is a great drawback to the development of industry, as it is stated that every fifteenth person be- longs to the sacerdotal order. I must therefore come to the conclusion that education would be a greater benefit to Portugal than her religion. There are 180 monasteries and 150 nunneries, and the whole population Boman Catholic. France. The cabinets or cases for the display of the various articles of manu- facture are not so well made as those of other nations. The joiners seem to have still retained the style of the fifteenth century. The fram- ing is mortised and tenoned, but not well fitted ; instead of properly gluing and wedging, they only pin their framing together, which is a bad system, as the wedging is done on the end of the frame, and is often placed so that the edge is not seen ; but the side of the stile through which the pin is driven is always seen, and, as the stile contracts, the end of the pin is left protruding ; it takes more time to prepare a pin than it does a vredge, and does not make so strong nor so neat a piece of work. The panels are badly selected, and of second-class oak ; there PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 227 seems to have been no idea of putting two pieces together so as to appear as one piece ; they were also badly got up, the scraper being freely used, and then glass -papered, which makes varnished wood have a mossy appearance. They still retain the natural colour of the oak. The varnish used by the French does not darken the oak as is done by the varnish used in Great Britain. There were some of the cases good joinery, but it was explained to me that they were of British manufacture, having been prepared in London for the display of goods in the Exhibition of 1862 in London, and had been retained and fitted up for the Paris Exposition. The cabinet and fittings (Class XXIX., Gallery 4,) were from the town of Rheims, and were of superior joinery to that prepared in Paris. Maylon, Baptiste, and Co. (Toulouse), exhibit a set of door finishing, made of Archangel deal, and varnished. The panels are joined together, two pieces being required to make the width, but were badly selected, the sap -edge being visible in the centre of the panel. The stiles and rails were mortised and tenoned together and pinned, the end of the pin being prominently visible. The architraves are fixed with iron screws, the heads of the screws being all exposed, which gives the piece of joinery a very unpleasant appearance, altogether resembling a piece of very bad joinery. But I do not think the joiner is to blame for the bad system of joinery in France, as the Societe des Compagnons Passants Charpen tiers exhibit two models of geometrical roof, well designed and neatly fitted together. There is also another piece of workmanship, designed and executed by the Society — a Temple, for which they received a bronze medal. I think they deserve to have it purchased, as a compensation for their time and the expense they have incurred, which have been paid by the members of the Society. It appears to me that the Society of Car- penters think they are not fairly dealt with in Paris, and they have adopted a convincing method of showing their dissatisfaction. They have displayed great diligence and perseverance, and firmness of purpose, in the erection of the Temple. It is designed in the Corinthian style of architecture, being surrounded on the exterior with Corinthian columns, with filled-in capitals, very neatly carved and carefully and neatly fitted together, the workmanship of all the parts being really good. F. Richstaedt exhibits a double-fronted bed-room wardrobe and mirror. It is well executed by the joiner, and well deserves the prize medal. E. Knecht, 45, Rue de Babylone, Paris, exhibits a gun-case, &c., the joinery being good solid work, and well finished. Model houses for the workmen in the grounds of the Exposition. — The design is capable of great improvement in my opinion. On enter- ing the doorway you pass into the dining-room, 7 ft. by 7 ft. 6 in., through which you have to pass to the kitchen and bed-rooms, 12 ft. by 10 ft. and 12 by 11 ft. 6 in., kitchen 6 ft. by 4 ft. The door of the w.c. opens within 6 ft. of the kitchen range, and close to the table on which the cooking is prepared for the range. A person sleeping in No. 1 bed- room, passing to w.c., has to pass through No. 2 bed-room, through dining-hall, and kitchen ; a nice passage for an invalid. The joinery was really third-class throughout, and the construction of the stairs was 228 artisans’ reports on the faulty, I think, leaving great room for improvement everywhere in the construction of the workman’s habitation. The means of education are ample in France. There are 36,000 ele- mentary schools for boys, 16,000 for girls, 73 normal schools for teachers, 873 boarding-schools, 94 for superior instruction, 322 district high schools, and 41 royal colleges. The government schools of art are free to the students after paying an entrance-fee of 2frs. Boman Catholicism predominates, there being 30,540,920 Roman Catholics, and only 3,000,000 Protestants. Great Britain and Ireland. British joinery holds its place amongst the nations of the world, al- though she has to import the materials which are the component parts of the joinery trade from America, Russia, Norway, Sweden, Prussia, Spain, Hindostan, Australia, &c. The cabinets or cases for the display of the various articles of manu- factures are made of ebony, oak, mahogany, &c. They are executed in a tasteful style, combined with that solidity which is second to none in the Exposition, and superior to most other countries. The cabinets of Nottingham, Yorkshire, Huddersfield, &c., display joinery to the credit of the British joiner. They are substantially built, and of superior finish, with little labour. There is a large framed case for the display of carpets, by a Leeds manufacturer, which is made of a most beautiful piece of oak, nearly resembling chequered maple in figure. It does great credit to the joiner who executed the work. The arrangement of the door, opening either at right hand or left at pleasure, is an acquisition to the joinery trade, and is well suited for hospitals and the rooms of invalids, &c. It is well wmrtliy of attention, as it might be adopted in many places where swing doors are used. Invented by Mr. J. P. Lacey, of Withdean-hall, Brighton. Messrs. Clerihew and Lascelles, of Bunhill-row, Finsbury, exhibit various articles of joinery in the testing-house ; sashes and sash frames, doors and finishings, staircase and mouldings, all worked by machinery, being only put together and cleaned up by hand. The mouldings are without glass-paper or scraper ; and, from the character and quality of the work, and the prices at which they produce such articles, must con- vince any French joiner that he is far behind the British joiner, as it convinces me. Persons, when they require joinery work, wrong them- selves when they go to foreign countries for joinery, as there is none to excel, and little to equal, our own. James Lamb, cabinet manufacturer, &q„, of Manchester, exhibits a book-case in light oak, inlaid with purple, black, amboyna, and other wood ; mounted with polished and engraved brass hinges, locks, tfcc., in the mediaeval style, which ought to convince all practical and intelligent persons what the British joiner can do in library finishing, &c. British Joiners’ Tools. E. A. and W. Greenslade, Bristol, exhibit the only case containing a few specimens of joiners’ tools. It is a poor representation of the tools PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 229 used by British joiners in London and many of the provincial towns. It is likely to do injury to the British joiner in this sense of the question. All other cases of joiners’ tools, both of French and Austrian manufac- ture, were got up specially for display in the Exposition (if such was the case, which is supposed by all visitors to the Exposition who take an interest in joiners’ tools) ; but the Messrs. Greenslade have made but a poor display. There are many of our British tool-makers able and wil- ling to risk the enterprise of sending a case of tools properly got up, and of a class far superior in utility to the joiner of any nation, but cost- ing the joiner more money than the tools of any other nation, although repaying the British joiner for his outlay, and benefiting the employer by causing a great saving of time and labour, and economy of material. If such was not the case, would the British joiner spend his money, when he could have tools at one-tenth the value ? I do not think that there are many joiners who do not require all their wages for the sup- port of themselves and families. I know that there are many who work at all times they have the chance, making tools for their own use, in nineteen instances out of twenty, because they cannot afford to purchase them. But some persons say they can make a good piece of joinery with inexpensively got-up joiners’ tools; but to the delicate observant eye the work got up by the indifferent tools has not that brilliancy of finish, and has taken more time and labour to execute it, and is never executed with that taste which is done by the joiner who takes a plea- sure in keeping his tools tidy and in good working order. And as the British joiner meets with many varieties of wood, he is obliged to have his tools so constructed as to be easily suited to the difference in quality of the timber, &c. Price List of A FEW OF THE Ordinary Tools USED by Joiners. British. Austrian. French. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. Jack plane . . ... 0 4 6 ... 0 1 10 • •• 0 2 8 Trying plane . . ... 0 6 0 ... 0 Q o 4 0 3 2 Smoothing plane, 3s. to 1 7 0 ... 0 1 7 AM 0 1 8 Debate plane . . • • • 0 2 6 ... 0 0 9 0 0 10 Bead plane . . • •• 0 3 0 ... 0 0 10 0 0 10 Brace .... • • • 0 7 6 ... 0 1 2 • • • 0 1 4 Hand saw . . . 0 6 6 ... 0 2 5 • • • 0 2 0 Lock saw . . . • • • 0 0 6 ... 0 0 8 • • • 0 0 6 Square .... ... 0 3 0 ... 0 0 2 ... 0 0 4 And all others in proportion. I do not know how the Austrian and French tool-makers can subsist, as I am quite sure British tool-makers are far from being a well-paid class of artisans. The foreign tool-makers must be in a very bad plight indeed. The British joiner’s living costs him — a cup of coffee in the early morning, and bread and butter, 2d. Breakfast : tea per pint, 2id. ; coffee per pint, lid.; bread and butter, lid.; one egg, lid.; total, 4id. ; he cannot afford more. Dinner: meat, 6d.; vegetables, 2d.; dessert, 2d, 230 ARTIZANS REPORTS ON THE pint of ale, 3d.; total, Is. Id. Tea, 4M-; supper, 8d.; tlie day’s food, 2s. 8d., or 18s. 8d. per week; 5s. for rentals. 6d. for laundress ; a week’s bare keep being £1 5s. 2d. for a single man ; he lias not much left for a wife and children, after he has taken for his clothing out of the re- mainder, and a few tools always wanted. Paris Buildings. At the Palais de Justice, in course of erection, the joinery is being fixed in the style that was constructed in North Britain in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. They are making the doors and partition- framing of oak, I 2 inch in thickness ; between official rooms and corri- dors, in many of the principal places, painted. The first joiner that attracted my attention was a smart-looking and active man, about twentyffive years of age. He was employed fixing iron plates, forming three sides of a square, on the top and bottom of some oak casement sashes, the centre piece being two inches longer than the rails, the two sides of the iron plates being 1ft. 6in. long by Hin., and sunk level with the rails and styles of the sash, for the purpose of keeping the sash together, and it really wanted it. The frame looked well enough outside, but when I examined the tenons and mortises, they were so badly fitted, that neither glue nor lead would have been of any use, and it had none. His chisels were made like masons’ scab- bling tools or ship carpenters’ caulking irons. He was working very diligently, but the interpreter, M. Fouch6, told me he was a blacksmith. He was making little progress, his tools being badly adapted for the work he was executing. I found then that the locksmiths fitted all the locks and hinges on the doors, windows, &c., which in a measure accounted for the insufficient and clumsy nature of their fixing throughout the different buildings in Paris. The locks were all box-locks, and badly made. The hinges were likewise bad, and of ancient design. The library of the building (Palais de Justice) was fitted up with fittings of oak of good quality. The fixing was bad and unsightly, the heads of the iron screws and nails being all visible. The oak had been scraped and glass-papered where it was to be finished in varnish. The ceiling was artistically designed, being fitted up in panels, the margins and straight-mouldings being constructed of oak, clumsily fitted together, the figured cornices beings of papier-mach6, and all painted to resemble oak. The flooring is all laid diagonally, in lengths about 2ft 6in. by Sin. in width, by lin. in thickness, tongued and grooved and fixed to the joists by a nail being driven through the underside of the groove, a system well-known to the joiners of North Britain. The New Imperial Library is close upon completion ; it is well-designed. I think it a masterly piece of architecture, being so well constructed for usefulness and beauty of design, without great decorations or embellishments, and excellently constructed for light, both for sun-light by day and gas-light by night. I was informed that the architect sent his practical designer and draughtsman, but more like a British clerk of vrorks, to the British Museum, to see what improvements he could pick up ; and I think he has performed his mission well, to the credit of himself and his employer. FAR IS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 231 The joinery required for the finishing and fitting up of the Imperial Library is made of oak and American pine. The joiners’ work had to be done by the day, and not by contract, as they wanted it well done. The framing, &c., appears to be solidly put together, but has not that brilliant finish that ought to have been imparted if the joiners had used proper smoothing planes, and dispensed with the use of scraper and glass-paper. The fixing was none of the neatest, nails being used and covered over with mastic, like common putty, only a little coloured. The Souvenir du Mus6e des Archives has likewise been lately finished. The quality of the oak is good, and workmanship fair ; but the joiners seemed to have no idea how to repair a defect in the timber, or a bruise, in a proper manner. Being asked in the British Workman’s Hall in the Exposition my opinion of the joinery in the New Imperial Library and Hotel de Ville, while delivering up the special permissions which were given to me and party to obtain admission for us to these noble edifices, I replied truth- fully, that they were the best joinery which I had seen in Paris, but were not equal to the joinery in London Government buildings, such as the Houses of Parliament, British Museum, and the new Indian and Foreign Offices in course of erection, neither for solidity .of workmanship, nor beauty of finish ; for in those buildings all the architraves, &c., were finished without a screw or nail being seen in any way whatever, and well fixed too ; such not being the case in their buildings, where the heads w T ere either obviously visible, or punched in and covered with mastic, like British common putty. The Hotel de Ville is the official residence of the Prefet de la Seine. It is elegantly fitted up with theatrical decoration, being beautifully gilded, and the ceilings are of rare paintings in fresco style, the walls being decorated with artificial flowers. The Corinthian columns of papier-mach6, decorated with evergreens, have a very deceiving effect, as they have the appearance of substantiality, which they really are not. The flooring is constructed with many defects, the Brussels carpets being insufficient to keep the foot from detecting the flooring yielding under the pressure. They have made an attempt at introducing mortise locks, but they are of rude construction. The hinges are likewise of rude construction and ancient order, the whole of the joinery being con- structed like British theatrical joinery.* The Palace of the Tuileries has large state apartments, and richly deco- rated with carvings in oak, beautiful gildings, and several fine frescoes ; but there is not displayed that substantiality in the joinery that there is in Wind- sor Castle state apartments, although larger and more profusely decorated. To my idea, the effect is greatly spoiled by the rude style of fixing which the Parisian joiner has adopted, the nail and screw-head being visible in the elaborate gildings and carvings, and the unsightly box -lock stuck on the outside of the door, and the end of the pin protruding, which takes the place of the wedge in keeping the framing of the door together ; and the casements of the windows being so constructed that both sashes must be opened if ventilation is necessary ; but they have a first-class * The writer appears to allude to the temporary portion of the building. — Ed. 232 artisans’ reports on the sash-fastener and a secure one ; as in the ordinary class of sash-fasteners any person from the inside is able to open it, hut not so with their style. It is locked with a small, lock and key at the bottom, which are almost invisible ; so if the housekeeper lock this fastener, no one can have egress from the interior of the room. The locks and fasteners of all kinds exhibited by M. Vachette, sen., in the Exposition are well made in the style ; but I am unable to ex- plain why they do not adopt the mortise lock. I could not find one of French manufacture in the Exposition. The Palace of the Louvre, being the National Gallery of France, con- tains a vast number of paintings and several other articles of interest. The rooms are fitted in oak, richly carved ; but the beauty is greatly marred by the rude manner in which the joinery is prepared and fixed, being roughly planed, and the heads of screws and nails used in fixing being clearly seen. Being executed in a.d. 1559, it might be said to be ancient; but in my opinion the joinery of France has made no im- provement from that date up to the present time. I inquired the reason why they did not adopt improvements. They replied that they kept up the style ; but I could not see what neatness of workmanship had to do with style in its purity, as neatness of workmanship, in whatever sphere of trade, only adds elegance to style. On completion of the erection of the grand structure, the Prefect of the Seine ordered a banquet, to which he invited all the workmen who had assisted to raise the noble edifice. Such a mode of procedure on the part of the Government, assisted by the architect, has been money well spent, as it has given the workmen the convincing proof that their interests are respected by the Govern- ment. Not only in that circumstance alone, but they make many pur- chases of articles manufactured by French workmen, although not of that superior style and finish which they would obtain from various foreign manufacturers. In the building of the Conseil des Prud’hommes the joinery is truly bad, although recently constructed, being made of unseasoned oak, badly joined together by the French joiners. The work does little credit to the workmen or to the contractors, as any person can see through the doors at the mitres of the mouldings, the joinery being far from in character with the masonry ; the same being the case in all the other buildings in Paris. Paris Joinery Workshops. The joinery manufactory of Messrs. Petit- Jean and Cavet, by the fortifications, on the bank of the Seine, is well supplied with machinery, cheaply got up, but mostly of rude construction, and the work produced is as rude as the machinery. They had several upright saws for cutting ornaments in wood, such as tracery, bracketing, &c., the spring for pro- ducing the back motion being made of ash, and constructed as British coach- smiths make springs for carriages, waggons, &c. Their moulding and rebating machine is worked on a vertical motion, with vertical cut- ters, and executes very rough joinery, the feeding motion being of bad principle, and not keeping the piece of wood steady to the cutters. They use the band-saw for tenoning, but, there being no guide but PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 233 the workman’s hand, make very had tenons, and nothing to cut the shoulders, the joiner having to do them by hand. They had a very good mortising machine for making mortises ready - finislied, the core being taken clean out and the ends squared, and, with very little ingenuity by the workman, would make the wedge -room at the same time. The stock of timber was really second-class oak and deal, and the quality of the workmanship did not give me a favourable opinion of the joiners. There were about a dozen joiners at work. They were making casement sashes, &c., of oak and deal. One of the joiners was finishing a casement sash and frame of deal. After planing with his smoothing-plane, he used his scraper and glass-paper. The frame and sash were such as in London are used by speculating builders. I asked the man what length of time was required to make that sash and frame. He replied, “ Ah! we have to do the work so much more quickly than you have to do in England.” He had been a little over two days, with the use of the machinery, in completing the sash and frame. I was obliged to repress a smile, as any British joiner, if the timber had been cut to size and brought to his bench, would easily complete it in one day, and of superior workmanship, both as to strength and brilliancy of finish, without the aid of machinery, scraper, or glass-paper. They had a working foreman to about every six workmen. He was diligently at work, wearing cap, trousers, and blouse, being sans necktie, sans shoes, sans stockings. His trousers were made of a material such as is used by British ship-carpenters for jackets to work in, to keep their shirts clean. His tools were like his apparel. He had no hand-saws (only such saws as our firewood-cutters use), and his bench tools were anything but creditable to a good joiner. He told me his wages were six francs per day of ten hours, and the ordinary joiner from four to five francs per day of ten hours. But they usually worked seventy-seven hours per week ; that is, seven days of ten hours, and seven hours more. His wages, in English money, were £1 13s. 6d. per week. M. Havet, Sen. (Rue de Douai). — The joiners’ shops were much superior to those of Messrs. Petit- Jean and Oavet, on the banks of the Seine, and the machinery of a better class, producing better joinery. The principal of these machines was a planing and moulding machine, worked by a horizontal motion, the cutting -knives being also worked horizontally. They were preparing oak mouldings from oak grown upon the Pyrenees. They were far from being well finished, requiring a great amount of hand-labour with scraper and glass-paper, the favourite finishing tools of a French joiner. So much is glass-paper used, that M. Havet has a machine expressly for cutting the glass-paper for distribution to the workmen. They had an excellent assortment of wooden cramps, being the property of M. Havet (I visited several minor factories, and found them all to be well supplied with joiners’ tools and cramps of all classes, but the property of the employer), the joiners’ tools being of a rude class and of ancient order. There were several machines for the prepa- ration of flooring. The flooring is laid diagonally, in lengths of about 2 ft. 6 in., the machine marking the tongue and groove, without altering the motion. The machinery was well kept by the machine workman. 234: artisans’ reports on the The joiners work twelve hours per day for six days, being two hours overtime, and half a day on Sunday, if they choose, but the masters do not compel them to do so. If they work all night, which sometimes happens, they are paid double after ten to six o’clock next morning. In some instances the architects, when they let the contracts, stipulate that the work is not to be carried on during Sunday. M. Theodore Canrouget, M. Havet’s staircase builder, I found to be a very intelligent, industrious workman, and quite open to adopt any improvement. The interpreter told him that I considered the workman- ship not good. He got quite offended, and told the interpreter that he would defy any man to make a better job. I had then to explain to him that his hand-work was good, but the system he adopted was ex- pensive, requiring a great quantity of timber, and a greater amount of labour than was actually necessary, and not making so strong a staircase, which seemed to take him by surprise. I endeavoured to explain to him the orthogonal or square -cut system, brought to such a state of per- fection by William Perry, staircase builder to Messrs. William Lawrence and Sons, Lambeth, which he seemed to comprehend a little, and desired the interpreter to thank me, and wished me to call on him again. I then endeavoured to show him how to build his string round a cylinder, and to block and glue his steps to make them more solid, which he seemed to see the great benefit of. He has to cut the string for the well-hole for his stairs out of a solid block of timber. The string was 3 in. thick, 11 in. deep, with a scroll of diminutive size attached. He told me that the work was mostly done by the piece ; he had eight francs per step, besides the use of the machinery, which I considered was a good price for the work. He conducted me to another workman, who, he said, belonged to the firm. He takes framing work by the piece, and employs other men to help him ; he was mitreing oak mouldings, 1 in. by l|in. ; he had to use a mitre-block, on the system British joiners do for architraves, &c., and adopting the most roundabout system or method, which would not be used by any good joiner. I asked him to show me his best finishing plane ; he showed me one costing 2frs., and then in- troduced the scraper and glass-paper. His other tools were numerous, but were of such rude manufacture, that if any British joiner presented them in any of our British workshops he would be considered as a very indifferent workman. M. Theodore Canrouget came out of the works with me, and took me to his place of resort, which was a caf6 close by the works, where he treated the interpreter and me to wine, and accepted a vice versa from me. I asked if they would object to me coming to work in M. Havet’s workshops ; he replied that we would not be able to understand each other. I replied, if I learned the French language. 0, they would be happy to welcome me, as from the questions I had asked and answered, he was sure I was a practical joiner. When they require a rise in wages they all combine together and go to the employers, and if they think their demands reasonable they are generally granted; if not, they all combine throughout Paris and go to the Prefet de la Seine, Hotel de Ville, and represent their wants to him ; he then summonses the employers within forty-eight hours to meet him, and explains the wants of the employes. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 235 The employers represent to him that he must alter the schedule of the price-hook ; he then makes arrangements for altering the price schedules and sends information to the workmen that they will have their desires on and after the date he is able to alter the price lists, and it is then done with, the workmen seeing that their interests are fairly considered in a proper business manner. r I he wages paid by M. Havet to his workmen. — M. Theodore Canrouget, staircase builder, received on day-work 8frs. per day, and made more by piece-work, and had his rent paid and a yearly gratuity of 250frs. I com- puted his wages to be actually about £2 15s. per week, besides his over- time. He said the other contracting man was nearly the same, and the or- dinary workmen averaged 5|frs. per day. Living costs them about 2|frs. (about Is. 9^d.) per day, and a furnished room 3frs. per week, or 2s. did. per week. His attire was clean and neat, and well-suited for the class of work, being a tweed cap, a blouse over his vest, and a pair of drab- coloured cord trousers, and good shoes and stockings, &c., a class of clothing, I consider, far preferable for the comfort of the working joiner to that used by joiners in London. The foreman over all was dressed in a blouse reaching down to his knees, sans necktie, a cap, light shoes, and stockings, bustling about with great diligence, the workmen seem- ing to be quite at home in the establishment. But the effects of the system of piece-work, and the many hours that the workmen are en- gaged, are clearly seen to be bad, both in the quantity and quality of the joinery produced by the workman. There is evidence of the truth of a motto inscribed in the Kensington Museum, “ How can a man, who is continually following the plough, acquire knowledge ; knowledge cometh by leisure and that knowledge is powerful, no sensible man can deny, and every thorough business man will acknowledge. On entering the British Workman’s Hall in the Exposition, after visiting the joinery manufactories of Messrs. Petit- Jean and Cavet, and M. Havet, I was asked by a Frenchman — “ Did I net think that M. Havet could produce better joinery for the British commission, at a less cost, than any of the London manufacturers could.” Wishing to avoid giving offence, I had recourse to the anecdote of the broom-makers. The one asked the other how it was that he was able to sell his brooms cheaper than he, when he stole the materials of which they were made. “ Ah,” replied the other, “ opposition is the life of trade ; I steal mine ready made.” M. Havet must be like the latter. The meaning was fully comprehended, and afforded a little amusement. I should like very much that the British commission would take a piece of joinery of the same class, and give it to four joinery manufacturers, two in London and two in Paris, say Messrs. Geo. Smith and Co., Messrs. Trollope and Sons; Messrs. Petit- Jean and Cavet, and M. Havet; and carefully note all the circumstances, such as time required in all the departments, the quality and finish of the work as it leaves the machines and the joiner’s bench. If done impartially, I have no doubt that they will agree with me in thinking that they unjustly affix (in the eyes of Frenchmen) an unmerited disgrace on the employers and the joiners of Great Britain. But I am well aware that the joiners of Great Britain could produce, with the same ease and more comfort to themselves, a far greater 236 ARTISANS* REPORTS ON THE quantity of joinery than they do, and are willing to do, if they were civilly and fairly treated by the employers, as is the case with American, French, and, in some instances, with British joiners. In America, when any piece of workmanship is wanted before the usual time required to finish it, the men are promised so much extra if they finish it by such a time. It is done, and often cheaper than it would have cost at the usual day wages. It always answers well where this is done, even in Great Britain. It is always adopted at one of our large paper manufactories ; whenever they want any extra work done, often by night, besides paying extra wages, they supply plenty of refresh- ments, in the shape of bread and cheese, bread and meat, and two pints of ale to each man. I have seen Messrs. Vernon and Sons, of Liverpool, get more work done for a pint of beer than they would have done if they had offered a day’s wages extra; and some of the London small employers often remark that by giving a little refreshment to a workman when he is at work, he gets more work done than he would do for a shilling, and the workman appreciates the employer’s act of kindness, and he will do the work allotted to him in a proper workman -like manner, in nineteen cases out of every twenty. I may give an instance. The preparation of the quadrangle in the new Indian Offices, for the Sultan’s fete, was a work of great interest to the workmen as well as those who had the management. It was well arranged, and executed by the managers and the workmen in a short space of time ; but I know that had a slight measure of refreshment been meted out to the workmen, especially to those who were labouring on their knees, planing the ball-room floor, with the promise of a re- ward if they were done by a certain hour, it would have been done several hours earlier than it was. And I am sure the noble Lords would have enjoyed the fete equally well, if this had been done. When they left work for half- an -hour, at ten o’clock p.m., to get some refresh- ments at the ale-house, &c., many of them had no money to purchase anything with, and returned to work to midnight without having tasted a morsel from 5.30 p.m., and some from noon ; and on the night of the entertainment, more than one hundred joiners alone worked from noonday to 10 p.m. without having eaten or tasted a morsel of bread or drunk a cup of tea, and then were grumbled at by some persons who knew not how hard they had worked, and then hustled out of the build- ing by a police-officer. I do not think that that is the way to manage the British joiner. I am sure that the British joiners will never be ruled by coercion, neither directly nor indirectly ; but I feel as- sured, if the British Chief Commissioner of Works was to act as the Prefet of the Seine did on the completion of the edifice of the Louvre, I think I am right in saying that £1,000 spent as he did would have the influence of adding far more to the wealth of Great Britain than all the £20,000 which was said to have been spent on the Sultan’s f6te, of which every British workman is proud to speak, as displaying Britain’s glory, unequalled by any other nation of the world. In the course of the erection of Charing -cross Kail way -bridge, a gentleman remarked to one of the carpenters how wonderful that they were able to raise the beams of iron of so great weight, and to place PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 237 them in their respective positions. “ Ah ! ” replied the carpenter, “ only tell us, sir, where to get the money for doing it, and we will soon place it on the top of St. Paul’s.” There was a great force of truth in the remark. There is plenty of talent in the populace of Great Britain : and if it was properly cultivated and nourished, there would he no nation to surpass the British in industry ; and Brother Jonathan would have to bestir himself to keep pace in the march of industry. Another point is that if the capitalist would look direct to his own interest, he would see that for every £100 worth of joinery he sends to be manufactured in a foreign land he is sending a British joiner to the workhouse, and he has to maintain him, although indirectly. Why is it that Britain cannot do without workhouses and France can ? Why have we not a Council of Conciliation, as France has ? Why is it that Britons enjoy the Sabbath, and in many instances keep it as a day set apart for worshipping God, and France does not generally ? On seeing the vast concourse of people enjoying themselves at the fetes of St. Cloud, on the evening of Sunday, 22nd September, 1867, and looking so happy, I could not entertain the idea that those noble living mortals were all to be lost simply because they do not worship God in churches, as Britons do. But, should Britons spend the Sabbath as Frenchmen do ? I say, God forbid ! and ask every Briton to do whatever lies in his power to enable the French populace to have a whole Sabbath to worship God, as God may guide the dictates of his conscience so to do. It will be a treasure of incalculable value to the population of France, and will be a great propeller to the march of industry, in which they are making rapid strides. Trade Societies of Joiners and Carpenters in France. There are in Paris five societies ; two of them are nearly like the British unions or amalgamations. They are the exhibitors of the two buildings in the Exposition which I have before mentioned. They have branches in the most important towns in France. Their aim is to find employment for their members ; and their occupation was, when travel- ling on foot in France, to fight with the fellows of other societies they happened to meet on the roads. Thanks to the railways, these oppor- tunities of men handling each other are now very rare. One of these associations, which may be termed “ the travelling fellows,” numbers in Paris about 2,000 ; the second, “ the liberty men,” about 1,200. To have the right of existence they are constituted as benefit societies. Their members deeply regret the fanaticism and abuses of times past, but are always enemies to the opposite association. A man to be a member of either must be a bachelor ; as soon as he marries, he is ex- cluded from the fellowship of the society, without any compensation. Two other societies are benefit societies, numbering in the vdiole 500 members living in Paris ; each member pays 2fr. per month contribution to the society. In case of being sick or wounded, he receives 2fr. per day. Nothing is paid when out of work; but as they are all picked men they are well known, and are almost always busily employed and well paid. The last, the fifth, is also a benefit society. It is composed princi- 238 artisans’ reports on the pally of young men wlio do not wish to interfere with the other societies, which so closely resemble our trade unions. This society is to be found in all the principal cities of France, — such as Rouen, Lyons, Bordeaux, Nantes, Marseilles, &c. ; and whenever a member wishes to travel, he is protected by the same laws as the others that are protected by the Government of the country, and is admitted into the other societies as a local fellow, and enjoys the same rights and advantages. If he pay 2fr. per month, he receives his 2fr. per day if he is sick or wounded. They take lessons in drawing, in schools supported at the expense of those societies, particularly in the winter-time, in the evening. Their meetings of the members are generally held in their school-rooms, not in gin palaces ; and I was informed that they had received valuable counsel and assistance from members following the profession of the law (known in this country as solicitors), enabling them to work without infringing the laws of the country, so that they never commit themselves so as to be punishable by law. The Conseil des Prud’hommes Was originated and established a.d. 1673, for the settlement of trade disputes by men elected by the practical tradesmen from amongst them- selves. In the upper court, termed the Chamber of Commerce, they have two large paintings, one representing “ La Promulgation de I Ordinance du Commerce,” and the other “ L’lnstitution des Juges et Conseils.” The modes of procedure adopted by the Conseil des Prud’hommes, when a difference of opinion arises between persons following an in- dustrial profession or occupation, is this : — The person who considers himself the injured party proceeds to the Council of Conciliation, and represents his supposed wrongs, when he pays threepence. A summons is then issued to the defendant, when both have to make their appear- ance at the Council of Conciliation. 'I he time allowed is usually a day or two; often there is only one day (no more) between the issuing of the summons and the appearance. If the parties do not agree at the Council of Conciliation, which is sometimes the case (although nine cases out of every ten are settled there), the plaintiff pays into court 2fr., and they are both summoned to the judgment-hall, but they may appear and have their case examined by a councillor at their option. This appearance is not compulsory, but is recommended, and usually takes place the week after the attempt at conciliation, when each is ready to read his statement, frequently on the morning of the day on which the judgment has to be pronounced, which is the first Wednesday after the attempt at conciliation. When the parties appear in the judgment-hall, they find ten members of the Conseil des Prud’hommes seated on a raised platform, the president sitting in the centre, when they courteously and with great familiarity hear the statements each has to make. In some cases the matter is so clear and evident that the judges give their verdict without rising, and give the injured party a slip of paper to take to the officer who is ap- pointed to carry the sentence into execution. But the case may require some consideration ; the ten judges then rise and retire to an adjoining PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 239 room, and then they compare the facts of the case, and decide on judg- ment. That judgment may not he final ; the one who deems himself the injured party may appeal to the Chamber of Commerce ; hut, before his case is entertained there, he must deposit 400 francs, to pay the ex- penses, and the case is often not worth half that amount. So the fact is, that before he deposits so large a sum as that, he often decides to go no further with the case. Sometimes in cases between employers and employes (piece-work being so much adopted), when the employe presents his bill, the employer may say, “It is too much, you must make an abatement;” the employ^ may say, “ No.” The judges do not settle a case like that at first. They send a practical man to examine the work in its different classes, at various prices stated in the price -book issued by the Prefect of the Seine, and the judgment is given accord- ingly. There is another tariff-book used between employers and em- ployes, but it is not legal. It only costs three francs, and the one issued by the Prefect of the Seine costs twelve francs. Judgment is enforced in all cases in from ten to thirty days; but there is a curious fact connected with the enforcement of the claims of the judgment, although nevertheless true. The Government will give the convicted party six months’ credit of the court expenses ; the court pays the witnesses, &c. ; and if the defaulter is not able to pay the costs at once, they will take it in weekly or monthly payments ; and the officer appointed for that purpose looks after it, and sees that it is paid, and if he is put to any trouble, adds to the cost. There is another question, or rather a fact, of great importance, which has a very beneficial effect on trade in general. They punish a fraudu- lent trader with that rigour which almost always prevents him from a repetition of his crime. If he is found to use unjust weights or mea- sures he is fined, and has to affix, in some prominent part of his premises, a placard for the space of twelve months, mentioning what he wuis fined for, and the date. They acknowledge a failure (that is like a British compromise), but not a bankruptcy ; once a bankrupt, he is not allowed to enter into business again on his own account. When the Prefect of the Seine issues a schedule for contracts, he lets the contracting party know that he must make an abatement of so much per cent, from his builders’ price list. Who is benefited by this abate- ment ? Amusements of the French Workmen. Their chief amusement is dancing ; any one who wishes to see the French men and women enjoy themselves, must go and see them dance, which they do with great vigour. The next is the theatres, which are highly appreciated by the workpeople, and greatly patronised. Music saloons are likewise well appreciated; there are several first-class ones in the Champs Elys6es. Out-door amusements are well patronised, such as the roundabouts, with tw T o, three, and four horses abreast, where you will see the aged and the young of all classes paying their penny to be allowed to be carried round the arena a few times on horseback, w’hich they seem much to enjoy. The f&tes at St. Cloud were held on one of the Sunday mornings in 240 ARTISANS* REPORTS ON THE September, including all that pertains to harmless amusements. There is a long avenue of stalls, displaying confectionery, crockery -ware, cheap jewellery, wheels of fortune, ball-playing (nearly like skittles), shooting- galleries, and stalls for musical instruments, where are to be seen grown- up men and women purchasing instruments, in shape resembling large humming-tops, with a reed in the mouthpiece, which produces a sound like a gong when blown against; and striped staves, from two feet to seven feet in length. To see young ladies, grown up to womanhood, marching along with these decorated sticks, sounding these gongs, and looking so happy, an Englishman would say they had taken French leave of their senses. But such is not the case ; they seem to take the greatest delight in making each other cheerful with trifles. There are, besides, horse roundabouts ; and those riding have a kind of weapon, with which to carry away one of the rings attached to a sliding -board affixed to a stand. It is the aim of the person to carry away one of these rings on his weapon, as he is sped round on horseback at a rapid rate. There are little carriages for those who are too timid to trust themselves on horseback. The conductor, as soon as he observes a child mounted whom he considers unable to retain his seat in a proper man- ner, at once proceeds to adjust a leather strap around the child’s waist, and, fixing it properly to the iron rod which carries the horse, secures the child from being dismounted during the performance. I saw some of the British visitors enjoying a ride round on these horses, and only finding fault that they had so few times for their penny. Next came the Lilliputian railway, running round an area of forty or fifty feet in diameter ; then there were swing -boats and swing-seats, which seemed to be well patronised ; there were theatres, performing monkeys and goats, dancing saloons, Ac. ; but no gin-palaces. The foun- tains playing at the same time gave to the whole scene a very enticing appearance, and every one looking so happy really was pleasant to see. There seemed to be a want of conveyances to and from Paris. The railway carriages could have been filled if there had been twice the number of them on the route ; and, strange to say, there was not an inebriated person to be seen amongst the whole vast assemblage ; and, although all these persons were in their glory at twelve at night, by one a.m. a cannon-ball might have been fired along any avenue, rue, or bou- levard, without coming in contact with any person, except a few engine- drivers or stokers wending their way to or from their employment. All the streets w 7 ere entirely deserted, only the solitary sentinel on duty to be seen ; not a police-officer to be seen, and no vagrants lying on the seats ; every place being so still, except the thoroughfares leading to the Halles Centrales, vdiich is the largest market in Paris, principally for fruit, flowers, vegetables, and meat, all of wdiich they display in great quantity and of good quality. It is a sight worth going to see about 7 a.m.; the mechanics’ wives, Ac., are to be seen returning from market with their basket in their hand, containing the day’s provisions, Ac. They all wear white crimped caps, and their dresses are short (no assistant scavengers), it being considered very untidy to wear long dresses in public. I saw an Englishwoman in the Palace of the Louvre, in the picture gallery, where there were clean oak floors, trailing her PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 241 dress amongst the dust. I quite easily observed the French females looking on her with disdain. This is another advantage the French joiner has : his wife costs him little for dress, as the dress wears longer when it is not trailed in the mud. They are not ashamed to show their feet and ankles in a proper manner, and, being early risers, do the work of their sphere in proper time, not stopping up to a late hour, mud- dling by artificial light, and sleeping away the light of day. Another evil a Frenchman avoids : it is a very rare occurrence for a French lady to have more than a couple of children, and these she sends to the country, to be reared until they become able to do for themselves ; and the French ladies are all interested in some business, or other mode of in- dustry, whereby they add greatly to the comforts of home, and the health and pleasure of all around them. I think the French ladies are more industrious than the gentlemen. There seem to be no smoky chimnies, and where the smoke goes to is a mystery to me ; at all events, the atmosphere of Paris is beautifully clear. They have no drizzling rain there ; if it rains it does so very hard, pouring down in great quantities for the short space the storm continues, frequently intermingled with lightning and thunder. The Living of the French Joiner. Usually he partakes of coffee and bread and butter in the early morning, from 5 a.m. to 6 a.m. ; from 9 to 10 he takes breakfast ; his breakfast may be bouillon, beef steak, vegetables, “ une demi-bouteille de vin” et pain, in all lfr. ; or bouillon and une demi-bouteille de vin et pain, 30 centimes. Dinner — Bouillon, veal, and tomato sauce, mashed po- tatoes, oseille, boiled cream, half-pint of wine, lfr. 20c. Supper similar. Tea is very little used, only when a person is ill. The wine is by far the most wholesome, and keeps the stomach better, and is cheaper than lea. In most places they serve the customer with table-napkins, for which they charge 10c. ; but many a French joiner dines for 70c. Some prefer bread, soup, and meat for breakfast. I observed beautiful po- tatoes cooked at 15c. (l|d.) the kilo in one of the streets. Many a French workman dines there on a basin of soup — whether made of frogs or not, it is really good, far superior to the mess of stuff used in London as soup in the workmen’s dining-halls — with vegetables, bread, and about a half-pint of wine, and this is found to support the frame well ; the air being so pure they require little animal food, just as the British rural population do ; and see how T healthy and strong they are ; besides, the populace of large British towns, where the atmosphere is surcharged with ' carbon from the chimney, requires a greater amount of animal food to support life. Trade Associations. As to British trade associations in j oinery and the building trade generally, and the influences affecting the trade throughout, I think the building trade of Great Britain at the present date is rather at a low ebb ; but I hope to jj be able to show that the evil does not exist where it is generally sup- ij posed to emanate from. The blame is always attributed to the working « artisan ; I say, on the contrary, the artisans of Great Britain are the 242 artisans’ reports on the mines from which, the wealth of the country is derived. Work these mines with economy and care, as the horticulturist would his orchard, where he had planted his trees from which he expected to gather golden apples ; he would not inflict wounds on the root, stem, and branches of his trees, nor would he shut them up in darkness ; he would nourish them at the very roots, and expose them to the brightening influences of the noon-day sun, nor would he send the means of nourishment to a foreign land, to be used as a nourishment for the trees of that land, in the vain hope that he would obtain golden apples from thence. Trade unions, if properly conducted, will be to the advantage of the capitalist as w T ell as of the workman, because unity is strength in all spheres. I think the trade societies of Britain might derive many benefits and eradicate some of their evils by adopting some of the features of the trade unions of France, and altering two or three features of their government. I do not mean that they should adopt the exclusion of married persons, as is done in France, without any compensation, but I think it ought to be the same to the married as to the single, if he only pays the same sub- scription. I do not think that the female portion of the community should be included in a separate clause, as is the case with some benefit societies who make provision for the interment of two wives. I advocate impartiality. I mean let there be no benefits but those which are available to all classes of the fraternity. The bachelor cannot avail himself of the benefit of a sum for the burying of one wife. Another bad plan is to pay men a weekly sum w 7 hen out of employment; but it is seldom the good workman is out of work ; it is usually the idle and careless man that is discharged first, and he then places himself on the benefits of the society, from which the man in work derives no benefit. The societies of France pay nothing to their members when out of work, but yet they exert them- selves to find employment for the unemployed. Another benefit, which I am afraid is often misused, is the paying for tools of trifling value which are supposed to be stolen. Having lost a few things some few months ago, on inquiring about them, and stating the supposed cause of the loss, a labourer told me it did not signify, as the society would pay me the value of them ; it was no loss to me, the loss was only to the common fund ; and, by the expression of his countenance, he said it was no sin to take them. I now come to what I think is the grand evil ; that is, the hold- ing of the meetings of the members in gin-palaces. The members of the societies of carpenters in France know that the system of educa- tion is not adapted to the requirements of their trade. They therefore maintain schools at the expense of the society, where the artisan may study in the evenings, free from any charge. They likewise hold their meetings in these school-rooms, and conduct the proceedings of the society in a more beneficial manner than they used to do in the caf6s, and the members say at a less expense, hey do not object to any one going to the caf& after business is done, although drunkenness is abhorred, and the drunken member is quickly sent to Coventry. I do firmly believe that there would be great advantages derived from such measures, as education would clear and refresh the intellect in a manner PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 243 quite different from the associations of the gin palace. I am aware that there might he some evils arise from adopting such a mode of procedure, such as the loss of the fellowship of those who would still adhere to the associations of the gin-palace ; hut the good derived by the anti-gin- palace associates would greatly counterbalance the evil effects. r J liese schools, properly conducted, would be of incalculable value to the rising generation of artisans, as the father would find a pleasure in taking his sons and daughters to school, different to taking them to the beershop. I know some will say that that would prove to be opportunities for im- morality. There might be a few instances, but they would be rare, and it would check the immorality at present existing, as that is the great theme of conversation in the uneducated circles of the British popula- tion. I maintain that the mind filled with various classes of knowledge is far less likely to revert to animal inclinations, because of the fact that it has other channels of thought to attract its attention. Besides, this would tend to bring the various classes of society together, for I have no doubt that employers would gladly intermix in such associations, and this would help to enlighten the employers, and to keep down the presump- tion of insignificant and ignorant workmen, who go about making ora- tions and advancing statements which are injurious to the interests both of the capitalist and the workman ; as these statements cause argument and controversy, which men of all classes will indulge in, not only in leisure hours, but also in business hours, whenever an opportunity offers, wasting the time that ought to produce some article of value. Time spent in these arguments is, in nineteen cases out of every twenty, like so much water spilt on the ground, that cannot be gathered up again. A few weeks ago a manager of works was escorting a gentleman over the works of which he had the superintendence. They abruptly came on several of the workmen talking together. The gentleman turned round and looked at them. The remark of the manager was overheard by another workman, and which all acknowledge to be a truth : — “ That is it, sir; there is the grand evil of the present date — too much talking.” I have often been told by employers and capitalists that workmen are now better paid than in former years, and yet they arc a worse class of workm en, as they can scarcely go round any part of their works but they find the men together talking. In few instances do they accuse the workman of laziness, but of spending his time differently to what he is paid for by them. What, then, is the cause of all this evil ? I believe it is the want of education. An education on sound principles would greatly remedy the existing evil, for it is an undisputed fact that the well-educated workman is generally the least talkative. But there are many instances w 7 here the educated man’s voice is heard w^here it w^ould not be were it not for the assertions made by men vdio have not had a good basis of education instilled into their minds in early youth, and who misunderstand the statements advanced in the reading of cheap literature to which the workman has recourse ; and in his ignorance he is not able to judge of the erroneous statements vdiich are put forward by those writers who write for their own personal benefit. And likewise I find that education greatly assists the workman 24:4 artisans’ reports. in the execution of his duty, in adopting the speediest and best methods for the construction of his work, both as to time and quality. The educated workman always returns the greatest value to the em- ployer, especially if he is an anti-associate of the gin-palace. But there are many employers who do not think so. The fact is, that class of employers are sometimes more ignorant than the workmen. I think it high time for the British to adopt the plan of that extraordinary man, Napoleon I., with regard to the laws affecting the building trade. On his accession to the throne of France he found the laws of France to be most defective, and he chose a number of young men, and set them to make a code of simple, just laws, and instilled into their minds that the simpler the laws they framed suited for the administration of justice, the greater would be their reward ; and he locked up the old laws, and issued the Code Napoleon, which these young men of integrity framed, under which the building trade of France is prospering. Therefore they are able to build a city worthy of a great nation, and to make great ad- vancements in the march of arts, commerce, and manufactures. MASONRY, &c. By GEORGE BROUGHTON FORBES and JOHN McEWEN. H AVING- been sent to Paris by your Society, we have the honour to report as regards our special trade as masons. We may state that on arriving in Paris we found our v 7 ay to the Place Rapp, which is close to the Exhibition. This is a square of buildings, fitted up for the accommodation of artizans. We made the logements our home, thanks to Mr. Layard’s committee for the admirable arrangements that they had made for our accommodation and comfort. Next morning, after looking over the plan of Paris, we found our w T ay to the Triumphal Arch ; we were struck wdth the grandeur of the design and beautiful carved work ; the masonry work -well executed, and all of the best and hardest kind of stone, of good colour. We got to the top by a stair of two -hundred and seventy- three steps, seven inches rise ; the space of the top of the arch is about sixty yards by thirty ; from here w r e had a fine bird’s-eye view of the city. We counted twelve streets radiating from this arch, running in every direction for miles, in straight lines ; some of the streets seven miles in length. Came down from the arch ; took a general survey of the city ; found it a complete city of palaces ; what with its wide streets, lofty buildings, adorned wdth sculpture, carvings, fountains, gardens, and trees in every direction. We could call it by no other name, not forgetting the Seine, with its fine bridges ; the fact is, our palaces in England cannot be compared to the police and soldiers’ barracks of Paris ; they even far surpass for design any of our palaces in England, so far as the outside appearance shows, and all built of beautiful wdiite stone. Went home to our logements with a good deal of pleasure from what we had seen of the city. Next morning got a weekly ticket for the Great Exhibition ; took a survey of the building, which is not very im- posing ; covers about thirty-five acres of ground, and far surpasses any of our exhibition buildings that w T e have had here for the arrangement displayed. Called at the British Workman’s Hall, shewed our cards to M. Haussoullier, and w 7 ere kindly received. He furnished us with a guide, in the person of M. F. Foucli6, a stone and v 7 ood carver, and member of council for the Court of Arbitration ; we found in him every assistance that we required, for which we return our sincere thanks. He took us to the New Opera House; this building has been in hand for about six years, and does not appear near completion ; this will be 246 ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE one of the noblest buildings in Paris, when completed ; its magnitude is beyond anything that we have yet seen ; it is adorned with about thirty large statues, groups of figures, busts, marble columns of every colour from various countries ; white, rose, green, red, and violet stone columns, measuring twenty-eight feet six inches in height and three and a-half feet in diameter, in one stone. We were told by our guide that, during the overflowing of the Seine, water burst into the foundations and threatened destruction to the building ; however, pumps were set to work, night and day, and saved it. We next visited the new law courts. In the entrance -hall to the above courts there is a grand staircase, worthy the notice of all connected with building, the steps of the said stair being 7ft. 6in. out of wall, l|in. in wall, supported by a string that forms an arch, and receives a baluster with hand-rail ; 36 steps to stair, quarter spaces ; the entire cost of hall and stair, £4,000; all executed from a superior hard stone. We found this one of the best finished jobs in the city. We were told that it was worked by the day ; the architect would not have it done by contract. We found the masons here at this job very polite and civil, so we put several questions to them regarding their trade associations. They told us that they had meeting-houses in the city, and all strangers have to apply there for employment. Their first inquiry is as to character, and what they can do as to their trade ; so they are sent to shops suited to their class. The masons here do not object to work along with men who do not belong to their society. We did not hear of any strikes having been w T ith the masons. All the differences that may arise be- twixt masters and men are settled by the Court of Arbitration. This court is composed of an equal number of masters and men. They all bow to the decision of the court. Masons’ wages are from 6d. to 8d. per hour in the city. There are three classes of workmen : roughers at 7d., fixers at 6d., finishers at 8d. per hour. On hard stone they have to pay 5d. per day for sharps. On granite the employers pay for the tools sharpening. The cost of their living is about three francs per day. They work ten hours per day, seven days per week (including Sunday), and, when required, overtime. Most of the masons come from the provinces, and have settled homes there : so, after working about nine months in the year, they return home. When they come to the city for employment they take lodgings, which cost them from 12 to 15 francs per month. They appear to be healthy, clean, and well dressed for w T orkmen ; mostly all young men, from 25 to 30 years of age ; all sober men, although brandy is very cheap. They seem to spend much of their time in drinking wine and coffee, playing at billiards, cards, &c. ; not given to reading, as we only saw one newspaper at the cafes where they resort to in the even- ings.^ W T ith regard to home comforts, we think that they do not enjoy do- mestic life as we do ; for when a young mason gets married, his partner goes out to service. He has to go to the caffs for his food, and only meets with his wife in the evening, in their room. Should they have any children (they never have any more than three, at most), they are generally sent out to nurse. This system must take away all affection PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 247 from parent to child, and child to parent ; that such is the case is our notion. Materials used for Building. — Generally all the fronts are through stone walls. Party-walls of rubble stone ; partitions of brick ; joisting of iron, similar to Fox and Barrett’s patent; between the joisting is filled in with brick, arch -fashion, with a portion of concrete. They use a deal of con- crete, which we think is much before ours ; their method of making it is different to ours ; they mix small gravel and lime together, put it through a mill, driven by a small engine, next mix it with a rougher material, well watered; it is then carried to the foundations, and thrown in by the barrow-load. Our system is to mix it on the ground, and turn it over. The cost of the best stone in the city of Paris is from 2s. to 3s. per cubic foot; a more common kind from Is. 8d. to 2s. The stone quarries in the neighbourhood are now nearly exhausted, so the stones have to be brought from the provinces a distance of 200 miles. Haying said so much about the buildings, we will now endeavour (having visited some of the yards where they prepare the stones for the buildings) to describe the way the masons do their work, which differs from our method. The stones are thrown off the trucks to the ground ; the mason begins to work roughing out, that is, making the beds and joints, and taking the rough off the faces. The block is taken away to the building to be fixed in its place. The mode of raising the stones is done by a crab, worked by a steam-engine, which takes a long time in comparison with our mode ; they take from twelve to fifteen minutes to raise a stone two tons from 30 to 40 feet high. By our system we can raise the same weight in from seventy seconds to five minutes ; and the advantage we have with our travellers makes our method far superior, by placing the stone in its proper place at once ; our neighbours have to run the stone along the top of the walls, on planks with rollers, before they get it to its place, and then they have no tackle to fix it properly ; the consequence is bad beds and joints, that are not pleasing to our English notions of good masonry ; and when the building is got up to its proper height, they then put up workshops in front of the building, to work out the details and finish it doAvn. It seemed to us to be a very rude way of going to work, from the method of finishing their work after the building is raised. There is not the skill required for forming the mouldings and the several details; the large blocks of stone being partly roughed out, it gives them a notion of what they are going to do ; but here comes the bad bedding, &c. ; in carrying out the details, the beds come often into the centre of the moulding, the joints sometimes come within one inch of the end of a rustic, or down the centre of a panel ; it is caused by building with large blocks of stone, regardless of v'hat way the details have to be worked out. Such work would not be allowed here by our architects or clerks of works. However, there must be a saving of work in beds, &c., but it is not mason-like, according to our rudiments of the art of masonry. We will now describe the kind of tools that our neighbours use. They are something like our own, except our axes are not toothed. They also have got a toothed hammer that we have not got, but it would, not an- 248 artisans’ retorts on the swer for the working of Portland stone, which is mostly in use in London. This tool that we speak of would stun it too much, and make the stone subject to decay. They have another tool, something like a joiner’s plane, with two irons fixed. With this tool they put a smooth face on their work, they having a softer and more regular material to work on than we have. Their work appears, when finished, to be fair to an un- practised eye ; but when the sun shines you will see its ups and downs. It is not what we consider good finished work. We must speak well of the masons, for when we made them under- stand that we were English masons they allowed us the liberty of using their tools. They seemed much pleased at our style of working. Their method of holding the chisel differs from us. They hold the tool be- tween the three first fingers, resting on the thumb and little finger. They cannot have the power to guide the tool that we have ; by holding it by four fingers resting on the thumb, an English mason drives his tool with one blow six times further than our neighbours across the water. We now claim for our countrymen in the trade as masons to be more skilful and systematic in the executing of their work, either for quality or quantity, than we have yet seen. Since our return from Paris we have taken some trouble to examine our buildings at home. Although they are few and far between, yet in the City, in the back streets, there are halls and places of business of beautiful design, full of architectural details. There is nothing that we saw in Paris that can be compared to Cannon-street station, or St. Paul’s. Somerset-house, a fine stone build- ing, is very similar in design to some of the buildings in Paris ; Charing - cross railway station, — there is nothing in Paris the least like it in that line. Whitehall Chapel, the Treasury-buildings, the new Houses of Parliament, stand alone for their grandeur of architecture and perfect workmanship, not forgetting the old Abbey. Then there are the new Government offices, Foreign and Indian, which will bear comparison with any of the best buildings in Paris. The variety of colour in the material here enlivens the architectural design, and takes away the sameness that we observed in some of the large buildings that we saw in Paris. Crossing the park to Pall-mall, there are some of our best buildings, so we went as far as Grosvenor-place, to view the latest improvements on the Marquis of Westminster’s estate. Here you will see specimens of masonry that will bear any inspection. It would be well if other marquises were to follow the same example, and improve their estates ; it certainly would much improve the look of the city. We have hope, after seeing what the emperor has done for Paris, in taking down an old city and rebuilding it ; the fact is, he will have it finished in a few short years, at the rate he is going at present. We may state that we visited the Louvre, Hotel des Archives, Notre Dame, the Madeleine, and the Pantheon. This last is a noble building, similar to St. Paul’s, but far short of it in architectural detail, with the exception of the dome or domes, as there are three distinct domes, built one within the other ; in the centre one there is beautiful painting on the soffit of the arch, which has a very grand effect from the inside. There must have been much mind displayed here ; it was certainly a great treat — worth a trip to Paris, if we had seen nothing else — to see the system of PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 249 arcli -jointing around tlie galleries and stairs, flying in every direction over the domes, apparently self-supporting. For studying arching and domes, this is the place. We also visited the Palace of the Luxembourg, Hotel des Invalides, the tomb of Napoleon, St. Cloud, Versailles, but did not get into the interior of St. Cloud. Versailles is a palace worthy of the name. As Hampton-court is to the Londoners, so is Versailles to the Parisians, but far surpassing Hampton-court and all other courts, with the exception of our fine trees and the grand avenues of chestnuts through Bushy -park. They have got nothing like it ; their taste and ours do not agree, in the clipping and pruning of large trees and trying to make a hedge-row of them. This does not suit our notion of taste. Before leaving Paris we again took another look at the Exposition, which is the best representation of art, industry, and science, that we have yet seen, far surpassing, in magnitude, any of the former Exhibitions. We took notice of different samples of terra-cotta from various coun- tries ; we thought that England had produced as fine specimens as any we had seen, and displayed much artistic skill. Our attention was taken up with the style of buildings of various countries. We examined the model houses, by the Emperor Napoleon, for the workmen ; they are semi-detached, with three floors to each, divided into four rooms for one family ; they are the most comfortable homes for workmen that we have yet seen. The ground-floor, being shops, could be let for £16 per year ; first-floor, £10; and second-floor at £8. They are well finished, having the walls plastered and papered. Had we such houses here at the rents, the British workman would rejoice, instead of the barn -like buildings that we have here. We feel that we are rather out of our element in making out reports, but being confined to matters connected with our own branch of trade as masons we have endeavoured to do our best, and hope that it will meet with your approbation. We offer our sincere thanks for the opportunity we have had of visiting Paris. MASONRY, &c. By THOMAS CONNOLLY, STONE-MASON. W HEN the Reform Bill received the Royal assent, and ministers dined off fish at Greenwich, politicians, big and little, felt respited from their labours. The Lords and Commons were off to the moors, the mountains, or the Continent, in quest of health or pleasure ; while the smaller fry had to be content with a trip to Margate, Brighton, or the Paris Exhibition. Having taken some part myself in the Reform movement, and watched with intense interest every stage of the great measure by which 500,000 of my fellow-countrymen were ad- vanced to the full dignity of citizenship, I felt, like my betters, entitled to some recreation, and made up my mind to take it ; but a little calcu- lation convinced me that the state of my finances would offer a very serious impediment. “ Where there is a will there is a way,” saith the old proverb ; and, having the will, I was not long devising the means — learning that the Society of Arts were sending working-men to the Paris Exhibition to examine into and report on the works there in con- nection with their respective trades. Having worked as a stone-mason for 25 years, I made application on the part of my trade, and was ac- cepted. “To Paris and back for 31 shillings,” with one week’s accom- modation at the logements in the Avenue Rapp, was soon arranged with Mr. Layard’s committee ; and at 6 o’clock the next evening I was on the platform at London-bridge station, carpet-bag in hand, for the first time intent on removing, via Newhaven and Dieppe, beyond Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria’s jurisdiction. I selected New- haven and Dieppe in preference to Dover and Calais, because I read in a book that the most beautiful way to enter a country is to follow the track of the invaders, and I suppose the same rule would hold in leaving it ; and, true enough, that line of coast has lost none of the beauty and fertility which attracted the iron lords of Normandy to come over and parcel out the fair lands of England between them and their followers. As the time for starting approached, I found I had plenty of company of the third class like myself — many of them fine, stalwart men from the north — bound for Paris and the Exhibition, to see what truth was in the cry that all the nations on earth were beating us, and that the trade of England was leaving it. Once seated in the carriages, and tickets duly examined, we went out much faster than the Normans came in. Stephenson calmly reposes amid the statesmen and philosophers in BARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 251 Westminster Abbey ; bis genius is administering to the enlightenment, the wealth, and comfort of mankind. It enabled even us of the third class to reach the edge of the Channel in about two hours. On our ar- rival at Newhaven it presented a very dull appearance. The only sign of life or business which I could perceive was the sailors passing to and from some sleepy -looking steamboats, snugly ensconced in the narrow gut of water which serves for a harbour, waiting for the tide to rise to set them afloat ; and a gentleman (with features which denoted his eastern origin) occupying a small apartment near the station, surrounded by a crowd of my fellow-travellers, with whom he was employed in ex- changing a quantity of small French coins for English money. I have a per- fect dread of those peculiar-featured gentlemen ; for, whenever I engage in mercantile transactions with them, at Petticoat-lane or elsewhere, they invariably have the best of the bargain. On this occasion I watched the operations going on with much interest, and with a view to make myself master of the rate of exchange ; but, although I watched attentively for a considerable time, the value of napoleons, francs, and sous was still a mystery to me ; and in the end I had to bow to his superior knowledge of the money market, and place myself entirely in his hands. I made up my mind to stick to my substantial English coin as long as I could, and handed him one sovereign, for which he gave me very near a handful of francs, half-francs, and sous ; and when, by the aid of one of our party, who had been once on an excursion to Boulogne, and was therefore, I considered, some authority on French matters, I ascertained that I got something near the value, I felt very much relieved and gratified at having surmounted the first serious difficulty I had to encounter on my travels. The money-changing ended, every one "was soon aboard, securing a berth, and fortifying themselves with sundry drops of brandy or rum, or the more substantial material of bread and beef, for the dreadful ordeal of seven hours at sea. If some of those foreigners who think that every Englishman is born a sailor was present, he would be inclined to form a different opinion. There were two boats getting steam up, a paddle for the first and second classes ; but, as the lives of the third class were not so precious, they must sail in a screw ; but on the payment of a shilling they might raise their rank for the voyage. What a leveller of rank is money ! Many of my aspiring companions availed themselves of the generous offer, but 1 considered that, even if I went to the bottom, I should be more at home with my own order. Steam up, “ Let go the moorings 'we were soon under way and bearing for the coast of France. With a moonlight night, a clear sky, and a nice wind, we were soon clear of the harbour, and fairly into the channel. At first the rolling of the vessel made us feel a little nervous ; but as we got used to it, and somewhat satisfied that she did not mean going down, such as escaped sickness appeared to enjoy their rocking, and, like true Britons, amused them- selves with singing “ Britannia rules the waves/’ and with observing the changing forms of the ships going in and out the channel. At sun- rise we were approaching Dieppe. It was a gorgeous sight to see that red sun emerge from the water, imparting to the channel ahead the 252 artisans’ reports on the appearance of molten gold, and gilding with, its rays the spires and house- tops of Dieppe, which we had just caught sight of. After a short delay, waiting for tide to cross the bar, we reached the quay. I was soon on shore, a foreigner for once in my life, everything strange around me. The quaint old town, with its picturesque streets and stone buildings — the people all speaking in an unknown tongue — the quiet-looking gens-d’armes, who never appear absent from your sight w T hile you stay in France — and old men and women engaged at the most laborious work, a result of that terrible passion for glory which dazzles the mind of the French nation, [and conscripts for her armies 800,000 able-bodied men from a population of above 37,000,000. I felt humiliated on hearing children speak French, and was just going to rail against our Government for not teaching it to me, when I called to mind all the valuable time I had wasted in some profitless pursuit, and which would have served me to learn several languages, and feel at home anywhere. However, with the aid of sundry signs — for my tongue was now of little use to me— I made my w r ay to the Hotel “ Cliemin de Fer,” and with our company enjoyed a good English breakfast for 2fr. ; with the considerate intima- tion that if we came back that way we should have one much cheaper ; a calculation, I presume, based upon a knowledge of their countrymen at Paris, led them to believe we w 7 ould then have less francs at our disposal. As the train would not start for some time, we visited the church of St. Jacques, a fine specimen of flamboyant Gothic, but disfigured inside and outside by restorations in Romanesque, from which I concluded that Cromwell’s troopers and English churchwardens were not the only parties whose barbarism disfigured this beautiful style of architecture. The in- terior, with its lofty nave, chancel, and transepts, has a fine imposing effect, while the view 7 from the top of the tower over the channel and the surrounding country, will amply repay the labour of ascending 216 steps. We had a look at another church, and at the hospital, and at half-past ten started for Rouen, our route being through Nor- mandy, which is justly styled the garden of France, it is so beautiful and w 7 ell cultivated. On either side of the line appear in quick succes- sion the chateau of the noble, in the midst of a fine old w 7 ood, standing on the slope of a hill or the edge of a lake, with cheerful red brick cottages and farm houses, surrounded with nice hedge-rows and orchards. The villages and towrns through which we passed had all the air of industry, cleanliness, and comfort which characterise the best rural districts of England. Women and old men appear to do most of the labour in the fields ; but the land is light, and easy of cultivation, and subdivided among upwards of ten million small proprietors, a position wdiich I believe the French peasant w 7 ould not exchange for that of our agricultural day labourer. With an Englishman as engine-driver and composite blocks for fuel, w T e travelled at good speed. The carriages were somewhat rougher built than our third-class carriages, but quite as comfortable. As in the fields, many women were employed in various ways on the line and at the stations ; and there is not that hurry and bustle v 7 hich w 7 e are so accustomed to in England. Whether this arises from a better system or a want of traffic, I am unable to say; most probably the former, as the great number of tall PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 253 cliimnies which you see along this line indicate a great amount of manu- facturing industry, which usually creates traffic. On our arrival at Rouen, the Manchester of France, and one of its oldest corporate towns, we had a stay of one-and-a-half hours for the train to Paris ; and being desirous of making the most of our time, we had a run to some of the churches, which are very rich and elaborately sculptured, more especially on their western fronts ; the carving is softer and more delicate than that of our Gothic churches of the same period, hut the buildings lack that boldness and clearness of outline which impart such majestic dignity to our cathedrals. Few Englishmen, having any time to stay at Rouen, omit to visit the statue of Joan of Arc, in the market square. On this occasion I met a great number of our party viewing it with respectful reverence, and expressing regret at her cruel fate, which, at least, was some atonement for the barbarism which has stained the chivalry of a brave English army, and which consigned a woman to death at the stake for religious enthusiasm and triumphant patriotism. Our tour of inspection left no time for refreshment ; the train was now ready to start ; and a hungry Englishman is not a very pleasant animal; but, once seated, the difficulty was soon got over, for those who had a little stock of provisions left very generously divided with their less fortunate companions. It is extraordinary how a little travel divests men of their selfishness. At Rouen you cross the Seine, which is there a very beautiful river, studded with numerous islands ; and, as our route lay through its valley, the prospect on either side of the line was delightful, miles of forest crowding the very liill-tops, and the silvery windings of the river almost constantly in view. The Seine above Rouen is certainly more beautiful than it appears to be useful. There is little commerce on its bosom, and sailing-vessels or steamboats very seldom seem to disturb its waters. Towards sunset we approached the suburbs of Paris, teeming with ornamental grounds, and villas multiplying in number and beauty. As we advanced I was regretting that our pleasant journey was so soon to terminate, when the train shot through the barriere, and in a few minutes arrived at the Western Station. Our experience at Dieppe and Rouen diminished the timidity wdiich one feels on the first occasion of visiting a large city, and unable to speak the language of its inhabitants ; but all apprehension on that ground was removed when we dis- covered a young lad in Highland costume waiting for our arrival. How agreeable is the sight of a national costume when away from home ; you feel that you can rely on the wearer for advice or protection. J ohn Hill Burton, in his history of Scotland, alleges that the Highlanders came from Donegal some centuries ago, so, being an Irishman, I lost no time in claiming affinity with our youthful guide, who at once conducted us to two large covered waggons, which w 7 ere in waiting to convey us to the logements in the Avenue Rapp, which lay at the other side of the city. Our mode of conveyance, although inelegant, was very com- fortable, and the horses quiet, sensible -looking animals. They appeared to understand the French language spoken to them by our coachman much better than most of us who were riding on the waggon, and to know that with all his noise and gestures he had no desire to hurt them, 254 artisans’ reports on the or that they should harm themselves by going fast. However, there is no picture so dark hut has a bright side to it, and although this easy pace delayed our dinner, it afforded us an excellent opportunity of seeing that part of the city ; and if I write the first impression which I had of its beauty, I must say that on this side of Paradise I thought there was not a finer place. The longest day must have an end, and our pleasant journey drew to a close, when, crossing the Pont de Jena, we entered the Avenue Papp, and, quite close to the Exposition, drew up beneath the grand portal of the logements, where a veteran soldier of the Mexican expedi- tion mounted guard. On alighting from our carriages, we were immedi- ately surrounded by a group of those who had arrived some days before us, and obliged to answer many anxious inquiries relative to the old land, such as whether the Queen was still upon the throne, as the newspapers had reported a Fenian insurrection at Manchester, with the miraculous escape of Ool. Kelly and Capt. Deasy. Another wished to know if there was any one left in London, as all the people seemed coming over here. After satisfying them of the stability of a throne based on the affections of the people, and that there was still some traffic in Fleet- street, and that their temporary absence would not affect the revenue, they allowed us an interview with the resident manager, Mr. Glazier, a gentleman who was extremely civil and obliging to all who were entrusted to his safe keeping. When our names were duly entered in a book, we were divided into sections of four, and each batch was furnished with a key, on which was ticketed the number of their ward. Our quarters were in a series of clean, well-ventilated, one-story, tem- porary buildings, separated into blocks by nicely gravelled walks. Each block was divided into apartments capable of containing four beds, one in each corner, which, with a couple of chairs, tables, and washing uten- sils, completed the furniture. The beds were quite as narrow as that on which the great Duke of Wellington is reported to have slept, when a friend remarked, that if he attempted to turn he would fall out, to which the hero replied, il When you think of turning, it is time to get up.” The committee had this in mind, no doubt, when they furnished those places, desirous that we should not waste our time in bed. Refreshing ourselves with a good wash, we stowed our things away and went in search of dinner, with the full consciousness of being able to do it ample jus- tice after our long ride. W e read “ English coffee-house” in plain Saxon, on a signboard, which, on entering, we found to be keptby a Frenchman and his wife, who carried on a millinery business in Piccadilly, where, I presume, they acquired the art of English cookery, and here it was practised in all its naked simplicity. Witli a gas-stove, not larger than a Dutch clock, they prepared food for all their customers, which were not a few, and I am convinced they could have supplied as many more. Coffee in a can, potatoes and beef-steaks fried on a pan, varied with eggs and ham, were the staple dishes. However, the extreme civility of these persons, and a good appetite, made everything palatable, and we felt satisfied when we reflected that we had a place to sleep, and a place to get food with those we could understand, as long as our funds lasted. After dinner we re- tired to our cantonments, where, nicely balanced on our narrow beds (to PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 255 use one of Mr. Lowe’s classical figures of speecli) we sank into tlie arms of Morpheus, and arose next morning, invigorated and refreshed, to engage in the pleasure of sight-seeing, which, in Paris, at any rate, is accom- panied with some labour, when your time is limited and there are many objects of attraction. On receiving my appointment in London, I was instructed to report, on my arrival in Paris, to Mons. Haussoullier, the agent for the Society of Arts at the Exposition, and like a dutiful servant, the moment the doors of the building were opened for admission, I proceeded to the British Workman’s Hall, and presented him with my credentials. I was received with distinguished consideration, and furnished with a copy of the catalogue of the Exposition, the services of an interpreter, Mons. Fouch6, being placed at my disposal ; and if I have not brought away all the knowledge in their heads it is my own fault, for they were ready and willing to impart it to me. I desire to accord to them my most gracious thanks, and to say if they should ever come to London, let them call on me, and I will walk about with them until they are tired. Having seen the London Exhibition in 1862, and not being an adept in manufacturing industry or the fine arts, the city, with its buildings and people, had more attraction for me, and I resolved to examine it. First I purchased a map, showing the principal streets and objects of inte- rest, for l£fr., and by its aid I found my way very well. You can only go half way astray in Paris, owing to the river which divides it. But I must not carry you with me on my journies day after day, or I will make you much more tired than I had been. I will try and sum it all up ; but I assure you it is not so easy a task as some persons think — more especi- ally to one who has been brought up the greater part of his life to chisel- ing stone — but, however imperfect a summary, it will be the result of my own observation and inquiries. I shall begin by observing that to a person who has passed the bounds of Britain for the first time, Paris appears a wonderful place ; everything is on such a grand and magnificent scale. The miles upon miles of splendid boulevards, avenues, and streets ; the extent and grandeur of its imperial palaces ; the immense number and great beauty of its public buildings, monuments, and churches ; its parks, gardens, squares, and places of recreation adorned with sculpture and fountains ; and its hand- some quays and noble river, spanned by twenty-six bridges, contribute to render it unrivalled by any city in the world. The richness and variety of the goods exposed for sale in its shops ; the splendour and decoration of its caf6s ; the magnificent equipages and crowds of fashion- ably -dressed persons which throng its streets, must indicate it a place of great wealth and opulence ; while the cleanliness of the streets, the order and regularity of the traffic, the beauty of the lamps, and the brilliancy of their lights, are luxuries to which the people of London are entire strangers. It is evident from the great improvements now in progress that this city is to be made more beautiful; everywhere you turn your steps in old Paris new' streets are being pushed through, and you see the work of demolition and rebuilding carried on, and that to such an extent as to raise the question in my mind where all the money came from which was necessary to carry out those improvements ; but I discovered the 256 artisans’ reports on the solution in the fact that governments can raise vast sums, sometimes squandered on costly and ruinous wars, which can bring no profit to the nation ; but an expenditure in this way will make Paris still more the focus of fashion and pleasure, and attract persons from all parts of the world to spend in its saloons and shops the wealth which has been created by other people, and an amount which I presume will make a good interest on the many millions invested. Verily the Emperor must be a good economist. That all those improvements are conducted ac- cording to a regular plan, and enforced by some powerful central authority, is perfectly clear ; for no impediment or interest is allowed to stand in the way, and the architecture of the streets is uniform and regular. In Paris it would appear the authorities and the architects combine to make a perfect street; in London the Board of Works, the vestries, and the architects agree to differ ; and when there has been an opportu- nity of making a decent street, as in Southwark, a number of buildings are erected in every style of architecture, from Hindoo to Paxtonian, and some in no style at all, but each vieing with the other in hideous deformity. Paris is entirely built of stone, in a sort of renaissance, or perhaps Louis XIV., style. The new streets are generally broad, and the houses lofty and of a uniform height, with balconies on the first and attic stories, protected by a nice light wrought-iron railing, which, with the luffer -boarded window shutters, opening on the outside, impart to the elevation an agreeable and airy effect. There is a variety in the designs, without affecting the general harmony ; but where a street is long a public building of some dimensions is generally introduced to prevent monotony ; the houses are all more or less adorned with inlaid marble and sculpture judiciously distributed. The hall and staircase are the parts on which the full genius of the French architect is lavished. Many in the public buildings are grand and imposing, especially those in the Tribunal of Commerce and the Palace of Justice, where the walls, columns, pilaster, steps, &c., are all stone or marble. But if the French architects can combine to produce these buildings, there are isolated buildings in London — such as St. Paul’s, Somerset-house, and the Houses of Parliament — which are un- matched by any in Paris in their respective styles. In the selection and adaptation of pure classical examples to modern requirements, I believe our architects can hold their own, and I think few will deny that many of them have imbibed the spirit and imagination of the ancient free masons. Their Gothic churches are certainly un- equalled by any others that I have seen, but the decorations of the Sainte Chapelle will not excel the restorations of St. Stephen’s, at Westminster. Many of the public buildings recently erected in Paris are very fine, especially the Tribunal of Commerce, the Palace of Justice, and the new additions to the palace of the Louvre, but by far the finest and most imposing is the Imperial Academy of Music, which is now almost com- pleted, and stands close to the junction of the Boulevard des Capucines and the Boulevard des Italiens. It is designed in the French classical renaissance style, covered with carvings and sculpture, and enriched with marbles and bronzes in circular openings, which run all around the PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 257 building. Under the cornice are placed busts of tlie great composers, and immense groups of sculpture surmount each angle of the edifice. I spent tlie greater part of a day in going over it, and collected some statistics, which I will here reproduce ; and if you put them together you will have a better idea of its magnitude and grandeur than my very slender description can give you. At present there are about four hundred workmen employed upon it ; but for a long time there were eight hundred and sixty, exclusive of artists. Up to the 31st of December, 1866, the quantity of materials used in this gigantic edifice was 4,548 cubic metres* 1 of rubble stone, 35,344 cubic metres of plaster, 93,183 cubic metres of various stones, 3,220 cubic metres of lime, 9,507 cubic metres of sand, 5,762,000 bricks, 7,097 cubic metres of gravel, 3,132,000 kilogrammes of cement, 760,648 kilogrammes of cast iron, and 4,582,185 of wrought iron. There has been used for the decoration of this sumptuous building, 500 monolith marble columns, of various colours, rose, green, red, violet, white, &c. ; and they were brought from the Pyrenees, Italy, Sweden, Scotland, and Algeria. The finer stones used in the construction of the building were •' brought from Isere, and are called “ Echaillon they are rosy-white or yellow in colour, and are almost as dear as marble. After the Echaillon, the finest and most sought for is the Jura stone, a reddish colour. Many sorts of stone from Luneville and Burgundy were also used. The monolith columns of the peristyle weigh 14,000 kilogrammes each. They are eight metres long and one metre ten diameter. It requires two days to fix. each of them in their places. In the sculptures are included forty busts, twenty grand statues, and four immense groups of figures. However great his genius, the French architect does not disdain to bring to the aid of architecture the sister arts of sculpture and painting ; or, by the free use of marbles and bronzes, and of colour and gilding, to give effect to the interior of buildings. The Church of the Holy Trinity, in the Italian style, which is now almost completed, is a good example of the harmonious blending of the arts. Perhaps there is no quality more conspicuous in the design of a French architect than its fitness, for upon entering any of the build- ings you have no difficulty, from the nature of the arrangements, in determining its character, and you cannot fail to recognise the adaptability of every part to the purpose for which it is designed. There is no building which I visited where this merit is more apparent than in the additions to the Imperial Library, in the Hue de Bichelieu. Here, in a room of about one hundred and fifty feet square, ventilated and heated, four hundred readers are comfortably seated at desks, and supplied with books from an adjoining apartment, brought to them by a mechanical contrivance. This apartment, which is about two hundred and fifty feet long, one hundred feet broad, and fifty feet high, is divided longitudinally and transversely by wrought-iron lattice work partitions, on which shelves are fixed. It is traversed by passages and galleries, to provide access to the books, which are classified and stored on the shelves. Many thousand volumes * The cubic metre is 3o - 3 cubic feet. The kilogramme is 2*2 lbs. S 258 artisans’ reports on the are here kept in a comparatively small space, wkicli can be conveniently ventilated and heated for their preservation, and where they are close at hand, to be furnished to the reader with little trouble or loss of time. At the British Museum library, when a book is required, in many cases the messenger has to go a long distance to get it, and considerable time is lost before it can be in the hands of the reader. There, a large wing of the building is used to exhibit the backs of the books which cover its walls, while almost the entire space of the rooms is wasted, or only avail- able for a passage. In the science of construction, and the judicious use of the materials, stone, wood, and iron, the French architects display great skill. The right material is generally used in the right place. Their buildings being constructed as much as possible fire-proof, we seldom read of a great fire in Paris. They are generally well built, for the builder and the architect have to insure their stability for ten years, and are held accountable during that period for the expense of any repairs arising from imperfect workmanship or from defective materials. The fronts are all built of large stones, bedded and jointed, which run the full thickness of the wall. They are laid dry on each other, and afterwards run with plaster. There are openings left for the doors and windows, and projections for the cornices, mouldings, and carving. When the walls are carried to their full height, the masons work the front of the building, commencing at the top ; they finish and take down their scaffolding as they descend. The back and end walls are built with small squared stones on the outside, and with unsquared or rubble on the inside. They are bedded in plaster ; very little care is used in the bedding of this rubble, as the plaster sets soon after the stone is laid. The flues to carry off the smoke are constructed with earthenware pipes built into the walls ; and as those walls settle unequally on the founda- tions, you observe on every gable -end exposed to view that open joints are left close to the quoins, so that each wall may settle of itself, without drawing the other with it, and causing rents in the building. Those open joints may be filled up when the work is seasoned. The floors are constructed with light wrought-iron girders of an I section, laid about 2ft. apart, and arched from one to the other with hollow bricks bedded in plaster. The arches are very slightly curved, and their springers rest on the bottom flanges of the girders. The soffit is dubbed up and made level for the plaster of the ceiling, and a slight piece of wood is laid on the top of each girder, to which the floor-boards are screwed. The staircases are all built of hard stone, with iron balusters and hand- rails. The halls and corridors are generally floored with marble squares, of various colours, or a composition of cement and marble chips, which is often a good imitation of mosaic. Very little wood is used, except for the flooring -boards, doors, windows, and roof. In all the houses which I have seen, the sanitary arrangements appear to be of a very defective character. Water is used very sparingly ; in fact, they never think of letting it run through their closets, although, judging from the liberality with which it is used in flushing the kennels of the public streets, Paris must be abundantly supplied. When the ground has been excavated for the basement of a building, PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 250 the stonework of that portion is usually bedded in mortar composed of lime and sand, or in cement mixed with sand, but all above the surface is bedded in pure plaster, the extensive use of which enables them to erect their buildings in a very short space of time, and to use any small pieces of stone in the cross-walls. The gypsum of which this plaster is made is raised at the Hill of Montmartre, in the suburbs of Paris, the supply of which, I learn, is almost exhausted. It is prepared close to the quarries, and brought to the works in sacks, where it is sold for 17fr. the cubic metre. It is a good, strong, coarse material; the ashes of the fuel used in the burning being allowed to intermix with the gypsum, but when required for exportation, or for finishing and ornamental work, it is passed through a very fine hair-sieve. The stones chiefly used in Paris are oolites, of which of the harder and finer sorts there are 13 varieties brought from the south, south-east, east, and centre of France, and some are raised in the immediate neighbour- hood of Paris. The price varies with the quality and size of the blocks. For first-class stone, delivered at the works in blocks not smaller than 2\ metres long and 1 J thick, the cost is 193fr. the cubic metre ; for blocks of metres long by 2^ metres thick, 418fr. the cubic metre ; and for blocks 6 metres long by 2\ metres thick the price is 518fr. the cubic metre. These stones are durable, and many of them will take a good polish. They are of various colours, but chiefly white or reddish-speckled, and are used in fountains, parapets, and copings of bridges, balconies to win- dows, and other ornamental work much exposed to the influence of the weather. They are also used in steps, floors, staircases, and other places where there is much wear. By a municipal regulation, the first story of every building erected in any of the principal streets of Paris must be built with hard stone, but the builder is at liberty to use soft stone for the remaining stories if he desires to do so. The wisdom of this regu- lation must be apparent to any person who examines the restorations which are now being done at the Palace of the Louvre. For several feet above the surface, through the influence of the damp arising from it, the stonework is completely decayed, while the remainder of the building above that level is comparatively sound and good. The soft stone which is used above the first story is a fine, even, close oolite, easily worked. It is like the stone we get from Bath and its neighbourhood, but of a much better description. There are two qualities of it raised within a circuit of fifty miles of Paris, and several of the quarries are close to it. Stone from St. Just may be purchased, delivered at the works in blocks of any size, at 68fr. the cubic metre, and the smaller size blocks at 37fr. to 40fr. the cubic metre. The cheapest stone used in Paris is that from St. Denis, in the department Seine-et-Oise, which can be purchased delivered at the works for 30fr. the cubic metre. Those prices are little less, if any, than the cost of stone in London, where good Portland stone is purchased for 2s. Gd. a cubic foot, and Bath stone for Is. Id. the cubic foot. When delivered at the works, the blocks are cut up into the sizes required for the masons, in the same manner as it is done in London,— the soft stone with a cross-cut, and the hard stone with a frame-saw and sand and water ; the men employed at this work receive from £6 to £8 a month. 260 artisans’ reports on the As in London, tlie building erected in Paris is chiefly done by con- tract, but with the important difference, that each description of work is let to a contractor of that trade alone ; whereas in London the entire works are let to one person. The contractors in Paris are usually men who have been brought up to the trade in connection with the works. They contract for, and will necessarily have the skill to direct it them- selves. The London contractor, in most cases, is not brought up to any of the building trades ; he merely finds the capital, and some other per- sons supply the brains. It is clear that a better description of work is the result of the French system, where it is executed under the personal superintendence of a man who understands it, and who has a personal interest in its proper execution ; and that there are greater facilities for a steady, industrious workman to advance himself and become a con- tractor some day. This method of contracting existed in London before the concentration of capital in the hands of a few ; and it is still practised in many of our provincial towns, with the same beneficial result as at Paris. The mason’s contract, in addition to the stonework, includes the plas- tering and the brickwork. Of the latter there is very little done in Paris. I have only observed an odd house built of brick. I presume the cost, which is 60frs. per thousand for middling bricks, is some im- pediment to its more extensive use. The bricklayer and the plasterer are not distinct trades, as in London, but are included in the masons’ trade, the operatives of which are classified into Limousins, poseurs, and ravaleurs. The Limousins, or wallers, build the sewers, drains, and basement story of the building with rubble stone, and as this description of work requires very little skill to execute it, the men employed being nothing more than handy labourers, they are paid from 4J to 4|frs. per day, which is only a fraction more than is paid to the navvies who get out the ground for the basement, and who receive from 4 to 4|frs. per day. The masons who fix the stones of which the fronts are built are called poseurs ; they generally confine themselves to this branch of the trade. Their method of fixing, as before stated, is to lay the stones dry into their places, and when the course is completed to run the joints with plaster. In large buildings, where the walls are raised to a great height, and the stones press heavily on each other, to preserve them from flushing, the plaster is prevented from running to the front by placing thin pieces of wood, about 2} in. broad, in the joints, which are slipped out when the plaster sets ; and when the walls settle those open joints are pointed up. Owing to this precaution of directing the weight on the centre of the stones, you will very rarely see the mould- ings or other ornamental work on the face of a building flushed through pressure. Except in marble or polished work, the French masons use very little care with the beds and joints of the stonework ; they are often |- in. apart, but as the plaster with which they are filled is almost as durable as the stone, and like it in colour, it does not affect the general appearance of the building. The skill of the poseur does not seem to be highly estimated, as his wages are only dsfrs. a day, or lifrs. less than the ravaleur, which comprises two classes, viz., ravaleurs in plaster and ravaleurs in stone. The ravaleurs in plaster erect all the walls of the PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 261 building above the basement, in which small squared or rubble stone is used. They build all the fire-places and flues, and turn the brick arches for the floors. When the house is covered in with slates or tiles, they coat all the walls with plaster, and form the ceiling and cornices. The plaster used for building the walls is mixed with water, in a wooden trough, the sides of which slope outwards towards the top. It is brought to the scaffold by the labourer, on his head, and when it sets a little the ravaleur spreads it on the wall with his trowel or hands — he is not particular which — and beds the stone ; the stones are placed dry, in the centre of the Avail, and afterwards grouted with thin plaster. The ceilings and Avails are all finished Avith one coat of whatever thickness may be required by the unevenness of the Avails, which he ascertains by plumbing-screeds or narrow strips of plaster at each angle of the room, and at convenient dis- tances from each other. Between the screeds he puts on wet plaster Avith a broom, his hands, or the trowel, and forms the surface of it level Avith the edge of a long, straight trowel, having teeth like a fine saAV ; a little thin plaster laid on and rubbed Avith the flat of a trowel makes it a fine, smooth surface. The cornices are made of pure plaster, and run with a mould ; but Avhen very large and ornamental they are done by moulders, Avho make them of a composition of plaster, Avhitening, and glue, in which flax fibres are intermixed to add strength. It is hollowed at the back, and made so light and yet so strong, that it may be attached Avith plaster, or nailed to the Avails and ceiling. The ravaleurs in plaster are a very useful and skilled class of Avorkmen, and are paid 6frs. a day. The trowels and other tools used by them are very awkward and clumsily made, and although those men execute some excellent work, they do it in a very unworkmanlike manner. You seldom see an English operative use plaster or mortar with his hand Avhile he has a tool to do it Avith. The ravaleur in stone corresponds to the trade of a mason in London, but as the principal part of the work in Paris is executed in soft stone, and after the walls are built, while in London it is done with hard stone, worked on the banker before it is fixed, the method of Avorking in the two places is entirely different, and one would have some difficulty in using the tools of the other AAuthout considerable experience. The ravaleurs in stone are divided into tAvo classes, namely, those who finish the fronts of the building, and those AvliOAVork the beds and joints of the stones before they are fixed. This latter class are called “ tailleurs de pierre.” The blocks of stone for a building are generally deposited near its site if there is room, and, if not, on the next convenient open space ; and when cut into the required sizes, those men work the beds and joints, and if the stone is required for a moulding or cornice, they scribe on the mould and chamfer off the surplus. They seldom use a mallet and. chisel, except to run a draft around the arris, but work the stone AAnth a pick, a tooth-axe, and a diamond hammer. The mallet and chisel they use very imperfectly, but the pick and axe they use with great dexterity, and turn out a great quantity of that kind of work. They nev^er banker a stone to work it, but merely lift it on a slant, and seldom turn it more than once before it is finished. They have no sheds to protect them from the weather, and are paid at the rate of 6 francs per day. 2fi2 ARTISANS’ RErORTS ON THE The ravaleurs who work the fronts of the buildings are the most skilful men in the trade, and are paid 7 francs a-day when employed at day-work; but as a gang of men generally do the work of a front by con- tract, they often earn more than day-wages ; but when an architect requires to have his work w T ell done, he will not allow it to be done by contract. Mons. Due, the architect of the Palace of Justice, would have the front of that building done by day-work, and it is plainly observable how superior the work is to that of the Tribunal of Commerce, which was executed by contract. For the ravaleurs to do their work, a scaffold is erected to the front, as the walls of most edifices are built overhand ; then, commencing at the top cornice, they cut in the mould at each end, and with a piece of twine, rubbed with red chalk, strained from end to end, they strike the horizontal lines, pitching off the waste from the front with a hammer and chisel; they then work it very close with a tooth- axe, and finish it off with a diamond hammer or a plane, when the sur- face requires to be made smooth. Those planes are about 9 or 10 inches long, having two irons, one in the middle and one in the front, to enable it to cut into an angle. The irons are merely thin pieces of steel or saw- plate, slightly bevelled on the cutting-edge. The ravaleurs have a number of those planes, of all shapes and sizes, with which they work the mould- ings on stone, just as a joiner would make them on wood. They seldom use a mallet and chisel, and when they do, it is very awkwardly, but execute their work chiefly with the pick, axe, diamond hammer, and plane. It is astonishing with what celerity they finish off the front of a building, but everything is in their favour ; the stone, being a nice fine quality, is not flushed at the joints or the ends by the working of the plane or axe, and the stones, being the full thickness of the wall, are not disturbed on their beds by the working. There is certainly something • to say in favour of this system of working stone after the wall is built. In the first place, no time is wasted on the parts that are not exposed to view; and in the next place, the lines will be more accurate, as they are struck the full length or the full height of the building ; and although much of their stone -work is not so perfectly masoned, and will not bear so minute an examination as stone-work in London, their buildings will look better owing to that circumstance. However perfectly the stones may be worked on the banker, unless they are carefully fixed, you will not have the lines straight, and you cannot make them so without dis- figuring the mouldings. I believe the French system to be very applicable to buildings erected here with Bath or Corsham stone ; but to those erected with hard stone it could not be applied with any advantage ; for, as many of the stones, through economy, are narrow and light on their beds, they are liable to be displaced by any working on them ; and hard stone requires so much labour in its execution that a man requires to have it in such a position as to be able to apply his strength to advantage. I have observed many French masons work very active and lively, yet they cannot use their strength or hands with such ease and effect as English operatives ; but I think many of their tools might be used, with great advantage to their ease and health, by English masons, more especially for working the softer kinds of stone. As far as I could judge, the Frenchman en- rARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 2G3 deavours to find out the best tools and the easiest method of doing his work, while an English mason relies almost solely on his mallet and chisel to execute any description of work. I believe the constant use of those tools, and the necessary constant action of the same set of muscles, with the continual shaking of the chest while inhaling the dust from the stone, is the prolific source of those dreadful lung diseases which cut down in their prime some of our strongest and most skilful masons. I have little doubt, if employers would attend to the ventilation of their workshops, and that men could often change the action of their muscles by the use of different tools, this disease might be abated, and the trade of a mason in London rendered more healthy. When a stone has to be worked to a mould, or fitted to a square or a straight-edge, no man can do it more workmanlike or to greater perfection than an English mason; but when the hands have to realise the imagination, the Frenchman’s familiarity with art, and his early training in its principles, enable him to outstrip us ; and as every building in Paris is more or less decorated with carving, you are at a loss to know how they get all their art-work- men. But the difficulty would not appear so much if you could read the large placards, in French, which are posted up at the ends of the bridges and other public places, informing workmen where they can be taught drawing and modelling every evening free of expense. That he outstrips the Englishman in this respect does not, I feel certain, arise from the possession of an especial, art-genius, but because whatever of it is in him is fully developed, and encouragement is given to its prac- tice ; and if English workmen are behind in this respect it is not be- cause art-genius is deficient in our nature, but because it is not developed and encouraged sufficiently. When this was the case during the middle ages, there were forty cathedrals and parish churches building at the same time in England, to the carving and sculpture of which we can now point with pride and satisfaction, as evidence of the art-genius of Englishmen ; and if farther proof was needed, we have it in the fact that before the erection of the new Houses of Parliament there were comparatively few carvers of stone in England ; but the encouragement which even that one building gave to art labour, and the impetus which it imparted to architectural decoration, have increased their numbers considerably, and sculptors’ shops — such as Messrs. Phillips, Farmers, Herps, &c. — have sprung up in London, where excellent work is executed. It is impossible to estimate the loss which is entailed upon England through the neglect of art culture in every department of our industry. Through it we are reduced t@ mere hewers of wood and drawers of water for other nations. The bulk of our able-bodied population is engaged in manufacturing goods to be sold cheap, or in producing raw materials for other people to work ; while the more delicate portion have to subsist on their earnings for want of employments suitable to their strength. The streets of London and our large towns are torn up with heavy traffic, which is scarcely perceptible in Paris ; for if a ton of iron enters there, for w r hich we may get less than £1, they are sure to put £100 worth of labour on it before it leaves their hands. There does not appear to be any regular system of apprenticeship 264 ARTISANS 5 RETORTS ON THE among the masons, although there are many who learn it by a servitude for various terms ; many others, after having acquired some little know- ledge of it in the provinces, pass on from one branch to another, as they improve themselves, to which there is no let or hindrance on the part of the employer or the men. It is not uncommon to find there men who can work well at every branch, but they stick to that which is paid best as long as they can get employment at it ; but if there is not a general servitude of apprenticeship, there is a life-long slavery of the French workman, which I feel certain would not be tamely submitted to by English artisans. When a man is first employed at any trade or occupation he has to apply to the commissary of police for a book, in which is stated his name, age, general description, place of birth, place of residence, and the nature of his employment. He must deposit this book with his employer, to be kept by him until the workman wants to leave, which he can do without much previous notice, and the employer must give him up the book, in which he will insert what the workman leaves for. On that day the workman must take it to the commissary of police and have it vised, and when he gets another employer he must give him up the book. This employer, on setting the man to work, must send the book to the police-office and have it vised ; and if the workman left indebted to his last employer, the amount of the indebtedness will be stated in the book, and the new’ employer will be bound to stop it, at the rate of one -sixth of each day’s pay ; and if he neglects to do so, the former em- ployer can sue him and recover the amount. If a man is discovered to work without having a book, the employer and the workman are liable to a fine of 400 francs each. I do not think the French system of acquiring a trade without an ap- prenticeship offers any advantage to the workman himself or to the general community. Many never think of entering the trade until they arrive at an age when other cares and anxieties distract their attention, and prevent them from acquiring that dexterity and skill which can only be arrived at by early application and undivided attention ; and the community at large are affected, inasmuch as a large number of the population are employed at occupations in which they are not profitable producers, or, in other words, a less number of higher skilled men would produce the same amount at less cost of keeping. The following returns, made in 1860, and which include masons and labourers, will show 7- the different rates of w T ages paid to all engaged on the erection of buildings at that date, and will, I presume, be some index to the difference in skill of those workmen : — 1860. Journeymen ...... 81,282 Working by the piece .... 395 Total . . 31,677 Living in Paris ..... 21,440 Moving about ..... 7,237 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 2G5 F. G. 417 received 521 4,313 4,141 2,391 1,894 1,796 222 2,872 2,165 6,779 410 1,535 1,515 327 233 21 42 26 20 6 >> )) }> )> >> }} }) }) 7 7 77 7 ? 7? 77 77 77 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 9 10 12 5 per day. 75 0 25 50 75 0 25 50 75 0 25 50 0 50 0 50 0 0 0 0 }j }) >} >) >> }) ?7 77 f) 77 7 ? 77 77 77 7 ? 77 7) 77 7 7 It would be impossible for an employer in London to classify bis workmen in this manner on a fair estimate of their skill, and therefore we must conclude, that in London there is a greater proportion of the men well skilled, and that the French system of acquiring a trade is not so instrumental in creating so uniform and general a class of good skilled workmen as our system of apprenticeship. By a comparison of those /numbers, 31,677 in 1860, with 9,287, the total number employed in 1849, we get an idea of the magnitude of the improvements carried out in Paris, and the immense employment which they give to all engaged in the building trades ; and as the wages have increased 1 franc a -day since 1860, and the population, which was then 1,400,000, is now 1,700,000, we must assume that there is a greater number now employed, and a larger sum spent upon them. On the whole, the Frenchmen take their work easy, and appear to be very little frightened of their foreman or employer. There are always a great number of men about any job they are doing. I noticed at least six men employed in loading a cart with rubble, and after placing them- selves in a row, they handed the stones from one to the other. In London, they would never think of sending more than a couple of men to such a job, and they would have to pitch them from where they stood into the cart. As I stated before, they will always do their work the easiest way to themselves, and wherever labour-saving machinery can be introduced, they are sure to use it. The materials for all their build- ings are lifted to the floor -levels by machines, some of which are very ingenious; and those in the large buildings are worked by steam-power. While looking at those machines, the idea struck me that if there were not so many Irishmen in the world, England would have to use her labour more economically, 266 artisans’ reports on the The time worked by the operatives in the building trades is 10 hours a day in the summer, viz., from 6 a.m. until 6 p.m., with one hour for breakfast, from 9 till 10, and one hour for dinner, from 2 to 3. In the months of October and November nine hours are worked, and three- quarters of an hour allowed for each meal; in December, January, and February, eight hours are worked, and only one hour allowed for meals. The entire seven days of the week are worked, and in summer a good deal of overtime, which is paid for at the same rate as the ordinary day. Their wages are paid on the first Saturday of every month, but the workman can draw subsistence on every Wednesday and Saturday between the pays. A workman earning 7 fr. a day usually spends 3 francs for his food, which he procures at the cookshop. The breakfast is bread and soup, with a little wine ; the dinner is the same, with the addition of meat, boiled or roasted, and vegetables. If he is a married man he contents himself with bread and cheese and wine, until, after his work, he gets a substantial meal with his family. Soup is used at every meal, tea and coffee seldom, except as beverages. Lodging for a single man, about 3 fr. a week : and the rent of two rooms, from 8 fr. to 10 fr. a week. Rent has so increased, that a large room which let in 1860 for £10 a year lets now at £16. The Sunday after the pay is generally a holiday with the workman and his family; and in Paris there is every facility for rational enjoy- ment, for with its parks, gardens, palaces, museums, and libraries open to him, he is not constrained to spend his time in the wine -shops, although they are plentiful enough ; but I must state, to the credit of the Parisian operatives, that drunkenness is not a perceptible vice of theirs ; during the fifteen days I stayed in Paris I saw no more than five or six the worse for drink. The life of a workman in Paris appears tolerable enough ; he feels he is the equal of every other person, and he is treated as such. There is not that harsh line of demarcation between class and class as there is in London, even in our churches. Inside the walls of a sacred edifice in Paris the poorest man feels as if he had already passed the confines of the grave, where all distinctions of rank and riches cease. Kneeling beside a duke, if he likes, he worships God from the same level ; and to this sympathy of classes, I believe, is due that courtesy and refinement which are so perceptible in the working people. Put “ all is not gold that glitters,” for among all the enjoyments of a Parisian workman, there is nothing to compare with the substantial comfort of an English workman’s home, or the quiet repose and respite from labour which the Sabbath brings him. Nothing is more intolerable or repugnant to the mind of an Englishman than the desecration of this day of rest ; — to see the workmen employed on the streets and on the buildings ; the shops open, and traffic carried on the same as on any other day of the week, is a thing for which the mind is quite unprepared ; and the only explanation which I could get for it was, that they lose so much time in winter that they have to make up for it in the summer ; to which I replied, that when you do it all in summer you have nothing to do in winter. Frenchmen, with all their philosophy, make a great mistake in this incessant toil. Were the Sabbath to be observed, pro- duction would not be impaired, or the means of employment diminished PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 267 a single franc. It is almost an axiom that when man or beast has a regular respite from labour, his health and strength are invigorated, and he is thereby enabled to execute more work from year’s end to year’s end than when he works every day consecutively. The masons of Paris have no trade union to assist in maintaining wages or regulating the hours of labour, such as exist in England ; but I learned that they have a secret society, that is, one not sanctioned by the Government, through which they are assisted while in search of employ- ment, by means of lodges in the provincial towns, at which the members who call can learn where employment is to be had. In almost every trade there are benefit societies, which are recognised by law, the rules of which are nearly alike ; some of them include those only which belong to one particular trade. The society of carvers and sculptors, of whose rules I procured a copy, includes carvers in wood, stone, or bronze, together with modellers and pointers. It numbers about three hundred members, who pay a subscription of two francs a month each. In sickness a member receives two francs a day, for eight months, should his illness extend to that period ; if not recovered by that time, he is re-examined ; and if the doctor is of opinion that he can be cured, he goes on as before ; and if pronounced incurable, and he has been a member ten years, he receives fifteen francs a month, and if under ten years, he receives seven and a-half francs a month, with doctor’s attendance and medicine. At the death of a member fifty francs is allowed for his funeral, and one hundred francs to his wife, and if he leaves three children under age, they each receive fifty francs. The masons’ society numbers about one thousand, and the marble masons nine hundred. In 1861, the penal laws relating to the combination of workmen were very much relaxed, and since that time it is not illegal for any number of workmen to combine to advance their wages or to shorten their hours of labour ; but before taking any steps to enforce their demands, they must ask leave from the commissary of police to hold a meeting, to which, when leave is granted, he will send an officer. At the meeting a fair statement of the matter in dispute must be set before the men, for any misrepresentation or exaggeration is a criminal offence, punished by fine or imprisonment ; and if the men agree to cease work until their demands are complied with, a resolution to that effect is adopted, and a strike committee formed to collect funds. They must not fine, or in the slightest manner interfere with any other workmen who may have replaced them, without incurring the penalties of fine or imprisonment; r and, not withstanding all those restrictions, a strike of the workmen is, in most cases, successful, they stick so well together ; and should the strike be lost, many of the men would rather work at some other labour, which may not be so well paid for, than return to work at their own trade for less wages than they struck for. Many of the disputes which necessarily arise between masters and men are settled in the Courts of Arbitration, or Council of Prud’hommes, of which there are four in Paris. Each court consists of a president, j who is appointed by the Government, a secretary, and 26 councillors — I employers and working men — who represent the six categories into which 268 artisans’ reports on the the industries of Paris are classified. They are elected every three years by the workmen ; and every man who has worked five years at his trade, and has resided in Paris three years, is qualified to vote. There are about 12,000 cases annually adjudicated on in each court, three-fourths of which are settled. The court has the power to enforce its award to the amount of £8 ; but if their award exceeds that sum, either party can appeal against their decision to the Tribunal of Com- merce. I was present during a sitting of one of those courts, and was aston- ished to witness the simplicity and dispatch with which the business was conducted. The chairman and two councillors constituted the court, and occupied seats at a table on a dais railed off. The parties to the dispute stood in front of the rails, and when the plaintiff stated his case and the defendant replied, the chairman and the two councillors put a few questions, and consulted together for a few minutes, and then made their award. Both parties left the court apparently satisfied ; and I left shortly after, impressed more in favour of Lord St. Leonards’ Bill than I had been before I entered. Marbles are very extensively used in Paris for triumphal arches, fountains, statues, &c., and very abundantly for the decoration of their buildings, externally and internally. Many of the shops have the walls inlaid, and their counters entirely constructed of choice specimens ; and on the hall doors and gates, marble of different colours is used as furni- ture under the door-handles. But the interior of the church at the Invalides, in which the tomb of Napoleon is placed, is by far the finest marble work in Paris, when you take into account the great extent, the variety, and costliness of the materials, and the workmanlike manner of the execution. There are about 12,000 persons employed in the working of marble in Paris alone, the masons receiving from 4fr. to 6fr. a day ; and not less than 60 different kinds used, 41 of which are raised in France. They range in price from 340fr. the square metre to l,120fr. ; Italian statuary from l,230fr. to l,580fr. the square metre, and 10 dif- ferent sorts of coloured marble from 9o0fr. to l,430fr. the square metre ; from Spain, two sorts, yellow and violet, at l,070fr. the square metre ; and from Belgium 5 sorts, at 420fr. to 720fr. the square metre. Through the kindness of Messrs. Parfonry and Lemaire, wha took a gold medal for a chimney-piece at the Exposition, I was enabled to visit their workshop in the Petite Bue St. Pierre, which is one of the princi- pal for the manufacture of marble. Nothing could exceed the order and regularity with which everything is done. The masons work by the day, and the carving is done by the piece ; and I have no hesitation in saying that better marble-masons than the Frenchmen I saw there never handled a tool ; and as for the carving, it helped to carry off the gold medal. There was great variety in the marble and designs of the chimney-pieces in the show-rooms ; but, what struck me most, there was not a single plain one, because, I was told, they could not be sold. When our aristocracy and middle -class exhibit taste like that, it will soon create art workmen; but as long as they are content to have for a chimney-piece two pieces of marble on the end, one the edge across and another on the flat for a shelf, workmen have no incentive to improve PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION, 269 themselves. I believe the Society of Arts would do good service in sending a batch of them over to Paris to improve their taste ; but they must take good care and send some of their members with them, or they will spend all their time in pleasure. Unable to speak the French language, it was difficult for me to find out to what extent the working -people of Paris are educated ; but the children must be at the schools or at work, for you see no Arabs in the streets of Paris ; and there is another feature absent, which is worthy of remark, viz., that barefaced profligacy which infests our streets after dark, and often in the broad daylight. If persons wish to indulge in vice, they must seek it out ; it is not abroad with brazen effrontery, scandalising decent women, and exposing them to insult. But, although difficult the task, I felt a wish to know something of their system of education, and with that object I went to the schools of the Christian Brothers, in the Hue de Vaugirard, to which the recommendation of the Society of Arts would have obtained admission for me ; but a portion of the building was under repair, and strangers were not admitted for a fort- night. I felt disappointed, and said I was an Irishman, and would be going away the next day. “ As that is the case,” replied Brother Honorat, the treasurer of the institution, “ I will take 3^011 through, for I like the Irish ; they adhere so steadfastly to the old faith and when I told him I was born in the same place as Gerald Griffin, who died an eminent mem- ber of the order, Brother Honorat made me feel quite at home in the monastery, the building of which comprised the schools, dormitories, work- shops, and chapel, and formed a quadrangle, the centre of which served as a play-ground. Here 830 boys, over ten years of age, were clothed, fed, lodged, and educated for lfr. a day. The school-room runs the en- tire length of one side of the building, has a corridor through the middle, and the spaces on either side are divided by thin wood and glass parti- tions ; and at the extreme end is seated at a desk the brother who presides over the education, with whom the assistant teachers are in constant communication. I observed that in addition to other rudiments of educa- tion, architectural and mechanical drawing, in outline and shaded, with free-hand drawing and designing, formed a prominent part of the teach- ing, for those classes were large, and their labours adorned the walls of several rooms. There are examinations at stated times, when prizes and medals are awarded; and such of the boys as display an aptitude forlearn- ing are allowed to continue at it ; but others who are not so inclined, when they have attained the age of thirteen years, are put to learn trades in the workshops at the opposite side of the square. Those workshops, together with the labour of the boys, are given free to small masters, who find work to do and learn the boys their trade. Gilding, carving in wood. or stone, trunk and portmanteau making, shoe-making, tailoring, weaving, book-binding, astronomical, mathematical, and musical instru- ment-making, are amongst the trades taught there to 130 boys, who spend two hours in the workshop and the remainder at their books. In the carvers’ shop there were about twenty employed, working on hard oak, but the master was engaged on a medallion bust of Mons. Lacroix, secretary to the Grand Aumonier, and four of the boys were exe- cuting figures of the Evangelist, in hard oak, which were nearly finished ; 270 artisans’ reports. to me tlie expression and drapery appeared as perfect as the most skilful hands could do it. Those boys were about sixteen years old ; one of them was deaf and dumb ; and the father of another was a captain in the Mexican expedition. In the portmanteau-making shop one of the boys was fully instructed in the trade, and was on the eve of leaving the school, where he had been just seven years ; so that for lfr. a day he was kept educated, and had a trade in his hands to commence the world a useful citizen. I might add that many of the boys whose parents are unable to pay the entire sum for their maintenance, have the portion they can provide supplemented by donations from charitable persons or insti- tutions. Brother Honorat next conducted me through the kitchen, where the food was cooked by steam ; and through the dining-room, where the boys were at dinner, with as little confusion and noise as would at- tend the dining of an ordinary family. Having expressed my thanks to the treasurer, Brother Honorat, for his kindness and courtesy, and blessed my stars that I was an Irishman, or I would have missed this grand treat, I returned to the logements , well satisfied with my day’s work. I hope the Society of Arts will be as well pleased with this report. COACH-MAKING, J3y THOMAS MAGRATH, coach-makers’ foreman. I HAVE tlie honour of submitting, for the information of the Society of Arts, the result of my visit to the coacli-making department of the Paris Exhibition ; and taking coach-making generally as a branch of industry, there is little in its working details, compared with other branches of manufactures, requiring a more comprehensive knowledge of artistic design. The artisans employed in the manufacture of carriages have many difficulties to contend with, as that portion of the public who use carriages, often require one carriage to answer the purpose of three or four, and each one in its general appearance must be as graceful and pleasing to the eye in its altered arrangement as though it was expressly made for that purpose ; therefore, it is of the greatest importance to the workmen that they should possess an intimate know- ledge of drawing and mechanical appliances. And I regret to say that, in a great city like London, there are no classes or instruction given by any professional draughtsman in connection with this trade ; and from what I have observed in the workshops in Paris, and also from the many drawings and sections of various parts of carriages, admirably executed, in the Paris Exhibition, I must confess that our French fellow- workmen have greater facilities for obtaining a more scientific knowdedge of the construction of a carriage than the English workman. I have noticed also that their system of work is different from ours. Their wood-work generally is very heavy, and, as a general rule, is not so neatly put together as ours, except in one establishment, Avhere the work of the body w 7 as as well finished in every respect as could be desired. I was very much surprised at the great quantity of heavy iron-work in the bodies ; the edge-plates of a brougham were much heavier than what an English coach-maker would put in the largest landau. I think that if one of their light broughams w’as weighed vdien finished, and compared with one of ours, there would be a great advantage in favour of an English one, as to lightness ; although some of the French ones look very light in appearance, they must be heavy in actual weight. I consider the arrangement of the smith’s shop a desirable one ; every carriage is completed in all its details, as to the making and fitting of iron-work, before leaving, saving a great deal of time, and giving the workman greater facilities for finishing and 272 ARTISANS REPORTS ON THE adjusting his work with greater nicety of finish, which is one of the principal features of French coacli-huilding. The iron work, generally, is of superior finish ; and what I have seen of the forging, in its rough state, was creditable. There seemed to me to be a great division of labour, and a great many mechanical appliances employed in stamping and ornamental iron work ; and from what I have been informed, as to the rate of wages paid to the class of men engaged in this branch of the trade, and the privilege of working seven days a week, the extra day making up the deficiency in wages, I am of opinion that the French coachmakers can produce carriages cheaper than the English manufacturer. In examining the carriages exhibited in the French department, I was surprised to find that the majority of them were copies of English construction, especially in the under-carriages ; with this exception, that theirs was a great display of unmeaning curves and sweeps introduced in the iron work ; crowding the carriage without any advantageous results as to improvement or durability, and destroying the gracefulness of outline which is essential to a well-constructed carriage. This over- loading of the carriage with a quantity of useless iron work would appear to me to be a characteristic feature in the manufacture of French carriages, from its being so generally adopted. There is also a very great deficiency of taste in the lines of the bodies, their mouldings being very heavy, and the outline of shape possessing no claim to gracefulness what- ever ; giving a heavy, clumsy appearance, and not in proportion to its under-carriage, which is generally so light. In painting, some of the work was well finished ; and one carriage, exhibited by Lelorieux, where imitation of bamboo cane was painted on the door panels, was a beautiful specimen of workmanship. There was also a brougham, by Million, Guiet, and Co., hung on a perch and platform springs, and without the usual braces ; the body attached to the carriage by a light spring, a novelty in its construction, and deserving special notice for its superior finish, in all its details, and good taste displayed in its painting and trimming. I was disappointed in respect of the barouches, having always supposed that that description of carriage was superior to all of French manufacture ; that the head, when down, had the great advantage of being perfectly flat ; and certainly, to an un- professional eye, it had that appearance ; but this was more than counter- balanced by a sacrifice of the depth, at the point nearest the door, produced by the elevation of the standing pillar and neck-plates of head. The effect produced by this arrangement destroys that lightness of panel, which is an important point to be gained in the construction of the park barouche ; and which is so admirably arranged in the barouches exhibited by the firms of Peters and Sons, and Hooper and Co., of London. In reference to the chariots exhibited by three of the leading French firms, and which I may state is a leading article of the London coach- builders, I have little remark to make beyond this : that it has given me an opportunity, which I never had before, of comparing the heavy work of the two countries. I give great credit to the French manufac- turers for what they have exhibited in this particular branch of coach- PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. making; but most certainly the London builders are not to be surpassed in the construction of a chariot, the best of the French chariots, in my opinion, being the one exhibited by Binder ; but all three of the bodies are deficient in beauty of outline, and heavy in appearance. The landau hung on C and under springs, with iron perch, exhibited by Binder, is as near a copy of Peter’s, of London, as could be made, except that the front loops and seat have not that same easy curve which is peculiar to their O-spring landaus. The head of this carriage falls in a good line, and in painting and trimming is essentially English, and well made. I have not seen any effective appliance for opening and shutting landau heads, that requires any special notice, applied to the French landaus. But their several arrangements for opening the door-glass by the unlocking of the door, and so preventing the breaking of the glass by attempting to open the door when the window is half up, seemed to work well. How far it may be effective in its working after the carriage has been used a short time, and settled to its bearings, I have had no opportunity of judging. But, having seen one in the course of construction, it seemed to be very complicated, and would be awkward to adjust, if out of repair, in any part of the country where an artisan would be difficult to get. I have observed several descriptions of steps arranged to open and shut with the door, all well made, and working well; but there was one great objection to their use in a general way — they were liable to make a deal of noise. Indeed, some of them rattled a good deal already, which of course would increase by the vibra- tion of the carriage at work, and be a source of annoyance ; they were all ingeniously contrived and well put together, but, as far as my experience goes, would not be suitable for English carriages, for the reason stated. A mail-phaeton, by Delaye and Co., hung on iron perch and C springs, was deserving of notice for the excellent forging of the perch and wings in the solid iron, and also for the vice work and finishing, ex- hibited without painting ; a very good specimen of iron work. The state-coach by Kellner was tastefully got up, and I think that descrip- tion of work is more in keeping with the fanciful devices of the French workman, the trimming being well finished, and with great artistic taste. Indeed, all the trimming generally is of a superior description. It may hardly be worth while to mention the drag of M. Belvallette. I think there cannot be any difficulty in discovering where the original design came from, an eminent London firm having sent a great number of that description of carriages to Paris. I should have liked to have seen some new and improved designs from our French neighbours instead of copies. I have now given the principal points that attracted my notice in the French department ; and 1 may close this portion of my report by re- marking that there seemed to be a great deal of attention given to finishing, in the introduction of little tasteful fittings in the inside of the carriages, which I think forms a distinct branch of trade in Paris, and w 7 hich are neatly arranged, and give a certain appearance of usefulness and elegance to the interior, and which I have had myself great diffi- culty in procuring in London, and at a very high j rice compared with what is charged in Paris. T 274 artisans’ reports on the The carriages exhibited in the Italian Court were excellent. The boat-shaped landau, by Casalini, of Rome, hung on elliptic springs, was a good specimen of workmanship, as also the landau hung on C and under springs, with the iron perch, which could not be surpassed by any carriage of the same description in the French department, the construction of its under-carriage being very well arranged. The body also was of the latest design, the outline of shape being easy and grace- ful ; well painted, and trimmed in good taste. I had some doubts in my mind as to whether these carriages were not of English manufacture. A barouche by Locati, of Turin, was also deserving of notice, as being a good and well-finished carriage. The iron work especially was well made, and also well painted. The Italian workmen, I have no doubt, possess a good idea of outline, judging from these specimens. Siewers, of Berlin, has a landau, the head arranged to open and shut by a lever worked from the coachman’s seat. It worked well, but required a good force to work. I think there is one objection to the use of these appliances when worked by thecoachman — that they are likely, by taking his attention from the horses in a crowded street, to cause an accident. I am of opinion that Rock’s principle of working landau heads is better. There is less iron work and more simplicity, and not so easily disarranged, besides possessing the advantage of opening or shutting from the inside. In the other foreign departments where carriages were exhibited there was nothing requiring any notice on my part, all being much of the same, and without any novelty. I may mention Russia as an ex- ception, as I have found a great improvement in style and workmanship in the carriages exhibited over those which were sent to the English Exhibition in 1862 ; and the travelling-carriage by Nellis, of St. Peters- burg, well deserved the silver medal which was awarded to the builder for good substantial work, the travelling arrangements and fittings being compact and useful, and well constructed for the purposes for which it was intended. I do not think I have any further remarks to make on the foreign departments, and will now submit a few on the English section of the Exhibition ; and in expressing those opinions, I have not the slightest intention of giving any offence, and only hope to fulfil the position in which I am placed, by endeavouring to give a fair and im- partial report of all carriages exhibited by every country. Taking the English department in a general way, I may state that they are fair specimens of what English workmen produce every day from their workshops. Plain, simple, and useful, not constructed for show, but for useful purposes. It may be observed, perhaps, by the visitors to the Exhibition, that the English carriages did not look so fresh in their painting as the French. It must be remembered we had to unpack our carriages in the building, during the preparation for the opening of the Exhibition (which under ordinary circumstances of ex- portation would not in any way injure a well-painted carriage), while the French manufacturers sent their work fresh painted and direct from their workshops. And notwithstanding this advantage, which for the purpose of exhibition was decidedly favourable to the French, compar- ing one carriage with another, I submit we are not surpassed in this branch of coach-making. In the trimming department there is a great PARIS UNIVERSAL EXHIBITION. 275 difference in the taste of the respective countries ; and in examining those carriages that were trimmed in the English style, I see no marked difference in workmanship ; on the other hand, I must give to the French workman the merit of being the best in ornamental and fancy trimming. The laudau exhibited by Offord is a very good specimen of trimming, but the lines of the body are bad. There is a good piece of iron-work in the front-carriage, but it has this disadvantage, that if an accident occurs, the greater part of the iron -work must be removed, which creates unnecessary expense in repairing. A laudau, by Woodall, is also deficient in an important point, — the head not having sufficient room to fall in the front-boot withou treating on the panel, the head being prevented from falling flat thereby. Kock, of Hastings. — Laudau, fitted with his patent head, is a well-made piece of work, but the elbow-line of moulding is much too heavy. The head works easily and effectively, exhibited without painting or trimming. The laudau by Wyburn, hung on iron crains, is a very compact and well-finished carriage in all its arrangements ; also a phaeton by the same builder, well finished. The segmental brougham, by Oole, of Kensington, is a good specimen of an English brougham, and well finished ; but I think there is rather too much colouring in the lace, which did not harmonise with the lining ; and less plating would, in my opinion, give a better effect to the general appearance. Ivall and Large’s single brougham was neatly finished, and in its general detail well arranged. ‘Of elliptic -spring barouches, Macnaught and Smith, ‘Worcester, exhibit a very light one ; the iron-work well finished, and a good shaped body ; but the whole arrangement is destroyed by the bad construction of the front-seat and foot-board, a great mistake being made in cramping the leg -room. Davies and Sons, Wigmore-street, exhibit another of those elliptic barouches, and which, I think, is the best of that class of carriages. A 0 and under spring barouche, exhibited by Laurie and Marner, I can hardly class as an English style of barouche, there being a good deal of French imitation in its arrangements ; a little too much carv- ing about the wings and some part of the iron-work, bad taste in the selection of the lace ; and the broken line of the coachman’s seat is out of all order ; otherwise well finished. Cockshoot, of Manchester, has one of those 0 and under spring barouches, which is of good workmanship, except that the line of the perch is not so pleasing to the eye, in consequence of the front end being curved, and does not follow with such good effect the front line of the body. There is a different kind of hinge from what is generally used introduced in this body, which may be advantageous where an outside step and cover are used, by allowing the door to open in a straighter line than could be obtained by the usual concealed hinge. The barouches exhibited by the firms of Messrs. Hooper and Co. and Messrs. Peters and Sons, may be considered more in accordance with English taste, being simple in their construction, plain, and well finished in all their details ; the outlines being easy and graceful, give that idea of comfort which is essential to a well-finished barouche. 27G artisans’ reports. The four -horse drags exhibited by the above firms are of all others the most thoroughly English in character ; and to maintain the prestige of the drag, we must closely adhere to the opinions of the old coaching connoisseurs. The coachmaker, in constructing a drag, has not so much scope for his ingenuity as he has in the manufacture of other carriages. The purchasers of drags being a select class, each one having his own particular fashion, it follows that he has to work to that particular style which his customer orders, and can only introduce such improvements in its fittings and appointments as will make it in accordance with modern taste, and without materially altering its English character. I now have to describe the appearance of Messrs. Hooper’s drag ; but how far round- ing the corners of the box-seat may detract from the comfort and coaching appearance it will be for the public to decide. I consider it a well-made, substantial carriage ; the fittings and appointments are well arranged and suitable for coaching purposes, in good style, and of the best material, answering all the requirements of a well-appointed drag. In reference to Messrs. Peters’ drag, I have little remark to make as to its qualifications, it being of plain substantial workmanship, and of the best description ; the fittings being well arranged and serviceable, with a novel and effective lever- break, so arranged that it can be worked from either the front or hind seat at pleasure ; and taking all its arrange- ments into consideration, and its general coaching appearance, I think the jurors have made a proper award. I have now given a general review of all those carriages which were worthy of notice in all the departments ; ahd to all I have given a careful examination, and have endeavoured to give an impartial report. In submitting the results of my experience, both in the Exhibition and in the workshops of Paris, and having particularly noticed the work in course of construction, as well as what was finished in the show-shops, I am of opinion that what was exhibited by the French employers was of their best description, got up expressly for that purpose, and not in the ordinary wTiy of trade. I think the artisans have a more mechanical idea as to working from scale and drawing, but are deficient in taste as to gracefulness of outline, and do not construct their work with such effectiveness and durability as the English. But at the same time, I give great praise to our French friends for their ingenuity, and for the friendly way in which I was received by them in their workshops, and for which I am thankful. But, I must confess, I see nothing yet to tarnish the reputation of English coach -builders. In concluding this report, I may have introduced subjects unsuited to its objects, being inexperienced in writing official reports ; but I trust to your kind considerations for any error I may have committed. And I may be permitted to return my grateful thanks to M. Haussoullier, the gentlemen comprising the committee, and the officials connected with the British Workman’s Hall, for their courtesy and kindness in afford- ing me any information that I required in the furtherance of the object for which I was sent; and I shall feel honoured if this report of a work- ing man meet the requirements intended, and the approval of your Council. SHIPBUILDING,