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THE 
 
 BUILDER’S GUIDE: 
 
 A 
 
 PRACTICAL MANUAL 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 BUILDERS, CLERKS OE WORKS, PROFESSIONAL STUDENTS, 
 
 AND OTHERS, ENGAGED IN 
 
 Deigning or ittpmntfiiiraig tjji Cnnstrartinn nf 33 tunings. 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 A CONCISE AND ARRANGED DESCRIPTION OF MATERIALS, 
 AND DETAILS OF PARTS, 
 
 WITH 
 
 RULES AND DATA 
 
 ’ ' * •» ° Toil' i * * * * > 
 
 CALCULATING STRENGTHS, * AND DETERMINING SCANTLINGS 
 , . , -AND DIMENSIONS^ a A 
 
 t «* b 9 j i J J J,-' j J J J *> 
 
 TABLES OF WEIGHTS, LISTS OF PRICES, 
 
 ETC., ETC. 
 
 WITH 165 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 G. DRYSDALE DEMPSEY, C.E. 
 
 Iirairan : 
 
 ATCHLEY & CO., ARCHITECTURAL & ENGINEERING PUBLISHERS, 
 106, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, BEDFORD SQUARE. 
 
 1851 . 
 
W. J 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 . AND J. SEARS, PRINTERS, IVY LANE, ST. PAUl/s. 
 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 INTRODUCTION 1 
 
 SECTION I.— FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 Points to be attended to. — Rocks, Chalk, &c. — Gravel, Loam, Clays, &c. — 
 Sands, and made Soils. — Piling. — Sand Foundations in Egypt, France, &c. — 
 Pile-Driving by Steam. — Deverell, Milne, and Nasmyth. — Potts’ Pneumatic 
 Piles. — Bog, Moss, &c. — Submarine Foundations. — Mitchell’s Screw Piles. — 
 Decay of Cast Iron and Timber Pilings, and means of protecting them.— Bor- 
 ing Tools. — Effects of alternate Wet and Dryness of Foundations. — Size and 
 Nature of Structures to be considered. — Footings, as ordered in “ Building 
 Act.” — Foundations of Chimneys. — Means of preventing Damp in Buildings. 4 
 
 SECTION II.— MORTARS, CEMENTS, CONCRETES, ETC. 
 
 Value of these Substances in Construction.— Lime. — Pure Limestones. — 
 Marbles, &c. — Rich, Poor, and Hydraulic Limes. — Lias Lime from Aberthaw, 
 
 &c. — Experiments of Bergmann, Moreau, Saussere, Vicat, and Smeaton. — 
 Mortar or Concrete. — Cements. — Parker's Roman Cement. — Pozzolana. — 
 Tarras. — Fire Proof Cement. 2 5 
 
 SECTION III.— MASONRY. 
 
 Includes Study of the Properties of Stones, as well as the Art of Forming and 
 Combining them in Construction. — Granite and its Constituents, Quartz, 
 Felspar, and Mica. — Sandstones, their Chemical and Mechanical Properties.— 
 
 List of Quarries, Buildings, &c. — Limestones, Magnesian, Oolitic, and Shelly ; 
 their Chemical and Mechanical Properties. — List of Quarries, Buildings, 
 
 &c. — Brard’s Disintegrating Process. — Indications of Effect of Weather ; Lo- 
 cal Knowledge, and how to acquire it. — Different kinds of Masonry, Rubble, 
 Ashlar, &c.— Provincial Peculiarities ; Kentish Rag Stone, &c. — Caen Stone, 
 
 &c. — Cost of Masonry. — Construction. — Lines, Tools, &c. 30 
 
 SECTION IV.— BRICKWORK. 
 
 Manufacture and Varieties of Bricks. — Place and Stock Bricks, &c. — Fire- 
 Bricks. — Hollow Bricks. — Bond in Brickwork. — English Bond, Flemish 
 Bond, Herring-bone Bond. — Garden Wall Bond. — Avoid Timber-bonding, and 
 all Inferior Materials. — Iron Hooping. — Good Bricks, and Good Brickwork. — 
 Brick Walls, and Details of Construction. — Walls of Houses, Warehouses, and 
 Manufactories. — Inverts. — Piers or Counterforts : Corbels. — Strength of Brick- 
 work. — Brick Arches. — Straight Arches. — Guaged Arches, &c. — Chimneys.— 
 Measuring Brickwork. — Useful Data.— Prices. — Scaffolding 57 
 
 S "6-6 2. 7 
 
IV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 SECTION V. — TIMBER, WOODWORK, AND CONSTRUCTIVE CAR- 
 PENTRY. 
 
 Kinds and Qualities of Timber. — Seasoning, &c. — Patent Process. — Indi- 
 cations of Quality. — Strength of Timber. — Weight, &c. — Deflection and ulti- 
 mate Transverse Strength of Beams, &c. — Practical limits to Strength. — Rules 
 for calculating Deflection and Strength of Beams, Brestsummers, Joists, Rafters, 
 
 &c. — Examples worked out. — Cantilevers, Brackets, & c. — Bending Forces in 
 Story-posts, Struts, &c. — Direct Cohesion. — Simple Formulae for Ready Appli- 
 cation. — Permanent Loads. — Framing of Woodwork. — Constructive Car- 
 pentry. — Joints. — Halving. — Mortice and Tenon. — Mitring. — Rebating. — 
 Dove-tailed Mortices. — Scarfing. — Construction of Floors. — Double Flooring. — 
 Girders. — Plates, Joists, &c. — Scantling for Joists, &c. — Table of ditto. — Load 
 on Floors. — Trussed Girders. — Conversion of Timber. — Construction of Roofs. 
 
 — Framing, &c. — Table of W r eights and Scantlings. — Domes. — Useful Data. 
 
 — Leading Prices, &c — Seasoning, &c 74 
 
 SECTION VI.— ROOF COVERING. 
 
 Slates. — Tiles. — Lead. — Iron. — Copper. — Glass. — Felt. — Asphalte, &c 118 
 
 SECTION VII.— IRON CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Iron as a material of Building Construction. — Manufacture of Iron. — Pig Iron 
 and Malleable Iron. — Refining, Puddling, Hammering, and Rolling. — Bar 
 Iron of Various Sections. — Standards and Columns. — Girders, Binders, Beams 
 and Joists ; Rules for, &c. — Connection of Iron Members in Building Con- 
 struction. — Roofs, their Construction, Details, &c 134 
 
 SECTION VIII.— FIRE-PROOFING, WARMING, VENTILATION, ETC. 
 Comparative quantities of Woods, Metals, and Mineral Substances as materials 
 for Buildings. — Walls of Masonry, Supports of Iron, and Horizontal Surfaces, 
 as Floors, &c., based upon Brick Arches.— Fire-Proof Buildings at Liver- 
 pool. — Prince Albert’s Model Houses. — Hollow Bricks. — Fire-proof Partitions. 
 Staircases and Floors, as constructed in Paris. — Floors in Nottingham. — Patent 
 Fire-Proof Floors. — Warming and Ventilation. — Theory of Respiration. — 
 Constitution of the Atmosphere. — Rarifying and Condensing Methods of Venti- 
 lating. — Elasticity of Gases. — W T arming and Ventilation of the Reform Club 
 House. — Warming by Hot Water. — Theory of Circulation. — Tables and Data 
 
 as to Pipes and Details 171 
 
 SECTION IX.— DRAINING AND SEWERS 180 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 Appendix of Miscellaneous Notices of Improved Manufactures in Mineral 
 Substances for building purposes, including the principal of those displayed at 
 the 1851 Exhibition of the Works of Industry in Hyde Park 186 
 
THE BUILDER’S GUIDE; 
 
 ADAPTED AI.SO FOR THE USE OF 
 
 CLERKS OF WORKS, PROFESSIONAL STUDENTS, 
 
 AND OTHERS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO OUR READERS. OUR OBJECTS, ETC. 
 
 For this book, a very extended circulation is anticipated upon two 
 grounds, viz : that it shall be filled with useful matter ; and that this useful- 
 ness shall be realizable by a great number of readers and students. This 
 great number should include readers of at least two classes ; thus, young 
 men studying building constructions, in the position of pupils to architects, 
 engineers, or contractors ; and clerks of works, whether of young, or advanced 
 experience, on whom devolve the duties of superintending the construction 
 of building works, and who have either to make or to preserve a reputation 
 for the intelligent and successful execution of the works confided to their 
 care. To these two classes especially we would dedicate our labours, although 
 there are others, and we would hope many, to whom they may be evidently 
 useful. 
 
 From this statement it will be readily discernible that we cannot hope to 
 make the whole of our contents equally interesting to all our friends, and 
 that we may be liable to the double complaint of including things which 
 many already know, and of omitting things which many would desire to 
 know. We ask that this may be regarded as necessarily resulting from the 
 greatness of our audience, and not a fault avoidable on our parts. 
 
 In calling this book the “ Guide ” for builders, clerks of works, professional 
 students, and others, we desire to embrace notices of all principles and 
 points of construction to which careful attention must be devoted in order to 
 
2 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 obtain soundness and safety in building operations ; and we propose to state 
 these principles and points in the same regular consecutive order, in which they 
 will need notice in conducting a building from the foundation to the roof, 
 and as we go on, we will jot down such data in the forms of tables, notes, 
 &c., as all of us know , but few of us remember , and which by being thus re- 
 corded in these collected pages, will save the trouble of reference to a multi- 
 tude of manuals, or may be, even present the desired information at a moment 
 when no other authority can be applied to. 
 
 These, perhaps, will be deemed sufficiently large purposes for our work, 
 yet we have the audacity to shadow for it an utility even beyond these, and 
 one of almost superior importance, no less than that of assisting in the design 
 of construction , not indeed, that the executive may thus supplant the legisla- 
 tive, or the architect be overcome by the clerk of works ; but that the latter 
 may have the means always with him, in the workshop, and in the office, 
 of referring the constructive details he is directed to execute to the authority 
 of precedent, and of determining their agreement with rules derived from 
 the safe data of sound and successful works. And if, by such examination, 
 our assistant is led to believe that his orders are inconsistent with the security 
 of his work, who will say that his duty does not dictate a respectful reference 
 to his employer, and a firm advocacy of the principles he finds supported by 
 the experience of others ? 
 
 Without contending that there are those amongst the professional architects 
 and engineers of our day whose acquirements and experience do not qualify 
 them for able designers, and directors of building works, we need only refer 
 to the fact that the clerk of the works is in some cases the only practical man 
 engaged in the matter, and that the instructions he receives from his employer 
 are occasionally of the most vague and inconclusive character, and in such 
 cases it is evidently of the highest importance that he should so far under- 
 stand the principles of the proposed construction as to be able to examine 
 and approve of them, to secure at any rate the bare safety of the structure. 
 Without such means of examination, there can exist no guarantee that the 
 work shall be permanently sound, while the liability will moreover exist that 
 the mere work of erection cannot be effected without accident. To these and 
 similar causes are attributable the many fearful accidents recorded by the 
 press in which we read of huge warehouses and factory buildings warranted 
 fire-proof \ $*c., falling like card houses, and murdering helpless work- 
 
 people beneath their ruin. 
 
INTRODUCTION'. 
 
 3 
 
 Let our endeavour, therefore, be welcomed as well directed for the aid of 
 the useful class of conductors in question, and we will undertake to avoid 
 arrogant assumption, and to furnish rules and principles of ready application 
 under most or all circumstances, and which will effectually provide for the 
 permanent security of the buildings themselves and of all property and life 
 committed to them.* 
 
 * Just as these pages had been written, another “frightful accident” happened 
 in Gracechurch Street, London, in which the entire fall of an immense pile of building, 
 and the loss of several human lives were occasioned, as it is reported, by the accidental 
 fracture of one cast iron girder ! ! ! 
 
SECTION I. FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 Points to bf. attended to —Rocks, Chalk, &c. — Gkavei., Loam, Clays, 8tc. — S ands, and made 
 Soils. — Piling. — Sand Foundations in Egypt, France, 8cc. — Pile-Driving by Steam ; — • 
 Deverell, Mylne, and Nasmyth. — Potts’ Pneumatic Piles. — Bog, Moss, &c. — Submarine 
 Foundations. — Mitchell’s Screw Piles. — Decay ok Cast Iron and Timber Piling, and 
 means of protecting them. — Boring Tools. — Effects of alternate Wet and Dryness of 
 Foundations. — Size and Nature of Structures to be considered. — Footings, as ordered 
 in “Building Act.” — Foundations of Chimneys. — Means of preventing Damp in Buildings. 
 
 1. Every-day language recognises the value of a good and secure foundation, 
 and in the practice of building, we find frequent proofs that a want of 
 sufficiency in this department precludes all possibility of substantial super- 
 structure. Falsest of all false economy is that which stints the foundation 
 of a building of its proper materials and dimensions ; for here, re-construction 
 is either impossible, or greatly expensive, by reason of the difficulty of access, 
 while the upper works are ever liable to sudden failure, which may not 
 happen until the entire building is erected. 
 
 2. The proper construction of a foundation will depend — 
 
 1. On the nature of the site on, or materials in, which, it is to 
 
 be built. 
 
 2. On the influences to which the foundation itself and the sur- 
 
 rounding and bearing materials are, or may be, exposed. 
 
 3. On the kind and extent of structure intended to be erected on 
 
 the foundation. 
 
 We will notice these conditions in order. 
 
 3. It has been customary to divide foundations generally into two classes, 
 viz : natural , and artificial ; meaning thereby to distinguish between such as 
 are founded on materials of sufficient tenacity to bear the construction, and 
 such as are founded on materials artificially arranged, combined and disposed 
 in order to get the requisite firmness in sites of original insecurity. Now we 
 disregard this distinction, because it will be found that artificial works are 
 required for all foundations whatsoever, in order to make them perfect, and 
 because this distinction seems to us liable to beget a false idea of security in 
 some cases, and a dangerous want of care in conducting the really essential 
 operations of foundation building. 
 
 4. The several kinds of material in which foundations have to be con- 
 structed, are rock or chalk, gravel, clays, sands, and made soils of various 
 kinds, and stone of various descriptions. 
 
FOUNDATIONS IN GRAVEL, ETC. 
 
 5 
 
 5. Foundations in Rock . — Of these, the rocks, or native beds of stone, 
 constitute the firmest and least compressible materials, the unstratified rocks, 
 as granite, gneiss, greenstone, &c., possessing these qualities in a higher 
 degree than those rocks which occur in strata. With any of these substances 
 levelling only will be requisite to receive the construction ; and great economy 
 may be sometimes effected by foregoing the idea of levelling to one line 
 throughout, and cutting the rock into steps, removing just sufficient to 
 procure a sound bearing for the work. Or where the original surface is 
 sufficiently low, and is found, on examination, to be free from dangerous 
 fissures, the required level for starting the brick footings or coursed masonry, 
 may be obtained by filling in with rough rubble work carefully bedded in the 
 rock, and well bonded by judicious selection of the size of the stones, and 
 good lime mortar. 
 
 6. Foundations in Chalk , fyc . — This material, which is geologically ranked 
 as the last or uppermost of the secondary strata, is met with in various 
 degrees of dryness and of hardness, sometimes so hard as to be used as a 
 building stone, and in other cases soft in an extreme degree, readily yielding 
 to the crushing force of the human hand. Its suitability for receiving 
 foundations varies accordingly, and corresponding modes of treatment become 
 necessary. In the former condition chalk needs little preparation beyond 
 that already described of the harder rocks ; but when soft, always resulting 
 from the percolation of w ater through it, proper steps should be adopted for 
 removing such w^ater, for preventing its future access, and for consolidating 
 the moistened chalk into a firm and unyielding mass. The removal of the 
 water may be effected by forming trenches or ducts leading from the bed of 
 the intended foundation, by adequate fall, to a low r er water course or drain. 
 Preparatory to this, the access of more w 7 ater should be prevented by punning 
 that side of the foundation-trench from which the water percolates with firm 
 clay, or it will in some cases be worth while to introduce a small bed of 
 concrete at such points of access, and thus prepare the chalk for a gradual 
 and thorough drying. The surface of the chalk should then be removed, or 
 at any rate subjected to severe ramming, so as to knock off all loose projecting 
 parts, and consolidate the whole together. 
 
 7. Foundations in Gravel , Loam , Strong Clays, fyc . — These may be classed 
 together, because their suitability for our purpose depends upon the same 
 peculiarities of composition, viz : the degree in which their component parts 
 are bonded together, and the degree in which they are, or may be made, free 
 from the influence of water. The clays may be regarded as possessing the 
 most intimate and complete combination of particles, but they differ 
 materially in their tendency to retain w r ater passing through them. Of 
 homogeneous texture, they may be considered as always holding a certain 
 amount of water or moisture, while an excess of it renders them slippy and 
 liable to unexpected subsidence. Thorough draining, by trenching below the 
 bed of intended foundations, becomes necessary in the latter case, and all 
 available means should be adopted of cutting off* all further access of water. 
 In gravel and similar materials, the power of cohesion depends upon the 
 intermingling or binding of the pebbles, &c., of which they are composed, 
 and this binding is most efficacious when the component parts exist in 
 considerable variety of size. Thus if the pebbles in gravel are all large, and 
 
6 
 
 FOUNDATIONS IN SAND. 
 
 no cementitious substance be present, it will have little cohesion ; and 
 similarly, if the particles are all equally minute, it will partake of the nature 
 of sand, and be equally incohesive. But where consisting of pieces of varied 
 sizes, the entire mass becomes consolidated, and constitutes a good foundation. 
 It will be found worth while, in some cases, to sprinkle a little lime grouting 
 over the bed of trenches cut in these materials, by which the mass becomes 
 more thoroughly concreted together, and the passage of water is rendered 
 still more difficiilt. 
 
 8. Foundations in Sands and made soils. — In dealing with this class of 
 materials, the builder will find the greatest need of thorough examination, 
 and strict supervision. Made soils are seldom trust-worthy, unless they are 
 for a considerable depth constructed of water-passing materials, are thoroughly 
 under-drained, and have undergone gradual subsidence through a lengthened 
 period of time. They will moreover require a thorough ramming, and all 
 rotten or defective parts should be carefully picked out and made good with 
 sound materials. When thus treated, and thoroughly drained, a plentiful 
 treatment of good lime grouting will be found a valuable addition. If there 
 is reason to fear the subsequent admission of water, or if it involve great 
 expense to stop it out, a thick bed of concrete had better be laid at once. 
 For concrete, it is usual to specify the nature of its materials and the pro- 
 portions in which they are to be mixed. Sometimes it is composed of gravel 
 and lime, and sometimes of gravel, sand, and lime. The lime is an essential 
 material as a cement for uuiting the other constituents, the stones in the 
 gravel serve to give hardness and firmness to the mass. Sand, when used, 
 is to be regarded rather as an adulterant than an essential component. The 
 value of the compound consists in its thorough concretion , and such materials 
 and proportions are best as the most effectually attain this condition. The 
 materials will of course be procured from the nearest place, where of suitable 
 quality, according to the locality of the work. If the gravel be of proper 
 size, the sand thoroughly clean and sharp, and the lime of average quality, 
 five or six parts of gravel and sand may be mixed with one of lime. When 
 the proper proportions have been determined they should be steadily adhered 
 to, and accurately guaged in each preparation of concrete. The materials 
 should be mixed in the dry state, and then moistened and well beaten until 
 a thorough admixture of the parts is effected, and the mass is brought to a 
 tough consistency, when it should immediately be filled into barrows, and 
 teemed from a height never less than six feet. It should be thus deposited 
 as near as practicable to the spot where required, so as to need as little 
 levelling as possible, If the intended total depth of the concrete exceeds 
 18 inches, it should be brought up in two or more layers, never more than 
 12 inches each, and each layer completed and brought to a level surface before 
 another is commenced. 
 
 9. Foundations in Sand. — Sand if coarse in quality, dry, and sharp or 
 angular in the form of its particles, is frequently found to afford a tolerably 
 good base for foundations ; not so good indeed as gravel of variable structure 
 as already explained, yet sufficiently firm, if well supported by the surrounding 
 materials, to receive ordinary foundations. It will, however, be improved by 
 a little lime grouting, and will require all possible precaution for preserving 
 it from the insidious action of water, percolating through it from springs, or 
 
FOUNDATIONS ON PILES. 
 
 7 
 
 upper drainage. When, however, sand occurs in a shifting condition,. con- 
 stantly sliding away from the inclination of its bed, or from want of cohesion ; 
 or when it assumes the form of a quicksand falling in through wide fissures, 
 and drifting into heaps, filling up holes in the subsoil, and undermining the 
 surrounding materials by gradual insinuation among them, complete pre- 
 parations become requisite in order to prepare for the building of foundations. 
 In these cases the access of water and drifting sand must be intercepted, 
 which may be effected by the use of concrete, aided by draining of the water 
 from the upper strata. Or a row of sheet-piling may be driven above the 
 intended site for foundations, the interstices caulked , that is, filled up with 
 oakum driven in with a tool, and the surface afterwards well coated with 
 pitch. If the existing bed of sand be of small depth, it may be found worth 
 while to remove it altogether over the surface required for the foundations, 
 clear out the trench completely, level the surface of the sub-materials, if good, 
 shore up the sides of the trench with rough 3-inch planking, well pitched, 
 and fill in with concrete or rough masonry. 
 
 10. j Foundations on Piles. If, however, the sand be of great depth and 
 extent, piling will become necessary. Piles thus employed to procure a firm 
 support for buildings, effect this purpose in one of two ways — either by 
 passing through the loose materials, as sand, &c., and reaching a solid sub- 
 stratum of chalk, &c., into which they are driven so as to secure a firm 
 footing and position ; — or by penetrating the loose material to such an extent 
 that the friction between the sides of the piles and the surrounding material 
 is sufficient to preserve them in their places, and prevent future subsidence. 
 This latter condition is evidently compatible only with stationary sands. If 
 they have aiiy disposition to shift, it becomes indispensable that the piling 
 reach an independent footing in the firm material beneath, and thus afford a 
 foundation free from the action of the sand through which it passes. Even 
 with such piling as this, it may be advisable to protect it with a row of sheet- 
 piling, driven on that side from which the sand has a tendency to move, sa 
 as to protect the work from lateral pressure hereafter. The piles should be 
 of Memel or Dantzic whole timber, from 10 to 15 inches square, care being 
 taken that they are nice straight grown sticks, free from shakes, and in all 
 respects sound and perfect. They must be properly shod with iron and 
 pointed, and the tops squared and fitted with wrought iron rings or collars, to 
 prevent splitting by driving. Their length will of course depend on the depth 
 of the soil through which they are to be driven, or its tenacity. The monkey 
 of the pile engine is usually from 8 to 15 cwt. in weight, and each pile should 
 be driven until 10 blows of this monkey will not force the pile down more 
 than a quarter of an inch. When all thus driven to the proper depth, the 
 tops of the piles are to be carefully squared to an uniform level throughout, 
 and the upper timber work fitted. Longitudinal half-timbers, 5 to 7 inches 
 wide, and 10 to 14 inches deep, are first bolted to the piles, notched down 
 upon shoulders cut for them. These constitute the walings, and serve to 
 bind the whole pile-framing together. If the piles be sufficiently near to 
 each other (say not more than 2ft. from centre to centre) the longitudinal 
 planking, which is rough, and 3 or 4 inches in thickness, may be spiked at 
 once down on the surface formed by the piles and waling. If the piles are 
 further apart it will be necessary to fix transverse sleepers, say 6 inches by 6 
 
8 
 
 SAND FOUNDATIONS IN EGYPT, F.TC. 
 
 inches oil the walings, in order to receive the planking which is to be spiked 
 down upon them. The heights at which the pile heads are first levelled 
 will of course depend on the determination as to which of these methods is 
 to be adopted. The annexed figures shew the two pile structures here 
 described. Fig. 1 . represents a plan of a pile-foundation as first mentioned, 
 shewing the heads of the piles in one part, the waling fixed in another, and 
 the planking added in the remainder. Fig. 2 . shews a cross section through 
 the waling and future wall. Fig. 3. is a plan in which the piles are further 
 apart, and shews the piles alone and with the waling, sleepers, and planking 
 consecutively added. Fig. 4. is a cross section through the waling, 
 planking, &c. Fig. 5. shews the head of a pile protected with wrought 
 iron ring, ready for driving. Fig. 6 . is the top of a pile shod with wrought 
 iron shoe, and Fig. 7. is a plan of the shoe separate. The ring for head of 
 pile should be made of iron 3 inches by | inch, made cylindrical, 9J inches 
 in diameter internally. It will weigh about 11 lbs., and if shrunk on, that 
 is, soundly welded, and put on tight on the pile, while it is hot, it will cool 
 to a contracted diameter and fit the pile tightly. The shoe should be made 
 with four straps meeting in a tapered point, the straps being 10 inches apart. 
 These straps may be 9 inches long in the parallel parts, and the length of taper 
 should be about 15 inches, to make them easy for driving. Each strap to 
 have a J inch hole forged in it for | inch spike. The straps should be made of 
 bar iron 2£ inches by £ inch. They will weigh about 28 lbs. or 5 cwt. 
 each, and should be well formed and tapered and soundly welded, without 
 cracks or flaws in the metal. The spikes for securing them to the piles 
 are to be f inch diameter, formed with strong rose heads, the ends properly 
 pointed and fitted for driving into the piles, after the holes have been 
 angered. The piles should be carefully fitted to the top rings and bottom 
 shoes, and no careless workmanship be permitted on any account, as the 
 soundness and efficiency of the piles will depend to a great extent on the 
 exactness with w hich these fittings preserve their position w hile the driving is 
 proceeded with. 
 
 11. Sand Foundations in Egypt, France , Spc . — During the interesting 
 excavations carried on for examining the Egyptian Pyramids, a few years 
 since by Colonel Vyse, andunder the immediate superintendence of Mr.Perring, 
 a curious mode of forming foundations in sand was brought to light. It 
 appears that the stony surface of the desert had been made level by a layer 
 of fine sand, and confined on all sides by a stone platform 14 feet C inches 
 wide, and 2 feet 9 inches thick, which supported the external casing, and the 
 Pyramid (that of Dashhour) was built upon the sand, which is firm and solid. 
 Mr. Perring met with several other instances in Egypt where sand had been 
 thus employed, and if it be retained in its place, it may be apparently 
 depended upon. The blocks forming the platform were laid upon four 
 courses of bricks, and several of the blocks of the casing were held together 
 by stone cramps of the double wedge form. Foundations on sand were 
 extensively adopted by M. Devilliers in 1822, in constructing the French 
 Canal of St. Martin, but we have no account of the manner in which it was 
 employed. In 1830, Captain Gauzence of the French Engineers, used sand 
 for supporting the portico of the guard-house of Mousserolles at Bayonne. 
 In this case the surrounding soil was a greasy and slippery clay, which 
 
SAND FOUNDATIONS IN EGYPT, ETC. 
 
 9 
 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 
10 
 
 IMPROVEMENTS IN DRIVING PILES. 
 
 extended to a considerable depth, and it was first proposed to lay down a 
 platform of wood as a base. Captain Gauzence’s proposal having however 
 been approved, the soil was cleared out, forming a trench about 3 feet deep 
 below the intended construction. This space was then filled with sand well 
 rammed. On tliis, two courses of asldar masonry were laid and covered 
 with a course of dressed stone, forming the foundation. Before completing 
 the columns, one of them was loaded with ten tons of lead without producing 
 any sensible depression. The building was finished in October 1830, and 
 no settlement has since occurred, while a wall of the same guard-house, 
 otherwise founded , has settled considerably. For some of the fortifications 
 of Bayonne, where buildings had to be built on made ground, the same mode 
 of founding has been successfully adopted. In 1836, a sand foundation was 
 employed, about 2 feet 6 inches thick, with equal success, for the quay wall 
 of a harbour on the coast of Brittany. Another mode of construction was 
 resorted to in providing a foundation for the Artillery Arsenal at Bayonne. 
 The soil in this case was of the same slippery kind as that met with at the 
 guard-house, and wooden piling was necessarily interdicted, because at high 
 water a bed of water penetrates the soil, which rapidly destroys wooden 
 piles or platforms. Colonel D urbach therefore determined to use what may 
 be termed 'piles of sand. The forge department of the Arsenal is surrounded 
 by square piers united by a wall, the whole constructed of masonry, and 
 the weight of one of these piers, with timber-work supports, is about 35 tons. 
 The foundation piles are so arranged that each bears about 2 tons. The 
 operation as carried on in this instance, was begun by driving into the 
 ground common wooden piles about 6 feet 6 inches long and 7 inches square. 
 These were then withdrawn, and the holes thus formed filled with sand. 
 The surface was then levelled, the sand rammed in, and the masonry built 
 upon it. Colonel Durbach’s plan was, with some modification, adopted in 
 1833, by M. Mery, in the canal of St. Martin at Paris, in constructing a 
 lateral culvert which passes through loose ground into which water percolates. 
 Fearing the sand would be washed away, however, sand mortar was made use 
 of, composed of one part of hydraulic lime to six parts of sand, which soon 
 consolidated. It was found that the sand should be moderately fine, clean, 
 and free from earth, and rammed in layers of 8 or 9 inches thick. 
 
 12. Improvements in driving Piles — Devei'elVs. Great facility in pile-driving 
 has latterly been attained by the application of the power of steam to this 
 purpose, in lieu of the power of men, as employed in the old pile-engines 
 known as Bunce’s and Vauloue’s engines. One of the earliest intimations of 
 this application of steam power appears in a patent granted to William 
 Deverell, of Blackfriars, dated June 6, 1806, and entitled, “ Improvements 
 in the mode of giving motion to hammers, stampers, knives, shears, and 
 other things, without the application of wheels, pinions, or any rotative 
 motion, by means of various powers now in common use.” This apparatus 
 consisted of a steam cylinder, with a piston and rod in it ; a hammer being 
 attached to the outer end of the rod, and raised by steam admitted beneath 
 the piston by valves or cocks. The steam thus admitted may be condensed, 
 or blown off, when the piston and hammer will descend, being urged both by 
 their weight and by the elasticity of the cushion of compressed air in the 
 cylinder above the piston. Several varieties of arrangement were suggested, 
 
IMPROVEMENT*) IN DRIVING PILES. 
 
 11 
 
 establishing this early origin of the application of steam to the purposes of 
 the hammer, monkey, or ram. 
 
 13. Milne s. — In 1839 Mr. James Milne applied steam to the purpose of 
 pile- driving, in conducting the works at Montrose Harbour. In this appli- 
 cation the ordinary clipper or clutch with its slides is used, the upper part of 
 the clipper being made long enough to let the slides rise 15 inches after dis- 
 engaging the ram by the slips. The chain of the ram, being shackled to the 
 clipper, passes over a pulley at top of the guides, and is led off to the other 
 part of the machine by another pulley below. The hoisting machinery, which 
 was substituted for the common crabwinch, was put on a framing, placed at a 
 distance behind the guide-frames. This new gearing consists of a pulley, 
 running slack on a shaft, and driven by a rope from the steam-engine. A 
 friction- strap is placed in a seat turned in the centre block of the pulley, and 
 its extremities embrace the prongs of a clutch when it is engaged, this clutch 
 sliding on keys sunk in the shaft, and being engaged and disengaged by 
 a forked lever. The ram-chain passes through this lever, and is coiled upon 
 a cone, passing through an aperture in the flange of it, where it is fixed by 
 a pinching screw. This machine was worked from the steam-engine (set up 
 for pumping, &c.) by a pulley 4ft. lOin. diameter, making thirty-five revolu- 
 tions per minute, giving motion to the pulley just described, and causing the 
 shaft and cone to revolve with a velocity of 48.33 revolutions per minute. 
 With the ram of 12cwt., worked from the smallest end of the cone, this 
 speed gave about seven strokes per minute from the height of 10 to 12 feet, 
 being six or seven times the effect accomplished by manual labour. 
 
 14. Nasmyth's . — On the 24th July, 1843, Mr. James Nasmyth obtained a 
 patent for “certain improvements in machinery or apparatus for driving piles ; 
 part or parts of which improvements are applicable also to forging and stamp- 
 ing metals and other substances.’* Mr. Nasmyth had previously, viz., June 
 9th, 1842, obtained a patent for a similar purpose. Mr. Nasmyth's effective 
 apparatus consists of a steam cylinder, closed below, but having openings at 
 the top to allow the passage of air. A piston works in the cylinder, and its 
 rod passes through a steam-tight aperture in the bottom. The monkey, or 
 driver, weighing two and a half tons i is attached to this piston-rod. The 
 engine is worked by high-pressure steam, admitted through the induction- 
 pipe beneath the piston, and raising it with the monkey attached. Having 
 arrived at the required height, the induction is closed, and the eduction-pipe 
 opened, and the piston, with the monkey attached to its rod, falls on the 
 head of the pile. A heavy cap of iron slides between two vertical standards, 
 and guides the direction of the pile, which passes through a hole formed in 
 it for that purpose. In the first trial, this engine drove a pile, 14 inches 
 square, 15 feet into a coarse tenacious clay, with twenty blows of the monkey, 
 in the space of 17 seconds, the engine working about 70 strokes per minute. 
 At Hevonport and other places this machine has been worked with great 
 effect, and has been found to effect immense economy of time and cost when 
 the quantity of work to be done is of considerable extent. 
 
 15. Potts'. — This invention, for which letters patent were obtained, Dec. 
 5th, 1843, by Dr. L. H. Potts, comprises four distinct purposes. 
 
 First. The application of hollow piles of iron in constructing piers, em- 
 bankments, breakwaters, &c., which piles may be of cylindrical or other suit- 
 
12 
 
 FOUNDATIONS IN BOOS, MOSS, PEAT, ETC. 
 
 able forms, and are to be sunk by withdrawing from their interior the sand or 
 other matters filling the space in which they stand. Second. The application 
 of skeleton frames or cases in connection with hollow piles. Third. The 
 forcing or injecting by hydraulic pressure, around the base of the piles, such 
 chemical solutions as will solidify or consolidate the sand, &c., on which they 
 stand ; and, Fourth. The application of cements in a state of dry powder, 
 which are intended to become solid under water, and thus form an artificial 
 rock. The first of these objects is carried out thus : — The hollow pile is 
 open at both ends ; and, when to be driven in sand covered with water, the 
 pile is placed erect on its destined site, the lower end being open, and the 
 top closed with an air-tight lid, connected by a pipe with a receiver. The 
 receiver is connected by another pipe with a three-barrelled air-pump, the 
 working of which exhausts the air from the hollow pile, raising the sand 
 and water from the bottom thereof, and causing it to sink to the required 
 depth. The materials thus extracted pass through the pipe into the receiver, 
 which is emptied when required. In soils which require loosening for the 
 introduction of the piles, the inventor effects this object by passing an instru- 
 ment adapted for the purpose down the pile, or pouring water into it. Hard 
 substances may be acted upon by ordinary ' boring tools. Hollow piles of 
 large diameter may be similarly sunk, by using a smaller exhausting pipe, or 
 “ elephant or operating trunk,” within the large pile. The “ skeleton frames” 
 are intended to secure the piles in their proper relative positions, and for this 
 purpose are cast with holes to fit over the piles. When the piles are thus 
 secured in their places, they may be filled with concrete or rubble stones. 
 But if the native soil be of a yielding nature, it should be first consolidated ; 
 which Dr. Potts effects by pouring down, within the piles, such chemical 
 solutions as the character of the soil requires. The cements to be employed 
 in a dry state are the hydraulic cements, to be used separately, or mixed with 
 stones, sand, or shingle, conducted to the foot of the pile by a hopper and 
 tube, there mixed with the water, and thus consolidated. Among many 
 applications of this useful invention in pile-sinking , rather than pile-driving , 
 the iron bridge over the Shannon, on the Midland Great Western Railway, 
 may be mentioned. Each pier of this structure is founded on 33 piles, 
 ranged in 11 rows of 3 each. Each pile is ten feet in diameter. In driving 
 
 them, a vacuum of 26 inches of mercury, equivalent to about 131bs. per 
 superficial inch, was created within the tube, and the effect was instantane- 
 ous ; the whole rapidly sunk 6 feet in the ground. Piles thus sunk arc 
 appropriately termed “ Pneumatic Piles.” 
 
 16. Foundations in Bog , Moss , Peat, fa. — Although, in the course of ordi- 
 nary construction of buildings , it may never happen that such foundations as 
 these may become necessary, yet it will be well to glance briefly at the methods 
 adopted for overcoming these difficulties, in order to obtain secure bases for 
 other constructive works — such as railways, &c. — as this glance may furnish 
 us with hints capable of application, directly or otherwise, in our future 
 experience. In these materials, no idea can be cherished of at once procu- 
 ring a steady and immoveable basis for our foundations. The whole that can 
 be accomplished, is to provide an extended and well-bonded bearing, capable 
 of preserving its consolidation positively in itself, while our other measures 
 for the gradual drying and draining of the surrounding materials arc taking 
 
SUBMARINE FOUNDATIONS, BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS, ETC. 
 
 13 
 
 effect. The construction ordinarily employed consists of timbers, square or 
 round, laid in parallel courses or layers, crossing each other alternately, and 
 bound together by pickets, or twig-bands. Timbers thus employed arc 
 termed fascines , or bavins , and were extensively used by Belidor and other 
 celebrated engineers, in water-works and military operations. Those used by 
 Belidor consisted of timber shoots of 6 or 7 years’ growth, from 7 to 11 
 feet in length, and made into bundles 30 inches in circumference, tied with 
 three bands. Subsequently, a method has been used of compressing the 
 branches, or brushwood, into rectangular masses, one-third their original 
 thickness. These are then bound, at intervals of 2 feet in length, with copper 
 wires, and the ends of the fascines sawn evenly off. This method has been 
 extensively adopted with much success by Mr. B. Mullins, in Ireland, — a 
 press, worked by wheel, pinions, and rack, being introduced for the purpose 
 of compression. The same gentleman, in constructing railways over bogs, 
 has formed the bed, or seat, with dry peat, well chopped and trampled. 
 When the bog has been deep and wet, and time could not be allowed for 
 awaiting the effect of thorough drainage, side and catch-water drains were 
 formed at proper distances apart, (which must never be omitted,) and a layer of 
 fascines was used, 12 inches square, and closely bound with pickets or twig- 
 bands. These were laid transversely on the bog, and over them longitudinal 
 pieces of native round timber, about 9 inches diameter, passing each other 2 
 or 3 feet at the ends. On the upper surfaces of these, level beds were adzed 
 for the rough cross sleepers, about 12 x 6 inches, which were firmly spiked 
 down at the distance of 4 feet apart from centre to centre. Half baulks of 
 timber were placed longitudinally on these, to carry the rails, and the space 
 filled to the bottom of the rails with gravel and sand. In the formation of 
 the famed Chat moss embankment, for the Liverpool and Manchester railway, 
 by the late Mr. G. Stephenson, hurdles bound with heath and brushwood were 
 combined and arranged in layers, and, after being thoroughly drained, dried 
 moss was used in making up the embankment. 
 
 17. Submarine foundations , Bridge foundations , Sfc. A few notes on this 
 department of construction will inform our young practitioner of the methods 
 usually employed in this class of works. In order to exclude the water from 
 the site for the intended piers, wharf, and sea walls, dock entrances, &c., a 
 coffer dam is constructed. This consists of a double row of piling, driven 
 parallel to each other. Thus the piles in each row are fixed close together, 
 but the two are constructed at a distance, say of from 3 to 10 or 12 
 feet apart, according to the intended height of the dam, &c. Horizontal 
 half-timbers or walings are bolted along the piles near the top, thus securing 
 them in their places : — cross ties and pieces are also fixed between the two 
 rows of piling to keep them in proper relative position, and the space included 
 between the two rows is then filled with clay well rammed down, thus forming 
 a water-tight enclosure of the space whereon the operations for constructing 
 the work, are to be conducted. Pumps are then applied to remove the water 
 from the space, and the work of construction proceeds. Many great works 
 have been founded on the European Continent, by another method of con- 
 struction, which was much approved by Belidor, and is, by the French 
 termed encaissement. In this mode, main piles are driven with sheet , or half- 
 timber-piling, between them, and the whole secured and bound with waling. 
 
14* SUBMARINE FOUNDATIONS, BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS, ETC. 
 
 The space to be occupied by the foundation, having been wholly surrounded 
 by this timber encaissemcnt, and the loose material within removed, concrete 
 or dry stones are thrown into it and consolidated until the mass reaches the 
 level of the water. One of the oldest methods of forming a foundation 
 for bridges is by means of caissofis, which, originally, were mere baskets of 
 strong construction, made of the boughs or branches of trees, and loaded first 
 with stones enough to sink them through the water. They were then filled 
 with similar materials, of stones, &c., until the mass reached within 12 or 18 
 inches of the lowest water level. Subsequently these basket-caissons were 
 abandoned for wooden chests strongly bound with iron, which were weighted 
 with masonry and thus sunk to the bed of the river. The two bridges over 
 the Thames, of Westminster and Blackfriars, were built by Labelyeand Mylne 
 respectively on caissons of this description. It should be noticed that in 
 ancient pile-driving, the heads of the piles were not levelled to receive a 
 timber and planking platform, but left rough, and the space between the 
 piles filled in with a kind of concrete called beton by the French, and w hich 
 was brought up to a level surface or bed for the first course of stone-w r ork. 
 Foundations are sometimes formed in w’ater by simply depositing the separate 
 stones in the bed of the stream. In the construction of Ardrossan harbour, 
 in Ayrshire, N. B., Telford adopted this method with success, and at considera- 
 ble economy. In this case the stones were conveniently procured of large 
 dimensions, from 6 to 10 feet in length, and from 3 to 5 feet in width. 
 Each stone was held by the implement known as “ nippers,” or “ devil’s 
 claw’s,” and lowered by a crane through a depth of 6 or 8 feet of water, into 
 a hard and solid foundation. The blocks were deposited end to end, and by 
 successive layers of them the work was brought up to the level of low’ water 
 spring tides. The whole breadth was then levelled, and by chipping, a bed 
 was prepared for the first course of dressed masonry. In constructing the pier 
 of Aberdeen a much bolder method was ventured by Mr. Gibb. This pier 
 extends into the sea, with a base 75 feet wide, and the bottom w r as thus en- 
 tirely constructed of irregularly shaped masses of stone, which were conveyed 
 to the spot in boats and tumbled in to the depth of 10 or 12 feet. The 
 bottom under this foundation is described as only loose sand and gravel; the 
 ashlar facing is begun about 1 foot below low w’atcr mark, and carried up to 
 the top of the pier, of which the total height is about 33 feet, being 28 feet 
 wide on the top, and formed with concave batir on each face. In the erection 
 of iron columns for piers of bridges, &c., in water, a method has been suc- 
 cessfully adopted by first sinking iron cylinders larger than the intended 
 columns, and building the work w ithin these. The terrace pier at Gravesend 
 stands on iron columns which were fixed in this manner. Cast-iron cylinders, 
 0 feet in diameter, were sunk through the bed of the river to the substratum 
 of chalk, the material being excavated as they sank, and additional lengths 
 added as required, thus forming miniature coffer dams, and the top of them 
 being always kept above the level of high water. The bottom being levelled, 
 a floor was formed of tw o courses of dry bricks, and 1 8 inches of brick-work 
 in Roman cement, with two courses of plain tiles also in cement, to break 
 joints, and thus keep out the land springs. This cement bottom being finished, 
 a concrete of Thames b dlast and cement was poured in, upon which, w hen 
 properly set, a stone base for the column w r as set, proper holding bolts and 
 
SCREW PILES. 
 
 15 
 
 washers being built in, as the work proceeded, for fixing the columns. Around 
 the foundation thus formed, the cylinders were allowed to remain, the upper 
 tiers being removed when the work was finished. 
 
 18. Screw Piles for Submarine Foundations. Mr. A. Mitchell is the inventor 
 of this most ingenious and useful manner of forming foundations for light- 
 houses, &c., on loose sand or mud banks, wholly or partially covered by the 
 sea, and where the erection of permanent edifices had previously been deemed 
 hazardous, if not impracticable. The origin of the screw pile was the screw 
 mooring , which was designed to obtain a greater holding power than any of 
 the usual mooring-anchors, or blocks, of however large dimensions. Experi- 
 ment had proved that if a screw with a broad spiral flange were secured on a 
 spindle, and forcibly propelled by rotary motion to a certain depth into 
 the ground, an enormous force was needed to extract it by direct tension. In 
 practice this power to resist direct tension becomes relatively much greater, 
 owing to the obliquity of the tension and the curve of the buoy cable. Hence 
 it was proposed to use a combination of these screws or screw-piles to form a 
 foundation for supporting a platform, columns, &c., whereon lighthouses and 
 other buildings might be erected in exposed situations. In the year 1838 
 this plan was adopted for the lighthouse on the Maplin Sand at the mouth of 
 the Thames, being supported by the approval of Mr. James Walker, C.E. 
 For this purpose 9 piles, having stems 5 inches in diameter, and screws 4 
 feet in diameter, were driven 22 feet deep into the mud, and allowed to remain 
 2 years before the works were proceeded with. The lighthouse was subse- 
 quently constructed and certified by Mr. Walker to stand perfectly well. At 
 the entrance to the harbour of Fleetwood on Wyre, a lighthouse was, mean- 
 time, erected upon 7 iron piles, having screws of 3 feet diameter, driven 16 feet 
 into the bank, which is of loose sand, about 2 miles from the shore. Timber 
 supports, 48 feet in vertical height, were fixed on the piles, to carry the house 
 and lantern, the structure being completed in six months, and with perfect 
 success. The screw piles have since been extensively adopted for similar 
 purposes, and are now enjoying a growing reputation. 
 
 19. Our summary of notes on submarine foundations would not be complete 
 without some brief notice of the action of sea-water on cast-iron piles, and of 
 insects upon timber piling. Cast-iron exposed without protection to the 
 sea-water, suffers rapid corrosion, or rather conversion, into a material of 
 extreme softness, and utterly unfit to sustain considerable superincumbent 
 pressure. No better authority can be quoted than that of the eminent chemist, 
 Faraday, in describing these effects. “ Between these two bodies, (cast-iron 
 and sea-water) there is a vigorous action ; as far as I have been able to observe, 
 it is greatest in the water near the surface, less in deep water, and least of all 
 when the iron is buried in sand, or earth, or building matters, (into which the 
 water may penetrate,) for then the oxide and other results formed, are detained 
 more or less, and form, sometimes, a cement to the surrounding matter, and 
 always a partial protection. Soft cast-iron, as far as my experience goes, 
 (which is not much,) corrodes more rapidly than hard cast ; and the soft, gray 
 and mottled iron, more rapidly than the brittle white iron.’* By way of 
 remedy, Professor Faraday refers to a coating of paint, tar, or bituminous 
 matter and zinc deposited by voltaic action. He also deems it probable that 
 “ bv investigation and trial, different sorts of iron might be easily distinguished 
 
16 
 
 BORING TOOLS, ETC. 
 
 and prepared, one of which should protect the other ; thus soft cast-iron would 
 probably protect hard cast-iron ; and then it would be easy to place the 
 protecting masses where they could be removed when required. ,, The Professor 
 concludes : “ Hence, though iron be a body very subject to the action of 
 sea-water, it does not seem unlikely that it might be used with advantage in 
 marine constructions intended to be permanent, especially if the joint effects 
 of preserving coats and voltaic protectors were applied.” The conclusion to 
 which we believe all who are practically acquainted with this subject, are 
 compelled to arrive, is, that adequate and practicable means of protecting cast- 
 iron from the action of sea-water, are still desiderata of the highest importance. 
 Timber exposed to salt water is subject to the ravages of an insect known 
 as the teredo navales , while under other circumstances the white ant is a 
 similarly mischievous organ of decay. The most efficacious coating appears 
 to be pitch or tar from which all the ammonia has been removed, and 
 this material seems all the more operative in proportion as it is made to 
 saturate the timber. Corrosive sublimate was applied for this purpose 
 according to the mode known as Kyans process, but has subsequently been 
 abandoned in many cases in favour of tar (free from ammonia) with which the 
 pores of the timber are saturated by first withdrawing the moisture, and then 
 injecting the preparation in close vessels, boilers, or troughs. 
 
 20. Boring Tools for examining strata , obtaining water , Spc. The principal 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 Boring 
 
 Cliiaels. 
 
 of these tools are represented in figs. 8 to 20. Fig. 8 shews theplain 
 chisel or cutting tool, used for cutting a vertical hole through the 
 strata to be examined. The chisels simply detach the materials. 
 They are made from l£ inches to 4 feet wide, according to the 
 size of the hole to be perforated, and are turned round and driven 
 downward like all other boring tools by being gripped above 
 with the tillers, shewn in figs. 9 &10. 
 
 The tillers are levers made to em- 
 brace the heads of the boring tools, < 
 
 by the screws shewn, and adapted to 
 be worked by two or more men. A 
 more effective tool in cutting hard j] 
 strata is the Z chisel , shewn in fig. 
 
 11. This is formed with sharp 
 cutting edges turned obliquely from the body of 
 the tool, and requires more labour in working than the plain chisel, but is 
 correspondingly effective. For scraping round bored holes, and detaching 
 loose flint stones, &c., the springs shewn in fig. 12 are employed. These are 
 made wholly of steel, about 3 inches wide, and bare inch thick. The 
 diameter of the bore which they form is about 12 inches, sometimes more, 
 however : one edge of each spring is sharpened ; thus a is sharpened on the 
 upper edge, and b on the under edge. Thus they form a cutting tool, being 
 used vertically, and fixed to the rods. Figs. 13 and 14 represent one of the 
 augers , which are made nearly cylindrical in figure with sharp cutting edges, 
 and helical discs rivetted to the upper edge. These tools are well adapted 
 for cutting out the strata, and turning it upward for removal, acting similarly 
 to a common gimlet when used to perforate wood. Boring augers are made 
 from 2 inches to 4 feet in diameter. Fig. 15 shews a section of one of the 
 
 Figs. 9 aud 10. 
 
 n 
 
 _ M L 
 
 Tillers. 
 
Fig. n. 
 
 1 
 
 BORING TOOLS, ETC. 
 
 17 
 
 Springs. 
 
 Auger. 
 
 Shell. 
 
 shells or vertical cutting tools, which are made of plate iron, about 3-16ths of an 
 inch thick, having a strong bevelled rim of steel securely rivetted to the 
 lower edge. These shells are made about 5 feet long, and from 1 £ inches to 
 2 feet in diameter. For raising the tools, the implement shewn in figs. 16 
 and 17, and called the lifting dogs , is employed. Figs. 16 and 17. 
 
 This consists of a strong hook made in a forked ^ ^ 
 
 form, and well adapted for its purpose. The worm 
 Fig. 18. represented in fig. 18, is formed in the 
 manner of a corkscrew, and intended 
 for use in getting hold of rods, which 
 may become broken by stubborn ma- 
 terials, &c. In such cases the bro 
 ken rod has to be raised, aud a per- 
 fect one lowered instead. These Lifting Dogs, 
 
 worms are made of various sizes, from 2 inches to 18 inches in 
 diameter. The crow's foot , shewn in figs. 19 and 20 is another 
 useful implement for taking hold of a broken rod, or holding a rod, 
 while another, which may have inadvertently become detached, is 
 secured to it. Eye-bolts, swivels, hand-dogs, Figs. 19 and 20. 
 spanners, &c., are also among the tools of 
 the borer engaged in trying for foundations, or seeking for 
 water. As the boring continues and the working tool 
 descends, it becomes necessary to lengthen the aparatus, 
 the workmen remaining on the surface of the ground, or 
 at the bottom of an excavation capacious enough to hold 
 them, and enable them to turn the tillers, remove the 
 borings, &c. For this purpose of lengthening, more bars 
 or rods of first quality iron are used, one end of them 
 being formed with a screw and shoulder, and the other 
 tapped with a hole to fit. In this manner they are suc- 
 cessively applied, on the top of each other, and firmly 
 united, so that the turning action imparted by the workmen 
 above with the tillers, is duly conveyed to the working-tool at the bottom of 
 the rods. c 
 
 W orm. 
 
 IZ_2 
 
 Crow’s FooL 
 
18 
 
 CONSTltUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS. 
 
 21. We have stated (paragraph 2) that the influences to which foundations 
 and the surrounding and bearing materials are, or may be exposed, should 
 be considered in determining the proper construction for foundations. Thus 
 some foundations are liable to the periodical presence of water, than which 
 nothing can be more detrimental to the stability of our work. Building sites 
 which lie low in relation to the surrounding district, are especially liable to 
 this casualty. In such cases thorough draining into a low r er drain or duct 
 is absolutely necessary, as without this, no precautions for preserving the 
 strips of ground occupied by the foundations in a dry and safe condition, 
 can possibly be effective. The enemy will yet insinuate himself through the 
 adjoining strata, and undermine the foundations by rising beneath them. 
 Concrete is, under these circumstances, a valuable substratum, but in pro- 
 portion to the extent and weight of walls to be erected, it is required 
 to be increased in thickness, and the expense is proportionably augmented. 
 In situations liable to alternate dryness and moisture, no wood should be 
 used. The soundness of timber can be preserved only when always 
 immersed in w 7 ater, or always kept free from it. This material is con- 
 sequently utterly inadmissible under these liabilities which may occur from 
 a variety of causes ; thus, according to the season, some sods are apt to be 
 flooded, or drained dry, w r hile a variety of operations on the adjacent ground 
 may produce similar alternations. Again, in a continuous foundation, it 
 sometimes happens that a variety of substrata are intersected, some being 
 much more liable to a gradual yielding than others. In those cases it is 
 highly desirable to equalize the nature of the various materials to one 
 uniform rate of compressibility. For this purpose it will often be worth 
 while to remove considerable masses of the subsoil, in order to fill in with 
 homogeneous materials. Where the superstructure is intended to be con- 
 tinuous, and cracks and settlements are to be avoided, the entire bearing 
 surface for the foundations should be imperatively brought to one condition 
 of hardness and incompressibility, adapted for permanent endurance. It 
 will be readily understood from these explanations that deep foundations are 
 not always desirable, and that the security of these works is bv no means 
 invariably proportional to the depth from the surface at which they are 
 laid. In cases only wdiere the additional depth enables us to perforate a 
 bad material and reach a sound one, or the more effectually to cut off the 
 admission of water, does this rule apply. 
 
 22. We have now to consider the kind and extent of structure intended 
 to be erected on the foundation (paragraph 2), as affecting the construction 
 of it. That the resistance required to be exerted by a foundation will 
 depend on the weight to be erected upon it, is a principle too self-evident 
 to need proof ; and that the effect of this weight may be varied by the 
 purposes to which the structure is to be applied, is a collateral principle 
 equally clear, and almost equally important. Thus the foundations of a 
 garden wall, will w idely vary from those of a seven-story mill, and these 
 again from those of a chimney intended to be raised 400 feet high. Agaiu, 
 in the first of our instances neither rocking nor concussion need to be 
 provided for ; while the third will be liable to a severe sw'aying or oscillating 
 influence, from which the second is commonly free. Now if the entire struc- 
 ture of a wall or building be so thoroughly bonded together that its own and 
 
FOOTINGS OF WALLS. 
 
 19 
 
 supported weight are faithfully transferrred to its base (which we are to 
 suppose) it follows that the effect ou the foundatiou, per superficial foot, 
 will be reduced in proportion as the base of the work is extended or enlarged. 
 Hence the reason of footings, or extended bases. By this form also, the 
 mechanical requirement of stability is at the same time satisfied. The effect 
 of these footings or spreadings is readily calculated. Thus, if the base of 
 the wall is 18 inches wide, and the superimposed weight equal to 1 ton per 
 superficial foot, each foot run of our wall would, without footings, exert a 
 pressure of 1J ton on the subsoil, whereas, if by footings the width of 
 bearing is increased to 36 inches, the pressure per foot run of the work is 
 reduced to J ton, and a foundation will be equally strong in the latter case, 
 which has only half the resisting power required in the former. 
 
 23. Footings of icalls of Buildings. The “ Metropolitan Building Act” 
 being an authority in this matter, to which we have, occasionally at any rate, 
 to submit, may be referred to for instructions. For buildings of the “ First 
 or Dwelling House Class,” which are defined to be buildings more than 70, 
 and not more than 85 feet high; or covering more than It squares ;* or 
 containing 7 stories, the footings are directed as follows. The bottom of 
 the wall, whether external or party, at least 21 J inches thick. Footings 
 11 inches high, 17| inches wider in the bottom course than the wall, the 
 top of the footings being 3 inches below the surface of adjoining ground, 
 and 9 inches below surface of lowest floor of the building. For extra first- 
 rate buildings, viz., those more than 85 feet high ; covering more than 14 
 squares ; or containing more than 7 stories, the same dimensions of footings 
 are ordered. For second and third-rate dwellings, viz., those more than 38 
 and not exceeding 70 feet in height; covering more than 4 and not exceed- 
 ing 10 squares ; and containing 5 or 6 stories ; the bottom of external and 
 party walls is to be 17 £ inches thick; footings 13 inches wider, and 8 inches 
 high, and top course 3 inches below ground, and 9 inches below lowest 
 floor, as before. For fourth-rate dwellings, being not more than 38 feet 
 high, covering not more than 4 squares, or containing not more than 4 
 stories, the external and party walls are to be 13 inches thick at the bottom, 
 footings 8 £ inches wider than the wall, and 5 inches high. Depth of upper 
 surface of footings as before. 
 
 Figs. 21, 22, and 23, illustrate these dimensions. It is to be remembered 
 
 Fig. 21. Fig 22. Fig. 23. 
 
 First Class Footings. Second and Third Class Footings. Fourth Class Footings. 
 
 * It will be remembered that a square is a surface equal to 100 feet. Thus a space 
 horizontally measuring 10 feet by 10 feet contains one square. A building measuring 50 
 feet by 28 feet on the plan contains 14 squares. 
 
20 
 
 FOUNDATIONS OF CHIMNIES. 
 
 that in these instructions the walls are supposed to be deeply sunk in the 
 ground to form basement floors, and will have the lateral support of area 
 walls and cellars, &c. In constructing Mills, Engine-houses, &c., much 
 additional allowance is needed to secure against the effects of the machinery 
 in shaking the structure. The angles of windows, doorways, and openings, 
 are always weak points, and in proportion to the number and size of these, 
 extra firmness should be sought in the foundation. 
 
 24. Foundation* of Chimnies. A few notes on this class of structures 
 cannot fail in being useful to the young practitioner. The chimney at the 
 Alkali Works (Lee and Burnett’s) at Felling, near Newcastle-on-Tyne, has 
 an extreme height from foundation to underside of top, of 212 feet. The 
 submaterial is hard clay. Extreme diameter at bottom of foundation, 27 feet 
 6 inches. Thickness at bottom of footings, 6 feet 6 inches, gradually reduced 
 to 3 J bricks, (say 2 feet inches,) which is the thickness of the chimney 
 for the first 36 feet in height. The next 80 feet is 3 bricks (say 2 feet 3 
 inches) thick. Then 50 feet, 2 J bricks (or 1 foot 10J); 30 feet, 2 bricks 
 (or 18 inches) ; and 10 feet, 1-J brick (13| inches). Chimney circular on plan. 
 The circular Chimney at Friar’s Grove Chemical Works, near Newcastle-on- 
 Tyne is built on a clay soil. The outside diameter at bottom of foundation 
 is 27 feet 6 inches; inside, 14 feet 3 inches; extreme height, 254 feet 9 
 inches. Thickness of walls, 24 feet 8 inches, 3| bricks; 107 feet, 3 bricks ; 
 53 feet, 2£ bricks; 46 feet 6 inches, 2 bricks; 12 feet, brick. Stone top 
 6 feet, uniform taper of 1^ inches to the yard. The Shot Tower at Elswick 
 has an extreme height of 195 feet 4 inches, is circular on plan, is parallel 
 without taper, that is cylindrical, for two-thirds of its height. Thickness 
 of wall, 2 feet 5 inches, for about two-tliirds of its height, at top 1 foot 
 
 10 inches, external diameter at bottom 22 feet 8 inches, at top 14 feet 
 3 inches. Mr. Cubitt has erected at his works at Pimlico a cylindrical 
 chimney within a square tower, the purpose of the latter being to conceal 
 the former. The chimney has an internal diameter of 5 feet, and is 108 
 feet high from the surface. The foundations are laid on a layer of gravel 
 
 11 feet below the level of the ground; and in order to distribute the weight 
 a bed of concrete was laid 23 feet square, and 3 feet in thickness. Upon 
 this, a mass of brickwork 21 feet square, and 2 feet thick was laid in cement, 
 forming a solid block, like one entire stone landing to sustain the upper 
 work. Through the centre of this foundation a wall, 18 inches in diameter, 
 was left and continued below the water line deep 'enough to insure that the 
 end of the lightning conductor should be always under water. The walls 
 of the tower are 14 inches thick throughout, enclosing a space of 14 feet 
 9 inches square at the base, and 13 feet 9 inches at top. The chimney is, 
 for 24 feet, 3 inches high from footings, (increased 1 brick at flues,) 1 £ brick 
 thick. Above this the bricks are segment-formed, and as follows; — 11 feet 
 3 inches, the work is 10 inches thick; 40 feet 3 inches, 9 inches thick; 
 17 feet 9 inches, 8 inches thick; 17 feet 3 inches, 7 inches; and the 
 remainder 6 inches thick.* 
 
 * The effect of heat in expanding substances is shewn in a striking manner by this 
 chimney which is observed at the height of 90 feet to rise | inch, this remarkable differ- 
 ence in height, arising solely from the comparatively slight variation in the height of 
 
FOUNDATIONS TO PREVENT DAMPNESS, ETC. 
 
 21 
 
 25 . To construct Foundations so as to prevent Dampness in Buildings. — The 
 great importance of effecting this object, not only for preserving the stability 
 of the buildings and their good appearance, but of promoting the health of 
 those residing in them, should never be forgotten in designing the foundation 
 of a structure. Heretofore this matter has been much neglected, and instead 
 of making proper provision in the construction of the building, it has been 
 usual to seek a remedy when the mishievous consequences have become appa- 
 rent in rotten and crumbling brick-work, discoloured walls, peeling papers, 
 falling plaster, &c., &c., or been still more grievously manifested in the sick- 
 ness, coughs, &c., of the unfortunate residents. The most valuable materials 
 we have seen applied to prevent the rising damp in walls, are asphalte and 
 pitch. Whichever of these articles be used, it should be spread or poured 
 copiously over the foundation walls, the whole of which should be brought to 
 one uniform level throughout for that purpose. If the pitch or asphalte be 
 then spread over the entire upper surface, so as to intercept entirely all com- 
 munication between the foundation below and the walls above, no damp, as 
 far as we have observed, can possibly find its way upward ; and however damp 
 the work below the asphalte may become, that above it will remain perfectly 
 dry and unaffected. The upper surface of the asphalte should have coarse 
 sand spread over it, to assist the first course of bricks above in adhering to 
 the preparation. We are glad to find our own experience confirmed by a 
 French authority, who, writing in M. Daly’s Revue Generate de V Architecture , 
 records his experience to a similar effect. He says, that in constructing a 
 three-story house on the Lac d’Enghein, of which the foundation is always 
 under water, and 19j inches below the level of the ground-floor, he covered 
 the entire horizontal surface of the external and internal walls, at the level of 
 the internal ground-floor, with a layer of Seyssel asphalte less than half an 
 inch thick, overspread with coarse sand. In this structure no trace of damp 
 has "ever shewn itself. The same writer cites another instance, in which 
 Homan cement, laid one inch thick, did not prevent the rising of moisture. 
 We have met with similar instances of failure of this material to effect the 
 purpose desired. The bonding between the lower and upper work in walls 
 treated with asphalte as described, may, if thought necessary, be more effectu- 
 ally preserved by incrusting rows of flint stones midway in the thickness of 
 the wall, which must, of course, be covered by the asphalte, and thus form 
 keys for connecting the whole together. As a damp-resisting cement, to be 
 applied to walls already constructed, a compound of tar, kitchen-grease, 
 slaked lime, and powdered glass, has been used, and, we believe, successfully ; 
 but this requires rapid and careful application, and involves a somewhat trou- 
 blesome sort of process. Dampness in walls sometimes proceeds from salts 
 contained in the mortar. In these cases, washing the wall with a strong 
 solution of alum has been found effective. To exclude damp from the inter- 
 nal surface of walls, they may, after being thoroughly dried, be treated with 
 a composition of one part wax to three parts oil, boiled with one-tenth its 
 
 the smoke and vapours passing through it. From this it is clear that the materials we 
 have to deal with are ever liable to variation in bulk by changes of temperature, natural 
 or artificial, and that indeed no alteration can occur iu the thermometer without affecting 
 the dimensions of our structures. 
 
22 
 
 FOUNDATIONS TO PREVENT DAMPNESS, ETC. 
 
 weight of litharge. This method was adopted in preparing the cupola of the 
 Pantheon at Paris for painting on. The absorption was facilitated by heat, 
 and the preparation penetrated the stone from J to | an inch, acquiring 
 solidity as it cooled, and becoming hard in from 6 to 8 weeks. Another in- 
 stance is worth quoting. Two rooms on the basement-story of the Sarbonne 
 are several feet below the ground -level of the neighbouring houses. The 
 walls being impregnated with saltpetre, it was determined, some years ago, 
 to coat them with stucco, in the hope of thus driving the saltpetre to the 
 outside. But it penetrated the stucco, and reappeared on its surface, gradu- 
 ally decomposing the plaster, and rendering the apartments uninhabitable. 
 In these circumstances, the following treatment was successfully adopted : — 
 The plaster was first thoroughly dried, and then heated, piece by piece, to 
 promote the penetration of a mastic, composed of one part linseed oil, boiled 
 with one-tenth its weight of litharge, and two parts of resin, the whole pro- 
 perly melted and fused together. Those who have read Vitruvius may remem- 
 ber that he recommends a mixture of oil and lime , as a cement well adapted 
 to exclude damp from pavements. Slate, it is well known, is a valuable non- 
 absorbent of moisture, and has been introduced with success, as a remedial 
 measure, in intercepting the passage of moisture through walls. Tor this 
 purpose, provide a sufficient number of parallel slates to extend all over the 
 foundation walls, and long enough to project 2 or 3 inches beyond the wall 
 on either side. They must be square edged, so as to fit well side by side. 
 Then below the lowest floor pass a thick saw into the mortar, and entirely 
 through the wall, and introduce the slates in cement in succession, till the 
 whole of the footings are thus insulated from the walls above them. Mois- 
 ture has been prevented from rising through the stone floors of basement- 
 stories, by removing the stones, levelling the earth below, and covering it 
 with sand, and covering this with two or three layers of strong brown paper 
 saturated with tar, the sheets being laid so as to overlap and break joints, 
 and being continued round the edges close up to the walls. We may men- 
 tion that plates of lead have been interposed in a similar manner to that de- 
 scribed for the asphalte, and found efficacious ; but it is far more expensive 
 and difficult in application than the latter material. Besides the vertical as- 
 cent of moisture, which may be fully guarded against by the remedy already 
 stated, dampness is liable to occur in the lower part of walls in other ways. 
 Thus the ground which lies against the exterior surface of a wall will impart 
 a moisture to it, which, according to the construction of the wall, will gradu- 
 ally pass through it, and render the interior damp and unhealthy. A vertical 
 stratum of slates may be interposed between the soil and the wall to prevent 
 this ; but the most efficient remedy will be secured by keeping the soil away 
 from the wall, and forming open areas around the foundation. If space will 
 not permit, blind areas may be formed, by constructing walls convex to the 
 soil, and concave tow ards the w all, the points of contact with the w all being 
 reduced as mucli as possible, to reduce the chance of communicating damp. 
 Circulation of air through these must be provided for by leaving openings. 
 Besides this, the passage of air beneath the lowest lloor should be admitted 
 by introducing iron-gratings, or air-bricks, in openings in the lower face of 
 the wall. Moreover, if the areas be necessarily closed at the top by flagging, 
 air-passages should be formed from the upper part of the areas through the 
 
COMPARATIVE ABSORPTION. 
 
 23 
 
 wall, and communicating with the external air above. Figures 24 and 25, 
 with the subjoined references, will fully explain the details here recommended. 
 
 Section of wall and blind area. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Flan of wall and blind area. 
 
 WW\ X 
 
 A A. Walls of building. 
 
 B B. Walls of blind areas. 
 
 C.' Air-passage, to keep basement-floor dry. 
 
 D D. Air-passages, to promote circulation of air from top to bottom of areas. 
 
 E E. Air-passages, to admit external air to areas. 
 
 Moisture may be prevented from ascending through basement floors, by cover- 
 ing the surface of the ground with a thin bed of concrete, say 6 to 9 inches 
 thick. The value of concrete, mortars, &c., for such purposes, and indeed in 
 all their applications depends, however, greatly on the nature of the lime of 
 which they are composed, a valuable branch of inquiry, which will be found 
 fully entered into in a subsequent section of this book. 
 
 26. Absorbing powers of various Substances. The experiments made a few 
 years ago bv Mr. John Hutchinson have furnished us with the following 
 figures, shewing the relative dispositions of various substances to absorb 
 moisture, and their consequent value in the applications just described. 
 
 Table I. Comparative Absorption of Moisture by different Substances , by 
 
 weight. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 1. Aberdeen Granite 
 
 2. Napoleon Marble 
 
 3. Carrara White Marble 
 
 4. Shetland Flag Stone . 
 
 Absorption. 
 
 2-00 
 
 300 
 
 310 
 
 325 
 
24 
 
 COMPARATIVE ABSORPTION, 
 
 
 Substance. 
 
 
 
 
 Absorption, 
 
 5. 
 
 Caithness Flag Stone 
 
 
 
 
 
 327 
 
 6. 
 
 Slate 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 3-50 
 
 7. 
 
 Leunelle Marble 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-00 
 
 8. 
 
 Asphalte 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 9. 
 
 Carrara Hard Marble 
 
 
 
 
 
 8-50 
 
 10. 
 
 Mann and Co’s Stucco 
 
 
 
 
 16-00 
 
 11. 
 
 Arbroath Flag Stone 
 
 
 
 
 
 20-50 
 
 12. 
 
 Hewithburn ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 23-00 
 
 13. 
 
 Fire-brick . 
 
 
 
 
 
 3200 
 
 14. 
 
 Norfal 
 
 
 
 
 
 33-50 
 
 15. 
 
 Portland 
 
 
 
 
 
 34-25 
 
 16. 
 
 Yorkshire Flag „ 
 
 
 
 
 
 40*00 
 
 17. 
 
 Bolsover 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 10 
 
 18. 
 
 Painswick . 
 
 
 
 
 
 58-00 
 
 19. 
 
 Bath Stone 
 
 
 
 
 
 78-00 
 
 20. 
 
 Moulmain Teak Timber 
 
 
 
 
 82-50 
 
 21. 
 
 Stock Brick 
 
 
 
 
 
 10900 
 
 22. 
 
 Hair and Lime . 
 
 
 
 
 
 109-12 
 
 23. 
 
 Malm Brick 
 
 
 
 
 
 116-50 
 
 24. 
 
 Keen’s Cement . 
 
 
 
 
 
 126-50 
 
 25. 
 
 Chalk 
 
 
 
 
 
 133-50 
 
 26. 
 
 Roman Cement . 
 
 
 
 
 
 133-56 
 
 27. 
 
 Plaster and Sand 
 
 
 
 
 
 147-00 
 
 28. 
 
 Beech Wood 
 
 
 
 
 
 185-50 
 
 29. 
 
 Plaster of Paris . 
 
 
 
 
 
 187-50 
 
 30. 
 
 Oak . 
 
 
 
 
 
 224-75 
 
 31. 
 
 Fir Wood 
 
 
 
 
 
 622-75 
 
 The actual absorption of water by bricks of various qualities, has been 
 recorded by another authority as follows : — 
 
 One Malm Brick absorbs . . 62 ounces of water. 
 
 n 
 
 White Sussex , 
 
 # 
 
 . 58 
 
 99 
 
 >i 
 
 White Second 
 
 m 
 
 . 52 
 
 99 
 
 11 
 
 Red Facing 
 
 # 
 
 . 51 
 
 99 
 
 1 1 
 
 Picking 
 
 9 
 
 . 50 
 
 99 
 
 M 
 
 Stock . 
 
 • 
 
 . 27 
 
 » 
 
SECTION II. MORTARS, CEMFJSJ*, CONCRETES, ETC. 
 
 Value of these Substances in Consthuctxon. — Lime. — Pure Limestones.— Marbles, etc.— Rich, 
 Poor, and Hydraulic Limes. — Lias Lime from Abertiiaw, etc. — Experiments of Bergmann, 
 Moreau, Saussore, Vicat, and Smf.aton. — Mortar or Concrete. — Cements. — Barker’s 
 Roman Cement.— Pozzolana.— Tarras.— Fire Proot Cement. 
 
 27. The strength, tenacity, and endurance of all building constructions 
 of stone, brickwork, &c., depend on the absolute strength of the materials 
 themselves, on the maimer in which they are arranged in combination, and on 
 the cohesive power and chemical qualities of the cements which are interposed 
 between the separate blocks or pieces of materials for the purpose of uniting 
 them. The nature of the materials, and the rules for their arrangement, will 
 be considered in sections appropriated to them. The qualities of the cemen- 
 titious media, we propose as the subject of this section. For the purpose of 
 application, it is necessary that all mortars and cements be reducible to a 
 plastic condition ; it is equally necessary that they be susceptible of subse- 
 quent hardening, or setting ; and it is moreover desirable that they shall ever 
 afterwards retain this hardness, and effectually resist all agents, chemical or 
 otherwise, which tend to corrode, to soften, or to destroy their binding qual- 
 ities. 
 
 28. Lime. The uniting ingredient of all mortars, cements, and concretes 
 is well known to be limey and on the quality of this ingredient, and the pro- 
 portion of its quantity to that of the other ingredieuts, will mainly depend 
 the value of the compound. Fortunately for us, the calcareous rocks, as lime- 
 stones, &c., from which lime is produced, are widely distributed over the 
 surface of our earth. Pure limestones, consisting of lime and carbonic acid 
 only, are indeed seldom met with, these elements usually existing iu combi- 
 nation with silex, aluminum, magnesia, oxide of iron, manganese, &c., and 
 consequently receiving the names of argillaceous, magnesian, ferruginous, or 
 manganesian limestones, respectively. The least impure limestones are those 
 known as statuary marbles, those from Paros, Carrara, kc. Limestone being 
 broken up, and roasted in kilns, and the earthy or metallic impurities and 
 carbonic acid expelled, pure lime remains. Lime, thus produced, manifests 
 its common properties in various degrees. Thus some specimens will be 
 found to increase greatly in bulk when slaked, their weight being more than 
 doubled, while others undergo little expansion. The former kind have hence 
 been termed richy and the latter poor limes. Both these kinds are however 
 liable to dissolution by the constant action of w ater, while neither of them 
 
26 
 
 HYDRAULIC LIMES. 
 
 appears certain to ever attain hardness if deprived of the action of the atmos- 
 phere. Individual experience, aided by observation, will probably suggest 
 instances of both these characteristics. We will, however, quote two cases 
 which are on record. During the demolition of the remains of the ancient 
 sluices of the Vilaine, it was found that by the dissolving of the rich lime 
 used in their construction, the masonry behind the revetment walls had 
 entirely lost its cohesion, and remained only as heaps of loose stones. And 
 in the reconstruction, in 1822, of the foundations of a bastion built in 1666, 
 at Strasbourg, the mortar having been rapidly enclosed in the course of build- 
 ing, remained as fresh as if laid only a few hours before. It is hence evident 
 that neither of these limes can act effectively as a permanent cement for bind- 
 ing the materials of masonry together, exposed to the action of water ; nor 
 can they resist the passage of water through the constructions in which they 
 are introduced. 
 
 29. Hydraulic Limes. Lime may, however, be produced, which shall set 
 perfectly in water, and moreover remain hard and firm ever afterwards, at 
 least as far as past experience has permitted observation. Limes of this 
 quality are termed hydraulic limes, and to M. Yicat, a Drench Engineer in 
 Chief, and Superintendent of Bridges and Highways, we are indebted for a 
 long series of experiments, which appear to have ascertained the nature of this 
 property, and to have developed artificial means of obtaining it. This pro- 
 perty of hardening under water, and remaining insoluble, had been in early 
 times recognized as belonging to some limes, which were esteemed accor- 
 dingly, but as it is not indicated by any peculiarity of texture, colour, 
 hardness, or specific gravity, engineers were often at fault in their attempts 
 to secure the quality they desired. Those known as “ grey stone limes,” 
 from Merstham, Dorking, and other places, had become favourites, and were 
 accordingly frequently stipulated for in the specifications of building and 
 engineering works ; but the lias lime from Aberthaw, in Glamorganshire, and 
 other districts, acquired a yet superior repute, being invariably found to act 
 as an hydraulic lime. The young practitioner must not, however, expect to 
 find this hardening take place with equal rapidity, in using all hydraulic 
 limes, or under all circumstances. The best will usually begin to set on the 
 second day after immersion, and become in the course of a month quite hard 
 and insoluble. Others, however, remain four or more days before setting 
 commences, and this process proceeds with much less rapidity. Bergmann 
 and Guyton Moreau, attributed the hydraulic property of limes to the pre- 
 sence of oxide of manganese ; Saussere, to the combination in them of man- 
 ganese, quartz, and clay ; while Descostils, engineer of mines, inferred from 
 examining the lime of Senonches, in 1813, that silex was the essential of the 
 hydraulic property. The earliest investigations which we have recorded as to 
 the nature and constitution of hydraulic limes, were those pursued by our 
 own celebrated Smeaton, in 1756, when he was designing the Eddystone 
 Lighthouse. The natural hydraulic lime of Aberthaw was submitted to his 
 examination, and from the red colour of the residue he obtained, Smeaton 
 w T as led to infer the presence of iron. From the researches of M. Yicat, 
 however, it would appear that clay is the material which must exist in combi- 
 nation with lime in order to give it the hydraulic property, and his subsequent 
 experiments enabled him to produce hydraulic lime artificially, by calcining 
 the lime mixed with clay in certain proportions. 
 
MORTAR AND CONCRETE. 
 
 27 
 
 • 30. Mortar , the most common form of cement, consists of lime and sand 
 mixed in certain proportions. And the quality of the mortar will depend on 
 the condition of the materials, and the proportion and manner in which they 
 are compounded. Thus, the lime should be so thoroughly calcined as to have 
 expelled the carbonic acid, and it should be fresh burnt, so as not to have 
 subsequently imbibed carbonic acid, which it has a constant tendency to do ; 
 the sand should be sharp, that is, angular in the form of its particles, and 
 perfectly clean and free from dirt and all earthy matters. The lime to be 
 ground in a dry and unslaked state under edge stones, and at once mixed in 
 a thorough and intimate manner with the sand, and a sufficient quantity of 
 water, in a pug mill. The proportions are 3 parts of sand and 1 of lime, 
 and the mortar should be used as rapidly as possible, and no more mixed at 
 one time than will be immediately employed. No mortar which has been 
 prepared and not used at the time, should ever be allowed to be a second time 
 moistened, or to be used. We say a sufficient quantity of water only, as an 
 excess destroys the properties of the mortar, while it delays the process of 
 setting, and involves a greater reduction in bulk of the work while this is 
 going on ; thus increasing the amount of settlement. 
 
 31. Concrete . In describing concrete, (paragraph 8), we have already 
 mentioned gravel, sand and lime as forming its occasional constituents, while 
 gravel and lime only are combined in preparing concrete in some instances. 
 Where gravel is unattainable, indeed, sand and lime only are sometimes 
 united for this purpose, in which cases the compound differs from mortar only 
 in having a larger proportion of sand, (5 or 6 parts of sand to 1 of lime), 
 but this kind of concrete is never to be permitted if avoidable, inasmuch as it 
 is scarcely possible to secure that thorough intermingling of the constituents 
 which is essential to the complete consolidation of the mass. The best con- 
 crete is composed of coarse clean gravel, free from clay or other impurities, 
 having particles of varied forms and sizes, partly consisting indeed of a kind 
 of sand, and lias or hydraulic lime, properly mixed, as described in paragraph 
 8, in the average proportion of 5 or 6 parts of gravel (by bulk) to 1 of lime. 
 To promote the required consolidation, the concrete should be deposited by 
 flinging it in from a height of from 5 to 10 feel, according to the coarseness 
 of the gravel, and should be levelled up, uniformly, in layers, each being 
 allowed to settle down before depositing another layer. With some kinds of 
 lime a greater proportion of gravel may be used, ranging from 7 to 10 parts 
 of gravel to 1 of lime ; but for ordinary materials, the proportion of 5 or 6 
 to 1 will be found to produce the best compound. When large quantities 
 are required, the mixing is to be performed in a pug mill erected on the 
 works ; biit smaller quantities may be mixed by manual labour. Being 
 thoroughly mixed dry , enough water is to be added to produce a consistence 
 similar to that of mortar. As the lime becomes slaked during the watering, 
 the mass will increase somewhat in bulk, (from £ to ^ inch, for each foot in 
 height), but part only of this expansion will continue. From the greater con- 
 solidation of the particles produced by the momentum in the casting of the 
 concrete, however, an actual diminution of bulk occurs. Thus 29 cubic feet 
 of gravel, and cubic feet of lime, will yield, w r hen mixed with a proper 
 quantity of water, only about 27 cubic feet, or one cubic yard of concrete. 
 To preserve the value of the concrete, it is indispensable that it be cast as 
 
28 
 
 CEMENTS, POZZOLANA, AND TARRAS. 
 
 rapidly as possible after mixing with water. It is therefore advisable to have 
 the gravel and lime prepared and thoroughly intermixed, and add the water 
 only in small quantities, or such as can be immediately made use of. In 
 applying concrete for foundations, or as a bed to receive the footings of the 
 masonry or brickwork, the trench into which it is to be cast should be pro- 
 perly levelled, all rotten materials cleared out, all water removed by draining, 
 pumping, or baling, and the sides and bottom of the excavation rendered as^ 
 firm as the nature of the soil will permit. 
 
 32. Cements are artificial combinations, distinguishable from mortars by 
 being homogeneous in appearance, as the several ingredients are finely commi- 
 nuted and reduced to the condition of a kind of powder. Cements are 
 applied in the construction of foundations, and external parts of walls, with 
 the view of preventing the passage of damp ; they are also used in arches and 
 other parts of buildings in which extra tenacity is considered desirable. Tim 
 most popular kind of cement is that now known as “ Roman cement,” the 
 composition of which was secured by patent to Mr. James Parker, of North- 
 fleet, June 28, 1796, under the title of “a cement or terras to be used in 
 aquatic and other buildings, and stucco work.” This cement, first called 
 aquatic cement, and subsequently Roman cement, consists of lime and clay, 
 the latter being from 33 to 40 per cent, of the whole, and this particular com- 
 bination being the result of exposing to heat nodules of aluminous limestone,, 
 found in great abundance in particular districts. Roman cement sets very 
 rapidly whether exposed to air or water, and is an eminently hydraulic- 
 cement. It is used by mixing it in equal proportions with clean sharp sand, 
 and must be kept perfectly dry, in casks or other vessels, until required. In 
 applying this and all other similar substances, it is especially necessary to 
 secure the best quality. The cheapening of competition has induced so many 
 nefarious imitations and spurious mixtures which are utterly worthless as 
 cements, that none should be used which will not bear the most severe expe- 
 riments. The clerk of works must also keep his eye on the proportions of 
 sand mixed with the cement, and the manner of mixing, — and on no account 
 allow any mixed cement, which has once set, to be made use of. Many 
 other cements have been since introduced, under a great variety of names, 
 and with boasting claims of excellence and superiority ; but we have neither 
 time nor space to describe them, or enquire into their respective merits. 
 Local convenience in procuring materials, and the circumstances of each case, 
 must control the selection of many of the materials to be employed. Our 
 clerk of works should, however, be qualified to make the best choice within 
 his command, and to ensure the best use being made of such as he selects. 
 
 33. Pozzolana and Tarras. Pozzolana is the name given to a volcanic sub- 
 stance, found abundantly in the neighbourhood of Pozzala, and of Rome. 
 Tarras is a conglomerate, also volcanic, found on the banks of the Rhine, and 
 particularly in the neighbourhood of Amdernach. Combined in certain 
 proportions with rich limes, either of these substances will render the lime 
 hydraulic, and they have hence been long esteemed as ingredients of superior 
 cement. M. Vicat arrived at a method of producing artificial pozzolana of a 
 quality at least equal to that of the native substance. His method consisted 
 in calcining pure clay slightly , driving off the water in combination with it, 
 and always keeping the temperature between 600° and 700° centrigrade, 
 (1,112° to 1,292° Fahrenheit.) 
 
FIRE-PROOF MORTAR. 
 
 29 
 
 34. Fire-proof Mortar or Cement . Mr. W. Hosking, C.E., one of our 
 most eminent professors in the art of building construction informs us of a 
 compound of this nature, of which we will quote the description in his own 
 words : — “ An excellent mortar for resisting the action of fire, and proper to 
 be employed in building any such slight brick piers as substitutes for, or instead 
 of employing iron columns, may be made of pozzolana mixed with fresh 
 ground lime of chalk from the lower beds ; and as real pozzolana is an im- 
 ported substance, and likely to be expensive, its place may be very well sup- 
 plied by an artificial substance of similar character, produced by burning any 
 marly clay, that is fit for brick-making, to a grey clinker, and reducing such 
 clinker to a grain of the size of coarse sand. Three-fourths of this substance 
 to one fourth of fresh-ground lime, mixed dry in the first instance, and when 
 so mixed, rendered plastic by the addition of soft water, will yield a mortar 
 capable of resisting fire for a long time, and water, if need be, as long as any 
 bricks that can be set in it.” 
 
SUCTION III. MASONRY. 
 
 Includes Study of the Properties of Stones, as well as the Art of Forming and Combining 
 them in Construction.— Granite and its Constituents, Quartz, Felspar, and Mica. — 
 Sandstones, their Chemical and Mechanical Properties. — List of Quarries, Build- 
 ings, etc. — Limestones, Magnesian, Oolitic, and Shelly. — Their Chemical and Mechanical 
 Peoperties. — List of Quarries, Buildings, etc — Brand’s Disintegrating Process. — 
 Indications of Effect of Weather; Local Knowledge, and how to acquire it. — 
 Different kinds of Masonry, Rubble, Ashlar, etc. — Provincial Peculiarities; Kentish 
 Rag Stone, etc. — Caen Stone, etc. — Cost of Masonry. — Construction. — Lines, Tools, etc. 
 
 35. Masonry is sometimes confined in its signification to tlie art of 
 forming and combining stones in building constructions. To this meaning 
 we propose to add the nature and properties of the stones employed, as form- 
 ing a preparatory but highly important branch of our general subject. Stones 
 or rocks are divided into two principal classes, the unstratified and the strati - 
 fied. To the former class belong Granite , Serpentine , and Greenstone . To 
 the latter class belong the Sandstones , and Limestones ; of each of these general 
 descriptions there is an immense variety. 
 
 36. Granite is composed of three simple minerals, quartz, felspar, and mica, 
 and is named from its granular structure, after the Latin, granum , for a grain. 
 Other minerals, as shorl, topaz, garnet, fluor spar, emerald, 8rc., are sometimes 
 found imbedded in, or passing through, granite, in veins. Granite is met 
 with in England, chiefly in Cornwall and Devonshire, and slightly in North 
 Wales, Anglesea, the Malvern Hills, Worcestershire, Charnwood Forest, in 
 Leicestershire, in Cumberland, and in Westmoreland. It is also found in 
 Scotland, Ireland, and the Channel Islands. The quartz is grey, and 
 generally transparent, forming the grains of sand. The felspar is of vitri- 
 fied character, but of different colours ; in the Cornish granite it is white ; in 
 the Scotch granite it usually appears of a reddish brown colour ; The mica 
 is a dark grey, sometimes appearing like black glistening scales with a tar- 
 nished semi-metallic lustre. The elements of these constituents are silica, 
 alumina, &c. &c. Granite is one of the most intractable substances which 
 receives the labour of the mason, while from its extreme hardness and dura- 
 bility it forms a valuable material for bridges, for plinths, and other parts of 
 buildings exposed to much wear, or attrition of any kind. Serpentine, 
 greenstone, and the other rocks which are classed among the unstratified mate- 
 rials of our globe are all geologically interesting, but never being extensively 
 employed as building materials among us, do not claim our further attention. 
 
 37. Sandstones constitute one of the main classes of materials for masonry. 
 They are usually met with in different positions in the order of deposit, and 
 
SANDSTONES. 
 
 31 
 
 have accordingly been distinguished as old , and new red sandstone ; but the 
 distinction appears to be of somewhat uncertain definition, and needs little 
 notice in treating of these stones as building materials. 
 
 In this view, we shall find their mechanical structure and chemical consti- 
 tution far more important branches of inquiry. Sandstones employed for build- 
 ings are commonly composed of either quartz or siliceous grains, cemented by 
 siliceous, argillaceous, calcareous, or other matter, and their power of resist- 
 ing decomposition appears to depend on the nature of the cementing sub- 
 stance, since the constituent grains are comparatively indestructible. Sand- 
 stones, especially when micaceous, are frequently laminated, and in such cases 
 are liable to decomposition from the flaking off of the laminae, if set with the 
 laminrn in a vertical position. Comparing sandstones with limestones it is 
 found that the former absorb less water, but disintegrate more rapidly, than 
 the latter. The following table, compiled from the report of the Commis- 
 sioners appointed to examine stones for the new Houses of Parliament, shows, 
 1st, the names of the principal sandstone quarries in Great Britain ; 2nd, the 
 county in which situate ; 3rd, the weight per cubic foot of the stone in its 
 ordinary state ; 4th, the size of the blocks in which the stone can be pro- 
 cured ; 5th, the price per cubic foot at the quarry; and 6th, buildings in 
 which each stone has been employed. We thus present our young practi- 
 tioner with a guide which will afford him most valuable and authentic infor- 
 mation respecting all the principal sandstone districts in the kingdom. 
 
 
 
 
TABLE II.— SANDSTONES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
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TABLE II.— SANDSTONES OF GREAT BRITAIN. — (Continued.) 
 
34 
 
 QUALITIES OF SANDSTONES. 
 
 The Table which follows will exhibit the chemical constitution of five 
 specimens of sandstone ; also the specific gravity ; the absorbing power or 
 disposition to imbibe water ; the liability to disintegration ; and the cohesive 
 power of each variety. To try the absorbing powers, the specimens were 
 saturated under the exhausted receiver of the air-pump. 
 
 TABLE III.— QUALITIES OF SANDSTONES. 
 
 
 
 Darley 
 
 
 
 Mans- 
 
 
 Craig- 
 
 leith. 
 
 Dale, 
 
 (Stau- 
 
 Ileddon. 
 
 Kenton. 
 
 field, or 
 C. Lind- 
 
 
 
 ciiff.) 
 
 
 
 ley’slted 
 
 Analyses. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silica .... 
 
 98.3 
 
 96.40 
 
 95.1 
 
 93.1 
 
 49.4 
 
 Carbonate of Lime 
 
 1.1 
 
 0.36 
 
 0.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 26.5 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 16 1 
 
 Iron Alumina 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.30 
 
 23 
 
 4.4 
 
 3.2 
 
 Water and loss .... 
 
 00 
 
 1 94 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 Bitumen .... 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 Specific Gravities. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Of particles .... 
 
 2.646 
 
 2 993 
 
 2 643 
 
 ' 2.625 
 
 2.756 
 
 Of dry masses . . 
 
 2.232 
 
 2.628 
 
 2.229 
 
 2.247 
 
 2.338 
 
 Difference .... 
 
 414 
 
 365 
 
 414 
 
 378 
 
 418 
 
 Absorbent Powers 
 
 0.143 
 
 
 0.156 
 
 0.143 
 
 0.151 
 
 Disintegration. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity of matter disintegrated in grains 
 
 0.6 
 
 0.121 
 
 10.1 
 
 7.9 
 
 7.1 
 
 Cohesive Powers. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Crushing weight in cwts., cubes of 2 inch sides 
 
 280.83 
 
 253.00 
 
 141.68 
 
 177.10 
 
 182.16 
 
 These results are worthy our entire confidence, having been obtained by 
 that eminent chemist and analyst, the late Professor Daniell, aided by Pro- 
 fessor Wheatstone. Although it is difficult to deduce general conclusions 
 from these experiments, yet the particular facts recorded are of the highest 
 practical importance. In the first place we notice how large a part of the 
 sandstone consists of silica, (the basis of flints). In the Mansfield stone we 
 find only half the usual proportion of silica, and much larger quantities of the 
 carbonates of lime and magnesia. This sandstone is therefore evidently 
 approaching the limestone in constitution, these elements being, (as we shall 
 subsequently observe,) the principal components of those rocks. In the dif- 
 ference of specific gravity of particles and dry masses, we have an index of 
 the relative compactness of the specimens, this “ difference” representing the 
 unoccupied spaces within each mass. Tims the “ Darley Dale” is the most 
 compact, and the Mansfield the least so The disposition to absorb water 
 appears greatest in the Heddon, less in the Mansfield, and least in the 
 Craigleith and Kenton, which are equal in this respect. Of the Darley 
 Dale, no record is presented. In the liability to disintegrate, great differences 
 are observable. While Darley Dale is remarkably permanent, the Heddon 
 betrays a liability to dissolution at least 80 times as great. Next to the 
 
LIMESTONES, OOLITES, KTC. 
 
 35 
 
 Barley Bale ranks the Craigleitli, and these two samples exhibit extraordinary 
 value in this respect as compared with the other specimens. The cohesive 
 powers of these two are also strikingly superior to those of the remainder, and 
 it will be observed, that an evident correspondence is maintained between the 
 liability to disintegrate, and the cohesive power of each stone. Thus the 
 Heddon, which is weak in resisting dissolution, is also weak against the crush- 
 ing press, while the Craigleitli and Barley Dale, which are eminently strong 
 in the one resistance, are eminently strong in the other also. There is there- 
 fore no difficulty in determining between these five specimens that for all 
 practical purposes the two latter are by far the most superior materials, 
 although it may not be quite so easy to say, which of these two is superior 
 to the other. 
 
 38. Limestones , Magnesian Limestones , Oolites, <$v. These rocks are the 
 most important for building and constructive purposes, of that class known 
 as calcareous rocks. They are extensively met with throughout England and 
 Wales, alternating, in the northern part of Yorkshire, in Westmoreland and 
 Cumberland, with beds of greywacke, slate, and coarse sandstone, and in Der- 
 byshire, North Wales, Somersetshire, and many other districts, forming beds 
 of immense thickness. A great difference in the qualities of the stone is 
 sometimes observable within a very small distance. Thus one side of a hill, 
 as at Llanymynah, in Shropshire, consists of limestone of pure quality, while 
 the other side is adulterated with sand and clay, and comparatively worthless. 
 Carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia are the principal components of 
 the several varieties of limestone. Their value as building materials appears 
 to depend greatly on their crystalline structure, or the manner in which their 
 component parts are combined, the most crystalline being found to be most 
 durable. Those called oolites , composed of oviform bodies, connected by 
 calcareous matter, are liable to unequal wear, as likewise are those varieties of 
 stone known as shelly , which are chiefly formed of fossil shells and calcareous 
 cement. The shells being usually crystalline resist the decomposing action 
 of the weather, while the cement yields to it more readily. The following 
 table, compiled from the same authority as that of sandstones, will be found 
 to contain similar particulars of each kind of stone, to those specified in para- 
 graph 37. 
 
 
TABLE IV.— LIMESTONES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 (Including the Magnesian, the Shelly, and the Oolite, as indicated by the letters M, S, and O, respectively following the number ii 
 
 the first column.) 
 
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 of silicate of iron. 
 
TABLE IV.— LIMESTONES OF GREAT BRITAIN. — (Continued.) 
 
 
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brakd’s disintegrating process. 
 
 39 
 
 The results here exhibited are of great practical importance. In the first 
 place we observe the large proportion of carbonate of magnesia contained in 
 the magnesian limestones, but this peculiarity docs not appear to produce 
 any marked property as to specific gravity, absorption, or cohesive power. 
 In the liability to disintegrate these limestones occupy alow relative position, 
 and have of course a corresponding value as building materials. Among 
 them the Bolsover stone is distinguished by the small difference between its 
 specific gravity in masses and particles, thus indicating its superior compact- 
 ness of structure, which will be found confirmed by the great weight — 
 15 1 lbs. 11 oz. — of this stone per cubic foot, as shewn in the preceding 
 table. The cohesive power of this stone is moreover shewn to be greater 
 than that of either limestones or sandstones. In these main properties, 
 therefore, the Bolsover magnesian limestone occupies a very high, if not the 
 highest place, and fully justifies its selection by the commissioners as “ the 
 most fit and proper material to be employed in the New Houses of Parliament. ” 
 Passing on to the oolites we find the carbonate of lime constituting the 
 principal ingredient, the magnesia being nearly lost, and each specimen 
 contains a trace of bitumen. The disintegration of these stones is much 
 higher than that of the magnesian limestones, while their cohesive powers are 
 much less. The “ Bath Box ” is conspicuous among them for its great 
 difference of specific gravity, high rate of disintegration, and its small 
 cohesive power, being less than one-fifth of that of the Bolsover stone. The 
 ordinary “ limestones ” differ but little, in chemical constitution, from the 
 oolites, and in other respects appear to have similar powers and liabilities. 
 Among the specimens of this class, however, the Chilmark occupies a dis- 
 tinguished position in possessing 10 per cent, of silica, (an ingredient which 
 exists in very small proportions in the other limestones,) and in having a 
 correspondingly small amount of vacuity in its mass, — the difference of 
 specific gravities being only T40, — a small disposition to absorb water, — 
 and a high cohesive power. 
 
 39. Brard's disintegrating process . — As a method of imitating the effects 
 of the weather upon stones, and producing similar effects in a short time, 
 this process has been highly approved and made use of. Its value in 
 ascertaining, readily, the relative powers to resist absorption possessed by 
 stones, will at any rate justify a brief description of it here, moreover as it 
 was used by the commissioners in making the experiments recorded in the 
 last paragraph, and may be usefully applied by all architects and engineers 
 who desire to choose well between such materials as are within their 
 command. The process is as follows : Let the sample stones be reduced to 
 cubes of exactly equal size, and boiled in a saturated solution of glauber 
 salts (sulphate of soda). Then suspend them by strings, each specimen by 
 itself, completely isolated from the contact of any thing else, over a vessel 
 full of the solution in which it has been boiled, taking great care that no 
 fragments of stone, detached during the boiling, remain in it. In twenty-four 
 hours the cubes will be found covered with small crystals of the salt, whicli 
 are to be removed by plunging the cube into the solution over which it is 
 suspended, this process being repeated as often as the crystals of salt are 
 thrown out. The experiment should be continued four days, and at the end 
 of that time, the weights of the particles of stone foimd in the solution, 
 
40 
 
 BONDING. 
 
 which have been forced out by the salt, will represent the amount of 
 disintegration thus artificially produced. 
 
 40. In cases where a choice of materials is within the power of the 
 architect, a good local knowledge of the district in which his work is to be 
 accomplished, will be found well worth the acquisition. In the stone districts, 
 indeed, it frequently happens that such knowledge will enable the practitioner 
 to select, within a small distance, materials of superior endurance and 
 applicability. A good idea of the nature of the stone may be acquired by 
 examining it in the quarry, where the effects of weather are often strikingly 
 apparent. In the buildings of the neighbourhood, and especially among the 
 tomb-stones in the church -yard, the endurance of the stone may be more 
 clearly observed. As general hints it nrny be stated that a tolerably even 
 structure, and a moderate degree of hardness, are indispensable qualifications, 
 since an irregularity of conformation exposes the material to unequal wear, 
 and therefore to more rapid decomposition, while excessive hardness or 
 softness betrays an expensive degree of intractability in the working ; or, on 
 the other hand, a want of cohesive power, which may endanger the stability 
 of the work. 
 
 41. Bonding. Having in the preceding paragraphs possessed our student 
 with the most authentic information as to the properties of stones as materials 
 of construction, our next purpose will be to explain the varied ways in 
 which these materials may be prepared and arranged, in order to compose 
 the walls and other parts of buildings. Good stone and good mortar being 
 procured, good masonry will yet be required to make good work. And this 
 is to be secured by attention to a few simple rules of general application. 
 Of these, the first is, that the stones shall be well bonded , and hence the 
 occasion for some variety of size of the blocks to be used. For this purpose, 
 no two joints can be allowed to come over each other, (joints indeed 
 necessarily intersect in points but not in lines,) a sufficient proportion of 
 them must be through stones, that is, long enough to occupy the entire width 
 of the wall, and reach from one face to the other, and all stones of irregular 
 form must be placed with their largest surfaces below. This is not only 
 essential, because it better secures statical stability, but likewise because it 
 prevents the chance of bedding the upper course upon a projecting part of 
 the lower, an evil the most fatal to sound work. Not only is the occurrence 
 of one joint over another to be prohibited, but it will be necessary to fix a 
 minimum distance from every joint in each course to the nearest joint in the 
 courses above and below. If the wall be of moderate thickness, every 
 alternate stone may be a through stone, but if very thick, or long stones be 
 unattainable, or very expensive, every fourth stone may suffice for the through 
 stone. In such case the three intermediate stones may consist of one 
 header , with a stretcher on each side of it and adjoining the large through 
 stones. The headers are stones which present their smaller dimensions or 
 ends on the face of the wall, and have their length crossing the wall. 
 Stretchers present their sides on the face of the wall, and may thus be said 
 to be arranged longitudinally in the work. Thus in the two annexed 
 illustrations, all the stones marked, and similar to those marked II, are 
 headers, and those marked S are stretchers. Fig. 26 shews a sketch of part 
 of a wall in which the headers are also the through stones, and Fig. 27 
 
Fig. 26. 
 S ^ 
 
 BONDING . 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 41 
 
 represents a thicker wall in which the through stones are more rare, but the 
 intermediate spaces are well occupied as just described. In this case, the 
 stones marked x may also be constructively considered as headers. Those 
 which adjoin the through stones, and are over through stones, may be made 
 in two pieces (as indicated by lines y y) without injury to the construction. 
 Now in fixing the minimum distance between the joints, which is intended 
 to prevent flushing, that is, a breaking up of the edges of the stones, regard 
 must be had to the kind of construction intended, and also to the practicable, 
 or convenient sizes in which the blocks can be procured. In Fig. 26, for 
 example, the width of each header deducted from the length of each 
 stretcher, will leave the dimensions, which, divided into two equal parts, 
 represents the distance which will occur between any one vertical joint and 
 the nearest vertical joints in the courses above and below it. Thus, let the 
 least length for stretcher be fixed at 2 feet 9 inches, and width on face of 
 header at 1 foot 3 inches, we have 1 foot 6 inches difference, that is, 9 inches 
 for the allowed distance of joints. If it is not desired that the joints of the 
 alternate courses be exactly over each other, (and for soundness of work this 
 should be avoided, rather than encouraged,) a little latitude should be allowed 
 in the sizes of the blocks, which will not only enable the stone merchant to 
 give us the advantage in selecting from beds of good quality, but will, under 
 many circumstances, reduce the cost of the material at the quarry, while it 
 effects a manifest saving in the cost of conversion. For the sake of affording 
 this latitude we may consent to reduce this 9 inches to 8, or even 7 inches, 
 unless the stones are of great size, and the wall destined to very severe 
 work, in which case indeed a larger average size of stone must be stipidated 
 for, and a greater distance between joints enforced. Referring to the same 
 figure, it will be evident that a freedom in width of the stretchers may also 
 be allowed with advantage to the work, provided it be exercised within the 
 proper limits. Thus if the thickness of wall be, say 3 feet, these blocks 
 may range from 1 foot 3 inches, to 1 foot 9 inches. In the construction 
 shewn at fig. 27 additional considerations arise from the joint between each 
 two x stone coming over the through stones and the headers. We shall, 
 therefore, find it necessary in this case to determine the width of the 
 
42 
 
 JOINTING. 
 
 headers, and through stones, and the length of the stretchers, so that a safe 
 minimum space shall be left between the joints marked y, and those 
 marked z. In this case we will suppose our wall to be 4 feet 3 inches thick, 
 the through stones will therefore be 4 feet 3 inches long, and should be at 
 least 1 foot 6 inches w ide in the face. The headers may vary in length from 
 1 foot 10 J inches to 2 feet 4J inches. Let the stetchers have a minimum 
 length of 3 feet 6 inches ; we shall thus have 2 feet for the two distances, 
 z a, or 1 foot for each. Now if the joint y be preserved equi-distant from 
 those marked z z> a space of 9 inches will be preserved between each two 
 contiguous joints. Practically, and for considerations already stated, this 
 distance may be reduced to inches occasionally. To make the best plane 
 masonry, every stone should be truly parallelopidedal, that is, have its six 
 surfaces in three sets, strictly parallel each to the other. It is evident that 
 neither cubes of uniform size, nor solids having their horizontal surfaces 
 square and equal, can be applied in constructing bonded masonry. Of each 
 block, the two horizontal surfaces are termed the top and bottom beds, the 
 surface which appears on the wall is the face, that opposite to it the back, 
 and the others are the ends or sides as they may be arranged as stretchers 
 or headers respectively. 
 
 42. Jointing. Equally essential to the bonding, is the jointing of the 
 blocks of stone in any piece of construction, not only for the entire cohesion 
 of the mass, (which will, of course, depend also on the quality of the ce- 
 ment employed), but likewise to secure the thorough bearing of each 3 tone 
 on and against its neighbour, thus to distribute the weight on the mass 
 equally throughout, and preventing any undue proportion falling on indi- 
 vidual stones. This rule, of universal importance, is yet especially so in con- 
 structing doorways and window openings. The crowns of these, if horizontal, 
 must be formed of choice selected stones of sufficient length to span the 
 opening, and provide an adequate length of bed at either end. These lintels 
 have great duty to perform, and cannot safely exceed a certain maximum length. 
 Six feet, which, with the necessary bearing of 1 foot 6 inches at each end, 
 will require a stone of 9 feet in length, is certainly the greatest span that 
 should ever be attempted in this way — and in this case not only should gran- 
 ite be employed for the lintel, but* if any considerable quantity of work 
 overlies it, iron beams should be introduced above to aid in carrying the load. 
 All joints must be made at right angles with the face of the work, and should 
 be truly vertical For ordinary work lime mortar may be used, the particles 
 being thoroughly reduced,— but for the best tine work, putty cement should 
 Ik; used, at any rate, for the vertical joints. Coarse mortar is never admis- 
 sible in such masonry as we have hitherto described, and indeed with many of 
 the softer stones is itself liable to produce a flushing of the stone at the 
 joints. Neither must any pinning or filling in of wide interstices be per- 
 mitted. No spaces should be allowed which are too wide to be solidly 
 filled with the mortar. 
 
 43. Ashlar . The kind of masonry we have been describing is that known 
 ns ashlar work, which is applicable, for the entire thickness of walls, only in 
 districts w here stone is plentiful and labour cheap, or it is desired to produce 
 very superior work. All the joints w ill be dressed with the pick or chisel,* 
 
 • I here are three distinct kinds of dressing for the joints of Ashlar masonry— First : 
 
 hammer or pick-dressing," performed with a pointed hammer, in which the surface 
 
SPECIFICATION OF ASHLAR MASONRY. 
 
 43 
 
 nnd rendered true and rectangular one with another. In most cases, however, 
 it is usual to employ this description of masonry only for the facings of walls, 
 for the reveals of openings for doors and windows, for the stones composing 
 arches, &c. Applied for the facings of walls, ashlar will have the several 
 courses of stones equal in depth or not, as may be determined, the beds of 
 each block and the sides or ends will be dressed for jointing, by the pick, or 
 for superior work, the chisel, and the back of the stone will be left rough, 
 or roughly squared, as the materials to be filled in behind may be fitted 
 thereto, and the face of the stones may be prepared in a variety of ways. 
 Thus the four edges of the face may be reduced to one plane with the chisel 
 or pick, and the face itself left rough. Or a narrow margin may be driven 
 round the face of the stone and the remainder left rough, rough-picked, 
 hobbled, scappelled, or rusticated. All these terms denote varieties of rough 
 surface, . some of which may be adopted for economy sake to save labour, 
 while others really involve considerable expense in extra and useless labour, 
 and have the effect of forming crevices, in which the weather acts in destroying 
 the face of the stone. The arrises are sometimes bevelled off (for a width of 
 from 1 to 3 inches according to the size of the stone) at an angle of 45° with 
 the face of the stone. This kind of edge is known as a “ chamfer,” and the 
 angles are said to be “chamfered.” 
 
 44. Specification of Ashlar Masonry. In specifying this kind of construc- 
 tion, the minimum depth of courses should be stated, also the kind of joints ; 
 next the bonding, the manner of preparing the face, the mortar, and lastly, the 
 manner (if any) of securing the blocks by cramps, &c. Thus : — “ The ashlar 
 work shall be laid in perfectly horizontal courses, each course at least 15 
 inches in thickness. All the beds and joints to be chisel (or hammer) 
 dressed, square jointed, and made to fit closely and accurately together. 
 The courses are to be laid with such blocks that there shall be at least one 
 header to every stretcher, no stone to be less than 2 feet by 4 feet 6 in the 
 bed, (unless otherwise particularly described) and all the joints to overlap 
 at least 10 inches. The greatest care must be taken in dressing all the beds 
 and joints to accurate planes, and no pinning, wedging, or filling in of any 
 kind, will be allowed in any part. The faces shall be fair — tooled, or pick- 
 dressed, with chamfered margins, as may be ordered. The whole to be laid 
 in the best lime and clear sharp sand mortar, and grouted at every course. 
 If the architect (or engineer) shall deem it necessary to introduce cramps , 
 
 as finished, will present protuberances and hollows of small extent, — but the projecting 
 parts being all coincident with a plane surface, a suflicent bearing is provided by the 
 particles of the mortar filling all the said interstices. The second is “ chisel-dressing,” in 
 which the surface of the stone is formed into a regular series of parallel ridges and 
 hollows of such small extent, that the mortar is equally effective as in pick-dressing. 
 The third and most elaborate process is that called “rubbing,” which involves the 
 reduction of the surface of the joints to a perfect level, and produces an entire bearing 
 with a truly parallel stratum of moitar. When hammer dressing is resorted to it is 
 advisable to reduce a margin of about 1 inch wide around each jointing face of the stone 
 to a level surface, with the chisel, to prevent any unequal or oblique pressure on the edge 
 of the stone, which would be liable to chip it off. This margin is technically called a 
 “ margin draught,” and the operation of forming it, “ boasting.*’ The angles of the 
 faces of stones, &c., are termed “ arrises,” or “arris,” in the singular. 
 
41 
 
 
 
 CIIAMP9, J0QGLE8, AND PLUGS. 
 
 joggle*, or plug** the contractor shall be paid for sinking the holes, and 
 providing and fixing the same at the prices stated in the schedule.” 
 
 Fig. 31 shews a portion of walling constructed of ashlar facing with 
 backing of rubble or brickwork. Each course is constructed of header and 
 stretcher alternately, and through stones are to be introduced about every 
 fourth course. It will be observed that the stones are not of uniform 
 dimensions, and that those parts of the headers which tail into the backing, 
 also the backs of the stretchers, are not dressed. Fig. 32 represents a 
 portion of walling with ashlar front and back, and an interior or hearting 
 of rubble, or brickwork. The ashlar is shown of similar construction to 
 that in fig. 31. 
 
 Fig. 31. Fig. 32. 
 
 • The*® throe names, cramps, joggles, and plugs, are commonly applied to three 
 different forms of connection respectively ; thus a cramp which may he of lead, iron 
 or copper, is of the form shown in fig. 28, being from 6 to 10 inches in length, \ inch 
 to 1| inch in thickness, and 1 to 2 inches wide, according to the size of the stones a a 
 Fig- 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. 
 
 to be united. If the ciainps are of iron or copper they are forged to the form, and run 
 in with lead. Lead cramps are formed at once by running the liquid lead into the 
 channels prepared for it Joggles are of a double wedge form, as in fig. 29, and are 
 usually made of slate. Valenlia slate is a favourite material for them. They are 
 sometime* mere cubes, inserted so that their diagonals coincide with the joints. Plugs 
 ars of a common square section, and are more frequently applied vertically, that is 
 to the bids of the stones, as in fig. 30, where a bed plug is shown as inserted in the top 
 Ud of a block, and projecting upward to be received in a plug-hole sunk in the lower 
 
BLOCK AND COURSE WORK. 
 
 45 
 
 Rubble or brickwork backing is commonly used in conjunction with 
 ashlar facing, in constructing walls to retain earth in sides of cuttings, or 
 on the face° of artificially formed roadways or sloping ground. In the 
 former case they are known as retaining loalls, in the latter as breast-walls. 
 Fig. 33 is a sketch showing both of these : the dotted lino a b indicates 
 
 the original line of ground. 
 
 & Fig. 33. 
 
 Similar constructions are employed for Wharf walls, Sea walls, River 
 walls, Harbour walls, Dock walls, Canal Lock walls, &c. # the dimensions, 
 proportions, and method of arrangement, being of course adapted in each 
 case to the degree of stability and resisting power required in the work. 
 
 45. Block and Course work. For this work stones of smaller depth, 
 down to 6 or 7 inches, may be employed. They must be as nearly as 
 possible of uniform depth throughout each course, laid one header to one 
 stretcher, and no stone less than 12 by 20 inches. At intervals of not 
 more than 6 feet a through stone not less than 12 inches wide on the face, 
 must be built in to secure a proper bond with the backing of the wall. 
 All overlapping of joints must be at least 5j inches. The face, beds, and 
 ends of each stone to be carefully hammer-dressed, and no pinning of any 
 kind should be permitted. The proportion of the block and course to the 
 backing should, according to the thickness of the work, never be allowed to 
 be less than | or ^ of the area of any cross section of it. Joints on the 
 face of the work should be made close and true, but should any openings 
 afterwards appear, the contractor should be bound to point such joints in 
 a neat and perfect manner. 
 
 bed of the superincumbent stone. They may be of slate or iron. Slate joggles and 
 plugs are laid in fine cement or oil putty. Iron cramps and plugs should be run with 
 lead when practicable. 
 
46 
 
 HUBBLE AND BACKING TO MA30NRY. 
 
 46. Bastard Ashlar JPork. In some districts where larger stone is 
 plentiful, the interior of the work is occasionally filled up with an inferior 
 kind of Ashlar, in which the blocks are properly squared up into true planes 
 with the pick instead of the chisel. In other respects it is the same as 
 ashlar, but is locally known by the name prefixed to this paragraph. 
 
 47. Another kind of coursed masonry is that known as Parpoint JFork, 
 which is constructed of stones of comparatively small size, which are property 
 squared at the joints, and sorted into heaps of stones not differing more 
 than l of an inch in thickness or guage. Through stones should be pro- 
 vided at intervals from 6 to 6 feet, not less than 15 inches on the bed, and 
 the whole properly jointed, bonded and grouted. 
 
 48. Rubble. This, which is the cheapest kind of masonry, is of three 
 kinds, coursed , uncoursed , and random. In all of these, small stones are 
 made use of. For the coursed work they must be of uniform depth through- 
 out each course ; for the uncoursed, stones of different thicknesses may be 
 brought in, but they must all be properly squared on the face, and should be 
 so introduced, that a tolerably level course shall extend throughout, at 
 heights of, say 15 inches to 2 feet apart, and be there thoroughly grouted. 
 In random work, however, courses are utterly disregarded, and stones of any 
 shape may be used, provided they are so arranged either as to preserve a 
 plane surface on the face of the work, or a rough one, of which the main pro- 
 jections coincide with a plane. In all these, through stones must be provided 
 in sufficient quantity to ensure good bond ; the stones should be well tailed in 
 together, the interstices thoroughly filled with good mortar and stone chip- 
 pings, or pallets, and the whole mass thoroughly consolidated as the work 
 proceeds. Gallcts is the uame given by masons to the chips of stone 
 knocked off w ith the chisel. 
 
 49. Backing to Masonry. When the ashlar or other coursed work which 
 forms the front of a wall or building does not extend throughout its thick- 
 ness, the remainder of the mass is termed the backing. This may be of nibble 
 stone work, of brickwork, or, in some situations, of concrete. Whichever be 
 employed, the same rules as to good bonding and grouting should be euforced, 
 and the entire mass levelled carefully up at every course of the ashlar, and! 
 in rubble stone or brickwork, well grouted. The thorough settling of the 
 interior mass is the more important, since from the smaller size of the pieces 
 which compose it, and the greater number of joints, a greater shrinking will 
 occur than in the stone facing of the work. Indeed, unless great care be 
 exercised in this respect, this defect will eventually occasion the whole super- 
 incumbent weight to be throw'll on the facing, and thus produce a buhring out 
 and probably fracture of the stone-work. The application of concrete is 
 retorted to only when the entire wall is flanked by other solid work, as in a 
 retaining wall. \\ hen the interior ns well as the exterior surface of a wall or 
 similar construction, is prepared with a fair face either of stone or brickwork 
 the interior is, for the sake of economy, occasionally filled in with rubble or 
 other rough work, called hearting. Bonding, grouting, levelling, and consol- 
 idation, arc to 1m* rigorously insisted upon in this construction. Otherwise 
 if the stone facings an* permitted to be too thin, too nearly of similar depth 
 throughout, or not thoroughly tailed into the interior mass, they will act as 
 mere slabs or coatings, and lie liable to separation and rupture. The levelling 
 
BAG STOKE AND CAEN STONE. 
 
 17 
 
 at each course of ashlar must also be particularly attended to, and bond or 
 through stones, fairly and solidly bedded, and of adequate section and strength, 
 must be abundantly provided. 
 
 50. Kentish Ragstone. In many parts of Kent, this material was formerly 
 much used in Gothic edifices, and has latterly been reintroduced with advan- 
 tage, as combined with Caen stone, or Bath stone for the dressings, it forms 
 an economical and durable material for the walling of ecclesiastical and other 
 buildings. For ragstone ashlar work, the stone, when quarried, has its rough 
 projections knocked off with a heavy double-pointed hammer, such as is used 
 in working granite. This operation is locally called “ skifiling ,” and is the 
 same as tljat known in the neighbourhood of London and other parts of the 
 country, by the term “ knobbling .” It is afterwards dressed with the hammer, 
 either roughly or carefully, being in one case said to be “ rough-picked ,” and 
 in the other “ close-picked .” Ragstone is also employed in the varied forms 
 of coursed headet' work t iii which headers of an equal height and parallel joints 
 are laid round, similar to brickwork ; random coursed work , in which the work 
 is levelled in a rough way every 12 or 16 inches in height ; random header 
 worky in which the headers are of all varieties of size ; random work , executed 
 with unsquared stones, with the joints, however, fitted and pinned in with 
 smaller stones ; rough random worky in which the stones are without dressing, 
 but laid together as compactly as their irregular forms will allow, and the 
 interstices filled with small stones or gallets. Concrete is also extensively 
 locally used, consisting of this stone broke into pieces not larger than hen’s 
 eggs, mixed with sand and lime in the proportion of 6 parts of stone to 2 of 
 sand, and 1 of lime. 
 
 51. Caen Stone. An oolitic stone is worked at Caen, in Normandy, which 
 is peculiarly fitted for inside and elaborately carved work, and has been 
 greatly employed for this purpose in our new Houses of Parliament. This 
 stone is very soft, especially when w r et, but hardens considerably when 
 thoroughly dried. It is therefore quite unfit for external work in a climate 
 like ours of much wind and rain, although it is recorded to stand well in the 
 finer climate of Normandy. It may be delivered in London at a less price 
 than Portland, and the labour upon it does not cost more than half of that 
 upon Portland stone. 
 
 52. Cost of Masonry and Construction. Although to give detailed prices 
 of materials and labour in this or any other department of construction is of 
 course quite foreign to our purpose, and equally beyond our space, yet a few 
 figures may be usefully quoted to shew the relative proportions in which cost 
 is incurred for material and labour, respectively, in some of the varieties of 
 stone which will be usually within the command or choice of the architect. 
 The prices of the stone in blocks at the quarries have already been given in 
 detail, both of sandstones and limestones, in the tables. The following list 
 shows the prices of block stone at the quarry per cubic foot, and the cost of 
 plain rubbed work upon it, calculated at the London rate, per superficial foot. 
 
48 
 
 COST OF MASONRY. 
 
 Description of Stone. 
 
 County where quarried. 
 
 Prices of Block -stone at 
 the quarry, per cubic foot. 
 
 Cost of Plain 
 Rubbedwurk 
 asm London, 
 per suprti ft. 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Monmouthshire 
 
 4$d. 
 
 s. 
 
 1 
 
 d. 
 
 5 * 
 
 Oolite 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 
 9d. 
 
 0 
 
 6' 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Forfarshire 
 
 9d. 
 
 1 
 
 3* 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Monmouthshire 
 
 lOd. to Is. (a) 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Oolite (Shelly) 
 
 Northamptonshire 
 
 Is. 
 
 0 
 
 10| 
 
 Ditto “Bath Stone” 
 
 Somersetshire 
 
 6d. 
 
 0 
 
 8$ 
 
 Ditto Ditto 
 
 Wiltshire 
 
 7d. 
 
 0 
 
 8J 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Wiltshire 
 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 0 
 
 8J 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Linlithgowshire 
 
 Is. Id. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Magnesian Limestone 
 “ Bolsover " 
 Sandstone 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 lOd. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 Is. 
 
 lOd. to Is. (fi) 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 Ditto “ Bramley Fall ” 
 
 Ditto 
 
 1 
 
 2* 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Kent 
 
 4d. to 6d. ( c ) 
 
 0 
 
 s* 
 
 Limestone “ Chilmark " 
 
 Wiltshire 
 
 Is. 6d. to 2s. (</) 
 
 0 
 
 10$ 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Edinburghshire 
 
 9d. to 2s. 6d. (e) 
 
 1 
 
 1$ 
 
 Shelly Oolite 
 
 Wiltshire 
 
 7d. 
 
 0 
 
 9$ 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 9d. to Is. Id. (/) 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Surrey 
 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 1 0 
 
 8$ 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Lincolnshire 
 
 8d. 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Northumberland 
 
 Gd. to lOd. ( g ) 
 
 1 
 
 1$ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Staffordshire 
 
 7d. to Is. ( h ) 
 
 0 
 
 10$ 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Derbyshire 
 
 3s. to 4s. (i) 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 2s. 
 
 0 
 
 11$ 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Northumberland 
 
 6d. to Is. 4d. ( j) 
 
 1 
 
 3$ 
 
 Oolite 
 
 Rutlandshire 
 
 Is. 9<L 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Sandstone 
 
 Gloucestershire 
 
 Is. 4d. 
 
 1 
 
 3$ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Yorkshire 
 
 lOd. 
 
 1 
 
 2$ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Nottinghamshire 
 
 8d. 
 
 1 
 
 1$ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Rossshire 
 
 5Jd. 
 
 1 
 
 1$ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Perthshire 
 
 9d. to Is. fid. (k) 
 
 H 
 
 10$ 
 
 o 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Staffordshire 
 
 8d. 
 
 0 
 
 Oolite (Portland) 
 
 Dorsetshire 
 
 Is. 4Jd- 
 
 1 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Bedfordshire 
 
 Is. 3d. 
 
 0 
 
 5 $ 
 
 (a) According to the size of blocks, which may be had from 1 to 10 tons weight each 
 
 (b) According to Rize of blocks, which may be had to 100 cubic feet each. 
 
 (c) 4d. for extensive orders ; 6d. if limited. Blocks may be had to 500 cubic feet. 
 
 (*/) 2s. for trough bed ; Is. 9d. bottom pinney bed ; 2s. hard white bed ; Is. 6d. other 
 
 useful stone blocks from 10 cwt. to 3 or even 5 tons. 
 
 (e) 9d. to 2s. for bed rock, in blocks from 5 to 30 cubic feet ; lid. to 2s. 6d. for liver 
 rock, in blocks from 5 to 30 cubic feet. 
 
 (/) Iu blocks from 1 to 3 tons, Is. Id. if white stone, or 9d. if brown and white iu 
 equal quantities. 
 
 (g) TW* i is according to the size of blocks, which may be had to any practicable 
 T >e beds Var X from 4 to 12 feet in thickness. 
 
 “ oc 2 *ons ; 9d. 2 to 4 tons; Is. 4 tons and upwards. 
 
 {'A *f on . e '• ® u PP<>»ed to be valuable for decorative purposes, hence its high price 
 
 O) 6tL blocks under 7 feet cubic; 9d. 14 feet ditto; Is. 20 feet ditto; Is. 4d 
 oO feet ditto. 
 
 (k) 9<L blocks under 2 tons ; lid. 2 to 3 tons; li 
 Is. fid. fi to 6 tons. 
 
 Is. 3 to 4 tons ; Is. 2d. 4 to 5 tons ; 
 
COST OF MASONRY. 
 
 49 
 
 From these prices, the greater facility of working limestone, as compared 
 with the sandstones, appears from the much less cost of labour upon 
 it. The Bolsover stone, already cited in the tables, of which the exterior of 
 the New Houses of Parliament is mainly constructed, a magnesian limestone 
 of a light yellowish brown colour, costs lOd. per cubic foot at the quarry, 
 and reaches London at a total price of 2s. to 2s. 3d. The cost of labour on 
 this is usually estimated as follows : 
 
 Hoisting and scaffolding . 
 
 Setting 
 
 Whole sawing .... 
 Plain work, rubbed face 
 Ditto circular work ditto . 
 
 Sunk work to beds and joints ditto 
 Ditto rubbed ditto 
 Ditto ditto circular . 
 
 Moulded work ditto . 
 
 Ditto circular ditto . 
 
 per cubic foot 
 ditto 
 
 per superficial foot 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 The price of the rough blocks, viz. 2s. and 2s. 3d. per cubic foot in London, 
 makes no allowance for such waste of stone as is incurred if the bulk 
 required has to be cut to definite 3izes and shapes. The practical effect of 
 this, added to ordinary cost of cartage from wharf to the works, commonly 
 increases the cost to 3s. 6d. or 3s. 9d. per cubic foot of stone as eventually 
 set in the building, that is, adds Is. 3d. or Is. 6d. to the cost of each foot 
 of the material. The three principal limestones or oolites brought to the 
 London market, are Portland, Bath, and Caen. The principal items of 
 expense in common labour upon these are usually rated thus. 
 
 Cost of Stone .... 
 Waste, Cartage, &c., add 
 Hoisting and Scaffolding • 
 
 Setting 
 
 Plain work, including sawing and 
 setting to beds and joints 
 Ditto to beds of bond stones 
 Ditto rubbed to face . 
 
 Ditto circular .... 
 
 4 inch ashlaring, including plain 
 
 ditto 
 
 per superficial foot 
 . ditto 
 
 . ditto 
 
 . ditto 
 
 beds. 
 
 joints & face, with plugs or joggles & lead ditto 
 
 5 inch ditto ditto .... ditto 
 
 6 inch ditto ditto .... ditto 
 
 7 inch ditto ditto .... ditto 
 
 Sinks 6 inches thick .... ditto 
 
 Ditto 7 ditto .... ditto 
 
 Ditto 8 ditto ditto 
 
 Paving inch thick laid in straight 
 
 courses including joints . . ditto 
 
 Ditto 2 ditto ..... ditto 
 
 Ditto 3 ditto ditto 
 
 Coping, feather edge, 13 inches wide, 2J 
 
 inches mean thickness, throated and set ditto 
 Ditto 17 inches wide . . . ditto 
 
 2 inch parallel coping, 13 inch wide, throated 
 
 both edges ditto 
 
 JTUrUiUIU. 
 
 s. d 
 
 Dal 11 * 
 
 8. d. 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 0 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 11 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 1 
 
 0 7 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 10 
 
 3 0 
 
 1 11 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 4 
 
 4 0 
 
 2 8} 
 
 4 6 
 
 3 1 
 
 5 0 
 
 3 2 
 
 6 0 
 
 3 8 
 
 7 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 2 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 3 8 
 
 2 9 
 
 2 Pi 
 
 2 0 
 
 Caen, 
 s. d. 
 1 6 
 0 9 
 0 3 
 0 6 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 7 
 0 8 
 
 1 0 
 
 4 
 7 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 0 
 6 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 4 
 1 10 
 
 2 6 
 3 2 
 
 1 11 
 
50 
 
 COST OF MA30NKY. 
 
 both edges 
 
 Ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 22 
 
 ditto 
 
 2} inch 
 
 ditto 
 
 13 
 
 ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 17 
 
 ditto 
 
 Ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 22 
 
 ditto 
 
 Sillt 8 by 3 
 
 inches 
 
 
 # , 
 
 Ditto and sunk 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 
 Portlund. 
 
 Bath. 
 
 roated 
 
 a. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 . ditto 
 
 4 2 
 
 3 2 
 
 . ditto 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 2 
 
 . ditto 
 
 3 10 
 
 2 10 
 
 ditto 
 
 4 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 . ditto 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 4 
 
 . ditto 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 6 
 
 ditto 
 
 2 9 
 
 1 9 
 
 . ditto 
 
 2 11 
 
 1 10 
 
 . ditto 
 
 2 10 
 
 1 11 
 
 . ditto 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 . ditto 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 1} 
 
 1 10 
 
 Ditto 8 by 4 sunk to 3$ inches . ditto 2 9 1 9 2 3 
 
 Ditto 8 by 4| sunk to 4 inches . . ditto 2 11 1 10 2 4 
 
 Curb 6 by 0 inches including joints . ditto 2 10 1 11 2 3 
 
 Ditto 6 by 8 inches ditto . . ditto 3 6 2 9 3 1 
 
 For rounded top instead of flat, add . ditto 0 2 0 1} 0 1} 
 
 The Brantley Fall is the most popular of the sandstones which reach 
 London, and is commonly called Yorkshire, or Grit. The usual prices as under. 
 
 Cueli. 
 s. d. 
 3 0 
 
 In blocks at wharf 
 Add for waste and cartage 
 Ditto if above 6 feet long 
 Hoisting and Scaffolding 
 Setting 
 Whole sawing 
 Plain work including sawing or cutting, rough 
 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 Ditto ditto 
 
 Sunk work or circular plain 
 Ditto ditto ditto 
 
 Ditto ditto ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 tooled 
 
 rubbed 
 
 rough 
 
 tooled 
 
 rubbed 
 
 per cubic foot 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 per superficial foot 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 The same material supplied as Paving at following rates 
 
 Paving 2 inch 
 Ditto 2} inch 
 Ditto 3 inch 
 Ditto 4 inch 
 Slabs and hearths 
 
 As Landings or large Slabs, at the following rates 
 
 
 
 Rough, 
 s. d. 
 
 Tooled, 
 a. d. 
 
 . 
 
 per superficial foot 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 9 
 
 ; 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 10 
 
 . 
 
 . ditto 
 
 0 11 
 
 1 0 
 
 • 
 
 . ditto 
 
 • . ditto 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 4 
 
 Landings 3 inch 
 Ditto 4 inch 
 Ditto .0 inch 
 Ditto 6 inch 
 Sinks 
 
 per superfu ial foot 
 . ditto 
 
 . ditto 
 
 . ditto 
 
 • ditto 
 
 Rough. 
 
 Tooled. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 a. d. 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 4 
 
 4 0 
 
 
 4 0 
 
 As Curbs, Steps, and Coping, at the following rates 
 
 Sills for windows, 7 inch by 2} inch throated 
 Ditto 8 inch by 3 inch 
 Curb 5 by 6 inches 
 Ditto 6 by 6 inches 
 Ditto 7 by 6 inches 
 Ditto 8 by 6 inches 
 Ditto 9 by 6 inches 
 Ditto 10 by 4 inches, with 2 chamfered edges 
 for boarding to forces and stables 
 Steps, solid 12 by 6 inches . 
 
 Ditto 9 by inches . 
 
 Channel and gutter , 
 
 nd 
 
 per foot run 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 groove 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 Tooled. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 6 
 0 
 0 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 JO 
 
 4 
 
 Rubbed, 
 s. d. 
 
 0 11 
 1 0 
 1 2 } 
 1 6 } 
 1 4 
 
 Rubbed, 
 
 s. d. 
 2 2 
 2 11 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 Rubbed, 
 s. d. 
 
 1 7 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 4 
 
 2 8 
 2 11 
 
 3 2 
 3 6 
 
 6 
 
 s : 3 
 
 2 2 
 
 7 2 
 
 3 0 
 2 
 8 
 
 0 
 
COST OF MASONRY. 
 
 51 
 
 Coping, quarry- worked, and throated. 
 
 1 2 inches wide . 
 
 
 . per foot run 
 
 8 inch, 
 s. d. 
 1 6 
 
 2J Inch, 
 s. d. 
 1 8 
 
 13 ditto 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 9 
 
 15 ditto 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 0 
 
 17 ditto . 
 
 
 « ditto 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 8 ditto 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 4 
 
 21 ditto ..... ditto 
 
 For coping and paving, if set in cement, add per sup. ft. 
 
 
 
 3 0 
 
 S inch. 
 8. d. 
 1 10 
 2 0 
 2 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 7 
 
 3 3 
 0 1 * 
 
 The “ Castle Hill Scotch Stone,” having a very close texture, and of dark 
 blue colour, is now much used for paving, landings, coping, &c., at the 
 following ordinary rate of prices in London : — 
 
 Paving, not less in thickness than 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 11 inch. 
 
 2 inch. 
 
 21 inch. 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8 . 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 Rough face, rough edges 
 
 per superficial foot 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 61 
 
 0 
 
 81 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 Ditto sawn edges 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 0 101 
 
 Tooled face ditto 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 61 
 
 0 
 
 71 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 Half rubbed face ditto 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 6* 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Full rubbed face ditto 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 81 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 
 Laying, including mortar 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 u 
 
 0 
 
 1? 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 Landings. Thickness 
 
 
 2 inch. 
 
 21 inch. 
 
 3 inch. 
 
 31 inch. 
 
 4 inch. 
 
 Rough faces, rough edges 
 
 pr. sup. ft. 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 101 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 Face tooled, sawn edges 
 
 , , 
 
 0 11 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Ditto half rubbed ditto 
 
 . , 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 Ditto rubbed ditto 
 
 # , 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 21 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Setting, add . 
 
 • 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 31 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 41 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 Coping , per foot run 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 inches wide, 3 inches thick, sawn through and laid 
 
 . 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 12 inches ditto, 2 inches ditto, 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 16 inch feather edge, 3 and 2i inch 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 13 inch ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 ] 
 
 2 
 
 1 2 inch ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Sills, rubbed, 8 by 3 inches, including setting 
 
 per foot 
 
 run 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Curb 12 bv 4 inches 
 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Steps, rough, 14 inches wide, 4 inches thick 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 Ditto, tooled 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Ditto, rubbed 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 Add if bedded. 
 
 . . • 
 
 . 
 
 ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 The Rubble work of various kinds, of which the construction has been 
 previously described, is to be obtained at prices which vary in almost every 
 locality. It is, in almost all cases being employed in large masses, measured 
 and valued at per cubic yard , and the price of this quantity ranges according 
 to locality and kind of construction, whether rough, random, measured, or 
 coursed, from 5s. to 30s. or from about 2d. to Is. Id. per cubic foot. The 
 Kentish Ragstone work, already referred to, is charged in this manner at the 
 following rates, in London. 
 
 Rough random work in walling, including labour and mortar 
 Random work lined with “ hassock ” .... 
 
 Random coursed work ditto ..... 
 
 Coursed header work ditto ..... 
 
 If lined with brick instead of hassock .... 
 
 per cubic yard 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 s. d. 
 14 0 
 16 0 
 20 0 
 22 0 
 28 0 
 
52 
 
 MEASURING MASONRY. 
 
 Galletting the joints externally 
 
 Hammer dressed on the face . . 
 
 Rag-stone ashlar scappled out . . . . 
 
 Ditto including hoisting and setting . 
 
 (Labour on plain face, joints, &c., same as Portland) 
 Rough rag per ton iu London ...» 
 
 per superficial foot 
 ditto 
 
 per cubic foot 
 ditto 
 
 s. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 d. 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 To these prices it may be useful to add those of granite, of which thfc two 
 favourite qualities are from Cornwall, the “ llayter” aud from Scotland, 
 the “ Aberdeen .” 
 
 Granite . 
 
 Scappled 
 
 Hoisting, Scaffolding and Setting 
 Plain face, finely axed 
 Circular ditto, or sunk work 
 Circular sunk work 
 Moulded work . 
 
 Circular ditto . 
 
 Paving, 5 inches thick 
 
 
 
 Ilavter. 
 s ’ d. 
 3 9 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 4 9 
 
 
 per superficial foot 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 ditto 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 . ditto 
 
 2 0 
 
 Aberdeen, 
 s. d. 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 6 
 2 0 
 2 6 
 3 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 0 
 2 6 
 
 53. Relative weight of various Stones. The following figures will be found 
 useful data in making approximate calculations as to the weight of masses 
 of masonry. 
 
 Sandstones. 
 
 Average 
 weight per 
 cubic foot 
 in lbs. 
 
 Average 
 number of 
 cubic feet 
 equal to 1 
 ton. 
 
 Abercame 
 Knockley 
 Craigleith 
 Uevis's Quarry 
 Gatton 
 
 168 
 
 1591 
 
 146 
 
 111 
 
 103 
 
 13 * 
 
 14 
 
 15 * 
 
 20 
 
 211 
 
 Limestones and Oolites. 
 
 Hopton Wood 
 Chilmat k 
 bolsover 
 
 Portland (average of 5) 
 Hath (average of 3) 
 
 158* 
 
 153* 
 
 1511 
 
 138 
 
 120 * 
 
 H* 
 
 14* 
 
 141 
 
 16* 
 
 18* 
 
 uranile - | 166 | 13* 
 
 54. Measuring Masonry. There are two widely different methods of mea- 
 *unng and estimating the value of masonry, to which we shall find it necessary to 
 attend. By the Inst of these methods, the value of the rough material in cubic 
 feet, is added to the value of each successive kind of labour exercised upon 
 it m superficial feet, in order to ascertain the final value of each piece of stone 
 employed. Tins method is illustrated by the tables of prices we have just 
 given. In ashlnnng, the price of plain work is allowed to face, bed, and joint 
 of each stone, Wlt h horizontal bed, and one vertical face only for bond stones 
 unless they are through stones, when two vertical faces must be allowed. If la- 
 bour is not charged on any face of a stone, half-sawing is to be allowed for 
 each sawn face. Columns are measured by taking first, two plain sides of the 
 
THE GEOMETRY OF MASONRY. 
 
 53 
 
 cube, added to tbe girt of the column as circular plain, and two plain faces 
 to each horizontal joint. The material in solid steps is measured by 
 taking the extreme length, including the tailing in the wall, by the width 
 and whole height. Winders in the same way, the width being the mean 
 between the extreme end widths. Labour on steps, if solid, includes plain, 
 sunk, or moulded work on the face of the tread, riser, and ends only, if laid 
 on brickwork. To this half a bed is to be added if the step is laid on stone. 
 For cornices, strings, and blocking courses, set on brickwork, add the 
 moulded, sunk, or plain work in face and top, to the plain work in joints, 
 and allow 119 bed ; — but if set on stone, half a plain bed to be allowed 
 besides, also half plain to the back, if worked. For landings, plain work is 
 to be allowed on top, edges, and joints. If the underside be worked, to be 
 charged half plain superficial. Curbs are taken as plain, sunk, or moulded 
 to the three faces, but no bed. For hoisting stone above 40 feet from ground 
 level, an additional 2d. per cubic foot, for every 10 feet in extra height, is to 
 be understood, unless otherwise specified. The second method of estimating 
 masonry recognizes only the exact net cubic quantity of stone used, and 
 affixes a definite and total price to this, varying it only to meet cases where 
 vast differences of labour are palpably required, and allowing no extra 
 or additional charges whatever under any circumstances. Thus, we may have 
 rubble or ashlar, as the case may be, in walls, including all plinths, grooves, 
 arch-stones, reveals to openings, string-courses, copings, returns, &c. &c., 
 at so much per cubic foot, net , deducting all openings, and backing, if of 
 brickwork, as they may appear in the drawings or in the specification ; in 
 fact, tantamount nearly to a lump sum for the whole piece of work. While 
 it must be admitted that this wholesale method of measuring facilitates the 
 process wonderfully, it is equally undeniable that it is as uncertain in results 
 as careless in process; and indeed, the exact and just measurer, even if driven 
 to adopt this method ostensibly, will take the trouble to work out an average 
 block or two of each kind of work, upon the other and more correct sys- 
 tem, and reduce the cost thus found to a set of prices per cubic foot in the 
 required estimate. 
 
 55. The Geometry of Masonry. — Instruments . Although the simpler opera- 
 tions, in preparing blocks of stone for building purposes, may be performed 
 by a careful use of the tools provided, none of the intricate forms required in 
 the details of architectural construction can be successfully worked out, or 
 produced with certainty, so as to avoid a clumsy wasting of material, without 
 application of the elementary rules of geometry. The square and straight 
 edge will indeed enable the mason to reduce his blocks to level faces, and to 
 render these parallel or rectangular as may be desired, but they will not 
 enable him to strike out correct curves, to determine the intersecting points 
 of different planes or curved surfaces, or to determine the alterations produced 
 in regular or irregular figures by their transference to planes at various angles. 
 For these, and indeed nearly all the problems he will be required to solve in 
 working out each portion of the general design upon the individual block, the 
 mason must refer to the rules of practical geometry, and in proportion to his 
 own practical acquaintance with them will be able to apply, and if necessary, 
 combine them, so as to arrive at the particular solution he requires. For 
 measuring: and laving: down angles, the mason uses a bevel which consists 
 
54 
 
 SETTING MASONRY. 
 
 simply of two logs or sticks jointed in the manner of a two-feet rule, but so 
 that each leg may pass freely over or within the other, and thus form acute, 
 right, or obtuse angles with it. They should work rather stiffly, or have a 
 clamp screw for fixing the bevel to any desired opening, without danger of 
 disturbance. Some bevels are furnished with an arc, on which the degrees of 
 the circle are graduated, and by which any required angle may be correctly 
 ascertained. Besides the compasses for describing circles, the trammel is an 
 useful instrument by which the mason describes ellipses for arches, See. This 
 consists of two pieces of wood fixed together at right angles to, and crossing, 
 each other. These have slits cut nearly throughout their whole lengths, in 
 which two pins or studs, attached to a separate stick or piece of w ood, may be 
 moved along. These studs are capable of adjustment in their relative positions 
 on the piece to which they belong. A pencil or pointer at the other end of 
 this piece will describe true ellipses, the proportion of the axes of which 
 depend on the position of the studs. Besides the square for setting out right 
 angles up to 2 or 3 feet in length of side, the long square or level is used 
 in trying long lines. This is provided with a plumb-bob, or weight of lead, 
 or brass, &c., suspended by a string, for indicating when the upright part of 
 the level is vertical ; and the long frame which is fixed truly at right angles 
 with the upright part, is consequently truly horizontal, or level. This 
 instrument is sometimes furnished with a spirit level, by which a horizontal 
 level may be ascertained independently of the plumb-bob. For testing the 
 uprightness of the w ork a plumb-bob is used, which consists only of the bob, 
 or weight, suspended by a string from the top of a strip of wood. This strip 
 is of exact parallel width throughout, and the point of suspense of the bob, 
 and the gauge mark below, are exactly in a line with each other, and equi- 
 distant from the edges of the strip. Particular sectional forms to which 
 many blocks have to be prepared, are the most readily and truly multiplied 
 by using moulds or templates. Zinc is a very suitable material from which to 
 cut these templates. An exact correspondence in form of the surfaces, 
 which, when combined, are jointed together and required to coincide, is thus 
 secured ; the only thing necessary to secure this being that the mason shall 
 mark the outline of his template or pattern correctly upon the levelled surface 
 c f the block, and direct his chisel accordingly. 
 
 56. Setting Masonry. The blocks being prepared, and the surface on 
 which they arc to bed being truly level, the setting is an operation demand- 
 ing great care, in order to secure good joints, and solid trustworthy work. 
 Upon the subject of mortar we have already treated at length ; but it cannot 
 be too often repeated, that, for stone-work, fine mortar only is admissible. 
 For all mortar, indeed, clean sharp materials are indispensable ; but in stone- 
 joints, which are, or should be, as thin as possible, simply avoiding the dry 
 contact of the stones, it is of additional importance that no dirt, clay, or 
 other non-ccmentitious substance, is interposed, as this' destroys the bonding 
 of the cement, and, if of hard texture, is liable to fracture or chip off the 
 delicate arrises of the blocks. Large stones are usually tried first on their 
 beds before setting, and arc then raised and withdrawn, the bed finally 
 cleared, well wetted, and the mortar laid ; the stone is then brought near its 
 place and gently lowered, being, if neccssarv, lowered upon wedges, by with- 
 drawing which it is brought exactly to its bed. Mallets of moderate or large 
 
SINKING, WEATHERING, AND THROATING. 
 
 size, according to the size and proportions of the stone, &c., are then used, to 
 drive the stone well home to its place. Stones are raised by a lewis , which 
 is a contrivance for securing a firm hold of them without defacing the faces 
 or injuring the joints, the lewis-hole being made on the top of the block, 
 which becomes in turn the bed for the stone above it. The lewis consists of a 
 
 wedge-shaped piece of iron, a, figs. 
 
 Fig. 34?. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Lewis for raising stone. 
 
 34 and 35, having a straight shank 
 above, and a hole for a pin. This 
 is of uniform width with the eye- 
 bolt, by which has a corresponding 
 pin-hole. A lewis-hole of proper 
 form being sunk in the top sur- 
 face of the stone, the wedge, a, is 
 first put in its place, and after- 
 wards the eye-bolt, b, which is 
 secured to the wedge, or lewis, by 
 the pin, c. It is evident they 
 cannot be withdrawn until this pin 
 The chain for raising the stone is 
 
 is removed, and the eye-bolt drawn out 
 connected to the eye at d. 
 
 57. Sinking , Weathering , Throating , — CopingSy Saddle-back. All cutting 
 down of stone to a lower surface is technically called sinking. The top of 
 stones which surmount other work are usually sunk, to form a face, or faces, 
 declining slightly from the horizontal, to promote the flowing off of rain water 
 that might otherwise remain and wear the surface into hollows. This sink- 
 ing is called weatheringy as on the top of stone sills for windows, &c. String- 
 course s, or slightly projecting bands of stone-work, should be also slightly 
 weathered. Copings which surmount the parapet walls of buildings, bridges, 
 &c., or garden fences, or boundary walls, should also be weathered. If the 
 coping project, say 2| inches or more, to keep the dripping water off the 
 wall, it is sometimes usual to sink a throating on the under side of the pro- 
 jection, so as to intercept the water, which might otherwise pass along in 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 drops, and oblige h to fall. Copings 
 Of walls equally exfiosed on both sides 
 are sometimes w'elthered at a sharp 
 angle on both sides from the centre, 
 and are then called saddle-back copings. 
 Fig. 36 shews the section of a wea- 
 thered and throated coping, and fig. 
 37 represents a s&ddle-back coping. 
 Copings. throated on botl/sides. 
 
 58. Arches , Buttresses , Spc. In the construction of fuese and similar parts 
 of buildings, two desiderata are to be especially kept in view, viz., good 
 bonding with the adjoining parts of the structure, and such a disposition ot 
 the joints that each stone shall take its fair share of the pressure to be borne, 
 while it receives all possible support both from its own form, and from its 
 fair bearing upon the subjacent mass. Common arches are of three forms, 
 viz., semi-circular, segmental, and elliptical. Besides these there are Gothic 
 arches, Tudor arches, Three-centred arches, and others, the forms of which 
 
56 
 
 A U.C II E S, BUTTRESSES, ETC. 
 
 belong to architectural art, and the best construction of which can only be 
 determined by practical experience, and the knowledge and skill thence 
 acquired. The radial joints of all arches must be at right angles to the curve 
 of the arch at that point through which the joint passes. The connection of 
 the arch stones, or voussoirs, depends mainly upon their wedge-like shape, 
 which, so long as the central one or key-stone keeps its place, prevents any 
 one stone from falling ; but if the joints be not truly directed, so as to lie in , 
 the lines of thrust toward the centre of the curve, an oblique pressure is 
 caused against the edges of the arch-stones, which in the course of time 
 causes them to split off. Arches of which the curves are struck from several 
 centres, the curves being tangential at their points of meeting, are always 
 liable to this injury, which is only mitigated when the joints are arranged so 
 as to coincide w ith the lines which pass through the points of contact of the 
 respective arcs which compose the curve of the arch. Elliptical arches are, 
 for a like reason, more liable to fracture at the joints than circular curved 
 arches. The return joints of the arch stones, under the arch or in the soffit 
 or intrados , as it is termed, are to be worked and fitted with equal care, so 
 that every stone shall abut closely against the adjoining stones throughout the 
 w hole of its bearing surfaces. The arch-stones must be alternately of large 
 and small depth, so that a bond may be effected in the direction of the axis 
 of the arch. The upper surface of the arch or extrados should not, if the 
 thickness of the arch be small, be throughout parallel with the intrados, if 
 other masonry overlies the work, but the arch-stones should be allowed, at 
 intervals, to extend upward, and thus connect with the other work. As the 
 theory of the pressure to which arch-stones are subject, teaches that this 
 increases towards the lower parts, or haunches, an additional strength is often 
 given to these parts by striking the extrados with a larger radius, thus 
 increasing the height of the arch-stones gradually towards the springing points. 
 The impost stones from which the arch at each end springs, being liable to 
 severe pressure, and receiving the entire weight borne by the several stones 
 of the arch, are frequently made of harder stone than the rest of the work. 
 Thus granite is sometimes introduced for these stoues, while the rest of the 
 work is executed in sandstone or limestone. All the delicate and architec- 
 tural details of buildings, as entablatures, friezes, enriched cornices, also parts 
 ot ornamental columns, pillars, and pilasters, have the joints rubbed carefully 
 after dressing, so as to render them as far as possible invisible when com- 
 bined in the general design. 
 
SECTION IV. BRICKWORK. 
 
 Manufacture and Varieties of Bbicks. — Place, and Stock Bricks, etc. — Fire-Bricks. — Hol- 
 low Bricks.— Bond in Bbickwork.— English Bond, Flemish Bond, Herring-bone Bond — 
 Garden Wall Bond.— Avoid Timber-bonding and all Inferior Materials.— Iron Hoop- 
 ing. — Good Bricks, and Good Brickwork. — Brick Walls, and Details of Construction. — 
 Walls of Houses, Warehouses, and Manufactories. — Inverts. — Piers or Counterforts: 
 Corbels.— Strength of Brickwork. — B$k k Arches. — Straight Arches. — Guaged Arches, 
 etc. — Chimneys. — Measuring Brickwork. — Useful Data. — Prices.— Scaffolding. 
 
 59. Manufacture and Varieties of Bricks. Bricks in England are commonly 
 composed of clay alone, clay mixed with sand, or clay mixed with fine coal 
 ashe3. While duty was paid upon them, the standard size to which they 
 were required to be moulded throughout the kingdom was 10 inches, by 
 5 inches, by 3 inches, all exceeding these dimensions paying a higher 
 duty. 50 chaldrons of ashes mixed with 240 cubic yards of clay, (being in 
 the ratio of 1 of ashes to 4 of clay,) make 100,000 bricks of this standard 
 size. The bricks being partially dried in the air, by being stacked with spaces 
 between them in two rows in width, and eight layers in height, ou the space of 
 ground levelled for them, technically termed the “ hacks ,” are formed into 
 “clamps” and burnt ; from 12 to 15 chaldrons of breeze (coarse coal-ashes) 
 being used to burn 100,000 bricks. In favourable weather the burning is 
 accomplished in 25 to 30 days. Taken from the clamp the bricks are sepa- 
 rated for sale, according to the manner and degree in which they are burnt , 
 into “ hard sound stocks,” “ place,” or " inferior soft bricks,” and “ clinkers,” 
 or “ burrs,” which are over burnt. Stock bricks are distinguished usually by 
 the special names of “ picked stocks,” “ red,” and “ grey ” stocks. A greater 
 variety of names is occasionally to be met with, such as “ red facing bricks,” 
 “ Red kiln stocks,” “ White Suffolk bricks,” “ Cowley and Kent bricks,” 
 “ Yellow and pale Malm bricks,” “ Marie cutters,” “ Yellow seconds,” “ Pale 
 seconds,” “ Pickings,” “ Marie Place,” and “ Half-washed stocks.” Of these, 
 the quality, colour, or material is usually indicated by the name, and the 
 relative value of each kind may be inferred partly from this criterion, and 
 partly from that of relative prices. When burnt, the standard size of bricks 
 is reckoned at 9 inches length, 4 J inches width, and 2J inches depth. Some 
 descriptions of bricks are kiln-burnt, or baked. Clamp-burnt bricks of the 
 size here given have hitherto formed the staple kind of bricks used for all 
 ordinary buildings, walling, &c. &c., but bricks of different forms, sizes, ami 
 materials, are produced in great variety. Thus there are the old fashioned 
 
53 
 
 BOND IN BRICKWORK. 
 
 Dutch clinkers, which are small hard yellow bricks, and used to be much 
 used for soap-boilers, cisterns, vaults, stables, yards, &c. : capping or coping 
 bricks for fence walls, which are made both angular and segmental on tie 
 upper surface ; cogging bricks to form detents beneath the coping of fence- 
 walls : segmental or compass bricks, formed for the construction of w ells : 
 
 channel bricks, having a hollow or channel on the upper surface for draining: 
 fire-bricks , called also Windsor bricks , Welsh lumps , and Stourbridge fire - ' 
 clay bricks, varieties made of a particularly fine siliceous clay, very firm in 
 texture, and capable of resisting the action of fire for a lengthened period, 
 hence used in lining ovens, furnaces, &c. Many patents have been taken out 
 for machines and materials for making bricks, but they do not come within 
 our province. One of the latest novelties is a hollow brick , which is said to 
 facilitate ventilation, and prevent the access of damp to the interior of a 
 building ; while it is of course much lighter than the ordinary solid brick. 
 
 60. Bond in Brickwork. As already remarked of stone work, the structu- 
 ral strength of the w ork will depend on the manner of arranging the several 
 blocks or pieces of winch it is composed, and the same principle applies to 
 brickwork, — the same necessity exists for careful and judicious bonding. We 
 will consider the standard size of the brick as being 9 inches in length, 
 inches in w idth, and inches in height. For the purpose of bringing in 
 these dimensions to make flush or level ends to the work, and at the openings 
 for doors, windows, &c., it is sometimes necessary to introduce a quarter- 
 brick, a half-brick, or a three-quarter brick. These are called bats , in common 
 with similar pieces produced by accidental breaking, or “closures,” in 
 reference to their peculiar utility in these cases of closing or filling in spaces 
 for which w'hole bricks would be too large. Four kinds of bond are com- 
 monly recognized viz. “ English bond,” “Flemish bond,” “ Ilerring-bone 
 bond, and “ Garden-wall bond.” English bond consists in placing all the 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
BOND IN BRICKWORK. 
 
 59 
 
 producing an arrangemeut of joints in the face of the work, which is agreeable 
 to the eye. — This is represented in fig. 39. 
 
 Herring-bone bond, which is Jipplied only in thick walls, consists in laying 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 the interior bricks ob- 
 liquely, at the angle of 
 45° with the wall ; the 
 direction of each alternate 
 course being reversed, so 
 that the joints cross each 
 other. The sketch shewn 
 in fig. 40, represents this 
 kind of work. In gar- 
 den-wall bond, which is 
 applicable for nine-inch 
 work, or work one brick 
 thick, three stretchers are 
 laid to each header, as 
 represented in fig. 41. 
 TT . , „ , In using the English and 
 
 Herring-bone Bond. Flemish bon(l3> ’ in thick 
 
 walls, the faces being formed in the stipulated manner, the interior of the 
 Fig. 41. wall is filled in with bricks laid in 
 
 a variety of ways, so as to produce 
 good bond, and avoid, as far as 
 possible, the occurrence of one 
 joint or line of joints over another. 
 In superior work, whole bricks 
 only are allowed to be used for 
 this purpose, although good half 
 or three-quarter bats may frequent- 
 ly be permitted, and if properly 
 disposed, will make excellent work. 
 The dangers to be avoided in using 
 bats are, that they will be sneaked 
 in of irregular forms oblique at the 
 ends, and so that large spaces have to be filled with rough mortar ; and ver- 
 tical joints, likely hereafter to gape into wide chasms, will occur through 
 several courses. Of the two principal kinds of bond for ordinary work, Eng- 
 lish and Flemish, it is fashionable to prefer the former, and decry the latter 
 as “ pretty to look at, but not sound. ,, And some affect to consider Flemish 
 bonding will do for 9 inch walls, but is utterly inadmissible for thicker work. 
 These notions are sheer fallacies. For indeed walls of some thicknesses cannot 
 be constructed of either bond, according to the strict principle of it, without 
 using closures of half or three-quarter bricks. Thus the header course of a 
 wall one and a half brick, or 13 J inches thick, cannot be constructed in Eng- 
 lish bond, without either laying it in one row of headers with one of stretchers, 
 thus having a continuous joint longitudinally through the course, or making 
 out the thickness of the wall, by laying a half-brick at the end of each header, 
 as shewn in figs. 42 and 43, which represent plans of these two arrangements 
 respectively, and sufficiently indicate the defects of each. 
 
 Garden-wall Bond. 
 
60 
 
 BOND IN BRICKWORK. 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 ! 1 _L J 
 
 English Bond Header- course. 
 
 T“ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Headers with Stretchers. 
 
 English Bond Stretcher Course. 
 
 The stretcher courses, also, if strictly preserved, will have two parallel ver- 
 tical joints running longitudinally throughout the wall, and thus impose the 
 Pi 44 whole duty of cohesion upon the mortar em- 
 
 ' ployed to unite its parts. This is shown in 
 
 | 11 1 ~ I I fig. 44, which is a plan of one of the stretcher- 
 
 ' 1 1 1 I 1 courses. Now, a wall of the same thickness 
 
 f I ! ! ^ 1 may be constructed with Flemish Bond, not 
 
 indeed, without half bricks, but by laying 
 them entirely within the wall itself, where, if 
 they are truly formed, they will aid the cohesion of the mass as far as pos- 
 sible, while by this construction the longitudinal gaps are avoided, and a far 
 Fig. 45 . better bonding attained than can be by 
 
 English Bond. This will be understood 
 from the plan fig. 45, which shews a 
 course of Flemish Bond of the same 
 thickness of wall as shown in figs. 42, 
 Flemish Bond. 43, an d 44 . 
 
 higs. 46 and 47 represent plans of a header and stretcher course respec- 
 tively, of a 2 brick or 18 inch wall. The transverse joints are, it will be 
 observed, properly broken, but the longitudinal joints are dangerously contin- 
 uous throughout the work. Each header course has one, and each stretcher 
 course three of these joints, and it is palpable, that with this bond a complete 
 separation is possible of the wall, from top to bottom, into two slabs or 
 single* brick walls, w ithout dislocating the constituent bricks. This may be 
 avoided by combining headers in the stretcher courses, as shewn in fig! 48 
 or by using fractional bricks occasionally. 
 
 F 'fr Fig. 47. 
 
 HZ] 
 
 H 
 
 in 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 c m. . 1 
 
 higs. 49 and 50 represent plans of courses of a wall also 2 bricks or 
 1 h inches in thickness, laid in Flemish Bond. In one course, fig. 49, a single 
 longitudinal joint is shewn throughout. This may be obviated by arranging 
 the bncks as shewn in fig 50. 0 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =u 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
AVOID TIMBER BONDING, ETC. 
 
 Cl 
 
 Figs. 51 and 52 shew the header and stretcher courses of a wall 2J bricks, 
 or 1 foot 10 J inches in thickness, laid in English Bond. The one central 
 row of stretchers is laid in the header course to make out the thickness, and 
 avoid bats. The same defects as already pointed out are again observable 
 
 here. 
 
 Fig. 51. Fig. 52. 
 
 Fig. 53 shews Flemish Bond for the same thickness of wall. The longitu- 
 dinal joints are here too long, but they are broken at intervals by the two 
 
 headers. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 Herring-bone bond is defective chiefly on account of the cutting of the bricks 
 to the bevel of 45°, the probability that this will be carelessly done, and bats 
 of irregular forms introduced, necessitating lumps of mortar, or perhaps actual 
 voids in the work. Rubbing the ends of the bricks, or even carefully cutting 
 them, are processes that involve much labour and consequent expense, which 
 the employer will seldom sanction, or the workmen fairly expend even if sanc- 
 tioned. Still with moderate care and good overlooking, work of adequate 
 soundness may be produced with this bond, while the alternate diagonal 
 arrangement of the courses greatly facilitates the consolidation of the mass. 
 
 61. Avoid Timber bonding , — and dependence on all inferior materials. — Iron 
 Hooping . It was formerly much the fashion to stipulate for the building in 
 of plenty of timber in bond and plates, in masses of brickwork, especially 
 where partly isolated by window and other openings from the other parts of 
 the structure. Nothing can be more erroneous in principle or dangerous in 
 practice. Wood is essentially a less durable material than brick or stone ; 
 more liable to destruction by damp ; and inflammable. Hence no part of the 
 structural strength of a building, composed of brick or stone, should be 
 allowed to depend upon it. For brestsummers, beams, lintels, wall-plates, 
 &c., timber must of course be introduced, in some kinds of construction, but 
 never when it can be avoided should it be incorporated in the body of a wall, 
 or so that it cannot be replaced when decayed, or otherwise desirable to be 
 removed. An useful kind of tie may be obtained for narrow piers of 
 brickwork, or where great cohesion is desirable, by laying iron hooping in 
 the mortar of the horizontal joints of brickwork. According to the thickness 
 of the wall, two or more strips may be laid in, and at every fourth course or 
 foot in height of the work. The hooping should be well pitched to preserve 
 
GOOD BRICKS AND GOOD BRICKWORK. 
 
 62 
 
 it from rust, and sanded to assist its adhesion to the mortar. — For usual work, 
 hooping 2 inches wide, No. 14, Birmingham wire gauge, in thickness, and 
 weighing 3 Jibs, per 10 foot run, is very suitable. 
 
 62. Good Bricks and good Brickwork. There are certain criteria of good 
 bricks, which being infallible and readily applied, constitute the best prac- 
 tical tests as to the quality of these valuable materials. In the first 
 place good bricks are always heavy, — always solid and compact, ringing 
 with a clear sharp sound when struck together, and well and truly formed 
 with nice sharp edges. Neither will they absorb much water. If you have 
 to choose betw een two bricks, of equal, or nearly equal weight, immerse them 
 in water, after weighing them dry. Twenty-four hours hence take them out, 
 and reject the one which has acquired most w r eight, and therefore imbibed 
 most water. Over-burnt bricks may be heavy, but they are also cracked or 
 distorted in form by undue heat, and may readily be distinguished from the 
 letter sort by their general appearance. Bad bricks, on the contrary, are 
 light, w ill not ring at all w hen struck together, are ill shaped, hollow on one 
 side and round on the other, readily abrade on the edges, suck up water like 
 a sponge, and indeed are sometimes so soft that a strong thumb may force 
 off the edges, such as they are. Good brickwork is laid truly and accurately 
 to a level, every joint answers to the line, and every part of the face coincides 
 w ith the plumb. All the beds and joints are well filled w ith mortar till it is 
 fairly pressed out in the faces, all deficiencies are carefully pointed up as the 
 work proceeds, and the whole w ell flushed in course by course. The mortar 
 is well mixed, lime and sand thoroughly blended, and the sand if handled 
 alone is found to be clean and sharp to the touch, feeling thoroughly gritty, 
 and free from all slimy, greasy, and tenacious qualities. The lime and sand 
 to be mixed in the proportion of one part of lime (by bulk) to 3£ of sand. 
 For the facing joints a larger proportion of lime may be used, say 1 part 
 to 2 of sand. The external joints will thus oppose greater resistance to the 
 admission of damp, while economy is effected by using more sand in the 
 internal and protected parts of the work. In using cement an equal bulk 
 of sand, dean nnd sharp, is mixed with it. The joints are never to exceed 1 
 of an inch in thickness, and the vertical truly plumb over each other in such 
 courses as intended, according to the kind of bond employed. The work is 
 also earned up uniformly level throughout, and no difference pcnmtted 
 exceeding four courses, or 1 foot, even for a temporary purpose, under any 
 circumstances whatever. By these means only can unequal settlement be 
 prevented. Contraction of bulk or settlement, we know, must occur from 
 the combination of materials in an expanded condition, as mortars or cements 
 arc, when in a plastic form ; nnd therefore our w alls must sink or settle down as 
 the mortar !>ccomcs dry —but it is essential, to prevent dislocation, that 
 this settlement be uniform throughout, and this can only be secured by 
 adopting the precautions prescribed above. For the same purpose the 
 
 «?mnlIT!v °[ thc , WOrk m,,9t he l,rou e ht up. >“'<> and finished as 
 
 rompl. . ly as the front, and no gaps or crevices loft for subsequent patching 
 
 ue Other rule has to lie observed ; nnd we reserve it for this* last and 
 iwparate and emphatic statement, to shew our estimate of its importance 
 m order to produce good brickwork,— which is this that thc mortar should 
 as thick a. It may be, or nearly approaching thc solid form, as is consistent 
 
BRICK WALLS. 
 
 63 
 
 with the degree of plasticity essential for its proper distribution and pene- 
 tration into the joints, while the bricks should be thoroughly wetted on the 
 surface. By these means the adhesion between them is rendered the more 
 perfect, and the subsequent amount of shrinking and settlement is reduced 
 to the minimum. Thin watery mortar, on the contrary, suffers extreme con- 
 traction, while the essential properties of the lime are actually dissipated, and 
 when the wall becomes thoroughly dried, if it ever does, little remains by 
 way of cement, but the sand originally compounded with it. 
 
 63. Brick Walls , and details of construction . The thickness to be given 
 to brick walls depends upon the height to which they are to be carried, and 
 also the purposes of the building they enclose, or degree of pressure and 
 concussion to which they will be exposed. For ordinary dwelling-houses of 
 the largest class, or first rate, from 70 to 85 feet in height from the footings, 
 and having 6 or 7 stories, including the basement, the external and party 
 walls of the basement and ground floor should be 2$ bricks, or 1 foot 10£ 
 inches, if bricks are 9 inches long ; of the tirst, second and third stories, 
 
 2 bricks, or 18 inches ; and of the remainder 1| brick, or 13| inches; with 
 parapets 1 brick thick, and at least 1 foot above highest part of gutter. 
 For second rate dwelling-houses, from 52 to 70 feet, in height and having 5 
 or 6 stories, the walls for three lower stories should be two bricks, and for 
 remainder 1§ brick, with parapets as before. For third rate dwelling-houses, 
 from 38 to 52 feet in height, having 4 or 5 stories, the walls of the lowest 
 story should be two bricks, and of the remainder 1| brick; and for fourth 
 rate dwellings, having a height not exceeding 38 feet, and not more than 4 
 stories altogether, 1J brick will suffice for the thickness of the walls of two 
 lower stories, and one brick for the remainder. For warehouses, an extra 
 thickness should be allowed. Whatever the height may be, the upper 30 or 
 36 feet in depth of the walls (equivalent usually to 3 stories,) should be 2 
 bricks thick ; and the next 40 feet in depth, 2j bricks, and all below this, 
 
 3 bricks. If the total height of the building do not exceed 60 feet, the 
 upper 20 feet may be 1 J brick, the next 35 feet, 2 bricks, and the remainder 
 2£ bricks. For a warehouse about 40 feet in height, the upper half of the 
 walls may be 1 J brick, and the lower, 2 bricks thick. These dimensions 
 will suffice only for buildings used strictly as warehouses or stores. For 
 buildings for all manufacturing purposes, for which machinery is erected, the 
 walls must have great additional substance and solidity, to enable them to 
 bear the concussions of the machinery, which are among the most severe 
 tests to which brickwork can be put. For such purposes it is not unusual 
 to provide walls 4 bricks, or 3 feet, in thickness, even in buildings of com- 
 paratively small size. Again, if there be few intermediate vertical supports 
 from wall to wall of a building, and the extent of flooring to be supported by 
 the external walls is proportionally increased, they will need to be of greater 
 thickness than if the area is occupied by small apartments, and so many 
 multiplied joints of support for the flooring are thus provided. All openings 
 for doors should have inverted arches struck beneath, with imposts of stone. 
 These inverts should be semicircular if possible, or the nearer approaching 
 that form the better, the space above the invert is to be then filled in with 
 level brickwork up to the level of underside of sill, or paving, &c. These 
 inverts tie the wall together and prevent any liability of the piers to spread, 
 

 r,l BRICK WALLS. 
 
 which they may have when built up separately from the foundations. The 
 foundations are thus preserved continuous throughout. The superiority of 
 the one method over the other will be apparent from the two sketches, figs. 
 54 and 55, which show doorways with separate piers, and with inverts 
 respectively. 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Doorways with separate piers. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 Doorways with inverts. 
 
 The judicious introduction of piers or projections of brick-work, will in many 
 cases provide all the extra thickness and strength required at particular parts 
 of a wall, w ithout continuing masses of brick- work through the intermediate 
 spaces where they are not required. Thus, a pier may be built up on the 
 face of a wall, to carry the ends of the main beams which support flooring, 
 or portions of machinery, or to carry the ends of roof trusses. Piers of brick- 
 work arc infinitely preferable, for these purposes, to posts of timber some- 
 times used, and termed story posts. Main beams to carry flooring, which are 
 perhaps 30 feet or more in length, will require at least 18 inches bearing at 
 each end. Now nn 18 inch pier will afford this bearing w ithout cutting fnto 
 the wall at all : whereas, supposing it to be only 2 J bricks in thickness, the 
 
BRICK ARCHES. 
 
 05 
 
 beam would, without the pier, cut into the wall so as to destroy its strength, 
 and leave a bare half brick thickness outside. Walls which have only to 
 support themselves, as garden, fence, and boundary walls, may be built of 
 minimum thickness by enlarging them with piers at intervals. A 9 inch 
 wall may thus have piers projecting half a brick, or 4 5 inches, and a brick and a 
 half, or 135 inches wide at intervals of 10 feet, which will give it great stiffness. 
 These piers, or counterforts as they are sometimes called, are reduced at the 
 top, in the manner of buttress heads, so as to disappear in the top course, which 
 may thus be covered with a continuous coping of uniform width. Projections 
 from the face of brick walls, are sometimes formed to diminish the length of 
 beams, &c., or to afford space within the walls at the back for flues, &c. 
 These projections, termed corbels , or corbelling , are produced by building out 
 one brick, or row of bricks, to a small extent, from 1 to 2 inches, and laying 
 each successive course above projecting to the same extent beyond the one 
 below it, thus forming a kind of inverted steps, and gaining in the top course 
 the entire extent of projection desired. The projection of cornices for shop 
 fronts are thus frequently roughly formed in the brick- work, and surmounted 
 by a layer of York flagging, the whole being afterwards covered and orna- 
 mented in cement. New brick-work is bonded to old by withdrawing the 
 end brick of each alternate course, thus forming a series of indentations or 
 toothings for building in the new work. A continuous groove or chase is 
 sometimes cut vertically in the face of the old wall which is to receive the 
 new work, for a similar purpose. Brestsuminers, plates, and lintels, resting 
 on brick walls should bear either upon stone templates, or iron shoes. By 
 this precaution, the bearing is more solid, and the weight better distributed, 
 while the removal of the timbers in case of decay or alteration is facilitated. 
 With the view of guarding against the fall of a building from fire, brick- 
 work offers the best material for constructing the internal supports of the 
 floors of a building. Thus, in buildings for stores or manufacturing opera- 
 tions, where the floors are of large area, they may be supported upon piers of 
 brick-work built in cement. A pier may be constructed, if done properly, of 
 18 inches square, to a height of 15 feet, and afford a very solid support. If 
 of greater height, their dimensions should be increased. The great weight 
 which such piers are capable of sustaining may be inferred from the experi- 
 mental datum, that piers 9 inches square on plan, 2 feet 3 inches high, built 
 of sound Cowley stock bricks, set in good cement, have been found to bear 
 from 30 to 35 tons, (nearly 9 cwts. per superficial inch) before crushing. 
 With the same view of resisting fire, also preventing decay, and the multipli- 
 cation of vermin, and of affording a superior support to the floors, all the 
 internal partitions or enclosing walls of buildings should be constructed of 
 brick-work in preference to wooden framing or quarter partitioning. And 
 this may be done with great economy of material and with efficiency, by 
 strengthening piers at intervals, by forming joints or projections round the 
 doors and openings, and by recessing to a minimum thickness all those parts 
 which have light duty to perform. 
 
 64. Brick Arches . Arches of brick-work are constructed of various sizes 
 for ordinary buildings, while in its application to bridge building, this 
 material has been employed to a great extent. The Railway Bridge con- 
 structed over the river Thames at Maidenhead, by Mr. Brunei, the two 
 
BRICK ARCHES. 
 
 66 
 
 middle arches of which are 128 feet in span, is probably the most stupendous 
 specimen of this kind.* These arches are elliptical, and have a rise of 24 ft. 
 
 3 in.; the thickness of brick-work at the crown is 5 ft. 3 in., and increased 
 by half brick sets off to 7 ft. 1 $ in. at the haunches. The simplest arch con- 
 structed by the bricklayer is that termed a straight arch . It should not, 
 however, be strictly straight or horizontal, but have a slight rise in the centre, 
 that is, have a curve belonging to a circle of very large radius. This is the 
 arch used over square headed windows and doorways ; the bricks are arranged 
 radiating, the upper surface of them forming a level or straight line to work 
 in witli the brick- work above. For the same purpose the total depth of the 
 arch from the horizontal line above, to the level of the spring of the arch is 
 made equal to four courses of bricks, or 12 inches. The joints are not 
 made to radiate from the true centre of the arch, but are determined by 
 dividing the line of arch, or soffit, and the top level line into the same 
 number of equal parts, and joining the divisions by lines which form the 
 joints. The length of the top horizontal line is usually determined by 
 making it project about 7 4 inches at each end beyond the reveal of the 
 window, or line of the opening. Thus, if the window opening be 3 feet 
 wide, this top line will be 4 feet 3 inches in length. The radiating bricks 
 arc cut with the required taper by the skill of the workman, and the proper 
 level for the ends is determined by marks upon a mould, or template, 
 prepared by setting out the arch full size upon a board, and marking the 
 joints exactly, before beginning the brickwork. In setting the bricks, a piece 
 of wood is fixed so that its upper curved surface corresponds with the 
 intended sol lit of the arch ; and upon this, the bricks forming the arch are 
 laid, set, and carefully jointed. This piece of wood, technically called the 
 cambers! ip, is allowed to remain till the work is dry, when it is removed, and 
 the arch, if properly constructed, retains the form in which it has been built. 
 Superior arches, or those of small radius of curvature, are formed of bricks, 
 which are carefully cut and nibbed to the exact form of taper required. 
 These are called gauged, or rubbed arches, and involve a more careful 
 construction, and skilful kind of labour. The thickness of brick arches is 
 of course in proportion to their span, or distance between the piers, and 
 the height to which the arch rises above the level of the springing. Semi- 
 circular arches, or segmental arches, whose rise is not less ihan i of their 
 span, up to 12 feet span, may be built one brick, or 9 inches in thickness. 
 From 12 to 20 feet span, they should have 1$ brick, or 13$ inches 
 thickness ; from 20 to 25 feet, 2 bricks, or 18 inches ; and from 25 to 30 
 feet, 24 bricks, or 1 foot 10$ inches. Whatever the thickness, however, 
 all arches should be built in half-brick rings, or rims ; that is, concentric 
 layers, each 4$ inches in thickness, all properly united by mortar or cement, 
 fly this arrangement, a proper bond may be preserved, which will be shewn 
 in the soffit of the arch. At distances of 3 feet, in the girt of the arch, 
 a brick should be introduced vertically, or rather radially, bonding into the 
 next ring above. Arches of great flatness, that is having very small rise in 
 
 • The detail* °f »»*«« example* of bric k bridge*. Sic., aiepiven with full tables of 
 Xichlf^^u^'co * n thC W ° rk “ lirick Brid K c * and Culverts," published by 
 
MEASURING BRICKWORK. 
 
 67 
 
 proportion to tlieir span, are to be avoided as much as possible, being 
 essentially weak, but when used, they require extra care in bonding, and in 
 jointing. An extra half-brick thickness is also desirable in flat arches of 
 considerable span. Cement is to be preferred to mortar for all arches ; — in 
 segmental, flat, and elliptical arches, it is indispensable for the central or 
 crown part of the work, where the form approaches an horizontal line, and 
 the tendency to fall is consequently greatest. It is hence sometimes 
 stipulated to build from 10 to 14 feet of the central part in cement, while 
 mortar is used for the haunches. A wiser economy, however, dictates 
 cement throughout. In the construction of chimneys, for dwelling houses, 
 the thickness of brickwork at the back should be l£ brick in the lower story 
 of the building, and 1 brick above that. If built back to back, the same 
 thickness should be preserved if in party walls, otherwise it may be reduced 
 half a brick. The joints should in no case be less than one brick thick on 
 each side of the opening, the breast, front, back, withe, or partition of every 
 flue, must be at least half a brick thick, thoroughly bonded, the joints made 
 perfect with good mortar or cement, and all the inside, and also outside or 
 face next the interior of the building, must be rendered or pargetted. No 
 wood-work of any kind should be permitted to be let into the brickwork of 
 chimneys, and all slabs or hearths should be of brick, tile, stone, slate, marble, 
 or other incombustible material, at least 12 inches larger than the chimney 
 opening, and projecting 18 inches in front of the arch over the same. 
 They should, moreover, be laid and bedded wholly on brick or stone, 
 which should be solid for a thickness of 9 inches beneath the surface of the 
 hearth. 
 
 65. Measuring Brickwork. In large masses, such as railway-bridges, &c., 
 brick-work is measured by the cube yard or cube foot, but for walling, and 
 all ordinary work in buildings, it is usual to reduce it to an arbitrary standard 
 thickness of 1^ brick, and measure it superficially. And the integer 
 employed for this superficial measurement is 272^ feet, usually called 272 
 feet, the fraction being omitted for facility in calculating. This 272£ feet 
 constitutes the statute rod, being the superficial contents of a square of 5 5 
 yards, or 16 J feet. The common rule for this reduction is to find the 
 superficial area of brickwork of each thickness, and reduce the whole into an 
 uniform thickness of half a brick, then by dividing by 3 (the number of 
 half bricks in the standard thickness) our total will be brought to the 
 standard thickness, and its superficial area will appear in statute rods of 
 reduced brickwork as it is called. By way of example, let us have four 
 measurements of brickwork, 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 1 . 
 
 54 
 
 0 
 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 2. 
 
 360 
 
 648 feet, 3 bricks thick. 
 
 0 
 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 5040 feet, 2 bricks thick. 
 
 3. 
 
 47 
 
 0 
 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 376 feet, 3$ bricks thick. 
 

 MEASURING BRICKWORK. 
 
 4. 39 0 
 
 7 0 
 
 273 feet, 4$ bricks thick. 
 
 ]. 618 X 6 = 3888 
 
 2. 5010 x 4 = 20180 
 
 3. 376 X 7 = 2632 
 
 4. 273 x 9 = 2457 
 
 Total . . 29137 
 
 That is 29,137 superficial feet, half a brick thick. To bring this to the 
 standard thickness, divide by 3, then = 9712^ superficial feet, which 
 divided by 272, shews a quotient of 35^ rods of reduced brickwork. 
 All openings for doors, windows, and fire-places, are to be deducted, but flues 
 are measured as if solid, to allow for the extra labour in forming them. 
 Timbers built in walls are not deducted. Solid walls of irregular form and 
 thickness, as settlings for ovens, coppers, kitchen apparatus, angle fire-places, 
 &€., are cubed and reduced to the standard thickness. If brought first into 
 cubic feet, the number may be multiplied by 8, and divided by 9, this will 
 shew the superficial quantity of lj brick, or 13$ inches in thickness. The 
 following data are generally admitted, and will be found useful. 
 
 A rod of standard brickwork set in mortar requires— 
 
 4500 ordinary bricks, 
 
 30$ cubic feet of lime, 
 
 91$ cubic feet of saud. 
 
 The weight of it in mortar will be about as follows, calculating the bricks 
 at 5 lbs. each. 
 
 63 
 
 We have here 
 
 Bricks 
 
 Lime 
 
 Sand 
 
 tons cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 .10 0 3 16 
 
 1 10 2 0 
 
 3 17 3 12 
 
 Total . . 15 11 1 0 
 
 Taking the reduced thickness at 13 J inches, each rod will equal 306 
 cubic feet. 
 
 If cement be used instead of lime, the quantity per statute rod will be 36 
 bushels of cement, and 36 bushels of sharp sand. 21 striked bushel* equal 
 one cubic yard, or 27 cubic feet. 
 
 The weight of a rod of brickwork, in Roman cement, will be as follows : 
 
 Bricks 
 
 Cement 36 bushels, at 73 lbs. per bushel .... 
 Sand 36 bushels 46 2-7ths cubic feet, at 95$ lbs. per cubic ft. 
 
 tons cwt qrs. lbs. 
 
 10 0 3 16 
 
 1 3 1 24 
 
 1 19 1 16 
 
 If with Portland cement, of which 1 part is used with 3 of sand° the 
 weight of the rod will be— 
 
 Bricks 
 
 Cement 18 bushels, at 1 cwt. per bushel 
 
 Sand 54 bushels 69 3 7ths cubic feet, at 95$ lbs. per cubic ft! 
 
 tons cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 10 0 3 16 
 
 0 18 0 0 
 
 2 19 0 10 
 
 13 17 3 26 
 
PRICES. 
 
 69 
 
 15 bricks form one foot of reduced brickwork. 7 bricks are required for 
 one superficial foot of facing. 10 bricks for one superficial foot of guaged 
 
 arches. 
 
 Paving bricks measure 9 inches by 4j inches by 1J inches, and weigh 
 
 about 4 • lbs. each. 
 
 Butch clinkers measure 6 ^ inches by 3 inches by lj inches, and weigh 
 
 1 lb. 8 oz. each. 
 
 Pantiles measure 1 foot lj inches by 9 5 inches by 1 inch, and weigh 
 
 5 lbs. 4 oz. each. 
 
 Plain tiles measure 10 £ inches by 65 inches by § inch, and weigh 
 
 2 lbs. 5 oz. each. 
 
 A single load of sand, or lime, contains 27 cubic feet, or 1 cubic yard. 
 
 A double load of ditto contains 54 cubic feet, or 2 cubic yards. 
 
 1000 stock bricks stacked, occupy about 56 cubic feet. 
 
 A bricklayer’s hod measures 1 foot 4 inches by 9 inches by 9 inches, or 
 1296 cubic inches, and. is intended to contain 20 bricks. 
 
 Lime and sand, and cement and sand, when mixed, occupy two-tliirds 
 their previous bulk. 
 
 Weight of 
 l cubic foot. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Number of 
 cubic feet 
 equal to 1 
 ton. 
 
 Sand 
 
 Clay 
 
 Common earth 
 Chalk . 
 
 Vein marble . 
 
 Statuary ditto 
 Brick, dry 
 
 Brickwork in mortar 
 Ditto in Roman cement 
 Ditto in Portland cemen 
 Seyssel Asphalte . 
 
 S5* 
 
 1291 
 
 121J 
 
 1721 
 
 1721 
 
 166 
 
 771 
 
 114 
 
 961 
 
 101 | 
 
 157 
 
 231 
 171 
 18 
 13 
 13 
 131 
 28f 
 191 
 23 i 
 22 
 111 
 
 70 feet superficial of 2j inch York paving equal to 1 ton. 
 
 58 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 27 
 
 38 
 
 46 
 
 » a 
 
 a it 
 
 n >» 
 
 >> >> 
 
 it a 
 
 it it 
 
 it it 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 Purbeck paving 
 
 granite paving 
 
 pebble paving 
 ragstone 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 If 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 19 
 
 99 
 
 66. Prices. Present London prices may be taken as follows : — 
 
 Stock brickwork, in Thames sand and store lime 
 If with blue lias lime additional 
 Ditto in Roman cement . 
 
 In outer wall, worked fair both sides, additional 
 
 Per rod reduced. Per cubic yard 
 X. s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 10 0 0 0 17 8 
 
 0 10 0 0 1 0 
 
 12 0 0 1 1 2 
 
 0 10 0 0 1 0 
 
 Facings, per foot superficial. (Half the depth of reveals of windows, doorways, Sic., 
 to be measured.) 
 
70 
 
 PRICES. 
 
 8 . (!. 
 
 Second Malm stocks, additional to price of stock brickwork . . .03 
 
 Best Malm stocks, or red bricks, ditto 0 <» 
 
 Ipswich or Suffolk white bricks, ditto 0 7 
 
 Arches, (face and soffit to be measured) stocks, ditto . . . .00 
 
 Second Malm stocks, and tuck- pointed, ditto 2 0 
 
 Best washed Malm stocks, or red bricks, camber, segmental, or semi- 
 circular, guaged, rubbed, and set in putty, ditto . . . .28 
 
 Concrete, consisting of stone lime and Thames ballast, for foundations, 
 
 1 of lime to 6 of ballast, including wheeling, and filling in, per 
 cubic yard ..70 
 
 Paving, per superficial yard, including making and levelling ground, not 
 exceeding 6 inches in depth on the average. 
 
 Gray stocks, flat . 
 
 Ditto, on edge .... 
 
 Malm paviors, flat 
 
 Ditto, on edge .... 
 
 Suffolk white bricks, flat 
 
 Ditto, on edge .... 
 
 Paving bricks, flat 
 
 Ditto, on edge .... 
 
 Ware white paving bricks, flat . 
 
 If laid herring-bone, additional . 
 
 Dutch clinker paving . 
 
 Ditto laid herring- bone . . 
 
 9, 10, and 12 inch tiles . . 
 
 The following are the London prices 
 including 15 per cent, profit, as quoted 
 
 Laid in 
 
 Laid in 
 
 Laid in 
 
 sand. 
 
 mortar. 
 
 cement. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 a. d. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 11 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 10 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 
 
 4 8 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 ! 5 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 7 9 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 4 5| 
 
 5 0} 
 
 of the materials only, delivered, and 
 in the Builder’s Price Books. 
 
 Bricks : — 
 
 Place . 
 
 Stocks 
 
 Second Malms . 
 
 Best ditto and cutters . 
 White Suffolk . , 
 
 Ditto Paviors . 
 
 Malm Pavings . 
 
 Ditto Pickings . 
 
 Paving . 
 
 ^are ditto 10 by 5 inches 
 Stourbridge Fire bricks . 
 Terto Metallic Fire bricks 
 Welsh ditto 
 Newcastle ditto . 
 
 Windsor ditto . 
 
 Dorset ditto 
 Dutch Clinkers . 
 
 Tilca : — 
 
 I’lam 
 
 Francis's patent . 
 
 Per Thousand. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 .18 0 
 . 1 14 6 
 .330 
 . 4 17 0 
 .500 
 . 5 10 0 
 .300 
 . 2 10 0 
 . 2 10 0 
 . 8 10 0 
 . 7 10 0 
 .700 
 .500 
 .500 
 .500 
 . 4 10 0 
 
 • 270 
 
 .200 
 . 3 10 0 
 
PRICES. 
 
 Per Thousand. 
 
 Li 
 
 ime. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Sundries : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Pan or Ridge 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 inch paving 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 inch ditto 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 12 inch ditto 
 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Oven, per 100 . 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 cubic yard : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chalk . 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 Hare burnt 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Dorking . 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 Merstham or Guildford . 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 Blue Lias 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 5 er bushel : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Roman . 
 
 
 
 # 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Frost’s . 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Blue Lias, ground 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Martin’s. 
 
 
 3s. 3d., 4s. 3d., and 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Keene’s . 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Parian . 
 
 
 
 3s.* 
 
 6d. and 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 Portland 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Metallic . 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 John’s Patent Stucco 
 
 
 
 per cwt. 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Mastic . 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Thames Sand 
 
 
 . per cubic yard 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 Thames Ballast. 
 
 
 . 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Hair 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 per cwt. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 . 
 
 per 
 
 • bushel 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Ashes 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 ditto 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 jumps for Fire- work 
 
 : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Welsh and . 
 
 Newcastle. Stourbridge. 
 
 9 inch tiles 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 each 
 
 0 
 
 4$ 
 
 0 
 
 10$ 
 
 
 10 „ 
 
 
 99 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 11$ 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 99 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 li 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 8$ 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 
 
 8§ 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 99 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 99 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 11$ 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 99 
 
 3 
 
 lii 
 
 4 
 
 9$ 
 
 
 21 „ 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 l 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 
 12 inch lumps . 
 
 
 each 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8$ 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 10$ 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 
 
 ii ' 
 
 2 
 
 n 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Gi 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 
 
 8i ; 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 99 
 
 2 
 
 5i ! 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 99 
 
 3 
 
 1 i 
 
 3 
 
 11$ 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 3 
 
 4i 
 
 4 
 
 2$ 
 
 
 28 
 
 
 99 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 o$ 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 <i 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 5 
 
 4i 
 
 5 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 99 
 
 1 5 
 
 7i 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 Bricks per 100 . 
 
 
 99 
 
 10 
 
 o 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
72 
 
 SCAFFOLDING. 
 
 G7. Scaffolding. Ordinary scaffolding for the erection of buildings consists 
 of the scaffold poles, which are usually placed 10 feet apart. These are 
 united at each height of about 5j feet by the ledgers , which are also poles, 
 fixed horizontally to the upright poles. Other poles are tied obliquely across 
 these as braces and stays. The scaffold thus formed is secured to the wall 
 as it proceeds by the putlogs , which are fixed horizontally, but transversely to 
 the scaffold, being supported at one end upon the ledgers, and at the other 
 in holes left in the brickwork. Across the putlogs, the scaffold boards are 
 laid, thus completing the scaffold ; the poles, ledgers and braces are lashed 
 together with scaffold-cords, afterwards tightened by driving in wooden 
 wedges. Scaffold poles run from 36 feet to 45 feet long, and cost about 2|d. 
 per foot. Putlogs are 6j feet long, 3 inches square, and cost Is. each. 
 Scaffold boards are 9 inches by lj inch, and in 14 and 15 feet lengths. A 
 coil of rope, weight 2 cwt., 1 qr., and 10 lbs., will, make 44 cords. Ladders 
 arc styled one-story, two-story, and three-story, according to their length. 
 For raising heavy weights at distant places in such quantities that fixed 
 scaffolding would involve too much cost, a single pole is sometimes U3ed, 
 fixed in a vertical position and retained thus by having two, or better, three, 
 ropes fixed to the top of it, the other ends of which are fixed to distant 
 objects in opposite directions. A sheave with a block or blocks is made fast 
 to the top of this pole, and another sheave with a block is fixed to the lower 
 part of it as near the ground as may be. The use of this lower block, techni- 
 cally termed the snatch block, is to guide the hauling rope upward close to 
 the pole, and thus avoid the tendency to pull it over or break it, which it 
 would have if allowed to act obliquely from the crab engine on which it is 
 worked directly to the block at the top of the pole. Such a pole is called a 
 “ Ay P°k” the steadying ropes are called the guy ropes, or guys; the sheaves, 
 blocks, and hauling rope, are called together the tackle, and the rope by 
 itself is termed the fall. When the materials to be raised are of square or 
 unwieldy form, or would be liable to injury by striking against a by pole, a second 
 one is lashed to it at the lower, part, and diverges above in the manner of the 
 jib of a crane, being secured by a lashing of strong rope. These form a 
 derrick. For large buildings where the quantity of materials is very great, 
 and the blocks heavy, much economy in labour is effected by erecting 
 scaffolding of whole timber. This method is usually now employed in aU 
 public buildings and others of considerable extent. A similar kind of 
 scaffolding is supposed to have been used in early times, as at the building of 
 Cologne Cathedral, (commenced in 1 248). Of late years it has been employed 
 first in Liverpool, in moving stones of large dimensions, in quarries and 
 stone yards It was used in 1837, in budding the Euston entrance to the 
 London and North Western Railway, subsequently at the Nelson Column 
 in Trafalgar Square, and at the new Houses of Parliament, audit is now cr Cn . 
 crnlly employed to a great extent. With this kind of scaffolding, crab engines 
 nre combined, running on rails fixed upon the horizontal beams, and by these, 
 stones of 8 to 1 i tons arc raised with facility, and moved along to any desired 
 point, and deposited with precision in their permanent places. These whole 
 t nnbrr scaffolds consist of two parallel rows of uprights, erected vertically, and 
 stated with diagonal braces. On the top of each row of uprights, horizontal 
 • pieces are bolted down, and secured by plates, and on these sills, tram 
 
 
SCAFFOLDING. 
 
 73 
 
 plate9 are fixed, so that a parallel line of tramway is provided for the travel- 
 ling crabs. According to the space of ground allowed for working room 
 around the building, these uprights may be fixed from 15 to 30 feet apart, 
 which will represent the distance between the tramplates, or guage of the 
 way. The traveller, adapted to move longitudinally on this tramway, has a 
 crab engine fitted to pass over it transversely , which may hence be brought 
 over any point within the boundary formed by the upright posts. The scaf- 
 fold used at the Euston Entrance was composed of uprights 50 feet high, 
 placed 17 feet apart, surrounding the building. These were 'well stayed by 
 diagonal braces, and when the masonry had reached the height of the first 
 scaffold, a second series of uprights and sills was added, making a total height 
 of 90 feet. In some cases steam power is now employed instead of manual 
 labour, and is attended with considerable economy when the weights to be 
 raised are very great, and the space to be worked in limited. This is the 
 case in the lofty towers of the New Houses of Parliament, where steam power 
 is applied for this purpose by ingenious combinations of mechanical apparatus. 
 Besides the great economy of labour which results from the use of machinery 
 upon whole timber scaffolds, as compared with mere manual exertion upon 
 scaffolds of poles and cords, the cost and ultimate value of the two kinds 
 have to be considered. Scaffold poles and cords are not only expensive in first 
 cost, but they are subject to rapid decay, and after a few years’ wear are use- 
 less ; whereas, timber scaffolding may be considered to involve no cost beyond 
 the expense of its erection, (which in ordinary cases never exceeds threepence 
 per foot cube,) as it becomes seasoned by exposure to the weather, and being 
 secured without either bolts or spikes, the waste is trifling. Allowing for 
 the decay and destruction of poles and cords, the ultimate cost of the timber 
 scaffolding never exceeds one-half, and is sometimes only one-third of that of 
 the pole and cord scaffold. 
 
SECTION V. TIMBER, WOODWORK, & CONSTRUCTIVE 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Kinds andQuantities of Timber.— Seasoning, etc.— Patent Process.— Indications oe Quality. 
 
 Steength oe Timber— Weight, etc.— Deflection and ultimate Transverse Strength oe 
 
 Beams, etc.— Practical Limits to Strength.— Rules for calculating Deflection and 
 Strength of Beams, Brestsl mmers, Joints, Rafters, etc.— Examples worked out. — Canti- 
 levers, Brackets, etc. — Bending Forces in Story-posts, Struts, etc.— Direct Cohesion. — 
 Simple Formulae for Ready Application. — Permanent Loads.— Framing of Woodwork. — 
 Constructive Carpentry.— Joists.— IIalvino. — Mortice and Tenon.— Mitring.— Rebating. 
 — Dovetailed Mortices. — Scarfing. — Construction of Floors— Double Flooring. — 
 Girders. — Plates, Joists, etc. — Scantlings for Joists, etc. — Table of Ditto. — Load on 
 Floors.— Trussed Girders. — Conversion of Timber — Construction of Roofs. — Framing, 
 etc. — Table of Weights and Scantlings. — Domes. — Useful Data. — Leading Prices, etc. — 
 Seasoning, etc. 
 
 68. Kinds and Qualities of Timber. Fir is the timber of which most is 
 used in building construction generally ; Pine only occasionally where great 
 evenness of grain and freedom from knots are desirable ; Oak for sills and 
 other members exposed to great wear and attrition ; the other kinds of wood 
 are of comparatively rare use in any bulk for our purposes. The value and 
 qualities of these several kinds of material depend greatly on the manner of 
 growth of the trees from which they are cut, and are still more directly 
 determined by the seasoning they have been subjected to. The process of 
 seasoning, including the necessary drying, occupies a long period of time, 
 unless aided by artificial heat. Of late years this aid has been resorted to, 
 and wood for the use of carpenters, joiners, and cabinet makers, is now rapidly 
 freed from moisture by being placed for a period of time within " drying 
 rooms,” the temperature of which is raised for the gradual evaporation of the 
 moisture, and so regulated at the same time as to prevent sudden heats, 
 which would split the wood by too rapid contraction. An elaborate apparatus 
 is successfully adopted for this purpose under a patent, granted April 28, 
 1844, to R. Davison, and \V. Symington, the title of which is “ A method 
 or methods of drying, seasoning and hardening wood and other articles ; 
 parts of which are also applicable to the dessiecation of vegetable substances 
 generally.” The seasoning is performed by means of rapid currents of heated 
 air, produced by an apparatus consisting of a furnace and a series of pipes 
 within a casing of brickwork. On a level with the fire-bars a horizontal tul>e 
 passes on each side of the furnace, and springing from these tubes is a series 
 of 18 tubes, which arc placed vertically, and parallel to each other over the 
 furouce. A fan or other impelling apparatus communicates w ith the outer 
 
STRENGTII OP TIMBER APPLIED TO BUILDING PURPOSES. 
 
 75 
 
 end of one of the horizontal tubes for driving a constant stream of atmos- 
 pheric air through them, which thereby becomes heated to a high degree, 
 and passing out at the distant end of the other horizontal tube, is conveyed 
 to the point where it is to be applied to the timber. An outlet of adequate 
 dimensions is provided for the escape of the vapours thrown off from the 
 articles being seasoned. The proper temperature for the air and velocity for 
 the current in each case depends on the size, density, and maturity of the 
 wood to be seasoned. A temperature of from 400° to 500° Falir. and a 
 velocity of from 100 feet per second, are found to act advantageously. But 
 if the wood be in a green state it is found better to commence at a lower 
 temperature, from 150° to 200«, and gradually raise it as dessiccation proceeds. 
 Whole or unconverted timber is best acted upon by boring through the centre, 
 and thus allowing the current of hot air to traverse it interiorly. This 
 drying process is necessary as a preliminary to all modes of treatment for 
 preserving timber by saturation, as with corrosive sublimate (Kyan’s) ; tar 
 freed from ammonia (Betliell’s) &c. The fir timber commonly used is from 
 Riga, Memel, Dantzic and Sweden ; of these Riga is the best in quality, and 
 may always be trusted as a sound material. In point of size, Memel is the 
 most convenient. Dantzic, when free from large knots, is considered the 
 strongest, and Swedish the toughest. Of the pines, the red is the best, both 
 for cohesive strength and durability. The Quebec yellow' pine should be 
 used only for parts preserved from damp. In the choice of timber, bright- 
 ness of colour, and distinctness and closeness of grain, are evidences of good 
 quality, whereas the appearance which is characteristically termed woolly , 
 a dull colour, an open porous grain, and dead knots, are indications of 
 rottenness and inferiority. Deals are imported from Norway, Sweden, 
 Russia and Prussia. Of these the Norway are the best for framing, the 
 Christiana white and best yellow, are favourites for flooring, panelling, &c. 
 Swedish deals are apt to wind and twist. 
 
 69. Strength of Timber applied to building purposes. Careful experiments 
 having been made upon the strength of timber of various kinds, and the 
 results recorded for our guidance, we propose to quote such of these as bear 
 directly upon our subject, and shew the practical rules thence derived. The 
 following table exhibits the specific gravity of 22 samples of wood, also the 
 w eight of a cubic foot of each, and the number of feet equal to a ton in weight. 
 It also contains four columns of figures to be used in our subsequent calcu- 
 lations. 
 
 
76 
 
 STRENGTH OF TIMBEE, ETC. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Specific 
 
 
 J 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 
 gravity weight oi 
 water a cubic ft. 
 
 cubic 
 feet to 
 
 Value 
 of U 
 
 Value of E. 
 
 Value of 
 S 
 
 Value of C 
 
 
 being 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 1 ton. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1UU0. 
 
 oz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Oak — Adriatic 
 
 
 993 
 
 62 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 610 
 
 3885700 
 
 1583 
 
 8808 
 
 2. — Kn^li.sh (1) 
 
 
 969 
 
 60 
 
 9 
 
 37 
 
 598 
 
 3494730 
 
 1181 
 
 9836 
 
 3. — Ditto (2) 
 
 
 934 | 
 
 58 
 
 6 
 
 38$ 
 
 435 
 
 5806200 
 
 1672 
 
 10853 
 
 4. — Canadian 
 
 
 872 I 
 
 54 
 
 8 
 
 41 
 
 588 
 
 8595864 
 
 1766 
 
 11428 
 
 5. Ash . 
 
 
 760 
 
 47 
 
 8 
 
 47 
 
 395 
 
 6580750 
 
 2026 
 
 17337 
 
 6. Oak, Dantzic 
 
 
 756 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 47$ 
 
 724 
 
 4765750 
 
 1457 
 
 7386 
 
 7. Hijra Fir (1) 
 
 8. Teak . 
 
 
 753 , 
 
 47 
 
 1 
 
 47 i 
 
 588 
 
 5314570 
 
 1108 
 
 10707 
 
 
 745 
 
 46 
 
 9 
 
 48 
 
 818 
 
 9657802 
 
 2462 
 
 15555 
 
 9. Iliua Fir (2) 
 
 
 738 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 48$ 
 
 
 3962800 
 
 1051 
 
 9912 
 
 10. Beech . 
 
 
 696 
 
 43 
 
 8 
 
 51$ 
 
 615 
 
 5417266 
 
 1556 
 
 11. Mar Forest Fir (1) 
 
 
 696 
 
 43 
 
 8 
 
 51$ 
 
 588 
 
 2581400 
 
 1144 
 
 9539 
 
 12. Ditto (2) . 
 
 
 693 
 
 1 43 
 
 5 
 
 51 1 
 
 403 
 
 3478328 
 
 1262 
 
 10691 
 
 13. Pitch Pine . 
 
 
 660 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 54 
 
 588 
 
 4900466 
 
 1632 
 
 10415 
 
 14. Hed Pine 
 
 
 65 7 
 
 1 41 
 
 5 
 
 54$ 
 
 605 
 
 7359700 
 
 1341 
 
 10000 
 
 15. Peon, or Poon 
 
 
 579 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 61 1 
 
 596 
 
 6759200 
 
 2221 
 
 14787 
 
 16. Norway Spar 
 
 
 577 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 62 
 
 648 
 
 5832000 
 
 1474 
 
 12180 
 
 17. Larch (1). 
 
 
 560 
 
 35 
 
 0 
 
 64 
 
 518 
 
 4210830 
 
 1149 
 
 7352 
 
 18. Ditto (2) . 
 
 
 556 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 64$ 
 
 518 
 
 4210830 
 
 1127 
 
 7655 
 
 19. Elm . 
 
 
 553 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 64| 
 
 509 
 
 2799347 
 
 1013 
 
 5767 
 
 20. New England Fir 
 
 
 553 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 64$ 
 
 757 
 
 5967400 
 
 1102 
 
 9947 
 
 21. Latch (3) 
 
 
 531 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 67$ 
 
 411 
 
 2465433 
 
 653 
 
 
 22. Ditto (4) . 
 
 
 522 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 68$ 
 
 518 
 
 3591133 
 
 832 
 
 
 By means of the column marked U we shall be able to compute the extreme 
 deflection of beams of timber before breaking. The column E will enable us 
 to compute their (flection, fixed at one end, and loaded at the other. Also if 
 supported at each end and loaded in the middle. Also if supported at each 
 end and loaded uniformly throughout their length. It will likewise assist us 
 in ascertaining the weight which will bend a piece of timber when loaded 
 vertically. 
 
 The columns S and C will direct us in finding the extreme or ultimate 
 transverse strength of rectangular beams of timber fixed at one end and 
 loaded at the other; also when supported at both ends, and loaded either in 
 the centre, or uniformly throughout their length ; likewise when fixed at 
 each end, and loaded either in the middle, or uniformly throughout their 
 length. These several cases comprise all practical problems which we may be 
 required to solve in order to ascertain the capability of the timber we employ, 
 or to determine the scantling which should be provided to bear any given 
 amount of pressure. The valuable experiments to which we are indebted for 
 these solutions, were conducted by Professor Barlow, a few years since, and 
 constitute the bulk of our present knowledge on the strength of timber. 
 Having been conducted with great care, guided by high scientific knowledge, 
 their results are esteemed accordingly, and may be depended on with confi- 
 deuce. 'I he investigations by which practical rules have been evolved from 
 these results, are beyond our space and purpose. We can only shew the 
 formula; as applicable to the practice of building construction. A piece of 
 timber or other solid matter may be subjected to forces acting in four distinct 
 
STRENGTH OF TIMBER, ETC. 77 
 
 Ways, and the ultimate effects of which, if the forces are adequate to produce 
 
 them, will be, 
 
 1st. To pull or tear it asunder in the direction of its length, as tie-beams 
 in roofs, and ties and braces generally. 
 
 2nd. To crush it, by forcing its particles together, as posts, pillars, 
 struts, &c. 
 
 3rd. To break it across, or transversely to its length, as in the case of 
 joists, rafters, brestsummers, &c. 
 
 4th. To separate its fibres by twisting or tension, as when one end of a 
 beam is fixed, and a force is applied to make the section of the 
 other end revolve round the centre of the section. 
 
 These forces which apply to all solid matter whatever, are limited in their 
 practical action upon wood as applied to building purposes. Thus the ulti- 
 mate power of a tie beam to resist the first force is never called into exercise, 
 owing to the practical impossibility of securing the end of it, so as to resist 
 such force. The framing of the tie beam to the rafters would give way long 
 before such ultimate strength of the limber could be developed. In like 
 manner the second force is always limited by the disposition of a post or strut, 
 to bend or buckle when over-worked. This bending propensity therefore de- 
 fines the maximum limit of the length, and the minimum limit of the scantling, 
 or cross sectional area of a post or strut when practically applied. The fourth 
 or twisting force is seldom exercised in the case of timbers for building, never 
 to such an extent as to claim any further notice. The third force, which tends 
 to break a beam transversely, is the only one of which the full development 
 comes within the range of practical construction. 
 
 70. Practical Rules for calculating the defection and strength of Reams , 
 Brestsummers , Joists , Rafters , 8pc. 
 
 Problem 1. To ascertain the deflection from a horizontal line, or sag , of a 
 beam supported at each end, and loaded in the middle ; as a brestsummer, 
 which supports a central story post, or an iron column. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the value of E in the Table of the kind of wood employed, 
 by the breadth and cube of the depth of the beam, both in inches. 
 Multiply also the cube of the length in inches, by the given weight 
 in lbs. Divide the latter product by the former, and the quotient 
 represents the deflection. 
 
 Example. A rectangular beam of Red Pine is 12 inches deep, and 9 inches 
 wide, and rests on two walls 22 feet apart. It is loaded at the 
 middle of its length with 2 tons. How much will it deflect? 
 
 7359700 by 9 by 1728=114,458,054,400 
 20 18,426, 144 by 2240 = 41,274,562,560 
 
 41.274,562,560 __ >03(J6 1bcJl 
 
 114,458,054,400 
 
 Problem 2. To ascertain the deflection as in Problem 1, when the beam is 
 supported at each end, and loaded uniformly throughout its length ; as a 
 brestsummer supporting a wall or mass of brick-work, of equal height and 
 weight throughout its length. 
 
78 
 
 STRENGTH OF TIMBER, ETC. 
 
 Rule. Compute the deflection as in Problem 1. Multiply the result by 5, 
 and divide the product by 8. 
 
 Example. Thus, 
 
 .0366 x 5 = 1830 -j- 8 = .0226 Inch. 
 
 Problem 3. To ascertain the ultimate deflection which a beam, supported 
 at the ends, will bear before breaking. This problem is applicable in cases 
 where a loaded brestsummer is observed to suffer extreme deflection, and 
 fracture may be apprehended. When, if the deflection approaches that deter- 
 mined by this rule, means of support should be at once provided. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the tabular value of U by the depth of the beam in inches, 
 and divide the square of the length also in inches, by that product. 
 The quotient will shew the ultimate deflection. 
 
 Example. What deflection will a rafter of Mar Forest Fir, which is 15 feet 
 long, 8 inches deep, and 5 inches wide, suffer before breaking? 
 
 588 by 8 = 4704 
 1802 = 32400 = 6.88 Inches. 
 
 4704 
 
 Problem 4. To find the ultimate weight which a rectangular beam will bear 
 on its centre, w hen supported at both ends. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the tabular value of S, by 4 times the breadth and square 
 of the depth in inches, and divide that product by the length also 
 in inches, for the weight in lbs. 
 
 Example. What weight will break a beam of Ash supported on story posts 
 at the ends, and having an iron column fixed midway of its length, 
 to carry an upper floor, the clear length of the beam being 16 feet, 
 its depth 12 inches, and width 7 inches? 
 
 2026 by 28 by 144 = 42546. 
 
 192 
 
 Problem 5. The same as Problem 4, but the weight being uniformly dis- 
 persed along the whole length of the beam, as a brestsummer carrying a" brick 
 wall, a rafter of a roof, uniformly covered with slates, &c., a floor-joist of a 
 warehouse usually loaded w r ith merchandise, &c. 
 
 Rule. Find the ultimate strength, as in Problem 4, and double the result for 
 the weight sought. 
 
 Example. Thus the beam, as before, will not, if loaded equally throughout, 
 break until loaded with 42,546 by 2 = 85,092 lbs. 
 
 Problem 6. The same as in Problem 4, but the beam being fixed at the 
 ends, not simply supported 
 
 Rule. Find the ultimate strength, as in Problem 4, and increase the result 
 by one-half for the required weight. 
 
 Example. Tims the breaking weight will now be 
 
 42,465 + 21,273 = 63,819 lbs. 
 
 Problem 7. The same ns Problem 6, but the weight uniformly distributed. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the ultimate strength, as in Problem 4, by 3, for the required 
 
 Example. Thus, 12,546 by 3 = 127,638 lbs., will break the beam when its 
 ends a xe fixed, and load laid equally over it. 
 
STRENGTH OF TIMBER, ETC. 
 
 79 
 
 Problem 8. To find the weight which may be safely put upon beams, &c., 
 as permanent loads , divide the results found by Problems 4, 5, 6, and 7, 
 respectively, by 3 ; that is, never let the permanent load exceed one-third of 
 the breaking weight. Thus our sample-beam, as described in the Example 
 to Problem 4, may be safely permanently loaded, 
 
 If supported at ends, loaded in middle with 14,182 lbs. 
 
 loaded throughout 28,364 lbs. 
 
 If fixed at ends, loaded in middle . . . 21,273 lbs. 
 
 loaded throughout . . . 42,546 lbs. 
 
 Our three following Problems are applicable to cantilevers, brackets, and 
 pieces of timber generally, which are fixed at one end, and have to bear their 
 weight at the other. 
 
 Problem 9. To find the deflection of a bracket, fixed in a wall at one end, 
 and bearing a balcony railing at the other. 
 
 Rule. I. Multiply the tabular value of E by the breadth and cube of the 
 depth of the beam, both in inches. 2. Multiply also the cube of 
 the length in inches by the given weight in lbs., and that product 
 again by 32. 3. Divide the latter product by the former for the 
 
 required deflection. 
 
 Example. Let the bracket be of teak, of rectangular section, 4 inches deep, 
 and 3 inches wide, and project 3 feet 4 inches from the wall, 
 loaded at the other end with 300 lbs. Required — its deflection, 
 or sagging, at that end? 
 
 9,657,802 by 3 by 61 = 1,854,297,984 
 64,000 by 300 by 32 = 615,400,000 
 615,400,000 
 
 1,854,297,984 
 
 .332 inch. 
 
 Problem 10. The same as Problem 9, except that the weight is uniformly 
 laid over the length of the bracket. 
 
 Rule. Proceed as in Problem 9, but multiply the second product by 12 
 instead of 32. 
 
 Example. First product as before, = 1,854,297,984 
 
 Then, 64,000 by 300 by 12 = 230,400,000 
 
 230,400,000 . , 
 
 = .124 inch. 
 
 1,854,297,984 
 
 Problem 11. To ascertain the ultimate transverse strength of any beam or 
 bracket, of uniform rectangular section, fixed at one end, and loaded at the 
 
 other. 
 
 Rule. For an approximate result, sufficiently accurate for all practical pur- 
 poses, multiply the value of S in the table by the breadth and 
 square of the depth of the bracket, both in inches, and divide that 
 product by its length, also in inches. The quotient will shew the 
 weight in lbs. 
 
 Example. What weight at the end will break a cantilever of elm, which is 
 2 inches broad, 3 inches deep, and projecting 3 feet from the wall ? 
 
 1013 by 2 by 9 = 506J lbs. 
 
80 
 
 STRENGTH OF TIMBER, ETC. 
 
 Our next Problem enables us to determine what weight will cause pieces of 
 timber, of definite scantling and length, to bend beneath loads placed verti- 
 cally over them. This is applicable to all timber applied as posts, story-posth, 
 struts, &c. The permanent load placed on timber in this manner should 
 never exceed one-half the bending weight, unless the post be stiffened in its 
 length by any lateral or diagonal struts. 
 
 Problem 12. To find the weight which will cause a post of timber of 
 given dimensions to begin to bend, the post being placed vertically, and the 
 weight acting on the top of it in the same direction. 
 
 Rule. Multiply the tabular value of E by the cube of the least thickness, 
 and by the greatest thickness, both in inches, and multiply the 
 product thus obtained by the constant number, .20.56. The last 
 products, divided by the square of the length in inches, equals 
 the required weight in lbs. 
 
 Example. A story-post of red pine is 10 inches square, and 10 feet long; 
 what weight will cause it to begin to bend ? 
 
 7,359,700 by 1000 by 10 by .2056 = 15,131,543,200 
 1202 = 14,400 
 
 = 1,050,801 lbs. 
 
 The direct cohesion of a piece of timber, which in practice is, as we have 
 said, never fully tested, is found by multiplying the area of the transverse 
 section in inches by the value of C in the table, and the product shews the 
 strength required. 
 
 Example. A tie-beam of Canadian oak has an uniform sectional area of 8 
 inches in depth, and 5 in width. What force will tear it asunder 
 longitudinally ? 
 
 8 by 5 = 40 by 11,428 457,120 lbs. 
 
 The column in the table headed C, shews the cohesive power of each kind 
 of wood enumerated in lbs. per square inch of transverse section. Thus, a 
 brace of teak, one inch square in section, has a cohesive power equal to 
 15,555lbs. — one of pine, of same size, has a cohesive power of 14,7871bs., 
 and so on. 
 
 In practice, the Problems 4, 5, 6, and 7, are commonly presented to us 
 conversely. Thus, in Problem 4, we require to determine the size which must 
 l»c given to a beam to perform a certain duty, rather than the weight a given 
 beam will support. For this purpose, the steps in the process have to be 
 reversed in order. Thus, we will suppose a permanent load of 14,lS21bs. 
 has to be supported in the middle of a beam of oak, whose length is 16ft. 
 first multiply the load, 14,1821bs., by 3, to ascertain the ultimate, or break- 
 ing weight, 14,182 by 3 = 42,546 lbs. Multiply this by the length in 
 inches, 42,546 by 192 = 8,168,832. Divide this product by the tabular 
 value of 8 for ash, which is 2026, and we have a quotient of 4032 This 
 quotient we know by the rule, is equal to 4 times the breadth and square of 
 the depth of the required beam. By determining either the breadth or depth 
 we can thus determine the other. Thus, suppose we desire to use a piece of 
 timber for this purpose, which is 12 inches deep. Then 12* = 144, and 
 4032 
 
 U4* == 2S> onc ’ fourtl1 of which, or 7, represents the breadth in inches we 
 
81 
 
 
 STRENGTH OF TIMBER, ETC. 
 
 must give to our beam. And by a similar inversion of the order of the steps 
 in each process, all problems of like nature may be solved. 
 
 The researches of Professor Barlow have furnished us with a set of 
 constant numbers for nine kinds of wood, which are applicable by a simple 
 formula to determine their transverse strength. These constants we will 
 call S. In the first column of the table which follows, we have quoted the 
 values of S, as given by' Mr. Barlow — and in the second, we have added 
 values obtained by dividing Mr. Barlow’s by 3, and which thus shew the safe 
 permanent load in each case i instead of the ultimate or breaking weight, as 
 produced by Mr. Barlow’s constants. 
 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 van 
 
 For breaking 
 
 ICS OI o. 
 
 For safe 
 
 
 
 weight. 
 
 permanent load. 
 
 1 . 
 
 Teak 
 
 . 820 
 
 273 
 
 2. 
 
 Ash 
 
 . 675 
 
 225 
 
 3. 
 
 Best Canadian Oak 
 
 . 588 
 
 196 
 
 4. 
 
 Pitch Pine 
 
 . 544 
 
 181 
 
 5. 
 
 Red Pine 
 
 . 447 
 
 149 
 
 6. 
 
 Mar Forest Fir 
 
 . 415 
 
 138 
 
 7. 
 
 English Oak . 
 
 . 400 
 
 133 
 
 8. 
 
 Riga Fir 
 
 . . 376 
 
 125 
 
 9. 
 
 Larch 
 
 . 280 
 
 93 
 
 To apply these figures use the formula. 
 
 S a (P = l v> 
 
 Where S is the tabular value, a is the breadth, and d the depth, both in 
 inches, l the length in feet, and w the weight in pounds. The result will 
 shew the weight in the middle of the beam which is supported at each end. 
 
 Example. A beam of red pine, 10 inches deep, 6 inches wide, and 20 feet 
 long, is to be loaded in the middle of its length. What weight 
 will break it ? and what weight may be permanently put upon it 
 with safety? 
 
 447 by 6 by 100 = 13410 lbs. breaking weight. 
 
 20 
 
 or 149 by 6 by 100 = 4470 lbs. permanent load. 
 
 20 
 
 Or if equally distributed — 
 
 4470 by 2 = 8940 lbs. 
 
 Using the results given in our previous table, and reducing to an average 
 those which differ in several specimens of one kind of wood, we are enabled 
 to frame the following table for use with the formula just given. 
 
 
 
 H 
 
82 
 
 t RAWING OF WOODWORK, ETC. 
 
 TABLE VIII. Values of S for safe permanent loads. 
 
 
 
 Supported at ends. 
 
 Fixed at ends. 
 
 
 
 Loaded 
 
 Loaded 
 
 Loaded 
 
 Loaded 
 
 
 
 in middle. 
 
 throughout. 
 
 in middle. 
 
 throughout. 
 
 J 
 
 Teak 
 
 273 
 
 546 
 
 420 
 
 819 
 
 2. 
 
 Peon . . . . • 
 
 252 
 
 504 
 
 378 
 
 756 
 
 3. 
 
 Ash . . . 
 
 225 
 
 450 
 
 338 
 
 675 
 
 4. 
 
 Canadian Oak 
 
 196 
 
 392 
 
 294 
 
 588 
 
 5. 
 
 Pitch Pine .... 
 
 181 
 
 362 
 
 272 
 
 543 
 
 6. 
 
 Adriatic Oak .... 
 
 176 
 
 352 
 
 264 
 
 528 
 
 7. 
 
 Beech 
 
 173 
 
 346 
 
 259 
 
 519 
 
 8. 
 
 Norway Spar .... 
 
 164 
 
 328 
 
 246 
 
 492 
 
 9. 
 
 Dantzic Oak .... 
 
 162 
 
 324 
 
 243 
 
 486 
 
 10. 
 
 English Oak (Mean of 2) 
 
 159 
 
 318 
 
 238 
 
 477 
 
 11. 
 
 Red Pine .... 
 
 149 
 
 298 
 
 223 
 
 447 
 
 12. 
 
 Mar Forest Fir (Mean of 2) . 
 
 134 
 
 268 
 
 201 
 
 402 
 
 13. 
 
 Riga Fir (Mean of 2) . 
 
 120 
 
 240 
 
 180 
 
 360 
 
 14. 
 
 Larch (Mean of 4 ) 
 
 104 
 
 208 
 
 156 
 
 312 
 
 Example 1. A beam of ash is 18 feet in length, clear of bearings, 10 inches 
 deep, and 8 inches wide. It rests on stone templates in brick walls, 
 and supports a loaded column in the middle of its length. What 
 weight may be put on this column as a safe permanent load ? 
 
 225 by 8 by 100 = 10,000 lbs. Answer. 
 
 18 
 
 Example 2. A brestsummer of pitch pine rests upon story-posts, is 20 feet 
 in clear length, 12 inches deep, and 9 inches wide. It is to be 
 built over by a brick wall. What weight of brick-work may be so 
 superimposed upon it? 
 
 362 by 9 by 144 = 28,457 lbs. Answer. 
 
 20 
 
 Example 3. The beam of ash described in Example 1, is now to be firmly 
 fixed at the ends, by bolts in iron shoes. What weight may now 
 be put on the column it supports? 
 
 338 by 8 by 100 = 15,022 lbs. Answer. 
 
 18 
 
 Example 4. A beam of red pine, spanning a clear distance of 25 feet, is 13 
 inches deep, and 10 inches wide. It is securely fixed at the ends 
 in cast-iron sockets, kept in their places by long stay-bolts. A 
 high wall is to be built over, ana supported upon this beam. 
 What weight may this wall amount to, with safety ? 
 
 447 by 10 by 16 9 = 30,217 lbs. Answer. 
 
 25 
 
 71. Framing of If ood-tcork. — Constructive Carpentry. Framing consists in 
 »o forming the meeting-parts of wood-work, that they shall fit one into, or 
 upon t he other, by means of corresponding projections and indentations, and 
 be thus secured against accidental separation. Two pieces of wood may 
 require to be joined so as to have positions at an angle with each other, or 
 so as to he in the same direction. In the former case, the pieces are usually 
 to be fixed at a right angle, or 90°. The latter case is called a scarfing. The 
 
FRAMING OF WOOD-WORK, ETC. 
 
 83 
 
 former, or rectangular joints, admit the greatest variety of methods. Of these, 
 
 the simplest is that called a halving , 
 as seen in fig. 56, where A B repre- 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 sent the ends of two plates, to be 
 joined so that that they shall lie in 
 the same plane, being of equal depth, 
 and their upper and lower surfaces, 
 when joined, to correspond respec- 
 tively. It will be seen that each piece 
 is halved out, or cut away through 
 half its thickness. A superior joint 
 is effected by bevelling the meeting 
 surfaces of the parts, as shewn in fig. 
 57. It is evident that if the upper part, A, be prevented rising, and the 
 lower part, B, be prevented falling, this bevelling of the surfaces affords a 
 security against detachment not possessed by the simple halving shewn in 
 
 Fig. 57. Fig. 58. 
 
 fig. 56. This is called a bevelled halving. A still more secure joint is that 
 shewn in fig. 5 8, which represents a dovetailed halving , in which the meeting 
 surfaces are bevelled, and the sides cut to a wedge-like form. A joist, or 
 beam, is secured upon a plate, in the mauner shewn in fig. 59, where A repre- 
 sents the end of the 
 Fl 8- joist, and B a portion 
 
 of the plate, which is 
 supposed to rest on the 
 wall. In this case, the 
 notch cut in A must not 
 be so deep as to w eaken 
 the timber, and should 
 be kept as far from the 
 end as possible. With 
 this view the fillet, C, 
 on the plate, is kept as 
 
 near the front edge as possible. A square mortice and tenon joint for tim- 
 bers of equal depth, and to be kept in the same plane, is shewn in fig. 60. 
 The tenon, A, and mortice, B, are here represented in the centre of the sec- 
 tion. If, however, the joint should be exposed to great vertical pressure 
 
84 
 
 FRAMING OF WOOD-WORK, ETC. 
 
 they should be kept somewhat nearer the top surface, as the mortice-timber, 
 B, will, when loaded, be compressed at the upper part, and distended at the 
 Fig 60. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 lower ; and as the resistance of the timber to compression is greater than 
 
 ¥?• i'f* 4 1 . 4- 4^ 4. * iL 1 /» i • 1 
 
 Fig. 62 
 
 formed at A. 
 
 A mortice and tenon joint of superior strength is 
 shewn in fig. 63, where G represents the cross sec- 
 tion of n girder, in which two joints J J are framed. 
 The upper figure is through the joint ; the lower one 
 shew's the full section of the girder at a part between 
 the joints. The additional shoulder of this joint 
 gives great strength to the tenon, while it impairs 
 the section of the girder in a minimum degree. 
 
 Fig. 64 represents the mode adopted in fram- 
 ing three planks together to form a trough, or 
 other similar construction. Projecting 'ed’o-es 
 are formed on the sides B B, and correspond- 
 ing grooves formed on the bed at A A. This 
 kind of joint, or rebating , is one of the most 
 useful, as it affords the means of making a 
 water-tight joint, by bedding it in white lead, 
 and is frequently applied. 
 
 that to extension, the larger quantity of material 
 should be left uncut in the extended, or lower 
 part, of the beam. 
 
 Fig. 61 represents a mortice and tenon joint, in 
 which the parts are to lie in the same plane ; but 
 the tenon is here left of the full width of the 
 piece, A, and the tenon, B, cut accordingly. For 
 the reason stated of fig. 60, the tenon is here 
 placed above the centre of the depth of timber. 
 
 Fig. 62 shews a mortice and tenon joint, in 
 which the mortice-piece, B, is placed vertically, 
 and a tenon of the full depth of the timber is 
 
 Fig. 63 
 
 LI 
 
 JIL j 
 
 
 I. 6 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
Framing of wood-work, etc. 
 
 85 
 
 Fig. 65. Fig. 66. 
 
 Fig. 65 shews a method of forming a i nitre joint, or of mitring two pieces 
 together ; in which the outer parts of the meeting surfaces are cut to the 
 angle of 45°, while a square joint is formed within. 
 
 In fig. 66 a shoulder is formed on the piece B, and the end of A butts 
 against it, no attempt being made in this joint to avoid its appearance on 
 the outside, beyond that which may be effected by neatness and truth of 
 work. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 Fig. 67 shows a rebated joint, which gives greater security than that re- 
 presented in fig. 66. 
 
 In fig. 68, a return bead is worked on the piece B, and a shoulder formed 
 in it which will correspond with that at the joint when put together, and 
 thus conceal it. C shows the parts as united. 
 
 Fig. 69 represents the dovetailed T mortices A, and 
 tenons B, used in framing the angles of parts in which 
 great stiffness and strength are required at the joint. 
 The framework for timber bearings for machinery, is 
 put together by this method, which is also applied 
 in small work for boxes, drawers, &c. 
 
 Scarfing , or framing of pieces of timber to lie in 
 the same direction, is performed with either a vertical 
 joint, or one slightly diverging from a horizontal 
 direction. 
 
 Fig. 70 represents the plan of a vertical scarfing 
 of the strongest form, and fig. 71 shews the elevation 
 of the same. The meeting surfaces are oblique to 
 the faces of the timber, and the joints are covered with a plate of iron on 
 one side : a is a key of oak or other hard wood, fitted in tightly, and winch, 
 bearing against the shoulders of the mortice in which it is fixed, relieves the 
 bolts b b in resisting any tendency to separate the parts longitudinally. 
 This key will be effectually kept in its place by dovetailing it, as shewn in 
 dotted lines at a in fig. 71. In this scarf \ however, it will be noticed rtiat a 
 
Fig. 70 
 
 86 
 
 PBAMTNO OF WOOD-WOKK, ETC 
 
 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS, ETC. 
 
 87 
 
 very considerable length of wood is occupied by it. Larger beams are some- 
 times made up of two thicknesses, placed side by side, as shewn in fig. 72, 
 which is a plan of another form of scarfing. The strength of this scarf de- 
 pends on the bolts c c , and the covering plates d d , and the shoulders of the 
 notches formed in the ends of the timbers. It may be made sufficiently 
 strong, however, for ordinary duty ; is very economical in the length of wood 
 employed for the joint, and by being formed alternately on each side of the 
 beam, as shown in the figure, enables a beam to be formed of any required 
 length, and of uuiform strength throughout. 
 
 When a beam is exposed to tension only, it may be composed by scarfs, 
 as shewn in fig. 73 , which is an elevation of the beam, and shews a hard wood 
 key introduced horizontally, similar to the vertical one represented in fig. 70. 
 In this case the covering plates of iron e e are fixed horizontally above and 
 below the beam by vertical bolts. 
 
 72. Construction of Floors , fyc. The flooring and the roof are the prin- 
 cipal constructive parts of buildings in which timber is employed. Of roof- 
 ing we will treat hereafter. At present we will examine the construction of 
 the flooring, and the timber framing which composes it. Figs. 74, 75, 76, 
 77 , and 78 will fully illustrate this part of our subject. The same parts as 
 shewn in these several figures are indicated by the same letters. 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
88 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS, ETC. 
 
 Figs. 74, 75. 
 
 Fig. 74 represents a par- 
 tial section through the 
 floors of a house, BF show- 
 ing the basement floor ; G 
 F, the ground floor; and 
 1st F, the first floor above 
 the ground. Of these, the 
 basement and first floors 
 are single floors, consisting 
 simply of joists and the 
 flooring boards upon them ; 
 the ceiling laths being nail- 
 ed to the under side of the 
 joists. The ends of the 
 joists JJ, are notched down 
 | | upon plates P built in the 
 
 j wall. A plan of this kind 
 
 of flooring is shown in fig. 
 76, which also represents 
 a portion of the flooring 
 laid with the hearths and 
 mitred borders. The joints 
 are shown as strengthened 
 by crosspieces called keys 
 and marked k k , which are 
 morticed through the joists, 
 the tenons being very small 
 to avoid weakening the 
 joists. A side view of 
 such keys is shewn at k k 
 in a subsequent figure (86). 
 
 A cheaper mode of stiff- 
 ening the joists of a single 
 floor is sometimes adopted, 
 termed litrring-bone truss- 
 ing, and consists of two 
 pieces of wood crossing 
 each other diagonally, and 
 cut at the ends to fit be- 
 tween the joists. Some- 
 times the ends of the joists, 
 instead of being notched 
 on a plate in the wall, are 
 framed into a piece of tim- 
 ber fixed parallel to the wall, but at a distance of two or three inches from 
 the internal face of it, for the purpose of avoiding bedding the joists in the 
 brickwork. These pieces are called tail trimmer », and are usually in lengths 
 of from four to six feet, framed at the ends into the sides of joists, which 
 are left long for that purpose. Fig. 77 shews a plau of the arrangement 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF FLOORS, ETC. 
 
 89 
 
 l 
 
90 
 
 SCANTLINGS FOR JOISTS, ETC. 
 
 here described, J J representing the joints, P P the plates on the wall, and 
 T T the tail trimmers. Recurring to fig. 74, the ground floor G F is shewn 
 of a more complicated construction than the basement and first floors. This, 
 which is called a double floor , consists of binding joists , B, let into the walls 
 at the ends, and bedding upon templates of stone marked s. b b shew the 
 bridging joists , notched down on the binders, and c c are the ceiling joists, 
 which are chased into the under side of the binders B. Fig. 75 shews an 
 enlarged section of a binder with the front of the stone template s , and a 
 small arch turned over the recess in the wall, which is thus preserved entire 
 in the event of the destruction or removal of the binder. Fig. 7 8 shews a 
 plan of this kind of flooring, the same letters referring to the same parts. 
 To support large floors, a main beam or girder is used, spanning the area 
 from wall to wall, and thus reducing the joists, which would otherwise be 
 too long, to half their length. A plan of this arrangement is shewn in fig. 79, 
 where G G represents the main 
 girder, and C G cross girders 
 framed into the main one, to 
 carry the ends of the hearth 
 trimmer II T. P P shew the 
 plates for ends of joists. The 
 joists and girders are here of 
 equal depth, otherwise the gir- 
 der will shew in the ceiling of 
 the apartment below, a defei t 
 to be noticed in many old build- 
 ings. The joists are framed 
 into the girder by mortice and 
 tenon joints, of the kind shew n 
 in fig. 63 previously described. 
 
 The ends of the girders rest 
 upon stone templates, and for 
 those of the main girder, re- 
 turns of the wall or piers are 
 built up from the foundations, 
 projecting beyond the face of 
 the wall inside, and thus affording lengthened bearings for the ends of the 
 main girder. These girders are never to be fixed over openings for doors or 
 windows, by which the wall is weakened, but always over the solid work. 
 To effect this object it is sometimes necessary to fix the girder obliquely, 
 as shewn by dotted lines, and the evil thus incurred of making the joists of 
 unequal lengths must be tolerated, rather than risk defection in the bearings 
 of the girder. 
 
 73 . Scantlings for Joists , Binding Joists , Girders , Sf'C, The formula 
 
 s ad 2 = l io 
 
 given in paragraph 70 is readily applicable in determining the scantling , or sec- 
 tional dimensions which must be given to joists, girders, &c., in order to make 
 them capable of sustaining their loads permanently and safely. To estimate 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
SCANTLINGS FOR JOISTS, ETC. 
 
 91 
 
 these loads, we prefer to make ample allowance for casualties, and therefore, 
 adopt the weight of 140 lbs. or lj cwt., as the load to be sustained on each 
 square foot of surface of an ordinary dwelling-house floor. This, which is 
 about the average weight of an adult person, will allow one person to each 
 foot, which supposes a state of crowding, that may be safely assumed as a 
 maximum. The following table, which we have prepared with considerable 
 labour, and is, we believe, the most complete and readily applicable of any 
 yet published, will be found of constant and ready utility in determining the 
 scantlings of these parts, by mere inspection. The material selected is Riga 
 Fir, and two scantlings are shewn for timbers from 8 to 30 feet in length, 
 varying every 2 feet, and placed from 12 to 24 inches apart; the distance 
 apart being measured from centre to centre, and varying every inch. We 
 have thus calculations for 12 varying lengths, and for 13 varying distances 
 apart. In each calculation we have shewn the weights to be borne by each 
 timber and two scantlings, either of which will be sufficient for that purpose. 
 The joists are treated as loaded uniformly throughout their length, and sup- 
 ported at the ends. Since the strength varies directly as the width of the 
 timbers, and the weight to be borne varies directly as the width between 
 them, the scantlings for girders, binding joists, &c., may be immediately 
 ascertained from this table. For example, joists 30 feet long, 12 inches 
 apart, have each to cany 4200 lbs., and may be 3 inches by 13J inches, or 
 3 J inches by 12f inches ; binding joists of equal length, placed 3 feet, will 
 have each to carry 4200 by 3, or 12600 lbs., and if made of same depth as 
 the others, must, have a width of 3 by 3, or 9 inches, with a depth of 13f inches, 
 or 3£ by 3 = 10 J inches, with a depth of 1 2 j inches. Again, joists 30 feet 
 long, 2 feet apart, sustain a load of 8400 lbs. each, and should be 4^ by 
 15J inches, or 5 by 14 J inches; girders of same length placed 6 feet apart 
 will have loads of 8400 by 3, or 25200 lbs. each, and should be 4| X 3, or 
 13^ by 15£ inches, or 5 x 3, or 15 by 14 J inches. 
 
No. IX.— Table shewing the Scantlings for Joists, &c., of Riga Fir, from 8 to 30 feet in length, and fixed from 12 inches to 24 inches apart, from centre 
 to centre, calculated to sustain a permanent load of 140 lbs., or 1 $ cwL, per superGcial/oot. The calculations are made upon the formula Sad 2 = lw, 
 the value of S being 240, as explained in paragraph 70, the joists being considered as supported at the ends, and loaded equally throughout. 
 
 
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TABLE OP TIIE SQUARES OF FRACTIONAL PARTS, ETC. 93 
 
 The following table, which shews the square of dimensions from to 8 
 inches, varying every £ of an inch, and from 8 to 16 inches, varying every £ 
 of an inch, will be found useful in ascertaining the sectional area of square 
 scantlings by mere inspection. It is therefore introduced in this place. 
 
 No. X. Table of the Squares of fractional parts of an inch, from 3 to 16 
 inches, applicable in ascertaining the sectional area of square scantlings of 
 
 timber. 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 No. 
 
 Square. 
 
 3| 
 
 9.77 
 
 61 
 
 37.52 
 
 101 
 
 105.06 
 
 31 
 
 10.56 
 
 61 
 
 39.06 
 
 101 
 
 110.25 
 
 3| 
 
 11.39 
 
 6f 
 
 40.64 
 
 101 
 
 115.56 
 
 3* 
 
 12.25 
 
 61 
 
 42.25 
 
 11 
 
 121.00 
 
 3f 
 
 13.14 
 
 6| 
 
 43.89 
 
 HI 
 
 126.56 
 
 31 
 
 14.06 
 
 61 
 
 45.56 
 
 111 
 
 132.25 
 
 31 
 
 14.82 
 
 61 
 
 47.27 
 
 111 
 
 137.56 
 
 4 
 
 16.00 
 
 7 
 
 49.00 
 
 12 
 
 144.00 
 
 41 
 
 17.02 
 
 71 
 
 50.77 
 
 121 
 
 150.06 
 
 41 
 
 18.06 
 
 71 
 
 52.56 
 
 121 
 
 156.25 
 
 4| 
 
 19.14 
 
 71 
 
 54.39 
 
 121 
 
 162.56 
 
 41 
 
 20.25 
 
 71 
 
 56.25 
 
 13 
 
 169.00 
 
 4f 
 
 21.39 
 
 71 
 
 58.14 
 
 131 
 
 175.38 
 
 4| 
 
 22.56 
 
 71 
 
 60.06 
 
 131 
 
 182.25 
 
 41 
 
 23.77 
 
 71 
 
 62.02 
 
 131 
 
 189.06 
 
 5 
 
 25.00 
 
 8 
 
 64.00 
 
 14 
 
 196.00 
 
 51 
 
 26.26 
 
 81 
 
 68.06 
 
 141 
 
 203.06 
 
 51 
 
 27.56 
 
 81 
 
 72.25 
 
 141 
 
 210.25 
 
 51 
 
 28.89 
 
 00 
 
 ■Mu 
 
 76.56 
 
 14f 
 
 217.56 
 
 51 
 
 30.25 
 
 9 
 
 81.00 
 
 15 
 
 225.00 
 
 5f 
 
 31.64 
 
 91 
 
 85.56 
 
 151 
 
 232.56 
 
 5f 
 
 33.06 
 
 91 
 
 90.25 
 
 151 
 
 240.25 
 
 51 
 
 34.52 
 
 91 
 
 95.06 
 
 1 51 
 
 248.06 
 
 6 
 
 36.00 
 
 10 
 
 100.00 
 
 16 
 
 256.00 
 
94 
 
 TRUSSED GIRDERS. 
 
 74. Trussed Girders. Great additional strength is obtained in timber 
 
 girders, by trussing them with iron bars. 
 
 to 
 
 B 
 
 Figs. 80 and 81 shew the manner 
 in which the truss-bars are best ap- 
 plied. Fig. 80 is a side elevation 
 of a trussed girder, and fig 81 is 
 an enlarged cross section of it near 
 the centre. The girder in this 
 case is double, and the truss bar 
 a a passes between the two parts ; 
 the ends of the bar are forged 
 round and screwed, and pass 
 through washer plates b b to ob- 
 tain a firm bearing or abutment 
 against the ends of the beam, where 
 they are screwed up tightly, by 
 means of capped nuts upon the 
 screwed ends. The bars passing 
 from the ends of the timber at the 
 upper part descend obliquely to- 
 wards the centre, where they are 
 strained under a saddle piece c, by 
 which it is kept in its position. 
 The two portions of the beam are 
 screwed together by means of 
 screwed bolts and nuts. Fig. 81 
 shews the form of the saddle piece 
 and the central position of the 
 truss bar below it. Figs. 82 and 
 S3 represent a east iron saddle- 
 piece, which may be used instead 
 of that shewn in fig. 81, in order to 
 keep the truss-bar within the line 
 of the beam. This cast iron sad- 
 dle is formed so as to be let into 
 the under side of the beam, and 
 also abut upw ards vertically against 
 shoulders notched in the timber, 
 leaving a central recess for the 
 truss-bar, which is formed as shewn 
 in fig. 83, which is a lateral section 
 through the centre of the cast-iron 
 saddle. The value of this mode 
 of trussing has been tested by ex- 
 periment. Beams provided as 
 shewn in figs. 80 and 81, 20 feet 
 .... , in length, clear of the end bearings, 
 
 and consisting of two timbers, each 10£ inches deep, and 3 inches wide, 
 trussed with a single bar of malleable iron 1 i by $ inches, in uniform section, 
 arc found, when the bar is tightened up by means of the screwed ends and 
 
CONVERSION OF TIMBER FOR GIRDERS, ETC. 
 
 95 
 
 nuts, to bear a load of 100 cwt., with a deflection of 5| inches. We have no 
 record of the kind of timber used, but assuming it to be Biga fir, or other of 
 equal quality, the same material in a single beam, that is, 10 J by 6 inches, 
 would be broken with a load of 109 cwt., and suffer an ultimate deflection of 
 9,^ inches. The effects of the bar may be considered as nearly equi- 
 valent to a doubling of the strength of the beam. In all cases where it is 
 admissible, it is desirable to set the beam to a slight camber , that is, strain 
 the bar till the beam is rendered slightly convex on its upper, and concave on 
 its lower, surface, to the extent, say of 1 inch in a length of 20 feet. 
 
 75. Conversion of timber for Girders, fyc. As the transverse strength of a 
 piece of timber is in proportion to its breadth, simply multiplied by the square 
 of its depth, it follows that every addition made to its depth imparts a greater 
 proportion of strength than a corresponding addition to its breadth, and 
 therefore, of any given sectional area, the depth should have the greatest 
 part, limited of course by convenience, in applying the timber for constructive 
 purposes, and by the liability to lateral twisting, which would result from an 
 excessive disproportion between breadth and depth. By way of example, 
 suppose we have a sectional area of 100 square inches to avail ourselves of 
 without limitation as to the proportion of breadth to depth. Disposed in a 
 square, the strength will be 
 
 Breadth. Depth. 
 
 10 by 10 2 or 1000 
 
 By doubling the breadth, and of necessity halving the depth, the strength 
 
 will be 
 
 Breadth. Depth. 
 
 20 by 5 2 or 500 
 
 Whereas by doubling the depth, and halving the breadth, the strength 
 
 will be 
 
 Breadth. Depth. 
 
 5 by 20 2 or 2000 
 
 The old but simple geometrical rule shewn in fig. 82, gives us the strongest 
 
 rectangular section for a girder which can be 
 cut out of a tree of given dimensions. In this 
 figure the section of the tree is represented by a 
 circle, in which draw any diameter, as D C, and 
 divide it into three equal parts at the points 
 E F. At a right angle with the diameter, from 
 E, draw E B, and from F, draw F A. Join 
 A C, C B, B D, and D A by lines which define 
 the section required. The multiple of the 
 breadth by the square of the depth of tliis 
 section is the greatest of any rectangle that 
 can be inscribed within the circle. 
 
 The strength of any scantling of timber de- 
 pends also greatly on the direction of the grain in 
 its transverse section, the age of the tree, and the 
 tree from which it is cut. It is a generally received opinion, that the heart 
 
 Fig. 84-. 
 
96 
 
 TIMBER ROOFS. 
 
 of a tree is the weakest part of it, and that the strength increases with 
 the distance from the centre towards the bark, excepting that part or ring of 
 wood immediately within the bark, known as the white or blea, which is 
 weaker than that within it. The increase in the -4- diameter of a tree during 
 its growth, is shewn by its transverse section to be by annual additions, which 
 successively surround each other, and appear as concentric rings. The cohe- 
 sion of these rings is inferior to the cohesion between the fibres which com- 
 pose them, and hence the structure of timber may be regarded as consisting 
 of parallel or concentric portions or plates. In converting a tree into 
 scantlings, these plates should run in the direction of the depth of each piece ; 
 that is, they should be vertical and not horizontal, as a series of planks com- 
 bined side by side, form a stronger beam than if laid one on another.* In 
 
 fig. 85, the concentric circles are intended 
 to represent the annual plates in the cross 
 section of a tree, and the two rectangles 
 A B C I), and EFGH, shew scantlings as 
 they should, and as they should not, be cut 
 respectively. In the preparation of large 
 timber girders it is found that the strength 
 and endurance of the material are practically 
 increased by cutting them vertically through 
 the middle, and reversing them with bolts to 
 connect the two pieces. The advantage thus 
 derived probably results in some measure from 
 the altered direction thus given to the platings 
 of the structure of the wood. 
 
 76. Framing for Partitions , $'C. All framing of large superficial area for 
 partitions, &c., requires to be stiffened by diagonal or oblique bracing ; and 
 where door-openings occur, the partition, which should act as a support to the 
 floor above, must be trussed above the opening, for the purpose of sus- 
 taining the weight, without throwing it upon the horizontal timber imme- 
 diately over the opening. A partition braced and trussed in the manner 
 here described is represented in fig. 86, where A shews the top plate, and B 
 the bottom sill of the framing; C the lintel; D D the quern posts of the 
 truss, and E E the braces ; F F are braces for the lower part of the partition ; 
 G G the door posts ; HH the upright quarterings , and I a joist supposed to 
 be framed into a girder, in the manner shewn in fig. 63. 
 
 77. Timber Hoofs.— Form or inclination. This is the first consideration, 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 • Some very successful examples of combining planking horizontally, however, might 
 
 £e C ' d ^ ig T l b) Mc “ rs - Green ’ and executed hne of 
 
 *" d „ Norlh s . h,eld ! Ka.lway. That which carries the Railway over 
 M I Va L ey ’ con,,8l8 J of ^mental arches, 120 feet in span, with a rise of 
 
 36 feet, and each arch is composed of If, 3 inch planks, laid horizontally thus makimr 
 
 r id *|* of ! h " (1 foot 10 inches) u Zita by co- 
 
 bu.ing 2 and 3 planks alternately, the whole connected by bolts, &c The horizontal 
 
 .ion by A.chlcy iv Co.. W ‘' h ‘ mpl ' dCUii ‘' " in prepar *- 
 
TIMBER ROOFS, ETC. 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 as the mode of trussing or framing will be thereby affected or determined. 
 The inclination is technically termed the pitch, and the carpenters of old 
 established a simple rule for obtaining a standard inclination which they 
 called whole pitch . This was to make the vertical height of the roof equal to 
 its span. Other rates of inclination were measured accordingly, as “ f pitch” 
 “ § pitch” &c. A somewhat more scientific rule, which will be found in the 
 old books on carpentry, purports to determine the “ strongest possible” form 
 for a roof. This is to divide the span into three equal parts ; raise perpen- 
 diculars from these points of division ; strike a semicircle above the span, 
 and from the points in which the perpendiculars cut this semicircle, draw 
 lines to the extremities of the span, which will define the lines for the pitch 
 
 of the roof. This rule is illustrated by 
 fig. 87, in which A B represents the 
 span for the roof, a b and c d the per- 
 pendiculars, and A d and B b the lines 
 for the pitch of the roof. This rule 
 gives a pitch which answers very well 
 for ordinary construction, and covering 
 of slates or tiles, and may therefore be 
 adopted. It differs very slightly from 
 A w c B the inclination of 1 in height to lj in 
 
 width, that is a rise equal to one-tliird of the span or ^ pitch, and as this latter 
 proportion is somewhat simpler in setting out the work, and also in determin- 
 ing the exact rise of the roof in feet and inches, it may be adopted as a good 
 practical substitute for the geometrical proportion shewn in fig. 87. The nature 
 of the roof covering may be considered as slightly affecting the inclination 
 proper to be given to a roof. Thus a metallic covering, which offers greater 
 
 K 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
98 
 
 TIMBER ROOFS. 
 
 ETC. 
 
 facilities for the rapid passage of rain, snow, &c., than slate or tiles, will admit 
 of a less pitch or smaller angle with the horizon. Climate, again, produces 
 effects on the coverings of roofs which not only suggest differences of inclina- 
 tion, but of material also, for the covering. Thus, proceeding from the equator 
 northward, cold increasing, as also snow, &c., a greater inclination is 
 found necessary, not only to keep the roof dry, but also to intercept the cold 
 and damp from the upper rooms of the building. Thus, in the south of Europe, 
 we find the roofs very flat, while towards the north, they increase in elevation. 
 This necessity appears to have been well estimated by the ancient architects 
 of Greece and Rome ; the slope of the pediments of the Parthenon, the 
 temple of Erectheus, and of Theseus, being 16°, 15j°, and 15°, respec- 
 tively; while that of Septimus Severus is 23°; those of the temples of Con- 
 cord and Mars Ulter, 23°; of Eortuna Virilis, and the Pantheon, 24°; and 
 the roof of St. Paolo Fuori le Mura, of more modern date, 23°. The prac- 
 tical limits to the pitch of a roof, arise, on the one hand, from the necessity 
 to keep the surface free from accumulation of snow, rain, and damp ; and, on 
 the other, from the desirability of economising material, and saving weight 
 in the construction. And modern practice in roof-building has shewn us that 
 they may be laid with much less height than our ancestors supposed neces- 
 saxy, and with a corresponding reduction in the quantity of material em- 
 ployed, and the weight imposed upon the walls of the building.* 
 
 The following table, which shews the angle of each rate of rise, or pitch, 
 and the proportion of surface of each side of the roof, to the horizontal sur- 
 face, will be found useful in setting out roofs, and in computing the quantity 
 of material required to cover them. 
 
 No. XI. — Table shewing the angle of roofs, corresponding with rates of 
 inclination, as measured in parts of the span, and also the proportion of sur- 
 face of each side of the roof to the horizontal surface covered. 
 
 Pitch, or Rise. 
 
 Angle. 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 
 of the span 
 
 16° 
 
 00' 
 
 1 
 
 l-26th to 
 
 1 
 
 l 
 
 6 " 
 
 18° 
 
 25' 
 
 1 
 
 1 -20th 
 
 „ 
 
 1 
 
 S ** 
 
 21® 
 
 45' 
 
 1 
 
 l-13th 
 
 „ 
 
 1 
 
 4 ” 
 
 26 ° 
 
 35' 
 
 ] 
 
 1 -8th 
 
 ft 
 
 1 
 
 S ” 
 
 33° 
 
 42' 
 
 1 
 
 l-5th 
 
 ft 
 
 r 
 
 ♦5° 
 
 00' 
 
 1 
 
 2-5ths 
 
 
 s 
 
 r »» 
 
 53° 
 
 00' 
 
 1 
 
 7-10ths 
 
 
 s 
 
 r »» 
 
 56° 
 
 20' 
 
 1 
 
 4-5ths 
 
 
 Equilateral. 
 
 60° 
 
 00' 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Whole pitch. 
 
 63° 
 
 80' 
 
 2 
 
 17-20ths 
 
 ft 
 
 of modern tZ'nigh, ttaErtSwlOT P p";; n ' 
 
 *' wh,ch lh * *l*» roof. i, „r 24 .lep"." 5 rl “~' hp 
 
PBINCIPLES OF HOOFS, ETC. 
 
 99 
 
 A form of roof much adopted in house-building, whereby a floor is ob- 
 tained in the roof without raising the structure, is that introduced from 
 France, under the name of the Mansard roof, now commonly called the curb 
 roof. In this, the line of the roof from the wall to the ridge is divided into 
 two inclinations, whereof the lower portion is much more steep than the 
 upper, forming an angle of from 70 to 80° with the horizon. This forms the 
 inclined side of the upper floor, or attics. The upper part is inclined as in 
 ordinary roofs. By this construction, economy of space is effected, but at the 
 expense of spoiling the upper rooms. The Metropolitan Building Act re- 
 quires that, in these roofs, the rooms shall “ not be of a less height than 
 seven feet, except the sloping part, which sloping part must not begin at less 
 than three feet six inches above the floor, nor extend more than three feet six 
 inches on the ceiling of such room.” And with regard to buildings of the 
 second, or warehouse class, the same act stipulates, that, “in order to prevent 
 the formation of curbed roofs to such buildings, the plane of the surface of 
 the roof of every such building must not incline, from the external, or party 
 walls, upwards, at a greater angle than 40 degrees with the horizon.” 
 
 78. Principles of Roofs . — Use of each member , and methods of combination. 
 We have seen that, to provide a dry covering over a building, it is generally 
 necessary that the surface be inclined to the horizon. By spanning the width 
 of the building with two surfaces inclined in opposite directions, and meeting 
 in a central point, the thrust of each may be opposed to that of the other, 
 and they will be thus made mutual supports. The tendency of their own 
 weights, and of all loads that may be put upon two members thus situated, 
 will be, to force their lower and diverging ends further apart, and thus depress 
 them to a horizontal position. To prevent this, it is necessary that these 
 ends be connected, or tied together by a third member. We have thus an 
 isosceles triangle, of which the two sides are the rafters , and the base con- 
 nection is the tie-beam. If the span of the roof be considerable, this tie will 
 have a tendency, from its own weight, or from the smallness of its cross sec- 
 tional area compared wuth its length, to sag in the middle ; and to prevent 
 this is the purpose of a fourth member, commonly, but erroneously, called 
 the king-post , which affords a vertical connection of the centre of the tie-beam 
 w T ith the meeting point of the rafters, or ridge of the roof. This member is 
 simply a tie, or means of suspending the tie-beam from the ridge ; it cannot, 
 therefore, be called a post , without confounding vertical pressure with longi- 
 tudinal tension. If the span of the roof be such, that the rafters are of con- 
 siderable length, they will require some intermediate supports between the 
 ridge and their connection with the ends of the tie-beam. These supports 
 are provided by introducing a pair of corresponding members, placed as near 
 as they may be at right angles with the rafters, abutting at their lower ends 
 against the lower part of the king-post, and at their upper ends against the 
 under side of the rafters. These members are the struts . The frame-work 
 thus composed constitutes & principal, or truss , and, according to the dimen- 
 sions given to the members of these trusses, they may be erected at distances 
 of from 7 to 10 feet apart, along the extent of the building. W'e shall now 
 find the necessity of introducing other parts, in combination with the mem- 
 bers already enumerated. In the first place, it is advisable to make use of 
 the tie-beam, to assist in holding the side walls of the building together. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 PRINCIPLES OF ROOFS, ETC. 
 
 This suggests the addition of longitudinal timbers, bedded on the walls, and 
 secured to the under side of the ends of the tie-beams by the latter being 
 notched, or cocked down upon them, in the manner shewn in fig. 59. These 
 longitudinal timbers arc the tc all-plates. In the next place, it is essential to 
 connect the upper part of the several principals together longitudinally. This 
 is done by introducing a thin plate of wood, the rid(je-piece> between the 
 heads of the rafters, and continuing it throughout the length of the roof. 
 Then, as our roof is to be covered with slates, tiles, or other small pieces of 
 material, it becomes necessary to introduce intermediate supports, or framing, 
 
PRINCIPLES OF 1100F3, ETC. 
 
 101 
 
 between our principals. This intermediate framing i9 carried upon the rafters 
 by adding, first, purlines , or pieces fixed parallel to the wall-plates and ridge- 
 pieces, and notched upon the back of the rafters. These purlines will be 
 placed, perhaps, 5 or 6 feet apart, and upon them members of small scantling 
 are fixed, parallel with the rafters, lying in a plane above them, and at a 
 small distance apart. These are termed common rafters , while the original ones 
 are distinguished as principal rafters. The feet of the common rafters arc 
 notched down upon a piece of timber fixed longitudinally above the tie- 
 beams, parallel with the purlines and wall-plates, and called the pole-plate. 
 And on the backs of the common rafters, parallel with the purlines, battens 
 are fixed, to which the slates or tiles are secured. Of the frame-work of the 
 roof thus completed, fig. 88 is a representation, in which all the several mem- 
 bers are exhibited ; A A being the principal rafters ; B, the tie-beam ; C, the 
 king-post ; D 1), the struts; E E, the wall-plates ; F F, the ridge-piece ; G G, 
 the purline ; H H, the common rafters ; 1 1 1, the battens for slates, &c. ; and 
 K K, the pole-plates. 
 
 From the description here given of the specific use of each member of a 
 roof, it will be easy to understand that its value should not be allowed to be 
 impaired by exposing it to forces which it is not designed to resist. Thus, 
 a tie-beam loses its efficiency if any vertical pressure is exerted upon it. The 
 principal rafters, with their assistant struts, should be equal to bear the entire 
 load of the roof ; and the weight on each strut should be transferred directly 
 to the king-post, or similar vertical member, and counteracted by the opposing 
 force of the other strut. The methods of connection of the several members, 
 should have reference to the chances of shrinkage of the timber. Thus, a 
 shrinkage in the depth of the tie-beam, will tend to separate it from the foot 
 of the king-post ; a shrinkage in the width of the king-post, will let the 
 rafters fall toward each other at the top, and the struts approach each other 
 at the bottom ; while a shrinkage in the depth of the rafters, will tend to 
 depress them in the middle, or to separate them from the struts. The con- 
 traction in the length is known to be far less than in the width of timber, 
 but such as may occur in the rafters, struts, and king-posts, will tend to 
 aggravate the effects just described. As it is impracticable, with ordinary 
 means, to provide adjustment at each of the joints, it becomes essential to 
 consider how best to employ such as are at our command. Thus the head of 
 king-post and of rafters should be secured together as tightly as possible, 
 providing for further tightening, if necessary, and remembering that it 
 can never become desirable to spread these parts from each other. An iron 
 strap, with keys through the rafters, will answ r cr the purpose here required. 
 The struts cannot readily be assisted, as an increase of length is what they 
 would need, to preserve full bearings, when the rafters have a disposition to 
 retire from them at one end, and the king-post at the other, owing to con- 
 tractions in their depth and width. To select the driest stuff, and take care 
 they are framed of full length, with true bearings and joints, are the only pre- 
 cautions available with regard to these members. The connection between 
 the king-post and tie-beam, is perhaps the most important in the whole struc- 
 ture. A considerable contraction in the length of rafters, and width of king- 
 post, (at the head,) will evidently produce a general sinking of the truss ; and 
 if the foot of the king-post, and upper surface of tie-beam, are first fixed in 
 

 ]02 PRINCIPLES OF ROOFS, ETC. 
 
 close contact, and the sinking of the truss is not compensated by contraction 
 in the length of king-post, and depth of tie-beam, (which is not probable,) 
 this sinking must occasion a depression of the tie-beam at the centre ; thus 
 impairing its value as a tie, and tending to a weakening of the building, either 
 by a withdrawing the wall-plates from their seating, or dragging the walls 
 inward. To avoid these injuries, the king-post and tie-beam should be framed 
 loosely at first, with an iron strap and adjusting keys, so that all needful sup- 
 port may be given to the tie-beam, to preserve it in an horizontal direction, 
 while it is rendered independent of all shrinkage or sinking that may occur in 
 the truss or its other members. As a general rule, it is advisable to frame 
 the several parts together, so as to keep their abutting ends as nearly as pos- 
 sible at right angles with the length of the timber. Fig. 89 exhibits in one 
 group the several joints required in framing a simple roof truss in the best 
 manner. In this figure, A represents the foot of the rafter, formed with a 
 tenon for framing to the tie-beam ; B is the head of the rafter, with a tenon 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 I 
 
EXAMPLES OF LARGE TIMBER ROOFS. 
 
 103 
 
 for connecting with the head, C, of the king-post; D is the lower end, or 
 foot, of the king-post, morticed on either side for the struts, of which E 
 shews the lower end of one, with the corresponding tenon. F is the tenon 
 on the king-post, for framing to the tie-beam at G. H is the end of the tie- 
 beam, with mortice prepared to receive the foot of the rafter, A. I repre- 
 sents a portion of the pole-plate, notched for cocking down at J, on the tie- 
 beam. K shews the wall-plate, and L the rebate on the tie-beam for receiv- 
 ing it. M is one of the straps for connecting head of king-post to rafters ; 
 and N shews the stirrup of iron for suspending the tie-beam from the king- 
 post. The lower figure 
 is an enlarged section 
 through the king-post, 
 and shews the manner 
 of applying the keys 
 for adjusting the con- 
 nection of the parts. 
 
 In this figure, D is the 
 king-post ; N N shew 
 the sides of the stirrup 
 in section ; O O are 
 the iron gibs, and P P 
 the iron wedges, dri- 
 ven in from opposite 
 sides when it is re- 
 quired to bring the 
 members into closer 
 contiguity. 
 
 79. Examples and 
 Scantlings of large Tim- 
 ber Roofs. Fig. 90 is 
 an executed example 
 of a large roof erected 
 over a church, and a- 
 dapted for any similar 
 building in which there 
 are side spans or aisles. 
 
 It is here cited as an 
 example of judicious 
 trussing, although the 
 scantlings, which are 
 as follows, are vastly 
 greater than necessary. 
 
 The strut, K, has been 
 properly pointed out 
 as an useless member 
 in the structure. The 
 breadth of the building 
 within the walls is 
 about 09 feet, and of 
 
104 
 
 EXAMPLES OF LARGE TIMBER ROOFS. 
 
 the side aisles from the centre of the columns to the walls, is 14 feet, 
 inches. The breadth of centre span, from centre to centre of columns, is 
 39 feet, 11 inches. 
 
 Scantlings. 
 
 A. 
 
 Principal Rafter 
 
 inches. 
 
 13 by 10 at bottom, 
 
 inches. 
 
 11 by 10 at top 
 
 B. 
 
 Principal Brace 
 
 14 by 10 
 
 *> 
 
 11 by 
 
 10 „ 
 
 C. 
 
 King Post 
 
 
 . 
 
 9 by 
 
 9 
 
 D. 
 
 Strut .... 
 
 
 . . 
 
 7 by 
 
 7j 
 
 E. 
 
 Queen Post . 
 
 
 , . 
 
 8 by 
 
 9J 
 
 F. 
 
 Strut .... 
 
 
 . 
 
 7 by 
 
 7 
 
 G. 
 
 Collar Beam 
 
 
 . . 
 
 14 by 
 
 9* 
 
 H. 
 
 Post over the Column 
 
 
 , . 
 
 14 by 
 
 9J 
 
 I. 
 
 Brace .... 
 
 
 , , 
 
 7 by 
 
 7 
 
 K. 
 
 Strut .... 
 
 
 . , 
 
 7 by 
 
 7 
 
 L. 
 
 Post . , ... 
 
 
 , , 
 
 8 by 
 
 9 
 
 M. 
 
 Hammer Beam 
 
 
 , . 
 
 14 by 
 
 9J 
 
 N. 
 
 Brace .... 
 
 
 , . 
 
 8 by 
 
 8 
 
 O. 
 
 Brace .... 
 
 
 , , 
 
 8 by 
 
 8 
 
 P. 
 
 QQ. 
 
 Post in the Wall . 
 Horizontal Rafters 
 
 
 * • 
 
 4 by 
 
 6 
 
 Fig 91, is the truss of a roof built over a Church, (St. Paul’s, Covent 
 Garden, London,) the mutules or cantilevers of the cornice of which, project 
 considerably beyond the wall. The span in the clear of the walls is 50 feet 
 2 inches ; the projection over the wall 7 feet on each side, and the length 
 of tie beam about 72 feet. The trusses are fixed 10 feet 6 inches apart, 
 and each of them contains about 198 cubic feet of timber. The follow- 
 ing are the scantlings. 
 
 A. Tie Beam which cambers 6in. in the clear 
 
 between walls 
 
 B. Queen Post ' ] 
 
 C. Collar Beam ••.... 
 
 IX King Post (14in. at the joggle) . . 
 
 E. Brace 
 
 F. Principal Brace, auxiliary to the piincipal rafter to 
 
 strain the tie beam, lOin. by 8 Jin. at bottom . 
 G G. Struts to strengthen the principal rafter 
 
 II. Principal Rafter, lOin. by 8Jin. at bottom . 
 
 I L Purlines 
 
 K K. Common Rafters 
 
 L. Wall Plate 
 
 Inches. 
 
 16 by 12 
 8J by 8 J 
 10 by 8 
 8 J by 8J 
 8 by 7J 
 
 8J by 8J at top 
 
 8 by 8 
 
 8J by 8J at top 
 
 9 by 6J 
 6 by 3J 
 
 12 by 10 
 
 Fig. 92 shews the truss of the roof of the Chapel of the Royal Hospital, 
 n ircenwich. Tins roof is Hat on the top, and is a good example, being 
 >> rong and simple in its parts. The king-post is of iron, and the joints are 
 w *11 secured with iron straps. The span is 51 feet in the clear, and the 
 trusses fixed about 7 feet apart. The following arc the scantlings — 
 
EXAMPLES OF TIMBER POOFS. 
 
 105 
 
 
 I 
 
106 
 
 LARGE TIMBER HOOFS. 
 
 inches. 
 
 A. the tie beam, 57 feet long . 
 
 B. Iron king post 
 
 C. Queen post .... 
 
 D D. Braces .... 
 
 E. Collar beam 
 
 F. Straining piece 
 
 G. Principal rafter 
 
 H. Camber beam, supporting the platform 
 I I. Common rafters, fixed horizontally 
 
 14 by 12 
 2 inches square 
 9 by 12 
 9 by 7 
 10 by 7 
 6 by 7 
 10 by 7 
 9 by 7 
 6 by 4 
 
 Figs. 93 anti 94, shew a truss for a large span, 80 feet in the clear ; and 
 its construction is both simple and economical in material. A space for a 
 room 19 feet 6 inches wide, and 18 feet high, is reserved in the middle. 
 This roof is erected over the Theatre at Birmingham. The trusses are 
 10 feet apart. The dimensions and references are as follows : — 
 
 Figs. 93 and 94. 
 
 A. Oak corbel . 
 
 B. Inner plate. 
 
 C. Wall plate . 
 
 I). Pole plate . 
 
 E. Tie beam . 
 
 F. Straining beam 
 
 G. Oak kingpost 
 11. Oak queen post 
 
 I. Principal rafter 
 
 inches. 
 
 9 by 5 
 
 9 by 9 
 
 . 8 by 5 ) 
 
 • . 7 by 5 
 
 15 by 15 
 . 12 bv 9 
 
 9 by 9 
 
 • . 7 by 9 
 
 12 by 9 to 9 by 9 
 
LARGE TIMBER ROOT’S. 
 
 107 
 
 K. Common rafter 
 
 
 inches 
 . 4 bv 
 
 n 
 
 L. Principal brace 
 
 9 by 9 to 6 by 
 
 9 
 
 M M M. Common braces 
 
 
 . 6 by 
 
 9 
 
 N. Purlines 
 
 
 . 7 by 
 
 5 
 
 0 0. Upper ditto 
 
 . 
 
 • 6 by 
 
 4 
 
 P. Ridge piece . 
 
 , 
 
 . 9 by 
 
 2 
 
 Q. Straining sill 
 
 • 
 
 . 5* by 
 
 9 
 
 In order to hold the trusses together in case of the ends of the tie-beams 
 decaying, the pieces marked It, are bolted across the tie beams at about 7 
 feet distance from the ends of them. The walls being too thin to admit 
 wall plates of adequate width, the oak corbels, A, are built in the wall to 
 carry the auxiliary plates, B. These parts are shewn enlarged, in Fig. 94. 
 
 Fig. 95 repre- 
 sents another good 
 example of large 
 but simple truss- 
 ing, also erected 
 over a Theatre 
 (Drury Lane). In 
 this case, the en- 
 tire span, clear of 
 the walls, 80 feet 
 3 inches, is divided 
 into three spaces, 
 and thus the ele- 
 vation above the 
 upper beams is 
 much less than it 
 would otherwise 
 have been, while . 
 a corresponding 
 reduction in the & 
 scantlings is effect- 
 ed. The middle 
 space in the roof 
 has a clear width 
 of 32 feet, and as 
 the trusses are 
 fixed at the dis- 
 tance of 15 feet 
 apart, the side 
 spans are conve- 
 niently available 
 for dressing 
 rooms, &c., all 
 having flat ceil- 
 ings. The length 
 of the roof is 
 
108 
 
 TIMBER ROOFS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 SCANTLINGS. 
 
 A. Hearns 
 
 B. Principal rafter 
 
 C. King posts . 
 
 D. Struts 
 
 K. Purlines . 
 
 F. Ridges 
 
 G. Pole plates 
 
 II. Gutter plates, framed 
 I. Common rafters 
 
 K. Lower beams 
 
 L. Posts 
 
 M. Principal braces 
 
 N. Struts 
 
 O. Oak trusses to the 
 
 of beams 
 
 P. Straining beams 
 
 inches. 
 
 . 10 by 7 
 7 thick 
 . 12 by 7 
 5 by 7 
 9 by 5 
 1$ thick 
 5 by 5 
 the beams 12 by 6 
 5 to 4 by 2£ 
 
 . 15 by 12 
 
 . 15 by 12 
 
 14 to 12 by 12 
 . 8 by 12 
 
 middle bearing 
 
 . 5* by 4J 
 
 . 12 by 12 
 
 In this construction the tie beam is rather more loaded than is theoretically 
 desirable, but it is most judiciously relieved by the principal braces M, which 
 carry the thrust directly to the ends of the beam at the walls. The thrust 
 of the side roof is well resisted by its connection at H, with the head of the 
 post L, and by the straining beam P. This roof was built in 1793. As a 
 more modern example we may quote the scantlings of the roof of the Lyceum 
 Theatre, built in 1834, of which the span is 12 feet 3 inches less, being 68 
 feet. 
 
 inches. 
 
 Tic beams. (Scarfed) 
 
 . 15 by 
 
 8 
 
 Straining do. . 
 
 . 13 by 
 
 8 
 
 Queen posts. (Oak) . 
 
 . . 8 by 
 
 8 
 
 Double ditto . 
 
 . 10 by 
 
 S 
 
 Principal rafter 
 
 12 to 10 by 
 
 8 
 
 Auxiliary ditto 
 
 10 to 8 by 
 
 8 
 
 Common ditto 
 
 5 by 
 
 21 
 
 Struts 
 
 6 by 
 
 C 
 
 Purlines 
 
 . . 8 by 
 
 6 
 
 Straining sills 
 
 . 10 by 
 
 8 
 
 Oak corbels 
 
 . 12 by 
 
 8 
 
 Wall- plates . 
 
 . 12 by 12 
 
 King-posts (Oak) 
 
 . 8 by 
 
 8 
 
 79. Timber Hoofs of the Middle Ayes, We can afford no space for anv 
 detailed account of these, many of which arc excellent specimens of car- 
 pentry, and of judicious framing. For one specimen, however, — the ex- 
 ample, — we must find room. The noble timber roof of Westminster Hall is 
 represented in fig. 96. The clear span of this structure, which was completed 
 in 1399, is 68 feet, and its length 240 feet. This length is divided into 12 
 bays, the principals being at the distance of 20 feet apart. At these dis- 
 tances, arches of great strength and boldness of design are thrown from wall 
 to w all, setting on stone corbels, and rising about 5-8ths of the span. Each 
 arc, from the corbel to the vertex, is divided into three nearly equal parts, 
 additional strength being obtained by a wrcll-planncd frame- work within the 
 arch. The uppermost of the three points falls directly beneath the middle 
 of the rafter, where the load is collected by a massive purline, and carried by 
 
HOOF OF WESTMINSTER HALL. 
 
 109 
 
 the inner auxiliary arch to the queen-posts, and thence to the hammer-beamy 
 A 15 — a member always introduced in this class of roofs — and which, with its 
 curved strut beneath, forms a kind of bracket for supporting the auxiliary 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 
110 
 
 DOMES OF TIMBER. 
 
 arch, and, in effect, prolongs the trussing to a lower and stronger part of the 
 walls. The roof of Wolsey’s Hall, at Hampton Court, 40 feet span; of 
 Eltham Palace, 36 feet span ; and of Westminster School, may be mentioned 
 as trusses of similar, but inferior, arrangement. 
 
 80. Domes of Timber . Our account of roofing, as executed by the car- 
 penter, would be incomplete without one example of the construction of tim- 
 ber domes ; and for this example we select the far-famed dome of St. Paul’s 
 Cathedral, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, and of which a half section is 
 represented in fig. 97. In this figure, a A A is the interior dome, which is of 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 
 
 
DATA FOR DETERMINING SCANTLINGS OF ROOFS, ETC. 
 
 Ill 
 
 brick-work, two bricks in thickness, and at every distance of 5 feet in its 
 height, ha3 a bonding course of bricks, 18 inches long, laid through the 
 entire thickness. This dome, it is interesting to record, was “ turned upon a 
 centre laid without any standard from below to support it. Every story of 
 the scaffolding being circular, and the ends of the ledgers meeting as so many 
 rings, and truly wrought, it supported itself ; and, as it was both centre and 
 scaffolding, it remained for the use of the painter, there being a space of 12 
 feet between it and the dome. This machine was original of its kind.” — 
 ( Nicholson .) This brick dome is hooped with a double chain of iron, linked 
 together at every ten feet, for which a channel is cut in the bandage of Port- 
 land stone, and the whole filled up with lead. B B b is a cone, also of brick- 
 work, 1 foot 6 inches thick, which supports the timber-work of the external 
 dome, the horizontal, or hammer-beams, C, G, L, N, being tied into the cor- 
 bels, B B B B, with iron cramps, bedded with lead in the corbels, and bolted 
 to the hammer-beam9. The dome is boarded from the springing upward, and 
 the ribs are accordingly placed horizontally near to each other. A cupola of 
 Portland stone, 21 feet in diameter, and nearly 64 feet high, is built on the 
 top of the dome, supported by the cone, and by the timber work of the 
 trusses. The diameter of the dome is 104 feet at the springing, and there 
 are 32 trusses in the circumference, built on as many walls, or buttresses, 
 between the attic and the wall of the tower. The following are the members 
 and their scantlings, referring by letters to fig. 97 : 
 
 A'. 
 
 Post 
 
 
 Inches. 
 7 by 7 
 
 B'. 
 
 Strut 
 
 
 5 
 
 by 
 
 8 
 
 C. 
 
 Hammer- beam .... 
 
 
 8 
 
 by 
 
 71 
 
 D. 
 
 Post (15 by 8 $ below joggles) 
 
 
 8 } 
 
 by 
 
 83 
 
 E. 
 
 Brace 
 
 
 6 
 
 by 
 
 8 
 
 F. 
 
 Strut 
 
 
 6 
 
 by 
 
 8 
 
 G f 
 
 Hammer-beam .... 
 
 
 8 
 
 by 
 
 10 
 
 H. 
 
 Post 
 
 
 81 
 
 by 
 
 n 
 
 I. 
 
 Ditto ...... 
 
 
 10 
 
 by 
 
 n 
 
 K. 
 
 Strut 
 
 
 5 
 
 by 
 
 8 
 
 L. 
 
 Hammer-beam .... 
 
 
 8 
 
 by 
 
 10 
 
 M. 
 
 Strut 
 
 
 5 
 
 by 
 
 8 
 
 N. 
 
 Hammer-beam .... 
 
 
 8 
 
 by 
 
 11 } 
 
 O. 
 
 Post 
 
 
 10 
 
 by 
 
 1H 
 
 P. 
 
 Ditto, supporting the curved rib of the dome . 
 
 10 
 
 by 
 
 11 } 
 
 a 
 
 Curved rib of the dome . 6 by 6 at top, 
 
 10 
 
 by 
 
 11 } at bottom. 
 
 a a 
 
 a a. Horizontal rafters 
 
 , # 
 
 4 
 
 by 
 
 4 
 
 R. Wall-plate 
 
 • 
 
 8 
 
 by 
 
 12 
 
 81. j Data for determining Scantlings of Roofs, and measuring and pricing 
 Timber and Carpenters' Work . The extreme load to be provided for in roofs 
 is 601bs. per superficial foot of the external surface of the roof, as a permanent 
 load, or one-half that of house-flooring. This includes the weight of the 
 roof itself, if covered with tiles or slating, and makes allowance for snow, 
 and for the action of strong winds. Our table for joists, &c., will, by a 
 ready application, serve to calculate the scantlings for the principal and com- 
 mon rafters of any roof. For the tie-beams, a sufficient depth must be given 
 to enable them to maintain their proper horizontal position, without loading 
 the ridge of the roof (by means of the king-posts) to an undue degree, in 
 
112 
 
 MEASURING CARPENTERS’ WORK. 
 
 order to prevent their sagging in the middle. Generally, it will be found 
 sufficient to give them half an inch in depth for each foot of span, or l-24th 
 of the span up to 20 feet span ; and from 20 to 30 feet they may be'half an 
 inch in depth for each 15 inehes of span, or 1-3 0th of the span. The width 
 should be half of the depth. These scantlings are for simple roofs, consisting 
 of tie-beam, king-post, rafters, and one pair of struts. The king-post should 
 be square, and equal to the width of the tie-beam. The struts also equal in 
 width to that of the tie-beam, and 3-4ths of that dimension on the face, or 
 elevation of the truss. The rafters (principal and common) and purlines are 
 referable to the rule for beams supported at the ends and loaded uniformly 
 throughout. For spans from 30 to 45 feet, additional members will be intro- 
 duced, viz. : two queen-posts and a collar-beam. Thus two points of support 
 are afforded for the tie-beam, which may therefore be reduced in proportionate 
 depth. One inch for every 3 feet in span, or 1-3 6th of the span, will be suffi- 
 cient. The scantling for the queen-posts may be determined as for the king- 
 posts in the smaller spans ; — the collar-beam 2-3rds of the tie-beam in depth, 
 and of width equal to that of the tie-beam. Struts in proportion to tie-beam, 
 as before. Rafters and purlines to be calculated by rule, a3 for smaller spans. 
 
 Measuring. — The bulk of the wood-work in the construction of buildings, 
 as distinct from the internal finishing, is carpenters’ w ork. Thus, the pre- 
 paring, framing, and fixing of all plates in walls, flooring, sills, quarter parti- 
 tions, (that is, from 4 to 6 inches in thickness,) roofing, centring, battening 
 for slating and walls, gutters, and bearers, door and window cases, rough- 
 boarding, weather-boarding, bracketing, and planking, is the work of the car- 
 penter ; — while flooring — that is, preparing and laying the flooring-boards, 
 whether with deals, battens, or wainscot ; — boarding to walls, and ceilings ; 
 staircasing; — hand-railing '—framed partitions, (from l£ to 2J inches in 
 thickness ;) — back-linings for shutters, &c. ; — inside and outside shutters ; — 
 boxings to windows and closet-fronts ; — enclosures, and jamb-linings ; — 
 doors, sash-frames, and sashes -pilasters, columns, and water-trunks ; — and 
 all other wood-work constituting the finishing of the interior or exterior of 
 the building, belong to the joiner, and are therefore beyond our province in 
 this book. Surveyors usually, in measuring carpenters’ and joiners’ work, 
 allow the extreme length in the former, including tenons, &c., while in the 
 joiners’ work they measure net dimensions only, and superficial quantities as 
 they appear in the finished w’ork. A readier mode of measuring, however, is 
 now frequently adopted, which certainly saves some time in taking dimen- 
 sions, and avoids much of that necessity for practical knowledge and techni- 
 cal details which the previous method involves. Thus, the schedule adopted 
 by the Commissioners of Woods, Forests, &c , stipulates, “The net lengths 
 and breadths ordered, and no allowance to be made for any dimensions 
 beyond those required. Also, “The work shall be paid for at the prices 
 specified in this schedule, after adding or deducting according to the per 
 centage agreed upon, (no allowance being made for waste or extra labour.)” 
 As to quality of materials, the same authority requires, “ All the materials to 
 be supplied are to be of the best quality of their several kinds. The timber, 
 deals, plank, and wood of every description, to be sound, thoroughly sea- 
 soned, free from large or loose knots, shakes, or other defects, and to be 
 entirely free from sap. Oak plank and boards to be sawn with straight and 
 
Bata for estimating carpenters’ work. 113 
 
 square edges. The oak to be of English growth, and, when in scantling, to 
 be die-square, and free from sap. The fir timber to be yellow Memel, liiga, 
 or Dantzic, as may be ordered. The deals, excepting when ordered to the 
 contrary, are to be yellow Christiana.” 
 
 Timber is supplied in the various forms of rough , or whole timber , that is 
 logs simply hewn into a squared section : scantlings , that is, when sawn into 
 pieces of square or rectangular section, for plates and framed work: planks, from 
 1 | to 3 1 inches thick, and from to 11 inches wide : deals , from lj to 3 J 
 inches thick, not above 9£ inches wide : and battens , up to 2 J inches in 
 thickness, and not above 7 inches wide. The standard widths for the three 
 latter descriptions are for planks, 11 inches; deals, 9 inches ; and battens, 7 
 
 inches. 
 
 120 deals are reckoned as 100 
 
 50 cubic feet of timber .... 1 load. 
 
 200 feet super, of 3 inch planks . . ditto. 
 
 300 feet super, of 2 inch ditto . . . ditto. 
 
 400 feet super, of 1£ inch ditto . . . ditto. 
 
 600 feet super, of 1 inch ditto. . . . ditto. 
 
 100 feet super, are one square in roofing, flooring, & c. &c. 
 
 12| 12 feet boards to one square of rough flooring 
 
 12£ 12 feet ditto, edges shot 
 
 13 12 feet ditto, wrought and laid folding 
 
 14 12 feet ditto ploughed and tongued 
 
 17 12 feet battens, wrought and laid folding. 
 
 In carpenters’ work and flooring, the girders and binders of bridged and 
 ceiling floors are measured as framed work. 
 
 In roofing, all the truss, including tie-beams and binders, is measured as 
 framed timber, — also gutter-plates, diagonal dragging pieces, and wind- 
 braces ; but halving, dovetailing, and scarfing in bond timbers, are not con- 
 sidered as framed timber. Allow cuttings and waste to hips, deduct one 
 side of king-posts between the shoulders, deduct half a side of queen-posts, 
 and deduct half the length of bond timber to all openings. 
 
 If the ends of a plain pitch roof are vertical, or gables, as at G Gr in fig. 98, 
 
 Fig. 98. Fig. 99. 
 
 M 
 
114 
 
 HIP AND VALLEY ROOFS. 
 
 
 figure, us in tig. 98, is a perspective sketch of the elevation of the roof, and the 
 lower one, a geometrical plan of it. In this plan, one half is shewn over the 
 covering, and the other half uncovered, displaying the principals beneath. 
 In this part of the figure, P P P represent the ordinary principals, li H the 
 hip principals at the angle of 45° with the sides and ends of the building, and 
 It a half principal framed to the last of the ordinary principals at the end of 
 the ridge. This arrangement is for a simple king-post-truss : for a queen- 
 post-truss, tw o half principals are introduced at the hipped ends of the roof 
 abutting against the queens of the last principal P. 
 
 Pig. 100 shews a sketch of elevation and plan of two roofs intersecting 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 at a right angle. The ends of the main roof are shewn hipped, the smaller 
 roof terminating in a gable. The intersection of the two roofs forms valleys 
 at V V. This is therefore a hip and valley roof. Pigs. 101 and 102 repre- 
 
 Figs. 101 and 102. 
 
 h l. s (i! dd m ^i 9 lnt . ro<luc£l 1,1 “ l».p-roof to suport tl.c lnpp-rafl 
 <,f ill J V I 0 / ’ , T ‘ ! 8# P la ?> nml ]02 > “ section, \Y V Wl> shew the ci 
 dm' t i" ' 1 ’ 3 halved t°K ether at the angle. An angular brace A IS 
 
 own upon the nail-plates at the angle, and morticed in the angular br, 
 
ROOFS OF IRREGULAR PLAN. 
 
 115 
 
 ut the other end. The plan shews the mortice cut in the top of the dragon- 
 beam to receive the foot of the hip-rafter H It. It sometimes occurs that 
 the plan of a hipped roof is not rectangular, nor its boundary lines parallel. 
 The section of the roof at the narrowest end in such cases, if an ordinary 
 pitch roof, determines the height of the roof, and in order to preserve this 
 height throughout, and avoid winding surfaces, the central part is covered 
 with a flat, triangular on plan. The late Peter Nicholson, whose memory 
 should live in the esteem of all practical carpenters, showed the manner of 
 laying down the plan of such a roof, and of obtaining the end principals, and 
 the cant or bevel of the back of the hip-rafters, in a figure which we here 
 copy ; and which, although belonging rather to theoretical than practical 
 construction, is too generally useful to need apology for its introduction in 
 this place. Let ABC D, fig. 103, be the plan of the area to be roofed. Bisect 
 the angles A, B,C, and D. Through the intersection at E, draw PEG parallel 
 to A B. Erom E, also draw E H and E I parallel to A D and B C respec- 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 tively. Through H I, the 
 points in which these pa- 
 rallels cut the bisecting 
 lines from D and C, draw 
 J H I K parallel to D C. 
 The two lines E E G and 
 J II I K shew the seats of 
 the end principals which 
 may be erected upon these 
 lines as shewn in our fi- 
 gure. The lengths and 
 inclinations of the hip-raf- 
 ters are obtained by setting 
 up the lines E a, E b, I c, 
 and II d, at right angles 
 with the bisecting line of 
 each angle respectively, 
 and all equal in height to 
 the height of the principals. 
 The lines a A, b B, c C, 
 and d D, shew the hip 
 rafter for each angle of the 
 building. 
 
 To find the angle at the 
 back of the hip rafters, 
 draw any line e f perpen- 
 dicular to the base of the 
 hip, as G I, and cutting it 
 at g ; through g draw g h 
 perpendicular to the hip 
 
 line c C, cutting it in h ; make g i equal to g h. Join i f and i e, and e i f 
 
 will be the angle required. 
 
 The present London prices for the leading items in carpenters’ work are as 
 
 follow : — 
 
lie 
 
 PRICES OF TIMBER AND CARPENTERS WORK, 
 
 FIR. Rough, no labour per foot cube 
 Bond lintels and plates „ 
 
 Framed „ 
 
 OAK. Die-square, and free from Sap. 
 
 Per foot rube. Not exceeding i n area 
 
 Not exceeding 10 feet in length 
 Rough, no labour . . 
 
 Bond lintels and plates 
 Framed 
 
 Not exceeding 1 5 feet in length 
 Rough, no labour . . 
 
 Bond lintels and plates 
 Framed 
 
 Not exceeding 20 feet in lengtl 
 Rough, no labour . . 
 
 Bond lintels and plates 
 Framed 
 
 DEAL BOARDING. 
 
 Rough, per square 
 
 edges shot . . 
 
 — - — wrought one side . I 18 6 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1 11 
 2 4 
 
 2 7 
 
 1G in. 
 
 36 in. 
 
 6 tin. | 
 
 100 
 
 in. | 
 
 144 
 
 in. 
 
 3 . 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 8 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 cl. 
 
 8 . 
 
 d. 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 10 | 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 1 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 4 1 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 4 i 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 »> 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 £ in. 
 
 $ in. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 11 in. 
 
 
 
 9. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 B. 
 
 d. 
 
 8 . 
 
 cl. 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 3 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 | 25 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Per foot super. 
 vV ainscot .... 
 Honduras Mahogany . 
 Spanish ditto 
 Elm, seasoned . 
 
 Ash n 
 
 Beech „ 
 
 Birch 
 
 In 
 
 £ in. ; 3 in. | 
 
 1 
 
 in. i 11 in. 
 
 1A in. i 2 
 
 in. 
 
 2i 
 
 1 in. 
 
 8. 
 
 d s 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 ci. >. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 8 . 
 
 d. 
 
 0 
 
 6 jo 
 
 8£ 
 
 0 
 
 10 1 
 
 01 
 
 1 
 
 21 ; l 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 Of 
 
 0 
 
 0 ; 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 10 1 
 
 01 
 
 1 
 
 2£ 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 1 
 
 2 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 . 1 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 2£ 2 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2£ 0 
 
 2 *| 
 
 0 
 
 3£ 0 
 
 41 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 Cl 
 
 0 
 
 71 
 
 0 
 
 21 0 
 
 «l 
 
 0 
 
 4£ 0 
 
 5£ 
 
 0 
 
 6£ 0 
 
 81 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2£ 0 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 3£ 0 
 
 41 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 ci 
 
 0 
 
 71 
 
 0 
 
 2f | 0 
 
 8*1 
 
 0 
 
 4£ 0 
 
 5£! 
 
 0 
 
 6£ 0 
 
 81 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 PRICES OF NAILS, &c. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 £ Cut Brads 
 
 1 
 
 1* 
 
 w 
 
 II 
 
 £ Fine Wrought Brads 
 
 1 *i 
 
 u 
 
 >* 
 
 2 
 
 Flat Pointa. 
 
 Weight per M. 
 . 12lbs. 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 Clout Nails, 2d. 
 
 I£ 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 „ 3d. 
 
 . 2£ 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 „ 4U. 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 m Cd. 
 
 • 7 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 „ 8d. 
 
 . 12 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 «■ 
 
 „ lOd. 
 
 . 16 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Per Thousand, 
 s. d. 
 
 0 11 
 0 6 
 
 0 7 
 0 8 
 0 11 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 7 
 
 d. 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
PRICES OF NAILS, ETC. 
 
 Per Thousand. 
 
 in. in. s. d. 
 
 Flooring Brads, 
 
 12lbs 
 
 . 2£ long, for 1 
 
 floor 
 
 . 2 
 
 5 
 
 99 
 
 
 1G 
 
 21 
 
 „ H 
 
 »> 
 
 . 3 
 
 0 
 
 ,, 
 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 „ 1 h 
 
 »> 
 
 . 3 
 
 7 
 
 Rose Nails 
 
 
 
 
 91bs. 
 
 
 . 2 
 
 0 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 . 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 . 3 
 
 4 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 . 4 
 
 3 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 . 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 lbs 
 
 OZ9. 
 
 
 
 
 Brads, 2d. 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 
 . 0 
 
 7 
 
 „ 3d. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 . 0 
 
 10 
 
 „ 4d. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 1 
 
 ,, Gel. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 6 
 
 Fine Clasp, 
 
 3d. 
 
 
 
 21bs. 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 2 
 
 99 
 
 4d. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 4 
 
 99 
 
 6d. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 8 
 
 „ lOd. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 . 2 
 
 5 
 
 „ 20d. 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 . 3 
 
 7 
 
 Wall hooks, plumbers 
 
 ’ hooks, and hold-fasts, 
 
 
 . per 
 
 cwt 
 
 Cast lath Nails, 21bs. ' 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,, ,, 31bs. 
 
 f 
 
 * 
 
 * * 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 99 
 
 
 Spikes, 2s. Nails 
 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 per lb. 
 
 Dog Nails . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 99 
 
 Knee Nails 
 
 Town or countersunk Clout . 
 
SECTION VI. ROOF COVERING. 
 
 Slates Truss. Lead. Iron. Coppeh. Glass. Felt. Aspiialte, etc. 
 
 82. Slate. Slate is a material which is met with in a great variety of 
 qualities. That used for roofing is quarried abundantly in Westmoreland, 
 Yorkshire, Leicestershire, Cornwall, and Devonshire. Also, to a great 
 extent in Wales, for the London market. In Scotland — Balahulish and 
 Easdalc furnish the chief supply. Irish slate, of good quality, is now 
 quarried in the island of Yalentia, Kerry. Slate appears to be a sedimen- 
 tary rock, formed by the deposition of minute particles of the primary rocks 
 in a stratum of mud, subsequently consolidated by heat or pressure. This 
 theory of formation seems especially probable in the case of those slates 
 which contain vegetable or animal remains. In some instances, the deposi- 
 tions of mud have become intermixed with matter ejected by submarine 
 volcanoes, or fragments of older rocks, broken and dispersed by geological 
 convulsions. This kind of intermixture has produced the varieties of grey- 
 wackc rocks, which pass from coarse slate into conglomerate rocks, and 
 occasionally appear composed of slate and sand ; differing but little 
 from sandstone. Flinty slate contains more siliceous earth than the other 
 kinds, and is frequently met with alternating with the latter. This kind 
 of mixture, when it loses the laminar structure, becomes hornstotie , or as 
 the French call it petro-silex. Tf it contains crystals of felspar, it is 
 termed homstonc porphyry. All these varieties are found alternating in 
 the same rocks in Chamwood forest, in North Wales, and in Cumberland. 
 Slate contains nearly all the principal metallic ores, either in veins or beds, 
 but JUnt slate seldom contains any of these. The killaa of Cornwall, 
 which is remarkably metalliferous, is a variety of slate. Clay-date is a 
 softer kind, found in the coal strata, abounding" in the most rocky districts, 
 resting on granite, gneiss, or mica slate. That slate lying nearest to the 
 primary rocks has a more shining lustre than the other, and partakes 
 more of the crystalline quality of mica slate : receding from these its 
 texture becomes more earthy. In colour, it has various shades of grey, 
 inclining to blue, green, purple, or red. It is chiefly composed of indu- 
 rated clay, with, occasionally, particles of quarlz and mica, and in the 
 coarser kinds, fragments of the primary rocks, grains of felspar, &c. 
 Clay-slate is always found in stratified beds, from half-an-inch to many 
 hundred feet in thickcss. Slate rocks van* much in quality in the same 
 mountain. Magnesia enters largely into the composition of some of the 
 elates, giving them a green colour, whence they pass into chloric or talcy 
 slate. Whetstone slate, used for hones, is a variety of this kind. The 
 
SLATING. 
 
 119 
 
 
 fine kind, which is used for rooting, seldom forms entire mountains, but is 
 generally embedded in coarser qualities. The beds arc sometimes of great 
 thickness, and usually rise at an elevated angle. Those varieties which 
 are the least absorbent, have the smoothest surface, and split into the 
 thinnest plates, are, of course, the best for conversion. A symptom of 
 quality for durability is afforded by breathing on the slate, when, if the 
 argillaceous odour is strongly emitted, it may be inferred that the slate will 
 be liable to rapid decomposition. The large slate quarries at Penryn, are 
 worked in successive ranges of elevation, or terraces, and the slate is obtained 
 in immense masses by blasting. 
 
 83. Slating. Slates are applied to roofs in the ordinary way, by being 
 nailed down with copper nails upon wooden battens, fixed parallel to the 
 ridge upon the backs of the common rafters. The distance apart of these 
 battens is determined by the size of the slates used, and their scantlings 
 depend on the weight of the slating and distance between the common 
 rafters. Figs. 104 and 105, represent a plan and section of a portion of 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 
120 
 
 SLATES. 
 
 slating on a roof. P R i9 the principal rafter, and P the purline, C 11, 
 the common rafter, and 13 13, the battens for slates. Each slate is fixed 
 down by means of two copper nails, and the heads of the nails in each row 
 of slates arc covered by the next row above. The slates are laid with flush 
 edges, and arranged so as to break joint in the lines of the rafters, 'llie 
 battens are 2 j to 3 inches wide, and f, 1, or l£ inches thick. 
 
 The following table shews the names and various sizes of slates, their 
 weight per thousand, number of each size required to cover a square, or 100 
 feet super, of roofing, the price of the slates per thousand, and price of 
 slating complete per square, including slates, labour and copper nails. 
 
 NAMES OF SLATES. 
 
 Sizes. 
 
 Weight per 
 Thousand. 
 
 No. or Wt. 
 required to 
 cover one 
 square. 
 
 Price of | 
 Slates per 
 Thousaud 1 
 of 1200. 
 
 Price of 
 Slating com- 
 plete per 
 square. 
 
 Queens .... 
 
 ditto .... 
 Princesses 
 
 Inches. 
 27 by 30 
 33 by 36 
 24 by* 
 
 — 
 
 71 cwt. 
 
 Per Ton. 
 s. d. 
 43 0 
 43 0 
 40 0 
 Per. M 
 
 £ a. d. 
 
 1 11 6 
 
 Duchesses . . . 
 
 ! 24 by 12 
 
 3 6 0 0 
 
 123 
 
 137 6 
 
 1 7 0 
 
 ditto .... 
 
 j 22 by 12 
 
 2 17 0 0 
 
 134 
 
 110 0 
 
 
 Countesses 
 
 20 by 10 
 
 2 2 0 0 
 
 181 
 
 90 0 
 
 1 5 0 
 
 Viscountesses . 
 
 18 by 10 
 
 1 17 0 0 
 
 — J 
 
 62 6 
 
 
 Ladies (large) 
 
 16 by 10 
 
 1 13 0 0 
 
 — 
 
 50 0 
 
 
 ditto (middling) . 
 
 16 by 8 
 
 17 0 0 
 
 266 
 
 •10 0 
 
 1 1 6 
 
 ditto (small) 
 
 Imperials 
 
 Patent .... 
 Westmoreland 
 
 14 by 8 
 30 by 24 
 j 30 by 24 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 8 cwt. 
 8 cwt 
 
 22 6 
 
 2 0 0 
 2 7 6 
 
 One Cubic foot of Slate = 1121bs., or 1 cwt. 
 
 One and a half- inch Slab of ditto = 141bs. per foot. 
 
 Welsh slate slabs, planed, sawn square and in regular widths, are sold in 
 London at the following prices per foot superficial : — 
 
 1 in. thick. H in. 1 § in. 1J in. 2 in. 
 
 5d. fid, 7d. 8d. 9d. 
 
 ^ alcntia slate slabs, sawn or planed, and with sawn edges, are sold in 
 London at the following prices per foot super : — 
 
 a. 
 
 To 4 long 
 ti „ 
 8 „ 
 10 „ 
 12 ,, 
 
 Inches Thick. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 l 
 
 n 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 J 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 8 . 
 
 d. 
 
 8 . 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 9. 
 
 d. 
 
 s 2 
 
 0 wide 
 
 3* 
 
 5 
 
 6* 
 
 71 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 « m 
 
 4 
 
 5| 
 
 7 
 
 81 
 
 0 
 
 01 
 
 1 
 
 oi 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 8 a 
 
 *1 
 
 6 
 
 71 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 101 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 ] 
 
 5 
 
 l 
 
 8 I 
 
 3 
 
 fi a 
 
 
 6* 
 
 8 
 
 »1 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 l 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 fi .» 
 
 
 
 
 10 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 0 1 
 
 4 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 • Various breadths. 
 
 0 
 
 fi 
 
TILE COVERINGS FOR ROOFS, ETC. 
 
 121 
 
 Fif?- lOfi. Slate ridges are now sometimes 
 
 substituted for the lead coverings 
 which were formerly used for the 
 ridges and hips of slate roofs. These 
 slate ridges are made in two parts, 
 whereof one has the roll formed in it. 
 They are prepared in lengths fitted 
 together with rebate joints. 
 
 Fig. 10G shews a section of the 
 two parts forming this ridge, which 
 are secured to the ridge plate with 
 screws and oil cement. Copper bolts are fixed in the holes at A, to connect 
 the butting ends of the rolls. 
 
 84. Tile Coverings for Roofs. Common tiling is of two kinds — with plain 
 tiles and pantiles. The former being plain and flat, is firm; the latter, 
 with an under fillet at the top for resting against the battens, curved on its 
 surface so as to form ridges and furrows from the ridge to the gutters, and 
 having one side-fillet on the upper surface for under-lapping the correspond- 
 ing edge of the adjoining tile. Plain tiles are secured by pins to laths, 
 which are 1 inch broad, and J inch thick. A bundle of these laths con- 
 tains 500 feet run, and weighs 3 lbs. ; 30 bundles forming one load. Plain 
 tiles measure lOj by 6^ by ^ inches wide, and weigh 2 lbs. 5 ozs. each. The 
 number required to cover one square, if each tile shews a breadth of 4 
 inches on the face, is 600; if 3J inches, 700; if 3 inches, 800. Pantiles 
 measure 1 foot l£ inches, by 9| inches, by J inch, and weigh 5 lbs. 4 ozs. 
 each. They are fixed to laths 1 j inches broad, by 1 inch thick, of which, 
 a 10 feet bundle contains 12 laths, or 120 feet run ; or a 12 feet bundle, 144 
 feet of pantiles laid to a 10 inch guage ; 180 are required for one square, 
 or 164 to an 11 inch guage, or 150 to a 12 inch guage. The several varieties 
 of ornamental tiles and modes of arranging them to cover roofs, constitute 
 a very long list, of the principal of which, a brief notice will be found in the 
 Appendix at the end of this work. The present London prices for tiles 
 are, for — 
 
 Plain Tiles 
 
 Pan-hip, or ridge Tiles . 
 Ornamental plain Tiles . 
 
 The price of tiling complete, is, for- 
 
 per Thousand 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 17 9 
 
 3 0 0 
 
 2 19 3 
 
 Pantiling, including hips and ridges laid in mortar, beading, filleting, 
 
 &c., pointed inside and outside . . . per square 1 10 G 
 
 Plain Tiling, on double fir laths, and wrought nails . „ 115 0 
 
 85. Lead Coverings for Roofs. — Flats, Gutters , Rain Water Pipes , Heads , 
 and Shoes. As a material for roof covering, lead is applied chiefly to flat 
 roofs, technically called fiats . As these are peculiarly liable to the heating 
 effect of the sun when in the meridian, they should be framed of tho- 
 roughly seasoned timber, and although termed flat, should yet have a fall 
 not less than l inch in 3 feet. The lead is laid on boarding, of which the 
 edges should be shot , that is, planed truly square and parallel to fit closely 
 
 N 
 
122 
 
 LEAD COVERINGS FOR ROOFS. 
 
 against each other. The boarding is laid in the direction of the fall upon 
 the back of the timbers corresponding with the common rafters of ordinary 
 pitch roofs. The lead is supplied in sheets, about 6 feet by 16 or 17 feet ; 
 but is not to be used in this width ; 3 feet, or half the width of the sheet, 
 being the maximum that should be employed. The side joints of the 
 lead are formed by fixing wooden rolls l£ or l£ inch wide, and high and 
 semicircular on the top surface, to the boarding, and dressing the lead over 
 these, one sheet overlapping the other over the roll. If the inclination of 
 the roof is considerable, nails are driven through the lead into the roll to 
 secure it, and the lead is afterwards soldered over ; but this soldering soon 
 fails, as the metal contracts and expands with alternations in temperature, 
 and the nails and soldering are better avoided if possible. All fixings of this 
 kind are to be avoided ; the sheets jshould be fitted loosely, that is, with a little 
 play sideways, and no fastenings used, beyond those absolutely indispensable 
 to keep the covering in its place. Except when applied for cisterns, pipes, &c. 
 should never be soldered. Sheet lead is manufactured by two processes, casting 
 and milling. Cast lead is produced by casting the metal in a fluid state into 
 sand, while the milled lead is passed between cylinders. The former is liable 
 to inequalities of thickness, and to sand-holes ; the latter is necessarily equally 
 thick throughout. Casting cannot be performed on an inferior quality of 
 metal, while any description can be milled with equal facility. To ensure 
 goodness of quality, therefore, some builders prefer cast lead, while, for even- 
 ness of surface, which is of course essential to the rapid passage of the water, 
 and for uniformity of thickness, the milled lead is adopted. Cast lead is 
 never to be used under 6 lbs. weight per superficial foot, as it then becomes 
 too thin to admit irregularities of thickness without risking the tenacity of 
 the material. Gutters are usually constructed of lead, and in ordinary cases 
 parallel to the pole plate, which sometimes is allowed to form one side of the 
 

 LEAD GUTTERS, PIPES, ETC. 123' 
 
 lead flashing to conduct the water surely to the gutter. G is another flashing 
 let into the joint of the parapet, and overlapping the other edge of the gutter 
 for a similar purpose. For large and substantially constructed buildings, the 
 flats should be of 9 lbs. lead, that is, lead weighing 9 lbs. per foot super. — - 
 the gutters 8 lbs. — the hips and ridges, 6 lbs. — and the flashings, 4 or 5 lbs. 
 In inferior buildings, these weights may be reduced to the extent of l lb. 
 in each case, but not more. At the point where the head of the down-pipes, 
 or rain-water pipes is connected with the gutter, a cistern is provided, from 
 18 to 24 inches in length, and 6 to 12 inches deep, according to the 
 capacity and fall of the gutters which discharge into it. By this cistern, 
 the rush of water in heavy rains towards the point of escape is prevented 
 from overflowing the sides of the gutter. The head of the vertical piping 
 is secured to the bottom of the cistern, which is fitted to lead into it. The 
 head of the piping is adapted, according to the position of the gutter and 
 cistern with reference to the wall of the building, either to lead directly 
 and vertically into the pipe, or obliquely, with a curved stem. The head 
 of the pipe should be covered with a separate cover, or cauliflower head , 
 formed as a hollow hemisphere on a flat flange, or rim, — the curved por- 
 tion being closely perforated with holes, to admit a passage for the water, 
 but prevent leaves, scraps of mortar, or other refuse matters, passing into 
 the pipes. Large gutters are sometimes covered throughout with perfo- 
 rated lids for a similar purpose, but this is a costly expedient, and one 
 seldom required, if the gutters are fairly proportioned in capacity, and pro- 
 perly constructed in all their parts. At the bottom of the stack of pipes a 
 shoe is fitted, turning obliquely in direction, and which thus checks the force 
 of the water in passing into the drain. Rain-water pipes, heads, and shoes, 
 are now used of cast iron, fitted together at the joints with sockets, which 
 should receive the lower end of the pipe above, and have the space between 
 well filled with red lead, cement, or oakum. The socket has two ears cast 
 upon it, and holes in them for driving nails into the wall. The following are 
 the present London prices of these articles : — 
 
 
 Pipes, per yd. 
 
 Heads, each. 
 
 
 Shoes, each. 
 
 Gutters, 
 
 Diameter. I 
 
 d 
 
 '3 
 
 ns 
 • a> 
 rt ^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 ns 
 • o 
 B ~ 
 
 
 .4 
 
 • « 
 <4 .£ 
 
 
 
 a | 
 
 
 £ 
 
 ° S 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 O C 
 
 ^ ns a 
 «*- ^ 
 
 
 E 1 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 H-t f? 
 
 
 1 
 
 Inches. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8. d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 3. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. d, 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 0 
 
 . 3 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 2 2 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 0 
 
 9 4 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 5 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 71 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 9 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 7 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 1 9 
 
 2 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 101 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 10 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 1 2 0 
 
 2 41 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 4 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 2 71 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 3 3 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 11 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 11 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 7 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 5 
 
 0 10 
 
 
 4 
 
 51 
 
 ! 3 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 9 
 
 0 11 
 
 ! i 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 I 4 8 
 
 |3 
 
 6 
 
 4 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 I* 
 
 9 1 
 
 per yd. 
 
 • o 
 
 O 
 
 ► 
 
 s. d. 
 
 The prices here quoted are for half-round gutters. Ogee and moulded 
 gutters are Is. 2d. per yard for 4 inch ; galvanized, 2s. ; Is. 6d. per yard for 
 5 inch ; galvanized, 2s. 6d. ; and 2s. per yard for 6 inch ; galvanized, 3s. 
 The nails for fixing wall-pipes are called astragal headed nails, and sold at Is. 
 per dozen. The 3 inch wall-pipe usually weighs about 15 lbs. per yard, and 
 
 
124 
 
 WEIGHT AND PRICES OF LEAD FOR ROOFS, ETC. 
 
 
 the 5 inch 80 lbs., 3 inch heads 18 lbs. each, and 3 inch shoes 11 lbs. 156 
 nails weigh 28 lbs. 
 
 A cubic foot of lead weighs 711 lbs. ; a square foot, one inch thick, weighs 
 59 J lbs. The thickness of sheet lead, according to the weight per foot, is 
 therefore nearly as follows, the error being in taking it at 60 lbs. per foot, 
 instead of 59 J lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 io 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 I 6 
 
 Weight per superficial foot 
 Thickness ditto . . . . 
 
 Or the exact weight according to thickness is as follows : — 
 
 lbs. 
 
 12 
 
 in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 in. 
 
 !bs. 
 
 in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 3.70 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 18.51 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 33.33 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 48.14 
 
 1 
 
 7.40 
 
 3 
 
 S' 
 
 22.22 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 37.03 
 
 7 
 
 r 
 
 51.85 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 11.10 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 25.92 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 40.73 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 55.55 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 14.81 
 
 1 
 
 2 I 
 
 29.62 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 44.44 
 
 1 
 
 59.25 
 
 The following Table shews the weight of lead pipes, per foot run. It is 
 introduced here in case of being required for reference, although this material 
 should be entirely discarded for water pipes, being poisonous to the quality 
 of the liquid. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Bore. 
 
 1 1 in. thick. 
 
 2 in. thick. 
 
 Bore. 
 
 | in. thick. 
 
 i l in. thick. 
 
 inch. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 inch. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 2.19 
 
 4.85 
 
 22 
 
 4.29 
 
 9.21 
 
 If 
 
 1 2.43 
 
 5.84 
 
 21 
 
 4.61 
 
 9.70 
 
 u 
 
 | 2.66 
 
 5.81 
 
 2* 
 
 4.92 
 
 10.25 
 
 1* 
 
 1 2.91 
 
 6.30 
 
 22 
 
 5.09 
 
 10.66 
 
 u 
 
 3.15 
 
 6.70 
 
 22 
 
 5.33 
 
 11.15 
 
 1* 
 
 j 3.39 
 
 7.27 
 
 21 
 
 5.57 
 
 11.63 
 
 u 
 
 ; 3.64 
 
 7.76 
 
 22 
 
 5.82 
 
 12.12 
 
 12 
 
 j 3.88 
 
 8.17 
 
 3 
 
 6.06 
 
 12.61 
 
 2 
 
 1 4.12 
 
 8.73 
 
 
 
 
 London prices are as follow’ : — 
 
 Milled lead, cut to dimensions, and delivered at Works 
 
 per cwt. 
 
 Sheet lead, and lead hi weights .... do. 
 
 Labour and nails in laying do. 
 
 Do. in hips and ridges do. 
 
 I)o. in step and other flashings .... do. 
 
 Cramping lead do. 
 
 Drawn or Patent pipe do. 
 
 Solder composed of the best pig lead and block tin, 1 tin to 
 
 u * • _ per lb. 
 
 Soldering scams, 12 lb. solder to each foot, (labour and all 
 materials) p Cr f 00 t run 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 0 18 
 0 18 
 0 3 
 
 0 0 6 
 
 0 0 10 
 
IRON COVERINGS FOR ROOFS. 
 
 125 
 
 86. Iron Coverings for Roofs . Although this description of work belongs 
 
 more properly to Iron Roofs — or those formed and constructed entirely of 
 iron — yet since sheet iron is occasionally employed to cover wooden roofs, 
 a brief reference to it appears to be appropriate in this place. This material 
 is thus employed in two forms, either as plain sheets, or corrugated ; that is, 
 formed by passing between rollers into a curved waved surface, by which 
 expedient, great additional stiffness is obtained. Corrugated sheet iron may 
 be fixed upon battens 6 feet apart, but plain sheets require boarding or close 
 battening. The ordinary size of the sheets is G by 2 feet, but they may be 
 had at extra cost up to 7 feet long, and 3 feet wide. All sheet iron used 
 externally, should be painted in three coats of red lead and boiled oil paint ; 
 or still better, galvanized. The effect of galvanizing is to coat the iron over 
 with a covering of zinc, which does not oxidize, or rust. The process is 
 variously performed, sometimes by simple immersion of the iron in molten 
 zinc, but more elaborately, and it is said successfully, a thin coating of tin is 
 first precipitated on the iron, the sheets of which are afterwards passed 
 between rollers working in molten zinc with a flux of sal ammoniac, by which 
 means a further coating of the latter is obtained. The following Table shews 
 the size of the sheets, the thickness according to the wire guage, and in parts 
 of an inch ; the weight per square foot in lbs. and ozs. ; the No. of square 
 feet to a ton weight ; the present London price per ton for the plain sheets 
 galvanized ; for the corrugated sheets galvanized ; and for the corrugated 
 sheets galvanized and curved ; also the price per square of surface covered 
 for each kind of sheeting, fitted and prepared ready for laying, and also laid 
 complete. 
 
GALVANIZED SHEET IRON FOR ROOF COVERING, ETC. 
 
 
 
IRON COVERING9 FOR ROOFS. 
 
 127 
 
 The joints parallel with the ridge are alwjiys lapped from 4 to 6 inches, 
 and rivetted. Those from ridge to wall are lapped in the corrugated and 
 curved corrugated covering ; but in the plain covering, the sheets are turned 
 up at the sides, to fit against the side of a wooden roll, which is afterwards 
 capped with a separate Fig. 108 . 
 
 sheet-iron roll cap, 
 nailed or screwed down 
 on the roll, with gal- 
 vanized nails or screws. 
 
 Tig. 108 shows the 
 roll and capping ; A A 
 is the boarding, B B 
 the plain sheet iron 
 covering, turned up 
 at the edges CC; PD 
 is the roll, and E the 
 roll-cap secured to the roll at F F, which is also nailed or screwed to the 
 boarding at G. 
 
 Fig. 109 shews the joints in a roof-covering of corrugated sheet-iron ; A A 
 
 joints, and E F a portion of one of the battens or purlines on which the 
 covering is carried. If these are made of moderate scantling, and the trusses 
 of roof are not too far off apart, common rafters may be dispensed with. 
 Thus, if the sheets of metal are 6 feet by 2 feet, and the trusses 10 feet apart, 
 each batten or purline will carry 5 sheets, or 10 by 6 feet =60 feet of roof 
 
 Fig. no. 
 
 B 
 
128 
 
 COPPER AND ZINC COVERING FOR ROOFS. 
 
 surface, allowing 60 lbs. per foot, the extreme occasional load on each of these 
 timbers, maybe 60 by 60 = 3,600 equally distributed. Fig. 110 is a sketch 
 shewing the application of the curved corrugated sheet-iron as a covering for a 
 building of moderate span (up to 40 feet) without framing of any kind if the 
 columns, walls, or other supports be sufficiently firm to resist the thrust of 
 the covering. The sheets being curved to the required curve have in them- 
 selves little tendency to spread; but, if a weight of snow, &c., lie upon them, 
 it is of course likely to depress the roof, and force the points A and B apart 
 from each other. To resist this action, a tie-rod is sometimes introduced 
 between these points, and suspended in the middle by a slight king-rod from 
 the crown of the curve as indicated by dotted lines. The joining of the 
 sheets is performed similarly to those shown in fig. 109. 
 
 87. Copper Covering for Roofs. As a very durable but costly material, 
 copper is occasionally employed as a roof covering. The joints are made by 
 turning the edges of the sheets one over the other — forming what are tech- 
 nically termed seams. Boarding is indispensable as a bed for this covering, 
 the copper generally used being 12, 16, or 20 oz. to the foot super., and in 
 thickness, ^ Jj or of an inch in thickness respectively. A cubic foot of 
 copper weighs 650 lbs. The present London prices are as follow : — 
 
 12 oz. copper covering to flats, and gutters, including seams, labour, 
 
 ties, and nails, (to be measured on the face when finished) per foot s. d. 
 
 super 
 
 16 oz. ditto ditto ditto ditto ditto . .15 
 
 20 oz. ditto for flats ditto 19 
 
 Copper gutters per foot run, semicircular wired, complete 6 inches girt 0 1 1 
 
 8 inches ditto 1 2 
 
 10 inches „ ....... ..15 
 
 12 inches ,18 
 
 Tinned „ extra 2d. to 3d. 
 
 Labour, fixing, extra. 
 
 Copper pipes per foot run 
 
 2 inch diameter 
 2 } inch „ 
 
 3 inch „ 
 
 3| inch „ 
 
 4 inch „ 
 
 4} inch „ 
 
 5 inch „ 
 
 Sheet Copper per lb. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1 * 
 
 If 
 
 21 
 
 2f 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 n 
 
 Price. Joints each, 
 s. d. s. d. 
 
 2 7 6 0 
 
 3 6 6 6 
 
 3 10 7 0 
 
 4 4 7 6 
 
 5 3 9 0 
 
 6 2 11 0 
 
 7 6 13 0 
 
 0 11 
 
 88. Zinc Roof Covering. This is another material occasionally used as a 
 covering for roofs, being economical in first cost, light, and durable. It is 
 always laid upon boarding, with rolls at the transverse joints, and lapped, or 
 rolled, at the longitudinal joints. The sheets are 7 feet in length, and 2 feet 
 8 inches, or 3 feet wide. The guage, height, and price per foot superficial 
 nrr as follow : — 
 
glass covering for hoofs. 
 
 129 
 
 Gauge. No. 10. i 11. 
 
 OZ. I oz. 
 
 Weight per foot super. 14 16 
 
 Prices per foot super, s. cl. s. d. 
 
 Flats 0 4 0 4* 
 
 Gutters 0 4* 0 5 
 
 Verandahs . . . .0 6 0 6* 
 
 Corrugated roofs ..0 5 0 5$ 
 
 Do. including iron ( 
 ties and stays . 4 
 
 IS. 
 
 13. 
 
 u. 
 
 15. 
 
 oz. 
 
 oz. 
 
 oz. 
 
 oz. 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 i. d, 
 
 s. d. 
 
 B. d. 
 
 b. d. 
 
 0 o 
 
 0 5* 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 6J| 
 
 0 5* 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 6* 
 
 0 7 i 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 7* 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 8i 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 6} 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 7*| 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 9*| 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 10*1 
 
 GUTTERS AND RAIN-WATER PIPES. 
 
 Per foot run. 1 1 Each. 
 
 1 
 
 Diameter. | 
 
 J Gutters. 
 
 Ogee 
 
 Gutters. 
 
 Pipes, j 
 
 f Square 
 Heads. 
 
 Ogee 
 
 Heads. 
 
 Octagon 
 
 Heads. 
 
 Shoes. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 2 inches. 
 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2* „ 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 3* 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 „ 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 3* „ 
 
 0 
 
 3* 
 
 0 
 
 5* 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 „ 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 ' 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 4* » 
 
 1 0 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 e* 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 „ 
 
 ; 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 8 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chimney pipes, per foot, 10 in., 2s. 6d. ; 11 in., 2s. 9d. ; 12 in., 3s. 
 
 89. Glass Covering for Roofs. Asa novelty, applicable in some, but utterly 
 inapplicable in most cases, glass is to be noticed as a covering for roofs. As 
 usually adopted for green-houses, or, to a limited extent, in the form of sky- 
 lights, this material requires no mention in this place ; but as recently em- 
 ployed as a covering for the largest building of modern times, it merits a 
 brief description, chiefly as possibly suggestive of similar or modified intro- 
 duction in a more extensive class of buildings. The glass covering of the 
 building in Hyde Park for the Exhibition of the Works of Industry, consists 
 of plates, each 50 by 10 inches, and weighing 16 oz. to the foot super. 
 These are glazed in wooden sash-bars of slight scantling, each bar being 
 grooved along each side. The heads of these sash-bars are notched into a 
 ridge-plate, and the feet of them are similarly fitted on the upper edges of a 
 gutter grooved out of solid wood. Fig 111 shews a section of one bay of this 
 roofing. A A are two of the gutters just described, fixed 8 feet apart from 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 centre to centre. B B, the sash-bars, fixed at the angle of 24° with the hori- 
 zon, and resting at the top in the ridge-piece, C. Fig. 112 represents a sec- 
 tion of one of these gutters, which, after their designer, are named “ Paxton” 
 
130 
 
 ASPHALTED FELT ROOF COVERING. 
 
 gutters. A is the gutter, grooved out of a solid scantling of wood. B B are 
 the sash-bars, shewing the glass in section in the grooves of the sash-bars, 
 and the lower portion of the bar notched into the side of the gutter. C C 
 are two small grooves, formed along the sides of the gutter for the purpose 
 of receiving the water which may collect on the under side of the glass, in 
 the form of vapour, or ooze through from the outside during heavy rains. In 
 either case, the water will drip down over the side of the gutter, and find its 
 way into the channel C C, being thence conveyed away, without falling on 
 to the floor, &c., below. The bays, or spans between the columns which sup- 
 port the roof, are commonly 24 feet each. Three roofs of 8 feet each are 
 therefore ranged between the columns. The ends of the Paxton gutters bear 
 upon, and discharge into, wooden trough-gutters, carried on the top of the 
 girders fixed between the columns. The distance between the columns being 
 the same, or 24 feet, in the other direction also, this is the length of the 
 Paxton gutters, which are trussed with wrought-iron rods, and screwed up 
 till cambered. 
 
 90. Sej/ssel Asphalte and Metallic Lava are patent compositions, applicable 
 as roof coverings, adapted effectually to resist wet. They require close board- 
 ing as a bed. The asphalte is applied as follows : — Upon the boarding a 
 stratum of fine concrete, half an inch thick, is floated ; and this, when set, 
 is covered with thin common canvas, evenly stretched aud secured to the 
 boards with nails driven through the concrete, and on this canvas the asphalte 
 is applied. This canvas is introduced to prevent the asphalte being affected 
 by any sinking or sudden settlement of the timber, and also to guard against 
 the vapour produced by the application of the hot mastic to the concrete, (if 
 damp,) passing through the former, and causing it to become honey-combed. 
 Asphalte may be thus employed for roofs of considerable steepness, not 
 inclined more than 1 in 3 — that is, one foot of vertical height to every 3 feet 
 of base. It is, however, (being applied in a liquid condition,) more readily 
 and perfectly spread upon roofs which are flat, or nearly so. The trouble 
 and cost increase with the inclination. The following are the present prices 
 for asphalte roof covering, within four miles of Westminster Bridge : — 
 
 Quantity, 
 
 Feet super. 
 
 If 300 to 1000 
 1000 to 3000 
 3000 to 5000 
 Upwards 
 
 Concrete, not txceedii 
 
 Kates per foot super, 
 i in. thick. 4 in. thick. 
 
 d. 
 
 9 
 
 8i 
 
 81 
 
 8 
 
 g 1J in. thick, Id 
 
 If hoisted more than 30 feet, add 
 50 feet to 70, 
 
 s. d. 
 
 . 0 10 
 . 0 9| 
 
 . 0 9* 
 
 . 0 9 J 
 
 per foot super. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 0 
 0 
 
 5. U. 
 
 . o on , 
 
 add . .o o$ j pcr foot 8U i ,er - 
 
 The prices of patent metallic lava for roofing are as follow : 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 1 • r er f<> ot super . . 4d. to 4§d. 
 
 }'“••• » • 5d. to 5Jd. 
 
 lm • • »» 6d. to fijd. 
 
 JV F,U Roof Coloring. This material, made from rough ma- 
 
 enals. Curated with asphalte, nr hitumen.and pressed into sheets, uniformly 
 thuk, and of considerable stiffness and tenacity, possesses several advantages 
 
FLAT CEMENT HOOFS. 
 
 131 
 
 as a roof-covering for inferior building, for temporary use, or for repairing 
 old roofs, in cases where economy is imperative. It is supplied at one penny 
 per superficial foot, weighs only one-third of a pound per foot, possesses a 
 degree of elasticity which adapts it to variations in fonn with facility, and is 
 found to remain in good and efficient condition for several years. It may 
 therefore be considered as a cheap, light, elastic, and durable material. It is 
 made of one width, 32 inches, and in length up to 85 yards. The felt is 
 also used under slates and tiles, and assists in retaining the heat of the attic 
 rooms in winter, and excluding the action of the sun in summer. At the 
 London Docks, and in several manufactories, it has been applied as a ceiling, 
 nailed to the under side of the rafters, and lime-whitened. Lining damp 
 walls and gutters, covering com and hay-ricks, cattle-sheds, &c., are among 
 the purposes for which this material is found to be well adapted. For roofing, 
 it should be lapped two inches at the side-joints, and, after laying, dressed 
 with a mixture of tar, old slaked lime, and sand. It may be laid upon 
 boarding, either with or without rafters, or on light strips or battens of wood, 
 without boarding. In the first of these methods, the rafters may be, for 
 trusses 10 feet apart, 4 inches deep, and If inch wide, placed 18 inches apart, 
 and covered with half-inch boarding, laid longitudinally. If purlines are 
 used, and fixed from 4 to 6 feet apart , the boarding (£, or J inch) may be 
 laid from eaves to ridge, without rafters. For long ranges of shedding, about 
 10 or 12 feet wide, principals 12 feet apart, of slight scantling, will suffice, 
 with a j inch boarding laid from eaves to ridge, nailed to the plate and ridge- 
 piece. For a close-boarded roof, a pitch of 3 inches to the foot, or 1 in 4, 
 is found sufficient. The third method of laying, which dispenses with board- 
 ing, is constructed by fixing across the purlines battens 3 inches wide by | 
 inch thick, 30 inches apart from eaves to ridge, with parallel and intermediate 
 lighter battens, l£ inch wide, by | inch thick, fixed 7| inches apart. The 
 felt is then laid in strips from eaves to ridge, lapped at the joints over the 
 main battens, and upheld by the intermediate ones. The upper angles of 
 the battens should be planed off, and the felt fastened at intervals to the 
 smaller battens also. If the covering, from its elasticity, falls, or bags, 
 between the battens, it simply becomes corrugated to this extent, which occa- 
 sions no injury, and if the roof is well pitched, serves as gutters for the rain 
 water. Over the joints of the sheets a slip of wood, or batten, 1 ± inch square, 
 and rounded on the top, should be nailed down outside , as an extra fastening. 
 For dripping eaves — that is, eaves which overhang, and are without gutters 
 — an eaves-board should be nailed along under the ends of the battens, or 
 rafters, to which the felt is to be nailed. In the mode of covering last 
 described, it is found preferable to cut the felt to the required length, and 
 apply the dressing of tar, lime, and sand, before fixing, applying a second 
 dressing a month afterwards. 
 
 92. Flat Cement Roofs. In Malta and other places of similar climate, 
 these are constructed with joists of timber covered with 1 £ inch rough- 
 boarding, or stone slabs if they can be had, upon which a concrete of stone 
 chippings and lime is laid, 3 inches thick in the lower parts, and 8 inches in 
 the higher, forming a series of parallel inclined surfaces. On this concrete, 
 which is levelled on the top, a cement is spread f or 1 inch thick, composed 
 of a kind of lava, or pozzolana, called in Malta, “ dejfanf which becomes 
 
132 
 
 CONDUCTING POWER OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 
 
 hard, and forms a very durable and heat-resisting covering. Fig. 113, shews 
 a section of a portion of this deffan roofing, in which AAA are the joists, 
 B B, the boarding or slabs; C C, the concrete ; and D D, the deffan. Fig. 
 11-1 represents a section of the roof in the other direction. The water on 
 the roof is collected in the gutter, E, running at the ends of the channels 
 fonned by the cement, and got rid of by a pipe at one end of the building. 
 The gutter is formed in lengths of stone with a channel sunk in the top. 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 93. Conducting power and rate of cooling of various materials. One of 
 the most important considerations which is sometimes presented, in order to 
 determine the material with which to cover a roof, arises from the necessity 
 of preserving an equable temperature in the rooms immediately beneath it. 
 For this purpose, the conducting power, or disposition of substances to con- 
 duct or admit the passage of heat through them should be ascertained. 
 The smaller the conducting power, the warmer will the material be, and also, 
 the more it will resist the influence of the sun in raising the temperature of 
 the rooms beneath. The rate of cooling, or disposition to lose heat im- 
 parted to them, is not however in proportion to the conducting power of 
 substances. It might be supposed that the greater the conducting power 
 the more rapidly would the substance become cool, but this is found by ex- 
 periment not to be the exact result. r lhe following table shews the relative 
 conducting and cooling properties of various materials used in building as 
 determined by experiment. They are arranged according to their Con- 
 ducting powers. 
 
 MATERIALS 
 
 Plaster and Sand 
 Keene’s Cement 
 Plaster of Paris . 
 
 Roman Cement . 
 
 Beech Wood . , * 
 
 Lath and Plaster 
 Fir Wood . 
 
 Oak Wood . 
 
 Properties. 
 
 Conducting. Cooling. 
 68 91 
 
 • 69 80 
 
 73 88 
 
 • • . 76 105 
 
 81 122 
 
 93 107 
 
 100 100 
 
 • • . 122 80 
 
CONDUCTING POWER OF METALS. 
 
 133 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 Asphalte 
 
 Chalk 
 
 Napoleon Marble 
 Stock Brick 
 Bath Stone 
 Fire Brick . 
 Painswick Stone . 
 Malm Brick 
 Portland Stone . 
 Leunelle Marble 
 Bolsover Stone 
 Norfal Stone 
 Slate 
 
 Hair and Lime 
 Yorkshire Flagstone 
 Lead . 
 
 Properties. 
 
 Conducting. Cooling. 
 
 164 
 
 203 
 
 211 
 
 218 
 
 221 
 
 223 
 
 258 
 
 264 
 
 272 
 
 273 
 277 
 345 
 362 
 396 
 402 
 
 1888 
 
 52 
 
 108 
 
 170 
 
 140 
 
 116 
 
 149 
 
 135 
 
 112 
 
 134 
 
 146 
 
 139 
 
 139 
 
 144 
 
 55 
 
 146 
 
 138 
 
 Thus, rooms under lead flats are notoriously cold in winter and hot in sum- 
 mer, and from the high conducting property of all metals, it is apparent 
 that metal covering for roofs must be liable to this objection, unless obviated 
 by the addition of a slowly conducting stratum beneath. Thus a sheet iron 
 covering overlaid on a stratum of cement will make a good compound roof- 
 covering, combining the useful qualities of the metal, externally, and of the 
 cement, in preserving an equable temperature within. The relative conduct- 
 ing properties of the several metals, are as under 
 
 Lead . 
 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 Tin . 
 
 
 
 
 . 304 
 
 Zinc . 
 
 
 
 
 . 363 
 
 Iron . 
 
 
 
 
 . 374 
 
 Platinum . 
 
 
 
 
 381 
 
 Copper 
 
 
 
 
 . 898 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 
 
 . 973 
 
 Gold . 
 
 
 
 
 . 1000 
 
 Lead, therefore, which conducts heat 28 times as readily as cement, has only 
 half the conducting power of iron, and one-fifth that of copper. The figures 
 in our table indicate the rationale of employing fire bricks in preference to 
 iron for furnaces, and all receptacles for producing artificial heat by combus- 
 tion. They also suggest the applicability for its purpose of a recent novelty 
 under the name of a “ cottage stove,” which consists of a solid lump of fire- 
 clay, bottom, sides, and back, 4 inches in depth. 
 
SECTION VII. IRON CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 IRON AS A MATT. HI A I. OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.— MANUFACTURE OF IRON.— PlQ IRON AND 
 
 Malleable Iron.— Blast Furnaces; Cold and Hot Blast.— Foundry Iron, and Forge. 
 Iron.— Refining, Puddling, Hammering, and Rolling —Bar Iron of Various Sections. 
 — Standards and Columns.— Girders, Binders, Beams, and Joists; Rules for, etc. — Con- 
 nection of Iron Members in Buildino Construction.— Roofs, their Construction, 
 Details, etc. 
 
 94. Iron as a material of Building Construction. The superior importance 
 of iron as a building material has been partially understood for many years, 
 but has latterly grown up into a far wider recognition, and this metal* is now 
 properly regarded as a valuable constituent of most architectural structures. 
 Its principal applications are as columns or standards, girders, beams, joists, 
 bearers, lintels, flooring-plates, roofing complete, including the trusses, pur- 
 lines, rafters, roof-covering, gutters, rain water heads, pipes and shoes. In 
 the internal and external fittings, also, it is applied as fire-proof doors, closets, 
 and safes — as sashes, enclosures, and framing generally; stairs, straight, wind- 
 ing, and spiral ; railings, balconies, air-bricks and valves, gratings, chimney- 
 jambs, gates, window-guards, brackets, cantilevers, posts, tanks, and cisterns ; 
 boilers, stoves, ranges, and sash weights ; also as stable fittings, verandahs, 
 &c., &c. Manufactured in the two forms of cast and wrought or malleable 
 metal, this material possesses peculiar properties in each, which have to be 
 noticed. Cast iron is crystalline in structure, and only slightly elastic and 
 ductile, whereas malleable iron is fibrous, has considerable elasticity, and is 
 ductile in a high degree. Cast iron overloaded snaps or breaks short off, — 
 wrought iron first bends, and suffers fracture slowly by the gradual separa- 
 tion of its fibres. J F 
 
 95. Manufacture of Iron. The manufacture of iron consists mainly in the 
 two processes of producing pig-iron from the ore by smelting, and converting 
 this pig-iron into a malleable state, and rolling it into bars. The first of 
 t icse processes, the production of pig-iron, is effected by means of blast 
 umaccs, in which the iron-stone or mine is put, together wfith a proper sup- 
 p ) o coke to sustain combustion, and a portion of limestone to act as a 
 mix I he mine in South Wales is the argillaceous or clay iron ore which 
 sometimes occurs m strata, and at others in detached lumps or balls. The 
 mine generally used contains from 18 to 55 per cent, of iron. Clay and 
 i .n ionic neu i nter largely into the composition of the ore, with water, sul- 
 IMur, silica, and arsenic. These impurities are principally got rid of by 
 < .i mg or ca nnmg the ore in heaps or kilns, before smelting in the furnace. 
 > this preliminary process of roosting, the mine loses from 20 to 30 per 
 
MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 
 
 135 
 
 cent, in weight. Coke is a substitute for charcoal in the smelting of iron, 
 and was formerly unknown as available for this purpose. Charcoal is at 
 present in use in Russia and Sweden, and is occasionally employed in this 
 country in producing sheet iron of a peculiarly tough quality, adding £5 per 
 ton to the market value of the article. In the furnaces now employed in 
 Staffordshire, the proportions of materials to produce one ton of pig-iron, are 
 
 Ton Cwt. 
 
 Coal .... 2 5 (or 37 cwt of coke.) 
 
 Charred Mine . 2 5 to 10 cwt. 
 
 Limestone. . 0 13 to 16 cwt 
 
 The combustion of the materials in the furnace requires a powerful blast of 
 air to be sustained, which is effected by means of steam engines or water 
 power where the supply can be depended on through dry weather, but not 
 otherwise, as it is essential that the blast of a furnace should not be sus- 
 pended, even for a few hours. The air is driven by the engine through 
 pipes with tapered ends, termed iwyres , to a central point in the interior of 
 the furnace, at the base of the space in which the materials for conversion 
 are deposited. Formerly cold air only was thus pumped into the furnace ; 
 but under a patent obtained several years ago by Mr. Neilson, the blast is 
 now frequently artificially heated before it is admitted to the furnace. By 
 this expedient a much greater power of combustion is obtained, and some 
 economy is effected in the cost of conversion. Facilities are, however, 
 afforded by this process for using inferior materials, and cinders and 
 similar impurities are well known constituents of cheap hot blast iron. 
 In this way a comparative deficiency of strength is often discovered in 
 metal produced by the hot blast, and a natural consequence has been a popular 
 distrust of the process itself, and a belief that hot blast iron is necessarily by 
 reason of its mode of manufacture a weaker metal than that smelted by cold 
 air. The most careful experiments have, however, failed to establish any 
 such distinction, and the only one to be entertained appears to be that 
 between proper and improper materials. The pig iron produced by smelting 
 is of various qualities according to the materials or mode of manufacture, 
 the latter being conducted with reference to the purposes for which the metal 
 is designed. It may be divided principally into foundry iron and forge 
 iron t the former used in the form of pigs for casting ; the latter being only 
 applicable to the manufacture of bar iron. Of the foundry iron there are 
 three qualities, Nos. 1, 2, and 3. No. 1 differs from the other sorts, in con- 
 taining more carbon, being thus rendered more soft and fluid when melted, 
 so that it will run into the finest, and most delicate mouldings. In fracture 
 it shows a large, dark, bright, and open grain, and produces a dull sound like 
 lead when broken in the pig. No. 2 is less carbonized than No. 1, is less 
 soft and fluid when melted, closer grained and more regular in the fracture, 
 but is harder and stronger, and is preferable for all parts of machinery where 
 durability and strength are desired. These two kinds containing such large 
 proportions of carbon and oxygen arc unfit for re-manufacturing into bars ; but 
 foundry iron, No. 3, having less of these ingredients, is applicable in- 
 differently for the forge or foundry. It is extensively U3ed for castings 
 requiring great strength, or exposed to constant wear and tear. Mottled and 
 white iron are varieties fit only for the forge, while bright iron is an intermediate 
 
136 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 
 
 quality between No. 3 foundry, and mottled iron, which, although never 
 called foundry iron, is yet extensively used for large castings. Cast or foundry 
 iron is produced immediately from the furnace, the molten metal being run 
 into open channels in the sand, one main channel called the sow, leading into a 
 series of parallel furrows called the pigs. The pigs of iron thus formed are 
 ready for the cupola, to be melted and run into moulds for girders, columns, 
 and all other varieties of castings. For the conversion of pig iron into 
 malleable or w rought iron, a series of operations are usually performed ; viz. : 
 refining , puddling, hammering , and rolling ; and a duplicate process of cutting 
 up, piling, and rolling. Of these, the puddling and subsequent operations are 
 performed at the forge . Both refining and puddling have for their object the 
 more complete separation of the oxygen and carbon from the iron. The 
 refining consists in keeping the pigs in the state of fusion for some time ex- 
 posed to a very great heat, and a strong blast. The reduction of weight in 
 refining is about 10 percent. ; 185 tons of refined metal being produced from 
 151 tons of pigs. In the puddling furnace, the metal is formed by the work- 
 man into balls or blooms, which are then passed to the shingler or the roller. 
 Shingling consists in giving the puddled balls a few blow s with a very heavy 
 hammer, by which they are made more solid, and reduced to an oblong shape, 
 better adapted for passing through the rolls. The shingling is sometimes 
 omitted, and the balls passed at once to the rollers, w’hence they are delivered 
 in the form of rough bars, being passed and repassed between the rollers, and 
 successively reduced in section and increased in length by every passage. 
 The iron is now in the state of malleable metal, soft, tough, and hardly 
 fusible. The rough bars coming from the puddle rolls are consigned to the 
 mill, the forge work being completed. They are then cut into lengths with 
 shears, and carefully arranged in piles , consisting generally of five or six of 
 the pieces of bar laid evenly one on another, and are thus committed to the 
 balling or heating furnace, in which they are w elded, and prepared for the 
 rollers, which turn the metal out in bar iron of all varieties of form and size. 
 Of these forms, round, or rod iron, square iron, and flat iron are the 
 commonest sections, to which are added for special services, L or angle iron ; 
 T or tee iron ; I or double tee iron ; sash-bar iron various ; sections used for 
 railway bars, and others of less general adoption. Of bar iron, three qualities 
 are commonly recognised in the trade, viz. : common iron, best iron, and best 
 best, or chain cable iron. Scrap bars, composed of the short imperfect pieces 
 cut off the ends of the finished bars, are piled up carefully and rolled at once 
 into bars, or put into a puddling furnace, and at a welding heat formed into a 
 ball, which is shingled and rolled like common puddled iron. Scrap bars are 
 of a strong compact quality, and, mixed with best rough bars, produce good 
 finished iron. Cable bolts are in all cases made of carefully selected materials, 
 and are wholly or in part piled, heated, and rolled a second time. This 
 extra process so far improves the quality, that a bar of inferior iron, if cut 
 into lengths, piled, and rolled again, frequently produces one of the best 
 quality. The standard tests for cable iron are as follow’ : — 
 
STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF IRON. 
 
 137 
 
 Diameter of bar 
 in inches. 
 
 1 
 
 1 * 
 
 H 
 
 if 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 Required proof of 
 the manufactured 
 chain in tons. 
 19 
 26 
 32 
 38 
 44 
 52 
 
 Proof of the bar be- 
 fore manufacture, 
 tons. cwts. 
 
 17 3 
 
 23 0 
 
 27 2 
 
 35 0 
 
 39 0 
 
 44 2 
 
 Charcoal iron is produced by an extra process of refining, in which charcoal is 
 used instead of coke. The bloom taken out of the charcoal fire is beaten 
 down to a flat cake, in which state it is called stamped iron. It is then broken 
 into small pieces, piled, heated, and again beaten. Thus reduced to a slab 
 of about 100 lbs. weight, it is sold to the tin-plate manufacturers, to be rolled 
 into thin sheets, and afterwards tinned. It is particularly tough and strong, 
 and much harder than common iron. Of the other purposes to which char- 
 coal iron is applied, the principal is the manufacture of horse-nail rods. 
 
 96. Strength and Propei'ties of Iron as a Constructive Material. — Vertical 
 Supports. The most important applications of iron for building purposes 
 may be classed under the two heads of vertical supports, as in columns, 
 standards, and pillars; and horizontal supports , as girders, beams, joists, 
 lintels, and similar members. The powers to resist bending and crushing 
 are the properties required in the first class — transverse strength is the 
 desideratum in the second. Experiments in the first class have not furnished 
 us with any data of general applicability. They have developed the simple 
 power to resist crushing possessed by cast iron, but have not shewn the laws 
 which operate in modifying this power according to the varied sectional 
 forms in which the metal may be adopted, or the ratio in which this power 
 is practically limited by increasing the proportionate length of the casting. 
 A cylindrical form for these parts has several advantages, and is therefore 
 commonly preferred. Thu3, it has equal transverse strength in all directions, is 
 readily moulded, the least offensive to the eye, and presents no angles nor awk- 
 ward projections. If the metal is to be employed economically, and the greatest 
 stiffness obtained with the least material, the sectional diameter is increased 
 by casting the column hollow ; if, on the other hand, it be desired to reduce 
 its apparent size, the solid form is adopted. If transverse forces, to which 
 the support will be exposed, act always in definite directions, an increased 
 strength and stiffness may be obtained by giving the section greater diameter 
 or breadth in such direction, and proportionally reducing the diameter in the 
 other direction, and if these forces act definitely in two or more directions, 
 increased width may similarly be given in such directions, without any total 
 augmentation of metal. From these considerations we derive the four prin- 
 cipal sectional forms for these members as shew n fig. 115, viz : the solid and 
 the hollow cylindrical, A and B ; the cruciform, C, and the double-flanged, 1). 
 The cruciform is adapted lor cases in which the forces may be expected to 
 act at right angles to each other in the directions a b and c d ; or practically 
 this form may be substituted for the cylindrical if more convenient for apply- 
 ing other parts of the construction, or otherw ise preferable. The double- 
 flanged, D, is especially designed for forces acting in one direction only, as 
 
 p 
 
13$ 
 
 SECTIONS FOK VERTICAL SUPPORTS OF IRON. 
 
 ef^ns when applied in corresponding pairs of standards to support a roof, &c. 
 Fig. 116 shews another section, combining a hollow cylindrical column with 
 feathers, ribs, or flanges projecting from it. Considerable strength is thus 
 obtained, and the general appearance of the casting is agreeable to the eye. 
 Fig. 116. In fig. 117 a similar but differently propor- Fig. 117. 
 tioned figure is presented ; the feathers in 
 this section are of slight projection, but very 
 w i^ e > 80 that an octangular outline is pre- 
 \ seuted. The projections or feathers are here 
 
 to to be regarded as expedients for producing 
 Evr lines in the elevation, rather than as aids to 
 the rigidity of the column. The columns 
 employed throughout the Exhibition building in Hyde Park, are similar in 
 form to this section. Of the six sections here given, C and 1) are usually 
 termed standards, in distinction from columns A B and E F. 
 
 The weight required to crush cast iron tried in the form of cubes of one 
 inch, varies considerably, 26 tons being about the lowest, and 31 tons the 
 highest. By some experiments, however, a weight of 64j tons per square 
 inch of section has been found necessary to crush particular samples of this 
 metal.* The practical effect of weights acting vertically upon cast iron 
 columns, standards, &c., in deflecting them laterally from the vertical form, 
 has not been observed or recorded to an extent which admits of general 
 deductions. To attain the maximum strength with a given quantity of 
 metal, however, there are certain limits of the proportion of the diameter 
 to the length and to the thickness of metal, the observance of which will in 
 all, or nearly all, cases, secure cast iron vertical supports equal to any weight 
 which can be practically put upon them. And although the rules we are 
 about to give for determining these limits may have the appearance of 
 empiricism, yet being derived from actual experience, they may claim equal 
 validity with formula; which are usually based upon reductions from actual 
 experiment, frequently depending for their correctness on an unwarranted 
 comparison of small witli great masses. For the purpose of facilitatin' 
 the application of our rules to the several classes of buildings for supporting 
 the loaded floors of which columns may be required, we recognise 4 classes 
 each admitting a different proportion of diameter to length. Class I. corn- 
 
 • The mo»t recent and elaborate experiment* on Iron, were those performed by the 
 Hov4l Commission *• appointed to inquire into the application of Iron to Railway 
 Structure*." The principal result* of these experiments will be found in a quarto 
 work " Iron applied to Railway Structure*" with 12 plates, published by Atchley 
 
RULES FOR IRON COLUMNS. 
 
 130 
 
 prebends the heaviest description of work, such as that to which columns 
 are subject in factories where massive materials are wrought, powerful 
 machinery erected, and concussions have to be provided for. For this class 
 
 the limit of length is 10 times 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 •83 
 
 •85 
 
 •90 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 >\ 
 
 vn| 
 
 in 
 
 the diameter at the base. See Class I. 
 fig. 118. In Class II. are included build- 
 ings where lighter factory labour is per- 
 formed, and storehouses for heavy stores. 
 In this class the length should not exceed 
 1 2 times the base diameter. See Class II., 
 fig. 118. Class III. provides for lighter 
 storehouses and manufactories, buildings 
 for public resort, &c., and has a limit of 
 length 15 times the diameter. See Class 
 III., fig. 118. Class IV. includes dwelling 
 houses, and all the less weighted struc- 
 tures, and admits a length of 20 times 
 the base diameter. See Class IV., fig. 1 18. 
 The same rate of taper, or diminution, 
 viz., 1 in 10, applies to all these classes. 
 The thickness of metal in Class I. may be 
 from i to 1-1 2th of the base diameter; 
 in Class II. from l-12th to l-16th ; iu 
 Class III., from l-16th to l-20th ; and in 
 S Class IV., from l-20th to l-24th. Thus, 
 
 1 by way of examples, let the initial base 
 \ diameter be one foot ; Class I. columns 
 will then not exceed 10 feet in length, 
 
 | and may be, according to circumstances, 
 from 1 to lj inch metal. Class II. will 
 ! not exceed 12 feet in length, and may 
 i have f to 1 inch metal. Class III., may 
 [ be 15 feet in length, and from 6-lOths 
 to f inch metal, and Class IV. should not 
 I exceed 20 feet in length with a thickness 
 j from \ to £ of an inch. Special circum- 
 | stances, however, frequently affect the 
 ! case, and must have full consideration 
 j before deciding on the dimensions. If 
 an error be after all committed let it be 
 a safe one; waste a few pence or even 
 i pounds, in cast iron, rather than endanger 
 j an entire building, or risk destruction of 
 life. 
 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
HO 
 
 TENSILE STRENGTH OF CAST IRON. 
 
 The following table will facilitate the determination of sizes for columns. 
 The loads are those which can be sustained permanently and safely. 
 
 Width and Breadth 
 of Surface, 
 ft. in. ft. in. 
 
 22 6 X 22 6 
 
 23 6 X 23 6 
 
 I 25 0 X 25 0 
 
 20 0 X 20 0 
 
 ! 22 0 X 22 0 
 
 22 6 X 22 0 
 
 18 0 X 18 0 
 
 19 0 X 19 0 
 
 20 0 X 20 0 
 
 16 6 X 16 6 
 
 17 6 X 17 6 
 
 j 18 6 X 18 6 
 
 14 0 X 14 0 
 
 15 0 X 15 0 
 
 16 0 X 16 0 
 
 Upon the tensile strength of cast iron, experiments have exhibited the fol- 
 lowing results : — of seventeen kinds of iron, embracing Low Moor, Clyde, 
 Blaenavon, Calder, Coltness, Brymbo, Bowling, and anthracite irons, the 
 breaking weight per square inch of section varied from 5.602 tons to 7.949, 
 except the Clyde, of which one specimen withstood 10.477 tons before 
 breaking. Iron, known as Stirling’s, of which the peculiarity was, 
 that it consisted of cast iron mixed and melted with 20 percent, of malleable 
 iron and scrap, had a breaking weight of 11.502 tons, the cast irou used 
 being Calder No. 1, hot blast. The ratio of tensile to crushing resistance 
 varie9from 1 : 4.158 to 1 : 6.735, the average ratio of all trials being 
 1 : 5.6603. That is, a piece of cast iron may be torn asunder by somewhat 
 less than one-sixth the force required to crush it. The tensile strength 
 appears to depend but little, if at all, on the form of section. Thus, of 
 three sections on which experiments have been tried, viz., cruciform, (.64 inch 
 thickness of rib9 throughout); rectangular (2.3 by 1.75 inches); and 
 circular (2.26 inches, diameter) ; having areas equal or intended to be so, 
 the mean breaking weight per square inch varied only from 6.253 to 6.784 
 tons in the cruciform; from 6.115 to 6.267 tons in the rectangular; and 
 from 6.614 to 6.993 tons in the circular sections, lienee it would appear 
 that as far as the strength of a vertically loaded column may depend on its 
 power to resist lateral deflection, it will not be materially affected, whether 
 the form of section adopted be rectangular, circular, or cruciform. Wrought 
 or malleable iron has not hitherto been extensively employed as a material 
 for vertical supports ; for although its power of resisting compression is 
 superior to that of cast iron in the proportion of 7 to 6, the expense of 
 producing it in large masses, unfits it for adoption for all principal purposes. 
 And if made or built up of small parts, plates, bars, &c., the joints, however 
 ucll constructed, are so many weak places which practically reduce the 
 strength of the column, to a small fraction of the intrinsic ability of the 
 metal ; the facility of multiplying similar parts by the process of casting, 
 moreover, offers a powerful inducement to preference for cast iron in cases 
 where many corresponding pieces arc required. 
 
 COLUMNS. 
 
 n m ii • 
 
 „ with lin. metal 
 
 II II II * 
 
 II II II * 
 
 Class II. with J in. metal . 
 
 ii ii ii • 
 
 Class III. with | in. metal 
 
 I) II 
 
 II II II 
 
 If II 91 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 50 
 
 lbs. per 
 foot, 
 at 224 
 
 Sq. ft. 
 500 
 
 
 50 
 
 at 200 
 
 560 
 
 
 50 
 
 at 180 
 
 622 
 
 • 
 
 40 
 
 at 224 
 
 400 
 
 
 40 
 
 at 200 
 
 448 
 
 
 40 
 
 at 180 
 
 498 
 
 
 32 
 
 at 224 
 
 320 
 
 , # 
 
 32 
 
 at 200 
 
 358 
 
 , g 
 
 32 
 
 at 180 
 
 398 
 
 9 9 
 
 24 
 
 at 200 
 
 : 269 
 
 , B 
 
 24 
 
 at 180 
 
 300 
 
 
 24 
 
 at 160 
 
 1 336 
 
 9 # 
 
 16 
 
 1 at 180 
 
 I 200 
 
 
 16 
 
 at 160 
 
 ! 224 
 
 • 
 
 16 
 
 1 at 140 
 
 i 256 
 
IRON APPL1K1) AS HORIZONTAL SUPPORTS. 
 
 141 
 
 97. Iron applied as Horizontal Supports. Our second class of supports (as 
 stated in beginning of paragraph 96) comprehends girders, beams, joists, 
 lintels, and similar members of construction, which arc fixed or placed hori- 
 zontally, supported at the ends and loaded either uniformly over their entire 
 length, or at one or more points in their length. The strength of these to 
 resist fracture transversely, if of rectangular form, is calculable according to 
 the same law which regulates the strength of timber (as already explained), 
 and all other materials supposed to be of uniform texture throughout. 
 This law is that the transverse strength of bodies is as the breadth and 
 square of the depth directly, and as the length inversely ; the common for- 
 mula, as already given, being 
 
 S a d* = l to 
 
 where S is a specific number determined for each material by experiment, 
 a and d the breadth and depth, both in inches ; l , the length in feet ; and to 
 the weight in lbs. In applying this formula to cast iron, to ascertain the 
 safe permanent load, (one-third of the ultimate strength) for beams loaded 
 equally throughout, and supported at the ends, the value of S will be 1286 ; 
 if loaded in the middle, 643. 
 
 Example 1. A beam of cast iron of uniform rectangular section throughout, 
 3 inches wide, 9 deep, and 6 feet long, is loaded uniformly from 
 end to end. What weight may be put permanently on it? 
 
 1286 X 3 X 81 = 312,498 = 52,0831bs. Answer. 
 
 6 
 
 Example 2. A beam, same as in Example 1, is 12 feet long, and 3 inches 
 wide, and required to bear a permanent load of 52,083 lbs., 
 what depth must be given to it ? 
 
 52,083 X 12 = 624,996 = 486 = 162 * 
 
 1286 3 
 
 The square root of 162 being nearly 12.75, this dimension, or 12| inches, 
 equals the depth required. The series of experiments from which this 
 constant value of S t or 1286 is derived, was performed by Messrs. Fairbairn 
 and Ilodgkiuson upon 52 kinds of iron from the principal iron works 
 in the United Kingdom, with the addition of those of Elba and Samakoff 
 (Turkey). The following table gives some of these results ; the first column 
 shewing the No. of each iron in the scale of strength ; the second the name 
 of the iron ; the third, the mode of manufacture, whether hot or cold blast ; 
 the fourth, the specific gravity of each, or the number of ounces in a cubic 
 foot ; the fifth, the mean breaking weight in lbs. per square inch of section, 
 the bars being rectangular and uniform in section, supported at the ends 4 
 feet 6 inches between the supports, and loaded in the middle ; the sixth, the 
 ultimate deflection of the bars before breaking, in inches aud decimal parts ; 
 and the seventh, the comparative power of resisting in part, calculated by 
 multiplying the breaking weight by the ultimate deflection of each kind ot 
 iron. 
 
H*2 
 
 TABLE OF RECTANGULAR BARS OF CAST-IRON. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mean 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of Iron. 
 
 Manufacture. 
 
 Specific 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 breaking 
 w f t in lbs. 
 
 Ultimate 
 
 deflection. 
 
 1 
 
 Ponkey .... 
 
 No. 
 
 3. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7122 
 
 581 
 
 1.747 
 
 2. 
 
 Devon .... 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Hot. 
 
 7251 
 
 537 
 
 1.090 
 
 3. 
 
 Cleator .... 
 
 99 
 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7296 
 
 537 
 
 1.001 
 
 4. 
 
 Old Berry . . . 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Hot. 
 
 7300 
 
 530 
 
 1.005 
 
 5. 
 
 Carron .... 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Hot. 
 
 7056 
 
 527 
 
 1.365 
 
 6. 
 
 Beaufort . . . 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Hot 
 
 7069 
 
 517 
 
 1.599 
 
 7. 
 
 Butter ley . . . 
 
 
 
 Hot. 
 
 7038 
 
 502 
 
 1.815 
 
 8. 
 
 Bute 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7066 
 
 491 
 
 1.764 
 
 9. 
 
 Windmill End 
 
 99 
 
 2 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7071 
 
 489 
 
 1.581 
 
 10. 
 
 Old Park . . . 
 
 91 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7049 
 
 485 
 
 1.621 
 
 !L 
 
 Beaufort . . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Hot 
 
 7108 
 
 474 
 
 1.512 
 
 12. 
 
 Low Moor . . . 
 
 9f 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7055 
 
 472 
 
 1.852 
 
 13. 
 
 Buffery .... 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7079 
 
 463 
 
 1.550 
 
 14. 
 
 Bryinbo .... 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7017 
 
 459 
 
 1.748 
 
 15. 
 
 Apedale .... 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Hot. 
 
 7017 
 
 456 
 
 1.730 
 
 16. 
 
 Old Berry . . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7059 
 
 455 
 
 1.811 
 
 17. 
 
 Pontwyn . . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 
 7038 
 
 455 
 
 1.484 
 
 18. 
 
 Maesteg .... 
 
 9t 
 
 2. 
 
 
 7038 
 
 454 
 
 1.957 
 
 19. 
 
 Muiikirk . . . 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7113 
 
 453 
 
 1.734 
 
 20. 
 
 Adelphi .... 
 
 9* 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7080 
 
 449 
 
 1.759 
 
 21. 
 
 Blaina .... 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7159 
 
 448 
 
 1.736 
 
 22. 
 
 Devon .... 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7285 
 
 448 
 
 .790 
 
 23. 
 
 Gartsherrie . . 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Hot 
 
 7017 
 
 447 
 
 1.557* 
 
 24. 
 
 Frood .... 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7031 
 
 447 
 
 1.825 
 
 25. 
 
 Lane End . . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 
 7028 
 
 444 
 
 1.414 
 
 26. 
 
 Carron .... 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7094 
 
 443 
 
 1.336 
 
 27. 
 
 Dundyvon . . . 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7087 
 
 443 
 
 1.469 
 
 28. 
 
 Maesteg .... 
 
 
 
 
 7038 
 
 442 
 
 1.887 
 
 29. 
 
 Corbyn’s Hall . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7007 
 
 442 
 
 1 687 
 
 30. 
 
 Pontypool . . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 
 7080 
 
 440 
 
 1.857 
 
 31. 
 
 W allbrook . . . 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 
 6979 
 
 440 
 
 1 4 43 
 
 32. 
 
 Milton . . . 
 
 99 
 
 3. 
 
 Hot 
 
 7051 
 
 438 
 
 1.368 
 
 33. 
 
 Buffery .... 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Hot. 
 
 6998 
 
 436 
 
 1.640 
 
 34. 
 
 Level .... 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Hot. 
 
 7080 
 
 432 
 
 1.516 
 
 35. 
 
 Pant 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 
 6975 
 
 431 
 
 1.251 
 
 36. 
 
 Lotd .... 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Hot 
 
 7031 
 
 429 
 
 1.358 
 
 37. 
 
 w. s. s 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 
 7041 
 
 429 
 
 1 339 
 
 38. 
 
 Eagle Foundry 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Hot 
 
 7038 
 
 427 
 
 1.512 
 
 39. 
 
 E Isocar .... 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 6928 
 
 427 
 
 2.224 
 
 40. 
 
 Varteg .... 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Hot. 
 
 7007 
 
 426 
 
 1.450 
 
 41. 
 
 Colsham . . . 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Hot 
 
 7128 
 
 424 
 
 1.532 
 
 42. 
 
 Carrol .... 
 
 91 
 
 2. 
 
 ('old. 
 
 7069 
 
 419 
 
 1.231 
 
 43. 
 
 Muiikirk . . . 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Hot 
 
 6953 
 
 418 
 
 1.670 
 
 44. 
 
 Brierley .... 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 
 7185 
 
 418 
 
 1 222 
 
 U 
 
 Coed- Talon . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Hot 
 
 6969 
 
 416 
 
 1.882 
 
 46. 
 
 Backbarren . . 
 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7172 
 
 416 
 
 1.736 
 
 47. 
 
 Coed-Talon . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Cold. 
 
 6955 
 
 413 
 
 1.470 
 
 48. 
 
 Monkland . . . 
 
 99 
 
 2. 
 
 Hot 
 
 6916 
 
 403 
 
 1.762 
 
 49. 
 
 I^eys Works . . 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Hot 
 
 6957 
 
 392 
 
 1.890 
 
 50. 
 
 Samakoff . . . 
 
 
 
 Cold. 
 
 7216 
 
 372 
 
 1.160 
 
 51. 
 
 Milton .... 
 
 99 
 
 1. 
 
 Hot 
 
 6976 
 
 369 
 
 1.525 
 
 32. 
 
 Plaskynastou . . 
 
 99 
 
 2, 
 
 Hot. 
 
 6916 
 
 357 
 
 1.366 
 
 Power 
 to resist 
 imposts 
 
 992 
 
 589 
 
 557 
 
 549 
 
 718 
 
 807 
 
 889 
 
 £72 
 
 765 
 
 718 
 
 729 
 
 855 
 
 721 
 
 815 
 791 
 822 
 650 
 886 
 
 770 
 777 
 747 
 353 
 998 
 841 
 629 
 593 
 G7 I 
 830 
 727 
 
 816 
 625 
 585 
 721 
 699 
 511 
 570 
 554 
 618 
 992 
 621 
 716 
 530 
 656 
 494 
 
 771 
 724 
 600 
 709 
 742 
 418 
 538 
 517 
 
FORM OF SECTION FOR IRON BEAMS. 143 
 
 There are some considerations as to the forces exerted by a beam in re- 
 sisting weights tending to depress it transversely, which, although not 
 admitting of practical application to beams of timber, become in the highest 
 degree important and practically valuable in treating of iron as a material for 
 those parts of construction. The eil'ect of a weight in deflecting a beam is to 
 force it to assume a curved form, convex on the lower side, or opposite to the 
 weights, and concave on the upper side, on which the weight is acting. Now 
 this change of form cannot take place without a certain derangement of the 
 particles or fibres of which the beam is composed. If the elasticity of the 
 material of the beam is unopposed by any other force, we may conceive that 
 the entire mass will be put into a state of tension, the upper surface being less 
 distended than the lower one, in proportion to the less radius of its curvature. 
 But we must remember that all substances are endowed with another property 
 in opposition to that of extensibility, viz. : compressibility. While, therefore, 
 the lower part of a loaded beam is extended, the upper part is becoming 
 compressed, and there is evidently a boundary line between the top and 
 bottom surfaces, somewhere in the depth of the beam, where each of these 
 forces ceases and the other begins, and where therefore no alteration in length 
 takes place. The eminent James Bernoulli* has the repute of having first 
 recognised this difference of action among the particles of a beam on the 
 opposite sides of it. He also inferred the existence of the intermediate line 
 where no force is exerted, and the length of which remains unaltered, and to 
 this line he gave the name of the Neutral Line. The degrees of extension 
 and compression will moreover evidently vary throughout the depth of the 
 beam, the maximum of each force being exerted at the limits, or on the 
 surfaces of it. Thus in a beam loaded on its upper surface, that upper surface 
 will suffer more compression, while the opposite or under surface will be more 
 extended than any other part of the mass. The amount of these forces 
 represented by lines would hence form the outline of a double cone, the 
 apices of which meet in the neutral line, as indicated in fig. 119, which may 
 be supposed to represent the transverse section of a beam. A, the upper, 
 loaded, and compressed surface, B the under, and extended surface, and N 
 the neutral, or unaltered line. The proportion between the areas of these 
 Fig. 1 1 9. cones will depend on the relative amount of the forces by 
 
 which the beam is affected, and the form of the boundary' lines 
 of the cones will depend on the ratio in which these forces 
 increase as they depart from the neutral line. Here theo- 
 retical enquiries are however beyond our province, but the 
 considerations we have here suggested, teach us that to insure 
 the greatest strength in a beam, with the minimum of 
 material, that material, if adapted for such disposition without 
 suffering, should be gathered in two masses as indicated by 
 our two cones, and that the size of these masses should be in 
 proportion to the powers which the material possesses to resist compression 
 and extension. Timber and all materials of similar texture do not admit of 
 
 • The familv of the Bernoulli* is remarkable as having comprised eight individuals 
 all accomplished in the mathematical sciences. They are said to have originally belonged 
 • to Antwerp, but the nearer ancestors of the eight here referred to had settled in Basle. 
 
144 
 
 RULES FOR IRON BEAMS, ETC. 
 
 any application of these principles, as the required formation would destroy 
 
 the fibrous tenacity of the wood, &c. ; but in cast iron, which may be produced 
 of homogeneous structure throughout, and which is utterly non-fibrous, a 
 practical application may be readily made to indicate a section of great strength 
 and little material. We have already seen (paragraph 96) that the average 
 
 That is, a piece of cast iron may be torn asunder by somewhat less than l-6th 
 of the force required to crush it. This ratio therefore indicates that which 
 should be preserved between the upper and lower masses of our section. 
 
 necting them with other members of construction, we produce a section as 
 
 and of the section shewn in fig. 120 is this : — 
 
 Multiply the area of the lower flange by the depth of the beam, both in 
 inches, and by 2, and divide by the length in feet — the quotient will be 
 the breaking weight in tons. Or 
 
 where a is the area of lower flange ; d the depth of beam ; l the length ; and 
 b w the breaking weight in the centre. 
 
 Example. Lower flange 9 inches wide, and 1 thick, or 9 inches area; 
 depth of beam 15 inches, length between supports, 20 feet. 
 
 9x 15x2 = 270 = 13.5 tons. Answer. 
 
 This will correspond with a breaking weight equally distributed of 
 13.5 x 2 = 27 tons, or a safe permanent load equally distributed of 
 27 -5- 3 = 9 tons. If therefore, the formula be altered to 
 
 the quotient will shew the safe permanent load distributed. Thus, in the 
 example above — 
 
 Case 2. Given the length for the beam and the permanent load equally 
 distributed, required the multiple in inches of depth, and area of lower 
 flange. 
 
 ratio of tensile to crushing resistance in this substance is 1 to 6 nearly. 
 
 Adapting this rule to practical convenience in casting girders, and in con- 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 shewn in fig. 120, where the compressed flange A has 
 l-6th the metal of the extended flange B, and the two are 
 united by a vertical rib or web of just sufficient thickness 
 to connect the flanges properly, to prevent failure by 
 lateral twisting of the beam, and to provide for sound 
 casting, which cannot be insured if thick masses of metal 
 are immediately joined to very thin ones, the more rapid 
 cooling and contraction of the latter, drawing them away 
 from the thicker parts, and thus producing fracture. The 
 Buie for (case 1) ascertaining the breaking weight applied 
 in the centre of cast iron girders, supported at the ends, 
 
 a x d x 2 == iq 
 
 l 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 a x d x 1.34 
 l 
 
 9 X 15 X 1.34 = 8.995, or 9 tons. 
 20 
 
RULES FOR CAST IRON GIRDERS. 
 
 145 
 
 Rule. Reduce the permanent load, equally distributed, to breaking weight at 
 centre, by multiplying it by 1.5. Then multiply this breaking weight 
 in tons by the length in feet, and divide by 2, and the quotient will 
 be the required multiple in inches. 
 
 Example. p l d = 9 tons. Length of beam 20 feet. 
 
 Tons. Tons. Feet. 
 
 9X1.5 = 13.5 X 20 = J370 = 135 Answer. 
 
 2 
 
 If either the depth or the area of lower flange be determined, divide this 
 multiple by it, and the quotient will equal the other. Thus, let the determined 
 depth be 15 inches; then 135 -4- 15 = 9 inches area of lower flange. Or if 
 the area be determined, then divide the multiple by it, and the quotient will 
 be depth in inches. Thus 135 4- 9 = 15 inches depth. 
 
 The proportion of the several dimensions of the section should be as 
 follows : — 
 
 D. Depth of beam = one-twelfth of length, that is, one inch per foot; 
 
 thus, a beam 12 feet long should be 12 inches deep in central sec- 
 tion ; one 20 feet long would be 20 inches deep, &c., or D = L 
 
 *12 
 
 w B. F. Width of bottom flange = two-thirds of the depth of beam, or 
 D x -66. 
 
 t B. F. Thickness of bottom fianqe = one-twelfth of the depth of beam, 
 or D_ 
 
 12 
 
 w T. F. Width of top flange = one-fourth of the depth of beam, or D 
 
 T 
 
 t T. F. Thickness of top flange =» one-sixteenth of depth of beam, or D 
 
 16 
 
 t It. b. Thickness of rib or web at bottom ^ one-sixteenth of depth of 
 beam, or I) 
 
 To 
 
 t R. t Thickness of Rib at top = one-twentieth of depth of beam, orj) 
 
 ~20 
 
 In the casting of articles in iron, the drawing of the patterns out of the 
 mould preparatory to running the metal, is much facilitated by slightly re- 
 ducing the width or thickness of that part of the pattern which is the most 
 deeply sunk in the loam or other moulding material, gradually from the other 
 part. For this reason the two surfaces of the top and bottom flanges of 
 girders, and all similar parts, are made converging towards each other at the 
 edges remote from the body or central rib ot the casting. Ihe upper sur- 
 face of the top flange, and the under surface of the bottom flange, are made 
 parallel and horizontal, and the taper or draw is given on the other surfaces. 
 The thicknesses t B F and t T F are measured midway between the extremity 
 of the flange and the side of the rib from which it projects. Fig. 121 
 represents a properly proportioned section for a girder, with the several 
 dimensions referred to by similar letters to those abov c used. The figure is 
 drawn to the scale of 1 inch = 1 foot, or one-twelfth the real size. The 
 length of the girder, clear of the supports, is supposed to be 24 feet. The 
 angle of the junctions of the flanges and ribs are filled in with rounded 
 
14G 
 
 RULES FOR CAST IRON GIRDERS. 
 
 fillets or cleets , by which additional strength is attained, and the 
 difficulty of getting the moulding material to leave the angle clean and 
 sharp, is obviated. As the transverse strain upon a girder varies in- 
 versely as the length, it follows that equal sectional area is not required 
 throughout its length, and that uniform power of resistance may be secured 
 while the sectional area of the girder is reduced from the centre towards the 
 supported ends. This reduction of area which becomes, in large girders, an 
 important consideration of economy, may be effected in four ways — viz. : 1. 
 by keeping the lower flange horizontal and curving the top one downwards 
 towards the ends of the girder ; — 2. by keeping the upper flange horizontal, 
 and curving the lower one upwards towards the ends of the beam ; — 3. by 
 preserving the horizontal parallelism of the girder throughout, and reducing 
 the areas of the upper and lower flanges in depth, and of the rib in thickness 
 gradually towards the ends : — or, 4, by preserving the flanges perfectly uniform 
 throughout, and saving metal by forming openings in the rib of the girder. Of 
 these, the first method is to be preferred, where practicable, as it retains the 
 lower flange, the most important part of the section, in its proper horizontal 
 position. The second may, however, be adopted, in cases where it is im- 
 perative to keep the upper flange horizontal. The third is objectionable, as 
 involving carefulness and difficulties in moulding, which are far more likely 
 to lead to irregidarities of thickness, than to produce the exact graduation re- 
 quired. If parallelism is indispensable, the fourth method is preferable to 
 the third. On similar considerations, the width of the lower flange admits 
 of reduction towards the ends of the girder. The ratio of reduction is readily 
 applicable in theory , but the practical limit to be observed in the reduction 
 of the depth is, that the minimum depth at the ends shall be f that of the 
 central depth. A similar limit for the reduction in width of lower flange is 
 | that of the central width. Thus our girder, fig. 121, may be reduced in 
 
 depth to 16 inches, and the bottom flange to 10J 
 in width at the ends. All beams should be cam- 
 bered at the rate of 1 inch in 20 feet length, be- 
 tween the bearings. The size of the bearings, or 
 bottom flange, where it rests on the end supports, 
 should be in length and in width g of an 
 inch for every foot in clear length of the girder. 
 
 I bus our girder, fig. 121, will rise, or camber, 
 I5 inch in the middle of its length; and each end 
 of the bottom flamre on 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 98. 
 
 flange on the supports will be, 
 superficial dimensions, 15 inches square. Figs. 
 122 and 123 represent half an elevation and 
 plan, respectively, to a reduced scale, with the 
 several dimensions figured for the beam of 24 
 feet, in net length. If the beam receives its 
 load upon specific points, it may be much 
 strengthened by casting flanges, or ribs, under 
 those points, projecting transversely from the 
 central rib ; as shown at AAA, figs. 121, 122, 
 and 123. 
 
 lktaiU of connections of Ironwork in Columns , Girders , $ c. 
 
 Having 
 
147 
 
 CONNECTIONS OF IRON WORK. 
 
 furnished such facts, figures, and rules as experience justifies for determining 
 the dimensions ot columns and vertical supports; and of girders, beams, 
 joists, and all other horizontal supports, we purpose now to exhibit details of 
 these members, as adapted for connecting and applying them constructively, 
 and making them fully efficient to answer their intended purposes. Eases 
 of columns are the first parts to be considered. The simplest fonn of base 
 is that of an enlarged flange, or plate, projecting in a circular, octagonal, or 
 sejuare form, horizontally from the bottom of the column, and perforated with 
 holes for bolts to fix it to the stone, brickwork, or other foundation. An 
 additional security is obtained by continuing the barrel of the casting below 
 Figs. 124 and 125. 
 
148 
 
 DETAILS OF IRON WORK. 
 
 this flange, for a length of 1 to 3 inches, and sinking this projection into the 
 top of the foundation. Figs. 124 and 125 show a section and part plan of 
 this form of base, with the addition of four ribs, A. A A A, of a curved form, 
 and in thickness equal to that of the column connecting the bed plate, or 
 flange, securely with the column. It should be mentioned, that all columns 
 should be so designed that the circular opening or bore of them is continued 
 throughout the entire length or height of the casting; as otherwise, the 
 cylindrical core placed concentrically within the mould, and the position of which 
 regulates the thickness of metal, cannot be exactly adjusted so as to render 
 this thickness uniform. If this indispensable condition be not complied with, 
 no dependence can be placed on the strength of the casting. We have seen 
 cast-iron crane posts so badly cast, that the metal was 4 inches tliick on one 
 side, and J thick on the other ; and have known accidents fatal to human 
 life produced by this cause. Considerable facility in regulating the positions 
 of large columns, is attained by casting separate bases, orbed plates, as shewn 
 in fig. 126. The foundations can be thus completed, and bed plates fixed, 
 and bolted down exactly in their places before the columns are on the 
 works, as these require merely to be dropped down upon the bases, as B, 
 which arc cast with an upper ring, or collar, for this purpose; besides a 
 lower one to be sunk in the foundations. Cast iron columns are frequently 
 made passages for rain-water from the roof of the building, and in these 
 cases have to be securely connected with lower pipes for conducting such 
 water into the drains. Fig. 127 indicates an arrangement of this kind. The 
 
 column C is here prolonged downwards, and received in a socket, upon a 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 0 
 
 n _ 1 cy „ 1 , f . ivtumuuuu ui uuiaunry or nriCKWorK, 
 
 nml G a lied of concrete on which it is constructed, and in which the bend • 
 
DETAILS OF IKON WORK. 
 
 149 
 
 pipe D is imbedded. The column, it will be remarked, beds, by its enlarged 
 flange, on the foundation F, and is simply dropped into the socket of 1), 
 without bearing on it in any degree. The base of the column may be formed 
 in a variety of fashions, as before described ; and if larger in diameter than 
 the required bore of the pipe D, the socket-head of this pipe must be enlarged 
 above, and contracted below, in a funnel shape. No contraction of diameter 
 can be designed for the column itself, without injuriously interfering with the 
 perfectness of the casting. An arrangement, similar in purpose to that shewn 
 in fig. 127, has been adopted in constructing the Hyde Park building for the 
 Exhibition of 1851, as represented in fig. 128. In this case, the lower casting 
 of the column is formed with two outlets to be received in the sockets of 
 cast-iron pipes laid along beneath the ground or drains. The upper length 
 of column is bolted to this with four bolts in the flange, at G. F is a base 
 plate, bedded on concrete ; and H I are the outlets. The joint at G, formed 
 by the two surfaces abutting closely against each 
 other, and secured with bolts through the flanges, 
 is termed a flange joint. The junction of the pipes 
 at II and I, similar to those at D and E, in fig. 
 127, are termed socket joints. The end of the 
 outer pipe in these latter joints, is called the socket ; 
 the end of the inner pipe is called the spigot. In 
 water pipes, these joints are made perfect, by run- 
 ning molten lead, or red lead cement, in the an- 
 nular space between the spigot and socket. 
 
 The connections of the top of upper columns with 
 the girders, columns, or other members, now claim 
 our attention. Where columns or standards receive 
 the ends of beams, and are not to be surmounted 
 by other columns or standards requiring an extended base, the simple mode 
 of connection by flange joints, shewn in figs. 129 and 130, may be adopted. 
 Of this form of connection, fig. 129 represents an elevation ; and fig. 130 a 
 plan in section, or sectional plan, taken below the top flange of the girders, 
 Fig. 129. Fig. 130. 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 e 
 
 —J~ZTr' 
 
 
 
 W 13 tj 
 
 , 
 
 > 0 
 
 
 
 
 a tf 
 
 
 } 0 , \ 
 
 'N 2 
 
 
 . r 
 
 0 
 
 A B, to show the joint. Each girder is secured on the cap-plate of the stan- 
 dard by two screwed bolts and nuts. The vertical abutting surfaces of the 
 girders are cast with chipping fillets at C and D, which may be closely fitted 
 together, without incurring the chipping of any large quantity of surface. 
 The recess left between them may, after bolting up, be filled with iron cement, 
 and thus make a perfect joint. 
 
 Iron cement is a compound of dean borings or small turnings of iron, 
 
150 
 
 DETAILS OF IRON* WORK. 
 
 \K 
 
 1 6 parts ; sal ammoniac, 2 parts ; and flour of sulphur 1 part, well mixed 
 together, and kept dry. When required for use, one part of this mixture is 
 to be blended with 20 parts of clean borings, and a sufficient quantity of 
 water to convert the whole to the consistence of paste. It is then well 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 rammed into the joints, and soon sets 
 and becomes nearly as hard as the iron 
 itself. Fig. 131 shews a sectional plan 
 of another simple method of joining 
 the ends of two girders upon a standard 
 or similar vertical support, of which 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 fig. 132 is an elevation. The ends of the beams A and B 
 are here cast with dove-tailed grooves or mortices, fitting 
 freely upon a double dove-tailed tenon C, of corresponding 
 form, cast upon the top of the standard. No bolts are 
 required for the lateral joints in this arrangement. If the 
 joints are too loose, they may be fastened by driving in 
 small wedges or plates of iron, which also serve to adjust 
 the exact position of the beams. Figs. 133 and 134, 
 represent an elevation and sectional plan of girders formed 
 with serai-cylindrical ends, to embrace the column which 
 is prolonged upward above the cap-plate for that purpose 
 Figs. 133 and 134. The ends of the 
 
 1 1 
 
 J 
 
 L 
 
 J 
 
 s ~ 
 
 II 
 
 f 
 
 .j 
 
 girders are cast 
 with projecting tnugs, which are 
 fitted together, and when in their 
 places, a separate ring or collar, 
 B, is ihrunk on them, that is, put 
 on, (fitting closely) while red-hot, 
 and contracting in cooling, the 
 collar thus clips tightly over the' 
 snugs, and forms a very tight and 
 secure joint. On fig. 132 the 
 upper snugs are shewn without 
 the ring ; and also those at A, on 
 the plan. If upper columns are 
 to be added, the lower portions of 
 them may be received within the 
 lower column, and adapted to bear 
 upon the top flanges of the girders, 
 with bolts and nuts, if necessary. 
 Figs. 135 and 136 shew the details 
 of a bolted joint, connecting the 
 upper and lower columns, and the 
 girders in a secure manner. Fig. 
 135 is a plan over the girders, 
 and through the upper column ; and fig. 136 shews the end of one girder, B, 
 with upper column, (’, and lower one 1) in section, and the girder A connected 
 with the columns, in elevation. Columns continued to the roof, are, as 
 stated in the description of fig. 127, frequently used to support a line of 
 guttering, and arc required to provide the means of discharging the rain 
 
 
Fig. 136. 
 
152 
 
 DETAILS OF IRON WORK. 
 
 water. For this purpose it is necessary that the passage within the columns 
 is preserved from the roof to the drains under ground ; a condition which is 
 fulfilled by the formation shewn in figs. 135 and 136. Fig. 137 is an eleva- 
 tion of one main girder entire, A resting at one end on a stone template, B, 
 set in the wall, and at the other, on the cap, C, of a cast iron column D ; E 
 being an upper column resting on the end of the main girders. If a build- 
 ing exceed 60 feet in width, it becomes almost indispensable to introduce a 
 central row of columns, so as to divide the width into two equal parts, in 
 order to provide for ordinary loads on the supported flooring. And even 
 space of much less extent may usually be advantageously divided by inter- 
 mediate supports, which permit girders of less scantling, and obviate the 
 chances of failure which sometimes appertain to castings of extreme length 
 loaded transversely, and liable to be loaded unequally. The end of the 
 main girder at B has a projection, or caulking , cast on its under bearing sur- 
 face, which fits into a corresponding sinking in the stone template, and a 
 small arch is turned over the recess in which the girder is seated. These 
 recesses may be made sufficiently high to permit the introduction of the 
 girders subsequently, if desired. F F F are the binders supported by the 
 girders. If the width of the building be divided into two or more bays by 
 a row of columns, and the girders are fixed across the building, these binders 
 will range longitudinally, or in the direction of the length of the building. 
 To make a fire-proof flooring, the spaces between the binders are filled in 
 with brick arches, over which masses of concrete are laid, and levelled up to 
 receive the flooring if of stone, slate, or similar material : if a boarded floor 
 is adopted, the level of concrete should be left 2 or 3 inches below it to 
 afford space for ventilation. It is also convenient for boarded floors to fix 
 fillets of wood on the top of the binders, in order to provide for nailing 
 down the boards. These fillets are secured by small screwed bolts, nutted 
 under the top flange of the binders, and having the heads sunk in the fillets 
 above. This construction may be relied upon as fire-proof as far as com- 
 munication between story and story is concerned, but the wood work in the 
 flooring is a facilitator of combustion, which should, wherever practicable, 
 be supplanted by materials which are not so. The brick arches are here 
 shewn as starting from springers of stone laid on the lower flanges of binders, 
 and cut to the radial line of the arch. Fig. 138 shews a form of binder 
 
 which renders this unnecessary, being cast with 
 diverging on cither side, and forming 
 springers for the masonry of the arch, in- 
 uicatcd at G and H. The thrust of the 
 series of arches is resisted by wrought 
 iron tie-rods, I and J, which are inserted 
 at from 5 to 10 feet apart, through holes 
 cast in the binder and keyed together at 
 K. By this keying, also, the distances 
 between the binders may be exactly ad- 
 justed before building the arches; flanges, 
 or webs, L, may be cast at intervals be- 
 tween the diverging ribs of the binder 
 to afford additional strength. These 
 
 the lower part of the rib, 
 Fig. 138. 
 
TRUSSED CAST IRON GIRDERS. 
 
 153 
 
 may alternate with the holes for tie-rod9, each placed 5 feet apart, or two 
 webs between the rods, if the latter are more than 5 feet apart, according to 
 the length of the binder and degree of rigidity required. The binders rest 
 upon bearing plates cast on the sides of the girder. The upper part of the 
 ends of the binders should be curved off as shewn in fig. 139, to facilitate 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 Fig. MO. 
 
 their fixing, and bolts may be introduced as there shewn, securing the lower 
 flange of binders to the bearing plates of girders. The bolts and nuts are 
 dispensed with by casting dove-tailed recesses in the upper flange of girder 
 as shewn at B, in fig. 140, and forming the ends of binders, as shewn at C, 
 with corresponding dove-tailed tenons. The section of this joint is shewn 
 at A, where the end of the binder rests on the bearing plates of the girder 
 without bolts or other fastenings Girders similar to those we have been 
 describing, are sometimes used in combination with binders of timber, 
 instead of cast iron, but this, involving an abandonment of the object of fire 
 proofing, can never be adopted, except where choice of material is wholly 
 denied. 
 
 99. Trussed Cast Iron Girders. — Malleable Iron Girders. Cast iron, as we 
 have already stated, has an ultimate power of extension equal, on the 
 average, to 7 tons per square inch of section.; while wrought, or malleable 
 iron, has a corresponding power equal to 25 tons. This superior resistance 
 in the latter kind of metal suggested an experiment for increasing the avail- 
 able strength of cast iron, by connecting bars of malleable iron with them. 
 These bars are applied in the form of trussing, of which the depth is equal 
 to the depth of the cast iron girder. The bars are secured to the top of the 
 girder at each end, by being keyed or nutted within sockets cast on for that 
 purpose. From these points they descend obliquely towards the middle of 
 the girder, and are strained beneath struts fitted to the under side of it, and 
 secured by means of bolts, &c. Large girders have been successfully applied 
 for bridges, formed of two castings, or half beams, bolted together at meet- 
 ing-flanges in the centre, and trussed together with malleable iron bars fixed 
 as just described. Additional strength is obtained at the flange joints by 
 fixing strong straps or clips of wrought iron, upon corresponding dove-tailed 
 
 R 
 
154 
 
 TRUSSED CAST IRON GIRDERS. 
 
 bosses cast beneath the lower flange of each half girder. As instances of 
 girders of this kind, employed to sustain railways (tbe most severe kind of 
 service), we may describe some erected some years since, having a clear 
 length of 66 feet, the casting being 70 feet in length together, or 35 feet 
 each, and the bearings on the masonry, 2 feet long at each end. These gir- 
 ders have an uniform depth of 36 inches throughout. The truss bars are 
 each 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick, and are combined in sets of four each, 
 one set on each side of the girder. The total sectional area of the bars 
 transversely at any part of their length is 6 by 1 by 8 = 48 square 
 inches, or 24 square inches on either side of the casting. These truss bars 
 are in three lengths of 22 feet each, one length proceeding downwards from 
 each end, and one length lying horizontally beneath the girder, and between 
 the ends of the others, to which they are connected by pins 3 inches in 
 diameter. Some of the largest examples of this kind of girder were com- 
 pounded each of three castings, making up a total length of 109 feet, or a 
 clear span of 98 feet, the end bearings being each 5 feet 6 inches in length. 
 In depth, they were 3 feet 9 inches uniformly throughout. The transverse 
 section as follows : — total depth, 45 inches, rib 21 inches thick, top flange 
 7^ by lj inches, bottom flange 24 by 2| inches. Sectional area of top 
 flange, including mouldings = 14 square inches ; of bottom flange, includ- 
 ing mouldings, 66 inches, and of rib, 80 square inches; making a total 
 sectional area of 160 square inches. The two joints of the three castings 
 in each girder had, besides bolts of wrought iron, additional joint-plates of 
 cast iron 3 feet deep at the centre, over the joints, and 13 feet long, scarfed 
 over and bolted to the top flanges of the castings ; wrought iron clips were 
 also fixed to dove-tailed bosses, as before described. The total depth of the 
 girders at the joints was thus increased to 6 feet 9 inches. Similar plates at 
 the extremities of each girder, also provided abutments for the truss bars, the 
 depth of the truss (depending on the security of the fixings) being thus 
 augmented to about 6 feet. The bars are in two sets of four each, and each 
 bar being 6 inches by 1 \ inches, the total sectional area of bars being thus, 
 6 by 1.25 by 8 = 60 inches. In practice, the value of the truss bars is 
 much reduced by the impracticability of keeping the several parts of such 
 structures as these in their proper relative states of tension, so that the 
 wrought bars shall render full assistance in saving the lower part of the cast 
 iron from fracture by extension. Malleable iron has latterly risen into ex- 
 tended adoption, as a material for girders 
 and beams. In the simplest form these are 
 made ot a plate or two plates of iron placed 
 vertically as a central rib, and stiffened by 
 angle irons ri vetted on either side at the top 
 and bottom, so as to form an outline simi- 
 lar to that ot au ordinary cast iron girder, 
 as represented at A, in fig. 141. Beams of 
 this kind were constructed in 1832, (the 
 earliest date we are aware of) by Messrs. W. 
 Fairbaim and Sons, of Manchester, for car- 
 rying floors, and have since been much em- 
 ployed as deck beams for ships, and other 
 
 
 J 
 
 ; 
 
 ^=3 „ 
 
 
MALLEABLE IRON GIRDERS. 
 
 1 O'.') 
 
 constructive purposes. If the rib is formed of two plates, these are rivetted 
 together, and arranged so that their joints on each side of the beam alternate, 
 or break with each other. The next form consists in the addition of 
 a horizontal plate at top and bottom rivetted to the angle irons, as shewn 
 at B, fig. 141, by which additions a great increase of resistance to twisting 
 and lateral deflection is afforded. The succeeding improvement consists 
 in using two ribs or plates, placed at a distance apart. Such an arrange- 
 ment is shewn in fig. 142, where the plates are represented as converging 
 towards the top. A bridge was erected near Glasgow, of girders of this 
 kind, in 1841, and of the following dimensions: — span, 31 feet 6 inches, re- 
 presenting the length of the iron girders between the bearings ; width of 
 Fig. 142. bridge, 25 feet 6 inches, formed with six of these 
 
 girders placed parallel to each other, and about 
 5 feet apart. Each girder is 35 feet 3 inches long, 
 resting on a wrought-iron plate at each end, 
 bedded on stone abutments. The girders are 18 
 inches deep, 3£ inches clear width inside at the 
 top, and 6 inches at bottom. Top plate 10 inches 
 by | inch ; bottom plate, 12 J by f inch ; side 
 plates | inch thick. Angle irons all 3 by 3 by J. 
 Kivets, ^ inch diameter, placed 1^ inch apart from 
 centre to centre. These girders are filled with 
 concrete, and tied together with transverse ties of 
 Lowmoor bar iron, 3 by j inches, bolted to T irons, riveted to the sides of 
 the girders. The spaces between the girders are occupied by two courses of 
 9 inch brick arching, rising 1 £ inch. A bridge of two bays, or openings, 
 each 154 feet span, supports the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire rail- 
 way, over the river Trent, at Gainsborough. This bridge is formed of 
 girders of malleable iron, constructed as shown in fig. 143. Each span of 
 154 feet is formed of two of these girders, placed parallel to each other, 
 which are thus arranged in the ordinary position of parapets. The clear 
 width of the bridge betw een these is 26 feet. Each girder, therefore, sup- 
 ports a surface of 154 by 13 = 2002 feet. Assuming that 13 loaded car- 
 Fig. 143. riages, besides an engine and tender, might be placed on this 
 — „ bridge at one time, and allowing four tons weight to each car- 
 
 =r i| ■■ n — — o — ” — , — o — — o — 
 
 r r ^jriage, and 30 tons to the engine and tender, the total load 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 would equal 13x 4 x30 = 82 tons, or 41 tons on each gir- 
 der, as an equally distributed safe weight. The central breaking 
 weight should thus equal 61 \ tons. The dimensions of these 
 beams, which are of uniform depth throughout, are as follow : — 
 total height or depth, 12 feet; width over top cells, 3 ft. 0J in. ; 
 width of body of beam, 2 feet 6 inches : w idth over the 
 bottom plate, 3 feet. The thickness of the plates varies, being 
 greatest at the middle of the length of the girders, and reduced 
 towards the ends. The thickness of top, bottom, and side plates 
 of the two upper cells varies from ^ to t 7 * of an inch. That of 
 the side plates, of lower part or body of girder, varies from tV to A inch. 
 The bottom of girder is formed of double plates, varying from t \ to 1? inch 
 

 156 
 
 IRON ROOFS. 
 
 in thickness. The roadway of the bridge is carried upon transverse beams 
 
 of malleable iron, placed 4 feet apart from centre to centre, resting upon the 
 bottom plates of the girders, and rivetted to the sides of t them. These cross 
 beams, or joists, are uniform throughout, 16 inches deep, and 10 inches wide 
 over all, constructed of two vertical plates, placed about 6 inches apart, and 
 a top and bottom plate ; the whole secured together by rivets through four 
 external angle irons. The total weight of iron in this bridge, consisting of 
 the four main girders, and the transverse joists, is 383 tons. It was con- 
 structed and erected by Messrs. W. Fairbaim and Sons, Mr. Fowler being the 
 engineer for the railway. 
 
 100. Iron Roofs. Employed as straps, bolts, shoes, and even king-rods, 
 
 some architects a favourite material for roofs, in the state of cast iron, about 
 30 years ago, and was largely used in the roofs of extensive storehouses, &c., 
 for docks and dockyards, about that period. The general feeling of the pro- 
 fession was nevertheless against it. Builders, also, recognised the ancient 
 craft of the carpenter, as better understood, and more directly available, in a 
 profitable sense, than that of the smith, whose services belonged to a sepa- 
 rate department, and for the limited purposes for which they were then re- 
 quired in ordinary construction, were commonly enlisted merely for the 
 specific piece of work to be performed, and then dismissed. One of the 
 earlier specimens of iron roof-building — that of the Brunswick Theatre — was, 
 moreover, as it appears, owing to the defect of the walls, a lamentable 
 failure, the fatal consequences of which shrouded the future usefulness of the 
 architect, and confirmed for a time the prejudices already excited against 
 the new material. During the last fifteen years, however, iron has been 
 resorted to almost invariably, for roofing the spacious areas required for 
 stations of railways. The growing anxiety to build storehouses, factories, &c., so 
 as to resist accidental fire, has also contributed to the demand for metallic, in 
 preference to timber roofs ; and in the face of the experience thus acquired, every 
 designer of a building is now expected to be able to determine the arrangement, 
 and assign the dimensions for the members of a roof of iron, with as much 
 facility as for those of one of timber. The simplest form of iron 
 
 supplanted by king and queen rods, or bars, or simply suspension rods, or 
 
 iron has long contributed to the formation of roofs. The adoption of it as 
 the material of the entire trussing is, however, of later custom. It became with 
 
 Fig. 144. pitched roof is shewn in fig. 144, and consists of two 
 
 rafters, a tie-rod or bar, and a king-rod. In the 
 adoption of metal instead of timber for roofs, it should 
 be observed, that the relative proportions of dimensions 
 are necessarily so far altered, that the names of some 
 of the members require alteration also. Thus the tie- 
 
 beam is abandoned for a tie-rod or tie-bar ; the king and queen posts are 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 ; as in the smaller roof, with the addi- 
 tion of two stmts, S S, and rods for 
 
 bars ; according as a circular or rec- 
 tangular section of metal is adopted 
 for these parts. Fig. 145 represents 
 the parts of a roof of iron 20 to 35 
 feet span, which comprise the same 
 
IRON ROOFS. 
 
 157 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 suspending the tie-rod from the heads of the struts. Fig. 146 shews another 
 
 arrangement for roofs, 
 from 30 to 40 feet span, 
 in which each rafter is 
 trussed, with a strut, S, 
 and two tie-rods, A B ; 
 the feet of the struts being 
 tied together by the in- 
 _> i termediate rod, C. Fig. 
 147 indicates the parts of a roof from 35 to 50 feet span, and Fig. 148, those 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 of one from 50 to 60 feet span, of construction similar to those shewn in fig. 
 145, with the addition of extra struts and suspension rods. The dotted lines 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 above figs. 146, 147, 148, indicate the position in which ventilating louvres 
 are usually introduced, and skylights if required ; the former at L L, and the 
 latter at S S. The rafters of these roofs have occasionally been made of cast 
 iron, but malleable iron is the ordinary material. When of cast, they arc 
 formed of the common girder section, with large lower flange and smaller 
 upper one. The foot of the rafter is formed to bear upon the wall, and pro- 
 vide also a socket for the end of the tie-rod. The opposite heads of the rafter 
 are adapted for connection by bolts or keys. In malleable iron, rafters are 
 variously formed, the most common section being that of T iron, which, placed 
 thus with the table upward, affords convenient means for attaching the roof 
 covering. Two angle irons arranged thus, 1 T with cast iron or wood blocks 
 between them, form a compound rafter that has been adopted for large roofs. 
 Two plain bars similarly arranged, as || with intermediate fillet of wood, 
 rivetted through them, constitute another form of malleable iron rafter, while 
 
158 
 
 IKON ROOFS. 
 
 for very great spans, deck-beam or double flanged iron has been employed, 
 with plates rivetted on the top, to give additional rigidity. Struts, also, admit 
 of variety of section. In malleable metal, they are made of single or double 
 
 bars, thus I or II or of T iron singly or combined, thus ^ and riveted together. 
 
 In cast iron the cruciform is the common section, the longitudinal outline 
 being curved so as to reduce the dimensions towards the ends of the strut. 
 The tie and suspension rods arc of round section, or rod-iron, or of bar-iron 
 in one or two parallel bars, the latter arrangement being used to facilitate 
 the connection with the other parts of the roof. Malleable iron roofs ordinarily 
 require cast iron shoes to receive the feet of the rafters, and provide the required 
 enlarged bearing on the walls, also to secure the ends of the tie-rods. These shoes 
 should be as light as possible, to insure sound castings, and have a snug 
 cast on on the bottom of the bed plate, for securing to stone template or 
 other masonry in the wall. Bolt holes should also be cast in, in order that bolts 
 may be introduced if found requisite, and bedded in the wall. Cast iron 
 king-heads are also used to connect the heads of the rafters, and provide a 
 socket for the king-rod ; and if louvres are required, this king-rod is 
 prolonged upw ard, and serves to carry’ the raised part of the roof or the sky- 
 lights. Cast iron standards are also used to support the louvres, and carry 
 the lower part of the skylights. The struts, if of malleable iron, are secured 
 to the rafters by pieces of boiler-plate iron rivetted through them. If of cast 
 iron, these are dispensed with, the ends of the stmts being adapted to receive 
 the rib of the rafter. The tie-rods are made in two lengths, and secured at 
 the foot of the king-rod, by bolts passing through them, and through two 
 horizontal parallel connecting plates, between which the ends of the tie-rods 
 are fixed. The king suspension-rod passes through these plates, and has a 
 nut below them. The other suspension-rods pass through eyes forged in the 
 tie-rods, and are nutted below. The outer ends of the tie-rods are forged 
 rectangular in section, and secured in the rafter-shoes with keys ; by which 
 also they may be adjusted in length as required. Recurring to the figures 
 144 to 148, we will give a brief description of the parts and dimensions of 
 some well executed roofs, according to each of the figures, which may thus 
 be referred to as good practical examples. As Jig. 144; span, 21 feet; 
 rafters of T iron, 3 by 3 by i inches; tie-rod, f inch diameter; king-rod, £ 
 inch diameter, and 3 feet 6 inches long. Camber of tie-rod, 6 inches. As 
 fig. 145 ; span, 30 feet; rafters of T iron, 3 by 3 by £ inches; struts of J 
 iron, 3 by 2£ by i inches, and fixed thus, 1; tie rod, 1 inch diameter; 
 king-rod, J inch, 6 feet 7 4 inches long; suspension-rod, J inch; camber of 
 tic-rod, 104 inches. Bangor Duchess slating. Another example. — Span, 
 30 feet; rafters of two parallel bars, each 3 by J inch, fixed 1* inch apart* 
 and witli flitch of w'ood of this thickness and 44 inches deep fixed between; 
 the wood projecting 14 inch below' the bars; tic-rod, li inch diameter- 
 king-rod, $ inch ; queens, | inch. Struts of f iron 21 deep by 4 inch rib; 
 table 2J by it inch. The wood thus fixed between the bars of the rafters is 
 convenient for fixing the battens for the slating. As fg. 146. 27 feet span, 
 
 with east iron rafters, 4J inches deep throughout. llib of section } inch 
 thick; top tabic, 2) by j| inch, bottom table 34 in middle, reduced 
 M ends to 1* inch wide, and 1 inch thick. Struts of cast iron, H 
 
IKON ROOFS. 
 
 159 
 
 section, 1 foot 6 inches long. Tie rod. A, 1 inch diameter; B § inch, 
 and C J inch ; principals 6 feet apart ; louvres 1 foot 6 inches high ; sky- 
 lights 3 feet 6 inches wide on either side. Hoof slated. Another example . 
 — Span, 40 feet ; principals 6 feet apart ; rafters of T iron, 3 inches 
 deep; rib i inch thick; top table 24 wide, and J inches thick. Struts 
 of cast iron, 3 feet long, H section ; l£ inch wide and deep, central rib i 
 inch thick, flanges A inch thick throughout. Rod A, 1 inch diameter, 
 thickened at ends to l£ ; B f inch, thickened to J : C f inch, thickened to 
 Louvres and skylights. Roof slated. Another example, — Span 31 feet: 
 rafters of T iron, 2^ inches deep; rib $ inch thick; top table 2$ by A : 
 stmts 2 feet 2 inches long, similar to last. Rod A 1 inch diameter, B and 
 C J. Louvres 1 foot 6 inches high. No skylights. Cast iron rafter above 
 louvre, to carry the slates, T section, 2 by 2 by £. Louvre-standards, fixed 
 3 feet from king head, on either side. Another example. — Span 48 feet : 
 rafters, of two bars, each 3J by \ inch ; B, one bar, 3j by 4; C, one bar, 
 2£ by £; D, one bar, 2 by 4. Rise of bar D above springing line, 2 feet. 
 Inclination of roof, 21 to 1. The stmts made in two parts, each meeting at 
 the junction of the bars, A and B, but diverging upwards, so as to offer two 
 points of support to rafter, instead of one. These stmts, of cast iron, 5 feet 
 21 inches long, and of cruciform section, 4 by 4 by I inch, in the middle ; 
 and 3 by 3 by | at ends. Louvres and skylights. Slated. As fig. 147. Span 
 51 feet; inclination or pitch, 2£ to 1; principals 6 feet 6 inches apart; 
 rafters of 3 inch If iron ; principal stmts of 2£ inch T iron, others of 2 in. T iron, 
 tie rod l£ inch diameter from king rod to queen rod, I5 thence to shoes: king 
 rod £ inch diameter : queen rod f ; camber of tie rod, 1 ft. 5 inches. Another ex- 
 ample. — Span 40 feet, pitch 2J to 1. Rafters of double L iron, arranged thus — 
 “IT. Tie-bar, single 3 by inch. King-bar 2 by \ inch, single; queen 
 ditto 2 by $ inch, single. Main stmts 2£ by $ inch, double ; secondary 
 ditto 2 by ^ inch double. Four purlines, of 2^ inch T iron, in the length 
 of each rafter. Covered with corrugated sheet iron. As fig. 148 ; roof 44 
 feet span : rafters of *T iron 3 J inches deep, rib \ inch, table 3 by § ; tie 
 rod 14 inch diameter from a to b, lj inch from b to c ; king rod 1 inch 
 diameter, 9 feet 4 inches long ; queen rods J inch ; tie rod cambers 1 foot 
 8 inches. Struts of T iron 2^ by 2 J by fixed with table downwards, thus — 
 ±. Bangor Duchess slating. Another example. — Span 48 feet : rafters 
 of 4 by 4 inches T iron, 4 inch thick in the rib, 4 in the tabic : tie rod li 
 inch from a to b, and 1 £ from b to c ; king rod 1 inch diameter, 10 feet long ; 
 queen rods J inch : tie rod cambered 2 feet ; struts all 3 by 2| inches, § 
 thick in rib and table, fixed as in last example. Skylights from the top of 
 king rod, and raised at lower end 2 feet above rafter, therefore nearly flat 
 on top. Duchess slating. As in fig. 148. — Span 60 feet ; rafters of double 
 L iron, fixed thus ir, section as follows : total depth 4 inches ; width over 
 flange or table, lj inch, rib 4 inch thick, table thick, fixed li inch apart 
 with cast iron blockings between, fixed with 1 inch rivets, 7 inches apart, 
 throughout the whole length of the rafter ; tie bar 31 by inch ; king bar 
 21 by 1 inch, single ; other suspension bars 2 by 1 inch, single. Main 
 stmts D, 24 by 4 inch, double; stmts E, 2J by i inch, double ; stmts F, 2 
 by i inch, double. Louvres, 4 feet high, fixed 7 feet 6 inches from ridge on 
 either side; purlines of2j T iron. Roof covered with corrugated sheet iron. 
 
160 
 
 IRON ROOFS. 
 
 Another example. — Span 58 feet ; pitch 2£ to 1. Kafters of T iron, 3f by 
 i rib ; table 3 by ^ inch ; tie rod l^froin a to b, from b to c, and 1 j from 
 c to d\ king rod li, thickened at ends to 1| inch ; rods B J, thickened to 
 1 inch ; rods C f , thickened to J. Another example. — Span 60 feet : rafters 
 of double bars, each 4 by with intermediate flitch of wood 5j by lj inch; 
 struts of T iron; rib 3J by ^ inch, table 3 by i inch; king rod 11 in 
 diameter, intermediate rods f , minor ones I inch ; tie rods 1 J from a to b> 
 1 $ from b to c, and 1 1 from c to d. 
 
 The present London prices for malleable iron roofing, fixed, exclusive of 
 boarding, slating, and glass, out including iron gutters, measured up the line 
 of rafters, and over the gutters, are as follow : 
 
 Plain roofs, that is, prepared for slating all over 
 
 Roofs, with skylight frames 
 
 Ditto, with louvres, no skylights 
 
 Ditto, with louvres and skylight frames 
 
 Plain flat bar roofs, not exceeding 30 feet span 
 
 Ditte ditto 40 feet 
 
 Ditto ditto 50 feet 
 
 Per square. 
 £5 1 2 (i 
 3 17 6 
 
 5 15 0 
 
 6 2 6 
 
 3 15 0 
 
 4 2 6 
 
 4 15 0 
 
 Fig. 149 shows an outline elevation of half a principal, which consists 
 simply of a cast iron rib ; the span, as shown, is 53 feet besides two side 
 spaces of 5 feet 11 inches each, which, together, increase the width to 66 feet 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 10 inches. The central part of the roof, extending to the point A on either 
 side of the crown, is formed of one open casting, of which F is a section, the 
 dimensions being, total depth, 2 feet, width over top and bottom flanges 6 
 inches, rib and flanges | inch thick. This portion is covered with glazed 
 sashes, of wrought iron moulded bars. The section of the rib from A to B 
 is shewn at E, and is 1 foot 6 inches deep, 6 inches wide over middle flange, 
 * inches thick throughout. The section at D is also 1 foot 6 inches deep, 
 and 6 inches wide over middle flange, but is l£ inch thick throughout. 
 Below D, the rib is cast hollow, to form a flanged bearing over the side space, 
 of 5 feet 11 inches ; of the section shown at C, 1 foot 1 inch deep ; 6 inches 
 wide over flange, and l£ inch thick metal throughout. The roof thus con- 
 
IRON ROOFS OF HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT. lfil 
 
 sists of five castings only, bolted with 8 1^ inch bolts at each of the flange 
 joints, at A and B. The roof below the lights is covered with f inch slate 
 
 slabs. 
 
 Fig. 150 represents the roofs of buildings of peculiar interest, viz. : the 
 Houses of Lords and Commons.* In outline, these roofs are of the form 
 termed curbed , the central portion being considered as flat, and really nearly 
 so. The clear span is 45 feet, and the height from the bottom of tie-bar 
 to the ridge of the flat about 21 feet. The principals are fixed 7 feet 6| 
 inches apart, between their centres. The principal and common rafters and 
 the horizontal and raking rafters beneath the flat are of malleable or rolled T 
 iron. The suspension bars, H JKK'L, and tie bars from U to U, and from 
 W to W, are of malleable bar-iron, and the struts E F G H and I ; the shoes 
 and connecting sockets ; the purlines N O P Q U and V ; and the longi- 
 tudinal floor beams, at R S T W X Y and Z, are of cast iron, as also the 
 wall plates and gutters. The dimensions are as follow : — 
 
 MALLEABLE IRON. 
 
 Principal rafters, A and B 
 
 6 
 
 X 
 
 3 by 1 inch. 
 
 Common rafters .... 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 2 by f „ 
 
 Lower tie-bar, C 
 
 5 
 
 X 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 Upper ditto, D .... 
 
 4 
 
 X 
 
 1 >f 
 
 Suspension bars, L, single 
 
 4 
 
 X 
 
 1 „ 
 
 Ditto, J and K, double 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
 1 II 
 
 Ditto, M, double 
 
 2* 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 
 Ditto, K, single 
 
 4 
 
 X 
 
 1 ft 
 
 CAST IRON. 
 
 Purlines at N and 0 ... 
 
 4 
 
 X 
 
 2 by j inch. 
 
 Ditto at P 
 
 4| 
 
 X 
 
 £ inch. 
 
 Ditto at U 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 2$ by 3 inch. 
 
 Ditto at Q and V ... 
 
 5 
 
 X 
 
 \ inch. 
 
 Floor-beams, at W, X, Y, Z, are 7 inches deep ; rib, $ inch ; top flange, 4x1 inch ; 
 bottom flange, 31 x 1 inch. 
 
 Middle floor-beams, at R, S, T, are 6 inches deep ; rib, \ inch ; top flange, If X 3 inch ; 
 
 bottom flange, 31 X I 
 
 Struts, cruciform section, E, F, and H . 6 by 5 x 1 inch throughout. 
 
 Ditto, ditto, G and I . . 4 by 3 x 1 inch throughout. 
 
 The spaces of 7 feet 6j inches between the principals, are divided by the 
 common rafters into 3 equal spaces of 2 feet inches each, and the roof is 
 covered with cast iron plates of this width, lapped at the joints and fixed to 
 the backs of the common rafters, with screws tapped into them. Nine plates 
 occupy the length of each rafter, and six cover the flat. Two ranges of 
 dormer windows are fixed in the roof. The dormers are of cast iron, each in 
 one piece. The whole of the work exposed to the weather is galvanized. 
 Fig. 151 represents an outline of the trussing of a roof of grand span, 153 
 feet 6 inches, lately erected over the Lime Street Railway Station, at Liver- 
 pool. This roof is constructed entirely of malleable iron. The length of this 
 roof is 374 feet. The principals are fixed 21 feet 6 inches, from centre to 
 centre. They are supported on one side by cast iron columns, one principal over 
 each column, (cast iron girders being fixed between the columns) ; and on the 
 
 • Complete details as working drawings of these and all the other principal iron roofs 
 of the most approved construct' n, will be found in the large folio work, “ Examples of 
 Iron Roofs, from 20 to 150 Feet in Span,” published by Atchlcy and Co. 
 
156*6 
 
SECTIONS OF MALLEABLE IRON. 
 
 163 
 
 other side by the walls of the offices, except for a length of 60 feet 4 inches, 
 which is carried by a box-beam of malleable iron. Eacli truss consists of a 
 segmeutal rafter, three pairs of radiating stmts, F G II ; four pairs of diagonal 
 braces, I JK L; and a compound tie-rod B C D E. The rafter is of the 
 section shewn at A, and consists of a deck-beam iron, 9 inches deep, with 
 top flange, 4 $ by £ ; bottom flange, 3 by 1 inch ; and rib, | thick. A plate 
 10 by \ is rivetted on the top of this deck-beam. The six radiating struts, 
 F G H, vary in length from 6 to 12 feet ; and of similar section to the rafters, 
 but only 7 in. deep. Each rafter is formed in 7 lengths connected at the points 
 where the struts, F G H, meet it. A covering plate 6 ft. long, 7 by in. is 
 rivetted on each side to cover the joints in the rafter. The haunches of the rafters 
 are further strengthened by plates extending 27 ft. from the springing, 7 in. wide, 
 and | in. thick. The tie-rods, B C D are in three parallel rods, those at 
 E are in two bars. The sectional area, however, is nearly equal, being about 
 6 J square inches throughout. The diagonal braces I J K L are all of round 
 iron lj in. diameter. Each of the purlines is formed by a combination of 
 three T irons, of which the central one runs straight from principal to prin- 
 cipal, while the side ones branch off and curve round to meet the principal, 
 as a tangent, at an intermediate point. The central portion of the roof 
 from M to N is glazed with rough plate glass % inch thick, in plates 12 feet 
 4 inches by 3 feet 6 inches, bedded on iron sash bars at the sides, and rest- 
 ing upon Z iron at the ends, the upper flange of which receives the glass, 
 and the lower one the galvanized corrugated iron sheeting with which the 
 other part of the roof is covered. This corrugated iron is No. 16 guage, 
 in sheets averaging 7 feet 6 inches, by 2 feet 8 inches, fastened together with 
 galvanized rivets and washers. The box beam on which a portion of one 
 9ide of this roof rests, is of wrought iron, 63 feet 4 inches long, 3 feet 2 
 inches deep at the ends, and 2 feet 6 inches deep in the middle, being arched 
 on the underside ; it is formed in two chambers, of which the upper one is 
 20 inches wide and 8 inches deep, and the lower chamber or body is 13 g 
 inches wide, and 1 foot 10 inches deep. The bottom, 
 is 19£ inches wide, formed of two rows of plates ft 
 inch thick in the middle, and ft at the ends. All the 
 other plates are A inch thick. 
 
 101. Various Sections of Malleable Iron.— Useful data 
 of Weights, fyc. Having thus furnished details of iron 
 work as used in building construction, and such rules 
 as we have heretofore applied for calculating strength 
 of girders, &c., with practical examples of rooting, 
 we will conclude this section with a reference to the 
 forms, dimensions, and weights of the leading deseri] - 
 tions of malleable iron, and data for measuring and 
 estimating the weight of iron work generally. Fig. 152 
 is a section of malleable iron known as deck-beam 
 iron. The dimensions of the section of the three 
 ordinary sizes, and their weights per foot run (or pei 
 lineal foot), besides those of three other forms, are as 
 follow : — 
 
 -C — 
 
164 
 
 jlngle iron. 
 
 No.* 
 
 1 . 
 
 2 . 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6 . 
 
 DECK-BEAM IRON. 
 
 Total 1 
 
 depth. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Thickness. 1 
 of rib. 
 
 | Top flange. 
 
 1 Width. | Thickness. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inehes. i 
 
 Inches. 
 
 9 
 
 * 
 
 41 
 
 Vk 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 “ik 
 
 7 
 
 TZ 
 
 4 
 
 * i 
 
 3 
 
 l 
 
 4 
 
 \ 
 
 21 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 i j ii 
 
 Lower flange. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 2} 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 l 
 
 11 
 
 l 
 
 11 
 
 l 
 
 Weight per 
 foot ru 
 lbs. 
 
 
 27 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 Fig. 153 is a section of taper or an S le iron > of ec l ual widtJl in each 
 direction. The following are the two dimensions, viz. : width, A B, or A C, 
 and thickness of flange at B and C ; and the weight, per foot run, of eight 
 of the most useful sizes. 
 
 TAPER ANGLE IRON. 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 1 
 
 6. 
 
 7. ; 
 
 Width, A B, or A C. Inches. 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2| 
 
 21 1 
 
 21 | 
 
 2 
 
 If 
 
 Thickness at B. or C. Indies. 
 
 1 I 
 
 1 
 
 TZ 
 
 t 1 
 
 1 tk 
 
 ; full. 
 
 1 
 
 | full. 
 
 1 
 
 Weight, per foot run. lbs. oz. 
 
 14 0 
 
 10 6 
 
 8 4 
 
 6 8 
 
 5 0 
 
 3 14 
 
 3 4 
 
 Fig. 154 represents the section of parallel L iron, with rounded angle at 
 Fig. 153. Fig. 154. 
 
 PARALLEL ANGLE IRON. 
 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 Width, A B. . . . 
 
 Inches. 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 u 
 
 Width, AC.... 
 
 Inches. 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 Uniform thickness. . 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 tk 
 
 No. 8 wire guage. 
 
 Weight per foot run. 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 4 12 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 14 
 
 2 4 
 
 1 6 
 
 Fig. 155 is the section of L iron, with sharp angles, and equal sides. The 
 following arc the widths, thicknesses, and weights, of 15 sizes of this useful 
 section : — 
 
PARALLEL ANGLE IRON, WITH SHARP CORNERS. 
 
 Width, A B,or 
 A C. Ins. . 
 Uniform thick- 
 ness. Ins. 
 Weight per ft 
 run. lbs. oz 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 
 13. 
 
 14. 
 
 3 
 
 2| 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 If 
 
 n| 
 
 i i, 
 
 U 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 * 
 
 S 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 1 
 
 full. 
 
 1 
 
 
 No. 6.* 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 8 0 
 
 7 0 
 
 5 12 
 
 4 8|3 12 3 0 2 8 
 
 1 12 
 
 1 8 
 
 ; 1 41 0 
 
 0 14 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 9 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 0 8 
 
 Fig. 156 shews a section of parallel T iron, made with width and depth 
 Fig. 155. Fi 8- 156 - 
 
 equal and unequal. The following list gives the particulars of the leading 
 sizes as to dimensions and weight : — 
 
 PARALLEL T IRON. 
 
 No. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 21 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 27 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Width of 
 
 Thickness 1 
 
 of rib. 
 
 flange. 
 
 of flange. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 31 
 
 * 
 
 4 
 
 1 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 t 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 t 
 
 31 
 
 I 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3* 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 ft 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 21 
 
 ft 
 
 21 
 
 i 
 
 21 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 * 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 2 
 
 A 
 
 2 
 
 \ 
 
 2 
 
 t 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 \ 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 -A 
 
 1 
 
 tk 
 
 | 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 ! 1 
 
 
 1 ' 
 
 foot run. 
 lb. oz. 
 
 17 8 
 
 15 13 
 
 12 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 8 12 
 9 14 
 
 8 6 
 10 14 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 9 
 
 8 
 7 
 7 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 
 6 
 0 
 8 
 2 
 12 
 14 
 0 
 
 14 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 2 12 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 10 
 4 
 0 
 
 1 12 
 1 0 
 0 13 
 0 10 
 
 * This, and the following numbers in the same line, indicate tnickresses as measured 
 bv the Birmingham wire guage. 
 
] 6G 
 
 SQUARE AND ROUND IRON. 
 
 Fig 157 represents a section of the other ordinary form of X iron, in 
 which the rib is parallel, but the flange tapers on the inner surface. The 
 weights of the several sizes of this section may be taken from the table just 
 given for the parallel T iron, the thickness of flange being measured midway 
 between the points 13 and D. Figs. 158, 159, and 160 are real sized sec- 
 tions of rolled iron, used for sash bars. The weight of the section A, being 
 l£ inch deep, and equal in thickness at D, to No. 11 wire guage, is lj lb. 
 per foot run ; of B, 2 inches deep, E equal to No. 9, wire guage, is 1 lb. 
 10 oz. per foot run ; and of 0,1* inch deep, and at F equal to No. 11 wire 
 guage, is 1 lb. 6 oz. 
 
 The following table, shewing the weight per foot run of round and square 
 bar iron, is of constant utility in calculating the weights of iron work : — 
 
 SQUARE AND ROUND IRON. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Round. 
 
 Diamctr. 
 
 Square. 
 
 Round. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 •21 
 
 •16 
 
 2* 
 
 18*8 4 
 
 14*80 
 
 ft 
 
 •33 
 
 •26 
 
 2f 
 
 20*88 
 
 16*40 
 
 1 
 
 •47 
 
 •37 
 
 2* 
 
 23 12 
 
 18*15 
 
 t i 
 
 *64 
 
 •50 
 
 2? 
 
 25*26 
 
 19*84 
 
 • i 
 
 *84 
 
 •66 
 
 2 1 
 
 27-61 
 
 21-68 
 
 
 1 06 
 
 •83 
 
 3 
 
 30-07 
 
 23*65 
 
 i 
 
 1*31 
 
 103 
 
 3* 
 
 32 62 
 
 25-62 
 
 H 
 
 1 58 
 
 1.24 
 
 31 
 
 35*28 
 
 27-71 
 
 1 
 
 1*90 
 
 1-48 
 
 St 
 
 38-05 
 
 29*88 
 
 It 
 
 2 21 
 
 1*73 
 
 31 
 
 40-92 
 
 32 1 7 
 
 l 
 
 2 56 
 
 201 
 
 3| 
 
 43*89 
 
 34-47 
 
 H 
 
 2 94 
 
 2*31 
 
 3f 
 
 46 97 
 
 3f> 89 
 
 l 
 
 334 
 
 202 
 
 31 
 
 50*15 
 
 39 39 
 
 i* 
 
 4*23 
 
 3*32 
 
 4 
 
 53*44 
 
 41 98 
 
 U 
 
 5*22 
 
 4 10 
 
 41 
 
 60*33 
 
 47-38 
 
 if 
 
 6-32 
 
 4-96 
 
 
 67*64 
 
 5313 
 
 n 
 
 7*52 
 
 5*91 
 
 41 
 
 75 36 
 
 5919 
 
 h 
 
 882 
 
 6*93 
 
 5 
 
 83-51 
 
 65*59 
 
 u 
 
 10 23 
 
 8*04 
 
 51 
 
 92*46 
 
 72 62 
 
 H 
 
 1 1*74 
 
 9*22 1 
 
 5* 
 
 101-04 
 
 79-37 
 
 2 
 
 13-36 
 
 10-50 i 
 
 51 
 
 110*43 
 
 86*73 
 
 2* 
 
 1510 
 
 11-85 ! 
 
 6 
 
 120*24 
 
 9161 
 
 2* 
 
 16 91 
 
 13 28 
 
 
 
 
BAIL IRON 
 
 107 
 
 The following table shews the weight, in lbs., per foot run of bar iron, 
 from 1 to 6 inches wide, and from £ to 1 inch in thickness : — 
 
 BAR IRON. 
 
 Thickness.— Inches. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 1 
 
 & 
 
 i 
 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 t 
 
 ' i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 •84 
 
 1*04 
 
 1*25 
 
 1*46 
 
 1*67 
 
 209 
 
 2-51 
 
 2 92 
 
 3 34 
 
 1* 
 
 •94 
 
 117 
 
 1*41 
 
 1 64 
 
 1-88 
 
 2 35 
 
 2-82 
 
 3-29 
 
 37 6 
 
 1* 
 
 1*04 
 
 1*31 
 
 1*57 
 
 1-83 
 
 2*09 
 
 2*61 
 
 313 
 
 3-65 
 
 4-18 
 
 1» 
 
 115 
 
 1.4 4 
 
 172 
 
 2 01 
 
 2*30 
 
 287 
 
 3*44 
 
 4-02 
 
 4-59 
 
 1* 
 
 1*25 
 
 1*57 
 
 1-88 
 
 2 19 
 
 2-50 
 
 313 
 
 376 
 
 4-38 
 
 5 01 
 
 1* 
 
 1-36 
 
 1*70 
 
 204 
 
 2*37 
 
 272 
 
 3-39 
 
 4-07 
 
 475 
 
 5-43 
 
 U 
 
 1-46 
 
 1-83 
 
 2 19 
 
 256 
 
 2 92 
 
 3*65 
 
 4-38 
 
 5.11 
 
 5 85 
 
 It 
 
 1*57 
 
 1*96 
 
 2*35 
 
 2 74 
 
 313 
 
 3 91 
 
 470 
 
 5-48 
 
 6-26 
 
 2 
 
 1*67 
 
 2 09 
 
 2*51 
 
 292 
 
 334 
 
 417 
 
 501 
 
 5 85 
 
 6-68 
 
 2| 
 
 1.78 
 
 222 
 
 2 66 
 
 311 
 
 3*55 
 
 444 
 
 5 32 
 
 6-21 
 
 7-10 
 
 2J 
 
 1.88 
 
 235 
 
 2-82 
 
 329 
 
 376 
 
 470 
 
 5-64 
 
 6 58 
 
 7-52 
 
 2* 
 
 1 98 
 
 2-48 
 
 298 
 
 347 
 
 3 97 
 
 496 
 
 5*95 
 
 6 94 
 
 7*9 lr 
 
 21 
 
 209 
 
 261 
 
 313 
 
 365 
 
 418 
 
 5*22 
 
 6-26 
 
 7-31 
 
 8-35 
 
 2| 
 
 219 
 
 274 
 
 3 29 
 
 3*84 
 
 439 
 
 5-48 
 
 6-58 
 
 767 
 
 877 
 
 2$ 
 
 2*30 
 
 2-87 
 
 3*44 
 
 4 02 
 
 4*59 
 
 5 74 
 
 6 89 
 
 8 04 
 
 9-19 
 
 2i 
 
 2 40 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 60 
 
 4.20 
 
 4*80 
 
 6 00 
 
 7 20 
 
 8-40 
 
 9*61 
 
 3 
 
 2*51 
 
 313 
 
 376 
 
 439 
 
 501 
 
 6*26 
 
 7 52 
 
 877 
 
 1002 
 
 31 
 
 2-72 
 
 3-40 
 
 407 
 
 475 
 
 5*43 
 
 6 78 
 
 814 
 
 9-50 
 
 10-86 
 
 31 
 
 292 
 
 3*65 
 
 4*38 
 
 511 
 
 5-85 
 
 7 31 
 
 877 
 
 10-23 
 
 11.69 
 
 31 
 
 31 3 
 
 391 
 
 4 70 
 
 5*48 
 
 626 
 
 7 83 
 
 9-39 
 
 10-96 
 
 1253 
 
 4 
 
 3 34 
 
 4-18 
 
 5 01 
 
 5-85 
 
 668 
 
 8-35 
 
 10*02 
 
 11-69 
 
 13-36 
 
 41 
 
 3*55 
 
 444 
 
 5 32 
 
 621 
 
 710 
 
 887 
 
 1065 
 
 12.42 
 
 1 1*20 
 
 41 
 
 3-76 
 
 4 70 
 
 5-64 
 
 6*58 
 
 7*52 
 
 9-39 
 
 1 1*27 
 
 13*15 
 
 15 03 
 
 41 
 
 3-97 
 
 496 
 
 5-95 
 
 6 94 
 
 7-93 
 
 9.92 
 
 11 90 
 
 13-88 
 
 15-86 
 
 5 
 
 418 
 
 5-22 
 
 6-26 
 
 7*31 
 
 8*36 
 
 1044 
 
 12-53 
 
 1461 
 
 1670 
 
 31 
 
 4-38 
 
 5-48 
 
 6-58 
 
 767 
 
 877 
 
 10 96 
 
 1315 
 
 15-34 
 
 17-54 
 
 51 
 
 4*59 
 
 5 71 
 
 6-89 
 
 804 
 
 919 
 
 i 11-48 
 
 1378 
 
 1607 
 
 18-37 
 
 51 
 
 480 
 
 6 00 
 
 7.20 
 
 8*40 
 
 9*60 
 
 1200 
 
 ! 14-40 
 
 16.80 
 
 19 20 
 
 6 
 
 5 01 
 
 6-26 
 
 ! 7 52 
 
 8.77 
 
 1002 
 
 12-52 
 
 | 15-03 
 
 ! 17-54 
 
 20 01 
 
168 
 
 SHEET IRON. 
 
 No. or mark, (by Birmingham wire guage), thickness, and weight per superficial foot, 
 of sheet iron. 
 
 
 Thickness. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Mark, or 
 
 Thickness 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Maik. or No. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 libs 
 
 No. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 00000 (J) 
 
 •500 
 
 20*00 
 
 16(A) 
 
 •063 
 
 2*50 
 
 0000 
 
 •450 
 
 18-00 
 
 17 
 
 055 
 
 2-20 
 
 000 (A) 
 
 *437 
 
 17-50 
 
 18 
 
 •048 
 
 1 92 
 
 oo (i) 
 
 •375 
 
 15-00 
 
 19 
 
 •042 
 
 1-70 
 
 0 
 
 •340 
 
 13 60 ' 
 
 20 
 
 •035 
 
 1-40 
 
 1(A) 
 
 •312 
 
 12-50 1 
 
 21 
 
 033 
 
 1 32 
 
 2 
 
 •284 
 
 11-36 
 
 22 
 
 •029 
 
 116 
 
 3 
 
 •261 
 
 10-44 l 
 
 23 
 
 •028 1 
 
 112 
 
 3-4(1) | 
 
 •250 
 
 10 00 j 
 
 24 
 
 •025 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 •240. 
 
 9-56 1 
 
 25 
 
 •021 
 
 0 84 
 
 5 
 
 •217 
 
 8-68 
 
 26 
 
 •020 
 
 0-80 
 
 6 
 
 •208 
 
 8-32 ' 
 
 27 
 
 •018 
 
 0-72 
 
 7(A) 
 
 •187 
 
 7 50 | 
 
 28 
 
 •015 
 
 0 60 
 
 8 
 
 •166 
 
 6 6 1 
 
 29 
 
 013 
 
 0-52 
 
 9 
 
 •158 
 
 6*32 
 
 30 
 
 012 
 
 050 
 
 10 
 
 •137 
 
 5-50 
 
 31 
 
 •010 
 
 040 
 
 11(1) | 
 
 •125 
 
 5-00 
 
 32 
 
 •009 
 
 036 
 
 12 
 
 •110 
 
 436 
 
 33 
 
 •008 
 
 0-32 
 
 13 
 
 •094 
 
 376 
 
 34 
 
 •007 
 
 0-28 
 
 14 
 
 •080 
 
 3-20 
 
 35 
 
 •005 
 
 0 20 
 
 15 
 
 •072 
 
 2-88 
 
 36 
 
 004 
 
 016 
 
 HOOP IRON. 
 
 Mark, or No. 
 
 11 (i) 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 16(A) 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 Width. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 2* 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 U 
 
 H 
 
 U 
 
 n 
 
 Weight per foot run. 
 Iba. 
 
 117 
 
 1-25 
 
 •90 
 
 •08 
 
 •62 
 
 *47 
 
 •36 
 
 •34 
 
 *26 
 
 •21 
 
 •16 
 
 •12 
 
 •087 
 
 •069 
 
109 
 
 
 WEIGHT, PER LINEAL FOOT, IN POUNDS AND DECIMAL 
 OF CAST IRON PIPES AND CYLINDERS. 
 
 Inside 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Diameter, 
 or bore. 
 
 
 Thickness of Metal in parts of an Inch. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 $ 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 307 
 
 5 06 
 
 7*36 
 
 9*97 
 
 12\S* 
 
 
 1* 
 
 2 
 
 4-29 
 
 6-90 
 
 9-82 
 
 1301 
 
 16*57 
 
 
 5-52 
 
 8 74 
 
 12 27 
 
 16 11 
 
 20-25 
 
 
 2$ 
 
 3 
 
 6-75 
 
 10 58 
 
 14-72 
 
 19 17 
 
 23*92 
 
 
 7 98 
 
 12-42 
 
 17-18 
 
 22 24 
 
 27 61 
 
 
 8* 
 
 4 
 
 9 20 
 
 1426 
 
 19-64 
 
 25-31 
 
 31*29 
 
 
 10*43 
 
 1610 
 
 2210 
 
 28-38 
 
 31-97 
 
 
 4* 
 
 5 
 
 11*66 
 
 17-94 
 
 24 54 
 
 31-44 
 
 38-65 
 
 
 12-88 
 
 19*78 
 
 26-99 
 
 34*51 
 
 42*34 
 
 
 6 
 
 1411 
 
 21-63 
 
 29-45 
 
 37-58 
 
 46 02 
 
 
 
 
 31-9 
 
 
 49-7 
 
 59 1 
 
 6J 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 34-4 
 
 
 53-4 
 
 63-4 
 
 
 
 36-8 
 
 
 57*1 
 
 67-6 
 
 n 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 39 3 
 
 
 60-7 
 
 71 9 
 
 
 
 41*7 
 
 
 64-4 
 
 76 2 
 
 H 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 44-5 
 
 
 68*1 
 
 80-5 
 
 
 
 46*6 
 
 
 71-8 
 
 81-8 
 
 H 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 49 1 
 
 
 75-5 
 
 89-1 
 
 
 
 51-5 
 
 
 79 1 
 
 93-4 
 
 10$ 
 ] 1 
 
 
 
 540 
 
 
 82-8 
 
 97*7 
 
 
 
 56*4 
 
 
 86-5 
 
 102*0 
 
 11$ 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 68 9 
 
 
 90-2 
 
 106 3 
 
 
 
 61-4 
 
 
 93-9 
 
 110 6 
 
 12$ 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 630 
 
 
 97 -6 
 
 114*9 
 
 
 
 66 3 
 
 
 101*2 
 
 119 2 
 
 13$ 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 68*7 
 
 
 104 9 
 
 123-5 
 
 
 
 71 2 
 
 
 108 6 
 
 127*8 
 
 14$ 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 73*6 v 
 
 
 112-3 
 
 1321 
 
 
 
 760 
 
 
 116 0 
 
 136-4 
 
 15$ 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 78 *5 
 
 
 119*7 
 
 140-7 
 
 
 
 81*0 
 
 
 123-3 
 
 144-9 
 
 16$ 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 83 4 
 
 
 127 0 
 
 149 2 1 
 
 
 
 85-9 
 
 
 130*7 
 
 1535 
 
 17$ 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 88-3 
 
 
 134-4 
 
 157-8 I 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 138*1 
 
 16*2*1 
 
 18$ 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 932 
 
 
 141*7 
 
 166*4 
 
 
 
 95*7 
 
 
 145 4 
 
 170*7 
 
 19$ 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 98*1 
 
 
 149 1 
 
 1750 
 
 
 
 
 
 152*8 
 
 179 3 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PARTS, 
 
 I 
 
 687 
 73*6 
 785 
 83*4 
 88*4 
 933 
 982 
 1031 
 1080 
 113 0 
 117-8 
 122-9 
 127 6 
 1325 
 137-5 
 1424 
 1473 
 152 2 
 1571 
 1620 
 166-9 
 1718 
 1767 
 181 6 
 186-5 
 191-5 
 196‘4 
 201-3 
 206-2 
 214 1 
 223 0 
 233 4 
 | 245-2 
 
 T 
 
170 
 
 WEIGHT OF METALS. 
 
 Name of Metal. 
 
 
 Specific Gravity, 
 Water being 1000. 
 
 Weight of 
 a cubic foot 
 in lbs. 
 
 Platina . . . 
 
 
 
 19*500 
 
 1219 
 
 Gold . . . 
 
 
 
 19*258 
 
 1204 
 
 Mercury . . 
 
 
 
 13*560 
 
 848 
 
 Lead . . . 
 
 
 
 11*352 
 
 710 
 
 Silver . . . 
 
 
 
 10*474 
 
 655 
 
 Bismuth . . 
 
 
 
 9*823 
 
 614 
 
 Sheet Copper 
 Cast Ditto. . 
 
 
 
 8*910 
 
 557 
 
 
 
 8*788 
 
 549 
 
 Sheet Brass . 
 
 
 
 8*396 
 
 525 
 
 Cast Ditto 
 
 
 
 7*824 
 
 490 
 
 Wrought Iron 
 
 
 
 7*700 
 
 481 
 
 Cast Iron . . 
 
 
 
 7*264 
 
 454 
 
 Soft Steel . . 
 
 
 
 7*833 
 
 490 
 
 Hard Ditto . 
 
 
 
 7*816 
 
 488 
 
 Cast Tin . . 
 
 
 
 7*291 
 
 456 
 
 Cast Zinc . . 
 
 
 
 7*190 
 
 450 
 
 Weight of a 
 foot superficial 
 1 in. thick in lbs. 
 
 102 
 
 100 
 
 71 
 
 59 
 
 65 
 
 51 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 44 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 38 
 
 41 
 41 
 38 
 37 
 
 In computing the weight of the several parts of iron work, sheet iron is 
 measured according to thickness in parts of an inch, or the Birmingham wire 
 guage, at per foot super ; bar and rod iron, also rolled iron, of the several 
 sections of L, T, H, &c., at per foot run ; and the quantity of metal in cast 
 iron girders, beams, joists, &c., is reduced to superficial feet, at the standard 
 thickness of 1 inch, the weight of which, for the sake of avoiding fractions, 
 is taken at 40 lbs. Thus — 
 
 One foot superficial, 1 inch thick, will weigh 40 lbs. 
 
 i >» n 35 
 
 $ »* tt 30 
 
 i tt „ 25 
 
 i »> »» 20 
 
 i tt „ 15 
 
 \ „ » 10 
 
 i »» n 5 
 
 n ii 
 
 ii ii 
 
 n ii 
 
 n ii 
 
 i* >i 
 
 »» »» 
 
 tt tt 
 
SECTION 
 
 VIII. FIRE-PROOFING WARMING, 
 VENTILATION, ETC. 
 
 Comparative qualities op Woods, Metals, and Mineral Substances as materials for Build- 
 ings.— Walls of Masonry, Supports of Iron, and Horizontal Surfaces, as Floors, .etc., 
 based upon Brick Arches. — Fire-Proof Buildings at Liverpool. — Prince Albert’s Model 
 Houses.— Hollov Bricks.— Fire-proof Partitions, Staircases and Floors, as constructed 
 in Paris.— Floors in Nottingham. — Patent Fire-proof Floors.— Warm ino and Venti- 
 lation. — Theory of Respiration.— Constitution of the Atmosphere.— Rarifyino and 
 Condensing Methods of Ventilating. — Elasticity of Gases. — Warming and Ventilation 
 of the Reform Club House. — Warming by Hot Water.— Theory of Circulation.— Tables 
 and Data as to Pipes and Details. 
 
 102. Tire-proof Construction, In this section we propose to occupy the 
 limited space allotted for it, with a few remarks of general application, aud 
 illustrations from past experience. These may be useful in considering the 
 details of construction required for carrying out efficient arrangements for 
 rendering buildings thoroughly fire-proof, and providing a proper supply of 
 fresh and attemperated air throughout the interior of them. It is, however, 
 beyond our space here, to enter into any detailed description of the various 
 methods that may be adopted for these purposes, or any examination of the 
 several systems that have been propounded as probable or certain of success 
 in effecting these important objects. Tire-proof construction can only be 
 secured by the total exclusion of all combustible and inflammable materials, 
 but if the principal supporting members of a structure be incombustible, a 
 building may be made sate against the communication of fire from one apart- 
 ment to another, although some of the superficial materials be of a com- 
 bustible nature. Of the three principal classes of materials, viz. : woods , 
 metals , and earths , or mineral substances , the first only are combustible i the 
 second are, in ordinaiy cases, perfectly safe materials, but become, when 
 exposed to very intense, or long-continued heat, liable to fusion or other 
 injury; the third are the most secure in resisting fire under all extreme cir- 
 cumstances. Thus, an absolutely fire-proof building should be without 
 timber in any form ; but one of which the walls are brick-work or masonry, 
 or of iron, and the internal vertical and horizontal supports are of iron, in 
 the form of columns and girders, with iron and brick arches between the 
 latter, may — even if the floorings and minor partitions are of wood — be con- 
 sidered as proof against that rapid communication of fire throughout the 
 area of a building, which inevitably ensues, if the internal structure be of 
 timber ; but such cannot be properly considered as a fire-proof building, 
 Brick or stone walls and internal partitions, floors formed of stone, slate, or 
 concrete laid on brick arches, supported, if necessary, on piers of brick or 
 
172 
 
 FIRE-PROOF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 stone, and constructed either of iron or mineral materials, constitute a 
 thoroughly fire-proof frame- work for a building. Next in order of security, 
 iron may be used for the internal supports, giving adequate strength with 
 reduced dimensions and weights, as compared with brick-work or masonry. 
 Unless the conteuts of the building be of the most inflammable nature, no 
 communication of fire can take place throughout one constructed in this 
 manner, although if the heat become sufficiently great, the iron may be in- 
 jured, and if cast, is liable to fracture by the water used to quench the flames. 
 The large warehouses of Liverpool and other parts, considered to be fire- 
 proof, are constructed in accordance with the details we have given in the 
 preceding pages. The following brief description of a pile of these build- 
 ings, recently erected in Liverpool, will be sufficiently explanatory. The 
 area of ground covered, is 4433 square yards, allotted to eleven warehouses 
 of nearly 400 square yards each, clear of the walls. The external walls are 
 3 J bricks in thickness, and the division walls are 3 bricks. The warehouses 
 are about 65 feet high, and have six stories besides the basement. The 
 windows are glazed with large sheets of plate glass, and each is protected by 
 a wrought iron shutter secured to an iron frame. The floors are formed on 
 iron girders resting on iron columns and secured together with wrought iron 
 coupling bars. The girders rest on blocks of Welsh fire-clay, and brick 
 arches 9 inches thick are thrown between the girders, and wrought iron tie- 
 bars, 1J inches square, are fixed across them 6 feet apart, to sustain the 
 thrust. The floors throughout are laid with Welsh fire tiles, bedded in tarras 
 mortar, an intervening stratum of sand being laid to prevent the fracture of 
 the arches in cases of concussion. The entrance doors are made double, that 
 is of two plates, rivetted with a space of 1 inch between them, and air holes, to 
 aid in keeping one side cool, while the other may have become heated. The 
 several rooms have also two doors to each opening in the wall, each being 
 fixed flush with the wall, so that the thickness of the wall intervenes between 
 the doors. The staircases, which are 18 feet long by 7 feet 6 inches wide, 
 are enclosed from the rooms by walls, 2 bricks thick : all the steps are of 
 Yorkshire stone. The roofs are of wrought-iron trusses, covered with Welsh 
 slates. Fire mains and stop cocks are provided in each staircase. From 
 this stupendous pile of building, we must travel to one of a petite character, 
 in order to notice the latest metropolitan example of a fire-proof structure* 
 which has been erected as a model house for the occupation of the working 
 classes, by H.R.H. Prince Albert. The walls and partitions of this in- 
 teresting block of model tenements (four in number), are built exclusively of 
 hollow bricks, excepting the foundations, which are of common brickwork. 
 No timber is used in the floors or roof, which are formed upon flat arches of 
 hollow brickwork, rising 8 or 9 inches, set in cement, and tied in by rods of 
 wrought iron, secured at the ends to cast iron springers, which rest upon the 
 outside walls, and thus bind the entire structure together. The arching of 
 the roof is levelled over with concrete, and covered with patent metallic lava; 
 and the upper rooms are thus preserved from the changes of temperature to 
 which top rooms are usually liable. The construction of the flooring 
 moreover, prevents the transmission of sound, and the percolation of 
 moisture. For the external or upper coating of the floors, three materials 
 hove been used, viz. : Portland cement, Staffordshire tiles, and patent me- 
 
FI RE-PROOF CONSTRI CTION. 
 
 173 
 
 tallic lava. Fig. 161 shews a section of a flooring, or roof, formed of hollow 
 bricks, as used in these buildings. It also represents the external wall, and 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 construction of cornice and parapet, also tie rods, &c. Walls constructed 
 thus of hollow bricks, laid in longitudinal bond, are said to possess the ad- 
 vantages of dryness, warmth, lightness, and economy of construction. 
 
 For safety from fire, brick walls are, a3 we have said, the best internal 
 partitions in a building ; but even quartering partitions, based upon brick 
 walls, may be made much less dangerous than usual, if they are filled in with 
 brickwork between the joists, above one partition, and below the sill of 
 another ; thus forming an incombustible band, or belt, around the building, 
 about the floor level. An elaborate system of forming partitions is adopted 
 in Paris, which gives a solid and incombustible character to partitions and 
 enclosures, which are formed, structurally, of timber. By this plan, the 
 quarterings are framed and braced much as we do them in England, and 
 strong batten laths of oak (this being the kind of wood commonly used in 
 Paris), from 2 to 3 inches wide, are nailed horizontally to the quartering, at 
 from 4 to 8 inches apart, according to the description of work, over the surface 
 of the enclosure. The spaces between the quarterings, and behind the laths, are 
 built up w ith rough stone rubble, laid in a loose manner ; and a strong 
 mortar, formed principally of what we call “ Plaster of Paris,” is applied on 
 both sides at the same time, and pressed through towards the inside, so that 
 it meets and incorporates the stone rubble, filling up every interstice, 
 enough being also laid on the surfaces to cover up and entirely embed the 
 timber and the laths. A similar process is there adopted in constructing 
 staircases, the same strong batten laths being applied to the soffits, and the 
 spandrils, or triangular spaces between the steps and risers, being filled in 
 with stone rubble and mortar ; the mortar being also extended over the laths, 
 so as to cover them. The Parisian floors are also rendered fire-proof by the 
 following method of construction: — the ceding being necessarily formed 
 before the floor is laid. The carpenter’s work, as with us, being complete, 
 strong batten laths are naded up to the under side of the joists, being 
 much thicker and wider than our laths, and placed much farther apart. A 
 platform, made of rough boards, is strutted up from below', so as to be 
 parallel with the plane of the lath-surface, and about an inch below it ; the 
 mortar is then laid in from above, and forced through till the space between 
 the laths and platform is filled with an even coating, and a thickness of 2 
 
174 
 
 WARMING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 or 3 inches also formed above this, forced in between and over the laths, 
 and under the joists and girders. The mortar soon sets, and the platform 
 is then removed to perform another portion of ceiling. The floors are 
 covered with boards or paving tiles, bedded on a table of plaster, 3 inches 
 thick, laid on rough battens, nailed on the flooring joists. In the neighbour- 
 hood of Chamwood forest, where gypsum abounds, as at Nottingham, the floors 
 of all buildings were formerly formed of plaster of Paris, (or gypsum), with 
 small coal or cinders added ; stout reeds being strewed over the joists, in- 
 stead of the battens used in Paris, and the surface trowelled over as a finish. 
 Floors thus formed, are found to be nearly indestructible, impervious to air, 
 and free alike from damp and from vermin. It should be remarked that, as 
 all mortars having cinder or pozzolana in their constitution, are liable to 
 expand in setting, a narrow margin should be left unfinished around the area 
 of the floor, until this expansion has taken place, in order to avoid the chance 
 of forcing the walls of the building outward, which might otherwise ensue. A 
 fire-proof flooring has been introduced under a patent within the last eight years, 
 which combines cast iron beams, as the main supports, with strips of wood and 
 concrete as a filling in. The cast iron joists are of the T shape, reversed thus, 
 J., and placed from 18 to 24 inches apart. The strips or laths of wood, or 
 other material, are then laid transversely to the direction of the joists, between 
 them, and resting on their flanges. A coat of coarse mortar is spread over 
 the laths, about one inch thick, and pressed down, so that portions of it 
 passing between the laths, form keys for the ceiling below. On this mortar, 
 a layer of concrete or pugging, from 6 to 9 inches or more in thickness, accord- 
 ing to the area of the floor and corresponding depth of joists, is laid, com- 
 pleting the fire-proof structure of the floor, and to be covered with wood 
 boarding, a composition of lime, sand, and ochre, or other material. 
 
 103. Warming and Ventilation . — In order to provide for any complete and 
 effective mode of warming and ventilating a building, it is necessary to con- 
 trive the construction of it with the view of facilitating this purpose, so that 
 no subsequent alteration may become necessary. To assist in the selection of 
 the method to be adopted, we propose to present some general considerations 
 upon the rationale of ventilation, and a few figures applicable to the warming 
 of buildings by the use of hot water, whicli are found practically useful. 
 
 The two purposes of providing a constant refreshening of the atmosphere 
 of a building, and of increasing its heat when required, are not essentially 
 conjoint results of one system, or arranged set of operations, although in some 
 cases they may be properly considered together, as economy, convenience, 
 and mutual effectiveness will be attained by combining the arrangements for 
 effecting these two important objects. The theory of animal respiration ex- 
 plains the necessity for a constant influx of fresh air into apartments or build- 
 ings occupied bv animated beings. Ordinary atmospheric air is said to 
 consist of about 79 parts of nitrogen, and 21 of oxygen, the latter being the 
 vital principle. The animal system expires nitrogen equal in quantity to that 
 inspired, but converts the oxygen into carbonic acid gas, which must be dis- 
 persed as rapidly as it is produced, in order to sustain life in a healthy 
 condition. A cubic foot of air passes into the lungs in about every five 
 minutes. Of the 1728 cubic inches which are contained in this foot, tfek, or 
 about 363, are expelled every five minutes, or 4356 cubic inches in each 
 
WARMING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 175 
 
 hour, in the form of carbonic acid gas. A proportionate supply of oxygen 
 in fresh air, or air having its full quantity of this element, is required to 
 be introduced as fast as this consumption or conversion proceeds. Two 
 methods of renewing the air in large buildings have been adopted, which 
 are essentially different in the principles on which they depend, the manner 
 in which they operate, and the effects they produce. One of these methods, 
 the most ancient and generally applied in buildings of all classes, consists in 
 fixing stoves in the apartments, or passages, to afford artificial heat in cold 
 weather ; and in constructing high chimney-shafts, or stalks, to draw the 
 heated air out of the house by suction, according to the ordinary idea ex- 
 pressed by that word, so as to maintain, in an imperfect manner, an equili- 
 brium of pressure. In rooms, thus ventilated and warmed, the atmosphere 
 is in a more attenuated state than it is externally ; and when the temperature 
 out of doors is lowered, or that inside raised, the cooler air flow s in at every 
 crevice in the walls, windows, or doors, and produces those unhealthy streams 
 of air known as “draughts.” The evils of this rarefaction of the atmos- 
 phere, as a material for animal respiration, are commonly apparent in the lan- 
 guor, lassitude, and uneasiness suffered by persons of delicate nerves, w hen 
 submitted to its influence. The observations of scientific travellers in moun- 
 tainous regions, confirm this experience by the record of more extended and 
 intense effects, and demonstrate the difficulty and pain attending muscular 
 and mental exertions in rarefied air. A very slight general knowledge of the 
 elasticity of gases, enables us to comprehend how, in a room from which the 
 vitiated air is drawn by mere chimney ventilation, the lower strata of air 
 remain the longest unaffected by the process which is going on, and also how 
 probable it is that that process will fail in renewing the whole of the air 
 within the apartment or the building. Thus, a mass of heavy carbonic acid 
 gas may, in a tolerably quiet state of the atmosphere, remain in the lower 
 part of the room, or the basement of the building, while the upper and heated 
 portions of the air only, are dispersed by this exhausting and graduated pro- 
 cess. The second method to which we have referred, presents the advan- 
 tages of constantly and thoroughly renew ing the entire bulk of the air, while 
 it effects this purpose, not only without any rarefaction, but, according to 
 desire, with any required degree of compression or condensation, by regu- 
 lating the ratio of admission and emission. This plan requires artificial, or 
 mechanical power, for its perfect ramification throughout large blocks of 
 building ; but it may be adopted to a great extent in smaller buildings, as 
 ordinary dwelling-houses, having rooms of easy access, without any provision 
 beyond ample admission of fresh air, and means of escape for that heated 
 and vitiated by respiration and other causes. Chimnies, and other similar 
 outlets, may be considered as common accessories to both the methods here 
 described ; but the first, or rarefying process, differs from the last in not pro- 
 viding a proper and adequate supply of fresh air, to replace the loss by these 
 accessories. A closed apartment, with well-fitted windows and doors, and 
 without other openings except the chimney, (up which the air is rapidly draw n 
 by the heat of a brisk fire in the grate,) will furnish a sample of the kind of 
 atmosphere produced by the first or imperfect kind of ventilation, which is 
 
17G 
 
 WARMING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 scarcely worth classing as a method, or plan, did not a common notion prevail, 
 that chimney ventilation is sufficient, without any corresponding provision 
 for replenishing the atmosphere. Let the same apartment be furnished with 
 fresh air as rapidly as the used air passes away, and the material of respira- 
 tion will remain unimpaired, both in quantity and kind. There are many 
 details as to the temperature at which this fresh air should be introduced, and 
 the best arrangement for its introduction, which deserve the attention of the 
 practical architect and builder. The most important object to be arrived at, 
 is to bring in the fresli air insensibly , or imperceptibly, except in the invigo- 
 rating action upon the lungs — draughts, and streams of cold air, are of course 
 to be avoided, as equally unpleasant to the feelings, and injurious to the 
 health. The cooler the air is, so that these evjls are avoided, the better, since 
 its circulation within the building is thus promoted. Probably, some combi- 
 nation of hollow brickwork, with other constructive appliances, will enable 
 us, at no distant period, to contrive a complete plan for admitting, regulating, 
 attemperating, and discharging the air to, in, and from our dwellings and 
 factories, with far better effect upon health and comfort than are now usually 
 ascribed to these, or any other external circumstances. In large buildings, 
 which admit of mechanical, or artificial ventilation, this purpose may be 
 effected with great exactness as to quantity of the air, and constant adjustment 
 of its temperature. A description of the arrangements conducted at one of 
 the London Club-houses, (the Reform,) will give a good general notion of 
 these on an extended scale. The fresh air is here driven in by a large fan, 
 which rapidly revolves iu a cylindrical case, and is able to throw 11,000 
 cubic feet of air per minute into a spacious subterranean tunnel, be- 
 neath the basement story of the building. This fan is worked by a 
 steam-engine of five horse power, which, besides impelling the fan, sup- 
 plies heat by the steam of condensation for warming the whole of the 
 building, pumps water for household purposes, and raises the coals to 
 the several apartments on the upper floors. The steam supplies three cast 
 iron chests (each a cube of 3 feet), passing through them within narrow 
 spaces, while the air also flows through them, but between the steam spaces, 
 and thence enters a common chamber of brickwork, formed in the basement 
 story, from which it is passed into separate flues, and conducted, in regulated 
 quantities, to the several apartments of the building. The engine consumes 
 2 cwt. of fuel, chiefly cinders from the house fires, and some anthracite coal, 
 during twelve hours. The rapidity of the passage of the air between the 
 steam chests, is said to prevent any tendency to its becoming scorched. 
 The method of heating by warm water is applicable to buildings of all classes, 
 and possesses this important advantage over the method of heating by open 
 fires-— that it admits of a precise adjustment of any required amount of ven- 
 tilation, without incurring the possibility of attenuating the air in the 
 slightest degree. In order to produce the desired degree of heat in a room, 
 in severely cold weather, combustion and rarefaction are so rapidly excited 
 in an open fire-place, that, unless mechanical means be applied, fresh air is 
 liable to fail in restoring the equilibrium, and rarefaction is accordingly pro- 
 duced. This is obviated, if heat be derived from hot w’ater passing through 
 pipes, as the ventilation may then be conducted with perfect independence 
 of the heating process, and any required rate of renewal may be attained. 
 
FI RE-PROOP CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 177 
 
 For factories, moreover, and buildings generally in which accidental fires 
 would be more likely to occur, or more disastrous in their consequences, hot 
 water affords the best means of artificial heat yet applied.* A few data 
 collected from the results of our experience on this subject, will, therefore, 
 be useful to the designer called upon to provide such means. The principle 
 of the circulation of the water thus applied, is of the first importance, and 
 should therefore be well understood. We may describe it in a simple 
 manner, by supposing an apparatus, consisting of two vertical vessels, placed 
 at some distance apart, but united by two horizontal pipes, or passages, 
 one connecting the upper end, and one the lower end of the vertical vessels. 
 These latter we will call A and B, and, the apparatus being filled with cold 
 water, will suppose heat to be applied to the vessel, A. The first expansion 
 of the water must be got rid of. by an opening, or waste pipe, at the top of 
 the vessel, A, which, while the heating is going on, is disconnected from 
 the other parts of the apparatus, by stop cocks at the entrance to each of 
 the horizontal pipes. When the whole of the water in A is heated, if these 
 cocks be simultaneously opened, the warm water will pass along the upper 
 horizontal pipe into B ; while the cold water from that vessel will be driven 
 along the lower pipe into A, to supply the deficiency. This circulation will 
 continue so long as the water in B is colder, and therefore heavier, than that 
 in A ; and as the water in the pipes is constantly losing its heat, both by 
 condensation and radiation, while that in the vessel, A, or the boiler, as we 
 have made it, is continually receiving additional heat from the fire, an 
 equality of temperature, or cessation of circulation, never can occur. To cal- 
 culate the forces engendered by the alteration of temperature of the water, 
 and the retardation caused by angles in the pipes, vertical return pipes, &c., 
 would require theoretical investigations of an elaborate character, and after 
 all be rendered comparatively useless, by reason of the vast allowances which 
 are found necessary in practice, in order to provide for the effects of particu- 
 lar details of arrangement in the pipes, &c. As the rate of circulation and 
 energy of the apparatus to overcome resistance from dip and return pipes 
 will depend on the relative amount of expansion, or increase of temperature 
 with which the water emerges from the boiler, as compared with that with 
 which it returns to it, a certain vertical difference of altitude should be pre- 
 served in the boiler between the junctions of the supply and the return pipe. 
 For ordinary length of piping, 16 inches between the centre of pipes, if 4 
 inches diameter, is found sufficient difference of level. Passages for the 
 escape of air, or air-vents, must be provided in the higher parts of the sys- 
 tems of piping. In order to promote the circulation of the water, the 
 actual and relative weight of the descending column in dip or return pipes 
 is sometimes augmented by providing an open cistern, into which the water 
 rises directly from the boiler, and thence descends into the pipes for circula- 
 tion. A good general proportion for the capacity of this cistern, is l-30th 
 part of the total capacity of the pipes and boiler. The relative effect of the 
 
 • Hot water, circulating through pipes, was anciently employed for heating the water 
 of the public baths of Rome. In modern times, it appeals to have been revived, in 
 1777, in France, for the purpose of hatching chickens. This system ofheating was used 
 in England in 1817, for a conservatory ; and has since been extensively applied in the 
 wanning of buildings generally. 
 
 V 
 
178 
 
 WARM TNG BY HOT WATER. 
 
 friction between the water and the pipes is inverse to the quantity of water, 
 being twice as much in a pipe 2 inches diameter, as in one 4 inches diameter. 
 The proportion between the main and branch pipes will depend on their 
 position ; the motion of water being more rapid in a vertical than in an 
 horizontal pipe, while the friction of an ascending current is, moreover, very 
 small. Each floor should have its own separate and independent series of 
 pipes, otherwise the lower rooms acquire an excessive heat before the upper 
 rooms are warmed at all. Cocks are required on the pipes when there are 
 several distinct branches, and are preferable to valves, being less apt to leak. 
 The cooling power of cylindrical pipes is inversely as the mass, measured by 
 the transverse section of the area of the pipe, and inversely also as the 
 cooling surface, measured by the circumference of the pipe. Thus, if the 
 diameter of the pipe be 1, 2, 4 inches, the rate of cooling will be 4, 2, 1 
 respectively ; in other words, a pipe 2 inches in diameter will cool in half the 
 time taken by a pipe 4 inches, or twice the time taken by a pipe 1 inch in 
 diameter. The diameter of hot water pipes should never exceed 4 inches ; 
 which is the size best adapted for maintaining heat for a great length of 
 time, as in hot houses. For dwellings, factories, &c., 2 or 3 inch pipes are 
 preferable, as the heat may in these be rapidly circulated, and with great in- 
 tensity if required. The water in a 4 inch pipe, £ inch thick, loses 851° of 
 heat per minute when its temperature exceeds that of the surrounding atmos- 
 phere 125°, and a cubic foot of water will raise the temperature of 2990 
 cubic feet of air as many degrees as it will lose of heat during the process. 
 One foot of 4 inch pipe will heat 222 cubic feet of air one degree per 
 minute, the difference between the pipe and the air being equal to 125°. 
 Mr. Hood has propounded the following table, showing the quantity of pipe 
 4 inches diameter, which will heat 1000 cubic feet of air per minute, 
 any required number of degrees ; the temperature of pipe being 200° 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
WARMING BY HOT WATER. 
 
 179 
 
 Temperature at which the Room is required to be kept. 
 
 External air, Fah. 
 
 45° 
 
 50° 
 
 55° 
 
 60° 
 
 65° 
 
 •*4 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 75° 
 
 w 
 
 85° 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 o 
 
 10 
 
 126 
 
 150 
 
 174 
 
 200 
 
 229 
 
 259 
 
 292 
 
 328 
 
 367 
 
 409 
 
 12 
 
 119 
 
 142 
 
 166 
 
 192 
 
 220 
 
 251 
 
 283 
 
 318 
 
 357 | 
 
 399 
 
 14 
 
 112 
 
 135 
 
 159 
 
 184 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 274 
 
 309 
 
 317 
 
 388 
 
 10 
 
 105 
 
 127 
 
 151 
 
 176 
 
 204 
 
 233 
 
 265 
 
 300 
 
 337 
 
 378 
 
 18 
 
 98 
 
 120 
 
 143 
 
 168 
 
 195 
 
 225 
 
 256 
 
 390 
 
 328 
 
 368 
 
 20 
 
 91 
 
 112 
 
 135 
 
 160 
 
 187 
 
 216 
 
 247 
 
 281 
 
 318 
 
 358 
 
 22 
 
 83 
 
 105 
 
 128 
 
 152 
 
 179 
 
 207 
 
 238 
 
 271 
 
 308 
 
 347 
 
 21 
 
 76 
 
 97 
 
 120 
 
 144 
 
 170 
 
 199 
 
 229 
 
 262 
 
 298 
 
 337 
 
 '26 
 
 69 
 
 90 
 
 112 
 
 136 
 
 162 
 
 190 
 
 220 
 
 253 
 
 288 
 
 327 
 
 28 
 
 61 
 
 82 
 
 104 
 
 128 
 
 154 
 
 181 
 
 211 
 
 243 
 
 279 
 
 317 
 
 30 
 
 54 
 
 75 
 
 97 
 
 120 
 
 145 
 
 173 
 
 202 
 
 234 
 
 269 
 
 307 
 
 Freezing. 32 
 
 47 
 
 67 
 
 89 
 
 112 
 
 137 
 
 164 
 
 193 
 
 225 
 
 259 
 
 296 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 81 
 
 104 
 
 129 
 
 155 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 249 
 
 2 SO 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 
 52 
 
 73 
 
 96 
 
 120 
 
 147 
 
 175 
 
 206 
 
 239 
 
 276 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 66 
 
 81 
 
 112 
 
 138 
 
 166 
 
 1196 
 
 230 
 
 266 
 
 40 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 ! 58 
 
 80 
 
 104 
 
 129 
 
 157 
 
 |187 
 
 220 
 
 255 
 
 42 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 , 50 
 
 72 
 
 95 
 
 121 
 
 148 
 
 178 
 
 210 
 
 245 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 64 
 
 87 
 
 112 
 
 139 
 
 168 
 
 200 
 
 235 
 
 46 
 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 56 
 
 72 
 
 103 
 
 130 
 
 i 1 59 
 
 190 
 
 225 
 
 48 
 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 48 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 121 
 
 150 
 
 181 
 
 214 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 40 
 
 62 
 
 86 
 
 112 
 
 140 
 
 171 
 
 204 
 
 52 
 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 54 
 
 77 
 
 103 
 
 131 
 
 161 
 
 194 
 
 A ready rule for ascertaining the quantity of pipe required is as follows : — 
 with pipes 4 inches diameter, for churches and large public rooms, divide the 
 cubic feet contained in the room by 200. This will give the number of feet 
 required to obtain a temperature of 55° to 58°. For smaller rooms and 
 dwelling apartments divide by 150. For greenhouses, conservatories, &c., 
 divide by 30. For forcing houses required to be kept at 70° to 75° in 
 coldest weather, divide by 20, or if to 80° divide by 18. For 3 inch pipes 
 add £ to the quantity thus obtained, or for 2 inch pipes, double the length 
 thus ascertained for 4 inch pipes. In determining the relative size for the 
 boiler for hot water heating apparatus, one foot of boiler surface should be 
 allowed to 40 superficial feet of piping. The following is a table shewing 
 the length of pipe of different diameters, with corresponding boiler surface. 
 
 Surface of boiler 
 
 
 
 
 exposed to the 
 
 
 
 
 direct action of 
 
 Length of Pipe in feet. 
 
 the fire. 
 
 
 
 
 Square ft. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 2 in. 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 66 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 200 
 
 2 66 
 
 400 
 
 6 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 60o 
 
 8 
 
 400 
 
 533 
 
 800 
 
 10 
 
 500 
 
 666 
 
 1000 
 
 14 
 
 700 
 
 933 
 
 1400 
 
 20 
 
 1000 
 
 1333 
 
 2000 
 
SECTION IX. DRAINING AND SEWERS. 
 
 104-. The subterranean channels by which rain-water and refuse matters 
 are conveyed away from buildings to distant points or receptacles, although 
 forming no integral part of the construction of the buildings themselves, 
 are yet of primary importance, not only as sanatory conditions, but also as 
 essential to the safety and permanency of buildings ; and as it falls to the lot 
 of the practical builder to superintend the construction of these channels, and 
 lies within the needful knowledge of the architect and clerk of works to judge 
 of the measures adopted for draining the buildings they have designed, or are 
 engaged to direct, a few facts and figures may be usefully introduced in this 
 place. For house drainage cylindrical drains of 9 inches diameter, are com- 
 monly sufficient, if laid with adequate fall or inclination to the sewers, and 
 perfectly jointed. The rain water conducted from the roof by the down 
 pipes, passing into this 9 inch drain, as also the matters from the w r ater-closet, 
 sink, &c., it is of the first importance to construct all the parts of this dis- 
 charging and draining apparatus in such a manner that those matters shall be 
 discharged as rapidly as possible, that no accumulation shall occur to over- 
 flow and soak the ground under and about the building, and that neither foul 
 smells nor vermin shall be permitted access to the interior of the building. 
 In the present day it is of course needless to expose the evils which are caused 
 by cesspools or house receptacles for domestic filth, and by open privies. 
 Efficient public sewers, to which all refuse moisture and matters are conducted 
 as rapidly as produced, by means of properly constructed house drains, and 
 secure well-fitted trapped sinks, and soil pans with effective apparatus for 
 cleaning them instantly and thoroughly, are now reasonably regarded as 
 indispensable conditions to the sanatory condition of a town, and of its indi- 
 vidual tenements. The apparatus for water closets may now be selected from 
 an extended list, embracing the extremes of costliness and economy. Stone- 
 ware is a material now usefully moulded to these and many other similar 
 purposes, as pipes, bends, &c. The price of soil pans in this material is 
 about 7s. 6d. each, including the syphon trap. Some of them have been 
 manufactured of such a form as to dispense with the necessity for wooden 
 se it and lining, being adapted for fixing independently upon the flooring of the 
 closet. I he glazed stone-ware pipes are commonly prepared in 2 feet 
 lengths, with socket joints, lliey are to be had at the following prices — 
 Bore of pipes in inches I 2 I 3 | 4 I 6 { 9 | 12 I 15 I 18 
 
 Price per loot . . . | 3d. | 3*d. I 4Jd. | Gd. | lOd. | Is. 4Jd. | 2s. 3d. | 3s. 3d. 
 
SEWERS. 
 
 181 
 
 Elliptical, or rather egg-shaped pipes, are also prepared of this material, up 
 to 18 by 25 inches, internal diameters. The following are the present 
 London prices for supplying, laying, and joining (with cement), pipes of 
 “ Terra cotta, stone, or brown pottery ware, vitrified and glazed,” with 
 socket joints, the lengths being measured net after laying : — 
 
 
 Straight, per 
 
 | Bends, junc- 
 
 Double junc- 
 
 Syphon traps, 
 
 Flap traps, with 
 
 
 loot. 
 
 ti ms, and 
 
 tions, each. 
 
 each. 
 
 patent terra cotta 
 
 
 
 1 elbows, each. 
 
 
 
 flap, each. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 3 inch 
 
 0 5$ 
 
 1 3* 
 
 1 9 
 
 2 3} 
 
 4 5 
 
 4 „ 
 
 0 
 
 1 8* 
 
 2 0 
 
 3 2* 
 
 4 10 
 
 <» »» 
 
 0 9 
 
 2 2 
 
 2 8 
 
 3 6 
 
 5 9 
 
 9 „ 
 
 1 3 
 
 3 4* 
 
 4 St 
 
 6 St 
 
 7 0 
 
 12 „ 
 
 1 11 
 
 5 It 
 
 G 8 
 
 8 101 
 
 
 15 „ 
 
 3 11 
 
 7 5 
 
 11 3 
 
 
 
 In Glasgow, and other places, pipes of common clay are used for 
 drains, and found to answer the purpose. The prices of these, in Glasgow, 
 is much less than that of the glazed and vitrified material, quoted above. 
 
 They are supplied at — 
 
 Diameter, inches 3 6 9 12 18 
 
 Price, per foot 2d. 3d. 4d. 5d. 8d. 
 
 In another material, known as “Terro Metallic,” of superior quality, 
 drain pipes are supplied in London at the following prices : — 
 
 Internal diameter, 
 
 Cylindrical pipes, 
 
 iCylindrical pipes, 
 
 ; Conical pipes, to 
 
 or bore. 
 
 with plain or butt 
 
 with socket joints. 
 
 fit one another. 
 
 
 ends. 
 
 Per foot. 
 
 Per foot. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Per foot 
 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 2 
 
 0 3 
 
 
 0 3* 
 
 3 
 
 0 4 
 
 0 51 
 
 0 5 
 
 4 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 6i 
 
 \ 0 6 
 
 6 
 
 0 6 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 9 
 
 9 
 
 0 11 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 1* 
 
 2 3 
 
 
 16 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 
 
 Curved and junction pipes are charged double the piices of the cylindrical pipes. 
 
 105. Seicers , as distinguished from drains, or the minor channels by which 
 the refuse from individual buildings is conducted away, include all the larger 
 passages prodded for the public reception of the contents of the house 
 drains, and adapted to effect the transmission of these contents to the distant 
 point of delivery or discharge. The transverse sectional form and size, lon- 
 gitudinal direction, and manner of construction of these sewers, are several 
 points of extreme general importance, which have probably never received 
 the full amount of investigation due to them ; and have commonly been either 
 neglsfited, or treated with the affectation of quackery, rather than the sin- 
 cerity of science. Practical skill, and theoretical inquiry appear, in this 
 department, to have preserved a more complete isolation from each other 
 
 / 
 
182 
 
 SEWERS. 
 
 than usual in many branches of the arts, where their co-operation is to be 
 desired. The older sewers of London, originally planned and laid when the 
 tow n w as limited in size, and subsequent extensions not contemplated, have, 
 by successive repairs and reconstructions, and extensions of length, been 
 necessarily constructed of immense size. Thus the Fleet sewer, which 
 drains from the south-west of Highgate, measures at the mouth, or place of dis- 
 charge iuto the Thames, near Blackfriars Bridge, 18 feet 6 inches by 12 feet; 
 and at the City boundary is 12 feet 3 inches by 11 feet 7 5 inches, in trans- 
 verse sectional dimensions. The Finsbury sewer is 5 feet by 3 feet 2 inches. 
 The London Wall sewer 6 feet by 4 feet ; and the main trunk of this sewer 
 is increased from 8 feet 3 inches by 6 feet 9 inches, to 10 feet by 8 feet at 
 its mouth. The smallest size in long streets used to be constructed 4 
 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 6 inches ; and for courts and alleys, 3 feet by 2 feet 
 2 inches. All these sewers being within the jurisdiction of the late City 
 Commissioners of Sewers, had a cross sectional form with semi-circular arch 
 and inverts, and vertical sides ; those measuring 4 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 
 6 inches, w r ere built of 14 inch brickwork throughout, and the minimum 
 depth from the surface of the ground was taken at 9 feet 10 J inches, in order 
 to provide for the draining of a basement story 7 feet in height. The sur- 
 veyor’s calculation for this depth was thus made : — 
 
 Height of basement story ........ 
 
 Thickness of flooring on sleepers ...... 
 
 Covering of drain, say brick flat ...... 
 
 Height of drain inside 
 
 Current of drain inside the premises, say one inch to 10 feet, for a 
 
 house 50 feet deep 
 
 Current outside the house, that is, in the street . . . . 
 
 Height of cross drain, above the bottom of main drain, at least 
 
 ft. in. 
 7 0 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 2J 
 0 9 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 3 
 
 0 6 
 
 9 101 
 
 This calculation gave, say 10 feet at the least, as the depth from the sur- 
 face of the street to the bottom of a main drain, of 18 inches diameter, and 
 was assumed as applicable only to houses of ordinary description. A com- 
 mon sewer to receive the drainage from a series of houses, was laid at a 
 minimum depth of 12 feet ; being based on a calculation which allowed 1 
 foot 3 inches for height of drain, inside ; height above bottom of common 
 sewer, 1 foot 6 inches; and height of basement story, 7 feet 7 j inches; the 
 other items remaining as before quoted. The term common sewer was used 
 for those which received the drainage of several houses, and distinguished 
 from public sewer , into which the common sewers discharged their contents. 
 Half an inch in 10 feet, or 1 in 240, was considered a good fall. In the 
 late \N estminster division, the sewers were formed with semi-circular arch, 
 vertical straight sides, and segmental invert. The two sizes used measured 
 in cross section, 5 feet G inches high, and 3 feet wide ; and 5 feet high, and 
 
 2 feet G inches w ide ; the three centre courses of the inverts being laid in 
 cement, and the remainder of the work in Dorking lime mortar. The walls 
 are 1 J bnck thick, and the inverts two half-brick rings, or 9 inches. The 
 
 3 feet sewers cost 14s. 3d. per lineal foot, and the others 12s. 6 d, on the 
 average, ihc best form of section for main sewers, is that known as “egg- 
 
SEWERS. 
 
 183 
 
 shaped,” having arched crown, inverts, and sides, all tangential to each 
 other, and the invert of small comparative radius, in order to facilitate the 
 passage of the water, by giving the greatest practicable depth, and con- 
 sequent reduction of friction, to any given quantity of water. The entire 
 section being arched, presents strong resistance to the pressure of the sur- 
 rounding strata, which, in soft slippery clays, and similar materials, act with 
 great and unequal force in tending to fracture the work. Great economy of 
 material is, moreover, effected by the egg-shaped, in comparison with the 
 upright-sided section. The saving in one mile of sewer of the former shape, 
 5 feet 3 inches by 3 feet 6 inches, 9 inches thick, as compared with one 
 mile of the latter form, of equal sectional area, and measuring 5 feet 6 inches 
 by 4 feet, 9 inches thick in arch and invert, and 14 in sides, with footings 
 as usually adopted, the average depth of excavation being taken at 20 feet 
 in both cases, will amount to £1,660 3s. 3d. ; the actual quantities and 
 assumed prices being as under : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1116 cubic yards of brickwork, at 20s. 1116 0 0 
 
 5865 „ excavation, at Is. . . . . 293 5 0 
 
 5865 ,, filling in, at 3d. . . . . . 73 6 3 
 
 1116 „ carting, at 2s. Ill 12 0 
 
 880 super, yards repairing, at Is. 6d 66 0 0 
 
 Total £1660 3 3 
 
 A.11 junctions of drains with sewers, and of minor with principal sewers, and 
 all changes of direction of drains and sewers, should be formed in curves. 
 
 No right angles, con- 
 nections, or turns, 
 should be permitted, 
 as by these the velocity 
 of the current is great- 
 ly impeded. By expe- 
 riment, it has been as- 
 certained, that, in a 
 sewer 2 feet 6 inches 
 wide, a current flowing 
 250 feet per minute 
 . suffers a resistance 
 from a rectangular 
 change of direction 
 three times as great in 
 retarding effect as 
 from a quadrant curve 
 of 20 feet radius, and 
 double that produced 
 by a quadrant curve 
 of 5 feet radius. In 
 junctions, also, the 
 emitting channel 
 should enter the re- 
 ceiving one as high as 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
 - vr- 
 
184 
 
 SEWERS. 
 
 possible ; so as to avoid interference, as far as possible, with the current 
 already in the latter. 
 
 Figs. 162 to 166 represent the details of sewers, and their connections, as 
 now carried out in the metropolis. Fig. 162 is the section of a main sewer, 4 
 feet 9 inches high, and 3 feet diameter, of the approved egg form, built 9 
 inches thick. The figure shews the details of construction, and the several 
 lengths of radii for producing the curves.* 
 
 Fig. 163 represents the connection of a drain with a sewer. The sewer is 
 here 2 feet 6 inches in diameter, and 9 inches thick. The drain is supposed to 
 be 9 inches in diameter, constructed in brick-work, and terminating at A, about 
 3 feet from the sewer. The interval is filled by two 2-feet lengths of stone-ware 
 pipes — one with a fiange-joint against the drain, the other with the ordinary 
 socket-joint ; the pipe enters the sewer at the height of 9 inches above the 
 lowest part of the latter. Fig, 164 shews the section of a street gully ; in 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 which figure A represents the foot-paving ; B, the curb ; C, the cast-iron 
 gulley-head, or sewer-grating ; I), the trap ; E, the first length of the stone- 
 ware piping, which leads downward, and in the same oblique direction, to the 
 sewer, which it enters in the same manner as shewn in fig. 163 ; F, is the 
 foundation of brickwork to support the trap and grate, &c. ; and G, the car- 
 riage-paving. The foundation at F is 2 feet 3 inches wide across the foot- 
 ings, which are 6 inches, or two courses, in height. The brickwork above is 
 1 foot 10 inches thick, and 2 feet 9 inches high, to the underside of curb- 
 stone, or 11 inches below the top edge of grating. The stone-ware pipe is 
 6 inches bore. 
 
 Figs. 1 65 and 1 66 represent transverse and longitudinal sections of a recess 
 in a sewer for flushing, and shew also the ventilating shaft, formed above it. 
 1 he sewer here is 4 feet high, by 2 feet 6 inches in diameter, and the recess 
 measures 4 feet in width, 3 feet 3 inches in height, and 3 feet 6 inches in 
 length, lhe ventilating shaft is formed of the stone-ware pipe, with socket- 
 
 • Details for Culverts and Sections for Sewers, with quantities, &c., &c., are given at 
 length, for several classes of diameters, in the work entitled, “ Brick Bridges, Sewer , and 
 Culverts. Plates folio, text 4to., published bv Atchley and Co 
 
SEWEltS. 
 
 185 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 joints fixed vertically over the centres of sewer 
 and recess. It is furnished at the top with a 
 grating fixed upon a foundation of brickwork, 
 2 feet 3 inches wide at the base, and 9 inches 
 high. G represents the carriage-paving; H, the 
 grating; 1, the top length of pipe; J, the 
 bottom one ; K, the flushing recess. 
 
 Fig. 166. 
 
 X 
 
SECTION X. 
 
 Am-endix or Miscellaneous Notices or Improved Manufactures in Mineral Substances 
 
 FOR BUILDING PURPOSES, INCLUDING THE PRINCIPAL OP THOSE DISPLAYED AT THE 1851 
 
 Exhibition op the Works op Industry in Hyde Park. 
 
 Tiie repeal of the duties on bricks is likely to prove more advantageous in 
 promoting improvements in the form and construction of bricks for building, 
 than, immediately so, in the reduction of price thereby effected. Not, indeed, 
 that all, or even many, of the designs thus elicited are likely to become per- 
 manently adopted in preparing these details of constructive architecture ; but 
 a few among them promise to contribute to the utility, and many more to the 
 ornament, of buildings generally, without involving inordinate costliness or 
 inconveniences in adoption ; and these, therefore, may be regarded as likely 
 to rise into extended and well-established adoption. 
 
 The hollow bricks have already been partially described, in noticing the 
 model-houses erected in Hyde Park by II. II. H. Prince Albert, and the several 
 advantages claimed for them have been referred to. The surfaces of these bricks 
 may be glazed, so as to dispense entirely with plastering or other linings in 
 the kitchens and common rooms of a house. Bricks with tenons, for mutual 
 binding, are also now revived. Many patents have been obtained for 
 making bricks, of peculiar forms, with the view of obtaining a more secure 
 connection of them, and greater strength in the structure when combined ;* 
 but the oppressive difficulties imposed by the Excise laws on the one hand, 
 and some inconveniences in laying the bricks, with, probably, a practical 
 opposition to the change on the part of the working bricklayers, have here- 
 tofore prevented the adoption of any of these designs. The first difficulty 
 being now happily removed, we may probably find the others disappear be- 
 fore the clever design and skilful labour of the present day. A practical 
 application of mortice and tenon bricks has been for some time before the 
 public, in a patent for “ a new method of constructing a self-supporting fire- 
 proof roof, and other parts of buildings, with bricks and tiles formed from 
 an improved machine.” Blocks are prepared, of various forms (wedge-like 
 for arches and roofs), and having tenons and corresponding mortices on their 
 opposite sides. 
 
 • That the notion now brought forward of fashioning bricks to fit into eacli other is 
 not exactly new, will be apparent from the record that, on April 1+th, 1795, Edmund 
 ( artwright obtained a patent for a “new principle” for fixing bricks, stones, &c., for 
 walls and arches, to mutually lock into, or cramp each other by grooves. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 187 
 
 An example of a structure formed mainly of these blocks, is to be found 
 in Saint Paul’s school, at Oxford. The school room is 20 feet wide, and 55 
 feet long ; and its roof covering is supported on terra cotta ribs, with trans- 
 verse sleepers of the same material. The mullions and joints of the win- 
 dows, the chiranies, copings, and many of the ornaments, are all of terra 
 cotta, — and, indeed, carpenter’s work is entirely dispensed with throughout. 
 The advantages of this construction, for resisting fire, &c., are self-evident. 
 
 Hoof coverings of clay are now produced in an endless variety of orna- 
 mental and useful patterns. Plain tiles are now no longer plain, being 
 rendered highly ornamental, with curved and serrated edges. Ridges are 
 also made ornamental, with vertical tiles, fitted into grooves in the top edge 
 of the ridge tile. Ornamental tiles, of ingenious forms, are also provided to 
 terminate gables and eaves ; and edged, curved, or Italian tiles are now put 
 within our reach. 
 
 Ornamented bricks and cornices, mouldings, and indeed all similar archi- 
 tectural details are now prepared from clay as the principal ingredient. 
 The materials for these articles are very carefully selected, ground and com- 
 bined, and the hydraulic press is used in the process of moulding, by which 
 all air and moisture are so completely forced out as to obviate the necessity 
 for slow drying before baking. These articles have a vitreous character, and 
 are impervious to damp and rain. They may likewise be painted and grained 
 with the utmost facility. 
 
 Class 27, entitled “Manufactures in Mineral Substances, for Building or 
 Decorations,” in the Exhibition, embraces the specimens of clay, slate, stone, 
 and similar articles adapted for building purposes, some of which we have 
 noticed above. They will be found at the west end of the building, and on 
 the north side, some of the larger specimens being placed outside the build- 
 ing at the west end of it. Bricks, tiles, pipes, vases, architectural ornaments 
 of many kinds, metallic lava paving (already noticed), stuccoes and cements 
 in great variety, spars and marbles, enamelled slate, mosaic pavements of 
 highly vitrified coloured clays, encaustic and ornamental tile-work, terra 
 cotta in all forms of ornament and usefulness, chimney pieces of iron and 
 glass, waterproof brick, a bath in one piece of fire-clay plated with porcelain 
 and glazed, rhomboidal bricks, articles in artificial stone, &c., &c., are among 
 the objects of interest and importance. 
 
 In cements, several specimens and illustrations are furnished ; thus, 42 
 ordinary bricks are shewn adhering one to another by the tenacity of Port- 
 land cement, and also a mass of it which required 151 tons to crush it. A 
 screen of Parian cement is also shewm, of which the peculiarity is that w r hen 
 applied on the walls or lathing of buildings, it crystallizes so rapidly that it 
 may be painted on the following day, or papered with papers of the most 
 delicate tints. 
 
 The roof tiles and other articles of terro-metallic, are displayed in great 
 variety, as roofing tiles, ridge tiles, hip tiles, valley tiles, paving and pugging 
 tiles, skirting tiles, channel tiles, flue cover tiles, wall coping tiles, dished 
 tiles, paving bricks, fire bricks, and grate bricks, drain grates, garden edging, 
 drain and conduit pipes, &c. 
 
 W. J. AND J. SEA KS, PRINTERS, IVY LANE, ST. PAUL’S. 
 

 
 
 ' 
 
 ^ 1 H 
 
 
 , >p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Aberdeen Granite, Prices of 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 Boarding, Prices of Deal. 
 
 
 . 116 
 
 „ Pier 
 
 
 
 1* 
 
 Boasting in Masonry 
 
 
 . 43 
 
 Aberthaw Lime 
 
 . 
 
 
 26 
 
 Boiler Surface 
 
 
 . 179 
 
 Absorbing powers of Substances 
 
 
 23 
 
 Bolsover Stone 
 
 
 . 39 
 
 Albert, Model Houses by Prince 
 
 
 186 
 
 Bond in Brickwork . 
 
 
 . L 8 
 
 Angle Iron 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 Bond in Masonry . . 
 
 
 . 40 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 
 1 86 
 
 Boring Tools . 
 
 
 16 
 
 Arches .... 
 
 55 and 65 
 
 Brads, Prices of 
 
 
 . 116 
 
 Ardrossan Harbour . 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Bramley Fall Stone, Prices of. 
 Brard’s Disintegrating Process 
 
 . 50 
 
 Areas, Blind . 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 . 39 
 
 Arris .... 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 Breast Walls . 
 
 
 . 45 
 
 Artificial Foundations 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Brestsuinmers, Rules for . 
 
 
 . 77 
 
 Ashlar .... 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 Brick .... 
 
 
 . 57 
 
 „ Specification of 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 „ Absorbing Powers of 
 
 
 . 24 
 
 Ash, Prices of. 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 „ Arches . 
 
 
 . 65 
 
 Asphalte, Absorbing Powers of 
 
 
 24 
 
 „ Walls . 
 
 
 . 63 
 
 „ in Foundations. 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 Bricks, Hollow 
 
 58 aud 186 
 
 ,, Prices of . 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 „ Mortice and Tenon 
 
 
 . 166 
 
 „ Weight of 
 
 
 
 169 
 
 ,, Ornamental. 
 
 
 . 187 
 
 Augers for Boring . 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 Brickwork, 
 
 „ Measuring 
 
 
 . 62 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 67 
 
 Backing to Masonry 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 „ Prices of. 
 
 
 . 69 
 
 Balls in Iron Making 
 
 
 
 136 
 
 „ Reduced 
 
 
 . 67 
 
 Bar Iron, Weight of 
 
 
 
 167 
 
 ,, Weight of 
 
 
 . 68 
 
 Bars of Cast Iron, Table of 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 Bridge Foundations. 
 
 
 13 
 
 Bastard Ashlar Work 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 „ over the Shannon, ] 
 
 Iron 
 
 12 
 
 Bath Stone, Cost of. 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 „ Blackfriars . 
 
 
 14 
 
 Battens .... 
 
 101 and 
 
 113 
 
 „ Maidenhead 
 
 
 . 65 
 
 Bavins or Fascines . 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 „ Westminster 
 
 
 14 
 
 Beams, Bernoulli’s Experiments 
 
 on 
 
 143 
 
 Bridges of Malleable Iron 
 
 at Glas- 
 
 ,, Iron Deck . 
 
 
 
 163 
 
 gow and Gainsborough 
 
 
 . 155 
 
 „ Neutral Line in . 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 „ of Timber . 
 
 
 96 
 
 „ Rules for . 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 Bridging Joists 
 
 
 90 
 
 Beech, Absorbing Powers of 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 Bright Iron 
 
 
 . 135 
 
 ,, Prices of 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 Brunswick Theatre Roof 
 
 
 . 156 
 
 Belidor’s Encaissements andFascines 
 
 13 
 
 Building Act . 
 
 
 19 
 
 Bernoulli’s Experiments on 
 
 Beams, 
 
 
 Buttresses 
 
 
 . 55 
 
 &c 
 
 
 . 
 
 143 
 
 By-Pole .... 
 
 
 . 72 
 
 Bethell’s Seasoning Timber 
 
 . 16 and 75 
 
 
 
 Beton .... 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Cable Bolt Iron 
 
 
 . 136 
 
 Bevel .... 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 Caen Stone 
 
 
 47 
 
 Bevelled Halving . 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 „ Cost of . 
 
 
 . 49 
 
 Binding Joists. 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 Caissons .... 
 
 
 14 
 
 Birch, Prices of 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 Camberslip . 
 
 
 . 66 
 
 Birmingham Theatre Roof 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 Carpenter’s Work, Measuring and 
 
 Blackfriars Bridge . 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 Pricing 
 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Blind Areas . 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 Carpentry, Constructive . 
 
 
 . 82 
 
 Block and Course Work . 
 
 
 
 -45 
 
 Cast Iron, Table of Bj.s of 
 
 
 . 142 
 
 Blooms in Iron Making . 
 
 
 ; • 
 
 ;i36 
 
 Tensile Strength 
 
 •>i. . 
 
 . 140 
 
 
190 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Cast Iron, Transverse strength of 
 
 141 
 
 Dampness iuFoundations,To prevent 
 
 21 
 
 „ Girders, Rules for . 
 
 144 
 
 Darley Dale Stone 
 
 35 
 
 „ „ Trussed . 
 
 153 
 
 Dashhour, Pyramid of . 
 
 8 
 
 Cast Lead .... 
 
 122 
 
 
 
 Castle Hill Stone, Prices of . 
 
 51 
 
 Data for Scantlings of Roofs, &c. . 
 
 111 
 
 Caulking. .... 
 
 152 
 
 Deal Boarding, Prices of 
 
 116 
 
 Ceiling Joists .... 
 
 90 
 
 Deals ...... 
 
 113 
 
 Cement Foundations 
 
 20 
 
 Deck-beam Iron .... 
 
 168 
 
 ,, Iron .... 
 
 149 
 
 Deflan Roofs . . . . ’ . 
 
 131 
 
 „ Roofs .... 
 
 131 
 
 Derrick ..... 
 
 72 
 
 Cements. .... 
 
 28 
 
 Details of Columns, Girders, &c. . 
 
 146 
 
 „ Absorbing Powers of . 
 
 24 
 
 Deverell’slmprovements inPile- driving 10 
 
 „ Fire Proof 
 
 29 
 
 Devil’s Claws, or Nippers 
 
 14 
 
 „ Prices of . 
 
 71 
 
 Dimensions of Chimnies 
 
 20 
 
 Chalk Foundations. 
 
 5 
 
 Disintegrating Process — Brard’s 
 
 39 
 
 Chamfers .... 
 
 43 
 
 Dogs for boring .... 
 
 17 
 
 Charcoal Iron .... 
 
 137 
 
 Domes of Timber .... 
 
 110 
 
 Chases ..... 
 
 65 
 
 Dorking Lime .... 
 
 26 
 
 Chat Moss Embankment. 
 
 13 
 
 Double Floor .... 
 
 90 
 
 Chilmark Stone 
 
 39 
 
 Dovetailed halving 
 
 83 
 
 Chimnies, Construction of 
 
 67 
 
 „ Mortice and Tenon 
 
 85 
 
 „ Dimensions of . 
 
 20 
 
 Dragon-beam .... 
 
 114 
 
 „ Foundations of . 
 
 20 
 
 Draining and Sewers . . 
 
 180 
 
 Chisel dressing 
 
 43 
 
 Draughts ..... 
 
 175 
 
 Chisels for Boring . 
 
 16 
 
 Dripping Eaves .... 
 
 131 
 
 Clay Foundations . 
 
 5 
 
 Drury Lane Theatre Roof 
 
 107 
 
 Clay Slate .... 
 
 118 
 
 Durbach, Sand Foundations used by 
 
 
 Coffer Dam .... 
 
 13 
 
 Colonel ..... 
 
 10 
 
 Cold Blast Iron 
 
 135 
 
 
 
 Columns, Sections of Iron 
 
 138 
 
 Eaves, Dripping .... 
 
 131 
 
 „ Girders, & c., Details of 
 
 146 
 
 Egypt, Sand Foundations in . 
 
 8 
 
 Common Sewers 
 
 182 
 
 Elm, Price of .... 
 
 116 
 
 Concrete .... 
 
 27 
 
 Embankment over Chatmoss 
 
 13 
 
 Conducting Power of Materials 
 
 132 
 
 Encaissements .... 
 
 13 
 
 Construction of Floors . 
 
 87 
 
 English Bond .... 
 
 58 
 
 „ Fireproof . 
 
 171 
 
 Exhibition Building . 98, 129, 138, 
 
 , 149 
 
 ,, Iron . 
 
 134 
 
 Extrados ..... 
 
 56 
 
 Constructive Carpentry . 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 Conversion of Timber 
 
 95 
 
 Fairbairn, Girders by Messrs. 
 
 154 
 
 Cooling, Rates of, in various Mate- 
 
 Fall 
 
 72 
 
 rials .... 
 
 132 
 
 Farraaay on the Action of Sea-water 
 
 
 Coping, Prices of . 49, 
 
 0, 51 
 
 on Cast-iron .... 
 
 15 
 
 Copper Coverings for Roofs 
 
 128 
 
 Fascines or Bavins 
 
 13 
 
 „ Gutters 
 
 129 
 
 Felspar ...... 
 
 30 
 
 „ Pipes .... 
 
 128 
 
 Finsbury Sewer .... 
 
 182 
 
 Corbels 
 
 65 
 
 Fir 74. 75 
 
 Corrugated Iron 
 
 125 
 
 „ Absorbing Powers of 
 
 24 
 
 Cost of Masonry and Construction 
 
 47 
 
 „ Prices of 
 
 116 
 
 Cottage Stove .... 
 
 133 
 
 Fire-bricks .... 58 
 
 , 133 
 
 Counterforts .... 
 
 66 
 
 Fire-proof Cement 
 
 29 
 
 Coursed Rubble Masonry 
 
 46 
 
 „ Construction 
 
 171 
 
 Craigleith Stone 
 
 35 
 
 „ Flooring 
 
 174 
 
 Cramps 
 
 43 
 
 ,, Houses .... 
 
 172 
 
 Crow’s Foot for Boring . 
 
 17 
 
 ,, Warehouses at Liverpool 
 
 172 
 
 Curb, Prices of. 
 
 60, 51 
 
 Flange Joints 
 
 149 
 
 „ Roof .... 
 
 99 
 
 Flashings ..... 
 
 123 
 
 Cutting Iron .... 
 
 136 
 
 Flat Cement Roofs 
 
 131 
 
 
 
 Flat Roofs, Coverings for 
 
 121 
 
 Dam, Coffer . ••• 
 
 • • • • * • ; • • • • • 
 
 ... •* • • •• 
 
 :: 
 
 ...» 
 
 ! 5 • . . 
 . . • • 
 
 F45Ct §ewer 
 
 182 
 
 . ...... •••• 
 
 :: 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 
 •* . • .j, f * j ... • .. 
 
 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 191 
 
 Fleetwood Lighthouse 
 Flemish Bond 
 Flint Slate 
 
 Hoors, Construction of . 
 m Fire-proof . 
 it of Gypsum . 
 
 Flushing, in Masonry 
 •i Recess for 
 Footings 
 Forge- iron 
 Form of Roofs 
 Foundations, Artificial 
 it Asphalte . 
 
 it in Bog, Moss, Peat, 
 
 •• for Bridges, &c. 
 
 it Cement 
 
 it ChaiK 
 
 it of Chimnies 
 
 ,i Dampness in 
 
 it Gravel, Loam, Clays, 
 
 i, Natural 
 
 it on Piles 
 
 it in Rock 
 
 n in Sand 
 
 ii ,i in Egyj 
 
 France, & 
 
 ii in Slate 
 
 tt Submarine 
 
 Foundry Iron 
 Framing Partitions 
 it Wood-work 
 France, Sand Foundations in 
 
 Gables ..... 
 
 . 113 
 
 Gallets ..... 
 
 . 46 
 
 Galvanized Iron 
 
 . 125 
 
 ii Prices of 
 
 . 126 
 
 i, Thickness of . 
 
 . 126 
 
 ii Weight of 
 
 . 126 
 
 Garden-wall Bond 
 
 . 58 
 
 Geometry of Masonry 
 
 . 53 
 
 Girders, Columns, &c. . 
 
 . 146 
 
 „ Fairbairn’s 
 
 . 154 
 
 i, Malleable Iron 
 
 . 153 
 
 ,, Rules for Cast-iron . 
 
 . 144 
 
 ,i Trussed . 
 
 . 94 
 
 ii ii of Cast-iron 
 
 . 153 
 
 Glass Covering for Roofs 
 
 . 129 
 
 Granite 
 
 . 30 
 
 „ Absorbing Power of 
 
 . 23 
 
 „ Prices of . 
 
 . 52 
 
 ,, Weights of , 
 
 . 52 
 
 Gravel Foundations 
 
 5 
 
 Gratings, Sewer 
 
 . 184 
 
 Gravesend Pier 
 
 . 14 
 
 Greenwich Hospital, Roof of Chapel of 104 
 
 Grey Stone Lime . 
 
 . 26 
 
 Grit Stone, Prices of 
 
 .50,51 
 
 Guaged, or Rubbed Arches . 
 
 . 66 
 
 page 
 
 15 
 
 58 
 
 118 
 
 87 
 
 174 
 
 174 
 
 41 
 
 184 
 
 19 
 135 
 
 96 
 
 4 
 21 
 12 
 13 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 135 
 
 96 
 
 82 
 
 8 
 
 pe 
 
 Guage of Sheet-iron 
 Gulley-head . 
 
 Gutters of Copper . 
 n of Lead 
 i, Prices of . 
 i, Paxton 
 Guy Ropes or Guys 
 Gypsum Floors 
 
 Halving, in Carpentry 
 Hammer, or Pick-dressing 
 Hammering Iron . 
 
 Harbour, Ardrossan 
 Haunches of Arches , 
 
 Hayter Granite, Prices of 
 Headers, in Masonry 
 Heads, Prices of Rain-water- 
 Hearth Trimmers . 
 
 Hearting, in Masonry 
 Heat, Effect of, on buildings 
 Herring-bone Bond 
 
 ii Trussing . 
 
 Hip and Valley Roof 
 Hollow Bricks 
 Hoop Iron 
 
 ,i Weight of 
 
 Hornstone 
 Hot Blast Iron 
 Hot Water pipes 
 
 ii Warming by . 
 
 Houses, Fire-proof . 
 
 it Model, by Prince Albert 
 tt of Parliament Roofs . 
 
 Hyde Park, Building in 
 
 98, 129, 138, and 
 
 Hydraulic Limes .... 
 
 page 
 126 
 184 
 128 
 122 
 123 
 129 
 72 
 174 
 
 83 
 42 
 136 
 14 
 56 
 52 
 40 
 123 
 90 
 46 
 20 
 58 
 88 
 114 
 8 aud 186 
 61 
 168 
 118 
 134 
 178 
 177 
 172 
 180 
 161 
 
 Impost Stones. 
 
 Inclination of Roofs 
 Instruments in Masonry . 
 Intrados .... 
 Introduction . . . 
 
 Inverts .... 
 Iron, Angle . 
 
 ,i Bar 
 
 „ Bridge over the Shannon 
 „ Bright . 
 
 „ Cable Bolt 
 i, Cement . 
 
 1 1 Charcoal 
 „ Cold Blast 
 I, Columns 
 I, Corrugated 
 „ Covering for Roofs . 
 ii Deck Beam 
 „ Forge 
 „ Foundry 
 ,, Galvanized 
 ,, Girders, Rules for Cast 
 
 149 
 
 25 
 
 56 
 
 96 
 
 53 
 
 56 
 
 1 
 
 63 
 
 164 
 
 167 
 
 12 
 
 135 
 
 136 
 149 
 
 137 
 135 
 
 138 
 125 
 125 
 163 
 135 
 135 
 125 
 144 
 
192 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Iron Girders, Malleable . 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 . 153 
 
 „ Hoop .... 
 
 . 
 
 G1 
 
 • > » Weight of 
 
 
 168 
 
 „ Hot Blast 
 
 
 135 
 
 „ Malleable, Sections of 
 
 
 163 
 
 „ Manufacture of 
 
 
 134 
 
 „ Mottled .... 
 
 
 135 
 
 „ Pipes, Weight of 
 
 
 169 
 
 „ Roofs .... 
 
 
 156 
 
 ,, ,, of Houses of Parliament 
 
 161 
 
 „ ,, at Liverpool . 
 
 
 161 
 
 „ „ Prices of 
 
 
 160 
 
 ,, Round, Weight of . 
 
 
 166 
 
 „ Rules for Girders of Cast 
 
 
 144 
 
 ,, Sash Bar 
 
 
 167 
 
 „ Scrap .... 
 
 » 
 
 136 
 
 „ Sections of Malleable 
 
 
 163 
 
 „ Sheet, Guage, Price, and Thick- 
 ness of .... 
 
 126 
 
 >* » Weight of . 126 
 
 and 168 
 
 „ Square, Weight of . 
 
 
 166 
 
 ,, Stamped 
 
 
 137 
 
 „ Standards 
 
 
 137 
 
 „ Sttength of 
 
 
 137 
 
 „ T . . . . . 
 
 
 165 
 
 „ Tensile Strength of Cast 
 
 
 140 
 
 „ Transverse Strength of Cast 
 
 
 141 
 
 ,, Trussed Girders of Cast 
 
 
 135 
 
 „ White .... 
 
 
 135 
 
 Irregular Roofs, Rules for 
 
 
 115 
 
 Joggles ..... 
 
 
 44 
 
 Joint, Flange .... 
 
 
 149 
 
 „ Socket . . 
 
 
 149 
 
 Jointing in Masonry 
 
 
 42 
 
 Joists 
 
 
 88 
 
 »» Binding, Bridging, and Ceiling 
 
 90 
 
 „ Rules for 
 
 
 77 
 
 Kentish Ragstone . 
 
 
 47 
 
 » Prices of 
 
 
 51 
 
 Killas ..... 
 
 
 118 
 
 King Posts .... 
 
 
 99 
 
 Kyan’s Process for Timber 16 and 75 
 
 Large Timber Roofs 
 
 
 . 103 
 
 Lava, Metallic 
 
 
 . 130 
 
 Lead, Cast 
 
 
 . 122 
 
 „ Coverings for Roofs 
 
 . 121 
 
 »» Gutters 
 
 
 . 122 
 
 »» Milled 
 
 
 . 122 
 
 »» Weight of 
 ledgers . 
 
 
 . 124 
 
 
 72 
 
 Lewis 
 
 
 . 55 
 
 Lias Lime 
 
 
 . 26 
 
 Light-house, Fleetwood 
 
 on Wyre 
 
 . 15 
 
 •» Maplin 
 
 Lime 
 
 . 15 
 
 . . 
 
 25 
 
 Lime, Greystone . . . 
 
 „ Hydraulic . 
 
 ,, Lias . 
 
 „ Prices of . 
 
 Lime St. Station Roof, at Liverpool 
 Limestone .... 
 
 ,, Price of 
 
 ,, Weight of 
 
 Lintels 
 
 Liverpool, Fire- proof Warehouses in 
 ,, Large Iron Roof at . 
 Loam Foundations . 
 
 London Wall Sewer 
 Lumps and Tiles, Prices of . 
 
 Magnesian Limestones . 
 Mahogany, Prices of 
 Maidenhead Bridge 
 Malleable Iron Girders . 
 
 Sections of 
 
 PAGE 
 26 
 26 
 26 
 71 
 1C1 
 35 
 
 36 and 48 
 36 and 52 
 . 42 
 
 172 
 161 
 5 
 
 182 
 
 71 
 
 Maltese Roofs 
 Mansard Roof 
 Manufacture of Bricks 
 ,, of Iron 
 Maplin Lighthouse 
 Marble, Absorbing powers of 23 and 24 
 
 Margin, Draught . 
 
 43 
 
 Masonry, Measuiing 
 
 52 
 
 „ Setting . 
 
 54 
 
 Measuring Brickwork 
 
 67 
 
 ,, Carpenter's Work . 
 
 111 
 
 „ Masonry 
 
 52 
 
 „ Timber . 
 
 111 
 
 Merstham Lime 
 
 26 
 
 Metals, Conducting powers of 
 
 133 
 
 „ Weight of 
 
 170 
 
 Metallic Lava 
 
 130 
 
 Mica ..... 
 
 30 
 
 Middle Ages, Timber Roofs of 
 
 108 
 
 Milled Lead .... 
 
 122 
 
 Milne’slmprovementsinPile-driving 1 1 
 
 Mine ..... 
 
 134 
 
 Mitchell’s Screw-piles 
 
 15 
 
 Mitre joint .... 
 
 85 
 
 Model Houses by Prince Albert 
 
 186 
 
 Mortar ..... 
 
 27 
 
 Mortice and Tenon 
 
 83 
 
 ,, „ Bricks 
 
 186 
 
 Mottled Iron .... 
 
 135 
 
 Moulds, or Templates 
 
 54 
 
 Nails, Prices of 
 
 116 
 
 Nasmyth’s Improvements in Pile 
 driving . * 
 
 11 
 
 Natural Foundations 
 
 4 
 
 Neutral line in Beams and Girders 143 
 
 Nippers, or “ Devil's Claws” . 
 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 116 
 
 (>;> 
 
 153 
 
 163 
 
 131 
 
 99 
 
 57 
 
 134 
 
 15 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ] 93 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAOE 
 
 Oak 
 
 74 
 
 Potts’ Improvements in Pile-driving 1 1 
 
 „ Absorbing power of . 
 
 . 24 
 
 Pozzolana .... 
 
 . 28 
 
 „ Prices of . 
 
 . 116 
 
 Prices of Asphalte Roofing 
 
 . 130 
 
 Oolites 
 
 . 35 
 
 ,, Brickwork 
 
 . 69 
 
 Ornamental Bricks and Tiles . 
 
 . 187 
 
 ,, Cement 
 
 . 71 
 
 Oxford, St. Paul’s School at . 
 
 . 187 
 
 „ Copper Pipes 
 
 . 128 
 
 
 
 „ Galvanized Iron 
 
 . 126 
 
 Parallel Angle Iron 
 
 . 164 
 
 „ Iron Roofing 
 
 . 160 
 
 Pargetting or Rendering 
 
 . 67 
 
 „ Lime 
 
 . 71 
 
 Paris, Partitions in 
 
 . 173 
 
 „ Metallic Lava . 
 
 . 130 
 
 Parker’s Cement 
 
 . 28 
 
 ,, Pipes, Heads, Shoes and 
 
 Parliament, Roofs of Houses of 
 
 . 161 
 
 Gutters 
 
 . 123 
 
 Parpoint Work 
 
 . 46 
 
 „ Slates and Slating 
 
 . 120 
 
 Partitions, Framing for . 
 
 . 96 
 
 „ Stones . . .32, 
 
 , 36, 48 
 
 ,, in Paris 
 
 . 173 
 
 „ Stoneware Pipes 
 
 . 180 
 
 Paving, Prices of . . . 49 to 51 
 
 „ Sundries 
 
 . 71 
 
 „ Weight of . 
 
 . 69 
 
 „ Terro Metallic Pipes . 
 
 . 181 
 
 Paxton Gutters 
 
 . 129 
 
 „ Tiles and Lumps 
 
 . 71 
 
 Penrhyn Slate Quarries . 
 
 . 119 
 
 ,, Zinc Covering for Roofs 
 
 . 129 
 
 Petro Silex .... 
 
 . 118 
 
 Pricing Carpenter’s Work 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Pier, Aberdeen 
 
 14 
 
 Prince Albert’s Model Houses 
 
 . 186 
 
 „ Gravesend 
 
 15 
 
 Principal of Truss . 
 
 . 99 
 
 Piers ..... 
 
 . 64 
 
 Problems in Strength of Timber 
 
 . 77 
 
 Pigs of Iron .... 
 
 . 136 
 
 Public Sewers 
 
 . 182 
 
 Pile-driving, Improvements in 
 
 . 10 
 
 Puddling Iron 
 
 . 136 
 
 „ „ Deverell’s 
 
 10 
 
 Purlines ..... 
 
 . 101 
 
 „ ,, Milne’s 
 
 11 
 
 Putlogs . 
 
 . 72 
 
 „ ,, Nasmyth’s 
 
 1 1 
 
 Putty Cement 
 
 . 42 
 
 „ „ Potts’ 
 
 11 
 
 Pyramid of Dashhour 
 
 8 
 
 Pile-foundations 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Pile- Rings .... 
 
 8 
 
 Qualities of Limestone . 
 
 38 
 
 „ Shoes .... 
 
 8 
 
 ,, Sandstone . . 
 
 . 34 
 
 Piles, Action of Sea Water on 
 
 . 15 
 
 Quarries for Limestone . 
 
 . 36 
 
 Piles and Pile-driving 
 
 7 
 
 ,, Sandstone . 
 
 . 32 
 
 Piles, Cast-iron 
 
 . 15 
 
 „ Slate at Penrhyn . 
 
 . 119 
 
 „ Hollow .... 
 
 . 11 
 
 Quartz ..... 
 
 . 30 
 
 „ Pneumatic 
 
 . 11 
 
 
 
 „ Screw .... 
 
 . 15 
 
 Rafters ..... 
 
 . 99 
 
 ,, Sheet .... 
 
 . 13 
 
 „ Rules for 
 
 . 77 
 
 Piling Iron .... 
 
 . 136 
 
 Ragstoue, Kentish . 
 
 . 47 
 
 Pine Timber .... 
 
 . 74 
 
 „ ,, Prices of 
 
 . 51 
 
 Pipes, Copper 
 
 . 12S 
 
 Railway Bridges of Timber 
 
 . 96 
 
 Pipes, &c. for Rain Water 
 
 . 123 
 
 „ Iron Roof at Liverpool 
 
 . 161 
 
 „ for draining . 
 
 . 180 
 
 Rain water Pipes and Heads . 
 
 . 123 
 
 „ for hot Water 
 
 . 178 
 
 „ „ Prices of 123 
 
 „ of Copper, Weight and price of 128 
 
 Random Rubble Masonry 
 
 . 46 
 
 „ Prices of 
 
 . 123 
 
 Rebating .... 
 
 . 84 
 
 „ Stoneware 
 
 . 180 
 
 Recess for flushing Sewers 
 
 . 184 
 
 ,, Terro-metallic 
 
 . 181 
 
 Reduced Brickwork 
 
 . 67 
 
 „ Weight of 
 
 . 124 
 
 Refining Iron .... 
 
 . 136 
 
 „ „ Cast Iron 
 
 . 169 
 
 Reform Club House, Warming and 
 
 Pitch of Roofs 
 
 . 97 
 
 Ventilation 
 
 . 176 
 
 Planks 
 
 . 113 
 
 Rendering or Pargetting 
 
 . 67 
 
 Plugs 
 
 . 44 
 
 Respiration .... 
 
 . 174 
 
 Pneumatic Piles . \ 
 
 . 11 
 
 Retaining Walls 
 
 . 45 
 
 Pole- plate .... 
 
 . 101 
 
 Reveals ..... 
 
 . 66 
 
 Poor Limes .... 
 
 . 25 
 
 Rich Limes .... 
 
 . 25 
 
 Portland Stone, Cost of . 
 
 49 
 
 Ridges ..... 
 
 . 99 
 
m 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Ridges of Slate 
 Rings for Piles 
 Rock Foundations . 
 
 Rolling Iron . 
 
 Roman Cement 
 Roof of Brunswick Theatre 
 
 „ Chapel atGreenwichHospita 
 „ Drury Lane Theatre . 
 
 ,, Exhibition Building . 
 
 ,, St. Paul’s Covent Garden 
 
 „ Theatre at Birmingham 
 
 ,, Westminster Hall 
 
 Roofing at Liverpool 
 „ of Asphalte 
 
 „ Cements. 
 
 „ Houses of Parliament 
 
 „ Metallic Lava. 
 
 ,, Prices of Iron 
 
 Roofs, Copper Covering for 
 ,, Covering for flat . 
 
 „ Inclination, Pitch, or Form ol 
 
 „ „ Table of 
 
 „ Glass Covering for 
 „ Iron Covering for 
 „ Large Timber 
 ,, Lead Covering for 
 „ of Iron 
 
 „ of Middle Ages . 
 
 „ of Timber . 
 
 „ Principles of 
 „ Rules for Irregular 
 „ Slate . 
 
 „ Tile . 
 
 „ Zinc Covering for 
 Round Iron, Weight of . 
 Rubbed Arches 
 Rubbing in Masonry 
 Rubble Masonry . 
 
 Rules for Cast Iron Girders 
 
 PAGE 
 
 121 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 136 
 
 28 
 
 156 
 
 104 
 
 107 
 
 129 
 104 
 106 
 
 108 
 161 
 
 130 
 
 131 
 161 
 130 
 160 
 128 
 121 
 
 96 
 
 98 
 129 
 125 
 103 
 121 
 156 
 108 
 
 96 
 
 99 
 115 
 119 
 121 
 128 
 166 
 
 66 
 
 43 
 
 46 
 
 144 
 
 Saddle-back 55 
 
 St. Paul’s Cathedral, Dome of. . 110 
 
 „ Church, Covent Garden, 
 
 Roof of . .104 
 
 „ School, at Oxford . . 187 
 
 Sand Foundations .... 6 
 
 
 in Egypt, I 
 
 &c. . . 8 
 
 Sandstones 30 
 
 „ Prices of . . 32 to 48 
 
 Weightof . 32 to 52 
 
 Sash-bar Iron, Weight of . 167 
 
 Scaffolding . . . .72 
 
 ,, of Whole Timber . . 72 
 
 Scantling* lor Joists, Girders, &c. . 90 
 
 n it Table of 92 
 
 „ of Roofs . . .Ill 
 
 Scarfing 85 
 
 Scotch Castle Hill Stone, Prices of . 51 
 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Scrap Iron .... 
 
 
 136 
 
 Screw Piles .... 
 
 
 15 
 
 Seasoning Timber . 
 
 
 74 
 
 Sea Water on Piles, Action of. 
 
 
 15 
 
 Section I. Foundations . 
 
 
 4 
 
 ,, II. Mortars, Cements, 
 
 
 Concretes, &c. 
 
 
 25 
 
 ,, III. Masonry. 
 
 
 30 
 
 ,, IV. Brickwork 
 
 
 57 
 
 „ V. Timber, Woodwork, 
 
 
 and Constructive 
 
 
 Carpentry . 
 
 
 74 
 
 „ VI. Roof Covering. 
 
 
 118 
 
 M VII. Iron Construction 
 
 
 134 
 
 „ VIII. Fire Proof, Warming, 
 
 
 Ventilation, &c. 
 
 
 171 
 
 ,, IX. Draining and Sewers 
 
 180 
 
 f , X. Appendix 
 
 
 186 
 
 Sections for Sewers . 
 
 
 183 
 
 Section of Iron Standards 
 
 
 137 
 
 Sections of Malleable Iron 
 
 
 163 
 
 Setting of Masonry . 
 
 
 54 
 
 Sewer, Common 
 
 
 182 
 
 „ Finsbury 
 
 
 182 
 
 „ Fleet .... 
 
 
 182 
 
 ,, Gratings 
 
 
 184 
 
 „ London Wall 
 
 
 182 
 
 „ Public .... 
 
 
 182 
 
 ,, Sections for. 
 
 
 183 
 
 „ Westminster 
 
 
 182 
 
 Sewers and Draining 
 
 
 180 
 
 Seyssel Asphalte 
 
 
 130 
 
 Shannon Iron Bridge 
 
 
 12 
 
 Sheet Iron, Thickness, Weight, 
 
 
 Guage, and Price of. 
 
 
 126 
 
 ,, Weight of 
 
 
 168 
 
 Sheet Piling .... 
 
 
 13 
 
 Shells for Boring . 
 
 
 17 
 
 Shingling Iron 
 
 
 136 
 
 Shoes for Piles 
 
 
 8 
 
 „ Price of Rain Water 
 
 
 123 
 
 Sills, Prices of. 
 
 50, 51 
 
 Sinking ..... 
 
 
 55 
 
 Sinks, Prices of . . 49 to 51 
 
 Slabs, Weight and Price of Slate 
 
 
 120 
 
 Slate ..... 
 
 
 118 
 
 t> Absorbing Powers of . 
 
 23 
 
 , 24 
 
 i, in Foundations 
 
 
 22 
 
 » Quarries at Peuryn 
 
 
 119 
 
 ,, Ridges .... 
 
 
 121 
 
 Slates, Weight of . 
 
 Smeaton’s Experiments on Limes 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 26 
 
 Smelting Iron. 
 
 
 135 
 
 Snatch Blocks. 
 
 
 72 
 
 Socket Joints . • . . . , 
 
 
 149 
 
 Soffit 
 
 
 56 
 
 Solder, Price of, &c. 
 
 
 124 
 
 Sow in Iron Melting 
 
 
 136 
 
 Specification of Ashlar Masonry 
 
 
 43 
 
INDEX. 195 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Spigots in Joints 
 
 
 149 
 
 Springs for Boring . 
 
 
 17 
 
 Square ..... 
 
 
 19 
 
 „ Iron, Weight of 
 
 
 166 
 
 Stamped Iron. 
 
 
 136 
 
 Standards, Iron 
 
 
 137 
 
 Steps, Prices of 
 
 50 
 
 , 51 
 
 Stone, Absorbing Powers of . 
 
 23 
 
 , 24 
 
 Stone-ware Pipes, Prices of 
 
 
 180 
 
 Stourbridge Bricks . 
 
 
 58 
 
 Stove, Cottage. 
 
 
 133 
 
 Straight Arches 
 
 
 66 
 
 Strength of Iron 
 
 
 137 
 
 „ Timber . 
 
 
 75 
 
 Stretchers in Masonry 
 
 
 40 
 
 Struts 
 
 
 99 
 
 Sub-marine Foundations. 
 
 
 13 
 
 Substances, Absorbing Powers of 
 
 
 23 
 
 Sundries, Prices of . 
 
 
 71 
 
 Surface of Boiler 
 
 
 179 
 
 Tackle 
 
 
 72 
 
 Tail Trimmers 
 
 
 88 
 
 Taper Angle Iron . 
 
 
 164 
 
 Tarras 
 
 
 28 
 
 T Iron 
 
 
 165 
 
 Templates or Moulds 
 
 
 54 
 
 Tenon and Mortice 
 
 
 83 
 
 „ Bricks 
 
 
 186 
 
 Tensile Strength of Cast Iron . 
 
 
 140 
 
 Teredo Navalis 
 
 
 16 
 
 Theatre, Roof of, Birmingham 
 
 
 106 
 
 ,, ,, Brunswick . 
 
 
 156 
 
 „ „ Drury Lane 
 
 
 107 
 
 Thickness of Galvanized .Sheet Iron 
 
 126 
 
 Throating .... 
 
 
 M 
 
 Through-stone 
 
 
 40 
 
 Tie Beams .... 
 
 
 99 
 
 Tiles and Lumps, Prices of 
 
 
 71 
 
 Tile Covering for Roofs . 
 
 
 121 
 
 „ „ Prices of 
 
 
 121 
 
 Tiles, Ornamental 
 
 
 187 
 
 „ Various 
 
 
 187 
 
 Tillers for Boring . 
 
 
 16 
 
 Timber, Absorbing Powers of 
 
 
 24 
 
 „ Bonding 
 
 
 61 
 
 „ Bridges 
 
 
 96 
 
 ,, Conversion of 
 
 
 95 
 
 „ Data for Measuring . 
 
 
 113 
 
 „ Domes 
 
 
 110 
 
 „ Kinds and Qualities of 
 
 
 74 
 
 „ Measuring 
 
 
 111 
 
 „ Roofs 
 
 
 96 
 
 „ „ Large 
 
 
 103 
 
 „ of Middle Ages 
 
 
 108 
 
 „ „ of Westminster Hall 
 
 108 
 
 ,, Scaffolding 
 
 72 
 
 , 73 
 
 „ Seasoning, Davidson and 
 
 
 Symington’s 
 
 • 
 
 74 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Timber Strength of 
 
 
 7 1 
 
 Timber, Weight of . 
 
 
 76 
 
 Tin Plates 
 
 
 137 
 
 Tools for Boring 
 Toothing 
 
 
 16 
 
 65 
 
 Trammel 
 
 . , 
 
 5 1 
 
 Transverse Strength of Cast- 
 
 iron 
 
 141 
 
 Truss .... 
 
 
 99 
 
 Trussed Cast-iron Girders 
 
 
 153 
 
 „ Girders 
 
 
 94 
 
 Twyres .... 
 
 • 
 
 135 
 
 Uncoursed Rubble Masonry 
 
 . 
 
 46 
 
 Valentia Slate Slabs, Prices, 
 
 &c., of . 
 
 120 
 
 Valleys .... 
 
 
 114 
 
 Ventilation and Warming 
 
 • ' 
 
 174 
 
 ,, „ of Reform 
 
 
 Club House 
 
 , # 
 
 176 
 
 Vicat’s Artificial Pozzolana 
 
 m , 
 
 28 
 
 „ Experiments on Cement 
 
 26 
 
 Voussoirs 
 
 • 
 
 56 
 
 Wainscot, Price of . 
 
 
 116 
 
 Walings 
 
 
 7, 13 
 
 Wall-Plates . 
 
 
 100 
 
 Walls, Breast 
 
 . 
 
 45 
 
 „ Brick . 
 
 
 63 
 
 ,, Retaining . 
 
 . . 
 
 45 
 
 Warming and Ventilation 
 
 . 
 
 174 
 
 „ of Reform Club House 
 
 176 
 
 „ bv Hot Water . 
 
 177 
 
 Weathering . 
 
 
 55 
 
 Weight of Angle Iron 
 
 
 164 
 
 „ Asphalte 
 
 
 69 
 
 „ Bar Iron 
 
 
 167 
 
 „ Brick-work 
 
 
 68 
 
 ,, Cast-iron Pipes 
 
 
 169 
 
 „ Copper Pipes 
 
 
 128 
 
 „ Galvanized Iron 
 
 , 
 
 126 
 
 „ Hoop Iron 
 
 
 168 
 
 „ Iron 
 
 
 165 
 
 „ Lead 
 
 
 124 
 
 „ Metals . 
 
 g 
 
 170 
 
 „ Paving . 
 
 
 69 
 
 ,, Round Iron . 
 
 
 166 
 
 „ Sand, Clay, &c. 
 
 
 69 
 
 „ Sash Bars, &c. 
 
 
 167 
 
 „ Sheet Iron 
 
 # 9 
 
 168 
 
 „ Square Iron . 
 
 , . 
 
 166 
 
 „ Stone .... 
 
 „ Timber .... 
 
 52 
 
 76 
 
 „ Zinc Covering for Roofs . 
 
 129 
 
 Welsh Lumps 
 
 • . 
 
 58 
 
 Westminster Bridge 
 
 
 14 
 
 „ Hall, Roof of 
 
 
 1 os 
 
 „ Sewers 
 
 , m 
 
 182 
 
 Whetstone Slate 
 
 , # 
 
 118 
 
 White Ants . 
 
 
 16 
 
 „ Iron 
 
 
 135 
 
196 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Whole Timber Scaffolding 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 72 
 
 Windsor Bricks 
 
 . 58 
 
 Woods, Prices of 
 
 . 116 
 
 Wood-work, Framing of . 
 
 82 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Yorkshire Stone, Price of 
 
 50,51 
 
 Zinc Covering for Roofs 
 
 . 128 
 
 Page 25, 
 
 „ 30, 
 
 „ 74, 
 
 „ 74, 
 
 „ 77, 
 
 „ 78, 
 
 „ 92, 
 
 „ 96, 
 
 „ 96, 
 
 » 114, 
 
 „ 115, 
 
 ,, 136, 
 
 „ 144, 
 
 „ 155, 
 
 „ 155, 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 line 1, for “ CEMETSN,” read “ CEMENTS.” 
 
 „ 6, for “ Brand’s,” read “ Bkard’s.” 
 
 „ 3, for “ Quantities,” read “ Qualities.” 
 
 „ 9, /or “ Joists,” read “ Joints.” 
 
 „ 19 from bottom, /or “say,” read “ sag.” 
 
 „ 6 from bottom, for “ 42,465,” read “ 42,546.” 
 
 „ 2, /or “ Sad?,” read “ -S' a d 2 .” 
 
 ,, 3, the word “ blea” should be in italics, thus, “ blea .” 
 
 „ 4, take out the sign, “ + •** 
 
 „ 5 from bottom, for “ support the hipp-rafter,” read “ support the hip- 
 
 rafter.” 
 
 ,, 7 from bottom, for “ G I,” read “ C I.” 
 
 „ 13 from bottom, the semicolon following the word “ various,” should 
 
 precede it. 
 
 ,, 23, /or “ 112,” (in some copies,) read “ 120.” 
 
 „ 12 from bottom, for “13 X 4 X 30,” read “13X4 + 30.” 
 
 „ 8 from bottom, for “ 3fU Olin.,” read “ 3ft. 0|in.” 
 
NEW PUBLICATIONS 
 
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 27 
 
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30 
 
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 o 
 
© 
 
 A GRAND NATIONAL WORK, 
 
 ENTITLED 
 
 66 
 
 ENGINEERING EXAMPLES.” 
 
 66 
 
 The first five Series to form a Complete Work on Bridges. The whole of the Drawings 
 being in the hands of the Publishers, they can pledge themselves to complete the same, 
 having been five years in collecting and executing the best Examples on Bridges. 
 
 Will be Published March 1st., 
 
 MALLEABLE IRON BRIDGES,” 
 
 A series of detail Drawings illustrating the novel and valuable application of this material to 
 the formation of Bridges, with practical Sections and Details of the 
 
 TUBULAR BRIDGES 
 
 ERECTED AT CONWAY AND THE MENAI STRAITS. 
 
 Also those constructed for St. George’s Landing Stage, at Liverpool, 
 
 By Wm. CUBITT, Esq., M.I.C.E., &c., &c., 
 
 Comprising particulars of Dimensions, Weights, &c., &c. Results of Experiments and Figures, 
 exhibiting the Progress of the Works : Engraved on Copper, Imperial folio size, with descriptive 
 Text, 4to. ; to Subscribers £ 2 . 2s., Non- subscribers £ 2 . 12s. Cd., with a Lithograph View, Imperial 
 folio, Printed by Messrs. Day and Son. The Illustrations of this Work will be found ample and 
 fully Descriptive for all 
 
 PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF CONSTRUCTION, 
 
 THE AIM BEING TO EMBODY A 
 
 Record of details, fitted for Professional study and practical 
 application at home and abroad. 
 
 DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO WM. FAIRBAIRN, Esq., M.I.C.E., 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 In FIVE PARTS, the whole forming a complete 
 
 WORK ON BRIDGES, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 1st. Series. Malleable Iron Bridges. 
 
 £ 2 . 2s. to Subscribers ; £ 2 . 12s. Cd. to non- Subscribers. 
 
 2nd. do. Brick Bridges and Culverts. Will be Pub. June 1st. 
 3rd. do. Timber Bridges and Viaducts. 
 
 4th. do. Iron Bridges. 
 
 5th. do. Moving Bridges, Iron, Suspension, and Oblique 
 Bridges, and Viaducts. 
 
 By G. DRYSDALE DEMPSEY, Esq., C.E. 
 
 Imperial folio Plates, Letter-Press 4to., the 2nd. 3rd. 4th. and 5th Series, 28s. each ; 
 or, the Five Series Bound, £7. 7b. to Subscribers only. 
 
 
 Published by Atchley and Co., Architectural and Engineering Booksellers, 
 
 106, Great Russell-street, Bedford-square, London. 
 
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NEW WORKS 
 
 LISHED BY ATCHLEY AND CO., 106, GREAT RUSSELL STREET 
 BEDFORD SQUARE, LONDON, 
 
 NEAR THE BRITISH MUSEUM. 
 
 DEMPSEY’S WORKS ON BRIDGES. 
 
 MALLEABLE IRON BRIDGES : containing, First Series — 
 
 THE BRITANNIA BRIDGE, over the Menai Straits. 
 
 THE BRIDGE AT ST. GEORGE’S LANDING STAGE, Liverpool. 
 
 THE BRIDGE OVER THE RIVER TRENT, at Gainsborough. 
 
 These three Bridges, with the details of each, and a perspective View of the Britannia 
 Bridge, by Day and Son, in one imperial folio volume. Plates, on Copper, bound 
 in cloth, and Text, 4to., cloth. Price £2. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Second Series. BRICK BRIDGES, SEWERS, AND CULVERTS. 
 
 —p ctions. Imperial folio 
 
 6. So X 3 3<£ 
 
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 Third Series. 
 
 Plates, 4to. Lett 
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 £i. 11s. 6d. By 
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 OBLIQUE B 
 
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 only £7. 7s.) 
 IRON APPLIfl 
 
 comprises illus 
 other Works. 
 SEY, C.E. 
 THE ENGINEJ 
 
 Illustrated wit 
 Thirty-twi 
 
 THE ROUTE 
 
 Paintings by ^ 
 HERRING, 
 tinted Plates, 
 Small pa 
 
 OUTLINE PL 
 MAIL TO I] 
 ART UNION 
 
 ings of Mode! 
 
 
 1Z. 
 
 D. DEMPSEY, C.E. 
 ADUCTS. Folio 
 >EY, C. E. 
 
 4to. Letter-press. 
 
 ^ENSlON, AND 
 
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 erics to Subscribers 
 
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 itiou of Railway and 
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 8 vo., £1. 10s. 
 
 ;r-press, of 
 
 INDIA. From 
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 Large paper, folio 
 
 •: OVERLAND 
 
 Oflong 8vo., price Is. 
 ^3 from the Paint- 
 pilt, the last volume 
 
 published, pricV£l. Is. Proofs, half morocco, £3. os. 
 
 MEXICO ILLUSTRATED. In twenty-six beautiful Lithographed 
 Plates by DAY and Son. Letter-press in English and Spanish. Half morocco, 
 folio, £4. 4s. ; or in a portfolio coloured, £10. 10s. 
 
 THE GOTHIC EDIFICES OF EUROPE. Published under the 
 Patronage of Her Most Gracious Majesty QUEEN VICTORIA, and the Crowned 
 Heada of Europe. Containing twenty- five Plates on royal eagle paper, 38 by 29 
 inches. Lithographed in the first style of art. Published at £15. 15s. Having 
 arranged for the remainder of this Work, A. and Co. are enabled to offer it for 
 £10. 10s. in one volume. 
 
 V INDSOR CASTLE ILLUSTRATED. Dedicated to Her Most 
 Gracious Majesty QUEEN VICTORIA, and H.R.H. PRINCE ALBERT. 
 Pictorial and Practical Illustrations of Windsor Castle, from a Senes of Onginal 
 Drawings, made expressly for this Work by Messrs. GANDY and BA l D, pnn- 
 cipal Assistants to the late Sir Jeffry Wyatville, during the whole of the great Re- 
 pairs and Alterations at the Castle, with Historical and Descriptive Letter-press, by 
 JOHN BRITTON, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., F.S.A, £5. 5s. 
 
 INCHESTER CHURCH. A Splendid Large Lithograph I late, by 
 
 — HAWKINS. Price 10s. 
 
 E BRITANNIA BRIDGE. Lithographed by DA^ and SON. 
 Size 30 in.'by 22 in. Coloured, 21s. each ; Prints 10s. 6d. each, 
 pitrivr AP.'T’rrn T ' m,T,T ' §T. OUKN’S ABBE^. By 
 
 ie best style, by B. WINKLES. The 
 
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